PAPERS AMD PRESENTATION;
PIRST JAPAN—UNITED STATES OF .AMERICA
GOVERNMENTAL CONFERENCE ON
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
January 29 and 30, 1973
Tokyo, Japan
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
Schedule for the First Japan-U,S. Conference
on Solid Waste Management
Seating Arrangement
List of Participants
Proposed Agenda
Program
Opening Remarks
H. Lanier Hickman, Jr.
Director of Operations far Solid Waste
Management Programs
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Presentations by H. Lanier Hlikman, Jr.
Solid Waste Management in the United States
of America
Sites for Solid Waste Management Facilities
Manpower for Solid Waste Management
Presentation by John P. Lehman, Chief,
Systems Implementation Branch
Resource Recovery Division
Office of Solid Waste Management Programs
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Resource Recovery: An Assessment
Presentation by Walter W. Liberick, Jr., Chief
Disposal Technology Branch
Processing ar.d Disposal Division
Office of Solid Waste Management Programs
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Solid Waste Processing and Disposal Technology
in the United States
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xr
XII
Presentations by Japanese Representatives
Paper No. 1 - Solid Was'ue Management Administration
in Japan
Recycling Wastes in Japan
Paper No. 2 - Waste Disposal and Processing
Technology in Japan
Closing Statement - H. Lanier Hickman, Jr.
Joint Communique
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Date
SCHEDULE FOR THE FIRST JAPAN-U.S, CONFERENCE ON
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Item
28 Sun.
29 Mon.
30 Tue.
31 Wed.
Feb. 1 Thur.
Tine
17:30
Jan. 26 Fri.
27 Sat. 1C:00
1C: 00-
17:30
16:30
1C:00-
F/ :00
10:00-
16:10
19:00
9:30
U.S. team's arrival
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II
The First Japan/United States Conference
on Solid Waste Management
Dr. R. Hiatt
Embassy of tha
United States of
America
Mr. J. Lehman
.Envitoniaon ta 1
Protection Agency-
Mr. H. Hickrcan, Jr.
Environmental
Protection Agency
Mr. W. Liberick, Jr.
Environmental
Protection Agency
Mr. R. Kumagaya
.'" • Kawasaki City
Mr. S. Saida
Yokohama City
Mr. M. Hatakeyama
Tokyo Metropolis
Q Mr. T. Yamaguchi
Ministry of Foreign Aifii.rs
Mr. T. Matsuda
Environment Agency
Ilr. T. Hirao
Environment Agency
Mr. K. Kido
Environment Agency
Dr. J. Urata
Ministry of Health am!
Welfare
Dr. S. Orita
Ministry of Health and
Welfare
Mr. T. Morishita
Ministry of Health and
Welfare
Mr. R. Shimizu
Science and Technology
Agency
Mr. K. Matsumura
Ministry of International
Trade and Industry
Interpreter
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Ill
1HE FIRST JAPAN/UNITED STATES CONFERENCE
ON SOLID WASTE MANAGEMEtlT
List of Participants
The Environment Agency
Mr. Kenji Kido Deputy Vice-Minister
Mr. Teruo Hirao
Director, International Affairs Division,
Minister's Secretariat
Mr. Toyosaburo M
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Lpcal_Ggy_ernment Officials °
Tgkyo> t Me tropolis
Mr. Mitsuo Hatetsyama Director, Construction Department, Public
Cleansing Bureau
Yokohama City
Mr. Sosaku Saida
Director, Facilities Department, Public
Cleansing Bureau
Kawasaki City
Mr. Renpei Kumaglya Director-General, Public Cleansing Bureau
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IV
THE FIRST US-JAPAN CONFERENCE ON SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Proposed Agenda
January 29 (Monday)
10:00 - 10:15
14:00 - 15:CO
15:00 - 15:33
15:30 - 17:30
January 30 (Tuesday)
10:00 - 12:30
14:00 - 15:30
15:30 - 16:30
16:30 - 17:00
Opening Session
I. Solid Waste Manag ;ment Administration
1. Organization, Legislation and
Financing
2. Location of Treatment and Disposal
Facilities
3. Recruitment o: Personnel for Waste
Disposal
II. Recycling Wastes
1. Need for Reso irce Recovery
2. Status and Trends
3. Resource Reco rery Technology
III. Waste Disposal and Processing Technology
1. Collection, Transport, Processing
and Disposal of Waste
2. How to Handle Special Type Wastes
3. Sanitary Landfill Technique and
Related Problems
Closing Session
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M
THE 1ST U.S.-JAPAN JOINT SYMPOSIUM SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT AND RESOURCE RECOVERY SYSTEM
January 31, 1973
TEKKOKAIKAN CONVENTION HALL. TOKYO
REfEARCH INSTITUTE OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
1ESEARCH INSTITUTE FOR OCEAN ECONOMICS
CHAIRMAN: Dr. Raisaku Kiyoura
Emeritus Professor
Tokyo Institute of technology
Chairman of the Boa^d
Research Institute if Environmental
Science
WEDNESDAY. JANUARY 31
09:30 - 10:00
10:00 - 11:00
11:00 - 12:00
OPENING ADDRESS: Dr. K. Inoue
Former Vice-Minister, Agency of
Science and '.'echnology
President, Japan Union of Science
and Engineering
Mr. T. Mizukami
President
Research Insitute for Ocean
Economic
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES
AMERICAN SITES FOR SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT FACILITIES
KANPOWER FOR SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Mr. H. L. Hickman, Jr.
Director of Operations for Solid
Waste Management Programs
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
SOLID WASTE PROCESSING AND DISPOSAL TECHNOLOGY IN THE
UNITED STATES
Mr. W. W. Liberick, Jr., Chief,
Disposal Technology Branch
Processing and Disposal Division
Office of Solid Waste Management Programs
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
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12:00 - 13:00 RESOURCE RECOVERY: AN ASSESSMENT
Mr. J. P. Lehman
Chief, Systems Implementftion Branch
Resource Recovery Division
Office of Solid Waste Management Programs
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
13:00 - 14:00
14:00 - 14:20
LUNCH
INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT AID CLOSED SYSTEM
Dr. T. Matsumoto
President, National Research Institute
for Pollution Resources
Agency of Industrial Sci« nee and
Technology
14:20 - 14:40 SIANT VACUUM TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
Dr. S. Watanabe
Professor
University of Tokyo
14:40 - 15:00
THE DESIGN OF OFFSHORE PLANT 10R SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT AND UTILIZATION
Mr. M. Ishida
Chair, Research Committee for Offshore
Multi-Plant
Research Institute for Ocean Economic
15:00 - 16:00 PANEL DISCUSSION
16:00 - 16:30 CLOSING ADDRESS:
Mr. B. Shindo
Executive
Research Institute of
Environmental Science
President
Industrial Pollution Control
Association
Chairman
Overseas Electrical Industrial
Survey Institute, Inc.
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OFFICE OF ORGANIZING COMMITTEE: R; Kiyoura
Professor Dr.
Chairman of the Board
Research Institute of Environmental Science
Kojimachi 5-Ohome Building, 4 Kojimachi 5 Chome
Chiyoda-Ku Tokyo, Japan
Tel: 03)263-7461 Cables: RIENSCI TOKYO
SYMPOSIUM MANAGEMENT: I. Idota
Executive Director
Japan Industrial Planning Association (JI'A)
6F. Kawamura Bldg.
21-6, 3-chomeAkasaka, Minato-Ku 107
Tokyo, Japar
Tel:03)585-f451 Telex: JIPACONG J 20)72
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VI
OPENING REMARKS
JAPAN—UNITED STATES GOVERNMENTAL CONFERENCE
ON SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
by H. Lanier Hlckman, Jr.
OHAYO GO-ZI-WMAS
Mr. Ruckelshius, Administrator, U.S. Enviionmental Protection
Agency, and Mr. Hale, Deputy Assistant Adminisi rator for Solid Waste
Management Prograns, asked me to extend their lest wishes for success
for this Joint Japan-United States Governmental Conference on Solid
Waste Management. They also asked me to express their sincere regrets
for not being able to attend personally, but aie confident that many
mutual benefits will come out of our meeting.
We are very pleased that one of the areas of major interest and
cooperation that resulted from the Second Ministerial Conference in
June of 1971 in Washington, D.C. was that of dealing with the problems of
solid waste management in both Japan and the United States.
The information that will be interchanged during this conference
will, no doubt, serve to guide us in any future cooperative efforts.
Meetings such as this must provide a forum for meaningful interchange of
information. Further, let us hope that the conference will discover many
areas of concern and promise that we might jointly share in dealing with
both of our countries' solid waste management problems. We also hope that
there will be an opportunity to meet in _the United States at some future
time where we can serve as your hosts.
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My colleagues and I are most pleased to be here and we are hopeful
that we can provice as much assistance to you 33 we know we will receive
from you, our hos s; Thank you.
I will introduce my colleagues as they will appear as speakers at
this conference:
1. .Mr. Johr. P. Lehman
Chief, Systems Implementation Branch
Resource Recovery Division
Office ( f Solid Waste Management Prog rams
Environmental Protection Agency
2. Mr. Walter W. Liberick, Jr.
Chief, 1 isposal Technology Branch
Processing and Disposal Division
Office of Solid Waste Management Programs
Environmental Protection Agency
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VII
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
ST ES FOR SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT FACILITIES
MANPOWER FOR SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
'hese three presentations wen prepared
by H. LANIER HICKMAN, i R.
for Tie First U.S.-~Ja_pan'Governmental Conference
on Solid Waste Management
Tokyo. January 29 and 30, 1973
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
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SOLID IASTE MANAGEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
by H. Lanier Hickman, Jr.*
Each year the people of the United Stater, of America produce,
consume, and throw away more and more. Multlrte packaging, built-in
obsolescence, EI d the convenience of disposable consumer items contribute
to enormous amoints of waste.
With only seven percent of the world's population, we consume nearly
half the earth'« industrial raw materials. And most of these, in the form
of outworn equ'pment, discarded bottles, can;, packaging and yesterday's
newspaper, end up sooner or later on the nation's trash heaps.
For example, the United States annually consumes about 190 million
tons of major metals, paper, glass, rubber, and textiles. Of this
consumption, 142 million tons come from virgin resources; the remaining
48 million tons—about a quarter of the total—are obtained from resource
recovery operations. Most of the recovered materials are derived from the
discards of industrial processing fabrication, and manufacturing activities,
rather than from obsolete products discarded into the municipal solid
waste stream.
*Mr. Hickman is Director of Operations for Solid Waste Management
Programs, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
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In addition to depletion of natural resources, present methods
for handling and disposing of solid wastes often contribute directly
to environmenta degradation. According to a national survey of
community solid waste practices published in 1968, only six percent
of the nation's land disposal sites met accepted minimum requirements
for a sanitary andfill. Some 14,000 communities relied on open dumps,
a majority of wn'ch were, by design or by accident, open burning.
Some 70 percent of the country's municipal irrinerators were judged
to have inadequate air or water pollution cortrols--even in 1968, when
standards were substantially more lenient than they are today.
No more tfcan a handful of the municipal incinerators currently
operating in tnj U.S. meet the existing Air Quality New Performance
Standards of th* U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). In
coastal communities, problems centered not sc much around open dumps
or air polluting incinerators as around ocean dumping. Our evidence
indicates that such communities annually have barged close to 50
million tons of solid wastes and sludges out to sea, and seldom in
treated form.
In spite of recent progress—much of which has been the serendipitous
by-product of actions aimed, not at solid waste, but at air and water
pollution—we still today rely primarily on the open dump as our principal
method of disposing of our nation's discards.
Solid waste management is, then, a fundamental ecological issue.
It illustrates, perhaps more clearly than any other environmental problem,
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that we must change many of our traditional attitudes and habits. It
shows us very directly and concretely that we must work to adjust our
institutions, both public and private, to the problems and opportunities
posed by our traditional disregard for the po'ilutional effects of disposal,
and particularly for our misuse of natural resources.
Why is it that the United States, a worl 1 leader in so many
technological fields, still relies on such a jrimitive solid waste system?
The answer lies in the fact that in the past, blessed with a vast
country, a low population, and seemingly eiuJlsss natural resources, the
easiest disposal method seemed adequate. Our energies were absorbed in
converting the ratural wealth of America intc an abundance of consumer
goods. We applied the best technology and ttis finest management skills
to every step in the production, marketing, end distribution of consumer
products. But we forgot to take into account the final step in the
process; we failed to apply either modern technology or modern management
to the ultimate disposition of our abundance. We simply neglected to
"close the circle" in the intricate chain of production and consumption.
Now, however, a new concept of solid waste management is emerging.
It assumes that a workable system for managing the nation's solid wastes
can be devised by making necessary changes in both the social and
economic spheres. This involves:
. controlling the quantity and characteristics of wastes;
. recycling those that can be reused;
. collecting and processing efficiently those that must be
removed, and
. disposing properly of those that have no further use.
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CURRENT ORGANIZATIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES
The responsibilities and authorities for solid waste management
in the United 5 .ates of America are divided anong the three formal
levels of government: Federal, State, and looal (county or city).
Each level has discrete as well as shared activities.
The base ov' legal authorities in the U.S.A. stems from the
Constitution of the United States, which provides for certain governmental
functions to be provided by each level of government. Domestic Federal
Governmental functions are based on the conceot of interstate relationship;,
i.e., activities which cross State boundaries. State governmental functiois
pertain to all "those aspects of governmental services within their
boundaries, and individual State constitutions divide responsibilities
between State aid local government. These responsibilities actually
restrict what each level of government does, thereby protecting individual
rights and interests. In addition, States create local jurisdictions by
law—some States have restrictive enabling legislation defining each
service and activity. Others provide for Hoir.e Rule which allows the
locality to frame the kind of government it wants without restriction.
Finally, a few States have several governmental forms outlined which
then become the basis of choice for local incorporation.
federal Responsibilities
Present Federal Government authority in solid waste management
is provided by the Solid Waste Disposal Act (Public Law 91-512), as
amended. This law was originally passed by the Federal Congress in
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October 1965, and was subsequently amended in October 1970. In the
Initial sections of the law, the responsibility of each level of
government is reviewed. Simply stated the Act defines the responsibility
of local and State government to be that of collection and disposal of
solid waste. I: further states that the nature of the solid waste problem
in the U.S.A. squires Federal action, both tranagerial and technical, to
improve the system, so that proper and economical solid waste management
can be practiced by State and local governmert. The functions of the
Federal Govemnsnt are briefly described beUw:
Policy Fot•nutation. The interactions and direction of solid waste
management must be articulated to the Nation so that government, industry,
and individual citizens will support the actions necessary to provide
both proper am economical solid waste management and protection of the
environment.
Research and Development^ The development of new and improved
techniques for solid waste management requires government action, not
commonly associated with local/State government. Local problems are
rarely so specific that technology with national applicability cannot
be utilize'd. Research and development is a logical function of Federal
Government because of national needs and the costs of research. But
private industry can also do much to provide necessary technology and
processes for use by solid waste management systems. The Federal
Government is encouraging greater private investment in solid waste
research and development through careful articulation of needs and provision
of advice to industry on potential market needs.
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Demonstrate™. The demonstration of new emerging technology and
systems is both axpensive and unpredictable. Local and State activities
are not normally compatible with such efforts Since 1965, the Federal
Government has expended significant funds to demonstrate new solid waste
management approaches. As with research, the breadth of national needs
and high costs almost dictate that the Federal Government support this
activity.
Technical tssietance. The provision of lighly skilled technical
expertise to assist local government and industry in dealing with their
solid waste problems has long been a traditional role of Federal
Government. This activity provides manpower to assist local government
with advice and with the application of modern technology to improve
current systems and to place new systems in cperation. Our Federal
program provide;, unique expertise that is not available from State
government but that supplements State efforts, thereby bringing the
best in skills to bear on any existing problem.
Planning Solid Waste Management Systems. The original Solid Waste
Disposal Act authorized Federal grants to State governments to help
them develop plans for solving their solid weste problems. The 1970
amendments broaden this authority to include planning grants to local
and regional authorities. These combined authorities, therefore, provide
a mechanism by which the Federal Government can assist the two lower levels
of government in the U.S.A. in the formulation of strategies to solve the
solid waste problems at those levels. Some 40 State plans have been
completed in the last 6 years, and 80 percent of the Nation's population is
now served by solid waste management plans.
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Training. The existing Act provides the Federal Government with
resources to trein solid waste personnel in S-;ate and local government
and private indistry directly, as well as to lielp universities establish
college curricula on solid waste management. These two mechanisms for
supporting Statf and local government efforts are available to train
management-level personnel in solid waste management. Until recently,
little effort w?s expended by any level of government to train operating-
level personnel Through a new Federal assis:ance program, however, State
government is mw establishing such training efforts.
state-of-tl-e-Art studies. When the Federal Government first began
to exercise initiative in solid waste management, information on solid
waste technology was very sparse. If solid w-iste management systems are
to apply the best technology to control waste generation and to provide
efficient services while protecting the environment, information and
material regarding acceptable technology,, systems, and approaches must
be provided. To provide such material.studies must be made of existing
technology that define in qualitative, quantitative, and comparative terms
the application of that technology. The Federal Government solid waste
program in the past 7 years has expended a great deal of effort in
providing concise state-of-the-art reports on technology and management
for other levels of government and private industry to utilize in their
solid waste management systems. To further strengthen this effort,
guidelines have been developed and are being refined, to assure that the
best of available solid waste technology is used to meet environmental
standards.
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Public Infcrmation. Only an informed public is capable of making
wise decisions c
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many economically impacted areas to provide economic growth to support
good solid waste management systems. There are many other smaller
programs also being directed toward the problems of solid waste management.
Fortunately, we are working together and coordinating our efforts wherever
possible to assure a unified approach to the >roblem.
State Responsibility.'.s
The activities of State government para I:el those of the Federal
Government in nuny areas. State government f -equently has better
opportunities tUn the Federal Government lc interrelate with local
governments and people because of the proximi ;y of State government and
their perception of local problems. Nothing prevents State government
from executing e program corresponding to the Federal solid waste
management programs except the limitations of economics and impracticality.
However, at the present time, little State effort is being directed to •
research and development, state-of-the-art studies, and the demonstration
of new and improved technology. Suffice it ta say that in the areas of
policy formulation, technical assistance, planning, training, and public
information, State solid waste activities are very similar to Federal
activities, except that the scope is directed at State/local problems and
that these activities tend to be more detailed and specific to the problems.
The most important and demanding role of State government, one that
does not now rest with the Federal Government, is the establishment and
subsequent enforcement of solid waste standards. Presently, within their
constitutional authorities, State governments are responsible for the level
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of acceptability of solid waste management systems in their respective
States. Most Slates presently have legal authorities to enforce solid
waste standards, A significant number of Stctes base these authorities
on old and limited laws governing nuisances and health. However, some
15 States have recently enacted solid waste legislation that broadens and
strengthens the role of State government, particularly in relation to
standard-settinn and enforcement,
At the pre ;ent time the major thrusts v enforcement by State
Government concern the disposal of solid was'e (incineration and sanitary
landfill). The standards for incineration are primarily effluent-oriented,
i.e., particular levels, process water qualr.y, while sanitary landfill
standards tend to be performance-oriented, 'his is logical* of course,
when one considers the differences between tlie incineration and sanitary
landfill process of operation.
Actual enforcement of solid waste standards within the State
varies. In the majority of States, permits iror facilities or sites are
issued by the State solid waste agencies. However, surveillance of
operating facilities and sites to determine compliance is usually
conducted by county authorities who serve as agents for the State
Government. The use of county government is traditional, dating back
to the original need to deliver health care to rural and nonrural areas.
This is the principal approach in the U.S.A., but there are variations
on this basic approach. The trend in States that have established
environmental agencies is to also establish regional or district, offices
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for the State atency that conduct surveillanco and monitoring activities
in much the saiw manner as the aforementioned county governments do.
Legal actirn against standards violators is usually a joint effort
by the State solid waste agency and the Attorney General's office of the
State Government This, of course, also varies from State to State
but normally it is at the State level that action is taken against
offenders. Sta'.e government is still reluctant, however, to take local
government to ooirt for violations, and the future of good solid waste
management in the U.S.A. rests with the williigness of State governments
to apply their 'aws equally and vigorously to government and industry
offenders.
Local ResponsibiHti38
The end result of all of this effort by the Federal and State
governments impacts on local government. For it is local government
that must see that solid waste is properly managed from storage—through
processing and recovery—to final disposal. At the local level, solid
waste is generated from residences, commercial enterprises, and industrial
activities. The collection, treatment, and disposal of these wastes are
accomplished by both governmental forces and private contractors.
Industries frequently manage their own solid waste that results from
process lines, but have their general plan-type waste collected and
disposed of by private or public forces. By far the greater part of
industrial and commercial solid wastes are collected by private contractors.
The majority of processing and disposal facilities are owned and operated
by local government agencies, cities and counties.
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Local government, therefore, has the ultimate responsibility to
operate systems that meet environmental standards—whether the systems
be their own or contractor-operated. The staidards are set by State
government, and local government develops ordinances that reflect
compliance with these standards. These ordinances are policed by
local governmen;, with intermittant surveillance by State government.
This procedure is not necessarily satisfactory since it allows an agency
to enforce its >wn standards with only occasional scrutiny by State
government. To assure improved solid waste jp-magement practices in the
United States of America, therefore, State government must invest
greater resources, manpower, and effort to assure standards compliance.
FINANCING OF GOVERNMENTAL SOLID WASTE VARAGEffiNT PROGRAMS
The mode cF financing solid waste managenent activities varies with
each level of government. The principal source of funds for the Federal
Government is tie Federal income tax. These funds are used on a dollar
grant-sharing basis with local and State government to carry on the
previously mentioned activities, i.e., planning grants, demonstration
grants, training grants. In addition, this money is used to provide
salaries, travel, and other administrative costs for the personnel of
Federal solid waste management activities.
States finance their activities principally through income, sales,
excise, and property taxes, and the revenues are expended for needs similar
to those of the Federal Government. In both instances, Federal and State,
the principal need for solid waste management funds is for operating and
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not capital financing expenditures. Recently, States have instituted
bond financing -;o construct environmental facilities for local government.
These bonds are sold by the State government, facilities are constructed
by local governnent using the funds raised by the bonds, and bonds are
repaid through 'jser fees or general revenues. At the present time,
i
however, this otion is rarely used.
Local gova-nment must, of course, as the level of government with
operating respcisibility, finance both operating and capital expenses.
In the U.S.A.; the principal sources of funding for local government are
property, sales, income taxes, and fees for services rendered. In
addition, funds for capital expenditures are derived principally from
both revenue and general obligation bonds.
Solid waste management financing systems at the local level require
financing for tiree conceptually distinct corrponents: (1) facilities
(incinerators, land disposal sites, transfer stations, processing
technologies, etc.); (2) equipment (principally trucks and earth moving
equipment); and (3) salaries and expenses. Although the first two
components are normally categorized, in theory, as capital costs, in
practice only the first is financed through capital investment type
instruments. The latter, equipment, is primarily financed out of current
operating funds--i.e., as an operating cost like salaries and expenses.
Recent studies indicate that approximately 15 percent of the Nation's
annual expenditures for solid waste management are allocated to the
capital costs of facilities, 15 percent to equipment and 70 percent to
salaries and expenses.
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Traditionally, solid waste facilities in the U.S. have largely
been financed th-ough general obligation bonds issued by local (municipal)
jurisdictions authorized by State legislatures to issue such instruments.
Operating costs (including both equipment and salaries and related
expenses) have been financed out of either general tax revenues (with and
without-earmark!ig) or special charges that are sometimes, but not
predominantly, related to the total actual costs of delivering solid waste
services.
These traditional methods of financing sc.lid waste management
systems are under increasingly severe pressure and strain. Causal
factors generating these pressures are many ard their inter-relationships
are complex. At minimum, they include: (1) the rising costs of solid
waste management; (2) rising costs of other services financed through
the same revenue measures at the local level; and (3) increasing voter
resistance to peying increasing amounts of taxes to provide traditional
municipal services.
User charges, specific charges levied on individual users in
proportion to their requirement for solid waste services, is one way
of relieving some of the financing pressure on municipalities. In
addition to their use in generating revenues in an equitable fashion,
the user charge, by disclosing costs of operation, serves as a stimulus
toward efficiency.
Because of the stress on local budgets and the political desire to
be free of the operational burdens of solid waste management, local
government is turning more and more to the private contractor to provide
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solid waste collection service. This, of course, is another approach
to implementing the user-fee system. The result, however, is the
amalgamation of many small firms into large ccnglomerates of waste
management firms to provide solid waste management services to local
government. At the present time, some four or five of these conglomerates
collectively acMeve annual sales of over one-half billion dollars.
Funding for capital expenditures is principally by general
obligation bond* and revenue bonds. General obligation bonds carry
many of the samt objectionable characteristic; as does general revenue
funding for solid waste collection services. Such financing does not
place accountability with the systems, therefcre placing few requirements
on the system tc be efficient or productive. Revenue bonds are much
more desirable tecause they tend to require a "user-fee" approach to
repay the obligation of the bonds. The pressures are definitely forcing
local government to utilize the revenue bonds more frequently. Other
financing approcches include the pay-as-you-go concept, lease-buy
options, and bank financing.
SUMMARY
The EPA, under the Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965 and its
amendment, the Resource Recovery Act of 1970, is engaged in research,
demonstrations, planning, training, and various technical and financial
assistance activities to help achieve necessary changes in the solid
waste system.
A major effort is being expended on improving disposal practices
throughout the country. Research is being performed to perfect the
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sanitary landfill technique; and technical assistance is being given
to selected comnunities to help them upgrade their disposal systems.
EPA also v placing renewed emphasis on Hssion 5000--a grassroots
effort to support the closing of dumps in favor or more environmentally
acceptable means of disposal. Mission 5000 was begun almost two years
ago as a cooperative effort on the part of all levels of government
and many civic \nd service organizations.
Improveraei^ in solid waste collection practices also are being
•
encouraged through demonstration of new and inproved equipment, and by
application of modern management techniques. For example, most local
collection systems are not as efficient as they could or should be.
Most systems cojld make significant improvement in efficiency and
productivity with relatively simple changes—rerouting collection trucks,
rationalizing areas served by private contractors to prevent costly
overlap, or using different collection vehicles with different crew
sizes.
Of greatest interest to those concerned with the environmental
aspects of solid waste management is the issue of--and need for—resource
recovery and recycling. To many Americans, there is perhaps no greater
symbol of our imbalance with nature than the fact that v/e discard millions
of tons of wastes every year which do, in fact, have value.
The establishment of thousands of neighborhood recycling centers
and redemption depots throughout the country gives ample testimony that
citizens and industry alike are beginning to realize that resource recovery
is a basic ecological issue.
16
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In its annual report to the President, the Citizen's Advisory
Committee on Environmental Quality states that "to deal with the
anticipated increase in solid wastes and to csnserve our vital natural
resources, this country must implement now a aolicy of maximum resource
recovery, recycling, and reuse."
\
Despite th's apparently increased understanding, there exists a
broad chasm bet;een what we purport to know w>2 ought to do and what
we actually do 'n the area of resource recovery. It is particularly
ironic that, despite an enlightened post-Earti Day public, resource
recovery, in fart, has been losing ground steadily in virtually all
material sector;. We continue to transport MW materials from remote
places and proc>ss them in the same places where those same resources in
already process id form are being dumped or laidfilled.
The princi ml obstacles to resource recovery are economic and
institutional, not technological. That is to say, the cost of recovering,
processing, and transporting wastes is so high that the resulting products
simply cannot compete, economically, with virgin materials.
To bring ahout recycling then, our society is going to have to find
ways to stimulate the use of secondary materials. In effect, we are
going to have to stop subsidizing virgin materials use and take steps to
assure that secondary materials can compete on a equal footing.
For this reason, we currently are examining a wide range of
issues and problems associated with resource recovery through studies,
investigations, and demonstration grants. Included in these efforts are
analyses of the potential impact of possible changes in tax policy (such
17
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as a tax on energy or virgin materials), changes in depletion rates (or
tax credits to users of post-consumer wastes), transportation rates, and
import/export regulations. The desirability )f regulating virgin resource
use from Federally-controlled land also is un
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solid wastes are handled and disposed of 1n ways that do not pollute
the environment.
Cities and 'oca! units of government mur.i give solid waste
management greater attention, and work to place this function on a
sound financial footing through application of user charges or some
other device to equitably raise the revenues tiat are needed.
Industry mu«t assume greater responsibility for reducing its
impact on the sc'id waste stream, by not "over-packaging" consumer
products, by substituting processes with low-waste yields for present
waste-intensive processes of production, and ~>y abandoning the
principle of "planned obsolescence," or creati ig longer-lived products.
The general public must recognize the corn!ex nature of the solid
waste problem anc support the reforms that are necessary.
Upgrading our collection and disposal sys ;ems to environmentally
acceptable levels and maximizing the amount of waste we recover are
essential for air and water pollution control efforts, and to achieve
proper land use. However, they are still only partial steps toward
defusing the world's environmental crisis. The ultimate aim must be
the reduction of both the waste we generate and the amount of resources
we consume.
19
p0780a
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SITES FOR SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT FACILITIES
by H. Lanier Hickman, Jr.*
The final determination of how land is used in the United States
of America is p -incipally a responsibility of local government. Planning
for land use is also a responsibility of local government, and the trend
in the U.S.A. I toward the development of re-n'onal land-use plans. The
principal problems with this type of broad la.id-use planning are: the
inability of plinning agencies to see that their plans are followed, and
the inability c1 regional planning agencies to bring about implementation
of regional plar s.
These plans do serve a very useful purpose, hov/ever, even when they
are not followed. The documentation of facts and gathering of local
demographic information performs a vital service to the affected
communities and people. Further, the fact that some group has clearly
stated the needs and demands for land causes all land users to give
greater consideration to the interrelationship of land needs.
The principal tool of land-use regulation in local government is the
zoning regulation. This tool specifically designates how land may be
*Mr. Hickman is Director of Operations for Solid Waste Management
Programs, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
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used, i.e., Industrial, commercial, residential. Designation of a
land-use zone claarly prevents unplanned use of land within a community.
Zoning laws, while restrictive, have the flex/bility to be changed to
accommodate new land-use needs. This flexibility is both good and bad:
good from the standpoint that change can be accommodated; bad from the
standpoint that x)litical and economic self-ii terest can override sound
land-use plans.
State government has little control over land use at the local level.
State government land-use needs are not significant, given their solid
waste management responsibilities. When Statt programs require land they
can be condemned and made available for use, ind a fair market price is
paid to the owne*. This practice is utilized frequently for acquisition
of right-of-way ';or highway projects. Howevei, it has not, to my
knowledge, been utilized for solid waste management facilities. Due to
political ramifications, State government is jeluctant to exercise the
procedure unless absolutely necessary. Condemnation procedures are also
available to local government to acquire land for essential public needs
and benefits. The application of this technique for solid waste management
facilities is not practical, however, again because of the serious political
overtones. Rather, local government prefers to acquire land on the open
market at a fair market price and in the clear light of public awareness
and participation.
Hence, the principal land-acquisition procedure is built around zoning
changes, if necessary, and public hearings to inform local citizens of the
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Intent to acquire a site for a needed solid waste management facility
to serve the public need. Whether the facility is to be operated by
a governmental agency or by a private individial, the same procedures
are involved. Frequently private enterprises can acquire sites more
easily than governmental agencies because of the political problems—
a condition inherent in almost all governments 1 decisions.
SITE NEEDS . 7OR SPECIFIC SOLID WASTE MANAl EMENT FACILITIES
Site needs iiffer for various solid wastt management facilities.
U.S. governmenta procedures controlling the ccquisition and use of
the land, however, are basically the same for any facility. Discussion
on use of land and location of sites are particularly sensitive in the
cases of sanitary landfills, incinerators, anc transfer stations. Each
has unique, as well as common, site needs. Discussions of the land needs
for each will provide a better understanding of these needs.
Sanitary Landfi.11
An important engineering consideration in establishing an
acceptable sanitary landfill operation is site selection. As with
preliminary planning phase, proper site selection can prevent many
future operational problems. The complexity of factors to be
considered when selecting a sanitary landfill site will require technical
knowledge and experience, therefore a well-qualified individual or
agency must be responsible for site selection.
Land Beguirement. The land area--or more precisely, the volume
of space required—depends primarily upon the character and quantity of
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the solid wastes to be deposited, the efficiency of compaction of the
wastes, the depth of the fill, and the desired life of the landfill.
Data on the quartity and character of residential, commercial, and
industrial solid wastes to be landfilled are therefore necessary for
estimating the space required.
The volume requirement for a sanitary lardfill can only be
determined on the basis of specific data and information on each
individual project. As an estimate, however, using a waste generation
rate, solid waste density, and a ratio of sol.d waste to earth cover,
one can determine a range of land needs.
Zoning Restrictions. A survey conducted by the American Public
Works Association indicated that a high percentage of cities are
restricted by tfsir zoning ordinances in the ccquisition of disposal
sites. Consequently, before a full-scale investigation of a potential
site is undertaken, all zoning ordinances must be reviewed and, if
necessary, changed to eliminate any legalities that could prevent or
indefinitely delay the use of a particular parcel of land for a sanitary
landfill. Advance planning to zone the prospective sites for sanitary
landfill operation is a desired but infrequently practiced approach.
A site should be easily accessible by trucks via
highways or arterial streets. Sites that necessitate trucks traveling
through residential areas will usually generate complaints. If such
sites cannot be avoided, at least their routes should be designed to
minimize residential travel .
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The roads to the site should be of width and construction adequate
to handle all sizes of trucks when fully loadud, during all weather
conditions. Such problems as narrow bridges, low underpasses, and
steep grades on the access routes should be investigated. Since the
site should be accessible at all times, it is desirable to have several
access routes so that if one route is temporarily unusable the site
can still be used.
Haul Distance. The haul distance is an mportant economic factor
in selecting a sanitary landfill site. The e
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include a geological investigation of a s-ite, possibly in conjunction
with the cover material field investigation, to determine the potential
of either ground or surface water pollution. The groundwater table must
be located and information obtained on the historical high groundwater
level and on the general movement of the groundwater.
Geological investigators should also examine the topography of
the site itself end the surrounding area to determine potential flooding
conditions durirv heavy rains and snow melts. Special attention should
be given to low-'ying sites that might be drai iage basins for surrounding
areas. Surface hater drainage and flooding cai quickly erode the cover
material and the fill.
Sites located near rivers, streams, or ln:es also deserve careful
scrutiny. Generally, a sanitary landfill located in a flood plain
because of the water pollution hazard, and bee..use these sites can become
unusable both during and after floods, require special engineering
design compatible with the site conditions.
Climate. In some locations, climate is important in site selection
and may even dictate the method of operation. In an extremely cold locality,
a site requiring excavation of trenches and cover material may become a
problem because of freezing during the winter ironths. However, a site can
be used in a wintery locale if the trenches and cover material are
excavated during the summer months to carry the operation through the
winter period.
