The Sixth United States-Japan
Governmental Conference
on Solid Waste Management
September 12-14, 1984
Washington, D.C.
Cfi2101lft
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Solid Waste
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The conference was held at the United
States Department of State, 2101 C Street,
NW, Washington, DC. It was managed by the
Institute for Solid Wastes, American Public
Works Association.
Proceedings Editor
William S. Forester
Secretary
Institute for Solid Wastes
American Public Works Association
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SIXTH UNITED STATES-JAPAN GOVERNMENTAL CONFERENCE
ON SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Chairman, United States Delegation
Dr. John H. Skinner
Director
Office of Solid Waste
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Chairman, Japan Delegation
Dr. Katsumi Yamamura
Director General
Water Supply and Environmental Sanitation Department
Environmental Health Bureau
Japan Ministry of Health and Welfare
Washington, D.C.
September 12-14, 1984
o
HEADQUARTERS LIBRARY
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
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THE SIXTH UNITED STATES-JAPAN GOVERNMENTAL
CONFERENCE ON SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
JOINT COMMUNIQUE
The Sixth United States-Japan Governmental Conference on
Solid Waste Management was held in Washington, D.C., on
September 12-14, 1984.
The United States Delegation consisted of Dr. John H. Skinner,
Director, Office of Solid Waste, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA), and six additional EPA officials. The other delegates
were Mr. Frank Miller, Jr., Director of Public Works, City of
Hampton, Virginia; Mr. Francis W. Kuchta, Director, Department
of Public Works, City of Baltimore, Maryland; Mr. Eugene Wingerter,
Executive Director, National Solid Wastes Management Association,
and Mr. Mort M. Mullins, Director, Regulatory Management, Monsanto
Company.
The Japanese Delegation consisted of Dr. Katsumi Yamamura,
Director General, Water Supply and Environmental Sanitation Depart-
ment, Environmental Health Bureau, Ministry of Health and Welfare
(MHW), and two additional MHW officials. The other delegates
were Mr. Koichi Shimoda, Ministry of Construction; Mr. Yoshihito
Seki, Osaka City; Mr. Kiyoshi Ono, Toyohashi City; Mr. Hisaya
Aoki, Yokohama City; Dr. Masaru Tanaka, Institute of Public Health,
MHW; Dr. Sachiho Naito Kanto-Gakuin University, and three additional
observers.
The United States-Japan Governmental Conference on Solid
Waste Management was created by a decision made at the second
i
Japan-U.S. Ministerial Conference on Pollution Control held in
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Washington in June 1971. The first Conference was held in Tokyo
in 1973, the second in Washington, D.C. in 1974, and in accordance
with the Japan-United States Agreement on Environmental Protection
signed in August 1975, the third was held in Tokyo in 1976. The
fourth Conference was held in Washington, D.C. in 1979, and the
fifth in Tokyo in 1982.
The Conference took the form of exchanges of information,
including an overview of the hazardous waste regulatory system in
the United States and Japan. Following are the principal subject
areas in which papers were presented:
1. Issues in Hazardous Waste Management
2. Landfills and Land Disposal Control Technologies
3. Incineration, Energy Recovery and Material Recovery
from Solid Waste
4. Waste Management Programs in Japan and U.S. Cities
5. Waste Management Issues: The Private Sector Perspective
6. Directions in Research and Development
Meaningful reports were presented and active discussions
were conducted on these subjects, making contributions to mutual
understanding between Japan and the United States, and promotion
of research and studies of these areas.
The Conference agreed to continue information exchanges in .
administrative and technical areas and to promote cooperation in
fields of mutual interest. The Conference agreed to consider a
seventh conference in Tokyo in the future.
s
/uy. John H. Skinner
/Chairman, U.S. Delegation
\s
Dr. Kjtsumi Yamamura
Chairman, Japan Delegation
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Sixia U*;Iisd S'iates-Japan
niiricnid Conference on
Solid
United States Department of State
2101 C Street, NW
Room 1107
Washington, D.C.
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 12, 1984:
8:00 A.M. — Registration & Coffee
fcOO A.M. —
Introduction of Delegates:
Dr. John H. Skinner, United States
Dr. Katsumi Yamamura, Japan
9:10 /LM. — Welcoming Remarks:
Mr. Lee M. Thomas, Assistant
Administrator for Solid Waste &
Emergency Response U.S. En-
vironmental Protection Agency
$20 A.M. — Welcoming Remarks:
Dr. Katsumi Yamamura, Director
General, Water Supply &
Environmental Sanitation
Department, Environmental Health
Btrrv:
8:30 JLM. — Introductory Remarks and Status
Report on Waste Management in
Japan (includes overview of
regulatory system in Japan)
Dr. Yamamura, Chairman, Japan
Delegation, Ministry of Health and
Welfare
10£0 A.M. — Introductory Remarks and Status
Report on Hazardous Waste
Management in the U.S. (includes
overview of regulatory system tn the
U.S.)
Dr. Skinner, Director, Office of
Solid Waste, U.S. EPA, Chairman,
U.S. Delegation
1.
ISSUES IN HAZARDOUS WASTE
MANAGEMENT
1030A.M. 1.1 Alternatives for Hazardous Waste
Treatment
U.S. Speaker:
Mr. Donald C. White, Program
Manager, Treatment, Recycling
and Reduction Program, Office of
Solid Waste, U.S. EPA
11:00 A.M. 1.2 Management of Hazardous in
Household Wastes (Dry Batteries)
Japan Speaker:
Mr. Tohru Sanbongi
Deputy Director
Waste Management Division
Water Supply and Environmental
Sanitation Department
Ministry of Health and Welfare
11:30 A.M. Lunch
1:00 P.M. 1.3 The Dloxin Problem in the U.S.:
A Regional Perspective
U.S. Speaker:
Dr. Ralph H. Hazel
Special Assistant to the
Regional Administrator
U.S. EPA, Region VII
Kansas City, Missouri
1:30 P.M. 1.4 Issues and Problems of Dioxin in
Waste Management
Japan Speaker:
Dr. Maseru Tanaka
Chief of Solid Waste Manac—^nt
Section
The Institute of Public Health
Ministry of Health and Welfare
2.-OOP.M. 1.5 Case Studies Involving the
Treatment of Hazardous Substances
under the Superfund Remedial
Action Program
U.S. Speaker:
Mr. William M. Kaschak, P.E.
Hazardous Site Control Division
Office of Emergency and
Remedial Response, U.S. EPA
£30 P.M. Break
2. LANDFILLS AND LAND DISPOSAL
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES
2:45 P.M. 21. Groundwater Monitoring, Protection
and Corrective Action
U.S. Speaker:
Mr. Burnell W. Vincent
Land Disposal Branch
Office of Solid Waste, U.S. EPA
3:15 P.M. 2^ Estimation of Leachate Quantity and
Quality
Japan Speaker:
Mr. Toshiro Irie, Deputy Director
Office of Industrial Waste
Management
Water Supply and Environmental
Sanitation Department
Environmental Health Bureau
Ministry of Health and Welfare
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3:45 P.M. 2.3 The Regulatory Irr plications of Liner
Performance Analysis
U.S. Speaker:
Mr. Robert J. Tonetti
Land Disposai Branch
Office of Solid Waste, U.S. EPA
4:30 P.M. End of First Day
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 13,1984:
3. INCINERATION, ENERGY
RECOVERY AND MATERIAL
RECOVERY FROM SOLID WASTE
9*0 A.M. 3.1 Heat Recovery from Incineration
Plant and Materials Recovery in
Osaka City
Japan Speaker:
Mr. Yoshihito Seki
Director, Facilities Division
Public Cleansing Bureau
Osaka City Government
9:30 A.M. 32 From Tipping Fee to Tipping Free
U.S. Speaker:
Mr. Frank Miller, Jr.
Director of Public Works
City of Hampton, Virginia U.S.A.
1030 A.M. Break
4. WASTE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS
IN JAPAN AND U.S. CITIES
10:15 A.M. 4.1 Solid Waste Collection and Disposal
In a U.S. City — Baltimore, Maryland
U.S. Speaker:
Mr. Francis W. Kuchta
Director, Department of Public
Works
City of Baltimore, Maryland U.S.A.
11:15A.M. 42 Comprehensive Waste Management
System in Toyohashi City
Japan Speaker:
Mr. Kiyoshi Ono
Technical Officer
Resource Recovery and Waste
Treatment Center
Dept. of Environmental Sanitation
Toyohashi City Government
10:45 A.M. 4.3 Pneumatic Refuse Conveying
Systems in New Towns
Japan Speaker:
Mr. Kouichi Shimoda
Special Assistant to the Director
Street Division
City Bureau, Ministry of
Construction
Tokyo, Japan
Friday, September 14,1984:
5. WASTE MANAGEMENT ISSUES:
THE PRIVATE SECTOR
PERSPECTIVE
fcOOA-M. 5,1 Solid Waste Management In the
U.S., Today and Tomorros: The
Private Sector View
U.S. Speaker:
Mr. Eugene Wingerter
Executive Director
National Solid Wastes
Management Asso.
Washington, D.C.
9:30 A.M. 52
Monsanto Company's Waste
Management Program
U.S. Speaker:
Mr. Mort M. Mullins, Director
Regulatory Management
Monsanto Company
St. Louis, Missouri
6. DIRECTIONS IN RESEARCH AND
DEVELOPMENT
10XX5A.M. 6.1 Directions In Research and
Development
Japan Speaker
Dr. Sachiho Naito
Professor,"tjivil Engineering
Department
Kanto-Gakuin University
Yokohama, Japan
10:30 A.M. 62 Development of Hazardous Waste
Site Monitoring Methods and
Characterization
U.S. Speaker:
Mr. H. Matthew Bills, Deputy
Director, Office of Monitoring
Systems & Quality Assurance
Office Of Research and
Development, U.S. EPA
11:00 A.M. Break
7. PROGRAM SUMMARIES, CLOSING
AND JOINT COMMUNIQUE
11:30 A.M. 7.1 Japan Speaker:
Dr. Yamamura
Chairman, Japan Delegation
72 U.S. Speaker:
Dr. Skinner
Chairman, U.S. Delegation
11:45 A.M.
End of Second Day
1200 Noon
End of Conference
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Paper 1
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS AND STATUS REPORT ON WASTE MANAGEMENT IN JAPAN
Dr. Katsumi Yaraamura
Director General, Water Supply and Environmental Sanitation
Department
Environmental Health Bureau
Ministry of Health and Welfare, Japan
1. Introduction
1.1 Current National Waste Disposal Law and Its Administration
The national administrative program of waste management in Japan
is carried out primarily under the authority of the Waste Disposal
and Cleansing Law, which was passed in the Diet in December, 1970.
In the Waste Disposal Law, all waste materials except radioactive
Wastes are classified into two categories: industrial and general
Industrial wastes are defined as the waste materials generated by
various industrial (including agricultural) activities, and are
designated specifically by the Law and its Enforcement Ordinance.
The remaining materials, including nightscil, are defined ana
termed as general wastes, which are discharged mainly from house-
holds.
Eisposal and proper management of industrial wastes are basically
the responsibility of its original generator or entrepreneur. In
practice, industrial wastes are disposed of by the entrepreneur at
his own cost or by licensed operators contracted by the entrepreneur.
On the other hand, the governor of prefectural government is respon-
sible for the general condition of industrial waste management, and
for taking measures, if necessary, to improve management within its
administrative region. The Law also required the prefectural govern-
ment to develop a master plan for proper management of the industrial
wastes in the region, and to supervise industrial generators and
operators. Certain industrial wastes that contain toxic or hazardous
materials must be strictly controlled to insure proper disposal.
Etisposal and management of general wastes are stipulated in the Law
cis the sole responsibility of local municipal authorities (cities,
towns, and villages). Municipal government must develop a program
for disposal of the general wastes within the area. Accordingly,
collection, transportation, and disposal of the wastes are to be
operated either directly by the municipal sanitation department, or
indirectly by contractor(s) or licensed operator(s) under the super-
vision of the authority. All operations must comply with the stan-
dards set forth by the Law and its Enforcement Ordinance and Regu-
lations.
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1.2 Identification of Present Waste Management Problems
The problems mentioned below were identified and pointed out in the
report on "Overviews of the Future Waste Management Administration"
recommended by the Council on Living Environment in October, 1983:
(1) Increased difficulties in siting waste treatment plants
attributed to highly advanced land use
(2) Difficulties in gaining understanding and cooperation of
residents for appropriate waste management
(3) Increased waste bringing about difficulties in managing
properly by the conventional treatment system
(4) Ambient water pollution caused by increased domestic waste-
water
(5) Increased litter
(6) Increased waste management cost
(7) Inappropriate treatment practices such as illegal waste dis-
posal
(8) Increased need for waste recycling, resource .recovery, and
utilization
1.3 Current Major Programs
To promote further construction of waste disposal facilities, the
Cabinet officially approved, in 1981, the fifth Five-year National
Program for Construction of Waste Disposal Facilities. In this
Program, a total investment of ¥1,760 billion (current U.S. $6.9
billion) is planned throughout the country for the five years start-
ing from fiscal 1981. As a result, 91 percent of the incineration
rate for all combustible MSW should be achieved by the end of the
Program, as compared with 85 percent for fiscal 1980.
Another national program of particular importance is the promotion
of constructing large-scale regional waste disposal {landfilling)
sites. As stated before, the shortage of landfill sites has become
a serious problem. Special legislation for this purpose was passed
in the Diet in 1981.
2. Status of Municipal Solid Waste Treatment
2.1 Municipal Solid Waste Generation
Approximately 120,000 tons of MSW are generated daily from residen-
tial, commercial, and other sources in Japan. In the past, as is
shown in Figure 1, where MSW generation from households since FY 1965
is depicted, a steady increase was observed until FY 1970, which
(2)
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was then followed by a few years of decline due mainly to the first
oil crisis, followed by a gradual increase up to the present time.
It is generally known that the per capita generation increases with
the degree of urbanization, and is thus greater in large cities.
2.2 Disposal Methods and Waste Flow
The latest national picture for MSW disposal methods and its flow
is clearly shown in Table 1 and Figure 2, which were compiled by the
Ministry of Health and Welfare from data reported by local govern-
ments annually. In Table 1, the daily collection of 91,000 tons in
FY 1981, for example, was the amount of MSW for which municipalities
were responsible for collection, while 19,000 tons, mostly MSW from
commercial and institutional establishments, were transported by
dischargers themselves and disposed at facilities owned and opera-
ted by the municipalities.
Out of 91,000 tons of MSW collected daily, mainly from households,
by municipalities, more than 65,000 were incinerated. Including
other MSW collected by licensed contractors from commercial and other
sources, the overall incineration rate was 65 percent. On the other
hand, 32 percent of all MSW collected was landfilled. In addition,
ashes and r^ldues from incineration rr.d other minor disposal ratho'ds
were also landfilled.
Figure 2 illustrates various waste flows from collection to landfill
through intermediate disposal paths, and then shows the waste reduc-
tion effected by intermediate processing.
2.3 Facilities and Management Costs
As is shown in Table 2, the total number of incineration facilities
has remained constant for the past several years at about 2,000. The
total design capacity of the facilities, however, has been increasing,
and in FY 1981 was more than 148,000 tons day"1. In the same year,
facilities for shredding and/or compaction operations for mainly bulky
wastes were counted as 417, and total capacity more than 17,000 tons
day'1. Similarly, the total number and capacity of mechanical com-
posting plants were 15 and 412 tons day'1.
Annual changes during the past several years in the number and capa-
city of public landfill sites operated by local municipal authorities
are shown in Table 3. Both the number and capacity have gradually
decreased, and site locations tend to be distant from collection
areas.
(3)
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Usually all operating and maintenance costs associated with col-
lection and disposal of'MSW from households are paid from the an-
nually appropriated expenditure from the ordinary municipal treas-
ury. In some municipalities, however, the local authority collects
the waste disposal fee directly from the residents in the service
area. National averages of per capita and per ton costs are esti-
mated to be ¥5,700 and ¥19,500, respectively.
3. Status of Industrial Waste Management
3.1 Generation
En the Waste Disposal Law and its Ordinance, 19 kinds of waste
materials that are generated by industrial and agricultural activi-
ties are specifically stipulated as industrial waste. They are
listed in Table 4 along with the annual tonnage of generation in
FY 1980. A final kind is defined as the residuals generated when
treating the other 18 kinds.
Also from Table 4, the sum of annual generation for 19 kinds is cal-
culated as more than 292,000,000 tons. Four large kinds alone, i.e.,
various sludge, slugs, construction waste materials, and livestock
excretions, make up 78 percent'of the total amounts generated. Re-
cently, the portion of sludge has increased. Figure 3 shows that
primary industries and material industries discharge a vast colume of
industrial waste. 59 percent of the total industrial waste is genera-
ted from the four major sources: iron and steel industries, agricul-
ture, mining, and construction.
3.2 Industrial Waste Disposal Flow and Management
National industrial waste flows from generation to ultimate disposal
in 1980 have been estimated, and are depicted in Figure 4 as a block
flow diagram. It is noted that 154,000,000 tons comprising 53 per-
cent of the total generation are treated or processed prior to the
ultimate disposal or recycling. Also, 124,000,000 tons of industrial
waste are recovered and recycled as secondary materials.
Proper management of industrial waste is, in principle, the respon-
sibility of the generator. In practice, however, the industrial waste
may be handled by one of the following: (1} the generator, (2) licen-
sed operator(s), or (3) the local public authority. Whoever handles
collection, transportation, storage, treatment, and disposal of indus-
trial waste on a business basis must hold a permit or be a licensed
operator.
(4)
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Kainly because of environmental concerns, local governments, primarily
prefectural, have been committed directly or indirectly in the manage-
ment of the industrial waste for past years. Often they create a
public corporation that operates a centralized treatment and/or dis-
posal facility for industrial wastes generated in the region. As of
April, 1983, such public corporations are found in 20 prefectures and
nine cities.
4. Large-Scale Regional Land Reclamation Projects
4.1 Four Metropolitan Regions and Their Waste Disposal Problems
Tokyo, Nagoya, Osaka, and Northern Kyushu are the four principal
Metropolitan Regions, and likewise are the Japanese economic centers.
:in spite of their limited areas, these four Metropolitan Regions gen-
erate more than half of the national NSW and industrial waste. See
Figure 5 for their locations and waste generation.
Land acquisition for landfilling has become extremely difficult in
these regions because of limited land and large populations. For
example, in the Tokyo and Osaka regions, nearly half of the disposal
sites are located beyond their own administrative borders. Accord-
ing to a reriat survey made by the ."•'r.istry of Health and Weifare,
the shortage of landfill sites in these regions will become a serious
problem in the near future.
Since all of these regions have the bay area at their center, the
only possible solution for this landfill site shortage may be the
offshore centralized land reclamation by waste disposal within the
port. In order to accomplish this large-scale offshore land recla-
mation, the Ministry of Health and Welfare and the Ministry of Trans-
port helped develop new legal requirements for waste disposal and
port development. They are described below.
4.2 The Law of Regional Offshore Environmental Improvement Centers
In June, 1981, the National Diet passed the Law of Regional Offshore
Environmental Improvement Centers. The new Law authorizes the crea-
tion of a public organization called "the Center," which will be re-
sponsible for planning, construction, and operation of the regional
offshore land reclamation site. The center will be established with
subcenters in each Metropolitan Region. The authorization and finan-
cial sponsorship will be undertaken by the local government and har-
bor authorities.
4.3 The Osaka Bay Center
In January, 1982, the Ministry of Health and Welfare announced the
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designation of local areas covering 159 municipalities in six pre-
fectures for regional waste disposal, and the Ministry of Transport
simultaneously announced four ports for the reclamation.
In March, 1982, the Osaka Bay Center for Regional Offshore Land
Reclamation was formally established with initial capital of
¥100,000,000 invested by six prefectures and 159 municipal govern-
ments. The center will start the construction work in accordance
with the master plan and enforcement plan in 1985. The artist's
concept of the large-scale regional land reclamation is displayed
in Figure 6.
5. Conclusion
After more than 13 years of enforcement of the current Waste Disposal
Law, a basic framework for managing MSW by the municipal authority
and managing industrial waste with public guidance and supervision
has been well set in place. Under the Law, a coordinated effort has
been made by the National Government, with the Ministry of Health and
Welfare as the lead agency, to assist the local government both finan-
cially and technically.
In the fielJ of MSW management, dic-tsal facilities of loca1 public
ownership have been constructed and improved with -subsidies from the
National Government. As a result, approximately 65 percent of all
MSW is incinerated, possibly achieving the world's highest incinera-
tion rate.
Of the more than 292,000,000 tons of specifically designated indus-
trial waste generated annually in Japan, more than half will be pro-
cessed or treated for recycling and/or waste reduction for ultimate
disposal.
Several problems in waste management have been identified. One of
the most serious problems in the increasing difficulty in acquiring
land for landfilling, particularly in the Metropolitan Regions.
(6)
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Electricity, citygas, city water, and hrat supply 2.8
Non-ferrous metal indusiry 3-3'""c
Chemical industry 3.6%
Pulp, paper and papers processing
industry 4.1%
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industry 223%
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124 million
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(43%)
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50 million tons/year (17%)
•Fig. 4 Conditions of treatment and disposal of industrial waste
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Nothern Kyushu Region
46 ^ (11)
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(9)
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Fig. 5 Geographical location of four Metropolitan Regions
with their waste generation
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-------
Table 4 Discharges of industrial wastes throughout the country (FY 1980)
Kind of industrial waste
Cinder
Sludge
Waste oil
Waste acid
Waste alkali
Waiix pasties
Rubber scrap
Metal scrap
Glass and porcelain chips
Vegetable and animal remnants
Waste paper
Wood chips
Waste rags
Slags
Construction waste materials
Livestock excretions
Livestock corpses
Dust
Treated waste
Total
Annual discharge
(1,000 tons/year)
1,797
88,190
2,419
10,219
6,090
2,232
92
13,111
2,297
4,323
1,624
6,628
101
60,561
30,007
49,629
62
11,731
1,199
292,312
Discharge percentage
(%)
0.6
30.2
0.8
3.5
2.1
0.3
0.0
4.5
0.8
1.5
0.6
23
0.0
20.7
10.3
17.0
0.0
4.0
0.4
100.0
-------
-------
Paper 2
AN OVERVIEW OF HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES
John H. Skinner
Office of Solid Waste
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C.
Introduction
Approximately 265 million metric tons of hazardous waste are generated in the
United States every year. Over 70 percent of this is generated by the
chemical and petroleum industries while 22 percent is generated by metal-
related industries. These wastes are produced by over 14,000 individual
generators and are treated, stored, or disposed of at nearly 5,000 hazardous
waste management facilities.
In order to make sure that these wastes are managed in a manner that protects
himan health and the environment, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) established a national regulatory control program under the authority
of the Resouri.,. Conservation and Recovery Ac I -f 1976 (RCRA). This prograr:.
sets standards for generators and transporters of hazardous waste and for
operators of hazardous waste treatment, storage, and disposal facilities.
These standards are applied through a permit or licensing program, a manifest
system, and other administrative mechanisms.
The RCRA hazardous waste regulations were first issued in 1980. Prior to
that, there were no nationwide controls. EPA has a file of over 16,000 sites
where hazardous wastes were managed prior to establishment of these regula-
fions. At many of these sites, hazardous wastes were accidentally or inten-
tionally spilled or dumped and pose a serious threat to human health or the
environment. The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and
Liability Act (CERCLA), passed in 1980, provides EPA with the authority and
ability to clean up these sites. This is accomplished through the use of a
$1.6 billion trust fund {referred to as Superfund) and through the authority
to take enforcement action against responsible parties.
Under RCRA and CERCLA, the United States has the necessary authority to
p-ovide for safe management of hazardous wastes. Under CERCLA EPA can clean
uiD problems of the past and under RCRA we can establish controls to prevent
present and future threats. This paper will describe the hazardous waste
management programs under both these laws.
- 1 -
-------
Regulation of Hazardous Waste Management under RCRA
Hazardous wastes are produced'by industrial, commercial, mining, agri-
cultural, and community activitities. Hazardous waste can be in solid,
liquid, semi solid (sludge), or contained gaseous form. The RCRA regulations
identify hazardous waste in two ways: (1) through a list of hazardous wastes
and (2) through a set of characteristics. Several hundred specific hazardous
wastes are listed in the regulations. These include waste solvents, wastes
from inorganic or organic chemical production, and discarded chemicals and
products. If a waste is not listed in the regulation, it is nevertheless
considered a hazardous waste if it exhibits one of four characteristics:
ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, or toxicity.
Quantities of Hazardous Wastes and Number of Regulated Entities
In a recent survey, EPA estimated that 14,100 generators produced approxim-
ately 265 million metric tons of hazardous wastes in 1981.(1) The majority
of generators (84 percent) shipped all or part of their wastes to another
site for treatment, storage, or disposal. Only 16 percent of the generators
managed their wastes at the site of generation. However, in terms of quan-
tity, 96 percent of the waste was managed on site, while only 4 percent was
shipped off site. Only 9 percent of the hazardous waste generated in 1981
was recycled, and most of this (81 percent) was recycled at the site of gen-
er ation. Approximately 4,800 facilities treated, stored, or disposed of
hazardous waste in 1981. Table 1 presents tne number of facilities that
used various treatment, storage, and disposal processes and Table 2 presents
the quantities of wastes managed in these processes.
Table 1
Number of Hazardous Waste Treatment, Storage, and
Disposal Facilities— 1981
Number of Facilities that:
Treated Hazardous Waste:
In Tanks
In Surface Impoundments
In Incinerators
In other Units
Stored Hazardous Waste:
In Containers
In Tanks
In Surface Impoundments
In Piles
In other Units
609
410
240
392
3,577
1,428
552
174
139
- 2 -
-------
Disposed of Hazardous Waste:
In Landfills
In Surface I
poundments
In Injection Wells
In Land Treatment Units
In other Units
199
116
87
70
7
Source: Reference 1.
Table 2
Quantity of Hazardous Wastje Treated. Stored, jand Disposed—1981
Quantity of Hazardous Waste
That Was Treated:
In Tanks
In Surface Impoundments
In Incinerators
In other Units
That Was St""«H:
In Containers
In Tanks
In Surface Impoundments
In Piles
In other Units
That Was Disposed:
In Landfills
In Surface Impoundments
In Injection Wells
In Land Treatment Units
In other Units
Source: Reference 1.
32.0 Million Metric Tons
62.0
1.7
17.0
.6
19.0
52.0
1.5
1.0
3.0
19.0
32.0
.4
.07
Five thousand facilities stored hazardous waste in containers and tanks.
However, in terms of quantity, most hazardous waste (52 million tons) was
stored in surface impoundments (lagoons); container storage only amounted to
0.6 million tons.
Two hundred facilities disposed of hazardous waste in landfills. This is
nearly twice the number of facilities that disposed of wastes in either sur-
fc.ce impoundments or injection wells. However, most hazardous waste was
- 3 -
-------
disposed of in injection wells and surface impoundments, with only three
million tons landfilled in 198i:
Most facilities that treated hazardous waste did so in tanks or surface
impoundments and 240 facilities incinerated hazardous waste. Also, in terms
of quantity of hazardous waste treated, tanks and surface impoundments
predominate.
Tne survey estimated that there were about 326 commercial facilities. For
purposes of this survey, a commercial facility was defined as a facility that
received more than half of its hazardous waste from other firms. These
commercial facilities managed approximately 4.8 million metric tons of
hazardous waste in 1981, or 2 percent of the total managed.
The Manifest System and Standards for Generators and Transporters of
Hazardous Wastes
The manifest system is the key to the control of hazardous wastes. The pur-
pose of this system is to assure that hazardous wastes are only shipped to
legally operating treatment, storage, and disposal facilities. The manifest
itself is a document prepared by the generator which specifies the quantity
and description of the waste and designates the facility to which it must
be taken. In March 1984, EPA published a uniform'national manifest form
which must be used for all shipments of hazardous waste in the United
States.(2)
The manifest must accompany the waste shipment through all stages of
transportation. When the waste shipment arrives at the designated facility,
the facility operator must compare the quantity and type of waste listed on
the manifest with that actually received. If there are any discrepancies the
facility operator must notify EPA.
The facility operator must also return a copy of the manifest to the genera-
tor. This is the generator's receipt indicating that the waste was actually
delivered to the designated facility. If a generator does not receive the
return copy of the manifest, he must take appropriate action to locate the
hazardous waste and must notify EPA. EPA will investigate the undelivered
shipment, and if appropriate, initiate enforcement action.
The Permit Program and Standards for Treatment, Storage, and Disposal
facilities
Owners and operators of all facilities that treat, store, or dispose of
hazardous waste are required to have a permit. This permit imposes detailed
design and operating requirements on the facility.
For facilities that dispose of hazardous waste on the land, the permit will
specify requirements for liners underneath the facility, leachate collection
and treatment systems, and caps to prevent infiltration of precipitation.
-------
Ground-water monitoring is required for at least 30 years after the facility
is closed. If ground water is contaminated by the facility, the permit will
specify the corrective action.necessary to contain, remove, and treat the
ground water.
For incinerators, the permit will specify the design and operating
conditions necessary to achieve 99.99 percent destruction and removal
efficiency of the principal organic hazardous constituents in the waste.
For storage and treatment units, the permit will specify requirements to
contain the wastes and prevent leakage.
Facility owners and operators are required to demonstrate financial
responsibility through bonds, trust funds, and other financial instruments.
Operators must also carry third-party liability insurance.
The Clean Up of Hazardous Waste Releases under CERCLA
CERCLA authorizes EPA to respond directly to the release {or threatened
release) of hazardous wastes and substances. Many discharges of hazardous
suDstances demand prompt attention to avoid serious damage. CERCLA
establishes a $1.6 billion trust fund, called Superfund, to be used by EPA
to respond to such releases. Eighty-six percent of the fund is financed by
taxes on the manufacture or import of certain chemicals and petroleum. The
remainder comes from general revenues. EPA can also take enforcement action
to direct resp~-:ible private parties to und?-take clean-up actions. Any?"-?
liable for a release who fails to take ordered actions is liable for damages
eqjal to three times EPA's response costs.
The guidelines and procedures that the EPA will follow in administering the
Superfund are spelled out in a document called "The National Contingency
Plan." (3) EPA response to a release of hazardous substances can take the
form of a removal action or a remedial action. When a prompt response is
needed to prevent harm to public health or the environment, immediate
removal actions can be used. These actions nay include the installation
of security fencing, the construction of physical barriers to control a
discharge, or the removal of hazardous substances from the site.
Remedial actions are longer term, usually more expensive, and are aimed at
permanent remedies. They may be taken only at sites identified as national
priorities. EPA announced the Interim Priorities List in October 1981,
which identifies 546 sites where remedial actions may be necessary.
Remedial actions may include removal of wastes from the site, the
installation of a clay cover over the site, the construction of ditches
and dikes to control surface water, the installation of drains, liners,
and grout curtains to control ground water, the provision of an alternate
water supply, or the temporary or permanent relocation of residents.
Since the start of this program in December 1980, EPA has spent $48
million for 210 remedial actions and $125 million for remedial actions at
215 sites.
- 5 -
-------
Future Directions of the RCRA and CERCLA Programs
In the coming years there will be an expansion and acceleration of the
hazardous waste programs under both the RCRA and CERCLA statutes. More
wastes will be classified as hazardous wastes under RCRA. Standards for
land disposal facilities will become more stringent requiring, for
example, multiple liner systems and the restriction of disposal in
unacceptable hydrogeologic locations.
The disposal of certain wastes on the la.nd will be prohibited.
Chlorinated solvent wastes, for example, have been found to migrate
quickly through both synthetic and soil liner systems. Such wastes will
have to be disposed of through incineration or other treatment
techniques.
Regulations will be developed to control the use of hazardous wastes as
fuels and other waste recycling activities. The program will also attempt
to deal with hazardous wastes produced by smaller generators such as
automotive service stations, dry cleaning, and other producers of
hazardous waste.
Under CERCLA, EPA will complete the inventory of sites where hazardous
substances and wastes have been discharged. This inventory will
eventually include approximately 22,000 sites. The National Priority List
will grow to Delude between 1,500 and 2,OQn cites. Carrying out remedi^
actions at this number of sites will require funding considerably in
excess of the $1.6 billion currently authorized for Superfund. The U.S.
Congress is considering expanding the size of this fund and is reviewing a
tax on waste production as a supplement to the chemical and petroleum tax as
a means of raising the additional revenues.
Enforcement actions under both statutes will continue in order to bring
regulated industries into compliance with the RCRA standards and force
responsible parties to clean up hazardous discharges under CERCLA.
In conclusion, in the future, the management of hazardous wastes in the
United States will be subject to more extensive and more stringent controls.
This is necessary in order to assure that public health and the environment
are adequately protected from these hazardous residuals of our industrial-
ized society.
. 6 -
-------
REFERENCES
1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. National survey of hazardous
waste generators and treatment, storage and disposal facilities
regulated under RCRA in 1981. {Publication Number: EPA/530-SW-
84-005). Prepared by Westat, Inc., Rockville, Maryland,
April 1984.
2. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Hazardous waste management
system: general standards for generators of hazardous waste.
Federal Register. 49(55):10490-10510. March 20, 1984.
3. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The National Contingency Plan.
Federal Register, 47(137):3118Q-31243. July 16, 1982.
- 7 -
-------
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Paper 3
TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES FOR HAZARDOUS WASTES
Donald C. White, Program Manager
Treatment, Recycling and Reduction Program
Office of Solid Waste
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
Introduction
The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA)
of 1980 authorizes the Federal Government to respond directly to releases (or
th-eatened releases) of hazardous substances and pollutants that may endanger
the public health or welfare. The costs to clean up and dispose of these wastes
are funded by industry and federal taxes (Superfund). When a release of
hazardous substances has occurred or threatens to occur, government or industry
(or both) will have to assume responsibility for immediate and planned removal.
They must select treatment and disposal processes which are effective for the
particular haicsuous substances and circmsta-.'-es of release, Many such onions
ha/e occurred over the last 4 years.
Questions have been raised about the EPA's current practice of removing wastes
from Superfund sites and transporting them to landfills that may not fully
conply with EPA's disposal standards. It is argued that, because land disposal
may not be a permanent solution for many wastes, it is possible that the
Superfund wastes could eventually be released into the environment again and
have to be moved a second time. The argument concludes that either Superfund
wastes should be pretreated before final land disposal, or that alternative
treatment technologies should be used much more frequently as the intermediate
or final waste disposal method of choice.
EPA has undertaken a quick study of several Superfund site cleanup actions to
determine if alternative treatment technologies could have been used to handle
wastes placed in landfills. The study was to answer several questions including
the following:
(1) Does technology exist to treat those wastes, and if so, at what
cost?
(2) Could alternative technologies have been used instead of the landfill
at the time that the action was taken, and if so, at what cost?
Arother part of the study which dealt with the environmental effect on the land
disposal site, is not included in this paper.
-------
Many Superfund actions were considered for this study. Actions were nominated
for study only if at least part of tha waste handled went to a landfill. An
effort was made to select actions where waste quantity and characteristic data
as well as disoosal cost data were available. There was also an attempt to
obtain a mix of wastes, disposal facilities, and locations. Because of the
lack of data and the time available to fill in data gaps, this study could only
evaluate eleven actions.
Table 1 summarizes the data used for each site for the purposes of this study.
Unfortunately, the eleven actions finally chosen may not be representative of
the full range of Superfund activities; consequently, the results of this
analysis may not be applicable to every Superfund action.
The actions finally selected, however, do involve a wide variety of wastes
(e.g., paints, cyanides, oils, PCBs, solvents, toxic metals, and pesticides)
which represent a large portion by volume of the wastes typically found in
Superfund sites. This can be seen by comparing the total waste types suspected
in Superfund sites in 1983, which is contained in Table 2.
After the Superfund actions were selected, all of the available information was
reviewed from the Superfund files. Calls were made, as time permitted, to
Headquarters and Regional Office staff knowledgeable of the particular actions
to clarify or obtain additional information. Unfortunately, little of this
information has been verified. In any subsequent study, more time should be
spent talking with these people, particularly on-scene coordinators, to improve
the quality of the data base.
Determination of Wastes and Treatment Alternatives
A description of the wastes studied by action is given in Table 1. In many
instances, the lack of specific data on the characteristics of the wastes
required that assumptions be made about the wastes that were ultimately land-
filled. Based on the information available, a typical waste was selected in
order to facilitate future calculations on treatability, costs, and risk. In
some cases, waste characteristics were selected to make the waste more amendable
to treatment. These "hypothetical" waste characteristics may be in error by an
order of magnitude or more and therefore may not represent the actual waste
handled. In addition, the economic data for transportation and disposal were
often obtained from sketchy information and total cost figures reported from
the disposal site during cleanup.
Assumptions were made next on which treatment technologies could be applied to
the wastes. While it is reasonable to assume that these technologies could
treat the hypothetical wastes, small differences in the assumed waste charac-
teristics could considerably change future conclusions. For instance, if
the assumed BTU content was significantly different, the waste might not be
acceptable for incineration, or at least supplemental fuel would have to be
used which would increase the costs. Also, a specific lime/cement mix solidi-
fication process was assumed applicable for each waste. Not all wastes can be
(2)
-------
Table 1
Summary of Superfund Site Data
Hypoth.
Waste
ID #:
(1A)
(IB)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(101
("I
Waste
Quantity/Form:
47 drums/sludge
80 yd3/soils
102 drums/sludge
158 drums/soils
3,392 yd3/soils
1,722 yd3/sludge
137 yd3/soils
800 drums/sludge
{16 trklds)
240 yd3/soils
440 yd3/soils
(sand)
95 yd3/sludge
1,500 yd3/sludge
Waste
Group:
PCB/oil
solvents
cyanides
resins/
solvents
metals
solvents/
paints
PCB's
solvents
pesticides
phenols
(tars)
PCB/pest/
solvents
PCB/oils/
solvents/
Disp. /Trans.
Costs:
$ 2,940 D
$ 963 T
$ 3,000 0
$ 2,340 T
$ 6,120 0
$ 949 T
$ 12,500 D*
$ 1,700 T*
$ 92,000 D*
$141,000 T*
$138,000 0*
$200,000 T*
$ 15,000 D*
$ 1,600 T*
$ 80,000 D*
$ 22,400 T*
$ 48,000 *
(incl. R,D,T)
$ 13,200 D*
$ 11,500 T*
$ 7,600 D*
$ 2,000 T*
$150,000 D*
$ 23,000
Disp.
Date:
10/82
11/82
12/82
6/83
4/83
7/83
(
.9/83
3/82
4/83
6/83
3/82
12/77
Comments :
-
-
-
-
106 trkld
32 yd3 ea
$ 80/yd3 disp
100 trkld
•) $200/trkld
8 trkld
$200/trkld
$100/drm disp.
$28/drm trt & tr
$200/yd3 (R.D.T)
12 trkld
$30/yd3 disp.
23 trkld
$500/trkld
$80/yd3 dis
$100/yd3 disp
92 trkld
$250/trkld
* - Cost data are estimates. These figures do not necessarily represent the actual costs
incurred for each site.
(3)
-------
Table 2
BREAKDOWN OF WASTE TYPES SUSPECTED ON 154 SITES *
WHICH Ulki£ "PROPOSED" REMOVAL ACTION SITES FOR 1903
48% solvents
25% metals
23% corrosives
20% polychlorinated biphenyls
18% cyanides/reactIves
15% pesticides
10% oils
9% phenolics
6% paints/resins
6% polynuclear aromatics/phthalates
4% chlorinated dioxins/dibenzofurans
2% radioactive
1% asbestos
(e.g., For 48% of 154 "proposed" removal sites in 1983, there was a preliminary
indication that solvents or materials contaminated with solvents were present
on site. This table indicates the major waste types anticipated to be present
on these sites. More than one waste type was usually present; therefore the
sum of the percents will exceed 100%.)
*Estimated from "Superfund Removal Request Summary for FY'83".
(4)
-------
treated in this manner. In reality, tests would be needed to select the right
mix of chemicals to insure minimum leaching. Actual knowledge of the Teacha-
bility of each waste with the assumed lime/cement mix would greatly affect the
ultimate environmental risk and cost of this process.
Once the alternative treatment technologies were identified, telephone calls
were placed to commercial facilities to see if they could take the wastes, and
if so, at what cost. The treatment alternatives were compared and evaluated.
Costs of the different treatment options were compared to the costs spent to
landfill each waste.
It should be noted that in most instances, land disposal was the ultimate fate
of only part of the wastes being removed from each Superfund site. Consequently,
not all of the wastes handled at the Superfund site were made part of this
study. Full treatment or pretreatment technologies, such as incineration;
neutralization, solidification, and carbon adsorption, were often used at the
Superfund sites or at the disposal facilities. Of the Superfund actions studied,
perhaps as much as 60% of the wastes were incinerated, treated, or recycled.
Of the approximately 40% of the wastes that were landfilled, about 7% were
nautralized and/or solidified prior to landfilling. It seemed that in most
cases, the most difficult to manage waste was landfilled.
&)mparison of Treatment Alternatives
Incineration
Incineration in a rotary kiln was a technically viable option for eleven of
the twelve hypothetical Superfund wastes. It was the first technical choice
o" alternatives for eight wastes; second choice for two wastes; and third
choice for one waste. The one waste for which incineration was not an option
had no organics. It contained primarily metals, soils, and metal salts.
Selection of the order of alternative choices was based upon the waste character-
istics and the constituent concentrations.
Incineration involves destruction of the toxic organic constituents at a
federally regulated level of 99.99% destruction/removal efficiency (ORE) and
thus provides a significant reduction in long-term environmental risk. In the
snort-term, risk due to incineration must be evaluated per constituent with
consideration of constituent toxicity, incinerator operating parameters, stack
emission concentrations, and potential for population exposure. Residues from
iicineration may also present a long-term risk; however, the concentration of
hazardous organic constituents will be significantly reduced (by up to four
orders of magnitude) when compared to the original wastes.
Costs of incineration, as well as risk, are greatly affected by the physical
and chemical characteristics of each individual waste. Actual costs, rather
than the estimated costs, would be highly dependent upon the heterogeneous
(5)
-------
physical character of each waste as well as concentrations of the toxic
constituents. Additional factors increasing the costs would be:
0 low BTU content of the waste;
0 supplemental fuel consumption;
0 heat release of the waste;
0 material handling difficulties;
0 feed mechanism complications;
0 high ash content/residue removal; and
0 corrosive gas formation potential.
Conversations with owners/operators of rotary kiln incinerators and with EPA
incineration experts indicate that actual costs for these wastes are also
dependent upon:
0 volume discounts;
0 governmental rates;
0 storage/handling requirements;
0 worker safety considerations;
0 competitive bidding;
* regional cost differentials;
0 capacity competition from industrial wastes; and
0 other market considerations.
Capacity of commercial rotary kiln incinerators appears to be somewhat limited.
Indirect comments on capacity were made by the owner/operators of the rotary
kiln incinerators, which indicated that there would probably be insufficient
existing capacity to handle these Superfund wastes if they were "generated" all
at once. This report did not analyze total capacity for these eleven incinerable
wastes because the wastes were "generated" over a period of six years. Several
of these commercial firms indicated that they are currently developing or
anticipate developing mobile rotary kiln incinerators which would specifically
address the problem of treatment of Superfund wastes (similar to those addressed
in this study). The firms' primary concerns appear to be the problems with
siting restrictions and obtaining permits.
One treatment option not fully considered in this report, is that of incineration
of these wastes in existing, private non-commercial facilities. The EPA National
(6)
-------
Survey of Treatment, Storage, and Disposal Facilities indicates that there may
be a significant nunber of these facilities which could technically incinerate
a portion of these wastes. This concept could be the subject of additional
investigation.
Solidification
Cementitious solidification/fixation was a technically viable option for eleven
of the twelve hypothetical Superfund wastes. It was the first technical choice
of alternatives for four wastes. It was not an option for the waste which
consisted of sand contaminated with phenolic tars. The combination of high
organic content and tarry physical form prevented application of this technology,
Selection of the order of alternative choices was again based upon the waste
characteristics and the constituent concentrations.
Cementitious solidification/fixation chemically binds inorganics (metals) and
physically entraps organics within a cement-like matrix of reagents. Unlike
incineration, this technology does not destroy organics and there exists an
ultimate potential for release of all of the toxic organic constituents.
