PAPERS AMD PRESENTATION;
PIRST JAPAN—UNITED STATES OF .AMERICA




      GOVERNMENTAL CONFERENCE ON




        SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT




        January 29 and 30, 1973




             Tokyo, Japan
 U.S.  ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

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                      TABLE OF CONTENTS
  II

 III

  IV

   V

  VI
 VII
VIII
  IX
Schedule for the First Japan-U,S.  Conference
on Solid Waste Management

Seating Arrangement

List of Participants

Proposed Agenda

Program

Opening Remarks

     H. Lanier Hickman, Jr.
     Director of Operations  far Solid Waste
       Management Programs
     U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Presentations by H. Lanier Hlikman, Jr.

     Solid Waste Management  in the United States
       of America

     Sites for Solid Waste Management Facilities

     Manpower for Solid Waste Management

Presentation by John P. Lehman, Chief,
                Systems Implementation Branch
                Resource Recovery Division
                Office of Solid Waste Management Programs
                U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

     Resource Recovery:  An Assessment

Presentation by Walter W. Liberick, Jr., Chief
                Disposal Technology Branch
                Processing ar.d Disposal Division
                Office of Solid Waste Management Programs
                U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

     Solid Waste Processing and Disposal Technology
       in the United States

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 xr

XII
Presentations by Japanese Representatives

     Paper No. 1 -  Solid Was'ue Management Administration
                      in Japan

                    Recycling Wastes in Japan

     Paper No. 2 -  Waste Disposal and Processing
                      Technology in Japan

Closing Statement - H. Lanier Hickman, Jr.

Joint Communique

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Date
SCHEDULE FOR THE FIRST JAPAN-U.S,  CONFERENCE ON

             SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

             Item
     28 Sun.

     29 Mon.
     30 Tue.
     31 Wed.
Feb.  1 Thur.
Tine

17:30
Jan. 26 Fri.


     27 Sat.   1C:00
   1C: 00-
   17:30
   16:30
   1C:00-
   F/ :00
   10:00-
   16:10

   19:00
    9:30
U.S. team's arrival  
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                                         II
                       The First Japan/United States Conference
                               on Solid Waste Management
Dr. R. Hiatt
  Embassy of tha
  United States of
  America

Mr. J. Lehman
  .Envitoniaon ta 1
  Protection Agency-

Mr. H. Hickrcan, Jr.
  Environmental
  Protection Agency


Mr. W. Liberick, Jr.
   Environmental
   Protection Agency
                                                              Mr. R. Kumagaya
                                                            .'" • Kawasaki City
                                                              Mr. S. Saida
                                                                Yokohama City
                                                              Mr. M. Hatakeyama
                                                                Tokyo Metropolis
                                                         Q    Mr. T. Yamaguchi
                                                                Ministry of Foreign  Aifii.rs
                                                               Mr.  T. Matsuda
                                                                 Environment Agency
Ilr. T. Hirao
  Environment Agency
Mr. K. Kido
  Environment Agency
Dr. J. Urata
  Ministry of Health am!
  Welfare
                                                               Dr. S. Orita
                                                                 Ministry of Health and
                                                                 Welfare
                                                               Mr. T. Morishita
                                                                 Ministry of Health and
                                                                 Welfare
                                                               Mr. R. Shimizu
                                                                 Science and Technology
                                                                 Agency
                                                               Mr.  K. Matsumura
                                                                 Ministry  of  International
                                                                 Trade  and Industry	
                                 Interpreter

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                                  Ill


                1HE FIRST JAPAN/UNITED STATES CONFERENCE

                       ON SOLID WASTE MANAGEMEtlT
                          List of Participants

The Environment Agency

Mr. Kenji Kido            Deputy Vice-Minister
Mr. Teruo Hirao
Director, International Affairs Division,
Minister's Secretariat
Mr. Toyosaburo M
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Lpcal_Ggy_ernment Officials                    °

Tgkyo> t Me tropolis

Mr. Mitsuo Hatetsyama     Director, Construction Department, Public
                          Cleansing Bureau
Yokohama City

Mr. Sosaku Saida
Director, Facilities Department, Public
Cleansing Bureau
Kawasaki City

Mr. Renpei Kumaglya       Director-General, Public Cleansing Bureau

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                                  IV
        THE FIRST US-JAPAN CONFERENCE ON SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

                            Proposed Agenda
January 29 (Monday)

     10:00 - 10:15
     14:00 - 15:CO


     15:00 - 15:33


     15:30 - 17:30
January 30 (Tuesday)

     10:00 - 12:30
     14:00 - 15:30

     15:30 - 16:30


     16:30 - 17:00
Opening Session

I.    Solid Waste Manag ;ment Administration

      1.  Organization, Legislation and
          Financing

      2.  Location of Treatment and Disposal
          Facilities

      3.  Recruitment o: Personnel for Waste
          Disposal

II.   Recycling Wastes

      1.  Need for Reso irce Recovery

      2.  Status and Trends

      3.  Resource Reco rery Technology



III.  Waste Disposal and Processing Technology

      1.  Collection, Transport, Processing
          and Disposal of Waste

      2.  How to Handle Special Type Wastes

      3.  Sanitary Landfill Technique and
          Related Problems

Closing Session

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                                               M
             THE 1ST U.S.-JAPAN JOINT SYMPOSIUM SOLID WASTE
                 MANAGEMENT AND RESOURCE RECOVERY SYSTEM

                            January 31, 1973

                   TEKKOKAIKAN CONVENTION HALL. TOKYO

              REfEARCH INSTITUTE OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
                1ESEARCH INSTITUTE FOR OCEAN ECONOMICS

                CHAIRMAN:  Dr. Raisaku Kiyoura
                           Emeritus Professor
                           Tokyo Institute of  technology
                           Chairman of the Boa^d
                           Research Institute  if Environmental
                           Science
WEDNESDAY. JANUARY 31
09:30 - 10:00
10:00 - 11:00
11:00 - 12:00
OPENING ADDRESS:  Dr. K. Inoue
                  Former Vice-Minister, Agency of
                  Science and '.'echnology
                  President, Japan Union of Science
                  and Engineering

                  Mr. T. Mizukami
                  President
                  Research Insitute for Ocean
                  Economic

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES
AMERICAN SITES FOR SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT FACILITIES
KANPOWER FOR SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

     Mr. H. L. Hickman, Jr.
     Director of Operations for Solid
     Waste Management Programs
     U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

SOLID WASTE PROCESSING AND DISPOSAL TECHNOLOGY IN THE
UNITED STATES

     Mr. W. W. Liberick, Jr., Chief,
     Disposal Technology Branch 	  	
     Processing and Disposal Division
     Office of Solid Waste Management Programs
     U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

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12:00 - 13:00   RESOURCE RECOVERY:  AN ASSESSMENT

                     Mr. J. P. Lehman
                     Chief, Systems Implementftion Branch
                     Resource Recovery Division
                     Office of Solid Waste Management Programs
                     U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
13:00 - 14:00

14:00 - 14:20
                LUNCH

                INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT AID CLOSED SYSTEM

                     Dr. T. Matsumoto
                     President,  National Research Institute
                     for Pollution Resources
                     Agency of Industrial Sci« nee and
                     Technology

14:20 - 14:40   SIANT VACUUM TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM

                     Dr. S. Watanabe
                     Professor
                     University of Tokyo
14:40 - 15:00
                THE DESIGN OF OFFSHORE PLANT 10R SOLID WASTE
                MANAGEMENT AND UTILIZATION

                     Mr.  M. Ishida
                     Chair, Research Committee for Offshore
                     Multi-Plant
                     Research Institute for Ocean Economic
15:00 - 16:00   PANEL DISCUSSION
16:00 - 16:30   CLOSING ADDRESS:
                                  Mr.  B.  Shindo
                                  Executive
                                  Research Institute of
                                  Environmental Science

                                  President
                                  Industrial Pollution Control
                                  Association

                                  Chairman
                                  Overseas Electrical Industrial
                                  Survey  Institute,  Inc.

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OFFICE OF ORGANIZING COMMITTEE:  R; Kiyoura
Professor Dr.
Chairman of the Board
Research Institute of Environmental Science
Kojimachi 5-Ohome Building, 4 Kojimachi 5 Chome
Chiyoda-Ku Tokyo, Japan
Tel:  03)263-7461     Cables:  RIENSCI TOKYO

SYMPOSIUM MANAGEMENT:  I.  Idota
Executive Director
Japan Industrial Planning Association (JI'A)
6F. Kawamura Bldg.
21-6, 3-chomeAkasaka, Minato-Ku 107
Tokyo, Japar
Tel:03)585-f451     Telex:  JIPACONG J 20)72

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                                  VI






                            OPENING REMARKS




              JAPAN—UNITED STATES GOVERNMENTAL CONFERENCE




                       ON SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT




                       by H. Lanier Hlckman, Jr.






     OHAYO GO-ZI-WMAS






     Mr. Ruckelshius, Administrator, U.S. Enviionmental Protection




Agency, and Mr. Hale, Deputy Assistant Adminisi rator for Solid Waste




Management Prograns, asked me to extend their lest wishes for success




for this Joint Japan-United States Governmental Conference on Solid




Waste Management.  They also asked me to express their sincere regrets




for not being able to attend personally, but aie confident that many




mutual benefits will come out of our meeting.




     We are very pleased that one of the areas of major interest and




cooperation that resulted from the Second Ministerial Conference in




June of 1971 in Washington, D.C. was that of dealing with the problems of




solid waste management in both Japan and the United States.




     The information that will be interchanged during this conference




will, no doubt, serve to guide us in any future cooperative efforts.




Meetings such as this must provide a forum for meaningful interchange of




information.  Further, let us hope that the conference will discover many




areas of concern and promise that we might jointly share in dealing with




both of our countries' solid waste management problems.  We also hope that




there will be an opportunity to meet in _the United States at some future




time where we can serve as your hosts.

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     My colleagues  and I are most pleased  to be here and we  are  hopeful

that we can provice as much assistance to  you 33 we  know we  will receive

from you, our hos s; Thank you.

     I will introduce my colleagues as they  will appear as speakers at

this conference:

     1.  .Mr. Johr. P. Lehman
          Chief,  Systems Implementation Branch
          Resource Recovery Division
          Office ( f Solid Waste  Management Prog rams
          Environmental Protection Agency

     2.   Mr. Walter W. Liberick, Jr.
          Chief,  1 isposal Technology Branch
          Processing and Disposal Division
          Office of Solid Waste  Management Programs
          Environmental Protection Agency

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                          VII
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
      ST ES FOR SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT  FACILITIES
          MANPOWER FOR SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
        'hese three presentations wen  prepared
               by H. LANIER HICKMAN,  i R.
   for Tie First U.S.-~Ja_pan'Governmental  Conference
               on Solid Waste Management
            Tokyo. January 29 and 30, 1973
         U.S.  ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

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         SOLID IASTE MANAGEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

                       by H. Lanier Hickman, Jr.*

     Each year the people of the United Stater, of America produce,
 consume, and throw away more and more.  Multlrte packaging, built-in
 obsolescence, EI d the convenience of disposable consumer items contribute
 to enormous amoints of waste.
     With only seven percent of the world's population, we consume nearly
 half the earth'« industrial raw materials.  And most of these, in the form
 of  outworn equ'pment, discarded bottles, can;, packaging and yesterday's
 newspaper, end up sooner or later on the nation's trash heaps.
     For example, the United States annually consumes about 190 million
 tons of major metals, paper, glass, rubber, and textiles.  Of this
 consumption, 142 million tons come from virgin resources; the remaining
 48 million tons—about a quarter of the total—are obtained from resource
 recovery operations.  Most of the recovered materials are derived from the
 discards of industrial processing fabrication, and manufacturing activities,
 rather than from obsolete products discarded into the municipal solid
 waste stream.
     *Mr. Hickman is Director of Operations for Solid Waste Management
Programs, U.S. Environmental  Protection  Agency.

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     In addition to depletion of natural  resources, present methods
for handling and disposing of solid wastes often contribute directly
to environmenta  degradation.  According  to a national  survey of
community solid waste practices published in 1968, only six percent
of the nation's land disposal sites met accepted minimum requirements
for a sanitary  andfill.  Some 14,000 communities relied on open dumps,
a majority of wn'ch were, by design or by accident, open burning.
Some 70 percent of the country's municipal irrinerators were judged
to have inadequate air or water pollution cortrols--even in 1968, when
standards were substantially more lenient than they are today.
     No more tfcan a handful of the municipal incinerators currently
operating in tnj U.S. meet the existing Air Quality New Performance
Standards of th* U.S. Environmental Protection Agency  (EPA).  In
coastal communities, problems centered not sc much around open  dumps
or air polluting incinerators as around ocean dumping.   Our evidence
indicates that such communities annually  have barged close to 50
million tons of solid wastes and sludges  out to sea, and seldom in
treated form.
     In spite of recent progress—much of which has been the serendipitous
by-product of actions aimed, not at solid waste, but at air and water
pollution—we still today rely primarily  on the open dump as our principal
method of disposing of our nation's discards.
     Solid waste management is, then, a fundamental ecological  issue.
It illustrates, perhaps more clearly than any other environmental problem,

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that we must change many of our traditional  attitudes and habits.  It
shows us very directly and concretely that we must work to adjust our
institutions, both public and private, to the problems and opportunities
posed by our traditional disregard for the po'ilutional effects of disposal,
and particularly for our misuse of natural resources.
     Why is it that the United States, a worl 1 leader in so many
technological fields, still relies on such a jrimitive solid waste system?
The answer lies in the fact that in the past, blessed with a vast
country, a low population, and seemingly eiuJlsss natural resources, the
easiest disposal method seemed adequate.  Our energies were absorbed in
converting the ratural wealth of America intc an abundance of consumer
goods.  We applied the best technology and ttis finest management skills
to every step in the production, marketing,  end distribution of consumer
products.  But we forgot to take into account the final step in the
process; we failed to apply either modern technology or modern management
to the ultimate disposition of our abundance.  We simply neglected to
"close the circle" in the intricate chain of production and consumption.
     Now, however, a new concept of solid waste management is emerging.
It assumes that a workable system for managing the nation's solid wastes
can be devised by making necessary changes in both the social and
economic spheres.  This involves:
     .  controlling the quantity and characteristics of wastes;
     .  recycling those that can be reused;
     .  collecting and processing efficiently those that must be
        removed, and
     .  disposing properly of those that have no further use.

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                CURRENT ORGANIZATIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES
     The responsibilities and authorities for solid waste management
in the United 5 .ates of America are divided anong the three formal
levels of government:  Federal, State, and looal  (county or city).
Each level has discrete as well as shared activities.
     The base ov' legal  authorities in the U.S.A.  stems from the
Constitution of the United States, which provides for certain governmental
functions to be provided by each level of government.  Domestic Federal
Governmental functions  are based on the conceot of interstate relationship;,
i.e., activities which  cross State boundaries.  State governmental  functiois
pertain to all "those aspects of governmental  services within their
boundaries, and individual State constitutions divide responsibilities
between State aid local government.  These responsibilities actually
restrict what each level of government does, thereby protecting individual
rights and interests.  In addition, States create local  jurisdictions by
law—some States have restrictive enabling legislation defining each
service and activity.  Others provide for Hoir.e Rule which allows the
locality to frame the kind of government it wants without restriction.
Finally, a few States have several governmental forms outlined which
then become the basis of choice for local incorporation.
                        federal Responsibilities
     Present Federal Government authority in solid waste management
is provided by the Solid Waste Disposal Act (Public Law 91-512), as
amended.  This law was  originally passed by the Federal  Congress in
                                    4

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October 1965, and was subsequently amended in October 1970.   In the
Initial sections of the law, the responsibility of each level  of
government is reviewed.  Simply stated  the Act defines the  responsibility
of local and State government to be that of collection and disposal  of
solid waste.  I: further states that the nature of the solid waste problem
in the U.S.A. squires Federal action, both tranagerial and technical,  to
improve the system, so that proper and economical  solid waste  management
can be practiced by State and local governmert. The functions of the
Federal Govemnsnt are briefly described beUw:
     Policy Fot•nutation.   The interactions and direction of  solid waste
management must be articulated to the Nation so that government, industry,
and individual citizens will support the actions necessary to  provide
both proper am economical solid waste management  and protection of the
environment.
     Research and Development^  The development of new and improved
techniques for solid waste management requires government action, not
commonly associated with local/State government.  Local problems are
rarely so specific that technology with national applicability cannot
be utilize'd.  Research and development is a logical  function of Federal
Government because of national needs and the costs of research.   But
private industry can also do much to provide necessary technology and
processes for use by solid waste management systems.  The Federal
Government is encouraging greater private investment in solid  waste
research and development through careful articulation of needs and provision
of advice to industry on potential market needs.

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     Demonstrate™.  The demonstration of new emerging technology and
systems is both axpensive and unpredictable.  Local and State activities
are not normally compatible with such efforts   Since 1965, the Federal
Government has expended significant funds to demonstrate new solid waste
management approaches.  As with research, the breadth of national needs
and high costs almost dictate that the Federal Government support this
activity.
     Technical tssietance.  The provision of lighly skilled technical
expertise to assist local government and industry in dealing with their
solid waste problems has long been a traditional  role of Federal
Government.  This activity provides manpower to assist local government
with advice and with the application of modern technology to improve
current systems and to place new systems in cperation.  Our Federal
program provide;, unique expertise that is not available from State
government but that supplements State efforts, thereby bringing the
best in skills to bear on any existing problem.
     Planning Solid Waste Management Systems.  The original Solid Waste
Disposal Act authorized Federal grants to State governments to help
them develop plans for solving their solid weste problems.  The 1970
amendments broaden this authority to include planning grants to local
and regional authorities.  These combined authorities, therefore, provide
a mechanism by which the Federal Government can assist the two lower levels
of government in the U.S.A. in the formulation of strategies to solve the
solid waste problems at those levels.  Some 40 State plans have been
completed in the last 6 years, and 80 percent of the Nation's population is
now served by solid waste management plans.

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     Training.   The existing Act provides the Federal Government with
resources to trein solid waste personnel in S-;ate and local government
and private indistry directly, as well as to lielp universities establish
college curricula on solid waste management.  These two mechanisms for
supporting Statf and local government efforts are available to train
management-level personnel in solid waste management.  Until recently,
little effort w?s expended by any level of government to train operating-
level personnel   Through a new Federal assis:ance program, however, State
government is mw establishing such training efforts.
     state-of-tl-e-Art studies.  When the Federal  Government first began
to exercise initiative in solid waste management, information on solid
waste technology was very sparse.  If solid w-iste management systems are
to apply the best technology to control waste generation and to provide
efficient services while protecting the environment, information and
material regarding acceptable technology,, systems, and approaches must
be provided.  To provide such material.studies must be made of existing
technology that define in qualitative, quantitative, and comparative terms
the application of that technology.  The Federal  Government solid waste
program in the past 7 years has expended a great deal of effort in
providing concise state-of-the-art reports on technology and management
for other levels of government and private industry to utilize in their
solid waste management systems.  To further strengthen this effort,
guidelines have been developed and are being refined, to assure that the
best of available solid waste technology is used to meet environmental
standards.

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     Public Infcrmation.   Only an informed public is capable of making
wise decisions c
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many economically impacted areas to provide economic growth to support
good solid waste management systems.  There are many other smaller
programs also being directed toward the problems of solid waste management.
Fortunately, we are working together and coordinating our efforts wherever
possible to assure a unified approach to the >roblem.
                         State Responsibility.'.s
     The activities of State government para I:el those of the Federal
Government in nuny areas.  State government f -equently has better
opportunities tUn the Federal Government lc interrelate with local
governments and people because of the proximi ;y of State government  and
their perception of local problems.  Nothing prevents State government
from executing e program corresponding to the Federal solid waste
management programs except the limitations of economics and impracticality.
However, at the present time, little State effort is being directed  to •
research and development, state-of-the-art studies, and the demonstration
of new and improved technology.  Suffice it ta say that in the areas of
policy formulation, technical assistance, planning, training, and public
information, State solid waste activities are very similar to Federal
activities, except that the scope is directed at State/local problems  and
that these activities tend to be more detailed and specific to the problems.
     The most important and demanding role of State government, one  that
does not now rest with the Federal Government, is the establishment  and
subsequent enforcement of solid waste standards.  Presently, within  their
constitutional authorities, State governments are responsible for the  level

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of acceptability of solid waste management systems in their respective
States.  Most Slates presently have legal  authorities to enforce solid
waste standards,   A significant number of Stctes base these authorities
on old and limited laws governing nuisances and health.   However, some
15 States have recently enacted solid waste legislation  that broadens and
strengthens the role of State government,  particularly in relation to
standard-settinn and enforcement,
     At the pre ;ent time the major thrusts v  enforcement by State
Government concern the disposal of solid was'e (incineration and sanitary
landfill).  The standards for incineration are primarily effluent-oriented,
i.e., particular levels, process water qualr.y, while sanitary landfill
standards tend to be performance-oriented,  'his is logical* of course,
when one considers the differences between tlie incineration and sanitary
landfill process of operation.
     Actual enforcement of solid waste standards within  the State
varies.  In the majority of States, permits iror facilities or sites are
issued by the State solid waste agencies.   However, surveillance of
operating facilities and sites to determine compliance is usually
conducted by county authorities who serve  as agents for  the State
Government.  The use of county government  is traditional, dating back
to the original need to deliver health care to rural and nonrural areas.
This is the principal approach in the U.S.A.,  but there  are variations
on this basic approach.  The trend in States that have established
environmental agencies is to also establish regional or  district, offices
                                   10

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for the State atency that conduct surveillanco and monitoring activities
in much the saiw manner as the aforementioned county governments  do.
     Legal actirn against standards  violators is  usually a  joint  effort
by the State solid waste agency and  the Attorney  General's  office of  the
State Government  This, of course,  also varies from State  to State
but normally it is at the State level  that action is taken  against
offenders.  Sta'.e government is still  reluctant,  however, to  take local
government to ooirt for violations,  and the future of good  solid  waste
management in the U.S.A. rests with  the williigness of State  governments
to apply their 'aws equally and vigorously to government and  industry
offenders.
                         Local ResponsibiHti38
     The end result of all of this effort by the  Federal  and  State
governments impacts on local government.  For it  is local government
that must see that solid waste is properly managed from storage—through
processing and recovery—to final disposal.  At the local level,  solid
waste is generated from residences,  commercial enterprises, and industrial
activities.  The collection, treatment, and disposal of these wastes  are
accomplished by both governmental forces and private contractors.
Industries frequently manage their own solid waste that results from
process lines, but have their general  plan-type waste collected and
disposed of by private or public forces.  By far  the greater  part of
industrial and commercial solid wastes are collected by private contractors.
The majority of processing and disposal facilities are owned  and  operated
by local government agencies, cities and counties.

                                11

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     Local government, therefore,  has the ultimate responsibility to
operate systems that meet environmental  standards—whether the  systems
be their own or contractor-operated.   The staidards are set by  State
government, and local government develops ordinances that reflect
compliance with these standards.  These  ordinances are policed  by
local governmen;, with intermittant surveillance  by State government.
This procedure is not necessarily satisfactory since it allows  an agency
to enforce its >wn standards with  only occasional  scrutiny by State
government.  To assure improved solid waste jp-magement practices  in  the
United States of America, therefore,  State government must invest
greater resources, manpower, and effort  to assure  standards compliance.

       FINANCING OF GOVERNMENTAL SOLID WASTE VARAGEffiNT PROGRAMS
     The mode cF financing solid waste managenent  activities varies  with
each level of government.  The principal  source of funds for the  Federal
Government is tie Federal income tax. These funds  are used on a dollar
grant-sharing basis with local and State  government to carry on the
previously mentioned activities, i.e., planning grants, demonstration
grants, training grants.  In addition, this money  is used to provide
salaries, travel, and other administrative costs  for the personnel of
Federal solid waste management activities.
     States finance their activities  principally  through income,  sales,
excise, and property taxes, and the revenues are  expended for needs  similar
to those of the Federal  Government.   In  both instances, Federal and  State,
the principal need for solid waste management funds is for operating and
                                   12

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not capital financing expenditures.  Recently, States have instituted
bond financing -;o construct environmental  facilities for local  government.
These bonds are sold by the State government, facilities are constructed
by local governnent using the funds raised by the bonds, and bonds are
repaid through 'jser fees or general revenues.  At the present time,
                                                                          i
however, this otion is rarely used.
     Local gova-nment must, of course, as  the level  of government with
operating respcisibility, finance both operating and capital expenses.
In the U.S.A.; the principal sources of funding for  local  government are
property, sales, income taxes, and fees for services rendered.   In
addition, funds for capital expenditures are derived principally from
both revenue and general obligation bonds.
     Solid waste management financing systems at the local level require
financing for tiree conceptually distinct  corrponents:  (1) facilities
(incinerators, land disposal sites, transfer stations, processing
technologies, etc.); (2) equipment (principally trucks and earth moving
equipment); and (3) salaries and expenses.  Although the first  two
components are normally categorized, in theory, as capital costs, in
practice only the first is financed through capital  investment  type
instruments.  The latter, equipment, is primarily financed out  of current
operating funds--i.e., as an operating cost like salaries  and expenses.
Recent studies indicate that approximately 15 percent of the Nation's
annual expenditures for solid waste management are allocated to the
capital costs of facilities, 15 percent to equipment and 70 percent to
salaries and expenses.
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     Traditionally, solid waste facilities in the U.S. have largely
been financed th-ough general obligation bonds issued by local (municipal)
jurisdictions authorized by State legislatures to issue such instruments.
Operating costs (including both equipment and salaries and related
expenses) have been financed out of either general tax revenues (with and
without-earmark!ig) or special charges that are sometimes, but not
predominantly, related to the total actual costs of delivering solid waste
services.
     These traditional methods of financing sc.lid waste management
systems are under increasingly severe pressure and strain.  Causal
factors generating these pressures are many ard their inter-relationships
are complex.  At minimum, they include:  (1) the rising costs of solid
waste management; (2) rising costs of other services financed through
the same revenue measures at the local level; and (3) increasing voter
resistance to peying increasing amounts of taxes to provide traditional
municipal services.
     User charges, specific charges levied on individual  users in
proportion to their requirement for solid waste services, is one way
of relieving some of the financing pressure on municipalities.  In
addition to their use in generating revenues in an equitable fashion,
the user charge, by disclosing costs of operation, serves as a stimulus
toward efficiency.
     Because of the stress on local budgets and the political desire to
be free of the operational burdens of solid waste management, local
government is turning more and more to the private contractor to provide
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solid waste collection service.  This, of course, is another approach
to implementing the user-fee system.  The result, however, is the
amalgamation of many small firms into large ccnglomerates of waste
management firms to provide solid waste management services to local
government.  At the present time, some four or  five of these conglomerates
collectively acMeve annual sales of over one-half billion dollars.
     Funding for capital expenditures is principally by general
obligation bond* and revenue bonds.  General obligation bonds carry
many of the samt objectionable characteristic;  as does general revenue
funding for solid waste collection services.  Such financing does not
place accountability with the systems, therefcre placing few requirements
on the system tc be efficient or productive.  Revenue bonds are  much
more desirable tecause they tend to require a "user-fee" approach to
repay the obligation of the bonds.  The pressures are definitely forcing
local government to utilize the revenue bonds more frequently.  Other
financing approcches include the pay-as-you-go concept, lease-buy
options, and bank financing.
                                SUMMARY
     The EPA, under the Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965 and its
amendment, the Resource Recovery Act of 1970, is engaged in research,
demonstrations, planning, training, and various technical  and financial
assistance activities to help achieve necessary changes in the solid
waste system.
     A major effort is being expended on improving disposal practices
throughout the country.  Research is being performed to perfect  the
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sanitary landfill  technique;  and technical  assistance  is  being  given
to selected comnunities to help them upgrade  their  disposal  systems.
     EPA also v  placing renewed emphasis on  Hssion 5000--a grassroots
effort to support the closing of dumps  in favor  or  more environmentally
acceptable means of disposal.  Mission  5000 was  begun  almost two years
ago as a cooperative effort on the part of  all levels  of  government
and many civic \nd service organizations.
     Improveraei^ in solid waste collection practices  also are  being
                                                   •
encouraged through demonstration of new and inproved equipment, and by
application of modern management techniques.   For example, most local
collection systems are not as efficient as  they  could  or  should be.
Most systems cojld make significant improvement  in  efficiency and
productivity with relatively simple changes—rerouting collection  trucks,
rationalizing areas served by private contractors to prevent costly
overlap, or using different collection  vehicles  with different  crew
sizes.
     Of greatest interest to those concerned  with the  environmental
aspects of solid waste management is the issue of--and need  for—resource
recovery and recycling.  To many Americans, there is perhaps no greater
symbol of our imbalance with nature than the  fact that v/e discard  millions
of tons of wastes every year which do,  in fact,  have value.
     The establishment of thousands of  neighborhood recycling centers
and redemption depots throughout the country  gives  ample  testimony that
citizens and industry alike are beginning to  realize that resource recovery
is a basic ecological issue.
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     In its annual report to the President, the Citizen's Advisory
Committee on Environmental Quality states that "to deal  with the
anticipated increase in solid wastes and to csnserve our vital  natural
resources, this country must implement now a aolicy of maximum  resource
recovery, recycling, and reuse."
                                                                         \
     Despite th's apparently increased understanding, there exists a
broad chasm bet;een what we purport to know w>2 ought to  do and  what
we actually do 'n the area of resource recovery.   It is  particularly
ironic that, despite an enlightened post-Earti Day public, resource
recovery, in fart, has been losing ground steadily in virtually all
material sector;.  We continue to transport MW materials from  remote
places and proc>ss them in the same places where those same resources in
already process id form are being dumped or laidfilled.
     The princi ml obstacles to resource recovery are economic  and
institutional, not technological.  That is to say, the cost of  recovering,
processing, and transporting wastes is so high that the  resulting  products
simply cannot compete, economically, with virgin materials.
     To bring ahout recycling then, our society is going to have to find
ways to stimulate the use of secondary materials.  In effect, we are
going to have to stop subsidizing virgin materials use and take steps to
assure that secondary materials can compete on a equal footing.
     For this reason, we currently are examining a wide  range of
issues and problems associated with resource recovery through studies,
investigations, and demonstration grants.  Included in these efforts are
analyses of the potential impact of possible changes in  tax policy (such
                                   17

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as a tax on energy or virgin materials),  changes in depletion rates (or
tax credits to users of post-consumer wastes),  transportation rates, and
import/export regulations.  The desirability )f regulating virgin resource
use from Federally-controlled land also is un
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solid wastes are handled and disposed of 1n ways that do not pollute
the environment.
     Cities and 'oca! units of government mur.i give solid waste
management greater attention, and work to place this function on a
sound financial footing through application of user charges or some
other device to equitably raise the revenues tiat are needed.
     Industry mu«t assume greater responsibility for reducing its
impact on the sc'id waste stream, by not "over-packaging" consumer
products, by substituting processes with low-waste yields for present
waste-intensive processes of production,  and ~>y abandoning the
principle of "planned obsolescence," or creati ig longer-lived products.
     The general public must recognize the corn!ex nature of the solid
waste problem anc  support the reforms that are necessary.
     Upgrading our collection and disposal  sys ;ems to environmentally
acceptable levels  and maximizing the amount of waste we recover are
essential for air  and water pollution control efforts, and to achieve
proper land use.  However, they are still  only partial steps toward
defusing the world's environmental  crisis.   The  ultimate aim must be
the reduction of both the waste we  generate and the amount of resources
we consume.
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               SITES  FOR SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT FACILITIES

                        by H. Lanier Hickman, Jr.*

      The final determination of how land is used in the United States
 of America is p -incipally a responsibility of local government.  Planning
 for land use is also a responsibility of local  government, and the trend
 in the U.S.A. I   toward the development of re-n'onal land-use plans.   The
 principal problems with this type of broad la.id-use planning are:   the
 inability of plinning agencies  to see  that their  plans  are followed, and
 the inability c1  regional  planning agencies  to  bring about implementation
 of regional  plar s.
     These  plans  do serve  a  very  useful  purpose,  hov/ever, even  when  they
 are not  followed.   The  documentation of  facts and gathering  of  local
 demographic  information performs a  vital service  to  the affected
 communities and people.  Further, the fact that some group has  clearly
 stated the needs and  demands for land causes all land users to give
 greater  consideration to the interrelationship of land needs.
     The principal tool of land-use regulation in local  government is the
 zoning regulation.  This tool specifically designates how land may be
     *Mr. Hickman is Director of Operations for Solid Waste Management
Programs, U.S. Environmental  Protection Agency.

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used, i.e., Industrial, commercial, residential.  Designation of a
land-use zone claarly prevents unplanned use of land within a community.
Zoning laws, while restrictive, have the flex/bility to be changed to
accommodate new  land-use needs.  This flexibility is both good and bad:
good from the standpoint that change can be accommodated; bad from the
standpoint that  x)litical and economic self-ii terest can override sound
land-use plans.
     State government has little control over land use at the local level.
State government land-use needs are not significant, given their solid
waste management responsibilities.  When Statt  programs require land they
can be condemned and made available for use, ind a fair market price is
paid to the owne*.  This practice is utilized frequently for acquisition
of right-of-way ';or highway projects.  Howevei, it has not, to my
knowledge, been utilized for solid waste management facilities.   Due to
political ramifications, State government is jeluctant to exercise the
procedure unless absolutely necessary.   Condemnation procedures  are also
available to local government to acquire land for essential public needs
and benefits.   The application of this  technique for solid waste management
facilities is not practical, however, again because of the serious political
overtones.  Rather, local  government prefers to acquire land on  the open
market at a fair market price and in the clear light of public awareness
and participation.
     Hence, the principal  land-acquisition procedure is built around zoning
changes, if necessary, and public hearings to inform local  citizens of the

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Intent to acquire a site for a needed solid waste management facility
to serve the public need.  Whether the facility is to be operated by
a governmental agency or by a private individial, the same procedures
are involved.  Frequently private enterprises can acquire sites more
easily than governmental agencies because of the political problems—
a condition inherent in almost all governments 1  decisions.

     SITE NEEDS . 7OR SPECIFIC SOLID WASTE MANAl EMENT FACILITIES
     Site needs  iiffer for various solid wastt  management facilities.
U.S. governmenta  procedures controlling the ccquisition and use of
the land, however, are basically the same for any facility.   Discussion
on use of land and location of sites are particularly sensitive in  the
cases of sanitary landfills, incinerators, anc  transfer stations.   Each
has unique, as well  as common, site needs.  Discussions of the land needs
for each will provide a better understanding of these needs.
                           Sanitary Landfi.11
     An important engineering consideration in  establishing  an
acceptable sanitary  landfill operation is site  selection.  As  with
preliminary planning phase, proper site selection can prevent  many
future operational problems.  The complexity of factors to be
considered when selecting a sanitary landfill site will  require technical
knowledge and experience, therefore a well-qualified individual  or
agency must be responsible for site selection.
     Land Beguirement.   The land area--or more  precisely,  the  volume
of space required—depends primarily upon the character and  quantity of

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the solid wastes to be deposited, the efficiency of compaction of the
wastes, the depth of the fill, and the desired life of the landfill.
Data on the quartity and character of residential, commercial, and
industrial solid wastes to be landfilled are therefore necessary for
estimating the space required.
     The volume requirement for a sanitary lardfill can only be
determined on the basis of specific data and information on each
individual project.  As an estimate, however, using a waste generation
rate, solid waste density, and a ratio of sol.d waste to earth cover,
one can determine a range of land needs.
     Zoning Restrictions.   A survey conducted by the American Public
Works Association indicated that a high percentage of cities are
restricted by tfsir zoning ordinances in the ccquisition of disposal
sites.  Consequently, before a full-scale investigation of a potential
site is undertaken, all zoning ordinances must be reviewed and, if
necessary, changed to eliminate any legalities that could prevent or
indefinitely delay the use of a particular parcel of land for a sanitary
landfill.  Advance planning to zone the prospective sites for sanitary
landfill operation is a desired but infrequently practiced approach.
                     A site should be easily accessible by trucks via
highways or arterial streets.  Sites that necessitate trucks traveling
through residential areas will  usually generate complaints.   If such
sites cannot be avoided, at least their routes  should be designed to
minimize residential travel .

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     The roads to the site should be of width and construction adequate
to handle all sizes of trucks when fully loadud, during all  weather
conditions.  Such problems as narrow bridges, low underpasses, and
steep grades on the access routes should be investigated.  Since the
site should be accessible at all times, it is desirable to have several
access routes so that if one route is temporarily unusable the site
can still be used.
     Haul Distance.  The haul distance is an  mportant economic factor
in selecting a sanitary landfill site.  The e
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include a geological investigation of a s-ite, possibly in conjunction
with the cover material field investigation, to determine the potential
of either ground or surface water pollution.  The groundwater table must
be located and information obtained on the historical high groundwater
level and on the general movement of the groundwater.
     Geological investigators should also examine the topography of
the site itself end the surrounding area to determine potential  flooding
conditions durirv  heavy rains and snow melts.  Special attention should
be given to low-'ying sites that might be drai iage basins for surrounding
areas.  Surface hater drainage and flooding cai quickly erode the cover
material and the fill.
     Sites located near rivers, streams, or ln:es also deserve careful
scrutiny.  Generally, a sanitary landfill located in a flood plain
because of the water pollution hazard, and bee..use these sites can become
unusable both during and after floods, require  special engineering
design compatible with the site conditions.
     Climate.   In some locations, climate is important in site selection
and may even dictate the method of operation.  In an extremely cold locality,
a site requiring excavation of trenches and cover material  may become a
problem because of freezing during the winter ironths.  However,  a site  can
be used in a wintery locale if the trenches and cover material  are
excavated during the summer months to carry the operation through the
winter period.

