United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Solid Waste and
Emergency Response
{5201G)
EPA-540-B-00-008
OSWER 9285.9-43
August 2000
www.epa.gov/superfund
Introduction to Groundwater
Investigations (165.7)
Student Manual
Recycled/Recyclable
Printed with SoyCanota Ink on paper :nat
contain* at leas: 50^. 'ecycied finer
-------
9285.9-15C
EPA540/R-95/060
PB95-963240
FOREWORD
This manual is for reference use of students enrolled in scheduled training courses of the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). While it will be useful to anyone who needs information
on the subjects covered, it will have its greatest value as an adjunct to classroom presentations
involving discussions among the students and the instructional staff.
This manual has been developed with a goal of providing the best available current information;
however, individual instructors may provide additional material to cover special aspects of their
presentations.
Because of the limited availability of the manual, it should not be cited in bibliographies or other
publications.
References to products and manufacturers are for illustration only; they do not imply endorsement
by EPA.
Constructive suggestions for improvement of the content and format of the manual are welcome.
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CONTENTS
Acronyms and Abbreviations
Glossary
SECTION 1 STANDARD ORIENTATION AND INTRODUCTION
SECTION 2
SECTION 3
SECTION 4
SECTION 5
SECTION 6
SECTION 7
SECTION 8
SECTION 9
SECTION 10
SECTION 11
SECTION 12
SECTION 13
ROCK CYCLE
DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS
SOILS
DRILLING METHODS
HYDROGEOLOGY
WELL INSTALLATION
VADOSE ZONE
GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
GEOCHEMICAL MODELS
GROUNDWATER MODELS
PROBLEM EXERCISES
Problem 1—Cross-section Exercise
Problem 2—Sediment Analysis
Problem 3—Groundwater Model Demonstration
Problem 4—Hydrogeological Exercises
Problem 5—Aquifer Stress Tests
Problem 6—Groundwater Investigation
APPENDICES
Appendix A—Checklist for a Hydrogeological Investigation
Appendix B—Sampling Protocols
Appendix C—References
Appendix D—Sources of Information
Appendix E—Soil Profiles
8/95
Contents
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QA/QC quality assurance and quality
control
QAMS quality assurance management
staff
QC quality control
RA remedial action
RAS routine analytical services
RCRA Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act of 1978
RI/FS remedial investigation and
feasibility study
ROD record of decision
RPM EPA remedial project manager
RQ reportable quantity
SARA Superfund Amendments and
Reauthorization Act of 1986
SCBA self-contained breathing
apparatus
SCS Soil Conservation Service
SDL sample detection limit
SDWA Safe Drinking Water Act
SI site inspection
SITE Superfund Innovative
Technology Evaluation
SOP standard operating procedure
SP spontaneous potential
SVOC semivolatile organic
compound
SWDA Solid Waste Disposal Act
TAT technical assistance team
TCLP toxiciry characteristic leaching
procedure
TEGD Technical Enforcement
Guidance Document
TDS total dissolved solids
TLV threshold limit value
TOC total organic carbon
TOX total organic halides
TSCA Toxic Substances Control Act
TSDF treatment, storage, and disposal
facility
UEL upper explosive limit
UMTRCA Uranium Mill Tailing Radiation
Control Act
USCG United States Coast Guard
USCS Unified Soil Classification
System
USGS U.S. Geological Survey
UST underground storage tank
UV ultraviolet
VOA volatile organic analysis
VOC volatile organic compound
Acronyms and Abbreviations
8/95
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GLOSSARY
acre-foot
adsorption
advection
alluvium
anisotropic
aquifer
aquifer test
aquitard
artesian
artificial recharge
artesian aquifer
bedload
enough water to cover 1 acre to a depth of 1 foot; equal to 43,560
cubic feet or 325,851 gallons
the attraction and adhesion of a layer of ions from an aqueous solution
to the solid mineral surfaces with which it is in contact
the process by which solutes are transported by the bulk motion of the
flowing groundwater
a general term for clay, silt, sand, gravel, or similar unconsolidated
material deposited during comparatively recent geologic time by a
stream or other body of running water as a sorted or semisorted
sediment in the bed of the stream or on its floodplain or delta, or as
a cone or fan at the base of a mountain slope
hydraulic conductivity ("K"), differing with direction
a geologic formation, group of formations, or a part of a formation
that contains sufficient permeable material to yield significant
quantities of groundwater to wells and springs. Use of the term
should be restricted to classifying water bodies in accordance with
stratigraphy or rock types. In describing hydraulic characteristics such
as transmissiviry and storage coefficient, be careful to refer those
parameters to the saturated part of the aquifer only.