The* release rate will be effected by the following:
0 ratio of reagents used;
0 type of Cementitious reagents used;
0 use of adsorbents;
0 initial mixing efficiency;
0 concentration of organic constituents;
0 valence state of metal constituents;
0 initial setting/curing procedures and time;
0 permeability of mixture to leaching solutions;
0 inorganic nature of original waste;
0 disposal site geology; and
0 aging.
The "solidified" waste is the residue of this treatment process. Resultant
constituent concentrations will be dependent upon quantities of reagents,
volatilization losses during mixing, and final volume.
(7)
-------
Costs of solidification is highly dependent upon the concentrations of the
toxic constituents of concern, as well as the overall organic character of the
waste. Oils and greases will severely inhibit the setting time and greatly
increase reagent usage.
Other factors effecting the cost are:
0 reagent availability and costs;
0 heterogeneity of waste;
0 pretreatment requirements for changing the valence
state of the metals;
0 ease of reagent addition/mixing;
0 resultant volume increase;
0 need for adsorbents;
* need for Portland cement;
0 need for silicates or polymers to enhance setting/ .
curing properties; and
0 on-site vs. off-site treatment.
Reduction in Teachability of toxic constituents will generally reduce the cost
per ton of waste to be landfilled; however, this is usually offset by the larger
increase in volume of material which is landfilled. The total cost to landfill
the waste is therefore greater than landfilling the waste directly.
Applicability of this "technology" is directly related to the overall capacity
of landfills and the Teachability of toxic constituents.
Other Treatment Technologies
Stream stripping was identified as a technically feasible pretreatment option
for seven of the twelve hypothetical Superfund wastes. In all seven cases,
stream stripping was the third option choice. A complete analysis of steam
Stripping residues, efficiencies, emissions, costs, and risk was not performed
for this report. A few general comments on the application and feasibility of
stream stripping for these wastes are as follows:
0 physical form of the waste must be such that steam can pass through it
(or steam under moderate pressure);
0 volatile organics can be stripped and collected;
0 condensed organics will contain a considerable amount of water;
(8)
-------
0 spent steam (water) will contain considerable anounts of volatile and
semivolatile toxic organics;
0 residual solids will contain a considerable amount of water;
0 efficiency of organic extraction is directly related to the water
solubility of the organics;
0 oils and greases will often cause emulsion problems; and
0 a relatively high potential for fugitive emissions of volatile
organics exists.
Biodegradation was identified as the third choice of technically feasible
options for two of the twelve hypothetical Superfund wastes and as a research
status option for seven of the wastes. A complete analysis of biodegradation
treatment considerations was not performed for this report. A few general
conments on the application and feasibility of biodegradation for these wastes
ar« as follows:
0 physical form of the waste must be such that proper mixing and
aeration (if necessary) can occur;
0 volatiio organics may be released tiuuugh vaporization during
aeration (if required);
0 the organisms may have difficulty acclimating to the waste;
0 there may be an insufficient nutrient content for the growth of
organisms;
0 the mixture of toxic constituents may be too complex and possibly
toxic to the organisms;
0 there will be a build up of biomass in the residuals; and
0 some toxic constituents may become mobilized through biotransformation.
Analysis of these hypothetical Superfund wastes indicates that other treatment
options may also be available. However, these technologies either have limited
application or are still in the research phase. The following provides an
estimate of the number of the Superfund wastes studied that could be processed
by these various treatment options:
0 high temperature fluid wall reactor - 5 wastes;
0 sodium naphthylide dechlorination - 2 wastes;
0 multiple hearth incineration (existing) - 1 waste;
0 fluidized bed incineration (existing) - 1 waste;
(9)
-------
0 acid leaching/sjbsequent treatment - 1 waste;'
0 alkaline leaching/subsequent treatment - 1 waste;
° direct chemical oxidization - 1 waste;
0 molten salt/glass/iron techniques - multiple wastes; and
0 solvent extraction - multiple wastes.
In summary, incineration and cementitious solidification/fixation are currently
the two readily available commercial treatment alternatives for all twelve
hypothetical wastes. On a long-term basis, incineration would provide the
greater protection from environmental release. On a short-term basis, incin-
eration of these wastes would have to be evaluated on a chemical constituent
and site basis to properly assess environmental release potential.
Comparison of Disposal Costs
In order to compare the actual Superfund cost of landfilling each waste with
the estimated cost of incineration and treatment of that waste, the current
costs for (1) landfilling, (2) incineration by rotary kiln and (3) treatment by
solidification were estimated. Table 3 gives the estimated current costs to
landfill and U, incinerate each hypothetic'.1 wastes. The increase in landfill
costs over original costs (from Table 1} was determined based on conversations
with landfill operators, and depended on waste type and inflation. The adjusted
current landfill cost estimates are given in Column 8 of Table 3. The weighted
average cost (total cost of landfilling divided by total tons of waste) for
land disposal of the Superfund wastes studied is $57/ton. This corresponds
closely to the average disposal price obtained in the EPA National Survey of
Transport, Storage and Disposal Facilities (1981). Incineration costs for
each waste were also obtained by conversations with incinerator operators.
The estimated incineration costs are given in Column 10 of Table 3. The
weighted cost to incinerate averages $507/ton.
Table 4 gives the estimated current cost of solidifying each hypothetical
wastes. The quantity of each reagent required to solidify each waste is based
on the type and quantity of waste. The reagent cost information was obtained
from conversations with landfill operators. To calculate total solidification
cost, it was assumed that labor and equipment costs equaled reagent costs. The
decrease in cost caused by the decrease in waste toxicity resulting from this
treatment is assumed to be offset by the increase in the waste volume. The
increased landfill cost (estimated 1984 landfill cost [from Table 3] times
increased volume) is given in Column 9 of Table 4. The total cost of solidi-
fication (labor, equipment, reagents, and landfilling) is given in Column 1.
The weighted cost to solidify and landfill averages about $199/ton.
Table 5 gives a comparison of landfill costs (from Table 3) with costs to
incinerate (from Table 3) and to solidify (from Table 4). The "factors" for
each waste illustrate the order of magnitude difference in costs. The data
(10)
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Table 5
COMPARISON OF TECHNOLOGY COSTS WITHOUT TRANSPORTATION COSTS INCLUDED
hypothetical
waste
*
1A
IB
2
3
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
estimated
landfill
cost (S)
3,240
3,450
6,888
13,608
152,320
16,560
87,040
54,600
15,341
8,400
181,980
estimated
incineration
cost ($) factor3
25,920
46,000
39,360
40,320
1,740,800
82,800
204,800
436,800
667,000
72,000
2,426,400
8.0
13.3
5.7
3.0
11.4
5.0
2.4
8.0
43.5
8.6
13.3
estimated
solidification
cost {$} factorb
4,520
7,649
9,528
48,082
548,352
48,576
313,344
117,390
214,107
20,460
370,026
1.4
2.2
1.4
3.5
3.6
2.9
3.6
2.5
14.0
2.4
2.0
totals:
S 543,427
$ 5,782,200 na
$ 1,702,034 na
Landfill vs. Incineration
mean factor: 11.1
range: 2.4 - 43.5
Landfill vs Solidification + Landfill
mean factor: 3.6
range: 1.4 - 14.0
Excluding one extremely high value:
(for waste #9)
Excluding on extremely high value:
(for waste #9)
mean factor: 7.9
range: 2.4 - 13.3
mean factor: 2.6
range: 1.4 - 3.6
na - not applicable
a order of magnitude difference between cost of incineration and landfilling
b order of magnitude difference between cost of solidification (including
landfilling) and landfilling
NOTE: frfaste #4 is excluded from calculations because incineration was not applicable
to this waste.
(13)
-------
shows that the average estimated" cost of incineration is approximately 11 times
greater than that paid for landfill ing. Most of the incineration costs for
each waste are between 2 and 13 times greater than landfill costs. If an
extremely high value (43.5 times) is excluded as a statistical outlier, the
incinerator costs average 8 times greater than landfill costs. Corresponding
comparisons for solidification are approximately 4 times and 3 times (excluding
the high value of 14 times) landfilling costs on the average. The data also
shows that incineration is 3 times more costly on the average than solidification,
Program for Treatment Alternativesfor Hazardous Waste
The study previously discussed and another internal EPA investigation which
evaluated data from the 1981 EPA National Survey, seem to indicate that current
capacity for solidification and treatment in tanks generally appears to be
adequate at this time. On the other hand, current incineration capacity to
handle large volumes of liquid and solid hazardous wastes may not be adequate.
Other treatment technologies, such as stream stripping and biodegradation,
could potentially be used to manage these wastes. However, their current
application is limited, and in some aspects still requires additional research
and development.
These small studies lacked readily accessable, confirmed waste and economic
data therefore requiring numerous assumptions which significantly limited the
accuracy and Significance of the results. TS;? Agency has conducted however,
major comprehensive studies in the past to identify available treatment tech-
nologies, and to evaluate the potential application of these technologies to
specific wastes streams and industries. One such summary, "Chemical, Physical,
Biological Treatment of Hazardous hastes", was prepared by Edward J. Martin,
et al., and presented at the 5th United States - Japan Governmental Conference
of Solid Waste Management in Tokyo, Japan in 1982. These studies are now too
general and require updating. The only treatment technology that has been
(and currently is being) evaluated in depth is combustion. New technical studies
need to be undertaken to provide adequate information before a sound regulatory
program which requires the use of alternative technologies can be implemented.
Etoth Congress and EPA believe that the nation should move more rapidly toward
treatment and recovery as the preferred methods for managing the nation's
hazardous waste. In the currently drafted (1984) Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRA) reauthorization bills, Congress has proposed that land
disposal of certain wastes be prohibited and that EPA publish regulations
banning all hazardous wastes from land disposal unless a finding is made that
land disposal of particular wastes will be protective of human health and the
environment for the life of their disposal.
In order for these national goals to be realized, treatment and recovery must
be reasonably available alternatives for managing hazardous waste. This means
technically feasible treatment alternatives must in fact exist for most hazardous
wastes and that these alternatives must be economically viable. Industry,
government, and the public must become more aware of the existence and capa-
bilities of these alternative technologies. In addition, EPA must assess the
environmental impacts of these technologies and regulate them as necessary to
ensure protection of human health and the environment.
(14)
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To he able to provide current, high quality information on treatment techno-ooi-?
and to respond to the specific mandates of Congress and the public, EPA has
formed the Treatment, Recycling and Reduction Program. This Program has three
major objectives:
1. Gather technical information on treatment alternatives to support the
regulatory ban of certain hazardous wastes fro17! land disposal;
2. Establish a regulatory framework to set ban effective dates and
"pretreatroent" standards {if necessary) associated with those wastes
that are banned; and
3. Provide information on and promote treatment, recycling and reduction
techniques to industry, government and the public as preferred methods
of hazardous waste management.
These objectives will be accomplished over the next several years through the
implementation of the following program tasks:
1. Collection of data on waste characteristics, waste treatability and
treatment technologies;
2. Preparation of treatment technology studies focusing on individual,
curre.icly available and emerging wsa<.-= reduction, recovery and tf«.u^nent
techniques;
3. Preparation of specific industry studies focusing on the treatment of
all waste streams banned from land disposal for individual industries;
4. Preparation of waste stream studies focusing on treatment alternatives,
capacity and treatment effectiveness for those wastes that may be
banned from land disposal;
5. Promulgation of regulations that establish criteria for determining
"available capacity", and, if necessary, regulations that establish
"pretreatment" standards that must be met before particular wastes can
be land disposal;
6. Development and implementation of a technology transfer and information
dissemination program to inform industry, government and the public
about and to promote reduction, recovery and treatment as the preferred
methods of hazardous waste management;
7. Analysis and implementation of economic and institutional incentives
and disincentives to facilitate the use of alternative treatment
technologies and promote alternatives to land disposal;
8. Analysis and implementation of waste reuse, recycling, reduction,
exchange technologies, and promotional activities;
(15)
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9. Implementation of a
technical advice to
and
technical assistance program to provide specific
industries and government regulatory organizations;
10. Implementation of a research and evaluation program (by the Office of
Research and Development) which will perform actual field studies and
testing of treatment technologies to determine their applicability to
various types of waste streams and their environmental impact.
These program tasks are interrelated and mutually supportive. The "treatment
technology data base" serves as a major input to the development of reports
describing treatment alternatives for specific technologies, specific industries
and specific waste streams. In turn, these technical evaluations form a basis
for determining treatment capacity, and thereby establishing appropriate ban
effective dates, and for setting "pretreatment" standards, i.e., types and or
levels of treatment necessary before a "banned" waste can be land disposed.
The technical reports are a major part of the technical background documentation
needed to support any additional regulations, policy statements or guidance.
The technical reports and data provide the backbone for the efforts to promote
hazardous waste recovery and treatment. They also supply the information
necessary to produce technical papers, training and public information materials,
seminars and workshops needed to inform industry, government and the public.
And finally, they serve to identify research needs and provide the basis for
technical assi^cance efforts. •••>•
Current Activities
Initial efforts within this program are focused on gathering information on
currently available and emerging treatment and recovery technologies, on the
types, physical/chemical characteristics and quantities of waste that are
treatable by each technology, and on existing treatment capacity. Major con-
tractor studies are currently underway addressing those specific waste streams
that are candidates for banning from land disposal. They will focus initially
on the waste streams identified in the proposed RCRA Amendments, i.e., solvents,
wastes containing dioxins, and the "California list" as modified by our internal
classification studies (halogenated organics, metals, corrosives, cyanides and
other reactives). Additional studies addressing the other hazardous wastes
will be performed according to the schedule promulgated by EPA for deciding
whether or not to ban wastes. Each evaluation will focus on individual waste
streams and determine the types and levels of treatment required for each
waste prior to land disposal, and the availability of alternative capacity,
assuming that the particular waste can no longer be land disposed. They will
also determine the limitation and effectiveness of each treatment technology
specific to individual physical and chemical waste characteristics, the environ-
mental effects of the recovery and treatment processes {types, quantities,
composition of emissions, discharges residues), and the time and cost to develop
additional capacity to match waste quantities and locations. These first six
major waste stream reports should be finalized by the end of 1984.
(161
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Through Its technical studies, EPA must identify the range of technologies
appropriate for each waste group and determine whether capacity is available to
handle the specific wastes that will be banned. Criteria are currently being
established to decide when existing capacity is "available." If capacity is
available, the bans will go into effect immediately. If capacity is not
available, then EPA will have to determine when additional or new capacity will
become available in order to extend the ban deadlines. A regulation will be
developed over the next 2 years (or a shorter time if possible), explaining the
criteria used to determine capacity, and specifying the requirements for granting
extensions to the ban or for setting pretreatment standards.
In addition to these technical and regulatory efforts, several information
transfer activities will be undertaken this year to inform industry, hazardous
waste regulating agencies and the public about EPA's treatment alternative
program and the results of technical studies. A Treatment Reference Directory
will be produced which will contain the names, addresses and phone number of
those individuals in industry, government and the public involved in waste
treatment technologies. Articles will be prepared for technical trade magazines
and journals, technical seminars and workshops will be presented, a national
conference will be planned, and technical information letters will be sent to
those interested in keeping up-to-date with EPA's treatment alternative efforts.
Other activities will be undertaken in FY'85 and FY'86 as more money becomes
available. The Treatment, Recycling and Reduction Program has finalized a
cooperative agr::ment with Louisiana State Ur-v^rsity's Hazardous Waste Rc:t;rch '
Center to assist with several of these tasks.
A program to evaluate the applicability of certain technologies to particular
waste streams by conducting actual field measurements and demonstration projects
will also be started in FY'85. These studies are required to fill data gaps in
the existing technical literature.
(17)
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Paper 4
MANAGEMENT OF HAZARDOUS^MATERIALS IN HOUSEHOLD WASTE (DRY BATTERIES)
Tohru Sanbongi
Deputy Director
Waste Management Division
Water Supply and Environmental
Sanitation Department
Ministry of Health and Welfare, Japan
1. Introduction
Wastes from houses, offices, and other buildings such as apartments,
are handled by municipalities in Japan. Because the composition of
these wastes is becoming more and more complex, municipalities with
conventional treatment systems cannot cope with some of them, such
as hazardous wastes and other wastes harmful to workers and facili-
ties.
Since the fall of 1983, used dry batteries have emerged as a special
problem at incinerators and other disposal facilities due to the
mercury they contain. This paper considers the current status of
managing l^zardous domestic v^ste;. _n Japan, with a specia"!. emphasis
on the management of used dry batteries.
2. History of Dry Battery Problem
It is currently assumed that a number of municipalities independent-
ly have initiated special collection and treatment programs for the
disposal of used dry batteries. In waste management, however, the
adoption of special collection and treatment procedures for used
dry batteries is in transition. Thus, we cannot forecast how many
municipalities will adopt special collection and treatment programs
for used dry batteries in the future or what form of special collec-
tion and treatment programs municipalities will adopt.
In waste management, municipalities tend to adopt special collection
and treatment programs for used dry batteries in three stages:
A. In investigation and research, municipalities began recog-
nizing dry batteries as a subject of environmental impor-
tance in the period 1972-74.
B. Hiroshima City and Toyohashi City adopted special collec-
tion and treatment programs peculiar to their circumstan-
ces in the period 1975-80.
-------
C. The separate collection and treatment of used dry batteries
to offset environmental pollution began after the fall of
1983.
2.1 Recognition of Used Dry Batteries as a Subject of Environmen-
tal Concern (1972-74)
In investigating municipal waste management systems, the necessity
of countermeasures against mercury-containing wastes such as dry
batteries are pointed out in order to reduce the heavy metal load
in household wastes.
2.2 Separate Collection of Dry Batteries Considering the Specific .
Circumstances of the Municipalities, Hiroshima and Toyohashi
(1976-81)
2.2.1 Hiroshima City
Hiroshima City was having difficulty obtaining land for a final
disposal site, and thus initiated, in 1976, separate collection of
five kinds of wastes (combustibles, incombustibles, bottles and
cans, bulky wastes, and hazardous wastes). In order to reduce the
amount of wastes to be disposed of, it was necessary to secure the
cooperation of the people in separating the wastes. The hazardous
wastes separated out included mercury-containing wastes such as
those found in dry batteries, fluorescent lamps, and clinical ther-
mometers .
2.2.2 Toyohashi City
Toyohashi City undertakes waste management in the form of a waste
management and resource utilization program, known as "Project of
Total Management and Resource Utilization of Wastes in Toyohashi."
In this project, five kinds of household wastes are collected sepa-
rately (combustibles, incombustibles, bottles and cans, bulky wastes,
and hazardous wastes). Mercury-containing wastes such as dry bat-
teries are separated out as hazardous wastes in order to allow the
garbage to be processed as an environmentally acceptable compost.
2.3 Separate Collection of Used Dry Batteries to Offset Environ-
mental Pollution (After Fall of 1983)
In July 1983, "Kurashi no techo," a Japanese consumers' magazine,
pointed out:
"Recently, along with rapidly increasing production of dry bat-
teries with higher content of mercury than other types, the total
amount of mercury used for dry batteries has been greatly increas-
ing. And the environmental pollution is anticipated to be caused
by waste treatment of used dry batteries."
(2)
-------
In November 1983, at a meeting of the Japan Society of Air Pollu-
tion, the Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of the Environment reported,
in a study of a continuous monitoring method (using flameless
atomic absorption method), on mercury found in the exhaust gas
from incineration plants (stoker type, 150t/day). The following
data was given:
"Although for most of the monitoring period, the concentration was
0.05 - 0.15 mg/Nm^, some sharp peaks also could be observed. Dur-
ing the investigation period, about 20 peaks of more than 1.0 mg/Nm3
could be observed per day on average. Occasionally, peaks more than
5 mg/Nm^ appeared. The figure below shows the result of the ex-
periment when dry batteries were throivn into the furnace. This
figure shows that as soon as batteries are thrown into the furnace,
their mercury becomes part of the exhaust gas. A piece of alkaline-
manganese battery did not show an apparent peak, but 10 pieces of
them showed the peak corresponding to that of 10 pieces of mercury
batteries (MR9 type). Manganese batteries did not show an influence
on the peak."
i.
-I
(Q Mf
!P
i n
i
H
-X-Mercury B. L
1 Mercury Thermometer
~ 1 Mercury B.M
1 Mercury B. S
1 AM-3
Figure (from "Continuous Monitoring of Mercury from Waste
Incineration Plant," Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of
Environment, Proceedings of Japan Soc. of Air Poll., 1983)
(3)
-------
The result was reported widely by the mass-media, and the problem
of environmental pollution of mercury by dry batteries has become a
social problem.
As a result of this publicity, with the cooperation of people
for waste management and their awareness of environmental pollution
of mercury by dry batteries/ the number of municipalities conduct-
ing separate collection of dry batteries increased very rapidly. It
is now estimated that 20 percent of all municipalities are conduct-
ing separate collection of used dry batteries.
3. Dry Batteries and Mercury
3.1 Circulation of Mercury and Amount of Mercury Use^)
There are two sources of mercury in the solid part of the earth:
the natural mercury existing in the earth's crust, and the artifi-
cial mercury resulting from industrial production. In 1924 Clarke
estimated the quantity of mercury existing in the crust as 0.2 ppm.
The concentration of mercury on the earth is reported as follows:
A. Concentration of mercury in the soil
At certain places in England and the Soviet Union, con-
centration as high as 10,OQOng/g (10ppm) is reported.
But in general rural areas, the concentration of mercury
in the surface soil is reported under 150ng/g (0.15ppm).
The concentration of mercury under the surface soil is
usually about 1/5-1/10 of that in the surface soil.
B. Concentration of mercury in sea water2)
It is estimated that the concentration of mercury in un-
polluted sea water is about 5ng/1 (O.OOSppb).
C. Concentration of mercury in river water
The concentration of mercury in river water in the Soviet
Union and eastern Europe is reported 0.4-2.8ug/1(0.4-2.
8ppb), and it is reported that the concentration of mer-
cury in river water of Minamata River and Kuma River in
Japan is O.S-IO^g/1 (0.5-.0ppb).
D. Concentration of mercury in rain water
In germany, the concentration of mercury in rain is re-
ported 50-480ng/1 (o.05-0.48ppb) and 200ng/1 (0.2ppb)
on the average. In Sweden, it is reported 80-1450ng/1
(0.08-1.45ppb). As it is reported that the mercury could
not be detected in the atmosphere after rain, rain is
supposed to wash out the mercury in the atmosphere.
(4)
-------
E. Concentration of mercury in volcanic gases
The concentration of mercury in the volcanic gases of
Hawaii and Iceland is as high as 10-30ug/m3. It is
reported that 98 percent of mercury from the Hawaiian
volcanoes are gaseous or minute particles (diameter 0.3
urn) .
F. Concentration of mercury in the atmosphere
Where there is not mercury deposit, it is estimated that
the concentration of mercury is about 1-10ng/m3 in the
atmosphere over the land and lower than this in the
atmosphere over the sea.
G. Concentration of mercury in the fossil fuels
The concentration of mercury in the fossil fuels such as
coals, petroleum, etc., is very low, but with their huge
consumption they have impact on the environment. The
concentration of mercury in the 36 kinds of coals produced
in the U.S. is reported 0.7-33ppm (on average 3.3ppm).
Mercury is supplied to the surface from the inside of the earth,
and moves to to the water bodies directly or indirectly through
the atraospnere. In the sea, some t'arts of mercury are ab^. bed
by planktons, and the other is deposited. This circulation of
mercury is illustrated in Fig. 3-1.3)
atmosphere
movement of vapor
sea
moved to oceans
factitious 1
evaporation (:
rain over >7/Cvo 1 canoes !*!!f
carried
oceans by rfvers
surface of the earth
Quantity of
1 I' existing mercury
i ^ Ouanti ty of
! 1 moving mercury/year
Fig.3-1 Circulation of Mercury
(5)
-------
a- Natural generation
Mercury is naturally generated as a result of weatherincr
and erossion of rocks, released gases from the inside of the
earth, or volcanic activities. The amount of natural
generation of mercury is estimated at 25,000-150,OOOton/year
(FAO/WHO 1972) .
b- Generation as a result of mercury use:
The amount of mercury production is 10,000-11,OOOton/year
(WHO 1976). And they are, at last, discharged into the
environment mostly through the atmosphere.
c- Generation from fossil fuels, etc.:
Mercury generation from fossil fuels, etc. is estimated
as follows;
Coal burning
Oil burning
Cement production
Iron industries
Phosphate fertilizer industries
Sewage treatment plants
2,800-3,000 ton/year
400-1,500 ton/year
150 ton/year
200 ton/year
50 ton/year
1,000 ton/year
Table 3-1 shows the recent amount of mercury use in Japan.
Table 3-1 Amount of Mercury Use in Japan
~-~~-~-__Fiscal year
Kind of use ~"~~~- — —
Demand
-Domestic demand
Caustic soda
Amalgam
Inorganic chemicals
Electric appliances
Measuring instruments
Dry butteries
Others
-For export
1980
611,519
323,577
1,577
32,422
173,134
6,464
38,877
71,083
287,942
1981
561,740
283,480
1,525
29,965
131,639
6,625
43,033
*21,840
48,803
278,260
1982
406,674
232,765
1,333
6,817
74,176
6,318
42,366
96,641
5,114
173,909
Notes
* Only the 4th
quarter of
the fiscal
year.
(kg)
(Source : MITI)
(6)
-------
On this table, as for caustic soda,mercury is not consumed
directly as a raw materal but is used only for electrodes. The
rate of its collection is not known . The mercury use for
inorganic chemicals is for chemicals for analysis", medical drugs
(germicides, antiseptics, etc.), etc.
3-2 Kinds of Dry Batteries and Mercury Content
At present, dry batteries on the market in Japan are various.
The kinds are manganese dry batteries, alkaline-manganese dry
batteries, silver-oxide batteries, mercury batteries, etc. And
the types are cylinder, box-shaped, button-shaped, etc.
Table 3-2 shows the kinds and types of these batteries.
Table 3-2 Kinds and Types of Dry Batteries
Kind
Type
i.an/ranese
:model ! weight
1 ' (g)
Llkaline
-manganese
Silver-oxide
4-
TVH j*^ .•*)
~: <= i .. <^ ight i raode 1: we i ^ht
(g) ! (g)
Mercury
model! -.vei
UM-1, 100
SUM-1
U!i-— 2,
sm,:-2
cylinder i g;^3 s
UK-4,
SUK-4
-110
0- 55
20
9.0
UM-5, j 7.2
SUK-5
-7.5
LR20
(AE-1)
LR14
LR 6
(AM-3)
LR03
(AM-4)
LR 1
135
-150
70
25
12.5
9.5-10
button
-shaped
LR43,
LR44
''LR44
1.5
-2.0
10
sn
SR44
4SR44
1.8
2.5
11.5
(7)
-------
Table 3-3 and Fig.3-2 show the amount of dry battery production
in Japan.
Table 3-3 Amount of Dry Battery Production
. e
(x 10 pcs)
"""•fiscal year 1977
Mna^\: <*>
manganese 1,760 (44)
UM-1, SUM-1 690
UK- 2, SUM- 2 230
UM-3, SUM- 3 630
S006P 80
j_ Others 30
alkaline- 50 (3)
i-anganese ou ^->}
silver-oxide -
others 70 (4)
total 1 1,880 (100)
1978
1,760
610
330
720
80
30
100
-
100
1,960
1979
1,840
640
340
760.
70
30
140
130
30
2,140
1980
2,000
710
360
820
80
40
240
150
50
2,440
1981
19£2
<£)
1,830 2,020 (77)
560
330
830
60
• 50
300
130
70
2,330
590
340
980
50
60
380 (14)
150 (6)
80 (3)
2,630(100)
Remarks 1. Source: MITI
2. "Silver-oxide batteries" includes "others"
till 1978.
3. "Others" are mercury batteries and silver-
oxide batteries.
4. 31$ of dry battery production is exported.
(B)
-------
x 10
20
16
"71
5
4
J
0
PCS
•^
y
p
.-••
1
Jr
TV
f
— ~^>^
r^^-n
i
A
„*••*
, —
>,
*>
rf
;•(
,T
P
-*=^
'J3 " "
1
JTI
•iBH
K
2
:»
*
IN"
?
1
3 ' '
ft
•—
|
(•
^
^
*
—
-
nanganese dry DQtteries
L Alkaline manganese
v*~ dry batteries
& f. : , . J .
;j. oiluer— oxide batteries
1 .others
A
•77
PT» '10 'tl 'it
Fig. 3-2 Quantity of Produced Dry Batteries in Japan
4)
(9)
-------
According to Table 3-3 and Fig.3-2, we can understand that 2,630
million pcs in F.Y. 1982 are 1.4 times as much as 1880 million
pcs in F.Y. 1977. 60 persent of them were consumed in Japan, and
it is thought that nearly all dumped as wastes. We can also
understand that alkaline-manganese dry batteries containing a
large quantity of mercury increased remarkably. The function of
mercury in these dry batteries is as follows. For the anode of
most dry batteries, metallic zinc is used and the mercury is used
as amalgamated zinc. Zinc can resist the erosion by this way, and
the life of dry battery can be extended consequently. If the
anode is plate type, the quantity of necessary mercury is not
much. But if the anode is in zinc powder form, such as alkaline-
manganese dry battery, silver-oxide battery, mercury battery, the
quantity of mercury increases in proportion to anode's surface
area.
The structure of dry batteries is shown on Fig.3-3.
cathode (carbon)
seperator
anode (zinc can)
seal
jacket
i nsulator
metal bottom
Fig.3-3-1 Structure of Cylinder Manganese Dry Battery (example)
(The Japan Battery and Appliance Industries Association)
(10)
-------
cathode
seperator
anode —
. jacket
i rtsulator
battery vessel
packi ng
Fig.3-3-2 Structure of Alkaline-Manganese
Dry Battery \=:<.^mple)
(The Japan Battery and Appliance Industries Association)
anode
seperator
e
seal plate
gasket
cathode (Ag40)
X
battery vessel
Fig.3-3-3 Structure of Silver-oxide Dry Battery (example)
(The Japan Battery and Appliance Industries Association)
(11)
-------
anode
seperator
battery vessel
cathode (HgO)
Fig.3-3-4 Structure of Mercury Dry Battery (example)
(The Japan Battery and Appliance Industries Association)
(12)
-------
Table 3-4 shows the amount of dry batteries and mercury used in
Japan.
Table 3-4 Mercury Content in Batteries (19c2)
\.
^^^
\.
Type ofX.
Dry Batteryx
Manganese
Alkaline-
manganese
(Cylinder type)
Alkaline
manganese
Silver-oxide
Mercury
Lithium
Total
Circulation iriercury Percent
1
(million
pcs)
1,229
109
112
14
16
1,480
content
(ton)
2
28
1
24
^
55
(ft
3
51
2
44
—
100
K e an mercury
content
(mg/pc)
1
260
10
1,700
^
\
\
Note
Button-
shat>ed
Source: Jaoan Batterv and
Appliance Industries
Association
(13)
-------
This table shows circulated dry batteries in Japan were 1,480
million pieces and mercury content was 55 tons in F.Y. 1982.
Mercury content in alkaline-manganese dry batteries (28 tons) and
in button-shaped batteries such as mercury dry batteries (25 tons)
accounted for 96 persent of total mercury use for batteries.
In addition to mercury, lead and cadminum are contained in dry
batteries. These materials are contained in anode (zinc) of a
manganese dry battery. Table 3-5 shows content of heavy metals in
dry batteries.
Table 3-5 Content of Heavy Metals in Dry Battery
V
2
5
0
z
o
ft,
racket
natal and metal compounds
Sfi
Cd
Hg
(Cu-Zn)
Manganese dioxide
Zinc chloride
Zinc oxide
Mercury oxide
Silver oxide
Iron
Manganese
SUM-1
SUM-2 5UM-3
24
0.03
0.01
0.003S
—
2C
3.5
0.15
16.5
(printing)
Total weit/ht 1 IOC
0.014
0.005
0.0019
—
10
1.5
0.08
12
(printing)
50
i .-
o.oos
0.002
0.00036
—
3
0.5
0.02
4.5
[printing)
Alitaiine ca/vga-iese | Mercury S»lvu<; -.Mao
AM-l AM- 2 i A.1-3 1 H-C • G'J
;6 t.S ; 2.8 1 0.2' •-•-.:
.- i/cwder \lipowder \| /powder "i| fpswier ^ -?owi;.i; ',
\a.-naigain/
1.3
2
1.3
32
/nickel \
\ platir.g/'
20 ; 15:
U-aiga-/
0.6
1.5
0.7
18
fnickel \
i plat inc.-
TO
Vajialga.^
0.2
1
0.2
. y • Jf ^ *• " "• J
0.02 0.02
— —
0.02 0.01
0.6
i '
8.5 | 1.2 | 0.9
/nic^sl \! .'nickel vi /nic
-------
3-3 Use of Dry Batteries
In the past, most dry butteries have been used for electric
torches. Recently, from the view point of handiness and
miniaturization of electrical appliances, dry battery using
appliances have been increased very much. This tendency has been
strengthened, by appearance of ultra small batteries. For example,
i:i audio appliances, radios and casset tape recorders are typical.
Especially handy streo casset tape recorders have been in fashion.
As for watches, mechanical type alarm clocks, wrist watches, etc.,
have been took places by battery driven types. Verious toys
(transceiver, wireless controller, game machine, etc.,) are
driven by batteries. Many other appliances, shavers, sharpeners,
calculators, cameras, fishing tools, etc., are driven by dry
batteries.
3-4 Amount of Dry Batteries and Mercury in Wastes
Origin of mercury in wastes is supposed to be, first of all, dry
batteries and others such as fluorescent lamps, mirrors, clinical
thermometers, etc. Among them, mirrors and clinical thermometers
are supposed to be little, and fluorescent lamps are conparatively
significant as a source of mecury in wastes.
Life of a fluorescent lamp is six times longer as that of bul!: snd
electric efficiency of the former is ten times of latter '-s.
Also with superiority in energy savement, fluorescent lamps are
hardly taken place by others so far. The condition of production
of fluorecent lamps are shown in Fig.3-4. As shown in Fig.3-5,
straight type 20 watt, 40 watt and circular types were both the
same in produced quantity, though slight increase can be observed
as to circular types.
300 r
O
HI
O
200
100
TJ
O
'78 '79 '80 '81 '82
Fig.3-4 Fluorescent Lamp Production (1) : MITI
- (15)
-------
80
O
* 60
Q.
40
c
o
O
-o 20
o
'78
1
'79
'80
'81
notes
'82
Q. Q. CL
« o
t- t. 1L.
WOO
Fig.3-5 Fluorescent Lamp Production (2) : MITI
-------
Merculy content in a fluorescent lamp is different among their
types. In 1982, mercury used for fluorescent lamps was 6,490 kg.
Pig.3-6 shows the quantity of fluorescent lamps produced, mercury
content and mercury content per a lamp.
To what extent the mercury content can be reduced depends on
development of technology.
o
C
o
r-l
H
•H
e
C
O
•H
+J
O
o
M
Pu
250
200
150
100
50-
Production
ercury content per a lamp
Mercurv content
20
C
o- •
»— '
•M
C '
0)
O -
o
p •
o
M
OJ
?• •
C
a
50 1
(0
40
M
-------
The amount of used dry batteries is estimated here assuming all
used dry batteries to be wasted. Table 3-4 shows about 1,480
million pcs of used dry batteries were circulating in Japan in F.Y,
1982. The amount of wastes in Japan in F.Y. 1981 was 116,818
tons/day (Waste Disposal In Japan, 1981) . It can be estimated
that the quantity of used dry batteries in a ton of wastes is;
1,480,000,000 PCS / (116,818 t/d x 365
35
Pcs/t --- 1
Table 3-4 shows that the amount of mercury in dry batteries
circulating in Japan was 55 tons (55 x 10? ng) in F.Y. 1982 and the
amount of dry battreries circulating in Japan was 1,480 million pcs.
It can be estimated that the average mercury contained in a dry
battery is;
55 x 10 mg / 1,480,000,000 pcs = 37.16
mg
Mercury of used dry battery in a ton of .wastes is estimated;
35 Pcs/t x 37.16 mg/PC = 1300.6 "*'* = 1.3 ?A
Regarding this, some surveys were conducted as follows;
(Tokyo Metropolitan Government, 1981, 1982)
According to the survey of Tokyo Metropolitan Cleansing
Laboratory, batteries contained in a ton of combustible wastes
were;
Manganese dry battery UM-1 1.9
UM-2 2.5
UM-3 6.6
Alkaline-manganese dry battery AM-3 0.3
Others
11.3pcs
0.5kg
According to the survey in 1982
in combustible wastes
in incombustible wastes
13.5 pcs/t
92.5 pcs/t
In mixed wastes, used dry batteries on weight average were
36.5 pcs/ton (i.e. 1.5 kg/t). This means dry batteries
discharged were 18 pcs/man/year.
(18)
-------
(Yokohama City, 1983)
In a ton of wastes collected (mixed collection), 2 kg of dry
batteries were contained. The discharge rate was calculated
15 pcs/man/year, using the data above mentioned, mean weight
of dry batteries manufactured and population of the city.
(Machida City of Tokyo Prefecture, 1982)
18 tons in special collection of hazardous wastes and 39.3
tons in incombustible wastes, totally 57.3 tons of dry
batteries were contained in 62,498 tons of wastes. This means
0.92 kg of dry batteries were contained in a ton of wastes, or
5.3 pcs per capita a year were discharged.
(Kyoto City, 1981-82)
A report of investigation shows in wastes collected by mixed
collection, in 1981, 48 pcs/t and in 1982, 29 pcs/t were
found. This shows quantities of discharged betteries to be
1.6 kg/ton of wastes or 14 pcs/year per capita.
From those investigations, we may estimate the quantity of used dry
batteries contained in wastes to be a^out 1.0-2.0 kg/ton of wastes
or 5-15 pcs per capita a year. Mean weight of a dry battery is
supposed to be about 41.7 g (calculated by gross production of dry
batteries 2,626,633 thousands pieces and gross weight 109,601
tons), then we can estimate 24-48 pieces of dry batteries will be
contained in a ton of wastes.
(19) .
-------
4. Rules and Regulations on Waste Disposal and Environmental
Protection Concerning Dry Batteries and Mercury
4-1 Disposal Methods of General Wastes
Nawadays, quantity of dry batteries containing mercury, for
example mercury battery and alkaline-manganese dry battery, etc.
increase and it has become a problem to treat used dry batteries.
Dry Batteries used in houses, offices, etc. have been collected,
treated and disposed by mainly municipalities and general waste
management enterprises. Anyone who collects, treats or disposes
wastes must obeys the regulations provided by Waste Disposal and
Public Cleansing Law, etc.
Article 6, Paragraph 3 of the Wastes Disposal and-Public Cleansincr
Law stipulates;
(Disposal by the municipalities)
Article 6.
3. Standards of collection, transport and disposal which shall be con-
ducted fay the municipalities (exclusive of the standards reffered to the
place and method of disposal, defined by Marine Pollution Control Law
(1970; Law Number 136), for those of domestic wastes which are permit-
ted to dispose of in the seal and the standard for the case in which
municipalities commission the collection, transport and disposal of
domestic wastes to those other than municipalities, shall be defined in
the Cabinet Order.
Cabinet Order for Implementation of the Waste Disposal and Public
Cleansing Law
(Standards for the collection, transport and disposal of
domestic wastes)
Article 3.
The atar.ilarda for the coi'ec'.ion. transport. ar.-J disposal of domestic
waste* ir. nccnrdan.cc with the provisions of Article 5. Paragraph 3 of the
LAW shall be as follows:
( 1 ) T!ie collection, transport, ar.d disposal of domestic wastes shall
be made in a manner that said wastes do not scatter or flow out.
( 2 ) The construction of a treatment f-iciiity of domestic wastes
shall be carried out in a manner tli.it preservation of the living environ-
ment t:\av not be hindered.
(20)
-------
( 3 ) Vehicles, containers, and pipelines for transport of domestic
wastes shall be those which keep said wastes from scattering;, flowing
out, and emitting bad smells.
( 4 ) The landfill of domestic wastes (including the method of
disposal using underground spaces which shall apply hereunder) shall
be conducted as follows:
a. The place for landfill disposal (hereinafter referred to as "dis-
posal site") shall be enclosed by an enclosure, and be indicated that
said place is a disposal site.
b. Necessary measures shall be taken to prevent leachate from the
disposal site from polluting public waters and underground water.
c. The !and,''.il (excluding reclamation on water surfaces) of sludge
(only slu:!ge related to septic tanks for human wastes which shall
apply to this Suhparayraph and Subparasjraph (6)) shall be made
after such sludge has beer, treated"in a human waste treatment plant
(excluding- septic tanks for hi.irrinn wa=;a = which shall apply '? -'~:z
Subparugrnph), incinerated in an incineration facility, or mixed
with 0.5% or more slaked lime.
d. The reclamation on water surfaces of sludge shall be made after
such sludge has been treated in a human waste treatment plant, or
incinerated in an incineration facility.
e. The landfill of human waste.* 'hall Ijo alluuci! ..lily «l»en the followinj; dontestii-
wastes are dutnpeJ frutn a ship:
(21)
-------
a. Waste uxpK/sives i explosive:; pru\ idud in Article 2. Paragraph
1 of the F.x|iU>siif« Ointrul L.'i'.v .].:\\v N'o. 1-10 uf I'JoOj, which arc
wjiires. Th« same ahall apply hcrekiiider. >
L. (.'umbusiibK1 diirncstic Wiiste.-. >.uxi.liiiliiifr waste expto.sive.s'- of
which i?niti'iii li.ss v-:,,s !i-lin-i.-(! ti- !"•'; or less by iiiuuenili^n.
c. Siudft 01- human wastes in windi (J.l'c ur more ferrous aulfats
or ffcrric chloride ts mixed, or which arc crushed.
d. Xoncombuslible domestic wastes JexdudiTig sluilue ar-
-------
4
Wastes containing used batteries are treated as follows;
a- collection—>landfill
b- collection —>incineration —^-landfill
4-2 Control of Effluent Water
Effluent water from the waste treatment facilities is regulated by
the Water Pollution Control Law.
The regulation of the law is as follows;
Table 4-1 Effluent Water Standards
Harmful Substance
Standard Value
Cadmium and its compounds
Cyanides
Organic phosphorus compounds
(limited to parathion, methly para-
tion, methlydimethone and EPN)
Lead and its compounds
Chromium (VI) compounds
Arsenic and its compounds
Mercury, alkylmercury and other
mercury compounds
Alkylmercury compounds
PCB
" ' mg of cadmium per !ite<-
1 mg of CN per liter
1 mg per liter
1 mg of lead per liter
0.5 mg of Chromium (VI) per
0.5 mg of arsenic per liter
0.005 mg of mercury per liter
Not detectable
0.003 mg per liter
liter
NOTES: 1. "Not detectable" means that, the pollution status is below
the detectable level by the measurement method established
by the Director General of the Environment Agency.
2. The effluent standard for arsenic and its compounds does not
apply for a while to the effluent discharged from hotels, inns
or such other establishments that utilize hot springs which had
already been made when the Cabinet Order to Amend the
"Cabinet Order for Implementation of the Water Pollution
Control Law" and the "Cabinet Order for Implementation of
the Waste Management Lnw" was implemented.
(23)
-------
Pollutant
Standard Value
Hydrogen ion concentration
(Hydrogen exponent)
200
Biochemical oxygen demands
(Unit: mg per lit.)
Chemical oxygen demands
(Unit: mg oxygen per lit.)
Suspended solids
(Unit: mg oxygen per lit.)
Normal hcxane extracts (Content of
mineral oils)
(Unit: mg per lit.)
Normal hexane extracts (content of ! 30
animal and vegetable oils and fats) •
(Unit: mg per lit) ]
Phenols
(Unit: mg per lit.)
Copper
(Unit: mg per lit.)
Zinc
(Unit
Effluents discharged in public use
water areas other than the sea:
from 5.0 to 8.6
Effluents discharged in the sea: from
5.0 to 9.0.
ICO (Daily average: 12C)
160 (Daily average: 120}
(Daily average: 150)
mg per lit.)
Soluble iron
(Unit: mg per lit.)
Soluble manganese
(Unit: mg per lit.)
Chromium
(Unit: mg per lit)
Fluorine
(Unit: mg per lit)
Number of coliform groups
(Unit: Number per cubic cm)
10
10
15
3,000 (Daily average)
Remarks: 1. The allowance limit designated by "daily average" is
determined by the average pollution status of effluent in a day.
2. The effluent stadards listed in this Table apply to the effluents
of factories or places of work which discharge 50 cubic meters
or more effluent per day on an average.