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In areas receiving considerable rainfall, a low-lying site may be
undesirable becc.use of flooding and muddy working conditions. In rainy
areas, a desiraMe site would be high in rela-.ion to the surrounding area
and would have ciood drainage features.
In windy locales, natural windbreaks sur-ounding a site will help
to contain loose paper and minimize any dust oroblems.
Incineration
Proper locition of an incinerator enhances acceptance by the
public and results in economies in waste collection. A well-planned
physical layout facilitates efficient and economic incinerator operation,
and, in the cas2 of incinerators, good design and selection of appropriate
building materials not only give a pleasing appearance, but they
minimize housekeeping and maintenance.
Public Acceptance. Public acceptance is a most important
consideration in selecting an incinerator site. In general, industrial
and commercial zoned areas are preferable sites for incinerators than
are residential areas. An incinerator plant is usually classed as
heavy industry, and the evaluation of possible sites should reflect this.
Too frequently the vacant land surrounding an incinerator is later
developed for residential or other restricted use, which creates conflict.
To avoid potential conflict, the undeveloped surrounding land should be
zoned for industrial use.
The facility should not conflict with other nearby public
institutions. The noise, lights, and 24-hour workday of normal
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Incinerator operations preclude locating it noar a hospital; and heavy
truck traffic me.kes incinerator locations near schools undesirable.
Centralize! public works operations are lesirable, and often an
incinerator plant can be advantageously located near a sewage treatment
plant so that technical services may be share-!. There may be economies
in locating the incinerator near a garage whe~e vehicle repair facilities
and personnel cm be shared.
Where conflict with neighborhood character is unavoidable, the
screening effects of a wall or planting can reduce adverse effects and
gain public acceptance. Good architectural design is itself a major
asset in overconing potential neighborhood objection. Early in the
site selection >eriod, proposals and plans should be presented to the
public to gain support. This would serve to demonstrate local government1!.
appreciation of the public's interest.
site Suitability. Factors important to design, but generally
not of concern to the public, are foundation conditions, topography,
availability of utilities, building restrictions, drainage, and
meteorologic conditions.
Soil and rock formations determine the type of foundation required to
support the heavy, concentrated load of an incinerator structure.
Failure to accurately determine foundation conditions before design can
result in expensive modifications during construction and, in certain
cases, abandonment of the site with its partially completed structure.
Groundwater conditions also affect design and cost.
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Topography .jnd meteorological conditions must be considered in the
location and design of the incinerator. A fH.t site is likely to require
a ramp for acces; to the tipping floor, where .s a hillside site can
provide access at various ground levels. Topography can also ease or
hinder the dispersion of gases and particular's to the local atmosphere.
This aspect of plant location is complex and "equires the assistance of
a meteorologist or air pollution control spec alist, who can determine
the best stack rsight for the dispersion of gises. Stack height determination
requires consideration of topography and legal restrictions such as those
from Federal Aeronautics Agency regulations, local building regulations,
and zoning.
Availability of public utilities may be i governing factor in site
selection, since electricity, gas, water supply, sewage disposal, and
process water treatment are essential to the incinerator process. Fuel
such as gas or oil may be required at some installations as an auxiliary
heat source for the furnaces. Communication facilities must be available
for fire and safety control and for coordinating operation.
As in the development of any industrial site, effective drainage of
surface waters must be an integral part of design. The site should not
be selected in an area subject to flooding unless the facility can be
protected and access remains available during high water.
Traffic Coiisideration. The ideal location for an incinerator is
at the center of the traffic pattern produced by the contributing
collection vehicles. A major advantage of incineration over sanitary
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landfilling is that incineration can reduce the time and cost of collection
haul. This requires that the incinerator be centrally located. This is
not always feas ble for a variety of reasons. For example, future growth
of the area served and its effects on the col'lection source must be
considered.
A large pli.nt may have literally hundreds of vehicles delivering solii,
waste at relatively short intervals. Because of heavy traffic, the plant
must have adequite access roads to preclude sifety hazards in the streets
of the area. S lecial access roads may have to be provided so that the
trucks avoid heavily traveled highways. Special consideration also must
be given to tra"fic impediments such as bridgss with low weight limits,
restrictive heights of overpasses, narrow pavaments, and railroad grade
crossings with aigh volume traffic. A location that avoids commuter
traffic is also preferred. Thus, a plant located near the edge of the
participating community but readily accessible by freeways or beltways
may be better than one centrally located. The same traffic considerations
apply to residue disposal. On-site disposal is often not possible; therefore,
incinerator residue and nonburnables must be trucked to a landfill.
Plant Layout, An incinerator plant layout should promote ease,
simplicity, and economy of operation and maintenance. There should be
adequate room for all parts of the operation. The structure should
harmonize with the surrounding neighborhood and should be so oriented
that unsightly parts of the building and operation (such as receiving and
storage) are not visible to the public. In certain climates, it is
10
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advantageous to orient the receiving area on the leeward side of the
prevailing wind. The on-site road pattern should allow ready access
to scales and th; receiving area as well as an easy exit. One-way
traffic is most desirable, sharp turns and blind spots should be
avoided, and a large parking apron should be provided outside the
receiving area t> avoid congestion during peak receiving hours.
Adequate drlinage is necessary for surfaca waters. Incinerator
operation requires periodic hosing of tipping floor, vehicle wash areas,
parking aprons, and ramps. The paving should be sloped and should
contain adequately sized and strategically placed drains. This is
particularly critical in cold climates where ice formation could interfere
with operations.
Maintenance and storage of trucks may be inside the incinerator
building or on the grounds, but these areas must be located where they
will not hamper the operation of the incinerator.
Building Design. The incinerator should be aesthetically pleasing
and should be constructed of durable, high-quality materials and fixtures
to minimize maintenance. Materials requiring a minimum of painting or
resurfacing, such as concrete, tile, and noncorrosive metals, should be
used. Surfaces that require painting should have a dense, durable finish.
Corners and bases can be coved to reduce accumulation of debris and allow
easier cleaning. Where possible, piping and duct work should be enclosed.
Transfer Stations
A detailed analysis of transfer station feasibility cannot be made
until a transfer system suited to the particular area is decided upon.
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Major design decisions concerning buildings, processing equipment, and
haul equipment for systems basically equivalent may have to be determined
at the discretici and by the personal prefererce of the deciding authority,
Basic criteria uoon which to analyze different systems should not,
however, be ignored.
Areas to Consider. Primary consideration related to site selection
for transfer stations are: (1) traffic accessibility; (2) type of
neighborhood [zcning]; (3) proximity to collection routes: (4) proximity
to disposal site. Basic considerations relatfd to the transfer system
are: (1) volume handled; (2) haul vehicle restrictions; (3) type of
wastes handled; (4) types of incoming vehicle:;; (5) processing equipment;
(6) allowances ior handling peak loads or for storage; (7) traffic
patterns. All cf the aforementioned considerations have been discussed
in the portions of this paper related to sanitary landfills and
incinerators, and they also apply here.
site Selection. Ideally, a transfer station should be located so
that costs are minimized in the accommodation between the travel time
of the route-collection vehicle to the transfer point and the travel time
of the transfer vehicle to the disposal site. This may result in the need
for several transfer stations within a service area. Operations research
techniques have been used to develop mathematical optimization models for
the number and location of transfer stations.
Usually only a limited number of sites will be available, however,
and often the acquisition of even one site may be difficult due to the
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public's concept of "garbage" as a bad neighbor. If several sites are
obtainable, the choice may be obvious because of proximity to waste-
generation arees and uncongested streets and freeways.
The type of neighborhood can have a greet influence on the cost
of a transfer station. A residential section may be the ideal location
from the standfoint of waste concentration, lut considerable initial
opposition by residents of the area should b«: expected. To be aesthetically
acceptable, Ituge capital costs in structure: and landscaping may be
necessary. If a residential location provides obvious advantages
and neighborhood opposition is overcome, it s imperative to maintain
a "good neighbir" standing. This usually requires that all waste be
removed from t!;e site at the end of each working day, and that the site
be kept free o • litter and well maintained.
Zoning. t may prove advantageous to locate in an industrially
or commercially zoned area even though a greater haul distance is
involved. This will probably result in fewer citizen complaints, a
smaller investment in buildings and landscaping, and fewer problems with
access streets. This does not mean sloppy operations will be condoned,
but in these areas the operation is less likely to be visible to the
public.
AcoessibiHty. Of prime importance in site location is
accessibility to streets, highways, or freeways where fast-moving traffic
flows freely. Time savings resulting from the use of rapid-moving
access routes may easily offset additional distances traveled on such
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routes. Indeed, an authority will usually find it advantageous to
seek a site in a centrally located industrial or commercially zoned
area near existi ig primary roads.
Again, every area must deal with its own set of conditions
concerning the waste generation area, zoning, and access routes; but
thorough consideration should be given to the above-mentioned points
before commi tmen-; to a site location is made. Easy inflow and outflow
of traffic combi led with a location as near a< possible to waste
generation areas are of primary importance.
CONCLUSION
From this discussion one can discern that selecting sites for
solid waste facilities requires not only technical skills and
capabilities, buv also thoughtful education of the public to gain
citizens' understanding and acceptance, In ths U.S.A., because of
the extent of citizen involvement in decision making and the past record
of performance of solid waste management systems, site acquisition is
a complex task that taxes the best of public officials and concerned
citizens.
The physical requirements for facilities, while unique for each
type of facility, also have much in common. The real challenge lies
in selecting the proper site for a specific system and matching the
resultant facility to the uniqueness of the system. Site acquisition
and land use for solid waste management facilities will continue to be
the most troublesome part of decision-making and management of solid
waste facilities.
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MANPOWER FOR SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
by H. Lanier Hickman, Or*
The manpower situation of organizations end institutions involved
in managing the solid wastes of the United Stctes of America is vastly
different from that of other environmental control activities,
particularly in air and water pollution abaterent.
At the local operating level, for example:, solid waste management
is unique in its dependency not on plant and equipment, but on manpower.
Clearly, water pollution control requires capital-intensive1 solutions,
whereas solid weste management is a system in which present technology
and economics dictate the traditional approach of waste handling,
primarily by men and trucks. This extreme labor-intensity of solid
waste management is underscored by the fact that roughly 68 percent of
the Nation's annual expenditures for solid waste management is allocated
to salaries, wages, and related manpower expenses, while only about 15
percent is allocated to major capital expenditures.2 Although many
solid waste systems could alter their labor-capital ratios in the near
term through improved utilization of existing knowledge and technology
•Capital-intensive, all intensive.use of capital.
2ln more efficient operations the trend is toward more capital
intensiveness; however, because of the nature of the service, solid
waste systems will never approach the capital intensiveness of
wastewater treatment.
*Mr. Hickman is Director of Operations for Solid Waste Management
Programs, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
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(as is happening in a number of systems), there are no technological
events on the horizon that indicate any radical reversal of the
labor-intensive nature of solid waste management.
At the State level in the U.S.A., manpower differences between
solid waste and other environmental control activities are primarily in
the number of people involved in support, non-operating types of
functions. Solid waste management clearly laqs behind other environmental
fields in the nimber of persons employed in s> ich support activities as
planning, trairrng, surveillance, enforcement, and technical assistance.
To illustrate tins disparity, consider that some 2,900 persons are
involved in such functions in water pollution control and 4,300 in
air pollution control, but only 350 (1,000 on a part-time basis) are
employed in totu by State solid waste agencies.
In recognition of this situation—and nunerous issues contained
therein—the Congress of the United States, in Section 210 of the
Solid Waste Disposal Act as amended mandated a study to determine:
. The need for additional trained State and local personnel
to carry out plans assisted under this Act and other
solid waste and resource recovery programs.
. Means of using existing training programs to train such
personnel.
. The extent and nature of obstacles to employment and
occupational advancement in the solid waste disposal and
resource recovery field that limit either available
manpower or the advancement of personnel in such a field.
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The report of this effort is presently undergoing review by the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) prior to publication. The
following summary of that effort should be of interest to this
audience.
SUMMARY OF EPA SOLID WASTE MNAGEMEK'T MANPOWER STUDY
Size and Composition of Solid Waste Manpower Force
There are an estimated 307,000 persons irvolved in managing the
Nation's annual solid waste load. Of these, !27,000 (74 percent),
are employed at the local level in the direct operation of solid waste
management systems. Seventy-nine thousand work in the resource recovery/
secondary materials sector. Only 350 persons are employed on a full-time
basis at the Stete level, although approximately 1,000 persons are
estimated to sptnd 50 percent or more of thei.1 time performing solid
waste-related functions at this level.
Of the 227,000 operating personnel at tho local level, 125,000
(55 percent) an: employed by 10,700 private contractors, and 102,000
work for 3,000 public (municipal and county) agencies. Of this total,
170,000 (75 percent) are involved in collection, with the remainder
involved in transport, transfer, processing, disposal, and other
functions. Approximately 80 percent of the total operating personnel
at the local level are "direct" employees (involved directly in
collection and disposal activities) in skilled and unskilled categories,
with the remainder being managerial, clerical, and supervisory.
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Salaries and Wages
Salaries and wages of solid waste personnel at all levels vary
according to ?ize and type of ownership (pubMc or private) of the
employing institutions, SMSA (Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area)
size, and geographic region. However, they ere relatively consistent
with national end regional averages for posivions of similar skill,
utility, and slatus, except for secretarial positions, which are
significantly Mgher than the norm. Private sector employees receive
a higher mean cross weekly salary than do public employees. This is
due not only tt basically unequal pay but als.o to the longer work week
of private sector employees.
Turnover and Absenteeism
Turnover
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The lack of any substantial career ladders represents a significant
barrier to advancement in the field. Advancement for all personnel
is slowed by th< fact that few levels of job categories are actually
necessary to perform and manage various tasks associated with solid
waste management.. Solid waste management is a classic case of a "few
jobs at the top" with "thousands at the bottcn."
Union/Non-Union
Patterns o.: union membership for all jol categories in the solid
waste industry ,-esemble those of other industries. At all levels,
employees of public operations are union memters to a greater degree
than private employees are.
Unions and civil service systems achieve higher salaries, fringe
benefits, and promotion rates, than exist in systems where those
institutions aro absent. They also appear, fowever, to decrease
productivity (and thus increase costs) and tc engender increased
absenteeism. No differences in quality of services provided can be
factually discerned between union/non-union cr civil service/non-civil
service systems.
Training
Enough persons and skills are available to fill vacancies when
they occur in all sectors of the solid waste field (local operating,
State, and resource recovery), indicating that training needs are being
fulfilled, at least in terms of municipal requirements. This situation
is due to the unsophisticated nature of jobs at the lower levels of
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employment, the type of training required (primarily on-the-job) for
a majority of jobs in the industry, the efforts of existing training
programs, and ihe transferability of various skills (e.g., engineering,
finance, operations research, heavy equipment, etc.) to the solid waste
field.
Solid waste personnel at the local operating level experience
high accident tates and exhibit generally lov; levels of managerial
expertise, alU ough there are notable except*ons to both of these
conditions in specific situations. This suggests that while training
programs are m it necessary to increase the supply of manpower in the
solid waste fit Id, specialized training efforts in the management and
safety areas a:e probably needed to improve "hese levels of low performance.
Such efforts slould be designed as on-the-jo programs for those already
in the field r; ther than as pre-training programs for those contemplating
a career in solid waste management.
Manpower Supply-Demand Relationships
There is <: clear trend toward smaller crews on collection trucks,
spurred by the profit motive in the private sector, financial pressures
in the municipal sector, rising labor costs, and new developments in
collection technology. Consequently, over the short term, the demand
for manpower (i.e., the total number of jobs) in the operational areas
of solid waste management will probably actually decrease. This move
in the basic equilibrium that currently exists in the manpower supply
and demand situation may bring about a temporary disequilibrium (over-
supply) in specific situations at the local level.
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Increases in the number of jobs that may develop 1n disposal and
resource recovery as the Nation moves to environmentally acceptable
disposal practit2s, or in general management js public and private
systems work to increase efficiency, will not compensate for the
anticipated loss of jobs in collection. Further, this displacement will
not make available the necessary skilled manpower to meet the new
manpower needs cf solid waste management.
The supply of adequately trained manpowe • to perform State
level functions appears to be in balance with the current demand for
such manpower. Increases in demand at this Iwel are occurring, but
at a fairly low pace—and the growth in overa'1 supply is keeping pace
with this rate cf growth. It is also clear, however, that the demand
side of the cunent equilibrium is distorted \>y the fact that programs
in many States Ere inadequate. Significant inprovements in the scope
and mission of State solid waste programs cou'ld create a situation
in which demand substantially exceeds supply. Such changes are not
likely to occur in the near term and, if they occur, will probably be
on a gradually Increasing curve. If and when these changes occur, the
demand for skills related to these functions should be re-examined.
CONCLUSIONS
When viewed as a total system, solid waste management is an
extremely labor-intensive field, even though relative labor-intensities
vary from function to function {e.g., between disposal and collection).
There is nothing on the horizon to indicate any major change in the
• L r--^~m-—-~
labor-intensive nature of solid waste management in the foreseeable future.
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Breakdowns in the labor components of operating solid waste systems
occasioned by lebor-management disputes can luad to an immediate
breakdown of thf total system. As demonstrated in New York City's
garbage strike in 1968, such breakdowns can have severe implications
for public health and safety. Breakdowns can be avoided through sound
management praciices if the problems can be isolated to some degree
from local politics.
Manpower utilization and the costs of manpower are the major
determinants of total costs associated with tie operation of solid
waste systems. Increased costs required for upgrading the Nation's
solid waste practices to environmentally acceptable levels can be largely
offset by savings achieved through improved manpower practices. Such
savings can, in fact, be quite substantial. Implementation of these
practices, however, has more to do with the nature of the institutions
responsible for handling solid wastes (e.g., their objectives, management
skills, financing methods, hiring practices, union situation, and
incentives) than with the supply/demand or training aspects of solid
waste manpower.
Many solid waste systems operate with manpower tools significantly
larger than necessary to handle the job for the intended or unintended
purpose of providing employment to a sector of our economy facing
restricted opportunities elsewhere as a result of increasing mechanization,
Although solid waste management is one of the few remaining large-scale
8 •
-------
areas for employing unskilled labor, financial pressures on local
systems are forcing local governments to effect cost savings in their
solid waste sy;r ems that can be achieved by lowering manpower requirements.
Consequently, the issue of efficiency versus tiob support looms large
over the next several years.
The study ly the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, indicates
that large-sea ">( manpower development program:; are not needed. However,
training of per onnel at all levels of government in specific areas
is needed. Such training must be precisely oriented to the job in
order to assure relevancy to individual needs. The three levels of
government in tie U.S.A. must share in this training commensurate with
their respective roles in solid waste management.
Manpower d >mands may change due to significant institutional changes
in the solid wa;te management field due to better application of
technology and new national policies. Those changes may shift the
manpower needs of the nation, and they must be carefully observed to
assure that lac; of attention to manpower needs does not prevent
improvement of the Nation's solid waste management systems.
-------
VIII
FTSOURCE RECOVERY: AN ASSESSMENT
Vhis presentation was prepared
by JOHN P. LEHMAN
for The F;jrst U.S.-Japan Governmental Conference
on Solid V7asj:e Management
Tokyo, January 29 and 30, 1973
H-
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
-------
RESOURCE RECOVERY: AN ASSESSMENT
by John P. Lehman*
Meed for Resource Recovery
Resource recovery, or recycling/ is not a new.phenomenon.
For centuries irun has recovered and reused a portion of the
materials he coisumed, when there was an economic incentive
to do so. Renewed interest in resource recovery in the United
States of America has been stimulated by several factors.
Certainly increased environmental consciousness has played a
significant rols. Concern over rapid depletion of natural
resources and increasing pollution of the air, water, and land
are in this category. Another factor is the problems that
have arisen in the management of our municipal solid wastes.
These problems include accelerating disposal costs and the
scarcity of property suitable for sanitary landfills. Lastly,
our deficit foreign trade balance is due in part to import of
raw materials. These same materials exist in our waste stream/
*Mr. Lehman is with the Resource Recovery Division,
Office of Solid Waste Management Programs, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.
-------
but are not recovered at present. Thus/ resource recovery
is needed in the U.S.A. to conserve resources, reduce
pollution, improve solid waste management, and help alleviate
the deficit foreign trade balance.
There is a high rate of materials consumption in the
\
U.S.A. In 1971., -for example, 5.8 billion tons of all
materials, including 3.6 billion tons of non-food, non-energy
substances, were consumed. The population is increasing at
1.3 percent yearly and per capita consumption of materials and
fuel is growing at 4-5 percent yearly (2! tons/capita in 1965,
increasing to 28 tons/capita in 1971}. :>ollution arises as a
consequence of materials and energy consomption. For example,
1000.tons of steel results in 2800 tons jf mine waste, 121 tons
of air pollutants, and 970 tons of solid waste. There is also
a shortage of lew-sulfur fuels in the U..3.A. Therefore,
resource conservation and pollution reduction via resource
•
recovery are needed since recycling cons-.imes less energy than
virgin materials production, and wastes .are a source of low-
pollution energy.
Solid waste generation in the U.S.A. is growing also.
In 1967, 3.5 billion tons of waste were generated, while in
1971, this figure mounted to 4.5 billion tons. Per capita
packaging consumption was 425 pounds in 1960; 525 pounds in
1966. More wastes occur in urban areas where management is
-------
more difficult and costly. -Urban population is up from 64
percent in 1950 to 74 percent in 1970. Also, urban residents
generate roughly 20 percent more waste per capita than non-
urban residents. Waste management costs are high and rising,
especially in urban areas. Cities with over 500,000 popula-
tion have landfill costs of $5 per ton average, and average
$7 per ton incireration costs. The lattar costs will double
as air quality standards are met. Therefore, resource
recovery is indicated as a means of reducing the total amount
of solid waste requiring landfill or incineration.
With reference to the foreign trade balance, the U.S.A.
has a high dependence on imported minera.s. We are a net
importer of minerals; in 1970 we had a $ I billion net import
deficit. We import all of our tin, 90 percent of our aluminum;
half of our asbestos, nickel and zinc; a.id a third of our iron.
ore, lead, and mercury. This dependence is growing. By the
year 2000, the minerals import deficit of the U.S.A. is projected
to be $60 billion a year. The impacts on our foreign policy
flexibility and stability of our economy are obvious. Resource
recovery can help to alleviate these impacts.
STATUS AND TRENDS
In the U.S.A. the recycling rate on major materials is
25 percent of consumption—48 million tons of a total of 191
million tons. The recycling rate varies from 50 percent for
copper and lead to 4 percent for glass and textiles (Table 1).
-------
Vfaste oil recovery is 37 percent of the total oil drained or
235 million gallons of 650 million gallons. Fly ash is
recovered at a rate of 6.5 percent—20 m.-'.llion tons occurring
and 1.3 million tons recovered. This can be compared to
recovery rates for England, 39 percent; Trance, 50 percent;
and Germany 27 percent.
-------
Table 1
I Kater ial
1 Paper
1 Iron and steel
1 Aluminum
I Cooper
Lea|
Zinc
Glass
j
Textiles
, Rubber
i
• Total
i
RECYCLING OF
Total Consumption
(million tons)
53.110
105.900
4,009
2.913
1.261
1.592
12.820
5.672
3.943
191,298
MAJOR MATERIAL 5 (1967)
Total Recycled
{million tons)
10.124
33.100
.733
1.447
.625
.201
.600
.246
1.032
48.108
Recycling as Percent
of Consumption
19.0
31.2
18.3
49.7
49.6
12.6
4.2
4.3
26.2
25.1
., .
Source:
Darnay, A. J. , Jr. , and VI. E. Franklin. Salvage markets for
materials in solid v;astes. Washington, U.S. Government
Printing Office, 1972. 187p.
-------
The recovery rate appears to be declining in most
instances measured. Absolute tonnages of secondary
materials consumption are going up, but the recovery rate
is trending dovri. As percent of consumption:
- Waste paper was 23 percent in 19fO; 18 percent in
1969.
- Steel scrap total was 50.3 percer.t in 1960; 49.0
percent in 1968. But purchased .scrap was 45 per-
cent in 1960; 40 percent in 1968
- Reclaimed rubber was 18 percent :ln 1968; 9 percent
in 1970.
- Non-ferrous metals recovery rate;3 were constant.
Furthermore, the economics of secondary materials are
adverse. The \.otal costs of using virgin materials are lower
than secondary materials use costs:
- Steel: virgin $38/ton; scrap $44/ton.
- Glass: virgin $18/ton; cullet up to $24/ton.
- Printing paper: virgin $80 - 120/ton; 100 percent
recycled $100 - 150/ton.
- Corrugating medium: virgin $80/ton; 40 percent
scrap paper $82/ton.
Detailed figures are given in Tables 2 through 4.
. The reasons for this imbalance are several. First, virgin
materials use is subsidized through depletion allowances, and
-------
capital gains treatment of timber. The gross budgetary effect
of subsidies in 1971 was $1.45 billion. Representative effects
of depletion allowances on selected materials are shown in
Table 5. Secondly, full costs of pollution are not borne by
all processors of virgin resources. .Lastly, ocean and rail
freight rates may be discriminatorily hi
-------
" Table 2
STEEL COSTS
($/ton)
Cost Component
Ore
Coke
Limestone
Scrap
•Total Raw Materials
Melting Costs
Scrap Handling Costs
Increased Refractory Wear
Virgin
Materials Use
$18.30
8.17
.33
- 1.68
$28.48
9.00
Scrap Use
$
33.50
$33.50
6.00
3.50
1.00
TOTAL
$37.48
$44.00
-------
Table 3
COST COMPARISON FOR GLASS ($/TON)
Cost Component
Gullet
Virgin Materials (Waste Glass)
Raw Materials Delivered $15.48
Cullet Delivered 0
Fusion Loss 2.95
Incremental Hancling Costs
at Glass Plart 0
TOT*L $18.43
$ 0
17.77 - $22.77
0
.50 - 1.00
$18.27 - $23.77
Source:
Midv;est Research Institute. Economic studies in
support of policy formation on resource recovery,
Unpublished data, 1972.
-------
Table 4
COMPARATIVE ECONOMICS OF PAPER MANUFACTURE
FROM RECYCLED AND VIRGIN MATERIALS -
Product
Linerboard
Currugating
medium
Printing/
writing
paper
Newsprint
Baseline case
(recycled fiber
content)
| Baseline average
operating cost
$78.50/ton
Supplemental fiber 25%
use »(recycled fiber
content)
cost with
increased use of
recycled fiber $82.25/ton
Net cost of
increased
recycled fiber
usc.ge
$3.75
15%
0%
40%
100
Source:
0%
$79.50/ton $80-$120/ton $125/ion
100
$82.00/ton $100-$150/ton $98/ton
$2.50 $20-$ 30/ton -$27
Midwest Research Institute. Economic studies in support of policy
formation on resource recovery. Unpublished data, 1972.
10
-------
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Resource recovery technology Is available, but is not
the solution to the cost problem. In a word, recovery has
not been economical. The process of tra isporting, separating,
and upgrading mixed municipal wastes costs more than the
revenue derived from the sale of materials.
There are a number of reasons for tiis and I will cite
just some of them:
1. Collection of wastes from many sources, each
generating a small quantity of material, is very costly, at
least from a materials-handling point of view.
2. Materials in urban waste are contaminated. For
example, in packaging, papers are coated with plastics; two
metals are combined to make containers.
3. Urban wastes are mixed in collection, further contami-
nating specific material components of the waste.
4. Separation is expensive. Most mechanical systems are
based on a yes-no sorting principle—they separate one type of
item and reject all others; thus a series of cascade of sorting
devices is'needed to obtain a number of fractions.
5. The prices paid for low quality, contaminated
commodities are very low—if you can find a buyer at all. By
upgrading, a higher price can be achieved, but upgrading adds
to already high recovery costs.
12
-------
JUSTIFICATION FOR ACTION
The status outlined previously gives no cause for
rejoicing. Material recycling rates are low and generally
declining. Rescurce recovery economics .ire adverse. If
the picture is so glum, why is the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency so concerned about resource recovery?
What is the justification for further action?
Resource recovery is desirable for several reasons:
lositive Environmental Impacts
Recovery oi materials is environmen :ally desirable/
because less pollution is generated when a material is
obtained from weste than is generated if virgin raw materials
are used. It if self-evident that reprocessing a material that
has already beer- processed, that has already had labor and
energy inputs, that has been purified, should have less
environmental impact than processing a material that occurs
in a mine or a forest. The comparison of environmental impact
for paper, steel, and glass manufacturing, shown in Tables 6
through 9, bear this out. 'Recycling avoids pollutant creation,
which is better than controlling pollutants.
13
-------
Table 6
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT COMPARISON FOR 1,000 TONS OF LOW-GRADE PAPER
^Environmental
ef::ect
Unbleached
kraft pulp
(virgin)
Repulped Change from
waste paper increase!
(100%) recycling (%)a
Virgin materials
use [oven cry fiber)
Process water used
•Energy consumption
Air pollutants
effJ.uents (trans-
portation, manufac-
turing, and har-
vesting)
1,000 tons
24 million
gallons
17,000 x 106 BTU
. 42 tons
-0- -100
10 million -61
gallons
5,000 x 106 BTU -70
11 tons -73
Waterborne wastes ,
d^fcpharges - BOD
Waterborne wastes
discharged- ,
suspended solids
Process solid
wastes generated
Net post-consumer
wastes generated
15
8
68
850
tons
tons
tons
tons0
9
6
42
-250
tons
tons
tons
tons
-44
-25
*
-39
-129
Negative numbers represent a decrease in that category, or a
(positive change from increased recycling.
Based primarily, on surveys conducted in 1968-1970.
JV
This assumes a 15% loss of fiber in the papermaking and converting
(operations.
JS
This assumes that 1,100 tons of waste paper would be needed to
sroduce 1,000 tons of pulp. Therefore 850-1100 -250 represents the net
reduction of post-consumer waste.
Midwest Research Institute. Economic studies in support of
policy formation on resource recovery. Unpublished data, 1972.
14
-------
Table 7
IMPACTS RESULTING FROM THE MANUFACTURE OF 1,000 TONS
OF BLEACHED VIRGIN KRAFT PULP AND EQUIVALENT MANUFACTURED FROM
DEINKED AND BLEACHED WASTEPAPER
1,
p
. Environmental
effect
P
Virgin fiber
pulp
Deinked
Pulp
Increased
recycling
change (%)a
j: Virgin materials
use (oven dry fiber)
II Process water used
1 Energy consumption
|j Air pollutants
(transportation,
manufacturing, and
harvesting)D
IjWaflBlborne wastes .
'! discharged - BODD
Waterborne wastes
disoharged-
11 suspended solids
Process solid wastes
[illet post-consumer
waste disposal
1,100 tons
47,000 x ID3
gallons
23,000 x 106 BTU
49 tons
23 tons
24 tons
112 tons
850 tonsc
-0- -100
40,000 x 103 -15
gallons
9,000 x 106 BTU -60
20 tons -60
20 tons
77 tons
-13
+222
224 tons +100
d
-550 tons"
-165
i ' Negative number represents a decrease in that category resulting
•from recycling.
i-
J Based on surveys conducted in 1968-1970.
| '" This assumes a 15% loss of fiber in paperworking and converting
I operations.
This assumes that 1,400 tons of waste paper is needed to produce
1,000 tons of pulp. Therefore, 850-1,400•= —550 represents the net
in post-consumer solid waste.
Midwest Research Institute. Economic studies in support of
policy formation on resource recovery. Unpublished data, 1972
.15
{Source:
-------
Table 8
IMPACT COMPARISON FOR 1,000 TONS OF STEEL PRODUCT
Environmental
Effect
Virgin Materials Use
Water Use
Energy Consumption
Air Pollution
Effluents
Water Pollution
Consumer Wastes
'Generated
J^King Wastes
Virgin Materials
Use
2,278 tons
16.6 million
gallons
23,347 x 106 BTU
121 tons
67.5 tons
967 tons
2,828 tons
103% Waste
Use
250 tons
9.9 million
gallons
6,039 x 106 BTU
17 tons
16.5 tons
-60 tons
63 tons
Change From
Increased
Recycling (S)a
-90
-40
-74
-86
-76
-105
-97
a Negative numbers represent a decrease in that category resulting
from recycling.
Source:
Midwest Research Institute. Economic studies in support of
policy formation on resource recovery. Unpublished data, 1972,
16
-------
Table 9
SUMMARY OF GULLET DEPENDENT ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
FOR 1,000 TONS OF GLASS CONTAINERS, BY IMPACT CATEGORY
Environmental
.impact
Mining wastes
Atmospheric emissions
Call sources)
Water consumption
(intake minus discharge)
Energy use
« «
15%
Gullet
104 tons
13.9 tons
200,000 gals.
16,150 x 106 BTU
60%
Gullet
22 tons
13 tons
10.9 tons
100,000 gals.
16,750 x 10^ BTU
15,175 x 10b BTU
% Change a
-79%
~6%c
-22%c
-50%
+3%
-6%
Virgin raw materials
jsumption
New post-consumer
waste generation
1,100 tons
1,000 tons
500 tons
450 tons
-54%
-55%
Negative numbers represent a decrease in that impact resulting
from increased recycling.
Calculated for the Black-Clawson wet recovery system for cullet
recovery from municipal waste.
Calculated for the Bureau of Mines incinerator residue recovery
system for cullet recovery from municipal waste.
Based primarily on surveys conducted in 1967-1969.
I Source:
Midwest Research Institute. Economic studies in support of
policy formation on resource recovery. Unpublished data,
1972.
17
-------
Solid Waste Management Benefits
Recycling avoids ultimate disposal of solid wastes, and,
where recycling is cheaper than disposal, it saves the disposal
cost. Where "skimming" is practical and economical, collection
costs—80 percent of waste management cofsts—are also avoided.
Considering that roughly 50 million tons per year of secondary
materials are recycled—and obtained by separate collection
("skimming")—tie saving to the nation ii; huge, roughly $1
billion a year assuming a $20/ton waste Management cost.
Resource Benefits
Resource r< covery conserves our energy resources because
less energy is consumed in providing materials from waste than
from virgin soui-ces. This is an extremely important aspect of
recycling because, though we may never ran out of certain kinds
of materials, wu are beginning to strain our energy resources,
particularly natural gas and sulphur-free fuels. Reduction in
water usage is also an important factor. Some typical savings
are:
- Virgin steel versus 100 percent scrap steel: scrap
system requires 74 percent less energy and 51 percent
less water.
- Glass: Use of 60 percent waste cullet versus 15 per-
cent cull'et requires 6 percent less energy and 50 per-
cent less water.
18
• iq-y *»»•*•••
-------
- Paper: 70 percent less energy, 61 percent less water
in a repulped waste versus virgin kraft paper case.
