United States
            Environmental Protection
            Agency
Air and
Radiation
(ANR-445)
EPA/400/1-91/004
June 1991
            Improving Ruminant Production
            And Reducing Methane
            Emissions From Ruminants
            By Strategic Supplementation
EPA
400/
1-
91/004
c.2
                                      Printed on Recycled Paper

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         Improving Ruminant Production and Reducing
             Methane Emissions from Ruminants by
                     Strategic Supplementation
 A
«V
                                 R.A. Leng
                     Professor of Nutritional Biochemistry
                    Director of the Institute of Biotechnology
             Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Nutrition,
                          University of New England,
                       Armidale, N.S.W. 2351. Australia.
                                 May 1991
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  CO
                         U.S. EPA Headquarters Library
                              Mail code 3201
                         1200 Pennsylvania Avenue NW
                            Washington DC 20460
HEADQUARTERS LIBRARY
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTIOM AGENCY
WASHINGTON. D.C. 20460

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Contents
1  Preface
10
2  Executive summary                                            11
   2.1  Introduction	   11
   2.2  Methane production by ruminants	   13
   2.3  Methane production by cattle fed poor quality forage	   14
   2.4  Effects of supplementation on breeding herds	   15
   2.5  The role of improved animal genotype	   16
   2.6  Improved animal production and methane production	   17
   2.7  Strategic supplementation and the target groups	   18
   2.8  Requirements for success  of strategic supplementation	   18
   2.9  The Indian experience	   19
   2.10 Socioeconomic considerations (a cautionary note)	   20
   2.11 Tables and Figures	   21

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3  Introduction
   3.1   The problem	
   3.2   Overview of animal production in developing countries
28
28
30
   3.3  Livestock production systems: comparison between industrialised
        and developing countries	   31
   3.4  Ruminant feed resources in Asia	   32
   3.5  Improving ruminant production in developing countries	   34
        3.5.1  Impact of climate on production of ruminants	   35
        3.5.2  Specialised beef cattle production	   37
   3.6  Strategies for improving animal production/reducing
        greenhouse gas emissions	   37
        3.6.1  Management to increase ruminant productivity	   38
        3.6.2  Integrated farming systems	   38
        3.6.3  Integration of livestock with crops/fuel production	   39
        3.6.4  Integrating ruminant production with biogas production  .   40
   3.7  Trends in livestock production in India	   40
   3.8  The overall strategy	   41
4  Digestive physiology of ruminants: implications for
   improving animal production from poor quality forages
43
   4.1  Introduction	  43
   4.2  The rumen	  44

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   4,3   Fermentative efficiency in the rumen  	   45
        4.3.1  Meeting the requirements
              for efficient microbial growth in the rumen	   46
   4.4   Consequences of the ruminant mode of digestion	   47
   4.5   Quantitative aspects of fermentative digestion in the rumen ....   47
   4.6   A model of fermentation in the rumen   	   48
   4.7   Protein utilisation by ruminants	   51
   4.8   Applied significance of P/E ratio  	   52
   4.9   Significance of protein in the diet	   52

5  Modifying methane production                                   53
   5.1   Stimulating rumen fermentative efficiency  	   54
        5.1.1  Chemical manipulation	   54
        5.1.2  Chemicals reducing methane emissions	   55
        5.1.3  Improving efficiency of microbial growth	   56
        5.1.4  Supplying deficient micronutrients for microbes	   57
        5.1.5  Provision of small quantities of true protein	   58
        5.1.6  Controlling rumen protozoa	   59
        5.1.7  Overall effects of improving microbial growth efficiency .  .   59
   5.2   Stimulating animal production rate	   60
        5.2.1  General	   60
        5.2.2   Supplementation	   61
        5.2.3   Treatment of forages to improve digestibility	   62

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   5.3   Improved animal production rate and methane production  ....   63
        5.3.1  Growth rate and methane generation	   63
        5.3.2  Milk production and methane generation	   69
   5.4   Strategic supplementation and the target groups	   69
   5.5   Conclusion	   71

6  Strategic supplementation of cattle and buffaloes in India       72
   6.1   Introduction	   73
   6.2   Molasses/multi-nutrient blocks	   73
   6.3   The use of bypass proteins in India	   74
        6.3.1  Research with bypass protein	   74
        6.3.2  Dairy husbandry activities	   78
   6.4   Conclusion	   82
   6.5   Case study: application of strategic supplementation	   82

7  Consequences of widespread application of feeding
   and breeding  in India                                             87
   7.1   Milk production	   87
   7.2   Effects on  reproduction rate	   88
   7.3   Milk production and draft power  	   88
   7.4   Draft power—body size	   89
   7.5   Population densities of dairy animals	   89
   7.6   Overall conclusions	   90
        7.6.1  Methane production by cattle fed high v.  low quality forages 91

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8  Application of strategic supplementation:
   some important considerations                                  92
   8.1   Introduction	   92
   8.2   Application of MUB  .  . .  .	   94
   8.3   Availability of bypass proteins	   94
   8.4   Protection of oil seed meal residues	   95
   8.5  Sources of bypass protein
        in countries with no oilseed industries
 96
   8.6  Overview of providing protein meals in developing countries  ...   97
   8.7  The need for feed mills	   97
   8.8  Education	   98
   8.9  Cash flow of small farmers and purchase of supplements	   99
   8.10 Government subsidies	   99
9  References
100

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List  of Figures
   3.1   Graphs illustrating the relatively stressful heat conditions through-
        out the year for the tropical and temperate areas	   36

   4.1   Relationship between carbohydrate fermentation and the produc-
        tion of VFA, methane and carbon dioxide and microbial cell syn-
        thesis 	   48

   4.2   Relationship between the production of microbial cells (Cell DM)
        and volatile fatty acids (VFA) and methane (CH4) in fermentative
        digestion in ruminants	   49

   5.1   Requirements for ammonia to maximise fermentative digestion in
        the rumen and optimise intake of a low quality roughage by cattle   57

   5.2   Schematic relationship between diet quality (metabolisable energy/kg
        dry matter) and food conversion efficiency (g liveweight gain/MJ
        ME)	   64

   5.3   Effects of improving the efficiency of rumen fermentative activity
        on methane production and production of methane per kg gain in
        supplemented cattle 	   65

   5.4   Effects of supplementation and  straw treatment on the methane
        produced in cattle fed straw that was untreated or treated with
        ammonia  	   66

   5.5   Relationship between the metabolisable energy content of a feed
        and the methane produced per level of gain	   67

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5.6  Calculated amounts of methane produced per unit of milk produc-
     tion in unsupplemented (fed traditionally) or supplemented (new
     feeding systems) cows in India with moderate levels of production.  68

6.1  Colour plates to illustrate the ingredients of the molasses urea
     blocks, the manufacturing plant, blocks in  slab form and ready
     for sale (Kunju, 1989)	   75

6.2  Colour plates to illustrate the method of presentation of MUB to
     cattle and buffaloes	   76

6.3  Effects of increasing supplement levels on milk yields of cows fed
     ammoniated  straw	   78

6.4  Average  305  d lactation yield of different breeds of cattle in the
     first five  lactations fed on  tropical forage and supplements  ....   79

6.5  Age at first calving of cows of different breeds fed tropical forages
     and supplemented with  bypass protein and MUB in India  ....   83

6.6  Case study of the implementation of feeding strategies based on
     bypass protein and MUB in Kiara  district of India  	   84

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List  of  Tables
   3.1  FAO statistics for livestock populations in Asia/Pacific region as
        of 1986	    30
   3.2  Average meat  production (kg) per animal of total population of
        cattle/buffaloes in Europe and in Asia/Pacific (1986)	    32

   3.3  Average carcass weight (kg) per animal slaughtered (1986)  ....   33

   3.4  Average milk produced (litres/lactation) per total population or
        per animal milked (1986)	    33

   4.1  Effect of different efficiencies of microbial growth on ratio of protein
        to VFA energy available to ruminants	    50

   5.1  Effects of ionophores (feed additives) on cattle performance in the
        USA	    55

   5.2  Milk yield and liveweight change are shown together with the re-
        quirements for bypass protein and metabolisable energy in relation
        to their availabilities from the feed	   70

   6.1  Intake of rice straw and growth rate of Jersey bulls given concen-
        trate with or without access to a urea/molasses block	   74

   6.2  Milk and milk fat sales per buffalo before and after the introduction
        of molasses /urea blocks into villages  	   77

   6.3  Comparison of cattle body weight change when given treated or
        untreated rice straw plus molasses/urea block and rice pollard . .   80
                                    8

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6.4  Some practical results from, commercial milk producing systems
     where feed resources are based on forages	   81
8.1  Supplementing with soyabean meal or soyabean meal treated with
     sulfite liquor	   96

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Part  1
Preface
The preparation of this report was funded by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA). The purpose of the report is to summarize information regard-
ing the potential to reduce methane emissions from ruminants through the use
of strategic supplementation. This approach for reducing emissions was one of
several promising approaches identified and discussed at an EPA-sponsored work-
shop in February 1989 and in a workshop conducted under the auspices of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in December 1989. Infor-
mation regarding these workshops can be obtained from the following:

   • U.S. EPA, Reducing Methane Emissions from Livestock: Opportunities and
     Issues, Office of Air and Radiation, EPA 400/1-89/002, August 1989;

   • U.S. EPA,  Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Agricultural Systems, Policy
     Planning and Evaluation,  20P-2005, September 1990.

     This report has been prepared to further discussion and analysis of oppor-
tunities to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from various sources. The U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency does  not endorse the performance, environ-
mental acceptability, or commercial viability of any of the  emissions reduction
strategies discussed in this report.
                                   10

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Part  2
Executive  summary
2.1    Introduction

It is well documented that the global atmospheric abundance of methane is in-
creasing. Recent rates of increase are of the order of one percent per year. Based
on analysis of ice core data, it has been estimated that the increase in methane
concentrations began about  200 to 300 years ago.   The major anthropogenic
sources of methane emissions are: animals (primarily managed ruminant live-
stock); rice cultivation; biomass burning; oil and gas production and distribution;
coal mining; landfills; and waste management.

     The increased abundance of methane will have important impacts on:  the
stratospheric ozone layer; background levels of tropospheric (i.e., ground-level)
ozone; global climate. Estimates are that methane will contribute about 20 per-
cent of the expected global warming from the greenhouse effect, second only to
carbon dioxide.

     As  part  of international efforts to address global warming, emissions in-
ventories are being prepared and opportunities for reducing methane emissions
are being identified and evaluated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
and others. A recent workshop sponsored  by the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) found that opportunities exist to reduce methane emis-
sions from managed ruminant livestock.  Achieving such reductions in concert
with reductions from other key sources could help to stabilize global methane
                                  11

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Executive summary
Introduction
concentrations. Managed livestock, and in particular, large ruminant animals,
are important contributors to the increasing abundance of atmospheric methane,
accounting for on the order of 15 to 20 percent of annual methane emissions.

     Of the approximately 1.5 billion large ruminant equivalents (i.e., cattle, buf-
falo, sheep and goats) in the world, the largest proportion of these are supported
on relatively poor feeds particularly (but not only) in developing countries and
therefore grow and produce at variable but relatively low rates. It is probable
that 80% of the whole global herd could come into such a category.

     Improved nutritional management of these ruminant animals, e.g., through
supplementation, is expected to lead to increased productivity and will generally
reduce methane emissions per unit of product. Provided that the markets for the
products do not expand, improved animal productivity will lead to reductions in
methane emmissions from these animals.

     This report  provides

   • essential background  information on the  basic chemistry  of fermentative
     digestion in the rumen

   • the reasons for specifying supplementation as an important and practical
     means of reducing methane emissions from ruminant animals

   • the likely reduction in methane from ruminants through supplementation

   • the strategy needed for application in developing countries where large num-
     bers of low producing animals are found

   • a case study of application of supplementary feeding in India

   • some issues required to obtain wide scale acceptance of the feeding practices
     in those countries where livestock population densities are high but at a
     subsistence level of production.

     Application of strategic supplementation to cattle fed poor quality forage
could reduce methane production per unit of product by 25-75%.
                                            12

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Executive summary
Methane production by ruminants
2.2    Methane production by  ruminants

Ruminant animals (cattle, deer, goats and sheep) are estimated to produce 65-
85 Tg of methane annually (1 Tg =  1 teragram = 1012 grams =  108 kilograms
= 108 metric tons) or 15-25% of the estimated global methane production (400-
600 Tg).  Most of this is attributed to cattle, of which the vast majority are
situated in developing countries.

     The objectives for reduction of methane production, apparent when dealing
with ruminants, are to:

   • increase the efficiency of feed utilisation in fermentative digestion

   • modify intestinally digestible feed components (protein and starch) to avoid
     fermentative digestion

   • increase animal product turnoff and satisfy human demands for ruminant
     products from fewer animals (i.e.,  reduce the numbers of low producing
     animals, particularly in the heavily  populated countries)

   • supplement diets with natural products or chemicals that inhibit methano-
     genesis irrespective of whether this increases productivity and/or profitabil-
     ity

     Other possibilities include the development of methane oxidising organisms
or other hydrogen sinks in the rumen using genetic engineering.

     The first three  objectives are compatible and the first two automatically
support the third.  Manipulation of methanogenesis in the rumen may be more
applicable in the developed countries with large automated feedlots.

     The use of supplements and in particular molasses/urea multinutrient blocks
in developing countries could form a vehicle for  chemicals used for rumen ma-
nipulation. Where there is easy access to animals fed compounded rations the
chemicals could be directly added to the  diet.
                                          13

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Executive summary
            Methane production
by cattle fed poor quality forage
     Over the last 20 years, increases in animal products have been achieved
in developing countries by increasing animal numbers rather than increasing the
level of production per animal. These countries have over half the total world
ruminants, and they are, in general, owned in small groups (i.e., 1-5 animals) by
small farmers and are fed on forages which generally promote slow growth, poor
reproductive performance and low milk production.

     The pressure on land in most developing countries for food-crop production,
suggest that it is not possible to alter the basal diets of these animals, which are
generally fed on poor pasture and/or  crop residues  that are low in protein and
digestibility. The feed resource is usually of poor  quality for the majority  of
any feed year.  Methane production by these animals may be as high as 15% of
the digestible energy of feed since the diets are deficient in critical nutrients (in
particular ammonia) for efficient microbial growth in the rumen.
2.3    Methane production

        by cattle fed poor quality forage

Data developed from extensive work in India and other countries indicate that
strategic supplementation of the diet to promote efficient fermentative digestion
of forages will decrease methane generation per unit of  digested feed by some
30-50% (15% of digestible energy (DE) to 7% of DE).

     These data also show that in addition to ensuring an efficient fermentative
digestion in these ruminants, judicious supplementation with protein, in a form
that is directly available to the animal, reduces the time for an animal to reach
slaughter weight or puberty by up  to three years (from a "normal" 5-6 years
down to 2-3 years) and reduces the amount of forage required to grow an animal
to slaughter weight or to a breeding size by 4 to 5-fold. Over a 12 month period
(1989) close to 50,000,000 extra litres of milk have been produced in Kiara, as
against 1988 and 1987, when traditional supplementation was used.  Methane
production per unit of meat produced is reduced to about 0.2 of that produced
in the  unsupplemented animal. For milk production, the amount of methane
produced can be lowered from about  250 g methane/litre to 40-80 g methane/litre
of milk.
                                          14

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Executive summary
                          Effects of
supplementation on breeding herds
     Other methods for improving animal nutrition, e.g. increasing the digestibil-
ity of the forage (with alkali treatments) in combination with such supplementa-
tion, can further reduce the age of slaughter and feed required per unit of meat
or milk production.
2.4    Effects of

        supplementation on breeding herds

As already pointed out, in most developing countries, the animals owned by small
farmers mature at a late age (puberty at 4 years) and often breed irregularly (one
calf every 2 years). It is suggested that the strategies  outlined, in the main text
have the capability of reducing the age of first calving from 5 years to 2-3 years
and the intercalving interval from 24 months to 15-12 months.  This diminishes
the numbers of breeding  cows required for meat production and/or providing
replacement draft animals by at least 50%. With the dairy industry it can more
than double milk production by increasing the number of cows in the National
Herd actually in  milk at any one time.