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     In areas receiving considerable rainfall,  a low-lying  site may be
undesirable becc.use of flooding and muddy working conditions.   In rainy
areas, a desiraMe site would be high in rela-.ion to the  surrounding area
and would have ciood drainage features.
     In windy locales, natural  windbreaks sur-ounding a site will  help
to contain loose paper and minimize any dust oroblems.
                              Incineration
     Proper locition of an incinerator enhances acceptance  by  the
public and results in economies in waste collection.   A well-planned
physical layout facilitates efficient and economic incinerator operation,
and, in the cas2 of incinerators, good design and selection of appropriate
building materials not only give a pleasing  appearance, but they
minimize housekeeping and maintenance.
     Public Acceptance.  Public acceptance is a most important
consideration in selecting an incinerator site.  In general, industrial
and commercial zoned areas are preferable sites for incinerators than
are residential areas.  An incinerator plant is usually classed as
heavy industry, and the evaluation of possible  sites  should reflect this.
Too frequently the vacant land surrounding an incinerator is later
developed for residential or other restricted use, which  creates conflict.
To avoid potential conflict, the undeveloped surrounding  land  should be
zoned for industrial use.
     The facility should not conflict with other nearby public
institutions.  The noise, lights, and 24-hour workday of  normal

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Incinerator operations preclude locating it noar a hospital; and heavy
truck traffic me.kes incinerator locations near schools  undesirable.
     Centralize! public works operations are lesirable, and often an
incinerator plant can be advantageously located near a  sewage treatment
plant so that technical services may be share-!.  There  may be economies
in locating the incinerator near a garage whe~e vehicle repair facilities
and personnel cm be shared.
     Where conflict with neighborhood character is unavoidable, the
screening effects of a wall or planting can reduce adverse effects and
gain public acceptance.  Good architectural design is itself a major
asset in overconing potential neighborhood objection.  Early in the
site selection >eriod, proposals and plans should be presented to the
public to gain support.  This would serve to demonstrate local  government1!.
appreciation of the public's interest.
     site Suitability.  Factors important to design, but generally
not of concern to the public, are foundation conditions, topography,
availability of utilities, building restrictions, drainage, and
meteorologic conditions.
     Soil and rock formations determine the type of foundation required to
support the heavy, concentrated load of an incinerator  structure.
Failure to accurately determine foundation conditions before design  can
result in expensive modifications during construction and, in certain
cases, abandonment of the site with its partially completed structure.
Groundwater conditions also affect design and cost.
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     Topography .jnd meteorological conditions must be considered in the
location and design of the incinerator.   A fH.t site is likely to require
a ramp for acces;  to the tipping floor,  where .s a hillside site can
provide access at various ground levels.  Topography can also  ease or
hinder the dispersion of gases and particular's to the local atmosphere.
This aspect of plant location is complex and "equires the assistance of
a meteorologist or air pollution control spec alist, who can determine
the best stack rsight for the dispersion of gises.  Stack height determination
requires consideration of topography and legal restrictions such as those
from Federal Aeronautics Agency regulations, local building regulations,
and zoning.
     Availability  of public utilities may be i governing factor in site
selection, since electricity, gas, water supply, sewage disposal, and
process water treatment are essential to the incinerator process.  Fuel
such as gas or oil may be required at some installations as an auxiliary
heat source for the furnaces.  Communication facilities must be available
for fire and safety control and for coordinating operation.
     As in the development of any industrial site, effective drainage of
surface waters must be an integral part  of design.  The site should not
be selected in an  area subject to flooding unless the facility can be
protected and access remains available during high water.
     Traffic Coiisideration.  The ideal location for an incinerator is
at the center of the traffic pattern produced by the contributing
collection vehicles.  A major advantage  of incineration over sanitary

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landfilling is that incineration can reduce the time and cost of collection
haul.  This requires that the incinerator be centrally located.   This is
not always feas ble for a variety of reasons.   For example,  future growth
of the area served and its effects on the col'lection source  must be
considered.
     A large pli.nt may have literally hundreds of vehicles delivering solii,
waste at relatively short intervals.  Because  of heavy traffic,  the plant
must have adequite access roads to preclude sifety hazards in the streets
of the area.  S lecial access roads may have to be provided so that the
trucks avoid heavily traveled highways.  Special  consideration also must
be given to tra"fic impediments such as bridgss with low weight  limits,
restrictive heights of overpasses, narrow pavaments, and railroad grade
crossings with aigh volume traffic.  A location that avoids  commuter
traffic is also preferred.  Thus, a plant located near the edge  of the
participating community but readily accessible by freeways or beltways
may be better than one centrally located.  The same traffic  considerations
apply to residue disposal.  On-site disposal is often not possible; therefore,
incinerator residue and nonburnables must be trucked to a landfill.
     Plant Layout,  An incinerator plant layout should promote ease,
simplicity, and economy of operation and maintenance.  There should be
adequate room for all parts of the operation.   The structure should
harmonize with the surrounding neighborhood and should be so oriented
that unsightly parts of the building and operation (such as  receiving and
storage) are not visible to the public.  In certain climates, it is
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advantageous to orient the receiving area on the leeward side of the
prevailing wind.  The on-site road pattern should allow ready access
to scales and th; receiving area as well as an easy exit.   One-way
traffic is most desirable, sharp turns and blind spots should be
avoided, and a large parking apron should be provided outside the
receiving area t> avoid congestion during peak receiving hours.
     Adequate drlinage is necessary for surfaca waters.  Incinerator
operation requires periodic hosing of tipping floor, vehicle wash areas,
parking aprons, and ramps.  The paving should be sloped and should
contain adequately sized and strategically placed drains.   This  is
particularly critical in cold climates where ice formation could interfere
with operations.
     Maintenance and storage of trucks may be inside the incinerator
building or on the grounds, but these areas must be located where they
will not hamper the operation of the incinerator.
     Building Design.  The incinerator should be aesthetically pleasing
and should be constructed of durable, high-quality materials and fixtures
to minimize maintenance.  Materials requiring a minimum of painting or
resurfacing, such as concrete, tile, and noncorrosive metals, should be
used.  Surfaces that require painting should have a dense, durable finish.
Corners and bases can be coved to reduce accumulation of debris  and allow
easier cleaning.  Where possible, piping and duct work should be enclosed.
                           Transfer Stations
     A detailed analysis of transfer station feasibility cannot be made
until a transfer system suited to the particular area is decided upon.
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Major design decisions concerning buildings,  processing equipment,  and
haul equipment for systems basically equivalent may  have to  be  determined
at the discretici and by the personal  prefererce of  the deciding  authority,
Basic criteria uoon which to analyze different  systems  should not,
however, be ignored.
     Areas to Consider.   Primary consideration related to site selection
for transfer stations are:  (1) traffic accessibility;  (2) type of
neighborhood [zcning]; (3) proximity to collection routes: (4)  proximity
to disposal site.  Basic considerations relatfd to the  transfer system
are:  (1) volume handled; (2) haul  vehicle restrictions; (3) type of
wastes handled; (4) types of incoming  vehicle:;; (5)  processing  equipment;
(6) allowances ior handling peak loads or for storage;  (7) traffic
patterns.  All cf the aforementioned considerations  have been discussed
in the portions of this  paper related  to sanitary landfills  and
incinerators, and they also apply here.
     site Selection.  Ideally, a transfer station should be  located so
that costs are minimized in the accommodation between the travel  time
of the route-collection  vehicle to the transfer point and the travel time
of the transfer vehicle  to the disposal site.  This  may result  in the  need
for several transfer stations within a service  area.  Operations  research
techniques have been used to develop mathematical optimization  models  for
the number and location  of transfer stations.
     Usually only a limited number of  sites will  be  available,  however,
and often the acquisition of even one  site may  be difficult  due to  the
                                   12

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public's concept of "garbage" as a bad neighbor.   If several  sites  are
obtainable, the choice may be obvious because of  proximity to waste-
generation arees and uncongested streets  and freeways.
     The type of neighborhood can have a  greet influence  on the  cost
of a transfer station.  A residential section may be the  ideal location
from the standfoint of waste concentration,  lut considerable  initial
opposition by residents of the area should b«: expected.   To be aesthetically
acceptable, Ituge capital costs in structure:  and landscaping may be
necessary.  If a residential location provides obvious advantages
and neighborhood opposition is overcome,  it   s imperative to  maintain
a "good neighbir" standing.  This usually requires  that all waste be
removed from t!;e site at the end of each  working  day, and that the  site
be kept free o • litter and well maintained.
     Zoning.   t may prove advantageous to locate in an industrially
or commercially zoned area even though a  greater  haul distance is
involved.  This will probably result in fewer citizen complaints, a
smaller investment in buildings and landscaping,  and fewer problems with
access streets.  This does not mean sloppy operations will  be condoned,
but in these areas the operation is less  likely to  be visible to the
public.
     AcoessibiHty.   Of prime importance  in  site  location is
accessibility to streets, highways, or freeways where fast-moving traffic
flows freely.  Time savings resulting from the use  of rapid-moving
access routes may easily offset additional distances traveled on such
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routes.  Indeed, an authority will usually find it advantageous to
seek a site in a centrally located industrial or commercially zoned
area near existi ig primary roads.
     Again, every area must deal with its own set of conditions
concerning the waste generation area, zoning, and access routes; but
thorough consideration should be given to the above-mentioned points
before commi tmen-; to a site location is made.  Easy inflow and outflow
of traffic combi led with a location as near a<  possible to waste
generation areas are of primary importance.
                               CONCLUSION
     From this discussion one can discern that  selecting sites for
solid waste facilities requires not only technical  skills and
capabilities, buv also thoughtful education of  the  public to gain
citizens' understanding and acceptance,  In ths U.S.A., because of
the extent of citizen involvement in decision making and the past record
of performance of solid waste management systems, site acquisition is
a complex task that taxes the best of public officials and concerned
citizens.
     The physical requirements for facilities,  while unique for each
type of facility, also have much in common.  The real  challenge lies
in selecting the proper site for a specific system  and matching the
resultant facility to the uniqueness of the system.   Site acquisition
and land use for solid waste management facilities  will continue to be
the most troublesome part of decision-making and management of solid
waste facilities.
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                  MANPOWER FOR SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

                       by H. Lanier Hickman, Or*

     The manpower situation of organizations end institutions  involved
in managing the solid wastes of the United Stctes of America is  vastly
different from that of other environmental control  activities,
particularly in air and water pollution abaterent.
     At the local operating level, for example:, solid waste  management
is unique in its dependency not on plant and equipment,  but  on manpower.
Clearly, water pollution control requires capital-intensive1  solutions,
whereas solid weste management is a system in which present  technology
and economics dictate the traditional approach of waste  handling,
primarily by men and trucks.  This extreme labor-intensity of  solid
waste management is underscored by the fact that roughly 68  percent  of
the Nation's annual expenditures for solid waste management  is allocated
to salaries, wages, and related manpower expenses,  while only  about  15
percent is allocated to major capital expenditures.2  Although many
solid waste systems could alter their labor-capital ratios in  the  near
term through improved utilization of existing knowledge  and  technology
     •Capital-intensive, all intensive.use of capital.
     2ln more efficient operations the trend is toward  more capital
intensiveness; however, because of the nature of the service, solid
waste systems will never approach the capital intensiveness of
wastewater treatment.
     *Mr.  Hickman is Director  of  Operations  for Solid Waste Management
Programs,  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

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(as is happening in a number of systems),  there  are  no  technological
events on the horizon that indicate any radical  reversal  of  the
labor-intensive nature of solid waste management.
     At the State level  in the U.S.A., manpower  differences  between
solid waste and other environmental control  activities  are primarily  in
the number of people involved in support,  non-operating types  of
functions.  Solid waste management clearly laqs  behind  other environmental
fields in the nimber of persons employed in  s> ich support activities as
planning, trairrng, surveillance, enforcement, and technical assistance.
To illustrate tins disparity, consider that  some 2,900  persons are
involved in such functions in water pollution control and 4,300 in
air pollution control, but only 350 (1,000 on a  part-time basis) are
employed in totu by State solid waste agencies.
     In recognition of this situation—and nunerous  issues contained
therein—the Congress of the United States,  in Section  210 of  the
Solid Waste Disposal Act as amended mandated a study to determine:
     .  The need for additional trained State and local personnel
        to carry out plans assisted under  this Act and  other
        solid waste and resource recovery  programs.
     .  Means of using existing training programs to train such
        personnel.
     .  The extent and nature of obstacles to employment and
        occupational advancement in the solid waste  disposal and
        resource recovery field that limit either available
        manpower or the advancement of personnel in  such a field.

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     The report of this effort is presently undergoing review by the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) prior to publication.  The
following summary of that effort should be of interest to this
audience.
          SUMMARY OF EPA SOLID WASTE MNAGEMEK'T MANPOWER STUDY
           Size and Composition of Solid Waste Manpower Force
     There are an estimated 307,000 persons irvolved in managing the
Nation's annual solid waste load.  Of these,  !27,000 (74 percent),
are employed at the local level in the direct operation of solid waste
management systems.  Seventy-nine thousand work in  the resource recovery/
secondary materials sector.  Only 350 persons are employed on a full-time
basis at the Stete level, although approximately 1,000 persons are
estimated to sptnd 50 percent or more of thei.1 time performing solid
waste-related functions at this level.
     Of the 227,000 operating personnel at tho local level, 125,000
(55 percent) an: employed by 10,700 private contractors, and 102,000
work for 3,000 public (municipal and county) agencies.  Of this total,
170,000 (75 percent) are involved in collection, with the remainder
involved in transport, transfer, processing, disposal, and other
functions.  Approximately 80 percent of the total operating personnel
at the local level are "direct" employees (involved directly in
collection and disposal activities) in skilled and  unskilled categories,
with the remainder being managerial, clerical, and  supervisory.

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                           Salaries and Wages
     Salaries and wages of solid waste personnel  at all  levels  vary
according to ?ize and type of ownership (pubMc or private)  of  the
employing institutions, SMSA (Standard Metropolitan Statistical  Area)
size, and geographic region.  However, they ere relatively consistent
with national end regional averages for posivions of similar skill,
utility, and slatus, except for secretarial positions, which are
significantly Mgher than the norm.  Private sector employees receive
a higher mean cross weekly salary than do public  employees.   This is
due not only tt  basically unequal pay but als.o to the longer work week
of private sector employees.
                        Turnover and Absenteeism
     Turnover 
-------
     The lack of any substantial career ladders represents a significant
barrier to advancement in the field.  Advancement for all  personnel
is slowed by th<  fact that few levels of job categories are actually
necessary to perform and manage various tasks associated with solid
waste management..  Solid waste management is a classic case of a "few
jobs at the top" with "thousands at the bottcn."
                            Union/Non-Union
     Patterns o.: union membership for all jol  categories in the solid
waste industry ,-esemble those of other industries.  At all levels,
employees of public operations are union memters to a greater degree
than private employees are.
     Unions and civil service systems achieve  higher salaries, fringe
benefits, and promotion rates, than exist in systems where those
institutions aro absent.  They also appear, fowever, to decrease
productivity (and thus increase costs) and tc engender increased
absenteeism.  No differences in quality of services provided can be
factually discerned between union/non-union cr civil service/non-civil
service systems.
                                Training
     Enough persons and skills are available to fill vacancies when
they occur in all sectors of the solid waste field (local  operating,
State, and resource recovery), indicating that training needs are being
fulfilled, at least in terms of municipal requirements. This situation
is due to the unsophisticated nature of jobs at the lower  levels of

-------
employment, the type of training required (primarily on-the-job)  for
a majority of jobs in the industry, the efforts  of existing training
programs, and ihe transferability of various  skills (e.g.,  engineering,
finance, operations research, heavy equipment, etc.) to  the solid waste
field.
     Solid waste personnel at the local operating level  experience
high accident tates and exhibit generally lov; levels of  managerial
expertise, alU ough there are notable except*ons to both of these
conditions in specific situations.   This suggests that while training
programs are m it necessary to increase the supply of manpower in  the
solid waste fit Id, specialized training efforts  in the management and
safety areas a:e probably needed to improve "hese levels of low performance.
Such efforts slould be designed as on-the-jo programs for  those  already
in the field r; ther than as pre-training programs for those contemplating
a career in solid waste management.
                  Manpower Supply-Demand Relationships
     There is <: clear trend toward smaller crews on collection trucks,
spurred by the profit motive in the private sector, financial pressures
in the municipal sector, rising labor costs,  and new developments in
collection technology.  Consequently, over the short term,  the demand
for manpower (i.e., the total number of jobs) in the operational  areas
of solid waste management will probably actually decrease.   This  move
in the basic equilibrium that currently exists in the manpower supply
and demand situation may bring about a temporary disequilibrium (over-
supply) in specific situations at the local level.

-------
     Increases in the number of jobs  that may develop 1n  disposal  and
resource recovery as the Nation moves to environmentally  acceptable
disposal practit2s, or in general  management js  public and  private
systems work to increase efficiency,  will  not compensate  for  the
anticipated loss of jobs in collection.   Further, this displacement will
not make available the necessary skilled manpower to meet the new
manpower needs cf solid waste management.
     The supply of adequately trained manpowe • to perform State
level functions appears to be in balance with the current demand for
such manpower.  Increases in demand at this Iwel are occurring, but
at a fairly low pace—and the growth  in  overa'1  supply is keeping  pace
with this rate cf growth.  It is also clear, however, that  the demand
side of the cunent equilibrium is distorted \>y  the  fact  that programs
in many States Ere inadequate.  Significant inprovements  in the scope
and mission of State solid waste programs  cou'ld  create a  situation
in which demand substantially exceeds supply. Such  changes are not
likely to occur in the near term and, if they occur, will probably be
on a gradually Increasing curve.  If  and when these  changes occur, the
demand for skills related to these functions should  be re-examined.
                              CONCLUSIONS
     When viewed as a total system, solid waste  management  is an
extremely labor-intensive field, even though relative labor-intensities
vary from function to function {e.g., between disposal and  collection).
There is nothing on the horizon to indicate any  major change  in the
                                      •          L r--^~m-—-~
labor-intensive nature of solid waste management in  the foreseeable future.

-------
     Breakdowns in the labor components of operating solid waste systems
occasioned by lebor-management disputes can luad to an immediate
breakdown of thf total system.  As demonstrated in New York City's
garbage strike in 1968, such breakdowns can have severe implications
for public health and safety.  Breakdowns can be avoided through sound
management praciices if the problems can be isolated to some degree
from local politics.
     Manpower utilization and the costs of manpower are the major
determinants of total costs associated with tie operation of solid
waste systems.  Increased costs required for upgrading the Nation's
solid waste practices to environmentally acceptable levels can be largely
offset by savings achieved through improved manpower practices.   Such
savings can, in fact, be quite substantial.  Implementation of these
practices, however, has more to do with the nature of the institutions
responsible for handling solid wastes (e.g., their objectives, management
skills, financing methods, hiring practices, union situation, and
incentives) than with the supply/demand or training aspects of solid
waste manpower.
     Many solid waste systems operate with manpower tools significantly
larger than necessary to handle the job for the intended or unintended
purpose of providing employment to a sector of our economy facing
restricted opportunities elsewhere as a result of increasing mechanization,
Although solid waste management is one of the few remaining large-scale

                                    8 •

-------
areas for employing unskilled labor, financial  pressures on local
systems are forcing local governments to effect cost savings in their
solid waste sy;r ems that can be achieved by lowering manpower requirements.
Consequently, the issue of efficiency versus tiob support looms large
over the next several years.
     The study ly the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, indicates
that large-sea ">(  manpower development program:;  are not needed.  However,
training of per onnel at all levels of government in specific areas
is needed.  Such training must be precisely oriented to the job in
order to assure relevancy to individual needs.   The three levels of
government in tie U.S.A. must share in this training commensurate  with
their respective roles in solid waste management.
     Manpower d >mands may change due to significant institutional  changes
in the solid wa;te management field due to better application of
technology and new national policies.  Those changes may shift the
manpower needs of the nation, and they must be  carefully observed  to
assure that lac; of attention to manpower needs does not prevent
improvement of the Nation's solid waste management systems.

-------
                                        VIII
                        FTSOURCE  RECOVERY:   AN ASSESSMENT
                         Vhis presentation was prepared



                                by JOHN  P.  LEHMAN



                for The F;jrst U.S.-Japan Governmental Conference



                            on  Solid  V7asj:e Management



                         Tokyo, January  29 and 30,  1973
H-
                      U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL  PROTECTION AGENCY

-------
              RESOURCE RECOVERY:  AN ASSESSMENT
                      by John P. Lehman*
                 Meed for Resource Recovery

     Resource recovery, or recycling/ is not a new.phenomenon.

For centuries irun has recovered and reused a portion of the

materials he coisumed, when there was an economic incentive

to do so.  Renewed interest in resource recovery in the United

States of America has been stimulated by several factors.

Certainly increased environmental consciousness has played a

significant rols.  Concern over rapid depletion of natural

resources and increasing pollution of the air, water, and land

are in this category.  Another factor is the problems that

have arisen in the management of our municipal solid wastes.

These problems include accelerating disposal costs and the

scarcity of property suitable for sanitary landfills.  Lastly,

our deficit foreign trade balance is due in part to import of

raw materials.  These same materials exist in our waste stream/
     *Mr. Lehman is with the Resource Recovery Division,
Office of Solid Waste Management Programs, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.

-------
but are not recovered at present.  Thus/ resource recovery



is needed in the U.S.A. to conserve resources, reduce



pollution, improve solid waste management, and help alleviate



the deficit foreign trade balance.



     There is a high rate of materials consumption in the

                                                               \

U.S.A.  In 1971., -for example, 5.8 billion tons of all



materials, including 3.6 billion tons of non-food, non-energy



substances, were consumed.  The population is increasing at



1.3 percent yearly and per capita consumption of materials and



fuel is growing at 4-5 percent yearly (2! tons/capita in 1965,



increasing to 28 tons/capita in 1971}.  :>ollution arises as a



consequence of materials and energy consomption.  For example,



1000.tons of steel results in 2800 tons jf mine waste, 121 tons



of air pollutants, and 970 tons of solid waste.  There is also



a shortage of lew-sulfur fuels in the U..3.A.  Therefore,



resource conservation and pollution reduction via resource
                                     •


recovery are needed since recycling cons-.imes less energy than



virgin materials production, and wastes .are a source of low-



pollution energy.



     Solid waste generation in the U.S.A. is growing also.



In 1967, 3.5 billion tons of waste were generated, while in



1971, this figure mounted to 4.5 billion tons.  Per capita



packaging consumption was 425 pounds in 1960; 525 pounds in



1966.  More wastes occur in urban areas where management is

-------
more difficult  and costly.  -Urban population is up  from  64



percent  in  1950 to 74 percent  in 1970.  Also, urban residents



generate roughly 20 percent more waste per capita than non-



urban  residents.  Waste management costs are high and rising,



especially  in urban areas.  Cities with over 500,000 popula-



tion have landfill costs of $5 per ton average, and average



$7 per ton  incireration costs.  The lattar costs will double



as air quality  standards are met.  Therefore, resource



recovery is indicated as a means of reducing the total amount



of solid waste  requiring landfill or incineration.



     With reference to the foreign trade balance, the U.S.A.



has a  high dependence on imported minera.s.  We are a net



importer of minerals; in 1970 we had a $ I billion net import



deficit.  We import all of our tin, 90 percent of our aluminum;



half of  our asbestos, nickel and zinc; a.id a third of our iron.



ore, lead, and mercury.  This dependence is growing.  By the



year 2000, the minerals import deficit of the U.S.A. is projected



to be  $60 billion a year.  The impacts on our foreign policy



flexibility and  stability of our economy are obvious.   Resource



recovery can help to alleviate these impacts.



                      STATUS AND TRENDS



     In  the U.S.A. the recycling rate on major materials is



25 percent of consumption—48 million tons of a total  of 191



million  tons.  The recycling rate varies from 50 percent for



copper and lead to 4 percent for glass and textiles (Table 1).

-------
Vfaste oil recovery is 37 percent of the total oil drained or



235 million gallons of 650 million gallons.  Fly ash is



recovered at a rate of 6.5 percent—20 m.-'.llion tons occurring



and 1.3 million tons recovered.  This can be compared to



recovery rates for England, 39 percent; Trance, 50 percent;



and Germany 27 percent.

-------
                                   Table 1


I Kater ial
1 Paper
1 Iron and steel
1 Aluminum
I Cooper
Lea|
Zinc
Glass
j
Textiles
, Rubber
i
• Total
i

RECYCLING OF

Total Consumption
(million tons)
53.110
105.900
4,009
2.913
1.261
1.592
12.820
5.672
3.943
191,298


MAJOR MATERIAL 5 (1967)

Total Recycled
{million tons)
10.124
33.100
.733
1.447
.625
.201
.600
.246
1.032
48.108




Recycling as Percent
of Consumption
19.0
31.2
18.3
49.7
49.6
12.6
4.2
4.3
26.2
25.1

., .
Source:
         Darnay, A. J. , Jr. ,  and VI. E. Franklin.  Salvage markets for
         materials in solid v;astes.  Washington, U.S. Government
         Printing Office, 1972.  187p.

-------
     The recovery rate appears to be declining  in most



instances measured.  Absolute tonnages of secondary



materials consumption are going up, but the recovery rate



is trending dovri.  As percent of consumption:



     - Waste paper was 23 percent in 19fO; 18 percent in



       1969.



     - Steel scrap total was 50.3 percer.t in 1960; 49.0



       percent in 1968.  But purchased .scrap was 45 per-



       cent in 1960; 40 percent in 1968



     - Reclaimed rubber was 18 percent :ln 1968; 9 percent



       in 1970.



     - Non-ferrous metals recovery rate;3 were constant.



     Furthermore, the economics of secondary materials are



adverse.  The \.otal costs of using virgin materials are lower



than secondary materials use costs:



     - Steel:  virgin $38/ton; scrap $44/ton.



     - Glass:  virgin $18/ton; cullet up to $24/ton.



     - Printing paper:  virgin $80 - 120/ton; 100 percent



       recycled $100 - 150/ton.



     - Corrugating medium:  virgin $80/ton;  40 percent



       scrap paper $82/ton.



Detailed figures are given in Tables 2 through 4.



   .  The reasons for this imbalance are several.  First, virgin



materials use is subsidized through depletion allowances, and

-------
capital gains treatment of timber.  The gross budgetary effect



of subsidies in 1971 was $1.45 billion.  Representative effects



of depletion allowances on selected materials are shown in



Table 5.  Secondly, full costs of pollution are not borne by



all processors of virgin resources. .Lastly, ocean and rail



freight rates may be discriminatorily hi
-------
                           " Table 2
                         STEEL COSTS

                            ($/ton)
Cost Component

Ore
Coke
Limestone
Scrap
•Total Raw Materials
Melting Costs
Scrap Handling Costs
Increased Refractory Wear
   Virgin
Materials Use

   $18.30
     8.17
      .33
-     1.68

   $28.48
     9.00
Scrap Use

 $	


  33.50
 $33.50
   6.00
   3.50
   1.00
    TOTAL
   $37.48
 $44.00

-------
                           Table 3
                COST COMPARISON FOR GLASS ($/TON)
Cost Component
                      Gullet
Virgin Materials   (Waste Glass)
Raw Materials Delivered        $15.48

Cullet Delivered                  0

Fusion Loss                      2.95

Incremental Hancling Costs
   at Glass Plart                 0
            TOT*L             $18.43
                  $      0

                   17.77 - $22.77

                         0


                     .50 -   1.00


                  $18.27 - $23.77
Source:
       Midv;est Research Institute.   Economic  studies in
       support of policy formation  on resource  recovery,
       Unpublished data, 1972.

-------
                                  Table 4
               COMPARATIVE ECONOMICS OF PAPER MANUFACTURE
                   FROM RECYCLED AND VIRGIN MATERIALS  -
    Product
Linerboard
Currugating
   medium
                                                    Printing/
                                                     writing
                                                      paper
Newsprint
  Baseline  case
    (recycled  fiber
    content)

|  Baseline  average
    operating  cost
                   $78.50/ton
  Supplemental  fiber      25%
   use »(recycled fiber
   content)

           cost with
   increased use of
   recycled fiber   $82.25/ton
Net cost of
  increased
  recycled fiber
  usc.ge
 $3.75
                                        15%
                                   0%
                                     40%
                                   100
Source:
                                 0%
                 $79.50/ton    $80-$120/ton   $125/ion
                               100
 $82.00/ton   $100-$150/ton    $98/ton

  $2.50        $20-$ 30/ton    -$27
       Midwest Research Institute.   Economic studies in support of policy
       formation on resource recovery.   Unpublished data, 1972.
                                    10

-------
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-------
     Resource recovery technology Is available, but is not



the solution to the cost problem.  In a word, recovery has



not been economical.  The process of tra isporting, separating,



and upgrading mixed municipal wastes costs more than the



revenue derived from the sale of materials.



     There are a number of reasons for tiis and I will cite



just some of them:



     1.  Collection of wastes from many sources, each



generating a small quantity of material, is very costly, at



least from a materials-handling point of view.



     2.  Materials in urban waste are contaminated.  For



example, in packaging, papers are coated with plastics; two



metals are combined to make containers.



     3.  Urban wastes are mixed in collection, further contami-



nating specific material components of the waste.



     4.  Separation is expensive.  Most mechanical systems are



based on a yes-no sorting principle—they separate one type of



item and reject all others; thus a series of cascade of sorting



devices is'needed to obtain a number of fractions.



     5.  The prices paid for low quality,  contaminated



commodities are very low—if you can find a buyer at all.  By



upgrading, a higher price can be achieved, but upgrading adds



to already high recovery costs.
                            12

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                  JUSTIFICATION FOR ACTION



     The status outlined previously gives no cause for



rejoicing.  Material recycling rates are low and generally



declining.  Rescurce recovery economics .ire adverse.  If



the picture is so glum, why is the U.S. Environmental



Protection Agency so concerned about resource recovery?



What is the justification for further action?



     Resource recovery is desirable for several reasons:



               lositive Environmental Impacts



     Recovery oi  materials is environmen :ally desirable/



because less pollution is generated when a material is



obtained from weste than is generated if virgin raw materials



are used.  It if  self-evident that reprocessing a material that



has already beer- processed, that has already had labor and



energy inputs, that has been purified,  should have less



environmental impact than   processing  a material that occurs



in a mine or a forest.  The comparison  of environmental impact



for paper, steel, and glass manufacturing, shown in Tables 6



through 9, bear this out.  'Recycling avoids pollutant creation,



which is better than controlling pollutants.
                             13

-------
                                   Table 6
      ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT COMPARISON FOR 1,000 TONS OF LOW-GRADE PAPER
^Environmental
    ef::ect
  Unbleached
  kraft pulp
   (virgin)
 Repulped     Change from
waste paper    increase!
  (100%)     recycling  (%)a
 Virgin materials
  use [oven cry fiber)

 Process water used
 •Energy consumption

 Air pollutants
   effJ.uents  (trans-
   portation,  manufac-
   turing,  and har-
   vesting)
 1,000 tons


   24 million
    gallons

17,000 x 106 BTU

 .  42 tons
 -0-              -100


  10 million       -61
   gallons

5,000 x 106 BTU    -70

  11 tons          -73
Waterborne wastes ,
d^fcpharges - BOD
Waterborne wastes
discharged- ,
suspended solids
Process solid
wastes generated
Net post-consumer
wastes generated
15

8


68

850

tons

tons


tons

tons0

9

6


42

-250

tons

tons


tons

tons

-44

-25
*

-39

-129


       Negative numbers represent  a  decrease in that category,  or a
(positive change from  increased recycling.

       Based primarily, on  surveys  conducted in 1968-1970.
      JV
       This assumes a 15%  loss of  fiber in the papermaking  and  converting
(operations.
      JS
       This assumes that 1,100 tons  of waste paper would be needed to
 sroduce 1,000 tons of pulp.  Therefore 850-1100 -250 represents the net
 reduction of post-consumer waste.

         Midwest Research  Institute.  Economic studies in support of
         policy formation  on resource recovery.  Unpublished data, 1972.

                                    14

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                                    Table 7
                 IMPACTS RESULTING FROM THE MANUFACTURE OF  1,000  TONS
     OF BLEACHED VIRGIN KRAFT PULP AND EQUIVALENT MANUFACTURED  FROM
                    DEINKED AND BLEACHED WASTEPAPER
	
1,
p
. Environmental
effect
P

Virgin fiber
pulp


Deinked
Pulp


Increased
recycling
change (%)a

j: Virgin materials
   use  (oven dry fiber)

II Process water used
 1 Energy consumption

|j Air pollutants
    (transportation,
    manufacturing, and
    harvesting)D

IjWaflBlborne wastes .
'!  discharged - BODD

 Waterborne wastes
   disoharged-
11  suspended solids

 Process solid wastes

[illet post-consumer
   waste disposal
 1,100 tons


47,000 x ID3
 gallons

23,000 x 106 BTU

   49 tons
   23 tons


   24 tons



  112 tons

  850 tonsc
    -0-         -100


40,000 x 103     -15
 gallons

 9,000 x 106 BTU -60

   20 tons       -60
   20 tons
   77  tons
 -13
+222
  224  tons      +100
          d
 -550  tons"
-165
i      '  Negative number represents a decrease in that category resulting
•from recycling.
      i-
      J  Based on surveys conducted in 1968-1970.

|      '" This assumes a 15% loss of fiber in paperworking and converting
I operations.

        This assumes that 1,400 tons of waste paper is needed to produce
 1,000 tons of pulp.  Therefore, 850-1,400•= —550 represents the net
           in post-consumer solid waste.
          Midwest Research Institute.  Economic studies in support of
          policy formation on resource recovery.  Unpublished data, 1972

                                 .15
 {Source:

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                                Table 8
                  IMPACT COMPARISON FOR 1,000 TONS OF STEEL PRODUCT
Environmental
Effect
Virgin Materials Use
Water Use
Energy Consumption
Air Pollution
Effluents
Water Pollution
Consumer Wastes
'Generated
J^King Wastes
Virgin Materials
Use
2,278 tons
16.6 million
gallons
23,347 x 106 BTU
121 tons
67.5 tons
967 tons
2,828 tons
103% Waste
Use
250 tons
9.9 million
gallons
6,039 x 106 BTU
17 tons
16.5 tons
-60 tons
63 tons
Change From
Increased
Recycling (S)a
-90
-40
-74
-86
-76
-105
-97

a Negative numbers represent a decrease in that category resulting
  from recycling.


Source:
     Midwest Research Institute.   Economic studies  in support of
     policy formation on resource recovery.   Unpublished data, 1972,
                                  16

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                                    Table  9
              SUMMARY OF  GULLET DEPENDENT ENVIRONMENTAL  IMPACTS
            FOR 1,000 TONS  OF  GLASS  CONTAINERS,  BY  IMPACT CATEGORY

Environmental
.impact
Mining wastes
Atmospheric emissions
Call sources)
Water consumption
(intake minus discharge)
Energy use
« «
15%
Gullet
104 tons
13.9 tons
200,000 gals.
16,150 x 106 BTU
60%
Gullet
22 tons
13 tons
10.9 tons
100,000 gals.
16,750 x 10^ BTU
15,175 x 10b BTU
% Change a
-79%
~6%c
-22%c
-50%
+3%
-6%
  Virgin  raw materials
      jsumption
  New post-consumer
   waste generation
1,100 tons
1,000 tons
500 tons
450 tons
-54%
-55%
        Negative numbers represent   a decrease in that impact resulting
  from increased recycling.

        Calculated for the Black-Clawson wet recovery system for cullet
  recovery from municipal waste.

        Calculated for the Bureau of Mines incinerator residue recovery
  system for cullet recovery from municipal waste.

        Based primarily on surveys conducted in 1967-1969.
I Source:
          Midwest Research Institute.  Economic studies in support of
          policy formation on resource recovery.  Unpublished data,
          1972.
                                     17

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               Solid Waste Management Benefits
     Recycling avoids ultimate disposal of solid wastes, and,
where recycling is cheaper than disposal, it saves the disposal
cost.  Where "skimming" is practical and economical, collection
costs—80 percent of waste management cofsts—are also avoided.
Considering that roughly 50 million tons per year of secondary
materials are recycled—and obtained by separate collection
("skimming")—tie saving to the nation ii; huge, roughly $1
billion a year assuming a $20/ton waste Management cost.
                      Resource Benefits
     Resource r< covery conserves our energy resources because
less energy is consumed in providing materials from waste than
from virgin soui-ces.  This is an extremely important aspect of
recycling because, though we may never ran out of certain kinds
of materials, wu are beginning to strain our energy resources,
particularly natural gas and sulphur-free fuels.  Reduction in
water usage is also an important factor.  Some typical savings
are:
     - Virgin steel versus 100 percent scrap steel:  scrap
       system requires 74 percent less energy and 51 percent
       less water.
     - Glass:  Use of 60 percent waste cullet versus 15 per-
       cent cull'et requires 6 percent less energy and 50 per-
       cent less water.
                             18
                                                        • iq-y *»»•*•••

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     - Paper:  70 percent less energy, 61 percent less water

       in a repulped waste versus virgin kraft paper case.

