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Paper 12
"FROM TIPPING FEE TO TIPPING FREE"
Frank H. Miller, Jr.
Director of Public Works
City of Hampton
22 Lincoln Street
Hampton, Virginia 23669
The title of this paper, taken from a recent article in the "Solid Water
Management Magazine" summarizes well the success of the Hampton, Virginia,
refuse-to-energy facility.
Hampton, Virginia, is located on the East Coast of the United States at the
lower end of the Chesapeake Bay. The area is a typical coastal plain with
high water table and almost no capacity for shallow land burial of solid
waste.
A plant to burn City of Hampton refuse and produce steam for use at the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration Langley Research Center was
first considov*°d in 1971. At that time the orice of oil used to produce steam
was such that the project was economically infeasible. In 1974, with the oil
embargo and rapidly rising prices, the project was reconsidered, and the City
and NASA decided to proceed.
A unique partnership was decided upon which included the City of Hampton,
NASA and the United States Air Force. The partnership allowed all three
agencies to share in the anticipated savings, which assures continued interest
of all parties in the success of the project.
Construction was begun in January 1978 on a state-of-the-art 200-ton per day
refuse burning facility capable of producing 66,000 pounds of steam per hour
on a 24-hour per day 365-day per year schedule.
The plant's layout and design provide maximum attention to environmental
considerations as well as operational needs.
Located on NASA property in Hampton, the site and improvements are leased to
the City for a 20-year period. The plant is separated from the roadway by a
100-foot deep stand of trees and is surrounded on the other three sides by
woods.
Trucks leave the highway via a deceleration lane to avoid traffic conflicts.
Once entering the site, trucks are weighed, using an automatic credit card
weighing system coded to the customer. The scales are controlled by a traffic
control system so trucks can be weighed coming and going to determine empty
and gross weights.
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From the scale area, trucks proceed into an enclosed tipping area. This
enclosure assures that debris will not be scattered outside the facility.
Additionally, fans which feed air to the furnaces draw from this area,
eliminating the possibility of odors escaping from the building.
Refuse is unloaded into a storage pit capable of storing a four-day supply
of refuse. This allows continued operation through long weekend and holiday
periods.
Refuse is fed from the storage pit to the furnace by an overhead bridge
crane. Two cranes are provided, one for operation, while the other is on
standby. Approximately 30% of crane operating time is required to feed the
two furnaces, the remainder being used to mix refuse and remove any oversized
or potentially explosive materials from the pit, which are then taken to the
residue landfill for disposal.
The furnaces consist of three inclined surface areas. The first, a feed
section, feeds refuse by use of a hydraulic ram. The ram is automatically
controlled by steam demand. The second section, the burning grate, recipro-
cates to tumble and mix refuse to assure complete burning. The speed is heat
controlled to assure a constant temperature in this area.
The boiler section is located above the burning grate and produces 33,000
pounds of stedu. per hour in each boiler.-
The third section, the burn-out grate, assures maximum reduction of waste.
An 85 percent reduction in volume of refuse has been achieved during the
first two and one-half years of operation. This reduction extends the life
of the City landfill by almost seven times and provides a burned residue
much less toxic than normal municipal refuse.
Steam produced in the boiler section is delivered to NASA through a 2,000-
foot steam tunnel and is used for heating, air conditioning and experimental
purposes. The partnership arrangement has resulted in NASA capital expendi-
tures to increase their steam use, thus increasing savings for all parties.
Ash and metal not burned are dropped from the burn-out grate through a water
seal into a water-filled conveyor trough. One of two conveyors then removes
ash to residue truck, and it is carried to the landfill and buried.
Hot gasses, after passing through the boiler and an economizer unit to
extract all heat, pass through a two-section electrostatic precipitator to
remove particulate. The State of Virginia standard for particulate emissions
is .08 grains per dry standard cubic foot. The precipitators were designed
to allow only .05 grains and have achieved a first-year operating average of
.02 grains, one-fourth of the State allowable standard.
The plant has been designed with redundancy in all major equipment. All
large fans and pumps can be either electrically or steam turbine driven.
This allows not only for power backup during electrical or motor failures,
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but for the use of up to 20,000 pounds of steam per hour which would be
wasted during periods of low steam demand at NASA.
The plant, which must meet a 70 percent operational rate to achieve payback,
has operated at an 80+ percent rate {demand utility rate 90%+; NASA demand
not greater than 33,OOQ#/Hour/production). This is due to the design and
the employment of all experienced boiler operators. The nearby Norfolk,
Virginia, naval facilities provide many of these qualified personnel.
Additionally, personnel were hired up to six months in advance and trained
in class and at other operating refuse-fired steam plants.
The prime contractor was required to test operate the plant for 37 days
prior to acceptance. This was done using City employees, thus providing
additional training during that period.
Although the facility has operated as efficiently as any in the country, the
contractual and economic success may be the most significant.
The agreement between the City of Hampton and the Federal Government called
for the City to provide $7,000,000 for construction and the Government
$3,400,000. The anticipated savings, $100,000 the first year over oil-
generated steam and landfill ing, was to be divided using the same ratio as
the original contributions; therefore, of the $100,000 anticipated and
achieved saw'"«s the first year, approximately $67,000 went to reduce Hampton's
disposal cost and $33,000 went to reduce the Government's steam cost. These
savings were realized after the payment of all operating costs, debt retirement
services and landfill costs. Additionally, a replacement fund has been
established for the repair and replacement of major equipment.
The original estimates for the 20-year cost and savings were estimated on a
70-percent operational rate and a 10-percent per-year escalation rate. It was
estimated that the fifteenth (15th) year, the sale of steam would cover the
entire operating cost and no tipping, refuse disposal fee, would be charged;
thus, the cost of refuse disposal to the City of Hampton, NASA, Langley Air
Force Base, Fort Monroe and the Veterans Center would be zero.
During the first two years of operation, the price of oil doubled, increasing
the amount the Government would pay for oil significantly. The plant was
operated at a much higher operational rate than anticipated. The combination
of these two factors allowed the disposal of refuse at no cost for the Fiscal
Year 1983.
The budget was approved by both the Government and the City of Hampton.
Hampton's refuse disposal cost {$422,000 in Fiscal Year 1982, down from
$590,000 in Fiscal Year 1981) became zero for Fiscal Year 1983.
This is the first refuse facility of any type to achieve a zero disposal cost,
and its success has been widely acclaimed {reference articles in "Solid Wastes
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Management", February, 1982, and August, 1980; "The Journal of Resource
Recovery", December, 1981; "American City and County", March, 1982; and
NASA's "Spinoff, 1981").
As unique as achieving a zero disposal cost may be the agreement with the
Federal Government. Hampton may be the only local community that is able to
offset the cost of a municipal service through sales to the Federal Government.
The success story of this facility has not been without the problems associated
with the operation of a major piece of equipment and in several areas may be
beneficial to those considering similar projects.
The first years of operation resulted in major modifications and additions to
equipment. Prime and subcontractors shared these costs, as the facility was
bid as a design, construct, and test operational contract.
The first major modification occurred in the refuse-feed system when refuse
was unable to negotiate the 90% turn onto the upper grate. This was corrected
through modification of the chute, to allow a turn equivalent to angle of
repose of refuse, and the installation of a feed ram to replace the original
reciprocating grate. The ram has two steps and both stroke and speed can be
controlled to feed refuse at a rate consistent with steam demand.
The origina1 p^nt was equipped with two f°H water pumps each capable of
delivering 150% of the feed water demand of both furnaces. This provided both
back-up and additional capacity and was in keeping with standard boiler design.
It, however, was not adequate for a refuse-fired plant. Unlike oil-fired
boilers, where the furnace can be shut down immediately if feed water is lost,
a refuse-fired boiler may take several hours for the refuse to burn out and
boiler cool down; therefore, if one feed water pump is lost or shut down for
repair, the furnace must begin shut down because loss of the second pump could
result in boiler damage prior to cool down. This problem was corrected
through the installation of a third feed water pump, giving back-up at all
times, even when one pump is down.
The wear of grate materials and refractory were also problems which occurred
during the first years of operation. This wear has been controlled through
the use of high nickel alloy steel (25-12) and hydraulically applied silica
carbide refractory.
Other systems added to improve operation include a Lamella system to remove
particulates and allow reuse of ash-quenching water; a precipitator control
system capable of adjusting to the varied particulate conditions in refuse
waste gasses; insulation to better control erosion/corrosion; improved
hydraulic systems for grate control; and the addition of an office complex.
By far the most serious problem occurred in 1983 when the City and NASA
voluntarily allowed an EPA contractor to make tests of the waste gasses to
determine composition. The tests were conducted on several facilities but
only two were mass-fired facilities and the Hampton facility was the only
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small scale low-temperature plant. The test results showed levels of dioxin
that, although within health standards, were higher than acceptable for such
facilities. NASA and the City immediately began investigation of this
situation with the plant designers and contractors. A meeting was held by
NASA and Hampton with EPA, the Virginia Division of the Polution Control
Board, and local press. At this meeting a program was agreed upon to test
emissions, design correction measures and test and to modify operation to
assure interim control. The resulting plan prepared with the help of EPA,
Virginia Air Polution Control Board, J. M. Kenith Company (Clark-Kenith,
Drimary contractor), Keeler Boiler (boiler contractor), and Detroit Stoker
(feed and ram contractor) is unique in the industry as a program to address
and correct a major environmental concern.
The program consisted of testing and evaluating, design, and installation of
equipment, and retesting. The program was to reduce dioxin emissions through
improving the combustion of refuse.
As refuse is a non-homogenous fuel, constant temperatures and controlled
burning are difficult to achieve, particularly when refuse is wet. To
improve this situation, production steam was used to raise underfired air
temperatures to 300 F. This has resulted in drying of wet refuse, increased
furnace temperatures, and more complete burning. Oxygen (02) and Carbon
.'tonoxide (CO) are monitored to maintain best possible combustion. Final
tests to asSu.x; reduction in emission of tc;.;c gasses are scheduled for t.^:s
Fall.
Although the refuse-to-energy facility in Hampton, Virginia, may be one of
the most successful, having achieved a zero disposal cost, it is a continuing
challenge to meet not only its financial goals but operational and environ-
mental goals as well.
This achievement of these goals has been and will continue to be based on a
cooperation in effort between designers, owners, operators, and regulating
agencies working together.
Although Hampton's hopes were high at first, the success of the project for
both the City and the Federal Government has been even higher.
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Paper 13
SOLID WASTE COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL IN BALTIMORE, MARYLAND
Francis W. Kuchta
Director of Public Works
City of Baltimore
Baltimore, Maryland USA
Introduction
Keeping a city of 800,000 people clean is a daily challenge to the Department
of Public Works of Baltimore, Maryland. The Department's Bureau of Solid
Waste is responsible for the collection and disposal of domestic refuse,
street and alley cleaning, bulk trash removal and disposal, leaf and Christmas
tree collection plus several other services. The combined tasks require the
services of some 900 people and an operating budget of nearly $30 million
annually.
********
Baltimore is located approximately forty miles, one hour's driving time,
north of Washington, D.C., the Nation's Capitol. Baltimore has a population
of approximately 800,000 people, contains 80.34 square miles of land and 11.59
square miles of water. The daily generation of solid waste exceeds 3,000 tons
per day for both commercial and residential waste. The Bureau of Solid Waste,
Department of Public Works, is responsible for the collection of all generated
residential solid waste not to exceed eighty gallons per building. Private
collection firms handle all generated waste in commercial and business areas,
as well as apartment complexes exceeding the eighty gallon limit. The dis-
posal of this waste occurs both inside and outside the City limits.
To facilitate the collection of solid waste, the City is divided into five
geographical areas. The Central business district is the smallest and is
surrounded by the other four collection districts. Each area functions inde-
pendently of the other. Two-way radio communication allows the field super-
visors to be in constant contact with the offices and with each other.
The Bureau of Solid Waste employs approximately 900 individuals to carry out
the assigned tasks. It has an operating budget of $29.7 million. The
collection fleet is composed of 13 and 20 cubic yard rear-loading loadpackers,
35 cubic yard front-end loaders, dump trucks, stake body dump trucks with lift
gates, 4 -wheeled mechanical sweepers, leaf loaders and chippers. The dis-
posal fleet is composed of bulldozers, earth movers, rubber-tired front-end
loaders, dump trucks, flushers and tractors with enclosed trailers.
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The present system of collecting mixed refuse, garbage and trash in the same
container, was adopted in 1948. Mixed refuse collections are made twice per
week throughout the City. The collection cycles are Monday-Thursday,
Tuesday-Friday and Wednesday-Saturday. The Bureau will collect from each
building, regardless of size, four 20 gallon containers of mixed refuse. In
addition to the containers, the Bureau will also collect two bundles of card-
board, newspapers, yard trimmings or wood each collection day.
Approximately 60% of the properties in the City are serviced from the rear
alley with the balance being serviced from the front street. On Monday,
Tuesday and Wednesday, the first collection days of the week, seventy-eight
three-man crews are used to collect mixed refuse. A crew is composed of a
chauffeur and two helpers. Historically, the second collection day of the
cycle has always generated less tonnage because there is one less day to
generate trash. As a result of this, the Bureau further reduces its crew re-
quirements on Thursday, Friday and Saturday by ten crews to a total of sixty-
eight crews. This was accomplished successfully by expanding some of the
routes during the latter part of the week.
The mixed refuse crews work on a task system. This means that when the crew
finishes its assigned task, the members of the crew are free to leave yet
receive pay for eight hours. The average work day equals about 6.5 hours.
Experience has proved to us that the task system guarantees that the trash
will be collected on the scheduled day.
Our crews average between 8,000 and 14,000 pounds per load depending on truck
size. Depending on location and housing density, our crews also average be-
tween three and five loads per day. The mixed refuse crews collect a total
of approximately 1,000 tons of mixed refuse per day.
The Bureau also collects mixed refuse from City-owned housing units and City-
owned buildings which use dumpsters. The frequency of collection varies from
once per day to twice per week. Front-end loaders are used to service these
dumpsters.
The mixed refuse collection operation is supported by 371 employee positions
at an annual cost of $10,354,000. Last year the Bureau collected 290,479 tons
of mixed refuse.
The Bureau is also responsible for cleaning 5,700 lane miles of streets and
456 miles of alleys. Utilizing 490 individuals, this task is accomplished
with gang crews, mechanical sweepers and hokey cart operators.
A gang crew is comprised of a dump truck and 3 to 5 individuals. The gang
crew is responsible for cleaning streets and alleys. Alleys are cleaned from
property line to property, while streets are cleaned from curb to curb. The
Bureau does not clean streets without curbs nor alleys that have not been
paved. These are referred to another agency for cleaning. The frequency of
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street and alley cleaning varies between four and six weeks.
assigned to street and alley cleaning crews total 330.
Individuals
The hokey person operates a two-wheeled push cart with a broom, shovel and
bags. This individual can be found in high-density parking areas such as
commercial or business areas. In such areas it is almost impossible to en-
force restrictive parking for the purpose of street cleaning. Therefore, the
hokey person has to clean in and around parked cars. Even though cleaning of
sidewalks is the responsibility of the property owner, this individual may
also clean the sidewalk. The bagged debris collected by the hokey person is
left on corners where it will be collected by a truck assigned to collect it
by the day's end. The Bureau employs 130 persons in this capacity.
The mechanical sweeping operation is used to clean major thoroughfares and
areas posted for mechanical sweeping. The Bureau utilizes the 4-wheeled
vehicle as opposed to the 3-wheeled vehicle. The primary reason for using the
4-wheeled vehicle over the 3-wheeled vehicle is its ability to work without
the need for an additional piece of equipment. Both the vacuum and mechanical
{brush} pick-up sweepers are used.
Major thoroughfares are swept in the morning and afternoon, depending upon the
direction of traffic flow. Residential areas cleaned by mechanical sweeping
are posted with permanent no parking signs indicating the days and times of no
parking. The sweeping policy is to post one side of the street for cleaning
one day and the other side of the street for a different day so that parking
will not be completely eliminated within any block at anytime. Thirty people
are employed in the mechanical sweeping operation.