     Widespread application of these nutritional strategies coupled with good
health care and  management can have a  huge impact  on  animal  production.
Animal production in developing countries can be improved between 2 and 4 fold
by the nutritional strategies outlined provided they can be widely applied.

     The eventual overall effects on methane emission will depend on the control
of animal numbers within a country. This in turn will  depend on market demand
for meat and milk and other products (including draft power). However, market
forces will surely reduce animal numbers as production per animal increases; this
has already occurred in the USA in dairying where cow numbers have decreased
linearly with increases in milk yield per animal. The increased production has
been achieved  through better feeding and breeding.

     Meeting  the market demands for ruminant products through a higher effi-
ciency of feed  utilization and animal production, together with the reduced  re-
quirements for numbers of breeding cows will also reduce or remove the incentives
to create vast ranches from tropical rainforests.
                                          15

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Executive summary
The role of improved animal genotype
     The supplementary feeding strategies, but not the treatment of straw are
being widely advocated for cows and buffaloes in villages throughout India by
the National Dairy Development Board. Their policy is to turn over all their feed
mills to producing protein meals which are prepared so that the protein escapes
fermentation and is used directly by the animal. They have in place, or have
planned, some 50 factories to produce molasses/urea multinutrient blocks. The
use of these two supplements can achieve the increases in production sufficient to
reduce methane emmissions significantly.

     It is possible that within five years, six million animals  will  be
being fed by these strategies in India alone.  The wider scale application
in other developing countries of these  feeding strategies depends  on
political will, socio-economic  factors  and perhaps pressure  from Aid
Agencies.
2.5    The role  of improved  animal  genotype

More scientific feeding of ruminants allows the use of improved genotypes for
the particularly productive system.  In India, for example, introduced cattle for
crossbreeding purposes  (such as Friesian-Holstein or  Jersey with high genetic
merit) have milk yields in their first lactation of 4000-6000 litres/305 days without
resorting to grain based concentrates.

     The projected requirements for milk and draft power in India could be met
by 27 x 106  cows/buffaloes producing 3000 litres milk/year, breeding every 12
months.  The male calves would provide  10 x 106 replacement bullocks needed
annually for animal draft power. The net effect could be a reduction in cat-
tle/buffalo numbers from over 300 x 106 to about 120 x 106 (which includes 75 x
106 draft animals).
                                          16

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Executive summary
Improved animal production
    and methane production
2.6    Improved animal production

        and  methane production

The effects of supplementation and of treatment of straw on the generation ,of
methane per unit of feed intake and per unit of live-weight gain on milk production
are shown in the Figures 1,2 and 3 at the end of this Section. This indicates that a
very large decrease in methane production from ruminants in developing countries
can be achieved provided that animal numbers are decreased  as productivity per
animal is increased (see p. 20 Socioeconomic considerations (a cautionary
note)). It also presupposes  that disease/parasitism are not constraints or are
controlled by good animal health management.

     The new feeding systems, when applied in tropical countries, have given
some remarkable responses. In general, the metabolisable energy content of a diet
fails to predict liveweight gain of cattle on straw based diets that are supplemented
with critical nutrients. This is shown in Figure 4 at the end of this Section.

     At the same time, cattle on "poor  quality forages" that are supplemented
with critical nutrients, grow much more efficiently than predicted by feeding stan-
dards. They also produce only the same methane per kg liveweight gain as an-
imals on high quality feeds (e.g.  barley concentrate mix). This occurs despite
considerable differences in growth rates which may be twice as fast on the high
quality feed vs. the  poor quality forage with supplements  (Figure 5, end of this
Section).
     The foregoing discussion of the potential of supplements to increase methane
is based on scientific principles, particularly the effects of improving microbial
growth efficiency by supplementation. Whilst there  is considerable data which
supports the general thesis, there is no work that has set out  to measure changes
in methane production with improving microbial growth efficiencies. Research is
needed in this area.
                                          17

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Executive summary
Strategic supplementation
    and the target groups
2.7    Strategic  supplementation

        and the target groups

A total supplementation package consisting of a multinutrient block plus a by-
pass protein feed needs to be applied to ruminants fed relatively poor quality
forages/pastures.

     The target groups of large ruminants for this strategy include the following:


  1. Cattle/buffalo in developing countries:

        • fed crop residues or cut/carry grass and agro-industrial byproducts
        • grazing in areas with monsoonal climates in the tropics, particularly
         in the dry season
        • grazing tropical grasslands on infertile soils (e.g. Los Llanos, Colombia;
         Brazil and the pampas, Argentina)

  2. Cattle in the developed or industrialised countries:

        • fed agro-industrial  byproducts (e.g.  molasses, sugar beet pulp or
         pineapple waste)
        • fed relatively low-protein grain based diets in feed lots (e.g. sorghum
         and whole maize cobs)
        • grazing relatively poor pastures in semi arid grazing areas (e.g. parts
         of the Southern United States and Northern Australia)
2.8    Requirements for
        success of strategic supplementation

The development of these feeding systems in India has clearly shown the ap-
plicability of this strategy. It cannot be assumed that methods used to obtain
acceptance by farmers will be viable in other developing countries.
                                        18

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Executive summary
The Indian experience
     The essential ingredients for success with such strategies are:

   • identification of local resources to provide the supplements

   • developing raw ingredients where resources are not available locally

   • placing priority on the use of these resources locally

   • where necessary, establishing appropriate manufacturing capabilities to pro-
     tect proteins from degradation in the rumen

   • ensuring that  the supplements are available to small farmers through an
     appropriate  marketing system

   • ensuring markets for meat/milk etc. and therefore profit motive to farmers

   • facilitating purchase of supplements—particularly  where the returns  for
     their use are some  time in the future—e.g. subsidies, low or zero inter-
     est rates, perhaps with a tax on the commodities when sold

   • facilitating the use of potentially high producing genotypes by making germ
     plasm available, and insurance of the animals against death

   • education on the benefits of such supplementary feeding strategies through
     all levels of the community

   • ensuring that  good disease/parasite control is associated with the feeding
     strategies
2.9    The Indian experience

The patterns of supplement purchase, milk sold  and the ratio of supplement
purchased/milk sold in the Kiara district of India are shown in Figure 6 at the
end of this Section.  The new feeding strategy was implemented in December
1988.   Clearly,  the advantages of the strategies are increased milk production
(approximately 30% more than in the previous 2 years) and decreased supplement
production coupled  with increased efficiency of supplement use.  The increased
milk production per cow reduces methane production/unit of milk. The decrease
in quantities of supplement used to feed milch animals in the villages will result in
considerable fossil fuel savings in manufacture, transport and storage processes.

                                           19

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Executive summary
Socioeconomic considerations
          (a cautionary'note)
2.10    Socioeconomic considerations

          (a  cautionary note)

These strategies do not take into account socio-economic aspects. Almost every
rural household in India owns a milch animal and often depend on these for the
day to day cash flow and for high quality nutrients for their family diet.  Milk is
important, as it supplements an often vegetarian diet which is often imbalanced
for amino acids.   Reduction in milch animal numbers would inevitably be at
the expense of the rural poor—the tendancy, with ownership of "high yielding"
animals will be for these to be owned in  larger herds in the hands of "rich"
farmers.

     Additionally, in developed countries with market economies, improvements
in animal performance have led to reductions in overall animal numbers. If socioe-
conomic considerations prevent similar shifts in animal numbers from occurring in
cases where supplementation is implemented, the full potential to reduce methane
emissions and increase productivity may not be realized. It is expected, however,
that constraints on feed supplies will, over the long term,  is likely to force shifts
in animal numbers that  are consistent with the experience of market economies.

     Thus any suggestion of reduction of numbers of milch animals may reduce
the standard of living of the rural poor in India (and other developing countries);
alternative sources of income would need to  be provided along with the devel-
opment strategies envisaged.  India already has a policy of decentralisation of
industry to rural  areas  with large incentives such as  suspension of taxation of
profits.
                                         20

-------
Executive summary
Tables and Figures
2.11   Tables and Figures
                               21

-------
Executive summary
                                                Tables and Figures
Figure 1: This appears later as Figure 5.3

(A)  The effects of improving the efficiency of rumen fermentative activity on

methane production per kg of digestible energy consumed.


(B) The production of methane per kg gain in supplemented cattle (feed conversion

efficiency (FOR) 9:1) or unsupplemented cattle (FCR=40:1) fed straw based diets

(after Saadullah, 1984)
           (A) 20 n
                      (B) 1200-,
                                                            NO SUPPLEMENTS
                                          T» .

                                          21
                                          Q—I

                                          (D C
                                          c o
                                               800-
                                               400-
                                                            UREA/MINERALS

                                                            +BYPASS PROTON

                                                            SUPPLEMENTS
Figure 2: This appears later as Figure 5.4

Effects of supplementation and straw treatment on the kg methane produced for

each kg gain in  cattle fed straw that was untreated or treated with ammonia to

improve its digestibility. The results are from experiments published by Perdok et

al.; 1988

                         1200-1
                      C
                         1000-
                          800-
                    0)
                    •o'o   600-
                    p o>
0).°!*  400H
C 
-------
Executive summary
                                   Tables and Figuret
Figure 3:  This appears later as Figure 5.6
Calculated amounts of methane produced per unit of milk production in unsupplemented
(fed traditionally) or supplemented (new feeding systems) cows in India with moderate
levels of production.  The  methane generated (g)  per kg milk is  also shown for high
yielding cows in developed countries (fed traditionally) or high yielding cows in India
fed tropical forage with molasses urea block (MUB) +  350 g/d bypass protein per liter
of milk production.
The values represent the methane generated from feed consumed during the lifetime of
the cow in  relation to the lifetime's milk yield.  The assumptions associated with  this
figure are tabulated.
                                                       Case studies:
                                                       1. Traditional feeding with native
                                                       cattle/buffalo in India.
                                                       2. New feeding system using MUB/
                                                       bypass protein with native buffalo in
                                                       India.
                                                       3. Friesian-Holstein fed  high qual-
                                                       ity forage/concentrate in developed
                                                       countries.
                                                       4. Friesian-Holstein fed tropical for-
                                                       age/MUB/bypass protein in India.
Case Study

Mature weight (kg)
Time of first calf (years)
Inteicalving interval (years)
FCR' (kg/kg LWt gain)
Forage consumption (% LWt)
Digestibility of feed (%)
Methane (% Dig. Energy)
Life span (years)
Number of lactations
Lactation yield (tons/year)
1
400
5
2
30:1
2.5
50
15
13
4
1
2
400
3
1.5
15:1
3
50
11
13
6
2.5
3
600
2
1
8:1
4
65
11
5
3
6
4
600
2
1
8:1
4
65
11
8
6
6
*FCR = Feed conversion ratio (from weaning to first calf)
                       3001
                    = 250 -\
                    £ 2501
                       200-
                    S
                     g 150J
                    I
                     a. 100-
                     0
                     i
                    f  50-
                               242
76
           36
                     40
                             Traditional  + supplements   Friesian      Friesian
                              feeding                 U.K.        India
                                                 23

-------
Executive summary
Tables and Figures
Figure 4: this appears later as Figure 5.2
Schematic relationship between diet quality (metabolisable energy MJ/kg dry mat-
ter) and food conversion efficiency (g live-weight gain/MJ ME) (- - -) (from Web-
ster, 1989).  The relationships found in practice with cattle fed on straw or om-
moniated straw or poor quality hay with increasing level of supplementation of
protein meals that pypass rumen fermentation. Australia (O,  o, •) (Perdok et
al., 1988)', (O, AJ (Hennessyet al. (1983); Hennessyci d.,1989),  Thailand (&)
(Wanapat et al.,  1986) and Bangladesh (O) (Saadullah,  1984) Th™ illustrates
the marked differences that result when supplements high  in protein are given to
cattle on diets of low ME/kg DM
                                     8     9    10    11
                          Energy  value  of  diet M/D
                                      (MJ/kg)
                                          24

-------
Executive summary
                                                     Tables and Figures
Figure 5: this appears later as Figure 5.5
Relationship between the metabolizable energy content of a feed (M/D, MJ/kg)
and the  theoretical methane produced per kg gain.  The relationship shown by a
broken line is based on the metabolizable energy system in practice in UK (Web-
ster, 1989).  The relationship indicated are results from the studies of Perdok et
al., 1988 (o, o, •); Hennessy et al., 1983, Hennessy et al., 1989 (Dj; Saadullah,
1984 fnj and Wanapat et al., 1986 (A) in which cattle fed straw, straw treated
to improve its digestibility or poor quality hay were supplemented with increasing
levels of bypass protein. (The data are calculated from Figure 4') Methane pro-
duced per unit of gain was lowest when the efficiency of liveweight gain had been
stimulated by feeding bypass protein.
    c.E
    o  o
   *-£3  CJ»
    O
    0)
       en
0.50-1
0.45-
0.40-
0.35-
0.30-
0.25-
0.20-
0.15-
0.10-
0.05-
0.00
                                   8
                                    10    11    12    13
                        Energy  value  of  diet  M/D
                                    (MJ/kg)
                                          25

-------
Executive summary
Tables and Figures
Figure 6: this appears later as Figure 6.6
A case study of the implementation of feeding strategies for large ruminants based
on bypass protein (commencing Dec 1st, 1988) (NDDB records). In the Kiara dis-
trict, Anand, India, there are some 18,000 crossbred cows (70% in milk)f 55,000
indigenous cows  (55% in milk) and 350,000 buffaloes (40% in milk)  (Kunju,
1989).

(A) shows the  sales  of a supplement-feed in the district from the Amul Feed
Mill when a so-called balanced concentrate was available (1987/88) and after the
change  (1st Dec, 1988) to a 30% protein meal (bypass protein).  In the latter
system, the recommendations are to feed a molasses/urea block and half the pre-
vious quantity of supplement. Initially, there was some stockpiling of the original
feed and there was marked resistance by farmers to the new feed. This resistance
subsided.

(B) shows the milk procurement at the Amul Dairy Factory over the same three
years.

(C) shows that farmers have faithfully followed instructions and that the rate of
supplement  (high protein feed) used, has dropped  to  about 350 g/litre of milk as
compared to 700-800 g/litre of milk on the traditional concentrate. Milk yield has
increased from  1.25 I/kg (old supplement) to 2.8 I/kg (new supplement).

(D) shows the thermal humidity index for Bombay. This is an index of the relative
heat stress.  Above 72 milk production is adversely affected in cattle fed on high
quality feeds.

See next page.
                                            26

-------
         Executive summary
                                                                                 Tables and Figures
22
   Supplements sold ('000 MT/month}
20


is


16


14-


12-


10-


 8-
      -B- 1986/87   •&- iea7/eB  -©- 1888/89  -*- tgsfi/9o

            /\
          "A      A
                ^/  V
--a
                                                              Milk procured at Amul {'000 MT/month)
                                                                   B
 Dec  Jan  Fob  Mar  Apr  May  Jun  Jul   Aug  Sep  Oct  Nov
                                                                         1980/87   ^ 1987/88  -&-1888/89  -*-1989/90
                                                             Dec  Jan  Feb  Mar  Apr  May  Jun  Jul  Aug  Sep  Oct  Nov
Mlik/supplement (litres/kg)
                     1987/88  -©- I9BB/8B  -*-1688/90
                                                              100
                                                               90
                                                               80-
                                                                  THt - Bombay {Celsius}
                                                               70-
                                                               eo-
  Dec  Jan  Feb  Mar  Apr  May  Jun  Jul   Auo  Sep  Oct  Nov
                                                               50
                                                                                      .-•0----0,                _
                                                                                  ,-Q'          --0-—o.—•o----0'--
                                                                 II-.
                                                             Dec  Jan  Feb  Mar  Apr  May  Jun  Jut  Aug  Sep  Oct  Nov
                                                         27

-------
Part  3
Introduction
      Part 3 outline: Information is given which relates to the roles of livestock and
      the systems of livestock production practised in developing countries and in
      India in particular.

      The problems of low productivity  of ruminants and its consequences for
      methane generation are discussed. Strategies for improving productivity from
      the available feed resource are outlined.