a test involving the withdrawal of measured quantities of water from,
or the addition of water to, a well (or wells) and the measurement of
resulting changes in head (water level) in the aquifer both during and
after the period of discharge or addition
a saturated, but poorly permeable bed, formation, or group of
formations that does not yield water freely to a well or spring
confined; under pressure sufficient to raise the water level in a well
above the top of the aquifer
recharge at a rate greater than natural, resulting from deliberate or
incidental actions of man
see confined aquifer
the part of the total stream load that is moved on or immediately above
the stream bed, such as the larger or heavier particles (boulders,
pebbles, gravel) transported by traction or saltation along the bottom;
the part of die load that is not continuously in suspension or solution
8/95
1
Glossary
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capillary zone
capture
coefficient of storage
cone of depression
confined
confined aquifer
confining bed
diffusion
discharge area
discharge velocity
dispersion
drawdown
effective porosity
negative pressure zone just above the water table where water is drawn
up from saturated zone into soil pores due to cohesion of water
molecules and adhesion of these molecules to soil particles. Zone
thickness may be several inches to several feet depending on porosity
and pore size.
the decrease in water discharge naturally from a ground-water
reservoir plus any increase in water recharged to the reservoir
resulting from pumping
the volume of water an aquifer releases from or takes into storage per
unit surface area of the aquifer per unit change in head
depression of heads surrounding a well caused by withdrawal of water
(larger cone for confined aquifer than for unconfined)
under pressure significantly greater than atmospheric throughout and
its upper limit is the bottom of a bed of distinctly lower hydraulic
conductivity than that of the material in which die confined water
occurs
geological formation capable of storing and transmitting water in
usable quantities overlain by a less permeable or impermeable
formation (confining layer) placing the aquifer under pressure
a body of "impermeable" material stratigraphically adjacent to one or
more aquifers
the process whereby particles of liquids, gases, or solids intermingle
as a result of their spontaneous movement caused by thermal agitation
an area in which subsurface water, including both groundwater and
water in the unsaturated zone, is discharged to the land surface, to
surface water, or to the atmosphere
an apparent velocity, calculated from Darcy's law, which represents
the flow rate at which water would move through the aquifer if it were
an open conduit (also called specific discharge)
the spreading and mixing of chemical constituents in groundwater
caused by diffusion and by mixing due to microscopic variations in
velocities within and between pores
the vertical distance through which the water level in a well is lowered
by pumping from the well or a nearby well
the amount of interconnected pore space through which fluids can
pass, expressed as a percent of bulk volume. Part of the total porosity
Glossary
8/95
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evapotranspiration
flow line
fluid potential
gaining stream
ground water
groundwater divide
groundwater model
will be occupied by static fluid being held to the mineral surface by
surface tension, so effective porosity will be less than total porosity.
the combined loss of water from direct evaporation and through the
use of water by vegetation (transpiration)
the path that a particle of water follows in its movement through
saturated, permeable rocks (synonym: streamline)
the mechanical energy per unit mass of water or other fluid at any
given point in space and time, with respect to an arbitrary state of
datum
a stream or reach of a stream whose flow is being increased by inflow
of groundwater (also called an effluent stream)
water in the zone of saturation
a ridge in the water table or other potentiometric surface from which
groundwater moves away in both directions normal to the ridge line
simulated representation of a groundwater system to aid definition of
behavior and decision-making
groundwater reservoir all rocks in the zone of saturation (see also aquifer)
groundwater system
head
heterogeneous/geological
formation
homogeneous
hydraulic conductivity
"K"
a groundwater reservoir and its contained water; includes hydraulic
and geochemical features
combination of elevation above datum and pressure energy imparted
to a column of water (velocity energy is ignored because of low
velocities of groundwater). Measured in length units (i.e., feet or
meters).