The total budget for the street and alley cleaning program, which includes
gang crew cleaning, hokey cleaning and mechanical sweeping, is $7,010,000.
Last year the street and alley cleaning program removed 35,885 tons of debris
from streets and alleys.
Another service provided to the residents of the City by the Bureau is bulk
trash removal. This service is provided to assist the residential property
owner with the disposal of household furniture, appliances and other related
household items, e.g. toys, garden tools, etc., that otherwise would not be
collected by the regular mixed refuse crews.
Bulk service is provided to residential properties only upon telephone re-
quest. The service is available twice per month in every area of the City.
However, the bulk service is limited to three large items or six small items
per collection. Request for bulk service averages about 600 calls per day
with peaks of 900 calls per day. Trucks used to collect the bulk are equipped
with hydraulic lift gates to help place the items on the truck. The Bureau
employs 37 individuals in the bulk program with a budget of $875,000. Last
year bulk crews collected 11,389 tons of material.
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The Bureau's leaf collectIon program starts annually at the first major leaf
fall and continues until all leaves are collected.
Leaves on the public right-of-way are collected by vacuum type leaf-loaders
towed behind dump trucks fitted with metal canopies. These units are found
mostly in high density treed areas.
The property owner has two options for disposing of leaves. The first option
is to bag the leaves and place two bags out with the regular trash twice per
week. The second option is to wait for the designated Sunday leaf collection
day. On that Sunday, the Bureau will collect an unlimited quantity of bagged
leaves from the properties in the designated areas. The collections are made
from the front only. The Sunday leaf program areas and days are published in
the newspaper and announcements are made on radio and television.
All leaves collected are used as mulch by the City's Bureau of Parks.
seasonal cost of this program is $278,000.
The
Another seasonal program provided by the Bureau is the collection of Christmas
trees. The trees are collected by open top trucks in the month of January
during a designated two week period. The collected trees are also used as
mulch.
Scattered around the City are approximately 3,500 wire baskets used for the
deposit of street litter. The baskets are maintained and serviced by the
Bureau. The baskets can be found in residential, business and commercial
areas. They can be found near schools, at bus stops and street intersections.
Baskets are placed at specified locations upon written request and basket
availability. The frequency of emptying the baskets varies from daily down-
town to twice per week in residential areas.
Additional services provided by the Bureau include placing a 10-wheeled open
top tractor trailer in neighborhoods for clean-up purposes. Upon written re-
quest, the trailer is placed in a community. Residents of the community are
then asked to bring to the trailer location all items to be discarded. Also,
upon written request, the Bureau will place either dumpster or 30-galloji drums
for festivals, neighborhood parties and other events. The Bureau also assists
with parades, marches and festivals by cleaning the area prior to, during and
after the events. In emergency situations, the Bureau's personnel and dump
trucks are used to assist our highway personnel with snow removal and ice
control.
Currently, the Bureau operates two landfills and one transfer station with a
third landfill in the final phase of approval. The Woodberry Quarry Landfill
is located in an old twenty acre quarry site. The landfill site contains an
underground leachate and ground water collection system. Both systems dis-
charge to the sanitary sewer system. The Bureau employs a surface runoff
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collection system which also discharges to the sanitary. At completion, the
landfill will be approximately 250 feet deep. The potential does exist at
this site for the extraction of methane gas. The second landfill is a twenty-
two acre site used primarily for the disposal of bulk items, street and alley
sweepings and incinerator residue. No putrescible materials are allowed at
this site. Thirty-nine people are assigned to the landfills with a total
operating budget of $2,424,000.
The Transfer Station has three push pits located in a fully enclosed building.
It has a capacity of 750 tons per day. The Transfer Station operates with
twenty-five people and a budget of $1,482,000.
Two incinerators are located within the City limits. The Pulaski Incinerator,
once owned by the City but since sold, is located on the east side of the
City. The City has signed an agreement with the private operator of the
incinerator to deliver waste to the facility. The Pulaski Incinerator has
four furnaces with a total capacity of 1,200 tons per day. At present, the
Incinerator is operated as a volume reduction center. Last year 564,166 tons
of material were disposed of at the Incinerator and Landfills.
The other incinerator is under construction and is located in the southwestern
part of the fity. Testing of this facility is expected to begin this month.
This is a regional incinerator constructed, owned and operated by a private
vendor. The regional aspect of the incinerator is managed by the Northeast
Maryland Waste Disposal Authority, a State agency established to solve the
waste disposal problems in the Baltimore region. The Authority has signed
agreements with the vendor to operate the facility. Baltimore City and
neighboring subdivisions have signed agreements with the Authority to dispose
of solid waste.
The new incinerator is a water-wall incinerator with three furnaces each with
a capacity of 750 tons per day or a total capacity of 2,250 tons. The plant
will generate both steam and electricity. Electricity will be sold to the
local power company. Discussions have taken place on the possibility of
selling steam to the downtown area and hot water to a public housing develop-
ment. Also incorporated in the plant is ferrous metal recovery.
Residue from the new incinerator will be disposed of at the City's new land-
fill. This landfill is expected to open about the same time as the
incinerator. This 159 acre site is expected to serve the City for the next
twenty-plus years.
I would like to share some information on the Bureau's landfill resource
recovery project. Just prior to the closing of one of our landfills in 1981,
a methane gas study was undertaken. The initial results indicated the
potential for methane gas extraction. As a result the City advertised for a
vendor to develop a gas extraction program for the site. The successful
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vendor would pay the City a royalty for the methane sold.
Methane gas is being extracted and the gas is being sold to a local company.
The project is successful and revenues are being returned to the City.
In conclusion, Baltimore, with a population of about 800,000 with 5,700 lane
miles of streets and 456 miles of alleys, is one of the cleanest cities in
the nation.
July 24, 1984
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Paper 14
COMPREHENSIVE WASTE TREATMENT SYSTEM IN TOYOHASHI CITY
Kiyoshi Ono
Technical Officer
Department of Environmental Sanitation
Resource Recovery and Waste Treatment Center
Toyohashi, Japan
1. Foreword
1.1 Introduction to Toyohashi City
Tcyohashi, a medium-sized city located in approximately the center
of Japan, is the gateway to the Pacific Ocean. It has a mild cli-
mate. Toyohashi supports the coexistence of both agriculture and
irdustry, and is a city of energetic youth. It has the following
characteristics:
(1) Population: Approximately 320,000 (including 41,400 far-
mers)
(2) Number of Households: Approximately 91,000
(3) Area: 25,854 Hectares
Dwelling Area : 5,696 hectares
Cultivated Area: 7,509 hectares
Others : 12,649 hectares
(4) Average Annual Temperature: 15.7°C (60.3°F)
(5) Average Annual Rainfall: 1,400mm (55 inches)
(6) USA Cities on Similar Scale:
Charlotte, N.C.: 36,200 hectares with population of
315,000
Birmingham, Al.: 25,500 hectares with population of
285,000
1.2 Waste Treatment System Used by Toyohashi City
Almost all the waste treated by Toyohashi is ultimately used as agri-
culture fertilizer, soil conditioner, or rural landfill, in accordance
with current needs and requirements. It is in regard to this back-
ground that URECS (Urban & Rural Environmental Combination System)
came into being.
2. URECS
2.1 URECS is an acronym for "Urban & Rural Environmental Combination
system." In this system waste products are rationally treated so that
tha heat energy generated is effectively re-utilized and organic com-
post restored to the rural districts. This system allows for both the
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preservation of the city's environment and the promotion of agricul-
ture. Additionally, reusable waste can be used to conserve resources.
2.2 UREC's Five Separate Collection Systems
The fundamental concept behind URECS is the five separate waste col-
lection systems in which the citizens of Toyohashi participate. In
conformance with this concept, each household sorts its garbage and
Other waste products into five different types, and on specified days
and times each type is taken to an established waste collection point
for pick-up by a city waste collection vehicle. Instruction and gui-
dance in regard to the assortment of waste and collection information
is provided in cooperation with the cleaning supervisors of each lo-
cality. Business and industrial wastes may be disposed of indivi-
dually in certain situations for waste reduction or recycling. In
such cases, it is the responsibility of that business or industry to
classify the waste as "combustible," "non-combustible," or "recyclable"
waste, and to deliver each to the city's treatment facilities.
This system of sorting waste was first undertaken in April 1980, and
was developed through the following efforts of the citizens:
(1) Establishment of a URECS Executive Planning Council {1978
and 1979.
(2) Holding information meetings on a local autonomy basis
(1978) .
(3) Distribution of explanatory literature through community
and self-governing bodies, etc.
(4) Home visits by city sanitation personnel (1980).
(5) Bimonthly publicity through the city official bulletin,
"TOYOHASHI."
(6) Instruction and guidance by cleaning supervisors at each
waste collection point.
(7) Study and observation tours of the Waste Treatment & Re-
source Recovery Center.
(8) Special waste treatment educational programs and study
tours of the cleaning facilities by the city's 4th graders.
3. Waste Treatment & Resource Recovery Center
As the nucleus of URECS, the Waste Treatment & Resource Recovery
Center comprises five different plants geared for incineration, high-
rate compost, night soil treatment, recycling, and chicken manure
treatment in one location. The designated population for disposal of
this center is approximately 400,000 people. This center is located
in a rural area in the southern part of the city. There is a green-
house on the site of about 4 hectares and a training center of 1.2
hectares.
(2)
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3.1 Outline
Characteristics of the Center are:
(1) Site Area: 45,343m2
(2) Structure: Reinforced 5-story concrete building with base-
ment. Structure area of 8,216m2, with 21,980m2 of floor
space.
(3) Overall plant control: Operation and distribution controlled
and data processed by computer.
3.2 Features
This Center has the following three features:
(1) Total organic unity of the five treatment plants.
(2) All waste matter is ultimately reutilized as resources.
(3) Prevention of secondary pollution.
In order to prevent secondary pollution, such as can occur from drain
water, the Center's standards are set higher than those established
by the government.
3.2 Incineration Plant
Characteristics of the plant are:
Waste Pit: About 40m (W) x 10m (L) x 15m (D).
Crane: 4m3 (1.6 tons) x 3ea.
Incinerator: 130.5 tons/Day (Max. 147 t/d) x 2ea.
Heat Exhaust Boiler: 14 ton/Hr. x 2ea.
Electric Dust Collector: 24,500m3N/Hr. x 2 ea.
Harmful Gas Remover:
NOx removal by ammonia atomization
SOx removal by wet lime slurry method
HCl removal by wet lime slurry method
Treatment Objective: Combustible waste, compost residue,
night soil refuse, night soil odors (combustible gas),
combustibles discharged by recycling plant.
3.4 High-rate Composting Plant
Characteristics of this plant are:
Waste Pit: Used in common with incineration plant.
Crane: Used in common with incineration plant.
Sludge Pit: 53m3 x 1ea.
Shredder: 60m3/Hr. (23.4 ton/Hr.) x 1ea.
Fermentation: Rotary Fermentation Tank, 146m3 x 2ea.
Multi-step Fermentation Tank, 315n»3 x 2ea.
Aging Pit, 300m2 x 1ea.
Separator: Rotary Screen, 25t/d x 2ea.
Vibrating Screen, 15t/d x 1ea.
Glass Separator, 15t/d x 1ea.
(3)
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14
Treatment Objective: Combustible waste and de-watered sludge
3.5 Recycling Plant
Features of this plant are:
Resource Recovery Methods: Manual and mechanical
Crusher: Press-shear (hydraulic): 48.7t/5hrs. (max. 60t/5hrs.)
Crushing area: 10-40cm
Hazardous Waste Treatment: Solidified in concrete containers
Treatment Objective: Recyclable waste, bulky refuse, hazardous
waste.
3.6 Night Soil Treatment Plant.
Characteristics of this plant are:
Treatment Method: High-rate oxidation and coagulating sedimen-
tation and sand filtration.
Treatment Capacity: 243k1/d (capable of handling entire city's
sewage of approximately 157,000 population.
Treatment Abjective: Raw night c^1 , septic tank sludge, ^ainage
from all of the Center's plants.
3.7 Chicken Manure Treatment Plant
Features of this plant are:
Treatment Method: Steam heat fermentation (multistep hot air
method.
Treatment Capacity: 5 tons daily
Production Volume: 1.5 tons daily; pelletization, packed in bags.
Treatment Objective: Chicken manure.
4. Organic Unity of the Five Plants
The five plants of the Center are arranged rationally to insure
effective operation and elimination of waste. The advantages of
this arrangement are:
a. There is a 20% reduction in construction costs due to avoid-
ing duplication of facilities and effectively utilizing
space in a small country like Japan.
b. Several unpleasant facilities are located in one place,
making understanding and acceptance by regional citizens
easier. Also, anti-pollution facilities are concentrated
in one plant.
(4)
-------
14
c. Operating expenses are reduced by utilization of generated
energy. 5,200MW of electricity are generated each year. 38%
of this energy is used by the Center to promote fermentation
of night soil and chicken manure, to heat the greenhouse and
the hot water supply/ and for air conditioning.
Operating expenses are also reduced as a result of total co-
ordinate processing and reduction of secondary discharge waste
materials. Treatment control of waste materials is central-
ized, transporting distance is reduced, and the majority of
drainage water is used for dilution of night soil. Night soil,
along with other waste, is formed into compost. Combustible
waste from the recycling plant is used as high-calorie waste
(fed into incinerators), and waste reduction and stability are
increased.
5. Problems and Countermeasures
One problem is the concentration of traffic volume (waste collection
vehicles). Countermeasures include:
a. Dispersion of the concentration base and relocation of the
larger collection vehicles to a transfer station. This sta-
tion is currently under construction.
b. On-road waste depositing system (waste bags) modified to a
mechanical accumulation system such as permanent waste de-
posite boxes.
c. Reduction in waste volume by encouraging a household compost
system. This is currently under experiment.
Another problem is that of plant breakdowns or stoppage. Counter-
measures to this problem include:
a. Establishment of a sub-system (auxiliary boiler, etc.) for
emergencies.
b. Each plant can be operated individually for short periods.
6. Conclusion
We are now in our fifth year since the URECS system was put into
ef::ect for waste treatment. At this point, it can be evaluated that
in respect to the sorting of waste, transportation, processing, final
disposal, and recycling, this integrated system is running smoothly
and the anticipated objectives have been accomplished. As a result
of the cooperation and participation by all citizens and households
of Toyohashi in their share of waste treatment, such as proper assort-
ment, there occurred a profound understanding of the system and favor-
able progress in the reduction of waste and increase in recycling.
(5)
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14
In 1980, the year URECS was inaugurated, there was 25% less waste
material volume compared with the previous year. This amounts to
an average of about 548 grams per person per day, and is a fair re-
duction when compared to the national average of 809 grams. This
system appears to be the first to have put the brakes on the annually
increasing amount of waste products.
References
1.
2.
A. Shimizu, total processing and recovering in Toyohashi City,
En v ir prime n t al Techno logy, Vol. 10, No. 5. 1981
A. Shimizu, Town Cleaning Problems and Countermeasures in the
Toyohashi City, Public Welfare, Nov. 1982.
(6)
-------
Paper 15
PNEUMATIC REFUSE CONVEYING SYSTEMS IN NEW TOWNS
Kouichi Shimoda
Special Assistant to the Director
Street Division, City Bureau
Ministry of Constructions
Tokyo, Japan
Contents
Kazuo Yoda
Director of Street Division
City Bureau
Ministry of Construction
Tokyo, Japan
I. Background of Introduction of Pneumatic Refuse Conveying (PRC) Systems
(1) Needs for Pneumatic Refuse Conveying Systems
(2) Regulations for the Systems
{3} Examples of the Introduction of the Systems
2. Ideas in Services
(1) Pneumatic Refuse Conveying System Technology in Japan
(2) Ideas for Improving the Systems
(3) Improvement of the Effects of the Systems
3. System Evaluation
(l) Present Status of Refuse Disposal
(2) Eveluation by the Users
(3) Comparison of the Cost
(4) Promotion of the Systems
_'!_. Background of Introduction of Pneumatic Refuse Conveying (PRC) Systems
(1) Needs for Pneumatic Refuse Conveying Systems
The population of large cities in Japan has been moving to the rural areas.