      The future possibilities for integrated farming are discussed in general terras.
      The overall strategy for limiting methane generation through strategic  man-
      agement is outlined.


3.1   The  problem

The level of methane in the Earth's atmosphere is defined by emissions, from
natural and anthropogenic sources, and natural destruction processes.  It is well
documented that the atmospheric abundance of methane is currently increasing
at a rate of about one percent per year.  Based on  analyses of air trapped in
the ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica, long term methane trends have been
established. The data indicate that the abundance of atmospheric methane has
increased primarily in the last 200 or 300 years, with relatively stable levels prior
to that  time at about one-half the current levels.
                                    28

-------
Introduction
The problem
     The observed increase in the atmospheric abundance of methane must be
caused by an imbalance in the sources (i.e., emissions) and sinks (i.e., destruction
and uptake) of methane.  The mechanisms leading to these observed increases in
methane are believed to be: (1) increases in emissions; and (2) possibly decreases
in its rate of destruction.  The major anthropogenic sources of methane emissions
are: animals (primarily  managed ruminant livestock); rice cultivation; biomass
burning; oil and gas production and distribution; coal mining; landfills; and waste
management.  Emissions from each of these sources have increased substantially
in the last two or three centuries.

     The increased abundance of methane will have important impacts on: the
stratospheric ozone layer; background levels of tropospheric (i.e., ground-level)
ozone;  global climate. Estimates are that methane will contribute about 20 per-
cent of the expected global warming from the greenhouse effect,  second only to
carbon dioxide.

     To address the increasing concentrations of methane and other trace gases,
international efforts have begun to identify opportunities for reducing anthro-
pogenic emissions. A recent workshop sponsored by the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change (IPCC) found that opportunities exist  to reduce methane
emissions from managed ruminant livestock.  Achieving such reductions in con-
cert with reductions from other key sources will help to stabilize global methane
concentrations. Although there is uncertainty in the level of emissions from var-
ious individual sources, it is believed that a combined reduction of about 10 to
20 percent in  anthropogenic emissions will be sufficient  to  stop  the increase in
methane concentrations.

     Ruminants produce 15-20% of the total methane generated; of the enteric
source of methane, cattle  contribute nearly 70%.  The methane  is generated
largely in the  fermentative digestive system (the rumen).

     Most of  the world's cattle  and buffaloes (Table 3.1) are in the developing
countries in Africa and  Asia  where they are  largely fed  on poor pastures, crop
residues and agro-industrial byproducts.

     The large populations of cattle in South America,  parts of the USA, Aus-
tralia and New Zealand are largely supported on pasture land not easily farmed or
of inherent low fertility. These systems use only low inputs and usually little or no
                                           29

-------
Introduction
Overview of animal production
        in developing countries
Table 3.1: FAO statistics for livestock populations in Asia/Pacific region as of
1986. (Values in the table are in thousands.)

World
Asia/ Pacific
India
Pakistan
Bangladesh
China
Cattle
1,271,810
395,472
200,000
16,479
23,200
66,925
Buffaloes
138,352
133,495
75,010
13,384
1,860
20,038
Pigs
822,443
407,221
8,700
—
—
338,074
Sheep
1,145,690
457,690
54,560
25,826
1,110
94,210
Goats
492,192
244,913
102,870"
30,785
10,772
61,901
fertiliser, which, with certain exceptions (temperate pasture lands), leads to poor
nutritional value of the pasture (Walker, 1987). The animals under these grazing
systems have similar nutritional problems to those of cattle fed crop residues.
3.2    Overview of animal  production

        in developing  countries

The majority of large ruminants in the world are in developing countries and are
owned by smallholders (in groups of 1-5  animals).  They often have multipur-
pose roles; they provide draft power, milk, meat, hides, and manure for fuel and
fertiliser. The reason for cattle ownership  varies from country to country.

     In India, with its large vegetarian population, the emphasis is traditionally
on milk production, draft power and production of dung for fuel, whereas in many
African countries large ruminants are kept for meat and draft power with milk
and dung as byproducts.
                                         30

-------
Introduction
    Livestock production systems:
comparison between industrialised
          and developing countries
     In the rural areas (particularly Africa), cattle are often an important source
of cash income and provide financial security for their owners. They are a capital
reserve in societies where grazing land is communally owned.
                                                                ,.* •
     A proportion of the people in any developing country have equivalent pur-
chasing power to that of the middle class in industrialised countries. This repre-
sents, for example, some 80 million people in India who can afford to purchase
primary products and are increasingly demanding meat as well as milk.

     It can be expected that, with improving standards of living and also  with
population density increases, the demand for meat and milk per capita in devel-
oping countries will increase, particularly as most developing countries have large
and increasing populations.

     Where institutional credit is restricted, livestock are often a key element in
any critical increase in the cash flow of most small farmers. The sale of livestock
products, in particular milk and meat, provides a major source of disposable
funds for agricultural development (e.g.  for purchase of improved seeds and
fertilisers) particularly in India. The first step in improving the standard of living
of smallholder farmers is frequently through an increase in animal productivity.

     Milk is often the main source of a number of essential amino acids that are
at times in low supply in the  diet of the rural poor, who are often vegetarian
from, choice or because they are too poor to purchase animal products. Devel-
opment strategies to improve the standard of living of the rural poor must aim
at increasing the productivity of animals from the available feed resources.  This
must be considered when discussing the potential for reducing methane emissions
from cattle in developing countries.
3.3   Livestock production systems:
        comparison between industrialised
        and  developing  countries

The high levels  of individual animal productivity in  the industrialised coun-
tries have been achieved through a disproportionate use of the world's resources
(Borgstrom, 1980), especially fossil fuels, marine fisheries and the protein rich
                                         31

-------
Introduction
Ruminant feed resources in Asia
Table 3.2: Average meat production (kg) per animal of total population of cat-
tle/buffaloes in Europe (representative of the concentrate/forage feeding systems)
and in Asia/Pacific (1986)
                                     Cattle  Buffalo
Europe
Asia/Pacific
68
5
50
7
meals. Even if this could be repeated in the developing countries, it would be
a short-sighted one to adopt, since fossil fuels must increase in relative cost as
world reserves become depleted and the environmental crisis increases (Porter,
1983).

     The industrialised countries are, for the most part, situated in regions with
temperate climates conducive to the growing of cereals and high  protein, high
quality forages. In contrast, the developing countries, are mainly tropical and in
general produce cereals only  for human consumption.  They have, in the past,
exported protein meals arising  from oilseed crops in order to earn foreign ex-
change; the availability of protein meals is now known to hold the key to improved
productivity of livestock fed on the available forage resources (this is discussed
extensively by Preston & Leng, 1987).  These protein meals are now less in de-
mand with the development of soyabean production in Europe and, because their
export is decreasing, there is an increasing availability at local outlets in India.
3.4   Ruminant  feed resources  in  Asia

Ruminants in Asia are mainly supported on byproducts of agriculture and their
growth and production rates are low (Tables 3.2, 3.3 and 3.4) compared to the
averages in developed-temperate countries where improved pastures, grain based
concentrates and high protein forages are fed (e.g. USA, Canada and Europe).
                                           32

-------
Introduction
    Ruminant feed resources in Asia
Table 3.3: Average carcass weight (kg) per animal slaughtered (Jasiorowski, 1989)
(1986 statistics)
                                     Cattle  Buffalo
                      Europe          185     206

                      Asia/Pacific      120     161
Table 3.4:  Average milk produced (litres/lactation) per total population or per
animal milked (Jasiorowski, 1989)  (1986 statistics)
                                    Cattle
Buffalo
                  Europe        860 (2335)*   586 (1043)*

                  Asia/Pacific     82 (865)*    254 (707)*

                  * milk production per *mifr"*l milked.

     Comparisons of productivity rates for Europe and Asia/Pacific are shown
in Tables 3.2, 3.3 and 3.4, and clearly  illustrate the low productivity of large
ruminants in the Asia/Pacific region.

     There are a number of ways to reduce enteric methane generation, but an
obvious method is to increase animal productivity per animal to such an extent
that the services and products provided by ruminants can be achieved by a much
reduced number of animals.
                                           33

-------
Introduction
Improving ruminant production
         in developing countries
3.5    Improving ruminant production

        in developing  countries

Livestock-keeping in the Indian sub-continent and within Africa is dominated by
the need for draft power. The majority of agricultural land (approx. 90%) is still
worked with bullocks. Most farmers in India keep cows in order to produce male
offspring to be reared as draft bullocks (Kurup, 1989).

     However, with the inception of the milk co-operatives in India, specialised
milk production with high yielding crossbred cows and selected  buffaloes is in-
creasing.

     Buffaloes, on the other hand, are kept largely for milk production and ma-
nure generation for fuel purposes. Buffaloes are rarely used for draft power except
in wet rice production and most males are allowed to die in the  first few weeks
of life (Kurup, 1989).

     There are some 75 million bullocks (bovine) in India with an  annual replace-
ment rate of 10 million.  These replacements are produced  by some 40 million
nondescript cows, which probably calve once every two years and average 500 to
600 kg milk per lactation.

     There are strong reasons for arguing that the most economic way of meeting
the increasing demand for milk, meat and draft animals is through improvement
of traditional livestock production systems based on multipurpose  animals, rather
than through development of specialised milk, meat and draft animals (see Pre-
ston & Leng, 1987).

     The bases for this argument are as follows:

   • The growing need for larger numbers of draft animals in some  developing
     countries makes it  increasingly necessary to use milch animals for draft.
     Also, decreasing farm size in some countries, notably Bangladesh, is forcing
     farmers to use cows for work. Draft animals will often increase farm output
     several fold by increasing the area that can be put under crops and farmed
     by a family.
                                         34

-------
r
        Introduction
Improving ruminant production
         in developing countries

           •  Feed required for high levels of milk production using temperate countries'
              feeding systems (over 8000 litres per lactation) is in competition with food
              for humans and feed for pigs, poultry and fish. New methods of feeding
              are, however, overcoming this and with byproduct protein meals and mo-
              lasses/urea blocks, milk yields from Friesian cows and their  crosses with
              local breeds may approach 5-7,000 litres/305 days lactation.

           •  High levels of milk production from  the specialised dairy  breeds require
              much higher levels of management in  the humid tropics than in temperate
              countries. Without appropriate feeding strategies and disease control, tem-
              perate dairy animals,1 when introduced into the tropics, often fail to produce
              and often have quite short lives.
                   Milk production in India based on cows with high genetic potential
              would need a massive breeding programme and importation strategy to
              achieve the numbers needed to supply the milk requirements of a country.
              However, using artificial insemination with semen from bulls with high ge-
              netic potential, crossbreeding for milk production is a viable option and the
              resultant male offspring may be used  as draft animals.
                   The progeny of such crossbreeding have excellent dual purpose char-
              acteristics so long as they are given high protein supplements (i.e., balanced
              diets) in early life.  Cows yield 1500-2000  litres of milk with selected an-
              imals often reaching 4000-5000  litres of milk per lactation, which can be
              supported on locally available basal feeds such as straw/protein meals and
              their meat production potential is comparable to that of the specialised beef
              breeds.
              Poor nutrition, disease and parasites usually exert a major limiting influence
         on animals of high genetic potential and this highlights the importance of combin-
         ing appropriate genotypes with relevant management and nutritional strategies
         in developing livestock systems suited to given situations.
         3.5.1   Impact of climate on production of ruminants

         In the humid tropics where night temperatures often remain above 30°C, it is
         difficult for ruminants to lose the heat produced when on the feeding levels re-
         quired for extremely high yielding cows in temperate climates (that is above 35

                                                    35

-------
Introduction
Improving ruminant production
         in developing countries
Figure 3.1: Graphs illustrating the relatively stressful heat conditions throughout
the year for the tropical and temperate areas. THI 72 is believed to be the point
above which milk production is severely effected (Johnson, 1987).

Climatic conditions are indicated by Temperature—Humidity Index (THI) where:

THIfC) = Temp, (dry bulb) + 0.36 Temp, (dew point) + 4L2°C.
   90
       THI (Celsius)
   80-
    70-
   60-
   50-
   40
                  ~B~ Bangladesh   -&• Bombay  -O-Denmark
     Jan   Feb  Mar   Apr  May   Jun   Jul   Aug  Sep   Oct  Nov   Dec
litres/day).  Average milk yields of up to  25 litres/day are, however, possible
even in the humid tropics with the appropriate feeding strategies discussed here.
(The Temperature Humidity Index (THI), above which milk production tends
to be depressed is illustrated in Figure 3.1,  together with those for Bombay (In-
dia), Chittagong (Bangladesh) and Copenhagen (Denmark)). In most developing
countries the development of specialised milking herds is counter-indicated as it is
much more rational and more simple to introduce crossbreeding. When compared
                                          36

-------
Introduction
    Strategies for improving
animal production/reducing
  greenhouse gas emissions
to the specialized non-native milking herds, the crossbreds usually have greater
resistance to disease and other environmental constraints. The appropriate strat-
egy for each country, however, should be adjusted according to the available feed
and technological resource.
3.5.2   Specialised beef cattle production

Unlike specialised dairy cows, specialised beef cows are inefficient, especially when
the feed offered could support more productive systems. This is because their
productivity is governed by their reproductive rate, which is always less than
one offspring per year and considerably inferior to that of other meat-producing
species such as pigs, poultry, sheep, goats and rabbits.

     Highly specialised ruminant production systems  that produce only meat
(and hides) have developed largely in countries where population densities are low
and land areas are large. In developing countries specialist beef herds are largely
confined to government stations and large commercial ranches. Specialised goat
and sheep production can be very important in the Moslem countries.
3.6    Strategies  for  improving

        animal production/reducing

        greenhouse gas emissions

Any strategy for improving livestock production must fit within a country's
development-framework and now must consider the implications for global warm-
ing (i.e., the Greenhouse Effect). A best bet approach for most countries will be
realised through an integrated approach that employs multipurpose crops, multi-
purpose animals, with residues and byproducts useable as feed or fuel or capable
of being recycled back to the land.  Inevitably such developments will lead to
increased production per  animal per life time and reduction in overall animal
numbers as the market requirements become saturated.
                                         37

-------
Introduction
    Strategies for improving
animal production/reducing
  greenhouse gaa  emissions
3.6.1   Management to increase ruminant productivity

For most systems, improved reproduction, rates of cattle (which are extremely
low on pasture or crop residue based feeding systems) will be the critical issue.
Improvement in a feeding strategy will improve reproduction. Improved nutrition
and reproduction rates are compatible with improvements in the genetic base.

     In terms of management the most critical areas to improve production rate
of cattle are:

   • improved nutrition;

   • disease and parasite control;

   • improved animal genotype to take advantage of the improved management;

   • improved animal growth leading to larger animals with greater draft capa-
     bilities;

   • improved implements for draft animals, reducing the numbers of draft ani-
     mals required.
3.6.2   Integrated farming systems

As fuel requirements are often difficult  to meet in many developing countries
even for household needs, the use of feces directly as fuel or to generate biogas is
a useful and important factor in any strategy—particularly in India, Africa and
other parts of Asia where the availability of fuel is a major problem (MacNamara,
1985).  Integrated farming systems may have a major role to play in the future
in decreasing emissions of carbon dioxide and methane and therefore mention is
made of it here.

     The principles for achieving optimum resource use include:

   • development of livestock production systems that match available resources
     and thus use these resources efficiently

   • selection of crops and cropping systems that maximise biomass production
     and therefore carbon dioxide and nitrogen fixation

                                         38

-------
Introduction
    Strategies for improving
animal production/reducing
  greenhouse gas emissions

   • generation of biogas from animal feces and urine

   * recycling of inorganic wastes from livestock to minimise fertiliser require-
     ments

   • more efficient use of agricultural by-products and crop residues as sources
     of ruminant feeds, or directly for fuel

   • use of multipurpose animals such as cattle and buffaloes that work and
     provide milk  and meat and also breed to provide suitable draft animals, in
     addition to supplying fuel and fertilizer from their excreta

   • incorporation into the production system of appropriate non-ruminant species
     that are well adapted to tropical feed resources, by-products and wastes (e.g.
     ducks, rabbits and fish) and which can use biomass with minimum methane
     production (e.g. pigs fed sugarcane juice).