     Recycling also preserves non-renewable resources, and

provides a "domestic" source for materials that are not

available domestically in virgin form, e.g., tin and aluminum.
                                                               v
                     ECONOMIC INCENTIVES

     The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's effort to

increase resour :e recovery is directed at two areas:  economic

incentives and  technology development.  tfe feel that develop-

ment of incentives is the key role that the Federal Government

can play.  We r ;alize that the economics of waste material must

be changed befo:re recycling of municipal wastes can become a

reality on a large scale.  It is unrealistic to expect industry

to utilize materials at a loss.  On the other hand, it is a

safe speculation that if there are economic benefits to be

realized by industry for consuming secondary materials, it will

seek them out.

     A key requirement to bring about increased recovery is to

increase demand for secondary materials.  Demand creation calls

for changing the economics of secondary materials use.  Basic

ways of doing so are (1) by making secondary materials less

expensive to buy, to process, to transport, and to use; (2) by

making virgin materials more expensive; or  (3) to deny industry

 virgin materials, which will make it turn to alternatives.
                             19

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There are many ways of influencing economics, through many



mechanisms.



     Market incentives directly influence demand by resulting



in a lowering of secondary materials costs.  Types of market



incentives are:



     1.  Income tax credits;  allow a deduction from income



         tax of some percent of the val^a of secondary



         materic Is purchased.



     ^*  Subsidj es:  provide a cash paymsnt per ton of



         material recovered.



     •*•  Selective Federal Procurement;   exercise Federal



         purchasing power to buy recycle 1 products in



         preference to others, if need ba at higher cost.



Incentives of this type have differing efficiencies in bringing



about recovery.  Nonetheless, they have  positive effects on



resource recovery and are being actively evaluated.



     The general concept of capital assistance is to assist



the creation of facilities for waste recovery.  Types of



capital assistance include:



     1.  Capital^grjLn_ts_;  provide funds  for facility



         construction.



     2.  Investment tax credits;  allow  rapid amortization



         of facility costs with tax benefit.



     3.  Provision j?f_ Low Interest Loans



     4.  Loan guarantee programs
                             20

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Capital assistance is a supply creation measure; but supply



creation is not viewed as the problem.  3:t assumes the need



for facilities, while much recylcing doe^ not require



facilities.



     Regulatory measures also result in economic changes and



are thus similar to market incentives, but they rely on



regulatory activities.  Types of regulat .on include:



     1.  Removal of Virgin Materials Subsidies;  like the



         depletion allowance; this would result in increased



         virgin materials costs.



     2,  Changes in Freight Rates;  Fede:rally set rates for



         rail  (ICC) and ocean {FMC) can lie changed to reduce



         transport costs.



     •*•  Import/Export Regulations;  to  Increase costs of



         virgin materials coming in, to deny import of virgin



         materials, etc.



     4«  Federal Land Regulations;  especially pricing of



         products from Federal lands.



The problem with regulatory measures is predictability of effect



in most cases.  Also, administrative costs of regulatory measures



may be excessive.



     All of the types of economic incentives mentioned above are



being examined by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  We



expect to have completed our evaluation and to have made our
                             21

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recommendations  to  the U.S. Congress by next summer.



                    TECHNOLOGY STIMULATION



     The  second  major thrust of our program in the demonstra-



tion of currently feasible resource recovery systems.



Technology stimulation is analogous to capital assistance in



that it is facility-oriented; the same basic assumption under-



lies this approach, namely that technology is needed.  It



offers a minor opportunity to lower cost!  by technical improve-



ment, and does provide a way to overcome institutional inertia



to new processes.   Nonetheless, in light of my comments



earlier about the economics of municipal waste recycling, you



may wonder how such demonstrations are justified.



     Recovery is a  viable waste management option where the



costs of recovery—the cost left over after revenues are



deducted—are lower than the alternative of disposal without



recovery.



     In some areas  of the United States, disposal costs by



incineration or by  landfilling which follows a transfer opera-



tion have become very high,  exceeding $5 and sometimes even



$10 per ton.   In such areas,  the alternative of resource



recovery, even if operated at a loss '(as will be usual),  is



attractive if the net cost of operation is below the cost of



disposal.
                             22

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                  Technology Demonstrations



     Technology demonstrations consists of a number of unit



processes  (Tabls 10) which can be combined in various ways



into system options  (Table 11) .  Selectee, municipal resource



recovery facilities in the United States are listed in Table



12.



     Recent studies performed on our behrlf have examined



the technical ar3 marketing aspects of specific resource



recovery technologies.  The resource recovery systems examined



were classified into the following categories:  conventional



incineration with heat recovery, composting, materials recovery,



fuel recovery, and pyrolysis—producing organic products for



sale.



          Incineration WithHeat Recovery.  This is the only



system recovering resources from mixed municipal refuse in the



United States.  European countries have pioneered this effort



because they experience a greater shortage of natural resources.



Water wall incinerators are in operation in Braintree,



Massachusetts, Norfolk Naval Base, and Chicago, Illinois.  Some



of the newer European plants have been designed for 50 percent



excess air, but 80 to 100 percent is the general rule.  Over



200 percent excess air is sometimes used in the U.S.A.



Although heat recovery from waste incinerators is an established



practice, there are still some technical problems, even in the

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                  Technology  Demonstrations



     Technology  demonstrations  consists  of a number  of  unit



 processes  (Tab."-': 10) which  can  be  combined in various ways



 into system options  (Table  11).  Selected municipal  resource



 recovery facilities  in  the  United  States are listed  in  Table



 12.



     Recent studies  performed on our behalf have examined



 the technical  a.id marketing aspects of specific resource



 recovery technologies.  The resource recovery systems examined



 were classified  into the  following categsries:  conventional



 incineration wi ;h heat  recovery, composting, materials  recovery,



 fuel recovery,  md pyrolysis—producing  organic products for



 sale.



           Incineration  With Heat Recovery.  This is  the only



 system recovering resources from mixed municipal refuse in  the



 United States.   European  countries have  pioneered this  effort



 because they experience a greater  shortage of natural resources.



 Water  wall incinerators are in  operation in Braintree,



•Massachusetts, Norfolk  Naval  Base, and Chicago, Illinois.   Some



 of the newer European plants  have  been designed for  50  percent



 excess air,  but  80 to 100 percent  is the general rule.  Over



 200 percent excess air  is sometimes used in the U.S.A.



 Although heat  recovery  from waste  incinerators is an established



 practice,  there  are  still some  technical problems, even in  the
                              23

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                     Table 10
        MAJOR RESOURCE RECOVERY UNIT PROCESSES
Manual  Separation  - home separation,  hand picking,
                     local collect!sn  centers.
Size reduction

    - Shredding, milling,- crushing,  etc.

Mechanical  Separation

    - Air  separation
    - Ballistic and related  sorting
    - Magnetic sorting
    - Sink-3loat
    - Heavy  media
    - Opticc.l sorting
    - Sweating
    - Screening, filtration, and rei.ated
    - Solver.t extraction
    - Combustion
    - Stripping


Conversion

    - Digestion/Composting
   — Combustion - heat recovery
    - Pyrolysis
    - Hydrogenation
    - Hydrolysis
    - Wet oxidation
Other
   - Baling, briquetting, compacting, bundling, palletizing
   - Washing, laundering
                        24

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                               Table  11


                   MAJOR RESOURCE RECOVERY SYSTEM OPTIONS


 1.   REUSE

     A.   Separate Collection of Materials

     B.   Materials Separation

         1.   Dry separation
             (a)   manual
             (b)   mechanical
         2.   Wet separation
         3.   Incinerator residue recovery


II.   CONVERSION - with or without materials separation

     A.   Fuel Recovery

     B.   Electrical Generation

     C.   Heat Recovery

     D.   Pyrolysis

         1.   Oil Production
         2.   Gas Production
             (a)  Marketable gas
             (b)  Direct steam production
             . (c)  Direct electrical production

     E.   Others - composting, etc.
                                  25

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                                   Table 12
                SELECTED MUNICIPAL RESOURCE RECOVERY FACILITIES
I  Facility


  Berkeley, Cal


  Chicago, 111.


|; Madison, Wis.


  St. Louis, Mo.



11 Fran'
Shredded vaste fuel,
  metals
Paper pulp, metals,
  glass
                   Oil, metals & glass
                   Steam,' metals S
                     aggregate
Metals and glass
Compost products,
  char, metals, glass
                                      26
  Status


Operational


Operational


Operational


Operati onal



Operational
Plannirg
(Start-up
   11/74)

Planning
(Start-uo
    6/74)

Planning
(Start-up
    9/74)

Planning
(Start-up
    1/75)

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most advanced plants.  The principal problems are slagging



and erosion and corrosion of boiler components.  Technology



is not the biggest impediment to broader implementation of



the heat recovery concept.  The marketing problems are much



more severe.  The steam market has several characteristics



that inhibit implementation.  First, steim can be transported



only short distances.  Thus, steam consumers must be located



close to the st'jam-producing facility.  Second, steam con-



sumers want a consistent quality of stean.  The Btu value of



solid waste var..es considerably from day to day depending on



its plastic, pc,]>er, and water content.  Thirdly, most steam



markets demand a continuous supply, 24 hours a day, 7 days a



week.  Collection schedules and maintenaice requirements



inhibit an incinerator from being a reliable source of supply.



          Compoj!ting.  Municipal refuse has been composted in



Europe and the U.S. for many years.  The technology is quite



advanced.  There; are no real technological barriers.  The



U.S.A. has seen the construction of many composting plants in



the past 20 years.  Most of these have now ceased operating.



The market problems are severe.  It has been estimated that



the existing compost demand could be met by converting the



solid waste of a city of 900,000 people.  Of course, this



would replace all existing sources of compost, most of which
                              27

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are recycled materials such as agricultural wastes.  If com-



posting is to be a successful resource recovery technology,



the markets for the products mist increase by a quantum jump.



This will not be accomplished by technology development.



          Materials Recovery.  The real problem with materials



recovery, v;hich is extraction of saleable solid waste components



such as paper, glass, and metals, is thai it is too late.  It



is late because paper, glass, and metal:: should not be mixed.



The contaminaticn resulting from mixing them together and then



separating back to the elemental form graatly reduces their



market value.  However, mixing the wastes is justified by the



high cost of separate collection systems.



          Materi tils recovery technology consists of a large



number of unit processes, including blowing, throwing, floating,



spinning, vibrating, and magnetically separating.  The major



emphasis on materials recovery has been focused on two areas:



fiber recovery and separation of incinerator residue.



          Fiber Recovery.  Cellulose comprises from 40 to 50



percent (on a wet basis) of municipal solid waste.  Both wet



and dry separation processes have been developed.  A wet



process is being demonstrated under an EPA grant in Franklin,



Ohio.  Details are given in Table 13.



          At present, only the ferrous and fibrous portions



are being extracted.  The market for the pulped fibers has not
                              28

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                                     TABLE 13

               SYSTEM FOR TOTAL REFUSE DISPOSAL BY FLUID-MECHANICAL
         SEPARATION OF SOLID WASTES AND. FLUID BED OXIDATION OF COMBUSTIBLES
PRDJECT TYPE:  Demonstration

GRANTEE:  City of Franklin, Ohio
                          GRANT NO.  GQ6-EC-00194
PROJECT DIRECTOR:  Bernerd F. Eichholz, City Manager, P.O. Box 132,
                   Franklin, Ohio  45005

ESTIMATED TOTAL PROJECT COST:  $2,471,858

  GRANTEE'S SHARE:             $  823,953
  FEDERAL SHARE:
  (By year of project
         life)
$   46,667
$1,165,132
$  436,106
DATE PROJECT STARTED:  ^ar. 1, 1969     DATE PROJECT ENDS:   Feb.  28, 1973

OBJECTIVES:  To demonstrate a refuse disposal and resource  recovery system capable
of processing municipal refuse and producing metals, color-sorted glass,  and paper
fiber in a recyclable fcrm.  Nonrecoverable combustible material  will  be  incineratsd
in«a fluidized bed reactor.

PROCEDURES:  The total system, with a design capacity of 150 tons per 24-hour day,
  tmprises three subsystems for solid waste disposal, fiber  recovery, and  glass
  covery, respectively.  The disposal system consists of a  Hydrapulper, a liquid
cyclone, and a fluidizec bed incinerator.   The Hydrapjlper, a wet grinder, pulps
the incoming refuse except for large objects, which are ejected and passed through
a magnetic separator to recover the ferrous metals portion.  The  liquid cyclone
takes the output from the Hydrapulper and  extracts small  heavy objects,   mostly
glass intermixed with seme metals, wood, and plastic.  The  remaining pulp passes
from the liquid cyclone into the fiber recovery subsystem,  where  it undergoes
further cleaning and dewatering.  The final product is low-grade  paper fiber
suitable for recycling.  Rejected fibrous  material is piped to the fluidized
bed incinerator for disposal.  This fluidized bed incinerator is  also  being
used to dispose of sewage sludge from an adjacent treatment plant.

Heavy material extracted by the liquid cyclone will  be piped to the glass recovery
sibsystem, expected to be operating by mid-1973, which will use magnetic  separation,
screening, air classification, and optical sorting to produce an  aluminum-rich
concentrate and color-sorted glass.

The rest of the facility is now operating, initially at a 50 tons per  8-hour day
level.  Based on the consultant's (A. M. Kinney, Inc., of Cincinnati)  financial
projections, the City of Franklin is charging a $6.00-per-ton fee.
                                       29

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been fully defined.  The sub-systems separating glass and



aluminum are being installed now.  Consequently, we know



little about the quality of separation of these components.



          Incinerator Residue.  The Buraau of Mines of the



U.S. Department of the Interior has developed a method for



separating minerals and metals from inci lerator residue.  The



technology is relatively conventional.   Ct has not been proven



on full scale.  Some data has been obtai led from a pilot



operation.  The quality of ferrous metal3 residue is uncertain.



A portion consists of an insoluble residae of scale.  The



aluminum quality is high.  The glass portion is suitable for



glass brick manufacture, but not in glass manufacture.  A



full scale system will be demonstrated ii Lowell, Massachusetts,



under an EPA resource recovery grant (Ta >le 14).  It should pro-



vide more conclusive information.



          Conversion tp^Fuel.   Refuse as a Supplemental Fuel —



Mixing urban wastes with conventional fuels such as coal and



oil in existing power plants has been studied extensively in



recent years.  Both dry and wet systems have been examined.  A



dry system has been constructed in St.  Louis (Table 15) .  The



city of St. Louis mills and magnetically separates the refuse.



The milled material is transported and pneumatically fed to a



Union Electric Company boiler, where it is burned with pulverized



coal.  One technical difficulty has been encountered—erosion of



the pneumatic tubes.  It is anticipated that separation of the
                             30

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                             TABLE 14

           GREATER LOWELL RESOURCE RECOVERY PROJECT
Grantee:  City of Lowell, Massachusetts

Project Director:  James L. Sullivan
                   City Manager
                   City Hall
                   Lowell, Massachusetts    ••»

                   Telephone No.:  617/454-8821 '

Principal Contrac;or:  Raytheon Company
                                            Grant No. 801535
 EPA Project Officer:
                      David G. Arella
                      Telephone No.  202/2^-6795
 Budget, Period
 Design & Bid
 Construction
 Operation &
   Evaluation
                   Time Period
Tota
___     -,a . Cost  Federal Cost
II 715/72 to 10/31/73  3  4~32,847  $  324,635
                       1,912,153   1
                11/1/73 to 11/15/74

               11/16/74 to 11/15/75
                       _ 8 J5?000
                       ;3,l3o,000
               626,250
                ~
* Objective;
            The principal objective of this project is to
            demonstrate that the various commodities in normal
            incirerator residue can be separated and economi-
            cally  recovered.
 Project Descriptj.on:  The City of Lowell will build a full size
             processing plant capable of handling 250 tons of
             incinerator residue in 8 hours.  Residue from Lowell
             and several neighboring coranunities will be processed
             in the facility.  The plant will be designed by the
             Raytheon Company using the system piloted by the
             U. S.  Bureau of Mlr.es at College Park, Maryland.
             Using a series of screens, shredders, classifiers
             and other ore benefication equipment the plant will
             extract more than 40,000 tons of products — steel,
             nonferrous metals, and glass — from the incinerator
             residue annually.  Revenue from the sale of the
             products is expected to exceed $1,500,000 a year.
                               31

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                                 TABLE 15
          USE OF REFUSE AS SUPPLEMENTARY FUEL IN BOILER FURNACES
PROJECT TYPE:  Demonstration

GRANTEE:  City of St. Louis, Missouri
            GRANT HO. G06-EC-00312
PROJECT DIRECTOR:  G. Wayne Sutterfield, Refuse Commissioner
                   4100 S. First Street, St.  Louis, Missouri   63118

ESTIMATED TOTAL PROJECT COST:  $2,603,000

    GRANTEE'S SHARE:            $  868,000
    FEDERAL SHARE:
    (By year of pro ect
           life)
$  478,000  [01]
$  857,000  [02]
$  400,000  [03]
DATE PROJECT START?):  July 1, 1970     DATE PROJECT ENDS:   June 30,  1973

OBJECTIVES:  To der.mstrate the feasibility of suspension firing prepared
refuse into a large utility boiler.

PROCEDURES:  Persomel from the City of St. Louis  conduct the  project
in collaboration with the Union Electric Company and the  consulting firm
of Homer and Shifrin, Inc.  An existing 125-meg£watt boiler belonging  to
the  Union Electric Company is outfitted for a full-scale test of the
process.  Four hundred tons of shredded refuse per day are  pnuematically
fired into this corner-fired, pulverized-coal boiler; the refuse accounts
for 10 percent of the total heat load of the boiler.  A separate facility
shreds the mixed municipal  refuse to a particle size of 1-1/2  inches  and
loads it into large vehicles for transfer to the powerplant.   At the  power-
plant the refuse is loaded  into a live bottom storage bin and, from there,
is pnuematically conveyed to the four firing nozzles.

The demonstration facility  is capable of supplying up to  20 percent of  the
total heat load (800 tons of refuse per day) of the boiler.
                                    32

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 denser materials by  air classification will reduce  the  erosion.

 Vie do not  fully under stand the market for this approach.   It  is

 attractive to the city because the net operating cost is  lower

 than the costs of its alternatives.  It  is not certain  that the

 electric utility receives an economic ber.efit that  suitably com-

 pensates for the investment and operating costs.  However, the

 public relations benefits appear to be worthwhile.

           Primary Fuel — Two heat recov iry techniques  that

 consume solid waste  as a primary fuel ar>j being developed.  In

 one system, Combustion power Company is  ittempting  to burn

 shredded waste in a  fluid bed incinerator and to use the  hot

 gases to drive a gas turbine/generator.  Turbine blade  erosion

 problems appear to be a significant technical problem.  The

 projected  costs exceed those of conventional incineration.

           Another method employs high te.nperature incinerators,

 operating  at 2700°F.  The technology and economics  of this

 approach have not been fully evaluated.

           Pyrolysis.  Pyrolysis is probably the most technically

 sophisticated of the resource recovery approaches.  It  is also

 one of the more promising for several reasons:  it  is environ-

 mentally sound; its  economics are attractive; and its products

 display strong market potentials.

           Pyrolysis  will produce minimal air pollutant  emissions

 because its very nature is to exclude air from its process.
                                    «•
Water pollution will be minimal because  secondary sewage  treat-

ment can adequately  handle the waste water stream.  The waste


                             33

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  volume going to a landfill will be dramatically reduced.  Only



  8 percent of the input solid waste will co to a landfill.



            The projected economics of pyrolysis are attractive



  because the revenues from recovery exceec  $5.50 per ton.  These



  are offset against the operating costs of about $11.  Thus, net



  operating cost is about $5.50 per ton for 1,000 ton/day.



            The products produced include ferrous and nonferrous



  metals, chars, end fuels—either fuel oi.'.s or gases.  The



  marketing problems of a gas are similar co those of steam



  production, that is, the product is not ^'ery transportable.



  Consequently, the customers must be located close to the



,  resource recovery facility.  Production of fuel oil does not



  have this limitation.  It can be stored and transported.  These



  characteristics increase its marketability significantly.



            Three pyrolysis-type resource recovery systems will



  be demonstrated under EPA resource recovery grants.  They are:



            San Diego County, California - fuel oil product



            Baltimore, Maryland - steam product



            New Castle County, Delaware - fuel gas and char



                                          product plus composting



                                          of organics



            Details of these systems are given in Tables 16



  through 18, respectively.
                               34

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                          TABLE 16

    SAN DIEGO COUNTY SOLID VASTS RESOURCE RECOVERY PROJECT


Grantee:  County of San Diego, California   Grant Mo. 801588

Project Director:  C. J. Houson
                   Director, Department of Sanitation
                     and Flood Control
                   5555 Overland Avenue
                   San Diego, California  92123

                   Telephone No. :  714/2", 8-9200
                                   Ext.  270

Principal  Contractor:   Garrett  Research  c.nd Development Corp.

EPA Project  Officer:   Davis  Bernstein
                       Telephone No.:   202/25^-6795

Budget Period.      Time Period       Total Cost   Federal Cost
Design & Bid   12/1772 to7/31/T3  ?   2/b,660   ~|122,244
Construction    8/1/73 to 11/30/74   2,856,277     2,304,693
Operation &
  Evaluation    ]2/1/74 to 11/30/75     867,773       535,773
                                     $0)12,710    $2,962,710
 Objective;
The principal objective of this project is to
demonstrate, with a full size plant, that municipal
sol:.d waste can be economically converted into a
stable fuel.
 Project Description:  The County of San Diego will build a 200
             ton per day solid waste recycling plant which will
             have as its key component the flash pyrolysis unit
             developed by the Garrett Research and Development
             Company,  Mixed municipal solid waste will be
             coarsely shredded and  air classified in order to
             separate the organic fraction.  This material is
             then dried  and  finely  shredded prior to flash
             pyrolysis at a  temperature  of about 900°P.   The
             inorganic fraction  is  further processed using mag-
             netic  separation  and  froth  flotation  in order to
             recover ferrous metals and  mixed-color glass cullet.
             The pyrolysis  process  will  convert  the organic  portion
              into an oil like  llciuid which  will  be  used as  a fuel
              in a utility boiler.   About 1.1  barrels  of oil  are
              recovered  from each ton of refuse.   All  told it is
             ' expected that the-plant-will- produce, between. $200,000
              and $300,000 worth of ..products annually.
                               35

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                                lA13Lh 17
            DEMONSTRATION OF A PYROLYSIS RESOURCE RECOVERY
                    SOLID WASTE MAlJAGEMErT SYSTEM
                                                Grant No. 801533
Grantee:  City of Baltimore, Maryland

Project Director:  Dr.  P. Pierce Linaweaver
                   Director of Public Works
                   600 Municipal Office Euil-ling
                   Baltimore/ Maryland  21202

                   Telephone No.:   301/752-2000
                                   Ext. 2861
Principal Contractor:  Monsanto Enviro-Chcm .Systems, Inc.

EPA Project Officer:  J. Robert Holloway
                      Telephone No. :   202/25-1-6795
Budget Period
Design &
 Construction
Operation &
 Evaluation
                   lime Period
Total Cost
                 1/1/73 to .9/30/74   $1M90,000

                10/1/74 to 9/30/75     1,827,000
Federal Cost

 $6,000,000

      0
                                     $16,317,000    $6,000,000
            The prir.cipal objective of this project is to demonstrate,
            on a large scale, that the energy and material resources
            v;hich exist in municipal solid waste can be converted -to
            economically useable forms without polluting the environ-
            ment.

Project Description:  The City of Baltimore will build a 1000 ton per
            dajT^'Landgard" Pyrolysis plant which has been developed
            by Monsanto Enviro-Chern. Systems, Inc.  Incoming wastes
            will be shredded and then fed to a single rotating kiln
            for pyrolysis.  Heat will be supplied by direct firing of
            fuel oil and by combusting a portion of the solid waste.
            The gas produced by the pyrolysis process will be burned
            in an afterburner and its heat recovered through a water
            tube boiler.   Steam generated in the boiler  will be sold
            to the Baltimore Gas and Electric Company for distribution
            through its existing steam utility line.  Ferrous metal
            and "glassy aggregate" will also be recovered from the
            residue..  The plant is expected to produce more than
            $1.5 million per year in revenues from the sale of steam
            and materials.
                                  36

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                           TABLE 18

                DELAWARE RECLAMATION PROJECT
Grantee:  State of Delaware
Project Director:
                                       Grant No.  801569
                   John C. Bryson
                   Director, Division of Environmental
                     Control
                   Department of Natural Resources and
                     Environmental Control .
                   Dover, Delaware  19901

                   Telephone No.:  302/678-4792

Principal Contractor:  Hercules, Inc.

EPA Project Officer:  Arch C. Scurlock, Tr.
                      Telephone No.:   202/25^-6795
Budget Period
Design
Construction
Operation &
  Evaluation
                    Tims Period
1/1/73 to
8/1/73 to
                          7/31/73
                          V30/7J1
                5/1/74 to V30/75
Total Cost
$"17400,000
 10,500,000

  13360,000
$1377507060
Federal Cost
~$916,560
  6,862,6^0

  1,220,800
 $9,000,000
Objective:  The principal objective of this project is to demon-
     strate, with a full size plant, tha; municipal solid waste,
     domestic sev,:age sludge and selected industrial wastes can
     be satisfactorily and economically separated into useable
     fractions of organic compostables, organic non-compostables,
     ferrous and. non-ferrous metals, glass cullet, and an inert,
     clean fill material, and that certain of these fractions can
     be further processed into fuel, fuel gases, carbon, oils and
     tars, and a marketable humus product.

Proj ect Description;  Hercules, Inc. under a "turn-key" contract
     to the State of Delav;are will build a 500 ton per day pro-
     cessing plant which will physically, chemically and biologi-
     cally convert solid wastes into useful products.   Incoming
     refuse will be shredded and then mechanically separated into
     a number of different waste streams.  Organic materials,
     including sewage sludge will be introduced into a mechanically
     driven, aerobic digester where they will be converted to com-
     post.  Combustibles not suited for composting will be pro-
     cessed through a pyrolysis reactor from which fuel gas and
     carbon char will be removed.  Ferrous and non-ferrous metals,
     as well as glass cullet will be recovered from various loca-
     tions within the plant.  The.plant is projected to produce
     310 tons per day of various products having a total market
     value of $'l,355.  This amounts to $8.70 per ton of waste
     processed.
                             37

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                      System Economics .



     Comparisons of system economics of the various resource



recovery systems discussed above are given in Tables 19 and 20.



As was noted earlier, all such systems operate at a net loss,



even when sale of recovered materials is taken into account.



However/ as showr in Table 20, the net disposal costs of such



systems are geneially less than incinerator systems without



recovery, and ir; somes cases, notably pymlysis systems with



fuel recovery, n< t costs are below landfi.;! costs when operated



at large tonnages per day, i.e., in large urban areas.



                         CONCLUSIONS



     My previous remarks can be summarized succinctly:



     A.  Resource; recovery is declining because of



         adverse economics.



     B.  There is; renewed interest in recovery because



         .of public pressures related to environmental



         quality and rising solid waste management costs.



     C.  Technology has been assembled and is being



         demonstrated.  The best possibilities are



         offered by energy recovery.



     D.  Real increases in materials recovery will require



         incentives of some kind.  However, energy



         recovery is likely to take place without



         incentives.
                             38

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TABLE 19
4 - '
SUMMARY OF SYSTEM ECONOMICS-'
••
System Investmen'-
Concept ($000)
Incineration
Only 9,299
Incineration
and Residue
Recovery 10,676
Incineration
and Steam
Recovery 11,607
Incineration
+ Steam and
Residue Re-
covery 12,784
Inmneration
j^. Electri-
cal Energy
Recovery 17,717
Pyre lysis 12,334
Composting
(Mechanical) 17,100

Materials
Recovery 11,568
Fuel Recovery "7,577

Sanitary
Landfill
(close-in) 2,472
i
Sanitary
Landfill
(remote) 2,817
Total
Annual Resource
Cost Value
($000) ($000)
2,303 0

2,689 535

3,116 1,000


3,508 1,535


3,892 1,200
3,287 1,661
2,987 1,103

2,759 1,328
1,731 920


770 0


1,781 0
f
abased on municipally-owned 10QO-TPD plant
^Wtife, operating 300 days/year.
Source :

Net
Annual.
Cost
($000)
2,303

2,154
•
2,116


1,973


2,692
1,626
1,884

1,431
811


770


1,781
with 20-year


Net Cost
Per Input
Ton ($)
7.68 •

7.18

7.05


6.57


8.97
5.42
6.28

4.77
2.70


2.57


5.94
economic

Midwest Research Institute.

39
,.....'«*..,
••yir*^""-" "'• *. -* ** " ' "f

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                       NET DISPOSAL COST ($/TON)
8
I
H
i*
O
to
g

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     E.  Intervention to increase recovery is justifiable



         on the grounds of environmental protection, and



         solid waste cost reduction.



     EPA's effort to increase resource r«;covery is directed at



two areas:  economic incentives and technical development.



Economics are important because we must riake secondary materials



more competitive with virgin materials.
                            41

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                                       IX
                 SOLID WASTE PROCESSING AND DISPOSAL TECHNOLOGY
                              IN THE UNITED STATES
\
                         This pr es entat ion va s pr epa red
                           by WALTER W. LIBERICK, Jr.
                for Th:) First U.S.—Japan Governmental Conference
                            on So lid Waste Managemei it
                         Tokyo, January 29 and 50, 1973
                     U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PP.OTECTION AGENCY

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      SOLID WASTE PROCESSING AND DISPOSAL TECHNOLOGY
                  IN THE UNITED STATES
                by Walter W. Liberick, Jr.
              Municipal Solid Waste Disposal
SOLID WASTE CHARACTERISTICS.  In order to discuss current
collection, prccessing, and disposal practices, let me
describe the virious types and characteristics of the solid
wastes handled in the United States.  Trie term solid waste
itself includes garbage, refuse, and other discarded solid
materials resulting from industrial, commercial, and
agricultural operations and from community activities.  At
present, our concept of solid wastes does not include water- .
borne solids, dissolved material in domestic sewage, or other
significant pollutants in wastewater effluents or water
resources.  In the United States solid wastes are normally
identified by their source of generation (Table 1).  Others
are classified by other properties of the material:  combustible
and noncombustible, when speaking of thermal processes, hazardous
and nonhazardous, when speaking of potential acute effects if
improperly handled.
     Municipal solid waste is the major responsibility of the
local governmental agency.  This is the type of waste usually
meant when municipal collection and'disposal services are
     *Mr. Liberick is Chief, Disposal Technology Branch,
Processing and Disposal Division, Office of Solid Waste
Management Programs, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,

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                          TABLE 1
         Kind or
         Chorocter
                       CLASSIFICATION OF REFUSE MAT-RIALS
Composition or Nature
                                                Origin or Source
•
Garbage
Rubbish
or
Mixed Refuse
Ashes
Bulky
V/astes
Street
refuse
Dead
animals
Abandoned
vehicles
Construction
& Demolition
waitcs
Industrial
refuse
Special
.vosles
Animal and
Agricultural
wastes
Sewage
ffeotmenf
residues
VVoitcJ From the preparation, cooking, and
serving of food.
Market refuse, waste from the handling,
itorcgc, end sole of produce ond meats
Combustible
(primarily
organic)
Noncombustible
(primarily
inorganic)
Paper, cordt-oard, cartons
Wood, boxe:., excelsior
Plastics
Kogs, cloth, bedding
Leather, rubber
Grcss, leavns, yard trirnrni igs
Metoli, tin cans, metal :oi Is
Dirt
Stones, bricks, ceramics,
crockery
Gloss, bottles
Other mineral refuse
Residue from fires u«d for coiking, heating
buildir-gs, incinerators, etc.
Large oufo ports, tires
Stoves, refrigerators, other large appliances
Furniture, lorge crates
Trees, branches, palm fronds, stumps, flo'oge
Street sweepings, dirt
Leaves
Colch bosin dirt
Contents of titlcr receptacles
Small animals: cots, dogs, poultry, etc.
Lcrge animals: rxjrscs, cows, etc.
Automobiles, trucks
Lumber, roofiivj, and sheathing scraps
Rubble, broken concrete, piaster, etc.
Conduit, pipe, wire, irsulation, etc.
Solid wosfcs resulting from industrial
processes ond mcnufocfurirvj operations,
such OS: food-processing wastes, boiler
house cinders, wood, plastic, ond metcl
icronl ond shovinns, etc.
Hozordous wostcsr pclfiologieal wosfes,
explosives, rodiooclive materials
Security wastes: confidential documents,
negotiable papers, etc.
Manures, crop residues
Coarse screenings, grit, septic rank iludge,
dewotered sludge
From:
households,
institutions,
and commercial
concerns such
as:
hotels,
stores,
restaurant*,
market;, etc.
From:
streets,
sidewalks,
alleys,
vacant lol», etc.
from:
factories,
power plants,
etc.
Households, •
hospitals,
institutions,
stores,
induslry, etc.
Farms,
feed lots
Sewoge treat-
ment plants,
srptic tanks
Source:   Committee on Solid Waste,  American  Public Works
          Association.  Refuse Collection Practices. 3d  ed.
          Chicago,  Public Administration Service, 1966.  p.15

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discussed.  Mimicipal solid waste usually means residential



and commercial solid wastes generated vdthin a community.



Typical composition ranges of municipal solid wastes have



been compiled  :rom a survey of 21 U.S. cities (Table 2).



In the biological and thermal processes, it is necessary to



know other physical and chemical characteristics (Table 3).



Similar characteristics affect the bio'ogical processes.



Characteristic; of other wastes such s.i  agricultural,



industrial, de-.iolition, bulky, etc., ai e more difficult to



generalize.  Each is very specific as to its point of



generation, thtj process from which it criginates, quantity,



and quality.  Unfortunately, these are the wastes that



probably most affect the efficiencies cf solid waste manage-



ment systems by presenting special handling and disposal



requirements.

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                     TABLE 2

      Range in Composition of Residential
         Solid Waste in  21 U.S. Cities*
Component
Food vaste
Garden waste
Paper p.roducts
Metals
Glass a. id Ceramics
Plastics, rubber,
and leather
Textile 3
Wood
Rock, cILrt, ash, etc.
"Percent T.cSoi
Low
0.8
0.3
13.0
6.6
3.7

1.6
1.4
0.4
0.2
J.igh
:;6.o
53.3
62.0
14.5
;:3.2

5.8
7.8
7.5
12.5
Dsifcion "by wet "weight
Average
18.2
7.9
43.8
9.1
9.0

3.0
2.7
2.5
3.7
*Unpublished data.   Values were  determined from
 data taken at  21  cities  in continental United States
 between  1966 and  1969.
                    TABLE 3

    Physical and  Chemical Characteristics
            Incinerator Solid Waste*
Constituents
Proximate analysis

Moisture
Volatile matter
Fixed carbon
Noncombustibles

Ultiraate anajly sis

Moisture
Carbon
Oxygen
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Sulfur
Noncombustibles

Higher heating value
Percent by weight  (as received)
        15-35
        50-65
         3-9
        15-25
        15-35
        15-30
        12-24
         2-5
       0.2-1.0
      0.02-0.1
        15-25
Btu per Ib (as received)
      3,000-6,000
*rrincipally residential-commercial vaste excluding bulky
 waste.

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IM3IMERATIGN
        Incineration Is a major method of solid waste processing



in the United States.  It is estimated that approximately 16 million



tons of nunici{-al solid waste were processec last year in 193



conventional municipal incinerators.  However, as indicated



previously, 73;: of these facilities do not rset minirnum criteria



for cnvironmeni ally acceptable practices.  The major area of



concern is the air pollution aspects of the discharge of these



thermal processes.  The information presented here is the



current state of the art of incineration in the United States.



        Incineiation is a controlled combustion process that



converts solid,  liquid, or gaseous combustible wastes into gases



and into a residue containing little or no c Dnibustible material.