(See Figure 1.) The planned development of new towns become necessary as the
central areas of the city expand.
i'.n Japan, new towns have been developed by both public organizations and private
companies to relieve the housing shortage in central areas in order to prevent
i:he sprawling in the outskirts and retain a large area of land for private
housing construction with a good living environment. (See Figure 2.)
In recently developedsome of new towns, new facilities are equiped with
pneumatic refuse conveying systems, regional heating and cooling, and informa-
tion facilities in addition to the usual common public utilities, namely, roads,
water, sewage, electricity, telephone etc. These services not only provide an
improvement of urban functions and environment but contribute to the effective
use of energy resources. The following discussion concerns the background of
-------
15
the introduction, the present status, and the evaluation of the pneumatic
refuse conveying systems, which are new urban facilities.
The collection method of urban refuse changed from handcarts to trucks around
1965 - 1975. At present, the refuse is generally collected by trucks. Each
resident, either of an apartment or private home, carries their refuse in small
plastic bags, buckets or disposable containers etc., to a central location, from
which the refuse truck makes their pick up.
The above system of garbage collection, however, is unable to meet many of the
problems now arrising due to the growth and expansion of the population,
such as follows.
a) While the refuse is increasing and diversifying, the space available for
waste disposal is rapidly decreasing as a result of an increse in population
density and heavier traffic.
b) Waste collection trucks add to the traffic congestion both in cities and
the waste disposal areas.
c) It becomes difficult to coordinate the needs of garbage collection and the
needs of the "i™~al inhabitants, the later being in a constant state of flux
due to the increase in nuclear families and dual income families as well as in
improving hygienic awareness.
The pneumatic refuse conveying system consisting of storage tanks, tubes,
central station etc. collects refuse by an air flow system. {See Figure 3.)
The introduction of the system solves the problems of the vehicler collection
system in the following ways.
a) When refuse is transported through underground tubes, urban beauty and
hygiene will improve. Also as storage space for refuse become available, new
space for urban use is aquired.
b) As a result of the above system the home maker may decide the time of
waste disposal, freeing themselves for planning their life styles to suit
their family needs, hopefully creating higher standards of hygiene for the
home and community.
c) Since refuse collection trucks are not necessary, the problem of traffic
congestion decreases.
d) The pneumatic system is monitored and controlled automatically by computers
at central stations, resulting in a safer and more hygienic waste disposal
system than in present use.
In Japan, the most of the practical pneumatic refuge conveying systems are
introduced into new towns because of the following advantages.
- 2 -
-------
15
a) The location and the maintenance of collection facilities can be effective,
because the facilities which receive the refuse collection services were
planned prior to the development of the area.
b) As the systems are planned in coordination with city plannings and road
Dlannings, securing of the land for collection facilities becomes easier.
c) As the systems can be constructed as a part of the new town development
Drojects, the cost of the construction,such as laying tubes undergrand,
decreases greatly.
[2) Regulations for the systems
In earlier times,pneumatic refuse conveying systems were introduced mainly
to separate buildings, such as hotels and hospitals. The first introduction
of the system to the housing development areas was made at Morinomiya Housing
Development at Osaka in the middle of the 1970s. Then, national assistance
regulations were establised to promote the use of the systems in general
housing areas. In 1979, pilot projects began at two places, Osaka Nanko
Port Town and Ashiyahama New Town.
The Ministry "* Construction regards the or1 Action and transportaicn of ur^an
refuse as a problem to be solved in connection with city planning for the
Improvement of the urban environment and traffic situation. And the ministry
Is construction pneumatic refuse conveying systems as part of city planning
projects based on the City Planning Law, which is a basic regulation for urban
•improvements in Japan.
The systems are also regulated by the Laws Concerning the Disposal of Refuge
and Cleaning, which provides for the kind of refuse to be collected, the form
of the service, the collection of fees, the enhancement of the service, and the
allotment of cost etc.
"here is a supplementary regulation, in which a susidy is given ranging from
one forth to one fifth of the costs required for the construction of tanks,
tubes and a central station and for a comprehensive test run.
(3) Examples of the introduction of the systems
Up to April 1984, the number of systems constructed under government subsidy
reached seven as shown in Table 1. Among them, the systems at Osaka Nonko Port
Town and Ashiyahama New Town had already been put into full service. At Tama
New Town and Tsukuba Academic City, only partial service is presently provided.
At present the applicability of the systems is going to be tested in the course
of the construction and the actual running of these systems. The following are
points to be examined.
a) Optiman sizes, location and operation of the facilities for the volume and
variety of refuse according to the characteristics of land use.
- 3 -
-------
15
b) Equipment designs for different climates.
c) System operating methods in regards to collecting various kinds of waste
materials such as flammable and unflanimable refuse depending on whether
separate collection or mixed collection is used.
d) Grasp of the users' evaluation and the actual condition of the utilization
of the systems.
2. Idea sin Serv i ce
(1) Pneumatic Refuse Conveying System Technology in Japan
a) Storage tank
To prevent the blockade of tubes the size of refuse thrown into the strage tanks
is limited, and volume-limitation type slots, (20 1 - 40 1), are generally used.
However, a large volume of refuse should be disposed of at large commercial
facilities. Therefore, contineous throw in type slots are used at commercial
facilities. For crime prevention, keys are prepared for specified person to
open and close the slots.
The location density of strage tanks in residential areas is set so that the
maximum distance between a house and a storage tank would be around 100 - )50 m.
At apartment dwellings, refuse chutes are also used. In some cases, each floor
has a slot. Most of the residential buildings which are higher than five floors
have refuse shutes. On the other hand, at commercial buildings, each building
has its own throw in slots.
The capacity of tank will hold one day's volume of waste. Some taks are drum
type (1 - 12 m capacity) which can force refuse dicharge to tubes and has a
compression function. Generally, drum type tanks are located at large commercial
facilities and in high density housing area, and sylinder type tanks are used
at low density housing area and at small facilities. {Table 2)
b) Tubes
An air flow of 20 - 30 m/second is generally used for the transportation of
refuse. The diameter of a tube is generally 400 - 600 mm with 500 mm as a
standard, to conserve power and prevent tube blockade. Most of these tubes are
made of steel.
c) Central station
The equipment at a central station consists of (1) refuse related machnery such
as a refuse separator, dust separators, refuse discharge device, a compressor
and secondary transportation facility, (2) air related machinery such as vacuum
tubines,deodorizor and silencer, and (3) electrical machines such as tranformers
and a monitoring control system.
There are a number of small vacuum turbines, which allow both a serial and a
parallel connection which can meet a specific regional requirement.
- 4 -
-------
15
The capacity of the vacuum turbins are determined by the volume and the
pressure of air. When serially connected, the volume of air is fixed and air
pressure changes depending on the number of the turbines operating. When
paralleliy connected, the air pressure is fixed and the volume of air flow
changes depending on the number of trubines operating.
In some cases the distance between a central station and local terminals differs
greatly. Therefore a serial connection is usually used because air pressure
changes according to distance. In shopping areas, where the volume of refuse
changes greatly each hour, a paralel connection is generally used to maintain
stable air pressure.
{2} Ideas for Improving the Systems
a) Control method of the systems
At many pneumatic refuse conveying systems the entire operation is computer
controlled. In addition to the scheduled collection service, highly technical
services are provided, for example, priority is given to full tanks, automatic
emergency collection at the time of fire, and an automatic measurement is taken
of the volume of refuse that is thcwn in, in order to establish a service fee.
b) Underground!ng of tubes
Water pipe?, ^wer pipes (rain, sewane) and oas pipes are located undergrond.
In addition, electricity power lines and telephone cables are going to be buried
beneath roads. The introduction of the new system to the present underground
utilities would create a fair amount of congestion.
Therefore, to solve the problem of congestion, the common duct, system will be
used. At Tama New Town and Sapporo New Town, the refuse conveying tubes are
located in a common duct. This resulted in high construction efficiency and
easier maintenance.
c) Ideas for snowing areas
In snowing areas, there are problems of greezing of refuse in storage tanks,
within transporation tubes and at discharge valves (also the adhesion of refuse
with each other), as well as the decrease of efficiency of disposal units and
central station equipment which directly face the cold air, and the frost
heaving of constructions.
To cope with these problems, the system at Sapporo New Town will be as follows.
The discharge units will be provided with covers to improve the convenience
for users, ease the freezing at the discharge units, and prevent the snow coming
into tubes from the air inlets.
Also the possibility is under the consideration to cover the storage tanks with
lagging in order to improve heat insulation efficiency, or to heat the system
by line heater, expecting the prevention of the refuse itself.
As to the central station equipment, it is necessary to prevent the decrease of
- 5 -
-------
15
efficiency of deodrizors which use activated carbon. For this purpose,
it is now considered to utilize the heat that is discharged from vacuum turbines
by switching the order of airflow, namely from diodorizors to vacuum turbines in
summer and from vacuum turvinesto diodorizors in winter.
It is also considered to use oil and packings for low temperature use, and to
bury the system below the freezing level to prevent the frost heaving of tubes
and machinery rooms.
(3) Improvement of the Effects of the Systems
The fo"Mowings are measures introduced with the systems toitilize the effects
and advantages of the systems.
a) Mo car zones
Osaka Nanko Port Town is equipped with a new traffic system. In addition, no
car zones, where only permitted car such as commercial purpose cars can enter,
are established in order to decrease traffic accidents and maintain good
living conditions.
The construction of the system improves the effects of the no car zones, because
of the abolishment of refuse collection trucks.
b} Direct ccr-.?ction to incinalating plar.tr
As there is an incinalating plant only 300 meters away from Morinomiya Housing
Development in Osaka, refuse is directly sent to the incinalating plant
without secondary transportation.
At the same time, a regional heating system is constructed by utilizing the
heat created in the processing of refuse, which results in the improvement of
the environment and saving of energy resources.
Also at the Ashiyahama New Town in Hyogo Prefecture, the pneumatic refuse
conveying system is directly connected to the incinalating plant. As the
electricity is generated by the heat created at the plant, electricity cost
which usually is the large part of the maintenance cost of the system is not
necessary, and the system is very economic and efficient.
3. System Evaluation
(1) Present Status of Refuse Disposal
The construcion of the system completed in 1981 at Osaka Nonko Port Town. In
1982, a survey was made to know the actual status of collection, facility
operation and users' evaluation in order to evaluate the entire system. The
survey clarified following points.
a) At the end of 1982, about 10 tons of refuse was disposed dai^y by 6,000
houses, seven schools and commercial facilities of about 8,000 m floor area.
- 6 -
-------
15
b) The hour when the largest volume of refuse is disposed differs by kind of
buildings. (Figure 5.)
c) On the earlier stage, the system was operated on the assumption that the
hourly collectable volume would be 2.5 tons. However, it is now known that the
system can be efficient to collect 5-6 tons per hour by adjusting the
frequency and the order of collection from the tanks, etc.
d) The total number of mechanical troubles which occured during the period
from April 1984 to November 1982 was 24. Thirteen of them occured at the
central station. Most of the mechanical troubles were caused by the wear of
the parts of the machines, thus creating minor influence on the operation of t
the system.
e) The kinds of refuse collected from houses are shown on Table 3. The
introduction of the system did not cause any change in the percentages.
(2) Evaluation by the" users
A questionnaire survey was made on November 1982 for family users. And it was
~evealed that more than 90% of the subjects rated the convenience of the system
high. (Figure 6)
The reasons for the high evaluation of the system is shown on Table 4.
[3) Comparison of the Cost
The cost for the collection by the pneumatic refuse conveying system at Osaka
Nanko Port Town is compared with the general vehicler cllection systems on
Table 5.
::n 1982, running cost was lower for pneumatic refuse conveying system. When the
construction cost of pneumatic refuse conveying system was considered, however,
"he unit cost was 3.8 times of that of vehicler collection systems.
In pneumatic refuse conveying systems, the unit cost greatly decreases as the
volume of refuse increases.
In the year 2000, refuse volume will increase to 30 tons per day. Thus,
assuming that the price increase rate would be 3 % and labor cost increase rate
vfould bee5 %, the collection cost in pneumatic refuse conveying system will
be 57,400 yen per ton, which will be 90 % of the expected unit cost in vehicler
collection systems.
{4} Promotion of the Systems
It is necessary to lower the construction cost and improve the convenience of
the system in order to promote the systems.
As measures to lower the construction costs, it is considered to select smaller
diameter tubes and more compact machines at central stations and tanks. As
- 7 -
-------
15
measures to improve the convenience of the system, it is considered to enlarge
openings of the disposal slots with attaching small crushers.
- 8 -
-------
15
40-
30-
20 -
10-
0 -
-10
1970-75
\N 1965-70
^ 1960-65
1950-60
10
Figure 1.
20
30
40
50
Population Growth Rates
During Different Time Periods
by Distance from Downtown
Tokyo
km
- 9 -
-------
15
(ha)
20 H
10-
106.200
62,100
Total
260,100
239.700
216300
0X
188400
152400
27.000
48.100
140^00
55.800
161.100
00X
63OOO
176.700
69.400
i
By public
organizations
190.700
!
By private
companies
46
48
50
52
54 56
(Fiscal year)
42 44
Figure 2. Development of Housing Areas
(Accumulated total from the fiscal year 1966)
- 10 -
-------
15
Storijf tanks
Mr inlet valve £
n
Ground level type ._j<
unit
Syiinder type storage tank
a£^UJ*J L_j3lSISi>™ri£5^:2iBiilfe
•~a~ Storage tank Transportation tube
Refuge
incinalating
plant
Compactor Container conveyer
Refuge is thrown into a slot
and kept in a storage tank under
the slot.
At » preset tiroe, an air inlet valve
at the end of the tube is opened and
the vacuum turbines at the central
station create an air flow in the
tube.
The discharge valve of the storage
tank opens and the refuge is scni
into the transportation tutu1
-------
15
cover
Snowbreak hood
Small Capacity tank
Lagging=50mrn
Heater 0.3kw
Discharge Valve
Transportation tube
Figure 4. Small Capacity Tank in a Snowing Area
- 12 -
-------
15
Percentage of
dispersal
frequency by
hour
10 -
5 -
Houses
3.7
0.30.1 ai£l]
6.7
6.5
6.3
,5.5
AA.
4.545
4£j
5.4
7.2
1
9.2
0.6
10
e
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1.3
12 16 20 24
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15 -
Percentage of
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frequency by
hour
5 -I
Offices
0.3
12.
16-5
8.6
2.3
3.6
0-3
1.0
8 12 16 20
24
Hour
19-
Percentage of
disporsal 1Q ,
frequency by
hour
5 -
Commercial
facilities
16.9
13.4
3.9
—
1
14.8
1,
4.9
3.2
T
^_^
0 4 8 12
2.B
J.7
7.7
7.3
16 20 24
Hour
Figure 5. Percentages of Disporsal Frequencies by Hour
and by Type of Buildings
- 13 -
-------
15
Dangerous 1.7
Troublesome and
Inconvenient 5.3 %
No Reply 0.8 %
(November, 1982)
very
Convenient A convenient
Figure 6. Evaluation by Users
- 14 -
-------
15
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15
Table 2. Specification of Discharge Units and Tanks of
Tama New Town System
(1) Dispersal slot
(a) Limited volume type ground level dispersal unit
Size of openings: 300 - 350 x 250 - 300
Hight of the openings(at the lower edge of the opening)
: GL + 780 - 900
Major material : Important parts are made of stainless
steel
Attachment and others
: Discharge caution lumps, keys,
Instruction notice
(b) Limited volume type refuge shute
Size of openings: 300 -350 x 250 - 300
Hight of the openings (at the lower edge of the opening)
: FL + 780 - 900
(c) No volume limit conteneous throw in type refuge shute
Size of openings: 400 - 500 x 500 - 600
Hight of the openings (at the lower edge of the opening)
: Gl + 450 - 700
(d) No volume limit conteneous throw in type ground level
disposal unit
Size of openings: 400 - 500 x 500 -600
Hight of openings (at the lower edge of the opening)
: FL + 450 - 700
Notes: Main material and attachments are common in all types.