3. The effluent standards concerning hydrogen ton concentration
and soluble iron content do nut apply to the effluents from factories
or places of work pertaining to the sulfur mining industry (in-
cluding industries mining iron sulfide ores coexisting with sulfur).
A. The effluent standards for hydrogen iron concentration, cop-
per, 1 zinc, soluble iron soluble manganese, chromium and fluorine
do not apply for a while t« the effluent discharged from hotels,
inns or such other establishments that utilize hot springs which
had already been made when the Cabinet Order to Amend the
"Cabinet Order for Implementation of the Water Pollution
Control Law" and the "Cabinet Order for Implementation of the
Waste Management Law" was implemented.
5. The effluent standards concerning biochemical oxygen demands
apply exclusively to the effluents discharged in public-use water
arena other tl»nn the sr.vaiid lake arrns; niul the effluent standards
concerning rlii'iim-al oxygon demands apply exclusively to the
-------
2.s for final disposal, wastes must be landfilled at the sites
which can prevent water from leachihg out with small permeability
coefficient soil or impermeable sheet. The Waste Disposal and
Public Cleansing Law regulates the effluent from landfill sites,
providing the same standards of Water Pollution Control Law in
order to preserve surface water and ground water quality.
Therefore, when necessary, waste treatment facilities take
measures to reduce water pollutants in order to meet the standards,
4-3 Control of Exhaust Gas
Gas from waste treatment facilities are regulated by Air
Pollution Control Law. The air polluting substances regulated by
the law are as follows;
Table 4-2 Air Pollutants Regulated by Law
air pol lutant
Soot
end
dust
Sulfur
nXi (\ff>
Soot
and
dust
Noxious
substances
/specific \
f toxic
\ substances,/
Participates
Holer vehicle
exhaust gas
Specified substances
example
SO,-. , SCb
Soot, etc.
NOx
Cd. Pb,
HF.CU,
HCI.etc.
not
specif ied
Participates of
cersentent.
coal, iron. etc.
CO, HC.
NCx, etc.
CjKsCH.CsVU),
etc.
emitting form
Combustion
Combust i on
or the use of
electricity
as heat-source
Combustion.
synthesis,
decomposition, etc.
do.
do.
Grindi ng.
se! ecting,
csposi ts,5tc.
rioter vehicles
Accident in
chemical treatment
of raterial
substances
emitting facit ity
Soot and snake
emitting
fact lities
do.
do.
do.
do. -
Particul ates
di schargi nj
f aci 1 i ties
Moter vehicles
specific
faci 1 i ties
emission standards
Emission standards
Total emission
standards for
specific faci 1 i ties
Emission standards
Emission standards
Total emission
standards for
specific facil ities
Emission standards
do.
Standards of
structure. operation
and management
Maxir-um peraii sslole
1 i raits
^^
(25)
-------
At present, the regulated items concerning waste treatment
facilities are sulfur oxides, dust, hydrogen chloride and nitrogen
oxides. Mercury is not regulated as to waste treatment facilities
or as to others. The Environment Agency judges that present
mercury concentration in the ambient air does not require
regulations or restrictions on mercury in exhaust gas.
4-4 Environmental Quality Standards
Environmental Quality Standards for air pollution and for water
pollution are established by Basic Law for Environmental Pollution
Control. Environmental quality standards for water pollution
alone refer to mercury. These regulations are established, for
the protection of human health, at the level of lower than 0.0005
mg/1 as to total mercury, and to be Not Detected as to
alkylmercury compounds. Here, standards for total mercury is
below 0.001 mg/1 only in case that the cause of pollution is
obviously natural phenomenon. As for standards for air pollution
by mercury, WHO shows the guideline as 0.015 mg/Nnr" . This
standard means "No damage at health in daily human life can be
seen in its density."
(26)
-------
5. Emission and Environmental Level of Mercury
5-1 Emission of Mercury
5-1-1 Emission to Air
In Japan, there is no regulation about mercurv emission to air.
Mercury concentration of exhaust oas from waste incineration
plants varies very much with their collection systems, that is
nixed collection or separate collection, type of incinerator and
so on. From some reports, mercury emission levels from
incineration plants are in the range of 200-910 ug/Nnr for
continuous type, 20, 140, 340 jjg/Nm3 for batch type. (Table 5-1)
At incineration experiment of powdered coal, emission level of
nercury is reported to be in the range of 2.4-8.5 ug/Nm''?
Table 5-1 I-!ercury Emission Level of Exhaust Gas from
Refuge Incinoro.tio'" ^lan
incinerator j emission j emission ;treatmentjincinera
type
batch
contin-
uous
stoker
stationary
^rate
rtoker
fluidined
bed
concentra
-tion
uc/Kra3
140
20
340
200
310
260
400
360
coefficient
capacity
g/refuse-tj t/h
3.24
0.29
3.75
2.81
3.46
2.74
3.68
3.88
430-910 i
50-150 ;
2.5
2.1
-
2.46
2.46
2.4
4.8
3.4
8.33
6.25
320 : 3.62 1 4.58
450 i 3.16
8.0
-•cion
temperature
°C
!
Cf 0-1, 000
700 i
700-980
850-970 ;
840-960 i
840-940 i
850-980 :
950-1,000^
— I
800-900 i
850-790
750-900
(27)
-------
5-1-2 Emission to Water
By Water Pllution Control Law, the water discharged into the
public water bodies by factories and enterprises is regulated.
And the effluent standards are established in terms of maximum
permissible amount of substance. In the standards, the one as to
mercury compounds in general is 0.005mg/l, and as to alkylmercurv
compounds, not detectable. So, the effluent water from waste
treatment plants is regulated by this standard. As to the effluent
water from the final diposal sites an investigation about 21
landfill sites reported the mercury concentration N.D.-0.0014 mg/1
for leachate and N.D. for the effluent.
5-2 Environmental Levels of Mercury
Reported environmental levels are as follows;
5-2-1 Levels in Air
a- Total mercury
1-21 ng/m
12-bb ng/m*
ND-27 ng/itr
(median; 3
ND-33 ng/m3
(median; 2
6.6 ng/m3
5.6 ng/m3
4.8 ng/nP
2.7 ng/m3
general background in Japan
surrounding oflMt. Sakurajima"'
nation wide survey during summer
ng/m3 , average; 5.4 ng/nf )
nation wide survey during winter3)
ng/m3 , average; 3.0 ng/ms)
redidential area in industrial districts,
summer
redidential area in large cities, summer
redidential area in small and medium
sized cities, summer
redidential area in rural districts,
summer
b- Methylmercury
total mercury
1-12 ng/m3 (21- 30 ng/mj )
4-19 ng/m5 (98-467 ng/m3)
1- 9 ng/m3 (53-130 ng/m')
6-34 ng/m3 (22- 88 ng/m')
38 ng/m3 ( 54 ng/m3)
surroundings of Mt. Sakurajima
surroundings of Mt. Usu
hot spring area
surroundings of caustic soda
Sakata city
(28)
-------
5-2-2 Levels in Water
total mercury methylmercury
(ppb) (ppb)
0.03
0.01
0.01-0.02
N.D.-4.7 N.D.
N.D. N.D.
N.D.-4.8 N.D.
average in lake and river water "
average in ocean water5
the Tsushima current, the Kurile
current water:
river water *
lake water t(
coast water?
5-2-3 Levels in Bottom Deposit6'
total mercury methylmercury
(ppb) (ppb)
N.D.-627
N.D.-1.91
N.D.-97.2
5-2-4 Levels in Soil
N.D.-0.10
N.D.
N.D.-0.01
6'
river
lake
co?c+- (including port)
total mercury (ppm)
N.D.-5.36 (average 0.29}
(29)
-------
6. Count eraieasures against Used .Dry batteries
6-1
Strategy
Since 19£3 fall, treatment of used dry batteries have become
quite a social problem. In order to understand this, we
should pay attention to the following backgrounds;
a- liercury is well-mown as the cauce of nin:-<.mata-diser.se
(Llethyl-cercury, to be exact) and easily becomes people's
health arid environmental concern.
b- Generally spesizing, waste incineration plants are apt to
be unfavorable facilities for people for their emission
gas and traffic pollution "by waste collecting vehicles.
Together with the detection of dioxins from fly-ash
and bottom ash , mercury in used dry batteries
bec("vT"v<:>s the cause for the peonle's doubt toward safetv
and credibility of incineration plants.
c- Obviously, people in general, as well as industries,
widely consume dry batteries very much. People in reneral
recognize themselves as polluters, and want to be
satisfied witli some easily understandable counter-measures
as polluters' duty.
d- In addition to air pollution by incination, soil and water
pollution after final disposal of used dry batteries
is anticipated.
With these backgrounds in mind, we crust consider counte measures
against used dry batteries as a waste management problem, frcn
the following view points;
a- To evaluate their impact on public health and living
environment, and to secure them.
b- To secure smooth implementation of waste management.
c- To consider the relationship between the
countermeasures against used dry batteries with the one
against the wastes which are difficult to be treated
by municipalities.
(30)
-------
.71th both measures, mercury load to waste treatment can be
sigtiiticantly reduced and they c,-.n b= ev-luc-bed as urgent
countermeasures to secure rational v;aste management and to
prevent future environmental pollution.
Therefore, in order to make the collection and treatment of
button-shaped batteries effective, the Ministry of Health and
Welfare asked the waste m-.inag-srr.ent sections of prefectures and
municipalities the following points;
a- To make people and so on '.vellknown about the collection
activity and to call their cooperation to it through PH.
b- To make the people and organizations related to the use of
dry batteries, such as welfare societies for the aged
wellknown about the collection activity and to call their
cooperation to it through PR together with.the welfare
sections of the prefectures and municipalities.
c- To encourage electric appliances'stores, camera stores,
etc. to prepare boxes to collect used button-shaped
As for batteries other than button-shaped ones, it is basically
important to maintain rational treatment with conventional
systems because now there is no environmental pollution problem,
and mercury load to waste treatment is expected to be
significantly reduced by the button-shaped battery collection
and reduction of mercury content of alkali-manganese batteries.
However, when municipalities separately collect used dry
batteries on their own will, they must pay thorough attention to
prevent their scattering and effluence of some polluted water
from them, because a large number of used dry batteries are to
be treated in a limited place, which is totally different from
the conventional treatment with other wastes.
The Ministry of Health and Welfare is, for the time being, going
to observe the .Implementation of thoce urgent countermeasures
and to start the study on the wide area col".9c;irn and treatment
systems of household wastes which contain hazardous materials
like used dry batteries.
\j IL^ I*iXil-JL O U1^ J- j-wj. ii^i_i._i_uii . -J.1A4. : i <^ .1. L. <-—!. ^ 9 v*- w \^d.j. u w j. i.n_> <~vfej ^.ix *^ »j t,.^1—^ llio is U *.> L- d
drjr batteries r.rc diccucrced along v;ith the discussion on the
wastes difficult to treat by municipality's conventional
treatment systems.
(31)
-------
!.Iercury of effluent water from domestic waste treatment
facilities is already restricted by V/aste Disposal and Public
Cleansing Lav; or Y/ater Pollution Control Law (See 4-2,).
According to the V/ater Quality Survey of Public '.Vater Bodies by
the Environment Agency, the water quality environment standard
on mercury have been satisfied at all sampling points for
these years. Judging from this, waste treatment is no.t causing a
problem of water pollution by mercury.
Emission gas from waste incineration plants is restricted by
Air Pollution Control Law (See 4-3.). But, so far, mercury is
not the item of restriction in the law. The Environment Agency
understands that restriction of mercury io not necessary,
judging from the mercury concentration data in ambient air.
And according to the survey by the Environment Agency (See 5-2,),
both the ambient air mercury concentration in general and the
one in the area within 5 km from waste incineration plants are
at the same level and are much lower than the V/HO ambient
air quality guideline.
Thus, when used dry batteries are treated together with other
domestic wastes, they do not make a problem now.-
Although there is no environmental problem along with the
treatment of used dry batteries, the rapidly increasing
consumption seems to make tiie conventional waste treatment
systems to be incapable to cope with them.
Besides, people's anxiety toward the treatment of battery
containing wastes becomes too serious to keep smooth
implementation of waste management.
This way, in order to promote countermeasures against used dry
batteries, it is the fundamental purpose to secure national
waste treatment which is now being hindered, to establish more
credible, safer and more reliable waste management systems and
to prevent future environmental pollution.
As an urgent countermeasure, in January 1984, the Ministry of
Health and Y/elfare together with the Ministry of International
Trade and Industry, asked the Japan Battery and Appliance
Industries Association and received its answer as to thorougher
collection of used mercury batteries and so on (See 6-2-3.).
Thorougher collection of button-shaped batteries such as
mercury batteries is effective to reduce the mercury content of
the wastes because they occupy 25 tone per year or 46 percent of
total mercury use for batteries. At the same time the
association is going to reduce the mercury content of Alkali-
manganese type dry batteries to a third of the pi^scnt level.
(32)
-------
6-2 Measures Taken by Industries
6-2-1 Reduction of T.tercury Content of Dry Batteries
Manufacturers of dry batteries tried to reduce the amount of
riercury use in order to decrease the use of expensive eollosive
sublimate. Along- with the development of environmental
regulation, it was further proceeded, 1,'ercury content per a
manganese-type dry battery {-/as 20-20 mg before 1955, but
decreased gradually c-.s shown on table 6-1, and in 1§82 it is
estimated to be 1 rag.
Table 6-1 Mercury Content per a Dry Battery
SUM,UM,AM-1
SUM,UM,AM-2
SUM,UM,AM-3
1973
7.64
3.76
1.51
1974
5.42
2.76
1.33
1975
4.36
2.38
1.33
1976
4.26
2.38
1 .33
1977
4.88
2.66
0.98
(mg/battery)
Source : Japan Battery and Appliance
Industries Association
6-2-2 Collection of Mercury Batteries
In Japan, in 1973, collection of mercury batteries was advocated
by Japan Camera Industrial Association and was carried out by
battery related industries. According to Japan Battery and
Appliance Industries Association, because of"public opinions
based on Minamata disease, it was decided that Japan Camera
Industrial Association would collect used mercury batteries,
in order to prevent artificial spread of mercury to the
environment, to prevent the mercury accumulation and to promote
reuse of mercury most of which was imported. In those days,
exposure meters of cameras worked only with mercury batteries
and they occupied more than 60 percent of total use of mercurv
batteries. Therefore, stop of mercury battery supply would
have caused confusion among both users and makers. At that
time, Japan Battery and Appliance Industries Association
decided to cooperate in this collection and als-o not to extend
the application of mercury battery to other goods.
(33)
-------
6-2-3 Measures of These Days
In January, 1984, responding to the request by the Ministry of
Health and ',7el fare and tlie Ministry of International Trade and
Industry (See 6-1.), Japan Battery and Appliance Industries
Association decided the follov.'inr measures as to used dry
batteries problem;
a- Ho exploitation of iiev/ users of mercury batteries:
It was decided by mercury battery makers that they would
not seek a new mercury cattery market. In the future,
they are to appeal their intention to dealing industries
and usin°: industries of mercurv batteries.
b- Thorou^her collection of used mercury batteries:
Collection of mercury batteries from the use which were
so far out of collection targets.is to be newly started
along with recent change in their use.
(34)
-------
(a) Collection bo-ec and related ctorec
camera stores : 18,700
hearing aids stores : 2,400
electric appliances stores : 70,OCO
(including department storoc)
v;a t ch s t o r e s : 2 0,0 C 0
~jotal
:111, 100 (I:O::GS)
- A "box is to "be sent to each store.
- -.11 types of button-shaped "batteries should be
collected in the boxes because it is almost impo';.ti
to distinn-iish mercury ones fron others. And by
so-doing, collection rate is to be improved.
(b) PR activities
- Sending prospectus, posters, etc. to all related
stores, prefectures and municipalities.
-and mass-media.
(c) Request for cooperation to related industries and
prefectures and municipalities
- Related industries
Association for Electric Home Appliances
All Japan Hearing Aid Association
Japan Camera Industrial Association
Japan Photographic Equipment Industrial Association
Japan Clock and V/atch Association
Japan Watch Importers Association
- Prefectures and municipalities
(d) Collection and treatment
- Mercury batteries are to be collected as;
Store — - Wholesaler — > Manufacturer with a
cooperation of a collection company which has 6
branches in Japan.
- Collected batteries are to be cent to treatment and
disposal contractors by the manufacturers or the
collection company.
(e) Monitoring
(35)
-------
- The collection activity is to be monitored each
3 months..
c- Study to reduce mercury content in alkali-manganese
battery:
In order to reduce total amount of mercury use, a stuily is
to be carried out by all manufactures to reduce the
content to a third of the'present one in three years.
The study is to be started in j^bruary 1984. The
Technical Committee of the Japan Battery and Appliance
Association is to supervise the study. The study is to "be
financed by each manufactures. The result of the study
is to be utilised by all r.anufactures at the same time at
the earliest opportunity.
d- Study on alternative batteries, such as mercury-free
battery:
In order to reduce total amount of mercury use, studies on
alternative batteries, such as mercury-free battery are to
be conducted independently at each company's labolatory.
e- Stu^y on the impact of landfall of used alk?li-man:.:oriaee
batteries on soil:
The study is cooperatively carried out based on the
programme according to mercury content and the kind of
bonding heavy metals. -It is to be started in February
1984, and is to be supervised by the Environment Committee
of the Japan Battery and Appliance Industries Association.
The study is to be financed by each company. The re stilt
is to be published at the earliest opportunity.
6-2-4 Used Fluorescent Lamp
Amount os mercury use per a lamp, total amount of mercury use
for fluorescent lamps are shorn on Pi;-. 6-1. As it shows,
the amount of mercury use per a lamp was reduced in 1974-75.
However, no special measures are taken for their collection or
treatment by the related industries.
6-3 Countermeasures by Municipalities
As mentioned in 2-2, from early days, a few municipalities
independently started special collection and treatment as to
used dry batteries, etc. for -.-mooth promotion of w?.ste
management purpose. However, it is since fall in 1983 that a
lot of municipalities started to segre.f-.ita used dry batteries,
etc. As of r.'arch 1984, the number of municipalities which arc
treating used dry batteries in any special manner is 313 (-bout
107' of municipalities in Japan), and it is increasing day by
day.
(36)
-------
250
Mercury content per a lamp
Mercury content
20 _
tfi
C
o
4->
IS *""
•n
c
CD
+J
10 g
O
o-l
M
0)
S
50
40
30
20
10
tx
£
D:
E
(0
CP
a
c
0)
-M
C
0
o
M
P
O
M
a)
'80
Fig.6-1 Fluorescent Lamp Production and Mercury Content
Source : Japan Electric Lamp Manufacturers Association
(37)
-------
So far, mont of then collect dry batteries, etc. (fluorscent
lamps in some municipalities) separately fror. other wastes, and
keep then in drum cans and so on, without intermediate
treatment and final disposal processes.
Some typical examples of these municipalities v/ill be shown
below.
6-3-1 City of Hiroshima
In Hiroshima, since 1970, \vhile the amount of wastes increased
so rapidly, the incineration facilities were poor and it was
also impossible to fret now landfill sites because of a fishery
right and environmental restriction. In 1975, the city
declared "emergency of waste management" and promoted waste
reduction activities. Based on people's anxiety toward landfill
site pollution by hazardous materials, 5 kinds of wastes
separation was adopted, the combustibles, the incoinbustibles,
the reusables, bulky wastes and hazardous v/astes.
Treatment of the hazardous wastes is carried out along with
the flow r»vin.rt (Fig. 6-2), Table £-? shows the record of the
hazardous v.-aste treatment.
Kercury containing wastes such as used dry batteries are
treated by contracting companies. For example, the company A
treats them in a way shown in Fig. 6-3.
6-3-2 Town of Llizuho, Tokyo
Around 1976, improper treatment of domestic v;astes and
industrial wastes v/ere disclosed in the town area of Kisuho.
Since then, the town reviewed her waste management policy.
As a result of it, the town adopted 5 kinds of wastes
separation, the combustibles, the incombustibles, the reusables,
bulky wastes, hazardous \vastes(heavy metal containing,such as
fluorescent lamps, clinical thermometers, dry batteries).
Treatment of hazardous v/astes is carried out as follows;
a- Put wastes in vinyl bags at waste collection stations.
b- Collect them (once a month).
c- Put used dry batteries into 186 cans at Clean Mizuho
Center.
d- Crush other hazardous wastes in a crushing facility.
e- Solidify them with concrete.
(38)
-------
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(39)
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Fig.6-3 Mercury Recovery by Calcination (Hiroshima, Company A)
(41)
-------
6-3-3 City of Akishiina, Tokyo
In the city of Akishima, one of Tokyo's bed tov;ns, while
population increased, greens and open spaces decreased and it
becomes difficult to get nev/ landfill sites. In order to
extend the life of landfill sites and to promote recycling of
v/astes, sepv.rate collection v/as adopted from early days.
Especially since February 19&4, the following countermeasures
are taken against hazardous v/astes in order to meet the
provision to reject hazardous v/astes at the landfill sites ov/ned
by the related municipalities' league.
a- To adopt four-kinds of v/astes separation systems, the
combustibles, the inconbustibles, bulky vrastes and
hazardous \vastes.
b- To separate hazardous w?.ste such as used dry batteries by
the hands of workers at the transit facilities until the
separate collection is thoroughly carried out.
c- To add used dry batteries into the reusable wastes in
"The Outline of Bounty Granting for Resource Recovery of .
Akishima City" (See table 6-3 }.
d- To carry out public relations on this activity.
(42)
-------
Table 6-3
The Outline of bounty Grantins for
Resource Recovery of Akishima, City (abstract)
(Purpose)
Article 1 -he purpose of this outline is to
promote resource recycling, to
reduce wastes and to secure living
environment by granting bounty to
the people'^ grcups \vhich
collectively collect reusable
valuables among wastes from daylife,
(People's groups to grant)
Article 2 Groups which consist of people
living in Akishlma city and whose
purpose is not profit making can
be the objectives of grant.
(Reusable valuables to be granted and. their
bounties)
Article 3 Reusable valuables to be granted
and the bounties per unit is as
follows;
(1) Used textiles and
used papers
(2) Used bottles
(3) Metals
(4) Plastic boxes
¥ 2/kg
¥ 3/a bottle
¥ 2/kg
¥55/a box
(5) Used dry batteries
a- SUM,UM,AM-1,¥ 5/a battery
b- SUM,UM,AM-2,V 3/a battery
c- SUM,UM,AM-3,¥ 2/a battery
d- Others ¥ I/a battery
(43)
-------
Table 6-4 shov/s the Amount of batteries and
fluorescent Inmps collected. And the^o batteries -?.nd
lamps are kept in transit facilities.
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-------
References
Capter 3.
1. Springer-Verlag, Handbook of Geochemistry, II-4, 1974
2. Matsunaga, K., Nishimura, M., Konishi, S., Nature, 258,
p.224, 1975
3. Fujii, M., Circulation of Mercury, Mercury, p.259, 1976
4. Shinohara, M., Produntion of Primary Batteries, Battery and
Appliance, 1983
5. Takatsuki, H., Variety of Batteries, Waste, vol. 10, No.
106, 1984
Chapter 5.
1. Takizawa, Y., Health Risks of Mercury, Especially Evaluation
of Mercury Load to Kumar. Body by A'asted Dry Batteries,
Countermeasures against Wasted Dry Batteries, 1984
2. Takizawa, Y. et al., Study of Distribution of Air Pollutants
in the Environment^ Jl I, Environment Agency, 1975
3. Environment Agency, Air Quality Bureau, Nation Wide Survey
of Hazardous Materials, March, 1984
4. Takizawa, Y. et al., Chemosphere, in press, 1981
5. Hanya, T., Japan Environmental Illustration
6. Japan Public Health Association, Environmental Health Report,
33, 1975
(45)
-------
-------
Paper 5
TH:-: DIOXIN PROBLEM: A REGIONAL PERSPECTIVE
R. H. Hazel, Ph.D.
Special Assistant to the Regional Administrator
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region 7
Kansas City, Missouri
Thousands of words have been written and spoken in the last few years about
dioxin. Many of these have been about the situation in the State of Missouri.
The history of dioxin-contaminated wastes in Missouri dates back over a decade.
At that time dioxin-contaminated wastes were mixed with salvage oil and used to
sp^ay horse arenas, roads and parking lots for dust control in eastern Missouri.
The isomer identified in the wastes was 2,3,7,8-TCDD. Some was disposed of on
a farm in Southwestern Missouri and on property now owned by the City of Neosho.
Still, other dioxin wastes remain at the origin of the problem, the site of the
now defunct Northeastern Pharmaceutical and Chemical Company in Verona, Missouri.
This facility is presently owned by Syntex Agribusiness, Inc.
Immediately after the initial spraying of the contaminated waste oil, hunareas,
of animals began to sicken and die, including birds, cats, dogs and horses.
RejDorts of rashes and more serious human illnesses began to emerge throughout
the area. The horse arenas were scraped and the contaminated soil was hauled
as fill dirt to a number of locations.
Th<; Region 7 office of EPA has been involved in a comprehensive program to track
down each dioxin-contaminated area. Efforts to reconstruct the entire dust
control operation led investigators to believe there were numerous sites involved,
Presently, there are 38 confirmed dioxin-contaminated sites in Missouri, and
thi; investigation is continuing. The attached map indicates the locations of
these sites.
As the Regional Office began to identify the contaminated sites and to quantify
the levels of contamination through sampling and analysis, a search for solutions
to the problem was also initiated.
Early this year, Morris Kay, EPA Region 7 Administrator; Lee Thomas, EPA Head-
quarters Assistant Administrator for Solid Waste and Emergency Response; and
Dr. Bernard Goldstein, Assistant Administrator for Research and Development,
agreed on a joint effort to carry out an accelerated research program to develop
and demonstrate treatment technology to destroy dioxin in contaminated solids
and liquids. Subsequently, a plan was developed to bring the Agency's Mobile
Incinerator and ancillary equipment from its home base at the EPA Oil and
-------
Hazardous Materials Spills Branch facility in Edison, New Jersey, to a location
known as the Denney Farm Site in Southwest Missouri. There, a trial burn and
field test on dioxin-contaminated solids and liquids is scheduled to begin in
November of this year.
EPA's Office of Research and Development recently completed construction of
this mobile incineration system designed for field use to destroy hazardous
organic substances. The attached fact sheet describes the unit. Incineration
is a proven technology for destruction of hazardous wastes. Test burns of the
system have successfully destroyed polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) with no
harmful emissions. PC3s are compounds with properties similar to dioxin and
are viewed by nost scientists as being equally difficult to incinerate.
The process is an application of modern technology to the ancient art of puri-
fication by fire. The process itself is historically safe. The extremely high
temperatures of up to 2200 F literally break apart the dioxin'molecules into
atoms of carbon, oxygen, chlorine and hydrogen which then form small, basic
irolecules; predominantly carbon dioxide, water and hydrochloric acid. The acid
will be neutralized through contact with an alkaline solution and rendered
harmles?.
To assure that the public health and environment are protected, the field demon-
stration of this incineration system will be conducted under the strictest
surveillance by local, state and federal authorities. All requirements of the
federal Toxic Substances Control Act and the Resource Conservation and Recovery
Act must be met as well as the stringent state environmental standards and all
applicable local regulations.
An air monitoring program will be conducted to ensure that there will be no
harmful emissions from the incinerator and emissions will meet state and federal
air quality standards. The process water discharge will contain dissolved
salts but will be treated to ensure that it contains no hazardous materials.
Upon successful completion of the project, we will have demonstrated that no
contaminants entered the environment by any route from the process, ash created
from burning of the soils will be shown to be harmless and the stack emissions
will be water vapor.
A tremendous amount of planning and preparation effort has been done and is
continuing. Key activities center around aspects of the project such as:
0 preparations for feeding solids to the incinerator, including cold and hot
tests with uncontaminated solids.
0 a laboratory study to determine times and temperatures required to thermally
destroy dioxin-contaminated soils.
-------
0 logistical preparations at the test location in Missouri, including arrange-
ments for equipment layouts, protective enclosure for wintertime operations
and feedstock analyses and preparations.
0 definition of operating procedures, including safety, training and decontami-
nation procedures for personnel and equipment.
0 preparation of a trial burn plan and accompanying sampling and analysis plan.
0 preparation and submission of a permit application package to EPA and the
Missouri Department of Natural Resources.
0 preparation of a risk assessment document for operation of the Mobile Incinera-
tion System during the project.
0 transportation, setup and shakedown of the incinerator at the Denney Farm site
in Missouri.
0 implementation of a comprehensive community relations program.
0 implementation of the trial burn; analysis and reporting of the data.
0 implementation of the field test; analysis and reporting of the data.
0 decontamination of the equipment; disassembling and transporting to the next
test location.
0 preparation of the project report.
The overall goal of the project is to evaluate the destruction of dioxins, speci-
fically the 2,3,7,8-TCDD isomer with the Mobile Incineration System. (This is
the only isomer of dioxin believed to be present in the subject Missouri wastes.)
The project is expected to yield several useful products, particularly on the
technical, economic and institutional factors related to the operation. It is
hoped that a successful project can serve as a model for future activities of
transportable incineration equipment at sites contaminated with dioxin or other
hazardous waste.
EPA Region 7 is sensitive to the concerns of those residents whose communities
have been contaminated with dioxin. We are committed to finding answers and
remedies to the dioxin program. The field demonstration of a proven technology
for the destruction of hazardous waste as described here may make a significant
contribution to solving the challenge of dioxin destruction.
-------
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Paper 6
ISSUES AND PROBLEMS OF DIOXIM IK" WASTE MANAGEMENT
Masaru Tanaka, Ph.D.
Chief of Solid Waste Management Section
The Institute of Public Health
Ministry of Health and Welfare, Japan
1. Introduction
In light of soil pollution following the chemical factory (herbicide
production) explosion in Seveso, Italy? soil pollution by dioxin-con-
taining chemical wastes at Times Beach, Missouri; and the detection
of dioxins at waste incineration plants in the U.S. and other coun-
tries, dioxin contamination has arisen as a significant environmental
problem.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has had the dioxin issue
under study for some time. In November, 1983, the agency published
"Dioxin Strategy," under which EPA is committed to:
1) study the extent of dioxin contamination and the associated
risks to humans and the environment,
2) implement or compel necessary cleanup actions at contami- .
natea sites, and
3) further evaluate regulatory alternatives to prevent future
contamination, and to develop disposal alternatives to
alleviate current problems.
In Japan, we have been collecting information on the dioxin issue
through the Governmental Conference on Solid Waste Management, and
the OECD Waste Management Policy Group. Also, at some national re-
search institutes and universities, research and study on analysis
of dioxin have been carried out.
In the fall of 1983, news reports revealed that dioxins had been de-
tected in the fly ash and bottom ash of waste incineration plants.
More recently, dioxin resulting from waste treatment has attracted
nuch public attention. People feel uneasy about some kinds of waste
treatment, and waste treatment is being hindered in some municipali-
ties. Thus, the dioxin issue requires that waste management adminis-
trators develop specific countermeasures to cope with it.
When we consider the problem of dioxin from the viewpoint of waste
rianagement, realistically speaking, we should focus on the exhaust
gas from incineration plants, the working environment at the plants,
and the problems associated with landfilling bottom ash and fly ash.
Although our consideration has focused on 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodiben2o-
p-dioxin, which is reportedly the most toxic isomer, and thus the one
of greatest public concern, other dioxins and dibcnzo-furans have
been detected, and should be considered as we address the problem in
the future.
-------
2. Environmental Impacts of Dioxin fromraste Incineration
Facilities
Although there are some reports about the detection of dioxin in
exhaust gas from waste incineration facilities, there has been no
report about its impact on human health.
USEPA, in the evaluation of health risks associated with emissions
from municipal waste treatment facilities states, "The present
emissions levels of TCDDs from the five municipal waste combustors
described in this report do not present a public health hazard for
residents living in the immediate vicinity. In addition, the
health risk estimates presented in the assessment indicate that
as long as emission levels of TCDDs do not greatly exceed the
emissions measured at the five US sites evaluated in this ,
interim assessment, there should be no reason for concern"."
Referring to the USEPA's methology3, and considering the Japanese
air pollution control situation, environmental impact of dioxin of
exhaust gas from domestic waste incineration facilities can be
evaluated as follows;
First, assuming that in exhaust gas TCDDs are adsorbed to
particulatc ~otters and composition ~f TCDDs which reach to tl'.s
ground surface is the same as that in exhaust gas. And assuming
that the exhaust gas concentration of particulate matter is to be
the maximum limit under the Air Pollution Control Law (0.5 g/Nm
as dust and soot) and the concentration of TCDDs in the
particulate matters are the same as that of fly ash.
The concentration of fly ash's TCDDs varies very much along with
sampling conditions, analysis conditions, etc. (0.32-0.56 ng/g by
Public Health Institute, 0-250 ng/g by Tastukawa, Ehime Univ.)
But here, 250 ng/g, the largest concentration so far reported is
used. Then, the concentration of TCDDs in exhaust gas would be;
250 ng/g x 0.5 g/Nnr = 125 ng/Nnr
4)
However, as reported, the concentration of PCDDs in particulate
matters of emission gas is assumed, for the sake of safety, to be
ten times larger than that in fly ash, then,
125 ng/Nmr x 10 = 1,250 ng/Nnr
The concentration at the ground surface should be calculated with
dispersion model. Here, with the dispersion rate of 5,000,
which is assumed to make safer estimation than actual dispersion,
the hourly maximum surface concentration could be calculated;
-2-
-------
1,250 ng/Nm" / 5,000 =0.25 ng/Nm"
The yearly average maximum surface concentration is assumed to be
about 1/40 of the hourly maximum;
0.25 ng/Nm / 40 = 6.3 x 10"" ng/Nm' (A)
3. PCDDs1 Impact on Working Environment of Waste Incineration
Facilities
So far, there has been no report on the PCDDs concentration at
nfuste incineration facility working environment. However, with the
detection of dioxin from bottom ash and fly ash, workers there feel
uneasiness. And it is necessary to evaluate its impact on working
environment. The first assumption is that all dusts in working
environment come from fly ash. And so far as ordinary works at
plants are concerned, the largest concentration of dust is assumed
to be 0.51 mg/m3 in the basement of a furnace. As for inspection
within a furnace, the concentration is assumed to be 44.3 mg/m .
With these data and the largest concentration of TCDDs1
concentration in fly ash (250 ng/g), TCDDs concentration at working
environment could be calculated;
During ordinary work:
250 ng/g x 0.51 mg/m* = 0.127 ng/m' (B)
During inspection in a furnace:
250 ng/g x 44.3 mg/m' = 11.075 ng/m"" (C)
-------
4. Evaluation of the Impact on Human Health
4-1. Evaluation Guideline
Based on the animal experiments, human exposure during production
and use of 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid and so on, 2,3,7,8-
TCDD's health effect has been estimated. But, when we judge the
human health effects, careful attention must be paid to the data's
background, such as animal species, exposed concentration,
exposure method.
Kociba, et al. reported that, based on their sub-chronic
experiment4and chronic experiment6,' the non-observable adverse effect
level (NOAEL) is to be 0.0lug/kg/day where the increase of
porphyrin in urine and hepatocellular nodules are observed. And
the non-observable effect level (NOEL) is to be 0.00lug/kg/day
where toxic effect is not observed.
Based on this sub-chronic data, US National Academy of Science
Committee on Drinking Water and Health showed the acceptable daily
intake (ADI) of 2,3,7,8-TCDD is to be 10"4" ug/kg/day!}
Murray, et al. based on the experiment on 2,3,7,8-TCDp1s effect on
rats' reproductive function for three aeneration period, reoorted
that NOAEL is to be 0.001ug/kg/day? However, later, Nisbet, et
al., reevaluating Murray's data, concluded that 0.00lug/kg/day
is still an effect level*.'
USEPA Science Advisory Panel, considering carcinogenic,
teratogenic and reproductive risks, showed that NOEL is to be
0.001)ig/kg/day.lo)
Based on the 2,3,7,8-TCDD' s NOEL of 0.00lug/kg/day by USEPA Science
Advisory Panel in 1980, considering the ADI of 0.OOOluq/kg/day bv
National Academy of Science in 1977, and the report of Nisbet,
et al. in 1982 that 0.001ug/kg/day is still an effect level,
the Evaluation Guideline 'as to dioxin problem from the view point
of waste management, should be 0.0001ug/kg/day, and it is
appropriate to proceed studies on the' problem.
4-2. Evaluation of the Effect on People in General
It is assumed that the volume of respiration of a man is 15m" /day
(average weight: 60 kg) and all TCDDs in the breathed air are
absorbed. Then the amount of TCDDs absorbed by people in general
would be;
"5 —-
6.3 x10~~ ng/Nnf x 15m? /day / 60kg = 1.58 x 10" ng/kg/day — (D)
-4-
-------
This amount is smaller than the Evaluation Guideline. Since, in
"his estimation, TCDDs' intake is compared with the evaluation
guideline of 2,3,7,8-TCDD, in the actual situation, it would give
further safety.
•J-3. Evaluation of the Effect on Workers at Waste Incineraion
Facilities
It is assumed that the volume of respiration of a worker during 8
workina hours is 10m' (average weight: 60kg), yearly work days are
300, and all TCDDs in the breathed air are absorbed. The amount of
TCDDs absorbed by workers in waste incineration plants for working
flours would be;
0.127ng/m' x 10m* x 300 days / 60kg / 365 days = 0.0174ng/kg/day
(E }
Assuming, a furnace is inspected once a year for 5 days, and the
inspection worker does not put on a dust mask, the. amount of
absorbed TCDDs would be;
11.075ng/nr x 10m3 x 5 days / 60kg / 365 days = 0.0253ng/kg/day
When a wo"':;r in the facility also .Inspect the furna.ce, 33^.,...ing
the volume of respiration out of workina hours is 10m° , the total
amount of TCDDs' intake of the worker would be;
0.0174ng/kg/day + 0.0253ng/kg/day + 1.58 x 1 0~J ng/kg/day x 2/3
= 0.0437ng/kg/day
This is smaller the the Evaluation Guideline.
As a matter of fact, all dusts in working environment do not come
from fly ash, nor the inspection workers are exposed to that high
dust concentration for 8 hours consecutively. Furthermore, a
worker in a high dust environment puts on a dust mask. Therefore,
the assumed amount of the intake here would imply quite a high
safety.
— 5 —
-------
5. Landfill of Bottom Ash and Fly Ash from Waste Incineration
Processes
So far, there has been no report on the environmental impact by
landfill of bottom ash and fly ash from waste incineration
processes.
According to USEPA's report, PCDDs have a high affinity for soil,
especially for organic compounds containing soil and a very low
water-solubility. Therefore, they show the tendency to remain
in soil, and groundwater pollution by their vertical movement
can be neglected. PCDDs move in two important ways. First,
PCDDs which are adsorbed by suspended matters move horizontally
with water. And, second, PCDDs which are adsorbed by particulate
matters scatter and move to air.
Therefore, it is important to prevent dusts from blowing out and
bottom ash, etc. from flowing out. For this purpose, as is
stipulated in the present law, wastes should be adequately covered
up with soil, and suspended matters in leachet water from landfill
should be adequately removed.
-6-
-------
6. Remaining Problems
Although it is from bottom ash and fly ash of waste incineration
processes that the dioxin was detected in Japan and attracts
people's concern, the problem should be widely coped with from
environmental view point as well as from waste management view
point.
For this purpose, following problems remain to be solved;
(1) Source and control of PCDDs
a. Formation and decomposition of PCDDs during incineration
Relationship between waste composition and the amount
of PCDDs formation
- Physical and chemical conditions affecting formation and
decomposition of PCDDs
Experimental study using formation-decomposition model
Technical control of formation and decomposition of PCDDs
b. State of PCDDs emission
- Emission from waste treatment facilities {incineration
and final disposal)
- AS for an incineration f^^iity, PCDDs content .i"
bottom ash, fly ash, effluent water and exhaust gas,
along with the furnace type, operation conditions, etc.
As for a landfill site, PCDDs content in surface soil,
effluent water, plants, animals, etc.
c. State of environmental pollution
d. Behavior at a landfill site
- State of PCDDs in fly ash, etc.
PCDDs' effluence, decomposition by biological, physical
and chemical reactions
Techniques of final disposal
(2) Analytical methods, etc.
Improvement of sampling of particulate matters, exhaust
gas, etc.
Development of PCDDs1 analytical methods with higher
accuracy
Development of PCDDs1 .analytical methods which can be
widely used by reserchers in general
(3) Monitoring methods
Design of monitoring
Items to be monitored
Analytical methods of monitoring items
-7-
-------
(4)
of PCDDs and
dioxin-like chemicals
Heaicr. eliect
Literature survey of these chemicals
- lexicological study of each isomer of PCDDs
- Pollution survey of FCEFs
- Index to evaluate PCDDs' toxicity
Besides, it is necessary to enforce the systems to carry out the
above, and to pay full atention to secure resechers1 safety,
adequate management of laboratory's wastewater which is polluted
by PCDDs, and safety management of PCDDs1 standard reagents.
And it is important to possitively utilize the results of related
studies in various fields.
-------
APPENDIX
Studies on PCDDs at Public Health Institute
THE BEHAVIOR OF TRACE HAZARDOUS MATERIALS DURING SOLID WASTE
TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL (1982-1984)
The Institute of Public Health : Masaru TANAKA, Takashi IKEGUCHI,
Ryuzo TAKESHITA
Fukuoka University : Masataka HANASHIMA, Koreyoshi YAMAZAKI,
Yasushi MATSUFUJI
The purpose of the study is to find basic information about
the behavior of trace hazardous materials during solid waste
treatment and disposal. The major treatment and disposal methods
for solid wastes in Japan are incineration and landfill. The
environmental pollution of trace hazardous materials due to solid
waste treatment and disposal has to be minimized.
As to the study on the measurement of PCDDs in fly ash, etc.
the purpose of this study is to evaluate the separation and
extraction methods and to establish the analytical method for
PCDDs, particularly for 2,3,7,8-TCDD contained in fly ash and
bottom ash. The different precede:.„_ for TCDDs e^tra^'-ion ;.-_J3
compared and evaluated experimentally.
2,3,7,8-TCDD for fly ash and bottom ash sampled from
incinaration plants for municipal solid wastes were determined. In
one of 5 fly ash samples, 2,3,7,8-TCDD was determined at a level of
1.96 x 10" : g/g. On the other hand, it was not detected in the
bottom ash measured for this study.
-9-
-------
References
1. EPA, Dio.xin Strategy, November, 1933
2. EPA, Interim Eva1uation of Health Risks Associated with_
Emissions of Tetrachlorinated Dioxins from Municipal _Waste
Resource Recovery Facilities, November, 1981
3. EPA, Assessment of Emissions from a Recent Municipal Waste
_Cprnbustor, August, 1983
4. EPA Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office, Research
and Development , Health and Environmental Effects Profile
for : Tetra-, Penta- and HexachlorodibenzO-p-dioxins,
P1.9, P7.1, June, 1983
5. Kociba, R. J. , Keeler. P. A./ Park, C.N. and Gehring,. P.J.,
2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin results of a 13-week
oral toxicity study in rats, Toxicol.. Appl. Pharmacol., 35,
1976
6. Kncjba- f.J., Keyes, D,G., Beyer. J.E., Carreon, R.M.,
Wade, L.E., Dittenber, D.A., Kalnens, R.P., Franson, L.E.,
Park, C.N., Barnard, S.D., Hummel, R.A. and Humiston, C.G.,
Results of a two-year chronic toxicity and oncogenicity study
of 2,3,7 ,8-tetrachlorodiben2O-p-dioxin in rats. Toxicol.