Recycling also preserves non-renewable resources, and
provides a "domestic" source for materials that are not
available domestically in virgin form, e.g., tin and aluminum.
v
ECONOMIC INCENTIVES
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's effort to
increase resour :e recovery is directed at two areas: economic
incentives and technology development. tfe feel that develop-
ment of incentives is the key role that the Federal Government
can play. We r ;alize that the economics of waste material must
be changed befo:re recycling of municipal wastes can become a
reality on a large scale. It is unrealistic to expect industry
to utilize materials at a loss. On the other hand, it is a
safe speculation that if there are economic benefits to be
realized by industry for consuming secondary materials, it will
seek them out.
A key requirement to bring about increased recovery is to
increase demand for secondary materials. Demand creation calls
for changing the economics of secondary materials use. Basic
ways of doing so are (1) by making secondary materials less
expensive to buy, to process, to transport, and to use; (2) by
making virgin materials more expensive; or (3) to deny industry
virgin materials, which will make it turn to alternatives.
19
-------
There are many ways of influencing economics, through many
mechanisms.
Market incentives directly influence demand by resulting
in a lowering of secondary materials costs. Types of market
incentives are:
1. Income tax credits; allow a deduction from income
tax of some percent of the val^a of secondary
materic Is purchased.
^* Subsidj es: provide a cash paymsnt per ton of
material recovered.
•*• Selective Federal Procurement; exercise Federal
purchasing power to buy recycle 1 products in
preference to others, if need ba at higher cost.
Incentives of this type have differing efficiencies in bringing
about recovery. Nonetheless, they have positive effects on
resource recovery and are being actively evaluated.
The general concept of capital assistance is to assist
the creation of facilities for waste recovery. Types of
capital assistance include:
1. Capital^grjLn_ts_; provide funds for facility
construction.
2. Investment tax credits; allow rapid amortization
of facility costs with tax benefit.
3. Provision j?f_ Low Interest Loans
4. Loan guarantee programs
20
-------
Capital assistance is a supply creation measure; but supply
creation is not viewed as the problem. 3:t assumes the need
for facilities, while much recylcing doe^ not require
facilities.
Regulatory measures also result in economic changes and
are thus similar to market incentives, but they rely on
regulatory activities. Types of regulat .on include:
1. Removal of Virgin Materials Subsidies; like the
depletion allowance; this would result in increased
virgin materials costs.
2, Changes in Freight Rates; Fede:rally set rates for
rail (ICC) and ocean {FMC) can lie changed to reduce
transport costs.
•*• Import/Export Regulations; to Increase costs of
virgin materials coming in, to deny import of virgin
materials, etc.
4« Federal Land Regulations; especially pricing of
products from Federal lands.
The problem with regulatory measures is predictability of effect
in most cases. Also, administrative costs of regulatory measures
may be excessive.
All of the types of economic incentives mentioned above are
being examined by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. We
expect to have completed our evaluation and to have made our
21
-------
recommendations to the U.S. Congress by next summer.
TECHNOLOGY STIMULATION
The second major thrust of our program in the demonstra-
tion of currently feasible resource recovery systems.
Technology stimulation is analogous to capital assistance in
that it is facility-oriented; the same basic assumption under-
lies this approach, namely that technology is needed. It
offers a minor opportunity to lower cost! by technical improve-
ment, and does provide a way to overcome institutional inertia
to new processes. Nonetheless, in light of my comments
earlier about the economics of municipal waste recycling, you
may wonder how such demonstrations are justified.
Recovery is a viable waste management option where the
costs of recovery—the cost left over after revenues are
deducted—are lower than the alternative of disposal without
recovery.
In some areas of the United States, disposal costs by
incineration or by landfilling which follows a transfer opera-
tion have become very high, exceeding $5 and sometimes even
$10 per ton. In such areas, the alternative of resource
recovery, even if operated at a loss '(as will be usual), is
attractive if the net cost of operation is below the cost of
disposal.
22
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Technology Demonstrations
Technology demonstrations consists of a number of unit
processes (Tabls 10) which can be combined in various ways
into system options (Table 11) . Selectee, municipal resource
recovery facilities in the United States are listed in Table
12.
Recent studies performed on our behrlf have examined
the technical ar3 marketing aspects of specific resource
recovery technologies. The resource recovery systems examined
were classified into the following categories: conventional
incineration with heat recovery, composting, materials recovery,
fuel recovery, and pyrolysis—producing organic products for
sale.
Incineration WithHeat Recovery. This is the only
system recovering resources from mixed municipal refuse in the
United States. European countries have pioneered this effort
because they experience a greater shortage of natural resources.
Water wall incinerators are in operation in Braintree,
Massachusetts, Norfolk Naval Base, and Chicago, Illinois. Some
of the newer European plants have been designed for 50 percent
excess air, but 80 to 100 percent is the general rule. Over
200 percent excess air is sometimes used in the U.S.A.
Although heat recovery from waste incinerators is an established
practice, there are still some technical problems, even in the
-------
Technology Demonstrations
Technology demonstrations consists of a number of unit
processes (Tab."-': 10) which can be combined in various ways
into system options (Table 11). Selected municipal resource
recovery facilities in the United States are listed in Table
12.
Recent studies performed on our behalf have examined
the technical a.id marketing aspects of specific resource
recovery technologies. The resource recovery systems examined
were classified into the following categsries: conventional
incineration wi ;h heat recovery, composting, materials recovery,
fuel recovery, md pyrolysis—producing organic products for
sale.
Incineration With Heat Recovery. This is the only
system recovering resources from mixed municipal refuse in the
United States. European countries have pioneered this effort
because they experience a greater shortage of natural resources.
Water wall incinerators are in operation in Braintree,
•Massachusetts, Norfolk Naval Base, and Chicago, Illinois. Some
of the newer European plants have been designed for 50 percent
excess air, but 80 to 100 percent is the general rule. Over
200 percent excess air is sometimes used in the U.S.A.
Although heat recovery from waste incinerators is an established
practice, there are still some technical problems, even in the
23
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Table 10
MAJOR RESOURCE RECOVERY UNIT PROCESSES
Manual Separation - home separation, hand picking,
local collect!sn centers.
Size reduction
- Shredding, milling,- crushing, etc.
Mechanical Separation
- Air separation
- Ballistic and related sorting
- Magnetic sorting
- Sink-3loat
- Heavy media
- Opticc.l sorting
- Sweating
- Screening, filtration, and rei.ated
- Solver.t extraction
- Combustion
- Stripping
Conversion
- Digestion/Composting
— Combustion - heat recovery
- Pyrolysis
- Hydrogenation
- Hydrolysis
- Wet oxidation
Other
- Baling, briquetting, compacting, bundling, palletizing
- Washing, laundering
24
-------
Table 11
MAJOR RESOURCE RECOVERY SYSTEM OPTIONS
1. REUSE
A. Separate Collection of Materials
B. Materials Separation
1. Dry separation
(a) manual
(b) mechanical
2. Wet separation
3. Incinerator residue recovery
II. CONVERSION - with or without materials separation
A. Fuel Recovery
B. Electrical Generation
C. Heat Recovery
D. Pyrolysis
1. Oil Production
2. Gas Production
(a) Marketable gas
(b) Direct steam production
. (c) Direct electrical production
E. Others - composting, etc.
25
-------
Table 12
SELECTED MUNICIPAL RESOURCE RECOVERY FACILITIES
I Facility
Berkeley, Cal
Chicago, 111.
|; Madison, Wis.
St. Louis, Mo.
11 Fran'
Shredded vaste fuel,
metals
Paper pulp, metals,
glass
Oil, metals & glass
Steam,' metals S
aggregate
Metals and glass
Compost products,
char, metals, glass
26
Status
Operational
Operational
Operational
Operati onal
Operational
Plannirg
(Start-up
11/74)
Planning
(Start-uo
6/74)
Planning
(Start-up
9/74)
Planning
(Start-up
1/75)
-------
most advanced plants. The principal problems are slagging
and erosion and corrosion of boiler components. Technology
is not the biggest impediment to broader implementation of
the heat recovery concept. The marketing problems are much
more severe. The steam market has several characteristics
that inhibit implementation. First, steim can be transported
only short distances. Thus, steam consumers must be located
close to the st'jam-producing facility. Second, steam con-
sumers want a consistent quality of stean. The Btu value of
solid waste var..es considerably from day to day depending on
its plastic, pc,]>er, and water content. Thirdly, most steam
markets demand a continuous supply, 24 hours a day, 7 days a
week. Collection schedules and maintenaice requirements
inhibit an incinerator from being a reliable source of supply.
Compoj!ting. Municipal refuse has been composted in
Europe and the U.S. for many years. The technology is quite
advanced. There; are no real technological barriers. The
U.S.A. has seen the construction of many composting plants in
the past 20 years. Most of these have now ceased operating.
The market problems are severe. It has been estimated that
the existing compost demand could be met by converting the
solid waste of a city of 900,000 people. Of course, this
would replace all existing sources of compost, most of which
27
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are recycled materials such as agricultural wastes. If com-
posting is to be a successful resource recovery technology,
the markets for the products mist increase by a quantum jump.
This will not be accomplished by technology development.
Materials Recovery. The real problem with materials
recovery, v;hich is extraction of saleable solid waste components
such as paper, glass, and metals, is thai it is too late. It
is late because paper, glass, and metal:: should not be mixed.
The contaminaticn resulting from mixing them together and then
separating back to the elemental form graatly reduces their
market value. However, mixing the wastes is justified by the
high cost of separate collection systems.
Materi tils recovery technology consists of a large
number of unit processes, including blowing, throwing, floating,
spinning, vibrating, and magnetically separating. The major
emphasis on materials recovery has been focused on two areas:
fiber recovery and separation of incinerator residue.
Fiber Recovery. Cellulose comprises from 40 to 50
percent (on a wet basis) of municipal solid waste. Both wet
and dry separation processes have been developed. A wet
process is being demonstrated under an EPA grant in Franklin,
Ohio. Details are given in Table 13.
At present, only the ferrous and fibrous portions
are being extracted. The market for the pulped fibers has not
28
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TABLE 13
SYSTEM FOR TOTAL REFUSE DISPOSAL BY FLUID-MECHANICAL
SEPARATION OF SOLID WASTES AND. FLUID BED OXIDATION OF COMBUSTIBLES
PRDJECT TYPE: Demonstration
GRANTEE: City of Franklin, Ohio
GRANT NO. GQ6-EC-00194
PROJECT DIRECTOR: Bernerd F. Eichholz, City Manager, P.O. Box 132,
Franklin, Ohio 45005
ESTIMATED TOTAL PROJECT COST: $2,471,858
GRANTEE'S SHARE: $ 823,953
FEDERAL SHARE:
(By year of project
life)
$ 46,667
$1,165,132
$ 436,106
DATE PROJECT STARTED: ^ar. 1, 1969 DATE PROJECT ENDS: Feb. 28, 1973
OBJECTIVES: To demonstrate a refuse disposal and resource recovery system capable
of processing municipal refuse and producing metals, color-sorted glass, and paper
fiber in a recyclable fcrm. Nonrecoverable combustible material will be incineratsd
in«a fluidized bed reactor.
PROCEDURES: The total system, with a design capacity of 150 tons per 24-hour day,
tmprises three subsystems for solid waste disposal, fiber recovery, and glass
covery, respectively. The disposal system consists of a Hydrapulper, a liquid
cyclone, and a fluidizec bed incinerator. The Hydrapjlper, a wet grinder, pulps
the incoming refuse except for large objects, which are ejected and passed through
a magnetic separator to recover the ferrous metals portion. The liquid cyclone
takes the output from the Hydrapulper and extracts small heavy objects, mostly
glass intermixed with seme metals, wood, and plastic. The remaining pulp passes
from the liquid cyclone into the fiber recovery subsystem, where it undergoes
further cleaning and dewatering. The final product is low-grade paper fiber
suitable for recycling. Rejected fibrous material is piped to the fluidized
bed incinerator for disposal. This fluidized bed incinerator is also being
used to dispose of sewage sludge from an adjacent treatment plant.
Heavy material extracted by the liquid cyclone will be piped to the glass recovery
sibsystem, expected to be operating by mid-1973, which will use magnetic separation,
screening, air classification, and optical sorting to produce an aluminum-rich
concentrate and color-sorted glass.
The rest of the facility is now operating, initially at a 50 tons per 8-hour day
level. Based on the consultant's (A. M. Kinney, Inc., of Cincinnati) financial
projections, the City of Franklin is charging a $6.00-per-ton fee.
29
-------
been fully defined. The sub-systems separating glass and
aluminum are being installed now. Consequently, we know
little about the quality of separation of these components.
Incinerator Residue. The Buraau of Mines of the
U.S. Department of the Interior has developed a method for
separating minerals and metals from inci lerator residue. The
technology is relatively conventional. Ct has not been proven
on full scale. Some data has been obtai led from a pilot
operation. The quality of ferrous metal3 residue is uncertain.
A portion consists of an insoluble residae of scale. The
aluminum quality is high. The glass portion is suitable for
glass brick manufacture, but not in glass manufacture. A
full scale system will be demonstrated ii Lowell, Massachusetts,
under an EPA resource recovery grant (Ta >le 14). It should pro-
vide more conclusive information.
Conversion tp^Fuel. Refuse as a Supplemental Fuel —
Mixing urban wastes with conventional fuels such as coal and
oil in existing power plants has been studied extensively in
recent years. Both dry and wet systems have been examined. A
dry system has been constructed in St. Louis (Table 15) . The
city of St. Louis mills and magnetically separates the refuse.
The milled material is transported and pneumatically fed to a
Union Electric Company boiler, where it is burned with pulverized
coal. One technical difficulty has been encountered—erosion of
the pneumatic tubes. It is anticipated that separation of the
30
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TABLE 14
GREATER LOWELL RESOURCE RECOVERY PROJECT
Grantee: City of Lowell, Massachusetts
Project Director: James L. Sullivan
City Manager
City Hall
Lowell, Massachusetts ••»
Telephone No.: 617/454-8821 '
Principal Contrac;or: Raytheon Company
Grant No. 801535
EPA Project Officer:
David G. Arella
Telephone No. 202/2^-6795
Budget, Period
Design & Bid
Construction
Operation &
Evaluation
Time Period
Tota
___ -,a . Cost Federal Cost
II 715/72 to 10/31/73 3 4~32,847 $ 324,635
1,912,153 1
11/1/73 to 11/15/74
11/16/74 to 11/15/75
_ 8 J5?000
;3,l3o,000
626,250
~
* Objective;
The principal objective of this project is to
demonstrate that the various commodities in normal
incirerator residue can be separated and economi-
cally recovered.
Project Descriptj.on: The City of Lowell will build a full size
processing plant capable of handling 250 tons of
incinerator residue in 8 hours. Residue from Lowell
and several neighboring coranunities will be processed
in the facility. The plant will be designed by the
Raytheon Company using the system piloted by the
U. S. Bureau of Mlr.es at College Park, Maryland.
Using a series of screens, shredders, classifiers
and other ore benefication equipment the plant will
extract more than 40,000 tons of products — steel,
nonferrous metals, and glass — from the incinerator
residue annually. Revenue from the sale of the
products is expected to exceed $1,500,000 a year.
31
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TABLE 15
USE OF REFUSE AS SUPPLEMENTARY FUEL IN BOILER FURNACES
PROJECT TYPE: Demonstration
GRANTEE: City of St. Louis, Missouri
GRANT HO. G06-EC-00312
PROJECT DIRECTOR: G. Wayne Sutterfield, Refuse Commissioner
4100 S. First Street, St. Louis, Missouri 63118
ESTIMATED TOTAL PROJECT COST: $2,603,000
GRANTEE'S SHARE: $ 868,000
FEDERAL SHARE:
(By year of pro ect
life)
$ 478,000 [01]
$ 857,000 [02]
$ 400,000 [03]
DATE PROJECT START?): July 1, 1970 DATE PROJECT ENDS: June 30, 1973
OBJECTIVES: To der.mstrate the feasibility of suspension firing prepared
refuse into a large utility boiler.
PROCEDURES: Persomel from the City of St. Louis conduct the project
in collaboration with the Union Electric Company and the consulting firm
of Homer and Shifrin, Inc. An existing 125-meg£watt boiler belonging to
the Union Electric Company is outfitted for a full-scale test of the
process. Four hundred tons of shredded refuse per day are pnuematically
fired into this corner-fired, pulverized-coal boiler; the refuse accounts
for 10 percent of the total heat load of the boiler. A separate facility
shreds the mixed municipal refuse to a particle size of 1-1/2 inches and
loads it into large vehicles for transfer to the powerplant. At the power-
plant the refuse is loaded into a live bottom storage bin and, from there,
is pnuematically conveyed to the four firing nozzles.
The demonstration facility is capable of supplying up to 20 percent of the
total heat load (800 tons of refuse per day) of the boiler.
32
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denser materials by air classification will reduce the erosion.
Vie do not fully under stand the market for this approach. It is
attractive to the city because the net operating cost is lower
than the costs of its alternatives. It is not certain that the
electric utility receives an economic ber.efit that suitably com-
pensates for the investment and operating costs. However, the
public relations benefits appear to be worthwhile.
Primary Fuel — Two heat recov iry techniques that
consume solid waste as a primary fuel ar>j being developed. In
one system, Combustion power Company is ittempting to burn
shredded waste in a fluid bed incinerator and to use the hot
gases to drive a gas turbine/generator. Turbine blade erosion
problems appear to be a significant technical problem. The
projected costs exceed those of conventional incineration.
Another method employs high te.nperature incinerators,
operating at 2700°F. The technology and economics of this
approach have not been fully evaluated.
Pyrolysis. Pyrolysis is probably the most technically
sophisticated of the resource recovery approaches. It is also
one of the more promising for several reasons: it is environ-
mentally sound; its economics are attractive; and its products
display strong market potentials.
Pyrolysis will produce minimal air pollutant emissions
because its very nature is to exclude air from its process.
«•
Water pollution will be minimal because secondary sewage treat-
ment can adequately handle the waste water stream. The waste
33
-------
volume going to a landfill will be dramatically reduced. Only
8 percent of the input solid waste will co to a landfill.
The projected economics of pyrolysis are attractive
because the revenues from recovery exceec $5.50 per ton. These
are offset against the operating costs of about $11. Thus, net
operating cost is about $5.50 per ton for 1,000 ton/day.
The products produced include ferrous and nonferrous
metals, chars, end fuels—either fuel oi.'.s or gases. The
marketing problems of a gas are similar co those of steam
production, that is, the product is not ^'ery transportable.
Consequently, the customers must be located close to the
, resource recovery facility. Production of fuel oil does not
have this limitation. It can be stored and transported. These
characteristics increase its marketability significantly.
Three pyrolysis-type resource recovery systems will
be demonstrated under EPA resource recovery grants. They are:
San Diego County, California - fuel oil product
Baltimore, Maryland - steam product
New Castle County, Delaware - fuel gas and char
product plus composting
of organics
Details of these systems are given in Tables 16
through 18, respectively.
34
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TABLE 16
SAN DIEGO COUNTY SOLID VASTS RESOURCE RECOVERY PROJECT
Grantee: County of San Diego, California Grant Mo. 801588
Project Director: C. J. Houson
Director, Department of Sanitation
and Flood Control
5555 Overland Avenue
San Diego, California 92123
Telephone No. : 714/2", 8-9200
Ext. 270
Principal Contractor: Garrett Research c.nd Development Corp.
EPA Project Officer: Davis Bernstein
Telephone No.: 202/25^-6795
Budget Period. Time Period Total Cost Federal Cost
Design & Bid 12/1772 to7/31/T3 ? 2/b,660 ~|122,244
Construction 8/1/73 to 11/30/74 2,856,277 2,304,693
Operation &
Evaluation ]2/1/74 to 11/30/75 867,773 535,773
$0)12,710 $2,962,710
Objective;
The principal objective of this project is to
demonstrate, with a full size plant, that municipal
sol:.d waste can be economically converted into a
stable fuel.
Project Description: The County of San Diego will build a 200
ton per day solid waste recycling plant which will
have as its key component the flash pyrolysis unit
developed by the Garrett Research and Development
Company, Mixed municipal solid waste will be
coarsely shredded and air classified in order to
separate the organic fraction. This material is
then dried and finely shredded prior to flash
pyrolysis at a temperature of about 900°P. The
inorganic fraction is further processed using mag-
netic separation and froth flotation in order to
recover ferrous metals and mixed-color glass cullet.
The pyrolysis process will convert the organic portion
into an oil like llciuid which will be used as a fuel
in a utility boiler. About 1.1 barrels of oil are
recovered from each ton of refuse. All told it is
' expected that the-plant-will- produce, between. $200,000
and $300,000 worth of ..products annually.
35
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lA13Lh 17
DEMONSTRATION OF A PYROLYSIS RESOURCE RECOVERY
SOLID WASTE MAlJAGEMErT SYSTEM
Grant No. 801533
Grantee: City of Baltimore, Maryland
Project Director: Dr. P. Pierce Linaweaver
Director of Public Works
600 Municipal Office Euil-ling
Baltimore/ Maryland 21202
Telephone No.: 301/752-2000
Ext. 2861
Principal Contractor: Monsanto Enviro-Chcm .Systems, Inc.
EPA Project Officer: J. Robert Holloway
Telephone No. : 202/25-1-6795
Budget Period
Design &
Construction
Operation &
Evaluation
lime Period
Total Cost
1/1/73 to .9/30/74 $1M90,000
10/1/74 to 9/30/75 1,827,000
Federal Cost
$6,000,000
0
$16,317,000 $6,000,000
The prir.cipal objective of this project is to demonstrate,
on a large scale, that the energy and material resources
v;hich exist in municipal solid waste can be converted -to
economically useable forms without polluting the environ-
ment.
Project Description: The City of Baltimore will build a 1000 ton per
dajT^'Landgard" Pyrolysis plant which has been developed
by Monsanto Enviro-Chern. Systems, Inc. Incoming wastes
will be shredded and then fed to a single rotating kiln
for pyrolysis. Heat will be supplied by direct firing of
fuel oil and by combusting a portion of the solid waste.
The gas produced by the pyrolysis process will be burned
in an afterburner and its heat recovered through a water
tube boiler. Steam generated in the boiler will be sold
to the Baltimore Gas and Electric Company for distribution
through its existing steam utility line. Ferrous metal
and "glassy aggregate" will also be recovered from the
residue.. The plant is expected to produce more than
$1.5 million per year in revenues from the sale of steam
and materials.
36
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TABLE 18
DELAWARE RECLAMATION PROJECT
Grantee: State of Delaware
Project Director:
Grant No. 801569
John C. Bryson
Director, Division of Environmental
Control
Department of Natural Resources and
Environmental Control .
Dover, Delaware 19901
Telephone No.: 302/678-4792
Principal Contractor: Hercules, Inc.
EPA Project Officer: Arch C. Scurlock, Tr.
Telephone No.: 202/25^-6795
Budget Period
Design
Construction
Operation &
Evaluation
Tims Period
1/1/73 to
8/1/73 to
7/31/73
V30/7J1
5/1/74 to V30/75
Total Cost
$"17400,000
10,500,000
13360,000
$1377507060
Federal Cost
~$916,560
6,862,6^0
1,220,800
$9,000,000
Objective: The principal objective of this project is to demon-
strate, with a full size plant, tha; municipal solid waste,
domestic sev,:age sludge and selected industrial wastes can
be satisfactorily and economically separated into useable
fractions of organic compostables, organic non-compostables,
ferrous and. non-ferrous metals, glass cullet, and an inert,
clean fill material, and that certain of these fractions can
be further processed into fuel, fuel gases, carbon, oils and
tars, and a marketable humus product.
Proj ect Description; Hercules, Inc. under a "turn-key" contract
to the State of Delav;are will build a 500 ton per day pro-
cessing plant which will physically, chemically and biologi-
cally convert solid wastes into useful products. Incoming
refuse will be shredded and then mechanically separated into
a number of different waste streams. Organic materials,
including sewage sludge will be introduced into a mechanically
driven, aerobic digester where they will be converted to com-
post. Combustibles not suited for composting will be pro-
cessed through a pyrolysis reactor from which fuel gas and
carbon char will be removed. Ferrous and non-ferrous metals,
as well as glass cullet will be recovered from various loca-
tions within the plant. The.plant is projected to produce
310 tons per day of various products having a total market
value of $'l,355. This amounts to $8.70 per ton of waste
processed.
37
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System Economics .
Comparisons of system economics of the various resource
recovery systems discussed above are given in Tables 19 and 20.
As was noted earlier, all such systems operate at a net loss,
even when sale of recovered materials is taken into account.
However/ as showr in Table 20, the net disposal costs of such
systems are geneially less than incinerator systems without
recovery, and ir; somes cases, notably pymlysis systems with
fuel recovery, n< t costs are below landfi.;! costs when operated
at large tonnages per day, i.e., in large urban areas.
CONCLUSIONS
My previous remarks can be summarized succinctly:
A. Resource; recovery is declining because of
adverse economics.
B. There is; renewed interest in recovery because
.of public pressures related to environmental
quality and rising solid waste management costs.
C. Technology has been assembled and is being
demonstrated. The best possibilities are
offered by energy recovery.
D. Real increases in materials recovery will require
incentives of some kind. However, energy
recovery is likely to take place without
incentives.
38
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TABLE 19
4 - '
SUMMARY OF SYSTEM ECONOMICS-'
••
System Investmen'-
Concept ($000)
Incineration
Only 9,299
Incineration
and Residue
Recovery 10,676
Incineration
and Steam
Recovery 11,607
Incineration
+ Steam and
Residue Re-
covery 12,784
Inmneration
j^. Electri-
cal Energy
Recovery 17,717
Pyre lysis 12,334
Composting
(Mechanical) 17,100
Materials
Recovery 11,568
Fuel Recovery "7,577
Sanitary
Landfill
(close-in) 2,472
i
Sanitary
Landfill
(remote) 2,817
Total
Annual Resource
Cost Value
($000) ($000)
2,303 0
2,689 535
3,116 1,000
3,508 1,535
3,892 1,200
3,287 1,661
2,987 1,103
2,759 1,328
1,731 920
770 0
1,781 0
f
abased on municipally-owned 10QO-TPD plant
^Wtife, operating 300 days/year.
Source :
Net
Annual.
Cost
($000)
2,303
2,154
•
2,116
1,973
2,692
1,626
1,884
1,431
811
770
1,781
with 20-year
Net Cost
Per Input
Ton ($)
7.68 •
7.18
7.05
6.57
8.97
5.42
6.28
4.77
2.70
2.57
5.94
economic
Midwest Research Institute.
39
,.....'«*..,
••yir*^""-" "'• *. -* ** " ' "f
-------
NET DISPOSAL COST ($/TON)
8
I
H
i*
O
to
g
-------
E. Intervention to increase recovery is justifiable
on the grounds of environmental protection, and
solid waste cost reduction.
EPA's effort to increase resource r«;covery is directed at
two areas: economic incentives and technical development.
Economics are important because we must riake secondary materials
more competitive with virgin materials.
41
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IX
SOLID WASTE PROCESSING AND DISPOSAL TECHNOLOGY
IN THE UNITED STATES
\
This pr es entat ion va s pr epa red
by WALTER W. LIBERICK, Jr.
for Th:) First U.S.—Japan Governmental Conference
on So lid Waste Managemei it
Tokyo, January 29 and 50, 1973
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PP.OTECTION AGENCY
-------
SOLID WASTE PROCESSING AND DISPOSAL TECHNOLOGY
IN THE UNITED STATES
by Walter W. Liberick, Jr.
Municipal Solid Waste Disposal
SOLID WASTE CHARACTERISTICS. In order to discuss current
collection, prccessing, and disposal practices, let me
describe the virious types and characteristics of the solid
wastes handled in the United States. Trie term solid waste
itself includes garbage, refuse, and other discarded solid
materials resulting from industrial, commercial, and
agricultural operations and from community activities. At
present, our concept of solid wastes does not include water- .
borne solids, dissolved material in domestic sewage, or other
significant pollutants in wastewater effluents or water
resources. In the United States solid wastes are normally
identified by their source of generation (Table 1). Others
are classified by other properties of the material: combustible
and noncombustible, when speaking of thermal processes, hazardous
and nonhazardous, when speaking of potential acute effects if
improperly handled.
Municipal solid waste is the major responsibility of the
local governmental agency. This is the type of waste usually
meant when municipal collection and'disposal services are
*Mr. Liberick is Chief, Disposal Technology Branch,
Processing and Disposal Division, Office of Solid Waste
Management Programs, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
-------
TABLE 1
Kind or
Chorocter
CLASSIFICATION OF REFUSE MAT-RIALS
Composition or Nature
Origin or Source
•
Garbage
Rubbish
or
Mixed Refuse
Ashes
Bulky
V/astes
Street
refuse
Dead
animals
Abandoned
vehicles
Construction
& Demolition
waitcs
Industrial
refuse
Special
.vosles
Animal and
Agricultural
wastes
Sewage
ffeotmenf
residues
VVoitcJ From the preparation, cooking, and
serving of food.
Market refuse, waste from the handling,
itorcgc, end sole of produce ond meats
Combustible
(primarily
organic)
Noncombustible
(primarily
inorganic)
Paper, cordt-oard, cartons
Wood, boxe:., excelsior
Plastics
Kogs, cloth, bedding
Leather, rubber
Grcss, leavns, yard trirnrni igs
Metoli, tin cans, metal :oi Is
Dirt
Stones, bricks, ceramics,
crockery
Gloss, bottles
Other mineral refuse
Residue from fires u«d for coiking, heating
buildir-gs, incinerators, etc.
Large oufo ports, tires
Stoves, refrigerators, other large appliances
Furniture, lorge crates
Trees, branches, palm fronds, stumps, flo'oge
Street sweepings, dirt
Leaves
Colch bosin dirt
Contents of titlcr receptacles
Small animals: cots, dogs, poultry, etc.
Lcrge animals: rxjrscs, cows, etc.
Automobiles, trucks
Lumber, roofiivj, and sheathing scraps
Rubble, broken concrete, piaster, etc.
Conduit, pipe, wire, irsulation, etc.
Solid wosfcs resulting from industrial
processes ond mcnufocfurirvj operations,
such OS: food-processing wastes, boiler
house cinders, wood, plastic, ond metcl
icronl ond shovinns, etc.
Hozordous wostcsr pclfiologieal wosfes,
explosives, rodiooclive materials
Security wastes: confidential documents,
negotiable papers, etc.
Manures, crop residues
Coarse screenings, grit, septic rank iludge,
dewotered sludge
From:
households,
institutions,
and commercial
concerns such
as:
hotels,
stores,
restaurant*,
market;, etc.
From:
streets,
sidewalks,
alleys,
vacant lol», etc.
from:
factories,
power plants,
etc.
Households, •
hospitals,
institutions,
stores,
induslry, etc.
Farms,
feed lots
Sewoge treat-
ment plants,
srptic tanks
Source: Committee on Solid Waste, American Public Works
Association. Refuse Collection Practices. 3d ed.
Chicago, Public Administration Service, 1966. p.15
-------
discussed. Mimicipal solid waste usually means residential
and commercial solid wastes generated vdthin a community.
Typical composition ranges of municipal solid wastes have
been compiled :rom a survey of 21 U.S. cities (Table 2).
In the biological and thermal processes, it is necessary to
know other physical and chemical characteristics (Table 3).
Similar characteristics affect the bio'ogical processes.
Characteristic; of other wastes such s.i agricultural,
industrial, de-.iolition, bulky, etc., ai e more difficult to
generalize. Each is very specific as to its point of
generation, thtj process from which it criginates, quantity,
and quality. Unfortunately, these are the wastes that
probably most affect the efficiencies cf solid waste manage-
ment systems by presenting special handling and disposal
requirements.
-------
TABLE 2
Range in Composition of Residential
Solid Waste in 21 U.S. Cities*
Component
Food vaste
Garden waste
Paper p.roducts
Metals
Glass a. id Ceramics
Plastics, rubber,
and leather
Textile 3
Wood
Rock, cILrt, ash, etc.
"Percent T.cSoi
Low
0.8
0.3
13.0
6.6
3.7
1.6
1.4
0.4
0.2
J.igh
:;6.o
53.3
62.0
14.5
;:3.2
5.8
7.8
7.5
12.5
Dsifcion "by wet "weight
Average
18.2
7.9
43.8
9.1
9.0
3.0
2.7
2.5
3.7
*Unpublished data. Values were determined from
data taken at 21 cities in continental United States
between 1966 and 1969.
TABLE 3
Physical and Chemical Characteristics
Incinerator Solid Waste*
Constituents
Proximate analysis
Moisture
Volatile matter
Fixed carbon
Noncombustibles
Ultiraate anajly sis
Moisture
Carbon
Oxygen
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Sulfur
Noncombustibles
Higher heating value
Percent by weight (as received)
15-35
50-65
3-9
15-25
15-35
15-30
12-24
2-5
0.2-1.0
0.02-0.1
15-25
Btu per Ib (as received)
3,000-6,000
*rrincipally residential-commercial vaste excluding bulky
waste.
-------
IM3IMERATIGN
Incineration Is a major method of solid waste processing
in the United States. It is estimated that approximately 16 million
tons of nunici{-al solid waste were processec last year in 193
conventional municipal incinerators. However, as indicated
previously, 73;: of these facilities do not rset minirnum criteria
for cnvironmeni ally acceptable practices. The major area of
concern is the air pollution aspects of the discharge of these
thermal processes. The information presented here is the
current state of the art of incineration in the United States.
Incineiation is a controlled combustion process that
converts solid, liquid, or gaseous combustible wastes into gases
and into a residue containing little or no c Dnibustible material.
If an incinerator is properly designed and operated, its advantages
can be numerous. Its rajor benefit is realized when it is
centrally located so that collection costs are reduced. 1ms
cost re-auction results from the shorter haul for collection crews
to a discharge point, thereby allowing more route time for the
expensive labor-oriented collection process. These cost savings
must be -considered when evaluating the feasibility of incineration
for a specific solid waste management system. Others claim that
incineration can be justified on its volume reduction function
and the lack of land for sanitary landfill within an economical
haul, distance. Some disadvantages are its high initial capital
-------
investment, operating costs, and the requirement for skilled
labor to operate and maintain the facility. Another often
overlooked disadvantage is the need to also have access to a
sanitary landfill for the residue and the materials that
cannot be handled by the incinerator.
Accurate basic data are needed to siccessfully
determine the feasibility of this process erd to design the
facility to meet all the criteria of an economical, environ-
mentally acceptable process. Normally this information does
not exist so special studies are needed. Irformation needed
includes such things as population projections and densities;
nurrber, type, size, and location of industries and commercial
establishments; quantities £nd characteristics of solid v;astes
being generated; and the identification of those that will be
accepted by the facility. Another important factor is the
identification of all the regulations that apply. These'
regulations are intended to protect the quality of the environ-
ment and the health and safety of the operators. Usually
included ore air and water quality standards, zoning, building
and electrical code stipulations, and occupational health,
safety, and sanitary regulations. Care rr.ust be taken to
identify all local, State, and Federal regulations.