3.6.3   Integration of livestock
         with crops/fuel production

The integration of livestock with crop production is a means of establishing sus-
tainable farming systems that aim to optimise resource use and in addition it
will reduce carbon dioxide and methane generation in agricultural systems. The
realisation of such aims will maximise the  degree of self-reliance of the system,
since a variety of products will be obtained with minimum inputs to maintain
soil fertility.

     The integration of livestock into agricultural systems based on food crops
calls for efficient use of crop residues and agro-industrial byproducts by the ru-
minant. As is discussed later, the by-products from such crops are inefficiently
used at present, with consequences for environmental pollution.
                                           39

-------
Introduction
Trends in livestock production in India
3.6.4   Integrating ruminant production
         with biogas production

In the industrialised countries, feedlots are planned in order to maximise animal
productivity and minimise operational costs.  This has led to the use of feed
resources with high energy and protein content (i.e., grains and oilseed meals).
These feeds are usually compounded using modern equipment that facilitates
mechanised feeding. The heavy capital investment in machinery has necessitated
the establishment of large units with high animal densities.

     Waste disposal in these enterprises has become a major problem. The ac-
cumulation of wastes, the cost of their disposal and pollution of the environment
axe serious consequences of the intensification of livestock enterprises in developed
countries.

     By contrast, the wastes from crop and livestock production in the develop-
ing countries are valuable sources of fuel and fertilizer.  Fuel (methane) can be
produced conveniently and efficiently from animal waste by anaerobic  digestion.
Recycling liquified  excreta through biodigestors to irrigation systems avoids the
loss of nitrogen and other plant nutrients which occurs when dried dung is burned
for cooking and reduces the need  for further dependence on fossil fuels.

     The major constraint  to widespread acceptance  of biogas technology has
been the high cost  of the early digestors, which were built of concrete  and steel.
Simpler designs are now available which use plastic film (see Preston, 1989).
These are easier to construct and install and are especially  suitable to small
farmers who have few animals.
3.7   Trends  in livestock production  in  India

All developing countries require increased amounts of animal products. India, for
example, produces at the present time about 163 g milk/capita and has set its
goal at 200 g daily per  capita. This requires a doubling of total milk production
because of projected  population increases. Jackson (1981) has pointed out that,
with the 'feed base' of India, increased milk production to 1981 has been through
                                          40

-------
Introduction
The overall strategy
increased animal numbers rather than increased milk production per animal. This
is the opposite of what has happened in developed countries, where the numbers of
dairy animals have decreased and production per animal has improved to provide
the milk requirements of a country.

     Operation Flood, a development project in India managed by the National
Dairy Development Board, has been responsible for implementing policies result-
ing in large increases in milk production per animal through better feeding and
breeding. By providing the infrastructure for marketing milk and milk products,
it has set the example for the  way forward for most developing countries.

     The large increase over the last 10 years in importation of animal products
into the underdeveloped sections of Africa has resulted from increasing demand.
There is therefore the stimulus for these countries to increase production per
animal as they cannot afford these imports. Imports of meat and milk into Africa
have risen seven fold on a per  caput basis, and in 1979 cost close to $US5 billion
per year (Brumby, P., ILCA statistics). On the other hand India needs only to
import milk products when drought conditions effect large tracts of country

     In the future there must be large increases in the demand for animal prod-
ucts in all developing countries. If this is achieved by increasing animal numbers,
rather than increasing individual animal productivity then large ruminants will
continue to contribute significantly to the global methane emissions. It is essential
that the increased demand for primary products be met  from increased animal
productivity without utilising resources directly usable by the human population.
The demand must also be met from fewer animals growing and reproducing at
much higher rates than presently attained.
 3.8   The overall  strategy

 The bottom line is that strategies must be developed that maximise animal pro-
 duction from the available resources and minimise  the numbers of ruminants
 needed to meet a country's need for:
    •  milk, meat and other animal products

    •  draft power.
                                          41

-------
Introduction
The overall strategy
     Improved production per animal (see later) will reduce methane production
per kilogram of meat or milk produced. Improved rates of production by indi-
vidual animals could lead to a large reduction in cattle numbers once national
requirements are met.  This would have a multiplier effect on the decrease in
methane production from better feeding of livestock.

     No consideration is taken here  of the sociological  effects that this could
have on the standard of living and the populations of small farmers in developing
countries, nor how a decrease in animal numbers could be managed particularly
in Africa and India.  The application of improved feeding and breeding strate-
gies must take into consideration political, economic, biological and sociological
aspects. Many of these  aspects are not predictable, particularly sociological and
political aspects, and are not considered further in this presentation.

     Nevertheless, the importance of these factors should not be  minimized be-
cause they will have a significant impact on the ability to realize reductions in
methane emissions in many countries.
                                            42

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Part  4

Digestive  physiology of
ruminants:  implications  for
improving animal production
from poor quality forages
     Part 4 outline: The information given in this chapter is fundamental to under-
     standing the strategies foz limiting methane production from ruminants. As-
     pects covered include anatomy of the ruminant, the microbiology of the rumen,
     the requirements of rumen microorganisms for nutrients and the stoichiometry
     of rumen fermentative digestion of feed and the balances of nutrients available
     to the animal. Applied significance of the balances of protein to energy in the
     products of digestion that are absorbed is discussed.


4.1   Introduction

An understanding of the digestive physiology and metabolism of ruminants is the
foundation  for developing appropriate strategies that best utilise available feed
resources and which at the same time minimise enteric methane production.
                           43

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Digestive physiology of
ruminants: implications for
improving animal production
from poor quality forages
The rumen
     Digestion in the ruminant is  different from that in  monogastric animals
(e.g. humans and pigs) because of the fermentation of feed in the rumen prior
to acid and alkaline digestion in the intestines.  Fermentative digestion results
in major alterations in the type and balance of nutrients available to the animal
when compared to that contained in the feed. Plant cell-wall materials (largely
indigestible by monogastric animal species) can be digested through microbial
fermentation in the rumen and therefore ruminants are often the main source of
animal protein in countries with large resources of crop residues and poor quality
pasture (i.e., from pastoral areas unsuitable for cropping).
4.2   The rumen

The dominant feature of the digestive tract of cattle is the rumen, which maintains
an environment capable of supporting dense and varied populations of micro-
organisms. These organisms ferment carbohydrates and other plant materials to
produce mainly short-chain organic acids or volatile fatty acids (VFAs), methane
and  carbon dioxide and the process provides ATP (energy) for the growth of
micro-organisms.

     The microbial system in the rumen is anaerobic and includes bacteria, pro-
tozoa and fungi. Over 200 species and strains of organisms have been identified
to date, although on individual diets a smaller number dominate. The complex
rumen ecology includes both competition and cooperation among these organ-
isms which ferment the primary feed constituents (fibre, sugars, and starches)
into secondary products that can be catabolized further  and subsequently used
by the animal.

     Rumen methanogenic bacteria are the source of methane  produced in ru-
minants. Although these bacteria are a small fraction of the total population of
microorganisms in the rumen, they play an important role in the complex rumen
ecology.  While methanogens can convert acetate (a fermentation product pro-
duced in the rumen) to methane and carbon dioxide, this pathway for methane
production in the rumen is of minor importance. Instead, the conversion of hydro-
gen  or formate and bicarbonate from the fluid medium is the primary mechanism
by which methanogenic bacteria produce methane in the rumen.
                                           44

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Digestive physiology off
ruminants: implications for
improving animal production
from poor quality forages
Fermentative efficiency in the rumen
     The bacteria are the principal organisms that ferment plant cell-wall carbo-
hydrates (Hungate, 1966) but the anaerobic phycomycetous fungi may at times
be extremely important (see Bauchop, 1981).

     Protozoa on the other hand are now recognised as having a negative effect
in the rumen, particularly where ruminants are fed on diets low in true-protein
(Bird & Leng, 1984).  Protozoa ingest and digest bacteria and reduce the bacterial
biomass in the rumen (Hungate, 1966; Golem an, 1976). They decrease the protein
to energy ratio in the nutrients absorbed (see later) and in this way increase the
requirement of animals for true protein and conversely they decrease the efficiency
of utilisation of feed for growth and milk production (see Bird & Leng, 1984).

     The presence of protozoa in the rumen may also reduce the rate at which
bacteria colonise and degrade the ingested feed particles. In studies with sheep fed
straw based diets, it has been found that the apparent digestibility of dry matter
was increased by 18% after protozoa had been removed from the rumen (i.e.,
defaunated) (Soetanto, 1985; Bird & Leng, 1984), suggesting that large increases
in productivity may  be achieved with ruminants fed fibrous diets, particularly
those low in true protein. These changes in digestibility have not been observed
on diets based on straw and grain and in  some instances removal of protozoa from
the rumen has led to decreased digestibility of mixed diets (Jouany, 1989).

     Rumen methanogenic bacteria are the source of methane produced in rumi-
nants.  Although these bacteria are a very small fraction of the total population of
microorganisms in the rumen, they play  an important role in the complex rumen
ecology. While methanogens can convert acetate (a fermentation  product pro-
duced in the rumen)  to methane and carbon dioxide, this pathway for methane
production in the rumen is of minor importance. Instead, the conversion of hydro-
gen or formate and bicarbonate from the  fluid medium by the primary mechanism
by which methanogenic bacteria produce methane in the rumen.
4.3    Fermentative efficiency in the rumen

A deficiency of a nutrient needed by the micro-organisms in the rumen will, in
general, reduce the microbial biomass and therefore reduce digestibility and feed
intake, particularly of fibrous feeds. The first priority for feeding ruminants on
any diet must be to ensure the availability of essential nutrients for microbial
                                          45

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Digestive physiology of
ruminants: implications for
improving animal production
from poor quality forages
Fermentative efficiency in the rumen
growth in the rumen. The efficiency of microbial growth (that is, the amount of
microbial biomass available for digestion in the intestines per unit of digestible
carbohydrate entering the rumen) largely determines the proportion of digested
energy that is lost as methane.

     Methane production accompanies the formation of acetate or butyrate,
whereas the conditions that promote the synthesis of microbial cells and pro-
pionate production also lead to reduced methane production.
4.3.1   Meeting the requirements
         for efficient microbial growth in the rumen

On most diets based on crop residues and low-digestibility forages, the primary
limitation to the growth of rumen micro-organisms is probably the concentration
of ammonia in rumen fluid (with secondary considerations for deficiency of min-
erals, particularly sulfur, phosphorus and certain trace minerals). Ammonia must
be above a critical level for a considerable period of the day to ensure a high rate
of microbial growth, rate of digestion and feed intake. The level of ammonia that
supports the optimal population of micro-organisms in the rumen, and therefore
maximum digestion, will vary among diets. In general the ammonia level should
be above 200 mg nitrogen/litre (Perdok et al, 1988).

     It must be stressed, however, that any nutrient required in the growth of
microorganisms that is deficient in a diet will result in low microbial cell yield
relative to VFA  and this will  increase methane generation per unit of feed con-
sumed.

     Deficiencies of ammonia and a number of trace and macrominerals in the
rumen of animals on poor quality forage based diets can be corrected under ap-
plied conditions by using a molasses/urea multinutrient block lick (referred to as
MUB) (see Leng &; Preston,  1984; Leng & Kunju, 1989).  Under tropical con-
ditions, sodium, sulfur, magnesium, phosphorus and a number of trace minerals
(copper, cobalt, zinc etc.) are the most  likely limiting nutrients.
                                          46

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Digestive physiology of
ruminants: implications for
improving animal production
from poor quality forages
                Consequence* of
the ruminant mode of digestion
4.4    Consequences of

        the ruminant mode of digestion

One of the costs of the ruminant mode of digestion is that fermentation of the
readily digestible feeds results in up to 20% of the digestible energy in the feed
consumed being lost as heat and methane. A second major disadvantage is that
proteins that are fermented in the rumen are lost as  sources of amino acids.
Skillful balancing of the nutrients for the rumen and the animal can have very
large effects on animal production through effects on the efficiency of all important
functions.

     In general, where  a ruminant is fed a forage based diet typical of that
available in tropical developing countries, small amounts of extra nutrients are
needed to increase the efficiency of digestion and also the efficiency of anabolism
of the absorbed nutrients in growth, pregnancy, lactation or work.
4.5    Quantitative aspects

        of fermentative digestion

        in the  rumen

The end products of rumen fermentation are governed by the feed, the rate of
consumption of feed, the balance of nutrients in the feed for microbial growth
and the balance of microorganisms that develop (bacteria, protozoa and fungi)
which largely depend on the chemical composition of the diet.

     In general, a proportion of the digestible feed dry matter is converted to
volatile fatty acids (VFA), methane and carbon dioxide and the balance is assim-
ilated into microbial cells. The pathways of these reactions are well known (see
Baldwin, 1970; Leng, 1970) and a schematic outline is shown in Figure 4.1.

     Microbial cells, that are synthesised using the ATP generated in the forma-
tion of VFA, are lost from the microbial biomass pool  either by passage out of
the rumen to be digested in the intestine or by death and breakdown within the
rumen (with formation of VFA, CO2 and methane).
                                         47

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Digestive physiology of
ruminants: implications for
improving animal production
from poor quality forages
                                 A model of fermentation in the rumen
Figure 4.1: Relationship between carbohydrate (polymers) fermentation and the
production of VFA, methane and carbon dioxide and microbial cell synthesis
                           CHgO,  NH3,  flniNO fiCIOS
 POLYHERS-
 SUGRRS
 CELLOBIDSE	

 nflLTose   —

 XYLOBIOSE 	

 GLUCURONIDES


("XYLOSE •	
^ MEXOSES """
[ORGANIC nctos
                             1 HICROBE-
                                             -*• E  MICROBES
                                    HDP
                                            flTP
                                                              VFR, CHH,  COg
     Because microbial cells are more reduced than the substrate fermented, the
quantity of microbial cells leaving the rumen per unit of carbohydrate consumed
has a large effect on the overall methane production (Table 4.1; Figure 4.2).
 4.6   A model of fermentation in the rumen

 For the purposes of the present discussion, a model for a 200 kg steer will be used
 to illustrate the quantitative availability of nutrients from rumen fermentation.
 The steer consumes 4 kg which represents 25M anhydroglucose of organic matter
 which is completely fermented in the rumen.

      It is assumed:
    • that the fermentation of 1 mole of carbohydrate from forage gives rise to
      either 2 mole acetate, 2 mole of propionate or 1 mole of butyrate, according
      to the following stoichiometry:
       Hexose
       2 Pyruvate + 2H20
       2 Pyruvate + 8[H]
       2 Pyruvate + 4[H]
       CO2 + H2
                     Pyruvate + 2ATP + H2
                     2HAc + 2C02 + 2H2 + 2ATP
                     2HPro + 2H20 + 2 ATP
                     HBu -I- 2H2 + 2C02 + 2ATP
                     CH4 + 2H2O + 2ATP
                                          48

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Digestive physiology of
ruminants: implications for
improving animal production
from poor quality forages
                            A model of fermentation in the rumen
Figure 4.2: Relationship between the production of microbial cells (Cell DM) and
volatile fatty acids (VFA)  and methane (CH*) in fermentative digestion in ru-
minants.  The  relative efficiency of the system (indicated as YATp) ** governed
largely by the availability of essential nutrients for microorganisms (after Leng,
1982). The ranges of YATP are shown for:


A. a relatively inefficient rumen (i.e., ammonia deficient)
B. a 'normal' rumen with no deficient nutrient for microbial growth
C. a rumen free of protozoa with no deficient nutrient for microbial growth
D. the theoretical optimum microbial growth efficiency
         U!
         Q
         C
         
-------
Digestive physiology of
ruminants: implications for
improving animal production
from poor quality forages
A model of fermentation in the rumen
Table 4.1: The effect of different efficiencies of microbial growth on ratio of pro-
tein to VFA energy available to ruminants
YATP
8
14
19
25
Microbial
• protein (g)
498
798
1008
1212
VFA
energy (MJ)
55.5
46.8
40.8
34.9
Methane
energy (MJ)
9.4
8.5
8.0
7.6
Heat
energy (MJ)
6.4
5.1
4.3
3.1
Protein
VFA energy
(g protein/MJ)
9
17
24
34
 Example is for a steer consuming 4 kg fermented organic matter (Leng, 1982o)

     In the stoichiometry, H2 indicates reduced co-enzymes, HAc is acetic acid.
     HPro is propionic acid and HBu is butyric acid
   • that the production rates of individual volatile fatty acids are proportional
     to their concentrations (Leng & Brett, 1966)
   • that one-third of the organic matter fermented is converted to microbial
     cells
   • that the moles ATP generated per mole of end-product are for acetate 2,
     butyrate 3, propionate 3, and methane 1 (Isaacson et a/., 1975).
     The equation relating substrate and products for fermentation of 4 kg of
     carbohydrate is as follows:
     16.7CHO  —> 21HAc +  6HPro -I- 3HBu + 7.5CH4 + 78ATP
     8.3CHO —> 1.4 polysaccharide + 13.8 pyruvate + 2CH4 + 17ATP
     Overall:
     25CHO —> 21HAc + 6Pro + 3HBu + 9.5CH4 +  1300 g dry cells

                                          50

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Digestive physiology of
ruminants: implications for
improving animal production
from poor quality forages
Protein utilisation by ruminants
     In the example, one-third of the carbohydrate provides the precursor for
microbial cells, 1300 g dry microbial cells are produced at a YATP of about 14.5.
(YATP is a measure of the efficiency of utilisation of ATP generated in fermenta-
tion of carbohydrates to VFA; it is defined as the g dry cells produced per mole
ATP available. The relationship between cell synthesis and  organic production
is shown in Figure 4.1.)