Volume limit type tank allow 20 - 40 1 of refuse at
one time.
Conteneous throw in types are used only by the exclusive
users.
Depending on necessity, a crusher is installed (for styro
foam, wood, etc.)
Materials prohibited for desposal:
Flammable, explosive, chemical, and medicines
Heavy things such as stones and metals
Adhisives
Elastic materials such sponge
These materials are separately collected with large refuse.
- 16 -
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15
(2) Tank
(a) Small capacity standard type tank (sylinder type)
3
Storage capacity: 0.5 m
Attachment : Control panel, Refuge level meter,
Heat sensor
(b) Large capacity tank (drum type)
Storage capacity: 1 - 12 m (according to expected
volume of refuse)
Drive method : Electricity
Attachment : Same as samll capacity type
Notes: The capacity of a tank is decided according to the daily
anticipated refuge volume. Changes in the volume are
considered according to the season and the days of a
week.
(3) Dic^r
valve
Drive method : Electricity
Notes: An airtight and stable system are required.
(4) Machinery room
Measurement
Main structure
Attachment
To be decided according to the size
of equipment
Reinforced concrete
Water proof manhole, Water level meter
and Electric draining pump (depending
on necessity), Air inlet, Silincer
(depending on necessity. For example,
in case air inlet valves are located
in the same pit) and lighting.
Notes: Machinery rooms are generally located at the underground
or the lowest floors of buildings. However, inner type
is located in the macinery room for other machines.
- 17 -
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15
Table 3. Percentages of the Kinds of Domestice Refuse
Flammables
Unflammables
Garbages
Paper
Plastics
Others
Sub total
Glass and China
Metals
Sub total
Total
56.4 %
16.1 %
17.4 %
4.5 %
94.2 %
2.9 %
2.9 %
5.8 %
100.0 %
Apparent specific gravity: o.ll - 0.16 (0.14)
- 18 -
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15
Table 4. Reasons for the answers "Very convenient" and
"Convenient"
1. Disposable at any time
2. Improvement of domestic hygiene
3. Aesthetic improvement because
refuse is not seen
4. Hearer location of discharge
unit
5. others
6. No reply
Total
Number
of
Replies
620
427
336
191
5
4
1,583
Percentages
39.2 %
27. 0 %
21.2 %
12.1 %
0.3 %
0.3 %
100.0 %
Table 5. Cost Comparison by Collection Method
Year
Volume of refuse
Running cost only
Running cost and
construction cost
Vehicle collection
PRC system
Vehicle collection
PRC system
1982
10 ton/day
23,500 yen/t
22,600 yen/t
24,300 yen/t
93,000 yen/t
2000
30 ton/day
61,500 yen/t
29,000 yen/t
62,800 yen/t
57,400 yen/t
- 19 -
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Paper 16
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN THE U.S., TODAY AND TOMORROW: THE PRIVATE SECTOR VIEW
Ejgene J. Wingerter
Executive Director
National Solid Wastes Management Association
Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
It's a pleasure to be here today at the Sixth U.S.-Japan Conference on Solid
Waste Management to present the private sector view of solid waste management
11 the U.S., both now and in the future.
Tie decade of the eighties presents tremendous challenges for the waste service
industry. The complexities of modern life and increased concern for environ-
mental protection mandate that the 150 to 200 million tons of residential,
commercial and industrial wastes generated annually be managed more effectively
than ever before.
Communities, local governments and industries are all concerned about the rising
costs associated with refuse collection and disposal. They are seeking recovery
of valuable resources (energy, paper, metals, glass) from wastes, and they are
demanding assu.u.ice that hazardous wastes wil"! be managed safely.
Because these groups are looking primarily to private industry for the manage-
ment and technological expertise required to resolve these difficult problems,
analysts forecast that the resource recovery market will exceed $10 billion
by the year 2000. The management of hazardous wastes also promises growth,
reaching perhaps as much as $1 billion by 1990.
This growth necessarily brings with it changes in the economics and politics
of waste handling and places unprecedented demands on the industry responsi-
ble for managing the nation's wastes. The waste service industry is fully
prepared to meet these new challenges.
The management of waste is a mammoth job. Together, the public and private sectors
spend about $8 billion in waste collection and disposal. The private sector
handles over 75 percent of the combined residential and commercial waste and over
90 percent of the country's commercial/industrial wastes.
The industry is diverse and comprehensive. In North America, there are over
10,000 firms operating more than 65,000 vehicles and employing in excess of
1?.0,000 individuals.
According to a survey conducted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) and the National Solid Wastes Management Association (NSWMA), over half
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16
:>f the nation's households,roughly 120 million people, are served by these
private waste management companies. Columbia University, under the direction
of the National Science Foundation, determined that two-thirds of the commun-
ities in the U.S. use private waste collection services. These conclusions
confirm that the private sector has an indispensible role to play.
Over 90 percent of the private waste service firms operating today are small, family-
owned businesses. Typically, these firms run 5-to-10 trucks and bring in less
than $1 million in annual revenues.
Although waste handling is primarily an industry of small businesses, it is
not exclusively so. In addition to small hauler and landfill operations, the
industry includes New York Stock Exchange-listed corporations operating here
and abroad, specialized equipment manufacturers, a nationwide network of
dealers and distributors, companies that build and operate resource and energy
recovery facilities, and hazardous waste treatment firms.
All of these businesses provide services essential to public health and safety
and contribute in vital ways to the economic and social fabric of the community.
Those involved in waste management are as varied a group of individuals as those
they serve.
As the waste service industry expands, the definition of public services provided
by the private ,/aste haulers also broadens. It has come to include, among
other things, street sweeping, waste services for sewage treatment facilities
and water works, park and public place maintenance, and contract operation
of snow removal. The private waste handling industry also pursues other areas
for commercial expansion such as vacuum tank truck hauling of liquid waste
and scrap paper and metal processing and recycling. But before I get into
an in-depth analysis, let me tell you a little bit about the organization I
represent.
Introduction to NSWMA
The National Solid Wastes Management Association represents the private sector
of the waste services industry. It was formed in 1963 as a trade association
to represent private interests and to develop the capabilities of the industry.
The association evolved from three existing regional associations with a com-
bined membership of fewer than 200 companies. Today, it is the only national
organization representing the entire waste management industry. Its members
number over 2,500 companies, providing services across the spectrum of waste
handling.
Unlike many trade groups that represent only one dimension of an industry, NSWMA
represents a multi-faceted and united industry. This unity permits members to
speak with one, strong voice and exert greater weight and influence across a
wider range of issues.
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16
With NSWMA as their spokesman, different constituencies in the association
act cohesively to encourage public and government support for private
initiatives in the waste management industry.
NSWMA plays the major advocacy role for private waste service interests and
has undertaken responsibility for representing the private sector at both
the federal and state level in the U.S., and federal and provincial levels in
Canada.
Since its inception, NSWMA with the active support of its members, has taken
the lead in successfully analyzing industry trends and determining the impact
of those trends on the waste service industry. As a result, NSWMA has been in
the vanguard of those anticipating and responding to virtually every issue
affecting private waste management.
Through a comprehensive information-gathering network and its staff of technical,
legal and political analysts, NSWMA monitors information and issues at the state
and federal level and tracks them through the policy-making process. In addition,
association staff prepare, and present, testimony before Congressmen and state
legislators, and assist legislators and government agencies in drafting rules
and regulations.
Ir order to streamline information management and facilitate the exchange of
irformatinn a"1™? members, NSWMA uses a comr>"terized information system. TMs
erables NSWMA to'determine the status of any bill in any state at any hour of
the day.
NSWMA also sponsors a number of programs which are designed to expand public,
government and media awareness of the responsibilities of the waste management
industry and demonstrate the industry's commitment to protecting the public
and enhancing the environment. NSWMA staff regularly address public, and
other special groups, with particular interests in waste management. In
addition to this, NSWMA directs an active ongoing media relations campaign,
including the publication of bulletins, brochures, press releases and the
international monthly magazine: Waste Age.
The nature of the waste management industry deems that political concerns
are indivisible from technical issues and this necessitates a close relation-
ship among all the programs NSWMA offers its members. Thus, the chapter,
federal government and public affairs efforts are not distinct from, but
go hand-in-hand with, the technical support and educational programs and
activities.
Although the industry is international in scope and application, issues which
affect waste service delivery arise and must be addressed locally as well.
The chapter program is the cornerstone of this wide-ranging legislative and
educational effort.
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16
Chapters are the means by which NSWMA mobilizes the industry within states
or provinces. Through the chapters, NSWMA maintains close contact with members
in an area and reinforces a vigorous legislative program.
Because the chapters are an important local resource, NSWMA is able to assist
members with issues important to the industry such as public utility regulations,
disposal taxes, waste flow control and ownership, vehicle licensing and regulations,
weight laws, fuel tax exemptions and environmental regulations.
The chapters offer members an opportunity to work with others in the industry to
present a unified industry's viewpoints before government. Technical seminars
on equipment, management and other business-related matters are provided for
members through chapter meetings.
To represent specific interests of distinct membership constituencies, NSWMA
has created a variety of institutes and councils:
The Institute of Waste Technology explores new technological de-
velopments in refuse collection, sanitary landfill ing procedures
and liquid waste and sludge hauling. Under the IWT there are:
the Sanitary Landfill Council; the Waste Haulers Council; and
the Liquid Waste and Sludge Transporters Council.
The Waste Equipment Manufacturers Institute was established to
answer the particular needs of manufacturers of waste handling
equipment. This includes refuse collection vehicles (truck
bodies and chassis), stationary compactors, containers and refuse
processing equipment.
The Institute of Waste Equipment Distributors recognizes that
waste equipment distributors are an important link in the chain
of services provided to waste equipment users. Local distribu-
tors offer a ready understanding of the applications of refuse
equipment. In addition, a distributor provides local services
for the manufacturer, and makes parts and services easily access-
ible to a user.
The Institute of Chemical Waste Management was created as NSWMA
members became aware of the significant potential for handling
and disposing of hazardous waste. The members of ICWM also re-
cognized the problems inherent in handling hazardous waste
disposal. To this end, they have strongly advocated the need
for federal standards controlling hazardous and nonhazardous
waste collection, treatment and disposal. In addition, ICWM
members have spearheaded research and development activities
designed to improve hazardous waste management capabilities.
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16
The Institute of Resource Recovery was created in response to
the Increasingly important role of resource recovery in the waste
handling system. IRR members have long advocated the need for
the private sector to design, build and operate facilities which
efficiently and reliably dispose of solid wastes in an environ-
mentally safe manner. Whenever practicable, these facilities
should recover materials and energy.
The National Contract Sweepers Institute (NCSI) is a national
membership organization made up of professional sweeping com-
panies. More than 150 member companies provide a variety of
sweeping and related cleaning services for shopping centers,
businesses, construction projects, municipal and private streets,
and thenation's highways.
NSWMA offers its members widespread opportunities to associate professionally
through seminars and to keep abreast of industry developments as they occur.
This is accomplished through an extensive program of meetings intended to
provide a stimulating educational dimension to the services NSWMA offers its
members. Two of the association's big annual events are : the International
Waste Equipment and Technology Exposition (WasteExpo) and the Conference on
Waste Technology (WasteTech).
Privatization Expands
Two-thirds of U.S. communities and virtually all of American business and
industry rely upon private companies for waste collection and disposal
services and this number is growing.
The waste collection and disposal service field, unlike other areas of public
cleansing service has historically had a strong private sector role dating
back to the early part of this century. From the early days of horse-drawn
wagons, provate entrepreneurs have found a business opportunity in most cities
of America in collecting ashes for home heating units, food wastes, and
commercial and industrial rubbish.
Sometimes, it was an occupation of opportunity for immigrants who found road-
blocks to employment inother sectors of American industry. There has been
since thelate 1800's a place for theprivate sector in collecting waste.
But perhaps the most significant factor influencing the. growth and dominant
role of theprivate sector in waste collection anddisposal is the significant
advancement of mechanization in the collection, transportation and ultimate
disposal of wastes. Private industry, especially the transportation sector
of private industry, has played a major role in advancing the containerization,
compaction and ultimate productivity gains in handling waste. (1)
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16
These advances, all stemming from the private sector, have been adopted by
municipalities as well, but to a much lesser extent. As a result, communities,
commerce and industry have depended heavily upon the capabilities of the 10,000
waste disposal firms in the United States. The private sector role in waste
collection and disposal has been increasing and will continue to increase in
the future as the competitive strengths and productivity gains of this industry
are fully recognized.
A survey conducted by an agency of the United States government, which is now
•incorporated within the Office of Solid Waste at the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, established for the first time the significant role of the private
sector in the waste collection industry. The survey in 1970 established that
some 10,000 private firms collected 75 percent of the waste handled in the United
States including 50 percent of the household wastes and over 93 percent of the
commercial and industrial wastes. This industry utilized about 65,000 trucks
and employed about 125,000 people to perform this service, handling slightly
over 200 million tons of waste annually, at that time.
More recent surveys of the industry have further established that the relative
role of the private sector is continuing to expand especially in the area of
residential waste collection service. Proposition 13, which has frequently
been called the taxpayer's revolt in America, has been a catalyst to enable
many more cities to justify contract waste collection and disposal services
and to disband their municipal agencies; who *c*^ierly provided these scrvi™*.
The recession of 1980-83 has further accelerated the dependency of municipal
government on the use of contract waste collection and disposal services for
cities of virtually all sizes.
Why Use A Private Contractor?
We are proud that the facts speak for themselves concerning the private sector's
contribution to waste collection and disposal. A study conducted by the pres-
tigious National Science Foundation and Columbia University in the mid-1970's
determined for the first time that private waste collection service are
approximately 30 percent lower than the costs of municipally-provided waste
collection service.
This comprehensive survey of over 2,000 American cities established that the
reasons for the lower costs achievable through the private alternative were
primarily related to the automation and productivity inherent in the private
sector. It should also be recognized that while private industry
provided these services to the American public at 3U percent less cost, these
firms also were required to pay taxes that further added to their own operating
expenses. Nevertheless, despite the heavy tax burden on private industry, which
could amount to approximately 20 percent of the cost of sales of these services,
the private sector still performed at 30 percent below the costs of a municipal
agency, and continued to make a profit.
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16
A new report, "Comparative Study of Municipal Service Delivery" finalized
earlier this year by Ecodata, Inc., a New York City research firm working
under a contract from the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, bore
out the findings of the earlier study. The Ecodata researchers concluded that
private refuse contractors can perform residential refuse removal services at
the same level and quality as municipally-employed forces for 28 percent to
42 percent less. (2)
The Ecodata study reviewed eight types of services which cities can contract
out -- from traffic signal maintenance, turf and street tree maintenance to street
sweeping. The result: for seven of the eight services, private contractors
were from 37 percent to 96 percent more efficient than city-employed forces.(3)
These studies all point to the fact that cities can save money without losing
service quality by contracting out refuse removal, street sweeping and other
services.
The same conclusions were reached last year by a survey throughout Canada.
"Exclusive public sector (refuse) collection is 50.9 percent more expensive
per household than purely private collection," concluded Dr. James McDavid.
McDavid, of the University of Victoria's School of Public Administration,
found in his report "Residential Solid Waste Collection Services in Canadian
Municipalities" that residential collection in 80 percent of Canada's cities
is performed, *•« some extent, by private ccr^.ctors.
Today, citizens and officials in many towns and cities believe that working
with private industry is the best way to guarantee their communities prompt,
efficient, reliable and uninterrupted collection service. Faced with rising
operational costs, shrinking capital equipment budgets, and increased demands
from taxpayers for a higher return on their tax dollars, public officials are
relying increasingly on the private waste service industry to get the JOD aone
well— and at a low cost.
Cities that contract for private collection not only gain lower collection .
costs but a number of additional benefits as well. Municipalities are not
subject to income or other taxes, but private firms must pay excise taxes,
provincial and local sales taxes, licensing fees and other regulatory expenses.
The result is that private firms, in effect, rebate about 15 percent of their
revenues to the community.