characteristics varying aerially or vertically in a given system
geology of the aquifer is consistent; not changing with direction or
depth
volume flow through a unit cross-section area per unit decline in head
(measured in velocity units and dependent on formation characteristics
and fluid characteristics)
8/95
Glossary
-------
hydraulic gradient
change of head values over a distance
H, - Hz
hydrograph
impermeable
infiltration
interface
intrinsic permeability
where:
H = head
L = distance between head measurement points
graph that shows some property of groundwater or surface water as a
function of time
having a texture that does not permit water to move through it
perceptibly under the head difference that commonly occurs in nature
the flow or movement of water through the land surface into the
ground
in hydrology, the contact zone between two different fluids
pertaining to the relative ease with which a porous medium can
transmit a liquid under a hydrostatic or potential gradient. It is a
property of the porous medium and is independent of the nature of the
liquid or the potential field.
hydraulic conductivity ("K") is the same regardless of direction
low velocity flow with no mixing (i.e., no turbulence)
a stream or reach of a stream that is losing water to the subsurface
(also called an influent stream)
in reference to groundwater, withdrawals in excess of natural
replenishment and capture. Commonly applied to heavily pumped
areas in semiarid and arid regions, where opportunity for natural
replenishment and capture is small. The term is hydrologic and
excludes any connotation of unsatisfactory water-management practice
(see, however, overdraft).
nonsteady state-nonsteady (also called unsteady state-nonsteady shape) the condition when the
isotropic
laminar flow
losing stream
mining
shape
rate of flow through the aquifer is changing and water levels are
declining. It exists during the early stage of withdrawal when the
water level throughout the cone of depression is declining and the
shape of the cone is changing at a relatively rapid rate.
Glossary
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nonsteadv state-steady
shape
optimum yield
overdraft
perched
permeability
permeameter
piezometer
porosity
potentiometric surface
recharge
recharge area
safe yield
saturated zone
is the condition that exists during the intermediate stage of withdrawals
when the water level is still declining but the shape of the central part
of the cone is essentially constant
the best use of groundwater that can be made under the circumstances;
a use dependent not only on hydro logic factors but also on legal,
social, and economic factors
withdrawals of groundwater at rates perceived to be excessive and,
therefore, an unsatisfactory water-management practice (see also
mining)
unconfmed groundwater separated from an underlying body of
groundwater by an unsaturated zone
the property of the aquifer allowing for transmission of fluid through
pores (i.e., connection of pores)
a laboratory device used to measure the intrinsic permeability and
hydraulic conductivity of a soil or rock sample
a nonpumping well, generally of small diameter, that is used to
measure the elevation of the water table or potentiometric surface. A
piezometer generally has a short well screen through which water can
enter.
the ratio of the volume of the interstices or voids in a rock or soil to
the total volume
imaginary saturated surface (potential head of confined aquifer); a
surface that represents the static head; the levels to which water will
rise in tightly cased wells
the processes of addition of water to the zone of saturation
an area in which water that is absorbed eventually reaches the zone of
saturation
magnitude of yield that can be relied upon over a long period of time
(similar to sustained yield)
zone in which all voids are filled with water (the water table is the
upper limit)
8/95
Glossary
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slug-test
specific capacity
specific yield
steady-state
storage
storage coefficient "S"
storativity
sustained yield
transmissivity
vadose zone
an aquifer test made by either pouring a small instantaneous charge of
water into a well or by withdrawing a slug of water from the well
(when a slug of water is removed from the well, it is also called a
bail-down test)
the rate of discharge from a well divided by the drawdown in it. The
rate varies slowly with the duration of pumping, which should be
stated when known.
ratio of volume of water released under gravity to total volume of
saturated rock
the condition when the rate of flow is steady and water levels have
ceased to decline. It exists in the final stage of withdrawals when
neither the water level nor the shape of the cone is changing.