     The upper level of efficiency (or the theoretical highest level of cell produc-
tion) has a YATP of 26.  On the other hand the lowest efficiency of a microbial
growth in the rumen that is deficient in, say, ammonia, is probably below a YATP
of 4.

     Based on this model, but assuming a varying efficiency, the microbial cells
produced relative to VFA and methane production change as  shown in Table 4.1.
The main point to emphasise  is that, depending on the efficiency of utilization
of ATP for microbial cell synthesis, the amount of carbohydrate converted to
microbial cells can be highly variable and it is this that controls the amount of
methane and VFA produced (see Figure 4,2).
4.7   Protein utilisation  by ruminants

Protein that is fermented in the rumen is largely wasted as a source of ammo
acids to the animal because:
   • dietary protein is degraded and essential amino acids are deaminated to
     form ammonia and VFA

   • fermentation of 1 g of protein generates only half the ATP that would be
     produced from 1 g of carbohydrate.

     This means that only 30 to 60 g of microbial protein becomes available to
the animal for digestion for every kilogram of dietary protein that is fermented
in the rumen. The fermentation of protein is associated with only small amounts
of methane produced; on the other hand methane generation from protein if this
bypasses the rumen is zero.Protein that is insoluble or has a high component
                                          51

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Digestive physiology of
ruminants: implications for
improving animal production
from poor quality forages
Applied significance of P/E ratio
of disulphide bonds tends to bypass rumen fermentation but is digested in the
intestines and in this way it  alters the ratio  of protein to energy (P/E) in the
nutrients absorbed. The better the balance of nutrients for microbial growth the
higher the ratio of P/E of the nutrients absorbed.
4.8    Applied significance of P/E ratio

The amino acid supply to an animal effects a large number of biological functions
within the animal.  Obviously where end-products containing protein are the
objective of the feeding system the amount of amino acids absorbed relative to
VFA will be highly correlated with the productive level achieved.  For example,
wool growth, milk production and growth in young animals all increase with the
increase in the P/E ratios in the nutrients available to the  animal. The higher
the P/E ratio in the nutrients absorbed, the more efficient the animal becomes
in utilising the available nutrients for milk production, liveweight gain and other
production functions.
4.9    Significance  of protein in the diet

Considerable research has demonstrated that, in ruminants fed poor quality for-
ages, supplementation with a source of rumen ammonia (or molasses/urea multi-
nutrient blocks) stimulates rumen function, which stimulates food intake. On all
diets that are low in protein, supplementation with bypass protein stimulates the
efficiency of feed utilisation and/or feed intake. This principle appears to hold for
a wide variety of diets from fibrous cereal crop residues through to diets based on
starches (barley) and sugars (molasses) (Preston & Leng, 1987) and is discussed
extensively in Part 3.
                                          52

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Part  5
Modifying  methane  production
       Part 5 outline; Two factors affect methane production per unit of digestible
       feed; these are microbiaJ growth efficiency and the formation of propionate in
       the rumen.  Higher production of either cells or propionate reduces methane
       production per unit of organic matter digested in the rumen.

       Microbial growth efficiency is inefficient in animals fed on forage based diets,
       typical of those fed to ruminants in developing countries, and can be stimulated
       by nutrient supplementation. This reduces methane generation markedly.

       Factors that limit the efficiency of microbial growth in the rumen are discussed.
       Ruminants fed low digestibility forages use this more efficiently  when their
       protein status is improved by supplementation with a bypass protein.

       Methane production per unit of production, therefore, can be ameliorated in
       practice by balancing the nutrient available from rumen fermentation with
       dietary protein that avoids fermentation.

       The implications for the rates of methane production per animal or per unit
       of product of improving both feed conversion efficiency and growth rate are
       outlined.
                                     53

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Modifying methane production
     Stimulating rumen
fermentative efficiency
      Basically there are three approaches to increasing aaimal productivity from
      poor quality forages these include:


          • supplementation to improve the animal's feed conversion efficiency

          • cJiemj'ca/ treatment to increase digestibility of the basal forage

          * treatment plus supplementation.


      The theoretical effects of stimulating production of ruminants and methane
      production per unit of product are discussed in quantitative terms.


5.1    Stimulating rumen

        fermentative  efficiency


5.1.1   Chemical manipulation

Manipulation of the rumen by the use of specific chemical additives to increase
propionate production or microbial cell yield relative to acetate production, has
generally resulted in relatively small responses in animal production but large
decreases in methanogenesis (from 10-80%) (see Chalupa, 1980). Often there has
been an increase in efficiency of feed  utilisation rather than an actual increase
in productivity. Depending on level of application, the chemical additives have
tended to reduce rumen fermentation rates, at times allowing a greater proportion
of the diet to pass to the lower digestive tract.  Digested feed as against feed
fermented does not give rise to methane. This is beneficial when the diet contains
starch, but may be detrimental if the diet consists of refractory plant cell wall
materials. In the latter case, increased methane production in the lower digestive
tract will  result in a higher proportion of the digested feed  being converted to
methane, because the microbial cells produced in the lower intestines are largely
lost in feces.
                                           54

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Modifying methane production
                                            Stimulating rumen
                                       fermentative efficiency
Table 5.1: Effects ofionophores (feed additives) on cattle performance in the USA
(Chalupa, 1988)
   lonophore
Diet
           Performance (% of control)

trials    Intake   Gain    Intake/Gain
Monensin




Lasalocid

Salinomycin
Feedlot
Feedlot
Pasture
Greenchop
High forage
Feedlot
High forage
Feedlot
19
6
12
3
12
16
6
5
94
95
-
98
97
96
96
98
102
99
117
123
114
103
105
106
92
95
-
85
91
94
93
90
5.1.2   Chemicals reducing methane emissions

Commercial enterprise has been motivated to produce chemicals with properties
for propionate enhancement or methane inhibition in the rumen, because of the
increased efficiency of feed utilisation improved the economics of feedlotting (even
though this is quite small). The results on ruminant performance when some
chemicals are fed in the diet are shown in Table 5.1. As can be seen from this table,
by the addition of such chemical manipulators to a ruminant diet productivity is
increased and as a consequence  methane generation is reduced.

     There is at least an indication that  with halogenated compounds such as
chloral hydrate that methane inhibition can be almost complete. However, while
not yet completely understood, it appears that their action is not sustained: the
microbes may adapt to the compound (See Chalupa, 1988).
                                         55

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Modifying methane production
    Stimulating rumen
fermentative efficiency
     Of note is that the mechanisms by which ionophores and halogens reduce
methane generation are actually quite different. Ionophores reduce methane emis-
sions in part by increasing feed efficiency. Additionally, they inhibit bacteria that
produce hydrogen and are subsequently used by methanogenic bacteria.  As a
contrast, the halogens are believed to inhibit the methanogens directly. This in-
hibition may also reduce rumen digestion efficiency, which is counterproductive
from a production standpoint.

     In the developed countries, industry may need to be persuaded to develop
highly effective chemicals agains methanogens and farmers may have to be per-
suaded to use these even where there is  no economic advantage.
5.1.3   Improving efficiency of microbial growth

Most forages fed to ruminants in the tropics can be deficient in nitrogen, sulfur,
trace minerals and often phosphorus and sodium. Ammonia, sulfur and phospho-
rus are the most likely deficient nutrients for rumen microbes.

     The following have all been found to increase microbial protein availability
to ruminants fed forage based diets (and therefore increase P/E ratios):


   • supplementation with urea/sulfur

   • supplementation with slowly degraded protein which provides amino acids/
     peptides for rumen microbes

   • elimination of rumen protozoa (see Bird & Leng, 1984)

   • increasing rumen digesta turnover, which decreases residence of digestion
     and bacteria have a lower maintenance requirement.
     The first three methods of improving the efficiency of microbial growth have
been demonstrated in the animal, whereas the fourth is rarely feasible in practice.
                                           56

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Modifying methane production
                      Stimulating rumen
                  fermentative efficiency
Figure 5.1:  Requirements for ammonia to maximise fermentative digestion in the
rumen and optimise intake of a low quality roughage (Perdok et al., 1988). Urea
was infused continuously into the rumen to provide a constant supply of ammonia
 Intake (kg/d)
 Digestibility (%)
80 r
               Max. intake
                                            30
                                            10
         tOO        200       300
           Rumen ammonia (gN/l)
                                    400
        Max. digestibility
          100       ZOO       300
            Rumen ammonia (gN/l)
5.1.4   Supplying deficient micronutrients for microbes

It has been accepted that the optimum levels of ammonia in the rumen for maxi-
mum digestion was about 50-60mg N/litre. However, in recent studies, increasing
rumen ammonia levels by infusing urea into the rumen, increased digestibility of
straw in cattle until ammonia levels reached 80mg/litre. Feed intake continued
to be stimulated until NH3 levels reached 200mg NH3/litre (Figure 5.1, see also
Boniface et a/., 1986). This indicates that the amount of urea required in straw
based diets has been underestimated in the past.

     Ammonia in the rumen can be supplied along with a number of potentially
deficient microbial nutrients by:

    • supplying a mixture of molasses (a concentrated plant juice) and urea in
      the feed;

    * feeding chicken manure;
                                           57

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Modifying methane production
     Stimulating rumen
fermentative efficiency
   • providing a molasses/urea block lick (MUB);

   • providing a source of soluble protein as a forage (e.g., alfalfa) or grain (e.g.
     lupins, peas, beans)


     In most developing countries the first three are feasible but the last is rather
wasteful (as protein is fermented) and requires  land for production of forage
reducing that available for cropping—a better approach that is presently emerging
is the use of tree forages for this purpose.

     In most developing countries, protein is a scarce commodity and its most
useful role will be promoted if the protein is protected from rumen fermentation.
This can be achieved by a number of manufacturing processes  (see Part 6).
5.1.5   Provision of small quantities of true protein

Although there is a strong body of opinion that supports the concept of a need for
amino acids/peptides for efficient microbial growth in the rumen, little evidence
from whole animal studies is available that supports this concept. However, recent
studies have shown that diet is all important in determining whether the rumen
microbes need peptides/amino acids. Microbial growth on sugar and starch, but
not cellulose, is  stimulated by protein in the incubation media, indicating that
there is a low requirement for protein fermentation in the rumen of forage fed
cattle.

     In theory, the energy cost of microbial protein synthesis is largely associated
with formation of the  peptide linkages  and assimilation of ammonia in amino
acids is independent of ATP supply.  However, strategies (to be discussed) for
feeding a bypass protein, some of which will be inevitably degraded in the rumen,
adequately cover this aspect.
                                           58

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Modifying methane production
     Stimulating rumen
fermentative efficiency
5.1.6   Controlling rumen protozoa

Although there has been considerable controversy on the role of rumen protozoa,
it seems to be now accepted that protozoa account for the turnover of a large
proportion of the bacterial pool in the rumen. They also increase the degradation
of dietary protein in the rumen (see reviews in Nolan, Leng & Demeyer, 1989).

     The removal of protozoa from the rumen and the maintenance of the un-
faunated state may increase microbial cell outflow from the rumen by 25-50%.
In turn this will reduce methanogenesis per unit of carbohydrate fermented by
approximately 25% (see Table 4.1). The improved protein to energy ratio in the
nutrients arising from rumen fermentation increases the efficiency of feed utilisa-
tion and decreases the feed required per unit of live weight gain, further reducing
methane production per unit of meat or milk production.

     The control of rumen protozoa is not feasible at present, but pharmaceuti-
cal companies  are actively screening chemicals for this purpose.  In the author's
laboratory a natural forage has been found, which, in small quantities, will elim-
inate protozoa from the rumen and trials are already underway to test practical
strategies for control  of rumen protozoa.
5.1.7   Overall effects of improving microbiai growth effi-
         ciency

Undoubtedly, on poor quality forages, the effect of providing critical nutrients for
microbes in the rumen is to increase microbial growth efficiency and digestibil-
ity.  In tropical  areas, or where animals  are  under  heat stress, feed intake is
also increased (Leng, 1989a). The overall effect is to increase the efficiency of
fermentative digestion which decreases methanogenesis per unit of carbohydrate
degraded, but it may increase methanogenesis per animal. On the other hand the
animal grows with less feed/unit of growth, reaches maturity at an earlier time
and feed requirement per unit of liveweight gain is markedly reduced.

     The conclusion is that whilst methanogenesis is reduced per unit of feed
digested, the methane produced by the animal is increased.  On the  other hand
this is the first step in improving the efficiency of animal production (see later) and
reducing overall feed requirements per unit of liveweight gain or milk production.
                                          59

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Modifying methane production
Stimulating animal production rate
5.2    Stimulating animal  production rate

Increased production per animal and turnoff at an earlier age will have a much
greater effect on total methane production than reduction of methanogenesis in
digestion of individual animals (see Section 5.3). It is imperative that productivity
per animal is stimulated by all means possible  to eventually approach genetic
potential.  However, where individual animal production rates are increased it
will be essential that animal numbers are decreased in order to realise the large
decrease that can be achieved in methane production.  This presupposes that
human requirement for animal products (or the market requirements) can be
saturated.
5.2.1   General

Animal production rate is a composite of a number of functions and includes:

   • age at puberty

   • reproductive rate and between pregnancies interval

   • survival rate

   • growth rate, milk production etc.

Methods for increasing production from, roughage based diets include:

   • supplementation to ensure an active and efficient fermentative digestion

   • supplementation to increase the efficiency of nutrient utilisation of the basal
     forage

   • supplementation to provide nutrients for milk production in a total bypass
     form

   • treatment of forage to improve its digestibility

   • manipulation of the rumen to ensure high digestibility and a high microbial
     growth efficiency.
                                          60

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Modifying methane production
Stimulating animal production rate
5.2.2   Supplementation

It is now well established that moderate to high levels of production can be
achieved in ruminants given low quality pasture or straw based diets by providing
minerals and urea and optimal inputs of a protein that escapes fermentation in
the rumen but which is digested in the intestines to augment the nutrients arising
in the rumen.

     The key roles of supplements (Leng et a/., 1987) may be summarised as
follows:
   • urea increases the efficiency of fermentative digestion in the rumen stimu-
     lating digestibility and feed intake.

   • urea supplementation, through its effects on fermentative digestion ensures
     sufficient nutrients in balanced amounts to allow the birth of a viable calf
     or lamb.