Appl. Pharmacol., 46,279, 1978
7. National Academy of Science, DrinkingWater and Health,
P499-512, 1977
8. Murray, F.J., Smith, F.A., Nitschke, K.D., Humiston, C.G.,
Kociba, R.J. and Schwets, B.A., Three-generation reproduction
study of rats given 2 ,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
(TCDD) in the diet, Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 50,241, 1979
9. Nisbet, I.C.T. and Paxton, M.B., Statistical aspects of 3
generation studies of the reproductive toxicity of TCDD and
2,4,5-T, Am. Stat., 36,290, 1932
10. Reggiani, G., Toxicology of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-
dioxin (TCDD); Short review of its formation, occurence,
toxicology and kinitecs, discussing human health effects,
safety measures and disposal, Regulatory Toxicol. Pharm.,
1,211, 1981
-10-
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Paper 7
CASE STUDIES INVOLVING THE TREATMENT OF HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES UNDER THE
SUPERFUND REMEDIAL ACTION PROGRAM
William M Kaschak, P.E.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Hazardous Site Control Division
Washington, D.C. 20460
James J. Spatarella
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Hazardous Site Control Division
Washington, D.C. 20460
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) initiated the Superfund
program upon the passage of the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensa-
tion, and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA). The Superfund Program operates under
the guideline of the National Contingency Plan (NCP). The N.CP was published on
July 16, 193^, arid expanded to provide raw reueral authority to respond Lu uie
problems at abandoned or uncontrolled hazardous waste disposal sites. The NCP
outlines three caregories of response actions: immediate removals, planned
removals, and remedial response actions.
Remedial response actions are intended to achieve solutions consistent with
permanent remedy at uncontrolled hazardous waste disposal sites. As such, more
time and effort is required to determine the "appropriate extent of remedy -
the least expensive remedy that is technologically feasible and reliable,
effectively reduces the danger, and adequately protects public health, welfare,
and the environment". The NCP identifies three types of remedial response
actions which are based upon the complexity, immediacy, and extent of the
hazards: (1) initial remedial measures, (2) source-control, and (3) off-site
remedial actions. Initial remedial measures are appropriate when the actions
to be taken are limited in nature and require a minimum of planning. The
sourcecontrol and off-site remedial actions are more complex and require more
extensive engineering evaluations to select the most cost-effective solutions.
An initial remedial measure is being implemented at the Bridgeport Rental and
Oil Services site in New Jersey which involves the treatment and disposal of
the aqueous phase of an 11.8-acre lagoon. Source-control remedial action is
being implemented at the Sylvester site in New Hampshire in two phases. The
first phase involved the installation of a slurry wall and cap. The second
phase will include the extraction and treatment of highly contaminated ground
water within the containment system. The planning activities and engineering
-------
studies leading up to the selection of the treatment systems at these two sites
are discussed below.
BRIDGEPORT RENTAL AND OIL SERVICES (BROS), NEW JERSEY
The BROS site is a former oil processing and reclamation facility located in
Bridgeport, New Jersey. The overall size of the facility is approximately 26
acres. The predominant feature is an 11.8-acre lagoon which Is unlined and
averages in depth from 12 to 18 feet with the greatest reported depth at 60
feet. A thick layer of heavy oils, laced with construction debris, drums, and
other trash floats on the surface. There are also several large tank trucks
which are partially submerged in the lagoon. Some 80 storage tanks and vessels
ranging in capacity from a few thousand gallons to greater than 300,000 gallons
are also on the site. The majority of the tanks are either empty or contain
bottom sludges with two of the larger tanks containing substantial quantities
of liquids.
"here is an eight to ten acre area of land adjacent to the lagoon with stressed
vegetation. This occurred when the dike surrounding the lagoon was breached,
thereby spilling some of the lagoon contents into the area. There are visual
seeps around the lagoon and into the adjoining freshwater ponds. Waterfowl
are constant victims of the lagoon as they attempt to land on the surface.
The bottom of the lagoon is unlined, however, a thick layer of oily sludge on
the bottom retards exfiltration. 3y June 1982, the level of the lagoon had
risen to within six inches below the top of the dike that surrounds the lagoon.
This situation required an immediate removal action. This action included
mobilization of the "Blue Magoo", EPA's transportable activated carbon unit.
The "Blue Magoo" was used to lower the lagoon level by approximately two feet,
thus developing adequate freeboard. This action involved the removal, treatment
and discharge of approximately five million gallons of water to Timber Creek.
Camp, Dresser and McKee, Inc. (COM) initiated a Remedial InvestigationU) in
in the Fall of 1981 to determine the extent and severity of contamination at
the site. Concurrent with the emergency action, the scope of this effort was
redirected to determine the most cost-effective method to lower the lagoon
level even further. Upon the completion of this effort, the EPA and the State
of New Jersey entered into a Superfund State Contract on October 29, 1982, to
design and implement the initial remedial measures at the site. The objective
of the initial remedial measure was to reduce the liquid level in the lagoon
to ensure that the overtopping of the dikes would be delayed for a substantial
period of time while alternatives for the long term remedial action were being
evaluated.
In order to determine the most cost-effective approach to the initial remedial
measure, a sampling effort was initiated to characterize the lagoon. Samples
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of the lagoon oil and aqueous phase wore taken at several locations and various
depths and were analyzed at one" of the EPA contractor laboratories. Some
I'imited data were available from the testing during the operation of the "Blue
Magoo". These chemical data ware used as a basis for designing initial t re, li-
ability studies of the liquid wastes.
The general characteristics of the liquid wastes are TOC at 180-220 mg/1 ; COD
a'; 720 mg/1 ; five-day BOD at 90 mg/1 ; TSS at 690 mg/1 ; VSS at 300 mg/1 ; and oi 1
and grease at 80 mg/1. In general, tne waste is composed of approximately one-
third volatile organics, one-third large molecular weight oily-type materials,
and the remaining third is generally uncharacterized and consists of a variety
o* organic compounds. The inorganic substances of concern are lead and zinc,
while most of the remaining metals are relatively dilute in concentration. The
species found in significant quantities were benzene, trans -1-2, dichloroethene,
nethylene chloride and toluene, all having concentrations around or above 1 :ng/l.
The oily layer of the lagoon exhibits a very high viscosity. The oily layer
actually moves about the surface of the lagoon depending upon the wind direction.
The oily layer contains levels of PCBs around 450 mg/1. A wide variation of
metal species are present in the oil with a significant difference in concen-
trations between the organic liquids and aqueous samples. Several metals con-
centrations were found in the 1-10 mg/1 range. A major element of any remedial
actions t?ken *t the site will involve deaV"^ with the physical and chcr'^1
characteristics of the oily layer.
The level of the lagoon could have been lowered by either treating the under-
lying aqueous phase or a combination of the oily surface layer and aqueous
phase. It was recognized that the oily surface layer represented a significant
threat to the environment. It was determined that the oily later would be more
appropriately addressed during long term remedial action rather than under the
iiitial remedial measure because of the difficulties of handling and disposing
of the oily layer, and the removal of the oily layer would only reduce the level
of the lagoon one to two feet.
A work group was formed to make all decisions on the technical aspects of the
project and consisted of personnel from EPA, COM and the Mew Jersey Department
of Environmental Protection. The work group decided that the initial remedial
measure would include the treatment of the aqueous phase only. The bottom
sludges are acting, in part, as an effective seal against the movement of water
from the lagoon. The work group also decided that the level of the lagoon
should only be lowered to the level of the surrounding ground water in order to
rraintain hydraulic equilibrium between liquid levels and lessen the possibility
cf breaching the bottom "seal". This would require lowering the lagoon approx-
imately 12 feet, or treating approximately 35 million gallons of the aqueous
phase of the lagoon.
- 3 -
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Discharge limits were established for the interim treat.uent system by agree-
ment of the work group. The discharge requirements we're established for
Total Organic Carbon (TOC) because of the multitude of compounds present at
the site and since most of the compounds were found to be present at levels in
tne 50-100 ug/1 range which is below the established discharge criteria. Trie
use of TOC wojld allov/ greater flexibility in selection and operation of tV
treatment systa.n as wall as reduce analytical requiranents for the effluent.
The discharge limits agreed upon for TOC are 50 mg/1 daily average over a
30-day period with a daily maximum of 100 mg/1. The recommended wastewater
treatment process was based upon the raw water quality data, effluent discharge
limits, and several bench scale and pilot tests. Final design criteria were
established during the design project. A process diagram is provided in
Figure I. The unit processes are described below.
Oil Separation
The removal of oil at the beginning of the treatment process would guard the
downstream processes from any heavy concentrations of emulsified non-aqueous
organics that may enter the intake to the treatment system. .The process con-
sists of the addition and mixing of a demulsification chemical followed by a
stilling basin to allow sufficient time for the oil to float to the surface
for collection and removal.
Air-Stripping
Air-Stripping was recommended for the removal of most of the volatile organics
to reduce the potential for dangerous levels near open process tanks and to
maximize the life of the downstream carbon adsorption units. Laboratory
studies indicated that TOC could by reduced by 50-80 mg/1. A countercurrent
packed tower with an airto-water flow ratio of 50:1 was recommended.
Flocculation/Sedimentation
Flocculation and sedimentation was recommended to protect the downstream carbon
adsorption units as well as provide some inorganic removal. The process involves
coagulant addition and pH adjustment for the removal of suspended solids, oil
and inorganic compounds through the use of a flash mixer, flocculation basin,
and sedimentation basin. A control discharge for this unit process was set at
30 mg/1 of suspended solids. Bench scale studies were performed to select the
coagulants and dosages for proper operation.
Granular Activated Carbon (GAC)
A GAC unit was recommended as the most effective method to remove the remaining
organic compounds. The recommended process includes two dual-column adsorption
modules operating in parallel. The dual-column adsorption module consists of
two beds operated in series with an empty bed contact time of 30 minutes.
- 4 -
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Information from the operation of the "Blue Magoo" and bench scale studies
was used as a basis for the selection of GAC.
Egjal 1 zati on Basi n
A holding tank was recommended to ensure the quality of the effluent before
its discharge to Timber Creek. In the event that the quality of the effluent
d03S not meet the discharge limits, the effluent would be returned to the
lagoon.
Disposal of Process Sidestreams
It was recommended that the side streams be return to the lagoon. The side-
streams include collected oil, backwash from the carbon units, sludge from the
sedimentation basin and other miscellaneous streams such as personnel and
equipment decontamination water. The spent carbon could either be regenerated
or disposed off-site.
The design of the interim treatment was completed by COM. The construction
and operation is being accomplished by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The
treatment plant was fabricated and put into operation in December 1983; however,
the system was irsut down during the win tar munchs. Operation of the treatment
plant has resumed.
SILVESTER HAZARDOUS WASTE SITE, NASHUA, NEU HAMPSHIRE
The Sylvester site is a six-acre site originally used as a sand borrow pit for
an undetermined number of years. During the late 1960's, the operator of the
pit began an unapproved and illegal waste disposal operation, apparently intend-
irg to fill the excavation. Household refuse, demolition materials, chemical
sludges, and hazardous liquid chemicals were all dumped at the site at various
times. The household refuse and demolition materials were usually buried, while
the sludgas and hazardous liquids were either mixed with the trash or were
allowed to percolate into the ground adjacent to the sand pit. Some hazardous
liquids were also stored in drums which were either buried or left on site.
While it is impossible to estimate the total quantities of waste materials
discarded at the site, EPA has documented that over 800,000 gallons of hazardous
Wciste were discarded there during a ten month period in 1979.
A contaminated ground water plume is moving from the site toward Lyle Reed
Brook. The uncontrolled plume had the potential to contaminate all private
drinking water wells between the site and the Nashua River and to become a
major source of stress on the Nashua River. In addition, Lyle Reed Brook would
not be able to support any aquatic life, and would pose a direct threat to
human health at the adjacent trailer park from volatilization of the organic
pollutants in the brook. EPA used CERCLA Emergency Funds to offset the threat
- 5 -
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by installing a ground water interception and recirculation system at the sitj
in November of 1981. The purpo'se of the system was to retard further migration
of the plume until a remedial action could be implemented. The system operated
until October 1932, when it was replaced by the first phase of remedial action.
The New Hampshire Water Supply and Pollution Control Commission has been direct-
ing efforts to contain and clean up the site, using a two-phased approach for
managing contamination. The approach was developed as a result of the Remedial
Investigation and the Feasibility Study^2) completed by Roy F. Weston, Inc. in
January 1982. This approach was reviewed, approved, and funded by EPA in July
1982, as the most cost-effective remedial alternative that adequately protected
human health, welfare and the environment.
The first phase involved the containment of the contaminated plume. This
required the installation of a bentonite slurry wall which reached depths of
up to 90 feet in order to key it into bedrock. Then the entire 20-arce area
was covered by an impermeable surface cap. The immediate purpose of the cap
was to temporarily contain the contaminated ground water while the ground
water treatment plant was researched, designed, and built. The second purpose
for installing the slurry wall and cap was to exclude clean water from entering
the contaminated site once ground water treatment was initiated. The implement-
ation of this phase was completed in October 1982.
The second phase was to investigate, design, and build a ground water treatment
system capable of reducing the ground water contamination to an acceptable
level. The initial treatability work was completed as part of the feasibility
study. This work was comprised of bench scale treatability studies using
representative ground water samples. The Remedial Investigations showed that
there were high concentrations of heavy metals, as well as volatile and extract-
able organic concentrations in the ground water under the site (See Table 1).
No one unit operation is capable of removing all of the contaminants present
due to the complex composition of the ground water. The treatability studies
evaluated the potential of unit operations to adequately remove particular
groups of contaminants. The development of an appropriate treatment train
capable of effectively removing all contaminant groups is illustrated in Table
2. The table clearly shows that only two treatment trains will adequately
treat the contaminated ground water to the required levels. Both treatment
trains required the initial removal of inorganic materials by chemical neutral-
ization and precipitation methods. This requirement is the result of the high
concentrations (averaging 350 mg/1 and 80 mg/1 respectively) of iron and
nanganese which precipitate out of solution in any process that introduces air
into the ground water. The introduction of air into the ground water would
result in the plugging or fouling of the organic treatment system.
The first suitable treatment train uses steam stripping to remove volatile
organics while the second train uses biological methods. The feasibility
study estimated the minimum treatment rate for both trains to be 35 gallons
- 6 -
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p^r minute (gpm), 24 hours/day continuous treat.nent, and the optimum treatment
rate to be 100 gpm, 24 hours/day continuous treatment". The optimum treatment
rate was later revised upon the completion of a supplement to the feasibility
studyU) in July 1982, to 300 g;)7i, 24 hour/day continuous treatment. Tb" •, .•.••)
nient provided additional information on the costs associated with various j
v.'jter treatment rates. This increase in the rate of troatr.v^nt reduced t'n-:
expected treatment tiiv.e from 6.2 years to 1.7 years. This is based on til-
estimated effectiveness of a 90% reduction of all contaminants from two full
flushes of the contained volume.
Tie operation of a pilot plant was necessary to account for the potentially
wide varations in the concentration of individual pollutants and overall strvmjth
to develop sufficient data in preparation for the design of the full-seal'? ,)lant.
Tie design for the pilot plant was completed in November 1982. The pilot plant
was built on the Sylvester site and experiments were initiated in February T>o3.
The pilot plant was built on-site and designed to remove inorganics and volatile
organics from ground water that was pumped from three on-site wells (As shown in
Figure 2).
The inorganic chemical treatment process is designed for the. removal of iron and
manganese fro,;, I he ground water. This pro^tj^ consists of chemical preci^: ^tio
of heavy metals, pH adjustment of the wastewater, and sand filtration to re :ovrj
the precipitated metals sludge. The results of the pilot tests indicate iron
removal was greater than 99% under all conditions and manganese removal was
greater than 99.8% at pH's of 10 and 11, with polymer doses between 0.5 and 1.0
ppm.
The next process is removal of the volatile organic compounds using a High
Temperature Air Stripper (HTAS). The contaminated ground water (with the
metals removed) is then preheated in two heat exchangers, an economizer and a
trim heat exchanger. Over the range of operating temperatures tested, all of
the priority pollutants and more than 75 percent of the alcohols were removed
from the wastewater.
In addition, bench and pilot scale treatability studies were conducted for
distillation, incineration, and biological treatment systems. The distillation
studies were conducted by Artisan Industries, Inc. The purpose of their st'.idies
was to determine the feasibility of concentrating the organic contaminants
present in the HTAS condensate to 50-60% organics while leaving the bottoms
free of volatile organics. The data developed indicates that it is technically
feasible to make a reasonable separation of the volatile organics from the
HTAS condensate by standard distillation techniques. The limitations of this
unit process are the need for a feed liquid containing only very small amounts
of non-condensible gases (i.e., air) and the need for a vapor phase activated
carbon solvent recovery system to remove the remaining solvent vapors from the
- 7 -
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condensers. These limitations adversely affected the final cost of this
alternative in comparison to incineration.
The incineration studies were conducted by Trane Thermal, Inc. The purpose cf
the studies was to determine the optimum incineration design for the destruction
of the aqueous wasta and to determine the amount of fuel required per pound of
waste. The aqueous wastes were generated in the pilot plant by passing the
effluent air stream from the HTAS through a condenser. The results indicated
-------
REFERENCES
!• Camp, Dresser, & Mckee, Inc., "Initial Remedial Action at the Bridgeport
Rental & Oil Services site, N.J.", Feb. 1983.
2. R.F. Weston, Inc., "Final Report-Sylvester Hazardous Waste Dump Site
Containment and Cleanup Assessment" prepared for the New Hampshire Water
Supply and Pollution Control Commission, Jan. 1982.
Roy F. Weston, Inc., "Supplemental Study to Final Report on Sylvester
Hazardous Waste Dump Site Containment and Cleanup Assessment" prepared
for the New Hampshire Water Supply and Pollution Control Commission,
Ouly 1982.
- 9 -
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TABLE 1
SYLVESTER SITE, NEW HAMPSHIRE
POLLUTANT
Vinyl Chloride
Benzene
Chloroform
1,1,2-Tri choloroethane
Ethylene Chloride
Tetrachloroethylene
Trichloroethylene
Xylenes
M«thyl Isobutyl Ketone
Methyl Ethyl Ketone
Chlorobenzene
Methylene Cnl-j, ;ua
Toluene
Ethyl Benzene
1,1-Dichloroethane
t-l,l-D1chloroethane
1,1,1-Trichloroethane
Methyl Methacrylate
Ethyl Chloride
Tetrahydrofuran
2-Butanol
Dimethyl Sulfide
01 ethyl Ether
Msthyl Acetate
Isopropyl Alchol
Acetone
HIGHEST CONC.
FOUND IN
GROUND WATER
(PPB)
950
3,400
31,000
17
73,000
570
IB,000
10,000
21,000
80,000
1,100
122,sec
29,000
1,200
15
18,000
2,000
3,500
320
1,500,000
3,560
3,500
20,000
2,400
26,000
310,000
-------
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Paper 8
GROUND-WATER MONITORING, PROTECTION, AND CORRECTIVE ACTION
Burnell Vincent
Program Manager, Land Disposal Branch
Office of Sol id Uaste
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, O.C.
Introduction, Program Objectives
The Environmental Protection Agency's Hazardous Waste Management Program
for Land Disposal Facilties is based on a set of requirements which define
the general responsibilities for facility owners and operators.1 The
requirements include design and operating criteria for the various types
of facilities; a separate section sets forth the ground-water protection
requirements common to all facilities. These requirements allow considerable
flexibility on how ground-water monitoring and response programs may be
dasigr.cd. Th? Agency examines closely th? -""m'toring programs and rconit'V'ng
data submitted by the owners and operators pursuant to these requirements.
The fundamental goal of these requirements is to minimize the migration
into the environment of the hazardous component of waste placed in land
disposal units.
The Agency's strategy for achieving this goal has two basic elements.
First, liquids management must minimize leac'nate generation in the waste
management units and remove that leachate before it enters the subsurface
environment. This first line of defense seeks to prevent ground-water
contamination by controlling the design and operation of the source of the
contamination. The second element of the general strategy is a ground-water
monitoring and response program that is designed to assure the effectiveness
of the design and operation and to remove contamination from the ground
water once it is detected. This second element, the monitoring and response
program, is the subject of this paper.
The ground-water protection program includes three basic components: detecting
contamination, assessing risk, and correcting excessive risk. The objectives
of these programs, in that order, are to answer the questions: is any
contamination from a facility present in the ground water, if present is
it acceptable, and if not acceptable how will it be cleaned up? The deter-
mination of which compounds are hazardous has been left to others and is
not part of this paper.
-1-
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Detection
Of the questions a ground-water monitoring system can answer, the first,
the simplest, and logically the easiest to answer is "is contamination
there?". Have li-ji.Js mirated frc-i the- facility and e"-?r?-i the
water? This is the first of the three graduated levels of monitoring
-------
Corrective Action
The final question, "what to do about it?" adds a dynamic dimension to the
issue. This third level of activity involves source control (fixing,
retrofitting, or closing the facility) and removing the contaminated ground
water or treating it in place until the concentrations are reduced below
the ground-water protection standard. While the program allows for new
technology such as in situ treatment, the most prevalent expectation is
that extraction of the constituents by counter-punping will be the
mainstay of corrective action programs in the near future. The objectives
of each of these three levels of program activities will be further defined
in the near future by the incipient ground-water protection policy under
development by the Agency.2 As currently drafted this policy provides
three levels of protection of ground-water resources. The highest level
of protection will be afforded to "special" ground water resources. These
will be identified on a basis of vulnerability to contamination. Those
for which there is less native or natural protection, and which are irre-
placeable by other water sources or are ecologically vital will be selected
for this level. A second level of protection will be provided for the
vast majority of ground water including ground water with less vulnerability
to traditional hazardous waste disposal faclitites, ground water which has
already been contaminated to some extent but is still useful, and ground
water in regions rich in other water supplies. A third and least level of
protection ..:! 1 be provided for those grc"~^ waters already so contan-ir-3*''^
that their use as a source of water is not practical with conventional
technology. As this policy evolves, and ground water classification is
executed, facility permits will contain programs whose objectives will
reflect these consideration.
PROGRAM IMPLEMENTATION
As is the case with most regulatory programs developed in democratic societies,
hazardous waste management control did not begin with the practice of
hazardous waste disposal, but grew as a response to a problem. In view of
the large tonnage of hazardous waste already in place in existing facilities,
more hazardous waste arriving at existing facilities daily, and no prospects
for the wide-spread availability of new alternative facilities, controls
were instituted for existing sites as well as new sites. Distinctions
were made in these controls between the design requirements for new and
existing facilities for the liquids management element of the program;
however, new and existing facilities were treated alike with respect to
their ground-water performance. The ground-water protection standard for
an existing facility receives the same review using the same criteria as
that for a proposed new facility.
In the interim, until site-by-site review by the Agency during the permitting
process, uniform monitoring requirements were established for all existing
facilities. These requirements were consistent with the three level concept:
detection, compliance, and corrective action. However, only requirements
for detecting and quantifying the facility effect on ground water were
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built into this self-implementing, interim status program. Risk determination
and risk-response are accomplished as a part of the permitting process
itself. The diagran at Figure 1 shows the relationships of these variO'.r;
programs.
Owners and operators of facilities that have complied with these regul^.i^:.
are now completing their third year of monitoring. Over four hundred of
these facilities have received notice that they must submit their permit
applications. 3y this notice, the Agency selectively identifies higher
priority facilities for comprehensive, interactive review leading to a
permit or denial and closure. As yet, however, only 5 permits have been
issued. Thus these comments today coine at a break point, where we can
look with some perspective on our experience under the uniform requiremeits
of the interim status program and on our anticipation of the facility-by-
facility creation of program requirements which deal with the necessarily
highly complex issues involved in the detecting, measuring, compliance,
and corrective action levels I mentioned earlier.
First let me describe the basic uniform requirements of the.interim status
program. This program required a good deal of owner/operator cooperation
in designing and installing the monitoring systems. The basic requirement
of the interim status monitoring program is that the system be capable of
yielding ground-.vater samples for analysis representative of background
quality and Af any statistically sisr»ific?.n* amounts of hazardous waste
constituents that migrate from the facility to the ground water. The
regulation does not precisely fix location or number of sampling points
except that no fewer than one well represent background and no fewer than
three represent potentially contaminated ground water (downgradient). The
basis of detection is the observation of a change in water quality between
background and any potentially influenced ground water. Four broad indicators
were selected to indicate such a change: pH, specific conductance, total
organic carbon, and total organic halogen. This suite of parameters was
clearly not intended to enable distinction of each and every regulated
constituent but it is used to determined which facilties may bj; leaking.
The four indicators reflect changes in the organic or inorganic makeup of
the ground water. A statistically significant change in these indicators
suggests that organic or inorganic substances are being introduced into
the ground water from the facility.
Increases in specific conductance indicate the presence of inorganic substances
in the ground water. Likewise increases or decreases in pH suggest the
presence of inorganic contamination. While neither is specific to hazardous
constituents emitted in low concentration (for instance, an arsenic change
of +100% may be represented by only a 1/2% change in specific conductance)
our experience indicated that profiling of pH and conductance at these
older, well-established facilities would provide sufficient evidence upon
which to base the prioritization of permit application requests. Similarly
total organic carbon (TOC) and total organic halogen (TOX) concentration
in ground water tend to increase as a result of organic contributions from
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,i hazardous waste facility. The .methodology to saiple and analyse for
these Indicator Is also presently available.
Thoso four parameters /ore selected in response to gon,v.
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Regional Off ice'with evaluatien of sampling and analysis procedures and
record keeping. Once again, these numbers may change as inspectors skills
improve and 35 owners and operators refine their monitoring facilities aid
technig.iys. Evalaution of the group of facilities presu ;o-i to be dischar'jioj
to ground water, ninbonng 210, are also displayed in Table II. This
group was subjected to a closer evaluation by the Aijency. The results of
this evaluation are described as follows.
Qua! ity Assur_ance/Q-jali ty Cont rol
Owners and operators were required to develop and follow a ground-water
sampling and analysis plan, a plan which must include procedures and techniques
for:
1} sample collection;
2) sample preservation and shipment;
3) analytical procedures; and
4) chain of custody control.
However, our enforcement investigations indicate that these plans are
frequently inadequate. We also have observed wide diversion between the
plans and the actual practices employed. Some of the problems observed in
sample collection include poorly located and constructed wells, inappropriate
well cnnstrurt-ion materials, inadequate freauencies, improper and poorly
suited sample collecting devices, loss of volatile emissions from samples
prior to packaging, improper and inappropriate packaging materials, lack
of attention to conditions such as temperatures and times, and a variety
of other errors and inconsistencies.
As mentioned the Agency requires all facilities observing a statistically
significant increase in the indicator parameter to perform assessments of
the concentration, the rate, and the extent of migration of all hazardous
waste constituents present in the ground water. If no contamination by
hazardous waste constituents is found, the owner or operator may return to
the detection monitoring or indicator monitoring program. In an effort to
determine the quality of the assessment program implemented by owner and
operators, the Agency visited 22 facilities selected by Regional Offices.
Since the selection process was not random, generalizations cannot be
made; at those 22 facilities, however, the findings indicate that little
confidence should be placed in the reported values. 20% of those facilities
were found not to have developed required sampling and analysis plans.
Over half of the plans that are available are inadequate. Major deficiencies
were observed in well design and sampling procedures. In fact only one of
the facilities was even following its sampling and analysis plan.
Almost half of the facilities have changed laboratories between sampling
events, many have even changed sampling or analytic procedures. While
owners or operators are not prevented from changing from one lab to another,
it is necessary that there be some assurance of consistency of analytical
results before and after such changes. Fewer than half of the facilities
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were found to be using appropriate sampling equipment. Very few facilities
were found to be using procedures which minimize the air stripping of
volatile* prior to analysis. Cleaning of sampling equipment between wells
was found generally inadequate. Three quarters of the facilities had an
inadequate number of wells for detection. Fully half of the sites did
not screen the wells in the proper formation. PVC well casing, which
poses a potential interference with organic sampling, is common. Only half
of the facilities had begun the assessments or the ground-water monitoring
on time.
There are a great number of influences, or sources of variability, resulting
from these discrepancies. Temperature correlations of one of the four
indicators, specific conductance, is so strong (2% change per degree Celcius)
that it alone could overwhelm the changes observed between quarterly samples.
The loss of volatiles from so many facilities' samples is another source
which would appear as seasonal variation, since more loss could be expected
from summer than winter samples, and totally obscure any change in ground
water quality induced by the facility. In response to these observations,
the Agency has accelerated guidance and training programs, highlighting
quality assurance procedures.
Selected
Indicators
As I mentioned there are four indicator pa rasters required for uss in tK~
Interim status regulations: pH, specific conductance, total organic carbon,
and total organic halogen. Indicators can be considered effective if they
do not fail to indicate a change whenever a consitituent of concern increases
by a significant amount. They may be considered efficient when they do not
change when there has been no increase in the analytes of concern. Correlation
•'s desireable between the change of concern in analytes and the change
perceivable through the indicators. The Agency's Office of Research and
Development has sponsored a study of the effectiveness and efficiency of
the four indicators uniformly required during interim status.3 This study
Is still in early developmental stage, but the initial indications are not
encouraging. Looking at pH as an indicator, the study found a proper
correlation at less than half of the 31 sites at which data were available.
Twelve percent of the sites exhibited false negative correlationships, or
.1 failure of the indicator to change when in fact the analytes of concern
were showing an increase. Once again, we must remember the quality assurance
problems noted in my previous remarks. It is thus not clear that these
findings are due to the selection of indicators or to the sampling and
.analysis procedures.
Perhaps the more startling finding in this preliminary analysis, however,
is that one third of the correlations of pH to analytes of concern resulted
in a false positive (a pH indication of concern when other measured analytes
did not exhibit a change).
It is too early to form conclusive results from the investigation because
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8
there are Insufficient data on all 31 facilities. For instance, the study's
conclusion that the pH change was a false positive actually only means it
was a false positive for a dozen or so analytes which happen to have been
analyzed at that facility. Vie do not know that other, unmeasured, analytes
did not change. The preliminary findings for the organic indicators TOC
and TOX are even more alarming than for the inorganics. TOC for instance
performed ideally at fewer than 20% of the readings at 12 disposal sites,
showing almost 50% false positives but no false negatives. Once again
that 50% false positive rate should decline as more analytes currently
unmeasured are known. TOX was slightly better with 35% following the
desired collation but once again one half were false positives and none
were false negatives. And once again, loss of volatiles due to poor sampling
procedures may be the cause, rather than the true effectiveness of the
Indicator.
Preliminary review of information available at five of the facilities in
that study found that at those sites, downgradient concentration increases
of 10% or more for ten different analytes were missed on two or more occasions.
The undetected analytes range in classification from highly soluble ions
and cations (chloride, nitrate, and sodium), to trace metals (iron, magnesium,
barium, lead, and zinc), to organic compounds (phenol and cyanide).
In summary, our experience to date serves to highlight how extremely complex
ground-water mc'iiitoring is. The large number of existing facilities made
Individual review by the Agency impractical before monitoring system Instal-
lation; yet, on the other hand, the uniform interim status requirments
were improperly implemented by many of the regulated community. Minimal
systems implemented in complex situations, improper well construction,
poor choices of materials, careless sampling and analyses and other problems
have been identified at a large number of facilities. The challenge now
is to make maximum use of the information available at each facility in a
case-by-case review of its performance, avoid those problems previously
Identified, and design an effective monitoring system appropriate to the
potential threat to human health and the environment.
The Challenge
Keeping 1n mind the program objective: protection of human health and the
environment, it is then useful to "back up" from exposure limits which are
allowable for constituents of concern to select the parameters and limits
for monitoring ground water immediately adjacent to the facility. This
section of the discussion will be focused on current efforts by permit
writers in our field offices in meeting that challenge for each of the
three separate programs: detection, compliance, and corrective action.
These permit writers' decisions will be based in part on findings and
problems identified during interim status monitoring, but to a much greater
extent upon the permit application which must be submitted by the owner or
operator in the first step of evaluating a facility for a possible permit.
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8
Information Required
When an owner or operator receives notice that the agency requires him to
submit a permit application, a new set of requirements come into play.
Inlike the uniform requirements of interim status, the new requirements
are site specific, and complying with them entails considerable interaction
with the Agency. The application is the owner or operator's opportunity
to present all relevant information necessary for development of the permit.
A complete description of the hydrogeologic situation is required. Any
known contamination must be described in its entirety, with the concentration
(or the absence) of each and every hazardous waste constituent determined.
l!f the interim status indicators have not disclosed the presence of hazardous
constituents, or if the owner or operator identifies the absence of each
of the constituents, he may propose a detection program monitoring for a
combination of indicator parameters or individual hazardous constituents.
:;f he presents convincing documentation that his proposed suite of parameters
will detect the presence of any hazardous waste constituents, the permit
writer will specify these parameters for the detection monitoring program.
Otherwise the permit writer must add additional parameters.
The number and location of sampling points should also be proposed by the
owner or operator in his application. If the proposal is well documented,
the permit w, ;tar will draft a permit contdr.ing the proposed monitoring
system. However, where the applicant fails to provide sufficient dis-
persion of sampling points such that potential flow paths are not intercepted
|jy monitoring points, or the screened interval is so great that dilution
could mask discovery of hazardous constituents, the permit writer must
specify a more complete monitoring system which would rectify these problems.
He must demonstrate that the materials of choice are not interactive with
analytes of concern. Otherwise permit writers are instructed to specify
teflon, stainless steel, or other materials which would assure no interaction.
Similarly he will review backfilling materials, grouting, sealing, and all
other pertinent design features; he is prepared to require conservative
selection whenever appropriate. These and other sources of variability in
monitoring results are presented in Figure 2. Identification of the sources
of variability is the first and most essential challenge facing any permit
writer. Many of these will be readily amenable to regulatory control,
such as requiring quality assurance and quality control procedures. Others
less easily resolved must be statistically processed in order to avoid
false positives and false negatives.
Detection Challenge
If a facility qualifies as not having affected ground-water quality, it
may be eligible for a detection monitoring program permit. It may qualify
either by virtue of showing no significant increases in detection parameters
in interim status, or by demonstrating the absence of each hazardous constituent
in the permit application. The challenge to the permit writer at such a
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8
facility is to select a parameter suite which will assure the discovery of
all possible future risks associated with this facility. Parameters selected
should have detection limits well below the levels of concern for those
constituents which they are relied on to detect. They should be largely
absent in the natural environment, to minimize the statistical difficulties
Inherent in sorting out natural variability from detection of contamination.
They should be relatively fast moving and nondegradeable in ground water
so as to represent a "worstcase" situation for any underlying hazardous
constituent. Sampling and analysis of the parameters should be cheap and
reliable.
As described above, the four parameters used for detection monitoring
under interim status all suffer deficiencies when evaluated for these
qualities. Approaches presently under consideration include looking for
characteristic absorption peaks in ultraviolet or infrared spectra, gas or
liquid chromatography with element specific detectors, and individual
chemicals which are high risk and ubiquitous in hazardous waste (e.g.,
trichloroethane). Combinations of these techniques may be useful.
Perhaps the ultimate solution to the problems of detection monitoring will
be found in the use of tracers. Easily measureable substances could be
mixed in with the hazardous waste and monitored at ground-water wells.
The selection of an appropriate tracer is a project worthy of much thought.
It should be absent in the natural environment, easily measureable, environ-
mentally benign, stable, and relatively mooile in ground water to provide
a "worst-case" example of contamination. Dyes, isotopically labeled chemicals,
and weakly radioactive substances come under immediate consideration.
This is a long term solution, applicable only to new sites, but one which
deserves some research effort.
An ideal detection system would not simply detect any contamination
at a site, but would only detect contamination at levels sufficient to
cause concern. Determining these levels is a complicated process. It
involves assumptions concerning the point of exposure of the receptor or
environment of risk, estimation of the appropriate level of concern of the
populations at risk at the point of exposure, and "back-calculation" of
the relevant contaminant levels at the point of compliance. Then the
problem would be to select parameters which are capable of indicating any
potential changes of that order of magnitude. This would drastically
Improve the efficiency of the monitoring program, bring compliance monitoring
in only where it was absolutely needed, rather than taking the present,
more conservative approach. In practice, of course, such an ideal approach
may prove unfeasible due to the large number of assumptions required. As
the program matures however one may expect the state-of-the-art
Improvements to work toward this approach.
Meeting the challenge of establishing an appropriate array of sample points
for detection programs must in the future involve flow net analysis.
Eventual maturity may even include numerical model simulation of ground
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s
water and unsaturated zone flow paths. However, flow-path analysis
-eliability is not now widely accepted. Certain obvious considerations
must influence decisions regarding the minimum adequate number of well
points in three dimensions, as well as the screen interval most appropriate
to the type of discharges which could be associated with the facility.
Flow path analysis is certainly useful in persuit of this objective. Flow
Dath analysis is not useful when it can be cross checked by comparing the
results to actual field measurements. This approach frequently offers the
most efficient technique for understanding the hydrogeologc intricacies
presented by a site. Clay lenses and other hydrogeologic irregularities
which may bifurcate, perch, or otherwise divert a pollutant pathway may
axist between sampling stations, so the more samples the flow path analysis
is based upon, the more confidence the permit writer will have in the
system, and presumably, the fewer routine monitoring well -points necessary.
A variety of field techniques using both remote sensing and direct measure-
ment are discussed in a series of publications produced under the direction
3f the EPA research and development laboratories. New technologies and
advances in hardware and software systems would greatly relieve many of
these problems. Meanwhile, the Agency is strengthening enforcement capa-
bilities and accelerating the permit process in an effort to improve imple-
mentation of the existing system.
Monitoring Challenge
The most challenging problem in ground water monitoring arises in situations
which require a comprehensive and a detailed analysis of ground water. It
is important that monitoring systems do not permit important hazardous
constituents to escape undetected simply because the permit did not specify
analysis of that parameter. Yet parameter selection is only one of the
possible causes of failing to detect actual contamination. Others, such
as insufficient sampling frequencies or numbers of sampling points, or
possible analytic interferences each demand attention. Ideally, none of
these should get a disproportinate share of the effort to reduce false
negatives. Seeking a balanced program, with the chances of missing con-
tamination no more likely from any of the sources of uncertainty, is expedient
and rational. Part of the challenge facing the Agency is to reduce the
laboratory burden in determining routinely that a facility continues to
comply with the ground-water protection standard.
Water recharging an aquifer enters in a complicated equilibrium from soil
rocks and surface waters before reaching an aquifer. These processes
result in a chemical and physical change in ground water which often ranges
in total dissolve solids concentration as low as the few mg/1 or as high
as hundreds of thousands of mg/1. The principle inorganic compounds are
calcium, magnesium, sodium, chloride, bicarbonate, and sulfate. Organic
components in unpolluted groundwater generally are limited to a few mg/1
of fulvic and humic acids. These terms do not indicate well known compounds
but rather are generic terms for large (molecular weights 10^-10^ g/mole)
poorly characterized organic species which are found throughout the biosphere.
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8
The nature of the ground water obviously varies sharply from one geographic
location to another. It varies as the water table rises or falls; it also
varies as one samples different depths at the same location. Finally, and
most annoyingly, it varies seasonally at the same depth in the same location.
It is not uncommon for the direction of ground-water migration to reverse
during certain seasons, with concomitant effects on the ground-water
chemistry. This variable matrix presents difficulties in all aspects of
ground-water monitoring.
Upgradient sources will often be contributors to this complex ground-water
matrix. The nature of the chemical industry itself begins the complexity.
The regulated facility may serve a drug company crafting and purifying a
drug molecule with an extremely precise structure or it may serve a petroleum
refinery distilling a complex and variable mixture of hydrocarbons called
gasoline. The Agency has, under the Toxic Substances Control Act, complied
an inventory of chemicals, not necessarily toxic, in commerce. This inven-
tory contains over 50,000 chemicals. Of these approximately 15,000 are so
complex that they cannot be identified by a specific formula. Examples
are coal tar and gasoline, as mentioned before. These UVCBs (for chemicals
of Unknown or Variable structure, Complex reaction products, and Biological
substances) are more the rule than the exception in the chemical industry.
While they make up only 1/3 of the chemicals listed on the inventory they
represent over 9Q% of the 100 substances with the highest production volumes.
These complex combinations may contain hundreds or thousands of spacir.c
chemicals. The processes which turn chemicals into wastes no doubt further
increase the number of specific chemicals present. Thus there are hundreds
of thousands of separate chemicals potentially discharged to ground water
where further interaction occurs.
EPA has traditionally approached this problem by isolating a list of
specific, high priority chemicals which are present in many of the more
complicated substances of concern. For example, in 1977 Congress listed
65 chemicals and categories of chemicals as "toxic" under the Clean Water
Act. The Agency was directed to regulate these toxics in industrial efflu-
ents. The list of 65 actually included thousands of specific chemicals.
For example "PCBs" was one entry on the list while there are actually 209
different PCBs. The Agency responded to this open ended task by selecting
129 specific "priority" pollutants from the list and proceeded to anlayze
for those 129 in regulated industrial effluents. The assumption was that
by regulating the 129 specific chemicals we would effectively control the
larger group of toxics.
Similarly, under RCRA there are hundreds of listed hazardous wastes, and
generic criteria for toxicity, reactivity, ignitability and corrosivity
which define hundreds more wastes as hazardous. These hazardous wastes
contain thousands of specific chemicals. Once again the Agency has selected
a subset of 387 specific chemicals for purposes of chemical analyses. EPA
has published analytical methods for all but a handful of these chemicals
in a manual called "Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste".4 This
document is over three inches thick and includes methods which cover the
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8
spectrum of modern analytical chemistry from atomic absorption through gas
chrornatography/mass spectrometry to high pressure liquid chromatography.
We are just beginning to receive the results of these analyses from permit
applicants. While these methods have been successfully tested in a variety
of aqueous matrices, not all have been exhaustively validated on ground
water. Additional studies are being carried out by EPA's Office of Research
and Development in its laboratories in Cincinnati and Las Vegas. Similiar
studies concerning the analytical methods for the 129 priority pollutants
under the Clear Water Act found few matrix effects in surface waters and
in effluents. Still, given the complexity of ground water, there may be a
few surprises down the road.
The next challenge is to develop generic methods to indicate the presence
of Appendix VIII chemicals or selected groups of these chemicals. The
objective is to develop a less expensive screening technique to replace
the detailed chemical-by-chemical analyses now done. Such generic tests
would also be useful for detection monitoring and possibly in monthly or
quarterly compliance monitoring. While EPA has identified some promising
techniques in this area much remains to be done.
Monitoring system design considerations in compliance monitoring are largely
the same as those listed for detection objectives with the added advantage
of having a ^r^ater understanding of at loact one of the possible pollutant
flow paths. Since detection has occurred and one plume has been identified
and delineated, real data is available to assist in resolving many assumptions,
However, since constituents with distinctly different density, viscosity,
or liquid phases may form entirely different plumes and other flow paths
still may be discovered.
Identifying and quantifying hazardous constituents is the more straightforward
challenge in compliance monitoring, however, compared to establishing
acceptable concentration limits. We are just beginning to understand the
individual daily intake response levels. Synergistic effects, apportion-
ment of the ground-water contribution of each constituent, and establishing
consistent risk levels are all future challenges.
Another challenge in compliance monitoring is to precisely define the
levels of concern for various distributional characteristics. Slow, steady,
sustained discharges present very different monitoring challenges from
intermittent or pulsating discharges. The difference could occur for the
whole mixture of contaminants or it could govern only select constituents.
Thus, the one-time determination of absence may not present an accurate
picture. Since compliance systems must both identify the discharge and
determine risk, pulsating or intermittent discharges are doubly difficult
for the permit writer.
Corrective Action Challenge
The final challenge is to develop a means of correcting massive contamination
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8
problems which is effective and affordable and does not cause major depletion
of the aquifer being "saved". In the compliance monitoring program, facilities
are identified which have caused an unacceptable risk to human health and
the environment. Risk aversion has been considered, including classification
of ground water as unusable and unneeded, with prohibition of withdrawal
and other necessary safeguards considered and instituted where practical
and warranted. Thus, the majority of corrective action programs will
involve a resource of considerable value and probable exposure. By all
indications, corrective action will be exceedingly expensive, especially
in cases of high complexity and high risk where timely action is important.
Developing toxicity and other effects data is an activity which will take
many decades. Permit writers are urged to be conservative in establishing
ACL's, providing margins of safety to account for possible synergistic
effects, selecting a conservative drinking-water apportionment of the
allowable daily intakes or the unit cancer risks, and using only conservative
assumptions for attenuation in transport.
Meeting the challenge for corrective action involves technological breakthroughs
in the development of both removal and in situ treatment. Contaminant
removal, unfortunately, must necessarily involve dilution. Surgical removal
of that portion of the plume which exceeds the concentration limit without
diluting it with adjacent non-contaminated ground water is not currently
possible. Certainly until there are great breakthroughs in monitoring
technology, c.cr. identifying the portion of tl'.e plume that must be removed
is difficult.
Permit writers must be aware of the danger which accompanies over extraction
with resulting dilution. Taken to a ridiculous extreme, the removal of
large volumes of non-contaminated water could achieve sufficient dilution
to bring concentrations below the ground-water protection standard; thus
the owner or operator could simply reinject without treatment.