in groundwater hydrology, refers to 1) water naturally detained in a
groundwater reservoir, 2) artificial impoundment of water in
groundwater reservoirs, and 3) the water so impounded
volume of water taken into or released from aquifer storage per unit
surface area per unit change in head (dimensionless) (for confined,
S = 0.0001 to 0.001; for unconfined, S = 0.2 to 0.3)
the volume of water an aquifer releases from or takes into storage per
unit surface area of the aquifer per unit change in head (also called
coefficient of storage)
continuous long-term groundwater production without progressive
storage depletion (see also safe yield)
the rate at which water is transmitted through a unit width of an
aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient
the zone containing water under pressure less than that of the
atmosphere, including soil water, intermediate vadose water, and
capillary water. Some references include the capillary water in the
saturated zone. This zone is limited above by the land surface and
below by the surface of the zone of saturation (i.e., the water table).
Also called the unsaturated zone or zone of aeration. According to
Freeze and Cherry (1979):
1. It occurs above the water table and above the capillary fringe.
2. The soil pores are only partially filled with water; the moisture
content 6 is less than the porosity n.
3. The fluid pressure/? is less than atmospheric; the pressure head ^
is less than zero.
4. The hydraulic head h must be measured with a tensiometer.
Glossary
8/95
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5. The hydraulic conductivity K and the moisture content 9 are both
functions of the pressure head i/*.
water table surface of saturated zone area at atmospheric pressure; that surface in
an unconfined water body at which the pressure is atmospheric.
Defined by the levels at which water stands in wells that penetrate the
water body just far enough to hold standing water.
8/95 i Glossary
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Introduction to
Groundwater Investigations
(165.7)
Orientation and Introduction
-------
INTRODUCTION TO
GROUNDWATER
INVESTIGATIONS
(165.7)
Presented by:
Tetra Tech NUS, Inc.
EPA Contract No. 68-C7-0033
s-i
Orientation and Introduction
Agenda:
Environmental Response Training Program (ERTP) overview
Synopsis of ERTP courses
Course layout and agenda
Course materials
Facility information
-------
Notes
Introduction to Grouncfwater Jnv«*tjgatiQ«i
Introdgctwi
-------
ERTP Overview
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation 1
and Liability Act of 1 980 I
(CERCLA) 1
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986 1
(SARA) 1
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1
(EPA) 1
Environmental Response Training Program I
(ERTP) I
S-2
ERTP Overview
In 1980, the U.S. Congress passed the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and
Liability Act (CERCLA), also known as Superfund. In 1986, the Superfund Amendments and
Reauthorization Act (SARA) was passed. This act reauthorized CERCLA. CERCLA provides for
liability, compensation, cleanup, and emergency response for hazardous substances released into the
environment and for the cleanup of inactive waste disposal sites. The U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) allocated a portion of Superfund money to training. EPA's Environmental Response Team
(ERT) developed the Environmental Response Training Program (ERTP) in response to the training
needs of individuals involved in Superfund activities.
introduction U) Groundwater I
Qn«ntatx>n and Introduction
SOS
page*
-------
Notes
IntroductfOfl ID Groundwater Invm&gatxxm
Onenttbon and Introductx?"
-------
ERTP Overview
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency I
(EPA) 1
Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response 1
(OSWER) 1
N.
^
Environmental Response Team 1
(ERT) J
"x.
f
Environmental Response Training Program I
(ERTP) |
V V
S-3
ERTP Overview
ERTP is administered by ERT. which is part of OSWER. ERT offices and training facilities are located in
Cincinnati, Ohio, and Edison. New Jersey. ERT has contracted the development of ERTP courses to
Tetra Tech XL'S. Inc. (EPA Contract No. 68-C7-0033). The ERTP program provides education and
training for environmental employees at the federal, state, and local levels in all regions of the United
States. Training courses cover areas such as basic health and safety and more specialized topics such as
air sampling and treatment technologies.
cicuc:*0" t;- GrQuno-.vater invest g.'K.sr
ass
-------
Notes
Introduction ID CtmindwaUr lnv»« jatxxi. SOS
Onenution and Introdueeon pago?