Furthermore, many municipal managers feel that contracting offers opportunities
for better management and greater administrative flexibility. H. Edward
Wesemann, a city manager with many years of contracting experience and author
of "Contracting for City Services," cites numerous advantages in private con-
tracting.
Because contracted services are one step removed from the municipal organizational
hierarchy, budgetary decisions are not easily politicized and, in Wesemann's
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16
view, may be more objective. The transfer to the private sector of administrative
responsibility for day-to-day operations of refuse collection also frees muni-
cipal officials and employees for other duties. Moreover, contractors can
offer specialized skills to which a city might not otherwise have access,
because officials cannot justify paying for special skills with a limited
application.
One of the most important benefits of private contracting is budget control.
With a private firm providing service, the precise cost is known in advance.
Residents pay for the actual costs of service—no more, no less.
When researchers questioned how closely user fees corresponded to the actual
cost of service, they found a close correlation in cities with contract collection,
but wide variation in cities with municipal collection. According to the Columbia
University report, cities that contract out refuse collection know exactly
how much the service costs; cities with municipal collection do not. Under
contract collection, the cost of service is obvious, because it is stated in
a public document.
Cities with municipal collection, however, often have cost-accounting practices
that fail to capture and record the full cost of service. This means that actual
costs may be considerably in excess of costs recognized in the budget. Among
the costs which may be hidden by inadequate cost-accounting practices are:
"labor costs for vehicle maintenance, which mav appear under other departments
or programs; fringe benefits, including pension contributions; or the costs
of supplementary workers "borrowed" from other departments to fill in during
absences of regular workers.
How Do Private Contractors Achieve Lower Costs?
The answer is simplicity itself: private contractors achieve greater productivity
and cost saving efficiencies by working longer, harder and smarter. It is simply
a matter of better management. Study after study shows public agencies have
institutional problems with overcoming barriers to productivity and cannot duplicate
the incentives available which spur private sector efficiencies.
The first reason contractors achieve lower costs than municipal agencies is
that workers employed by contractors work more days per year than do employees
of municipal agencies.
Private sector refuse workers work an average of 237 days per year while
municipal workers log only 226. according to the Ecodata survey. If all
else were equal, this factor alone would account for approximately a five
percent cost difference between municipal agencies and contractors. (4)
8
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16
Ecodata staffers also found differences in expectations of managers. Contractors
were far more likely to require managers of service delivery to be responsible
for equipment maintenance as well as worker activities. Contractors were also
more likely to vest authority for hiring and firing of workers in their first-
line supervisors. Contractors had more worker turnover indicated by a younger,
less tenured work force. (5)
This data showed that contract cities have significantly less labor intensity
of production, shorter vacations, more frequent use of incentive systems, greater
likelihood that supervisors have the right to fire workers, a younger work force
with less seniority, lower absenteeism and larger crews than did municipal
cities. (5)
As might be expected of government, the Ecodata study found municipal agencies
more likely to have formalized communications -- including unions, staff meetings,
and the use of written reprimands for unsatisfactory behavior. (5)
According to the earlier Columbia University report, sound management techniques
are the key to the success private firms enjoy. Companies surveyed were found
to provide consistently high quality collection service with fewer workers
per truck and larger vehicles. By the same token, the absentee rate for private
workers was nearly half that of municipal workers, and more companies used
incentives directly related to work performance to achieve higher productivity.
The McDavid report found that private collection crews are 95 percent more
productive than their public counterparts and 60 percent more productive than
public crews in mixed settings. (6)
McDavid also found that incentives offered to workers by private contractors
were higher. In the Canadian study, McDavid looked at the number of different
incentives offered to crews by public, private and mixed setting public producers,
and found that private firms offered their crews an average of one incentive
per firm. Public producers, on the other hand, offered an average of .375
incentives per municipality. Public producers in mixed settings were closer
to private firms in that they offered .68 incentives per municipality. (6)
Differences in average salaries for full-time crews were not that large,
although they too help to explain cost differences, McDavid found. Public
sector salaries averaged $19,272 in 1980, compared to $17,441 for private
firms and $18,128 for public producers in mixed settings. (6)
Differences in production technologies also help to explain cost differences,
McDavid reported. Private producers tend to use bigger vehicles, and to man
them less heavily. (6)
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16
McDavid mentioned another factor worth noting. Although less tangible, the
element of competition may be the most critical factor in inducing increased
efficiency. Private sector firms tend to compete with each other for municipal
contracts to collect solid waste. This would be expected to keep costs down.
Interestingly, in mixed settings, municipal procedures are consistently closer
to private-only systems in terms of costs per household than are public-only
systems. It may be that even where municipal producers dominate, but do not
control all the residential collection, there will still be benefits from com-
petition. (6)
Clearly, McDavid wrote, an issue for further research is the importance of
competition in generating incentives for productivity improvements and greater
efficiency. During the course of the study, several cities reported a deliberate
strategy of dividing all residential solid waste collection (single family,
strata units and apartments) between their own men and equipment, and those
of private firms. Administrators that reported this arrangement cited the
advantage of competition in keeping costs in line and quality of service up. (6)
Politicians are becoming more aware of the private waste industry's competitive
edge and more supportive of contract and franchise services, not only for collection
and disposal, but also for recycling.
Comp_etitipn Boosts_Innovation
The prsivate sector has led the way to automation of solid waste collection and
disposal in this country. Competition forces private companies to be innovative
in order to reduce costs whereas municipal collectors have precious little in-
centive to be innovative.
Capital equipment is the responsibility of the private contractor. He or she
has to decide what level of investment is necessary and how up-to-date to
keep with changing technology. The level of maintenance has to be determined,
and the provisions made to achieve it. The result is that the local authority
does not have to keep ratepayers' money tied up in expensive plants and machinery,
or have the upkeep of an entire department devoted to it. It simply buys into
the use of equipment when it signs a contract.
Most publications devoted to the topic of privatization indicate that productivity
of most public service agencies is retarded by the monopolistic characteristics
of the public service delivery system and stifled by the political fear of
risk taking; innovation and new technology lag behind the private sector. The
primary purpose of government is not the delivery of services but the formulation
of policies necessary to improve the quality of life of their constituents.
Those publications also recommend that if government is to remain as a competitor,
then municipalities should operate under the same rules as the private sector.
At the very least this should mean; legal corporate structuring, financial
accountability, no subsidies from general revenue, and the production of re-
tained earnings of an amount similar to the taxes and fees paid by the private
sector.
10
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16
The non-public alternative provider has the advantage of being able to readily
adapt to changing conditions. Contracts can be changed, amended, and even broken
to incorporate innovations or the use of new methods. Such advantages do not
often accrue to public bureaucracies because of legal, political, fiscal and
structural restraints.
N:>WMA predicts private contractors will continue to be at the forefront of
introducing new and better equipment and management techniques to the industry.
It is in their best interest to do so in order to remain competitive. Governments
do not have the same incentives to take risks, and refuse collection is just
one of many services municipalities provide; it is not their sole occupation
a:; with private refuse companies.
The Future Of Private Contracting
Economic conditions and public awareness of alternative delivery systems which
use city workers to collect refuse have made it more difficult for U.S.
communities to afford municipal sanitation departments -- and taxpayers are
less willing to pay higher costs for no better service. For the same reasons,
many communities also rely solely on private companies for disposal of
solid waste and street sweeping as well.
Where i? priv?MCation going in the waste-handling field in the U.S. todav
and tomorrow? There is no question that the private sector's role in waste
collection, especially in residential waste collection, is exoandino steadily
an more cities turn to contract and franchise services.
All of these trends towards privatization are expected to continue into the
next century. The National Solid Wastes Management Association, trade organization
of the private waste industry, estimates that by the year 2000 at least 75 per-
cent of U.S. residential wastes will be collected by private firms through
contract and franchise arrangements with muncipalities. We further project
that the private sector's role in recycling will continue at today's high level
0" well over 90 percent.
In the area of hazardous waste treatment and disposal, the private sector's
role has been virtually 100 percent. The role of government in this area is
one of regulatory control and enforcement. We think this makes good sense
where only government can set the rules and enforce them, and the private
sector's ability to apply the best treatment and disposal technology is well-
established.
The creation of the federal hazardous waste regulatory program in 1976, and
v;s subsequent stages of implementation which still continue at this time, have
given birth to a new industry for the collection, treatment, and disposal of
hazardous wastes. Prior to 1976, this industry did not exist. However, since
that time it has developed rapidly to the point where, today, the industry
i:; developing into a sophisticated, high technology business for handling
11
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16
hazardous wastes. Over the next ten years, the industry will mature rapidly,
ar>d a relatively small number of firms with enormous capital investment will
handle the hazardous waste generated by those American industries which do
not recycle, treat or dispose of their own wastes. Presently, only five
percent of all hazardous wastes are managed by commercial hazardous waste
firms. We project that the volume handled by off-site facilities will increase
sharply over the next decade.
Conclusions
In presenting this overview of private waste service in North America, we can
report that privatization is expanding primarily because it is simply cheaper
for municipalities to rely on private contractors. Private contractors have
achieved lower costs through competition, which mandates that they lower
employee and equipment costs while maintaining quality service. Competition
ialso leads to technological and managerial innovations that municipalities
simply can not match. There is no question that privatization will continue
to expand into the next century encompassing a wider range of services than
are currently offered as recycling technology grows and hazardous waste treat-
ment and disposal needs expand.
12
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Tables
16
r
PRODUCTION OF
RAW MATERIALS
PRODUCTION OF
GOODS a ENERGY
CONSUMPTION OF GOODS
RESIDENTIAL AMD
COMMERCIAL WASTE
MUNICIPAL SOLID
WASTE
UNCOLLECTEO
COLLECTED BY CONVENTIONAL
S WC SERVICES
TREATMENT FOR
SIZE AND/ OR
VOLUME REDUCTION
DISCHARGE INTO
WATERWAYS
SPECIAL COLLECTION
OR TRANSPOSITION
TREATMENT FOR
MATERIAL AND/OR
ENERGY RECOVERY
Flow Diagram of the Solid Waste Generation, Collection, and Disposal System.
Summary of Survey Findings
4. Cities ~vith Collection by Municipal Agencies or Private Firms
1929
Municipal
Index
Percentage of cities with any municipal collection
Percentage of cities with any collection by private firms3
B. Distribution of Cities by Residential Service Arrangement
Service A 'rangement
Municipal
Contract
Private
Municipa . and Contract
Municipa and Private
Contract and Private
Municipal, Contract and Private
'"Private" includes both franchise and private collection.
^Where entries are absent, data were not reported.
44%
61
1939
APWA
67%
45
1955
APWA
72%
45
1973
1964 1968 1969 Public
APWA PUS Stone Works
65% 41% 72% 65%
56 N.R.b 36 42
1973 1974
APWA 1CMA
65% 61%
61 49-62
1915
Columbia
University
37.3%
66.7
, in percentages
39%
32
23
2
3
1
38%
4
7
5
31
11
S
55%
IS
11
8
6
2
3
45%
18
13
3
15
5
2
39%
16
12
6
16
7
4
34%
19
42*
0-1
3a
1»
O.I
13
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Classification of Solid Waste
Type
Composition (Descriptive}
Source
1. Agricultural waste
(a.) crop residues
00 animal
2. Mineral waste
3, Municipal solid waste
(a) garbage
(b) rubbish (or trash)
(i) combustible
(mostly organic)
(ii) noncombustible
(mostly inorganic)
(<:) ashes
(ij) bulky waste
(<:) other municipal waste
4. Abandoned vehicles
S. industrial waste
6. Construction and demolition waste
7. Hazardous waste
8. Sewage treatment residues
harvesting residue, vineyard and orchard prunings, green-
house wastes
manure, slaughterhouse wastes
earth and rock from mining, extraction, and refining
farms
farms, feedlots, slaughterhouses
mines, ore-processing and mineral-
Terming plants
waste from the storage, handling sale, preparation, cooking, households, institutions, and commercial
and serving of food establishments
paper, cardboard, wood, plastics, rags, cloth, leather, rubber,
yard waste (grass, leaves)
metal, cans, metal foil, dirt, stones, crockery, ceramics,
glass, bottles
residue from fires used for cooking and for space heating
stoves, refrigerators, heaters, and other large appliances;
furniture, crates, tires, auto parts, tree limbs
street and alley sweepings, catch-basin dirt, contents of
litter receptacles in public places, refuse ftom parks and
beaches, dead animals, tree and landscaping refuse (other.
than yard waste)
automobiles and trucks
waste from industrial processes, manufacturing and power
generation including cinders, ash, and scraps and shavings
of wood, metals
lumber, concrete, plaster, roofing, pipe, brick, conduit,
sheathing, wire, insulation
pathological waste, explosives, radioactive material, poisons,
hazardous chemicals, pesticides
screenings, grit, digested and dewatered sludge
same
same
same
same
'streets and other public property
same
factories, industrial plants, power plants
construction sites
industry and institutions
sewage treatment plants
Organizational Elements in Solid Waste Collection
Service Recipient
Service Provider
Service Arranger
Type of Service
residential household
commercial establishment
industrial establishment
institution (schools, hospitals, religious structures)
streets (roadways, sidewalks, litter baskets)
parks and other public spaces
municipal government
county government
local government of a different jurisdiction
private hauling firm
special district or authority
service recipient
voluntary association
municipality
county
special district or authority
voluntary association
service recipient
collection of mixed residential refuse
collection of garbage
collection of trash
collection of yard trash
collection of combustibles
collection of noncombustibles
collection of bulk
collection of paper
14
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16
References
1. E.S. Savas, The Organization and Efficiency of Solid Waste Collection, 1977,
Chapter 2, Lexington Books, Lexington, Massachusetts U.S.A.
?.. B.J. Stevens, Comparative Study of Municipal Service Delivery, February, 1984,
Ecodata, Inc., New York, NewYork, (Funded by U.S. Department of Housing and
Urban Development).
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid, Page 16.
5. Ibid, Pages 16-20.
15. Dr. J. McDavid, Residential Solid Waste Collection Services in Canadian
Municipalities, Pages 34-35, School of Public Administration, University
of Victoria, Canada.
Background References
1. E.S. Savas, Policy Analysis for Local Government: Public vs. Private Refuse
Collection. Vol. 3, Number 1, Winter 1977.
?.. M. Forsyth, The Myths of Privatization, 1983, The Adam Smith Institute,
London, Great Britain.
3. NSWMA Privatization Brochures, Washington, D.C. U.S.A.
15
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Paper 17
MONSANTO COMPANY'S WASTE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM
M.L. Mull ins
Director, Regulatory Management
Monsanto Company
St. Louis, Missouri
INTRODUCTION
In every recent poll taken to determine what's on the mind of the American
public, hazardous wastes are right up there with fear of things nuclear and
cancer. We also find that hazardous wastes and the Chemical Industry are
all run together by the public. When you're talking with friends outside
the industry, you're ask questions - not about what wonderful new life
sciences or high tech product you're working on - but about what you're
doing to solve that awful hazardous waste problem. Little wonder, more
media time and space is being dovoted to waste issues than any other
single issue.
The purpose of this paper is to describe the problem, the objectives my
company has set for itself to do our share to put this problem behind us,
and finally the policies and programs we've put in place to that end.
THE CHALLENGE
In the late '60's and early '70's, when one said environmental problems it
was taken to mean smoke from a stack. In the mid '70's, it became dead
fish and rivers that caught fire. In the '80's it's become a vague image
of rusty and leaking drums with poison symbols. Until the '70's, and in
many cases the late '70's, disposal of wastes on or in the land was
considered quite responsible, or simply not considered at all. Under-
standing of groundwater movement and contamination was limited or non-
existent. The waste management industry was unsophisticated at best,
disreputable in many instances and criminal in some. We had not learned
to feel responsible for wastes after they were in the hands of a waste
contractor. The oil shortage of '73 - '74 spawned a new recycle industry
that itself created many of the sites we're now faced with cleaning up.