   * supplementation with a protein meal that largely bypasses rumen fermen-
     tation in addition to urea has the following  effects. It provides a better
     balance of nutrients to the animal and increases live-weight gain and effi-
     ciency of feed utilisation in (i) young animals, (ii) pregnant  ruminants and
     (iii) lactating animals.  In young animals age at  puberty is decreased by
     strategic supplementation with a protein meal during the dry season or on
     straw based diets.
     It markedly increases conception rate and, by implication, decreases inter-
     calving interval in mature cows with calves at foot and grazing.

     Supplementation of genetically high yielding cows given tropical forages
and/or straws with a MUB plus a 30% protein  meal  rich in bypass protein at a
rate of 350 g/litre of milk has resulted in milk yields closely similar to that of
cows on concentrate based diets in developing countries (NDDB report, 1988).

     Cattle (and buffaloes?) that are subjected to periods of low nitrogen nu-
trition during their early life may be stunted permanently so that their mature
weight is often 100 kg less than that of animals that have received bypass protein
during these periods.
                                           61

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Modifying methane production
Stimulating animal production rate
5.2.3   Treatment  of forages to  improve digestibility

A variety of physical and chemical treatments can be used to increase the po-
tential rate and extent of degradability of fibrous feeds (see Sundst01 & Owens,
1986). The principal methods use strong alkalis, of which the most widely stud-
ied is sodium hydroxide.  While this chemical is highly effective in increasing di-
gestibility of, for example, straw, the disadvantages (high cost, pollution through
accumulation of sodium ions and the  dangers to people and animals due to its
corrosive nature) do not allow it to be  applied in  developing countries.  It can
be economic for the treatment of bagasse (the fibrous by-product of sugarcane)
to produce a cattle feed, where bagasse has  a negative economic value because it
has to be disposed of from the sugar mills.

     There has been much greater acceptance of the use of ammonia to  treat
and improve  straw  utilisation  by ruminants.  Ammonia can be used as  gas, as
ammonium hydroxide solution, or by generation  from urea by bacterial activity
during the ensiling of straw at high moisture content.

     Hydrochloric acid (especially in  gaseous  form)  and sulfuric acid or sulfur
dioxide have also proved to be effective chemicals for treating straw to improve its
digestibility. Sulfur dioxide combined with ammonia appears to be the treatment
that has most potential for increasing digestibility of straw and has been used
with high pressure steam to take straw digestibility up to 80-90% (Ben Ghadalia
et oJ.,1988). However, feed intake is reduced by excessive amounts of sulfur. The
use of gaseous  ammonia and sulfur dioxide could have advantages where high
feed intakes are not desired e.g., when cattle and sheep are on sub-maintenance
feeding or under drought conditions.

      A novel method of using acid hydrolysis is  through high-pressure steam
treatment, especially with agro-industrial byproducts such as bagasse. Steam at
high temperature liberates acetic acid, which hydrolyses the lignin-carbohydrate
linkages.  The technology has  only limited  application, for example as in  sugar
mills, where high pressure steam is usually  available at little cost and where the
bagasse is also produced and must be disposed of without pollution. As indicated
in Figure 5.2, treatment of low digestibility forages improves the rate of animal
production, particularly when strategic supplements are also given (Perdok  et a/.,
1988; Wanapat et al., 1986) (see also Table 6.3).
                                           62

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Modifying methane production
Improved animal production rate
         and methane production
     Unfortunately, despite the widely reported effects on cattle productivity of
treating crop residues to increase their digestibility, even with the support of well-
funded aide programs, there has been a total lack of acceptance of this technology
by small farmers in developing countries.  The reasons  for this are many and
varied, but it appears that there is no probability of wide-spread application of
straw treatment.
5.3    Improved animal production rate

        and  methane production


5.3.1   Growth rate and methane generation

Improvements in the efficiency of utilisation of  metabolisable energy through
supplementation of poor quality forage based diets fed to ruminants have been
remarkably high. The results of experiments with cattle in which straw or straw
treated to improve its digestibility have been supplemented with protein meals
indicate that  the traditional approach of predicting animal production from ME
content of a feed (i.e., M/D in MJ/kg feed) has been highly misleading (this is not
accepted by some scientists). This is illustrated when idealised growth efficiency
(g gain/MJ ME intake) is related to ME content of a feed (Figure 5.2).  The
data generated in trials examining response relationships for cattle fed straw and
supplemented with protein meals are also  shown  in the same figure. The latter
trials were carried out in hot climates whereas the traditional model depicted in
the figure is based on research in temperate countries.

      The differences in efficiency of animal growth between the temperate coun-
try standards and the results obtained in practice where cattle  fed straw have
been  supplemented with protein are due  either  to a lower demand to  oxidise
nutrients for  maintenance of body  temperature by cattle in the tropics or the
"metabolisable  energy system" has  not recognised a large heat increment in the
estimates of basal heat production (see Leng, 19896).

      Taking  these data for production of cattle on straw based diets, some esti-
mates of the likely reduction in methane production in response to supplementa-
tion can be calculated from the model given earlier.
                                          63

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Modifying methane production
Improved animal production rate
         and methane production
Figure 5.2: Schematic relationship between diet  quality (metabolisable  energy
MJ/kg dry matter) and food conversion efficiency (g liveweight gain/MJ ME)
(- • •) (from Webster, 1989). The relationships found in practice with cattle fed
on straw or ammoniated straw or poor quality hay with increasing level of sup-
plementation of protein meals that bypass rumen fermentation. Australia fO, o,
•) (Perdoket al., 1988); (m, A) (Hennessy et al.  (1983); Hennessyet d.,1989),
Thailand (AJ (Wanapatei al., 1986) and Bangladesh (O) (Saadullah, 1984)  This
illustrates the marked differences that result when supplements high in protein are
given to cattle on diets of low ME/kg DM
       .cr
       *CL
           D
        
-------
Modifying methane production
           Improved animal production rate
                    and methane production
Figure 5.3:  (A) The effects of improving the efficiency of rumen fermentative
activity on methane production per kg of digestible energy consumed.

(B) The production of methane per kg gain in supplemented cattle (feed conversion
efficiency (FOR) 9:1) or unsupplemented cattle (FCR=40:1) fed straw based diets
(after Saadullah, 1984)
         (A) 20 n
(B) 1200n
                          UREA/MINERAL
                          SUPPLEMENTS
                                           s.
0 __ I

-------
Modifying methane production
   Improved animal production rate
             and methane production
Figure 5.4: Effects of supplementation and straw treatment on the kg methane
produced for each kg gain in cattle fed straw that was untreated or treated with
ammonia to improve its digestibility.  The results are from experiments published
by Perdok et al., 1988
     1200-,


     1000-


      800-

      600-
«>.?  400-
c o>
£ «
«>=   200H
               o>

                                  S
                                  -H>
                                  C/)
                                         c
                                         0)
                                       + E
                                      •*-> 3
                                      I/) W
S
•4-J
W
-o

-------
Modifying methane production
                                                    Improved animal production rate
                                                             and methane production
Figure 5.5: Relationship between the metabolizable energy content of a feed (M/D,
MJ/kg) and the theoretical methane produced per kg gain. The relationship shown
by a broken line is based on the metabolizable energy system in practice in UK
(Webster, 1989).  The relationship indicated are results from the studies ofPerdok
et al., 1988 (o, o, •); Hennessyet al., 1983, Hennessyet aL, 1989 (*); Saadullak,
1984 (®) and Wanapat et al., 1986 (A) in which cattle fed straw, straw treated
to improve its digestibility or poor quality hay were supplemented with increasing
levels of bypass protein.  (The data are calculated from Figure 5.2.)  Methane
produced per unit  of gain was lowest when the efficiency of liveweight  gain had
been stimulated by feeding bypass protein.
 O 0
*43 cn
 o
 Q)
   CD
      0.50-1
      0.45-
      0.40-
      0.35-
      0.30-
      0.25-
      0.20-
      0.15-
      0.10-
      0.05-
      0.00
                              8
                                            10    11    12    13
                  Energy  value  of diet  M/D
                               (MJ/kg)
                                         67

-------
Modifying methane production
      Improved animal production rate
                and methane production
Figure 5.6:  Calculated amounts of methane produced per unit of milk production in
unsupplemented (fed traditionally) or supplemented (new feeding systems) cows in India
•with moderate levels of production. The methane generated (g) per kg milk is also shown
for high yielding cows in developed countries (fed traditionally) or high yielding cows in
India fed tropical forage with molasses urea block (MUB) + 350 g/d bypass protein per
liter of milk production.
The values represent the methane generated from feed consumed during the lifetime of
the cow in relation to the lifetime's milk yield.  The assumptions associated with this
figure are tabulated.
Case Study

Mature weight (kg)
Time of first calf (years)
Intercalving interval (yeats)
FCR* (kg/kg LWt gain)
Forage consumption (% LWt)
Digestibility of feed (%)
Methane (% Dig. Energy)
Life span (years)
Number of lactations
Lactation yield (tons/year)
1
400
5
2
30:1
2.5
50
15
13
4
1
2
400
3
1.5
15:1
3
50
11
13
6
2.5
3
600
2
1
8:1
4
65
11
5
3
6
4
600
2
1
8:1
4
65
11
8
6
6
                                                      Case studies:
                                                      1. Traditional feeding with native
                                                      cattle/buffalo in India.
                                                      2. New feeding system using MUB/
                                                      bypass protein with native buffalo in
                                                      India.
                                                      3. Friesian-Holstein fed high qual-
                                                      ity forage/concentrate in developed
                                                      countries.
                                                      4. Friesian-Holstein fed tropical for-
                                                      age/MUB/bypass protein in India.
*FCR = Feed conversion ratio (from weaning to first calf)
                                  300'
                                  2501
                                  200"

                                  100-
                                
-------
Modifying methane production
Strategic supplementation
     and the target groups
5.3.2   Milk production and methane generation

Recent research by Kunju (1990) has shown that when strategic supplements are
provided to lactating animals, a marked increase in the efficiency of conversion
of feed to milk is also  apparent.  This  research, carried out in India, clearly
suggests that at low levels of milk production the requirements for metabolisable
energy and hence feed  are reduced when  the feeding strategy emphasises the
balanced nutrient approach.  Milk was  produced at 16-50% of the feed costs
accepted under traditional feeding methods. The results of a trial to establish
response relationships to feeding protein concentrate to lactating animals is shown
in Table 5.2.

     Methane production per litre of milk can be calculated using some rules of
thumb. In the calculations made in this presentation the feed conversion to milk
is calculated from the feed required to grow the animals to first lactation and the
feed utilised in its adult life. The calculated data are shown in Figure 5.6.
5.4   Strategic  supplementation

        and  the  target  groups

A total supplementation package  consisting of a multinutrient block plus a by-
pass protein feed needs to be applied to ruminants fed relatively poor quality
forages/pastures.

     The target groups of large ruminants for this strategy include the following:

   1. Cattle/buffalo in developing countries:

        • fed crop residues or cut/carry grass and agro-industrial byproducts
        * grazing in areas with monsoonal climates in the tropics, particularly
          in the dry season
        • grazing tropical grasslands on infertile soils (e.g. Los Llanos, Colombia;
          Brazil and the Pampas, in Argentina)
                                          69

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Modifying methane production
Strategic supplementation
     and the target groups
Table 5.2: Milk yield corrected to 4% fat (i.e., FCM) and liveweight change (LWt)
are shown together with the requirements for bypass protein (BP) and metabolis-
able energy (ME) in relation  to their availabilities from the feed.
LWt
change
Milk
yield
MUB Supplem. BP (kg/d) ME (MJ)
intake intake
a a
 (kg/d) FCM (kg/d) (kg/d) (kg/d)  Req*(a)Avail**(b) b  Req (a) Avail (b)  b

 A. Buffaloes
0.03
0.14
0.27
0.28
0.38
B. Cows
-0.11
-0.13
0.16
0.29
0.09
5.2
6.6
7.3
7.7
7.3

5.5
7.5
7.8
8.5
8.0
0.44
0.33
0.28
0.27
0.24

0.58
0.39
0.36
0.46
0.31
0
1
2
3
4

0
1
2
3
4
0.19
0.43
0.48
0.50
0.52

0.19
0.28
0.48
0.53
0.52
0.01
0.20
0.41
0.61
0.80

0.02
0.20
0.41
0.61
0.80
0.07
0.46
0.85
1.22
1.54

0.11
0.71
0.85
1.15
1.54
75
88
96
100
100

71
84
96
105
100
37
48
59
71
84

38
47
58
71
84
0.49
0.55
0.61
0.71
0.84

0.53
0.56
0.60
0.68
0.84
* Required according to NRG feeding standards
** Availability calculated assuming that rice straw has ME content (M/D in MJ/kg
DM) of 5, the protein concentrate M/D 11.5 and the MUB M/D 5.

   2. Cattle in the developed or industrialised countries:

        • fed agro-industrial byproducts (e.g.   molasses, sugar  beet  pulp or
          pineapple waste)
        • fed relatively low-protein grain based diets in feed lots (e.g. sorghum
          and whole maize cobs)
        • grazing relatively poor pastures in semi arid grazing areas (e.g. parts
          of the Southern  United States and Northern Australia)
                                            70

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Modifying methane production
Conclusion
5.5    Conclusion

The technology for improved animal production on low quality feeds is available,
the resources for implementation of new nutritional strategies are  also usually
available.  However, there is a long time lag in acceptable.  This time-lag is
largely due to institutional, political and sociological constraints and these are the
major limitations which are  preventing their application to increasing livestock
production in developing countries.

     It is possible that even in developed (temperate) country conditions, widespread
use of protein supplements may allow a  reduction in  the dependence on grain
based concentrates or even increase  production levels where these are below the
average for a country and so reduce  methane production per unit of product.
                                           71

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Part  6

Strategic  supplementation
of cattle and  buffaloes  in  India
      Part 6 outline: Strategies that can be used in practice to stimulate feed con-
      version efficiency of large ruminants in India are discussed.  These include
      supplementing cattle (buffaloes) on crop residues with molasses urea multinu-
      trient blocks (to stimulate rumen microbial activity) and with bypass protein to
      stimulate the efficiency of feed utilisation per unit of product (milk) formation.

      The background research and demonstration trials undertaken in India are
      reviewed.

      The effects of such feeding strategies on growth, age at first calving and lacta-
      tional yield all indicate that productivity can be stimulated many fold.

      The effects of introducing these feeding systems in India to cattle and buffalo
      in villages covered by a major milk shed is reported.  In this milk shed, milk
      production increased by about 50,000,000 kg (or 30%) in 1989 when these
      strategies were introduced, as compared to the previous two years.
                                 72

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Strategic supplementation
of cattle and buffaloes in  India
Introduction
6.1    Introduction

Feeding systems based  on an inexpensive (and available)  basal carbohydrate
resource such as a crop residue  or  pasture supplemented with a multinutri-
ent/minerals block and a protein meal rich in bypass protein, have major impli-
cations for increasing productivity of cattle/buffaloes in many tropical countries.

     There is, however, a natural reluctance particularly of smallholder farmers
to use feeds  containing urea, because its mis-application can easily lead to death
of a cow from ammonia toxicity.

     The use of bypass protein meals to increase  feed conversion efficiencies,
although scientifically established, is only beginning to be applied. The reason
for this  is associated with the uncertainty of the content of bypass protein in the
protein  meals that are locally available.