-------
Types of Credit Available
Continuing Education Units
(2.4CEUs)
CEU
CEU Requirements
100% attendance at this course.
>70% on the exam.
Irtroc jction Jo G"OL.rGwa;er i
O*ief.:a:.or arc i-TrcGiiCt.o's
sii ;a* crs
-------
Notes
Introduction to GrouncfwaMr invcocbgabon* 3*95
i and Introduction page 9
-------
ERTP Courses
Health and Safety Courses
Hazardous Materials Incident Response Operations (165.5)
Safety and Health Decision-Making for Managers (165.8)
Emergency Response to Hazardous Material Incidents (165.15)
Technical Courses
• Treatment Technologies for Superfund (165.3)
Air Monitoring for Hazardous Materials (165.4)
• Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund (165.6)
• Introduction to Groundwater Investigations (165.7)
• Sampling for Hazardous Materials (165.9)
Radiation Safety at Superfund Sites (165.11)
Special Courses
Health and Safety Plan Workshop (165.12)
Design of Air Impact Assessments at Hazardous Waste Sites (165.16)
• Removal Cost Management System (165.17)
Inland Oil Spills (165.18)
Courses Offered in Conjunction with Other EPA Offices
S Chemical Emergency Preparedness and Prevention Office (CEPPO)
• Chemical Safety Audits (165.19)
^ Site Assessment Branch
• Preliminary Assessment
• Site Investigation
• Federal Facilities Preliminary Assessment'Site Investigation
• Hazard Ranking System
• Hazard Ranking System Documentation Record
Orientation and Introduction pgpa w
-------
Notes
Introduction to Groundwator Investigation* 8186
Orientation and Introduction page 11
-------
Course Goals
Identify the components of a groundwater system.
List the primary hydrogeological parameters to be considered in a site
investigation.
Construct a flow net and calculate the hydraulic gradient at a site.
Discuss the primary advantages and disadvantages of the most common
geophysical survey methods.
Identify geochemical profiles in contaminated groundwater.
Identify the different types of pumping tests and the information that can
be obtained from each.
Describe monitoring well drilling and sampling techniques.
IntroductNWi to Groundwater Lrrvftcagaixxil
Onenta&on and Introduction
aes
-------
Notes
introduction to Grauncrwatef lrw«sGgabon»
Orientation and Introduction
-------
Course Layout and Agenda
Key Points:
Agenda times are only approximate. Every effort is made to complete units, and
finish the day, at the specified time.
Classes begin promptly at 8:00 am. Please arrive on time to minimize distractions to
fellow students.
Breaks are given between units.
• Lunch is 1 hour.
Each student must take the examination given on Thursday.
Direct participation in field or laboratory exercises is optional. Roles are randomly
assigned to ensure fairness.
* Attendance at each lecture and exercise is required in order to receive a certificate.
rou
Orientation and introduction
395
-------
Notes
lnv««tH»ation»
-------
Training Evaluation
The Training Evaluation is a tool to collect valuable feedback from YOU
about this course. !
We value YOUR comments!! Important modifications have been made to
this course based on comments of previous students.
DO
Write in your comments at the end of
each unit!
Tell us if you feel the content of the
course manual is clear and complete!
Tell us if you feel the activities and
exercises were useful and helpful!
Tell us if you feel the course will help
you perform related duties back on the
job!
Complete the first page at the end of
the course before you leave!
Write comments in ink.
DON'T
Hold back!
Focus exclusively on the presentation
skills of the instructors.
Write your name on the evaluation, if
it will inhibit you from being direct
and honest.
introduction ED GfOundwater i
i introduction
#35
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Notes
introduction to Growrt<*vwu*K invvs^gattoni 6/96
Orientation and IncrcxJuctxxi page 17
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Facility Information
Please put beepers in the vibrate mode and
turn off radios. Be courteous to fellow
students and minimize distractions.