A second challenge to permit writer and permittee alike is the prospect of
aquifer depletion. Aquifer stress resulting from removing from large
volumes of contaminated ground water could result in greater damage than
the contamination itself. Meeting this challenge should involve development
of techniques to alter ground-water gradient and other flow path determinates
to compensate for the withdrawal or allow withdrawal at tolerable rates.
The final challenge is to develop an appropriate monitoring scheme to
determine the effectiveness of the corrective action. Obviously it must
be capable of determining compliance with the ground-water protection
standard, and thus must be as effective as the compliance monitoring program.
Thus it must continue to search for the presence of new heretofore undetected
contaminants. It must be functional in a stressed aquifer situation in
which flow net predictions must be the design basis.
CONCLUSION
The Agency faces a major challenge in resolving uncertainty associated
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8
with interim status monitoring programs. Widespread noncompliance with
the standards coupled with poor quality control/quality assurance will
frequently leave the Agency very little understanding about the existance,
nature, and extent of ground water contamination. The workload involved
in case-by-case review of hydrogeological assertions prepared by owners
and operators who are facing the specter of expensive corrective action
programs will be great indeed. At the present time the major thrust of the
Agency is to engage itself in the case-by-case review of the permit appli-
cation. One of the most elusive challenges facing the permit writer in
the processing of these applications is the identification of effective
cind efficient parameters for chemical analysis of ground water. In each
situation parameters must be identified which are stable or absent in
background and sharply distinct in background patterns and leachate.
"hese parameters must include sensitivity to all hazardous constituents of
concern and be discerning of a level of concentration appropriate from
health and environmental standpoints. The institutionalization of
standard analytical methods and sampling procedures is a high priority
objective scheduled for early development. In longer range perspective,
development of in situ treatment techniques and of procedures for surgical
removal of the most concentrated portions of the plume are also needed.
^e have just begun to understand the ground-water pollutant potential of
hazardous waste disposal. We are in the middle of the first-round quantifi-
:ation of that problem, and we are just now beginning to assess the risk
involved, Thp remaining challenge is great indeed.
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8
References
1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Hazardous Waste Management Program
for Land Disposal Facilities, 47 FR 32274, July 26, 1982.
2, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, A Ground-Water Protection Strategy,
Final Draft, May 1984.
3. R.H. Plumb, S.J. Nacht, and C.K. Fitzsimmons, Performance Evaluation of
Indicator Parameters, Draft Manuscript, U.S. E.P.A. , May 1984.
4. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Test Methods for Evaluating Solid
Waste, Physical/Chemical Methods, U.S. E.P.A. Publication SW-845, 1980,
revised 1982.
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Figure 1
8
NEW FACILITIES. FACILITIES NOT DISCHARGING
interim Status
"ndicator
Monitoring
Monitor at least semi annually
for short parameter list
Detection
Monitoring
Permit
FACILITIES KNOWN TO BE DISCHARGING
Interim Status
Assessments
ITompTiance
Monitoring
Permit
Monitor at le?.st
quarterly
concentration
rate and extent
of hazardous
waste constituents
concentration
of hazardous
constituents
below standard
CLEAN-UP REQUIRED
Interim Status
Closure
Corrective
Action
Permit
control post closure escape
of leachate
remove or treat until
stable compliance with
standard
-------
8
Figure 2
SOURCES OF ERROR IN
GROUND-WATER MONITORING
Natural Variability
Spatial
Temporal
Natural Sources of Ar.alyt;
Other Anthropogenic Sources of Analyte
Environmental Fate Processes
Sampling Variability
Well Location
Well Construction
Sample Withdrawal
Sample Handling and Transport
Analytical Variability
Laboratory Error
Matrix Effects (false negatives)
Interferences (false positives)
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•o
O
»te
m
O)
3 CM
cr
flj
=tfe
C5
z:
cj
3
l/>
D: r—
UJ 03
r— C
S: O
3: T-
I O>
O 0)
z: cc
Ct
D:
u.
CJ
t/i
4-> in
3 OO
O
vt
<1J V^
3:0
in
OJ
3 O
O
• #
en
^-
p™*
•r—
3B
=«=
r-H "O »*
»— •
4-> VO
O
r^t
CM
(0
3
r- CO
10 CM
UJ
• • «»™-»
T3
4->
3 CM
4-> rtJ
O >
^^. LlJ
to
JwT
c:
c
o
u
a>
a> oo
o in
CO
3£ CM
ID
U
O1
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JO
3
l CM
o
-------
8
Table II: Adequacy of Ground-Mater Monitoring Programs.*
number of facilities
Well System
- evaluated
- adequate
- percent found adequate
Sampling and Analysis
- evaluated
- adequate
- percent f"-:r"< adequate
Records
- evaluated
- adequate
- percent found adequate
Detection
Prograjn
586
Assessment
Program
210
328
175
53%
276
166
60*
241
150
62%
124
72
58%
106
68
64%
109
81
74%
* Ohio data not included.
-------
Paper 9
ESTIMATION OF LEACHATE QUANTITY AND QUALITY
Toshiro Irie
Deputy Director
Office of Industrial Waste Management
Water Supply and Environmental Sanitation Department
.Ministry of Health and Welfare, Japan
Introduction
It is necessary to know the quantity and quality of leachate in
planning a leachate treatment plant for a waste landfill site.
Though we have a considerable amount of data concerning inland
sites/ we have little data concerning seacoast sites. Furthermore,
less data is available for general plant design because of the
large variance in structural conditions of sites, the kinds of
refuse landfilled, the method of landfilling, and the method of
collecting leachate. For this reason MHW has undertaken research
and investigation into the quantity and quality of leachate, in-
cluding a research survey related to existing sites.
1. Data on Leachate Quantity.
1.1 Research Survey
A 15-month measurement of leachate quantity was undertaken at the
waste disposal site in Tokyo Bay, from June 1977 to August 1978,
by the Tokyo metropolitan government. The results are shown in
Fig. 1. Monthly amounts of leachate measured are 14-76% of monthly
precipitation. The average leachate ratio is 33%. The total lea-
chate ratio for 15 months is 22%.
Concerning the correlation between the leachate ratio and preci-
pitation, the less the precipitation, the more the leachate ratio,
as shown in Fig. 2. This means that leachate quantity depends more
on the water content of cover soil than the amount of precipitation.
1.2 Experiment Relating to the Leachate Quantity
Rainfall onto a waste disposal site is dispersed partly as surface
runoff, partly as evaporation, and partly as leachage. The ratio
among these three components varies according to the kind of refuse.
The relation between evaporation and leachate was studied in this
experiment.
The experimental device and materials are shown in Fig. 3 and
Table 1. Measurement of leachate quantity was made once a day by
pulling down the sampling pipe shown in Fig. 3, and measurement of
evaporation was made using the vessel shown in Fig. 4. Two vessels
were prepared: one for natural conditions and the other for retaining
-------
water.
Fig. 5 demonstrates the relationship among precipitation, leachate
quantity, and evaporation. We could say precipitation is balanced
by evaporation and leachate quantity; the latter covers 94.4% of
the former in incinerator residue 1 (IR1), 93.7% in incinerator
residue 2 (IR2), 98.7% in garbage (GB), 91.9% in rubble (RB), and
88.8% in sand (SD).
Therefore we can calculate leachate quantity if precipitation and
evaporation quantity are known. As to precipitation, it can be
measured at the site; only the amount of evaporation is needed. As
to the correlation between solar radiation and evaporation, we
could not find any correlation in regard to natural conditions,
although they seem to have an important relationship with each
other. Actually, their coefficients of correlation were 0.15-0.31.
But in the case of retained water, the coefficients of correlation
were 0.49-0.81. Here we can see the correlation between them. This
means the amount of evaporation is influenced by the water content
of refuse landfilled. To confirm this fact we tried to reclassify
the data fo^: natural conditions, T^lj time we saw the higher Corre-
lation between them as shown in Fig. 6.
2. Data on Leachate Quality
2.1 Research Survey
There are much survey data available from inland sites. Table 2
shows the average data classified according to conditions at land-
fill sites. Two examples concerning changes in leachate quality
are shown in Fig. 7 and Fig. 8; the latter is for the seacoast site
and the former is for the inland site.
2.2 Experiment Relating to the Change in Leachate Quality
Since leachate quality is determined by the kind of refuse, the
condition of landfilling and the elapsed time after landfilling, we
undertook an experiment assuming such conditions. The experimental
device and materials are shown in Fig. 9 and Table 3. The water
conditions were determined in three ways, as shown in Fig. 10.
Wet : Fresh water is poured at the time of sampling.
Medium: Doubly diluted sea water is saturated to the level
as deep as the bottom half of the refuse. After
sampling, the same amount of the same sea water is
supplemented.
Saturated: Sea water is filled in whole vessel and after
sampling, sea water is supplemented.
(2)
-------
The changes in temperature throughout the experiment period are
shown in Fig. 11, and Oxidation/Reduction Potential (ORP) was
simultaneously measured as an index of landfill conditions. It
was only in WT that ORP showed stable positive value, while the
rest of the samples showed negative values as follows:
Incinerator Residue (IR)
Sewage Sludge (SS)
Waste Timber (WT)
This means that only WT, which is well-drained material, is under
aerobic conditions, while others are under anaerobic conditions.
wet
saturated
wet
saturated
wet
saturated
10
-100
-300
-200
300
-200
-500 mV
-700 mV
-500 mV
-700 mV
600 mV
-500 mV
The test was continued for 750 days.
0:1 the basis of the result:
Let us discuss a few points
(1) Leachate quality is affected by the kind of refuse landfilled,
the condition of landfilling, the elapsed time after landfilling,
and so on. Regarding the concentration of COD and NH4~N, it becomes
higher in t'u^ following order: IR> W7/ SS. And the higher U.~ v/ater
content, the worse the leachate quality.
(2) The total amount of COD leached from each refuse for 750 days is
shown as follows:
IR
SS
WT
wet
0.16 g/kg
5.5 g/kg
1.5 g/kg
saturated
0.62 g/kg
22.4 g/kg
3.2 g/kg
It continues leaching in the sample of WT in wet conditions, though
the rest of the samples have passed the peak and shown stable quality,
(3) Total amount of NH^j-N is as follows:
wet saturated
IR 0.013 g/kg 0.027 g/kg
SS 1.9 g/kg 6.7 g/kg
WT <0.01 g/kg 0.017 g/kg
SS in saturated condition leaches NH4~N at high levels.
(4) Regarding the pattern produced for COD, the peak appears after
100 days, and COD concentration declines to 10% of the peak after
3 years. The NH4-N pattern is similar to the COD's, while the
gradient of reduction is a little smaller than that of COD (Fig. 12,
Fig. 13).
(3)
-------
(5) Regarding Ph of IR, it is still alkaline after three years,
though others became neutral sooner.
(6) Regarding N-compounds, most of them are NH4-N, and N02~N is
not detected in most cases.
(7) Regarding subsidence, maximum subsidence appeared in S3, which
showed a 30-50% subsidence ratio. WT followed it, 4-17%, and IR
produced little subsidence. Subsidence of SS is due to decomposi-
tion of organics.
(8) The production of velocities of COD and NH4-N reached a peak
after the first three months, and after that it reduced to 1/3-1/5
in most cases. But the velocity of NH4-N for SS in the saturated
vessel changed little throughout the period.
(9) The reduction rate of organics during the 750 days was as follows:
reduction rate
C N weight
IR 23-28% 4S -61% 5- 8%
SS 40-63% 50-59% 37-51%
WT 40-66% 44-84% 26-61%
(10) The following formulas related to leachate quality and subsi-
dence are led by multi-correlation analysis:
COD :
NH4~N :
Subsidence:
Z=14.1*X+3.9*Y-1,3*T+516
Z=14.3*X+1.3*Y-0.2*T-72.2
Z=0.61*X-0.12*Y+0.02*T+10.7
X: SS content {%)
Y: water content (%)
T: elapsed days
According to these formulas, SS affects considerably both quality and
subsidence.
(11) Whether the site is aerobic or anaerobic is important for leach-
ate quality. Anaerobic conditions produce COD and NH4~N about three
times as much as aerobic conditions.
(12) We tried to estimate future quality on the basis of the results,
Time required for leachate treatment is about two years for a mixed
sample without SS, and three years for the sample with 25% SS. Re-
garding NH4-N, it takes one to three years after landfill completion
for the mixed sample without SS, and five to eight years for the
sample with 25% SS, if 10 ppm is adopted as the criteria for NH4-N
treatment.
(4)
-------
precipitation r . i
m» Hj-l Vfe/a
JOOO
leacKafe
haiio
' fiCt-2. Velatlon of
' *' ' '
100-
(5)
-------
FiCj-3
device
me^et-
- cobWe ^ome
..11
1.1.
w
i4
11
16.1
ev/apora-ticn
4.5
8.5
CO
(6)
-------
accumulative pfecipitalion.leaciia4e.and evaporation
1)
:
4"
i
.Ptecipiitrhon
leochate
i ewxponrhon
20.ao
Fi,-6 relation of ei^pomtion and
-
b/ u;atet-
83-l-l~83-l2-3l
_3
S
O
y=0.004x* 1.348
y=O.OOSx+0.064
/ s
•• ~x
/,
water conient
o <;~/a
A 7~\Z%
+ 12-17X
x 17-22*
* _ 22-27X
coefficient of CD)-nelation
--+-a*? ----- y=-0. 000x*0 . 466
A r=0.337
4. r=o.S83
X r=0.771
°o'. 00 ' 160. 00 ' 320. DO' 460. Oo' 640. 00 ' BOO. 00
(7)
-------
change of leactia-fe
.- iMl'WM s;te
2 3 4 $ 6 7
<&& S'
2 J 4 S f> 7
time elap?ed C/eair)
(8)
-------
9
\ «
load
device
^Ifu hated
/ / /
•' / //
Condition
of
£
gL
4
It
19
t
r~ — I
» ••• IH JO* W 1M J» «« M0 ^ «l ««, ' «B " -J^
,
lapsed
(9)
-------
f
OS
O
T3
O
U
02
01
3—14 14—26 26-34
months
JC
06
05
i
Q
O
0.3
0.2
01
11
3—14 14—26 26—34
05
C
o
£
. 04
u
Jt
M
^ 03
S
> 02
O
t
^ °'
£.
CL.
9.
\
\
\
\\
'A\ ^
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TE 4
o
£
•
U
< 3
bt
£s
8 2
^
1
1
O-
•\
A
'\'K
*. A « . • «_ »fc.- 'Hi ^ •>«
—3 3—14 14—2T, 26-34
won His
Fift-iz cop pNuclioh
(10)
-------
200
o
\ 150
bo
100
50
—3 3—1-1 14—26
-js: 200
s:
150
100
50
11
-3 3—M 14—26
Fig-13 NM4-N Ptoducljon l/elocti/
(ii)
-------
Table - 1
condition of
density
ton
ton/
(W
2.38
1.77
1.34
H.I
_£b
2.57
1.61
1.57
2.4
1.54
1.82
0.65
74.5
(Efc)
1.90
1.69
2.00
1.72
1.16
1.10
J(U
38.5
2.fl7
1.75
1.70
2.2
Table 2 (and-ffH condition and leadia-j-e
z
.0
~fo
"5
.S
._
t-
«-i..
-13
3
junddr laudfiUma ^Months eloped
tj ' BODippm) : 40.000-50.00ff 40.000-50.000
JS j COD'ippnO : 40.00C-50.000 40.000-50.000
£ j NHj-Ntppra) ; 800-1.000 1.000
SS j pH ^«-X 6.0 I /, 6.0
S f-ttanspaireticy j 0.^-1.0 1-2
vt' \J BODvppm) . 40.OOP~50.000 7JOOO-8.000
S y COD'(ppm) . 40JDOO~50.000 J 0.0 0 0-2 0.0 0 0
^ TT, NHj-Nippm) 800-1.000 800
f*0 «j pH if/':X.60 * 7. 0
! •H'fJtT5RJl^ncy 0.9~1.0 i 1—2
j BOD«:ppm) 40,000-50.000 5.000-6.000
•5: COD* l.ppm) 40.COC~50,000 10.000
1 £>. N'Hj-Nvppm) 80C- 1.000 500
^ Jii pH JfF'-'< 6.0 -.8.0
S tVAM^pttKenCy : 0-fr-lJO : 1-2
BODCppm) : 40.000-50.000 200-300
O COD'(ppm) 40.000-50.000 2.000
-^ NHj-Nlppm) i 800-1.000 I 50 i
£ pH :p''.4 6.0 ,.8.5
-^ tinah'Spal/ertcy o.s-uo 1 e-7
1 y«x|' elapse^
30.00f-40.000
30.000-40.000
800
* 6.0
2-3
300
1.00C— 2.000
500-600
7B-75
1.5-2
10C~200
l.OOC— 2.000
100-200
* 7. 5.k,.
3-4
50
moo
10
7-8
2-3
2/ejlr elapsed
10.000~20'.000
20.000-30.000
600
.* 6.0
2-3
200-300
1.0 00- 2.000
500-600
7.0-7.5
1-2
50
l.OOC
100
'A-S.O
5-6
10
500
1-2
^ 8.5
2-5
analyzed
wethctf
table- Refuse
7
"H*
8
tt
I'D
(VA/T)
is
5 : SO
7 IR"20
, -»*_ ^ff« -* --- -— •-
IR
35 :
c
n
C
^C
-------
Paper 10
THE REGULATORY IMPLICATIONS OF LINER PERFORMANCE ANALYSES
R. Tonetti, R. Stessel
Office of Solid Waste
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, DC, United States of America
EPA's CURRENT LINER REGULATIONS
EPA regulations for the permitting of land disposal facilities were
promulgated on July 26, 1982. These regulations were issued in Part 264
of Title 40 of the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations. The liner require-
ments contained in these regulations apply to all new landfills, surface
impoundments, and waste piles used to treat, store, or dispose of hazardous
waste. Wastes piles are storage units and, therefore, all wastes must
be removed from the unit at closure. Landfills are disposal units; at
closure, wastes are left in place and a final cover is constructed.
Surface impoundments (ponds and lagoons), at the owner's option, may be
either storage or disposal.
The design and operating standards require any new unit to have a liner
that is designed, constructed, and instalicu to prevent migration of
wastes into subsurface soils, ground water, or surface water during the
active life of the unit. In addition, a liner for a disposal unit must
prevent wastes from passing into the liner during the unit's active
life. As a practical matter, this means that the liner (a s1ngle liner)
must be constructed with a synthetic membrane for disposal units while
clay liners can be used for storage units.
In issuing these design and operating standards in 1982, EPA recognized
that even a synthetic liner (hereinafter referred to as a "flexible
membrane liner" or "FML") can sorb a small quantity of waste into its
structure and allow some vapor to pass through. However, EPA did not
interpret such "de minimus" sorption or passage to violate the requirement
that disposal units not allow wastes to pass into the liner. Therefore,
the Agency recognized that FMLs were not totally impermeable as a material
for waste containment. (2)
On the other hand, the Agency stated that clay liners, even if relatively
"tight", could not meet the performance standard for disposal units; that
is, they could not prevent migration of wastes into the liner. Clay
liners could be used for storage units, however, because any contaminated
portion of the liner would have to be removed at closure of the unit.
The travel time for liquid through the clay could be calculated and the
liner designed and constructed so that its thickness would prevent migration
of wastes into subsurface soils, ground water, or surface water during
the active life of the storage unit. EPA's guidance documents for storage
-------
10
units states that
lx!0-7cm/sec. (2)
a clay liner should nave a maximum permeability of
The Agency's liner regulations, for both storage and disposal units, are
aimed at preventing migration beyond the liner during the "active life of
the unit." (1) EPA defines the "active life" as the time period that
includes the operating and closure periods. In the case of a storage
unit, since the waste and contaminated liner is
the active life, there is no need for the liner
longer period. In the case of a disposal unit,
liner will remain in place
not require that the liner
removed at the end of
to function for any
where the waste and
at closure, the Agency's regulations also do
function beyond the unit's active life. This
Is because the Agency does not depend on bottom liners (liners beneath
units) for long-term protection of ground water. EPA's regulations
require that a cover be placed over disposal units at closure. This
"final cover", whose function is to minimize infiltration into the waste
after closure, is what the Agency depends upon for groundwater protection
over the long term. During the active life, a major function of the
liner in a landfill or waste pile is for the purpose of facilitating
collection and removal of leachate that may be present above the liner.
The regulations require that new landfills and waste piles have leachate
collection and removal systems immediately above the liner.
Following the publication of the land disposal regulations on July 26,
1982, many comments were received on the linerrelated aspects of the
standard. Many of these comments focused on the performance capabilities
of FML versus clay liners. Some commenters questioned EPA's choice of
FMLs, rather than clay liners, for disposal units. Based on these comments
and other technical issues identified by EPA a study was performed to
collect available land disposal facility performance information, assess
the adequacy of the existing data base on liner materials, and to compare
various facility design alternatives and regulatory approaches. The
remainder of this paper summarizes the information obtained during that
study and describes the conclusions that EPA has drawn.
CLAY LINERS
CJdjMtehavior
There are two major failure mechanisms in clay liners: cracking and piping.
Cracking may be caused by settlement somewhere in the waste/containment
system. The clay itself may be compressed, causing a decrease in void
volume with an attendant fluid release, and possible particle deformation.
Shrinkage, or swelling followed by shrinkage, or swelling followed by
buckling, may also cause cracking. Such swelling/shrinkage may be caused
by loss or rearrangement of solid constituents through biological attack,
chemical attack, or hydraulic transport. Additionally, changes in or
cycling of temperature and moisture content can cause cracking. Suscepti-
bility to cracking is governed by the clay mineral type, the clay structure,
the kind and proportion of cations adsorbed by the clay, and changes to
the interlayer fluid. (7)
- 2 -
-------
10
Piping may be viewed as micro-scale erosion within the clay layer.
Particles of clay are washed away as the interparticle bonding is less
than the hydraulic shear. Piping is more likely to have a cause rooted
in chemistry than is cracking. Physical causes include existing cracks
in the clay, a high hydraulic head, and compaction water content. Chemical
attack and activity within the clay, such as the sodium exchange percentage,
will also influence piping. (7)
For the analysis of clay liner suitability for hazardous waste containment,
clay-chemical interactions are particularly important. Primary mechanisms
of failure involve the reduction of clay particle bond strengths. The
primary route of attack is through the interlayer water. In some clays,
this water contains ions that are important to the clay layer bonding.
Displacement of or reaction with these ions may disrupt clay integrity.
(7)
A strong acid or base may
fering with their binding
into the interlayer space
sites on the clay layers.
react with ions in the interlayer water, inter-
activity. Introduction of active constituents
may allow these constituents to bind to active
Particularly active are low dielectric constant
fluids. For example, large-chain molecules may bond in such a way that
they orient perpendicular to the layer surface, forcing the layers
apart, causing the clay to swell. Acids, bases, and salts may remove
sodium ions that may have become part of the clay structure, greatly
affecting integrity. (7)
The electical characteristics of clay layer bonding may also act to bind
constituents such as heavy metals. Furthermore, as typically applied,
clays have a certain amount of pore volume available to absorb contaminants.
(7)
Installation of Clay Liners
Clay liners are installed in layers called lifts. Clay is moistened to
optimum moisture, after which it is mixed and allowed to equilibrate.
It is then spread in the unit in a unifonn layer, and compacted. Lifts
are added one on top of the other, until the desired liner thickness is
obtained.
When
clay liners can attain the desired permeability
or less. While clays will crack in the event of
sufficiently severe subsidence, they have the advantage over FMLs of
having a certain amount of self-healing capability.
properly applied,
of 1x10-' cm/sec
Proper installation is critical to optimum clay liner performance. EPA's
study found that installation problems are the major reason why the
desired permeability of the finished clay liner is often not uniformly
achieved. The most common error in field installation is improper wetting
technique. The clay is either insufficiently wetted, or is not allowed
to equilibrate. Another consequence of inadequate mixing is that the
- 3 -
-------
10
clay continues to contain large clumps.
too great or uneven.
Often, the lift thicknesses are
Proper preparation of the subbase is also important. Insufficient
compaction of the soil underlying the clay is the biggest cause for
subsidence. Excessive grades on the sides of the unit can cause the
liner to sag or slough, causing cracking or thinning of the clay. Where
the clay is lining an open lagoon or pond, wave action can wash away the
clay. Any of these errors can significantly decrease the performance
of a clay liner.
TESTING OF CLAYS
Testing of Clays
Clays are physically tested with equipment that is very closely related
to standard soil testing equipment: permeameters, triaxial testers, etc.
The objective is to determine the permeability of the clay material
under attack by a permeant which will potentially change clay characteristics,
Additionally, standard tests from environmental engineering can be used
to gain information on the clay's physical performance: floculation,
specific resistance to filtration, etc. Finally, other tests more chemical
in nature may be performed to determine how the clay has reacted to an
added substance: IR spectrophotometry, electrophoretic mobility, etc.
In the laboratory, results from all these testing techniques are used
together co ut-aw conclusions about clay SnuCture, the effect of chemical a
on that structure, and the effect of structural changes on permeability.
Much such testing is being currently sponsored by EPA.
To date, there has not been much effort devoted to connecting the results
of laboratory testing of clay permeabilities to behavior of clays in the
field. In some cases, the calculated field permeability has been found
to be significantly greater than permeabilities predicted by laboratory
experiments. This may be due to the inability to uniformly install clay
liner materials in the field. However, equipment and methods continue
to be developed to test permeabilities of clay liners in the field.
FLEXIBLE MEMBRANE LINERS (FMLs)
These liners are primarily fabricated from synthetic organic polymers.
They may be single sheets or they may consist of two sheets reinforced
with scrim. The polymers from which FMLs are manufactured have only
existed for about 30 years. Water resource engineers were initially
attracted to these materials as liners for water storage and transmission
facilities because of their exceptional imperviousness. Compared with
most alternative materials, polymers were considered impermeable.
For an impoundment holding water, a liner installed without tears, using
proper seaming techniques, etc., is effectively impermeable. Since the
biggest concern is the loss of water from the impoundment, minute seepage
- 4 -
-------
10
may not even be detected. In the case of hazardous waste, however, two
factors change. First, migration of even the smallest amounts of hazardous
waste across the liner is of concern; while such migration may eventually
be deemed safe, it must be detected and monitored. Second, the liner
may react differently to certain wastes or waste constituents than it
does with water, resulting in increased permeability.
FML Behavior
With FMLs, waste-liner incompatibility may manifest itself in many diffe-
rent ways. The types of waste that most often cause problems are simple
arcmatics, one- to three-carbon halogenated hydrocarbons, and petroleum
products. Aromatic oils have a great effect, with oils next in severity.
Most polymer liners will absorb organics, including organics in solution;
the timeframe is variable. Other chemicals may act to leach plasticisers
from the membrane. (4,6)
Various environmental factors affect FMLs. Ultraviolet radiation as well
as ozone and other oxidants can cause cracking. Elevated temperatures
can greatly increase the effectiveness of chemical attack. At tenperatures
less than -IOC, FMLs become brittle. At temperatures greater than 60C,
thermoplastics will soften. Algal curl is another problem — algae or
mud adhere strongly to the liner surface, and then dry, causing differential
contraction. (6)
Over time, <. ..>Jymer liner can begin Lo u«_a, ade. Degradation is def
as breaking of polymer chains, and is measured by loss of physical strength.
Under ordinary circumstances, temperatures are too low for thermal degrada-
tion, but elevated temperatures may enhance other effects. Mechanical
degradation results from stresses in the material. Photochemical
degradation arises from dissociation of the chain molecules in response
to radiation energy. Protection may be afforded by adding materials to
absorb ultraviolet radiation or covering the liner. Most current FML
materials are quite resistant to chemical degradation from the natural
environment. However, natural degradation can be accelerated by the
addition of other chenicals. (6,8)
While an intact FML may not exhibit measureable permeability, liquid
transport is not the only mechanism of migration of waste across a liner.
Another mechanism, variously called vapor diffusion, vapor permeation,
or gas permeability, can act to transport substances through a liner.
(6,8)
Physical failure has been well-documented in the case of liners used in
water impoundments. Liners are often under significant compressive loads
due to fluid head and overburden. Polymers are actually visco-elastic
materials subject to creep or movement during use. Creep is generally
inversely proportional to the modulus of elasticity. The rate of creep
is a function of liner composition, temperature, and chemical attacks on
liner structure. (6)
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10
Installation of FMLs
The first step to the installation of an FML is the preparation of the
subbase. If the FML is to be used as the bottom layer in the liner
system, then a relatively fine soil or a geomembrane is often put in
place first. Next, the sections of the FML material are positioned.
The seaming together of the various FML sections can be done in any of
four ways. Heat seaming involves applying heat to the areas of the two
adjoining segments that are to overlap in the joint, and then pressing
them together.
The technique of solvent welding involves dissolving the surface of the
sections to overlap in the joint; after joining, the solvent dries, creating
a bond. Extrusion seaming requires that molten material of the type used
in the liner itself be injected between the two layers of liner that
will form the joint. In any of these techniques, the end result is a
seam that is made of the same material as the original liner. Gluing is
the method of least choice, as it requires the use of a bonding agent,
where bond strength becomes the critical factor.
If properly installed, an FML is, at least initially, highly impermeable.
Tears or punctures can allow seepage, through the liner. The causes of
tears include damage in shipment, careless handling, sharp projections in
the subbase, animal burrowing, and plant growth. Poor seaming can result
in large-scale failure of entire lengths LU seam. Snail perforations,
especially tears, can easily propagate. If a subsidence occurs involving
significant movement, the liner can tear over a large distance. In any
of these cases, a major disadvantage of the use of an FML alone arises:
any significant failure of the liner represents complete failure in that
area—there is effectively no liner in the failure area.
The liner should be installed with minimal protrusions; that is, support
columns or drainage pipes should not perforate the liner. Careful quality
assurance and quality control (QA/QC) is necessary during installation
to make certain that small holes do not form, and that seaming is done
properly. In most applications, the liner should be covered with a
layer of soil to protect it from wave action (in the case of lagoons or
ponds), sunlight, and abrasion.
Proper preparation of the subbase is also important. Insufficient compac-
tion of the soil underlying the FML is the biggest cause for subsidence.
Excessive grades on the sides of the unit can cause the soil above the
liner to sag or slough, allowing the liner to be exposed. On steep
slopes, the liner itself may sag, causing tearing. Wave action can wash
away covering soil, leaving the FML exposed.
Seams are the most common area for failure. Heat- or solventwelded seams
should be no more susceptible to chemical attack than the material itself;
this is not true of glued seams. Seams, whether done in the factory or
- 6 -
-------
10
in the field, may be structurally inferior to the rest of the liner,
however. Attention to seaming techniques is crucial. It is also possible
that seams may result in localized stress concentrations, in the event
that the liner is distorted. Any of these errors can significantly
decrease the performance of an FML liner.
Testing of FML's
There are no industry-wide criteria for determining or defining waste
incompatibility with FMLs. The plastic and rubber industries use immersion
tests, whereby a sample is submerged in pure chemical or a chemical mix
of known composition. Tests are usually conducted at room temperature,
even though elevated tenperature would accelerate the appearance of
material changes. The tests are usually quite short-term. The sample
is periodically removed for physical testing. (8) The Agency currently
recommends the use of one test method, referred to as Test Method 9090,
which is similar to one developed by the National Sanitation Foundation.
In addition to simple exposure tests, there have been many attempts to
make the exposure simulate landfill or impoundment conditions more close.ly.
Many of these tests were developed by Haxo. (5,8) Immersion testing can
be modified by holding liner samples vertically in a stratified waste so
that the effect of the phase interfaces may be assessed. Lysimeters
have, to date, only been used to test FML's with municipal solid waste,
not haz^rdcc: -..?.stes. After all of these tzats, as with the simple
immersion tests, physical testing is performed at intervals during the
test and/or at termination.
Physical testing begins with simple examination of the sample. Any changes
in appearance are noted, and the sample's mass and dimensions are recorded.
Then, tensile characteristics are measured. Tensile characteristics
include modulus, tear, and ultimate elongation. Modulus refers to the
modulus of elasticity, expressed as the amount of force required to
produce a given increase in one dimension. Tear tests involve making a
cut in the material, and then testing resistance to propagation. (8,5)
A significant weight change is generally considered to indicate an
increased risk of failure. (8) Two important indicators of incompatibility
are swelling and shrinking. Swelling indicates possible softening, and
is normally accompanied by a drop in measured strength. An increase in
permeability may be expected. Swelling is a function of decreased effec-
tiveness of the bonds holding the polymer molecules together (crosslinking),
a breakdown in the structure of crystalline materials, chemical instability
of the liner, or the solubility of the liner material or its constituents
in the waste. Shrinking indicates possible hardening, perhaps due to
loss of the plasticiser. (5)
- 7 -
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10
PREDICTING LAND DISPOSAL FACILITY PERFORMANCE
EPA has developed several computer models that attempt to demonstrate the
behavior of land disposal facilities. The models range widely in what they
attempt to model. Some are based strictly on well-established permeation
and transport equations. Given situations for which the theoretical
equations and their coefficients apply, one can model the movement of
waste constituents. Other models go further. Some use probability to
generate data on failure of facility components. Others calculate the
effects of releases on health and the environment.
Most such models derive probabilities or probability distributions from
the best available information. An attempt is made to locate all analogous
uses of the technology that may yield data. Regardless of the duration
of operation, hazardous waste management facilities that use the technology
in question are examined for possible useful data or experiences. Other
disposal activities handling different wastes are examined for relevant
data—burial sites for low-level nuclear waste have been of particular
interest. Finally, much reliance is placed on "best engineering judgement"
--this is often the only way to assess a particular factor.
The danger in such an approach is that levels of certainty may be neglected,
leading to the considerations of differences in the modeling results which
may, in fact, not be statistically significant. Results from these models
can be quite useful. Given careful attention to ranges and confidence
levels, and uo proper interpretation oT i!i...,i.:l; which only formalize
expert opinion, these models are the best assessment tools at hand.
The Hydrologic Evaluation of Landfill Performance (HELP) model is a model
based on widely-studied equations, primarily permeability theory, for
estimating land disposal unit leakage rates. It does not predict waste
constituent transport, nor does it deal with any events beyond the land
disposal unit boundary. EPA has used the HELP model to analyze a range
of different design options for land disposal unit liners under given
climatic conditions. The performance, in terms of expected rates of
leakage, of FMLs, clay liners, and multiple liner systems including
double FML and FML/clay composite liner systems, has been evaluated
using HELP.
For landfills, HELP has shown that a multiple liner system consisting of
an FML immediately above a clay liner (referred to as a composite liner)
will result in leakage some three orders of magnitude less than a single
FML. For surface impoundments, the gap widens to four orders of magnitude.
The conclusion to be drawn is that the properties of FMLs and clay liners
are complementary. Where the FML is intact, it provides far superior
containment than the clay. Where the FML has failed, a secondary barrier
with properties other than those of an FML is desirable. The clay acts
to minimize leakage through a hole in the FML, rendering the consequences
of the damaged FML much less serious than complete local failure.
-------
10
CONCLUSIONS
There are many factors that are likely to impact the performance of a
particular type of liner that is designed, constructed, and installed at
a specific site. These include waste type and composition, the use of
proper materials, equipment, and techniques in design and installation,
and a myriad of environmental factors including precipitation and temper-
ature. The existing data base regarding the role of these factors and
the importance of their interactions, although improved over what was
available and understood at the time of EPA's issuance of the land disposal
permitting requirements in 1982, renains quite incomplete.
Faced with a degree of uncertainty as to actual liner performance and the
knowledge that liner systems are often not installed using the best avail-
able practices, it would probably be prudent to require redundancy in
liner systems and an increase in liner monitoring and maintenance activities,
as well as encourage the use of optimal installation procedures. In
addition, modeling indicates that redundancy, in the form of certain
multiple liner systems, may substantially decrease the magnitude of
leakages from land disposal units, even in the event of a fairly significant
failure of one of the liners.
The Agency is, therefore, considering making changes to its liner
regulations and guidance in two major areas:
(i) To itquire composite FKL/clay iiners. for all new landfills,
surface impoundments, and wastes piles. This would allow the
low permeability (IxlQ-?cm/sec) absorptive, binding, and
self-healing properties of the clay to complement the extrenely
low permeability of a properly designed and installed FML,
taking into account possible high permeability of the FML in
the event of hard-to-forecast failure. The composite FML/clay
liner systen is more effective in minimizing leakage than either
type of liner, FML or clay, used alone. In the case of surface
impoundments, an additional FML above the composite FML/clay
liner with a leak detection and removal system in between the
FMLs is being considered. A leak detection system for surface
impoundments is particularly important because of the substantial
liquid head above the liner.
(2) To require development of a quality assurance and quality control
plan (QA/QC) prior to any facility construction. The QA/QC plan
would cover construction, installation, operation, and maintenance
of the land treatment, storage, or disposal units. The Agency
is currently developing guidance manuals to assist facility
owners in the development of QA/QC plans.
- 9 .
-------
10
References
1. 40 Code of Federal Regulations, Sec. 264.21 (a), 1982.
2. Federal Register, 26 July 1982, 32314.
Federal Register, 13 December 1982, 55880-55884.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
H. E. Haxo, Jr., C_n_enn_c_a1 Compatibility of Liner Materials with
Different Waste Fluids, Oakland, CA, Matricon, Inc., 1982.
H. E. Haxo, Jr., Testing of Materials for Use in Lining Waste
Disposal Facilities, in R. A. Conway and B. L. Malloy, ed's,
Hazardous and Solid Waste Testing, ASTM Special Technical
Publication 7 60, Philadelphia, PA, American Society of Testing
and Materials, 1981.
W. J. Lyman et al , Expected Life of Synthetic Liners and Caps,
Draft Final Report, Cambridge, MA, Arthur D. Little, Inc., 31
March 1983.
Research Triangle Institute, Performance of Clay Caps and Liners
for Disposal Facilities, Research Triangle Park, NC, Research
T r i a ng Te Institute, "Ma rch 1983.
A. D. Cchwope, et al , Analysis of "gxible Membrane liner
Compatibility Tests, Cincinnati, OH, U. S. EPA, 1983.
-------
Paper 11
HEAT
CITY
RECOVERY FROM INCINERATION PLANT AND KATEKIALS RECOVERY IN
Yoshihito Seki
Director of the Facilities Division
Public Cleansing Bureau
Osaka City Government
1 .
In Osaka City, the population is about 2,650,000, and the combustible
domestic wa-;to discharge reaches about 4,700 tons per day( in 1982 ).
The collection method of the domestic waste is mixed collection, and
the whole quantity of collected waste is disposed at 10 incineration
plants. As there is no landfill site in administrative districts of
Osaka City Government and wastes are disposed for sea area land
reclamation at present, incineration system is adopted as the inter-
mediate treatment, which turns a large quantity of v/aste harmless in
a short time and achieves the largest volume reduction. Since the
completion of i>uminoe plant in 1963 which is the first Mechanical
continuous incineration plant in Ju^an, we have constructe-1 inciner-
ation plants, one after another, aiding at total incineration of
waste, and fir-ally achived the goal by the completion of Taisho plant
in 1930. The list of incineration, plants is shown in Tr.Jble 1. The
incineration ash discharged from these plants and bulky wastes are
transported to Ilokko Waste Disposal Site in O^aka Bay and are dis-
posed for .reclamation.
Osaka City Government constructed the first incineration plant with
electric power genertion in Japan and since then has grappled with
heat recovery from incineration. The list of the heat recovery plants
is sho.vri in Table 2. Two methods of heat recovery are adopted in
these plants ; electric power generation system and steam supply
system. V/ith respect to material recovery, the recovery of magnetic
metals from incineration ash has been carried out in Taisho plant.
In this paper, the present situation and the future plan of resource
recovery from domestic waste in Osaka City are described.
2. Composition and Calorific Value
In execution of resouce recovery, the most vital factors are compo-
sition and calorific value in domestic waste. The sampling and
analysis of v/artes are conducted four times every fiscal year, and
the results are shown in Table 3 and Table 4. These data show the
increase of paper and plastics, the decrease of r.oicture content,
the increase of the cor.biu;tible, and the steady rise of lower
- 1 -
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11
calorific value which scone to be caused mainly by the increase of
plastics. Before FY 1970, the calorific value was low and the problem
was how to burn the waste more efficiently. Recently, the calorific
value has ricen above 1,500 kcal/kg, and the problem has been re-
solved. On the other hand, the clinker's problem and the damage of
machinery caused by the rise of furnace temperature have become
matters of concern.
3. Heat Recovery from Incineration Plant
3-1. Electric Pov/er Generation System
There are four plants with electric power generation ; Nishiyodo,
Minato, Nanko, and Taisho, which have sold the electric power to the
electric company. The differences between the four plants are that
Nishiyodo plant sends the whole quantity of the excess steam to the
electric power generation equipment and the other three plants
utilize only a part of that. The Summary of Power Generation
Equipment is shov/n in Table 5.
3-1-(1). Niohiyodo Plant
Nishiyodo plant was completed in June 19^5, which is the mechanical
continuous incineration plant that sold the excess electricity to the
utility company for the first tirse in Japan. The Steam Flow Diagram
and the Sectional Plan of Hishiyodo plant are shown in Fig 1 and
Fig 2.
In this plant, about 25 % of the steam produced by waste heat boiler
is used for consumption at the plant itself, and about 75 % of it is
sent to the steam turbine for power generation. And about 60 % of the
electricity generated at the plant is sold to the electric power
generation company ( Kansai Electric Co. ), the rest is used for the
plant's own utility.
The sales price of electricity is 6.16 yen/kwh ( in FY 1983 ) and
its contract is renewed every year through negotiation between Osaka
City Government and the company. The result of electricity sales is
shown in Table 6. In FY 1983, a total of 13.3/fxlO6 kwh was sold, the
revenue was about 82 million yen. In addition, the plant consumed
8.33x10* kwh for itself, and if we were to purchase this amount of
electricity, the expenditure would be 116 million yen on the basis of
l*f yen/kwh. Therefore, the total amount of the curtailment of ex-
penditure is estimated at 198 million yen.
Calculated on the basis that the steam temperature is 350 *C, the
turbine is condensing type and the whole quantity of the excess steam
is used for generation, the generation efficiency ( electric power
plant thermal efficiency ) reaches about 1^ %, and it seems to be the
upper limit of power generation at incineration plants.
- 2 -
-------
11
This plant has been smoothly operated for 18 years since completion,
however, has been experiencing one technical problem of high temper-
ature corrosion of super heater whose temperature reaches 350 "C.
It seems that corrosion is related with the hazardous hydrogen
chloride gas ( Hcl ) density in the combustion gases and the temper-
ature of tube walls. However, it has presented no practical problem
to actual operation of the plant as corroded parts of the super
heater tube have been repaired at the time of annual overhaul.
Minato, Nanko, and Taisho Plants
Originally, these plants were constructed with the design to use the
generated electricity totally for their own consumption because of
the technical problems experienced in Nishiyodo plant and management
problems of the electric company. However, due to the social demand
for the energy and resouce saving, it became possible to soil the
excess electricity to the utility company since FY 1980. At present,
each plant sells about 500 - 800 KW of electricity. The Results of
Electricity sales in FY 1983 and the Steam Flow Diagrams for each
plants are shown in Table 7, Fig 3, Fig 4, and Fig 5. The equipments
of the three plants are almost identical, however, the boiler of
N7anko plant is forced circulation type while those of Minato and
Taisho are natural circulation types.
As for the use proportion of steam and electricity, about 30 % of the
steam produced is used for the plants themselves, about 35 - kQ % of
it is used for power generation, and the rest is condenced by a high
pressure condenser. About 25 - 4o % of the electricity generated is
sold and the rest is for the plant's own consumption.
A.S the present turbine is back pressure type, no electricity sales
plan existed at the time of construction and the steam temperature
at turbine entrance is designed below 280 °C from the experience of
Nishiyodo plant, the generation efficiency is about t+ %.
The sales price of the three plants is 5. 80 yen/kwh in FY 1983, its
contract is renewed by annual agreement as in the case of Nishiyodo
plant.