Proper location of the facility increases acceptance
by the public and, as mentioned before, facilitates cost savings
in the collection aspects of solid waste'management, A well-
designed facility increases efficiencies of operations.
6
-------
Proper selection of building materials.and building design
increases its acceptance as a good neighbor and enhances
housekeeping and maintenance.
Public acceptance is a key item in successfully
utilizing the incineration process in a solid waste manage-
ment system. A ^ew considerations for gaining public
acceptance are:
1. Choo;e a site where the facility 'its in
v/ith the existing neighborhood character.
Usually industrial or connercial are; :s. are
more compatible than residential'area:-. "
2. Avoid sites that may cause probler:-s with
other public facilities. Noise and Ir'.ghts
probably would not be acceptable next to a
hospital. High traffic flows make a site next
to a school undesirable.
3. V.here conflict is unavoidable, architectural
design and screening can assist in gaining
acceptability.
^. Maintain an effective public relations
program. Beginning with the planning phase,
make known tlffough the press and public
meetings the site location, rationale for
incineration, and progress of project.
-------
Some physical conditions that are important in design
and site consideration are: foundation conditions, topography,
availability of utilities, building restrictions, drainage, and
meteorologic c editions. Soil and rock det ;mine foundation
requirements. Topography and neteorological condition control
plant layout a icl influence dispersion of c-f luent gases. Proper
utilities are lecessary to adequately operate the facility.
Other considerations are the traffic conditions that
exist and the influence the facility will hive on the area.
A facility of ;his type naturally increases truck traffic
around its loo ition. Provisions should be rade so that access
is available without disrupting nonral'traffic patterns in the
•area. Special consideration also must be p/.ven to traffic
impediments, rixh as bridges with lov; weight limits, restrictive
heights of ove.'•passes, and narrov; pavements. Care should also
be taken that solid waste vehicles reaching the site and waiting
to dunp do no'; have to line up on the surrounding streets. Any
accumulation o:!* such vehicles should be accommodated on site.
Once ';he designer of a solid waste disposal system has
decided to utilize an incineration process, has collected the
necessary data, and has located the proper site, he rrust design
the facility with the necessary appurtenances. Ihe facility can te
broken down into the following functional components: receiving
and handling; furnaces and appurtenances; and effluents and .
their controls.
-------
Tne first functional part of an Incinerator to be
•»
discussed is the receiving and handling area to include all the
facilities and equipment needed to accept, store, and feed the
solid wastes t> the furnace(s).
Weighing facilities are a key item Jn any incinerator
facility. Accirate weight records are utilized to improve
operation, to jrrprove management control, tc assist planning,
and to equitatOy assess any user fees impose 3. Normally permanent
platform scalet are utilized to gather this information, and many
variation are £ variable to record the data, Ihese include
individual manual recordings made by an employee to devices
attached to the scales to transmit reading directly to automatic
data processing equipment (computers).
Qr.ce t-h) delivery vehicles have been weighed,they proceed
to the tipping; ;rea. Tnis area should be large enough to accom-
modate all the rises and types of delivery vehicles utilizing
the facility. Ohe traffic patterns.should be clearly marked to
facilitate the unloading of the delivery vehicles in a safe and
efficient iranner. Ihe floor of this area should be designed to
withstand heavy leads and should slope away from the storage
area or pit.
Floor storage is generally used at small installations
and storage pits are used at larger ones. Regardless of the type
used, they should be large enough to assure 24-hour operation as
well as time for maintenance. Storage pits are usually designed
for 1.5 times the 24-hour capacity of the incinerator.
-------
Solid wastes are charged into the furnaces by several
moans. Snail installations utilize wheeled front-end loaders,
vibrating hoppers and conveyors, or other mechanical means.
Larger installations usually utilize overhead cranes of the
monorail or bridge type. Tne size and type of crane selected
is a function o!" incinerator capacity.
In a baj;ch-fed furnace, the hopper is; separated from
the furnace by .i gate. While a "batch" of solid waste is being
incinerated in ;he furnace the hopper is beiig refilled for the
next charging o." the furnace. This is acccrcplished by opening
the gate which allows the solid waste to drop into the combustion
area of the furnace. Tnis process is repeated in a cycle time
that is adequate for complete corJbustion of f;ach "batch". In a
continuous feed hopper the solid waste is fed uninterruptedly
into the hopper and the corrbusticn chamber of the furnace; this
allows the waste to serve as an air seal on the charing end of
the furnace.
The second functional part of an incinerator to be
discussed is the furnace itself. The follovdng types of furnaces
are commonly utilized to incinerate municipal wastes: vertical
circular, multicell rectangular, rectangular, and rotary kiln.
Most designs are based on a heat release rate of approximately
18,000 Btu per cubic feet of furnace volume per hour, but rates
of 12,?00 to 25,000 Btu per cubic foot per hour have been
utilize'd.
10
-------
The vertical circular furnace Is usually refractory-lined and
batch fed, has a cone type grate over a circular grate, and
utilizes forced ur.derfire air for combustior and to cool the
grates. Although many of these types of installations are in
use it is an old design and many such installations are being
phased out.
The multlcell rectangular type, alsc called the mutual
assistance furr3.ce, contains two or more alls set side by side-
they may be refractory lined or vater coolec . The furnace is
batch fed, utilizes rectangular grates and 1-as a common secondary
combustion charr.cer and a comr.on residue disposal hopper. •
The rectangular furnace is the type most commonly utilized
in new faciliti2s. It is continuously fed end usually has two or
more grates arranged so that the wastes drcf from one level to
the next, agitating the ir.aterial. Different types of grate systems
are employed.
The rotary kiln furnace consists of a rectangular furnace
where initial combustion takes place in a reotangular type
furnace followed by a refractory lined rotating cylinder where
additional combustion takes place. This is followed by final
combustion of the gases and suspended combustibles in a mixing
chamber.
All of these designs are dependent on grate systems which
hold and/or transport the. materials through the furnaces. These
are connonly referred to as drying, ignition, and combustion grates.
11
-------
They are also classified by their mechanical makeup: traveling,
reciprocating, rocking, rotary kiln, circular, vibrating,
oscillating, and reverse recipricating grates; multiple rotating
drums; rotating cones v;ith arms; and other \ariaticns of the
above. Traveling, reciprocating, roclciag rotary kiln, and
circular £rates are the most widely used in the United States.
T.UI-CY temperature, and turbulence ars the main parameters
affecting the i icineration process. The meet efficient incin-
erators are these that optimise these parade bers for the
materials they Deceive. For a material to turn, all moisture
must be driven from it. Different designs accomplish this in
different ways; some use preheated air, some use reflective arches,
Once the moisture is gone, the material mast te raised to its
ignition temperature. This takes place furtier in the furnace
where high temperatures are maintained. Ccirnon temperature
profiles are: intake air-ambient temperature; combustion air
preheated (200 to 300 F); burrdjig gases in the combustion
chamber (2,100 to 2,500 F); gas temperatures at exit of
combustion chamber (1,400 to 1,800 F); and entrance to
stack (1,000 F). V.nen air pollution control devices are used
the gases should be cooled to 500 F to 700 F before they enter
such equipment.
Three basic /r.ethods utilized to control furnace and
flue gas temperatures are the use of excess air, water evap-
oration, and heat exchange. Excess air cools and -mixes the
12
-------
hot gases through a dilution process. 'Water injection into the
hot gas streans cools the gas through the evaporation of the
water and the h;at absorption during the super heating of the
water vapors. Ihis is used en flue gases bu; not generally used
in cooling the furnace. Heat exchange, although not coinmon in
the United Statis, is receiving increasing attention. Heat recovery
and utilization can offset sorne of the expenses of the incineration
process.
Another important consideration is the lefractory lining.
Most refractories are composed of alumina, magnesia,
and silica. Cti^er materials such as chromite or zircon combined
v;ith kaolin have been used. All are classified according to their
physical and ch?rrdcal properties. They are jsually precast as
bricks and held in place with air setting or thermal setting
mortars. Refraotories that expand in all directions require
expansion joints to prevent cracking or structural failure. The
primary combustion zone is the location of most refractory
maintenance. Hie things that affect refractories most are
excessively high teioperaturcs, flame impingement, thermal shock,
slagging, spalling, abrasion, and erosion.
The third functional part of an incinerator is its
effluent control equipment. Improper design and operation of
an incinerator can pollute air, water, and land. An increase
in the enforcement of strict regulations on air-and water
pollution at all levels of Government requires an upgrading
13
-------
of the incinerator process to protect the environment. Items to be
discussed are odor, dust and litter, fly ash, process water, and
stack emissions.
Odor, dust, and litter are basically scheduling and housekeeping.
If highly prutresible wastes are processed as soon as possible, odor
problems can be avoided. In case a major breakdown occurs, provisions
should be made for removal of unprocessed wastes to an alternate
disposal facility. Dust, which can be a problem in the dumping and
charging area, can be controlled by water sprays, but minimum amounts
of water should be used; otherwise incineration efficiencies will be
affected. Litter is strictly a housekeeping function, and the
operating plan should provide for manpower necessary to keep the
plant and site litter-free.
Fly ash is a byproduct of the incineration process. Fly ash
includes ash, cinder, mineral dust, and soot, plus charred paper
and other partislly burned materials. Most particles range in
size from 120 to less than 5 microns. The inorganic fraction is
usually the major constituent and consists mostly of oxides of
silicon, aluminum, calcium, and iron. Care must be take in the
handling and disposal of these materials to avoid dust problem and
leaching of water soluble components.
Almost all incinerators utilize water for quenching residue.
In addition, some plants use water for wet bottom expansion
chambers, for cooling charging chutes, for sluicing fly ash
14
-------
for conveying residue, and for air pollution control.
Ihe quantity depends on plant design, efficiency of operation,
and whether water is recirculated. One study of a 300-ton-per-
day plant showed a requirement of approximately 2,000 gallons
per ton of solJd waste processed without recirculation, and
approximately 5>5 gallons-per ton with water
recirculation. As a rule of thumb, a plant that does not
recirculatc th > water it uses for residue qi enching and ash
conveying will need 1,000 to 2,000 gallons <•£ water per ton o£ solid
waste processed. Studies have shown that incineration process
water contains suspended solids, inorganic materials in solution,
and organic ma ;erials that contribute to biochemical and chemical .
oxygen demand 'Table !l). If the waste process waters cannot be* ••
discharged to i sanitary sewer, the incinerator plant should •
be equipped v;l;h suitable means for primary clarification, pH
adjustment, and, if necessary, biological treatment to meet
local standards.
Air pollution control has been identified as a major
problem in the incineration process. Particulate material and
gaseous emissions are the effluents of most concern.
Important properties of participate matter from the
standpoint of control are quantities, particle-size distribution,
specific gravity, electricity resistivity, and chemical conposition.
Values of from 10 to 60 pounds of fly ash per ton of solid wastes
processed have been reported. Particle size distribution and
15
-------
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17
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specific gravity of this material determine the level of
sophistication of air pollution control equipment required
to meet stack emission requirements. Normally particles of
larger size anc higher specific gravity can oe collected in
simple inertia] devices, such as settling chambers and
cyclones. Fine light materials require more sophisticated
devices, such ts high-energy v;et scrubbing, fabric filtration,
or electrostatic precipitation. Typical emissions, from three
continuous-fee*i refractory plants have been compared (Table 5).
TABLE 5
Prope-rties of Partlculates Leaving Furnace
Physical analysis
Specific gravity
(gm/cc)
Bulk density (Ib/cf)
Loss ol j.nnition. at
750 C CO
Size distribution
(% by v;cight)
< 2 p
< 4 p
< 6 it
< 8 u
< 10 'p
< 15 p
< 20 p
< 30 p
Installation
1
(250 TPD)
2.65
-
18.5
13.5
16.0
19.0
21.0
23.0
25.0
27.5
30,0
2
(250 TPD)
2.70
30.87
8.15
I
14.6
19.2
22.3
24.8
26.8
31.1
34.6
40.4
3
120 TPD)
3.77
9.4
30.4
23.5
30.0
33.7
36.3
38.1
42.1
45.0
50.0
18
-------
Electrical resistivity is of interest when electrostatic
precipitators are considered for participate collection.
Ohe optimum range for efficient operation lies between 10 ^
and 10 Olft-CK. lypical resitivity temperature curves of
entrained parti:oilates leaving large continuous-feed,
refractory-line 3 furnace incinerators are shx-.n in Figure 1,
FIGURE 1
K>V
O 100 200 300
-------
Next for consideration are the gaseous conbustion
products. Over !-)9 percent of flue gases are carbon dioxide,
oxygen, nitrogen, and v,:ater vapor. But these are not considered
air pollutants. However, trace gases present in the effluent
can cause air pollution either because of. their odor; their
direct effect or. plants, anlrrals, and property; or their inter-
actions v;ith components of the ambient air that lead to the
formation of uncesirable secondary compounds. There are seven •
gas emissions o: concern [Table 6).
TABLE 6
TRACK CAS CONSTITUENTS IN INCINERATOR EFFLUENT
Gaseous emissions
(Ib/ton)
Al
Aldehydes
Sulfur oxides
Hydrocarbonst
Organic acids;;;
Carbon nonoxide
Nitrogen oxides
Ainraonia
Typical municipal
solid waste*
23.6 X 10~4
0.8
0.51.
2.7
Mostly branches and
twigs (no garbage)
1.1
1.9
1.4
0.6
2.1
0.3
^Typical municipal solid v:aste: Converted from reported units
in pounds per 1,000 Ib flue gas at 50 percent excess air to
pounds per ton solid waste based on "typical refuse", as
established by Kaiser.
tHydrocarbcn expressed as methane.
tOrganic acids expressed as acetic acid.
20
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After the potentially troublesome emission components are
identified, the objectives of mission control must be established.
Some objectives are legally enforceable as standards and others are
established as criteria. The most prevalent emission standard
covering municipal solid waste incineration is in the regulation of
particulates (Table 7). Other contaminants j.re below present or
anticipated criteria.
Knowing vhat standards must be met, wh^t types of materials
are to be accented, and what subsequent emis ;ions will be, one must
evaluate available control devices and exanune their relative
efficiencies. Because particulate emissions are clearly regulated,
this discussior will emphasize those devices directed at particulate
control. Some cost data based on plants in ';he 150-to-200 ton-per-
day range are presented.
The oldest and simplest form of particulate collection is the
dry or wet bottom settling chamber. These systems have an efficiency
of from 10 to IS percent by weight. This concept by itself is
becoming obsolete because it cannot meet emission standards.
Another device, the wetted baffle-spray system, has shown
efficiencies of from 10 to 53 percent by weight. These systems
have been used in half of the incinerators installed since 1957.
Their installed cost is approximately $.02 to $0.04 per cubic foot
per minute of gas at the collector inlet temperature of 1,800 F.
These systems by themselves are not capable of meeting existing
emission standai'ds.
21
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Cyclones and multiple cyclones have been used in 20
percent of the i.unicipal incinerators built since 1957.
Unpublished dat-i indicate efficiencies in the range of 60 to
65 percent by weight. Installation costs arc; in the range
of $0.12 to $0.25 per cubic foot per minute of gas treated.
These installations have approached meeting emission standards.
Another 20 percent of the municipal, incinerators built
since 1957 have used wet scrubbers. "They differ from wetted
baffle collectors principally in that captura of the participate
is accomplished by direct contact with sprayed water droplets
rather than impact on a wetted surface. These systems possess
the potential efficiencies of 9^ to 96 percent by weight.
Because they operate below the dew point of nany trace corrosive
constituents ir incinerator flue gases, wet scrubbers systems
require corrosion-proof construction. Costs range from $0.25
to $1.25 per cubic foot per minute of gas treated. This system
is being utilized to meet existing emission standards.
Electrostatic precipitators operate on the principal of
charging.the particulate and collecting it on an oppositely
charged electrode. The electrical properties of the particulates,
moisture content of the gas stream, and teirperature of the gas
stream affect the precipitation operation. Corrosion can be a
problem in this device. Efficiencies of from 96 to 99-6 percent
by weight have been achieved. Electrical power requirements
range frcri 200 to JIOO watts per 1,000 cubic feet per minute of
gas treated. Inlet temperatures are usually in the range of
23
-------
305 F to 700 F. Costs range from' $0.85-to $1.^5 per cubic foot
per minute of gas treated. This system has been utilized to
meet existing emission standards.
Frabic filters literally filter suspended particulates
from the cas str-eam. Efficiencies in other applications have
been shov.n to b.-.- 99 plus percent by weight. Their utilization
is always based on considerations regarding temperature, moisture
content of the :;as stream, pressure drop characteristics of
filter iredia, and the service life of the filter medium. Fabric
such as fiber glass and high-tenperature syrthetics are avail-
able for continuous operating temperatures cf 550 F. If treated
fiberglass bags are used, costs for this system are in the range
of $0.75 to $1.50 per cubic foot per minute of gas treated.
This system is not extensively used at this time.
In surnn-ary, Tables 8 and 9 indicate collection efficiencies
required to meet various emission standards and the iraxir.um demon-
strated capability of various collectors.
TABLE 8
COLLECTION EFFICIENCY REQUIRED TO MEET
VARIOUS EMISSION LIMITATIONS*
Code requirement
(Ib particulate/1,000 Ib flue gas
O.S5f/l, 000-7 @ 50% excess air
0.650/1,0003 (3 50% excess air
0.20f-/3,000:/ Q 507, excess air
Approximate % efficiency*
to meet code
74
80
94
*Bascd on 32 Ib of fly ash per ton of solid waste charged
entering the collector.
24
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TABLE 9 '
MAXUiUM DEMONSTRATED CAPABILITY OF
VARIOUS COLLECTORS
Type of Collector
Settling chambers
Wetted baffles
Cyclone collectors
Direct impacticn scrubbers
(wet "'scrubber;;)
Electrostatic precipitators
Bag filters
Maximum demonstrated
efficiency (%)
34
53
70-80
94-96
99
99+
The fir.il item for discussion of incineration of'municipal
solid waste is that of costs with an identification of what items
are included in owning and operating an incinerator facility.
Major construction items include the building, ramps, tipping
area, storage pit, hoppers, offices, errploys'2 facilities, piping
and chimney. Ksjor equipment costs include scales, cranes,
furnaces, blowers, air pollution control devices, process water
treatment, residue removal systems, instrumentation, and flue
and duct equipment. Miscellaneous items include site preparation,
roadways and sidewalks, landscaping and seedings, furniture and
fixtures, machine shop equipment, and tools. Operating costs
include; labor-salaries, vacation and holiday pay, sick and
injury pay, training, fringe benefits, and pensions; utilities—
water, electricity, gas or fuel oil; miscellaneous— materials
and supplies, contract work; overhead - management; and owner-
ship costs - depreciation and interest for planning purposes
25
-------
Current estimates indicate an average cost of $10,000 per ton
«r>
of daily capacity can be expected for capital expenditures
(10 to 20 percent for air pollution control equipment) and
operating expenses of $5-00 to $15-00 per ten of solid waste
processed.
Several advanced thermal processing systems are in
the research,
-------
ignited by a pilot burner and secondary .air is Injected into
a tangential opening downstream from the material entrance.
Ash p-cirticles are scooped off the incinerator's rear wall and
guided into a c/clone separator where they sre collected for
disposal.
Electricity generation utilizing municipal solid waste
as a fuel is also being investigated. The t-/o concepts being
investigated bosh use shredded municipal solid wastes as fuel.
One system (CFu-'lOO) utilizes corbustion gasss to drive
turbines. The :thcr uses shredded solid waste as a supple-
mental fuel in a coal fired boiler (10 perceit solid waste).
Pyrolysis is another concept ercergir5 as a technically
economically} and environmentally ac^eptablj process.
None of these process has been in Deration long enough
to produce sufficient data to make an economical, environmental,
or technical evaluation of the concepts.
27
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BALD:G .
Baling is the process of applying pressure to loose,
compressible iraterials within an enclosure and binding the
compacted rass v:nile it is in a confined conoition. Application
of this technology in the United States has been limited to two
full-scale operations; San Diego, California: and Minneapolis-
St. Paul, FinnoEota. As requirements are fuj-ther defined for
increased densS 1 ies of solid v:aste such as a- >e desirable for
rail transfer o.1 other high-pay loads, this ".echnology will
need to be expai.ded. Some claim that the saving in landfill
space alone justifies the added costs incurred, but this
premise cannot be evaluated until more opera ;ing experience
and associated oconcrnic analyses have taken olace. The
infcrr.aticn presented here represents claim-si results from
the two facilities previously identified.
The San Diego, California, facility consists of a combined
shredding and baling facility. A feasibility study recommended
that this combination be utilised to get maximum compaction with
the baler chosen. Both the shredder and the baler have been
designed and irass produced for purposes other than processing
municipal solid waste. The facility is designed to process
150 tons of such waste in one six-hour working shift. The
pretreatment provided by a hamnermill yields a material with a
max imam of five-inch particle size. The baler is a heavy-duty,
continuous, horizontal type that can bale a minimum of 25 tons
28
-------
an hour at an e,verage density of greater than 65 pounds per
cubic foot. Binding is required to maintain the integrity
of the bales. Tnis process is estimated to cost $2.80 per
ton of municipil solid waste. The bales are then trucked
to a sanitary Dandfill.
Tne Miineapol5s-St. Paul facility ccnsists of a
high-density, 1 hree-stage, hydraulic baler. Tne initial
stroke which i:. made horizontally, gathers the charged
solid waste in.o the tamping chamber. The lam face then
becomes one of the sides of the compression ehairJber. The
second stroke :.s a vertical one, and the ran: face compresses
the material irto a chamber (36" x 35" x 70"). The ram
face becomes the top of the chamber. Ihe trird conpression
stroke operate: • horizontally and at right angles to the first
two rains. It ccm-presses the material into the final bale
size of 36" x 56" x a variable length (approximately 48" to
5^"), Tni:; length is dependent on the quantity and charac-
teristic or the materials charged. The last stroke is held
against the compressed vraste for eight seconds to destroy the
"memory" characteristics of the baled materials. At this
pressure the bales do net require binding to maintain their
integrity. Cycle time is 90 seconds, the ram face pressure
is approximately 2800 pounds per square inch, and a density
of 60 to 70 pounds per cubic foot is claimed to be achieved.
Because this installation is privately owned no detailed cost
figures for its operation are known.
29
... . .. IL_.
-------
SIZE REDUCTION _ . . ' . . . -
Size reduction is defined as processing which reduces
the size of in fluent irate-rials by separating them into two or
more sub unit:5 Applications of this process in the solid waste
processing field have been very limited. However, demands for
a more hor.ccencus raterial for special fuel requirement in new
applications ol thermo processes and resourc? recovery separation
systems have necessitated an increased interest in size reduction
equipment. Othar applications such as processing bulky wastes
so that they ocn be handled by conventional disposal systems
and processing lormal waste to chang'2 its physical condition so
that it can be disposed of in special land disposal sites
without daily c Tver have also necessitated further investigation
of size reduction technology. The following information represents
the current sta -e of the art in size reduction of municipal solid
wastes. . . •
There are ten basic types of size reduction equipment
available; crushers, cage disintegrators, shears, shredders,
cutters and chippers, rasp mills, drum pulverizers, disk mills,
wet pujpers-, and hairmsrmilis. Currently,.only hammermills and
wet pulpers are being utilized in processing municipal solid
waste.
Crushers are normally relatively slow-speed devices that
apply coirpression forces to process friable materials, such as
30
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rock and coal. Although not used now there may be limited
potential for utilization for bulky and demolition v.'astes.
Cage disintegrators use high-speed contrarotating
cages to fragment input raterials. This equipment is
usually only effective with brittle input material. This
limits its use with mixed municipal solid waste but it rray
have sane application as a secondary processing device to
reduce the size of brittle materials segregated by a resource
recovery system
Shears are single cut devices vMch have been utilized
on bulky wastes, such as automobile bodies. Their projected
application is in a pretreatment stage for ruterials too large
for other size -.-eduction equipment to handle.
Cutters and chippers are usually of two types, those
that pierce and tear or those that cut the input materials.
(The cutting type is ccnrr.only used to process paper or cardboard),
Neither of the types now being manufactured is suitable for
processing mixed municipal solid waste becax:se they are subject
to excessive wear, large chippers, such as those used to
handle brush, nay have some application but their through-put
capacity is usually small.
A mill is a large cylindrical machine having a bottom
grate fitted with openings and rasping pins. A rotor forces
the wastes over the pins and through the outlet holes. These
machines have been utilized in composting plants and have
31
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effectively processed municipal solid vaste. Bulky items and
other itenvo not easily "torn" are rejected. None of these
irachir.es is currently being used.
A drum 'pulverizer is a rasp mill with a rotating grate.
The utilization of such ir^chines in lojnicipa] solid waste pro-
cessing is considered to be limited.
Disk nd'-.ls process materials by tearjng then between two
flat surfaces rotating at high speeds. Tney are limited by the
size of the inpit material (less than two inches), and this will
restrict their use to secondary size reduction after pretreatment
of the solid war.tcs.
Wet pulpers process materials by introducing them into
a v;ater slurry <;hat has a high-speed water vortex. Ihe materials
are held in suspension in the vortex and repeatedly Impact on
bars attached to the inside cf the pulper. Vet pulpers are very
suitable for wastes containing fibrous mterials and their
application so _'ar has been prlirarily in fiber recovery processes.
Hanirermills are the most frequently used devices employed
in municipal solid waste processing. They vary in size from the
laboratory model to those that are large enough to accept
autcnvobile bodies. A hamnerrnill consists of a rotating shaft
with protruding "harnDers" enclosed in a heavy casing. Sometimes
fixed plates or bars are irounted on "he interior of the casing.
When the waste raterials are fed into the device, they are
shredded until they are srrall enough to-'exit through discharge
32
•• -gar
-------
openings in the bottom. All but one de'sign have horizontal
shafts. In the vertical-shaft configuration, the enclosure
decreases in cross-sectional area from top to the bottom
resulting in progressive size reduction.
Since 1965 the Office of Solid V.'aste Fanagernent
Programs has sicported a number of demonstration grants or
pilot projects involving size—reduction equipment. On the
basis of the oj erating experience gained v;e relieve that
size reduction of solid waste is within the capability of.
the current stcte of the art. Some con:r;on problems of all
installations zre:
1. Materials handling seems to be x;he major
difficulty in operating the irachiner- at optimal
levels because they can process larger volumes
at higi'er rates than the handling mechanisms can
feed in and remove.
2. Abrasiveness also causes extreme problems
and increased operating expenses. Solid wastes
contain lai^ge quantities of paper wMch is very
abrasive, as are the harder metals
-------
Some common benefits of the processing are:
1. Some Increase in density is achieved by the
easier eompactability of the processed material.
2. The processed v.'astes are more aesthetically
pleasinr in appearance.
3- Ihe more homogenous mixture produced enhances
the possibility of using it as a fuel, in a resource-
recover/ system.
k. Wasies otherwise hard to handle, nuch as bulky
and demolition items, end up in a condition in
which tiey can be easily handled.
Next we vdll consider the criteria to use in deciding
what type of size reduction equipment should be used to process
the type of wastes that will be accepted. A common parameter
for making this determination is the horsepower rating of the
different machines. An Envircnr.ental Protection Agency
contractor suggests the follov.'img guidelines:
1. 2:;0 HP-- Light wastes such as paper, cardboard,
bottles, cans, garbage, and lawn trimmings.
2. 600 HP-- Normal packer truck wastes including
small appliances, some pieces of furniture, lumber
and small conimercial scrap, bicycles, car tires,
and tree trJrmngs.
3> 1,000 HP-- Bulky v.'astes, such as large appliances,
bed springs, mattresses and rugs, larger tree
brush, larger pieces of .lumber.
34
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l\, 2 000 HP-- Heavy wastes, such as automobiles
(without engines), demolition rubble, tree trunks.
5. 3,OCO HP-- Entire automobiles and scrap metal.
.Another proposed criterion is to compare total horse-
power as it relates to output. It is recorr.mc:n:Ied that for
processing nonnil municipal solid wastes, the equiprrent should
have a rating of 20-30 KP per ten hour.
Costs associated with these types of machines have not
been thoroughly documented, but the available information places
thera ill a range of $3.50 per ton for municipal solid waste to
$7.00 per tone for bulky wastes in one eight-hour shift at
medium size (153 ton/hr) installations.
-------
SANITARY INFILL • . ' . ,
Sanitary landfilling is the only environmentally
acceptable ultiriate disposal nsthod available in the United
States. Unfortunately, as previously indicated, only
approximately 6 percent of all land disposal sites are
sanitary landfills. More than 90 percent of qy county's
solid v:aste is ciroctly disposed of on land, most of it in
an unsatisfactory manner at an open dump. Opsn burning and
durrping confcribite to v;ater and air pollution and provide
food harborage, md breeding grounds for inserts, birds,
rodents, and oth^r carriers of disease. These dumps are
also unsightly and very often lessen the value of nearby
land and residences. Increased concern for our environment is,
however, resulting in pressures from all levels of Government
and the general public to eliminate this practice. Many aspects
of the U.S. iiivironrnental Protection .Agency's activities are
directed at re-placing this practice with the acceptable
alternative, the sanitary landfill. Efforts include refinement
of sanitary landfill technology, providing solid v;aste disposal
managers with the information needed for implementation, and
the promotion of strong regulator^' and enforcement activities.
Sanitary landfillins is an engineered method of disposing
of solid v;astes on land by spreading them in thin layers, compacting
them to the sirsallest practical volume and covering tliem v/ith soil
36
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each working day in a manner that protdcts the environment. Ihis
is not only usually the most economic method of disposal, it is
also an excellent way to enhance the value or? otherwise unsuitable
or rarginal land. The major disadvantage is the problem of
acquiring suitable sites because the general public too often
incorrectly identify the sanitary landfill with the open dump.
The information presented here is the curren; state of the art
of sanitary lan-lfilling in the United States.
Before liscussing sanitary landfill rtesign and operating
concepts a thorough understanding is needed 3f the physical,
chemical, and biological processes with thei-> resultant effect
on solid waste when it is deposited, compacted, and covered on
the land. Solid wastes deposited in a landfill degrade chemically
o
and biologically to produce solid, liquid, aid gaseous products.
Ferrous and other metals are oxidized and organic and inorganic
wastes arc utilized by microorganisms through aerobic and
anaerobic systhesis. Liquid waste products of microbial degradation,
such as organic acids, increase the chemical activity within the
fill. Food wastes degrade quite readily, while other materials,
such as plastics, rubber, glass, and some demolition wastes, are
highly resistant to decomposition. So:r.e factors that affect
degradation are the heterogeneous character of the wastes, their
physical, chemical, and biological properties, the availability
of oxygen and moisture within the fill, temperature, microbial
populations, and type of synthesis. ':
37
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Biological activity v.lthin the'landfill generally
follows a set pattern. Solid waste initially decomposes
aercbically, bu-; as the oxygen supply is exhausted, facultative
and anaerobic microorganisms predominate and produce methane
gas, which is odorless and colorless. Temperatures rise to the
high i::osophilic--lov: thenr.cphilic range (60 K to 150 F) because
of mlcrcbial activity. Characteristic products of aerobic
decomposition o:' v;aste are carbon dioxide an 1 water. Typical
products of anaerobic deccrrrposition of waste are methane, carbon
dioxide, water, organic acids, nitrogen, and arnmonia.
Leachate, v/hich is defined as a liqu:.d that has percolated
through solid v.'c.ste and has extracted dissolved or suspended
materials frcin :"t, can be produced by greuncuater or infiltrating
surface water moving through a landfill. The dissolved and
suspended materials (contaminants) carried in leachate are
dependent on solid waste composition and on the simultaneously
occurring physical, chemical, and biclogical activities within
the fill. Soxe of the chemical and biological characteristics
common to leachate are shown in Table 10. The data represent
the range of values encountered over a six-month period.
The leachate characteristics presented in Table 10 may
or may not be "typical" since the quantity and quality of
leachate produced depend on many variables. Probably the most
critical pararr^ter affecting leachate quality and quantity is
simply the quantity of water flowing through the solid waste.
38
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Generally, the rr.ore water that flows through the wastes, the
more pollutants will be leachated out. If loss water flov;s
through, the pollutants tend to be rcore concentrated, but the
rate at which tiey ai« transmitted to the surrounding environment
will be less. Of course, if no water is allov;ed to flov; through
the wastes, leashate problems cannot develop. Leachate quantities
can be prevented or minimised by preventing '-rater from entering
the fill to the greatest extent practicable, but if leachate
production is i isvitable, water pollution problerus can be
prevented thrcupi sound engineering and. design of the sanitary
landfill site. ' • • '
As with leachate, a more thorough understanding has been
developed of gas generation, its characteristics and variations
with tir.e, and the potential dangers of its movement. As
discussed earlier, gas is produced naturally when solid v;astes
decompose. Tr.e quantity generated in a landfill and its
composition depend on the types of solid waste that are decomposing.
Tne rate of gas production is governed solely by the level at
which micrcblal decomposition is occurring in the solid waste;
when decomposition ceases, gas production also ends. Tne rate
of gas production is, therefore, affected by the amount of
moisture and the temperature within the fill because, as mentioned
earlier, these factors affect the rate of decomposition.
limited studies have been -made on the varying composition
of landfill gas over a period of time (Table 11). As can be seen
39
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» - -. *
COMPARISON OF
_ LEACHATE
TABLE 10
CHARACTERISTICS OF LANDFILL
AND DOMESTIC SEWAGE
Concentration *
Constituent
Total Suspended Solids
_ _ Conductivity
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Biochemical Oxygen Den1 and
(5-day BOD)
. pH
Alkalinity .(as Ca C03)
Acidity (as Ca CO-j)
Total Phosphate
•Total Nitrogen
Chloride
Calcium
Magnesium
Iron
Manganese
Leachate from Landfill
Six to Twelve f-'onths Old*
Low High
-— . 58 1064
6400 9700
-13450 23276
7446 10690
5.1 5.8
675 4979
1416 2316
19 46.3
293.8 422.4
422 - 1109
841 1950
132 272
207 330
74 131
* Conductivity in nricrornhos/cni, pH in units, all others in mg/1
+ Boone County Research Facility - Cell No. 1. Samples taken w
January 3, "1972 to June 26, 1972.
• ++ Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., l.'astewater Enqineerino: Collection,
Typical
Domestic
Sewage J+
200
.700
500
200
8.0
TOO
20
10
40
50-
50
30
<0.1 ~
<0.-1
eekly from
Treatment, Disposal.
McGraw-Hill Book Company: New York, 1972.
40
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TABLE 11
LANDFILL GAS COMPOSITION
Time Interval since start
of cell completion .