Emergency
Telephone
Numbers
Emergency Exits
Alarms
Sirens
Introduction to Grountfw»X»r Invttsfcjatoon*
Qnondbon
&S6
-------
Notes
Introduction to Groundwatar InvnbgaBons
Onantabon «fld Introduction
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ROCK CYCLE
STUDENT PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
At the conclusion of this unit, students will be able to:
1. Define the Doctrine of Uniformitarianism
2. Describe the three basic rock types and their textures within
the rock cycle
3. Identify the media responsible for the erosion and transport
of sediments
4. Describe the process of Unification and cementation as
related to sedimentary rocks
5. Describe how sedimentary particles become rounded, sorted,
and stratified.
NOTE; Unless otherwise stated, the conditions for
performance are using all references and materials
provided in the course, and the standards of
performance are without error.
8/95
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NOTES
ROCK CYCLE
Doctrine of
Uniformitarianism
s-z
"The Present is the Key
to the Past11
James Mutton, 1785
S-3
8/95
Rock Cvde
-------
NOTES
LJthificaton
Haal. pf«*ur*. and
eh«mlc«l(» aelKr* flukfe
Cryitdliallon
and cooling
S-4
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Solidified from molten liquid (magma)
Volcanic rocks/extrusive rocks
- Obsidian, lava, pumice, tuff
Plutonic rocks/intrusive rocks
- Batholiths, sills, laccoliths
S-5
INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCK BODIES
3-S
Rock Cvde
8/95
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NOTES
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Texture
Rocks are composed of interlocking
mineral grains
Minerals form in a liquid or magma
Size of minerals based on cooling rate of
liquid
S-7
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Texture
Intrusive: coarse-grained rock
Visible minerals form in slow cooling liquid
Examples: granite and gabbro
Found in batholiths, laccoliths, and sills
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Texture
• Extrusive rocks: fine-grained or glassy
rocks
• Small minerals form in fast cooling liquid
• Lava flows, volcanoes
• Examples: basalt and rhyolite
8/95
Rock Cycle
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NOTES
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Equivalent Chemistry
Coarse-grained
Texture
Gabbro
Granite
Fine-grained
Texture
Basalt
Rhyolite
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
"Changed Form" Rocks
• Heat
• Pressure
Chemically active fluids
Recrystallization
S-11
METAMQRPH1C TEXTURES
• Interlocking crystals; marble
• Layers of platy minerals; schist
(foliation)
S-12
Rock Cycle
8/95
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NOTES
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Metamorphism Process
Original Rock
Limestone
Sandstone
Basalt
Siltstone/shale
Granite
Metamorphic Rock
Marble
Quartzite
Amphibolite
Slate
Phyllite
Schist
Gneiss
$-13
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
"Most Abundant Surficial Rock Type"
• Derived from preexisting rocks
• Composed of individual grains cemented
together or chemically precipitated
• Most form in water environment
• Make up most rock aquifers
S-14
TYPICAL SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
Limestone
Shale
Sandstone
Coal
Dolomite
Siltstone
Conglomerate
Evaporites
8/95
Rock Cvcle
-------
NOTES
RECIPE FOR SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
• Erosion processes
• Deposition
• Lithification
S-16
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Erosion Process
• Wind
• Water
• Ice
• Gravity
• Biology
S-17
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Deposition
• Wind
• Water
• Ice
• Gravity
S-iS
Rock Cycle
8/95
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SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Lithification
"Making into stone"
Cementation: natural cements dissolved
in and transported by ground water
s-ie
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Types of Cement
1 Silica (types of quartz)
• Iron oxides (hematite/limonite)
Clay mineral groups
— Kaolinite, vermiculite,
montmorillonite, illite
Carbonates (calcite/aragonite)
S-20
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Composed of particles of any rock type
- "Pores" form during deposition
NOTES
Most aquifers are sedimentary rocks
8/95
Rock Cycle
-------
NOTES
PRIMARY POROSITY
A measure of the total void space
within a rock at the time it was formed
It is generally higher in sedimentary
rocks and lower in igneous and
metamorphic rocks
S-22
SECONDARY POROSITY
Void spaces that form after the rock
has been formed (e.g., faults, joints,
fractures, and conduits)
PERMEABILITY
The ease with which liquid will
move through a porous medium
S-24
Rock Cycle
8/95
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NOTES
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Sphericity
Angular
Rounded
s-zs
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Sorting
Poor
O
Well
v *<
o
S-20
8/95
Rock Cycle
-------
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DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS
STUDENT PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
At the conclusion of this unit, students will be able to:
1. Describe the following depositions! environments:
a. Alluvial fans
b. Braided streams
c. Meandering streams
d. Coastal (deltaic and barrier island complexes)
e. Wind-blown deposits
f. Carbonates
g. Evaporites
h. Glaciers (continental and alpine).