If an incinerator is properly designed and operated, its advantages



can be numerous.  Its   rajor benefit is realized when it is



centrally located so that collection costs are reduced.  1ms



cost re-auction results from the shorter haul for collection crews



to a discharge point, thereby allowing more route time for the



expensive labor-oriented collection process.  These cost savings



must be -considered when evaluating the feasibility of incineration



for a specific solid waste management system.   Others claim that



incineration can be justified on its volume reduction function



and the lack of land for sanitary landfill within an economical



haul, distance.   Some disadvantages are its high initial capital

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investment, operating costs, and the requirement for skilled
labor to operate and maintain the facility.  Another often
overlooked disadvantage is the need to also have access to a
sanitary landfill for the residue and the materials that
cannot be handled by the incinerator.
        Accurate basic data are needed to siccessfully
determine the feasibility of this process erd to design the
facility to meet all the criteria of an economical, environ-
mentally acceptable process.  Normally this information does
not exist so special studies are needed.  Irformation needed
includes such things as population projections and densities;
nurrber, type, size, and location of industries and commercial
establishments; quantities £nd characteristics of solid v;astes
being generated; and the identification of those that will be
accepted by the facility.  Another important factor is the
identification of all the regulations that apply.  These'
regulations are intended to protect the quality of the environ-
ment and the health and safety of the operators.   Usually
included ore air and water quality standards, zoning, building
and electrical code stipulations, and occupational health,
safety, and sanitary regulations.  Care rr.ust be taken to
identify all local, State, and Federal regulations.
        Proper location of the facility increases acceptance
by the public and, as mentioned before, facilitates cost savings
in the collection aspects of solid waste'management,  A well-
designed facility increases efficiencies of operations.
                                 6

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Proper selection of building materials.and building design
increases its acceptance as a good neighbor and enhances
housekeeping and maintenance.
        Public acceptance is a key item in successfully
utilizing the incineration process in a solid waste manage-
ment system.  A ^ew considerations for gaining public
acceptance are:
        1.  Choo;e a site where the facility  'its in
        v/ith the existing neighborhood character.
       Usually  industrial or connercial are; :s. are
        more compatible than residential'area:-.  "
        2.  Avoid sites that may cause probler:-s with
        other public facilities.  Noise and Ir'.ghts
        probably would not be acceptable next to a
        hospital.   High traffic flows make a site next
        to a school undesirable.
        3.  V.here conflict is unavoidable, architectural
        design and screening can assist in gaining
        acceptability.
        ^.  Maintain an effective public relations
        program.  Beginning with the planning phase,
        make known tlffough the press and public
        meetings the site location, rationale for
        incineration, and progress of project.

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        Some physical conditions that are important in design



and site consideration are:  foundation conditions, topography,



availability of utilities, building restrictions, drainage, and



meteorologic c editions.  Soil and rock det ;mine foundation



requirements.  Topography and neteorological condition control



plant layout a icl influence dispersion of c-f luent gases.  Proper



utilities are  lecessary to adequately operate the facility.



       Other considerations are  the traffic conditions that



exist and the  influence the facility will hive on the area.



A facility of  ;his type naturally increases truck traffic



around its loo ition.  Provisions should be rade so that access



is available without disrupting nonral'traffic patterns in the



•area.  Special consideration also must be p/.ven to traffic



impediments, rixh as bridges with lov; weight limits, restrictive



heights of ove.'•passes, and narrov; pavements. Care should also



be taken that solid waste vehicles reaching the site and waiting



to dunp do no'; have to line up on the surrounding streets.  Any



accumulation o:!* such vehicles should be accommodated on site.



        Once ';he designer of a solid waste disposal system has



decided to utilize an incineration process, has collected the



necessary data, and has located the proper site, he rrust design



the facility with the necessary appurtenances.  Ihe facility can te



broken down into the following functional components:  receiving



and handling; furnaces and appurtenances; and effluents and .



their controls.

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        Tne first functional part of an Incinerator to be
                                      •»

discussed is the receiving and handling area to include all the



facilities and equipment needed to accept, store, and feed the



solid wastes t> the furnace(s).



        Weighing facilities are a key item Jn any incinerator



facility.  Accirate weight records are utilized to improve



operation, to jrrprove management control, tc assist planning,



and to equitatOy assess any user fees impose 3.  Normally permanent



platform scalet are utilized to gather this information, and many



variation are £ variable to record the data,  Ihese include



individual manual recordings made by an employee to devices



attached to the scales to transmit reading directly to automatic



data processing equipment (computers).



        Qr.ce t-h) delivery vehicles have been weighed,they proceed



to the tipping; ;rea.  Tnis area should be large enough to accom-



modate all the rises and types of delivery vehicles utilizing



the facility.  Ohe traffic patterns.should be clearly marked to


facilitate the unloading of the delivery vehicles in a safe and



efficient iranner.  Ihe floor of this area should be designed to



withstand heavy leads and should slope away from the storage



area or pit.



        Floor storage is generally used at small installations


and storage pits are used at larger ones.   Regardless  of the type



used, they should be large enough to assure 24-hour operation as



well as time for maintenance.   Storage pits are usually  designed


for 1.5 times the 24-hour capacity of the incinerator.

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        Solid wastes are charged into the furnaces by several



moans.  Snail installations utilize wheeled front-end loaders,



vibrating hoppers and conveyors, or other mechanical means.



Larger installations usually utilize overhead cranes of the



monorail or bridge type.  Tne size and type of crane selected



is a function o!" incinerator capacity.



        In a baj;ch-fed furnace, the hopper is; separated from



the furnace by .i gate.  While a "batch" of solid waste is being



incinerated in  ;he furnace the hopper is beiig refilled for the



next charging o." the furnace.  This is acccrcplished by opening



the gate which allows the solid waste to drop into the combustion



area of the furnace.  Tnis process is repeated in a cycle time



that is adequate for complete corJbustion of f;ach "batch".  In a



continuous feed hopper the solid waste is fed uninterruptedly



into the hopper and the corrbusticn chamber of the furnace; this



allows the waste to serve as an air seal on the charing end of



the furnace.



        The second functional part of an incinerator to be



discussed is the furnace itself.  The follovdng types of furnaces



are commonly utilized to incinerate municipal wastes:  vertical



circular, multicell rectangular, rectangular, and rotary kiln.



Most designs are based on a heat release rate of approximately



18,000 Btu per cubic feet of furnace volume per hour, but rates



of 12,?00 to 25,000 Btu per cubic foot per hour have been



utilize'd.
                                 10

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        The vertical  circular furnace Is usually refractory-lined and
batch  fed, has a cone type grate over a circular grate,  and
utilizes  forced ur.derfire air for  combustior and to cool the
grates.   Although many of these types of installations are  in
use it is an old design and many such installations are  being
phased out.
        The multlcell rectangular  type, alsc called the  mutual
assistance furr3.ce,  contains   two  or  more alls set side by side-
they may  be refractory lined  or vater coolec .  The  furnace  is
batch  fed, utilizes rectangular grates and 1-as a common  secondary
combustion charr.cer and a comr.on residue disposal hopper.  •
        The rectangular furnace is the type most commonly utilized
in new faciliti2s.  It is continuously fed end usually has  two or
more grates arranged so that  the wastes drcf from one level to
the next,  agitating the ir.aterial.  Different types of grate  systems
are employed.
        The rotary kiln furnace consists of a rectangular furnace
where initial combustion takes place in a reotangular type
furnace followed by a refractory lined rotating cylinder where
additional combustion takes place.   This is followed by final
combustion of the gases and suspended combustibles  in a mixing
chamber.
        All of these designs are dependent on grate systems which
hold and/or transport the. materials through the furnaces.  These
are connonly referred to as drying, ignition, and combustion  grates.
                                11

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They are also classified by their mechanical makeup: traveling,



reciprocating, rocking, rotary kiln, circular, vibrating,



oscillating, and reverse recipricating grates; multiple rotating



drums; rotating cones v;ith arms; and other \ariaticns of the



above.  Traveling, reciprocating, roclciag rotary kiln, and



circular £rates are the most widely used in the United States.



        T.UI-CY temperature, and turbulence ars the main parameters



affecting the i icineration process.  The meet efficient incin-



erators are these that optimise these parade bers for the



materials they Deceive.  For a material to turn, all moisture



must be driven from it.  Different designs accomplish this in



different ways; some use preheated air, some use reflective arches,



Once the moisture is gone, the material mast te raised to its



ignition temperature.  This takes place furtier in the furnace



where high temperatures are maintained.  Ccirnon temperature



profiles are:  intake air-ambient temperature; combustion air



preheated  (200 to 300 F);   burrdjig gases in the combustion



chamber  (2,100 to 2,500 F); gas temperatures at exit of



combustion chamber  (1,400 to 1,800 F);   and entrance to



stack  (1,000 F).  V.nen air pollution control devices are used



the gases should be cooled to 500 F to 700 F before they enter



such equipment.



        Three basic /r.ethods utilized to control furnace and



flue gas temperatures are the use of excess air, water evap-



oration, and heat exchange.  Excess air cools and -mixes the
                                 12

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hot gases through a dilution process.  'Water injection into the
hot gas streans cools the gas through  the evaporation of the
water and the h;at absorption during the super heating of the
water vapors.   Ihis is used en flue gases bu; not generally used
in cooling the  furnace.  Heat exchange, although not coinmon in
the United Statis, is  receiving increasing  attention.  Heat recovery
and utilization can  offset sorne of the expenses of the incineration
process.
     Another important consideration is the  lefractory lining.
Most refractories are composed of alumina, magnesia,
and silica.  Cti^er materials such as chromite or zircon combined
v;ith kaolin have been used.  All are classified according to their
physical and ch?rrdcal properties.  They are jsually  precast as
bricks and held in place with air setting or thermal setting
mortars.  Refraotories that expand in  all directions require
expansion joints to prevent cracking or structural failure. The
primary combustion zone is the location of most refractory
maintenance.  Hie things that affect refractories most are
excessively high teioperaturcs, flame impingement, thermal shock,
slagging, spalling, abrasion, and erosion.
        The third functional part of an incinerator is its
effluent control equipment.  Improper  design and operation of
an incinerator can pollute air, water, and land.  An increase
in the enforcement of strict regulations on air-and water
pollution at all levels of Government  requires an upgrading
                                13

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of the incinerator process to protect the environment.   Items to be
discussed are odor, dust and litter, fly ash, process water,  and
stack emissions.
      Odor, dust, and litter are basically scheduling and housekeeping.
If highly prutresible wastes are processed as soon as possible,  odor
problems can be avoided.  In case a major breakdown occurs, provisions
should be made for removal of unprocessed wastes to an  alternate
disposal facility.  Dust, which can be a problem in the dumping  and
charging area, can be controlled by water sprays, but minimum amounts
of water should be used; otherwise incineration efficiencies  will be
affected.  Litter is strictly a housekeeping function,  and the
operating plan should provide for manpower necessary to keep  the
plant and site litter-free.
      Fly ash is a byproduct of the incineration process.   Fly ash
includes ash, cinder, mineral dust, and soot, plus charred paper
and other partislly burned materials.   Most particles range in
size from 120 to less than 5 microns.   The inorganic fraction is
usually the major constituent and consists mostly of oxides of
silicon, aluminum, calcium, and iron.   Care must be take in the
handling and disposal of these materials to avoid dust  problem and
leaching of water soluble components.
      Almost all incinerators utilize water for quenching residue.
In addition, some plants use water for wet bottom expansion
chambers, for cooling charging chutes, for sluicing fly ash
                                14

-------
for conveying residue,  and for air pollution control.
 Ihe quantity depends on plant design, efficiency of operation,
 and whether water  is recirculated.  One  study of a 300-ton-per-
 day plant showed a requirement of approximately 2,000 gallons
 per ton of solJd waste  processed  without recirculation, and
approximately 5>5 gallons-per ton  with water
 recirculation.   As a rule  of thumb, a plant that does not
 recirculatc th >  water it uses for residue qi enching and ash
 conveying will need 1,000  to 2,000 gallons  <•£ water per ton o£ solid
 waste processed.   Studies  have shown that incineration process
 water contains suspended solids,  inorganic  materials in solution,
 and organic ma ;erials that contribute to biochemical and chemical  .
 oxygen  demand 'Table !l).   If the  waste process waters cannot be* ••
 discharged to i  sanitary sewer, the incinerator plant should •
 be equipped v;l;h suitable  means for primary clarification, pH
 adjustment, and, if necessary, biological treatment to meet
 local standards.
         Air pollution control has been identified as a major
 problem in the incineration process.  Particulate material and
 gaseous emissions  are the  effluents of most concern.
         Important  properties of participate matter from the
 standpoint of control are  quantities, particle-size distribution,
 specific gravity,  electricity resistivity,  and chemical conposition.
 Values  of from 10  to 60 pounds of fly ash per ton of solid wastes
 processed have been reported.  Particle  size distribution and
                                 15

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specific gravity of this material determine the level of



sophistication of air pollution control equipment required



to meet stack emission requirements.   Normally particles of



larger size anc higher specific gravity can oe collected in



simple inertia] devices, such as settling chambers and



cyclones.  Fine light materials require more sophisticated



devices, such ts high-energy v;et scrubbing, fabric filtration,



or electrostatic precipitation.  Typical emissions,  from three



continuous-fee*i refractory plants have been compared (Table 5).



                             TABLE 5



          Prope-rties  of  Partlculates  Leaving  Furnace
Physical analysis
Specific gravity
(gm/cc)
Bulk density (Ib/cf)
Loss ol j.nnition. at
750 C CO
Size distribution
(% by v;cight)
< 2 p
< 4 p
< 6 it
< 8 u
< 10 'p
< 15 p
< 20 p
< 30 p
Installation
1
(250 TPD)

2.65
-

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13.5
16.0
19.0
21.0
23.0
25.0
27.5
30,0
2
(250 TPD)

2.70
30.87

8.15

I
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19.2
22.3
24.8
26.8
31.1
34.6
40.4
3
120 TPD)

3.77
9.4

30.4


23.5
30.0
33.7
36.3
38.1
42.1
45.0
50.0
                                18

-------
Electrical resistivity is of interest when electrostatic

precipitators are considered for participate  collection.

Ohe optimum range for efficient  operation lies  between 10 ^

and 10   Olft-CK.  lypical resitivity  temperature  curves of

entrained parti:oilates leaving large  continuous-feed,

refractory-line 3 furnace incinerators are  shx-.n in Figure 1,

                            FIGURE 1
                   K>V
                     O   100  200  300 
-------
        Next for consideration are the gaseous conbustion

products.  Over !-)9 percent of flue gases are carbon dioxide,

oxygen, nitrogen, and v,:ater vapor.  But these are not considered

air pollutants.  However, trace gases present in the effluent

can cause air pollution either because of. their odor; their

direct effect or. plants, anlrrals, and property; or their inter-

actions v;ith components of the ambient air that lead to the

formation of uncesirable secondary compounds.  There are seven  •

gas  emissions o: concern  [Table 6).

                             TABLE 6

         TRACK CAS CONSTITUENTS IN INCINERATOR EFFLUENT
Gaseous emissions
     (Ib/ton)
Al
Aldehydes
Sulfur oxides
Hydrocarbonst
Organic acids;;;
Carbon nonoxide
Nitrogen oxides
Ainraonia
Typical municipal
   solid waste*

  23.6 X 10~4

   0.8

   0.51.
   2.7
Mostly branches and
 twigs (no garbage)

       1.1
       1.9
       1.4
       0.6

       2.1
       0.3
^Typical municipal solid v:aste: Converted from reported units
in pounds per 1,000 Ib flue gas at 50 percent excess air to
pounds per ton solid waste based on "typical refuse", as
established by Kaiser.
   tHydrocarbcn expressed as methane.
   tOrganic acids expressed as acetic acid.
                                20

-------
      After the potentially troublesome emission components are



identified, the objectives of mission control must be established.



Some objectives are legally enforceable as standards and others are



established as criteria.  The most prevalent emission standard



covering municipal solid waste incineration is in the regulation of



particulates  (Table 7).  Other contaminants j.re below present or



anticipated criteria.



      Knowing vhat standards must be met, wh^t types of materials



are to be accented, and what subsequent emis ;ions will be, one must



evaluate  available control devices and exanune their relative



efficiencies.  Because particulate emissions are clearly regulated,



this discussior will emphasize those devices directed at particulate



control.  Some cost data based on plants in ';he 150-to-200 ton-per-



day range are presented.



      The oldest and simplest form of particulate collection is the



dry or wet bottom settling chamber.  These systems have an efficiency



of from 10 to IS percent by weight.  This concept by itself is



becoming obsolete because it cannot meet emission standards.



     Another device, the wetted baffle-spray system, has shown



efficiencies of from 10 to 53 percent by weight.  These systems



have been used in half of the incinerators installed since 1957.



Their installed cost is approximately $.02 to $0.04 per cubic foot



per minute of gas at the collector inlet temperature of 1,800 F.



These systems by themselves are not capable of meeting existing



emission standai'ds.
                                   21
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        Cyclones and multiple cyclones have been used in 20



percent of the i.unicipal incinerators built since 1957.



Unpublished dat-i indicate efficiencies in the range of 60 to



65 percent by weight.  Installation costs arc; in the range



of $0.12 to $0.25 per cubic foot per minute of gas treated.



These installations have approached meeting emission standards.



        Another 20 percent of the municipal, incinerators built



since 1957 have used wet scrubbers.  "They differ from wetted



baffle collectors principally in that captura of the participate



is accomplished by direct contact with sprayed water droplets



rather than impact on a wetted surface.  These systems possess



the potential efficiencies of 9^ to 96 percent by weight.



Because they operate below the dew point of nany trace corrosive



constituents ir incinerator flue gases, wet scrubbers systems



require corrosion-proof construction.  Costs range from $0.25



to $1.25 per cubic foot per minute of gas treated.  This system



is being utilized to meet existing emission standards.



        Electrostatic precipitators operate on the principal of



charging.the particulate and collecting it on an oppositely



charged electrode.  The electrical properties of the particulates,



moisture content of the gas stream, and teirperature of the gas



stream affect the precipitation operation.  Corrosion can be a



problem in this device.  Efficiencies of from 96 to 99-6 percent



by weight have been achieved.  Electrical power requirements



range frcri 200 to JIOO watts per 1,000 cubic feet per minute of



gas treated.  Inlet temperatures are usually in the range of



                                23

-------
305 F to 700 F.  Costs range from' $0.85-to $1.^5 per cubic  foot

per minute of gas treated.  This system has been utilized to

meet existing emission standards.

        Frabic filters literally filter suspended particulates

from the cas str-eam.  Efficiencies in other applications have

been shov.n to b.-.- 99 plus percent by weight.  Their utilization

is always based on considerations regarding temperature, moisture

content of the :;as stream, pressure drop characteristics of

filter iredia, and the service life of the filter medium.  Fabric

such as fiber glass and high-tenperature syrthetics are avail-

able for continuous operating temperatures cf 550 F.  If treated

fiberglass bags are used, costs for this system are in the  range

of $0.75 to $1.50 per cubic foot per minute of gas treated.

This system is not extensively used at this time.

        In surnn-ary, Tables 8 and 9 indicate collection efficiencies

required to meet various emission standards and the iraxir.um demon-

strated capability of various collectors.

	TABLE 8	

             COLLECTION EFFICIENCY REQUIRED TO MEET
                 VARIOUS EMISSION LIMITATIONS*
       Code requirement
(Ib particulate/1,000 Ib flue gas

O.S5f/l, 000-7 @ 50% excess air
0.650/1,0003 (3 50% excess air
0.20f-/3,000:/ Q 507, excess air
Approximate % efficiency*
     to meet code

          74
          80
          94
*Bascd on 32 Ib of fly ash per ton of solid waste charged
entering the collector.
                                24

-------
                             TABLE 9  '

               MAXUiUM DEMONSTRATED CAPABILITY OF
                      VARIOUS COLLECTORS
Type of Collector


Settling chambers
Wetted baffles
Cyclone collectors
Direct impacticn scrubbers
  (wet "'scrubber;;)
Electrostatic precipitators
Bag filters
Maximum demonstrated
   efficiency (%)
        34
        53
       70-80

       94-96
        99
        99+
        The fir.il item for discussion of incineration of'municipal

solid waste is that of costs with an identification of what items

are included in owning and operating an incinerator facility.

Major construction items include the building, ramps, tipping

area, storage pit, hoppers, offices, errploys'2 facilities, piping

and chimney.  Ksjor equipment costs include scales, cranes,

furnaces, blowers, air pollution control devices, process water

treatment, residue removal systems, instrumentation, and flue

and duct equipment.  Miscellaneous items include site preparation,

roadways and sidewalks, landscaping and seedings, furniture and

fixtures, machine shop equipment, and tools.  Operating costs

include; labor-salaries, vacation and holiday pay, sick and

injury pay, training, fringe benefits, and pensions; utilities—

water, electricity, gas or fuel oil; miscellaneous— materials

and supplies, contract work; overhead - management; and owner-

ship costs - depreciation and interest for planning purposes	
                                25

-------
Current estimates indicate an average cost of $10,000 per ton
                                            «r>
of daily capacity can be expected for capital expenditures

(10 to 20 percent for air pollution control equipment) and

operating expenses of $5-00 to $15-00 per ten of solid waste

processed.

        Several advanced thermal processing systems are in

the research, 
-------
ignited by a pilot burner and secondary .air is Injected into



a tangential opening downstream from the material entrance.



Ash p-cirticles are scooped off the incinerator's rear wall and



guided into a c/clone separator where they sre collected for



disposal.



        Electricity generation utilizing municipal solid waste



as a fuel is also being investigated.  The t-/o concepts being



investigated bosh use shredded municipal solid wastes as fuel.



One system (CFu-'lOO) utilizes corbustion gasss to drive



turbines.  The :thcr uses shredded solid waste as a supple-



mental fuel in a coal fired boiler (10 perceit solid waste).



        Pyrolysis is another concept ercergir5 as a technically



economically} and environmentally ac^eptablj  process.



        None of these process has been in Deration long enough



to produce sufficient data to make an economical, environmental,



or technical evaluation of the concepts.
                                27

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 BALD:G                       .



        Baling is the process  of applying pressure to loose,



 compressible iraterials within  an enclosure and binding the



 compacted rass v:nile it is in  a  confined  conoition. Application



 of this technology in the United States has been limited  to two



 full-scale operations; San Diego, California: and Minneapolis-



 St. Paul, FinnoEota.  As requirements are fuj-ther defined for



 increased densS 1 ies of solid v:aste such as a- >e desirable  for



 rail transfer  o.1 other high-pay  loads, this ".echnology will



 need to be expai.ded.  Some claim that the saving in landfill



 space alone justifies the added  costs incurred, but this



 premise cannot be evaluated until more opera ;ing experience



 and associated oconcrnic analyses have taken olace.  The



 infcrr.aticn presented here represents claim-si results  from



 the two facilities previously  identified.



        The San Diego, California, facility consists of a  combined



 shredding and  baling facility.   A feasibility study recommended



 that this combination be utilised to get maximum compaction with



 the baler chosen.  Both the shredder and  the baler have been



 designed and irass produced for purposes other than processing



 municipal solid waste.  The facility is designed to process



 150 tons of such waste in one six-hour working shift.  The



 pretreatment provided by a hamnermill yields a material with a



max imam of five-inch particle size.  The baler is a heavy-duty,



continuous, horizontal type that can bale a minimum of 25 tons
                                28

-------
an hour at an e,verage density of greater than 65 pounds per



cubic foot.  Binding is required to maintain the integrity



of the bales.  Tnis process is estimated to cost $2.80 per



ton of municipil solid waste.  The bales are then trucked



to a sanitary Dandfill.



        Tne Miineapol5s-St. Paul facility ccnsists of a



high-density, 1 hree-stage, hydraulic baler.  Tne initial



stroke which i:. made horizontally, gathers the charged



solid waste in.o the tamping chamber.  The lam face then



becomes one of the sides of the compression ehairJber.  The



second stroke :.s a vertical one, and the ran: face compresses



the material irto a chamber (36" x 35" x 70").  The ram



face becomes the top of the chamber.  Ihe trird conpression



stroke operate: • horizontally and at right angles to the first



two rains.  It ccm-presses the material into the final bale



size of 36" x 56" x a variable length (approximately 48" to



5^"),  Tni:; length is dependent on the quantity and charac-



teristic or the materials charged.  The last stroke is held



against the compressed vraste for eight seconds to destroy the



"memory" characteristics of the baled materials.  At this



pressure the bales do net require binding to maintain their



integrity.  Cycle time is 90 seconds, the ram face pressure



is approximately 2800 pounds per square inch, and a density



of 60 to 70 pounds per cubic foot is claimed to be achieved.



Because this installation is privately owned no detailed cost



figures for its operation are known.






                                    29
                                          ... . ..	IL_.	

-------
 SIZE REDUCTION         _ .    .     '   .  .  .  -



        Size reduction is defined as processing which reduces



 the  size of in fluent irate-rials by separating them into two or



 more sub unit:5   Applications of  this  process in the solid waste



 processing field have been very limited.  However, demands for



 a more hor.ccencus raterial for special fuel requirement in new



 applications ol thermo processes  and resourc? recovery separation



 systems have necessitated an increased interest in size reduction



 equipment.  Othar applications such  as processing bulky wastes



 so that they ocn be handled by conventional disposal systems



 and  processing lormal waste to chang'2  its physical condition  so



 that it can be disposed of in special  land disposal sites



without daily c Tver have also necessitated further investigation



 of size reduction technology.  The following information represents



the  current sta -e of the art in size reduction of municipal solid



wastes.                            .    .  •



        There are ten basic types of size reduction equipment



available; crushers, cage disintegrators, shears, shredders,



cutters and chippers, rasp mills, drum pulverizers, disk mills,



wet pujpers-, and hairmsrmilis.  Currently,.only hammermills and



wet pulpers are being utilized in processing municipal solid



waste.



        Crushers are normally relatively slow-speed devices that



apply coirpression forces to process friable materials, such as
                                30

-------
rock and coal.  Although not used now there may be limited



potential for utilization for bulky and demolition v.'astes.



        Cage disintegrators use high-speed contrarotating



cages to fragment input raterials.  This equipment is



usually only effective with brittle input material.  This



limits its use with mixed municipal solid waste but it rray



have sane application as a secondary processing device to



reduce the size of brittle materials segregated by a resource



recovery system



        Shears are single cut devices vMch have been utilized



on bulky wastes, such as automobile bodies.  Their projected



application is in a pretreatment stage for ruterials too large



for other size -.-eduction equipment to handle.



        Cutters and chippers are usually of two types, those



that pierce and tear or those that cut the input materials.



(The cutting type is ccnrr.only used to process paper or cardboard),



Neither of the types now being manufactured is suitable for



processing mixed municipal solid waste becax:se they are subject



to excessive wear,  large chippers, such as those used to



handle brush, nay have some application but their through-put



capacity is usually small.



        A mill is a large cylindrical machine having a bottom



grate fitted with openings and rasping pins.  A rotor forces



the wastes over the pins and through the outlet holes.  These



machines have been utilized in composting plants and have
                                31

-------
effectively processed municipal solid vaste.  Bulky items and



other itenvo not easily "torn" are rejected.  None of these



irachir.es is currently being used.



        A drum 'pulverizer is a rasp mill with a rotating grate.



The utilization of such ir^chines in lojnicipa] solid waste pro-



cessing is considered to be limited.



        Disk nd'-.ls process materials by tearjng then between two



flat surfaces rotating at high speeds.  Tney are limited by the



size of the inpit material (less than two inches), and this will



restrict their use to secondary size reduction after pretreatment



of the solid war.tcs.



        Wet pulpers process materials by introducing them into



a v;ater slurry <;hat has a high-speed water vortex.  Ihe materials



are held in suspension in the vortex and repeatedly Impact on



bars attached to the inside cf the pulper.  Vet pulpers are very



suitable for wastes containing fibrous mterials and their



application so _'ar has been prlirarily in fiber recovery processes.



        Hanirermills are the most frequently used devices employed



in municipal solid waste processing.  They vary in size from the



laboratory model to those that are large enough to accept



autcnvobile bodies.  A hamnerrnill consists of a rotating shaft



with protruding "harnDers" enclosed in a heavy casing.  Sometimes



fixed plates or bars are irounted on "he interior of the casing.



When the waste raterials are fed into the device, they are



shredded until they are srrall enough to-'exit through discharge
                                32
                                            •• -gar

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openings in the bottom.  All but one de'sign have horizontal
shafts.  In the vertical-shaft configuration, the enclosure
decreases in cross-sectional area from top to the bottom
resulting in progressive size reduction.
        Since 1965 the Office of Solid V.'aste Fanagernent
Programs has sicported a number of demonstration grants or
pilot projects involving size—reduction equipment.  On the
basis of the oj erating experience gained v;e relieve that
size reduction of solid waste is within the capability of.
the current stcte of the art.  Some con:r;on problems of all
installations zre:
        1.  Materials handling seems to be x;he major
        difficulty in operating the irachiner- at optimal
        levels because they can process larger volumes
        at higi'er rates than the handling mechanisms can
        feed in and remove.
        2.  Abrasiveness also causes extreme problems
        and increased operating expenses.  Solid wastes
        contain lai^ge quantities of paper wMch is very
        abrasive, as are the harder metals 
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        Some common benefits of the processing are:



        1.  Some Increase in density is achieved by the



        easier eompactability of the processed material.



        2.  The processed v.'astes are more aesthetically



        pleasinr in appearance.



        3-  Ihe more homogenous mixture produced enhances



        the possibility of using it as a fuel, in a resource-



        recover/ system.



        k.  Wasies otherwise hard to handle, nuch as bulky



        and demolition items, end up in a condition in



        which tiey can be easily handled.



        Next we vdll consider the criteria to use in deciding



what type of size reduction equipment should be used to process



the type of wastes that will be accepted.  A common parameter



for making this determination is the horsepower rating of the



different machines.  An Envircnr.ental Protection Agency



contractor suggests the follov.'img guidelines:



        1.  2:;0 HP-- Light wastes such as paper, cardboard,



        bottles, cans, garbage, and lawn trimmings.



        2.  600 HP-- Normal packer truck wastes including



        small appliances, some pieces of furniture, lumber



        and small conimercial scrap, bicycles, car tires,



        and tree trJrmngs.



        3>  1,000 HP-- Bulky v.'astes, such as large appliances,



        bed springs, mattresses and rugs, larger tree



        brush, larger pieces of .lumber.



                                34

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        l\, 2 000 HP-- Heavy wastes, such as automobiles



        (without engines), demolition rubble, tree trunks.



        5. 3,OCO HP-- Entire automobiles and scrap metal.



        .Another proposed  criterion is to compare total horse-



power as it relates to output.  It is recorr.mc:n:Ied that for



processing nonnil municipal solid wastes, the equiprrent should



have a rating of 20-30 KP per ten hour.



        Costs associated with these types of machines have not



been thoroughly documented, but the  available information places



thera ill a range of $3.50 per ton for municipal solid waste to



$7.00 per tone for bulky wastes in one eight-hour shift at



medium size (153 ton/hr) installations.

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  SANITARY INFILL            • .   '   .  ,



          Sanitary landfilling is the only environmentally



  acceptable ultiriate disposal nsthod available in the United



  States.   Unfortunately,  as  previously  indicated, only



  approximately  6  percent  of  all  land disposal sites are



  sanitary landfills.  More than  90 percent  of qy  county's



  solid v:aste  is ciroctly  disposed of on land,  most  of it  in



  an unsatisfactory manner at an open dump.  Opsn  burning  and



  durrping  confcribite to v;ater and air pollution and  provide



  food harborage,  md breeding grounds for inserts,  birds,



 rodents, and oth^r carriers of disease.  These dumps are



 also unsightly and very often lessen the value of nearby



 land and residences.  Increased concern for our environment is,



 however,  resulting in pressures  from all levels of Government



 and  the  general public to eliminate  this practice.   Many aspects



 of the U.S.  iiivironrnental Protection .Agency's activities are



 directed  at  re-placing this practice  with the  acceptable



 alternative,  the  sanitary landfill.   Efforts  include refinement



 of sanitary  landfill  technology, providing  solid  v;aste disposal



 managers  with the information needed for  implementation,  and



 the promotion of  strong regulator^' and  enforcement  activities.



        Sanitary  landfillins is an engineered method of disposing



of solid v;astes on land by spreading them in thin layers, compacting



them to the sirsallest practical volume and covering  tliem v/ith soil
                                36

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each working day in a manner that protdcts the environment. Ihis

is not only usually the most economic method of disposal, it is

also an excellent way to enhance the value or? otherwise unsuitable

or rarginal land.  The major disadvantage is the problem of

acquiring suitable sites because the general public too often

incorrectly identify the sanitary landfill with the open dump.

The information presented here is the curren; state of the art

of sanitary lan-lfilling in the United States.

        Before liscussing sanitary landfill rtesign and operating

concepts a thorough understanding is needed 3f the physical,

chemical, and biological processes with thei-> resultant effect

on solid waste when it is deposited, compacted, and covered on

the land.  Solid wastes deposited in a landfill degrade chemically
                                          o
and biologically to produce solid, liquid, aid gaseous products.

Ferrous and other metals are oxidized and organic and inorganic

wastes arc utilized by microorganisms through aerobic and

anaerobic systhesis.  Liquid waste products of microbial degradation,

such as organic acids, increase the chemical activity within the

fill.  Food wastes degrade quite readily, while other materials,

such as plastics, rubber, glass, and some demolition wastes, are

highly resistant to decomposition.  So:r.e factors that affect

degradation are the heterogeneous character of the wastes, their

physical, chemical, and biological properties, the availability

of oxygen and moisture within the fill, temperature, microbial

populations, and type of synthesis.    ':
                               37

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        Biological activity v.lthin the'landfill generally



follows a set pattern.  Solid waste initially  decomposes



aercbically, bu-; as the oxygen  supply is  exhausted,  facultative



and anaerobic microorganisms predominate  and produce methane



gas, which is odorless and colorless.  Temperatures  rise to the



high i::osophilic--lov: thenr.cphilic range  (60 K to 150  F) because



of mlcrcbial activity.  Characteristic products of aerobic



decomposition o:' v;aste are carbon  dioxide an 1  water.  Typical



products of anaerobic deccrrrposition of waste are methane, carbon



dioxide, water, organic acids,  nitrogen,  and arnmonia.



        Leachate, v/hich is defined as a liqu:.d that has  percolated



through solid v.'c.ste and has extracted dissolved or suspended



materials frcin :"t, can be produced by greuncuater or infiltrating



surface water moving through a  landfill.  The  dissolved  and



suspended materials (contaminants)  carried in  leachate are



dependent on solid waste composition and  on the  simultaneously



occurring physical, chemical, and biclogical activities  within



the fill.  Soxe of the chemical and biological characteristics



common to leachate are shown in Table 10.  The data represent



the range of values encountered over a six-month period.



        The leachate characteristics presented in Table  10  may



or may not be "typical" since the quantity and quality of



leachate produced depend on many variables.  Probably the most



critical pararr^ter affecting leachate quality  and quantity  is



simply the quantity of water flowing through the solid waste.
                                38

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Generally, the rr.ore water that flows through the wastes, the



more pollutants will be leachated out.  If loss water flov;s



through, the pollutants tend to be rcore concentrated, but the



rate at which tiey ai« transmitted to the surrounding environment



will be less.  Of course, if no water is allov;ed to flov; through



the wastes, leashate problems cannot develop.  Leachate quantities



can be prevented or minimised by preventing '-rater from entering



the fill to the greatest extent practicable, but if leachate



production is i isvitable, water pollution problerus can be



prevented thrcupi sound engineering and. design of the sanitary



landfill site.                     '             •  •  '



        As with leachate, a more thorough understanding has been



developed of gas generation, its characteristics and variations



with tir.e, and the potential dangers of its movement.  As



discussed earlier, gas is produced naturally when solid v;astes



decompose.  Tr.e quantity generated in a landfill and its



composition depend on the types of solid waste that are decomposing.



Tne rate of gas production is governed solely by the level at



which micrcblal decomposition is occurring in the solid waste;



when decomposition ceases, gas production also ends.   Tne rate



of gas production is, therefore, affected by the amount of



moisture and the temperature within the fill because, as mentioned



earlier, these factors affect the rate of decomposition.



        limited studies have been -made on the varying composition



of landfill gas over a period of time (Table 11).  As can be seen
                                39

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» - -. *
COMPARISON OF
_ LEACHATE
TABLE 10
CHARACTERISTICS OF LANDFILL
AND DOMESTIC SEWAGE


Concentration *
Constituent
Total Suspended Solids
_ _ Conductivity
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Biochemical Oxygen Den1 and
(5-day BOD)
. pH
Alkalinity .(as Ca C03)
Acidity (as Ca CO-j)
Total Phosphate
•Total Nitrogen
Chloride
Calcium
Magnesium
Iron
Manganese
Leachate from Landfill
Six to Twelve f-'onths Old*
Low High
-— . 58 1064
6400 9700
-13450 23276
7446 10690
5.1 5.8
675 4979
1416 2316
19 46.3
293.8 422.4
422 - 1109
841 1950
132 272
207 330
74 131
* Conductivity in nricrornhos/cni, pH in units, all others in mg/1
+ Boone County Research Facility - Cell No. 1. Samples taken w
January 3, "1972 to June 26, 1972.
• ++ Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., l.'astewater Enqineerino: Collection,
Typical
Domestic
Sewage J+
200
.700
500
200
8.0
TOO
20
10
40
50-
50
30
<0.1 ~
<0.-1
eekly from
Treatment, Disposal.
McGraw-Hill Book Company:   New York, 1972.
                                40

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                             TABLE  11
                   LANDFILL  GAS  COMPOSITION
 Time Interval  since  start
    of cell  completion .
         (months)
Average percent by volume
N2
CO,
                      CH,
           0-3
           3-6
           6-12
          12-18
          18-24
          24-30
          30-36
          36-42  '
         -.42-48
5.2
3.8
0.4
1.1
0.4
0.2
1.3
0.9
0.4
           76
           65
           52
          •53
           52
           46
           50
           51
            5
           21
           29
           40
           47
           48
           51
           47
           48
*Herz, R.  C.,  Stone,  R.   Special  Studies of A Sanitary Landfill,
 U.S. Department of Health,  Education, and Welfare, 1970
                              41

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fron the data, decomposition gas Is  initally canposed promarily



of carbon dioxide, but hydrogen sulfide  and ammonia may also



be present in s:nrill amounts.  Very little methane  is  produced



during the early stages of decomposition bec.iuse little anaerobic



systhesis prevails.  As the biological process goes anaerobic,



methfzne becomes one of the major decomposition products.