Toward the end of the '70's, public awareness began to focus on hazardous
waste, as Love Canal and the Valley of the Drums became the subject of
TV documentaries and even fiction. Congress reacted with RCRA (The
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act) in 1976 and with CERCLA (The
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act) or
"Superfund" in 1980. Just as these programs were really getting underway,
the much publicized and politicized Congressional investigations under-
mined public confidence to the extent that both laws are being expanded,
accelerated and tightened significantly, and there is a clear outcry for
visible progress. That progress in waste management practices is
seldom visible to the public, as opposed to continuing discovery of
abandoned dump sites and other evidence of past mismanagement. It may
take a long time to change these perceptions.
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We are just beginning to learn how much hazardous waste is produced,
recycled, treated and disposed in the U.S. Disposal seems to be best
defined, and is thought to be in the order of 60 million tons per year.
Just over half of this is attributed to the Chemical Industry, much due
to injection of highly dilute wastes in disposal wells. Some three
million tons are disposed of by our industry via landfills, disposal
impoundments, waste piles, land application and ocean dumping. Monsanto
accounts for about 2% of this total, or about 40,000 tons - all landfilled.
We incinerate about half that amount. Having sized the problem, let's
review where all these wastes come from.
I mentioned a moment ago that the emphasis has passed from air to water
to solid wastes. This phased maturity of environmental programs has
resulted in our taking pollutants out of the air and putting them into
water, only to then landfill wastewater treatment sludge. Much of the
waste we're struggling with is from such sources.
Other major sources include impurities removed from products during
manufacturing, off-grade unusable product, spent solvents and other
discarded used materials.
The 1976 RCRA law goes a long way toward avoiding repetition of the
practices which resulted in many of today's "Superfund" sites. It
provides for listing of hazardous wastes and for indentification of all
waste generators; manifesting of shipments 1.0 provide a clear audit
trail for future liability determination; and for permitting of any
treatment, storage and disposal facilities requiring tough design and
operating standards.
The jury is still out however, as to whether the present RCRA law goes
far enough. It appears to have eliminated illegal dumping and will allow
disposal only in well designed and operating facilities - essentially
landfills, impoundments, deep wells and incinerators. The big remaining
question then is whether these facilities provide sufficient long term
protection to avoid the spector of future release to the environment and
cleanup cost.
Incineration appears to be the safest alternative for materials which
can be so treated, as the standards require systems which achieve 99.99%
destruction and removal efficiency, and the only residual is a small
quantity of ash which is a candidate for low risk landfill.
Deep Injection wells have also been viewed as an environmentally safe
technology for dilute aqueous wastes which can be pumped into formations
which are isolated from potential sources of drinking water by thousands
of feet of impermeable strata.
The methods of most current concern then are surface land disposal -
predominantly landfill and impoundments. Most of the "Superfund" sites
involve these methods, and while a far cry from the facilities in operation
today, and even more distantly removed from the ones which will be
permitted in the next few years, all agree that their use should be reduced,
eventually to only those wastes not amenable to recycle, or treatment.
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The remainder of this discussion, then, deals with how to achieve this
reduction.
REDUCTION PROGRAMS
Getting a serious waste management program underway is strikingly similar
to energy conservation programs. Today, even in a relatively relaxed at-
mosphere in terms of energy availability and cost, few would question the
efficacy of such programs.
Getting them started in '73 and '74 however was like pulling teeth, and
we can learn from those experiences. Programs must:
- Have the clear, visible and ongoing support of top management;
- Be primarily a line responsibility;
- Have solid staff, engineering and technical resources available;
- Have measuring systems in place to indicate progress;
- Be reflected in individual goals and objectives;
- Receive sustaining support and attention - it takes time.
Having laid this groundwork, the actual program details can be estab-
lished.
Monsanto's program, seemingly typical of those evolving in the Chemical
Industry, consists of five major elements; process review, waste stream
screening for reuse opportunities, treatment/disposal selection, con-
tractor auditing and reporting.
PROCESS REVIEW
Perhaps the most important element to long term success is process review,
or those activities aimed at reducing waste streams at the source.
Instilling this need at the earliest^ possible time in a new process's
life cycle is criterical. This means that the single individual or
research team involved must have the message going into the research
effort. If you wait until the process is defined and raise the need for
waste-load reduction in - for example - a project environmental review,
you may be too late to justify the changes necessary to achieve the best
process from a waste generation standpoint. In addition to new processes,
an organized program to review existing ones is important. A listing of
all processes ranked in ascending order of yield percentage (or in
descending order by kg of waste per kg of product) serves as a valuable
prioritizing took to insure the worst are dealt with first. Finally,
procedures are needed to insure that waste reduction is considered in any
process improvement, expansion, debottle-necking or modernization projects.
In each type of review, a number of elements will be examined:
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- Mass balance of the process and alternative processes.
- Identification of where and how wastes are generated, including raw
materials, unit operations, incidental losses (such as material
handling), process operating parameters (pressure, temperature, re-
cycle rates, etc.), catalysts, and finally, the relative risks of
different wastes streams.
- An objective cost/benefit analysis of alternative processes, which
treats land disposal as long term storage, with additional costs
identified as a reserve for remedial action.
- A management review, perhaps as a part of the appropriation request
procedure, which makes sure management is making a conscious decision
as to whether the lowest long term alternative is being selected.
WASTE STREAM SCREENING
Existing waste streams, as well as those which remain after the above
process review, should be evaluated to identify what has come to be called
UR3 opportunities (use, reuse, recycle and reclaim). As a minimum, the
following questions should be asked regarding each waste stream:
- Can the stream be recycled back into the original process?
- Can it be used in another process?
- Can it be sold as a co-product? Can listing in a waste exchange
program find a customer?
- Can it be reclaimed - that is, processed so as to make it reusable,
recyclable or salable?
- Can it be used as a fuel, or for it's fuel value?
- Can a useful constituent be economically extracted?
Again, in answering these questions, the total potential long term cost
of treatment, storage or disposal of the waste should be used in any
economic evaluations.
TREATMENT/DISPOSAL SELECTION
For existing waste streams and ones which remain after the above reduction
efforts, a deliberate selection process is needed to insure that the
waste is managed in a way which offers acceptable long term cost/environ-
mental safety balance. Ideally, if the approach described above under
"Process Review" (ie: costing land disposal as though it were storage to
be followed by eventual remedial/corrective action), the environmental
safety element will be folded into the economics.
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17
Monsanto has adopted a program which calls for a stepwise upgrading of
its waste management program in the following sequence:
- Remove all acutely hazardous wastes from land disposal.
- Remove all incinerable wastes from land disposal.
- Pretreat all remaining wastes which must or should be disposed of on
or in the land to insure that they will not migrate to groundwater -
whether or not the disposal facility containment is intact.
- Send wastes only to approved management facilities.
(see "Contractor Auditing" below).
- Design and construct the best economically achievable treatment,
storage and disposal facilities.
"Incinerable", as used above, is taken as 6000 btu's per Ib. "Acutely
hazardous" includes wastes with greater than a 556 content of material on
ERA'S 261.33(e)"P" list.
Many of the above program elements will be helped by regulation if pending
amendments to RCRA pass during this Congress. We don't believe it makes
much sense to wait until these measures are required by law however, in
that tho compliance timetables are such tl'.v'.'- it will be difficult or
impossible to "get up to speed" in time to meet regulatory deadlines
without a head start. Also, any wastes disposed of in the interim in
less than the most cost/effective way, will be just that much more of a
future liability.
CONTRACTOR AUDITING
"Superfund" has taught us that our waste contractors may never completely
take on long term liability for wastes which they manage for us. Thus,
we must satisfy ourselves that such operations are being conducted in a
way which best protects the interests of our Company. The waste manage-
ment industry is doing a great deal to police itself, and as more
facilities begin operating under final permits, the regulatory system
will provide additional assurances. It is unlikely, however, that
generators will ever be able to responsibly forget about wastes when
they go out the gate. A sound inspection or audit program is a way to
systematize this ongoing responsibility. Such a program can be done
idependently or by a consultant. There may even be a scheme emerge
wherein a single accreditation can meet the needs of all of a facility's
clients. Whatever the system, periodic spot checks, shipment following,
and verification of documentation are important elements. Companies
should establish schedules wherein facilities are not subjected to re-
dundant visits from different plants of the same firm. Scheduled
frequency should also reflect the track record of the firm, and the
volume and nature of the wastes.
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REPORTING
A final indispensable element of a waste management program is a measure-
ment and reporting system which indicates progress against the criteria
established in the program. Developing such a system which has clear
definitions which mean the same to all respondents is a very difficult
job, as EPA discovered in its Westat Survey and the Chemical Manufacturers
Association (CMA) continues to learn in it's ongoing annual surveys. The
CMA survey has been thru two cycles and many (hopefully most) of the bugs
have been eliminated. It can be used as a model for company reporting.
Copies can be obtained from Ms. Janet Matey, Chemical Manufacturers
Association, 2501 M Street NW, Washington, D.C. 20037.
FINALLY
The Senate version of the RCRA reauthorization bill contains a requirement
that generators of hazardous waste certify on manifests that they have a
waste reduction plan in place. Bi-annual reports will require a summary
of program elements and progress. Other amendments, not adopted this
time around, would have required that EPA establish standards for each
process - similar to effluent guidelines in Water Programs - which would
limit the amount of waste a generator could produce. The handwriting is
on the wall. The best defense against such a restrictive and costly
regulatory program, is a sound voluntary initiative similar to that which
succeeded in avoiding a mandatory energy conservation program. The ball
is in our court!
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Paper 18
DIRECTION FOR RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
Dr. Sachiho Naito
Professor, Civil Engineering Department
Kanto-Gakuin University
Yokohama, Japan
1. Introduction
In the Waste Disposal and Public Cleansing Law (called "the Waste
Disposal Law" hereinafter), it is said that the purpose of the
waste management is to preserve the living environment and to
improve the public health through appropriate disposal of waste
and conservation of clean environment.
In the Waste Disposal Law, basically, municipalities are respon-
sible for domestic waste disposal, and Enterprisers are respon-
sible for industrial waste disposal. On the other hand, the
responsibility of the National Government is to make plans for
technical development in waste disposal in order to give neces-
sary technical and financial assistance to the municipalities
and the Prefectural Governments for adequate performance of their
duties. The National Government has therefore been executing
various research and development projects in the field of waste
disposal taking into account the technical, economic, and social
program.
So far, several investigations and research and development pro-
jects have been executed under the request of the administration.
In the future, these will have to be executed with a long-term
prospect acting in concern with the changes in various circum-
stances such as the social economy and needs for a desirable
living environment surrounding waste management.
Accordingly, in the Water Supply and Environmental Sanitation
Department, Ministry of Health and Welfare (called "K.H.W." here-
inafter) , the Advisory Committee of Research and Development
Program (called "the Advisory Committee" hereinafter) was estab-
lished in March, 1983. The subjects of research and development
were investigated in the short term through 1990 and in the long
term through 2000. Consequently, the Advisory Committee completed
a Report, "Research and Development Program" in March, 1984. The
direction for Research and Development with an introduction of
the Advisory Committee's Report follows.
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2. The needs and objectives for research and development
(1) The needs for research and development
Because a huge amount of resources and energy are consumed to
enjoy a comfortable life, a variety of waste has been discharged
resulting in a serious problem of waste disposal.
In addition, the social circumstances surrounding waste disposal
have changed a great deal. For example, the quality of waste has
chanced along with the change of life style, and the values
associated with waste recycling such as reuse and resource
recovery have been increased. Accordingly, new countermeasures
for adequate waste disposal are required.
Basic manner compatible with these problems is as follows.
1} To limit waste discharge as much as possible;
2) To remove waste from living space as quickly as possible;
to reduce, stabilize adequately, and eliminate harmful waste;
and to use waste effectively;
3) To treat and dispose of waste carefully considering how to
preserve tne present environment.
It is important, in any case, that the circumstances are formed
in a way that takes into account the continuous life activities
without any serious problem owing to the existence of waste and
its disposal.
{2} Present and future problems
The main problems at present are as follows.
1) It has become more and more difficult to establish waste
treatment facilities due to a land use limitation because
city life will be susceptible to waste treatment facilities.
2) The waste has changed in either quality or quantity with the
diversification of the industrial structure and life style,
so that waste which is difficult to remove and dispose of
harmlessly is increasingly discharged into the environment.
In addition, waste litter such as empty cans is growing
rapidly.
3) Kany inadequate disposals such as illegal dumping are reported
because appropriate disposal of waste has not been recognized
by the person who is going to discharge wastes.
4) The cost of waste disposal is escalating due to the lowering
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18
of collection and transportation efficiency, strengthening of
countermeasures for preserving the environment and improving
collection service by request of inhabitants.
5) Although old paper collection, empty can collection, resource
recovery waste heat utilization from domestic waste, and re-
utilization of industrial waste have been carried out in view
of economic values associated with resource and energy recov-
ery, even more resource recovery and waste reutilization is
required.
€} Although flush toilets have become prevalent throughout the
country, house drainage has become an important problem as a
main cause of the deterioration of the living environment
owing to the slow-down of sewerage construction.
7) As to the land which had been used for landfill disposal in
the past, there are apprehensions of possible disturbances in
land use and environmental protection.
£} Although waste management, especially industrial waste manage-
ment, has been executed extensively., the status is not appar-
ent enough because of a lack of information on waste manage-
ment boyr.r.-3 an administrative bc'^^ary of a Prefectural
Government.
S1} Although research and development in waste management has been
made by various research institutes- the use of research and
development results is not efficient because research insti-
tutes are not well organized.
In addition to these items, new problems which will become
important in the future are as follows.
].; Although waste reduction will progress a great deal depending
on resource recovery and reutilizatior. of waste, the discharge
of waste such as sewage sludge, construction and derr.olition
waste, and coal cinders will continue to increase.
2) Waste quality will change progressively in the future due to
new chemical products and materials as science technology
improves and life styles change. Accordingly, new environ-
mental problems will have to be solved in terms of discharge
of waste which is impossible to dispose of appropriately and
formation of nev; secondary products in waste management.
(3) The objectives of research and development
M.H.W. received a report "The Basic Policies for Administration
of Future Waste Management" from "the Council of Living Environ-
ment" in November, 1983. In the report, the basic policies are
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18
written as follows.
1) Progress of appropriate disposal
i) Establishment and improvement of domestic waste disposal
facilities
ii) Counterrneasures for waste which disposal is difficult
iii) Counterrneasures for drainage from houses
iv) Countermeasures for waste litter
v) Strengthening of a body for industrial waste management
2) Improvement of resource recovery from and reutilization of
waste
3) Improvement of an extensive waste management system
4) Strengthening of a foundation for administration of waste
management
i) Strengthening of an organization to monitor and guide
ii) Countermeasures for cross-regional administration
iii) Strengthening of counterraeasures for industrial safety and
hygiene
iv) Measures to secure technical experts
v) Application of technology in private companies
5) Improvement of technology and development
6) Strengthening of international cooperation and coordination
To improve the principle policies mentioned above, the Advisory
Committee pointed out the following items as objectives of
research and development.
1} Improve public health
2) Strengthen environment conservation
3) Conserve resources, and promote resource recovery and reutili-
zation
4) Improve efficiency in waste management enterprise
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18
5) Strengthen an administrative foundation
&) Improve waste treatment technology
7) Strengthen a support system to accomplish the above objectives
from 1) to 7}
3. Executed Investigations and Research
il) Investigations and Research by the National Government
1) Investigations and Research by M.H.W.
It is especially expected that the National Government should
execute investigations and research that have a role of guidance,
that require large-scala facilities and funds, that are executed
cill over the country, and that require a positive induction. So
far, the subjects of investigations and research have been
selected taking into account the needs of the administration.
Table 3-1 shews the investigations and research which K.H.YJ. had
executed in the past or has executed recently. In addition, Table
:»-2 shows the transition of them. Recently, resource recovery and
reutilization of waste, reduction of environmental effect with
waste management, development of new collection and transporta-
tion system, treatment technology for house drainage, and treat-
ment technology of industrial wastes have been emphasized.
1'he budgets for these investigations and research have remained
on the same level after the peak year, 1S7S.