(months)
Average percent by volume
N2
CO,
CH,
0-3
3-6
6-12
12-18
18-24
24-30
30-36
36-42 '
-.42-48
5.2
3.8
0.4
1.1
0.4
0.2
1.3
0.9
0.4
76
65
52
•53
52
46
50
51
5
21
29
40
47
48
51
47
48
*Herz, R. C., Stone, R. Special Studies of A Sanitary Landfill,
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1970
41
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fron the data, decomposition gas Is initally canposed promarily
of carbon dioxide, but hydrogen sulfide and ammonia may also
be present in s:nrill amounts. Very little methane is produced
during the early stages of decomposition bec.iuse little anaerobic
systhesis prevails. As the biological process goes anaerobic,
methfzne becomes one of the major decomposition products.
These gises are important design considerations because
nethane can explode (at concentrations between 5 and 15 percent
in air) and beciuse miner-all nation of ground'rater can occur if
carbon dioxide lissolves and forms carbonic acid. Methane is
particularly irnx>rtant since it will migrate tov/ard the atmosphere
(its specific gravity is less than that of air). More importantly,
in cases where ;he landfill has a relatively ojnpGi-ineaMe cover,
the Methane wil. try to vent into the atmosphere by moving
laterally throujji a more permeable material; in doing so, methane
can accumulate in nearby buildings, in sewer lines, or in other
similar enclosures. Therefore, the gas migration potential must
be considered ar.d controlled as necessary In site 'selection,
design, and operation.
The increased knov;lc-dge regarding the theoiy of gas and
leachate generation and migration has clear'ly affected the
engineer's approach to sanitary landfill site, selection and
design. Emphasis is now being placed on those factors that
affect the quantity of water moving into the fill and the
migration of contaminants (leachate and gas) from the fill
42
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to the surrounding environment. Ihcrefore, a potential site is
evaluated first on Its ir.-erits to control water influent and
contaminant effluent and secondly on its ability to provide for
an efficient operation.
As a result, clir.£tology, surface ani subsurface hydrology,
soil composition, geolcgy, and proxrnity to ^roundwater supplies
end buildings a'.'o the rain characteristics cf a particular site
which must be considered during the site selaction and design
stages. Maul distance, site accessibility, topography, land
zoning, and local environmental regulations are also important
considerations.
Ihe design of a sanitary landfill should descrj.be in
detail all ernplDyee and operational facilities; operational
procedures arid their sequence; equipment, ari manpower requlrc-
nents; the pollution potential and methods of control; the
final grade and planned use of the completed fill; and cost
estimates for acquiring, developing, and operating the
proposed site.
Nomal facilities include fencing, roads, scales,
employee sanitary facilities, equipment storage and maintenance
buildings.
Operational procedures and their sequence plans are
dependent on the method of landfilling utilized. There are
basically two sanitary landfilling methods, the trench and
43
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area. At tiirss, combinations of those methods are used. In
the trench method the wastes are spread and compacted in an
excavated trer.ci. Spoil material from the excavation is used
for cover. This method is best utilized in flat and gently
rolling land where there is no danger of intercepting ground-
v:ater during ocavaticn. It is also more appropriate for low
volume sites. In the area method, the waste is spread and
compacted on 1r>e natural surface of the grouid. Cover is
moved from other locations on the site, normally from as close
to the working face as possible. This method is utilized in
all types of s:tes from the flat or gently sloping to the
ravine and val" ey types,
In both methods, cells are constructed by spreading
the solid wast'-s, compacting them, and covering them at the
end of each working day. The cell size is determined by the
daily amounts of v;astes delivered, the size of the working
face, ?ind the height and thickness of lifts. Restricting the
size of the working face v;ill minimize the amount of covering
effort and cover material utilized. Cell thickness is usually
limited to eight feet, but lift heights of up to 30 feet are
comnon in large landfills. These measurements are left to the
discretion of the designer for the optimum utilization of
the site and cover material.
44
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An operating plan to schedule and sequence all operations
from the delivery of the first lead of waste to the last is
required. This plan should include: (1) hours of operation;
(2) measuring jrccedures; (3) traffic flow sid unloading procedures;
(*}) designation of specific disposal area and methods of handling
and compacting various solid wastes; (5) placement of cover
material; (6) naintcnance procedures; (7) adverse weather
operations; (&' fire control; and (9) litter control.
There j s a wide variety of equipmenl: available for
sanitary landfill operations. Types selected will be dependent
on the types ar d quantities of wastes to be landfilled as v.'ell
as the rr.ethcd cf operation. Since this accounts for a major
part of the cirital and operating costs, extreme care should be
taken in the selection. Examples of types of equipment are the
crawler tractoi, rubber-tired irachines, steel-wheeled compactors,
scrapers, and draglines. Tables 12 and 13 indicate performance
characteristics and recommended landfill needs.
Pollution control is the rr.ost important responsibility
of the designer. Proper site investigation should provide the
necessary infortr.aticn to deterr.iine the level1, of control necessary.
The design and construction of required appurtenances to protect
the environment are engineering judgment requirements. This can
range from no controls to impervious liners with subsequent
treatment of gas and/or leachate. The designer is asnigned the
responsibility of protecting the surface and groundwater from
45
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pollution (withi.n existing standards). * Areas of concern were
discussed previously in the description of the decoroposition
process. In many States in the United States this is further
evaluated by a plan review for a permit to operate a sanitary
landfill. This involves the regulatory agency in the site
selection and design of sanitary landfills.
Final grades and ultimate use should be provided for in
the plans. Extensive building on completed sanitary landfills
is not reccmmenied. An attractive alternative is using them
for recreational purposes. If buildings are constructed, care
must be taken to protect then from gas migration and from
settlement.
A wide -"ange of costs for sanitary landfills has been
reported. The costs usually cover: land, 5ite development,
operating, equip;rent, landscaping, and maintenance. Land
costs'are extreniely variable but with proper utilization, this
is normally considered a small part of the overall disposal
costs of the entire system. Experience has shown overall costs
to range from $0.75 to more than $5.00 per ton of solid waste.
disposed of. Wide variations result from different methods
used as well as the size of the fill. Costs for small landfills
(less than 50,000 tons per year) run from $1.25 to more than
$5.00 per ton. Larger landfills have operated for $0.75 to
$2.00 per ton. Special pollution control appurtenances can
further vary these costs, but more information is needed in this
t
• 'area.
' 46
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Special Solid Wastes
HOSPITAL WASTES. Hospital wastes are handled and disposed of in a
variety of ways. The information here is a summary of a survey
conducted at some 80 hospitals throughout the United States.
.Plastic bags were most frequently utilized to store
generated solid wastes and collection was usvally accomplished
manually utiliz: r.g push carts. Gravity chutt s were a part of
the collection : ysteni at a third of the installations. Central
storage was usually located outside utilizing a variety of
containers; bulk containers, srriall cans, improvised receptacles,
and sor.etLT.es nc receptacles.
Cn-site incineration of rubbish and biological materials
was used by a predominate nurri)er of institutions, but grinding
of garbage ctnd discharging into a sewer was a cordon practice.
Special typo hospital wastes, such an radioactive wastes',
received special treatment. Ihis consisted of storage for
decay £jid subsequent discharge with other naterials,
A mean of 9 pounds of waste per patient per day was
reported. Tnis consisted priinarily of rubbish and garbage.
Biological material accounted for only a small portion of the
total weight.
Sugnifleant public health implications were reported
about the observed practices. Care should be taken to see
that containers are properly sealed v;hen handled. Carts should
be constructed so that they can be easily sanitized. Routing
47
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of collection pickups within the hospital should be carefully
planned to avoid cress centmninaticn. In rnost cases poorly
qualified persennel are required to handle tiese wastes. Proper
training is necessary to assure safe handling and disposal.
Proper separation of contaminated and normal solid
wastes--with prc:er on-site incineration of contaminated v/aste
and the handling of other v:astes in other disposal systems
are acceptable.
48
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Summary
The discussions presented on the processing and disposal
of solid waste represent the current state of the art in the
United States. I have not mentioned processing as it relates
to resource re;overy, since this important aspect of solid
waste managemeit will be discussed by another speaker.
Unfortunately [ cannot discuss the performance of the majority
of U.S. processing and disposal facilities. As mentioned, mosl
of the incinerators and land disposal ;ites (dumps) do not meel
environmentally acceptable standards. The U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) is aggressively attempting to effect
the change frou unacceptable to acceptable practices. One
specific item in the solid waste disposal field is the
establishment of Federal Guidelines for incinerators and
sanitary landfills. These guidelines are in the development
stage at this time. When promulgated, compliance will be
mandatory for all Federal agencies and recommended for other
incinerator and sanitary landfill owners and operators. Both
guidelines are performance oriented with requirements identifi
identified for the protection of the environment.
EPA is appr:ao'ching all environmental problems: by
apprising the general public and administrators at all levels
of government that inefficient solid waste management is a .
core issue in the ecological crisis; by developing new solid
waste management tbchnology while promoting the use of existing
49
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technology to Meet environmental, s-tandards; by enforcing
existing standards v/ithin the EPA legal authority and
developing new ones; by promoting more aggressive enforcement
activities by other levels of governnici t having greater legal
authorities; and by promoting the establishment of needed
legal authority on all levels of goverrment to protect this
Nation's citizens and their environment.
50
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REFERENCES-
American Public Works Association. Municipal refuse
disposal. 3d ed. Chicago, Public Administration Service,
1970. 538 p.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Solid waste
management glossary. Washington., U.S. Government
Printing Office, 1972. 20 p.
Liberick, 1,". W. , K. J. Hanley, and D. G. Fenn. Technologic
advances in sanitary landfilling. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. Unpublished manuscript, 1972.
Baker, R. ].. Environmental assessment of municipal
incinerate: s. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Unpublishec manuscript, 1972.
Iglar, A. 1. and R. G. Bond. Hospital solid waste disposal
in community facilities. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. Unpublished research grant (no. EC-00261-04) ,
May 1971.
DeMarco, J. , D. J. Keller, J. Leckm-nn, and J. L. Newton.
Incineratoi guide! ines- - 1969 . Publicn Health Service
Publication No, 2012. Washington, U.S. Government
Printing Office, 1969. 98 p. •
Brunner, D. R., and D. J. Keller. Sanitary landfill design
and operation. Washington, U.S.. Government Printing Office,
1972. 59 p.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Inventory of
municipal solid waste size reduction equipment. Unpublished
report on contract 68030137, Oct. 1972.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Baling municipal
refuse. Unpublished report on EPA Grant No. DOI-UI-00061,
April 1968.
51
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U.S.—JAPAN CONFERENCE
ON
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Paper No. 1
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
ADMINISTRATION IN JAPAN
and
RECYCLING WASTES IN JAP All
January 29 and 30, 1973
JAPANESE GOVERNMENT
-------
Reporters
Articles
Dr. S. Orita
Head,
Sanitation Facilities Division,
Environmental Sanitation Bureau,
Ministry of Health and Welfare, Japan
Mr. T. Morishita.
Deputy Head,
Sanitation Faci]: ties Division,
Environmental Sanitation Bureau,
Ministry of Heal :h and Welfare
Mr. T. Katayama
Senior Technical Official,
Sanitation Facil .ties Division,
Environmental Sanitation Bureau,
Ministry of Heal, .h and Welfare
Mr. R. Shimizu
Chief Research Officer
National Resourc i Research Institute
Agency of Techno -ogy and Science
Mr. M. Hatakeyam i
Head,
Construction Department,
Public Cleansing Bureau,
Tokyo Metropolitan Government
Mr. K. Saida
Head,
Department of Facilities Construction and
Management, Environmental Cleaning Projects Bureau
Yokohama City Office
Mr. R. Kumagaya
Director General,
Public Cleansing Bureau,
Kawasaki City Office
1-1
III-l
III-3
II
1-2
III-2
1-3
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INDEX
I SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT ADMINISTRATION
1-1 ADMINISTRATIDN AND FINANCE OF WASTE TREATMENT
ORGANIZATION, LEGISLATION AND FINANCING
1-1-1 Structure and Systems of the Central
Goverr nent and Municipalities 1
1-1-2 The Body of Laws on Waste Treatment 5
1-1-3 The Administrative Structure of Waste
Treatr ent , 16
1-1-4 Financii g of Waste Treatment 21
1-2 LOCATION OF TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL FACILITIES
(Chiefly on an example in Tokyo Metropolis)
1-2-1 Policies for Waste Treatment Plant Location 33
1-2-2 Methods and Problems of Waste Treatment
Site 5 election 43
1-2-3 Pollutitn Control Measures for Waste
Treatment Plants 45
1-3 RECRUITMENT OF PERSONNEL IN CHARGE OF WASTES TREATMENT AND OTHERS
(Chiefly on an example in Kawasaki City)
1-3-1 Present 50
1-3-2 Structure of ersonnel in harge of Wastes Disposal 52
1-3-3 Training of Related Personnel 56
1-3-4 On the Measures Relating the Acquirement of
Related Personnel 59
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II RECYCLING WASTES
II-l GENERAL 66
II-2 CONSIDERATION IN DETAILS
II-2-1 Problems Concerning the Waste in Japar,
II-2-2 . Disposition of City Rubbish in Japan .,
II-2-3 Research and Development of Resources Reutilizing
and Reclaiming Technology System
69
70
70
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SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
ADMINISTRATION
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1-1-2 The Body of Laws on Waste Treatment
1) The Ou'cline of Legislation
The collection, transportation, and disposal of filthy matters
had been executed in the Japanese cities since the Edo era that
lasted thre<; centuries until 1968. With the outbreak of severe
cholera and typhoid fever epidemics from 1877 to 1887 as the turning
point, ther; arose the need of demarcatin? the responsibilities and
job assignm mts for public cleasning in tae cities for elimination
of the causes of the diseases and for the maintenance of public
health. In 1900 the Filth Cleansing Law was enforced. It was
stipulated In Article 3 of the law that "the city is required to
dispose of :he filthy matters collected by those responsible for
collecting such matters (owners, users or occupants of land), provided
that special provisions may otherwise be enacted by order (according
to the Ministerial Ordinance Concerning the Enforcement of the Filth
Cleansing Law)." The Japanese city was thus legally required to
collect and dispose of filthy matters discharged in the citizens'
everyday li::e.
No amendment was made on the law until the outbreak of the
Korean War :Ln 1954, but with this as the turning point, the Japanese
mining and manufacturing outputs made rapid growth, and the promotion
of industrialization and urban development brought urban environmental
sanitation into a problem. Thus the Filth Cleansing Law that had been
in force since the Meiji era (1868-1912) was replaced with the
-------
Public Cleansing Law. The new law was basically aimed not only at
mechanically removing filthy matters from the citizens' everyday
lift, but also at standardizing their trciting methods from the
environmental sanitation point of view.
Later, however, in step with the expansion of Japanese industrial
activities and the elevation of the Japanese people's living standard,
the amount of wastes discharged by them ir£de a steep rise with their
quality markedly changed. A great deal oi industrial wastes, in
particular, <:ame to contain noxious matters and those difficult to
treat, and for environmental maintenance end pollution control, we
were pressed to take appropriate measures.
To cope with the situation, the Minister of Health and Welfare
requested tht; Council on the Living Envircnraent, his advisory organ,
in July 1969 to recommend measures concerting systems and methods for
treating industrial wastes.
In response to the request, the council submitted to the Minister
a recommendatory report in July 1970 in one year of study and
discussion.
Based on the report, the Ministry of Health and Welfare started
to study a complete revision of the Public Cleansing Law, and submitted
a wastes treatment bill to the 64th provisional Diet session opened in
November 1970. The bill passed the Diet and became the Wastes Disposal
and Public Cleansing Law (Law 1970-No. 137, hereinafter called the
Wastes Disposal Law) on December 18 of the same year.
-------
It was decided that the Wastes Disposal Law should be enforced
with effect from a date to be designated by a Cabinet Order within
nine months ifter its promulgation, and stadies were started to
draft a Cabinet Order concerning the definition of industrial wastes,
standards on the collection, transportation, and disposal (which means
the.intermecLate waste treatment process and disposal in the final
state of domestic arid industrial wastes, the range of industrial
waste treat-mint plants, etc., and a Health and Welfare Ministerial
Ordinance coicerning the establishment of standards on the storing
of industrial wastes and the licensing of industrial waste treatment
agents.
With respect to the basic technical direction for treating
industrial vjistes, the Technical Committee on the Treatment of
Industrial Wistes was established. In June 1971 the committee
announced the report on the Basic direction for Techniques, Etc. for
the Treatment of Industrial Wastes.
The content of the report was further studied by the Council
on the Living Environment, and recommendations were made to the
Minister of Health and Welfare in the same month.
The committee's report systematically probes technical courses
to be followed in all the treating processes covering the storing,
collection, transportation, and disposal of industrial wastes. The
drafts of the Cabinet Order and the Ministerial Ordinance were
formulated in the spirit of the report.
-------
In July 1971 the Environment Agency came into existence, and
affairs concerning the establishment of standards on the final
disposal of Industrial wastes were placed under the jurisdiction of
the agency. It was decided that the drafting of the Cabinet Order
Concerning the Wastes Treatment Law should be conducted jointly by
the Ministry of Health and Welfare and the Environment Agency and
that the Principles of the Draft of the Cabinet Order which were
established .n the spirit of the report should further be deliberated
by the Centr il Pollution Measures Council,
After tie twists and turns, the draft of the Cabinet Order
obtained final approval at the Cabinet meeting held on September 22,
1971, and thj next day it was promulgated together with the Health
and Welfare linisterial Ordinance. The Wastes Treatment Law was
enforced with effect from September 24 of the same year.
2) The Outline of the Wastes Treatment Law
(D Aim
Th'2 aim of the Wastes Treatment Law is to treat wastes
in an appropriate manner that will contribute toward the
maintenance of the living environment and the improvement of
public health (Article 1 of the law).
(D The Definition of Wastes
Wastes are broadly divided into domestic wastes and
industrial wastes, and for the two categories of wastes,
separate treating systems should be developed.
-------
Wastes are defined In this law as "refuse, big refuse,
residual ash, sludge, excreta, waste oil, waste acid, waste
alkali, carcases, and other filthy or disused objects which
are in solid or liquid state," except that radioactive matters
and those contaminated by such matters should be governed by
other liw than this (Paragraph 1, Article 2).
Donestic wastes are defined as other wastes than industrial
wastes. Industrial wastes are also cefined as "the wastes among
those discharged in conducting enterprising activities, such as
residual ash, sludge, waste oil, waste acid, waste alkali, waste
plastics, and other wastes which are stipulated by the Cabinet
Order." (Please refer to Note 1 at the end of this chapter 1-1-2),
Thase industrial wastes are those the treatment of which
is made a particular problem from the points of view of
environmental maintenance and pollution control, and special
mention is made on the wastes because it is extremely difficult
for the cleansing departments of the municipalities to appropriately
treat them (Paragraphs 2 and 3, Article 2).
(3) Requirements for the Enterpriser
The requirements stipulated in this law for the enterpriser
to meet are based on three principles.
The first principle is that the enterpriser should appropriately
treat the wastes discharged in conducting his enterprising
-------
activities at his own responsibility. It is the principle
of letting those who release wastes rake the responsibility
of adaiuately treating such wastes ('aragraph 1, Article 3).
According to the principle, the enterpriser must adequately
treat *.he industrial wastes discharged by himself by the
standfds established on the collection, transportation, and
dispo;j il of such wastes. To apply fie principle to domestic
wastes, each municipality is authorised to designate dumps to
which juch wastes are to be transported and a method of
transp irting them and also to charge fees on transported wastes.
S icondly the enterpriser is required to promote the
regeneration and reuse of wastes discharged in conducting his
enterprising activities and to reduce their dimensions
(Paragraph 2, Article 3).
FTOITI the waste treatment point of view, it is desirable
to reduce the volume of wastes to be discharged, and also in
the interest of Japan importing the greater part of its raw
materials from abroad, it is needless to say that wastes must
be made the best use of by turning them into useful resources,
and the regeneration and reuse of them must be promoted.
Thirdly the enterpriser who produces or processes products
is required to take necessary measures to prevent the products,
when wasted, from becoming difficult to treat (Paragraph 2,
Article 3).
10
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(4) The Treatment of Domestic Wastes
It is stipulated in this law that concerning the treatment
of dor.v.stic wastes, such as refuse a id excreta, each municipality
should project a certain plan, and execute the treatment
according to the plan. Both the urbi.n and the rural municipality
must, :n principle, conduct cleansing activities, but a region
desigr* ted by the head of the municipality in conformity to the
standa: ds established by the Cabinet. Order can be exempted from
the apjlication of the principle (Paragraphs 1 and 2, Article 6).
(Pleas* refer to Note 2 at the end oi: this cahpter 1-1-2) .
Standards on the collection, transportation, and disposal
of domestic wastes, which should be maintained by the municipality
in conducting cleansing activities, i.re stipulated in the Cabinet
Order (Paragraph 3, Article 6).
The residents of each municipality are required to cooperate
for its cleanzing activities. Because of this requirement, the
residents must cooperate with the municipality by the disposal of
as many easily disposable wastes as possible by themselves, the
separation of combustible wastes from incombustibles in different
containers, the dumping of big refuse at places designated by
the municipality, the selective collection of waste plastics, and
other means, as may be requested by the municipality, for
facilitation of the municipality-conducted environmental sanitation
11
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activities. The enterpriser who'discharges a great deal of
domestic, wastes in conducting his enterprising activities is
requirei , at the request of the munr'.f ipality, to transport such
wastes 1:0 a place designated by it by a method allowable for
environriental sanitation (Paragraphs 4 and 5, Article 6).
Th«s treatment of domestic wastes is primarily executed by
each municipality, but in some areas it is difficult for the
municip ility to collect such wastes, and in rural areas where
the stipulations on waste collection are not applicable, waste
collection is sometimes required. Ir these areas, domestic waste
collectors are licensed to do business (Article 7).
Wh<;n the installation of flush toilets is required in an
area whi-.re there is no public sewer system, the use of sewage
purifiers is encouraged for the disposal of excreta. The users
of sewaj.e purifiers throughout Japan have now exceeded the
10-milli.on mark, and purifier cleaning agents are licensed for
the periodic cleaning of purifiers and the disposal of purifier-
treated excreta (Article 9).
© The Treatment of Industrial Wastes
It is stipulated in this law that the enterpriser who
discharges industrial wastes is required to treat such wastes
by himself. He must treat them by himself or commission an
industrial waste collector to treat them, except when he is in
a position to receive public service on the treatment of them
from the municipality (Paragraph 1, Article 12).
12
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Thes enterpriser, in treating his industrial wastes, must
go through such prior-treatment processes as the elimination or
attenua'ion of noxious matters, and execute the final disposal of
such matters by landfilling or by the dumping of them into the sea
in conformity to the standards on the collection, transportation,
and disposal of them (Paragraph 2, Article 12).
Wh*-.n his industrial wastes arc rot disposed of and stored
within :he enclosure of his factory cr establishment, he must
store such wastes according to the storing standards in a manner
allowable for environmental sanitaticn (Paragraph 3, Article 12).
Th
-------
storing of industrial wastes by enterprisers does not conform
to the established standards, ordinances can be issued to reform
the treatment or storing of such wastes (Paragraph 4, Article 12).
The. treatment of industrial wastes should, in principle, be
executec at the responsibility of an enterpriser who discharge sucV
wastes, but there are some industrial wastes which can adequately
be treai-.ed in a greater sphere than his locality, and the avenue
is open for prefectures and municipalities (cities, towns, and
village 0 to provide service on the treatment of such industrial
wastes (Article 10).
It is stipulated, however, that even when a local public
body provides service on the treatment of industrial wastes, in
the spirit of the principle of letting those who release wastes
take tha responsibility of treating such wastes, an enterpriser win
discharges such wastes should bear the cost to be incurred on the
installation of an industrial waste treatment plant and other
costs on the collection, transportation, and disposal of industrial
wastes (Paragraph 2, Article 13).
One of the requirements to be met by the governor of each
prefecture is to project a plan for the treatment of industrial
wastes. Such a plan is projected by the governor in a comprehensive
view of all the industrial wastes discharged within the jurisdiction
of the prefecture from the collection to the disposal of such
wastes, and contains a program for the installation of industrial
-------
waste treatment plants, a program for the transportation of
industrial wastes to where such wastes are finally disposed of,
a prog" am for the location of such a place, and other programs.
In projecting such a plan, he must consult with the Pollution
Counten.easures Council of the prefecture (Article 11).
lie treatment of industrial was :es by an enterpriser who
discharges such wastes is supplemented by industrial waste
treatovat agents. Such agents are commissioned by enterprisers
to treat industrial wastes, is required to have a comparatively
high-li«.vel knowledge of industrial waste treatment, in addition
to necessary equipment, and is not permitted to do business
unless he is licensed to do so by thu governor of the prefecture
or the mayor of a city which has est iblished its health center
(Artie .e 14) .
(4) Ot.her Provisions
Other provisions relate to the requirements for the
Central Government and the local public entities (Article 4),
the maintenance of cleanliness (Article 5), a ban on the dumping
of wastes (Article 16), restrictions on the methodology of
using excreta (Article 17), the submission of reports by
enterprisers and waste treatment agents (Article 18), the
spot-checking of waste treatment plants (Article 19), environmental
sanitation extension officers (Article 20), government subsidies
(Article 22), special support (Article 23), and the handling of
grievances (Article 24).
15
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1-1-3 The Administrative Structure of Waste Treatment
1) Types cf Activity Conducted by the Municipality
It is itipulated in Paragraph 1, Art'.cle 4 of the Law
Concerning the Treatment and Cleansing of Wastes that the municipality
(a city, a town, or a village) should always be intent on the
disseminatli n of the concept of cleansing and in conducting waste
treatment activities, should strive to promote the efficiency of
such activi .ies by the development of rel ited personnel, the
improvement and expansion of related meth>ds, and other means and
that the co.'.lection, transportation, and disposal of wastes should
be executed at the responsibility of the nunicipality. It is also
provided for in No. 7, Paragraph 3, Article 2 of the Local Autonomy
Law that thr. municipality "should take charge of affairs concerning
public clea.-sing, disinfection, sterilization..." and that public
cleansing should be taken care of by the Municipality.
2) Forms of Waste Treatment Management
It is stipulated in Article 6 of the Wastes Treatment Law that
the municipality is required to collect and dispose of wastes discharged
within its jurisdiction according to a certain plan, while, on the
other hand, there is not stereotyped form of waste treatment by the
municipality, as the presence of private domestic waste treatment
agents is recognized by Article 7 of the Law.
Managerial forms taken by municipalities for waste treatment can
be classified into such categories as (1) direct management by
municipalities, (2) management through a commissioned agent,
16
-------
(3) management by a private agent, and (4) a mixed form of any of
(1) to (3) above.
The di -ect management form is taken >y many municipalities
follow separate management forms for the treatment of refuse and
excreta,
® D:.rect Management by the Municipality
IV this management form, all activities from planning for
the CG .lection of domestic wastes to the final disposal of such
wastes are conducted by those directly employed by the municipality.
I : has been said that this form is superior to (2) and (3)
above :.n the sanitary treatment of domestic wastes, but it is
held by some sources that there is no denying that some problems
are involved in this form relating f> personnel employment and
maintenance and the efficiency of activities.
Tti deal with the problems, studies must be made on the
improvement of the working environment, the intensification and
reform of welfare facilities, the adoption of a merit system
(payment by results), the grant of allowances for special duties,
and other measures for the upgrading of the qualities of personnel
and the elevation of their morale.
(2) Management Through a Commissioned Agent
By this form of management, the whole or a part of the
activities which should be conducted by the municipality, such
as the collection or the transportation of domestic wastes, are
17
-------
conducted by private refuse collecting agents who are capable
of condticting such activities and who are commissioned by the
municipality to conduct such activities upon receipt of
remuneration. In this case, cleansing service is provided by
the municipality, and the residents request the municipality
to collect domestic wastes and pay fees for such service to the
municipality. Standards to be maintained by the municipality in
the commissioning of private agents ;re stipulated in Article 4
of the Jastes Treatment Law.
To trace the history of waste tieatment management through
commissxoned agents, it can be said that this managerial form
has appeared in the transition from r irect management by private
agents :o direct management by municipalities. In reality, this
form is very close, in some cases, tr direct management by
municipalities, and in other cases, is indistinguishably close
to management by private agents.
(3) Management by Private Agents
By this method, a private refuse collector concludes a
contract for the collection of domestic refuse with the residents
of the municipality thereby the domestic which ought to be
collected at the responsibility of the municipality are collected
at his responsibility. It is stipulated in Article 7 of the
Wastes Treatment Law that it should not be permitted to take this
form of management for waste treatment unless it is difficult for
the municipality to collect, transport, or dispose of wastes.
18
-------
In assuming this form of management for waste treatment,
the municipality provides guidance and exercises supervision
for the licensing of agents and other affairs from the sanitation
control point of view, and for prevention of the collection of
too high fees from the residents of tie municipality, fee
ceilings are established.
Waste treatment management by private agents has merits
which c ,n complete the demerits of direct management by
municips.lities, but most of such agerts obtain a bare subsistence,
and there are problems like the difficulty of introducing new
techniques to such agents and their inclination to disputes in
the competition for obtaining licenses for waste treatment,
The general trend of the Japanese municipalities is to
switch from management by private agents for waste treatment to
direct nanagement. Volumes of refuse and excreta collected in
1970 by municipalities by their managerial forms of waste
treatment are shown in Table 1-1-1.
Table 1-1-1. Volumes of Refuse and Collected
by Municipalities by Managerial
Forms, 1970
Volumes
Col-
Management Forms
Direct
leeted as Manage-
Planned ment
Mugrant. by
Commiss- Total
ioned
Agents
Volumes Col-
lected by
Licensed
Agents
Refuse 25,513,000 20,203,100 3,056,000 23,359,000 2,154,000
m.t.(100%) m.t.(80%) m.t.(12%) m.t.(92%) m.t.(8%)
Note: This is a tabulation of figures presented by the municipalities
which had areas for planned collection.
19
-------
Waste treatment agents commissioned and licensed by
municipalities in 1970 are shown in Table 1-1-2.
Table I- 1-2 Waste Treatment Agents Commissioned .and
Licensed by Municipalities, 1970
No. of Agents No. of Employees
C omm 1 s s1o n eci Licensed Ccnmlssloned Licensed
Refuse 1,033 535 7,937 3,254
Th»i main reasons for the presence of a variety of forms
of man?;;ement for waste treatment is that such activity (public
cleansing activity) has independently been conducted by the
Japanese municipalities as their own activity rather than the
activity of the Central Government or each prefectural government
and thai the municipalities have developed their respective forms
of management for waste treatment.
3) Great-Sphere Waste Treatment Manageraeat
Waste treatment needs a high amount of capital for the construction.
of treatment plants, and the recurring expenditures on the construction
are only to increase. This has made it all the more difficult in a
limited locality to secure land for the construction of a waste treatment
plant and for the final disposal of wastes. For resolution of the
difficulties common with the cities, the great-sphere waste treatment
management system (by the organization of "partial business transaction
associations" by a group of municipalities for the transaction of specific
types of business) is rapidly being adopted by many municipalities so
that the municipalities in mutual cooperation may construct plants
20
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and execute t.he collection and transportation of wastes in a
greater sphere than their individual localities.
An association, for example, which ha-1 been formed for the
collective transaction of the type of business on refuse treatment
had a membership of 982 as of 982 as of October 1970. The figure
stands for one-third of all the Japanese tnanicipalities, and for
excreta treatment, 478 associations of this kind have been formed
with a total membership of 2,080.
The grp. it-sphere waste treatment management system contributes
toward cost reduction, plant and equipment modernization, and the
rationalization of other fields of management.
For the past few years, a strucrure of expanded municipal blocs
has been in :he shaping throughout Japan to enable the municipalities
within each bloc to cooperate for the collective management of their
plants and activities for balanced development of individual blocs
in the perspactive of the Japanese economy as a whole.
The great-sphere waste treatment management system must be
oriented toward integration into the strucrure so that the system
may work in harmony with other systems for the structure.
1-1-4 Financing of Waste Treatment
1) Expenditures on Waste Treatment on an Account-Settled Basis
The recent refuse explosion in urban areas is pushing up the
operating and other costs of refuse treatment year after year.
Annual expenditures including those on waste treatment (cleansing)
21
-------
by the Japanese municipalities since fiscal 1967 are shown in
Table 1-1-3 on an Account-settled basis. The expenditures for
fiscal year 1970 by the municipalities including Tokyo Metropolis
totaled 5,001,100 million yen including 205,200 million yen for
waste treatment, and the ratio of waste treatment expenditures to
the total expenditures is 4.1 percent.
Characteristic traits which can be ot'served in the table are:
1 Tl e weight of the waste treatment expenditures in the
total expenditures is annually on th« increase.
2 Tie middle cities carry the heaviest weight in the
waste treatment expenditures of all the municipalities.
3 The weight of the waste treatment expenditures of the
"partial business transaction associations" is annually on
the increase.
2) Sources of Waste Treatment Revenue
Annual revenues and expenditures for waste treatment by the
municipalities since fiscal 1967 are compared in Table 1-1-4 on
an account-settled basis and by specific sources of revenue.
22
-------
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-------
Table 1-1-4 Annual Waste Treatment Revenues Compared
Fiscal Year:
Expenditures
(a/c-settled
basis)
Revenue Sources:
Central Gov.
Subsidies
Pref. Gov.
Subsidies
Utility
Charges
fees
Municipal
Bonds
123.814
r special
Sources
Taxes
Imposts
2.443
(2'o%)
1 038
(0 8%)
13.012
(10.5%)
13,975
(11.3%)
3>629
(2.9%)
89,717
(82.5%)
With Expenditures by Revenue Sources
(million yen)
1968
132,253
2,776
(2.1%)
1,128
(0.9%)
15,660
(11.8%)
16,777
(12.7%)
4,411
(3.3%)
91,501
(69.2%)
1969
169,890
3,220
(1.9%)
1,159
(0.7%)
16,946
(10.0%)
18,195
(10.7%)
4,057
(2.4%)
126,322
(74.3%)
1970
205,152
3,951
(1.9%)
2,947
(1.4%)
18,135
(8.8%)
27,526
(13.4%)
4,427
(2.2%)
148,163
(72.3%)
Source: Ministry of Home Affairs
In this table, the following characteristic traits can be observed:
(T) The weight of taxes and imposts, a general revenue source, is overwelmingly
heavy.
(2) The weight of municipal bonds issued in 1970 is markedly heavy.
24
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3) The weight of utility charges and fees is on the decrease.
The revenue sources are described it can by item as follows:
a. Central Government Subsidies
It is stipulated in Paragraph 3, Article 4 of the
Wastes Treatment Law that the Centra] Government should
provide necessary technological and D onetary support to
the muricipalities (cities, towns, ard villages) and the
prefectures. It is also stipulated ?n Article 22 of the
law th:t the Central Government can tupplement parts of
the following costs with subsidies:
i. Costs on the installation of domestic waste
treatment plants
ii. Costs on the disposal of wjstes arising from
calamities.