Each of the plants has been operating smoothly and we plan to con-
tinue the electricity sales in this style. As wet scrubbers are in-
stalled in the exhaust gas treatment equipment in these plants to
.aeet the pollution prevention ordinance of 0;=.aka prefecture and the
reheater ( gas temperature 70 "C ---- »• 180 "C ) in the wet scrubber
requires a large quantity of uteara, the quantity of a team available
for power generation at these plants is about 50 %. If all of the
steam is used for power generation and the condition of steam at the
turbine entrance is same, Minato plant, for example, can increase the
present generation capacity of 2,500 KW to about 3,600 KW using back
- 3 -
-------
11
pressure turbine and about 5,500 KVY using condensing turbine.
Therefore, we are planning to remodel the plants at opportune time
for more efficient utilization of the steam.
3-2. Steam Supply System
Morinomiya plant which is located in the central part of Osaka City
was constructed near Osaka Castle with the largest incineration
capacity in Osaka. Because of its favorable location, many sugges-
tions and requests were made on its heat utilization. At present, the
whole quantity of heat recovered by v/aste heat boiler is utilized as
live steam and the excess steam is supplied to the facilities around
the plant. The Steam Flow Diagram is shown in Fig 6. The destinations
of steam supplied and its usage are as follows ;
(1). The rolling stock factory of Transportation Bureau of Osaka
City Government
for cleansing rolling stocks, hot water supply and heating
(2). The Nakahama Sewage Treatment Plant of Sewerage Bureau of Osaka
City Government
for operating aeration blowers ( 450 KW x 2 )
(3)• The ph^^aceutical company
for making distilled water, hot water supply and heating
(If). Korinomiya second apartment buildings of Housing and Urban
Development Corporation
for heated swimming pool, hot water supply and heating
The Result of Steam Supply and the Figure of Steam Supply Piping are
shown in Table 8 and Fig 7. Table 8 shows that about 45 % of the
steam produced is utilized at the outside facilities, the rest is for
the plant's own consumption. The sales price is 600 yen/ton by agree-
ment except the sewage treatment plant since 1980.
In case of the supply to the Housing and Urban Development Corpora-
tion, the energy plant is constructed in the compound to adjust the
gap betv/een the supply side and the receiving side. The plant has
various equipments to transform, accumulate, and suppliment the heat
( steam ) sent from Morinomiya incineration plant. And through here,
hot v/ater for heating, hot water for domestic consumption, and heated
swimming pool are supplied. Osaka Gas Co. has been responsible for
construction, management, and maintenance of this energy plant en-
trusted by the Housing and Urban Development Corporation. However,
the steam supply agreement is concluded between the Housing and Urban
Development Corp. and Osaka City Government.
-------
11
k- Materials Recovery
Since the start of its operation in July 1980, magnetic metals like
empty cans or household furnishings etc. are recovered from ash of
domestic wastes at Taisho plant for recycling and reducing the volume
of final disposable waste which in turn expands receptive capability
of reclamation area.
Metals mixed in the collected domestic wastes amount to about 2-3
%, and magnetic metals are recovered by magnetic separator. The sub-
stance of magnetic metals is mostly ferrous metals like empty cans
and at times car wheels are found. The Flow Diagram is shown in Fig
8. The recovery process is as follov/s ; At first, the magnetic netals
are separated from the incineration ash on ash conveyer by magnetic
separator, then, ash sticking to metals is removed by compressing and
washing, and metals are transported to the metal pit by conveyer and
finally taken out by crane. The recovery rate is about 30 - bO %•
Because the long or large matters are restricted in order to prevent
clogging, and the quantity of recovered metals reaches about 1,500 -
2,000 tons/a year. The recovered metal is sold to scrap traders and
is utilized as scrap for production of steel bars by electric
furnaces. The sales price to scrap traders is decided through
auctions and it ranges between 2,000 to 3iOOO yen/tons. The Cost and
Effect are sfcnwn in Table 9.
5. Future Plant
As a principle, we consider that recovery of resources such as heat
recovery or material recovery should be carried out on the basis of
proper and efficient disposal of wastes, and the following is under
study in Osaka now.
In connection with heat recovery from incineration plant,
(1). Recover the whole quantity of incineration heat as electric
power, and send it to the related facilities and local communities.
(2). More effective utilization of recovered heat (. steam or hot
water ) itself.
(3)» More effective utilization of incineration heat itself.
A.S to (1), because of the strict regulations of the Electric Power
Industry Lav/, authorized system of heat recovery is only limited to
that generated electricity should be used for the plant's own con-
sumption first and send the remaining electricity to utility com-
panies. However, we are determined to study improvements of power
generation efficiency and stabilization of the electric power gener-
ation.
As to (2), as is seen in the case of Morinorniya plant, provision of
- 5 -
-------
11
steam or hot water to local communities is very useful and signifi-
cant to the welfare of local inhabitants and improvement of res-
idential environment, etc., we are searching more effective utiliza-
tion through selection of location of plants and their surroundings.
As to (3), we are now studying mixed disposal of sewage sludge and
domestic wastes using incineration heat. Responsibilities of disposal
of these wastes and sludge rest on local governments, and since Osaka
City is covered by the sewer system almost 100 %, the volume of
sewage sludge reaches about 900 tons/day in FY 1983- In addition,
moisture content of sludge ranges between 70 to 80 %t and disposal of
sludge by incineration requires a large quantity of supplementary
fuel. It will be a very rational way if these wastes lacking energy
and wastes of excess energy are disposed simultaneously. Therefore,
v/e are determined to continue our efforts to amend laws and develop
new disposal techniques in connection with mixed incineration. In FY
198A-, we plan to experiment mixed incineration at existing plants,
and if good results are obtained, the mixed incineration system will
be adopted in construction plans of new plants.
As for material recovery, since mixed collection system is adopted
now and there are many problems awaiting solution such as the cost
efficiency and disposition of materials after recovery, we do not
intend to rr-tver materials bat we on collection and incineration <..'.
present. However, as far as metal recovery from incineration ash is
concerned, v/e are planning to improve metal recovery equipments and
install them whenever the existing plants are renovated since good
results are obtained at Taisho plant.
At present, heat recovery is carried out at above-mentioned five
plants, but not adopted at five other plants because of their
locations and social conditions surrounding them. However, time to
renovate these plants is drawing near, v/e are planning to take those
opportunities to improve and execute resources recovery.
- 6 -
-------
11
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Paper 12
"FROM TIPPING FEE TO TIPPING FREE"
Frank H. Miller, Jr.
Director of Public Works
City of Hampton
22 Lincoln Street
Hampton, Virginia 23669
The title of this paper, taken from a recent article in the "Solid Water
Management Magazine" summarizes well the success of the Hampton, Virginia,
refuse-to-energy facility.
Hampton, Virginia, is located on the East Coast of the United States at the
lower end of the Chesapeake Bay. The area is a typical coastal plain with
high water table and almost no capacity for shallow land burial of solid
waste.
A plant to burn City of Hampton refuse and produce steam for use at the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration Langley Research Center was
first considov*°d in 1971. At that time the orice of oil used to produce steam
was such that the project was economically infeasible. In 1974, with the oil
embargo and rapidly rising prices, the project was reconsidered, and the City
and NASA decided to proceed.
A unique partnership was decided upon which included the City of Hampton,
NASA and the United States Air Force. The partnership allowed all three
agencies to share in the anticipated savings, which assures continued interest
of all parties in the success of the project.
Construction was begun in January 1978 on a state-of-the-art 200-ton per day
refuse burning facility capable of producing 66,000 pounds of steam per hour
on a 24-hour per day 365-day per year schedule.
The plant's layout and design provide maximum attention to environmental
considerations as well as operational needs.
Located on NASA property in Hampton, the site and improvements are leased to
the City for a 20-year period. The plant is separated from the roadway by a
100-foot deep stand of trees and is surrounded on the other three sides by
woods.
Trucks leave the highway via a deceleration lane to avoid traffic conflicts.
Once entering the site, trucks are weighed, using an automatic credit card
weighing system coded to the customer. The scales are controlled by a traffic
control system so trucks can be weighed coming and going to determine empty
and gross weights.
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12
From the scale area, trucks proceed into an enclosed tipping area. This
enclosure assures that debris will not be scattered outside the facility.
Additionally, fans which feed air to the furnaces draw from this area,
eliminating the possibility of odors escaping from the building.
Refuse is unloaded into a storage pit capable of storing a four-day supply
of refuse. This allows continued operation through long weekend and holiday
periods.
Refuse is fed from the storage pit to the furnace by an overhead bridge
crane. Two cranes are provided, one for operation, while the other is on
standby. Approximately 30% of crane operating time is required to feed the
two furnaces, the remainder being used to mix refuse and remove any oversized
or potentially explosive materials from the pit, which are then taken to the
residue landfill for disposal.
The furnaces consist of three inclined surface areas. The first, a feed
section, feeds refuse by use of a hydraulic ram. The ram is automatically
controlled by steam demand. The second section, the burning grate, recipro-
cates to tumble and mix refuse to assure complete burning. The speed is heat
controlled to assure a constant temperature in this area.
The boiler section is located above the burning grate and produces 33,000
pounds of stedu. per hour in each boiler.-
The third section, the burn-out grate, assures maximum reduction of waste.
An 85 percent reduction in volume of refuse has been achieved during the
first two and one-half years of operation. This reduction extends the life
of the City landfill by almost seven times and provides a burned residue
much less toxic than normal municipal refuse.
Steam produced in the boiler section is delivered to NASA through a 2,000-
foot steam tunnel and is used for heating, air conditioning and experimental
purposes. The partnership arrangement has resulted in NASA capital expendi-
tures to increase their steam use, thus increasing savings for all parties.
Ash and metal not burned are dropped from the burn-out grate through a water
seal into a water-filled conveyor trough. One of two conveyors then removes
ash to residue truck, and it is carried to the landfill and buried.
Hot gasses, after passing through the boiler and an economizer unit to
extract all heat, pass through a two-section electrostatic precipitator to
remove particulate. The State of Virginia standard for particulate emissions
is .08 grains per dry standard cubic foot. The precipitators were designed
to allow only .05 grains and have achieved a first-year operating average of
.02 grains, one-fourth of the State allowable standard.
The plant has been designed with redundancy in all major equipment. All
large fans and pumps can be either electrically or steam turbine driven.
This allows not only for power backup during electrical or motor failures,
- 2 -
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12
but for the use of up to 20,000 pounds of steam per hour which would be
wasted during periods of low steam demand at NASA.
The plant, which must meet a 70 percent operational rate to achieve payback,
has operated at an 80+ percent rate {demand utility rate 90%+; NASA demand
not greater than 33,OOQ#/Hour/production). This is due to the design and
the employment of all experienced boiler operators. The nearby Norfolk,
Virginia, naval facilities provide many of these qualified personnel.
Additionally, personnel were hired up to six months in advance and trained
in class and at other operating refuse-fired steam plants.
The prime contractor was required to test operate the plant for 37 days
prior to acceptance. This was done using City employees, thus providing
additional training during that period.
Although the facility has operated as efficiently as any in the country, the
contractual and economic success may be the most significant.
The agreement between the City of Hampton and the Federal Government called
for the City to provide $7,000,000 for construction and the Government
$3,400,000. The anticipated savings, $100,000 the first year over oil-
generated steam and landfill ing, was to be divided using the same ratio as
the original contributions; therefore, of the $100,000 anticipated and
achieved saw'"«s the first year, approximately $67,000 went to reduce Hampton's
disposal cost and $33,000 went to reduce the Government's steam cost. These
savings were realized after the payment of all operating costs, debt retirement
services and landfill costs. Additionally, a replacement fund has been
established for the repair and replacement of major equipment.
The original estimates for the 20-year cost and savings were estimated on a
70-percent operational rate and a 10-percent per-year escalation rate. It was
estimated that the fifteenth (15th) year, the sale of steam would cover the
entire operating cost and no tipping, refuse disposal fee, would be charged;
thus, the cost of refuse disposal to the City of Hampton, NASA, Langley Air
Force Base, Fort Monroe and the Veterans Center would be zero.
During the first two years of operation, the price of oil doubled, increasing
the amount the Government would pay for oil significantly. The plant was
operated at a much higher operational rate than anticipated. The combination
of these two factors allowed the disposal of refuse at no cost for the Fiscal
Year 1983.
The budget was approved by both the Government and the City of Hampton.
Hampton's refuse disposal cost {$422,000 in Fiscal Year 1982, down from
$590,000 in Fiscal Year 1981) became zero for Fiscal Year 1983.
This is the first refuse facility of any type to achieve a zero disposal cost,
and its success has been widely acclaimed {reference articles in "Solid Wastes
- 3 -
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12
Management", February, 1982, and August, 1980; "The Journal of Resource
Recovery", December, 1981; "American City and County", March, 1982; and
NASA's "Spinoff, 1981").
As unique as achieving a zero disposal cost may be the agreement with the
Federal Government. Hampton may be the only local community that is able to
offset the cost of a municipal service through sales to the Federal Government.
The success story of this facility has not been without the problems associated
with the operation of a major piece of equipment and in several areas may be
beneficial to those considering similar projects.
The first years of operation resulted in major modifications and additions to
equipment. Prime and subcontractors shared these costs, as the facility was
bid as a design, construct, and test operational contract.
The first major modification occurred in the refuse-feed system when refuse
was unable to negotiate the 90% turn onto the upper grate. This was corrected
through modification of the chute, to allow a turn equivalent to angle of
repose of refuse, and the installation of a feed ram to replace the original
reciprocating grate. The ram has two steps and both stroke and speed can be
controlled to feed refuse at a rate consistent with steam demand.
The origina1 p^nt was equipped with two f°H water pumps each capable of
delivering 150% of the feed water demand of both furnaces. This provided both
back-up and additional capacity and was in keeping with standard boiler design.
It, however, was not adequate for a refuse-fired plant. Unlike oil-fired
boilers, where the furnace can be shut down immediately if feed water is lost,
a refuse-fired boiler may take several hours for the refuse to burn out and
boiler cool down; therefore, if one feed water pump is lost or shut down for
repair, the furnace must begin shut down because loss of the second pump could
result in boiler damage prior to cool down. This problem was corrected
through the installation of a third feed water pump, giving back-up at all
times, even when one pump is down.
The wear of grate materials and refractory were also problems which occurred
during the first years of operation. This wear has been controlled through
the use of high nickel alloy steel (25-12) and hydraulically applied silica
carbide refractory.
Other systems added to improve operation include a Lamella system to remove
particulates and allow reuse of ash-quenching water; a precipitator control
system capable of adjusting to the varied particulate conditions in refuse
waste gasses; insulation to better control erosion/corrosion; improved
hydraulic systems for grate control; and the addition of an office complex.
By far the most serious problem occurred in 1983 when the City and NASA
voluntarily allowed an EPA contractor to make tests of the waste gasses to
determine composition. The tests were conducted on several facilities but
only two were mass-fired facilities and the Hampton facility was the only
- 4 -
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12
small scale low-temperature plant. The test results showed levels of dioxin
that, although within health standards, were higher than acceptable for such
facilities. NASA and the City immediately began investigation of this
situation with the plant designers and contractors. A meeting was held by
NASA and Hampton with EPA, the Virginia Division of the Polution Control
Board, and local press. At this meeting a program was agreed upon to test
emissions, design correction measures and test and to modify operation to
assure interim control. The resulting plan prepared with the help of EPA,
Virginia Air Polution Control Board, J. M. Kenith Company (Clark-Kenith,
Drimary contractor), Keeler Boiler (boiler contractor), and Detroit Stoker
(feed and ram contractor) is unique in the industry as a program to address
and correct a major environmental concern.
The program consisted of testing and evaluating, design, and installation of
equipment, and retesting. The program was to reduce dioxin emissions through
improving the combustion of refuse.
As refuse is a non-homogenous fuel, constant temperatures and controlled
burning are difficult to achieve, particularly when refuse is wet. To
improve this situation, production steam was used to raise underfired air
temperatures to 300 F. This has resulted in drying of wet refuse, increased
furnace temperatures, and more complete burning. Oxygen (02) and Carbon
.'tonoxide (CO) are monitored to maintain best possible combustion. Final
tests to asSu.x; reduction in emission of tc;.;c gasses are scheduled for t.^:s
Fall.
Although the refuse-to-energy facility in Hampton, Virginia, may be one of
the most successful, having achieved a zero disposal cost, it is a continuing
challenge to meet not only its financial goals but operational and environ-
mental goals as well.
This achievement of these goals has been and will continue to be based on a
cooperation in effort between designers, owners, operators, and regulating
agencies working together.
Although Hampton's hopes were high at first, the success of the project for
both the City and the Federal Government has been even higher.
- 5 -
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Paper 13
SOLID WASTE COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL IN BALTIMORE, MARYLAND
Francis W. Kuchta
Director of Public Works
City of Baltimore
Baltimore, Maryland USA
Introduction
Keeping a city of 800,000 people clean is a daily challenge to the Department
of Public Works of Baltimore, Maryland. The Department's Bureau of Solid
Waste is responsible for the collection and disposal of domestic refuse,
street and alley cleaning, bulk trash removal and disposal, leaf and Christmas
tree collection plus several other services. The combined tasks require the
services of some 900 people and an operating budget of nearly $30 million
annually.
********
Baltimore is located approximately forty miles, one hour's driving time,
north of Washington, D.C., the Nation's Capitol. Baltimore has a population
of approximately 800,000 people, contains 80.34 square miles of land and 11.59
square miles of water. The daily generation of solid waste exceeds 3,000 tons
per day for both commercial and residential waste. The Bureau of Solid Waste,
Department of Public Works, is responsible for the collection of all generated
residential solid waste not to exceed eighty gallons per building. Private
collection firms handle all generated waste in commercial and business areas,
as well as apartment complexes exceeding the eighty gallon limit. The dis-
posal of this waste occurs both inside and outside the City limits.
To facilitate the collection of solid waste, the City is divided into five
geographical areas. The Central business district is the smallest and is
surrounded by the other four collection districts. Each area functions inde-
pendently of the other. Two-way radio communication allows the field super-
visors to be in constant contact with the offices and with each other.
The Bureau of Solid Waste employs approximately 900 individuals to carry out
the assigned tasks. It has an operating budget of $29.7 million. The
collection fleet is composed of 13 and 20 cubic yard rear-loading loadpackers,
35 cubic yard front-end loaders, dump trucks, stake body dump trucks with lift
gates, 4 -wheeled mechanical sweepers, leaf loaders and chippers. The dis-
posal fleet is composed of bulldozers, earth movers, rubber-tired front-end
loaders, dump trucks, flushers and tractors with enclosed trailers.
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13
The present system of collecting mixed refuse, garbage and trash in the same
container, was adopted in 1948. Mixed refuse collections are made twice per
week throughout the City. The collection cycles are Monday-Thursday,
Tuesday-Friday and Wednesday-Saturday. The Bureau will collect from each
building, regardless of size, four 20 gallon containers of mixed refuse. In
addition to the containers, the Bureau will also collect two bundles of card-
board, newspapers, yard trimmings or wood each collection day.
Approximately 60% of the properties in the City are serviced from the rear
alley with the balance being serviced from the front street. On Monday,
Tuesday and Wednesday, the first collection days of the week, seventy-eight
three-man crews are used to collect mixed refuse. A crew is composed of a
chauffeur and two helpers. Historically, the second collection day of the
cycle has always generated less tonnage because there is one less day to
generate trash. As a result of this, the Bureau further reduces its crew re-
quirements on Thursday, Friday and Saturday by ten crews to a total of sixty-
eight crews. This was accomplished successfully by expanding some of the
routes during the latter part of the week.
The mixed refuse crews work on a task system. This means that when the crew
finishes its assigned task, the members of the crew are free to leave yet
receive pay for eight hours. The average work day equals about 6.5 hours.
Experience has proved to us that the task system guarantees that the trash
will be collected on the scheduled day.
Our crews average between 8,000 and 14,000 pounds per load depending on truck
size. Depending on location and housing density, our crews also average be-
tween three and five loads per day. The mixed refuse crews collect a total
of approximately 1,000 tons of mixed refuse per day.
The Bureau also collects mixed refuse from City-owned housing units and City-
owned buildings which use dumpsters. The frequency of collection varies from
once per day to twice per week. Front-end loaders are used to service these
dumpsters.
The mixed refuse collection operation is supported by 371 employee positions
at an annual cost of $10,354,000. Last year the Bureau collected 290,479 tons
of mixed refuse.
The Bureau is also responsible for cleaning 5,700 lane miles of streets and
456 miles of alleys. Utilizing 490 individuals, this task is accomplished
with gang crews, mechanical sweepers and hokey cart operators.
A gang crew is comprised of a dump truck and 3 to 5 individuals. The gang
crew is responsible for cleaning streets and alleys. Alleys are cleaned from
property line to property, while streets are cleaned from curb to curb. The
Bureau does not clean streets without curbs nor alleys that have not been
paved. These are referred to another agency for cleaning. The frequency of
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13
street and alley cleaning varies between four and six weeks.
assigned to street and alley cleaning crews total 330.
Individuals
The hokey person operates a two-wheeled push cart with a broom, shovel and
bags. This individual can be found in high-density parking areas such as
commercial or business areas. In such areas it is almost impossible to en-
force restrictive parking for the purpose of street cleaning. Therefore, the
hokey person has to clean in and around parked cars. Even though cleaning of
sidewalks is the responsibility of the property owner, this individual may
also clean the sidewalk. The bagged debris collected by the hokey person is
left on corners where it will be collected by a truck assigned to collect it
by the day's end. The Bureau employs 130 persons in this capacity.
The mechanical sweeping operation is used to clean major thoroughfares and
areas posted for mechanical sweeping. The Bureau utilizes the 4-wheeled
vehicle as opposed to the 3-wheeled vehicle. The primary reason for using the
4-wheeled vehicle over the 3-wheeled vehicle is its ability to work without
the need for an additional piece of equipment. Both the vacuum and mechanical
{brush} pick-up sweepers are used.
Major thoroughfares are swept in the morning and afternoon, depending upon the
direction of traffic flow. Residential areas cleaned by mechanical sweeping
are posted with permanent no parking signs indicating the days and times of no
parking. The sweeping policy is to post one side of the street for cleaning
one day and the other side of the street for a different day so that parking
will not be completely eliminated within any block at anytime. Thirty people
are employed in the mechanical sweeping operation.
The total budget for the street and alley cleaning program, which includes
gang crew cleaning, hokey cleaning and mechanical sweeping, is $7,010,000.
Last year the street and alley cleaning program removed 35,885 tons of debris
from streets and alleys.
Another service provided to the residents of the City by the Bureau is bulk
trash removal. This service is provided to assist the residential property
owner with the disposal of household furniture, appliances and other related
household items, e.g. toys, garden tools, etc., that otherwise would not be
collected by the regular mixed refuse crews.
Bulk service is provided to residential properties only upon telephone re-
quest. The service is available twice per month in every area of the City.
However, the bulk service is limited to three large items or six small items
per collection. Request for bulk service averages about 600 calls per day
with peaks of 900 calls per day. Trucks used to collect the bulk are equipped
with hydraulic lift gates to help place the items on the truck. The Bureau
employs 37 individuals in the bulk program with a budget of $875,000. Last
year bulk crews collected 11,389 tons of material.
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The Bureau's leaf collectIon program starts annually at the first major leaf
fall and continues until all leaves are collected.
Leaves on the public right-of-way are collected by vacuum type leaf-loaders
towed behind dump trucks fitted with metal canopies. These units are found
mostly in high density treed areas.
The property owner has two options for disposing of leaves. The first option
is to bag the leaves and place two bags out with the regular trash twice per
week. The second option is to wait for the designated Sunday leaf collection
day. On that Sunday, the Bureau will collect an unlimited quantity of bagged
leaves from the properties in the designated areas. The collections are made
from the front only. The Sunday leaf program areas and days are published in
the newspaper and announcements are made on radio and television.
All leaves collected are used as mulch by the City's Bureau of Parks.
seasonal cost of this program is $278,000.
The
Another seasonal program provided by the Bureau is the collection of Christmas
trees. The trees are collected by open top trucks in the month of January
during a designated two week period. The collected trees are also used as
mulch.
Scattered around the City are approximately 3,500 wire baskets used for the
deposit of street litter. The baskets are maintained and serviced by the
Bureau. The baskets can be found in residential, business and commercial
areas. They can be found near schools, at bus stops and street intersections.
Baskets are placed at specified locations upon written request and basket
availability. The frequency of emptying the baskets varies from daily down-
town to twice per week in residential areas.
Additional services provided by the Bureau include placing a 10-wheeled open
top tractor trailer in neighborhoods for clean-up purposes. Upon written re-
quest, the trailer is placed in a community. Residents of the community are
then asked to bring to the trailer location all items to be discarded. Also,
upon written request, the Bureau will place either dumpster or 30-galloji drums
for festivals, neighborhood parties and other events. The Bureau also assists
with parades, marches and festivals by cleaning the area prior to, during and
after the events. In emergency situations, the Bureau's personnel and dump
trucks are used to assist our highway personnel with snow removal and ice
control.
Currently, the Bureau operates two landfills and one transfer station with a
third landfill in the final phase of approval. The Woodberry Quarry Landfill
is located in an old twenty acre quarry site. The landfill site contains an
underground leachate and ground water collection system. Both systems dis-
charge to the sanitary sewer system. The Bureau employs a surface runoff
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collection system which also discharges to the sanitary. At completion, the
landfill will be approximately 250 feet deep. The potential does exist at
this site for the extraction of methane gas. The second landfill is a twenty-
two acre site used primarily for the disposal of bulk items, street and alley
sweepings and incinerator residue. No putrescible materials are allowed at
this site. Thirty-nine people are assigned to the landfills with a total
operating budget of $2,424,000.
The Transfer Station has three push pits located in a fully enclosed building.
It has a capacity of 750 tons per day. The Transfer Station operates with
twenty-five people and a budget of $1,482,000.
Two incinerators are located within the City limits. The Pulaski Incinerator,
once owned by the City but since sold, is located on the east side of the
City. The City has signed an agreement with the private operator of the
incinerator to deliver waste to the facility. The Pulaski Incinerator has
four furnaces with a total capacity of 1,200 tons per day. At present, the
Incinerator is operated as a volume reduction center. Last year 564,166 tons
of material were disposed of at the Incinerator and Landfills.
The other incinerator is under construction and is located in the southwestern
part of the fity. Testing of this facility is expected to begin this month.
This is a regional incinerator constructed, owned and operated by a private
vendor. The regional aspect of the incinerator is managed by the Northeast
Maryland Waste Disposal Authority, a State agency established to solve the
waste disposal problems in the Baltimore region. The Authority has signed
agreements with the vendor to operate the facility. Baltimore City and
neighboring subdivisions have signed agreements with the Authority to dispose
of solid waste.
The new incinerator is a water-wall incinerator with three furnaces each with
a capacity of 750 tons per day or a total capacity of 2,250 tons. The plant
will generate both steam and electricity. Electricity will be sold to the
local power company. Discussions have taken place on the possibility of
selling steam to the downtown area and hot water to a public housing develop-
ment. Also incorporated in the plant is ferrous metal recovery.
Residue from the new incinerator will be disposed of at the City's new land-
fill. This landfill is expected to open about the same time as the
incinerator. This 159 acre site is expected to serve the City for the next
twenty-plus years.
I would like to share some information on the Bureau's landfill resource
recovery project. Just prior to the closing of one of our landfills in 1981,
a methane gas study was undertaken. The initial results indicated the
potential for methane gas extraction. As a result the City advertised for a
vendor to develop a gas extraction program for the site. The successful
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vendor would pay the City a royalty for the methane sold.
Methane gas is being extracted and the gas is being sold to a local company.
The project is successful and revenues are being returned to the City.
In conclusion, Baltimore, with a population of about 800,000 with 5,700 lane
miles of streets and 456 miles of alleys, is one of the cleanest cities in
the nation.
July 24, 1984
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Paper 14
COMPREHENSIVE WASTE TREATMENT SYSTEM IN TOYOHASHI CITY
Kiyoshi Ono
Technical Officer
Department of Environmental Sanitation
Resource Recovery and Waste Treatment Center
Toyohashi, Japan
1. Foreword
1.1 Introduction to Toyohashi City
Tcyohashi, a medium-sized city located in approximately the center
of Japan, is the gateway to the Pacific Ocean. It has a mild cli-
mate. Toyohashi supports the coexistence of both agriculture and
irdustry, and is a city of energetic youth. It has the following
characteristics:
(1) Population: Approximately 320,000 (including 41,400 far-
mers)
(2) Number of Households: Approximately 91,000
(3) Area: 25,854 Hectares
Dwelling Area : 5,696 hectares
Cultivated Area: 7,509 hectares
Others : 12,649 hectares
(4) Average Annual Temperature: 15.7°C (60.3°F)
(5) Average Annual Rainfall: 1,400mm (55 inches)
(6) USA Cities on Similar Scale:
Charlotte, N.C.: 36,200 hectares with population of
315,000
Birmingham, Al.: 25,500 hectares with population of
285,000
1.2 Waste Treatment System Used by Toyohashi City
Almost all the waste treated by Toyohashi is ultimately used as agri-
culture fertilizer, soil conditioner, or rural landfill, in accordance
with current needs and requirements. It is in regard to this back-
ground that URECS (Urban & Rural Environmental Combination System)
came into being.
2. URECS
2.1 URECS is an acronym for "Urban & Rural Environmental Combination
system." In this system waste products are rationally treated so that
tha heat energy generated is effectively re-utilized and organic com-
post restored to the rural districts. This system allows for both the
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preservation of the city's environment and the promotion of agricul-
ture. Additionally, reusable waste can be used to conserve resources.
2.2 UREC's Five Separate Collection Systems
The fundamental concept behind URECS is the five separate waste col-
lection systems in which the citizens of Toyohashi participate. In
conformance with this concept, each household sorts its garbage and
Other waste products into five different types, and on specified days
and times each type is taken to an established waste collection point
for pick-up by a city waste collection vehicle. Instruction and gui-
dance in regard to the assortment of waste and collection information
is provided in cooperation with the cleaning supervisors of each lo-
cality. Business and industrial wastes may be disposed of indivi-
dually in certain situations for waste reduction or recycling. In
such cases, it is the responsibility of that business or industry to
classify the waste as "combustible," "non-combustible," or "recyclable"
waste, and to deliver each to the city's treatment facilities.
This system of sorting waste was first undertaken in April 1980, and
was developed through the following efforts of the citizens:
(1) Establishment of a URECS Executive Planning Council {1978
and 1979.
(2) Holding information meetings on a local autonomy basis
(1978) .
(3) Distribution of explanatory literature through community
and self-governing bodies, etc.
(4) Home visits by city sanitation personnel (1980).
(5) Bimonthly publicity through the city official bulletin,
"TOYOHASHI."
(6) Instruction and guidance by cleaning supervisors at each
waste collection point.
(7) Study and observation tours of the Waste Treatment & Re-
source Recovery Center.
(8) Special waste treatment educational programs and study
tours of the cleaning facilities by the city's 4th graders.
3. Waste Treatment & Resource Recovery Center
As the nucleus of URECS, the Waste Treatment & Resource Recovery
Center comprises five different plants geared for incineration, high-
rate compost, night soil treatment, recycling, and chicken manure
treatment in one location. The designated population for disposal of
this center is approximately 400,000 people. This center is located
in a rural area in the southern part of the city. There is a green-
house on the site of about 4 hectares and a training center of 1.2
hectares.
(2)
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3.1 Outline
Characteristics of the Center are:
(1) Site Area: 45,343m2
(2) Structure: Reinforced 5-story concrete building with base-
ment. Structure area of 8,216m2, with 21,980m2 of floor
space.
(3) Overall plant control: Operation and distribution controlled
and data processed by computer.
3.2 Features
This Center has the following three features:
(1) Total organic unity of the five treatment plants.
(2) All waste matter is ultimately reutilized as resources.
(3) Prevention of secondary pollution.
In order to prevent secondary pollution, such as can occur from drain
water, the Center's standards are set higher than those established
by the government.
3.2 Incineration Plant
Characteristics of the plant are:
Waste Pit: About 40m (W) x 10m (L) x 15m (D).
Crane: 4m3 (1.6 tons) x 3ea.
Incinerator: 130.5 tons/Day (Max. 147 t/d) x 2ea.
Heat Exhaust Boiler: 14 ton/Hr. x 2ea.
Electric Dust Collector: 24,500m3N/Hr. x 2 ea.
Harmful Gas Remover:
NOx removal by ammonia atomization
SOx removal by wet lime slurry method
HCl removal by wet lime slurry method
Treatment Objective: Combustible waste, compost residue,
night soil refuse, night soil odors (combustible gas),
combustibles discharged by recycling plant.
3.4 High-rate Composting Plant
Characteristics of this plant are:
Waste Pit: Used in common with incineration plant.
Crane: Used in common with incineration plant.
Sludge Pit: 53m3 x 1ea.
Shredder: 60m3/Hr. (23.4 ton/Hr.) x 1ea.
Fermentation: Rotary Fermentation Tank, 146m3 x 2ea.
Multi-step Fermentation Tank, 315n»3 x 2ea.
Aging Pit, 300m2 x 1ea.
Separator: Rotary Screen, 25t/d x 2ea.
Vibrating Screen, 15t/d x 1ea.
Glass Separator, 15t/d x 1ea.
(3)
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Treatment Objective: Combustible waste and de-watered sludge
3.5 Recycling Plant
Features of this plant are:
Resource Recovery Methods: Manual and mechanical
Crusher: Press-shear (hydraulic): 48.7t/5hrs. (max. 60t/5hrs.)
Crushing area: 10-40cm
Hazardous Waste Treatment: Solidified in concrete containers
Treatment Objective: Recyclable waste, bulky refuse, hazardous
waste.
3.6 Night Soil Treatment Plant.
Characteristics of this plant are:
Treatment Method: High-rate oxidation and coagulating sedimen-
tation and sand filtration.
Treatment Capacity: 243k1/d (capable of handling entire city's
sewage of approximately 157,000 population.
Treatment Abjective: Raw night c^1 , septic tank sludge, ^ainage
from all of the Center's plants.
3.7 Chicken Manure Treatment Plant
Features of this plant are:
Treatment Method: Steam heat fermentation (multistep hot air
method.
Treatment Capacity: 5 tons daily
Production Volume: 1.5 tons daily; pelletization, packed in bags.
Treatment Objective: Chicken manure.
4. Organic Unity of the Five Plants
The five plants of the Center are arranged rationally to insure
effective operation and elimination of waste. The advantages of
this arrangement are:
a. There is a 20% reduction in construction costs due to avoid-
ing duplication of facilities and effectively utilizing
space in a small country like Japan.
b. Several unpleasant facilities are located in one place,
making understanding and acceptance by regional citizens
easier. Also, anti-pollution facilities are concentrated
in one plant.
(4)
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c. Operating expenses are reduced by utilization of generated
energy. 5,200MW of electricity are generated each year. 38%
of this energy is used by the Center to promote fermentation
of night soil and chicken manure, to heat the greenhouse and
the hot water supply/ and for air conditioning.
Operating expenses are also reduced as a result of total co-
ordinate processing and reduction of secondary discharge waste
materials. Treatment control of waste materials is central-
ized, transporting distance is reduced, and the majority of
drainage water is used for dilution of night soil. Night soil,
along with other waste, is formed into compost. Combustible
waste from the recycling plant is used as high-calorie waste
(fed into incinerators), and waste reduction and stability are
increased.
5. Problems and Countermeasures
One problem is the concentration of traffic volume (waste collection
vehicles). Countermeasures include:
a. Dispersion of the concentration base and relocation of the
larger collection vehicles to a transfer station. This sta-
tion is currently under construction.
b. On-road waste depositing system (waste bags) modified to a
mechanical accumulation system such as permanent waste de-
posite boxes.
c. Reduction in waste volume by encouraging a household compost
system. This is currently under experiment.
Another problem is that of plant breakdowns or stoppage. Counter-
measures to this problem include:
a. Establishment of a sub-system (auxiliary boiler, etc.) for
emergencies.
b. Each plant can be operated individually for short periods.
6. Conclusion
We are now in our fifth year since the URECS system was put into
ef::ect for waste treatment. At this point, it can be evaluated that
in respect to the sorting of waste, transportation, processing, final
disposal, and recycling, this integrated system is running smoothly
and the anticipated objectives have been accomplished. As a result
of the cooperation and participation by all citizens and households
of Toyohashi in their share of waste treatment, such as proper assort-
ment, there occurred a profound understanding of the system and favor-
able progress in the reduction of waste and increase in recycling.
(5)
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In 1980, the year URECS was inaugurated, there was 25% less waste
material volume compared with the previous year. This amounts to
an average of about 548 grams per person per day, and is a fair re-
duction when compared to the national average of 809 grams. This
system appears to be the first to have put the brakes on the annually
increasing amount of waste products.
References
1.
2.
A. Shimizu, total processing and recovering in Toyohashi City,
En v ir prime n t al Techno logy, Vol. 10, No. 5. 1981
A. Shimizu, Town Cleaning Problems and Countermeasures in the
Toyohashi City, Public Welfare, Nov. 1982.
(6)
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Paper 15
PNEUMATIC REFUSE CONVEYING SYSTEMS IN NEW TOWNS
Kouichi Shimoda
Special Assistant to the Director
Street Division, City Bureau
Ministry of Constructions
Tokyo, Japan
Contents
Kazuo Yoda
Director of Street Division
City Bureau
Ministry of Construction
Tokyo, Japan
I. Background of Introduction of Pneumatic Refuse Conveying (PRC) Systems
(1) Needs for Pneumatic Refuse Conveying Systems
(2) Regulations for the Systems
{3} Examples of the Introduction of the Systems
2. Ideas in Services
(1) Pneumatic Refuse Conveying System Technology in Japan
(2) Ideas for Improving the Systems
(3) Improvement of the Effects of the Systems
3. System Evaluation
(l) Present Status of Refuse Disposal
(2) Eveluation by the Users
(3) Comparison of the Cost
(4) Promotion of the Systems
_'!_. Background of Introduction of Pneumatic Refuse Conveying (PRC) Systems
(1) Needs for Pneumatic Refuse Conveying Systems
The population of large cities in Japan has been moving to the rural areas.
(See Figure 1.) The planned development of new towns become necessary as the
central areas of the city expand.
i'.n Japan, new towns have been developed by both public organizations and private
companies to relieve the housing shortage in central areas in order to prevent
i:he sprawling in the outskirts and retain a large area of land for private
housing construction with a good living environment. (See Figure 2.)
In recently developedsome of new towns, new facilities are equiped with
pneumatic refuse conveying systems, regional heating and cooling, and informa-
tion facilities in addition to the usual common public utilities, namely, roads,
water, sewage, electricity, telephone etc. These services not only provide an
improvement of urban functions and environment but contribute to the effective
use of energy resources. The following discussion concerns the background of
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the introduction, the present status, and the evaluation of the pneumatic
refuse conveying systems, which are new urban facilities.
The collection method of urban refuse changed from handcarts to trucks around
1965 - 1975. At present, the refuse is generally collected by trucks. Each
resident, either of an apartment or private home, carries their refuse in small
plastic bags, buckets or disposable containers etc., to a central location, from
which the refuse truck makes their pick up.
The above system of garbage collection, however, is unable to meet many of the
problems now arrising due to the growth and expansion of the population,
such as follows.
a) While the refuse is increasing and diversifying, the space available for
waste disposal is rapidly decreasing as a result of an increse in population
density and heavier traffic.
b) Waste collection trucks add to the traffic congestion both in cities and
the waste disposal areas.
c) It becomes difficult to coordinate the needs of garbage collection and the
needs of the "i™~al inhabitants, the later being in a constant state of flux
due to the increase in nuclear families and dual income families as well as in
improving hygienic awareness.
The pneumatic refuse conveying system consisting of storage tanks, tubes,
central station etc. collects refuse by an air flow system. {See Figure 3.)
The introduction of the system solves the problems of the vehicler collection
system in the following ways.
a) When refuse is transported through underground tubes, urban beauty and
hygiene will improve. Also as storage space for refuse become available, new
space for urban use is aquired.
b) As a result of the above system the home maker may decide the time of
waste disposal, freeing themselves for planning their life styles to suit
their family needs, hopefully creating higher standards of hygiene for the
home and community.
c) Since refuse collection trucks are not necessary, the problem of traffic
congestion decreases.
d) The pneumatic system is monitored and controlled automatically by computers
at central stations, resulting in a safer and more hygienic waste disposal
system than in present use.
In Japan, the most of the practical pneumatic refuge conveying systems are
introduced into new towns because of the following advantages.
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a) The location and the maintenance of collection facilities can be effective,
because the facilities which receive the refuse collection services were
planned prior to the development of the area.
b) As the systems are planned in coordination with city plannings and road
Dlannings, securing of the land for collection facilities becomes easier.
c) As the systems can be constructed as a part of the new town development
Drojects, the cost of the construction,such as laying tubes undergrand,
decreases greatly.
[2) Regulations for the systems
In earlier times,pneumatic refuse conveying systems were introduced mainly
to separate buildings, such as hotels and hospitals. The first introduction
of the system to the housing development areas was made at Morinomiya Housing
Development at Osaka in the middle of the 1970s. Then, national assistance
regulations were establised to promote the use of the systems in general
housing areas. In 1979, pilot projects began at two places, Osaka Nanko
Port Town and Ashiyahama New Town.
The Ministry "* Construction regards the or1 Action and transportaicn of ur^an
refuse as a problem to be solved in connection with city planning for the
Improvement of the urban environment and traffic situation. And the ministry
Is construction pneumatic refuse conveying systems as part of city planning
projects based on the City Planning Law, which is a basic regulation for urban
•improvements in Japan.
The systems are also regulated by the Laws Concerning the Disposal of Refuge
and Cleaning, which provides for the kind of refuse to be collected, the form
of the service, the collection of fees, the enhancement of the service, and the
allotment of cost etc.
"here is a supplementary regulation, in which a susidy is given ranging from
one forth to one fifth of the costs required for the construction of tanks,
tubes and a central station and for a comprehensive test run.
(3) Examples of the introduction of the systems
Up to April 1984, the number of systems constructed under government subsidy
reached seven as shown in Table 1. Among them, the systems at Osaka Nonko Port
Town and Ashiyahama New Town had already been put into full service. At Tama
New Town and Tsukuba Academic City, only partial service is presently provided.
At present the applicability of the systems is going to be tested in the course
of the construction and the actual running of these systems. The following are
points to be examined.
a) Optiman sizes, location and operation of the facilities for the volume and
variety of refuse according to the characteristics of land use.
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b) Equipment designs for different climates.
c) System operating methods in regards to collecting various kinds of waste
materials such as flammable and unflanimable refuse depending on whether
separate collection or mixed collection is used.
d) Grasp of the users' evaluation and the actual condition of the utilization
of the systems.
2. Idea sin Serv i ce
(1) Pneumatic Refuse Conveying System Technology in Japan
a) Storage tank
To prevent the blockade of tubes the size of refuse thrown into the strage tanks
is limited, and volume-limitation type slots, (20 1 - 40 1), are generally used.
However, a large volume of refuse should be disposed of at large commercial
facilities. Therefore, contineous throw in type slots are used at commercial
facilities. For crime prevention, keys are prepared for specified person to
open and close the slots.
The location density of strage tanks in residential areas is set so that the
maximum distance between a house and a storage tank would be around 100 - )50 m.
At apartment dwellings, refuse chutes are also used. In some cases, each floor
has a slot. Most of the residential buildings which are higher than five floors
have refuse shutes. On the other hand, at commercial buildings, each building
has its own throw in slots.
The capacity of tank will hold one day's volume of waste. Some taks are drum
type (1 - 12 m capacity) which can force refuse dicharge to tubes and has a
compression function. Generally, drum type tanks are located at large commercial
facilities and in high density housing area, and sylinder type tanks are used
at low density housing area and at small facilities. {Table 2)
b) Tubes
An air flow of 20 - 30 m/second is generally used for the transportation of
refuse. The diameter of a tube is generally 400 - 600 mm with 500 mm as a
standard, to conserve power and prevent tube blockade. Most of these tubes are
made of steel.
c) Central station
The equipment at a central station consists of (1) refuse related machnery such
as a refuse separator, dust separators, refuse discharge device, a compressor
and secondary transportation facility, (2) air related machinery such as vacuum
tubines,deodorizor and silencer, and (3) electrical machines such as tranformers
and a monitoring control system.
There are a number of small vacuum turbines, which allow both a serial and a
parallel connection which can meet a specific regional requirement.
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The capacity of the vacuum turbins are determined by the volume and the
pressure of air. When serially connected, the volume of air is fixed and air
pressure changes depending on the number of the turbines operating. When
paralleliy connected, the air pressure is fixed and the volume of air flow
changes depending on the number of trubines operating.