     The NDDB of India recently commenced the production of a 30% bypass
protein  meal in one major feed mill (Amul) and this is rapidly expanding to all
28 mills controlled by the NDDB.  Estimated production at the time of writing is
about 400 metric tons per day, but trials from a number of mills have raised the
daily production rate of bypass protein pellets to in  excess of 500MT/day.
6.2   Molasses/multi-nutrient  blocks

The National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) of India has successfully intro-
duced multi-nutrient blocks based on molasses/urea for lactating buffaloes and
cows under village conditions to meet the need of these animals for fermentable-
nitrogen (urea), minerals, and growth factors for rumen microbes such as amino
acids and possibly peptides normally deficient in diets based on crop residues.
Multi-nutrient  block-licks (MUB), based on molasses/urea,  have increased the
intake and growth of  cattle on straw based diets  (Table 6.1).   Some idea of
the block, its commercialisation and its application can be seen in  Figures 6.1
and 6.2. Under village conditions providing cattle and buffaloes with blocks has
led to substantial increases in milk yield and milk fat percentage (Table 6.2). The
average increase in milk yield of buffaloes and cows when MUB is introduced into
                                           73

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Strategic supplementation
of cattle and buffaloes in India
The use of bypass proteins in India
Table 6.1: Intake of rice straw and growth rate of Jersey bulls (350 kg liveweight)
given 1 kg of concentrate with or without access to a urea/molasses block (see
Kunju, 1986)
                  Straw   Intake of  Livewt.   Total feed    Feed costs
                  intake    block    change     costs     per kg gain
                  (kg/d)    (g/d)     (g/d)   (Rupees/d)   (Rupees/kg)
Straw + 1 kg
concentrate 6.4 0
Straw + 1 kg
concentrate
+ block 6.8 530

220


700

2.0


2.6

9.3


3.7
a traditional system is around 0.5 litres/day indicating the block-licks corrected a
widespread deficiency of nutrients in the diets normally fed to cattle and buffalo
in village situations.  Figure 6.2 illustrates the method of presentation of MUB
to milch animals under village conditions.
6.3   The use of bypass proteins in  India
6.3.1   Research with bypass protein

When digestibility of straw is increased by chemical treatment and strategic sup-
plements are given, growth rates of cattle approach the level that is supported
by medium quality pasture; but the efficiency of feed utilisation is much higher
than that of cattle fed unsupplemented hay. The effects of straw treatment and
supplementation are illustrated  by the studies presented in Table 6.3 and  also
in Figure 5.2.  The efficiency of productivity of cattle  on  straw based diets (g
liveweight gain/MJ ME) supplemented with MUB and a bypass protein feed are
higher than temperate country standards would predict.
                                          74

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Strategic supplementation
of cattle and buffaloes in  India
The use of bypass proteins in India
Figure 6.1: Colour plates to illustrate the ingredients of the molasses urea blocks,
the manufacturing plant, block in slab form and ready for sale (Kunju, 1989)
 1. Ingredients with their % content in the block:
               a.cottonseed meal (10%), b.salt (8%), c.mineral mix (15%),
               d.bentonite (3%), e.calcite powder (4%) f.urea (15%),
               molasses 45%
 2. Block as manufactured. 3. Packaged block for sale.
                                           75

-------
Strategic supplementation
of cattle and buffaloes in India
The use  of bypass proteins in India
Figure 6.2: Colour plates to illustrate the method of presentation of MUB to cattle
and buffaloes.
A: Cattle in  Indian village.  1.  Small farmer condition, bowl being used as a
receptacle for the block.  2. Large farmer condition, plastic containers attached to
the wall of the shed.
B: Buffaloes under institutional management, blocks without holders simply placed
on a concrete slab.

                                           76

-------
Strategic supplementation
of cattle and buffaloes in India
The use of bypass proteins in India
Table 6.2: Average milk and milk fat sold per buffalo before and after the intro-
duction of molasses/urea blocks into villages in the Kaira Milk Producing Union
Ltd., Anand, India
Average milk sold
(kg/d/animal)

Village
Aiwa
Punadhara
Fulgenamuwada
Hirapura
Banroli
Dehgam
Before
(no block)
4.8
4.0
2.4
4.2
3.6
4.3
With
block
5.9
4.8
3.5
5.2
4.2
4.7
Fat (g/d)
Before
(no block)
330
270
160
350
270
310
With
block
450
340
280
480
380
350
 Source: Kaira District Co-operative Producers' Union Ltd., Anand, India.
 (Kunju, 1986)

     Milk yield of native and crossbred cattle fed ammoniated (urea-ensiled)
rice straw supplemented with fish meal (range was  0-400 g/d) (from Saadullah,
1984) are shown in Figure 6.3. The results of this experiment clearly indicate the
improvements possible in milk yield of exotic animals of high genetic potential.
More recent applied results from milk production systems based on low quality
forages and protein meals are shown in Table 6.4.
                                            77

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Strategic supplementation
of cattle and buffaloes in India
The use of bypass proteins in India
Figure 6.3: Effects of increasing supplement levels (fish meal—a recognised bypass
protein) on milk  yield of cows fed ammoniated straw (i.e., treated to increase
digestibility) (Saadullah, 1984)
                                   10
                                3?
                                'X   6H
                                           0     100    200    300
                                             Rsh meal (g/day)
                  400
6.3.2   Dairy  husbandry activities

The improved production that can be achieved by superior feeding and breeding
can be seen by recent practical results of feeding trials conducted on one of the
farms managed by the NDDB of India (Sabramati Ashram Gaushala, which was
founded in 1915 by Mahatma Gandhi as part of the Haryan Ashram at Ahmed-
abad.) The major aim of the  Gaushala, besides multiplication of high yielding
milch animals, is to enhance the productivity of land and milch animals by har-
nessing the latest technologies  in the field of animal husbandry and agriculture.

     The Gaushala has had a  herd of Jerseys and has been cross breeding these
with the local breed—Kankrej (Zebu), and more recently has introduced Holstein-
Friesians from Germany.

     The dairy animals are zero-grazed and fed on a good quality green fodder,
hay, silage and rice straw  depending on season.  These animals are  also fed a
'bypass protein meal' proportionate to their body weight, growth potential, preg-
nancy status and milk production.  A molasses/urea multinutrient block is always
available and experience suggests that the cattle only use this when  they need
extra non-protein nitrogen. Diseases are controlled by vaccination and the herd
is free of Tuberculosis, Johne's disease and Brucellosis. A regular culling of poor
quality animals or low productive animals is carried out.
                                           78

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Strategic supplementation
of cattle and buffaloes in India
                                  The use of bypass proteins in India
Figure 6.4:  Average 305 d lactation yield of different breeds of cattle in  the
first five lactations.  The animals were all fed a tropical forage supplement with
MUB/bypass protein (Source:  Annual Report, Sabramati Gaushala, 1987-88
NDDB Anand
     42
        Average lactation yield ('00 kg)
     40-

     38-

     36-

     34-

     32-

     30-

     28-

     26-
     24-

     22-

     20-

     18-

     16
	KankreJ  	Jersey   	Crossbred
                1234
                     Lactation Number
                                          79

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Strategic supplementation
of cattle and buffaloes in India
                  The use of bypass proteins in India
Table 6.3: A comparison ofliveweight change of cattle (320 kg) when given treated
or untreated rice straw plus molasses/urea block (15% urea) to supply fermentable-
nitrogen and with 0.6 kg rice pollard to supply small amounts of starch and lipid
and various levels of a bypass protein meal (Perdok et a.l.,1988)
   Straw preparation
     Supplement
(protein meal) (kg/d)   Growth rate (g/d)
   None
         0
         0.4
         0.8
         1.2
 38
365
292
306
   Treated with 3% NH3 gas
          0
         0.4
         0.8
         1.2
236
497
601
639
     The point is that with these management strategies, milk production, age
at first calving and reproductive rate have equalled those of cattle in developed
countries, but using only forage based diets supplemented according to the prin-
ciples explained by Preston & Leng  (1987) i.e.  molasses urea blocks and high
bypass protein (30% CP) meals based on oilseed meal residues and rice pollard.
     Virtually no grain is fed (only 10% grain is included in the bypass protein to
promote a 'good' pellet). Yields of milk from the two pure breeds and the cross-
breds are shown in Figure 6.4.  The average milk yield of the recently introduced
Friesians in their first 305 day lactation is around 5000 litres/300 d.
                                            80

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Strategic supplementation
of cattle and buffaloes in India
                The use of bypass proteins in India
Table 6.4: Some practical results from commercial milk producing systems where
feed resources are based on forages (Leng, 1989b)

            Basal feed                   Supplements            Milk production
 1.   Tropical grass/maize  silage
 or other crops plus 1-2 kg  rice
 straw/day (Fresian-Holstein)

 2.       Rice straw/millet straw
 (8 kg/d) (crossbred Jersey x
 Kankrej)
 3.   ad lib.   mixture of cotton-
 seed hulls (46%); molasses (17%);
 cottonseed meal (18%); sesame
 seed meal (15%);  crude lecithin
 (4%)  and   10   kg freshly  har-
 vested kikuyu grass (2 kg DM/d)
 (Friesian)
 4.   Cane tops  (50% more  than
 daily intake) -f cut carry grass as
 available (Crossbred cows)
Free choice
mollasses/urea blocks  +
protein pellet (30% CP)
(350 g/kg milk)
Bypass protein pellet 300
g/kg milk
Cottonseed meal
g/kg milk
     5,000-6,500 kg/305 d
     25 litres/d (at 3
     months)

     6,200 kg/300 d (2nd
     calf cows)
     5,700 kg/300  d  (1st
     calf heifers)
250  2,800(4)
References: (1) NDDB, Anand Bull Mother Farm (Kurup, M.P.J. pers. comm.) (2)
Personal observations—in village system one animal only (3) C.E.Payan, V. (pers,
comm.) Aceitales S.A. Calle 12 Apartado Aero 3840 Bogota, Colombia (4) Ramjee et
a/.,(1988)
                                            81

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Strategic supplementation
of cattle and buffaloes in India
Conclusion
     The age at first calving is shown in Figure 6.5. The native breed (Kankrej)
even when fed well did not calve until 4 years of age as compared to 18 months
for the pure breed and about 2 years in the crossbred.

     An elite herd of Murrah buffaloes has also been established with 305 day
milk yields of 3000-4500 litres and an on average fat percentage of 6-9% (see An-
nual Report 1987-88, Sabarmati Ashram Gaushala National Dairy Development
Board, Anand, India).
6.4    Conclusion

Research and demonstration trials have indicated the huge potential increases
in animal productivity that may result from improved nutrition at the village
level in India.  When the principles were also  applied to institutional-herds of
animals with high genetic potential the improvements of milk yield were much
higher than  anticipated. This indicates that at the village level the maximum
milk yields obtained with supplementation were primarily constrained by genetic
potential of the animal and not by sub-optimal nutrition. Thus there is enormous
potential to  improve milk production by a combination of feeding and breeding
(the assumption being made that disease is controlled).
6.5    Case study:  application
        of strategic supplementation

The compounding Feed Mill at Amul (Kiara district), (the largest feed mill in
India), changed from the production of concentrates to the production of a high-
protein pellet on December 1st 1988, after substantial in-village trials had clearly
demonstrated the superiority of the high protein feed.

     The conversion was marked by considerable unrest at the village level, but
after a period of one to two months the farmers of the Kiara district appear to be
convinced of the value of the new feed, which is approximately 50% more expen-
sive but is recommended to be fed at half the rate of the previous concentrate.
                                          82

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Strategic supplementation
of cattle and buffaloes in India
                                 Case study: application
                            of strategic supplementation
Figure 6.5:  Age at first calving of cows of different breeds fed tropical forages
and supplemented with bypass protein and MUB according to their needs (NDDB
report—Sabarmati Ashram Gaushala, 1987). Kankrej is a local cattle breed (Bos
indicusj
                Age at first calving (months)
ou
55-
50-
45-
40-
35-
30-

25-
20-
15-
10-
5-
n -
56




32

26.5




















































28.3






















                   Jersey
Cross-bred
Kankrej   Holstein Friesian
                                           83

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Strategic supplementation
of cattle and buffaloes in India
     Case study: application
of strategic supplementation
Figure 6.6:  A  case study of the implementation of feeding strategies for large
ruminants based on bypass protein (commencing Dec 1st, 1988) (NDDB records).
In the Kiara district,  Anand, India, there are some 18,000 crossbred cows (70%
in milk),  55,000 indigenous cows (55% in milk) and 350,000 buffaloes (40% in
milk) (Kunju, 1989).

(A)  shows the sales  of a supplement-feed in the  district from the  Amul Feed
Mill when a so-called balanced concentrate was available (1987/88) and after the
change  (1st Dec, 1988) to a 50% protein meal (bypass protein).  In the latter
system, the recommendations are to feed a molasses/urea block and half the pre-
vious quantity of supplement. Initially, there was some stockpiling of the original
feed and there was marked resistance by farmers to the new feed. This resistance
subsided.

(B)  shows the milk procurement at the Amul Dairy Factory over the same three
years.

(C)  shows that farmers have faithfully followed instructions and that the  rate of
supplement  (high protein feed)  used, has dropped to about 350 g/litre of milk as
compared to 700-800  g/litre of milk on the traditional concentrate. Milk yield has
increased from 1.25 I/kg (old supplement) to  2.8 I/kg (new supplement).

(D)  shows the thermal humidity index for Bombay. This is an index of the relative
heat stress.  Above 72 milk production is adversely affected in cattle fed on high
quality feeds.
See next page.
                                            84

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        Strategic supplementation
        of cattle and  buffaloes in India
               Case study:  application
         of strategic supplementation
 Supplements sold {'000 MTV month)
          i98e/B7   -A- 1997/08  -e- ISBB/BS  -*- iseo/eo
 Milk procured at Amul ('000 MT/month)
B
Dec  Jan  Fab  Mar  Apr  May  Jun   Jul   Aug  Sap  Oct  Nov
       •B- 1988/87  -A-1867/68   -«- 1968/89  -*-1969/90
Dec  Jan  Feb Mar  Apr  May  Jun  Jul  Auo  Sap  Oct  Nov
  Milk/supplement (litres/kg)
                   -1967/88  -«-1988/89  -*-1969/90
tj       	       ...   	        —	
 Dec  Jan  Feb Mar  Apr  May  Jun   Jul  Aug  Sep  Oct  Nov
                                                            100
  THl - Bombay (Celsius)
                                                             90 i
                                                             80-
                                                             70
                                                             60-
                                                             50
                                                                                   ..J3----0,
                                                                                  '        "
                                                                            .a-
                                                                                              O — -0. — -D—
                                                                   Q*- - * -tT
 Dec  Jan  Feb  Mar  Apr  May  Jun  Jul  Aug  Sop  Oct Nov
                                                       85

-------
Strategic supplementation
of cattle and buffaloes in India
     Case study:  application
of strategic supplementation
     The decision to turn over the feed-mill to producing the new feeds has been
vindicated by the large increases in milk procurement by the Amul milk factory.
The milk collection by the Amul plant for the three years 1987, 1988 and 1989
are shown in Figure 6.6.

     In summary, immediate benefits of the new feeding systems are:


   • a 30% increase in milk procurement without any increase or change in the
     feed-base

   • a reduction in the recommended level of supplementation with compounded
     meal, increasing the effective capacity of the mill to supply critical supple-
     ments for twice the number of animals

   • an improved efficiency of utilisation of feed. The conversion of supplement
     has been reduced from about 750 g/litre to 350 g/litre milk production

   * a lowered requirement for fossil fuels in manufacture, transport and storage
     of supplement

     The increased milk production that has been observed is possibly an under-
statement of the longer term results. It is anticipated that there will be improved
reproduction rates in females  in the coming year, possibly increasing the pro-
portion of  lactating  to dry cows (buffaloes) significantly in the villages.   This
may result in a further 50% increase in milk production from the available feed
resources.
                                           86

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Part 7

Consequences of
widespread  application  of
feeding
and breeding  in  India
     Part 7 outline: Strategic feeding of ruminants in India lias important flow-on ef-
     fects that may allow additional improvements in production. The better feeding
     allows improved genotypes for milk production to be more widely distributed
     and may allow multipurpose animals to be used more effectively leaving the
     way clear for a reduction in cattle or buffalo population densities. Reduction
     in large ruminant densities are seen as the most effective means .of reducing
     methane emissions on a world wide basis, provided productivity per animal is
     increased.


7.1   Milk production

The policy makers of NDDB of India have a clear perspective on feeding and
breeding. Combining the principles of feeding discussed in this presentation with
improved genotype (usually 50:50 indigenous: Friesian) can have a dramatic effect
on milk production in India.
                             87

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Consequences of
widespread application of feeding
and breeding in  India
Effects on reproduction rate
     The strategy for meeting the increased milk production estimated to be 23
million metric tons 1985-86 to 80 million metric tons in 2000 A.D. requires much
planning.