It is stipulated that a subsidy can be provided for a
sum equal to one-third or less of the cost incurred on the
installation of an excreta treatment plant or one-fourth
or less of the cost incurred on the installation of a refuse
treatment plant relating to i. above, and a sum equal to a
half or less of ii. above.
The Central Government subsidy system was initiated for
the installation of excreta treatment plants in 1953 when
Japan was stalemated in dealing with the excreta treatment
problem, but subsidies for the installation of refuse incineration
plants began to be provided as lately as 1963.
25
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You will see the annual expenditures by the municipalities
on the construction of waste treatment plants since fiscal
1968 by their revenue sources in Table 1-1-5.
Table 1-1-5 Annual Expenditures by th^ Municipalities
on the Construction of
Waste Treatment
Plants by Revenue Sources (million yen)
Activities
Fiscal 1967:
Subsidized
Independent
lotal
Fiscal 1969:
Subsidized
Independent
Total
Fiscal 1970:
Subsidized:
Independent
Total
Expd. (c/c-
settled
basis )
(23.6?,)
5,647
(76.4%)
18,235
(100. Ox)
23,886
(31.0%)
8,550
(69.0%)
19,003
(100.0%)
27,553
(29.3%)
11,829
(70.7%)
28,483
(100.0%)
40,312
RevenjB Source
Central
Gov. Sub-
sidies
(12.3%)
692
692
(10.5%)
898
(3.3%)
898
(12.6%)
1,493
(3.7%)
1,493
Pref .
Gov.
Subsi-
dies
(4.5%)
256
(2.0%)
356
(2.9%)
612
(3.9%)
334
(1.6%)
309
(2.3%)
643
(3.3%)
390
(1.6%)
448
(2.1%)
838
*luni —
^ipal
bonds
(58.1%)
3,283
(47.6%)
8,685
(50.1%)
11,968
(56.5%)
4,835
(37.6%)
7,152
(43.5%)
11,987
(54.5%)
6,447
(45.5%)
12,957
(48.1%)
19,404
Other
Sp.
Sources
(4.5%)
252
(13.0%)
2,373
(11.0%)
2,625
(7.0%)
595
(8.6%)
1,633
(8.1%)
2,228
(3.7%)
438
(6.0%)
1,724
(5.4%)
2,162
Taxes ,
Imposts
(20.6%)
1,164
(37.4%)
6^825
(33.4%)
7,989
(22.1%)
1,888
(52.2%)
9,909
(42.8%)
11,797
(25.9%)
3,061
(46.9%)
13,354
(40.7%)
16,415
Note: Figures in parentheses are distribution ratios.
Source: Ministry of Home Affairs
26
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As can be observed in this "table, the waste treatment
expenditures for fiscal 1970 on an account-settled basis
totaled 11,800 million yen, of which 1,500 million yen was
for Central Government subsidies with the ratio of provided
subsidies to costs incurred on the irstallation of refuse
treatment plants being 12.6 percent IT less than one-fourth
or the veiling etipulated for a subr:.dy for tefuse treatment
plant i istallation.
It is necessary that the financial overburn of the
municipalities should be alleviated \y expanding the range
of tragats of subsidization and diversifying subsidized activities,
b. Municipal Bonds
A .jreat deal of capital must be invested at once in the
installation of a domestic waste treatment plant, and as
a sourca of revenue for this, the muricipality is authorized
to issue bonds.
Targets of bond issuance are, besides plant installation,
the purchase and development of construction sites and those
for disposal of incombustibles by landfilling (including
embankment works), and the purchase or repurchase of waste
collection vehicles.
Annual municipal bond issues since fiscal 1967 are shown
in Table 1-1-6.
27
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Table 1-1-6 Annual Municipal Bend Issues
Fiscal
Year
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
Value of
Authct ized
Bor.ds
9,087
11,275
10.7CO
15,940
33,0(0
(million yens)
Subscribed b
Central Gov. Cc
8,351
9,495
9,722
11,928
22,000
Other
nnections
736
1,480
978
3,644
11,000
Local
Allocation
Bonds
300
368
(estimated)
Note: Bonds issued for waste collection vehicles are excluded.
Source: Ministry of Home Affairs
The authorized bond values leveled off from fiscal
1967 to fiscal 1969, but made a sweeping increase in fiscal
1970, and later were on the increase.
As is clear in Table 1-1-5, -the weight of the average
annual value of revenues for construction activities against
the value of expenditures on an account-settled basis is about
50 percent or the heaviest of the values of all revenues, and
this evidences that the construction revenues are important
in the municipal finance.
To look into the specific revenue sources of municipal
bond issue, the Central Government subsidies, though annually
on the increase, are leveling off. Generally speaking, interest
on publicly subscribed bonds is higher than interest on
Government-subscribed bonds, and the former bonds are to be
28
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repaid in a short period of time. It cannot be said that
this is a trend favorable to the municipalities. It is
import; nt for curbing the trend to olitain low-interest
capital, to extend the repayment perr'.od, and to expand the
range cf target activities of bond issuance.
c. Tl-e Local Allocation Tax
The local allocation tax is a kind of grant-in-aid
from tie Central Government for financial adjustment and
assistance in the elevation of municipal administration to
the standard level. The tax is delivered to a municipality
when its standard financial revenue (measured in the estimated
value of local taxes to be collected by objective standards)
so as to offset the balance.
The local allocation tax within the category of general
revenue sources, can be appropriated for any use by the
municipality without restraints, and is significant in that
the tax guarantees the effective and efficient use of revenue
sources because it can be appropriated for any administrative
accounts.
d. Fees
It is stipulated in Paragraph 6, Article 6 of the Wastes
Treatment Law that the municipality can charge fees, as provided
for by law, concerning the collection and disposal of domestic
wastes. ' ' ' '
29
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At present about 70 percent of the Japanese municipalities
collect fees for waste collection, but many municipalities are
going to abolish them, By and large, fees are charged on a
great quantity of wastes discharged by establishments, while
domestic refuse is collected free of charge. Most municipalities
charge £ees on the collection of excreta.
Concerning the computation of fees, many municipalities
compute them per household for domestic wastes, while fees for
wastes discharged by establishments are specifically computed
by attributes of such wastes.
Thare are extreme views for and against the collection of
fees. The basic provision for fee collection is Paragraph 1,
Article 227 of the Local Autonomy Lav. According to the
provision, "the ordinary municipality can collect fees, according
to its Drdinance concerning waste collection service, for the
types o£ service provided to specified persons." In the past, an
area for which waste treatment service was provided was limited,
and it ;an be said that it was the "service provided to specified
individuals," but in the Wastes Treatment Law it is stipulated
that such an area in entirety is required to treat wastes.
Besides this, the administrative activity of waste treatment is
the basic activity most closely associated with the residents'
everyday life of all the administrative activities. In view of
this, it has been contended that fees chargeable on households
30
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should be paid out of taxes, and the concept that fees should
be paid by the beneficiary is losing its influence and going
to take the back seat.
It is maintained, however, by sone that it is essential
for the control of wastes to collect :~ees for their transportation
at the responsibility of those who discharge them.
It is believed, after all, that judgment should be passed
on the -views for and against fee collection at the discretion
of each municipality by considering its objective situation.
* * *
* *
Note 1:
Types of waste are stipulated by the Cabinet Order, which are:
1. Wa&te paper discharged by: prod icers of pulp, paper, or
paper-processed products, newspaper publishers (restricted
by the use of paper rolls), publishers (restricted to those
engaged in the book-binding or printed-matter processing
industry.
2. Wood dust discharged by producers of lumber or wood products
(including furniture makers), those engaged in pulp
production or wholesalers of imported lumber.
3. Waste fabrics discharged by those engaged in the textile
industry (except the production of garments and other
textile products).
31
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4. Useless objects in solid waste relating to animals
or vegetables used as raw materials by producers of
fo>ds, medicines, or aromatics.
5. Watite rubber
6. Me:al dust
7. Glass or ceramic dust
8. Slags or dross
9. Concrete fragments or similar useless objects derived
from the removal of buildings an} structures.
10. Animal excreta (restricted to those relating to stock-
breeding or agriculture).
11. Carcases (restricted to those relating to stock-breeding).
12. Sm ike and soot discharged at plaits discharging smoke and
soot, as stipulated in Paragraph 2, Article 2 of the
Air Pollution Control Law (1968, Law No. 97), and collected
by dust collectors.
Note 2:
Article 2 of the Cabinet Order provides for standards on the
designation of regions which are not required to treat domestic waste,
and according to the provision, regions to be designated as such are
blocs of the municipality (a city, town, or village) with no more
than 50 households.
32
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1-2 LOCATION OF TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL FACILITIES
(Chiefly on an example in Tokyo Metropolis)
1-2-1 Policies fsr Waste Treatment Plant Location
1) Characteristics of Tokyo Metropolis
Tokyo Metropolis has a markedly different character from that
of other Japanese cities, and in locating waste treatment plants
in the metropolis, we must consider its cl aracteristic traits,
which are:
(D It has a large population (whicl stood at 8,810,000 as
of February 1972) in a narrow district (which is 577 km.
wide and was divided into 23 "special wards" in the status of
city as of 1972) .
(2) It is along Tokyo Bay into which flow many rivers and
riverlets after running through it.
(D It has various industries which discharge quantities of
waste £.nd pollutants.
© It: has a complex system of various transportation methods,
(D It is a megapolis comprising 23 "special wards" enjoying
the status of city.
2) The Present Structure of Waste Treatment
(D The Waste Treatment System of Tokyo
The present waste treatment system of Tokyo Metropolis
is diagrammed as follows:
33
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KV'.v.erva-- Collec-
tion ~~tio:i
TrcuiGpor-
"tatjon
-iTrtc'.t.-nent— Final Disposal
of
-r- Final Dispose
I—Regeneration
Wastes as Re-
sources
—>Selc-ctive Col-
lection of Use-
ful Materials
s—v
(2 '.['rc--.tr:icnt Methods
* iKmcotic Wastes
Wastes
ration
went
Derived
V.'astc-s
Wastes xunipcd
Onto Hi;'\v-an -
[•- Combustibles •-— -t->fTiacin-
--H ;• Incoiiibustiblcs, j eration
"~ , r. , - 'l-'iV L^
CJrectories I \;
Partial !!. Pulver
tiblc
Pulveri -
nation
H Ivors
;i:.;hc:c •-
ization
Land
Filling
Industrial V/astes ->| Yar.ious Intermediate
Treatment Processes
V.';.:yto Oil
\
Plastics
.>[Jyuici Filling,
Dumping Into
the Sea
/Integrated Treatment \
/ Plants \
V/actc Ojl
Sludge
Plastics
Treatment
Plants
-------
3) Locating Conditions for Incineration Plants
(p Total Incineration of Combustible Domestic Wastes
Dcuestic wastes discharged in 1)71 in Tokyo totaled
around 4,200,000 metric tons, 82% of which was accounted for
by combustible wastes. There are liiiits to landfilling in
Tokyo Bay, and in order to make the :lost effective use of the
landfilling potential of the bay in i long period of time,
the volume of matters used for landf111ing must be reduced to
a minis urn.
For this purpose, incineration Ls the most suitable means,
and it is considered technically possible to take measures,
though various difficulties are involved, to control exhausted
soot, smoke, waste water, noise, and other public hazards
caused by incineration.
(2) Inside-Ward Self-Treatment Principle
The individual special wards of Tokyo have the independent
authority and responsibility of administration as the cities,
and must strongly seek the citizens' cooperation and take to
the self-waste-treatment principle.
This is the basic policy for the location of incineration
plants in Tokyo.
(3) Equal Plant Allocation Principle
Some public facilities are favorably accepted by the
citizens, while others are not. Incineration plants are in
35
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the latter category of facilities, but most be equally
allocated to all the 23 wards of Tokyo.
{£) Highway Traffic Congestion
Highway traffic in and around Tokyo is immensely
congested, and the congestion is all the more aggrevated
by the increase of refuse transportation vehicles.
Thare is little hope that the traffic condition will
turn foe the better in the foreseeable future, and there is
no choice but to regionally grasp th;. time and other factors
causing the condition and to stagger work shifts for refuse
transportation cars. Consideration trust also be given to
the location of waste treatment plants lest highway traffic
be impeded by ill-located plants.
(5) Refuse Concentration Distribution Among the Wards
Frequency distribution must be worked out relating to
the concentration of refuse in all the 23 wards and in each
of them in order to locate as many incineration plants as
possible where the concentration is comparatively intense.
© Acquisition of Plant Sites
A space 40 to 45 square meters wide is needed for refuse
treatment by incineration per ton per diem (24 working hours),
and if environmental adjustment and reforms are taken into
account, a minimum 20,000-square-meter-wide site must be
acquired for installing the smallest-scale incineration plant.
36
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(7) Great-Sphere Adjustment Principle
The inside-ward self-treatment principle must apply to
waste licineration, and concerning tha types of wastes for
incineration to which the principle is not applicable or those
for whi;h extraordinary processes must be used, Tokyo Metropolis
is required to adjust the scale and arrangement of incineration
and relay sites for all the 23 wards. The metropolis is also
required to execute the final disposal of wastes discharged by
the individual wards by landfilling cr by the dumping of them
into the sea. This is the great-sphere adjustment principle.
(8) Consideration to be Taken for Pollution Control
Pollution measures must be taken against:
a. Exhausted gases
Air pollutants
b. Smoke and soot
c. Waste water
d. Noise
e. Offensive odors
f. Concentrated passage of waste collection and
transportation vehicles.
(9) City Remodeling
Incineration plants are not welcomed by the citizens in
general. In addition to the control of the items described in
(8)above, such plants must be made attractive and pleasing to the
37
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citizens by city remodeling or by surrounding the plants with
green belts or parks and other environmental reforms.
@ Operational Efficiency of Incineration Plants
Considering the construction and operating costs to be
incurred by incineration plants, the difficulties of retaining
engineers and technicians in employment, the earthquake-resisting
capacities of plant buildings, and other factors affecting the
operational efficiency of the plants, a per-plant incineration
capacity must be determined. Based en the capacity and also in
consideration of the conditions mentioned in(T) to (9)above, a
justifiable arrangement of all incineration plants for the
metropolis must be worked out.
(11) Other Conditions for Site Location
Incineration sites must be located also by considering
necessary working hours for waste collection and transportation
distances to and from the sites.
Policie.3 for Plant Design and Construction
(X) In'-.ineration Plants
a. Planning for Plant Allocation
i. In principle, incineration plants must be
established in all the wards.
ii. Considering some wards are not capable of
constructing incineration plants, the metropolis
38
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must plan for a fair allocation of such plants
in the interest of all the wards.
iii. A region within the rzdium of around 2.5 km,
of each incineration plant will be designated as
the waste collection area.
b. Location of Each Plant
Each incineration plant will be located to face a
tiunk highway or where an access road to the plant can
b« constructed.
c. Area Requirement for Each Construction Site
The space required for incineration per ton per
d.iem (24 working hours) is 40 to 45 square meters, and
at area covering at least 20,000 square meters (1 square
mf ter = 9 square feet, 180,000 square feet ** 4 acres)
must be acquired as the site for constructing the smallest
ir.cineration plant.
An additional area for making the environment of such
a site attractive may be acquired according to circumstances.
d. Incineration Plant Layout
An incineration plant will be laid out so as to have
its inlet and outlet entrances kept separate with a
spacious parking lot so as not to congest traffic on the
truck highway by which the plant will be flanked.
39
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e. Maintenance of Utility'Spaces
An incineration plant will be designed and constructed
so as to maintain necessary and sufficient utility spaces
for water, electric, gas and other services.
f. Pollution Control
Discharged noxious matters will be controlled, to
the best advantage of available science and technology,
so as to conform to at least thf standards stipulated by
related law and ordinances. Th« control of some matters
wiM be aimed, where possible, £t sealing down their
contents to half the stipulated standard values. The
discharge of possibly noxious matters for which no control
standards are established will te controlled when such
equipment is available.
g. Uses of Heat by Incineration
i. Power generation: Electric power generated by
the use of heat produced by incineration will be
self-supplied by the plant, and surplus power, if
any, will be supplied to an electric power company.
ii. Heating: Heat produced by incineration will
be used for room and water heating in the plant,
and if possible, for area heating for the benefit of
the neighboring public utilities.
-------
h. Prior-Treatment of Combustible Big Refuse
For this purpose, pulverization machines will be
ins. tailed.
i. Reservation Capacity Adjustment
The refuse and the residual ash reservation capacity
of a plant will be large enough l:o reserve such ash for
more than three days, and ash shipment facilities will
be established.
j. Structures Made Earthquake-^roof
Large structures of a plant will be made aseismatic
so as to withstand the standard seismic intensity of 0.4,
as stipulated in the Architectural Standards Law. (The
Kauto earthquake of 1921 was on the same intensity level.)
In addition to the locating conditions for incineration
plants, as mentioned in the preceding sections, basic
conditions for plant design and construction must be
considered, which are:
k. Operations conducted in a plant will be serialized
around each furnace so that breakdown or shutdown in one
furnace will not affect the work of the whole plant.
1. Equipment for a plant will be designed and constructed
for safety ensurance and operational efficiency promotion,
and must have pleasing appearances and contribute toward
labor saving.
-------
Relay Facilities
a. Primary Relay Facilities
Relay facilities used where no incineration
plant is available will include a large freight boat
for waste transportation to a nearby incineration
pL.nt and for great-shere waste ireatment, and an
intermediate treatment plant for incombustible and
re: ractory refuse.
b. Secondary Relay Facilities
The aim of secondary relay facilities is to
facilitate waste collection and transportation in a
large incineration plant or a wide waste collection
ar.»a.
The above-mentioned policies for the design
and construction of relay facilities will be implemented
for incineration plants accordingly when the policies can
be implemented for the incineration planst.
Land-Filling Sites
In a site designated for land filling, the wastes
described in 2, 2) above, such as residual ashes, incombustibles,
and refractories, will be dumped.
Policies for the design and construction of landfilling
sites will be considered by taking into account, besides
the use of such sites for long-distance waste transportation
through a submerged tunnel, the maintenance of the standards
42
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stipulated in the Cabinet Order and the Ministerial
Ordinance concerning air and set water pollution control
during and after site construce on.
(£) Industrial Waste Treatment Plants
The aim of industrial wastf treatment plants is to
trsat wastes discharged by meditm and small enterprises.
As for policies for this, 'he policies for incineration
plants will be implemented acco. dingly concerning pollution
coitrol, but policies for other aspects are now under
study.
1-2-2 Methods and Problems of Waste Treatment: Site Selection
1) Conditions for Site Selection
(T) A waste treatment site must meet the designing and
construction conditions describid in 4), 1-2-1 above
concerning the location, area, vaste transportation inlets
and outlets of such a site.
(2) Such a site must meet the conditions described in
2-1-3 above concerning the location, area, traffic, etc.
of the site in the city planning aspects.
2) The Procedure of Site Selection
Steps in the procedure of selecting a waste treatment
site are: to name alternative sites to be selected which
will meet the conditions described in 1) above by taking into
account such additional conditions as the timing of their
A3
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acquisition and whether there are properties to be removed
or transferred, and on the basis of a judgment made on all
the corditions in a comprehensive m£.iner, to conduct nego-
tiations with each ward, the ward assembly, and representatives
of various walks of life in the ward (local resident repre-
sentatives will be included if a concrete site in the locality
is proposed by the metropolis). Sue!" steps taken, one of
the alternatives will be selected at the decision of the metro-
polis > and the section will be authorized in view of city
plannirg, and be announced.
3) Problens of Site Selection
(3^ Wt ste Transportation Vehicles
Vehicles must be used for ', aste transportation,
bit the passage of such vehicles carrying filthy and
useless matters is a problem in itself.
(2) Local Residents
As noted earlier, one characteristics trait of
Tokyo Metropolis is that it has a large population in a
narrow district, and the involvement of local residents
in a waste treatment site is unavoidable. (Even if a
land-filling tract where no people live is selected for
such a site, the involvement of local residents in the
site is unavoidable in the form of waste passage by highways
leading to the site, and here again the concentrated passage
of wastes through densely-populated quarters is a problem.)
44
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Because of (l) and (2)above, it becomes an important
problem to obtain the consent of local residents concerning
th'i passage of wastes through t.l eir living quarters and
the location of a waste treatment site there.
The local residents reasonably understand that a
waute treatment plant is indispensible with them, but are
prone to emotionally oppose waste treatment itself because
of their vague anxiety about aii and water pollution and
triffic congestion which can be caused be waste treatment.
It is thus difficult to obtain their consent on the construction
of a waste treatment site and tie concentration passage of
vehicles for treatment and transportation.
For resolution of the difficulty, it goes without
saying that pollution control measures, as will be described
in 1-2-3 below, must satisfactorily be taken to allay their
anxiety about pollution and that endeavors must be made to
have the citizens promote their understanding of and their
consciousness of sharing the responsibility of waste treatment.
1-2-3 Pollution Control Measures for Waste Treatment Plants
1) Prologue
Pollution problems which are invariably raised concerning
the establishment of waste treatment plants are air and water
Pollution, noise, vibration, and offensive odors, and it is
considered highly possible, in view of the present level of
-------
control techniques, to scale down the present values of noise,
vibration, and offensive odor, below the stipulated standard
values Here we would like to discu .s only air and water
pollution.
2) Air Pollution Control Measures
Maiy Japanese cities have adopted the incineration method
for was:e treatment because by the method the dimensions of
waste can be reduced, and Tokyo Metropolis is aiming at
realiziig the total incineration of combustible refuses dis-
charged under its jurisdiction.
Anung the gases exhausted by waste incineration, those
which mainly cause air pollution are smoke, soot, sulfuric
oxide, aydrogen chloride, and other noxious matters. Such large
cities as Tokyo must take all-around measures, in view of their
locating conditions, against environmental destruction.
Concerning smoke and soot of the. above-mentioned causes
of air pollution, it is possible to scale down their concentration
below the stipulated standard value, for example, to 0.05 g/Nm
by the installation of electric and other effective dust collectors,
Concerning sulfuric oxide, because of the fact that sulfur
content in wastes is low (the average content in the refuse
analyzed by Tokyo Metropolis in fiscal 1971 was 0.05%) and by
such means as induction of the air dispersion technique, it is
now possible to scale down its concentration far below the
-------
stipulated standard value (O.Q05vp.p.m. of the ground level
concentration).
Thr recent development of the pe trochemical industry
has spread the use of plastic products, but this is a big
problem in waste treatment. The plastic content of wastes
discharged in Tokyo as of 1970 was 1C per cent, nearly one-
fourth of which was accounted for by vinyl chloride, the main
cause o: hydrogen chloride gas.
However, the content of hydroger chloride in the gasses
exhausted from incineration plants has been reduced, by the
improvenent of their designs, below C.05 p.p.m. of the ground
level concentration or one-hundredth of the value recommended
for safety and sanitation.
Ev«m so it is necessary, in viet of the increasing diversi-
fication of refuse including plastic refuse, that studies should
be made on other methods of treating hydrogen chloride gas.
Some of the methods have been completed in the efficiency
testing stage, and still some are in the feasibility testing
stage, but it is necessary that the methods including those for
the selective treatment of plastics should be brought to the
testing stage for commercialization. In such large cities as
Tokyo, more high-rise buildings will come out, and waste treatment
plants, if ill located, will not produce their expected effects
-------
of dispersing exhausted gases into the air. In plant location,
the geographical and meteorological conditions must be taken
into co isideration, and feasibility r.tudies must be conducted,
as was lone in some cases, by testing, with mock-ups and wind
tunnels, and other testing tools.
3) Water Pollution Control Measures
Concerning the control of pollu .ed water discharged from
waste treatment plants, it is believ id that there will be no
problem because it is possible to tace effective measures for
the control of other pollutants than those of heavy metals.
Among the metals contained in pollut id water from such plants
are copper, chrome, cadmium, lead, zinc, and manganese which
are exuded from residual ash, flyash, and refuse. Concerning
them it. is believable that no small influence is exerted by
stabilizers and metals used as pigments in the production process
of plastics.
Standards on the discharge of the noxious metals in polluted
water are established in the Environaental Quality Standards on
Water Pollution, the Water Pollution Control Law, and
the Sev/erage Law, and it is further provided for that the
standards can be set higher by a prefectural ordinance.
Various technical methods of metal treatment have been
developed, but there still is room for doubting whether the
48
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methods are really useful for the reduction of metal
concentrations which have already been brought down below
the stimulated standard values. It li not required urgently
to study and develop techniques for the elimination or
stabilisation of heavy metals, and to resolve the problem
of controlling underground and sea wa:er pollution in the
disposa.". of incombustible and refractory wastes by landfilling
or by tlie dumping of them into the sei.
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1-3 RECRUITMENT OF PERSONNEL IN CHARGE OF WASTES TREATMENT
AND OTHERS (Chiefly on an example in Kawasaki City)
1-3-1 Present Conditions on the Personnel in Charge of Wastes Treatment
In order to rianage wastes treatment work efficiently it is very
important that th«j material and personnel systens have been fully secured
and synthetically maintained. From the management and technical point of
view, wastes treating enterprise shall need tbt improvement of operation
method, mechaniza :ion of transporting vehicles and adjustment of facilities.
However, efficiency on the material side is steadily going on. But more
vitally important is the measure for the persornel side. Of course we
can't think lightly of it when the shortage of labor force is getting
severer.
The condition of the personnel in charge cf wastes treatment works
directly run by municipalities is shown in Tab!e 1-3-1. Conditions of
personnel in charge of wastes treatment (1970)
Table 1-3-1
Personnel
engaged in
both sections.
Personnel in
charge of
night-soil .
Personnel in
charge of
wastes.
Total
Official
4,036
6,177
10,913
21,126
Employe
922
5,304
13,724
19,950
Regular
Labor
648
5,525
19,630
25,803
Irregular
Labor
109
1,249
11,359
12,717
Total
5,715
18,255
55,626
79,596
(Surveyed by Ministry of Health and Welfare)
50
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In order to proceed smoothly with the-wastes disposal work, under
the good understanding of the citizens the labor management of this
personnel should he bright and rational, their character should be promoted
and their safety labor management should be cor.ducted, then their operational
efficiency would be highly promoted. As you find in Table 1-3-1 the fact
that 38,520(48%) of 79,596 in charge of the wastes and night-soil disposal
are temporary employees, it is an urgent problem for them to get their
guarantee of statis established. Concerning rl e security of these personnel
in charge and th<=ir labor management, those in Kawasaki City shall be taken
up as a model city and explained in Part 1-3-2,
Article 21 o.c the Wastes Disposal Law pre? cribes that a technical
controller shall be posted assigned to the tecl nical work relating the
maintenance and m magement of domestic wastes treating plants and his
qualification to his post is provided with the. Ministry Ordinance of the
said Law. As a means of acquiring this qualification it is characteristic
that the Japan Environmental Sanitation Center a foundation juridical
person is engaged in educational training for the qualification examination
on a private basis.
Again, Article 20 of the Wastes Disposal Law prescribes that prefec-
tures or cities that have health centers shall have environmental sanitation
inspectors and let them lead the work relating wastes disposal and their
qualification is prescribed by the Ministry Ordinance of the said Law. It
is urgent to secure environmental sanitation inspectors who have heavy
51
•tip-
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responsibility of leading environmental sanitation relating domestic wastes
as well as industrial ones.
1-3-2 Structure >f Personnel in Charge of Wastes Disposal.
Kawasaki Ci:y, lying between Tokyo and Yckohama Cities, has the
population of 1 million (298 thousand householcs), the area of 136 km^.
The reclaimed are.i along the sea front of the ilat land is the center
of Keihin industrial region with a large numbei of modern factories,
while the hilly area has been urbanized into a great residential quarters
and since April 1, 1973 it has been made a "de; ignated city."*
The number 01. the personnel in connection with wastes disposal is
1,453 in all, who are positively tackling with wastes disposal administration
in its various fields (everyday collection of Domestic wastes, road cleansing,
regular night-soil collection, septic tank cleansing, guidance of industrial
wastes disposal, etc.). Its personnel can be classified by the kinds of
works:
Office personnel: their principal works are personnel,
administration and clerical work.
210, 14.5%
Technical personnel: their principal works are to maintain
and operate the equipments.
158, 10.9%
* A city with the population of more than a million. Given competence
nearly as much as a prefecture by law. There are 10 designated cities
including Tokyo, Osaka, ... in Japan.
52
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Field personnel: Their principal works are to collect,
transport and dispose wastes.
I,'i85, 74.7%
Technical personnel (drivers, etc.) 513
Working personnel (collection workers, etc.) 572
As for their education, almost all the field workers are graduates
of compulsory education course, while among office workers 210,170 are
university or hig'i school graduates. Technical personnel are all university
and high school g-aduates, graduates of technical courses such as veterinary
medicine, electricity, chemistry, machinery, etc. There are a large number
of legally qualified persons in the city offices to be appointed to
environmental sanitation inspectors and technical operators of domestic
wastes disposal facilities, both of which appointments are legalized by
the law relating the wastes disposal and public cleansing. At present, 161
environmental sanitation inspectors, consisting of 116 of technical personnel
and 45 of clerical personnel are working. Again, technical operators are
posted at all the necessary facilities. Besides, various technicians
necessary for the maintenance and operation of facilities, such as senior
electric technicians, senior high-pressured gas operators, senior boiler-
turbin technicians and various license-holders such as boiler operators,
crane drivers, car drivers, maintenance supervisors, navigators, marine
engineers, wireless operators and others whose works are licensed or
legalized are all posted at necessary places. It is clear that the
53
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mechanization of treatment facilities and the enlargement of machines and
apparatus will need more and more technical personnel, and consequently
the importance of technical personnel will grow more and more, and their
share in the total personnel will be sure to increase.
Next, the respective numbers of the personnel of the administrative
and operating depjrtments, and the ratio between the two:
Administrative department: 87, 6%
Operating department: 1,366, 94%
a. Relating the collection work: 1 013, 69.7%
Relating the wastes: 544, 37.4%
Relating the night-soil: 469, 32.3%
(At the same office personnel work for the both, the
nur.ber is halved and posted.)
b. Relating the treatment and disposal work: 353, 24.3%
Relating the wastes: 247, 17%
Relating the night-soil: 106, 7.3%
The total number of the personnel in charge of the
refuse is 791, 7.3%.
The total number of the personnel in charge of the
night-soil is 575, 39.6%.
Most of the personnel are engaged in the collection,
transport and disposal operation.
Finally, their age structure, the length of. their
service, and their average ages are shown in the
attached Table 1-3-2, 1-3-3,
54
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Table 1-3-2. Work-wise age structural table
(as of Oct. 1, 1972)
Work ^"""•"•^^
Office
personnel
Technical
personnel
Field
perso-
nnel
Total
technical
clerical
-29
years
old
81
5.61%
111
7.6%
54
3.7%
101
7.0%
347
23.9%
30-39
years
old
51
3.5%
33
2.3%
241
16.6%
259
17.8%
584
40.1%
40-49
years
eld
41
2.8%
n
0.8%
179
12.3%
1*6
11 . 4%
3i'7
27,3%
50-60
years
old
37
2.5%
3
0.2%
39
2.7%
46
3.2%
125
8.7%
Total
210
14.5%
158
10.9%
513
35.3%
572
39.4%
1,453
100%
Table 1-3-3.
Average working years and average
(as of Oct. 1, 1972)
^"~""~---~^_Years, age
Kinds of work ~~~— _^
Clerical
personnel
Technical
personnel
Field technical
work
personnel clerical
Average
Working Years;
12 years 2 months
5 years 8 months
8 years 9 months
7 years 7 months
8 years 6 months
Average Age
36 years 9 months
28 years 7 months
39 years 2 months
38 years 2 months
37 years 5 months
55
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The'.ir average ages are Increasing year by year and
especially in the case of the field workers, their average
ag • will soon be fifties. Moreover, the renewal of
personnel seldom occurs. (In 1971 the rate of new
employment, 0.9%; the rate of those who left their posts
in that year, 0.3%). As for the succeeding personnel,
though having tried hard to fill the vacancies, most of
tli i applicants are late in their thirties due to the
peculiarity of the work itself. This is a big problem to
be settled in the future. Howevar, there is no retirement
ag-2 for public servants, but in this city when an official
gets to 60 years old, he will be advised to retire and
tlose who answer this city's request will be given
specially favored treatment as to their retirement money.
Therefore, there is no person above 60 years old who is
now working.
1-3-3 Training of Related Personnel
The training of the personnel of Kawasaki City Office is conducted
with a noble object, namely, "trainees should personally acquire the spirit
of public services and receive sound commonsense, necessary knowledge and
technics enough to exercise appropriate and proper administration." Under
this principle various trainings and lecture courses are conducted.
56
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1) Training for Office and Technical Personnel
Q) Cultural Training for New Employees
Tie object of this training is to give newly employed
personnel and those other than the city officials instructions
on the outline of their work and at the same time let them
cultivete their morality and coramensc-nse as the bureau personnel,
(2) Ci Itural Training for the Preset t Personnel
Tl is training makes it its object for the officials
except: ng those in administrative posts to be drilled in
administrative work and to cultivate their knowledge, morality
and coi monsense. Clerical work training, finance and accounting
work training, despatched training at: the Autonomy University
and thi- like are some of the city training programs.
(3) Ci Itural Training for Personnel in Administrative Posts
This training makes it its object for administrative
personnel to polis up necessary morality, fully learn the
complete administrative work enough to lead and control their
subordinates and cultivate their character and discernment.
A.special training for bureau directors, department chiefs, and
section chiefs is one of many programs.
(5) Lecture Courses and Others
The city office invites authorities on current topics,
politics, economics and others or men of learning and experience
57
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to give lectures to the city office personnel so that they
may cultivate their commonsense. The city occasionally opens
lecture courses with the intention of leeting the city office
personnel cultivate their commonsense.
2) Special Training for Technical Personnel
In case of the Cleansing Bureau, due to its specific
nature of work, the bureau sends their technical personnel
to varijus lecture meetings and trailing courses with the
object >f acquiring the knowledge anc technics necessary to
maintain, control and operate the facilities. The wastes
disposal facilities technical controJers' qualifying examination
training course, the despatched trailing at the National
Institute of Public Health, the industrial measurement training
course, the high-pressure gas operat:ng foreman's qualifying
examination preparatory couse and others are some of the examples,
and the knowledge acquired at these training courses has been
of great use to their actual works. Necessary expenses for
attending these courses and meetings are all defrayed by the
city.
3) Training for Field Working Personnel
Various training courses are conducted under the auspices
of the Cleansing Bureau for field working personnel to strengthen
their self-consciousness and responsibility as public servants,
give necessary knowledge and technics for their actual works and
acquire the gist of safety operation. The training for newly
58
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employed personnel, the cultural'training courses for the
leading personnel, the operational foremen's training for
supervij ing personnel (operational f c tremen) , the training
for giving new knowledge necessary due to the development of
works, the training for fully understanding the working policy,
the traffic law and safety operation courses, and cultural
courses for cultivating general commcnsense and heightening
cultura . insight are some of the cour ses sponsored by the
City, "hey are all aiming at the character improvement of the
personnel and carried on systematically and continuously.