In some cases the distance between a central station and local terminals differs
greatly. Therefore a serial connection is usually used because air pressure
changes according to distance. In shopping areas, where the volume of refuse
changes greatly each hour, a paralel connection is generally used to maintain
stable air pressure.
{2} Ideas for Improving the Systems
a) Control method of the systems
At many pneumatic refuse conveying systems the entire operation is computer
controlled. In addition to the scheduled collection service, highly technical
services are provided, for example, priority is given to full tanks, automatic
emergency collection at the time of fire, and an automatic measurement is taken
of the volume of refuse that is thcwn in, in order to establish a service fee.
b) Underground!ng of tubes
Water pipe?, ^wer pipes (rain, sewane) and oas pipes are located undergrond.
In addition, electricity power lines and telephone cables are going to be buried
beneath roads. The introduction of the new system to the present underground
utilities would create a fair amount of congestion.
Therefore, to solve the problem of congestion, the common duct, system will be
used. At Tama New Town and Sapporo New Town, the refuse conveying tubes are
located in a common duct. This resulted in high construction efficiency and
easier maintenance.
c) Ideas for snowing areas
In snowing areas, there are problems of greezing of refuse in storage tanks,
within transporation tubes and at discharge valves (also the adhesion of refuse
with each other), as well as the decrease of efficiency of disposal units and
central station equipment which directly face the cold air, and the frost
heaving of constructions.
To cope with these problems, the system at Sapporo New Town will be as follows.
The discharge units will be provided with covers to improve the convenience
for users, ease the freezing at the discharge units, and prevent the snow coming
into tubes from the air inlets.
Also the possibility is under the consideration to cover the storage tanks with
lagging in order to improve heat insulation efficiency, or to heat the system
by line heater, expecting the prevention of the refuse itself.
As to the central station equipment, it is necessary to prevent the decrease of
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efficiency of deodrizors which use activated carbon. For this purpose,
it is now considered to utilize the heat that is discharged from vacuum turbines
by switching the order of airflow, namely from diodorizors to vacuum turbines in
summer and from vacuum turvinesto diodorizors in winter.
It is also considered to use oil and packings for low temperature use, and to
bury the system below the freezing level to prevent the frost heaving of tubes
and machinery rooms.
(3) Improvement of the Effects of the Systems
The fo"Mowings are measures introduced with the systems toitilize the effects
and advantages of the systems.
a) Mo car zones
Osaka Nanko Port Town is equipped with a new traffic system. In addition, no
car zones, where only permitted car such as commercial purpose cars can enter,
are established in order to decrease traffic accidents and maintain good
living conditions.
The construction of the system improves the effects of the no car zones, because
of the abolishment of refuse collection trucks.
b} Direct ccr-.?ction to incinalating plar.tr
As there is an incinalating plant only 300 meters away from Morinomiya Housing
Development in Osaka, refuse is directly sent to the incinalating plant
without secondary transportation.
At the same time, a regional heating system is constructed by utilizing the
heat created in the processing of refuse, which results in the improvement of
the environment and saving of energy resources.
Also at the Ashiyahama New Town in Hyogo Prefecture, the pneumatic refuse
conveying system is directly connected to the incinalating plant. As the
electricity is generated by the heat created at the plant, electricity cost
which usually is the large part of the maintenance cost of the system is not
necessary, and the system is very economic and efficient.
3. System Evaluation
(1) Present Status of Refuse Disposal
The construcion of the system completed in 1981 at Osaka Nonko Port Town. In
1982, a survey was made to know the actual status of collection, facility
operation and users' evaluation in order to evaluate the entire system. The
survey clarified following points.
a) At the end of 1982, about 10 tons of refuse was disposed dai^y by 6,000
houses, seven schools and commercial facilities of about 8,000 m floor area.
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b) The hour when the largest volume of refuse is disposed differs by kind of
buildings. (Figure 5.)
c) On the earlier stage, the system was operated on the assumption that the
hourly collectable volume would be 2.5 tons. However, it is now known that the
system can be efficient to collect 5-6 tons per hour by adjusting the
frequency and the order of collection from the tanks, etc.
d) The total number of mechanical troubles which occured during the period
from April 1984 to November 1982 was 24. Thirteen of them occured at the
central station. Most of the mechanical troubles were caused by the wear of
the parts of the machines, thus creating minor influence on the operation of t
the system.
e) The kinds of refuse collected from houses are shown on Table 3. The
introduction of the system did not cause any change in the percentages.
(2) Evaluation by the" users
A questionnaire survey was made on November 1982 for family users. And it was
~evealed that more than 90% of the subjects rated the convenience of the system
high. (Figure 6)
The reasons for the high evaluation of the system is shown on Table 4.
[3) Comparison of the Cost
The cost for the collection by the pneumatic refuse conveying system at Osaka
Nanko Port Town is compared with the general vehicler cllection systems on
Table 5.
::n 1982, running cost was lower for pneumatic refuse conveying system. When the
construction cost of pneumatic refuse conveying system was considered, however,
"he unit cost was 3.8 times of that of vehicler collection systems.
In pneumatic refuse conveying systems, the unit cost greatly decreases as the
volume of refuse increases.
In the year 2000, refuse volume will increase to 30 tons per day. Thus,
assuming that the price increase rate would be 3 % and labor cost increase rate
vfould bee5 %, the collection cost in pneumatic refuse conveying system will
be 57,400 yen per ton, which will be 90 % of the expected unit cost in vehicler
collection systems.
{4} Promotion of the Systems
It is necessary to lower the construction cost and improve the convenience of
the system in order to promote the systems.
As measures to lower the construction costs, it is considered to select smaller
diameter tubes and more compact machines at central stations and tanks. As
- 7 -
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15
measures to improve the convenience of the system, it is considered to enlarge
openings of the disposal slots with attaching small crushers.
- 8 -
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15
40-
30-
20 -
10-
0 -
-10
1970-75
\N 1965-70
^ 1960-65
1950-60
10
Figure 1.
20
30
40
50
Population Growth Rates
During Different Time Periods
by Distance from Downtown
Tokyo
km
- 9 -
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15
(ha)
20 H
10-
106.200
62,100
Total
260,100
239.700
216300
0X
188400
152400
27.000
48.100
140^00
55.800
161.100
00X
63OOO
176.700
69.400
i
By public
organizations
190.700
!
By private
companies
46
48
50
52
54 56
(Fiscal year)
42 44
Figure 2. Development of Housing Areas
(Accumulated total from the fiscal year 1966)
- 10 -
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15
Storijf tanks
Mr inlet valve £
n
Ground level type ._j<
unit
Syiinder type storage tank
a£^UJ*J L_j3lSISi>™ri£5^:2iBiilfe
•~a~ Storage tank Transportation tube
Refuge
incinalating
plant
Compactor Container conveyer
Refuge is thrown into a slot
and kept in a storage tank under
the slot.
At » preset tiroe, an air inlet valve
at the end of the tube is opened and
the vacuum turbines at the central
station create an air flow in the
tube.
The discharge valve of the storage
tank opens and the refuge is scni
into the transportation tutu1
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15
cover
Snowbreak hood
Small Capacity tank
Lagging=50mrn
Heater 0.3kw
Discharge Valve
Transportation tube
Figure 4. Small Capacity Tank in a Snowing Area
- 12 -
-------
15
Percentage of
dispersal
frequency by
hour
10 -
5 -
Houses
3.7
0.30.1 ai£l]
6.7
6.5
6.3
,5.5
AA.
4.545
4£j
5.4
7.2
1
9.2
0.6
10
e
6.4
1.3
12 16 20 24
Hour
15 -
Percentage of
disporsal 10
frequency by
hour
5 -I
Offices
0.3
12.
16-5
8.6
2.3
3.6
0-3
1.0
8 12 16 20
24
Hour
19-
Percentage of
disporsal 1Q ,
frequency by
hour
5 -
Commercial
facilities
16.9
13.4
3.9
—
1
14.8
1,
4.9
3.2
T
^_^
0 4 8 12
2.B
J.7
7.7
7.3
16 20 24
Hour
Figure 5. Percentages of Disporsal Frequencies by Hour
and by Type of Buildings
- 13 -
-------
15
Dangerous 1.7
Troublesome and
Inconvenient 5.3 %
No Reply 0.8 %
(November, 1982)
very
Convenient A convenient
Figure 6. Evaluation by Users
- 14 -
-------
15
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- 15 -
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15
Table 2. Specification of Discharge Units and Tanks of
Tama New Town System
(1) Dispersal slot
(a) Limited volume type ground level dispersal unit
Size of openings: 300 - 350 x 250 - 300
Hight of the openings(at the lower edge of the opening)
: GL + 780 - 900
Major material : Important parts are made of stainless
steel
Attachment and others
: Discharge caution lumps, keys,
Instruction notice
(b) Limited volume type refuge shute
Size of openings: 300 -350 x 250 - 300
Hight of the openings (at the lower edge of the opening)
: FL + 780 - 900
(c) No volume limit conteneous throw in type refuge shute
Size of openings: 400 - 500 x 500 - 600
Hight of the openings (at the lower edge of the opening)
: Gl + 450 - 700
(d) No volume limit conteneous throw in type ground level
disposal unit
Size of openings: 400 - 500 x 500 -600
Hight of openings (at the lower edge of the opening)
: FL + 450 - 700
Notes: Main material and attachments are common in all types.
Volume limit type tank allow 20 - 40 1 of refuse at
one time.
Conteneous throw in types are used only by the exclusive
users.
Depending on necessity, a crusher is installed (for styro
foam, wood, etc.)
Materials prohibited for desposal:
Flammable, explosive, chemical, and medicines
Heavy things such as stones and metals
Adhisives
Elastic materials such sponge
These materials are separately collected with large refuse.
- 16 -
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15
(2) Tank
(a) Small capacity standard type tank (sylinder type)
3
Storage capacity: 0.5 m
Attachment : Control panel, Refuge level meter,
Heat sensor
(b) Large capacity tank (drum type)
Storage capacity: 1 - 12 m (according to expected
volume of refuse)
Drive method : Electricity
Attachment : Same as samll capacity type
Notes: The capacity of a tank is decided according to the daily
anticipated refuge volume. Changes in the volume are
considered according to the season and the days of a
week.
(3) Dic^r
valve
Drive method : Electricity
Notes: An airtight and stable system are required.
(4) Machinery room
Measurement
Main structure
Attachment
To be decided according to the size
of equipment
Reinforced concrete
Water proof manhole, Water level meter
and Electric draining pump (depending
on necessity), Air inlet, Silincer
(depending on necessity. For example,
in case air inlet valves are located
in the same pit) and lighting.
Notes: Machinery rooms are generally located at the underground
or the lowest floors of buildings. However, inner type
is located in the macinery room for other machines.
- 17 -
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15
Table 3. Percentages of the Kinds of Domestice Refuse
Flammables
Unflammables
Garbages
Paper
Plastics
Others
Sub total
Glass and China
Metals
Sub total
Total
56.4 %
16.1 %
17.4 %
4.5 %
94.2 %
2.9 %
2.9 %
5.8 %
100.0 %
Apparent specific gravity: o.ll - 0.16 (0.14)
- 18 -
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15
Table 4. Reasons for the answers "Very convenient" and
"Convenient"
1. Disposable at any time
2. Improvement of domestic hygiene
3. Aesthetic improvement because
refuse is not seen
4. Hearer location of discharge
unit
5. others
6. No reply
Total
Number
of
Replies
620
427
336
191
5
4
1,583
Percentages
39.2 %
27. 0 %
21.2 %
12.1 %
0.3 %
0.3 %
100.0 %
Table 5. Cost Comparison by Collection Method
Year
Volume of refuse
Running cost only
Running cost and
construction cost
Vehicle collection
PRC system
Vehicle collection
PRC system
1982
10 ton/day
23,500 yen/t
22,600 yen/t
24,300 yen/t
93,000 yen/t
2000
30 ton/day
61,500 yen/t
29,000 yen/t
62,800 yen/t
57,400 yen/t
- 19 -
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Paper 16
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN THE U.S., TODAY AND TOMORROW: THE PRIVATE SECTOR VIEW
Ejgene J. Wingerter
Executive Director
National Solid Wastes Management Association
Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
It's a pleasure to be here today at the Sixth U.S.-Japan Conference on Solid
Waste Management to present the private sector view of solid waste management
11 the U.S., both now and in the future.
Tie decade of the eighties presents tremendous challenges for the waste service
industry. The complexities of modern life and increased concern for environ-
mental protection mandate that the 150 to 200 million tons of residential,
commercial and industrial wastes generated annually be managed more effectively
than ever before.
Communities, local governments and industries are all concerned about the rising
costs associated with refuse collection and disposal. They are seeking recovery
of valuable resources (energy, paper, metals, glass) from wastes, and they are
demanding assu.u.ice that hazardous wastes wil"! be managed safely.
Because these groups are looking primarily to private industry for the manage-
ment and technological expertise required to resolve these difficult problems,
analysts forecast that the resource recovery market will exceed $10 billion
by the year 2000. The management of hazardous wastes also promises growth,
reaching perhaps as much as $1 billion by 1990.
This growth necessarily brings with it changes in the economics and politics
of waste handling and places unprecedented demands on the industry responsi-
ble for managing the nation's wastes. The waste service industry is fully
prepared to meet these new challenges.
The management of waste is a mammoth job. Together, the public and private sectors
spend about $8 billion in waste collection and disposal. The private sector
handles over 75 percent of the combined residential and commercial waste and over
90 percent of the country's commercial/industrial wastes.
The industry is diverse and comprehensive. In North America, there are over
10,000 firms operating more than 65,000 vehicles and employing in excess of
1?.0,000 individuals.
According to a survey conducted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) and the National Solid Wastes Management Association (NSWMA), over half
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16
:>f the nation's households,roughly 120 million people, are served by these
private waste management companies. Columbia University, under the direction
of the National Science Foundation, determined that two-thirds of the commun-
ities in the U.S. use private waste collection services. These conclusions
confirm that the private sector has an indispensible role to play.
Over 90 percent of the private waste service firms operating today are small, family-
owned businesses. Typically, these firms run 5-to-10 trucks and bring in less
than $1 million in annual revenues.
Although waste handling is primarily an industry of small businesses, it is
not exclusively so. In addition to small hauler and landfill operations, the
industry includes New York Stock Exchange-listed corporations operating here
and abroad, specialized equipment manufacturers, a nationwide network of
dealers and distributors, companies that build and operate resource and energy
recovery facilities, and hazardous waste treatment firms.
All of these businesses provide services essential to public health and safety
and contribute in vital ways to the economic and social fabric of the community.
Those involved in waste management are as varied a group of individuals as those
they serve.
As the waste service industry expands, the definition of public services provided
by the private ,/aste haulers also broadens. It has come to include, among
other things, street sweeping, waste services for sewage treatment facilities
and water works, park and public place maintenance, and contract operation
of snow removal. The private waste handling industry also pursues other areas
for commercial expansion such as vacuum tank truck hauling of liquid waste
and scrap paper and metal processing and recycling. But before I get into
an in-depth analysis, let me tell you a little bit about the organization I
represent.
Introduction to NSWMA
The National Solid Wastes Management Association represents the private sector
of the waste services industry. It was formed in 1963 as a trade association
to represent private interests and to develop the capabilities of the industry.
The association evolved from three existing regional associations with a com-
bined membership of fewer than 200 companies. Today, it is the only national
organization representing the entire waste management industry. Its members
number over 2,500 companies, providing services across the spectrum of waste
handling.
Unlike many trade groups that represent only one dimension of an industry, NSWMA
represents a multi-faceted and united industry. This unity permits members to
speak with one, strong voice and exert greater weight and influence across a
wider range of issues.
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16
With NSWMA as their spokesman, different constituencies in the association
act cohesively to encourage public and government support for private
initiatives in the waste management industry.
NSWMA plays the major advocacy role for private waste service interests and
has undertaken responsibility for representing the private sector at both
the federal and state level in the U.S., and federal and provincial levels in
Canada.
Since its inception, NSWMA with the active support of its members, has taken
the lead in successfully analyzing industry trends and determining the impact
of those trends on the waste service industry. As a result, NSWMA has been in
the vanguard of those anticipating and responding to virtually every issue
affecting private waste management.
Through a comprehensive information-gathering network and its staff of technical,
legal and political analysts, NSWMA monitors information and issues at the state
and federal level and tracks them through the policy-making process. In addition,
association staff prepare, and present, testimony before Congressmen and state
legislators, and assist legislators and government agencies in drafting rules
and regulations.
Ir order to streamline information management and facilitate the exchange of
irformatinn a"1™? members, NSWMA uses a comr>"terized information system. TMs
erables NSWMA to'determine the status of any bill in any state at any hour of
the day.
NSWMA also sponsors a number of programs which are designed to expand public,
government and media awareness of the responsibilities of the waste management
industry and demonstrate the industry's commitment to protecting the public
and enhancing the environment. NSWMA staff regularly address public, and
other special groups, with particular interests in waste management. In
addition to this, NSWMA directs an active ongoing media relations campaign,
including the publication of bulletins, brochures, press releases and the
international monthly magazine: Waste Age.
The nature of the waste management industry deems that political concerns
are indivisible from technical issues and this necessitates a close relation-
ship among all the programs NSWMA offers its members. Thus, the chapter,
federal government and public affairs efforts are not distinct from, but
go hand-in-hand with, the technical support and educational programs and
activities.
Although the industry is international in scope and application, issues which
affect waste service delivery arise and must be addressed locally as well.
The chapter program is the cornerstone of this wide-ranging legislative and
educational effort.
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16
Chapters are the means by which NSWMA mobilizes the industry within states
or provinces. Through the chapters, NSWMA maintains close contact with members
in an area and reinforces a vigorous legislative program.
Because the chapters are an important local resource, NSWMA is able to assist
members with issues important to the industry such as public utility regulations,
disposal taxes, waste flow control and ownership, vehicle licensing and regulations,
weight laws, fuel tax exemptions and environmental regulations.
The chapters offer members an opportunity to work with others in the industry to
present a unified industry's viewpoints before government. Technical seminars
on equipment, management and other business-related matters are provided for
members through chapter meetings.
To represent specific interests of distinct membership constituencies, NSWMA
has created a variety of institutes and councils:
The Institute of Waste Technology explores new technological de-
velopments in refuse collection, sanitary landfill ing procedures
and liquid waste and sludge hauling. Under the IWT there are:
the Sanitary Landfill Council; the Waste Haulers Council; and
the Liquid Waste and Sludge Transporters Council.
The Waste Equipment Manufacturers Institute was established to
answer the particular needs of manufacturers of waste handling
equipment. This includes refuse collection vehicles (truck
bodies and chassis), stationary compactors, containers and refuse
processing equipment.
The Institute of Waste Equipment Distributors recognizes that
waste equipment distributors are an important link in the chain
of services provided to waste equipment users. Local distribu-
tors offer a ready understanding of the applications of refuse
equipment. In addition, a distributor provides local services
for the manufacturer, and makes parts and services easily access-
ible to a user.
The Institute of Chemical Waste Management was created as NSWMA
members became aware of the significant potential for handling
and disposing of hazardous waste. The members of ICWM also re-
cognized the problems inherent in handling hazardous waste
disposal. To this end, they have strongly advocated the need
for federal standards controlling hazardous and nonhazardous
waste collection, treatment and disposal. In addition, ICWM
members have spearheaded research and development activities
designed to improve hazardous waste management capabilities.
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16
The Institute of Resource Recovery was created in response to
the Increasingly important role of resource recovery in the waste
handling system. IRR members have long advocated the need for
the private sector to design, build and operate facilities which
efficiently and reliably dispose of solid wastes in an environ-
mentally safe manner. Whenever practicable, these facilities
should recover materials and energy.
The National Contract Sweepers Institute (NCSI) is a national
membership organization made up of professional sweeping com-
panies. More than 150 member companies provide a variety of
sweeping and related cleaning services for shopping centers,
businesses, construction projects, municipal and private streets,
and thenation's highways.
NSWMA offers its members widespread opportunities to associate professionally
through seminars and to keep abreast of industry developments as they occur.
This is accomplished through an extensive program of meetings intended to
provide a stimulating educational dimension to the services NSWMA offers its
members. Two of the association's big annual events are : the International
Waste Equipment and Technology Exposition (WasteExpo) and the Conference on
Waste Technology (WasteTech).
Privatization Expands
Two-thirds of U.S. communities and virtually all of American business and
industry rely upon private companies for waste collection and disposal
services and this number is growing.
The waste collection and disposal service field, unlike other areas of public
cleansing service has historically had a strong private sector role dating
back to the early part of this century. From the early days of horse-drawn
wagons, provate entrepreneurs have found a business opportunity in most cities
of America in collecting ashes for home heating units, food wastes, and
commercial and industrial rubbish.
Sometimes, it was an occupation of opportunity for immigrants who found road-
blocks to employment inother sectors of American industry. There has been
since thelate 1800's a place for theprivate sector in collecting waste.
But perhaps the most significant factor influencing the. growth and dominant
role of theprivate sector in waste collection anddisposal is the significant
advancement of mechanization in the collection, transportation and ultimate
disposal of wastes. Private industry, especially the transportation sector
of private industry, has played a major role in advancing the containerization,
compaction and ultimate productivity gains in handling waste. (1)
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16
These advances, all stemming from the private sector, have been adopted by
municipalities as well, but to a much lesser extent. As a result, communities,
commerce and industry have depended heavily upon the capabilities of the 10,000
waste disposal firms in the United States. The private sector role in waste
collection and disposal has been increasing and will continue to increase in
the future as the competitive strengths and productivity gains of this industry
are fully recognized.
A survey conducted by an agency of the United States government, which is now
•incorporated within the Office of Solid Waste at the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, established for the first time the significant role of the private
sector in the waste collection industry. The survey in 1970 established that
some 10,000 private firms collected 75 percent of the waste handled in the United
States including 50 percent of the household wastes and over 93 percent of the
commercial and industrial wastes. This industry utilized about 65,000 trucks
and employed about 125,000 people to perform this service, handling slightly
over 200 million tons of waste annually, at that time.
More recent surveys of the industry have further established that the relative
role of the private sector is continuing to expand especially in the area of
residential waste collection service. Proposition 13, which has frequently
been called the taxpayer's revolt in America, has been a catalyst to enable
many more cities to justify contract waste collection and disposal services
and to disband their municipal agencies; who *c*^ierly provided these scrvi™*.
The recession of 1980-83 has further accelerated the dependency of municipal
government on the use of contract waste collection and disposal services for
cities of virtually all sizes.
Why Use A Private Contractor?
We are proud that the facts speak for themselves concerning the private sector's
contribution to waste collection and disposal. A study conducted by the pres-
tigious National Science Foundation and Columbia University in the mid-1970's
determined for the first time that private waste collection service are
approximately 30 percent lower than the costs of municipally-provided waste
collection service.
This comprehensive survey of over 2,000 American cities established that the
reasons for the lower costs achievable through the private alternative were
primarily related to the automation and productivity inherent in the private
sector. It should also be recognized that while private industry
provided these services to the American public at 3U percent less cost, these
firms also were required to pay taxes that further added to their own operating
expenses. Nevertheless, despite the heavy tax burden on private industry, which
could amount to approximately 20 percent of the cost of sales of these services,
the private sector still performed at 30 percent below the costs of a municipal
agency, and continued to make a profit.
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16
A new report, "Comparative Study of Municipal Service Delivery" finalized
earlier this year by Ecodata, Inc., a New York City research firm working
under a contract from the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, bore
out the findings of the earlier study. The Ecodata researchers concluded that
private refuse contractors can perform residential refuse removal services at
the same level and quality as municipally-employed forces for 28 percent to
42 percent less. (2)
The Ecodata study reviewed eight types of services which cities can contract
out -- from traffic signal maintenance, turf and street tree maintenance to street
sweeping. The result: for seven of the eight services, private contractors
were from 37 percent to 96 percent more efficient than city-employed forces.(3)
These studies all point to the fact that cities can save money without losing
service quality by contracting out refuse removal, street sweeping and other
services.
The same conclusions were reached last year by a survey throughout Canada.
"Exclusive public sector (refuse) collection is 50.9 percent more expensive
per household than purely private collection," concluded Dr. James McDavid.
McDavid, of the University of Victoria's School of Public Administration,
found in his report "Residential Solid Waste Collection Services in Canadian
Municipalities" that residential collection in 80 percent of Canada's cities
is performed, *•« some extent, by private ccr^.ctors.
Today, citizens and officials in many towns and cities believe that working
with private industry is the best way to guarantee their communities prompt,
efficient, reliable and uninterrupted collection service. Faced with rising
operational costs, shrinking capital equipment budgets, and increased demands
from taxpayers for a higher return on their tax dollars, public officials are
relying increasingly on the private waste service industry to get the JOD aone
well— and at a low cost.
Cities that contract for private collection not only gain lower collection .
costs but a number of additional benefits as well. Municipalities are not
subject to income or other taxes, but private firms must pay excise taxes,
provincial and local sales taxes, licensing fees and other regulatory expenses.
The result is that private firms, in effect, rebate about 15 percent of their
revenues to the community.
Furthermore, many municipal managers feel that contracting offers opportunities
for better management and greater administrative flexibility. H. Edward
Wesemann, a city manager with many years of contracting experience and author
of "Contracting for City Services," cites numerous advantages in private con-
tracting.
Because contracted services are one step removed from the municipal organizational
hierarchy, budgetary decisions are not easily politicized and, in Wesemann's
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16
view, may be more objective. The transfer to the private sector of administrative
responsibility for day-to-day operations of refuse collection also frees muni-
cipal officials and employees for other duties. Moreover, contractors can
offer specialized skills to which a city might not otherwise have access,
because officials cannot justify paying for special skills with a limited
application.
One of the most important benefits of private contracting is budget control.
With a private firm providing service, the precise cost is known in advance.
Residents pay for the actual costs of service—no more, no less.
When researchers questioned how closely user fees corresponded to the actual
cost of service, they found a close correlation in cities with contract collection,
but wide variation in cities with municipal collection. According to the Columbia
University report, cities that contract out refuse collection know exactly
how much the service costs; cities with municipal collection do not. Under
contract collection, the cost of service is obvious, because it is stated in
a public document.
Cities with municipal collection, however, often have cost-accounting practices
that fail to capture and record the full cost of service. This means that actual
costs may be considerably in excess of costs recognized in the budget. Among
the costs which may be hidden by inadequate cost-accounting practices are:
"labor costs for vehicle maintenance, which mav appear under other departments
or programs; fringe benefits, including pension contributions; or the costs
of supplementary workers "borrowed" from other departments to fill in during
absences of regular workers.
How Do Private Contractors Achieve Lower Costs?
The answer is simplicity itself: private contractors achieve greater productivity
and cost saving efficiencies by working longer, harder and smarter. It is simply
a matter of better management. Study after study shows public agencies have
institutional problems with overcoming barriers to productivity and cannot duplicate
the incentives available which spur private sector efficiencies.
The first reason contractors achieve lower costs than municipal agencies is
that workers employed by contractors work more days per year than do employees
of municipal agencies.
Private sector refuse workers work an average of 237 days per year while
municipal workers log only 226. according to the Ecodata survey. If all
else were equal, this factor alone would account for approximately a five
percent cost difference between municipal agencies and contractors. (4)
8
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16
Ecodata staffers also found differences in expectations of managers. Contractors
were far more likely to require managers of service delivery to be responsible
for equipment maintenance as well as worker activities. Contractors were also
more likely to vest authority for hiring and firing of workers in their first-
line supervisors. Contractors had more worker turnover indicated by a younger,
less tenured work force. (5)
This data showed that contract cities have significantly less labor intensity
of production, shorter vacations, more frequent use of incentive systems, greater
likelihood that supervisors have the right to fire workers, a younger work force
with less seniority, lower absenteeism and larger crews than did municipal
cities. (5)
As might be expected of government, the Ecodata study found municipal agencies
more likely to have formalized communications -- including unions, staff meetings,
and the use of written reprimands for unsatisfactory behavior. (5)
According to the earlier Columbia University report, sound management techniques
are the key to the success private firms enjoy. Companies surveyed were found
to provide consistently high quality collection service with fewer workers
per truck and larger vehicles. By the same token, the absentee rate for private
workers was nearly half that of municipal workers, and more companies used
incentives directly related to work performance to achieve higher productivity.
The McDavid report found that private collection crews are 95 percent more
productive than their public counterparts and 60 percent more productive than
public crews in mixed settings. (6)
McDavid also found that incentives offered to workers by private contractors
were higher. In the Canadian study, McDavid looked at the number of different
incentives offered to crews by public, private and mixed setting public producers,
and found that private firms offered their crews an average of one incentive
per firm. Public producers, on the other hand, offered an average of .375
incentives per municipality. Public producers in mixed settings were closer
to private firms in that they offered .68 incentives per municipality. (6)
Differences in average salaries for full-time crews were not that large,
although they too help to explain cost differences, McDavid found. Public
sector salaries averaged $19,272 in 1980, compared to $17,441 for private
firms and $18,128 for public producers in mixed settings. (6)
Differences in production technologies also help to explain cost differences,
McDavid reported. Private producers tend to use bigger vehicles, and to man
them less heavily. (6)
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16
McDavid mentioned another factor worth noting. Although less tangible, the
element of competition may be the most critical factor in inducing increased
efficiency. Private sector firms tend to compete with each other for municipal
contracts to collect solid waste. This would be expected to keep costs down.
Interestingly, in mixed settings, municipal procedures are consistently closer
to private-only systems in terms of costs per household than are public-only
systems. It may be that even where municipal producers dominate, but do not
control all the residential collection, there will still be benefits from com-
petition. (6)
Clearly, McDavid wrote, an issue for further research is the importance of
competition in generating incentives for productivity improvements and greater
efficiency. During the course of the study, several cities reported a deliberate
strategy of dividing all residential solid waste collection (single family,
strata units and apartments) between their own men and equipment, and those
of private firms. Administrators that reported this arrangement cited the
advantage of competition in keeping costs in line and quality of service up. (6)
Politicians are becoming more aware of the private waste industry's competitive
edge and more supportive of contract and franchise services, not only for collection
and disposal, but also for recycling.
Comp_etitipn Boosts_Innovation
The prsivate sector has led the way to automation of solid waste collection and
disposal in this country. Competition forces private companies to be innovative
in order to reduce costs whereas municipal collectors have precious little in-
centive to be innovative.
Capital equipment is the responsibility of the private contractor. He or she
has to decide what level of investment is necessary and how up-to-date to
keep with changing technology. The level of maintenance has to be determined,
and the provisions made to achieve it. The result is that the local authority
does not have to keep ratepayers' money tied up in expensive plants and machinery,
or have the upkeep of an entire department devoted to it. It simply buys into
the use of equipment when it signs a contract.
Most publications devoted to the topic of privatization indicate that productivity
of most public service agencies is retarded by the monopolistic characteristics
of the public service delivery system and stifled by the political fear of
risk taking; innovation and new technology lag behind the private sector. The
primary purpose of government is not the delivery of services but the formulation
of policies necessary to improve the quality of life of their constituents.
Those publications also recommend that if government is to remain as a competitor,
then municipalities should operate under the same rules as the private sector.
At the very least this should mean; legal corporate structuring, financial
accountability, no subsidies from general revenue, and the production of re-
tained earnings of an amount similar to the taxes and fees paid by the private
sector.
10
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16
The non-public alternative provider has the advantage of being able to readily
adapt to changing conditions. Contracts can be changed, amended, and even broken
to incorporate innovations or the use of new methods. Such advantages do not
often accrue to public bureaucracies because of legal, political, fiscal and
structural restraints.
N:>WMA predicts private contractors will continue to be at the forefront of
introducing new and better equipment and management techniques to the industry.
It is in their best interest to do so in order to remain competitive. Governments
do not have the same incentives to take risks, and refuse collection is just
one of many services municipalities provide; it is not their sole occupation
a:; with private refuse companies.
The Future Of Private Contracting
Economic conditions and public awareness of alternative delivery systems which
use city workers to collect refuse have made it more difficult for U.S.
communities to afford municipal sanitation departments -- and taxpayers are
less willing to pay higher costs for no better service. For the same reasons,
many communities also rely solely on private companies for disposal of
solid waste and street sweeping as well.
Where i? priv?MCation going in the waste-handling field in the U.S. todav
and tomorrow? There is no question that the private sector's role in waste
collection, especially in residential waste collection, is exoandino steadily
an more cities turn to contract and franchise services.
All of these trends towards privatization are expected to continue into the
next century. The National Solid Wastes Management Association, trade organization
of the private waste industry, estimates that by the year 2000 at least 75 per-
cent of U.S. residential wastes will be collected by private firms through
contract and franchise arrangements with muncipalities. We further project
that the private sector's role in recycling will continue at today's high level
0" well over 90 percent.
In the area of hazardous waste treatment and disposal, the private sector's
role has been virtually 100 percent. The role of government in this area is
one of regulatory control and enforcement. We think this makes good sense
where only government can set the rules and enforce them, and the private
sector's ability to apply the best treatment and disposal technology is well-
established.
The creation of the federal hazardous waste regulatory program in 1976, and
v;s subsequent stages of implementation which still continue at this time, have
given birth to a new industry for the collection, treatment, and disposal of
hazardous wastes. Prior to 1976, this industry did not exist. However, since
that time it has developed rapidly to the point where, today, the industry
i:; developing into a sophisticated, high technology business for handling
11
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16
hazardous wastes. Over the next ten years, the industry will mature rapidly,
ar>d a relatively small number of firms with enormous capital investment will
handle the hazardous waste generated by those American industries which do
not recycle, treat or dispose of their own wastes. Presently, only five
percent of all hazardous wastes are managed by commercial hazardous waste
firms. We project that the volume handled by off-site facilities will increase
sharply over the next decade.
Conclusions
In presenting this overview of private waste service in North America, we can
report that privatization is expanding primarily because it is simply cheaper
for municipalities to rely on private contractors. Private contractors have
achieved lower costs through competition, which mandates that they lower
employee and equipment costs while maintaining quality service. Competition
ialso leads to technological and managerial innovations that municipalities
simply can not match. There is no question that privatization will continue
to expand into the next century encompassing a wider range of services than
are currently offered as recycling technology grows and hazardous waste treat-
ment and disposal needs expand.
12
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Tables
16
r
PRODUCTION OF
RAW MATERIALS
PRODUCTION OF
GOODS a ENERGY
CONSUMPTION OF GOODS
RESIDENTIAL AMD
COMMERCIAL WASTE
MUNICIPAL SOLID
WASTE
UNCOLLECTEO
COLLECTED BY CONVENTIONAL
S WC SERVICES
TREATMENT FOR
SIZE AND/ OR
VOLUME REDUCTION
DISCHARGE INTO
WATERWAYS
SPECIAL COLLECTION
OR TRANSPOSITION
TREATMENT FOR
MATERIAL AND/OR
ENERGY RECOVERY
Flow Diagram of the Solid Waste Generation, Collection, and Disposal System.
Summary of Survey Findings
4. Cities ~vith Collection by Municipal Agencies or Private Firms
1929
Municipal
Index
Percentage of cities with any municipal collection
Percentage of cities with any collection by private firms3
B. Distribution of Cities by Residential Service Arrangement
Service A 'rangement
Municipal
Contract
Private
Municipa . and Contract
Municipa and Private
Contract and Private
Municipal, Contract and Private
'"Private" includes both franchise and private collection.
^Where entries are absent, data were not reported.
44%
61
1939
APWA
67%
45
1955
APWA
72%
45
1973
1964 1968 1969 Public
APWA PUS Stone Works
65% 41% 72% 65%
56 N.R.b 36 42
1973 1974
APWA 1CMA
65% 61%
61 49-62
1915
Columbia
University
37.3%
66.7
, in percentages
39%
32
23
2
3
1
38%
4
7
5
31
11
S
55%
IS
11
8
6
2
3
45%
18
13
3
15
5
2
39%
16
12
6
16
7
4
34%
19
42*
0-1
3a
1»
O.I
13
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Classification of Solid Waste
Type
Composition (Descriptive}
Source
1. Agricultural waste
(a.) crop residues
00 animal
2. Mineral waste
3, Municipal solid waste
(a) garbage
(b) rubbish (or trash)
(i) combustible
(mostly organic)
(ii) noncombustible
(mostly inorganic)
(<:) ashes
(ij) bulky waste
(<:) other municipal waste
4. Abandoned vehicles
S. industrial waste
6. Construction and demolition waste
7. Hazardous waste
8. Sewage treatment residues
harvesting residue, vineyard and orchard prunings, green-
house wastes
manure, slaughterhouse wastes
earth and rock from mining, extraction, and refining
farms
farms, feedlots, slaughterhouses
mines, ore-processing and mineral-
Terming plants
waste from the storage, handling sale, preparation, cooking, households, institutions, and commercial
and serving of food establishments
paper, cardboard, wood, plastics, rags, cloth, leather, rubber,
yard waste (grass, leaves)
metal, cans, metal foil, dirt, stones, crockery, ceramics,
glass, bottles
residue from fires used for cooking and for space heating
stoves, refrigerators, heaters, and other large appliances;
furniture, crates, tires, auto parts, tree limbs
street and alley sweepings, catch-basin dirt, contents of
litter receptacles in public places, refuse ftom parks and
beaches, dead animals, tree and landscaping refuse (other.
than yard waste)
automobiles and trucks
waste from industrial processes, manufacturing and power
generation including cinders, ash, and scraps and shavings
of wood, metals
lumber, concrete, plaster, roofing, pipe, brick, conduit,
sheathing, wire, insulation
pathological waste, explosives, radioactive material, poisons,
hazardous chemicals, pesticides
screenings, grit, digested and dewatered sludge
same
same
same
same
'streets and other public property
same
factories, industrial plants, power plants
construction sites
industry and institutions
sewage treatment plants
Organizational Elements in Solid Waste Collection
Service Recipient
Service Provider
Service Arranger
Type of Service
residential household
commercial establishment
industrial establishment
institution (schools, hospitals, religious structures)
streets (roadways, sidewalks, litter baskets)
parks and other public spaces
municipal government
county government
local government of a different jurisdiction
private hauling firm
special district or authority
service recipient
voluntary association
municipality
county
special district or authority
voluntary association
service recipient
collection of mixed residential refuse
collection of garbage
collection of trash
collection of yard trash
collection of combustibles
collection of noncombustibles
collection of bulk
collection of paper
14
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16
References
1. E.S. Savas, The Organization and Efficiency of Solid Waste Collection, 1977,
Chapter 2, Lexington Books, Lexington, Massachusetts U.S.A.
?.. B.J. Stevens, Comparative Study of Municipal Service Delivery, February, 1984,
Ecodata, Inc., New York, NewYork, (Funded by U.S. Department of Housing and
Urban Development).
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid, Page 16.
5. Ibid, Pages 16-20.
15. Dr. J. McDavid, Residential Solid Waste Collection Services in Canadian
Municipalities, Pages 34-35, School of Public Administration, University
of Victoria, Canada.
Background References
1. E.S. Savas, Policy Analysis for Local Government: Public vs. Private Refuse
Collection. Vol. 3, Number 1, Winter 1977.
?.. M. Forsyth, The Myths of Privatization, 1983, The Adam Smith Institute,
London, Great Britain.
3. NSWMA Privatization Brochures, Washington, D.C. U.S.A.
15
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Paper 17
MONSANTO COMPANY'S WASTE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM
M.L. Mull ins
Director, Regulatory Management
Monsanto Company
St. Louis, Missouri
INTRODUCTION
In every recent poll taken to determine what's on the mind of the American
public, hazardous wastes are right up there with fear of things nuclear and
cancer. We also find that hazardous wastes and the Chemical Industry are
all run together by the public. When you're talking with friends outside
the industry, you're ask questions - not about what wonderful new life
sciences or high tech product you're working on - but about what you're
doing to solve that awful hazardous waste problem. Little wonder, more
media time and space is being dovoted to waste issues than any other
single issue.
The purpose of this paper is to describe the problem, the objectives my
company has set for itself to do our share to put this problem behind us,
and finally the policies and programs we've put in place to that end.
THE CHALLENGE
In the late '60's and early '70's, when one said environmental problems it
was taken to mean smoke from a stack. In the mid '70's, it became dead
fish and rivers that caught fire. In the '80's it's become a vague image
of rusty and leaking drums with poison symbols. Until the '70's, and in
many cases the late '70's, disposal of wastes on or in the land was
considered quite responsible, or simply not considered at all. Under-
standing of groundwater movement and contamination was limited or non-
existent. The waste management industry was unsophisticated at best,
disreputable in many instances and criminal in some. We had not learned
to feel responsible for wastes after they were in the hands of a waste
contractor. The oil shortage of '73 - '74 spawned a new recycle industry
that itself created many of the sites we're now faced with cleaning up.
Toward the end of the '70's, public awareness began to focus on hazardous
waste, as Love Canal and the Valley of the Drums became the subject of
TV documentaries and even fiction. Congress reacted with RCRA (The
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act) in 1976 and with CERCLA (The
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act) or
"Superfund" in 1980. Just as these programs were really getting underway,
the much publicized and politicized Congressional investigations under-
mined public confidence to the extent that both laws are being expanded,
accelerated and tightened significantly, and there is a clear outcry for
visible progress. That progress in waste management practices is
seldom visible to the public, as opposed to continuing discovery of
abandoned dump sites and other evidence of past mismanagement. It may
take a long time to change these perceptions.
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17
We are just beginning to learn how much hazardous waste is produced,
recycled, treated and disposed in the U.S. Disposal seems to be best
defined, and is thought to be in the order of 60 million tons per year.
Just over half of this is attributed to the Chemical Industry, much due
to injection of highly dilute wastes in disposal wells. Some three
million tons are disposed of by our industry via landfills, disposal
impoundments, waste piles, land application and ocean dumping. Monsanto
accounts for about 2% of this total, or about 40,000 tons - all landfilled.
We incinerate about half that amount. Having sized the problem, let's
review where all these wastes come from.
I mentioned a moment ago that the emphasis has passed from air to water
to solid wastes. This phased maturity of environmental programs has
resulted in our taking pollutants out of the air and putting them into
water, only to then landfill wastewater treatment sludge. Much of the
waste we're struggling with is from such sources.
Other major sources include impurities removed from products during
manufacturing, off-grade unusable product, spent solvents and other
discarded used materials.
The 1976 RCRA law goes a long way toward avoiding repetition of the
practices which resulted in many of today's "Superfund" sites. It
provides for listing of hazardous wastes and for indentification of all
waste generators; manifesting of shipments 1.0 provide a clear audit
trail for future liability determination; and for permitting of any
treatment, storage and disposal facilities requiring tough design and
operating standards.
The jury is still out however, as to whether the present RCRA law goes
far enough. It appears to have eliminated illegal dumping and will allow
disposal only in well designed and operating facilities - essentially
landfills, impoundments, deep wells and incinerators. The big remaining
question then is whether these facilities provide sufficient long term
protection to avoid the spector of future release to the environment and
cleanup cost.
Incineration appears to be the safest alternative for materials which
can be so treated, as the standards require systems which achieve 99.99%
destruction and removal efficiency, and the only residual is a small
quantity of ash which is a candidate for low risk landfill.
Deep Injection wells have also been viewed as an environmentally safe
technology for dilute aqueous wastes which can be pumped into formations
which are isolated from potential sources of drinking water by thousands
of feet of impermeable strata.
The methods of most current concern then are surface land disposal -
predominantly landfill and impoundments. Most of the "Superfund" sites
involve these methods, and while a far cry from the facilities in operation
today, and even more distantly removed from the ones which will be
permitted in the next few years, all agree that their use should be reduced,
eventually to only those wastes not amenable to recycle, or treatment.
-2-
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17
The remainder of this discussion, then, deals with how to achieve this
reduction.
REDUCTION PROGRAMS
Getting a serious waste management program underway is strikingly similar
to energy conservation programs. Today, even in a relatively relaxed at-
mosphere in terms of energy availability and cost, few would question the
efficacy of such programs.
Getting them started in '73 and '74 however was like pulling teeth, and
we can learn from those experiences. Programs must:
- Have the clear, visible and ongoing support of top management;
- Be primarily a line responsibility;
- Have solid staff, engineering and technical resources available;
- Have measuring systems in place to indicate progress;
- Be reflected in individual goals and objectives;
- Receive sustaining support and attention - it takes time.
Having laid this groundwork, the actual program details can be estab-
lished.