        These gises are important design considerations because



nethane can explode (at concentrations between 5 and  15 percent



in air) and beciuse miner-all nation of ground'rater  can occur if



carbon dioxide lissolves and forms carbonic acid.   Methane  is



particularly irnx>rtant since it will migrate tov/ard the atmosphere



(its specific gravity is less than that  of  air).   More importantly,



in cases where ;he landfill has a relatively ojnpGi-ineaMe cover,



the Methane wil. try to vent into the atmosphere by moving



laterally throujji a more permeable material; in doing so, methane



can accumulate in nearby buildings, in sewer lines, or in other



similar enclosures.  Therefore, the gas migration  potential must



be considered ar.d controlled as necessary In site 'selection,



design, and operation.



        The increased knov;lc-dge regarding the theoiy  of gas and



leachate generation and migration has clear'ly affected the



engineer's approach to sanitary landfill site, selection and



design.  Emphasis is now being placed on those factors  that



affect the quantity of water moving into the fill  and the



migration of contaminants (leachate and gas) from  the fill
                                42

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to the surrounding environment.  Ihcrefore, a potential site is



evaluated first on Its ir.-erits to control water influent and



contaminant effluent and secondly on its ability to provide for



an efficient operation.



        As a result, clir.£tology, surface ani subsurface hydrology,



soil composition, geolcgy, and proxrnity to ^roundwater supplies



end buildings a'.'o the rain characteristics cf a particular site



which must be considered during the site selaction and design



stages.  Maul distance, site accessibility, topography, land



zoning, and local environmental regulations are also important



considerations.



        Ihe design of a sanitary landfill should descrj.be in



detail all ernplDyee and operational facilities; operational



procedures arid their sequence; equipment, ari manpower requlrc-



nents; the pollution potential and methods of control; the



final grade and planned use of the completed fill; and cost



estimates for acquiring, developing, and operating the



proposed site.



        Nomal facilities include fencing, roads, scales,



employee sanitary facilities, equipment storage and maintenance



buildings.



        Operational procedures and their sequence plans are



dependent on the method of landfilling utilized.  There are



basically two sanitary landfilling methods, the trench and
                                43

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area.  At tiirss, combinations of those methods are used.  In



the trench method the wastes are spread and compacted in an



excavated trer.ci.  Spoil material from the excavation is used



for cover.  This method is best utilized in flat and gently



rolling land where there is no danger of intercepting ground-



v:ater during ocavaticn.  It is also more appropriate for low



volume sites.  In the area method, the waste is spread and



compacted on 1r>e natural surface of the grouid.  Cover is



moved from other locations on the site, normally from as close



to the working face as possible.  This method is utilized in



all types of s:tes from the flat or gently sloping to the



ravine and val" ey types,



        In both methods, cells are constructed by spreading



the solid wast'-s, compacting them, and covering them at the



end of each working day.  The cell size is determined by the



daily amounts of v;astes delivered, the size of the working



face, ?ind the height and thickness of lifts.  Restricting the



size of the working face v;ill minimize the amount of covering



effort and cover material utilized.  Cell thickness is usually



limited to eight feet, but lift heights of up to 30 feet are



comnon in large landfills.  These measurements are left to the



discretion of the designer for the optimum utilization of



the site and cover material.
                                44

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        An operating plan to schedule and sequence all operations



from the delivery of the first lead of waste to the last is



required.  This plan should include: (1) hours of operation;



(2) measuring jrccedures; (3) traffic flow sid unloading procedures;



(*}) designation of specific disposal area and methods of handling



and compacting various solid wastes; (5) placement of cover



material; (6) naintcnance procedures; (7) adverse weather



operations; (&' fire control; and (9) litter control.



        There j s a wide variety of equipmenl: available for



sanitary landfill operations.  Types selected will be dependent



on the types ar d quantities of wastes to be landfilled as v.'ell



as the rr.ethcd cf operation.  Since this accounts for a major



part of the cirital and operating costs, extreme care should be



taken in the selection.  Examples of types of equipment are the



crawler tractoi, rubber-tired irachines, steel-wheeled compactors,



scrapers, and draglines.  Tables 12 and 13 indicate performance



characteristics and recommended landfill needs.



        Pollution control is the rr.ost important responsibility



of the designer.  Proper site investigation should provide the



necessary infortr.aticn to deterr.iine the level1, of control necessary.



The design and construction of required appurtenances to protect



the environment are engineering judgment requirements.  This can



range from no controls to impervious liners with subsequent



treatment of gas and/or leachate.  The designer is asnigned the



responsibility of protecting the surface and groundwater from
                                45

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   pollution (withi.n existing standards). * Areas  of concern were
   discussed previously  in  the description of the decoroposition
   process.   In many States in the United States  this  is  further
   evaluated by a plan review for a permit to operate  a sanitary
   landfill.   This  involves the regulatory agency in the  site
   selection and  design  of  sanitary landfills.
          Final  grades  and ultimate use should be  provided for in
   the plans.   Extensive building on completed sanitary landfills
   is not reccmmenied.   An  attractive  alternative is using them
   for recreational purposes.   If buildings are constructed, care
   must be taken  to protect then from  gas migration and from
   settlement.
          A wide -"ange  of  costs for sanitary landfills has been
   reported.   The costs  usually cover:  land, 5ite  development,
   operating,  equip;rent, landscaping,  and maintenance.  Land
   costs'are extreniely variable but with proper utilization, this
   is normally considered a small part of the overall  disposal
   costs of  the entire system.   Experience has shown overall costs
   to range  from  $0.75 to more than $5.00 per ton of solid waste.
   disposed  of.   Wide variations result from  different methods
   used as well as  the size of the fill.  Costs for small landfills
   (less than 50,000 tons per year) run from  $1.25  to  more than
   $5.00 per ton.  Larger landfills have operated for  $0.75 to
   $2.00 per ton.  Special  pollution control  appurtenances can
   further vary these costs, but more  information is needed in  this
   t
•  'area.
                      '             46

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                       Special Solid Wastes





HOSPITAL WASTES.  Hospital wastes are handled and disposed of in a



variety of ways.  The  information here is a summary of a survey



conducted at  some 80 hospitals throughout the United States.




       .Plastic bags were most  frequently utilized to  store



generated solid wastes and collection was usvally accomplished



manually utiliz: r.g push  carts.   Gravity  chutt s were a  part of



the  collection  : ysteni  at a third of the  installations.   Central



storage was usually located  outside utilizing a  variety  of



containers; bulk containers, srriall  cans, improvised receptacles,



and  sor.etLT.es nc receptacles.



        Cn-site incineration of  rubbish  and biological materials



was  used by a predominate nurri)er of institutions, but  grinding



of garbage ctnd  discharging into  a sewer was a cordon practice.



Special typo  hospital  wastes, such  an radioactive wastes',



received special treatment.  Ihis consisted of storage for



decay £jid subsequent discharge with other naterials,



        A mean  of 9 pounds of waste per patient  per day was



reported.  Tnis  consisted priinarily of rubbish and garbage.



Biological material accounted for only a small portion of the



total weight.



        Sugnifleant public health implications were reported



about the observed practices.  Care should be taken to see



that containers are properly sealed v;hen handled.  Carts should



be constructed so that they can be  easily sanitized.  Routing




                                 47

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of collection pickups within the hospital should be carefully



planned to avoid cress centmninaticn.  In rnost cases poorly



qualified persennel are required to handle tiese wastes.  Proper



training is necessary to assure safe handling and disposal.



        Proper separation of contaminated and normal solid



wastes--with prc:er on-site incineration of contaminated v/aste



and the handling of other v:astes in other disposal systems



are acceptable.
                                48

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                          Summary





     The discussions presented on the processing and disposal



of solid waste represent the current state of the art in the



United States.  I have not mentioned processing as it relates



to resource re;overy, since this important aspect of solid



waste managemeit will be discussed by another speaker.



Unfortunately [ cannot discuss the performance of the majority



of U.S. processing and disposal facilities.  As mentioned, mosl



of the incinerators and land disposal ;ites (dumps) do not meel



environmentally acceptable standards.  The U.S. Environmental



Protection Agency (EPA) is aggressively attempting to effect



the change frou unacceptable to acceptable practices.  One



specific item in the solid waste disposal field is the



establishment of Federal Guidelines for incinerators and



sanitary landfills.   These guidelines are in the development



stage at this time.   When promulgated, compliance will be



mandatory for all Federal agencies and recommended for other



incinerator and sanitary landfill owners and operators.   Both



guidelines are performance oriented with requirements identifi



identified for the protection of the environment.



     EPA is appr:ao'ching all environmental problems:  by



apprising the general public and administrators at all levels



of government that inefficient solid waste management is a .



core issue in the ecological crisis; by developing new solid



waste management tbchnology while promoting the use of existing
                              49

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technology to Meet environmental, s-tandards; by enforcing
existing standards v/ithin the EPA legal authority and
developing new ones; by promoting more aggressive enforcement
activities by other levels of governnici t having greater legal
authorities; and by promoting the establishment of needed
legal authority on all levels of goverrment to protect this
Nation's citizens and their environment.
                             50

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                    REFERENCES-
American Public Works Association.  Municipal  refuse
disposal.  3d ed.  Chicago, Public Administration  Service,
1970.   538 p.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Solid waste
management glossary.  Washington., U.S. Government
Printing Office, 1972.   20 p.

Liberick, 1,". W. , K. J. Hanley, and D. G. Fenn.  Technologic
advances in sanitary landfilling.  U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.  Unpublished manuscript, 1972.

Baker,  R. ]..  Environmental assessment of municipal
incinerate: s.  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Unpublishec  manuscript,  1972.

Iglar,  A. 1. and R. G. Bond.  Hospital solid waste disposal
in community facilities.  U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency.  Unpublished research grant (no. EC-00261-04) ,
May 1971.

DeMarco, J. , D. J. Keller, J. Leckm-nn, and J. L. Newton.
Incineratoi  guide! ines- - 1969 .  Publicn Health Service
Publication No, 2012.  Washington, U.S. Government
Printing Office, 1969.   98 p.                           •

Brunner, D.  R., and D. J. Keller.  Sanitary landfill design
and operation.  Washington, U.S.. Government Printing Office,
1972.   59 p.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.   Inventory of
municipal solid waste size reduction equipment.  Unpublished
report  on contract 68030137, Oct. 1972.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.   Baling municipal
refuse.  Unpublished report on EPA Grant No. DOI-UI-00061,
April 1968.
                         51

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  U.S.—JAPAN CONFERENCE




            ON




  SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT




        Paper No. 1
  SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT




 ADMINISTRATION IN JAPAN




            and




RECYCLING WASTES IN JAP All
  January 29 and 30, 1973
   JAPANESE GOVERNMENT

-------
          Reporters
Articles
Dr. S. Orita
Head,
Sanitation Facilities Division,
Environmental Sanitation Bureau,
Ministry of Health and Welfare, Japan

Mr. T. Morishita.
Deputy Head,
Sanitation Faci]: ties Division,
Environmental Sanitation Bureau,
Ministry of Heal :h and Welfare

Mr. T. Katayama
Senior Technical Official,
Sanitation Facil .ties Division,
Environmental Sanitation Bureau,
Ministry of Heal, .h and Welfare

Mr. R. Shimizu
Chief Research Officer
National Resourc i Research Institute
Agency of Techno -ogy and Science

Mr. M. Hatakeyam i
Head,
Construction Department,
Public Cleansing Bureau,
Tokyo Metropolitan Government

Mr. K. Saida
Head,
Department of Facilities Construction and
Management, Environmental Cleaning Projects Bureau
Yokohama City Office

Mr. R. Kumagaya
Director General,
Public Cleansing Bureau,
Kawasaki City Office
    1-1
  III-l
  III-3
   II
    1-2
  III-2
    1-3

-------
                               INDEX
                I  SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT ADMINISTRATION

1-1  ADMINISTRATIDN AND FINANCE OF WASTE TREATMENT
       ORGANIZATION, LEGISLATION AND FINANCING

  1-1-1  Structure and Systems of the Central
           Goverr nent and Municipalities	    1

  1-1-2  The Body of Laws on Waste Treatment	    5

  1-1-3  The Administrative Structure of Waste
           Treatr ent 	,	   16

  1-1-4  Financii g of Waste Treatment	   21


1-2  LOCATION OF TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL FACILITIES
     (Chiefly on an example in Tokyo Metropolis)

  1-2-1  Policies for Waste Treatment Plant Location	   33

  1-2-2  Methods and Problems of Waste Treatment
           Site 5 election 	   43

  1-2-3  Pollutitn Control Measures for Waste
           Treatment Plants	   45


1-3  RECRUITMENT OF PERSONNEL IN CHARGE OF WASTES TREATMENT AND OTHERS
     (Chiefly on an example in Kawasaki City)

  1-3-1  Present 	   50

  1-3-2  Structure of  ersonnel in  harge of Wastes Disposal 	   52

  1-3-3  Training of Related Personnel 	   56

  1-3-4  On the Measures Relating the Acquirement of
           Related Personnel	   59

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                          II  RECYCLING WASTES
II-l  GENERAL	  66
II-2  CONSIDERATION IN DETAILS

  II-2-1  Problems Concerning the Waste in Japar,

  II-2-2 . Disposition of City Rubbish in Japan .,
  II-2-3  Research and Development of Resources Reutilizing
            and Reclaiming Technology System 	
69

70


70

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SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
    ADMINISTRATION

-------
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1-1-2  The Body of Laws on Waste Treatment




     1)   The Ou'cline of Legislation




          The collection, transportation, and disposal of filthy matters




     had been executed in the Japanese cities since the Edo era that




     lasted thre<; centuries until 1968.  With the outbreak of severe




     cholera and typhoid fever epidemics from 1877 to 1887 as the turning




     point, ther; arose the need of demarcatin? the responsibilities and




     job assignm mts for public cleasning in tae cities for elimination




     of the causes of the diseases and for the maintenance of public




     health.  In 1900 the Filth Cleansing Law was enforced.  It was




     stipulated  In Article 3 of the law that "the city is required to




     dispose of  :he filthy matters collected by those responsible for




     collecting  such matters (owners, users or occupants of land), provided




     that special provisions may otherwise be enacted by order (according




     to the Ministerial Ordinance Concerning the Enforcement of the Filth




     Cleansing Law)."  The Japanese city was thus legally required to




     collect and dispose of filthy matters discharged in the citizens'




     everyday li::e.




          No amendment was made on the law until the outbreak of the




     Korean War :Ln 1954, but with this as the turning point, the Japanese




     mining and manufacturing outputs made rapid growth, and the promotion




     of industrialization and urban development brought urban environmental




     sanitation into a problem.  Thus the Filth Cleansing Law that had been




     in force since the Meiji era (1868-1912) was replaced with the

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Public Cleansing Law.  The new law was basically aimed not only at




mechanically removing filthy matters from the citizens' everyday




lift, but also at standardizing their trciting methods from the




environmental sanitation point of view.




     Later, however, in step with the expansion of Japanese industrial




activities and the elevation of the Japanese people's living standard,




the amount of wastes discharged by them ir£de a steep rise with their




quality markedly changed.  A great deal oi industrial wastes, in




particular, <:ame to contain noxious matters and those difficult to




treat, and for environmental maintenance end pollution control, we




were pressed to take appropriate measures.




     To cope with the situation, the Minister of Health and Welfare




requested tht; Council on the Living Envircnraent, his advisory organ,




in July 1969 to recommend measures concerting systems and methods for




treating industrial wastes.




     In response to the request, the council submitted to the Minister




a recommendatory report in July 1970 in one year of study and




discussion.




     Based on the report, the Ministry of Health and Welfare started




to study a complete revision of the Public Cleansing Law, and submitted




a wastes treatment bill to the 64th provisional Diet session opened in




November 1970.  The bill passed the Diet and became the Wastes Disposal




and Public Cleansing Law (Law 1970-No. 137, hereinafter called the




Wastes Disposal Law) on December 18 of the same year.

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     It was decided that the Wastes Disposal Law should be enforced




with effect from a date to be designated by a Cabinet Order within




nine months ifter its promulgation, and stadies were started to




draft a Cabinet Order concerning the definition of industrial wastes,




standards on the collection, transportation, and disposal (which means




the.intermecLate waste treatment process and disposal in the final




state of domestic arid industrial wastes, the range of industrial




waste treat-mint plants, etc., and a Health  and Welfare Ministerial




Ordinance coicerning the establishment of standards on the storing




of industrial wastes and the licensing of industrial waste treatment




agents.



     With respect to the basic technical direction for treating




industrial vjistes, the Technical Committee on the Treatment of




Industrial Wistes was established.  In June 1971 the committee




announced the report on the Basic direction for Techniques, Etc. for




the Treatment of Industrial Wastes.




     The content of the report was further studied by the Council




on the Living Environment, and recommendations were made to the




Minister of Health and Welfare in the same month.




     The committee's report systematically probes technical courses




to be followed in all the treating processes covering the storing,




collection, transportation, and disposal of industrial wastes.  The




drafts of the Cabinet Order and the Ministerial Ordinance were




formulated in the spirit of the report.

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     In July 1971 the Environment Agency came into existence, and




affairs concerning the establishment of standards on the final




disposal of Industrial wastes were placed under the jurisdiction of




the agency.  It was decided that the drafting of the Cabinet Order




Concerning the Wastes Treatment Law should be conducted jointly by




the Ministry of Health and Welfare and the Environment Agency and




that the Principles of the Draft of the Cabinet Order which were




established .n the spirit of the report should further be deliberated




by the Centr il Pollution Measures Council,




     After tie twists and turns, the draft of the Cabinet Order




obtained final approval at the Cabinet meeting held on September 22,




1971, and thj next day it was promulgated together with the Health




and Welfare linisterial Ordinance.  The Wastes Treatment Law was




enforced with effect from September 24 of the same year.




2)   The Outline of the Wastes Treatment Law




     (D   Aim



          Th'2 aim of the Wastes Treatment Law is to treat wastes




     in an appropriate manner that will contribute toward the




     maintenance of the living environment and the improvement of




     public health (Article 1 of the law).




     (D   The Definition of Wastes




          Wastes are broadly divided into domestic wastes and




     industrial wastes, and for the two categories of wastes,




     separate treating systems should be developed.

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     Wastes are defined  In this law as "refuse, big refuse,




 residual ash,  sludge,  excreta, waste oil, waste acid, waste




 alkali, carcases,  and  other filthy or disused objects which




 are  in solid or liquid state," except that radioactive matters




 and  those  contaminated by such matters should be governed by




 other  liw  than this  (Paragraph 1, Article 2).




     Donestic  wastes are defined as other wastes than industrial




 wastes.  Industrial wastes are also cefined as "the wastes among




 those  discharged  in conducting enterprising activities, such as




 residual ash,  sludge,  waste oil, waste acid, waste alkali, waste




 plastics,  and  other wastes which are stipulated by the Cabinet




 Order."  (Please  refer to Note 1 at the end of this chapter 1-1-2),




     Thase industrial  wastes are those the treatment of which




 is made a  particular problem from the points of view of




 environmental  maintenance and pollution control, and special




 mention is made on the wastes because it is extremely difficult




 for  the cleansing departments of the municipalities to appropriately




 treat  them (Paragraphs 2 and 3, Article 2).




(3)   Requirements for  the Enterpriser




     The requirements  stipulated in this law for the enterpriser




 to meet are based on three principles.




     The first principle is that the enterpriser should appropriately




 treat  the  wastes  discharged in conducting his enterprising

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activities at his own responsibility.  It is the principle




of letting those who release wastes rake the responsibility




of adaiuately treating such wastes  ('aragraph 1, Article  3).




     According  to the principle, the enterpriser must adequately




treat *.he industrial wastes discharged by himself by the




standfds established on the collection, transportation,  and




dispo;j il of such wastes.  To apply  fie principle to domestic




wastes, each municipality is authorised to designate dumps to




which  juch wastes are to be transported and a method of




transp irting them and also to charge fees on transported  wastes.




     S icondly the enterpriser is required to promote the




regeneration and reuse of wastes discharged in conducting his




enterprising activities and to reduce their dimensions




(Paragraph 2, Article 3).




     FTOITI the waste treatment point of view, it is desirable




to reduce the volume of wastes to be discharged, and also in




the interest of Japan importing the greater part of its raw




materials from abroad, it is needless to say that wastes must




be made the best use of by turning them into useful resources,




and the regeneration and reuse of them must be promoted.




     Thirdly the enterpriser who produces or processes products




is required to take necessary measures to prevent the products,




when wasted, from becoming difficult to treat (Paragraph  2,




Article 3).
                         10

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(4)    The Treatment  of Domestic  Wastes




      It  is  stipulated in this law that  concerning the treatment




 of  dor.v.stic wastes,  such as  refuse a id  excreta,  each municipality




 should project  a certain plan,  and execute  the  treatment




 according to the plan.   Both the  urbi.n  and  the  rural municipality




 must, :n principle,  conduct  cleansing activities,  but a region




 desigr* ted  by the head of the municipality  in conformity  to  the




 standa: ds established by the Cabinet. Order  can be exempted from




 the apjlication of  the principle  (Paragraphs 1 and 2,  Article  6).




 (Pleas*  refer to Note 2 at the  end oi: this  cahpter 1-1-2) .




      Standards  on the collection,  transportation,  and disposal




 of  domestic wastes,  which should  be maintained by the municipality




 in  conducting cleansing activities, i.re stipulated in the Cabinet




 Order (Paragraph 3,  Article  6).




      The residents  of each municipality are required to cooperate




 for its  cleanzing activities.   Because  of this requirement,  the




 residents must  cooperate with the municipality by the disposal of




 as  many  easily  disposable wastes  as possible by  themselves,  the




 separation  of combustible wastes  from incombustibles in different




 containers,  the dumping of big  refuse at places  designated by




 the municipality, the selective collection  of waste plastics,  and




 other means,  as may  be requested  by the municipality,  for




 facilitation of the  municipality-conducted  environmental sanitation
                          11

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activities.  The  enterpriser who'discharges  a great deal of




domestic, wastes in  conducting  his  enterprising activities is




requirei ,  at the  request  of  the munr'.f ipality,  to  transport such




wastes  1:0  a place designated by  it by a method allowable for




environriental  sanitation  (Paragraphs  4 and 5,  Article  6).




      Th«s treatment  of  domestic wastes  is  primarily executed by




each  municipality,  but in some areas  it is difficult for the




municip ility to collect such wastes,  and  in  rural areas  where




the stipulations  on waste collection  are  not applicable, waste




collection is  sometimes required.   Ir  these  areas,  domestic waste




collectors are licensed to do  business (Article 7).




      Wh<;n  the  installation of  flush toilets  is required  in an




area  whi-.re there  is no public  sewer system,  the use of sewage




purifiers  is encouraged for  the disposal  of  excreta.   The  users




of sewaj.e  purifiers throughout Japan  have now exceeded the




10-milli.on mark,  and purifier  cleaning agents are licensed for




the periodic cleaning  of  purifiers and the disposal of purifier-




treated excreta  (Article  9).




©    The Treatment  of  Industrial Wastes




      It is stipulated  in  this  law  that the enterpriser who




discharges industrial  wastes is required  to  treat such wastes




by himself.  He must treat them by himself or commission an




industrial waste  collector to  treat them, except  when  he is in




a position to  receive  public service  on the  treatment  of them




from  the municipality  (Paragraph 1, Article  12).






                           12

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     Thes enterpriser, in treating his industrial wastes, must




go through such prior-treatment processes as the elimination or




attenua'ion of noxious matters, and execute the final disposal of




such matters by landfilling or by the dumping of them into the sea




in conformity to the standards on the collection, transportation,




and disposal of them (Paragraph 2, Article 12).




     Wh*-.n his industrial wastes arc rot disposed of and stored




within  :he enclosure of his factory cr establishment, he must




store such wastes according to the storing standards in a manner




allowable for environmental sanitaticn (Paragraph 3, Article 12).




     Th
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storing of industrial wastes by enterprisers does not conform




to the established standards, ordinances can be issued to reform




the treatment or storing of such wastes (Paragraph 4, Article 12).




     The. treatment of industrial wastes should, in principle, be




executec at the responsibility of an enterpriser who discharge sucV




wastes, but there are some industrial wastes which can adequately




be treai-.ed in a greater sphere than his locality, and the avenue




is open for prefectures and municipalities  (cities, towns, and




village 0 to provide service on the treatment of such industrial




wastes  (Article 10).



      It is stipulated, however, that even when a local public




body  provides service on  the treatment  of industrial wastes, in




 the spirit of the principle  of letting  those who release wastes




 take  tha  responsibility of  treating such wastes, an  enterpriser win




 discharges such wastes  should  bear the  cost to be  incurred on  the




 installation of an  industrial  waste treatment  plant  and  other




 costs on the collection,  transportation,  and disposal of industrial




 wastes (Paragraph 2,  Article 13).



      One of  the requirements to  be met by the  governor of each




 prefecture is to  project a plan for  the treatment of industrial




 wastes.  Such a plan is projected by  the governor in a comprehensive




 view of all the industrial wastes discharged within the jurisdiction




 of the prefecture from the collection to the disposal of such




 wastes, and contains a program for the installation of industrial

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waste  treatment  plants,  a  program  for  the  transportation of




industrial wastes  to where such wastes  are finally disposed of,




a prog" am for  the  location of  such a place,  and  other programs.




In projecting  such a plan,  he  must consult with  the Pollution




Counten.easures Council of  the  prefecture  (Article  11).




     lie treatment of industrial was :es by an  enterpriser who




discharges such  wastes is  supplemented  by  industrial waste




treatovat agents.   Such  agents are commissioned  by enterprisers




to treat industrial wastes,  is required to have  a  comparatively




high-li«.vel knowledge of  industrial waste treatment,  in addition




to necessary equipment,  and is not permitted to  do business




unless he is licensed to do so by  thu governor of  the prefecture




or the mayor of  a  city which has est iblished its health center




(Artie .e 14) .




(4)   Ot.her Provisions




     Other provisions relate to the requirements for the




Central Government and the local public entities (Article 4),




the maintenance  of cleanliness (Article 5), a  ban  on the dumping




of wastes (Article 16),  restrictions on the methodology of




using  excreta  (Article 17),  the submission of  reports by




enterprisers and waste treatment agents (Article 18),  the




spot-checking  of waste treatment plants (Article 19),  environmental




sanitation extension officers  (Article  20), government subsidies




(Article 22),  special support  (Article  23), and  the handling  of




grievances (Article 24).





                          15

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1-1-3  The Administrative Structure of Waste Treatment




     1)   Types cf Activity Conducted by the Municipality




          It is  itipulated in Paragraph 1, Art'.cle 4 of the Law




     Concerning the Treatment and Cleansing of Wastes that the municipality




     (a city, a town, or a village) should always be intent on the




     disseminatli n of the concept of cleansing  and in conducting waste




     treatment activities, should strive to promote the efficiency of




     such activi .ies by the development of rel ited personnel, the




     improvement and expansion of related meth>ds, and other means and




     that the co.'.lection, transportation, and disposal of wastes should




     be executed at the responsibility of the nunicipality.  It is also




     provided for in No. 7, Paragraph 3, Article 2 of the Local Autonomy




     Law that thr. municipality "should take charge of affairs concerning




     public clea.-sing, disinfection, sterilization..." and that public




     cleansing should be taken care of by the Municipality.




     2)   Forms of Waste Treatment Management




          It is stipulated in Article 6 of the Wastes Treatment Law that




     the municipality is required to collect and dispose of wastes discharged




     within its jurisdiction according to a certain plan, while, on the




     other hand, there is not stereotyped form of waste treatment by the




     municipality, as the presence of private domestic waste treatment




     agents is recognized by Article 7 of the Law.




          Managerial forms taken by municipalities for waste treatment can




     be classified into such categories as (1) direct management by




     municipalities, (2) management through a commissioned agent,





                                    16

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(3) management by a private agent, and (4) a mixed form of any of




(1) to (3) above.




     The di -ect management form is taken  >y many municipalities




follow separate management forms for the treatment of refuse and




excreta,




    ®    D:.rect Management by the Municipality




          IV  this management form, all activities from planning for




     the CG .lection of domestic wastes to the final disposal of such




     wastes are conducted by those directly employed by the municipality.




          I : has been said that this form is superior to (2) and (3)




     above :.n the sanitary treatment of domestic wastes, but it is




     held by some sources that there is no denying that some problems




     are involved in this form relating f> personnel employment and




     maintenance and the efficiency of activities.




          Tti deal with the problems, studies must be made on the




     improvement of the working environment, the intensification and




     reform of welfare facilities, the adoption of a merit system




     (payment by results), the grant of allowances for special duties,




     and other measures for the upgrading of the qualities of personnel




     and the elevation of their morale.




    (2)    Management Through a Commissioned Agent




          By this form of management, the whole or a part of the




     activities which should be conducted by the municipality, such




     as the collection or the transportation of domestic wastes, are
                              17

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 conducted by  private  refuse  collecting agents who are  capable




 of  condticting such  activities  and who are  commissioned by  the




 municipality  to  conduct  such activities upon receipt of




 remuneration.  In this case, cleansing service  is provided by




 the municipality, and the residents request the municipality




 to  collect  domestic wastes and pay fees for such service to the




 municipality.  Standards to  be maintained  by the municipality in




 the commissioning of  private agents ;re stipulated in  Article 4




 of  the  Jastes Treatment  Law.




      To  trace the history of waste tieatment management through




 commissxoned  agents,  it  can  be said that this managerial form




 has appeared  in  the transition from r irect management  by private




 agents  :o direct management  by municipalities.  In reality, this




 form  is very  close, in some  cases, tr direct management by




 municipalities,  and in other cases, is indistinguishably close




 to  management by private agents.




(3)    Management  by  Private Agents




      By  this  method,  a private refuse collector concludes  a




 contract for  the collection  of domestic refuse  with the residents




 of  the municipality thereby  the domestic which  ought to be




 collected at  the responsibility of the municipality are collected




 at  his responsibility.   It is  stipulated in Article 7  of the




 Wastes Treatment Law  that it should not be permitted to take this




 form  of management  for waste treatment unless it is difficult for




 the municipality to collect, transport, or dispose of  wastes.






                          18

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             In assuming this form of management for waste treatment,

        the municipality provides guidance and exercises supervision

        for the licensing of agents and other affairs from the sanitation

        control point of view, and for prevention of the collection of

        too high fees from the residents of tie municipality, fee

        ceilings are established.

             Waste treatment management by private agents has merits

        which c ,n complete the demerits of direct management by

        municips.lities, but most of such agerts obtain a bare subsistence,

        and there are problems like the difficulty of introducing new

        techniques to such agents and their inclination to disputes in

        the competition for obtaining licenses for waste treatment,

             The general trend of the Japanese municipalities is to

        switch from management by private agents for waste treatment to

        direct nanagement.  Volumes of refuse and excreta collected in

        1970 by municipalities by their managerial forms of waste

        treatment are shown in Table 1-1-1.
     Table 1-1-1. Volumes of Refuse and Collected
                  by Municipalities by Managerial
                            Forms, 1970
        Volumes
        Col-
      Management Forms
Direct
        leeted as   Manage-
        Planned     ment
Mugrant. by
Commiss-     Total
ioned
Agents
Volumes Col-
lected by
Licensed
Agents
Refuse  25,513,000  20,203,100  3,056,000  23,359,000  2,154,000
        m.t.(100%)  m.t.(80%)   m.t.(12%)  m.t.(92%)    m.t.(8%)
   Note:  This is a tabulation of figures presented by the municipalities
          which had areas for planned collection.
                                  19

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          Waste treatment agents commissioned and licensed by

     municipalities in 1970 are shown in Table 1-1-2.


     Table I- 1-2  Waste Treatment Agents Commissioned .and
                  Licensed by Municipalities, 1970

                  No. of Agents            No. of Employees

               C omm 1 s s1o n eci  Licensed   Ccnmlssloned  Licensed

     Refuse       1,033        535         7,937       3,254

          Th»i main reasons for the presence of a variety of forms

     of man?;;ement for waste treatment is that such activity (public

     cleansing activity) has independently been conducted by the

     Japanese municipalities as their own activity rather than the

     activity of the Central Government or each prefectural government

     and thai the municipalities have developed their respective forms

     of management for waste treatment.

3)   Great-Sphere Waste Treatment Manageraeat

     Waste treatment needs a high amount of capital for the construction.

of treatment plants, and the recurring expenditures on the construction

are only to increase.  This has made it all the more difficult in a

limited locality to secure land for the construction of a waste treatment

plant and for the final disposal of wastes.  For resolution of the

difficulties common with the cities, the great-sphere waste treatment

management system (by the organization of "partial business transaction

associations" by a group of municipalities for the transaction of specific

types of business) is rapidly being adopted by many municipalities so

that the municipalities in mutual cooperation may construct plants


                               20

-------
     and execute t.he collection and transportation of wastes in a




     greater sphere than their individual localities.




          An association, for example, which ha-1 been formed for the




     collective transaction of the type of business on refuse treatment




     had a membership of 982 as of 982 as of October 1970.   The figure




     stands for one-third of all the Japanese tnanicipalities, and for




     excreta treatment, 478 associations of this kind have  been formed




     with a total membership of 2,080.




          The grp. it-sphere waste treatment management system contributes




     toward cost reduction, plant and equipment modernization,  and the




     rationalization of other fields of management.




          For the past few years, a strucrure of expanded municipal blocs




     has been in :he shaping throughout Japan to enable the municipalities




     within each bloc to cooperate for the collective management of their




     plants and activities for balanced development of individual blocs




     in the perspactive of the Japanese economy as a whole.




          The great-sphere waste treatment management system must be




     oriented toward integration into the strucrure so that the system




     may work in harmony with other systems for the structure.






1-1-4     Financing of Waste Treatment




     1)   Expenditures on Waste Treatment on an Account-Settled Basis




          The recent refuse explosion in urban areas is pushing up the




     operating and other costs of refuse treatment year after year.




     Annual expenditures including those on waste treatment (cleansing)
                                   21

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by the Japanese municipalities since fiscal 1967 are shown in




Table 1-1-3 on an Account-settled basis.  The expenditures for




fiscal year 1970 by the municipalities including Tokyo Metropolis




totaled 5,001,100 million yen including 205,200 million yen for




waste treatment, and the ratio of waste treatment expenditures to




the total expenditures is 4.1 percent.




     Characteristic traits which can be ot'served in the table are:




     1    Tl e weight of the waste treatment expenditures in the




     total expenditures is annually on th«  increase.




     2    Tie middle cities carry the heaviest weight in the




     waste treatment expenditures of all the municipalities.




     3    The weight of the waste treatment expenditures of the




     "partial business transaction associations" is annually on




     the increase.




2)   Sources of Waste Treatment Revenue




     Annual revenues and expenditures for waste treatment by the




municipalities since fiscal 1967 are compared in Table 1-1-4 on




an account-settled basis and by specific sources of revenue.
                               22

-------
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                                                                                                                                                 §

-------
                 Table 1-1-4   Annual  Waste Treatment Revenues Compared
Fiscal Year:

Expenditures
(a/c-settled
basis)

Revenue Sources:

Central Gov.
Subsidies

Pref. Gov.
Subsidies

Utility
Charges
fees

Municipal
Bonds
                      123.814
    r special
Sources

Taxes
Imposts
                        2.443
                       (2'o%)

                        1 038
                       (0 8%)

                       13.012
                      (10.5%)
                       13,975
                      (11.3%)

                        3>629
                       (2.9%)

                       89,717
                      (82.5%)
With Expenditures by Revenue Sources
(million yen)
1968
132,253
2,776
(2.1%)
1,128
(0.9%)
15,660
(11.8%)
16,777
(12.7%)
4,411
(3.3%)
91,501
(69.2%)

1969
169,890
3,220
(1.9%)
1,159
(0.7%)
16,946
(10.0%)
18,195
(10.7%)
4,057
(2.4%)
126,322
(74.3%)
  1970

205,152
  3,951
 (1.9%)

  2,947
 (1.4%)

 18,135
 (8.8%)
 27,526
(13.4%)

  4,427
 (2.2%)

148,163
(72.3%)
                           Source:   Ministry of  Home Affairs

 In this  table,  the following  characteristic traits  can be observed:

(T)  The weight of  taxes  and imposts,  a general revenue source,  is overwelmingly
    heavy.

(2)  The weight of  municipal bonds issued  in 1970 is  markedly  heavy.
                                            24

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3)   The weight of utility charges and fees is on the decrease.




     The revenue sources are described it can by item as follows:




     a.   Central Government Subsidies




          It is stipulated in Paragraph 3,  Article 4 of the




     Wastes Treatment Law that the Centra]  Government should




     provide necessary technological and D onetary support to




     the muricipalities (cities,  towns, ard villages) and the




     prefectures.  It is also stipulated ?n Article 22 of the




     law th:t the Central Government can tupplement parts of




     the following costs with subsidies:




          i.   Costs on the installation of domestic waste




               treatment plants




         ii.   Costs on the disposal of wjstes arising from




               calamities.