NOTE; Unless otherwise stated, the conditions for
performance are using all references and materials
provided in the course, and the standards of
performance are without error.
8/95
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-------
DEPOSITIONAL
ENVIRONMENTS
S-i
S-J
LONGITUDINAL PROFILE
A Alluvial and landslide
B Braided stream
M Meandering stream
C Coastal
Stream headwaters
Mouth of
M
NOTES
8/95
Depositional Environments
-------
NOTES
ROCK TYPE
ENVIRONMENT
Conglomerate Landslide, alluvial fan
Sandstone Rivers, streams, beaches,
deltas, dunes, sand bars
Clay/shale Lagoon, lake, flood plain,
deeper ocean
Limestone Coral reef, atoll,
deeper ocean
S-4
MEDIAN CHANNEL
Grain Size
Large
Small
M
Ocean
s-s
RELATIONSHIP OF STREAM VELOCITY
1000
o
S
~ 1°
'o
2 t-o
0.1
/
//•
//•
Erosion
///->//////,
Transportation
Size 0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0
(mm) Clay Silt Sand
10 100
Gravel s-«
Depositional Environments
8/95
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NOTES
SPHERICITY
Angular <-
Rounded
S-7
S-3
8/95
Depositional Environments
-------
NOTES
DEPOSITIONAL
ENVIRONMENTS
• Alluvial fan
• Braided stream
• Meandering stream
• Coastal deposits
S-10
DEPOSITIONAL
ENVIRONMENTS (cont.)
• Wind-blown deposits
• Carbonates (Karst)
• Evaporites
• Glacial deposits
S-1!
Alluvial Fan
S-12
Depositional Environments
8/95
-------
NOTES
CHARACTERISTICS OF
ALLUVIAL FANS
Depositional environments:
* Poor sorting and rounding
• High gradients
• Shallow and intermittent streams
• Hand-shaped
S-13
S-14
Braided Stream
8/95
Depositional Environments
-------
NOTES
CHARACTERISTICS OF BRAIDED
STREAMS
Depositional environments:
• Resembles braided hair
• High to low gradients
• Shallow streams
• Poor to medium sorting
• Angular to subangular grains
s-t«
S-17
Meandering Stream
S-18 !
J
Depositional Environments
8/95
-------
NOTES
CHARACTERISTICS OF
MEANDERING STREAMS
Depositional environments:
• Low gradients
• Deep streams
• Grain size variations
S-1B
CHARACTERISTICS OF
MEANDERING STREAMS (cont.)