Monsanto's program, seemingly typical of those evolving in the Chemical
Industry, consists of five major elements; process review, waste stream
screening for reuse opportunities, treatment/disposal selection, con-
tractor auditing and reporting.
PROCESS REVIEW
Perhaps the most important element to long term success is process review,
or those activities aimed at reducing waste streams at the source.
Instilling this need at the earliest^ possible time in a new process's
life cycle is criterical. This means that the single individual or
research team involved must have the message going into the research
effort. If you wait until the process is defined and raise the need for
waste-load reduction in - for example - a project environmental review,
you may be too late to justify the changes necessary to achieve the best
process from a waste generation standpoint. In addition to new processes,
an organized program to review existing ones is important. A listing of
all processes ranked in ascending order of yield percentage (or in
descending order by kg of waste per kg of product) serves as a valuable
prioritizing took to insure the worst are dealt with first. Finally,
procedures are needed to insure that waste reduction is considered in any
process improvement, expansion, debottle-necking or modernization projects.
In each type of review, a number of elements will be examined:
-3-
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17
- Mass balance of the process and alternative processes.
- Identification of where and how wastes are generated, including raw
materials, unit operations, incidental losses (such as material
handling), process operating parameters (pressure, temperature, re-
cycle rates, etc.), catalysts, and finally, the relative risks of
different wastes streams.
- An objective cost/benefit analysis of alternative processes, which
treats land disposal as long term storage, with additional costs
identified as a reserve for remedial action.
- A management review, perhaps as a part of the appropriation request
procedure, which makes sure management is making a conscious decision
as to whether the lowest long term alternative is being selected.
WASTE STREAM SCREENING
Existing waste streams, as well as those which remain after the above
process review, should be evaluated to identify what has come to be called
UR3 opportunities (use, reuse, recycle and reclaim). As a minimum, the
following questions should be asked regarding each waste stream:
- Can the stream be recycled back into the original process?
- Can it be used in another process?
- Can it be sold as a co-product? Can listing in a waste exchange
program find a customer?
- Can it be reclaimed - that is, processed so as to make it reusable,
recyclable or salable?
- Can it be used as a fuel, or for it's fuel value?
- Can a useful constituent be economically extracted?
Again, in answering these questions, the total potential long term cost
of treatment, storage or disposal of the waste should be used in any
economic evaluations.
TREATMENT/DISPOSAL SELECTION
For existing waste streams and ones which remain after the above reduction
efforts, a deliberate selection process is needed to insure that the
waste is managed in a way which offers acceptable long term cost/environ-
mental safety balance. Ideally, if the approach described above under
"Process Review" (ie: costing land disposal as though it were storage to
be followed by eventual remedial/corrective action), the environmental
safety element will be folded into the economics.
-4-
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17
Monsanto has adopted a program which calls for a stepwise upgrading of
its waste management program in the following sequence:
- Remove all acutely hazardous wastes from land disposal.
- Remove all incinerable wastes from land disposal.
- Pretreat all remaining wastes which must or should be disposed of on
or in the land to insure that they will not migrate to groundwater -
whether or not the disposal facility containment is intact.
- Send wastes only to approved management facilities.
(see "Contractor Auditing" below).
- Design and construct the best economically achievable treatment,
storage and disposal facilities.
"Incinerable", as used above, is taken as 6000 btu's per Ib. "Acutely
hazardous" includes wastes with greater than a 556 content of material on
ERA'S 261.33(e)"P" list.
Many of the above program elements will be helped by regulation if pending
amendments to RCRA pass during this Congress. We don't believe it makes
much sense to wait until these measures are required by law however, in
that tho compliance timetables are such tl'.v'.'- it will be difficult or
impossible to "get up to speed" in time to meet regulatory deadlines
without a head start. Also, any wastes disposed of in the interim in
less than the most cost/effective way, will be just that much more of a
future liability.
CONTRACTOR AUDITING
"Superfund" has taught us that our waste contractors may never completely
take on long term liability for wastes which they manage for us. Thus,
we must satisfy ourselves that such operations are being conducted in a
way which best protects the interests of our Company. The waste manage-
ment industry is doing a great deal to police itself, and as more
facilities begin operating under final permits, the regulatory system
will provide additional assurances. It is unlikely, however, that
generators will ever be able to responsibly forget about wastes when
they go out the gate. A sound inspection or audit program is a way to
systematize this ongoing responsibility. Such a program can be done
idependently or by a consultant. There may even be a scheme emerge
wherein a single accreditation can meet the needs of all of a facility's
clients. Whatever the system, periodic spot checks, shipment following,
and verification of documentation are important elements. Companies
should establish schedules wherein facilities are not subjected to re-
dundant visits from different plants of the same firm. Scheduled
frequency should also reflect the track record of the firm, and the
volume and nature of the wastes.
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17
REPORTING
A final indispensable element of a waste management program is a measure-
ment and reporting system which indicates progress against the criteria
established in the program. Developing such a system which has clear
definitions which mean the same to all respondents is a very difficult
job, as EPA discovered in its Westat Survey and the Chemical Manufacturers
Association (CMA) continues to learn in it's ongoing annual surveys. The
CMA survey has been thru two cycles and many (hopefully most) of the bugs
have been eliminated. It can be used as a model for company reporting.
Copies can be obtained from Ms. Janet Matey, Chemical Manufacturers
Association, 2501 M Street NW, Washington, D.C. 20037.
FINALLY
The Senate version of the RCRA reauthorization bill contains a requirement
that generators of hazardous waste certify on manifests that they have a
waste reduction plan in place. Bi-annual reports will require a summary
of program elements and progress. Other amendments, not adopted this
time around, would have required that EPA establish standards for each
process - similar to effluent guidelines in Water Programs - which would
limit the amount of waste a generator could produce. The handwriting is
on the wall. The best defense against such a restrictive and costly
regulatory program, is a sound voluntary initiative similar to that which
succeeded in avoiding a mandatory energy conservation program. The ball
is in our court!
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Paper 18
DIRECTION FOR RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
Dr. Sachiho Naito
Professor, Civil Engineering Department
Kanto-Gakuin University
Yokohama, Japan
1. Introduction
In the Waste Disposal and Public Cleansing Law (called "the Waste
Disposal Law" hereinafter), it is said that the purpose of the
waste management is to preserve the living environment and to
improve the public health through appropriate disposal of waste
and conservation of clean environment.
In the Waste Disposal Law, basically, municipalities are respon-
sible for domestic waste disposal, and Enterprisers are respon-
sible for industrial waste disposal. On the other hand, the
responsibility of the National Government is to make plans for
technical development in waste disposal in order to give neces-
sary technical and financial assistance to the municipalities
and the Prefectural Governments for adequate performance of their
duties. The National Government has therefore been executing
various research and development projects in the field of waste
disposal taking into account the technical, economic, and social
program.
So far, several investigations and research and development pro-
jects have been executed under the request of the administration.
In the future, these will have to be executed with a long-term
prospect acting in concern with the changes in various circum-
stances such as the social economy and needs for a desirable
living environment surrounding waste management.
Accordingly, in the Water Supply and Environmental Sanitation
Department, Ministry of Health and Welfare (called "K.H.W." here-
inafter) , the Advisory Committee of Research and Development
Program (called "the Advisory Committee" hereinafter) was estab-
lished in March, 1983. The subjects of research and development
were investigated in the short term through 1990 and in the long
term through 2000. Consequently, the Advisory Committee completed
a Report, "Research and Development Program" in March, 1984. The
direction for Research and Development with an introduction of
the Advisory Committee's Report follows.
- 1 -
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18
2. The needs and objectives for research and development
(1) The needs for research and development
Because a huge amount of resources and energy are consumed to
enjoy a comfortable life, a variety of waste has been discharged
resulting in a serious problem of waste disposal.
In addition, the social circumstances surrounding waste disposal
have changed a great deal. For example, the quality of waste has
chanced along with the change of life style, and the values
associated with waste recycling such as reuse and resource
recovery have been increased. Accordingly, new countermeasures
for adequate waste disposal are required.
Basic manner compatible with these problems is as follows.
1} To limit waste discharge as much as possible;
2) To remove waste from living space as quickly as possible;
to reduce, stabilize adequately, and eliminate harmful waste;
and to use waste effectively;
3) To treat and dispose of waste carefully considering how to
preserve tne present environment.
It is important, in any case, that the circumstances are formed
in a way that takes into account the continuous life activities
without any serious problem owing to the existence of waste and
its disposal.
{2} Present and future problems
The main problems at present are as follows.
1) It has become more and more difficult to establish waste
treatment facilities due to a land use limitation because
city life will be susceptible to waste treatment facilities.
2) The waste has changed in either quality or quantity with the
diversification of the industrial structure and life style,
so that waste which is difficult to remove and dispose of
harmlessly is increasingly discharged into the environment.
In addition, waste litter such as empty cans is growing
rapidly.
3) Kany inadequate disposals such as illegal dumping are reported
because appropriate disposal of waste has not been recognized
by the person who is going to discharge wastes.
4) The cost of waste disposal is escalating due to the lowering
-------
18
of collection and transportation efficiency, strengthening of
countermeasures for preserving the environment and improving
collection service by request of inhabitants.
5) Although old paper collection, empty can collection, resource
recovery waste heat utilization from domestic waste, and re-
utilization of industrial waste have been carried out in view
of economic values associated with resource and energy recov-
ery, even more resource recovery and waste reutilization is
required.
€} Although flush toilets have become prevalent throughout the
country, house drainage has become an important problem as a
main cause of the deterioration of the living environment
owing to the slow-down of sewerage construction.
7) As to the land which had been used for landfill disposal in
the past, there are apprehensions of possible disturbances in
land use and environmental protection.
£} Although waste management, especially industrial waste manage-
ment, has been executed extensively., the status is not appar-
ent enough because of a lack of information on waste manage-
ment boyr.r.-3 an administrative bc'^^ary of a Prefectural
Government.
S1} Although research and development in waste management has been
made by various research institutes- the use of research and
development results is not efficient because research insti-
tutes are not well organized.
In addition to these items, new problems which will become
important in the future are as follows.
].; Although waste reduction will progress a great deal depending
on resource recovery and reutilizatior. of waste, the discharge
of waste such as sewage sludge, construction and derr.olition
waste, and coal cinders will continue to increase.
2) Waste quality will change progressively in the future due to
new chemical products and materials as science technology
improves and life styles change. Accordingly, new environ-
mental problems will have to be solved in terms of discharge
of waste which is impossible to dispose of appropriately and
formation of nev; secondary products in waste management.
(3) The objectives of research and development
M.H.W. received a report "The Basic Policies for Administration
of Future Waste Management" from "the Council of Living Environ-
ment" in November, 1983. In the report, the basic policies are
- 3 -
-------
18
written as follows.
1) Progress of appropriate disposal
i) Establishment and improvement of domestic waste disposal
facilities
ii) Counterrneasures for waste which disposal is difficult
iii) Counterrneasures for drainage from houses
iv) Countermeasures for waste litter
v) Strengthening of a body for industrial waste management
2) Improvement of resource recovery from and reutilization of
waste
3) Improvement of an extensive waste management system
4) Strengthening of a foundation for administration of waste
management
i) Strengthening of an organization to monitor and guide
ii) Countermeasures for cross-regional administration
iii) Strengthening of counterraeasures for industrial safety and
hygiene
iv) Measures to secure technical experts
v) Application of technology in private companies
5) Improvement of technology and development
6) Strengthening of international cooperation and coordination
To improve the principle policies mentioned above, the Advisory
Committee pointed out the following items as objectives of
research and development.
1} Improve public health
2) Strengthen environment conservation
3) Conserve resources, and promote resource recovery and reutili-
zation
4) Improve efficiency in waste management enterprise
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18
5) Strengthen an administrative foundation
&) Improve waste treatment technology
7) Strengthen a support system to accomplish the above objectives
from 1) to 7}
3. Executed Investigations and Research
il) Investigations and Research by the National Government
1) Investigations and Research by M.H.W.
It is especially expected that the National Government should
execute investigations and research that have a role of guidance,
that require large-scala facilities and funds, that are executed
cill over the country, and that require a positive induction. So
far, the subjects of investigations and research have been
selected taking into account the needs of the administration.
Table 3-1 shews the investigations and research which K.H.YJ. had
executed in the past or has executed recently. In addition, Table
:»-2 shows the transition of them. Recently, resource recovery and
reutilization of waste, reduction of environmental effect with
waste management, development of new collection and transporta-
tion system, treatment technology for house drainage, and treat-
ment technology of industrial wastes have been emphasized.
1'he budgets for these investigations and research have remained
on the same level after the peak year, 1S7S.
2) Comprehensive Research Projects on Waste Management
The Environment Agency has set up 10 comprehensive research
projects to be conducted by the research institutes of relevant
Ministries and Agencies to coordinate and promote experiments and
research related to environmental protection in a comprehensive
manner.
The waste management project "Comprehensive Research on Waste
Disposal and Recycling of Wastes" has been established. In this
project, various subjects such as stable solid waste combustion
techniques and treatment and utilization of various sludge com-
positions have been studied. Table 3-3 shows subjects to be
studied in 1984.
(2) Investigations and Research by Local Government
In selecting the subjects of investigations and research to be
~;xecuted, Local Governments emphasized subjects such as resource
recovery and effective utilization from waste and landfill tech-
- 5 -
-------
18
nology for domestic waste. For industrial waste, emphasis is or.
research on the actual condition of discharge and disposal of
waste and investigation for establishing a plan.
The objectives of investigations and research by Local Govern-
ments have been set to promote an appropriate disposal fitted to
the individual locality's mode of living and industrial struc-
ture, in contrast with the ones by the Nationl Government.
(3) Investigations and Research by Universities and Their Rele-
vant Industries
Investigations and research by universities and their relevant
institutes have played an important role in the field of waste
management.
They have eniphaizad the basic and principle subjects under the
conditions of limited facilities and funds.
4. Future research and development subjects
(!) Research and development subjects
Future research and development subjects had been examined
considering the objectives mentioned above and the review oi tne
executed investigations and research. Table 4-1 shows the
subjects to be classified in the field of solid waste.
In this table, "Immediate Subjects" mean the subjects to be
solved urgently, and "Long-term Subjects" mean subjects taking
a long time to solve in spite of being actualized already or
having a high possibility to cause new problems in future in
spite of being unactualized at present.
A parenthesized title number indicates subjects relating to the
construction of facilities or the development of treatment tech-
nology. A nonparenthesized title number indicates subjects
relating to making a plan on waste management or methods for the
control and monitoring of waste treatment facilities, etc.
(2) Classification of research and development subjects
It is possible to arrange the research and development subjects
from various points of view. Table 4-2 and Table 4-3 show sub-
jects arranged from the viewpoints (technology, economic effi-
ciency, system, manpower, and others) and the objectives of
research and development mentioned on the chapter 2.
In these tables, the figures on each column correspond to the
numbers of the subjects in table 4-1.
- 6 -
-------
18
Certain numbers are often indicated in several columns because of
being able to arrange the same subjects from several viewpoints
and objectives of research and development.
E> . Organization for research and development
(1) How to advance research and development
The Advisory Committee has requested that the National Government
take the lead in the following items in order to deal with the
various problems of waste management in the future.
]. ) The subjects having a guidance role
2) The extremely fundamental subjects that need positive promo-
tion
3) The subjects which cannot be executed by private sectors owing
to the large risk of a present investment
4) The subjects in which require a nation-wide solution
*>) The subjects related to national standards, guidelines/
tic, etc.
6) The subjects related to international cooperation with foreign
countries or international organizations
The above mentioned subjects are difficult for private sector
such as individual industries or universities to take up inde-
pendently, and have the possibility of duplication of investment
if undertaken by Local Governments. Therefore, the National
Government should prepare an operation program which emphasizes
these research and development subjects.
In addition, the National Government's enforcement or participa-
tion is desired in the following research and development sub-
jects .
].) The subjects requiring negotiation among the relevant execu-
tive research and development organizations.
-------
18
(2) Organization for Research and Development
It is necessary to aim at establishing a comprehensive organiza-
tion for research and development in order to deal with the
future problems appropriately and to execute research and devel-
opment effectually and effectively.
Accordingly, the Advisory Committee's Report proposes that a
national central organization for research and development re-
lated to waste management be established. This organization is
required to have the following functions.
1) Systems research on software inseparable from social system
such as a plan for reducing waste in addition to research
and development of disposal technology and process of indus-
trial waste.
2) The role as the information center which collects, analyzes,
and systematizes the information and data including existing
chemical and engineering findings and experiences and to
process them into useful data base and making them available
to interested organizations.
3) Understanding and estimating technical developments related
to waste management in private sectors
4) Training and education to develop experts in waste management
As the first step of attainning the above objectives, the
Advisory Committee's Report proposes to expand and strengthen the
function of the Institute of Public Health in relation to exper-
iments, research, training, and organization.
Moreover, it is also important to provide appropriate guidance
and encouragement to research and development efforts of individ-
ual organizations, to help hold the conferences of experts
concerned with waste management, and to support and bring up
relevant scientific and academic organizations.
- 8 -
-------
18
Table 3-1 Investigations, Research/ and Model Experiments
Executed Recently (since 1975} by M.H.W.
A. Domestic Waste only or both Domestic and Industrial Waste
A-l Study of effective utilization and reduction of waste
. Investigation of the actual condition of effective utili-
zation of waste (1977)
. Investigation of the actual condition of model experiments
for effective utilization of waste ( 1979 - 1980)
. Investigation of the actual condition of separate collec-
tion for effective utilization of waste (1978)
. Investigation of distribution structure of waste recycling
goods (1981 - 1983)
. Investigation of techniques for waste reduction and
resource recovery (1982 - )
. Study of improvement of efficiency for waste management
works from a viewpoint of resource recovery and effective
utilization (1983 - 84)
A-2 Planning and design
. Research and development of urban environmental planning
method in material cycling structure {1975 - 1977)
. Study of control over the place of function of material
metabolism in cities (1978 - 1980)
. Study of planning method of environmental conditions
surrounding in construction of solid waste treatment
facility (1980 - 1982)
. Study of making an environmental assessment technique in
a construction plan for a solid waste treatment facility
(1979 - 1982)
. Study of standard design for constructing a solid waste
treatment facility (1979 - 1981)
. Research on methods to reduce the municipal waste loads to
environment and to adapt the reduction methods to regional
plans (1981 - 1983)
. Investigation of a master plan for extensive waste manage-
ment works (1977 - 1978)
- 9 -
-------
18
. Research on making final disposal site's plans fitted to
districts (1978 - 1979)
. Investigation of constructing plans of domestic waste
disposal plant (1979)
. Investigation of a safe design for domestic waste disposal
plants (1984)
A-3 Investigation and study of solid waste collection and trans-
portation system
. Development of a new system of solid waste treatment
(1976 - )
. Investigation of the operating condition of the pipe-line
system of solid waste transport (1978 - 1979)
. Investigation of the estimation for solid waste collection
and transport system (1980)
. Investigation of the suitability of solid waste collection
system by vehicles (1981 - 1982)
. Investigation of pilot projects of the pipe-line system
for solid waste transport (1982)
A-4 Investigation and study of processing techniques
. Study of improvement of compost treatment methods for
municipal waste and its utilization in agriculture (1976 -
1980)
. Investigation of stable incineration technique for
reducing nitrogen oxide and unburned residues (1981 - 1983)
. Investigation and study of development for waste treatment
techniques (1975 - 1976)
. Investigation and research of treatment and disposal of
ashes and dusts in incinerators (1977 - 1979)
. Investigation of inappropriate waste in municipal cleans-
ing works (1977 - 1978)
. Investigation of a separate treatment system in obedience
to the properties of inappropriate waste in domestic waste
(1982 - 1983)
. Research on behavior of slightly hazardous material in
waste treatment disposal (1982 - )
- 10 -
-------
13
. Investigation of solid waste disposal plant improvement
techniques (1983 - )
. Investigation of development of new techniques and esti-
mation of their suitability {1984 - )
. Investigation of exhaust gas treatment techniques with
mixed combustion of waste plastic (1984 - )
A-5 Investigation and study of night soil treatment
. Investigation of the actual condition of night soil septic
tanks (1975)
. Investigation and study of a disposal method of night soil
septic tank sludge (1976 - 1978)
. Investigation of the actual condition of big night soil
septic tanks (1978)
. Investigation and research of special types of water
closets (1979)
. Investigation of
(1979 - 1981)
for domestic waste water
. Research on reduction of discharged loads from night soil
treatment plants (1979 - 1981)
. Investigation of improvement of night soil treatment
system by septic tank (1980 - 1981)
. Research on higher treatment of night soil and domestic
waste water by anaerobic digestion (1980 - 1982)
. Investigation of treatment techniques for domestic waste
water (1981 - 1983)
. Research on utilization of higher treatment of domestic
waste water (1981)
. Research on advancing of domestic waste water treatment
system (1983 - )
A-6 Investigation and study of final disposal
. Research on methods of protecting saturation in sea side
land reclamation (1978 - 1980)
. Investigation and study of development for waste treatment
techniques (1975 - 1976)
- 11 -
-------
18
. Study of development of leachate's treatment system in
landfill sites (1977 - 1979)
. Investigation of making technical guidelines for mainte-
nance and control of landfill sites {1975)
. Study of ecological and chemical prevention of the breed-
ing of rats and harmful insects in landfill sites (1980 -
1981)
. Investigation of a plan for regional waste disposal land-
fill sites (1978 - )
. Study of development of front check system for final dis-
posal (1982 - 1984)
A-7 Management
. Investigation of the actual maintenance and inspection of
domestic waste treatment facilities (1976)
. Investigation of the actual undertaking of domestic waste
treatment (1975 - )
. Investigation of drawing up a technical guideline for
management of building pit sludge.
A-8 Others
. Investigation of building refuse discharge (1976)
. Investigation of drawing up a guideline for treatment and
disposal of refuse in tourist spots (1977 - 1978)
. Study of countermeasures for treatment of domestic special
waste (1984 - )
B. Industrial Waste
B-l Investigation of the real condition of treatment
. Investigation of the real condition of sites related to
discharge of industrial waste including hazardous materi-
als such as hexavalent chromium (1975)
. Investigation of the real condition of sites discharging
hazardous industrial waste (1976)
. Investigation of the real condition of hazardous industri-
al waste including PCB or organic chlorine compound (1976)
- 12 -
-------
18
. Investigation of the real condition of discharging
industrial waste (1977)
. Investigation of the real condition of final disposal
(1978)
. Investigation of the detailed condition of waste treatment
facilities of non-designated industries (1979 - )
. Investigation of sources of quantities of discharged
refuse (1980 - 1981)
. Investigation of origin and destination of industrial
waste ( 1980 - 1981)
. Investigation of precise original unit of industrial waste
discharge in the whole country (1982)
B-2 Disposal Plan
. Study of putting a comprehensive system for industrial
waste management to practical use (1976)
T of hazardous industrial
^y of making a master
waste (1977 - )
. Comprehensive study of establishing a system to eliminate
obstacles in recycling of industrial waste for industries
depending primarily on landfill (1980 - 1982)
B-3 Technical Development
. Technical development of total disposal of industrial
waste (1976)
. Research on urgent development of technology to remove
hazardous films from waste household electric appliances
(1979)
. Development of a system for disposal of industrial waste
(1983 - )
B-4 Others
. Study of making a guide line to dispose existing industri-
al waste needing urgent disposal (1978)
. Study of making a manual for urgent inspection check of
industrial waste treatment facilities (1977)
. Study of preventive counterrneasures for illegal dumping
- 13 -
-------
18
of industrial waste (1983 - )
Study of countermeasures for bulk disposal of noxious
liquid substances (1984 - )
- 14 -
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Table 3-3 A Comprehensive Research Project on Waste Disposal and
Recycling (FY 1984)
(Ministry of Health and Welfare)
. Research on the behavior of trace hazardous material during
solid waste treatment and disposal
. Research on countermeasure techniques for exhaust gas produced
by mixed incineration treatment of waste plastics
(Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishery)
. Research on environmental evaluation of organic sludge applica-
tion to agriculture lands
(Ministry of International Trade and Industry)
. Research on leachate treatment technique for coal ash
. Research on activated treatment technique for residue in coal
combustion process
. Research •"iri effective utilization technique for coal ash
through fixation
. Research on treatment of waste containing heavy metals by
glassification
. Research on utilization of cellulosic waste from papermaking
processes
. Research on resource recovery and nonpollution treatment tech-
niques for sludge containing oil
. Research on effective utilization techniques for coal ash-steel
slug
. Research on treatment of industrial waste containing organic
chlorine compounds
(Ministry of Labor)
. Research on treatment of PVC waste using a reaction of alumi-
num with polyvinyl chloride
- 16 -
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Paper 19
DEVELOPMENT OF HAZARDOUS WASTE SITE MONITORING METHODS AND CHARACTERIZATION
H. Matthew Bills
Deputy Director
Office of Monitoring Systems and Quality Assurance
Environmental Protection Agency
401 M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
Robert F. Holmes
Environmental Scientist
Water and Waste Management Monitoring Research Division
Office of Monitoring Systems and Quality Assurance
Environmental Protection Agency
401 M Street, S.W-.
Washington, D.C. 20460
Introduction
In 1978, a name was coined by environmentalists, doctors and lawyers that
would bring about a $1.6 billion dollar Federal program. That name was "Love
Canal." It was followed closely by others such as "Valley of the Drums,"
Elisabetli, Ntw Jsrsey and many more. Six y^-s later the Love Canal prnKiptn
has not been solved, however, the United States is on its way to establishing
irajor clean-up program that hopefully will solve what has been called
"perhaps the most serious environmental problem facing the nation."
Environmental Protection Agency studies estimated that 37 million metric tons
of hazardous waste are generated annually by industry. In practice, these
wastes have been disposed of with very little control. Open dumping in land-
fills, quarries, streams and fields became common practice in the 6U's and 70's.
Another aspect of the problem is that what were once considered to be "safe"
dumps are now becoming major environmental problems. In the 1940's and bU's
dumps were considered to be safe and did not cause any concern to the public.
Groundwater, surface water and air pollution is now common as a result of
these old and often long forgotten sites.
It has been estimated that 20 thousand disposal sites are scattered through-
out the United States. Of these, up to 2000 may contain significant amounts
of hazardous materials and may pose a major pollution to near-by population
and to ground water aquifers. Few of these potentially dangerous sites have
been evaluated. Many sites are not located specifically and many more have
large amounts of chemicals which have not been evaluated for their degree of
risk.
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19
Legal Mandates
The actions of the Environmental Protection Agency in the control and clean-up
of the hazardous waste problems has been mandated by a number of laws. Section
311 of the Clean Water Act1 relates to the spillage of oil including waste,
into navigable waters of the United States and adjoining waters. Since 1972
the EPA has responded to an increasing number of spills in all section of the
country. Since 1978 hazardous waste sites such as "Valley of the Drums,"
Louisville Sewers, Oswego, New York have all been controlled under the Act.
In 1976, the Resource Conservation Recovery Act2 was passed to insure proper
handling and disposal of wastes in the future. The Act gives EPA responsi-
bility to regulate waste from generation to ultimate disposal i.e., cradle
to grave. However, the act does not cover old or abandoned dump sites.
The latest attempt concentrate the efforts of the U.S. government and the
States is the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability
Act of 1980 (Superfund)3. The Act which was signed into law in January 1981
provides for a $1.6 billion dollar fund that will allow EPA and other Federal
Agencies to clean up abandoned hazardous waste sites. The act provides a
revolving fund for clean up first and then collection from responsible parties.
If parties are not known resources are to be provided. It also provides costs
to identify, investigate and take enforcement and abatement actions when
desi red.
In this paper, I will address a series of remote monitoring techniques that
were designed by EPA photo scientists to meet the requirements to discover
the location of sites and provide a characterization for field investigators
prior to their entry into the sites.
The paper discusses techniques utilizing aircraft, aerial photography and
ancillary photo interpretation equipment to meet emergency response for quick
closure and clean-up and longer term remedial and engineering programs.
Techniques Development
The Environmental Protection Agency has been involved in the development of
remote sensing systems and techniques since 1971. Through the Office of
Research and Development, the Agency first investigated the use of aerial
photography for surveillance and prevention of oil spills^,^.
In 1973 the ORD took another step in investigating aerial surveillance during
sub-optimum weather." Following the completion of these two programs, the
ORD proceeded to propose and organize an operational program to meet the needs
of the Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasure Program for the Office of
Water Program Operations. In 1975 the first study was made to utilize aerial
photography under diverse situations, utilizing various film/filter combi-
nations to study leachates from landfills and waste sites.9 Concurrently, the
(2)
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19
ORO prepared a survey of waste dump sites in Delaware and New Jersey. In
1976 a major step was taken to put a remote sensing capability in all EPA
Regional offices. The ORD designed and had fabricated the first Enviro-
pod.^ With the advent of the system each EPA Region could acquire its own
imagery and thus have a close knit working arrangement between the photo-
interpreter and the environmental scientists.
In 1979 the ORD prepared a document "Aerial Reconnaissance of Hazardous
Substances Spills and Spill-Threat Conditions^" that demonstrated that
aerial reconnaissance procedures currently utilized in monitoring oil
production and storage facilities could also be applied to monitoring
chemical production and storage facilities. At the same time the ORU
undertook an extensive program to demonstrate overhead remote sensing
applications in compliance monitoring of hazardous waste sites. As Love
Canal, Valley of the Drums, and Memphis became common terms of EPA lawyers
and environmentalists so did photographic interpretation terms such as
trend analysis, historical search, vegetation stress and aerial surveil-
lance.
The first site-specific landfill study was a joint effort between the
Environmental Photographic Interpretation Center, (EPIC), a field station
of the Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Las Vegas, Nevada,
and the School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University^.
The EPIC provided photo acquisition services and consultation on the appli-
cation of ph:JL,jgraphy to the analysis of environmental features. Coroe11
undertook the detailed analysis, ground verification and site analysis of
thirteen landfills in Central New York.
The program was conducted over four seasons so that the effect of surface
and sub-surface water flow on the presence of leachate could be determined.
Acquisition of the photographic and thermal infrared data also took place
during daytime hours as well as early morning periods to test the full
utility of the sensors. Simultaneous ground testing was also attempted.
However, flight schedules and the presence of on-the-ground scientists
did not always occur.
The primary conclusion of the program was that "photography and thermal
scanners can be effective tools for detecting leachates and determining
the monitoring required to ascertain the environmental problems involved
in landfills." A major advantage of using remote monitoring techniques
was found to be the reduction in costs and time required to survey the
problem sites. With the use of aerial photography it was possible to
determine the presence or absence of possible problem areas, to establish
the magnitude of the problem and prepare a monitoring plan prior to entry
into the site. One point should be emphasized, the use of remote sensing
did not exclude the use of ground sampling and laboratory analysis to
determine the true extent of the problems involved.
(3)
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19
The findings of the report were:
o The best sensor is the aerial camera producing photography at a
scale of 1:5000 or larger;
o Cartographic cameras are not required but they provide better
resolution characteristics than had held 35mm or 70mm cameras;
o Color, color infrared film and thermal infrared scanners can all
be used to determine leachate problems;
o If only one camera system is available color infrared film is the
best choice to provide the most information;
o Multi-spectral scanners can be utilized but the cost involved in
data acquisition and computer processing does not make the system
cost-effective.
Additional conclusions of the study were:
Scale and Flight Parameters
The photographic scale of 1:5000 should permit detection of leachate
contamination features of about one meter in size. The flying height
above ground and the aerial coverage will vary with camera focal length.
Larger film vormats are clearly preferred for- major monitoring programs.
Photographic sensing for leachate should be conducted with high sun
angles to minimize shadows and to maximize the amount of reflectance.
Flight, parameters for a thermal scanner should be selected for a target
as small as one-half meter in size and with a net temperature difference
of approximately 30C compared with the background. Thermal scanner
missions should be flown in pre-dawn periods.
Temporal Aspects
There is a clear advantage to conducting a leachate detection program
during certain seasons of the year. In general, when there is a maximum
production of leachate and a mimimum of interference from other surface
features such as vegetation or heavy snow is a prime program requirement.
Since weather and climate are the major determinants of leachate produc-
tion for a particular landfill design, the greatest potential for
detection is during wet periods, with dry and frozen periods having the
least potential.
(4)
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19
The ideal season will depend on the climate and location. In temperature
humid areas, the best time for a sensing program will usually be early
spring, prior to heavy vegetation growth. In warmer southern areas, mid-
winter may be best; while in dry arid regions, there is little potential
for detecting leachate because little or none is produced.
Enviro-pod
In 1976, the ORD developed what has turned out to be the key to the
development of a cost-effective data acquisition proyram that puts a
camera system in the hands of the environmental scientist.° The system
called the Enviro-pod was designed to:
o fit commonly available aircraft without modification;
o be easily installed;
o be transportable as checked baggage aboard commercial airlines;
o provide data that can be analyzed by the environmental scientist
or lawyer as well as the professional photo interpreter.
At the present time the Enviro-pod has been delivered to nine of the ten
Regions and is operated by three ORD laboratories. The operating organi-
zations prepare their own flight plan, contract for aircraft to fly the
missions and then airmail the cameras back to the EPIC in Warrenton,
Virginia. If the mission has been identified as a priority program the
film if. pr°rocsed and an analysis norforiTi"H on the imagery within ?4
hours.
Applications now being peformed by the Region include:
o routine compliance monitoring;
o oil and hazardous spill detection;
o site analysis of hazardous waste sites;
o support for enforcement actions.
The typical Enviro-pod mission is generally centered less than 100-200
miles from the Regional Office; the area to be covered is relatively
small in that only 300 frames of imagery are available; the acquisition
costs are less than $200; and total costs are generally less than $500
including shipping, processing and film costs. In all, the system is
very inexpensive when you consider the amount of information that can be
obtained in a very short period of time. When viewed from the standpoint
that it may be the only way some sites can be surveyed without entry, it
is a very economical system that saves many work-years of effort, travel
costs and analysis costs. Table I summarizes mission costs of a typical
mission.
(5)
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TABLE I APPROXIMATE PHOTOGRAPHIC COSTS FOR ENVIRO-POD MISSION
19
CAMERA DATA
Format size 5.7 cm x 18.3 cm
Total frames required 300
Total area covered 200 sq. km
TOTAL COSTS
Acquisition and processing
$300-$400
AIRCRAFT COSTS
Lease/Rent $50-55/hour
Total this mission $150-$175
per square kilometer
$1.60-11.80
Image Analysis System
The old axiom, "necessity is the mother of invention" was proven out in
the next phase of development. The imagery that is acquired by the
Enviro-pod is not in a standard mapping format. The cameras currently
used take a panoramic image that when plotted on a map gives a "bow-tie"
appearance. As a result of this configuration it requires some extra
time to compare the photo with a map and it is possible to make highly
accurate measurements on the photo only at the nadir.
It was recognized that measurement of storage tanks, buildings and
disposal sites would be desirable when making a site analysis. In an
effort to meet this requirement the EPIC conceived an off-the-shelf,
interactive, computer controlled Image Analysis System. The system was
designed by the Calma Corporation to EPIC specifications. It consists of
a digitizer light table, a map digitizer, tape and disk drives, a plotter,
a printer and computer with requisite controls and monitors.
The digitizer light table makes it possible for the computer to maintain
geodetic fidelity directly from the imagery thereby eliminating the
function of manually transferring data points from the photograph to a
topographic map. The interpreter does not have to break his or her con-
centration on the imagery as the transfer is made. Linear, area and
volumetric data are automatically derived during the interpretative
process by the computer. Annotation data are selected from "menu cards"
by the interpreter. As information is developed from the imagery it is
accumulated on the monitor in both graphic and alpha-numeric form for
editing by the interpreter. Once satisfied that the data are correct
and completed the interpreter commits it to a tape which drives the
precision plotter to produce map overlays depicting all desired infor-
mation.
(6)
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19
TrendAnalysis
During the period 1975 through 1978, the EPIC and the Advanced Monitoring
Division of Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory in Las Vegas,
Nevada, (EMSL-LV), investigated the use of "trend analysis" photographic
interpretation to study lake shore erosion on the Great Lakes, urban
development surrounding cities and the growth and development of dumps
and landfills. Through the analysis of historical photographs it is
possible to determine what and when significant actions were taken at
a suspected hazardous waste site. Further, it is possible to determine
when housing has been constructed over waste sites or, as in the case of
Love Canal, what portion of the disposal area has been covered by housing
and schools.
The location and acquisition of historical imagery is a relatively
straight forward proposition since only a few Federal organizations
maintain libraries of imagery flown of the United States. Analysis of
the archives held by the Department of Agriculture, the U.S. Geological
Survey and the Federal Archives will provide eighty percent of available
imagery. If there are gaps in the coverage, investigation of State
archives and private contractor holdings will often fill out the
historical requirements.
The process then amounts to determining when a site was opened, finding
photography prior to that time and d31.1nc"fing the soils, drainage and
cultural patterns on overlays and maps. The process is then repeated
on imagery acquired at later dates. In a very short period of time, a
detailed history of the site development and management has been prepared.
By comparing a 1938 analysis, with 19bO or recent photography an analyst
can tell what drainage has been disrupted, what valleys have been filled
and where houses or shopping centers are now constructed on former dump
sites.
Present Program
In 1979, the EPA began to investigate in earnest the problem of hazardous
waste sites and site spills. In may of 1979, Ms. Barbara Blum, Deputy
Administrator of EPA, chaired a special meeting of EPA and Justice Depart-
ment employees to prepare and administer a comprehensive program to clean
up environmental problems. As a result of this meeting the Hazardous
Waste Enfgorcement Task Force was established in the Office of Enforcement
of EPA. Concurrently, the Office of Water Programs established a Hazardous
Waste Branch to meet the planning and operational needs of the Agency.
Most recently, the responsibility was transferred to the Office of Solid
Waste and the Office of Emergency and Remedial Response was formed to meet
the requirements of Superfund. In a similar move, each EPA Region desig-
nated a separate Division to manage the abandoned waste site program.
(7)
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19
In 198U, the EPIC at Warrenton, Virginia and EMSL-LV became involved
in 13 large area studies which required the analysis of many hundreds to
several thousand square miles to locate and study problem areas. In the
case of Niagara County, N.Y., the study required the analysis of imagery
covering 400 square miles and the gathering of historical data of b9
know sites and many previously unknown but potentially dangerous sites.
Another major program involved in the detailed analysis of Memphis,
Tennessee. The program started in February 1980 at the request of the
Office of Water Programs, EPA. The original request asked that two sites,
Steele Street and Frazer, be investigated with 1979 aerial photography and
historical photography that dated from 1937. During the inventory a
number of additional sites were identified. By July, the inventory had
expanded to more than 220 square miles with more than 300 possible problem
areas identified. In July 1980, a list of 112 areas was forwared to the
Region for investigation. The Surveillance and Analysis Division performed
on-site field investigations that included water and air sampling to deter-
mine the magnitude of the problem. A total of 34 sites were identified
as major environmental problems.
The program in Memphis is still expanding. In January, 1981, the
EPIC completed a historical land use analysis with imagery from 4
different time frames. As a result of this analysis, the Region
requested another 160 square miles to be analyzed in detail for possible
environment1 problems. As of this dstc, *he second analysis is not
completed but it is anticipated that an additional number of potentially
dangerous sites will be discovered.
In 1980 the ORD was involved in 116 site-specific investigations. Each
of these investigations required the review of all available Federal,
State and private industry archival photography and the acquisition of
new aerial photography. The data were used by: (1) The Office of
Enforcement to bring suit against violations of U.S. laws; (2) the EPA
regions to determine compliance with EPA mandates and; (3) the program
offices of the Agency to clean-up abandoned imminent hazard sites.
Future Programs
The Office of Research and Development program to provide support to the
hazardous waste site program is just beginning. A program is being
carried on at the Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Las Vegas to determine
the application of the multi-spectral scanner to hazardous site charac-
terization and the movement of hazardous pollutants from the site in
surface waters. The thermal band of the multi-spectral scanner and an
independent infrared scanner are being investigated. In one program in
Indiana, a site was overflown with an infrared scanner. The resulting
data indicated a number of barrels on the site were considerably cooler
than the rest. Upon investigation these barrels were found to contain
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picric acid, a high explosive. The ORD has yet to determine the
properties that caused the identification but indications are the
significant data could be obtained for field teams from thermal infrared
data.
Further investigation is being performed to bring down the cost of using
an aircraft and a multi-spectral scanner. Present data acquisition costs
now fall in the $4UO-5UO dollars per hour range as compared to $17b-$2()U
per hour costs with aerial camera. In order to be competitive these
costs must be reduced considerably.
The continued updating of the Image Analysis System is a major program
in ORD. The capacity of the system and its ancillary computers has yet
to be recognized. A detailed study to determine the interaction of the
system with other storage and retrival systems is being undertaken.
The use of the system to store and retrieve collateral data on soils
geology sub-surface structure and groundwater must be determined. In
1985, the ORD will begin use of a geographic information system to
provide detailed analyses to the Regions and states.
The Enviro-pod system is still being improved. A television system has
been tested on the aircraft. It has been demonstrated that valuable
data can be acquired. The system is now undergoing tests to transmit
the data to ground stations in a "real-time" mode. Additional investi-
gations ere n~w underway to determine th° feasibility of operating a .
compact high resolution thermal infrared scanner in the system. The
engineering problems are now being reviewed.
Major efforts are underway to apply remote monitoring techniques
developed by EPA to hazardous waste site discovery. As I stated in the
opening pages, more than 20-bU thousand sites are thought to exist in
the United States. The majority of these sites are now abandoned and
there are no records of their location and content. In an effort to
find the majority of these sites an inventory of 20U major chemical
producing areas of the United States are being surveyed with aerial
photography. The five to seven year program will analyze new as well
as historical photography to determine the presence of dump sites.
Selection of search areas has been carefully thought out. Their
selection will be based on the following factors: (1) concentration of
chemical manufacturing; (2) types of chemicals manufactured and waste
produced; (3) health statistics that indicate a problem; and (4) the
size of the population exposed. As in the Memphis case, the initial
assessment of the problems will be performed with aerial photography.
The final determination of the magnitude of pollution will be determined
by on-site analysis by State and Federal scientists.
Finally, an effort is being made to transfer the knowledge gained in the
long research program to State and local authorities. The ORD has pre-
pared a manual of analysis that covers site discovery, characteri-
zation and analysis. It is anticipated the manual will provide an
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insight into how to use aerial photography to recognize signs of hazardous
waste activity such as the disappearance of natural features, depressions,
quarries or borrow pits or the disturbance or alteration of stream
channels. The manual will also contain what to look for in vegetation
stress and the appearance or disappearance of traffic patterns.
In summary, a valuable tool has been developed and will continue to be
investigated and applied to the hazardous waste site program. The office
will continue to provide services for: (!) the acquisition and analysis
of current and historical imagery; (2) the provision of consultant
services on how to establish a discovery and analysis program; (3) and
the preparation of inventories for planning purposes.
REFERENCES
1. Federal Hater Pollution Control Act. Public Law 92-500, October 18,
1972, as amended.
2. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976.
3, Comprehens^ye^nvi^onrnental Response Compensation and Liability Act
of 1980, Public Law 95-510, December 11, 1980.
4. Rudder, C.L., et al 1972, Aerial Surveillance Soil 1 Prevention System,
EPA-R2-70 007 Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research a~H
Development.
5. Welch, R.I,, et al, 1972, A Feasibility Demonstration of an Aerial
Surveillance Spill Prevention System, WPCRS 15080 HOL 01/72,
Environmental Protection Agency.
6. Welch, R.I., et al, 1973, Aerial Spill Prevention Surveillance
During Sub-optimum Weather, EPA-R2-73243, Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Research and Development.
7. Howard, G.E., et al, 1975, Non-poin_t_ Pollut ion Source Invent o ry
Camden and Gloucester Counties, New Jersey and New Castle County,
Delaware, Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and
Development.
8. Howard, 6.E., and Wolle, F.R., 1976, Overhead E n v i ronmenta1
Monitoring with Light Utility Aircraft, Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Research and Development.
9. Sangrey, D.A., and Philipson, W.R., 1979, De tecti_ng__L_an_d_f_j_Vj_
Leachate Contamination Using Remote Sensors, EPA-600/4-79-060,
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development.
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10. Johnson, H.V., 1979, Aerial R e c onn a isa nce o f H az a r dou s S u bs t a nces
Spills and Spill - Threat Conditions, [-PA-6UU/4-79-U27.
11. Holmes, R.F., 1980, Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Site Program FY-80,
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development.
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