          It is stipulated that a subsidy can be provided for a




     sum equal to one-third or less of the  cost incurred on the




     installation of an excreta treatment plant or one-fourth




     or less of the cost incurred on the installation of a refuse




     treatment plant relating to  i. above,  and a sum equal to a




     half or less of ii. above.




          The Central Government  subsidy system was initiated for




     the installation of excreta  treatment  plants in 1953 when




     Japan was stalemated in dealing with the excreta treatment




     problem, but subsidies for the installation of refuse incineration




     plants began to be provided  as lately  as 1963.





                               25

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                    You will see the annual expenditures by the municipalities




               on the construction of waste treatment plants since fiscal




               1968 by their revenue sources in Table 1-1-5.






             Table 1-1-5   Annual Expenditures by th^ Municipalities
on the Construction of
Waste Treatment
Plants by Revenue Sources (million yen)
Activities
Fiscal 1967:
Subsidized
Independent
lotal
Fiscal 1969:
Subsidized
Independent
Total
Fiscal 1970:
Subsidized:
Independent
Total
Expd. (c/c-
settled
basis )
(23.6?,)
5,647
(76.4%)
18,235
(100. Ox)
23,886
(31.0%)
8,550
(69.0%)
19,003
(100.0%)
27,553
(29.3%)
11,829
(70.7%)
28,483
(100.0%)
40,312
RevenjB Source
Central
Gov. Sub-
sidies
(12.3%)
692
692
(10.5%)
898
(3.3%)
898
(12.6%)
1,493
(3.7%)
1,493
Pref .
Gov.
Subsi-
dies
(4.5%)
256
(2.0%)
356
(2.9%)
612
(3.9%)
334
(1.6%)
309
(2.3%)
643
(3.3%)
390
(1.6%)
448
(2.1%)
838
*luni —
^ipal
bonds
(58.1%)
3,283
(47.6%)
8,685
(50.1%)
11,968
(56.5%)
4,835
(37.6%)
7,152
(43.5%)
11,987
(54.5%)
6,447
(45.5%)
12,957
(48.1%)
19,404
Other
Sp.
Sources
(4.5%)
252
(13.0%)
2,373
(11.0%)
2,625
(7.0%)
595
(8.6%)
1,633
(8.1%)
2,228
(3.7%)
438
(6.0%)
1,724
(5.4%)
2,162
Taxes ,
Imposts
(20.6%)
1,164
(37.4%)
6^825
(33.4%)
7,989
(22.1%)
1,888
(52.2%)
9,909
(42.8%)
11,797
(25.9%)
3,061
(46.9%)
13,354
(40.7%)
16,415
Note:  Figures in parentheses are distribution  ratios.




Source:  Ministry of Home Affairs
                                         26

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     As can be observed in this "table, the waste treatment




expenditures for fiscal 1970 on an account-settled basis




totaled 11,800 million yen, of which 1,500 million yen was




for Central Government subsidies with the ratio of provided




subsidies to costs incurred on the irstallation of refuse




treatment plants being 12.6 percent IT less than one-fourth




or the veiling etipulated for a subr:.dy for tefuse treatment




plant i istallation.




     It is necessary that the financial overburn of the




municipalities should be alleviated \y expanding the range




of tragats of subsidization and diversifying subsidized activities,




b.   Municipal Bonds




     A .jreat deal of capital must be invested at once in the




installation of a domestic waste treatment plant, and as




a sourca of revenue for this, the muricipality is authorized




to issue bonds.




     Targets of bond issuance are, besides plant installation,




the purchase and development of construction sites and those




for disposal of incombustibles by landfilling (including




embankment works),  and the purchase or repurchase of waste




collection vehicles.




     Annual municipal bond issues since fiscal 1967 are shown




in Table 1-1-6.
                          27

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          Table 1-1-6  Annual Municipal Bend Issues

Fiscal
Year
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971

Value of
Authct ized
Bor.ds
9,087
11,275
10.7CO
15,940
33,0(0
(million yens)
Subscribed b
Central Gov. Cc
8,351
9,495
9,722
11,928
22,000

Other
nnections
736
1,480
978
3,644
11,000

Local
Allocation
Bonds

300

368

        (estimated)




Note:  Bonds issued for waste collection vehicles are excluded.




       Source:  Ministry of Home Affairs






          The authorized bond values leveled off from fiscal




     1967 to fiscal 1969, but made a sweeping increase in fiscal




     1970, and later were on the increase.




          As is clear in Table 1-1-5, -the weight of the average




     annual value of revenues for construction activities against




     the value of expenditures on an account-settled basis is about




     50 percent or the heaviest of the  values of all revenues, and




     this evidences that the construction revenues are important




     in the municipal finance.




          To look into the specific revenue sources of municipal




     bond issue, the Central Government subsidies, though annually




     on the increase, are leveling off.  Generally speaking, interest




     on publicly subscribed bonds is higher than interest on




     Government-subscribed bonds, and the former bonds are to be



                               28

-------
 repaid in a short  period  of  time.   It  cannot  be said  that




 this is a trend  favorable to the municipalities.   It  is




 import; nt for  curbing  the trend to  olitain  low-interest




 capital,  to extend the repayment perr'.od, and  to expand the




 range cf target  activities of bond  issuance.




 c.    Tl-e Local Allocation Tax




      The local allocation tax is a  kind of grant-in-aid




 from tie Central Government  for financial adjustment  and




 assistance in  the  elevation  of municipal administration to




 the  standard level.  The  tax is delivered to  a  municipality




 when its  standard  financial  revenue (measured in the  estimated




 value of  local taxes to be collected by objective  standards)




 so as to  offset  the balance.




      The  local allocation tax within the category  of  general




 revenue sources, can be appropriated for any use by the




 municipality without restraints, and is significant in that




 the  tax guarantees the effective and efficient  use of revenue




 sources because  it can be  appropriated for any  administrative



 accounts.




 d.    Fees




      It is  stipulated in Paragraph  6, Article 6 of the Wastes




 Treatment Law  that the municipality can charge  fees, as provided




 for by  law, concerning the collection and disposal of domestic



wastes.   '     '  '      	'
                          29

-------
     At present about 70 percent of the Japanese municipalities




collect fees for waste collection, but many municipalities are




going to abolish them,  By and large,  fees are charged on a




great quantity of wastes discharged by establishments, while




domestic refuse is collected free of charge.  Most municipalities




charge £ees on the collection of excreta.




     Concerning the computation of fees, many municipalities




compute them per household for domestic wastes, while fees for




wastes discharged by establishments are specifically computed




by attributes of such wastes.




     Thare are extreme views for and against the collection of




fees.  The basic provision for fee collection is Paragraph 1,




Article 227 of the Local Autonomy Lav.  According to the




provision, "the ordinary municipality  can collect fees, according




to its Drdinance concerning waste collection service, for the




types o£ service provided to specified persons."  In the past, an




area for which waste treatment service was provided was limited,




and it ;an be said that it was the "service provided to specified




individuals," but in the Wastes Treatment Law it is stipulated




that such an area in entirety is required to treat wastes.




Besides this, the administrative activity of waste treatment is




the basic activity most closely associated with the residents'




everyday life of all the administrative activities.  In view of




this, it has been contended that fees  chargeable on households
                          30

-------
     should be paid out of taxes, and the concept that fees should




     be paid by the beneficiary is losing its influence and going




     to take the back seat.




          It is maintained, however,  by sone that it is essential




     for the control of wastes to collect :~ees for their transportation




     at the responsibility of those who discharge them.




          It is believed, after all,  that judgment should be passed




     on the -views for and against fee collection at the discretion




     of each municipality by considering its objective situation.






                         *     *     *




                            *     *




Note 1:




     Types of waste are stipulated by the Cabinet Order, which are:




     1.   Wa&te paper discharged by:   prod icers of pulp, paper, or




          paper-processed products, newspaper publishers (restricted




          by the use of paper rolls), publishers (restricted to those




          engaged in the book-binding or printed-matter processing




          industry.




     2.   Wood dust discharged by producers of lumber or wood products




          (including furniture makers), those engaged in pulp




          production or wholesalers of imported lumber.




     3.   Waste fabrics discharged by those engaged in the textile




          industry (except the production of garments and other




          textile products).
                              31

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     4.   Useless objects in solid waste relating to animals




          or vegetables used as raw materials by producers of




          fo>ds, medicines, or aromatics.




     5.   Watite rubber




     6.   Me:al dust




     7.   Glass or ceramic dust




     8.   Slags or dross




     9.   Concrete fragments or similar useless objects derived




          from the removal of buildings an} structures.




    10.   Animal excreta (restricted to those relating to stock-




          breeding or agriculture).




    11.   Carcases (restricted to those relating to stock-breeding).




    12.   Sm ike and soot discharged at plaits discharging smoke and




          soot, as stipulated in Paragraph 2, Article 2 of the




          Air Pollution Control Law (1968, Law No.  97), and collected




          by dust collectors.




Note 2:




     Article 2 of the Cabinet Order provides for standards on the




designation of regions which are not required to treat domestic waste,




and according to the provision, regions to be designated as such are




blocs of the municipality (a city, town,  or village)  with no more




than 50 households.
                              32

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           1-2  LOCATION OF TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL FACILITIES




                 (Chiefly on an example in Tokyo Metropolis)






1-2-1  Policies fsr Waste Treatment Plant Location




     1)   Characteristics of Tokyo Metropolis




          Tokyo Metropolis has a markedly different character from that




     of other Japanese cities, and in locating waste treatment plants




     in the metropolis, we must consider its cl aracteristic traits,




     which are:




         (D    It has a large population (whicl  stood at 8,810,000 as




          of February 1972) in a narrow district (which is 577 km.




          wide and was divided into 23 "special wards" in the status of




          city as of 1972) .




         (2)    It is along Tokyo Bay into which flow many rivers and




          riverlets after running through it.




         (D    It has various industries which discharge quantities of




          waste £.nd pollutants.




         ©    It: has a complex system of various transportation methods,




         (D    It is a megapolis comprising 23 "special wards" enjoying




          the status of city.




     2)   The Present Structure of Waste Treatment




         (D    The Waste Treatment System of Tokyo




               The present waste treatment system of Tokyo Metropolis




          is diagrammed as follows:
                                   33

-------
  KV'.v.erva--  Collec-
  tion     ~~tio:i
                    TrcuiGpor-
                    "tatjon
      -iTrtc'.t.-nent— Final  Disposal

                                  of
 -r- Final Dispose

  I—Regeneration
    Wastes as Re-
    sources
                                   	—>Selc-ctive Col-
                                                 lection  of Use-
                                                 ful Materials
       s—v
       (2  '.['rc--.tr:icnt  Methods

     *  iKmcotic Wastes
    Wastes
              ration
  went
  Derived
  V.'astc-s
   Wastes  xunipcd
   Onto Hi;'\v-an -
                    [•- Combustibles •-— -t->fTiacin-
                  --H ;• Incoiiibustiblcs,   j   eration
                    "~  , r.   ,    -     'l-'iV L^	
                       CJrectories   I  \;
                                 Partial  !!. Pulver
                     tiblc
    Pulveri -
    nation
  H Ivors
            ;i:.;hc:c •-
ization
                                                         Land
                                                         Filling
  Industrial  V/astes	->| Yar.ious  Intermediate
                         Treatment  Processes
   V.';.:yto Oil
\
Plastics
                                            	.>[Jyuici Filling,
                                                Dumping Into
                                                the  Sea
                        /Integrated  Treatment     \
                        /       Plants              \
V/actc Ojl

Sludge

Plastics
                                           Treatment
                                           Plants

-------
3)   Locating Conditions for Incineration Plants




     (p   Total Incineration of Combustible Domestic Wastes




          Dcuestic wastes discharged in 1)71 in Tokyo totaled




     around 4,200,000 metric tons, 82% of which was accounted for




     by combustible wastes.  There are liiiits to landfilling in




     Tokyo Bay, and in order to make the :lost effective use of the




     landfilling potential of the bay in  i long period of time,




     the volume of matters used for landf111ing must be reduced to




     a minis urn.




          For this purpose, incineration  Ls the most suitable means,




     and it is considered technically possible to take measures,




     though various difficulties are involved, to control exhausted




     soot, smoke, waste water, noise, and other public hazards




     caused by incineration.




     (2)   Inside-Ward Self-Treatment Principle




          The individual special wards of Tokyo have the independent




     authority and responsibility of administration as the cities,




     and must strongly seek the citizens' cooperation and take to




     the self-waste-treatment principle.




          This is the basic policy for the location of incineration




     plants in Tokyo.




     (3)   Equal Plant Allocation Principle




          Some public facilities are favorably accepted by the




     citizens, while others are not.  Incineration plants are in
                              35

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 the latter  category  of  facilities, but most be  equally




 allocated to  all  the 23 wards  of  Tokyo.




{£)    Highway  Traffic Congestion




      Highway  traffic in and  around Tokyo  is immensely




 congested,  and  the congestion  is  all  the  more aggrevated




 by  the  increase of refuse  transportation  vehicles.




      Thare  is little hope  that the traffic condition will




 turn foe the  better  in  the foreseeable future,  and  there is




 no  choice but to  regionally  grasp th;. time and  other factors




 causing  the condition and  to stagger  work shifts  for refuse




 transportation  cars.  Consideration trust  also be  given to




 the location  of waste treatment plants lest highway traffic




 be  impeded  by ill-located  plants.




(5)    Refuse Concentration  Distribution Among the  Wards




      Frequency  distribution  must  be worked out  relating to




 the concentration of refuse  in all the 23 wards and in each




 of  them  in  order  to  locate as  many incineration plants as




 possible where  the concentration  is comparatively intense.




©    Acquisition  of  Plant  Sites




      A space  40 to 45 square meters wide  is needed  for refuse




 treatment by  incineration  per  ton per diem (24  working hours),




 and if environmental adjustment and reforms are taken  into




 account, a  minimum 20,000-square-meter-wide site  must  be




 acquired for  installing the  smallest-scale incineration plant.
                          36

-------
(7)    Great-Sphere Adjustment Principle

      The inside-ward  self-treatment principle must  apply to

 waste licineration, and concerning tha types  of wastes  for

 incineration to which the principle is not applicable or those

 for whi;h extraordinary processes  must be used, Tokyo Metropolis

 is  required to adjust the scale  and arrangement of  incineration

 and relay sites for all the  23 wards.   The metropolis is also

 required to execute the final disposal of wastes discharged by

 the individual wards  by landfilling cr by the dumping of them

 into the sea.   This is the great-sphere adjustment  principle.

(8)    Consideration to be Taken for Pollution  Control

      Pollution measures must be  taken  against:

      a.    Exhausted gases
                               Air pollutants
      b.    Smoke and soot

      c.    Waste water

      d.    Noise

      e.    Offensive odors

      f.    Concentrated passage of  waste collection  and

      transportation vehicles.

(9)    City Remodeling

      Incineration plants are not welcomed by  the citizens in

 general.   In addition to the control of the items described in

(8)above,  such  plants  must be made  attractive  and pleasing to the
                          37

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 citizens by city remodeling or by surrounding the plants with




 green belts or parks and other environmental reforms.




 @   Operational Efficiency of Incineration Plants




      Considering the construction and  operating costs to be




 incurred by incineration plants,  the difficulties of retaining




 engineers and technicians in employment,  the earthquake-resisting




 capacities of plant buildings, and other  factors affecting the




 operational efficiency of the plants,  a per-plant incineration




 capacity must be determined.  Based en the capacity and also in




 consideration of the conditions mentioned in(T) to (9)above, a




 justifiable arrangement of all incineration plants for  the




 metropolis must be worked out.




 (11)   Other Conditions for Site Location




      Incineration sites must be located also by considering




 necessary working hours for waste collection and transportation




 distances to and from the sites.




 Policie.3 for Plant Design and Construction




(X)    In'-.ineration Plants




      a.    Planning for Plant Allocation




           i.    In principle,  incineration plants must be




           established in all the  wards.




           ii.   Considering some wards  are not capable of




           constructing incineration plants,  the  metropolis
                          38

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     must plan for a fair allocation of such plants




     in the interest of all the wards.




    iii.  A region within the rzdium of around 2.5 km,




     of each incineration plant will be designated as




     the waste collection area.




b.   Location of Each Plant




     Each incineration plant will be located to face a




tiunk highway or where an access road to the plant can




b« constructed.




c.   Area Requirement for Each Construction Site




     The space required for incineration per ton per




d.iem (24 working hours) is 40 to 45 square meters, and




at area covering at least 20,000 square meters (1 square




mf ter = 9 square feet, 180,000 square feet ** 4 acres)




must be acquired as the site for constructing the smallest




ir.cineration plant.




     An additional area for making the environment of such




a site attractive may be acquired according to circumstances.




d.   Incineration Plant Layout




     An incineration plant will be laid out so as to have




its inlet and outlet entrances kept separate with a




spacious parking lot so as not to congest traffic on the




truck highway by which the plant will be flanked.
                     39

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e.   Maintenance of Utility'Spaces




     An incineration plant will be designed and constructed




so as to maintain necessary and sufficient utility spaces




for water, electric, gas and other services.




f.   Pollution Control




     Discharged noxious matters will be controlled, to




the best advantage of available science and technology,




so as to conform to at least thf  standards stipulated by




related law and ordinances.  Th«  control of some matters




wiM be aimed, where possible, £t sealing down their




contents to half the stipulated standard values.  The




discharge of possibly noxious matters for which no control




standards are established will te controlled when such




equipment is available.




g.   Uses of Heat by Incineration




     i.   Power generation:  Electric power generated by




     the use of heat produced by  incineration will be




     self-supplied by the plant,  and surplus power, if




     any, will be supplied to an  electric power company.




     ii.  Heating:  Heat produced by incineration will




     be used for room and water heating in the plant,




     and if possible, for area heating for the benefit of




     the neighboring public utilities.

-------
h.   Prior-Treatment of Combustible Big Refuse




     For this purpose, pulverization machines will be




ins. tailed.




i.   Reservation Capacity Adjustment




     The refuse and the residual ash reservation capacity




of a plant will be large enough l:o reserve such ash for




more than three days, and ash shipment facilities will




be established.




j.   Structures Made Earthquake-^roof




     Large structures of a plant will be made aseismatic




so as to withstand the standard seismic intensity of 0.4,




as stipulated in the Architectural Standards Law.  (The




Kauto earthquake of 1921 was on the same intensity level.)




     In addition to the locating conditions for incineration




plants, as mentioned in the preceding sections, basic




conditions for plant design and construction must be




considered, which are:




k.   Operations conducted in a plant will be serialized




around each furnace so that breakdown or shutdown in one




furnace will not affect the work of the whole plant.



1.   Equipment for a plant will be designed and constructed




for safety ensurance and operational efficiency promotion,




and must have pleasing appearances and contribute toward




labor saving.

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Relay Facilities




a.   Primary Relay Facilities




     Relay facilities used where no incineration




plant is available will include a large freight boat




for waste transportation to a nearby incineration




pL.nt and for great-shere waste ireatment, and an




intermediate treatment plant for incombustible and




re: ractory refuse.




b.   Secondary Relay Facilities




     The aim of secondary relay facilities is to




facilitate waste collection and transportation in a




large incineration plant or a wide waste collection




ar.»a.




     The above-mentioned policies for the design




and construction of relay facilities will be implemented




for incineration plants accordingly when the policies can




be implemented for the incineration planst.




Land-Filling Sites




     In a site designated for land filling, the wastes




described in 2, 2) above, such as residual ashes, incombustibles,




and refractories, will be dumped.




     Policies for the design and construction of landfilling




sites will be considered by taking into account, besides




the use of such sites for long-distance waste transportation




through a submerged tunnel, the maintenance of the standards





                     42

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               stipulated in the Cabinet Order and the Ministerial




               Ordinance concerning air and set water pollution control




               during and after site construce on.




         (£)    Industrial Waste Treatment Plants




                    The aim of industrial wastf treatment plants is to




               trsat wastes discharged by meditm and small enterprises.




                    As for policies for this,  'he policies for incineration




               plants will be implemented acco. dingly concerning pollution




               coitrol, but policies for other aspects are now under




               study.




1-2-2  Methods and Problems of Waste Treatment: Site Selection




     1)   Conditions for Site Selection




         (T)         A waste treatment site must  meet the designing and




               construction conditions describid in 4),  1-2-1 above




               concerning the location, area,  vaste transportation inlets




               and outlets of such a site.




         (2)         Such a site must meet the  conditions described in




               2-1-3 above concerning the location, area, traffic, etc.




               of the site in the city planning aspects.




     2)   The Procedure of Site Selection




               Steps in the procedure of selecting a waste treatment




          site are:  to name alternative sites to be selected which




          will meet the conditions described in 1) above by taking into




          account such additional conditions as the timing of their
                                    A3

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     acquisition and whether there are properties to be removed




     or transferred, and on the basis of a judgment made on all




     the corditions in a comprehensive m£.iner, to conduct nego-




     tiations with each ward, the ward assembly, and representatives




     of various walks of life in the ward (local resident repre-




     sentatives will be included if a concrete site in the locality




     is proposed by the metropolis).  Sue!" steps taken, one of




     the alternatives will be selected at the decision of the metro-




     polis > and the section will be authorized in view of city




     plannirg, and be announced.




3)   Problens of Site Selection




    (3^    Wt ste Transportation Vehicles




               Vehicles must be used for ', aste transportation,




          bit the passage of such vehicles  carrying filthy and




          useless matters is a problem in itself.




    (2)    Local Residents




               As noted earlier, one characteristics trait of




          Tokyo Metropolis is that it has a large population in a




          narrow district, and the involvement of local residents




          in a waste treatment site is unavoidable.  (Even if a




          land-filling tract where no people live is selected for




          such a site, the involvement of local residents in the




          site is unavoidable in the form of waste passage by highways




          leading to the site, and here again the concentrated passage




          of wastes through densely-populated quarters is a problem.)






                              44

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                    Because of (l) and (2)above, it becomes an important




               problem to obtain the consent of local residents concerning




               th'i passage of wastes through t.l eir living quarters and




               the location of a waste treatment site there.




                    The local residents reasonably understand that a




               waute treatment plant is indispensible with them,  but are




               prone to emotionally oppose waste treatment itself because




               of their vague anxiety about aii  and water pollution and




               triffic congestion which can be caused be waste treatment.




               It is thus difficult to obtain their consent on the construction




               of a waste treatment site and tie concentration passage of




               vehicles for treatment and transportation.




                    For resolution of the difficulty, it goes without




               saying that pollution control measures, as will be described




               in 1-2-3 below, must satisfactorily be taken to allay their




               anxiety about pollution and that endeavors must be made to




               have the citizens promote their understanding of and their




               consciousness of sharing the responsibility of waste treatment.






1-2-3  Pollution Control Measures for Waste Treatment Plants




     1)   Prologue




               Pollution problems which are invariably raised concerning




          the establishment of waste treatment plants are air and water




          Pollution, noise, vibration,  and offensive odors, and it is




          considered highly possible,  in view of the present level of

-------
     control techniques,  to scale down the present values of noise,




     vibration, and offensive odor,  below the stipulated standard




     values   Here we would like to  discu .s only air and water




     pollution.




2)   Air Pollution Control Measures




          Maiy Japanese cities have  adopted the incineration method




     for was:e treatment  because by  the method the dimensions of




     waste can be reduced, and Tokyo Metropolis is aiming at




     realiziig the total  incineration of combustible refuses dis-




     charged under its jurisdiction.




          Anung the gases exhausted  by waste incineration,  those




     which mainly cause air pollution are smoke, soot,  sulfuric




     oxide, aydrogen chloride, and other noxious matters.   Such large




     cities as Tokyo must take all-around measures, in  view of their




     locating conditions, against environmental destruction.




          Concerning smoke and soot  of the. above-mentioned  causes




     of air pollution, it is possible to scale down their concentration




     below the stipulated standard value, for example,  to 0.05 g/Nm




     by the installation  of electric and other effective dust collectors,




          Concerning sulfuric oxide, because of the fact that sulfur




     content in wastes is low (the average content in the refuse




     analyzed by Tokyo Metropolis in fiscal 1971 was 0.05%)  and by




     such means as induction of the  air dispersion technique, it  is




     now possible to scale down its  concentration far below the

-------
stipulated standard value (O.Q05vp.p.m. of the ground level




concentration).




     Thr recent development of the pe trochemical industry




has spread the use of plastic products, but this is a big




problem in waste treatment.  The plastic content of wastes




discharged in Tokyo as of 1970 was 1C per cent, nearly one-




fourth of which was accounted for by vinyl chloride, the main




cause o: hydrogen chloride gas.




     However, the content of hydroger chloride in the gasses




exhausted from incineration plants has been reduced, by the




improvenent of their designs, below C.05 p.p.m. of the ground




level concentration or one-hundredth of the value recommended




for safety and sanitation.




     Ev«m so it is necessary, in viet of the increasing diversi-




fication of refuse including plastic refuse, that studies should




be made on other methods of treating hydrogen chloride gas.




     Some of the methods have been completed in the efficiency




testing stage, and still some are in the feasibility testing




stage, but it is necessary that the methods including those for




the selective treatment of plastics should be brought to the




testing stage for commercialization.  In such large cities as




Tokyo, more high-rise buildings will come out, and waste treatment




plants, if ill located, will not produce their expected effects

-------
     of dispersing exhausted gases into the air.  In plant location,




     the geographical and meteorological conditions must be taken




     into co isideration, and feasibility r.tudies must be conducted,




     as was lone in some cases,  by testing, with mock-ups and wind




     tunnels,  and other testing  tools.




3)   Water Pollution Control Measures




          Concerning the control of pollu .ed water discharged from




     waste treatment plants, it  is believ id that there will be no




     problem because it is possible to  tace effective measures for




     the control of other pollutants than those of heavy metals.




     Among the metals contained  in pollut id water from such plants




     are copper, chrome, cadmium,  lead, zinc, and manganese which




     are exuded from residual ash, flyash, and refuse.  Concerning




     them it. is believable that  no small influence is exerted by




     stabilizers and metals used as pigments in the production process




     of plastics.




          Standards on the discharge of the noxious metals in polluted




     water are established in the  Environaental Quality Standards on




     Water Pollution, the Water  Pollution Control Law, and




     the Sev/erage Law, and it is further provided for that the




     standards can be set higher by a prefectural ordinance.




          Various technical methods of  metal treatment have been




     developed, but there still  is room for doubting whether the
                              48

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methods are really useful for the reduction of metal




concentrations which have already been brought down below




the stimulated standard values.  It li not required urgently




to study and develop techniques for the elimination or




stabilisation of heavy metals, and to resolve the problem




of controlling underground and sea wa:er pollution in the




disposa.". of incombustible and refractory wastes by landfilling




or by tlie dumping of them into the sei.

-------
      1-3  RECRUITMENT OF PERSONNEL IN CHARGE OF WASTES TREATMENT
           AND OTHERS (Chiefly on an example in Kawasaki City)
1-3-1  Present Conditions on the Personnel in Charge of Wastes Treatment

     In order to rianage wastes treatment work efficiently it is very

important that th«j material and personnel systens have been fully secured

and synthetically maintained.  From the management and technical point of

view, wastes treating enterprise shall need tbt  improvement of operation

method, mechaniza :ion of transporting vehicles and adjustment of facilities.

However, efficiency on the material side is steadily going on.  But more

vitally important is the measure for the persornel side.  Of course we

can't think lightly of it when the shortage of labor force is getting

severer.

     The condition of the personnel in charge cf wastes treatment works

directly run by municipalities is shown in Tab!e 1-3-1.  Conditions of

personnel in charge of wastes treatment (1970)


                              Table 1-3-1

Personnel
engaged in
both sections.
Personnel in
charge of
night-soil .
Personnel in
charge of
wastes.
Total
Official
4,036
6,177
10,913
21,126
Employe
922
5,304
13,724
19,950
Regular
Labor
648
5,525
19,630
25,803
Irregular
Labor
109
1,249
11,359
12,717
Total
5,715
18,255
55,626
79,596
             (Surveyed by Ministry of Health and Welfare)
                                   50

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     In order to proceed smoothly with the-wastes disposal work, under




the good understanding of the citizens the labor management of this




personnel should he bright and rational, their character should be promoted




and their safety labor management should be cor.ducted, then their operational




efficiency would be highly promoted.  As you find in Table 1-3-1 the fact




that 38,520(48%) of 79,596 in charge of the wastes and night-soil disposal




are temporary employees, it is an urgent problem for them to get their




guarantee of statis established.  Concerning rl e security of these personnel




in charge and th<=ir labor management, those in Kawasaki City shall be taken




up as a model city and explained in Part 1-3-2,




     Article 21 o.c the Wastes Disposal Law pre? cribes that a technical




controller shall be posted assigned to the tecl nical work relating the




maintenance and m magement of domestic wastes treating plants and his




qualification to his post is provided with the. Ministry Ordinance of the




said Law.  As a means of acquiring this qualification it is characteristic




that the Japan Environmental Sanitation Center a foundation juridical




person is engaged in educational training for the qualification examination




on a private basis.




     Again, Article 20 of the Wastes Disposal Law prescribes that prefec-




tures or cities that have health centers shall have environmental sanitation




inspectors and let them lead the work relating wastes disposal and their




qualification is prescribed by the Ministry Ordinance of the said Law.  It




is urgent to secure environmental sanitation inspectors who have heavy
                                    51
                                                                    •tip-

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responsibility of leading environmental sanitation relating domestic wastes

as well as industrial ones.


1-3-2  Structure  >f Personnel in Charge of Wastes Disposal.

      Kawasaki Ci:y, lying between Tokyo and Yckohama Cities, has the

population of 1 million (298 thousand householcs), the area of 136 km^.

The reclaimed are.i along the sea front of the ilat land is the center

of Keihin industrial region with a large numbei  of modern factories,

while the hilly area has been urbanized into a great residential quarters

and since April 1, 1973 it has been made a "de; ignated city."*

     The number 01. the personnel in connection with wastes disposal is

1,453 in all, who are positively tackling with wastes disposal administration

in its various fields (everyday collection of Domestic wastes, road cleansing,

regular night-soil collection, septic tank cleansing, guidance of industrial

wastes disposal, etc.).  Its personnel can be classified by the kinds of

works:

     Office personnel:  their principal works are personnel,

               administration and clerical work.

               210, 14.5%

     Technical personnel:   their principal works are to maintain

               and operate the equipments.

               158, 10.9%
* A city with the population of more than a million.  Given competence
  nearly as much as a prefecture by law.  There are 10 designated cities
  including Tokyo, Osaka, ... in Japan.
                                    52

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     Field personnel:  Their principal works are to collect,




               transport and dispose wastes.




               I,'i85, 74.7%




     Technical personnel (drivers, etc.)  513




     Working personnel (collection workers, etc.)  572






     As for their education, almost all the field workers are graduates




of compulsory education course, while among office workers 210,170 are




university or hig'i school graduates.  Technical personnel are all university




and high school g-aduates, graduates of technical courses such as veterinary




medicine, electricity, chemistry, machinery, etc.  There are a large number




of legally qualified persons in the city offices to be appointed to




environmental sanitation inspectors and technical operators of domestic




wastes disposal facilities, both of which appointments are legalized by




the law relating the wastes disposal and public cleansing.  At present, 161




environmental sanitation inspectors, consisting of 116 of technical personnel




and 45 of clerical personnel are working.  Again, technical operators are




posted at all the necessary facilities.  Besides, various technicians




necessary for the maintenance and operation of facilities, such as senior




electric technicians, senior high-pressured gas operators, senior boiler-




turbin technicians and various license-holders such as boiler operators,




crane drivers, car drivers, maintenance supervisors, navigators, marine




engineers, wireless operators and others whose works are licensed or




legalized are all posted at necessary places.  It is clear that the
                                    53

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mechanization of treatment facilities and the enlargement of machines and




apparatus will need more and more technical personnel, and consequently




the importance of technical personnel will grow more and more, and their




share in the total personnel will be sure to increase.




     Next, the respective numbers of the personnel of the administrative




and operating depjrtments, and the ratio between the two:




     Administrative department:  87, 6%




     Operating department:    1,366, 94%




          a.   Relating the collection work:  1 013, 69.7%




               Relating the wastes:  544, 37.4%




               Relating the night-soil:  469, 32.3%




               (At the same office personnel work for the both, the




               nur.ber is halved and posted.)




          b.   Relating the treatment and disposal work:  353, 24.3%




               Relating the wastes:  247, 17%




               Relating the night-soil:  106, 7.3%




                    The total number of the personnel in charge of the




               refuse is 791, 7.3%.




                    The total number of the personnel in charge of the




               night-soil is 575, 39.6%.




                    Most of the personnel are engaged in the collection,




               transport and disposal operation.




                    Finally, their age structure, the length of. their




               service, and their average ages are shown in the




               attached Table 1-3-2, 1-3-3,





                                    54

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  Table 1-3-2.  Work-wise age structural table
                (as of Oct. 1, 1972)
Work ^"""•"•^^
Office

personnel
Technical
personnel

Field
perso-
nnel

Total
technical

clerical



-29
years
old
81
5.61%
111
7.6%
54
3.7%
101
7.0%
347
23.9%
30-39
years
old
51
3.5%
33
2.3%
241
16.6%
259
17.8%
584
40.1%
40-49
years
eld
41
2.8%
n
0.8%
179
12.3%
1*6
11 . 4%
3i'7
27,3%
50-60
years
old
37
2.5%
3
0.2%
39
2.7%
46
3.2%
125
8.7%

Total

210
14.5%
158
10.9%
513
35.3%
572
39.4%
1,453
100%
Table 1-3-3.
Average working years and average
(as of Oct. 1, 1972)
^"~""~---~^_Years, age
Kinds of work ~~~— _^
Clerical
personnel
Technical
personnel
Field technical
work
personnel clerical
Average
Working Years;
12 years 2 months
5 years 8 months
8 years 9 months
7 years 7 months
8 years 6 months
Average Age
36 years 9 months
28 years 7 months
39 years 2 months
38 years 2 months
37 years 5 months
                        55

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               The'.ir average ages are Increasing year by year and




               especially in the case of the field workers, their average




               ag • will soon be fifties.  Moreover, the renewal of




               personnel seldom occurs.  (In 1971 the rate of new




               employment, 0.9%; the rate of those who left their posts




               in that year, 0.3%).  As for the succeeding personnel,




               though having tried hard to fill the vacancies, most of




               tli i applicants are late in their thirties due to the




               peculiarity of the work itself.  This is a big problem to




               be settled in the future.  Howevar, there is no retirement




               ag-2 for public servants, but in this city when an official




               gets to 60 years old, he will be advised to retire and




               tlose who answer this city's request will be given




               specially favored treatment as to their retirement money.




               Therefore, there is no person above 60 years old who is




               now working.






1-3-3  Training of Related Personnel




     The training of the personnel of Kawasaki City Office is conducted




with a noble object, namely, "trainees should personally acquire the spirit




of public services and receive sound commonsense, necessary knowledge and




technics enough to exercise appropriate and proper administration."  Under




this principle various trainings and lecture courses are conducted.
                                    56

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1)   Training for Office and Technical Personnel




    Q)   Cultural Training for New Employees




          Tie object of this training is to give newly employed




     personnel and those other than the city officials instructions




     on the outline of their work and at the same time let them




     cultivete their morality and coramensc-nse as the bureau personnel,




    (2)   Ci Itural Training for the Preset t Personnel




          Tl is training makes it its object for the officials




     except: ng those in administrative posts to be drilled in




     administrative work and to cultivate their knowledge, morality




     and coi monsense.  Clerical work training, finance and accounting




     work training, despatched training at: the Autonomy University




     and thi- like are some of the city training programs.




    (3)   Ci Itural Training for Personnel in Administrative Posts




          This training makes it its object for administrative




     personnel to polis up necessary morality, fully learn the




     complete administrative work enough to lead and control their




     subordinates and cultivate their character and discernment.




     A.special training for bureau directors, department chiefs,  and




     section chiefs is one of many programs.




    (5)   Lecture Courses and Others




          The city office invites authorities on current topics,




     politics, economics and others or men of learning and experience
                               57

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     to give lectures to the city office personnel so that they




     may cultivate their commonsense.  The city occasionally opens




     lecture courses with the intention of leeting the city office




     personnel cultivate their commonsense.




2)   Special Training for Technical Personnel




          In case of the Cleansing Bureau, due to its specific




     nature of work, the bureau sends their technical personnel




     to varijus lecture meetings and trailing courses with the




     object >f acquiring the knowledge anc technics necessary to




     maintain, control and operate the facilities.  The wastes




     disposal facilities technical controJers' qualifying examination




     training course, the despatched trailing at the National




     Institute of Public Health, the industrial measurement training




     course, the high-pressure gas operat:ng foreman's qualifying




     examination preparatory couse and others are some of the examples,




     and the knowledge acquired at these training courses has been




     of great use to their actual works.  Necessary expenses for




     attending these courses and meetings are all defrayed by the




     city.