     There is basically only one option and that is to employ the new feeding
systems and to replace a proportion of the present herd with crossbred cows
and selected buffaloes (with widespread use of AI) and eventually reduce overall
animal numbers.
7.2    Effects on reproduction rate

Using the feeding strategies discussed above, it has been unequivocally demon-
strated that age at puberty can be reduced from 4 to 1.5 years and that intercalv-
ing interval can approach 12-15 months as against 2 years in most nondescript
cat tie/ buffaloes in India. Even mature cows and buffaloes subjected to long term
uudernutrition begin their reproductive cycle when given only MUB with their
allowance of straw. It is obvious that even with low producing animals, increasing
reproduction rate to one calf per year can almost double milk production within
the country.
7.3   Milk production and draft  power
To produce the 80,000,000,000 kg of milk needed/year in India would need only
a population of 27 million crossbred cattle and buffaloes with an annual milk
production of 3000 litres.  In addition to this India requires about  10 million
bullocks annually to meet replacements required to maintain the 75 million herd
of draft animals.  These could be available from the 27 million dairy animals
as this could be expected to produce 13 million male offspring per year.  This
supposes a cross-bred is produced with suitable draft characteristics.

-------
Consequences of
widespread application of feeding
and breeding in India
Draft power—body size
7.4    Draft power—body size

The extremely small bullocks (150-250 kg liveweight) seen in developing coun-
tries are mostly a result of nutritional stunting in early life. This has been shown
by researchers in Australia. Applying the principles of balancing nutrition during
periods when protein is deficient in the basal feed in early life has  resulted in a
difference in mature size of cattle of 80-100 kg (Hennessy, 1986). Similarly a com-
parison of breeds in Africa under ranch conditions (where nutrition is moderate
and the young animal has access to milk for up to 12 months), or in the herds of
traditional farmers (where nutrition is nearly always poor and the young animal
often competes for milk with humans, i.e., they are often protein deficient) have
demonstrated similar results.

     The need for bullocks can be contracted by producing larger bullocks, bet-
ter implements and by feeding  to promote greater draft capacity.  The simple
application of molasses/urea blocks to bullocks increases straw intake, the nutri-
ents extracted from that straw and the efficiency with which those  nutrients are
used.  This, in turn, improves health and work capacity. The replacement of two
bullocks by one could reduce the feed requirements for draft power by more than
25%. The rationale for this is that a working bullock probably needs 2.5% body-
weight as forage; so two 400 kg bullocks consume 20 kg of feed. If a single bullock
(500 kg LWt) was fed a molasses urea block it may be able  to extract 30-50%
more nutrients from the forage (which is usually straw) and could eat, say, some
15  kg forage.  Supplementation  with a molasses urea block will halve  methane
production in the rumen. The net reduction of methane production on feeding
MUB and halving numbers  would be of the order of 60% from the national herd
of bullocks.
 7.5   Population densities of dairy animals

 The net effect of strategic feeding to balance nutrients in the available resources
 for dairy animals, and better feeding of bullocks is to reduce the needed number
 of mature animals from 275 million to 112 million, with, say 26 million young
 stock in the process of maturation.
                                          89

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Consequences of
widespread application of feeding
and breeding in India
Overall conclusions
     If the low producing animals could be somehow removed from the national
herd, the decreased competition and therefore increased availability of better
quality forage per milking animal would have a multiplier effect to further increase
milk production  per animal and further reduce the number of animals needed.
7.6    Overall  conclusions

Improved nutrition of large ruminants fed on crop residues, agro-industrial byprod-
ucts or tropical pastures can considerably influence the rate of individual ani-
mal production through its direct effects on the efficiency of liveweight gain and
through improved reproduction rate.

     Improved animal production per animal reduces methane generation by its
effects in the rumen and through decreases in age to slaughter for meat animals.
The likely improvements in milk yield, combined with a decreased intercalving
interval and age at first calving, will have a multiplier effect and eventually allow
a decrease in numbers of dairy animals to occur. The calculated production of
methane relative to milk yield over a lifetime may be reduced in cattle fed poor
quality forages fron 250 g/litre milk to 50-70 g/litre milk.

     Establishing large  numbers of crossbred  cows in developing countries for
milk production and using the male offspring as bullocks could reduce the need
for large national herds of cows which provide the young stock for draft purposes.
Such action would remove the need to maintain at least 40 million milch animals
in India alone.

     Better feeding of male  offspring in early life  will increase adult size and
with better  agricultural implements could replace two small draft animals with
one well grown animal.

     Better feeding of draft  bullocks, using molasses/urea blocks, will  reduce
methane generation from this source by about 50%.

     The net  effect of improved management on methane production will be a
reduction of approximately 60%  in methane produced per unit of milk or meat
production. Provided individual  production is increased  and cattle numbers are
reduced, the methane production from large ruminants in India may be reduced
to 25% of its present estimated level.
                                           90

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Consequences of
widespread application of feeding
and breeding in India
Overall conclusions
7.6.1   Methane production by cattle fed high v. low qual-
         ity forages

A major conclusion of this review is that, in the tropics and with cattle fed on a
basal diet of poor quality forage, (but with supplements to balance the nutrients
to requirements) the production of methane per kg gain is about the same as that
on high quality feeds. This is surprising since growth rates on the supplemented-
poor quality feeds are often half that on the high quality feeds. It is possible that
this difference arises from climatic differences.

     The need to oxidise more nutrients to maintain body  temperature in cold
climates as against hot/humid climates could account for some of the difference.
However, it seems more realistic that "energy requirements"  are overestimated
by traditional feeding standards. Therefore, more widespread use of protein meal
supplements to ruminants will improve efficiency of use of even high digestibil-
ity/high concentrate feeds. There is, therefore, scope for a significant reduction
in methane generation by ruminants in the industrialised countries.
                                           91

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Part  8

Application of strategic
supplementation:  some
important considerations
     Part 8 outline: Application o{ the feeding strategies must consider socio-
     economic aspects and also the local availability of resources, particularly protein
     meals.

     The future, probably, lies, for most countries and districts, in developing a by-
     pass protein concentrate from locally available protein meals. Some approaches
     to this are indicated. In most developing countries there will be a need to de-
     velop the facilities (for feed manufacture) and markets for products.

     Most importantly the need for education in the new feeding strategies is em-
     phasised. This is particularly important for the farmer,  the extension worker
     and the University graduate.


8.1   Introduction

Both large and small ruminants in developing countries are owned in small herds
by farmers.  The  large numbers of farmers  presents an enormous  problem in
applying any technology for improving productivity by supplementation.
                              92

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Application of strategic
supplementation: some
important considerations
Introduction
     In India the immediate economic returns through the system of marketing
of milk, particularly in cooperatives, readily convinces farmers of the benefits
of supplements.  It is the objective of the NDDB to make available the supple-
ments for feeding to all animals within the cooperatives which will eventually
then be accessible to 6-8 million milch animals.  The same strategy is also the
recommendations of the Technology Mission to the Indian Government.

     It  is, however, difficult to convince farmers  to use blocks and/or protein
feeds under the following conditions:

   • where the basal feed resource is so poor or of low availability that responses
     are not easily seen. It is difficult, for instance, to recognise  a 10-20% in-
     crease in milk yield in a buffalo producing 1 litre of milk  per day and this
     has mitigated against the use of MUB by small farmers.

   • where there is no economic return for a considerable  time; for example,
     where animals are sold only at maturity or income only begins when milk
     is  produced. Most small farmers have no cash flow to allow the purchase of
     supplements.

   • where the young female is being grown-out for lactation, even  though the
     age at puberty may be reduced by several years, this is "difficult to commu-
     nicate to farmers and even farmers with cows of high genetic potential often
     fail to provide them the supplements needed to improve growth. (This also
     applies to bullocks being grown out for draft.)

   • where numbers of animals are more important than total liveweight (as in
     parts of Africa or with nomadic people in India).

   • where the cattle are owned by nomadic people.

     The problem is one of convincing the enormous numbers of  small farmers
of the benefits of supplementation  and providing the supplements at low cost
(with possible deferred payments).  The molasses/urea block alone, when given
to cattle and buffalo on crop residue feeds does not result in spectacular increases
in productivity; whereas the use of bypass protein has a large  effect and this is
again improved where both MUB/bypass protein meals are given together.

     From the point of view of this review, the establishment of MUB  supple-
mentation could be important for two reasons:

                                           93

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Application of strategic
supplementation: some
important considerations
Application of MUB
   • it halves the methane production per unit of feed digested

   • it is likely to be a vehicle for drugs or chemicals to increase productivity
     (e.g. antiprotozoal, antimethane reagents, antihelmintics).
     The strategic use of protein meals is important because of their effect on
efficiency of feed utilisation and promotion of growth, which has a much larger
effect on the life time production and therefore methane generation.
8.2    Application of MUB

Although MUB appears to be the best method for supplementing urea/trace min-
erals/macro minerals/vitamins, there are a number of other methods for achieving
the same end result particularly in countries where molasses is unavailable or fully
utilised and therefore unavailable for the purpose. These include:


   • liquid molasses mixtures fortified with urea/minerals

   • blocks made from clay/minerals/nutrients by pressure

   • blocks made by pressure from any raw materials

   • blocks improvised from any ingredients (e.g. recently blocks were produced
     from  a seed pod of a tree legume with added urea/minerals and cement)

   • dry supplements which are attractive to stock (e.g.  salt, with which the
     ingredients can be mixed
8.3   Availability of bypass proteins

There are a large number of "naturally" occurring protein meals that are rich
in bypass protein. These are largely the byproducts of the edible oil industry.
The rationale behind this is that in an oil extraction process using either pres-
                                          94

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Application of strategic
supplementation:  some
important considerations
Protection of oil seed meal residues
sure or solvent, a considerable amount of protein is heat denatured and becomes
insoluble in the rumen. Undoubtedly, there is considerable variation between
meals produced by differing treatments but cottonseed meal has been found to
be consistently rich in bypass protein.

     The oil seed meals have been a traditional export commodity for many
developing countries and these exports are important to their economies because
they are a source of "hard" currency.  However, it will be important to retain
these meals within a country in the future.

     There are a wide variety of oil seed meals within developing countries, in-
cluding the meals from cottonseed, niger (noug),  linseed,  sunflower, safflower,
guar (cluster bean),  groundnut and soyabeans.  The content of bypass  protein
in these feeds varies with processing methods and source  of protein. In general,
cottonseed and linseed meal are very good sources  of bypass protein (50-75% of
the protein is protected) whereas the others vary from very little to about 50%
protection (see Leng  et a/., 1977). Undoubtedly it would be biologically more ef-
ficient to protect those protein meals low in bypass protein by simple procedures.
There is a considerable need for assessment of the suitability  of the available
protein meals in a country.
8.4   Protection  of oil seed meal residues

There are a number of methods for protection of protein meals to allow them to
escape degradation in the rumen when they are fed to ruminants. For developing
countries, there are possibly three which may be applicable: treatment with (1)
formaldehyde, (2) heat or (3) xylose and glucose or heat.
      Formaldehyde has been outlawed in most countries because of the potential
formation of gaseous carcinogens.  Heat treatment is often too expensive but the
recent developments with xylose treatment has great promise and  may be the
method of choice. This is especially important as xylose can be very easily and
inexpensively produced in a crude form by acid or alkaline hydrolysis of bagasse
or other fibrous feeds. A major, useful source of xylose is the sulfite liquor from
the paper industry which contains 5% xylose.
                                           95

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Application of strategic
supplementation: some
important considerations
             Sources of bypass protein
in countries with no oilseed industries
     The treatment method is to spray the xylose solution on to the protein meal,
heat it to 200°F for 2 hours (Lewis et a/.,1988).  The benefits of such treatment
is illustrated by the data in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1: Effects on live-weight gain of supplementing a basal forage/concentrate
based diet with soyabean meal or soyabean meal treated with sulfite liquor at 20(fF
for 2 hours (Lewis et aL,  1988)
                                           LWt gain
                                             (g/d)
                  No supplement               591

                  + 7% soyabean               673

                  + 9% soyabean + 10% SL     823

                  + 8% soyabean + 5% SL      841
8.5    Sources of bypass  protein
        in countries with no oilseed industries
Some countries have no oil seed meals and may not be able to import such
materials.  One of the options is to produce high protein sources locally and
to treat these to give optimum protection, e.g. crops such as lupins, peas, beans
or other high protein seed crops may need to be grown and  processed for the
ruminant industries. The methods to be used may be similar  to that suggested
above for soyabean meal (i.e., heat/xylose treatment).

     A further possibility is to grow high protein legumes (trees or forages) from
which the leaves are harvested, treated and distributed for use by farmers.
                                         96

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Application of strategic
supplementation: some
important considerations
Overview of providing protein
meals in developing countries
     Some legumes that contain tannin may be protected by the tannin (3-6%
being optimum) and this should be given prominence for research.
8.6    Overview  of providing protein
        meals in developing  countries

The options for making protein meals available are:

   • more local use of protein resources rich in bypass protein

   • reduced emphasis on export of protein meals as a foreign currency source
     and perhaps subsidise imports of protein meals in developing countries

   • development of treatment methods to ensure a high proportion of a protein
     in a meal reaches the small intestine  of the ruminants to which it is fed

   • development of crops that can be locally grown and processed to give a high
     degree of protection to the protein

   • development of forage/tree legumes whose leaves can be harvested and pro-
     cessed to produce a meal rich in bypass protein
 8.7   The need for feed mills

 The need is for feed mills to manufacture both the MUB  (or other forms of
 supplements) and treat or at least process protein meals. Undoubtedly, except
 for cottonseed, linseed and possibly guar meal, most protein sources will need
 to be processed.  In addition, the protein meals will need to be fortified with
 minerals/vitamins where they are to be used to feed lactating animals. Therefore,
 the development of small mills for this purpose would be an important priority.
                                         97

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Application of strategic
supplementation: some
important considerations
Education
8.8    Education

The steps to be taken to ensure application must be


   • to make generally available for purchase by farmers, a multinutrient block
     and a protein meal rich in bypass protein

   • to educate personnel at all levels of the industry, from University teachers
     through to extension officers and farmers

   t to provide markets for the products as incentives to use the supplements.

     The emphasis in nutrition must be away from the traditional dogma to the
new balanced nutrient approach  (see Preston & Leng, 1987).

     The steps to educate must include:


   • production of postgraduate text books (Preston & Leng, 1987)

   • production of more applied text books for undergraduate students and ed-
     ucated farmers

   • production of simple texts that can be understood by farmers

   • highly simplified word/picture texts for illiterate farmers

   • education of village children in the simple application of these technologies.
     Most  children in India, for example, have some education to 12 years  of
     age. Most of them live in households that own a cow  or a buffalo but the
     nutrition of these animals is not considered in the curriculum.

   • massive educational programmes drawing on all forms of media, from videos
     through to lectures at the village level
                                          98

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Application of strategic
supplementation: some
important considerations
  Cash flow of small farmers
and purchase of supplements
8.9    Cash flow of small  farmers
        and purchase of supplements

Undoubtedly, in most developing countries MUB and bypass protein should be
fed to ruminants from an early  age through their productive life.  The  most
economic responses will be to an improvement in reproduction. To achieve this,
there will need to be incentives to farmers.These could be of the form of a no/low
interest rate loan, repaid when the animal is marketed, or free distribution of feed
with a tax  at the sale of the product.  A  priority in such a situation would be
provision of insurance against death of an animal. This is important, particularly
for promotion of potentially high yielding milch animals, as without insurance
the high cost of acquisition makes the proposition of owning an animal often too
risky. The  death of an animal may mean  financial ruin and even starvation for
the family.  Again, insurance of farm animals is being done at the village level in
India.
8.10    Government subsidies

The question of subsidies is a difficult one. At present in India through the co-
operative, the feeds are provided at a no profit /no loss basis and the price of
commodities fluctuate according to demand and availability. The large purchas-
ing power of the feed mills limit price fluctuations. There is a need to consider long
term, low interest rate loans for both the purchase of animals and supplements—a
practice already being applied for the purchase of milch animals in India.  The
use of supplements for raising bullocks and meat animals can only be promoted
slowly with education.  Initially, farmers will have to be convinced by demon-
stration trials and perhaps provision of supplements that are subsidised for 1-2
years.
                                         99

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