2) Comprehensive Research Projects on Waste Management
The Environment Agency has set up 10 comprehensive research
projects to be conducted by the research institutes of relevant
Ministries and Agencies to coordinate and promote experiments and
research related to environmental protection in a comprehensive
manner.
The waste management project "Comprehensive Research on Waste
Disposal and Recycling of Wastes" has been established. In this
project, various subjects such as stable solid waste combustion
techniques and treatment and utilization of various sludge com-
positions have been studied. Table 3-3 shows subjects to be
studied in 1984.
(2) Investigations and Research by Local Government
In selecting the subjects of investigations and research to be
~;xecuted, Local Governments emphasized subjects such as resource
recovery and effective utilization from waste and landfill tech-
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18
nology for domestic waste. For industrial waste, emphasis is or.
research on the actual condition of discharge and disposal of
waste and investigation for establishing a plan.
The objectives of investigations and research by Local Govern-
ments have been set to promote an appropriate disposal fitted to
the individual locality's mode of living and industrial struc-
ture, in contrast with the ones by the Nationl Government.
(3) Investigations and Research by Universities and Their Rele-
vant Industries
Investigations and research by universities and their relevant
institutes have played an important role in the field of waste
management.
They have eniphaizad the basic and principle subjects under the
conditions of limited facilities and funds.
4. Future research and development subjects
(!) Research and development subjects
Future research and development subjects had been examined
considering the objectives mentioned above and the review oi tne
executed investigations and research. Table 4-1 shows the
subjects to be classified in the field of solid waste.
In this table, "Immediate Subjects" mean the subjects to be
solved urgently, and "Long-term Subjects" mean subjects taking
a long time to solve in spite of being actualized already or
having a high possibility to cause new problems in future in
spite of being unactualized at present.
A parenthesized title number indicates subjects relating to the
construction of facilities or the development of treatment tech-
nology. A nonparenthesized title number indicates subjects
relating to making a plan on waste management or methods for the
control and monitoring of waste treatment facilities, etc.
(2) Classification of research and development subjects
It is possible to arrange the research and development subjects
from various points of view. Table 4-2 and Table 4-3 show sub-
jects arranged from the viewpoints (technology, economic effi-
ciency, system, manpower, and others) and the objectives of
research and development mentioned on the chapter 2.
In these tables, the figures on each column correspond to the
numbers of the subjects in table 4-1.
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18
Certain numbers are often indicated in several columns because of
being able to arrange the same subjects from several viewpoints
and objectives of research and development.
E> . Organization for research and development
(1) How to advance research and development
The Advisory Committee has requested that the National Government
take the lead in the following items in order to deal with the
various problems of waste management in the future.
]. ) The subjects having a guidance role
2) The extremely fundamental subjects that need positive promo-
tion
3) The subjects which cannot be executed by private sectors owing
to the large risk of a present investment
4) The subjects in which require a nation-wide solution
*>) The subjects related to national standards, guidelines/
tic, etc.
6) The subjects related to international cooperation with foreign
countries or international organizations
The above mentioned subjects are difficult for private sector
such as individual industries or universities to take up inde-
pendently, and have the possibility of duplication of investment
if undertaken by Local Governments. Therefore, the National
Government should prepare an operation program which emphasizes
these research and development subjects.
In addition, the National Government's enforcement or participa-
tion is desired in the following research and development sub-
jects .
].) The subjects requiring negotiation among the relevant execu-
tive research and development organizations.
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18
(2) Organization for Research and Development
It is necessary to aim at establishing a comprehensive organiza-
tion for research and development in order to deal with the
future problems appropriately and to execute research and devel-
opment effectually and effectively.
Accordingly, the Advisory Committee's Report proposes that a
national central organization for research and development re-
lated to waste management be established. This organization is
required to have the following functions.
1) Systems research on software inseparable from social system
such as a plan for reducing waste in addition to research
and development of disposal technology and process of indus-
trial waste.
2) The role as the information center which collects, analyzes,
and systematizes the information and data including existing
chemical and engineering findings and experiences and to
process them into useful data base and making them available
to interested organizations.
3) Understanding and estimating technical developments related
to waste management in private sectors
4) Training and education to develop experts in waste management
As the first step of attainning the above objectives, the
Advisory Committee's Report proposes to expand and strengthen the
function of the Institute of Public Health in relation to exper-
iments, research, training, and organization.
Moreover, it is also important to provide appropriate guidance
and encouragement to research and development efforts of individ-
ual organizations, to help hold the conferences of experts
concerned with waste management, and to support and bring up
relevant scientific and academic organizations.
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18
Table 3-1 Investigations, Research/ and Model Experiments
Executed Recently (since 1975} by M.H.W.
A. Domestic Waste only or both Domestic and Industrial Waste
A-l Study of effective utilization and reduction of waste
. Investigation of the actual condition of effective utili-
zation of waste (1977)
. Investigation of the actual condition of model experiments
for effective utilization of waste ( 1979 - 1980)
. Investigation of the actual condition of separate collec-
tion for effective utilization of waste (1978)
. Investigation of distribution structure of waste recycling
goods (1981 - 1983)
. Investigation of techniques for waste reduction and
resource recovery (1982 - )
. Study of improvement of efficiency for waste management
works from a viewpoint of resource recovery and effective
utilization (1983 - 84)
A-2 Planning and design
. Research and development of urban environmental planning
method in material cycling structure {1975 - 1977)
. Study of control over the place of function of material
metabolism in cities (1978 - 1980)
. Study of planning method of environmental conditions
surrounding in construction of solid waste treatment
facility (1980 - 1982)
. Study of making an environmental assessment technique in
a construction plan for a solid waste treatment facility
(1979 - 1982)
. Study of standard design for constructing a solid waste
treatment facility (1979 - 1981)
. Research on methods to reduce the municipal waste loads to
environment and to adapt the reduction methods to regional
plans (1981 - 1983)
. Investigation of a master plan for extensive waste manage-
ment works (1977 - 1978)
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18
. Research on making final disposal site's plans fitted to
districts (1978 - 1979)
. Investigation of constructing plans of domestic waste
disposal plant (1979)
. Investigation of a safe design for domestic waste disposal
plants (1984)
A-3 Investigation and study of solid waste collection and trans-
portation system
. Development of a new system of solid waste treatment
(1976 - )
. Investigation of the operating condition of the pipe-line
system of solid waste transport (1978 - 1979)
. Investigation of the estimation for solid waste collection
and transport system (1980)
. Investigation of the suitability of solid waste collection
system by vehicles (1981 - 1982)
. Investigation of pilot projects of the pipe-line system
for solid waste transport (1982)
A-4 Investigation and study of processing techniques
. Study of improvement of compost treatment methods for
municipal waste and its utilization in agriculture (1976 -
1980)
. Investigation of stable incineration technique for
reducing nitrogen oxide and unburned residues (1981 - 1983)
. Investigation and study of development for waste treatment
techniques (1975 - 1976)
. Investigation and research of treatment and disposal of
ashes and dusts in incinerators (1977 - 1979)
. Investigation of inappropriate waste in municipal cleans-
ing works (1977 - 1978)
. Investigation of a separate treatment system in obedience
to the properties of inappropriate waste in domestic waste
(1982 - 1983)
. Research on behavior of slightly hazardous material in
waste treatment disposal (1982 - )
- 10 -
-------
13
. Investigation of solid waste disposal plant improvement
techniques (1983 - )
. Investigation of development of new techniques and esti-
mation of their suitability {1984 - )
. Investigation of exhaust gas treatment techniques with
mixed combustion of waste plastic (1984 - )
A-5 Investigation and study of night soil treatment
. Investigation of the actual condition of night soil septic
tanks (1975)
. Investigation and study of a disposal method of night soil
septic tank sludge (1976 - 1978)
. Investigation of the actual condition of big night soil
septic tanks (1978)
. Investigation and research of special types of water
closets (1979)
. Investigation of
(1979 - 1981)
for domestic waste water
. Research on reduction of discharged loads from night soil
treatment plants (1979 - 1981)
. Investigation of improvement of night soil treatment
system by septic tank (1980 - 1981)
. Research on higher treatment of night soil and domestic
waste water by anaerobic digestion (1980 - 1982)
. Investigation of treatment techniques for domestic waste
water (1981 - 1983)
. Research on utilization of higher treatment of domestic
waste water (1981)
. Research on advancing of domestic waste water treatment
system (1983 - )
A-6 Investigation and study of final disposal
. Research on methods of protecting saturation in sea side
land reclamation (1978 - 1980)
. Investigation and study of development for waste treatment
techniques (1975 - 1976)
- 11 -
-------
18
. Study of development of leachate's treatment system in
landfill sites (1977 - 1979)
. Investigation of making technical guidelines for mainte-
nance and control of landfill sites {1975)
. Study of ecological and chemical prevention of the breed-
ing of rats and harmful insects in landfill sites (1980 -
1981)
. Investigation of a plan for regional waste disposal land-
fill sites (1978 - )
. Study of development of front check system for final dis-
posal (1982 - 1984)
A-7 Management
. Investigation of the actual maintenance and inspection of
domestic waste treatment facilities (1976)
. Investigation of the actual undertaking of domestic waste
treatment (1975 - )
. Investigation of drawing up a technical guideline for
management of building pit sludge.
A-8 Others
. Investigation of building refuse discharge (1976)
. Investigation of drawing up a guideline for treatment and
disposal of refuse in tourist spots (1977 - 1978)
. Study of countermeasures for treatment of domestic special
waste (1984 - )
B. Industrial Waste
B-l Investigation of the real condition of treatment
. Investigation of the real condition of sites related to
discharge of industrial waste including hazardous materi-
als such as hexavalent chromium (1975)
. Investigation of the real condition of sites discharging
hazardous industrial waste (1976)
. Investigation of the real condition of hazardous industri-
al waste including PCB or organic chlorine compound (1976)
- 12 -
-------
18
. Investigation of the real condition of discharging
industrial waste (1977)
. Investigation of the real condition of final disposal
(1978)
. Investigation of the detailed condition of waste treatment
facilities of non-designated industries (1979 - )
. Investigation of sources of quantities of discharged
refuse (1980 - 1981)
. Investigation of origin and destination of industrial
waste ( 1980 - 1981)
. Investigation of precise original unit of industrial waste
discharge in the whole country (1982)
B-2 Disposal Plan
. Study of putting a comprehensive system for industrial
waste management to practical use (1976)
T of hazardous industrial
^y of making a master
waste (1977 - )
. Comprehensive study of establishing a system to eliminate
obstacles in recycling of industrial waste for industries
depending primarily on landfill (1980 - 1982)
B-3 Technical Development
. Technical development of total disposal of industrial
waste (1976)
. Research on urgent development of technology to remove
hazardous films from waste household electric appliances
(1979)
. Development of a system for disposal of industrial waste
(1983 - )
B-4 Others
. Study of making a guide line to dispose existing industri-
al waste needing urgent disposal (1978)
. Study of making a manual for urgent inspection check of
industrial waste treatment facilities (1977)
. Study of preventive counterrneasures for illegal dumping
- 13 -
-------
18
of industrial waste (1983 - )
Study of countermeasures for bulk disposal of noxious
liquid substances (1984 - )
- 14 -
-------
18
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Table 3-3 A Comprehensive Research Project on Waste Disposal and
Recycling (FY 1984)
(Ministry of Health and Welfare)
. Research on the behavior of trace hazardous material during
solid waste treatment and disposal
. Research on countermeasure techniques for exhaust gas produced
by mixed incineration treatment of waste plastics
(Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishery)
. Research on environmental evaluation of organic sludge applica-
tion to agriculture lands
(Ministry of International Trade and Industry)
. Research on leachate treatment technique for coal ash
. Research on activated treatment technique for residue in coal
combustion process
. Research •"iri effective utilization technique for coal ash
through fixation
. Research on treatment of waste containing heavy metals by
glassification
. Research on utilization of cellulosic waste from papermaking
processes
. Research on resource recovery and nonpollution treatment tech-
niques for sludge containing oil
. Research on effective utilization techniques for coal ash-steel
slug
. Research on treatment of industrial waste containing organic
chlorine compounds
(Ministry of Labor)
. Research on treatment of PVC waste using a reaction of alumi-
num with polyvinyl chloride
- 16 -
-------
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Paper 19
DEVELOPMENT OF HAZARDOUS WASTE SITE MONITORING METHODS AND CHARACTERIZATION
H. Matthew Bills
Deputy Director
Office of Monitoring Systems and Quality Assurance
Environmental Protection Agency
401 M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
Robert F. Holmes
Environmental Scientist
Water and Waste Management Monitoring Research Division
Office of Monitoring Systems and Quality Assurance
Environmental Protection Agency
401 M Street, S.W-.
Washington, D.C. 20460
Introduction
In 1978, a name was coined by environmentalists, doctors and lawyers that
would bring about a $1.6 billion dollar Federal program. That name was "Love
Canal." It was followed closely by others such as "Valley of the Drums,"
Elisabetli, Ntw Jsrsey and many more. Six y^-s later the Love Canal prnKiptn
has not been solved, however, the United States is on its way to establishing
irajor clean-up program that hopefully will solve what has been called
"perhaps the most serious environmental problem facing the nation."
Environmental Protection Agency studies estimated that 37 million metric tons
of hazardous waste are generated annually by industry. In practice, these
wastes have been disposed of with very little control. Open dumping in land-
fills, quarries, streams and fields became common practice in the 6U's and 70's.
Another aspect of the problem is that what were once considered to be "safe"
dumps are now becoming major environmental problems. In the 1940's and bU's
dumps were considered to be safe and did not cause any concern to the public.
Groundwater, surface water and air pollution is now common as a result of
these old and often long forgotten sites.
It has been estimated that 20 thousand disposal sites are scattered through-
out the United States. Of these, up to 2000 may contain significant amounts
of hazardous materials and may pose a major pollution to near-by population
and to ground water aquifers. Few of these potentially dangerous sites have
been evaluated. Many sites are not located specifically and many more have
large amounts of chemicals which have not been evaluated for their degree of
risk.
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Legal Mandates
The actions of the Environmental Protection Agency in the control and clean-up
of the hazardous waste problems has been mandated by a number of laws. Section
311 of the Clean Water Act1 relates to the spillage of oil including waste,
into navigable waters of the United States and adjoining waters. Since 1972
the EPA has responded to an increasing number of spills in all section of the
country. Since 1978 hazardous waste sites such as "Valley of the Drums,"
Louisville Sewers, Oswego, New York have all been controlled under the Act.
In 1976, the Resource Conservation Recovery Act2 was passed to insure proper
handling and disposal of wastes in the future. The Act gives EPA responsi-
bility to regulate waste from generation to ultimate disposal i.e., cradle
to grave. However, the act does not cover old or abandoned dump sites.
The latest attempt concentrate the efforts of the U.S. government and the
States is the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability
Act of 1980 (Superfund)3. The Act which was signed into law in January 1981
provides for a $1.6 billion dollar fund that will allow EPA and other Federal
Agencies to clean up abandoned hazardous waste sites. The act provides a
revolving fund for clean up first and then collection from responsible parties.
If parties are not known resources are to be provided. It also provides costs
to identify, investigate and take enforcement and abatement actions when
desi red.
In this paper, I will address a series of remote monitoring techniques that
were designed by EPA photo scientists to meet the requirements to discover
the location of sites and provide a characterization for field investigators
prior to their entry into the sites.
The paper discusses techniques utilizing aircraft, aerial photography and
ancillary photo interpretation equipment to meet emergency response for quick
closure and clean-up and longer term remedial and engineering programs.
Techniques Development
The Environmental Protection Agency has been involved in the development of
remote sensing systems and techniques since 1971. Through the Office of
Research and Development, the Agency first investigated the use of aerial
photography for surveillance and prevention of oil spills^,^.
In 1973 the ORD took another step in investigating aerial surveillance during
sub-optimum weather." Following the completion of these two programs, the
ORD proceeded to propose and organize an operational program to meet the needs
of the Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasure Program for the Office of
Water Program Operations. In 1975 the first study was made to utilize aerial
photography under diverse situations, utilizing various film/filter combi-
nations to study leachates from landfills and waste sites.9 Concurrently, the
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ORO prepared a survey of waste dump sites in Delaware and New Jersey. In
1976 a major step was taken to put a remote sensing capability in all EPA
Regional offices. The ORD designed and had fabricated the first Enviro-
pod.^ With the advent of the system each EPA Region could acquire its own
imagery and thus have a close knit working arrangement between the photo-
interpreter and the environmental scientists.