1-3-4 On the Measures Relating the Acquirement of Related Personnel
The work of wastes disposal is of high discomfort index under a bad
environmental condition and excepting partially mechanized parts, of simply
heavy labor. In order to let them put their heart into such a socially
disliked work and positively work for it, the city authority should offer
the related personnel more inviting terms than others in respect of the
guarantee of status, working conditions, welfare and benefits.
1) Guarantee of Status
In case of Kasasaki City, all the personnel are the regular
personnel of the city office (city officials) including those field
workers, and those who serve the city for more than 20 years shall
be entitled to receive annuity based on the Local Government Personnel
Mutual Benefits Association Law. The life after their retirement can
be secured fairly well, though not sufficiently.
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2) Working Conditions " 0
(T) Salaries and Wages
Tfca biggest cause of labor troutles in our country is
the waga problem, which shows the greatest concern for workers
is their pay. Meanwhile, the settlement of the basic pay of
the municipal personnel is a little different from that of
private enterprises. Free mass negotiations between labor
and capital are limited in our case. Consequently to make
pays attractive, there is no other means than depending on the
pays otier than the basic pays (various allowances). Putting
aside t.ie problem whether it is right or not to depend on extra
allowables, out of the total pays of the Cleansing Bureau of
Kawasaki City about 32% is from extra allowances. (This is a
general tendency in common throughout Japan.) Attached Table
1-3-4 s'.iows an actual example of the pay structure and from this
table w<3 can see that special duties allowances occupy a large
share in extra allowances.
60
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Table 1-3-4. Wage structure of Kawasaki City
Cleansing Bureau Personnel
(As of Oct. 1972, all personnel :n average)
Name
Basic pay
Adjustment allowance
Family allowance
Special duty allowance
Overtime wor':
allowance
Commutation allowance
Total
Monthly Amount
¥ 71,634
¥ 5,905
¥ 2,340
¥ 15,435
¥ 8,061
¥ 1,852
¥105,227
Rate
68.1%
5.6%
2.2%
14.7%
7.7%
1.7%
100 %
Thinking much of its peculiar nature the city pays to make it
up. When a local municipality wants to improve its pays
positively, it can't help resorting to put weight on this method
of increasing special allowances. Besides, the annual total of
year-end bonus and dilligence allowances is guaranteed to be no
less than 4.8 times of monthly pay and the retirement allowance
system is also stabilized. In consequence, the total pay of a
municipal official is not at all inferior to that of a private
enterprise.
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(2) Working Hours
In order to let the personnel work most efficiently and
serve tie city for a long period, the consumption of labor
force and its recovery should be well balanced. For that, the
proper length of working hours and tha security of a good
working environment are needed. Working hours are generally
best standardized for around 8 hours a day, but in this city
the actual working hours are 7 hours 45 minutes a day and the
basic working hours are 46 hours 30 ttinutes a week. The length
of worko.ng hours has been much discussed nowadays, together
with the shortening of working hours and a two-day holiday system.
Comparing with those of other municipalities, it is hard to say
that th<^ working hours of this city are better arranged, but
in case of cleansing operation, especially of collection work,
the reduction of working hours means an increase of working
capacity per unit hour, and because of physical fatigue from
intensive work it causes an increase of absentees and accidents,
and doesn't lead to improve any workiag conditions. Besides, it
is necessary to study the actual state of collection (domestic
wastes are collected daily) and decide the length of working
hours. However, the reduction of working hours is the demand
and cry of the age and it is, of course, a problem to be studied
in the future, but the reduction of working hours will lead to
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an increase of the personnel, machines and apparatus, which
will consequently come to increase the city's financial
burden. Therefore, it is not a probl an to be settled easily.
(5) Operational Environment
As a part of the improvement of operational environment,
the cit;' has been doing its best to achieve the mechanization
and improvement of collection vehicles, the automation and
the safity operation of treating plants and the completion of
various facilities relating the publi: health and sanitation,
but, however, it is still hard to say the city has enough
spare vehicles and personnel,
(§) Benefit and Welfare
It is of course the system for the personnel to aim at
for securing and improving their living and, in consequence,
letting them devote themselves to their public services. As
the legal welfare systems of Kawasaki City, the Mutual Benefit
Society based on the Local Municipal Officials' Benefit Society
Law, the Official Accident Compensation system based on the
Municipal Officials' Accident Compensation Law are all stabilized,
having no problems left to be discussed. However, non-legal
benefit and welfare systems such as those relating health (the
establishment of hospitals, medical centers, sanatoriums,
barbers, etc.), those relating recreation (the establishment of
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seaside and mountain villas, sports, amusement facilities),
those relating houses (official houses, dormitories and the
measurt for acquiring own houses), tl.ose relating life benefits
(the management of dining-rooms, stores, loans for living
expenses, lending of work-wears) are all ready for use, but
they si e not enough to satisfy the personnel. The benefit
and welfare systems have so far been apt to put too much
weight on the legal systems, and non-legal systems have had
the te idency of being weighed little, In the case of this
city 5. : is not exceptional on this matter, but considering the
supply and demand relation of labor corce it has become necessary
for ou: city office to acquire as mu:h labor force as a big
enterprise by means of the attractive benefit and welfare
systeti as well as the improvement of pays.
(D Safety and Sanitation
Relating the safety and sanitation of the personnel the
Personnel Safety and Sanitation Committee has been founded
in accordance with the Labor Safety and Sanitation Law and
positive activities have been developed, and both labor and
capital have been doing their joint efforts to make their city
offices pleasant and bright places to work in.
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@ Conclusion
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II
RECYCLING
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II-l GENERAL
1. An essence vhich continuously keeps a life and activity going on
is Stofeweschel, i.e. Metabolism, and as i. result of stofeweschel,
discharging of waste and unnecessary materials becomes inevitable.
In the past, we made both ends meet l.y simply throwing away
the waste aid unnecessary materials out oi the system we were
concerned. However, as a result of such rets, various kinds of
environment, 1 pollutions including atmospheric pollution, water
pollution, (tc. have been resulted.
2. We have beei producing a countless number of so called modern
structures i nd products by utilizing large; amount of materials
and energy *. hile we consume them at the s?.me time. It is, therefore,
inevitable that anything that has been produced must be discarded.
Solving of environmental problem, i.e., the problems of disposing
of waste, depends upon how to solve a contradiction between the
flow of artificial materials and the acceptability of nature.
3. Contradicticn of the confrontation between the nature and the
artificial matters, that is, contradiction of the modern civilization
may be 'solved only by a reversible and intrinsic resource of man who
himself is presenting the very contradiction.
It is, therefore, highly significant to present with our
positive intention a new term "Conversion to resources", i.e., to
reutilize waste materials.
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4. The essences of technology that have been acquired by man are
classified into only "Assortment" and "Assemblage" while the
production technology of man has been developed by the three
fundamental operations; a physical operation such as breaking,
selecting, m:.xing, assembling, etc.; a chenical operation such
as disintegration, distillation, combination, polymerization, etc.,
and a biologr.cal operation such as divisicn, cultivation, etc.
5. The technology required for disposing of vaste, i.e., reutilization,
is not exceptional at all; the most essential matters required for
it are how to "assort" and how to "assemble" within the social
system, i.e.:, in the process of productior , circulation, consumption
and in every process.
6. In Japan, tho amount of annual consumptior of organic resources such
as food, feed, clothes, lumbers, etc., is approximately 210 million
tons while an amount of annual consumption of inorganic resources such
as iron ore, lime, etc. is approximately 790 million tons. In
addition, approximately 300 million tons of energy resources such as
crude oil, coal, etc. are consumed annually.
7. It Is impossible to dispose of or take care of a rubbish as a simple
rubbish discharged from a flow of enormous materials. It is,
therefore, necessary to handle the rubbish as "resources." This is
meant that reutilizing the rubbish as resources will largely reduce
the amount of waste.
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8. A social system of reutilizing and collecting such "resources" has
been existing, but has not been properly managed because of unbalance
with the otler systems of various kinds.
9. Now, mainly for the city rubbish, a rapid development has been made
for the systems which apply a technology for such systems as
discharge, collection, transportation, prt-treatment, reutilization
and final disposition treatment.
In thij case, it is better if a conversion to "resources" is
carried out by a process located as closely to the discharge source
as possible and the transportation including storage will become a
very important key factor.
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II-2 CONSIDERATION IN DETAILS
II-2-1 Problems Concerning the Waste In Japan
The economic and social progress in Japan in the recent years has
been truly remarkable and resulted in a sharp Increase of the living
standard of the ^apanese people. However, this phenomenon has accelerated
an excessive concentration of population in large cities, thus bringing
about unfavorable effects at the same time. The unfavorable effects in
this case mean v< rious pollution problems, and the solid was.te materials
(city rubbish) ii. each city have been continuorsly increasing in the
quantity and have been increasingly complicated in the contents, thus
creating many ca? es in which rubbish disposing capacity of city is
surpassed by sucl an increase. Furthermore, ar, it is most certain that
the quantity of taste of durable consuming good such as automobiles,
household electric appliances will increase in the future, it will become
difficult to solve this problem more than ever before.
Since the city rubbish in Japan contains a large amount of garbages,
it is easily decomposed, and, therefore, a failure in the disposing ability
will surely be resulted in a terrible pollution of environment.
Of course, each Ministry, Agency and local government *in cooperation
with non-governmental industries has been seriously dealing with the
trash problem. However, they have been too busy handling only the problems
confronting them directly. For this very reason, the present technology
and system of disposing waste are inefficient as well as insufficient,
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and each city is now experiencing a secondary pollution problem.
There are many problems that require drastic solution in the future
and what is most required is a research and de1 elopment of a new technology.
II-2-2 Disposition of City Rubbish in Japan
A method foi disposing of city rubbish wi<.ely used in Japan is to
collect the rubfcrsh by trash trucks and transport it to a reclamation ground
and dump the rubl ish or burn it. However, sin< e Japan is a country where
natural resource,, are so scarce, it is very ir ational to use the present
system in which ) ighly valuable resources such as metals, plastics, papers,
glass, etc., mixi d with the rubbish are either burned or thrown away. Yet,
we have been experiencing a great difficulty in burning or reclamation of
land. Now is tb : time that we should seriously consider about converting
the city rubbish into the "resources."
In the U.S.,.. which is provided with a va:;t area of land and,
consequently, with abundant areas for dumping rubbish, and what is
specially noteworthy is the fact that in this country where natural resources
are abundant, th<; government on its own initiative has recently been
aggressively devoted to the research and development of technology for
reutilization of city rubbish for the first time in the world.
II-2-3 Research and Development of Resources Reutilizing and
Reclaiming Technology System
The reutilization and reclaiming of city rubbish can not be realized
only be developing technology alone. It can be efficiently materialized
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when the technology is organically combined with education, moral, laws,
industrial policies, etc. The most difficult problem is, however, the
development of th •. reclaiming and reutilizing technology system.
Recently in Japan, some people are conscious of this problem, but
technically speak:.ng, it is very difficult to reclaim and reutilize city
rubbish and to ma>.e it "resources" at the final stage, and to reduce the
amount of rubbish.
In order to iggressively research and develop the resources reclaiming
and reutilizing s/stem used mainly for city rubbish, our government, being
aware of the presant situation, and aiming at accomplishing the technology
system in several years, has been engaged in a systematic preliminary
investigation sinze 1972. In 1973, we shall carry out research and
development on tha basis of this preliminary ir.vestigation, dividing the
year into two ter.us. In this preliminary investigation, the domestic
as well as foreign technology and systems related to this matter shall be
all investigated and we will look for the technology and systems which may
be suitable for the conditions in Japan. This work has been conducted by
the project teams consisting of scholars, specialists, etc., who have been
mobilized from universities, national research institutes, etc.
A plan provided for the first term (1973-1975 fiscal year) is to
evaluate and study the possibility of actual application of the results of
research and proposed technology and systems after the above mentioned
preliminary investigation.
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In the 2nd term (after 1976 fiscal year), it is scheduled that
under a large project subsidy system, we shall expedite big scale
research and dev«lopment of technologies which are practically applicable
to Japanese situation.
72
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U.S.—JAPAN CONFERENCE
ON
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Paper No. 2
WASTE DISPOSAL AND
PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY IN JA
January 29 and 30, 1973
JAPANESE GOVERNMENT
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Ill WASTE DISPOSAL AND PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY
III-l COLLECTION, TRANSPORT, PROCESSING AND DISPOSAL
III- 1-1 Present conditions of collection, transport,
processing and final disposal ......... . ............ 1
III-1-2 Treating standards of refuse and the planning
stande rds of refuse treating facilities ... ......... 4
III-1-3 Building conditions of Refuse Treating Plants ........ 10
III-1-4 Future Adjustment Program of Facilities ........... ... 12
III-1-5 Necessii y of Technical Development of Refuse
Treat: ent and the Present Situation in Japan ....... 13
III-2 HOW TO HANDLE SPECIAL TYPE WASTES
(Chiefly on an example in Yokohama City)
III-2-1 Problems of Urban Plastic Refuse ..................... 17
III-2-2 Problems of Big Refuse and Countermeassures ........ ... 23
III-2-3 Hospital Refuse Treatment . . .......................... 28
III-2-4 Refuse Collection in Multi-Story Buildings ........... 34
III-3 SANITARY LANDFILL TECHNIQUE AND REPATED PROBLEMS
III-3-1 Transient and Present Conditions of Sanitary
Landf illing in Our Country ......................... 38
III-3-2 Administrative Policy Relating the Sanitary
Landf illing ........................................ 40
III-3-3 The Trend of Researches Relating Landf illing
Wastes Disposal ........................... . ........ 45
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III-l COLLECTION, TRANSPORT, PROCESSING AND DISPOSAL
III-l-l Present :onditions of collection, trai sport, processing and
final disposal.
According to the statistics made in fiscal 1970 (in the following
no note indicates the same) 84.69 million people, equivalent to 82.5% of
the total population of 103.72 million are ber
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total loading capacity of the vehicles is 32,766 tons. The number of
running tends to be decreasing year by year due to the deterioration of
traffic condition and the long distance to trea:ing stations. The
number of the personnel engaged in the collection, transportation,
intermediate treai.ment and final disposal is as follow:
Table II1-1-::, The Number of the personnel engaged in the
collection transportation, intermediate
treatment and final disposil
Municipal personnel
Fully employed for wastes treatment
Partly employed for wastes treatment
Total
Private business employes
Total
55,626
5,715
61,341
11,191
72,532
As the means of intermediate treatment, incinceration and high-speed
compost making arc conducted and the quantity of the two put together is
as much as 56% of all the planned treating volume of municipalities. As a
means of final disposal landfilling is conducted, but the volume of refuse
to be landfilled without going through any intermediate treatment such as
incineration, etc. is as much as 33.5%. of total planned treated volume
of refuse handled by municipalities. When landfilling is rather hard to
be conducted, ocean dumping is permitted by law after necessary intermediate
treatment such as incineration, but such practices are not done nowadays.
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Refuse treatment is classified as follows by the methods of intermediate
treatment and finel disposal in 1965 and 1970.
Table IIl-1-.'i. The yearly transition of refuse treatment.
( ) indicates wastes discharging volume per man/day
Year-
Population of (A'
treating area
Total wastes (B -
discharge
Planned treating
volume :
Incineration
Landfilling
High-speed compost
Compost
Feeds
Others
Total
Home disposal volume
1965
54,231
(695 g/cd)
44,522 t/d
16,896 t/d
17,659
1,325
252
966
37,098
7,424
105%
37.9%
39.6
3.0
0.6
2.2
83.3
16.7
1970
84,694
(910 g/cd)
76,998 t/d
42,557 t/d
25,715
548
36
96
945
69,899
7,099
100%
55.3%
33.5
0.7
0.0
0.1
1.2
90.8
9.2
As the direction of refuse treatment in our country, utilization of land-
filling to the full extent shall be taken up as the final disposal after
intermediate treatment. The incineration treatment is one of the most
important methods and shall be further improved. Again, high-speed compost
making has been conducted as the means of recreating resources, but as the
demand for compost is rather low, its share is decreasing.
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III-1-2. Treating standards of refuse and the planning standards of
refuse treating facilities.
1) Treatrit nt standards of refuse.
The treatment of refuse consists of such processes as collection,
transportation, intermediate treatment and finel disposal. It is
necessary to consider a counter-measure against the total system
consisting of these subsystems of different processes. In each process
of refuse treatment in order to eliminate any hindrance to the security
of life environ™nt, some technical standards rust be established-treatment
standards which shall be firmly observed in eac-.h process.
These standards are laid down by the Cabinet Order prescribed in the
Wastes Disposal law. The standards of maintenance and management of
intermediate trej tment facilities such as incineration, high-speed compost
making, crushing and pressing of big refuses are laid down by the
ordinance of the Ministry of Health and Welfare.
Among the technical standards in connection with the wastes treatment,
the following are- those provided by the Cabinet Order. (Cabinet Order, 1971,
No. 300, Article 3)
Q) When collection, transportation, intermediate treatment and
final disposal are being conducted, they shall take care not
to let wastes fly about.
(2) When a treating plant (including a landfilling site) is to be
established, they should take care not to give any hindrance
to the security of life environment.
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Wastes transporting vehicles and containers, and wastes
transporting pipelines should be well arranged not to let
refuse ?ly about nor let bad smell gi/e out.
Landfili.ing methods of refuse (including the utilization of
open space under the ground) shall be conducted in the
followi; ig methods:
a. La-idfilling site shall be enclosed with fences and
po ;ted with notices thereof.
b. Necessary measures shall be takei against leaching
from landfilling site not to pollute public
wa .ers and ground waters.
c. Ne -.essary measures shall be take:i for bad smell to
em It from reclaimed land.
d. Wh >.n they conduct landfilling with unincinerated
rel'use less than 3 meters thick and cover the surface
of each layer with soil and sand about 50 cm thick.
However, in the case of the area of landfilling site
being less than 10,000 m2 or landfilling volume is below
50,000 m3 or landfilling of open space in the ground are
to be excepted.
e. In a reclaimed land gas vents must be equipped to eliminate
gas generated from the reclaimed land and necessary
measures shall be taken to prevent the land from the
outbreak of fires. But this is exempted if the area of
landfilling site is less than 10,000 m2 or landfilling
•
volume is less than 50,000 m3.
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f. Landfilling site shall be protected from the outbreak
of rats, mosquitoes, flies and other harmful insects.
5 The f ol." owing are the only refuse whi< h can be disposed of by
ocean dumping. But if there is no special hindrance for
landfilling, ocean dumping shall not Ve done.
a. Incinerate the refuse and let th
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B.
^2) Water content of refuse.
Decide it in the same way as in (1). 50 - 60%
is the s:andard water content.
\^) Comoustion rate.
Its standard is 100-150Kg/m2 hr.
(4) Stack draft.
h = 0.8 H (353 369)
Tl T2
h: Stack draft. (water column: mm)
T Average gas temperature in tle stack
T Average open-air temperature.
H: Height of a stack (but the I west, 20m.)
(D Temperature at the exit of furnace.
Above 400°C.
kji) Heat-release rate.
Its standard is 40,000 - 70,000 Kcal/ra3.
>j) Air surplus rate.
100 - 350%.
Continuous-type incinerators.
^J.) Net heating value of refuse.
Heating value shall be decided by actually measuring
the refuse to be incinerated.
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(2) Water content of refuse.
Decide it in the same way as in (1).
(3) C( mbustion rate.
160 - 200 Kg/m2.hr. is the standardized rate.
(4) Stack draft.
Tie same as in the case of batch-type incineration.
(5) E> it temperature of furnace.
Between 750°C and 1,000°C.
Qj) Knat-release rate.
80,000 - 150,000 Kcal/m3.hr. is standardized.
Q) A:'.r surplus rate.
100-250%.
3) Maintenance and management standards of refuse treating plants.
Among the maintenance and management standards of refuse treating
plants the following are the principal ones prescribed by the Ordinance
of the Ministry of Health and Welfare. (Ordinance of the Ministry of
Health and Welfare, 1971, No. 35, Art. 4)
(T) refuse to be discarded into the plant shall not exceed
the treating capacity of the plant.
Q) When refuse are discarded into the incinerator of
Pit-Crane type, refuse shall be always well mixed.
(5) In case of Batch-type incinerator the furnace temperature
at the outlet of the combustion chamber shall be above
400°C and the ignition loss of drawn ashes shall be below 15%.
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In case of Continuous-type incinerator the furnace temperature
at the outlet of the combustion chanber where main incineration
ends shall be kept above about 700°f and below about 1000°C,
and th2 ignition loss of drawn ashes shall be kept under 10%.
The volume of the smoke and soot cortained in every 1 m3 of
flue gas at the temperature of o°C end under the air pressure
of 1 saall be as follows:
a. / Continuous-type incinerator flant with the treating
capacity of more than 200 tons: below 0.2. g.
b. Other facilities: below 0.7 g.
But this may be replaced by still stricter standards
by the Air Pollution Control Law, in which all poisonous
iratters other than smoke and scot will contain. Then,
the new standards should be observed.
In cas2 of a high-speed compost plant, it is necessary to
keep the inside of a fermenting tank suitable to ferment,
control the temperature and wind-blowing and others in
adequate degrees.
In case of a pulverizing plant, necessary measures shall be
taken for powder and dust from the pulverizers not to fly
all around and for big noises to grow. However, when a
control value is laid down by the Noise Control Law, it
shall be observed.
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(jB) In case of a pressing plant, necessary measures shall be taken
not to cause big noise and violent vibration. Besides, the
weight of 1 m3 of refuse after press ing shall be made more than
1.2 t.
(j)) Necess: iry measures shall be taken for drained water from every
plant lot to give any hindrance to the security of life
enviro iment by giving careful considerations to the irrigation
conditions of down-streams. Again, the plants shall be kept
clean and prevented from the outbresk of flies and other
harmful insects in the compounds.
uj) Necessary measures shall be taken to keep up the proper
function of the plants and regular checkups on plant functioning,
the quality of water and smoke and coot shall be conducted.
III-1-3 Buildiig conditions of Refuse Treating Plants.
The maintenance of refuse treating plants has been long conducted
by municipalities, but since 1962 the governmental subsidies have been
granted.
As for the systematic adjustment of refuse treating plants the
first Five-Year National Program beginning in 1963 and the second
Five-Year National Program beginning in 1967 were set for the development
and promulgation of the treating facilities and the 1972-75 National
Program is now going on. These three five-year programs were planned
and conducted in accordance xcith the laws previously laid down.
10
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In the end of 1970 the establishing condition of capacity-wise
refuse incineration plants are as follows:
Table III-l- -
Daily treatii.g capacity
Above 1 t/d, below 5 t/d.
" 5 t/d,
11 10 t/d,
" 20 t/d,
11 30 t/d,
" 50 t/d, " 100 t/d.
" 100 t/d> " 200 t/d.
11 10 t/d.
" 20 t/d.
11 30 t/d.
11 50 t/d.
" 200 t/d, " 600 t/d.
" 600 t/d or larger.
Number of Plants
172.
298.
268.
133.
141.
134.
76.
57.
14.
Total
1,293.
The treating capacity of incineration plants are as follows:
Total nvmber of plants: 1,293.
Treating capacity of total plants: 53,998 t/d.
Number of plants with treating capacity of more
than 100 t/d: 147.
Their total treating capacity: 31,720 t/d.
Number of plants with treating capacity of more
than 200 t/d: 71
Their total treating capacity: 23,860 t/d.
11
-------
III-1-4. Future adjustment program of facilities.
The planned adjustment of refuse treating plants has been already
mentioned and it has been conducted twice in the past by a five-year
National Program aid the last one is now going on with 1975 as its final
year.
The 'following would be the basic way of thinking toward the refuse
treating plant adjustment at the end of 1975.
First of all the service rate of municipal..ties will be raised from
82.5% at the end cf 1970 to 95%. Next, as to combustible matters of
collected wastes (estimated to be about 83% of t;he total volume, including
big refuse) 90% of them will be made combustible through the improvement
of faciltiies. TKe.se incineration plants can s':and a certain amount of
mixture of plastic s and for incinerating these nigher-grade shall be
built so that no public pollution such as air pollution and the like may
occur.
Pulverizing and pressing plants for big refuse shall be built in
every city of the population of more than 100,000 by the end of 1975.
The scale of adjustment and facilities rearrangement expenses for
five years from 1971 to 1975 include the expenses for building sites
and landfilling works with residual ashes are included as follows:
Refuse incineration plant adjusted capacity: 58,855 t/d.
Plant adjustment expenses: ¥269.5 billion.
274
Number of plants to be readjusted for
big refuse treatment:
Plants readjustment expenses:
¥21.5 billion.
12
-------
According to this program, in the end of 1975 the number and the
capacity of refuse treating plants in possession of municipalities
are as follows:
Refuse incineration plants treating capacity: 110,660 t/d.
Big refuse treating plants: 274
III-1-5. Necessity of technical development of refuse treatment and
the present situation in Japan.
In order to proceed with smooth treatment of refuse, various kinds
of technical development will be needed.
First of all, we must prepare the measure for multifarious kinds
of wastes. For example, through the increase of plastics in the refuse,
the sizes of the refuse have grown very bulky i.nd at the same time net
heating rate of refuse has increased. It was r>pecial features of our
country that they had high water content and were hard to burn. But in
recent years through the increase of calorie of refuse it has become
necessary to improve the structure of incinerators which are capable
of regulating the heat control system of the furnace and burning those
materials which come to melt and drop in the furnace.
Secondly, prevention measures for public pollution from refuse
treatment should be strengthened. As for smoke and soot in the stack
gas, it is possible to keep then down to below 0.05 g/Nm3 constantly
by the combined use of Multicycron and Electrostatic Precipitator. In
future, it is necessary to go on raising elimination efficiency for other
13 ,
-------
harmvul matters. With the incineration of refr.se drained water and
residual ashes are naturally discarded and any harmful matters, how
small they may bt , should be made settled and harmless so that the
security of life environment should be maintained.
Thirdly, frcm the view point of saving th«. consumption of natural
resources the technology of turning wastes to 7esources should be
developed. For example, like the recreation ar.d utilization of plastics,
refuse are turner, into "matters" or for steam-;;eneration of electricity
refuse are turr.£f into "energy." Either of thu methods will save the
consumption of b< se materials and decrease the discarded volume at final
disposal and moreover, landfilling site can be efficiently utilized.
Fourthly, tie technical development of efficient collection and
transportation si ould be taken up. The share uf collection and
transportation si all occupy as high as 60 - 70',', in the treatment of
refuse. Besides, from the recent deterioration of traffic condition
and difficulty of acquiring labor force efficiency on this side is
vitally important. On this occasion we should not be satisfied with
improving our conventional refuse collection vehicles, but as building
facilities f.or collection work, a built-in system or the use of
pipelines for transportation should be fully studied.
Fifthly, we should try to control informations relating wastes
and refuse. The static discharging conditions of wastes have been
studied, but when considering wastes treatment as a total system, it
14
-------
is necessary to get active informations of each subsystem and for that
purpose information control comes to be necessary.
Here we will talk about the present conditions of our country in
connection with these technical development processes.
Firstly, as the countermeasure for multifarious kinds of refuse,
high-calorie-type incinerators with planned calories of 2,400 Kcal/Kg have
been built. Oven-type stoker furnaces and dry-distillation-type
incinerators for the wastes of high rate center.: of plastics have been
now put into praclical use.
As the seconc problem, for the elimination of especially, hydrogen
chloride, the use of a. spray tower, a packed tower or an impingement
scrubber, and the adoption of wet-type gas treatment or dry-type gas
treatment have bes.n under study and our final s :udy will come to make
sure of practical limit of eliminating harmful particles.
Besides, materials in exhaust gas, for example, nitrogen oxide (^2)
and organic matters, their generating processes and eliminating methods
shall be left for the future study.
Eliminating technics of harmful matters in drained water has been
established in the field of waste water treatment, but the activities
of harmful matters in residual ashes and landfilling sites and how to
make them harmless have been left to the studies of the Japan Environ-
mental Sanitation Center (foundation juridical person.)
As for the third problem a plant which selects plastics from
refuse, collects and remanufactures them is under construction by the
15
-------
Plastic Waste Management Institute (inc.) and the Ministry of Health
and Welfare has been studying the construction of an experimental
facilities of tun.ing refuse into pulp.
As for the details of these have been already mentioned in
Recycling wastes of Part II.
The 4th problem is that the enlargement of trucks and pressed
loading by contaii.ers have been put into practical use. Transportation
by means of vacuu: t air has been under study with a technical tieup of
American and Swedish makers, and at the same time a test plant by the
domestic technology for the above method has been under construction
by Osaka City.
The 5th prob?.mm is that, taking up Toyohachi City as a model city
the actual states wastes such as their kinds, \olumes, areal distribution,
time-wise distribution and others have been stidied and in consequenc ,
the structure of v;astes discharging would soon be clarified. From this
result, the basic models of subsystems of collection, transportation,
intermediate treatment and final disposal should be designed and further
go on making the plans of practical systems and make clear the function
of wastes treating system. This study has been left to the Japan
Resources Technical Institute (inc.) by the government.
If such technical development as mentioned above should come to
be materialized, the conventional idea of treating wastes at the time
of their discharge would be gone and replaced by an active idea of
changing the course of wastes itself, namely, from the "Cleansing
administration of wastes treatment" to "Pla'nned administration of
control" the wastes cleansing problem will possibly advance.
16
-------
II1-2 HOW TO HANDLE SPECIAL TYPE WASTES
(Chiefly on an example in Yokohama City)
III-2-1 Problems of Urban Plastic Refuse
The use of plastic containers, packaging materials, and textiles is
widespread in Japan, and there are many cases in which the plastic
products are thrcwn away as a kind of domestic refuse. The products
used for land filling remain undecomposed for long in the earth, and if
burned, they gem rate great quantities of heat and noxious gases.
Plastic rpfi se poses and will pose a knot'.y problem in refuse
treatment in Jap.n.
1) How the Pla- tic Refuse Problem Came About
Some seven ; ears ago in around 1965 the phenomenon came into
particular notice that the steel machines and ither parts and accessories
of a refuse inci,-.eration plant such as stokers, heat exchanges, exhausters,
and ducts, underwent marked damage. In ascertaining causes of this by
various means, il: became clear that the main cause was the plastics
contained in refuse. The phenomenon was thus attributed to the
generation of hij;h heat in burning the plastics and metal corrosion
due to the discharge of chloride gases from polyvinyl chloride.
This has become a problem in the thermal control of an incineration
furnace and also in the aspect of environmental pollution due to noxious
gases.
2) Plastics in Domestic Refuse
The weight values of plastics contained in domestic refuse are
shown in Figure II1-2-1. This tabluation is based on the results of
the survey conducted by Yokohama City.
17
-------
*-x
X
\*s
CO
*J
a
0»
4->
c
o
LJ
bO
3 T
-
III-2-1. (Average Annual) Plastic Weight
Content Values of the
Collected by Yokohama City
10
-Tsurumi Ward
-Tsurui.il Ward
[sogo VJard
Yokohama City
y=3.30 + 0.29t
(t=43 =0)
Isogo Ward
Standard Values
on Dry Refuse
*',-' i
—** •" X
Standard Values
on Wet Refuse
39 40 41
F;.scal Year
42
43
44
45
46
47
AAA
The values of dry refuse are annually on the increase to the level
of 10 per cent at present, and if converted into those for solid
combustible refuse, will exceed 15 per cent. It is presumed that
this uptrend will sustain.
The uptrend of plastic content values is generally seen in
such Japanese large cities as Tokyo, Osaka, and Kawasaki.
Plastics are widely found in the refuse derived from the urban
dwellers everyday life, but seldom in the refuse from industrial
activities.
-------
3) The Qualitative Change of Domestic Refuse-
Domestic refuse has undergone changes since it began to contain
plastics. One significant change is the increased net heat values
of refuse. Figure III-2-2 shows the net heat values of combustibles
in the refuse collected by Yokohrama City. It is believed that one
major factor causing the increase is the qualitative growth of
plastic content? in the refuse.
Another change is the increased combust!Die chlorine in refuse.
As shown in Tab." e III-2-1, the chlorine contained in refuse is very
large. This is the cause for the increased chlorine in refuse, and
the chlorine whi'.n burned generates hydrogen chloride.
'-. 1II-2-2 Ayorfifro Annual^jj_oj:_ 3Ign t Vj.l.^::~_ of Cc ^j-^ntj/blcgi
in tiio I'.f. fuse Collgctod__ bv_ Yc^ioha:'1.-:^ '^jjy (til ow-
ing aviTuge annual values for i'surur i »;.ird of
the cil:y)
1.500- 40i
(IvJ/tv?) A
;-.
A
i
j
1, cr;
i. 5.03
•i, A)0
1.1:0
1, OX
r
.
35
•
• 5 n -
<^
. .--<
L^_
W
^2 43
_^ fiscal Year
19
-------
4) Problems of Plastics Containing Refuse.
(T) Refuse Collection and Transportation Problems
Plastics have small specific gravities and are light
and bul^y. This causes inconvenience to the handling of
them, aid the costs of collecting and transporting them
are conparatively high.
(2) Damage on the Machines and Other Parts of an Incineration Plant,
11 a partial or temporary overheating of an incineration
furnace and the generation of hydrogen chloride in' burning
plastic refuse inflict damage on the steel materials of the
machine and other parts of an incineiation plant.
(3) Problems of Incineration Plant Management.
Ar incineration plant is sometir.es designed under the
thermal, air and other controlling ccnditions that are not
suited to burn plastic refuse. This causes the shortage of
air and the increase of exhausts, and lowers the Incinerating
capccity of the plant. The plant needs remodeling.
(4) Environmental Pollution by Exhausts from Incineration Furnaces.
Among the noxious gases contained in exhausts from the
Japanese incineration plants, hydrogen chloride has the
highest concentration of 200 to 900 p.p.m. If the element
is not removed before being released into the air,.or
if it is not discharged to be widely dispersed in the
air, it will cause environmental pollution.
20
-------
5 Land Filling Problems
In Japan the disposal of refuse for land filling carries
a fairly high weight, but plastic refise remains undecomposed
for long if it is used for land filling. If buildings are
constructed on a tract reclaimed with plastic containing
refuse, the ground on which they are rounded will be unst ble.
5) Countermeasures
Various measi res are under study to resolva the problems mentioned
in the preceding sections, which are:
ft) The development of technologies for tie designing and
construction of an incineration furna:e for plastics
containing refuse and for the eliminj:ion of noxious gases.
(z/ The selective collection of plastic rafuse and the development
of a special incineration furnace for plastic refuse.