3)   Training for Field Working Personnel




          Various training courses are conducted under the auspices




     of the Cleansing Bureau for field working personnel to strengthen




     their self-consciousness and responsibility as public servants,




     give necessary knowledge and technics for their actual works and




     acquire the gist of safety operation.  The training for newly






                               58

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          employed personnel, the cultural'training courses for the




          leading personnel, the operational foremen's training for




          supervij ing personnel (operational f c tremen) , the training




          for giving new knowledge necessary due to the development of




          works, the training for fully understanding the working policy,




          the traffic law and safety operation courses, and cultural




          courses for cultivating general commcnsense and heightening




          cultura . insight are some of the cour ses sponsored by the




          City,  "hey are all aiming at the character improvement of the




          personnel and carried on systematically and continuously.






1-3-4  On the Measures Relating the Acquirement of Related Personnel




     The work of wastes disposal is of high discomfort index under a bad




environmental condition and excepting partially mechanized parts, of simply




heavy labor.  In order to let them put their heart into such a socially




disliked work and positively work for it, the city authority should offer




the related personnel more inviting terms than others in respect of the




guarantee of status, working conditions, welfare and benefits.




     1)   Guarantee of Status




          In case of Kasasaki City, all the personnel are the regular




     personnel of the city office (city officials) including those field




     workers, and those who serve the city for more than 20 years shall




     be entitled to receive annuity based on the Local Government Personnel




     Mutual Benefits Association Law.  The life after their retirement can




     be secured fairly well, though not sufficiently.
                                    59

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2)   Working Conditions               "    0




    (T)    Salaries and Wages




          Tfca biggest cause of labor troutles in our country is




     the waga problem, which shows the greatest concern for workers




     is their pay.  Meanwhile, the settlement of the basic pay of




     the municipal personnel is a little different from that of




     private enterprises.  Free mass negotiations between labor




     and capital are limited in our case.  Consequently to make




     pays attractive, there is no other means than depending on the




     pays otier than the basic pays (various allowances).  Putting




     aside t.ie problem whether it is right or not to depend on extra




     allowables, out of the total pays of the Cleansing Bureau of




     Kawasaki City about 32% is from extra allowances.  (This is a




     general tendency in common throughout Japan.)  Attached Table




     1-3-4 s'.iows an actual example of the pay structure and from this




     table w<3 can see that special duties allowances occupy a large




     share in extra allowances.
                               60

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        Table 1-3-4.  Wage structure of Kawasaki City

                  Cleansing Bureau Personnel

         (As of Oct. 1972, all personnel :n average)
     Name

Basic pay

Adjustment allowance

Family allowance

Special duty allowance

Overtime wor':
  allowance

Commutation allowance

Total
Monthly Amount

   ¥ 71,634

   ¥  5,905

   ¥  2,340

   ¥ 15,435

   ¥  8,061


   ¥  1,852

   ¥105,227
Rate

 68.1%

  5.6%

  2.2%

 14.7%

  7.7%


  1.7%

100  %
     Thinking much of its peculiar nature the city pays to make it

     up.  When a local municipality wants to improve its pays

     positively, it can't help resorting to put weight on this method

     of increasing special allowances.   Besides, the annual total of

     year-end bonus and dilligence allowances is guaranteed to be no

     less than 4.8 times of monthly pay and the retirement allowance

     system is also stabilized.  In consequence, the total pay of a

     municipal official is not at all inferior to that of a private

     enterprise.
                              61

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(2)    Working  Hours




      In order to let the personnel work most  efficiently and




 serve tie city for a long period,  the  consumption of  labor




 force and its recovery should  be well  balanced.   For  that,  the




 proper length of working hours and tha security  of a  good




 working environment are needed.  Working hours are generally




 best standardized for around 8 hours a day, but  in this  city




 the actual working hours are 7 hours 45 minutes  a day and the




 basic working hours are 46 hours 30 ttinutes a week.   The length




 of  worko.ng hours has been much discussed nowadays, together




 with the shortening of working hours and a two-day holiday  system.




 Comparing with those of other  municipalities, it is hard to say




 that th<^ working hours of this city are better arranged,  but




 in  case of cleansing operation,  especially of collection work,




 the reduction of working hours means an increase of working




 capacity per  unit hour, and because of physical  fatigue  from




 intensive work it causes an increase of absentees and accidents,




 and doesn't lead to improve any workiag conditions.   Besides,  it




 is  necessary  to study the actual state of collection  (domestic




 wastes are collected daily) and decide the length of  working




 hours.  However, the reduction of  working hours  is the demand




 and cry of the age and it is,  of course, a problem to be studied




 in  the future, but the reduction of working hours will lead to
                          62

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 an increase of the personnel,  machines  and  apparatus,  which




 will consequently come to increase the  city's  financial




 burden.   Therefore,  it is not  a probl an to  be  settled  easily.




(5)    Operational  Environment




      As  a part of the improvement  of operational  environment,




 the cit;' has been doing its best to achieve the mechanization




 and improvement of collection  vehicles,  the automation and




 the safity operation of treating plants and the completion  of




 various  facilities relating the publi:  health  and sanitation,




 but, however,  it  is  still hard to  say the city has enough




 spare vehicles and personnel,




(§)    Benefit and  Welfare




      It  is of  course the system for the personnel to aim at




 for securing and  improving their living and, in consequence,




 letting  them devote  themselves to  their public services.  As




 the legal welfare systems of Kawasaki City,  the Mutual Benefit




 Society  based  on  the Local Municipal Officials' Benefit Society




 Law, the Official Accident Compensation system based on the




 Municipal Officials'  Accident  Compensation  Law are all stabilized,




 having no problems left to be  discussed.  However,  non-legal




 benefit  and welfare  systems such as those relating health (the




 establishment  of  hospitals, medical centers, sanatoriums,




 barbers,  etc.),  those relating recreation (the establishment of
                          63

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 seaside and mountain villas,  sports,  amusement facilities),




 those relating houses (official houses,  dormitories and the




 measurt  for acquiring own houses),  tl.ose relating  life benefits




 (the management of dining-rooms,  stores,  loans for living




 expenses,  lending of work-wears)  are  all ready for use,  but




 they si e not enough to satisfy the  personnel.   The benefit




 and welfare systems have so far been  apt to  put too much




 weight on  the legal systems,  and non-legal systems have had




 the te idency of being weighed little,  In the  case of  this




 city 5. : is not exceptional on this  matter, but considering the




 supply and demand relation of labor corce it has become  necessary




 for ou: city office to acquire as mu:h labor force as  a  big




 enterprise by means of the attractive benefit  and  welfare




 systeti as  well as the improvement of pays.




(D    Safety and Sanitation




      Relating the safety and  sanitation of the personnel the




 Personnel  Safety and Sanitation Committee has  been founded




 in  accordance with the Labor  Safety and Sanitation Law and




 positive activities have been developed,  and both  labor  and




 capital  have been doing their joint efforts  to make their city




 offices  pleasant and bright places  to work in.

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@    Conclusion                     
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   II
RECYCLING

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                             II-l  GENERAL






1.   An essence vhich continuously keeps a life and activity going on




     is Stofeweschel, i.e. Metabolism, and as i. result of stofeweschel,




     discharging of waste and unnecessary materials becomes inevitable.




          In the past, we made both ends meet l.y simply throwing away




     the waste aid unnecessary materials out oi  the system we were




     concerned.  However, as a result of such rets, various kinds of




     environment, 1 pollutions including atmospheric pollution, water




     pollution, (tc. have been resulted.




2.   We have beei  producing a countless number of so called modern




     structures i nd products by utilizing large; amount of materials




     and energy *. hile we consume them at the s?.me time.  It is, therefore,




     inevitable that anything that has been produced must be discarded.




     Solving of environmental problem, i.e., the problems of disposing




     of waste, depends upon how to solve a contradiction between the




     flow of artificial materials and the acceptability of nature.




3.   Contradicticn of the confrontation between the nature and the




     artificial matters, that is, contradiction of the modern civilization




     may be 'solved only by a reversible and intrinsic resource of man who




     himself is presenting the very contradiction.




          It is, therefore, highly significant to present with our




     positive intention a new term "Conversion to resources", i.e., to




     reutilize waste materials.
                                   66

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4.   The essences of technology that have been acquired by man are




     classified into only "Assortment" and "Assemblage" while the




     production technology of man has been developed by the three




     fundamental operations; a physical operation such as breaking,




     selecting, m:.xing, assembling, etc.; a chenical operation such




     as disintegration, distillation, combination, polymerization, etc.,




     and a biologr.cal operation such as divisicn, cultivation, etc.




5.   The technology required for disposing of vaste, i.e., reutilization,




     is not exceptional at all; the most essential matters required  for




     it are how to "assort" and how to "assemble" within the social




     system, i.e.:, in the process of productior ,  circulation, consumption




     and in every process.




6.   In Japan, tho amount of annual consumptior  of organic resources such




     as food, feed, clothes, lumbers, etc., is approximately 210 million




     tons while an amount of annual consumption of inorganic resources such




     as iron ore, lime, etc. is approximately 790 million tons.   In




     addition, approximately 300 million tons of  energy resources such as




     crude oil, coal, etc. are consumed annually.




7.   It Is impossible to dispose of or take care of a rubbish as a simple




     rubbish discharged from a flow of enormous materials.  It is,




     therefore, necessary to handle the rubbish as "resources."   This is




     meant that reutilizing the rubbish as resources will largely reduce




     the amount of waste.
                                   67

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8.   A social system of reutilizing and collecting such "resources" has




     been existing, but has not been properly managed because of unbalance




     with the otler systems of various kinds.




9.   Now, mainly for the city rubbish, a rapid development has been made




     for the systems which apply a technology for such systems as




     discharge, collection, transportation, prt-treatment, reutilization




     and final disposition treatment.




          In thij  case, it is better if a conversion to "resources" is




     carried out by a process located as closely to the discharge source




     as possible and the transportation including storage will become a




     very important key factor.
                                    68

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                    II-2   CONSIDERATION IN DETAILS






II-2-1  Problems Concerning the Waste In Japan




     The economic and social progress in Japan in the recent years has




been truly remarkable and resulted in a sharp Increase of the living




standard of the ^apanese people.  However, this phenomenon has accelerated




an excessive concentration of population in large cities, thus bringing




about unfavorable effects at the same time.  The unfavorable effects in




this case mean v< rious pollution problems, and the solid was.te materials




(city rubbish) ii. each city have been continuorsly increasing in the




quantity and have been increasingly complicated in the contents, thus




creating many ca? es in which rubbish disposing capacity of city is




surpassed by sucl an increase.  Furthermore, ar, it is most certain that




the quantity of taste of durable consuming good such as automobiles,




household electric appliances will increase in the future, it will become




difficult to solve this problem more than ever before.




     Since the city rubbish in Japan contains a large amount of garbages,




it is easily decomposed, and, therefore, a failure in the disposing ability




will surely be resulted in a terrible pollution of environment.




     Of course, each Ministry, Agency and local government *in cooperation




with non-governmental industries has been seriously dealing with the




trash problem.  However, they have been too busy handling only the problems




confronting them directly.  For this very reason, the present technology




and system of disposing waste are inefficient as well as insufficient,
                                    69

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and each city is now experiencing a secondary pollution problem.

     There are many problems that require drastic solution in the future

and what is most required is a research and de1 elopment of a new technology.


II-2-2  Disposition of City Rubbish in Japan

     A method foi disposing of city rubbish wi<.ely used in Japan is to

collect the rubfcrsh by trash trucks and transport it to a reclamation ground

and dump the rubl ish or burn it.  However, sin< e Japan is a country where

natural resource,, are so scarce, it is very ir ational to use the present

system in which ) ighly valuable resources such as metals, plastics, papers,

glass, etc., mixi d with the rubbish are either burned or thrown away.  Yet,

we have been experiencing a great difficulty in burning or reclamation of

land.  Now is tb : time that we should seriously consider about converting

the city rubbish into the "resources."

     In the U.S.,.. which is provided with a va:;t area of land and,

consequently, with abundant areas for dumping rubbish, and what is

specially noteworthy is the fact that in this country where natural resources

are abundant, th<; government on its own initiative has recently been

aggressively devoted to the research and development of technology for

reutilization of city rubbish for the first time in the world.


II-2-3  Research and Development of Resources Reutilizing and
        Reclaiming Technology System

     The reutilization and reclaiming of city rubbish can not be realized

only be developing technology alone.  It can be efficiently materialized
                                   70

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when the technology is organically combined with education, moral, laws,




industrial policies, etc.  The most difficult problem is, however, the




development of th •. reclaiming and reutilizing technology system.




     Recently in Japan, some people are conscious of this problem, but




technically speak:.ng, it is very difficult to reclaim and reutilize city




rubbish and to ma>.e it "resources" at the final stage, and to reduce the




amount of rubbish.




     In order to  iggressively research and develop the resources reclaiming




and reutilizing s/stem used mainly for city rubbish, our government, being




aware of the presant situation, and aiming at accomplishing the technology




system in several years, has been engaged in a systematic preliminary




investigation sinze 1972.  In 1973, we shall carry out research and




development on tha basis of this preliminary ir.vestigation, dividing the




year into two ter.us.  In this preliminary investigation, the domestic




as well as foreign technology and systems related to this matter shall be




all investigated and we will look for the technology and systems which may




be suitable for the conditions in Japan.  This work has been conducted by




the project teams consisting of scholars, specialists, etc., who have been




mobilized from universities, national research institutes,  etc.




     A plan provided for the first term (1973-1975 fiscal year) is to




evaluate and study the possibility of actual application of the results of




research and proposed technology and systems after the above mentioned




preliminary investigation.
                                    71

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     In the 2nd term (after 1976 fiscal year), it is scheduled that




under a large project subsidy system, we shall expedite big scale




research and dev«lopment of technologies which are practically applicable




to Japanese situation.
                                    72

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    U.S.—JAPAN CONFERENCE




              ON




    SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT




         Paper No. 2
      WASTE DISPOSAL AND




PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY IN JA
   January 29 and 30, 1973
     JAPANESE GOVERNMENT

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             Ill  WASTE DISPOSAL AND PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY
III-l  COLLECTION, TRANSPORT, PROCESSING AND DISPOSAL

  III- 1-1  Present conditions of collection, transport,
             processing and final disposal ......... . ............    1

  III-1-2  Treating standards of refuse and the planning
             stande rds of refuse treating facilities ... .........    4
  III-1-3  Building conditions of Refuse Treating Plants ........  10

  III-1-4  Future Adjustment Program of Facilities ........... ...  12

  III-1-5  Necessii y of Technical Development of Refuse
             Treat: ent and the Present Situation in Japan .......  13
III-2  HOW TO HANDLE SPECIAL TYPE WASTES
       (Chiefly on an example in Yokohama City)

  III-2-1  Problems of Urban Plastic Refuse .....................  17

  III-2-2  Problems  of Big Refuse and Countermeassures ........ ...  23

  III-2-3  Hospital Refuse Treatment . . ..........................  28

  III-2-4  Refuse Collection in Multi-Story Buildings ...........  34
III-3  SANITARY LANDFILL TECHNIQUE AND REPATED PROBLEMS

  III-3-1  Transient and Present Conditions of Sanitary
             Landf illing in Our Country .........................  38

  III-3-2  Administrative Policy Relating the Sanitary
             Landf illing ........................................  40

  III-3-3  The Trend of Researches Relating Landf illing
             Wastes Disposal ........................... . ........  45

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        III-l  COLLECTION, TRANSPORT, PROCESSING AND DISPOSAL
III-l-l  Present  :onditions of collection, trai sport, processing and

         final disposal.

     According to the statistics made in fiscal 1970 (in the following

no note indicates the same) 84.69 million people, equivalent to 82.5% of

the total population of 103.72 million are ber
-------
total loading capacity of the vehicles is 32,766 tons.  The number of

running tends to be decreasing year by year due to the deterioration of

traffic condition and the long distance to trea:ing stations.  The

number of the personnel engaged in the collection, transportation,

intermediate treai.ment and final disposal is as follow:

     Table II1-1-::,  The Number of the personnel engaged in the
                     collection transportation, intermediate
                     treatment and final disposil
  Municipal personnel

     Fully employed for wastes treatment

     Partly employed for wastes treatment

     Total

  Private business employes

     Total
55,626

 5,715

61,341

11,191

72,532
     As the means of intermediate treatment, incinceration and high-speed

compost making arc conducted and the quantity of the two put together is

as much as 56% of all the planned treating volume of municipalities.  As a

means of final disposal landfilling is conducted, but the volume of refuse

to be landfilled without going through any intermediate treatment such as

incineration, etc. is as much as 33.5%. of total planned treated volume

of refuse handled by municipalities.  When landfilling is rather hard to

be conducted, ocean dumping is permitted by law after necessary intermediate

treatment such as incineration, but such practices are not done nowadays.

-------
     Refuse treatment is classified as follows by the methods of intermediate




treatment and finel disposal in 1965 and 1970.
     Table  IIl-1-.'i.  The yearly  transition of refuse treatment.



                 (   ) indicates wastes discharging volume per man/day
Year-
Population of (A'
treating area
Total wastes (B -
discharge
Planned treating
volume :
Incineration
Landfilling
High-speed compost
Compost
Feeds
Others
Total
Home disposal volume
1965
54,231
(695 g/cd)
44,522 t/d

16,896 t/d
17,659
1,325

252
966
37,098
7,424
105%

37.9%
39.6
3.0

0.6
2.2
83.3
16.7
1970
84,694
(910 g/cd)
76,998 t/d

42,557 t/d
25,715
548
36
96
945
69,899
7,099
100%

55.3%
33.5
0.7
0.0
0.1
1.2
90.8
9.2
As the direction of refuse treatment in our country, utilization of land-




filling to the full extent shall be taken up as the final disposal after




intermediate treatment.  The incineration treatment is one of the most




important methods and shall be further improved.  Again, high-speed compost




making has been conducted as the means of recreating resources, but as the




demand for compost is rather low, its share is decreasing.

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III-1-2.  Treating standards of refuse and the planning standards of




          refuse treating facilities.




     1)   Treatrit nt standards of refuse.




     The treatment of refuse consists of such processes as collection,




transportation, intermediate treatment and finel disposal.  It is




necessary to consider a counter-measure against the total system




consisting of these subsystems of different processes.  In each process




of refuse treatment in order to eliminate any hindrance to the security




of life environ™nt, some technical standards rust be established-treatment




standards which shall be firmly observed in eac-.h process.




     These standards are laid down by the Cabinet Order prescribed in the




Wastes Disposal law.  The standards of maintenance and management of




intermediate trej tment facilities such as incineration, high-speed compost




making, crushing and pressing of big refuses are laid down by the




ordinance of the Ministry of Health and Welfare.




     Among the technical standards in connection with the wastes treatment,




the following are- those provided by the Cabinet Order. (Cabinet Order, 1971,




No. 300, Article 3)




    Q)   When collection, transportation, intermediate treatment and




          final disposal are being conducted, they shall take care not




          to let wastes fly about.




    (2)   When a treating plant (including a landfilling site) is to be




          established, they should take care not to give any hindrance




          to the security of life environment.

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Wastes transporting vehicles and containers, and wastes



transporting pipelines should be well arranged not to let



refuse  ?ly about nor let bad smell gi/e out.


Landfili.ing methods of refuse (including the utilization of



open space under the ground) shall be conducted in the



followi; ig methods:


a.   La-idfilling site shall be enclosed with fences and



     po ;ted with notices thereof.


b.   Necessary measures shall be takei against leaching



     from landfilling site not to pollute public



     wa .ers and ground waters.


c.   Ne -.essary measures shall be take:i for bad smell to


     em It from reclaimed land.


d.   Wh >.n they conduct landfilling with unincinerated



     rel'use less than 3 meters thick and cover the surface


     of each layer with soil and sand about 50 cm thick.



     However, in the case of the area of landfilling site



     being less than 10,000 m2 or landfilling volume is below


     50,000 m3 or landfilling of open space in the ground are



     to be excepted.


e.   In a reclaimed land gas vents must be equipped to eliminate


     gas generated from the reclaimed land and necessary



     measures shall be taken to prevent the land from the


     outbreak of fires.  But this is exempted if the area of


     landfilling site is less than 10,000 m2 or landfilling
                                           •

     volume is less than 50,000 m3.

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          f.   Landfilling site shall be protected from the outbreak




               of rats, mosquitoes, flies and other harmful insects.




     5    The f ol." owing are the only refuse whi< h can be disposed of by




          ocean dumping.  But if there is no special hindrance for




          landfilling, ocean dumping shall not Ve done.




          a.   Incinerate the refuse and let th
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B.
^2)    Water content of refuse.
      Decide it in the same way as in (1).  50 - 60%
 is  the s:andard water content.

\^)    Comoustion rate.
      Its standard is 100-150Kg/m2 hr.
(4)    Stack draft.
      h = 0.8 H  (353    369)
                   Tl     T2

      h:  Stack draft.  (water  column:  mm)
      T   Average gas temperature in tle stack
      T   Average open-air temperature.
      H:  Height of a stack (but the I west, 20m.)

(D    Temperature at the exit  of furnace.
      Above 400°C.

kji)    Heat-release rate.
      Its standard is 40,000 -  70,000 Kcal/ra3.
>j)    Air surplus rate.

      100 - 350%.
 Continuous-type incinerators.
^J.)    Net heating value of refuse.
      Heating value shall be decided by actually measuring
 the refuse to be incinerated.

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         (2)   Water content of refuse.




               Decide it in the same way as in (1).




         (3)   C( mbustion rate.




               160 - 200 Kg/m2.hr. is the standardized rate.




         (4)   Stack draft.




               Tie same as in the case of batch-type incineration.




         (5)   E> it temperature of furnace.




               Between 750°C and 1,000°C.




         Qj)   Knat-release rate.




               80,000 - 150,000 Kcal/m3.hr. is standardized.




         Q)   A:'.r surplus rate.




               100-250%.




     3)   Maintenance and management standards of refuse treating plants.




     Among the maintenance and management standards of refuse treating




plants the following are the principal ones prescribed by the Ordinance




of the Ministry of Health and Welfare.   (Ordinance of the Ministry of




Health and Welfare, 1971, No. 35, Art. 4)




    (T)   refuse to be discarded into the plant shall not exceed




          the treating capacity of the plant.




    Q)   When refuse are discarded into the incinerator of




          Pit-Crane type, refuse shall be always well mixed.




    (5)   In case of Batch-type incinerator the furnace temperature




          at the outlet of the combustion chamber shall be above




          400°C and the ignition loss of drawn ashes shall be below 15%.

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In case of Continuous-type incinerator the furnace temperature




at the outlet of the combustion chanber where main incineration




ends shall be kept above about 700°f and below about 1000°C,




and th2 ignition loss of drawn ashes shall be kept under 10%.




The volume of the smoke and soot cortained in every 1 m3 of




flue gas at the temperature of o°C end under the air pressure




of 1 saall be as follows:




a.   / Continuous-type incinerator flant with the treating




     capacity of more than 200 tons:  below 0.2. g.




b.   Other facilities:  below 0.7 g.




          But this may be replaced by still stricter standards




     by the Air Pollution Control Law, in which all poisonous




     iratters other than smoke and scot will contain.  Then,




     the new standards should be observed.




In cas2 of a high-speed compost plant, it is necessary to




keep the inside of a fermenting tank suitable to ferment,




control the temperature and wind-blowing and others in




adequate degrees.




In case of a pulverizing plant, necessary measures shall be




taken for powder and dust from the pulverizers not to fly




all around and for big noises to grow.  However, when a




control value is laid down by the Noise Control Law, it




shall be observed.

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    (jB)   In case of a pressing plant, necessary measures shall be taken




          not to cause big noise and violent vibration.  Besides, the




          weight of 1 m3 of refuse after press ing shall be made more than




          1.2 t.




    (j))   Necess: iry measures shall be taken for drained water from every




          plant lot to give any hindrance to the security of life




          enviro iment by giving careful considerations to the irrigation




          conditions of down-streams.  Again, the plants shall be kept




          clean and prevented from the outbresk of flies and other




          harmful insects in the compounds.




    uj)    Necessary measures shall be taken to  keep up the proper




          function of the plants and regular checkups on plant functioning,




          the quality of water and smoke and coot shall be conducted.









III-1-3   Buildiig conditions of Refuse Treating Plants.




     The maintenance of refuse treating plants  has been long conducted




by municipalities, but since 1962 the governmental subsidies have been




granted.




     As for the systematic adjustment of refuse treating plants the




first Five-Year National Program beginning in 1963 and the second




Five-Year National Program beginning in 1967 were set for the development




and promulgation of the treating facilities and the 1972-75 National




Program is now going on.  These three five-year programs were planned




and conducted in accordance xcith the laws previously laid down.
                                  10

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     In the end of 1970 the establishing condition of capacity-wise




refuse incineration plants are as follows:




     Table III-l- -




     Daily treatii.g capacity




     Above 1 t/d, below 5 t/d.




       "   5 t/d,




       11  10 t/d,




       "  20 t/d,




       11  30 t/d,




       "  50 t/d,   " 100 t/d.




       " 100 t/d>   " 200 t/d.
11  10 t/d.




"  20 t/d.




11  30 t/d.




11  50 t/d.
       " 200 t/d,   " 600 t/d.




       " 600 t/d or larger.
Number of Plants




          172.




          298.




          268.




          133.




          141.




          134.




           76.




           57.




           14.
          Total
                                      1,293.
     The treating capacity of incineration plants are as follows:




          Total nvmber of plants:  1,293.




          Treating capacity of total plants:   53,998 t/d.




          Number of plants with treating capacity of more




            than 100 t/d:  147.




          Their total treating capacity:  31,720 t/d.




          Number of plants with treating capacity of more




            than 200 t/d:  71




          Their total treating capacity:  23,860 t/d.
                                   11

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III-1-4.  Future adjustment program of facilities.

     The planned adjustment of refuse treating plants has been already

mentioned and it has been conducted twice in the past by a five-year

National Program aid the last one is now going on with 1975 as its final

year.

     The 'following would be the basic way of thinking toward the refuse

treating plant  adjustment at  the end of 1975.

     First of all the  service rate of municipal..ties will be raised from

82.5%  at the end cf  1970 to 95%.  Next, as to combustible matters of

collected wastes  (estimated to be about 83%  of  t;he  total volume, including

big refuse)  90% of  them will  be made  combustible through the  improvement

of faciltiies.  TKe.se  incineration  plants can s':and a  certain amount  of

mixture of  plastic s and for  incinerating these  nigher-grade shall be

built  so that  no  public pollution  such as air pollution and the like  may

 occur.

      Pulverizing and pressing plants for big refuse shall  be built  in

 every city of the population of more than 100,000 by the end of 1975.

      The scale of adjustment and facilities rearrangement expenses for

 five years from 1971  to 1975 include the expenses for building sites

 and landfilling works with residual ashes are included as follows:

      Refuse incineration plant adjusted capacity:  58,855 t/d.

      Plant adjustment  expenses:                    ¥269.5 billion.

                                                    274
Number of plants to be readjusted for
  big refuse treatment:	

Plants readjustment expenses:
                                                    ¥21.5 billion.
                                    12

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     According to this program, in the end of 1975 the number and the




capacity of refuse treating plants in possession of municipalities




are as follows:




     Refuse incineration plants treating capacity:     110,660 t/d.




     Big refuse treating plants:                       274
III-1-5.  Necessity of technical development of refuse treatment and




          the present situation in Japan.




     In order to proceed with smooth treatment of refuse, various kinds




of technical development will be needed.




     First of all, we must prepare the measure for multifarious kinds




of wastes.  For example, through the increase of plastics in the refuse,




the sizes of the refuse have grown very bulky i.nd at the same time net




heating rate of refuse has increased.  It was r>pecial features of our




country that they had high water content and were hard to burn.  But in




recent years through the increase of calorie of refuse it has become




necessary to improve the structure of incinerators which are capable




of regulating the heat control system of the furnace and burning those




materials which come to melt and drop in the furnace.




     Secondly, prevention measures for public pollution from refuse




treatment should be strengthened.  As for smoke and soot in the stack




gas, it is possible to keep then down to below 0.05 g/Nm3 constantly




by the combined use of Multicycron and Electrostatic Precipitator.  In




future, it is necessary to go on raising elimination efficiency for other
                                  13  ,

-------
harmvul matters.  With the incineration of refr.se drained water and




residual ashes are naturally discarded and any harmful matters, how




small they may bt , should be made settled and harmless so that the




security of life environment should be maintained.




     Thirdly, frcm the view point of saving th«. consumption of natural




resources the technology of turning wastes to 7esources should be




developed.  For example, like the recreation ar.d utilization of plastics,




refuse are turner, into "matters" or for steam-;;eneration of electricity




refuse are turr.£f into "energy."  Either of thu methods will save the




consumption of b< se materials and decrease the discarded volume at final




disposal and moreover, landfilling site can be efficiently utilized.




     Fourthly, tie technical development of efficient collection and




transportation si ould be taken up.  The share uf collection and




transportation si all occupy as high as 60 - 70',', in the treatment of




refuse.  Besides, from the recent deterioration of traffic condition




and difficulty of acquiring labor force efficiency on this side is




vitally important.  On this occasion we should not be satisfied with




improving our conventional refuse collection vehicles, but as building




facilities f.or collection work, a built-in system or the use of




pipelines for transportation should be fully studied.




     Fifthly, we should try to control informations relating wastes




and refuse.  The static discharging conditions of wastes have been




studied, but when considering wastes treatment as a total system, it
                                   14

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is necessary to get active informations of each subsystem and for that




purpose information control comes to be necessary.




     Here we will talk about the present conditions of our country in




connection with these technical development processes.




     Firstly, as the countermeasure for multifarious kinds of refuse,




high-calorie-type incinerators with planned calories of 2,400 Kcal/Kg have




been built.  Oven-type stoker furnaces and dry-distillation-type




incinerators for the wastes of high rate center.: of plastics have been




now put into praclical use.




     As the seconc problem, for the elimination of especially, hydrogen




chloride, the use of a. spray tower, a packed tower or an impingement




scrubber, and the adoption of wet-type gas treatment or dry-type gas




treatment have bes.n under study and our final s :udy will come to make




sure of practical limit of eliminating harmful particles.




     Besides, materials in exhaust gas, for example, nitrogen oxide (^2)




and organic matters, their generating processes and eliminating methods




shall be left for the future study.




     Eliminating technics of harmful matters in drained water has been




established in the field of waste water treatment, but the activities




of harmful matters in residual ashes and landfilling sites and how to




make them harmless have been left to the studies of the Japan Environ-




mental Sanitation Center (foundation juridical person.)




     As for the third problem a plant which selects plastics from




refuse, collects and remanufactures them is under construction by the
                                   15

-------
Plastic Waste Management Institute (inc.) and the Ministry of Health




and Welfare has been studying the construction of an experimental




facilities of tun.ing refuse into pulp.




     As for the details of these have been already mentioned in




Recycling wastes of Part II.




     The 4th problem is that the enlargement of trucks and pressed




loading by contaii.ers have been put into practical use.  Transportation




by means of vacuu: t air has been under study with a technical tieup of




American and Swedish makers, and at the same time a test plant by the




domestic technology for the above method has been under construction




by Osaka City.




     The 5th prob?.mm is that, taking up Toyohachi City as a model city




the actual states wastes such as their kinds, \olumes, areal distribution,




time-wise distribution and others have been stidied and in consequenc ,




the structure of v;astes discharging would soon be clarified.  From this




result, the basic models of subsystems of collection, transportation,




intermediate treatment and final disposal should be designed and further




go on making the plans of practical systems and make clear the function




of wastes treating system.  This study has been left to the Japan




Resources Technical Institute (inc.) by the government.




     If such technical development as mentioned above should come to




be materialized, the conventional idea of treating wastes at the time




of their discharge would be gone and replaced by an active idea of




changing the course of wastes itself, namely, from the "Cleansing




administration of wastes treatment" to "Pla'nned administration of




control" the wastes cleansing problem will possibly advance.





                                  16

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               II1-2   HOW TO HANDLE SPECIAL TYPE WASTES
                       (Chiefly on an example in Yokohama City)
III-2-1   Problems of Urban Plastic Refuse

     The use of plastic containers, packaging materials, and textiles is

widespread in Japan, and there are many cases in which the plastic

products are thrcwn away as a kind of domestic refuse.  The products

used for land filling remain undecomposed for long in the earth, and if

burned, they gem rate great quantities of heat and noxious gases.

     Plastic rpfi se poses and will pose a knot'.y problem in refuse

treatment in Jap.n.

1)   How the Pla- tic Refuse Problem Came About

     Some seven ; ears ago in around 1965 the phenomenon came into

particular notice that the steel machines and ither parts and accessories

of a refuse inci,-.eration plant such as stokers,  heat exchanges, exhausters,

and ducts, underwent marked damage.  In ascertaining causes of this by

various means, il: became clear that the main cause was the plastics

contained in refuse.  The phenomenon was thus attributed to the

generation of hij;h heat in burning the plastics and metal corrosion

due to the discharge of chloride gases from polyvinyl chloride.

     This has become a problem in the thermal control of an incineration

furnace and also in the aspect of environmental pollution due to noxious

gases.

2)   Plastics in Domestic Refuse

     The weight values of plastics contained in domestic refuse are

shown in Figure II1-2-1.  This tabluation is based on the results of

the survey conducted by Yokohama City.

                                 17

-------
*-x
X
\*s

CO
*J
a
0»
4->
c
o
LJ
 bO
3 T

-
                III-2-1.  (Average Annual) Plastic Weight
                          Content Values of the
                          Collected by Yokohama City
      10
         -Tsurumi Ward
         -Tsurui.il Ward
[sogo VJard

Yokohama City
 y=3.30 + 0.29t

 (t=43 =0)
                                    Isogo Ward
                                                            Standard Values
                                                            on Dry Refuse
                                                    *',-' i
                                                    —** •"  X
                                                            Standard Values

                                                            on Wet Refuse
39    40    41

  F;.scal Year
                                42
                                      43
          44
45
46
47
                                                                 AAA
The values of  dry  refuse are annually on the increase to the level


of 10 per cent at  present,  and if converted into those for solid


combustible refuse,  will exceed 15 per cent.  It is presumed that


this uptrend will  sustain.


     The uptrend of  plastic content values is generally seen in


such Japanese  large  cities  as Tokyo,  Osaka, and Kawasaki.


     Plastics  are  widely found in the refuse derived from the urban


dwellers everyday  life,  but seldom in the refuse from industrial


activities.

-------
   3)   The Qualitative Change of Domestic Refuse-

        Domestic  refuse has undergone changes since it began to  contain

   plastics.  One significant change is the increased net heat values

   of refuse.   Figure III-2-2 shows the net heat values of combustibles

   in the refuse  collected by Yokohrama City.  It is believed  that  one

   major factor causing the increase is the qualitative growth  of

   plastic content?  in the refuse.

        Another change is  the increased combust!Die chlorine  in  refuse.

   As shown in  Tab." e III-2-1, the chlorine contained in refuse is  very

   large.  This is the cause for the increased chlorine in refuse, and

   the chlorine whi'.n burned generates hydrogen chloride.
'-. 1II-2-2  Ayorfifro Annual^jj_oj:_ 3Ign t Vj.l.^::~_ of Cc ^j-^ntj/blcgi
            in tiio I'.f. fuse  Collgctod__ bv_ Yc^ioha:'1.-:^ '^jjy  (til ow-
            ing aviTuge  annual values for i'surur i »;.ird of
            the cil:y)

1.500- 40i
(IvJ/tv?) A






;-.
A
i
j
1, cr;
i. 5.03

•i, A)0
1.1:0
1, OX

r

.
35
•

• 5 n -
<^







. .--<

	 L^_
W
                 ^2     43
        _^  fiscal  Year
                                    19

-------
4)   Problems of Plastics Containing Refuse.




    (T)   Refuse Collection and Transportation Problems




               Plastics have small specific gravities and are light




          and bul^y.  This causes inconvenience to the handling of




          them, aid the costs of collecting and transporting them




          are conparatively high.




    (2)   Damage on the Machines and Other Parts of an Incineration Plant,




               11 a partial  or temporary overheating of an incineration




          furnace and the generation of hydrogen chloride in' burning




          plastic refuse inflict damage on the steel materials of the




          machine and other parts of an incineiation plant.




    (3)   Problems of Incineration Plant Management.




               Ar incineration plant is sometir.es designed under the




          thermal, air and other controlling ccnditions that are not




          suited to burn plastic refuse.  This causes the shortage of




          air and the increase of exhausts, and lowers the Incinerating




          capccity of the plant.  The plant needs remodeling.




    (4)   Environmental Pollution by Exhausts from Incineration Furnaces.




               Among the noxious gases contained in exhausts from the




          Japanese incineration plants, hydrogen chloride has the




          highest concentration of 200 to 900 p.p.m.  If the element




          is not removed before being released into the air,.or




          if it is not discharged to be widely dispersed in the




          air, it will cause environmental pollution.
                                   20

-------
     5    Land Filling Problems




               In Japan the disposal of refuse for land filling carries




          a fairly high weight, but plastic refise remains undecomposed




          for long if it is used for land filling.  If buildings are




          constructed on a tract reclaimed with plastic containing




          refuse, the ground on which they are rounded will be unst  ble.




5)   Countermeasures




     Various measi res are under study to resolva the problems mentioned




in the preceding sections, which are:




    ft)   The development of technologies for tie designing and




          construction of an incineration furna:e for plastics




          containing refuse and for the eliminj:ion of noxious gases.