In 1979 the ORD prepared a document "Aerial Reconnaissance of Hazardous
Substances Spills and Spill-Threat Conditions^" that demonstrated that
aerial reconnaissance procedures currently utilized in monitoring oil
production and storage facilities could also be applied to monitoring
chemical production and storage facilities. At the same time the ORU
undertook an extensive program to demonstrate overhead remote sensing
applications in compliance monitoring of hazardous waste sites. As Love
Canal, Valley of the Drums, and Memphis became common terms of EPA lawyers
and environmentalists so did photographic interpretation terms such as
trend analysis, historical search, vegetation stress and aerial surveil-
lance.
The first site-specific landfill study was a joint effort between the
Environmental Photographic Interpretation Center, (EPIC), a field station
of the Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Las Vegas, Nevada,
and the School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University^.
The EPIC provided photo acquisition services and consultation on the appli-
cation of ph:JL,jgraphy to the analysis of environmental features. Coroe11
undertook the detailed analysis, ground verification and site analysis of
thirteen landfills in Central New York.
The program was conducted over four seasons so that the effect of surface
and sub-surface water flow on the presence of leachate could be determined.
Acquisition of the photographic and thermal infrared data also took place
during daytime hours as well as early morning periods to test the full
utility of the sensors. Simultaneous ground testing was also attempted.
However, flight schedules and the presence of on-the-ground scientists
did not always occur.
The primary conclusion of the program was that "photography and thermal
scanners can be effective tools for detecting leachates and determining
the monitoring required to ascertain the environmental problems involved
in landfills." A major advantage of using remote monitoring techniques
was found to be the reduction in costs and time required to survey the
problem sites. With the use of aerial photography it was possible to
determine the presence or absence of possible problem areas, to establish
the magnitude of the problem and prepare a monitoring plan prior to entry
into the site. One point should be emphasized, the use of remote sensing
did not exclude the use of ground sampling and laboratory analysis to
determine the true extent of the problems involved.
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The findings of the report were:
o The best sensor is the aerial camera producing photography at a
scale of 1:5000 or larger;
o Cartographic cameras are not required but they provide better
resolution characteristics than had held 35mm or 70mm cameras;
o Color, color infrared film and thermal infrared scanners can all
be used to determine leachate problems;
o If only one camera system is available color infrared film is the
best choice to provide the most information;
o Multi-spectral scanners can be utilized but the cost involved in
data acquisition and computer processing does not make the system
cost-effective.
Additional conclusions of the study were:
Scale and Flight Parameters
The photographic scale of 1:5000 should permit detection of leachate
contamination features of about one meter in size. The flying height
above ground and the aerial coverage will vary with camera focal length.
Larger film vormats are clearly preferred for- major monitoring programs.
Photographic sensing for leachate should be conducted with high sun
angles to minimize shadows and to maximize the amount of reflectance.
Flight, parameters for a thermal scanner should be selected for a target
as small as one-half meter in size and with a net temperature difference
of approximately 30C compared with the background. Thermal scanner
missions should be flown in pre-dawn periods.
Temporal Aspects
There is a clear advantage to conducting a leachate detection program
during certain seasons of the year. In general, when there is a maximum
production of leachate and a mimimum of interference from other surface
features such as vegetation or heavy snow is a prime program requirement.
Since weather and climate are the major determinants of leachate produc-
tion for a particular landfill design, the greatest potential for
detection is during wet periods, with dry and frozen periods having the
least potential.
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The ideal season will depend on the climate and location. In temperature
humid areas, the best time for a sensing program will usually be early
spring, prior to heavy vegetation growth. In warmer southern areas, mid-
winter may be best; while in dry arid regions, there is little potential
for detecting leachate because little or none is produced.
Enviro-pod
In 1976, the ORD developed what has turned out to be the key to the
development of a cost-effective data acquisition proyram that puts a
camera system in the hands of the environmental scientist.° The system
called the Enviro-pod was designed to:
o fit commonly available aircraft without modification;
o be easily installed;
o be transportable as checked baggage aboard commercial airlines;
o provide data that can be analyzed by the environmental scientist
or lawyer as well as the professional photo interpreter.
At the present time the Enviro-pod has been delivered to nine of the ten
Regions and is operated by three ORD laboratories. The operating organi-
zations prepare their own flight plan, contract for aircraft to fly the
missions and then airmail the cameras back to the EPIC in Warrenton,
Virginia. If the mission has been identified as a priority program the
film if. pr°rocsed and an analysis norforiTi"H on the imagery within ?4
hours.
Applications now being peformed by the Region include:
o routine compliance monitoring;
o oil and hazardous spill detection;
o site analysis of hazardous waste sites;
o support for enforcement actions.
The typical Enviro-pod mission is generally centered less than 100-200
miles from the Regional Office; the area to be covered is relatively
small in that only 300 frames of imagery are available; the acquisition
costs are less than $200; and total costs are generally less than $500
including shipping, processing and film costs. In all, the system is
very inexpensive when you consider the amount of information that can be
obtained in a very short period of time. When viewed from the standpoint
that it may be the only way some sites can be surveyed without entry, it
is a very economical system that saves many work-years of effort, travel
costs and analysis costs. Table I summarizes mission costs of a typical
mission.
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TABLE I APPROXIMATE PHOTOGRAPHIC COSTS FOR ENVIRO-POD MISSION
19
CAMERA DATA
Format size 5.7 cm x 18.3 cm
Total frames required 300
Total area covered 200 sq. km
TOTAL COSTS
Acquisition and processing
$300-$400
AIRCRAFT COSTS
Lease/Rent $50-55/hour
Total this mission $150-$175
per square kilometer
$1.60-11.80
Image Analysis System
The old axiom, "necessity is the mother of invention" was proven out in
the next phase of development. The imagery that is acquired by the
Enviro-pod is not in a standard mapping format. The cameras currently
used take a panoramic image that when plotted on a map gives a "bow-tie"
appearance. As a result of this configuration it requires some extra
time to compare the photo with a map and it is possible to make highly
accurate measurements on the photo only at the nadir.
It was recognized that measurement of storage tanks, buildings and
disposal sites would be desirable when making a site analysis. In an
effort to meet this requirement the EPIC conceived an off-the-shelf,
interactive, computer controlled Image Analysis System. The system was
designed by the Calma Corporation to EPIC specifications. It consists of
a digitizer light table, a map digitizer, tape and disk drives, a plotter,
a printer and computer with requisite controls and monitors.
The digitizer light table makes it possible for the computer to maintain
geodetic fidelity directly from the imagery thereby eliminating the
function of manually transferring data points from the photograph to a
topographic map. The interpreter does not have to break his or her con-
centration on the imagery as the transfer is made. Linear, area and
volumetric data are automatically derived during the interpretative
process by the computer. Annotation data are selected from "menu cards"
by the interpreter. As information is developed from the imagery it is
accumulated on the monitor in both graphic and alpha-numeric form for
editing by the interpreter. Once satisfied that the data are correct
and completed the interpreter commits it to a tape which drives the
precision plotter to produce map overlays depicting all desired infor-
mation.
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TrendAnalysis
During the period 1975 through 1978, the EPIC and the Advanced Monitoring
Division of Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory in Las Vegas,
Nevada, (EMSL-LV), investigated the use of "trend analysis" photographic
interpretation to study lake shore erosion on the Great Lakes, urban
development surrounding cities and the growth and development of dumps
and landfills. Through the analysis of historical photographs it is
possible to determine what and when significant actions were taken at
a suspected hazardous waste site. Further, it is possible to determine
when housing has been constructed over waste sites or, as in the case of
Love Canal, what portion of the disposal area has been covered by housing
and schools.
The location and acquisition of historical imagery is a relatively
straight forward proposition since only a few Federal organizations
maintain libraries of imagery flown of the United States. Analysis of
the archives held by the Department of Agriculture, the U.S. Geological
Survey and the Federal Archives will provide eighty percent of available
imagery. If there are gaps in the coverage, investigation of State
archives and private contractor holdings will often fill out the
historical requirements.
The process then amounts to determining when a site was opened, finding
photography prior to that time and d31.1nc"fing the soils, drainage and
cultural patterns on overlays and maps. The process is then repeated
on imagery acquired at later dates. In a very short period of time, a
detailed history of the site development and management has been prepared.
By comparing a 1938 analysis, with 19bO or recent photography an analyst
can tell what drainage has been disrupted, what valleys have been filled
and where houses or shopping centers are now constructed on former dump
sites.
Present Program
In 1979, the EPA began to investigate in earnest the problem of hazardous
waste sites and site spills. In may of 1979, Ms. Barbara Blum, Deputy
Administrator of EPA, chaired a special meeting of EPA and Justice Depart-
ment employees to prepare and administer a comprehensive program to clean
up environmental problems. As a result of this meeting the Hazardous
Waste Enfgorcement Task Force was established in the Office of Enforcement
of EPA. Concurrently, the Office of Water Programs established a Hazardous
Waste Branch to meet the planning and operational needs of the Agency.
Most recently, the responsibility was transferred to the Office of Solid
Waste and the Office of Emergency and Remedial Response was formed to meet
the requirements of Superfund. In a similar move, each EPA Region desig-
nated a separate Division to manage the abandoned waste site program.
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In 198U, the EPIC at Warrenton, Virginia and EMSL-LV became involved
in 13 large area studies which required the analysis of many hundreds to
several thousand square miles to locate and study problem areas. In the
case of Niagara County, N.Y., the study required the analysis of imagery
covering 400 square miles and the gathering of historical data of b9
know sites and many previously unknown but potentially dangerous sites.
Another major program involved in the detailed analysis of Memphis,
Tennessee. The program started in February 1980 at the request of the
Office of Water Programs, EPA. The original request asked that two sites,
Steele Street and Frazer, be investigated with 1979 aerial photography and
historical photography that dated from 1937. During the inventory a
number of additional sites were identified. By July, the inventory had
expanded to more than 220 square miles with more than 300 possible problem
areas identified. In July 1980, a list of 112 areas was forwared to the
Region for investigation. The Surveillance and Analysis Division performed
on-site field investigations that included water and air sampling to deter-
mine the magnitude of the problem. A total of 34 sites were identified
as major environmental problems.
The program in Memphis is still expanding. In January, 1981, the
EPIC completed a historical land use analysis with imagery from 4
different time frames. As a result of this analysis, the Region
requested another 160 square miles to be analyzed in detail for possible
environment1 problems. As of this dstc, *he second analysis is not
completed but it is anticipated that an additional number of potentially
dangerous sites will be discovered.
In 1980 the ORD was involved in 116 site-specific investigations. Each
of these investigations required the review of all available Federal,
State and private industry archival photography and the acquisition of
new aerial photography. The data were used by: (1) The Office of
Enforcement to bring suit against violations of U.S. laws; (2) the EPA
regions to determine compliance with EPA mandates and; (3) the program
offices of the Agency to clean-up abandoned imminent hazard sites.
Future Programs
The Office of Research and Development program to provide support to the
hazardous waste site program is just beginning. A program is being
carried on at the Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Las Vegas to determine
the application of the multi-spectral scanner to hazardous site charac-
terization and the movement of hazardous pollutants from the site in
surface waters. The thermal band of the multi-spectral scanner and an
independent infrared scanner are being investigated. In one program in
Indiana, a site was overflown with an infrared scanner. The resulting
data indicated a number of barrels on the site were considerably cooler
than the rest. Upon investigation these barrels were found to contain
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picric acid, a high explosive. The ORD has yet to determine the
properties that caused the identification but indications are the
significant data could be obtained for field teams from thermal infrared
data.
Further investigation is being performed to bring down the cost of using
an aircraft and a multi-spectral scanner. Present data acquisition costs
now fall in the $4UO-5UO dollars per hour range as compared to $17b-$2()U
per hour costs with aerial camera. In order to be competitive these
costs must be reduced considerably.
The continued updating of the Image Analysis System is a major program
in ORD. The capacity of the system and its ancillary computers has yet
to be recognized. A detailed study to determine the interaction of the
system with other storage and retrival systems is being undertaken.
The use of the system to store and retrieve collateral data on soils
geology sub-surface structure and groundwater must be determined. In
1985, the ORD will begin use of a geographic information system to
provide detailed analyses to the Regions and states.
The Enviro-pod system is still being improved. A television system has
been tested on the aircraft. It has been demonstrated that valuable
data can be acquired. The system is now undergoing tests to transmit
the data to ground stations in a "real-time" mode. Additional investi-
gations ere n~w underway to determine th° feasibility of operating a .
compact high resolution thermal infrared scanner in the system. The
engineering problems are now being reviewed.
Major efforts are underway to apply remote monitoring techniques
developed by EPA to hazardous waste site discovery. As I stated in the
opening pages, more than 20-bU thousand sites are thought to exist in
the United States. The majority of these sites are now abandoned and
there are no records of their location and content. In an effort to
find the majority of these sites an inventory of 20U major chemical
producing areas of the United States are being surveyed with aerial
photography. The five to seven year program will analyze new as well
as historical photography to determine the presence of dump sites.
Selection of search areas has been carefully thought out. Their
selection will be based on the following factors: (1) concentration of
chemical manufacturing; (2) types of chemicals manufactured and waste
produced; (3) health statistics that indicate a problem; and (4) the
size of the population exposed. As in the Memphis case, the initial
assessment of the problems will be performed with aerial photography.
The final determination of the magnitude of pollution will be determined
by on-site analysis by State and Federal scientists.
Finally, an effort is being made to transfer the knowledge gained in the
long research program to State and local authorities. The ORD has pre-
pared a manual of analysis that covers site discovery, characteri-
zation and analysis. It is anticipated the manual will provide an
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insight into how to use aerial photography to recognize signs of hazardous
waste activity such as the disappearance of natural features, depressions,
quarries or borrow pits or the disturbance or alteration of stream
channels. The manual will also contain what to look for in vegetation
stress and the appearance or disappearance of traffic patterns.
In summary, a valuable tool has been developed and will continue to be
investigated and applied to the hazardous waste site program. The office
will continue to provide services for: (!) the acquisition and analysis
of current and historical imagery; (2) the provision of consultant
services on how to establish a discovery and analysis program; (3) and
the preparation of inventories for planning purposes.
REFERENCES
1. Federal Hater Pollution Control Act. Public Law 92-500, October 18,
1972, as amended.
2. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976.
3, Comprehens^ye^nvi^onrnental Response Compensation and Liability Act
of 1980, Public Law 95-510, December 11, 1980.
4. Rudder, C.L., et al 1972, Aerial Surveillance Soil 1 Prevention System,
EPA-R2-70 007 Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research a~H
Development.
5. Welch, R.I,, et al, 1972, A Feasibility Demonstration of an Aerial
Surveillance Spill Prevention System, WPCRS 15080 HOL 01/72,
Environmental Protection Agency.
6. Welch, R.I., et al, 1973, Aerial Spill Prevention Surveillance
During Sub-optimum Weather, EPA-R2-73243, Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Research and Development.
7. Howard, G.E., et al, 1975, Non-poin_t_ Pollut ion Source Invent o ry
Camden and Gloucester Counties, New Jersey and New Castle County,
Delaware, Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and
Development.
8. Howard, 6.E., and Wolle, F.R., 1976, Overhead E n v i ronmenta1
Monitoring with Light Utility Aircraft, Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Research and Development.
9. Sangrey, D.A., and Philipson, W.R., 1979, De tecti_ng__L_an_d_f_j_Vj_
Leachate Contamination Using Remote Sensors, EPA-600/4-79-060,
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development.
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10. Johnson, H.V., 1979, Aerial R e c onn a isa nce o f H az a r dou s S u bs t a nces
Spills and Spill - Threat Conditions, [-PA-6UU/4-79-U27.
11. Holmes, R.F., 1980, Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Site Program FY-80,
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development.
(11)
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