(3) The selective collection of plastic refuse and the
regeneration and reuse of plastic refuse.
(h) The requirement of plastics producers to collect plastic
refuse and to let the producers dispose of such refuse.
It j.s to be hoped that these measures will be
implemented as early as possible as the challenge to refuse
disposal in Japan.
The combustible chlorine content ratios in the refuse
collected by Yokohama City on basis of its monthly-measured
values are shown in Table III-2-1.
21
-------
Table III-2-1.
Combustible Chlorine Content: Ratios (%)
in the RefuseCollected by Yokohama City
on Its Monthly-Measured Values (Combustion
temperature: 800°C)
Fiscal
Tsurumi
Ward, Yo-
kohama
Isogo
Ward, Yo-
kohama
Yea:
Max.
Min.
Avg.
Ma:c ,
Min .
Avg.
1967
0.56
0.10
0.24
-
—
1968
0.25
0.01
0.15
-
—
1969
0.66
0.05
0.21
0.43
0.32
0.24
1970
0.59
0.22
0.35
0.61
0.07
0.33
1971
0.10
0.20
0,37
0.56
0.12
0.33
Specimen Chloride Weight Contents
of Components of the Refuse
Components
Wet Refuse
Paper, Etc.
Plastics
Others
Incombustibles Removal
Standard Ratios (%)
0.87
0.54
5.64
0.32
Weight
Contents
0.009 kg/kg-R
0.005
0.056
0.003
Note: The figures represent the average values
measured five times from June 1971 to
March 1972.
22
-------
III-2-2 Problems of Big Refuse and Countenaeasures
The improvement of the Japanese people's standards of living
and the diminutior of their urban dwelling spaces have unfitted
such durable consumer products as television and radio sets and
freezing and washing machines the people used tc expend. Many
of the products have become outmoded or gone out of order, and
have been replaced with new ones. It is stipulated in the law
that durable consider products when thrown away as part of the
urban refuse should be in the category of "big .-efuse'S in order
to distinguish such refuse from garbage and othtr types of domestic
refuse.
Special systems are required to collect anc". treat big refuse.
1) The Generation of Big Refuse
Yokohama City collects big refuse by a special system
different from the normal system of collecting domestic refuse.
The types of big refuse collected in fiscal 1971 by the city are
shown in Table III-2-2.
23
-------
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As indicated in this table, furniture and electric appliances
hold primacy, and in terms of the weight distribution ratio account
for around 50 per cent of all the big refuse collected by the city
in the fiscal year. The products collected per 1,000 households
consist of 54 fittings, 31 tables, chairs, and desks, 18 mattresses,
nine television ssts, six radio sets, six wash: ng machines, and others.
It is estimated that each household of Yo-.oh.ama City will be in
possession of 1.4 to 1.5 television sets. The figures are very big,
compared with the television sets collected ns big refuse. Generally
speaking, when durable consumer products are t > be turned into big
refuse can be forecast by their durable years ind purchasing power.
In view of the presence of a great number of 1: ilevision sets in the
city, it is foreseeable that an increasing num>er of them will be
turned into refuse in the near future.
2) Measures to Treat Big Refuse
Of the big refuse thus collected, such conbustible refuse as
furniture can be burned away, but cannot be pur to an incineration
furnace in their original forms.
The combustible refuse must be pulverized before being burned.
Freezing and washing machines and other big incombustibles can be
reduced in their dimensions if they are pulverized, and are convenient
to recover metals or to be used for land filling.
25
-------
Herein arises the need of subjecting big refuse to a pulverizing
process, and several pulverizing machines have been developed. Some
pulverizing machii.es for big refuse which havf; been commercialized in
Japan are illustrated in Figures III-2-3, III-2-4, and 1II-2-5.
Fi£. Ill-2-3 KojUi_ry Pulvcri? n?. Machine
1st Smashing Plito
2nd Smashing Plate
Fec-dinr: Port
ic'-shint; Blade
Outlet
26
-------
'- r
Vf-— i
,.r j,.-Hydraulic Cylit
i Cutter Frr.ci3
< Cutter. Where Big Bafuc
X .- Cc.se for BiC
r.r to- the Cutter
e is Put in
- Cover Plate
the Pusher
^ IIl-?-5 Hvdrauiic_PulHri£iS&2iHUi^^
J- J.,- * _L J, -I- " -X ..^v- —-••-"-
27
-------
The machines are used to treat big refuse before burning or putting
it for land filling, and are installed in pulvcriz tion or incineration
plants. Combus': ble refuse pulverized by the nachines, together with
domestic refuse, is burned and disposed of.
Apart from pulverization, the treatment o;: big refuse by compressing
it into smaller cimensions is a useful means f»>r its disposal. This
effective pre-ls.i d-f illing process is used by some plants.
It has becoi e a prerequisite to the disposal of big refuse to
integrate such TMW treating processes as pulverization and compression
into a refuse tr< ating system.
In Japan, government subsidies have been provided since 1971 to
the municipalitit s desirous of establishing bij; refuse treating plants
(by pulverizatioi and compression). To cope w..th the explosive increase
of dilapidated eld automobiles and other types of big refuse, we must
establish a reascnable system for the collection, regeneration, and
reuse of them.
III-2-3 Hospit£l Refuse Treatment
Hospitals lake hotels and department stores are within the category
of those discharging great quantities of refuse, but the quality of
refuse coming out of hospitals are different from that of refuse from
hotels and department stores. This is because a hospital accommodating
many patients and consumes a great quantity of special materials for
medication. A brief discussion will be devoted to the present situation
of hospital refuse treatment.
28
-------
1) Hospital Refuse
It Is natural that the hospital turns; many medical instruments
and materials into waste. It works round the clock for the medical
care and treatment of inpatients, and not a few wastes are discharged
by them. Hospitals are similar to hotels and restaurants in that a
great deal o£ garbage is thrown off by thuir kitchens catering to
their patients.
Packaging materials for the goods ta :en in by hospital
visitors also amount to a quantity that cmnot escape notice.
Types and sources of waste discharged by i Japanese hospital are
shown in Table III-2-3.
Table III-2-3 Types and Sources of Hospital Waste
Source
Types of Hospital Waste
Wards (including
operation and
childbirth rooms)
Waste paper, newspapers, weekly, other magazines
and publications, fruit refuse, empty cans and
bottles, phials, injection needles, ampuls, glass
dust, cartons and other packaging materials, fruit
baskets, plant pots, others (including absorbent
cotton)
Outpatients and
Related Divisions:
Outpatients for
all divisions
Injection needles, ampuls, cases thereof, waste
paper, gauze, absorbent cotton
Radial ray
Films, cases thereof, paper, other combustibles,
vinyl and other bags, amplus, needles, surgical
knives and blades, empty cans, napkins, barium
containers (made of polyethylene)
29
-------
Source
Types of Hospital Waste
Pharmacy
Cartons, empty bottles, empty boxes, polyethylene
and other plastic containers, empty cans, waste
paper, vinyl bags, rub'ier stoppers, glass dust
Materials
center
Gauze, absorbent cotton and other materials,
packaging materials, waste paper, cartons, needle
and syringe containers
Radioisotope
division
Radioactive waste liquids, treating materials
Inspection
division
Plastic containers, e&pty bottles, glass dust,
clotted blood (thrown jff in vinyl bags), dissected
tissues and organs (preserved in Formalin and
disposed of by incineration once or twice a year
Dietetic division
and foods brought
in
Rice and vegetable refuses, crates, plastic
containers, empty cans and bottles, tableware
(made of melanic resins), oil cans, straws and
other combustibles, chopsticks, chinaware
Medical and other
administrative
divisions
Waste paper, magazines, newspapers, other publica-
tions, empty boxes and cans, tapes, codes, ropes,
other fabrics
Others (big refuse)
Disused durable consumer products listed by the
hospital (such as medical instruments, desks,
chairs, beds, cupboards, sofas and tables), wood
and iron refuse
The hospital wastes can largely be divided into the following
categories:
* Combustible wastes including newspapers, magazines, other
publications, packaging and other kinds of paper, absorbent
cotton, gauze and other fabrics, plastic bags and other
containers.
30
-------
* Refractory wastes Including garbage from the kitchen and
other food supplying sources, and animal wastes from the
childb'.rth, operation, and other roo is.
* Incombustible wastes including phials, ampuls and other
glass containers, cans, needles and nther metal articles.
Volumes of vaste discharged per day by a Japanese hospital are
shown in Tables :II-2-4 and III-2-5 by its divisions and by types of
the waste.
Table III-2- 4 Volumes of Waste Discharger per Day by
a Japanese Hospital by Its Divisions
Division
Wards
Inspection
Outpatients
Radial ray
Operation
Materials center
Emergency
Administration
Servicing
Total:
Volume (kg.)
813.0
53.0
46.2
67.1
31.9
2.7
0.2
69.9
111.2
1,290.3
Ratio (%)
63.0
4.1
3.6
5.2
2.5
0.2
0.0
5.4
8.6
100.0
31
-------
Table III-2-5 Volumesof Waste Discharged per Day by a
Japanese Hospital by Types of the Waste
Types of Waste
Refuse through the
dust chute
Rice refuse
Bottles, etc.
Cardboards
Small glass pieces,
ampuls
Sundries
Empty cans, etc.
Newspapers, magazines,
etc.
Dissected tissues Mid
organs for parturi-
tion and other
purposes
Total:
Ash
Volume (kg.)
57A.7
448.3
117.1
26.2
72.8
23,8
19.1
6.6
1.7
1,290.3
78.2
Ratio (%)
44.5
34.7
9.1
2.0
5.7
1.8
1.5
0.5
0.2
100.0
2) Hospital Refuse Treatment
The Japanese hospitals should in principle treat their wastes by
themselves, and in recognition of the particularity of the wastes,
they have tried to live up to the principle as much as possible.
Combustibles are burned off by the simple incineration furnaces
installed by the hospitals themselves, and as for incombustibles the
32
-------
hospitals commission garbage collectors to collect and dispose of them
for land filling. With respect to garbage of their refractory wastes,
the hospitals cotinission hog raisers to collect it as the feed.
Where neither hog raisers nor garbage collectors are available,
such garbage and incombustibles are collected end disposed of by a
public refuse collecting agency.
The animal vastes discharged from the ope?ation, childbirth and
other rooms cons:st of tissues and organs extracted from human
bodies. The tissues and organs contaminated b/ bacteria are frozen
for preservation after sterilization, and are disposed of by special
collectors by burning them off in special incineration furnaces
which are equipped with oil burners. Stillborns and other corpses
are cremated at a public crematory after going through due formalities,
33
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III-2-4 Refuse Collection in Multi-Story Buildings
There used to be few high-rise buildings in Japan because of the
high earthquake Incidence, compared with the L'aited States, but on
account of the recent development or architectural techniques and also
of the fact that few spaces are available in the big cities, multi-story
buildings are on the increase. The Japanese loso (multi-story) building,
in principle, must be more than 31 meters high above ground.
The increase of high-rise buildings in Jspan has posed a new
problem to the vartical transportation of refuse.
1) Refuse Trea:raent in High-Rise Buildings
Ways c? treating refuse in multi-story buildings vary
depending 01 whether they are an apartment building, an office
building, a department store, or any other building. By and
large, the nanagements of high-rise buildings other than
apartment buildings commission garbage collectors by contract
to treat refuse and also to clean floors and windowpanes.
2) The Quality and Quantity of Refuse
The quality and quantity of refuse in multi-story buildings
change according to their categories and uses. Metric tons of
refuse discharged per day and per square meter by the Japanese
multi-story buildings are shown in Figure III-2-6.
34
-------
Fig. III-2-6 Metric Tons of Refuse Discharged per Day
and per Square Meter by the Japanese
Multi-Story Buildings
Department Stores
Rote.1 s and Publishing
Companies
1 Office Buildings
•Brnks and Securities
Companies
401 iOO
10< 00 20000 30000
Floor Space (per m2)
Refuse discharged by multi-story buildings other than
apartment bt.ildings, hotels, and hospitals mostly consists of
paper and ether combustibles.
3) Inside-Builcing Refuse Reservation
Refuse within a building is reserved in plastic and metal
containers, cloth bags, and standardized containers. Their
dimensions range from 60 liters (for plastic containers) to
600 liters (for standardized containers). Reservation methods
differ according to the post-reservation treatment methods, but
in apartment buildings garbage and other sundry refuses are
reserved in mixed state, while in other buildings garbage and
other refuses or combustibles and incombustibles are separately
. reserved in bags and other containers.
35
-------
Reservation spaces in buildings vary according to the
different refuse collection methods adopted by them. When
refuse is collected by a public refuse collecting agency
from a building, a dump is located at a place accessible to
refuse collection trucks in and around the building, but in
a building where garbage collectors are commissioned by
contract tc collect refuse, a dump is located an an appropriate
place of ei ch floor of the building.
A) Inside-Building Refuse Transporation
Refuse in bags and other containers is trundled by handcarts
or carried by hand onto the freight elevator and taken down to
a dump accessible to trucks.
The dust chute is widely used, but as more high-rise buildings
are constructed, there have arisen problems like the diffusion of
offensive odors due to the draft of air from the chute, difficulties
of fire prevention, the noise caused by the passage of refuse
through the chute, and the dissemination of noxious insects, rats,
mice, and other kinds of vermin through the chute. The dust
chute is thus going gradually into disuse.
The common refuse transportation method adopted in Japanese
multistory buildings is by the horizontal transfer of refuse by
handcarts and by the vertical transfer of it by the elevator.
The Japanese public sewer system is not yet well established,
and because of the insufficient capacity of the final sewage
treatment plants, the use of garbage grinders (disposers) still
is limited.
36
-------
5) Private Incineration Furnaces .;,
Some refuse, especially combustible refuse, which is
discharged from multi-story buildings is burned away by privately-
installed i.icineration furnaces.
The private incineration furnace.becomes a source of
local air -osllution because its construction is simple and
incomplete to control the reeking of offensive odors, smoke
and soot. It is therefore believed in general that the use of
such furnaces is not desirable. Yokohama City imposes
restriction? on the installation of a private incineration
furnace in a multi-story building to be newly constructed.
6) Future Prob Lems
Refuse explosion and diversificatior. will make it impossible
to satisfactorily dispose of refuse by single treatment methods.
The quality and quantity of refuse discharged by apartment
buildings ace comparatively even, and as one course charted for
the future, studies will be made on the adoption of a vacuum
refuse transportation method for several multi-story buildings.
37
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Ill-3 SANITARY LANDFILL TECHNIQUE AND RERATED PROBLEMS
III-3-1 Tram;: ent and Present Conditions of Sanitary Landfilling
in our Country.
From the circumstances under which a number of sanitary landfilling
have been conducted in our country and as a method of disposing raw
wastes, reducirj them to soil is the most importnat and useful, but this
contains land formation and soil improvement '>y means of organic sludge,
compost and others. The former is generally :alled a landfilling work,
which has been carried out not only in our country, but also in
various European and American countries since olden days.
In our country, it is recorded that early in the Edo period,
in 1662 a wastes disposal center was established in Eitai Bay and
refuse were dir, )osed of there under the supervision of refuse checking
officials.
The landfill disposal of refuse has been well guided since long
ago and in May, 1941 the Director of the Environmental Sanitation
Bureau of the Ministry of Health and Welfare gave an instruction to
the prefectural governors on "the matter relating the scientific
landfilling of refuse."
Later in May, 1954 the "Public Cleansing Service Law" was
enforced, and Article 2 of the Cabinet Order of that law prescribes,
"in case of conducting a landfilling work with wastes a layer of
landfill shall be less than 5 meters high and its surface shall be
amply covered with soil or some other adequate matters."
38
-------
Though landfilling works with refuse have long been guided, not
a few of them havfc shown the looks of unsanitary disposal and given
rise to the problems of environmental sanitaticn such as the pollution
of ground water, t;he growth of rats and harmful insects and the like.
Answering the increased volumes of wastes accelerated by the
development of powerful economic social activities in recent years,
Article 3 of the "The Wastes Disposal and Public Cleansing Law"
enacted in Septen>er 1971 prescribes the landf; lling disposals of
domestic wastes aid Article 6 prescribes the dttailed technical
standards in connection with the landfilling dJ sposals of industrial
wastes, and enterprisers, local municipalities and wastes disposal
undertakers should properly dispose of industry al wastes in accordance
with this law.
Table II1-3-1 shows the annual rates of tl e volumes of refuse
disposed of by landfilling against the total vclumes of refuse
systematically collected by municipalities.
Table III-3-1 The yearly transition of the rates of refuse
disposal by landfilling to the total refuse
disposal.
Year Rates of refuse disposal by landfilling (%)
1963 42.2 .
1964 40.4 .
1965 39.6 .
1966 34.3 .
1967 37.7 .
1968 36.3 .
1969 35.3 .
1970 " 33.5 .
39
f-
-------
Namely, from the national point of view, the rate of landfilling
disposal of refuse is gradually decreasing and in 1970 out of the
nationally discarded refuse of 77,000 tons per Lay, 34% was landfilled,
The reason why the rate of landfilling disposal*'; has been decreasing
is the promulgation of incineration plants. Bu; in large cities
incineration plants are not sufficiently provided at present and so
they naturally defend on the refuse disposal by landfilling; namely,
Tokyo, 62%; Yokohuna, 38%; Nagoya, 42%; Osaka, 40%.
For the future direction the government h?s informally decided
that 90% of combustible refuse in all Japan sh; 11 be disposed of at
incineration plants. However, it is clear thai landfilling disposals
of refuse will be conducted for big refuses su< h as ever-increasing
durable consumer goods, incombustible refuse such as glass bottles,
raw refuse during repair period of incinerator > and residual ashes
after incineration. It is indeed getting more and more important to
utilize the environmental receptive cpacity of soil to its full
extent and promote controlled landfilling disposal of wastes.
I1I-3-2 Administrative policy relating the sanitary landfilling.
The standards relating the landfilling disposals of domestic
wastes are prescribed in Article 3 of the "Cabinet Order of the
Wastes Disposal Law" and they can be arranged as in Table I1I-3-2.
40
-------
Disposal by landfilling
General
standards
1. Preventing domestic wastes from flying
and flowing out..
2. Landfilling site (called landfilled
land) should b<; enclosed with a fence
and notified by setting up a notice
saying "a wast is disposal site."
3. Necessary precautions should be taken
to prevent leaching out of a land-
filling site from polluting public
water bodies and ground water.
4. Necessary precautions should be taken
not to let bad smell spread from a
landfilling site.
5. Gas vent should be set to eliminate
generating gas and at the same time
prevent the outbreak of fires. (In
case a small-scale landfill (less than
10,000 m2 or 50,000 m3), the applica-
tion of this standard is exempted.)
6. Preventing rats from living in a land-
filling site and mosquitoes, flies and
other harmful insects from growing .
there.
41
-------
Disposal by landfilling
7. The thickness of lifts shall be
generally less than 3 m and 50 cm of
cover soil shall be placed between two
layers. (In case of a small scale
landfill disf osal or a landfill disposal
to utilize c;en space in the ground,
this is not to be applied.) - A layer
landfill.
Individual
Standards
Nij;ht Soil
I. Land landfill ing disposal:
(T) disposed at night-soil treatment
plants.
(2) mixing it with more than 0.5% in
weight of slacked lime. [Ca (OH)2]
II. Wet landfill disposal: disposed of
at night-soil treating plants.
Sludge
(limited to
sludge in
septic tanks)
I. Land landfill disposal:
(T) disposed of at night-soil treatment
plants.
(2) burned at incineration plants,
\3) mix it with more than 0.5% in weight
of slacked lime.
-------
Disposal by landfilling
R< fuse
II. Wet landfill disposal:
1 disposed of at night-soil treatment
plants,
2 burned at incineration plants.
A. For those whi<:h ignition loss is less
than 15% a la;?er-type landfill is not
necessary.
B, Those not incinerated or their ignition
loss is not less than 15%, though
incinerated:
a layer Iandf5.ll with a layer of less
than 3 m and covering soil of 50 cm
shall be conducted.
Big refuse
An intermediate treatment is not necessary.
Note: 1, 2, 3 ...signify that all the conditions of 1, 2, 3 must be
satisfied.
indicates that one of these three can be optional.
A small-scale landfilling disposal: a landfilled area is less
than 10,000 m2 or the landfilled volume is less than 50,000 m3.
-------
The local municipalities shall conduct necessary administrative
guidance and supervision relating the fixing and maintenance of land-
filling sites and the standards of maintenance and management when
wa tes discharging enterprisers and wastes disposal operators want to
start landfilling works. The following are thu extracts from "the
Guiding Requirements in relation to the settin; of landfilling sites
for intermediate treatments and final disposal 3" enforced by Yokohama
City Public Cleansing Bureau, with which the city supervizes wastes
discharging enteiprisers and wastes disposal undertakers.
Namely, the required standards for approval of setting up land-
filling sites foi wastes disposal are:
1) Locational f.nvironment,
(V) The sit.e shall have no fear of givirg any damages to the
neighboring houses and others.
(jz) The prospective site shall not include roads, rivers and
others which have been included in city planning projects.
2) Conditions of roads.
Ql) When transporting wastes by way of jublic roads.
a. They must have enough width for transporting trucks
to pass. (basically wider than 4.5 m.)
b. VThen necessary, the enlargement of their width, repairs
and the maintenance of safety equipments and others shall
be carried out under the supervision of the city.
-------
Qz) When transporting wastes by way of private roads.
a. Tb.2 roads shall be wide enough for trucks to pass.
(basically wider than A.5 TO) TVey shall be better
than gravelled roads and in the conditions of being
vioration-proof, dust-proof and rain-pool proof.
• b. Thay shall be equippped with traffic safety devices.
3) Conditions for use of reclaimed land.
When landfilling work is over, cover the surface with soil of
good quality more than 1 meter thick, revegetat e it with plants and
others, and never offer it for building and other construction sites.
However, in an urbanized area the site has been landfilled only with
such inorganic wastes as soil, sand and the like, and when completed,
planned to turn into a building site, it shall be exempted from the
above obligation when it is approved by the "The City Planning Law.",
"The Housing Land Formation Control Law" and other related laws and
ordinances.
Besides, there are minute regulations for getting approvals from
the neighborhood associations, agricultural cooperative associations
and other related organizations.
I1I-3-3 The trend of researches relating landfilling wastes disposal.
1) Prologue
Researches relating wastes disposal by means of landfilling have
been conducted locally by some municipalities and research organizations,
but most of them are no more than temporary states of landfilling.
45
-------
In 1972 the Ministry of Health and Welfare1 set out on the
researches relating landfilling wastes disposal. Sampling six
large-scale landtilling sites from all the couitry, the Ministry
is to make general researches on the conditions of wastes, gradual
changes of condiiions of leaching water, the influences to ground
water, the stability of reclaimed lands, etc. in connection with
these selected sites.
Here we will introduce the joint researcl^es conducted by Fukuoka
City and Fukuoiu: University and their meritorious results.
2) The researches on Hatta reclaimed land in Fukuoka.
(Y) Summary of the reclaimed land.
The first site of this reclaimed lard was used for waw
wastes disposal from September, 1968 to lay 1970 by daily
discarding wastes of 300 tons. The site was originally an
irrigation reservoir and the total volume of about 184,000
tons of wastes were dumped into the space of about 220,000 m2
of the site to create the level of about 17,000 m2 by the
wet-type landfilling method. The landfilling work on the
second site began in May, 1970 and is going on at the time
of this research. (Refer to Fig. III-3-1)
(T) Quality of leaching water from wastes layers.
Time changes of leaching water are shown in Table' III-3-3.
-------
ii-.;, 1II-3-1 Plan map of wet-typo I'/.; drilling site,
>-"' )
Dumping; wo"k, 'the first
landfillin™ site.
the second
landfiliinp: sitev
I8,0pijfn2.
/ Lnprov m^R'f on pav/ v;ater
storap,. po.:cj,..
Durnpirifjv,-t rk.
the th-r.Vtl landfillin;
si.i.b] c was tc:>
dumping cite for Land fill. ing.
-------
Table III-3-3
Quality of Leaching Water at Hatta Wastes
Disposal Site by Land filling.
Item
P H
Transparence
(cm)
Ammonia
Nitrogen (ppm)
Albuminoid
Nitrogen (ppm)
BOD (ppm)
COD (ppm)
(potassium
bichromate)
Chlorine ion
(ppm)
Phosphate ion
(ppm)
Date
\"
\
a
b
c
a.
b
c
a
b
c
a
b
c
a
b
c
a
b
c
a
b
c
a
b
c
S.45
8
7.29
8.04
0.5
0.5
4.0
789
389
430
131.1
74.9
42.4
11959
7212
2038
23216
10470
1554
3791
1000
530
1.6
4.3
0.6
9
5.73
.50
7.85
1.3
1.5
4.0
487
689
243
147.9
40.3
8.4
10804
876
133
33224
3624
493
3055
2334
1299
0.6
8.9
2.7
10
6.54
7.80
7.93
1.2
1.6
6.7
1036
781
599
180.8
54.2
19.3
20763
272
81
34712
2429
1145
4000
3455
1986
5.2
4.7
1.5
11
6.95
7.65
7.71
1.2
1.3
6.8
1128
820
647
184,4
68.2
25.7
16625
356
90
28089
3262
1134
4664
2468
2074
4.0
4.0
0.6
12
7.65
7.55
7.90
1.0
1.3
4.9
890
822
463
69.5
67.2
26.3
6893
298
79
9806
2674
449
4433
2341
2021
2.1
1.5
0.5
S.46
1
7.78
7.13
8.02
0.7
1.1
4.0
942
834
509
91.9
49.9
36.4
6194
294
98
9899
2714
1193
5285
2376
1950
4.5
1.7
2.3
48
-------
2
7.40
7.60
• 7.68
0.9
1.4
3.8
859
801
681
138.4
33.1
30.8
9089
324
102
16390
1272
1259
4966
2128
2128
4.8
2.3
3.5
3
7.35
7.51
7.68
1.0
1.3
3.7
789
763
593
89.9
43.6
28.5
4011
312
115
10833
5255
1515
4671
1961
1697
5.1
4.1
3.6
4
7.32
7.39
7.76
1.0
1.4
3.2
728
616
440
66.7
—
29.1
3514
210
81
15634
3520
2956
4536
1970
1736
6.0
4.6
2.5
5
7.71
7.43
7.90
0.8
1.4
3.5
563
426
317
70.6
32.3
30.3
8200
206
86
25219
3661
2861
5137
2090
2001
7.2
5.0
2.5.
6
7.53
7.30
7.65
0.9
1.7
3.1
371
412
86
84.7
53.1
2.0
_
153
21
27823
1119
599
4041
1878
822
7.2.
5.0
1.2
.7
7.48
7.30
7.20
2.2
2.4
2.9
307
490
114
114.3
18.7
7.4
37880
285
690
32646
1405
1383
2850
2056
872
13.5
10.5
2.8
8
_
-
••
-
—
324
802
257
_
-
~
16720
100
855
24162
1263
833
2304
1969
1169
9.3
7.8
1.9
9
_
7.70
6.99
„
1.50
1.90
_
770
155
_
13.5
23.5
_
158
395
—
1272
829
_
1907
1155
l[.l
5.7
1.2
49
-------
PH of raw wastes is usually of weak acid and gradually changes
to weak alkaline as it goes on resolving. Transparence of the leaching
water is about 0. • degree while landfilling woi k is going on. But
two years after the completion of landfilling vork and the leaching
water from the first reclaimed land was around 6-7 degrees but it
would be hard to rise higher. Water in the boring hole continued
to be 1.5 - 2 degrees for a long period. The <.ifference between
the leaching water from the first landfilling iite and the water in
the boring hole is that one is naturally clean id while it is leaching
and the other dilutes while it is leaching.
The time changes of BOD is shown in Fig. III-3-2.
103.030
1.000
Fie. IH-3-2 BOD
ICO
leachin.j \;:;ter at
the r-oc'.T'C" iT'i.c--
(Kay, 1970 - )
water in t.-.e
borin;? hole at
the i'-j.rc'e Ir.nd-
: cite
1970)
.7.8 9.10 11-12-1 -25-456 7-8 9-J1
50
-------
In July 1971 when boring was conducted, thu water was 30,000 ppm,
but in six months after the completion of landfilling, BOD tended to
go down and in June, 1971, a year after, it wen; down to 153 ppm or
about one-two thousandth. On the other hand, at the second landfilling
site where landfi'.ling work is going on, dirty water of high BOD value
is found leaching out. Consequently, at the first landfilling site
when boring work -ras going on, it was considered that water of high
BOD value must ha/e been leaching as it was at the second landfilling
site during the period of boring work.
As time changes of COD is also shown in Fig. III-3-3, the water
in the boring hole was gradually decreasing the ugh slowly as shown in
Fig. III-3-3,
Fig.
COD
103.00C"
10000
1.00;]
20
leaching water at
tho second land-
filling site
(May, 1970 - )
water in the bor-
ing hole at the
first landfilling
site.
(Sept., 1968 -
May, 1970)
7 8 9 1011 12
CS **>
2345678
S 46)
51
-------
COD at the second site showed a high value just as BOD did. As these
two diagrams indicate, when we compare the quality of water at the
first site and th«-1 at the second site where l.i. ndfilling work is still
going on, BOD of the leaching water at the second site shows a high
value of about 10(i times of the former, while COD at the same place
20 times. This shows that both BOD and COD al»ays shown high values
while landfilling work is going on. About 6 ircnths after the completion
of work BOD and CuD began to go on a downward trend. Though COD of
the leaching wate: from the landfilling site conducted by the wet-type
method goes down iiharply 6 months after the completion and the value
of COD stays on around 10,000 ppm for a long period. The cause of this
is left to our ful'.ure researches.
Next, about ammonia nitrogen of nitrogen group matters which are
big characteristics of dirty water as seen in lig. III-3-4, the water
in the boring hole shows high value of about SCO ppm, the leaching
water at the first site about 500 ppm, while that at the second site
about 800 ppm.
52
-------
Fif. III-3-4 Anrr.onia Nitr
ppcf
i,o2of- :-\
4i / v\
,K- —*^.
£QQ-
700*
<500
500
430
300
200
100
-
\ ;,>
\fi
y
/\/ /
/ • °
/ /
: V
•u
,\
. \\ /
/\ \\ /
/ \ \ \
leaching water at
the second land-
filling site
(tlay, 1970 - )
water in the bor-
ing water at the
f^.rst land fill ing
5 Lte
(Sept.,1968 -
fey, 1970)
1 caching water at
b"ic first land-
filling site
(Sept., 1968 -
ifey, 1970)
0 .-' 1 1 i J 1 ; I J.....__l i__l I
7891011 21 2 545 6 76 }}
1970
1,971
Again, the watei contains a high value of 70-180 ppm of albuminoid
nitrogen from the second site where work is going on. But water is
the boring hole at the first landfilling site after the completion of
work tends to go down gradually. As to nitrous acid and nitrogen
nitrate, all leaching water contains the value of 10-500 ppb, but
oxidation of nitrogen matters is not much observed. The leaching
water from a landfilling site may be called waste water with large
nitrogen content, especially large ammonia nitrogen content.
53
-------
However, a research is now going on how this leaching water
from the landfilling site will affect ground water outside the site.
Besides, analysis on generating gas, experiment on stability of
ground are going on, but we will not go any further about those
here.
Here we shDuld like to express our deep gratitude for the kind
assistance of .Assistant Professor Hanajima of the Engineering Faculty
of Fukuoka University in compiling Paragraph III-3-3.
54
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XI
JAPAN-U.S. CONFERENCE ON SOLID-WASTE MANAGEMENT
CLOSING STATEMENT
by H. Lanier Hickman, Jv.
We are very pleased with this conference. We regret that more
time could not be spent because we have many nuve questions to ask the
excellent Japanese speakers.
Dr. Orita gava us an excellent overview o:;" solid waste management
in Japan. Mr. Hatakeyama's outline of the principles for site selection
in Tokyo will be useful to our cities in the U. :. The bonus concept of
pay to solid waste management personnel describ.-.d by Mr. Kumagaya was
most interesting. We enjoyed very much Mr, Shi^izu's concept of a closed
system to preserve resources. Mr. Morishita presented a most interesting
discussion of solid waste collection practices :.n Japan. The table of
generation rates fDr multi-story buildings provr.ded by Mr. Saida will be •
very helpful to us. The review of Japanese lanc.fill regulations by
Mr. Katayama clearly indicated that our concepts, are very similar. The
interpreters did a splendid job.
I wish to congratulate my co-chairman of yesterday on a job well
done. We appreciate very much the comments of Mr. Hirao and, finally,
we wish to express our sincere appreciation to Mr. Kido for his kindness
and hospitality.
We will take back many memories of our short stay in Japan, especially
the thoughtfulness and courtesies of the Japanese people. We look forward
to the time we meet again in the U.S.
-------
XII
THE FIRST JAPAN—U.S. CONFERENCE ON SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Tokyo, January 30, 1973
Joint Communique
Mr. H. Lanifc: Hickman, Jr., Deputy Director, Office of Solid Waste
Management Prograas, Environmental Protection Agency, visited Tokyo to
attend the First Japan—United States Conference on Solid Waste Management
held on January J. 3 and 30. Deputy Director Hie kman was accompanied by
Mr. Walter W. LIVerick, Jr., Chief, Disposal Technology Branch, Processing
and Disposal Division, Office of Solid Waste Management Programs,
Environmental Prctection Agency and Mr. John P. Lehman, Chief, Systems
Implementation Bianch, Resource Recovery Division, Office of Solid Waste
Management Progress, Environmental Protection Agency.
The Japanese Delegation was composed of Mi. Kenji Kido, Deputy
Vice-Minister, Environment Agency, Mr. Jun'ichi Urata, Director-General,
Environmental Sanitation Bureau, Ministry of Health and Welfare, and other
officials of the Ministries and Agencies concerned. Local government
officials of Tokjo Metropolis, Yokohama City, Kawasaki City and Osaka City
also participated in the Conference.
The United States Delegation's visit to Japan is a follow-up of
discussions at the Second Japan/United States Ministerial Conference on
Environmental Pollution held at Washington, D.C. on June 1 and 2, 1971,
which indicated the desirability of establishing appropriate groups to
exchange information on the disposal and recycling of solid wastes.
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During the Conference, each Delegation described its experiences
in the past, the present status, and future trends concerning control
and management of solid wastes. Through the lively discussions and
exchanges of views; that followed, both sides recognized the necessity
for developing collection, transport, treatment and disposal technology,
and the importance of recycling wastes in the context of preserving
natural resources and preventing further degradation of the environment.
The discuss!'in indicated the similarity ci the problems faced by
each nation and tae necessity of cooperative efforts including the
exchange of information and views between the two Governments. Both
Delegations agreec^ that the organizational basis for such cooperation
should be developed through periodic meetings r.f technical officials.
They further agrei.d that the Second Japan/United States Conference on
Solid Waste Management should be held in the Urited States of America.
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