    (z/   The selective collection of plastic rafuse and the development




          of a special incineration furnace for plastic refuse.




    (3)   The selective collection of plastic refuse and the




          regeneration and reuse of plastic refuse.




    (h)   The requirement of plastics producers to collect plastic




          refuse and to let the producers dispose of such refuse.




               It j.s to be hoped that these measures will be




          implemented as early as possible as the challenge to refuse




          disposal in Japan.




               The combustible chlorine content ratios in the refuse




          collected by Yokohama City on basis of its monthly-measured




          values are shown in Table III-2-1.
                                   21

-------
Table III-2-1.
Combustible Chlorine Content: Ratios (%)
in the RefuseCollected by Yokohama City
on Its Monthly-Measured Values (Combustion
temperature:  800°C)
Fiscal
Tsurumi
Ward, Yo-
kohama
Isogo
Ward, Yo-
kohama
Yea:
Max.
Min.
Avg.
Ma:c ,
Min .
Avg.
1967
0.56
0.10
0.24
-
—
1968
0.25
0.01
0.15
-
—
1969
0.66
0.05
0.21
0.43
0.32
0.24
1970
0.59
0.22
0.35
0.61
0.07
0.33
1971
0.10
0.20
0,37
0.56
0.12
0.33
                    Specimen Chloride Weight Contents
                    of Components of the Refuse
Components
Wet Refuse
Paper, Etc.
Plastics
Others
Incombustibles Removal
Standard Ratios (%)
0.87
0.54
5.64
0.32
Weight
Contents
0.009 kg/kg-R
0.005
0.056
0.003
     Note:  The figures represent the average values
            measured five times from June 1971 to
            March 1972.
                              22

-------
III-2-2   Problems of Big Refuse and Countenaeasures




     The improvement of the Japanese people's standards of living




and the diminutior of their urban dwelling spaces have unfitted




such durable consumer products as television and radio sets and




freezing and washing machines the people used tc expend.  Many




of the products have become outmoded or gone out of order, and




have been replaced with new ones.  It is stipulated in the law




that durable consider products when thrown away as part of the




urban refuse should be in the category of "big .-efuse'S in order




to distinguish such refuse from garbage and othtr types of domestic




refuse.




     Special systems are required to collect anc". treat big refuse.




1)   The Generation of Big Refuse




     Yokohama City collects big refuse by a special system




different from the normal system of collecting domestic refuse.




The types of big refuse collected in fiscal 1971 by the city are




shown in Table III-2-2.
                                   23

-------
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     As indicated in this table, furniture and electric appliances




hold primacy, and in terms of the weight distribution ratio account




for around 50 per cent of all the big refuse collected by the city




in the fiscal year.  The products collected per 1,000 households




consist of 54 fittings, 31 tables, chairs, and desks, 18 mattresses,




nine television ssts, six radio sets, six wash: ng machines, and others.




     It is estimated that each household of Yo-.oh.ama City will be in




possession of 1.4 to 1.5 television sets.  The figures are very big,




compared with the television sets collected ns big refuse.  Generally




speaking, when durable consumer products are t > be turned into big




refuse can be forecast by their durable years  ind purchasing power.




In view of the presence of a great number of 1: ilevision sets in the




city, it is foreseeable that an increasing num>er of them will be




turned into refuse in the near future.




2)   Measures to Treat Big Refuse




     Of the big refuse thus collected, such conbustible refuse as




furniture can be burned away, but cannot be pur to an incineration




furnace in their original forms.




     The combustible refuse must be pulverized before being burned.




Freezing and washing machines and other big incombustibles can be




reduced in their dimensions if they are pulverized, and are convenient




to recover metals or to be used for land filling.
                                  25

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     Herein arises the need of subjecting big refuse  to  a  pulverizing




process, and several pulverizing machines have  been developed.   Some




pulverizing machii.es for big refuse which havf;  been commercialized in




Japan are illustrated in Figures III-2-3, III-2-4, and 1II-2-5.
                Fi£.  Ill-2-3    KojUi_ry Pulvcri? n?. Machine
                          1st  Smashing Plito
        2nd Smashing  Plate
                                                Fec-dinr: Port
                                                    ic'-shint; Blade
                                      Outlet
                                   26

-------
         '-      r
          Vf-— i
          ,.r  j,.-Hydraulic  Cylit
i   Cutter Frr.ci3


 < Cutter. Where  Big Bafuc

       X   .-  Cc.se for BiC
                                 r.r to- the  Cutter
                                           e is Put  in
                                  - Cover Plate
                                           the Pusher
^  IIl-?-5  Hvdrauiic_PulHri£iS&2iHUi^^
J- J.,- * _L J, -I-  " -X  ..^v- —-••-"-
                            27

-------
     The machines are used to treat big refuse before burning or putting




it for land filling, and are installed in pulvcriz tion or incineration




plants.  Combus': ble refuse pulverized by the nachines, together with




domestic refuse, is burned and disposed of.




     Apart from pulverization, the treatment o;: big refuse by compressing




it into smaller cimensions is a useful means f»>r its disposal.  This




effective pre-ls.i d-f illing process is used by some plants.




     It has becoi e a prerequisite to the disposal of big refuse to




integrate such TMW treating processes as pulverization and compression




into a refuse tr< ating system.




     In Japan, government subsidies have been provided since 1971 to




the municipalitit s desirous of establishing bij; refuse treating plants




(by pulverizatioi and compression).  To cope w..th the explosive increase




of dilapidated eld automobiles and other types of big refuse, we must




establish a reascnable system for the collection, regeneration, and




reuse of them.
III-2-3   Hospit£l Refuse Treatment




     Hospitals lake hotels and department stores are within the category




of those discharging great quantities of refuse, but the quality of




refuse coming out of hospitals are different from that of refuse from




hotels and department stores.  This is because a hospital accommodating




many patients and consumes a great quantity of special materials for




medication.  A brief discussion will be devoted to the present situation




of hospital refuse treatment.





                                   28

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1)   Hospital Refuse

          It Is natural that the hospital turns; many medical instruments

     and materials into waste.  It works round the clock for the medical

     care and treatment of inpatients, and not a few wastes are discharged

     by them.  Hospitals are similar to hotels and restaurants in that a

     great deal o£ garbage is thrown off by thuir kitchens catering to

     their patients.

          Packaging materials for the goods ta :en in by hospital

     visitors also amount to a quantity that cmnot escape notice.

     Types and sources of waste discharged by i Japanese hospital are

     shown in Table III-2-3.
     Table III-2-3  Types and Sources of Hospital Waste
     Source
         Types of Hospital Waste
Wards (including
operation and
childbirth rooms)
Waste paper, newspapers, weekly, other magazines
and publications, fruit refuse, empty cans and
bottles, phials, injection needles, ampuls, glass
dust, cartons and other packaging materials, fruit
baskets, plant pots, others (including absorbent
cotton)	
Outpatients and
Related Divisions:
Outpatients for
all divisions
Injection needles, ampuls, cases thereof, waste
paper, gauze, absorbent cotton
Radial ray
Films, cases thereof, paper, other combustibles,
vinyl and other bags, amplus, needles, surgical
knives and blades, empty cans, napkins, barium
containers (made of polyethylene)
                                  29

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     Source
          Types of Hospital Waste
Pharmacy
Cartons, empty bottles, empty boxes, polyethylene
and other plastic containers, empty cans, waste
paper, vinyl bags, rub'ier stoppers, glass dust
Materials
 center
Gauze, absorbent cotton and other materials,
packaging materials, waste paper, cartons, needle
and syringe containers
Radioisotope
  division
Radioactive waste liquids, treating materials
Inspection
 division
Plastic containers, e&pty bottles, glass dust,
clotted blood (thrown jff in vinyl bags), dissected
tissues and organs (preserved in Formalin and
disposed of by incineration once or twice a year
Dietetic division
and foods brought
in
Rice and vegetable refuses, crates, plastic
containers, empty cans and bottles, tableware
(made of melanic resins), oil cans, straws and
other combustibles, chopsticks, chinaware
Medical and other
administrative
divisions
Waste paper, magazines, newspapers, other publica-
tions, empty boxes and cans, tapes, codes, ropes,
other fabrics
Others (big refuse)
Disused  durable consumer products listed by the
hospital (such as medical instruments, desks,
chairs, beds, cupboards, sofas and tables), wood
and iron refuse
      The hospital wastes can largely be divided into the following

 categories:

      *    Combustible wastes including newspapers, magazines, other

           publications, packaging and other kinds of paper, absorbent

           cotton, gauze and other fabrics, plastic bags and other

           containers.

                                   30

-------
     *    Refractory wastes Including garbage from the kitchen and

          other food supplying sources, and animal wastes from the

          childb'.rth, operation, and other roo is.

     *    Incombustible wastes including phials, ampuls and other

          glass containers, cans, needles and nther metal articles.

     Volumes of vaste discharged per day by a Japanese hospital are

shown in Tables :II-2-4 and III-2-5 by its divisions and by types of

the waste.
     Table III-2- 4  Volumes of Waste Discharger per Day by
                    a Japanese Hospital by Its Divisions
     Division

     Wards
     Inspection
     Outpatients
     Radial ray
     Operation
     Materials center
     Emergency
     Administration
     Servicing

          Total:
Volume (kg.)

  813.0
   53.0
   46.2
   67.1
   31.9
    2.7
    0.2
   69.9
  111.2

1,290.3
Ratio (%)

 63.0
  4.1
  3.6
  5.2
  2.5
  0.2
  0.0
  5.4
  8.6

100.0
                                  31

-------
     Table III-2-5  Volumesof Waste Discharged per Day by a
                    Japanese Hospital by Types of the Waste
Types of Waste

Refuse through the
  dust chute
Rice refuse
Bottles, etc.
Cardboards
Small glass pieces,
  ampuls
Sundries
Empty cans, etc.
Newspapers, magazines,
  etc.
Dissected tissues Mid
  organs for parturi-
  tion and other
  purposes

     Total:

     Ash
Volume (kg.)
  57A.7
  448.3
  117.1
   26.2

   72.8
   23,8
   19.1

    6.6
    1.7

1,290.3

   78.2
Ratio (%)
 44.5
 34.7
  9.1
  2.0

  5.7
  1.8
  1.5

  0.5
  0.2

100.0
 2)   Hospital Refuse Treatment

      The Japanese hospitals should in principle treat their wastes by

 themselves, and in recognition of the particularity of the wastes,

 they have tried to live up to the principle as much as possible.

 Combustibles are burned off by the simple incineration furnaces

 installed by the hospitals themselves, and as for incombustibles the
                                   32

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hospitals commission garbage collectors to collect and dispose of them




for land filling.  With respect to garbage of their refractory wastes,




the hospitals cotinission hog raisers to collect it as the feed.




     Where neither hog raisers nor garbage collectors are available,




such garbage and incombustibles are collected end disposed of by a




public refuse collecting agency.



     The animal vastes discharged from the ope?ation, childbirth and




other rooms cons:st  of tissues and organs extracted from human




bodies.  The tissues and organs contaminated b/ bacteria are  frozen




for preservation after sterilization,  and are  disposed  of by  special




collectors by burning them off  in  special incineration  furnaces




which are  equipped with  oil burners.   Stillborns  and  other  corpses




 are cremated  at  a  public crematory after going through  due  formalities,
                                    33

-------
III-2-4   Refuse Collection in Multi-Story Buildings




     There used to be few high-rise buildings in Japan because of the




high earthquake Incidence, compared with the L'aited States, but on




account of the recent development or architectural techniques and also




of the fact that few spaces are available in the big cities, multi-story




buildings are on the increase.  The Japanese loso (multi-story) building,




in principle, must be more than 31 meters high above ground.




     The increase of high-rise buildings in Jspan has posed a new




problem to the vartical transportation of refuse.




1)   Refuse Trea:raent in High-Rise Buildings




          Ways c? treating refuse in multi-story buildings vary




     depending 01 whether they are an apartment building,  an office




     building, a department store, or any other building.   By and




     large, the nanagements of high-rise buildings other than




     apartment buildings commission garbage collectors by contract




     to treat refuse and also to clean floors and windowpanes.




2)   The Quality and Quantity of Refuse




          The quality and quantity of refuse in multi-story buildings




     change according to their categories and uses.  Metric tons of




     refuse discharged per day and per square meter by the Japanese




     multi-story buildings are shown in Figure III-2-6.
                                  34

-------
         Fig.  III-2-6  Metric Tons of  Refuse Discharged  per Day
                       and per Square  Meter by the Japanese
                       Multi-Story Buildings
                                          Department Stores
                                          Rote.1 s and Publishing
                                                  Companies

                                               1 Office Buildings
                                             •Brnks and Securities
                                                      Companies
                                            401 iOO
10< 00     20000     30000

    Floor Space (per m2)
          Refuse discharged by multi-story buildings other than

     apartment bt.ildings, hotels, and hospitals mostly consists of

     paper and ether combustibles.

3)   Inside-Builcing Refuse Reservation

          Refuse within a building is reserved in plastic and metal

     containers, cloth bags, and standardized containers.  Their

     dimensions range from 60 liters (for plastic containers) to

     600 liters (for standardized containers).  Reservation methods

     differ according to the post-reservation treatment methods, but

     in apartment buildings garbage and other sundry refuses are

     reserved in mixed state, while in other buildings garbage and

     other refuses or combustibles and incombustibles are separately

   .  reserved in bags and other containers.
                                   35

-------
          Reservation spaces in buildings vary according to the
     different refuse collection methods adopted by them.  When
     refuse is collected by a public refuse collecting agency
     from a building, a dump is located at a place accessible to
     refuse collection trucks in and around the building, but in
     a building where garbage collectors are commissioned by
     contract tc collect refuse, a dump is located an an appropriate
     place of ei ch floor of the building.
A)   Inside-Building Refuse Transporation
          Refuse in bags and other containers is trundled by handcarts
     or carried by hand onto the freight elevator and taken down to
     a dump accessible to trucks.
          The dust chute is widely used, but as more high-rise buildings
     are constructed, there have arisen problems like the diffusion of
     offensive odors due to the draft of air from the chute, difficulties
     of fire prevention, the noise caused by the passage of refuse
     through the chute, and the dissemination of noxious insects, rats,
     mice, and other kinds of vermin through the chute.  The dust
     chute is thus going gradually into disuse.
          The common refuse transportation method adopted in Japanese
     multistory buildings is by the horizontal transfer of refuse by
     handcarts and by the vertical transfer of it by the elevator.
          The Japanese public sewer system is not yet well established,
     and because of the insufficient capacity of the final sewage
     treatment plants, the use of garbage grinders (disposers) still
     is limited.
                                 36

-------
5)   Private Incineration Furnaces            .;,




          Some refuse, especially combustible refuse, which is




     discharged from multi-story buildings is burned away by privately-




     installed i.icineration furnaces.




          The private incineration furnace.becomes a source of




     local air -osllution because its construction is simple and




     incomplete to control the reeking of offensive odors, smoke




     and soot.  It is therefore believed in general that the use of




     such furnaces is not desirable.  Yokohama City imposes




     restriction? on the installation of a private incineration




     furnace in a multi-story building to be newly constructed.




6)   Future Prob Lems




          Refuse explosion and diversificatior. will make it impossible




     to satisfactorily dispose of refuse by single treatment methods.




     The quality and quantity of refuse discharged by apartment




     buildings ace comparatively even, and as one course charted for




     the future, studies will be made on the adoption of a vacuum




     refuse transportation method for several multi-story buildings.
                                  37

-------
       Ill-3  SANITARY LANDFILL TECHNIQUE AND RERATED PROBLEMS
III-3-1   Tram;: ent and Present Conditions of Sanitary Landfilling
          in our Country.
     From the circumstances under which a number of sanitary landfilling

have been conducted in our country and as a method of disposing raw

wastes, reducirj  them to soil is the most importnat and useful, but this

contains land formation and soil improvement '>y means of organic sludge,

compost and others.  The former is generally  :alled a landfilling work,

which has been carried out not only in our country, but also in

various European and American countries since olden days.

     In our country, it is recorded that early in the Edo period,

in 1662 a wastes disposal center was established in Eitai Bay and

refuse were dir, )osed of there under the supervision of refuse checking

officials.

     The landfill disposal of refuse has been well guided since long

ago and in May, 1941 the Director of the Environmental Sanitation

Bureau of the Ministry of Health and Welfare gave an instruction to

the prefectural governors on "the matter relating the scientific

landfilling of refuse."

     Later in May, 1954 the "Public Cleansing Service Law" was

enforced, and Article 2 of the Cabinet Order of that law prescribes,

"in case of conducting a landfilling work with wastes a layer of

landfill shall be less than 5 meters high and its surface shall be

amply covered with soil or some other adequate matters."


                                 38

-------
     Though landfilling works with refuse have long been guided, not


a few of them havfc shown the looks of unsanitary disposal and given


rise to the problems of environmental sanitaticn such as the pollution


of ground water, t;he growth of rats and harmful insects and the like.


     Answering the increased volumes of wastes accelerated by the


development of powerful economic social activities in recent years,


Article 3 of the "The Wastes Disposal and Public Cleansing Law"


enacted in Septen>er 1971 prescribes the landf; lling disposals of


domestic wastes aid Article 6 prescribes the dttailed technical


standards in connection with the landfilling dJ sposals of industrial


wastes, and enterprisers, local municipalities and wastes disposal


undertakers should properly dispose of industry al wastes in accordance


with this law.


     Table II1-3-1 shows the annual rates of tl e volumes of refuse


disposed of by landfilling against the total vclumes of refuse


systematically collected by municipalities.


     Table III-3-1  The yearly transition of the rates of refuse
                    disposal by landfilling to the total refuse
                    disposal.


     Year      Rates of refuse disposal by landfilling (%)


     1963                     42.2 .


     1964                     40.4 .


     1965                     39.6 .


     1966                     34.3 .


     1967                     37.7 .


     1968                     36.3 .


     1969                     35.3 .


     1970       "              33.5 .
                                         39

                                                                              	f-

-------
     Namely, from the national point of view, the rate of landfilling




disposal of refuse is gradually decreasing and in 1970 out of the




nationally discarded refuse of 77,000 tons per  Lay, 34% was landfilled,




The reason why the rate of landfilling disposal*'; has been decreasing




is the promulgation of incineration plants.  Bu; in large cities




incineration plants are not sufficiently provided at present and so




they naturally defend on the refuse disposal by landfilling; namely,




Tokyo, 62%; Yokohuna, 38%; Nagoya, 42%; Osaka, 40%.




     For the future direction the government h?s informally decided




that 90% of combustible refuse in all Japan sh; 11 be disposed of at




incineration plants.  However, it is clear thai landfilling disposals




of refuse will be conducted for big refuses su< h as ever-increasing




durable consumer goods, incombustible refuse such as glass bottles,




raw refuse during repair period of incinerator > and residual ashes




after incineration.  It is indeed getting more and more important to




utilize the environmental receptive cpacity of soil to its full




extent and promote controlled landfilling disposal of wastes.








I1I-3-2   Administrative policy relating the sanitary landfilling.




     The standards relating the landfilling disposals of domestic




wastes are prescribed in Article 3 of the "Cabinet Order of the




Wastes Disposal Law" and they can be arranged as in Table I1I-3-2.
                                   40

-------
                            Disposal by landfilling
General




standards
1.  Preventing domestic wastes from flying




    and flowing out..




2.  Landfilling site (called landfilled




    land) should b<; enclosed with a fence




    and notified by setting up a notice




    saying "a wast is disposal site."




3.  Necessary precautions should be taken




    to prevent leaching out of a land-




    filling site from polluting public




    water bodies and ground water.




4.  Necessary precautions should be taken




    not to let bad smell spread from a




    landfilling site.




5.  Gas vent should be set to eliminate




    generating gas and at the same time




    prevent the outbreak of fires.  (In




    case a small-scale landfill (less than




    10,000 m2 or 50,000 m3), the applica-




    tion of this standard is exempted.)




6.  Preventing rats from living in a land-




    filling site and mosquitoes, flies and




    other harmful insects from growing  .




    there.
                         41

-------
                                        Disposal by landfilling
                              7.  The thickness of lifts shall be

                                  generally less than 3 m and 50 cm of

                                  cover soil shall be placed between two

                                  layers.  (In case of a small scale

                                  landfill disf osal or a landfill disposal

                                  to utilize c;en space in the ground,

                                  this is not to be applied.) - A layer

                                  landfill.
Individual
Standards
               Nij;ht Soil
I.  Land landfill ing disposal:

 (T) disposed at night-soil treatment

     plants.

 (2) mixing it with more than 0.5% in

     weight of slacked lime.  [Ca (OH)2]

II.  Wet landfill disposal:  disposed of

    at night-soil  treating plants.
               Sludge
               (limited to
               sludge in
               septic tanks)
I.  Land landfill disposal:

 (T) disposed of at night-soil treatment

     plants.

 (2) burned at incineration plants,

 \3) mix it with more than 0.5% in weight

     of slacked lime.

-------
                                   Disposal by landfilling
           R< fuse
                         II. Wet landfill disposal:




                           1  disposed of at night-soil treatment




                              plants,




                           2  burned at incineration plants.
A.  For those whi<:h ignition loss is less




    than 15% a la;?er-type landfill is not




    necessary.




B,  Those not incinerated or their ignition




    loss is not less than 15%, though




    incinerated:




    a layer Iandf5.ll with a layer of less




    than 3 m and covering soil of 50 cm




    shall be conducted.
           Big refuse
An intermediate treatment is not necessary.
Note:  1, 2, 3 ...signify that all the conditions of 1, 2, 3 must be




       satisfied.




                 indicates that one of these three can be optional.




       A small-scale landfilling disposal:  a landfilled area is less




       than 10,000 m2 or the landfilled volume is less than 50,000 m3.

-------
     The local municipalities shall conduct necessary administrative




guidance and supervision relating the fixing and maintenance of land-




filling sites and the standards of maintenance and management when




wa tes discharging enterprisers and wastes disposal operators want to




start landfilling works.  The following are thu extracts from "the




Guiding Requirements in relation to the settin; of landfilling sites




for intermediate treatments and final disposal 3" enforced by Yokohama




City Public Cleansing Bureau, with which the city supervizes wastes




discharging enteiprisers and wastes disposal undertakers.




     Namely, the required standards for approval of setting up land-




filling sites foi wastes disposal are:




1)   Locational f.nvironment,




    (V)   The sit.e shall have no fear of givirg any damages to the




          neighboring houses and others.




    (jz)   The prospective site shall not include roads,  rivers and




          others which have been included in city planning projects.




2)   Conditions of roads.




    Ql)   When transporting wastes by way of jublic roads.




          a.   They must have enough width for transporting trucks




               to pass.   (basically wider than 4.5 m.)




          b.   VThen necessary, the enlargement of their  width, repairs




               and the maintenance of safety equipments  and others shall




               be carried out under the supervision of the city.

-------
    Qz)   When transporting wastes by way of private roads.




          a.   Tb.2 roads shall be wide enough for trucks to pass.




               (basically wider than A.5 TO)  TVey shall be better




               than gravelled roads and in the conditions of being




               vioration-proof, dust-proof and rain-pool proof.




        •  b.   Thay shall be equippped with traffic safety devices.




3)   Conditions for use of reclaimed land.




     When landfilling work is over, cover the surface with soil  of




good quality more than 1 meter thick, revegetat e it with plants  and




others, and never offer it for building and other construction sites.




However, in an urbanized area the site has been landfilled only  with




such inorganic wastes as soil, sand and the like, and when completed,




planned to turn into a building site, it shall be exempted from  the




above obligation when it is approved by the "The City Planning Law.",




"The Housing Land Formation Control Law" and other related laws  and




ordinances.




     Besides, there are minute regulations for getting approvals from




the neighborhood associations, agricultural cooperative associations




and other related organizations.
I1I-3-3   The trend of researches relating landfilling wastes disposal.




1)   Prologue




     Researches relating wastes disposal by means of landfilling have




been conducted locally by some municipalities and research organizations,




but most of them are no more than temporary states of landfilling.





                                  45

-------
     In 1972 the Ministry of Health and Welfare1 set out on the




researches relating landfilling wastes disposal.   Sampling six




large-scale landtilling sites from all the couitry, the Ministry




is to make general researches on the conditions of wastes, gradual




changes of condiiions of leaching water, the influences to ground




water, the stability of reclaimed lands, etc. in  connection with




these selected sites.




     Here we will introduce the joint researcl^es  conducted by Fukuoka




City and Fukuoiu: University and their meritorious results.




2)   The researches on Hatta reclaimed land in Fukuoka.




    (Y)   Summary of the reclaimed land.




          The first site of this reclaimed lard was used for waw




     wastes disposal from September, 1968 to lay   1970 by daily




     discarding wastes of 300 tons.  The site was originally an




     irrigation reservoir and the total volume of about 184,000




     tons of wastes were dumped into the space of about 220,000 m2




     of the site to create the level of about 17,000 m2 by the




     wet-type landfilling method.  The landfilling work on the




     second site began in May, 1970 and is going  on at the time




     of this research.  (Refer to Fig. III-3-1)




    (T)   Quality of leaching water from wastes layers.




          Time changes of leaching water are shown in Table' III-3-3.

-------
ii-.;, 1II-3-1   Plan  map of wet-typo  I'/.; drilling site,
                                   >-"' )
                              Dumping; wo"k, 'the  first
                              landfillin™ site.
               the second
               landfiliinp: sitev
               I8,0pijfn2.
                  /     Lnprov m^R'f on pav/ v;ater
                           storap,.  po.:cj,..
                              Durnpirifjv,-t rk.
                              the  th-r.Vtl landfillin;
                      si.i.b] c was tc:>
              dumping cite for  Land fill. ing.

-------
Table III-3-3
Quality of Leaching Water at Hatta Wastes
    Disposal Site by Land filling.

Item


P H


Transparence
(cm)

Ammonia
Nitrogen (ppm)

Albuminoid
Nitrogen (ppm)

BOD (ppm)

COD (ppm)
(potassium
bichromate)

Chlorine ion
(ppm)

Phosphate ion
(ppm)
Date
\"
\
a
b
c
a.
b
c
a
b
c
a
b
c
a
b
c
a
b
c
a
b
c
a
b
c
S.45

8

7.29
8.04
0.5
0.5
4.0
789
389
430
131.1
74.9
42.4
11959
7212
2038
23216
10470
1554
3791
1000
530
1.6
4.3
0.6

9
5.73
.50
7.85
1.3
1.5
4.0
487
689
243
147.9
40.3
8.4
10804
876
133
33224
3624
493
3055
2334
1299
0.6
8.9
2.7

10
6.54
7.80
7.93
1.2
1.6
6.7
1036
781
599
180.8
54.2
19.3
20763
272
81
34712
2429
1145
4000
3455
1986
5.2
4.7
1.5

11
6.95
7.65
7.71
1.2
1.3
6.8
1128
820
647
184,4
68.2
25.7
16625
356
90
28089
3262
1134
4664
2468
2074
4.0
4.0
0.6

12
7.65
7.55
7.90
1.0
1.3
4.9
890
822
463
69.5
67.2
26.3
6893
298
79
9806
2674
449
4433
2341
2021
2.1
1.5
0.5
S.46

1
7.78
7.13
8.02
0.7
1.1
4.0
942
834
509
91.9
49.9
36.4
6194
294
98
9899
2714
1193
5285
2376
1950
4.5
1.7
2.3
                              48

-------

2
7.40
7.60
• 7.68
0.9
1.4
3.8
859
801
681
138.4
33.1
30.8
9089
324
102
16390
1272
1259
4966
2128
2128
4.8
2.3
3.5
3
7.35
7.51
7.68
1.0
1.3
3.7
789
763
593
89.9
43.6
28.5
4011
312
115
10833
5255
1515
4671
1961
1697
5.1
4.1
3.6
4
7.32
7.39
7.76
1.0
1.4
3.2
728
616
440
66.7
—
29.1
3514
210
81
15634
3520
2956
4536
1970
1736
6.0
4.6
2.5
5
7.71
7.43
7.90
0.8
1.4
3.5
563
426
317
70.6
32.3
30.3
8200
206
86
25219
3661
2861
5137
2090
2001
7.2
5.0
2.5.
6
7.53
7.30
7.65
0.9
1.7
3.1
371
412
86
84.7
53.1
2.0
_
153
21
27823
1119
599
4041
1878
822
7.2.
5.0
1.2
.7
7.48
7.30
7.20
2.2
2.4
2.9
307
490
114
114.3
18.7
7.4
37880
285
690
32646
1405
1383
2850
2056
872
13.5
10.5
2.8
8
_
-
••

-
—
324
802
257
_
-
~
16720
100
855
24162
1263
833
2304
1969
1169
9.3
7.8
1.9
9
_
7.70
6.99
„
1.50
1.90
_
770
155
_
13.5
23.5
_
158
395
—
1272
829
_
1907
1155
l[.l
5.7
1.2
49

-------
     PH of raw wastes  is usually of  weak acid and gradually changes

to weak alkaline as  it goes  on resolving.   Transparence of the leaching

water is about 0. • degree  while landfilling woi k is going on.  But

two years after  the  completion of landfilling vork and the leaching

water from  the first reclaimed land  was around 6-7 degrees but  it

would be hard to rise higher.  Water in the boring hole continued

to be 1.5 - 2 degrees for  a long period.  The <.ifference between

the  leaching water from the first landfilling  iite and the water  in

the  boring  hole  is that one is naturally clean id while it  is  leaching

and  the other  dilutes while it  is leaching.

      The time changes of BOD  is  shown  in Fig.  III-3-2.
     103.030
       1.000
                    Fie. IH-3-2   BOD
        ICO
                                                      leachin.j \;:;ter at
                                                      the r-oc'.T'C" iT'i.c--
(Kay, 1970 -    )

water in t.-.e
borin;? hole at
the i'-j.rc'e Ir.nd-
      :  cite
                                                       1970)
          .7.8  9.10 11-12-1 -25-456  7-8 9-J1
                                       50

-------
     In July 1971 when boring was conducted, thu water was 30,000 ppm,

but in six months after the completion of landfilling, BOD tended to

go down and in June, 1971, a year after, it wen; down to 153 ppm or

about one-two thousandth.  On the other hand, at the second landfilling

site where landfi'.ling work is going on, dirty water of high BOD value

is found leaching out.   Consequently, at the first landfilling site

when boring work -ras going on, it was considered that water of high

BOD value must ha/e been leaching as it was at the second landfilling

site during the period of boring work.

     As time changes of COD is also shown in Fig. III-3-3, the water

in the boring hole was gradually decreasing the ugh slowly as shown in

Fig. III-3-3,
           Fig.
                                    COD
    103.00C"
     10000
     1.00;]
       20
                                       leaching  water at
                                       tho  second  land-
                                       filling site
                                       (May,  1970  -     )

                                       water  in  the  bor-
                                       ing  hole  at the
                                       first  landfilling
                                       site.
                                       (Sept., 1968  -
                                        May,  1970)
 7 8  9 1011  12
CS **>
                            2345678
                          S 46)
                                  51

-------
COD at the second site showed a high value just as BOD did.  As these




two diagrams indicate, when we compare the quality of water at the




first site and th«-1 at the second site where l.i. ndfilling work is still




going on, BOD of the leaching water at the second site shows a high




value of about 10(i times of the former, while COD at the same place




20 times.  This shows that both BOD and COD al»ays shown high values




while landfilling work is going on.  About 6 ircnths after the completion




of work BOD and CuD began to go on a downward trend.  Though COD of




the leaching wate:  from the landfilling site conducted by the wet-type




method goes down iiharply 6 months after the completion and the value




of COD stays on around 10,000 ppm for a long period.  The cause of this




is left to our ful'.ure researches.




     Next, about ammonia nitrogen of nitrogen group matters which are




big characteristics of dirty water as seen in lig. III-3-4, the water




in the boring hole shows high value of about SCO ppm, the leaching




water at the first site about 500 ppm, while that at the second site




about 800 ppm.
                                   52

-------
            Fif.  III-3-4 Anrr.onia Nitr
ppcf
i,o2of-        :-\
 4i     /   v\
            ,K- —*^.
£QQ-
700*
<500
500
430
300

200
100
-

\ ;,>
\fi
y
/\/ /
/ • °
/ /
: V
•u


                    ,\
  .  \\       /
/\ \\     /
/    \ \ \
                                           leaching water at
                                           the second  land-
                                           filling  site
                                           (tlay,  1970  -    )

                                           water  in the bor-
                                           ing water at the
                                           f^.rst  land fill ing
                                           5 Lte
                                           (Sept.,1968 -
                                            fey,  1970)

                                           1 caching water at
                                           b"ic first land-
                                           filling  site
                                           (Sept.,  1968 -
                                           ifey,  1970)
  0 .-'	1	1	i	J	1	;	I	J.....__l	i__l	I	
    7891011  21   2  545  6  76 }}
    1970
                 1,971
Again, the watei contains a high value  of  70-180 ppm of albuminoid

nitrogen from the  second site where work is going on.  But water is

the boring hole  at  the first landfilling site after the completion of

work tends to go down gradually.  As to nitrous acid and nitrogen

nitrate, all leaching water contains the value of 10-500 ppb, but

oxidation of nitrogen matters is not much  observed.  The leaching

water from a landfilling site may be called waste water with large

nitrogen content,  especially large ammonia nitrogen content.
                                 53

-------
     However, a research is now going on how this leaching water




from the landfilling site will affect ground water outside the site.




Besides, analysis on generating gas, experiment on stability of




ground are going on, but we will not go any further about those




here.



     Here we shDuld like to express our deep gratitude for the kind




assistance of .Assistant Professor Hanajima of the Engineering Faculty




of Fukuoka University in compiling Paragraph III-3-3.
                                54

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                                   XI




            JAPAN-U.S. CONFERENCE ON SOLID-WASTE MANAGEMENT




                           CLOSING STATEMENT




                        by H. Lanier Hickman, Jv.






     We are very pleased with this conference.  We regret that more




time could not be spent because we have many nuve questions to ask the




excellent Japanese speakers.




     Dr. Orita gava us an excellent overview o:;" solid waste management




in Japan.  Mr. Hatakeyama's outline of the principles for site selection




in Tokyo will be useful to our cities in the U. :.  The bonus concept of




pay to solid waste management personnel describ.-.d by Mr. Kumagaya was




most interesting.  We enjoyed very much Mr,  Shi^izu's concept of a closed




system to preserve resources.  Mr. Morishita presented a most interesting




discussion of solid waste collection practices :.n Japan.  The table of




generation rates fDr multi-story buildings provr.ded by Mr. Saida will be  •




very helpful to us.  The review of Japanese lanc.fill regulations by




Mr. Katayama clearly indicated that our concepts, are very similar.  The




interpreters did a splendid job.




     I wish to congratulate my co-chairman of yesterday on a job well




done.  We appreciate very much the comments of Mr. Hirao and, finally,




we wish to express our sincere appreciation to Mr. Kido for his kindness




and hospitality.




     We will take back many memories of our short stay in Japan, especially




the thoughtfulness and courtesies of the Japanese people.  We look forward




to the time we meet again in the U.S.

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                                   XII
       THE FIRST JAPAN—U.S. CONFERENCE ON SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT




                        Tokyo, January 30, 1973






                            Joint Communique






     Mr. H. Lanifc: Hickman, Jr., Deputy Director, Office of Solid Waste




Management Prograas, Environmental Protection Agency, visited Tokyo to




attend the First Japan—United States Conference on Solid Waste Management




held on January J. 3 and 30.  Deputy Director Hie kman was accompanied by




Mr. Walter W. LIVerick, Jr., Chief, Disposal Technology Branch, Processing




and Disposal Division, Office of Solid Waste Management Programs,




Environmental Prctection Agency and Mr. John P.  Lehman, Chief, Systems




Implementation Bianch, Resource Recovery Division, Office of Solid Waste




Management Progress, Environmental Protection Agency.




     The Japanese Delegation was composed of Mi.  Kenji Kido, Deputy




Vice-Minister, Environment Agency, Mr. Jun'ichi Urata, Director-General,




Environmental Sanitation Bureau, Ministry of Health and Welfare, and other




officials of the Ministries and Agencies concerned.  Local government




officials of Tokjo Metropolis, Yokohama City, Kawasaki City and Osaka City




also participated in the Conference.




     The United States Delegation's visit to Japan is a follow-up of




discussions at the Second Japan/United States Ministerial Conference on




Environmental Pollution held at Washington, D.C.  on June 1 and 2, 1971,




which indicated the desirability of establishing  appropriate groups to




exchange information on the disposal and recycling of solid wastes.

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 . f
*
     During the Conference, each Delegation described its experiences




in the past, the present status, and future trends concerning control




and management of solid wastes.  Through the lively discussions and




exchanges of views; that followed, both sides recognized the necessity




for developing collection, transport, treatment and disposal technology,




and the importance of recycling wastes in the context of preserving




natural resources and preventing further degradation of the environment.




     The discuss!'in indicated the similarity ci the problems faced by




each nation and tae necessity of cooperative efforts including the




exchange of information and views between the two Governments.  Both




Delegations agreec^ that the organizational basis for such cooperation




should be developed through periodic meetings r.f technical officials.




They further agrei.d that the Second Japan/United States Conference on




Solid Waste Management should be held in the Urited States of America.

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