Depositional environments:
• Oxbow lakes
• Levees and floodpiains
• Point bars and cut banks
S-20
8/95
Depositional Environments
-------
NOTES
STREAM CHANNEL
Sinuosity
Low
-> High
Coastal Deposits
S-23
TYPICAL COASTAL DEPOSITS
Depositional Environments
• Barrier islands
• Offshore bars
• Deltas
• Spits
• Tidal flats
• Reefs/cays
Depositional Environments
8/95
-------
NOTES
S-25
BARRIER ISLAND
A
West Bay
Gulf of Mexico
5-20
Barrier Island
S-27
8/95
Deposiiional Environments
-------
NOTES
Pamet
| Monomoy|
NANTUCKET SOUND
S-28
West
Cape Cod Bay
Recharge area
Cape Cod aquifer
East
Atlantic Ocean
Unconsolidated
sediments
Bedrock
Wind-Blown Deposits
Depositional Environments
10
8/95
-------
WIND-BLOWN DEPOSITS
Depositionai Environments
* Dunes: continental and coastal
• Volcanic dust and ash
• Glacial til! dust (loess)
S-31
S-32
NOTES
Carbonate Rocks
8/95
11
Depositional Environments
-------
NOTES
CARBONATES
Limestones
Dolomites
KARST TOPOGRAPHY
Depositional Environment
• Soluble rocks at or beneath surface
(carbonates, suifates, chlorides)
• Chemical solution of soluble rocks
• Closed depressions (sink holes, swallets)
• Little or no surface drainage
• Caves, springs, disappearing streams
S-3S
•-• Master conduit --— • • ""
S-36
Deposiiional Environments
12
8/95
-------
Evaporites
EVAPORITES
• Carbonates
• Su [fates
• Chlorides
S-37
NOTES
Glaciation
8/95
13
Depositional Environments
-------
NOTES
PROCESSES OF GLACIATIQN
• Erosion
• Transportation
• Deposition
S-40
GLACIERS/FREEZE-THAW
• Weathering and transport
• Large-scale changes
* Poor to excellent sorting
(e.g., glacial till and outwash)
S-4!
GLACIAL DEPOSITS
Depositional Environments
• Outwash and till
• Moraines
• Drumlins
• Eskers
• Kettle holes
• Kames
Depositional Environmems
14
8/95
-------
SOILS
STUDENT PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
At the conclusion of this unit, students will be able to:
1. Discuss the factors that influence soil formation processes
2. Differentiate between physical and chemical weathering
3. Describe the factors that influence soil morphology
4. Define the following physical and chemical properties of
soil:
a. Porosity
b. Permeability
c. Cation exchange capacity
d. Bulk density
e. Capillarity
5. Describe a common soil profile and the interaction of its
component units.
NOTE: Unless otherwise stated, the conditions for
performance are using all references and materials
provided in the course, and the standards of
performance are without error.
8/95
-------
-------
SOILS
S-1
WHY STUDY SOILS?
First media encountered by spills and
leaks
Contaminant fate and transport
- Interaction with air, water, microbes,
and soil
- Soil variability
S-2
CONTAMINANT FATE IN SOIL
• How much:
- Adsorbed to clay?
- Adsorbed to organic matter?
- Volatilized?
- Consumed by microbes?
- Entered water table?
NOTES
8/95
Soils
-------
NOTES
SOIL
Definition
Material that supports the growth of plants
Consists of:
- Rock and mineral fragments
- Organic matter
- Water
-Air
S-4
SOIL FORMATION
Controls
• Parent rock or sediment
• Climate
* Topography
• Presence/abundance of organisms
• Time
s-s
SOIL FORMATION
Soil from Bedrock
• Forms in place
• Derived from underlying bedrock
• Retains original bedrock structure
• Example: saprolitic soil
Soils
8/95
-------
NOTES
SOIL FORMATION
Soil from Sediment
River deposits
Till deposits
Outwash deposits
Loess deposits
S-7
SOIL FORMATION
Physical Weathering
• Breaks "big rocks" into "small rocks"
• Increases weathered surface
• Influenced by climate and topography
• Time
s-s
SOIL FORMATION
Chemical Weathering
• influenced by water and dissolved gases
• Acidic water
• Minerals are either gained or lost
8/95
Soils
-------
NOTES
SOIL FORMATION
Chemical Reactions in Soil
H yd ration/dehydration
Oxidation/reduction (Eh potential)
PH
Ion exchange (calcium for sodium)
Chelation (soil colloids)
S-10
SOIL FORMATION
Humid Climate
High temperature
- Rapid development of soil profile
- Rapid oxidation and breakdown of
organics
Cold temperature
- Slow oxidation
- High accumulation of organic materials
S-11
SOIL FORMATION
Arid Climate
High temperature
- No organic horizon
- Slow soil profile development
- Rapid oxidation
Low temperature
- No organic horizon
- Sterile soil
- Slow oxidation
S-12
Soils
8/95
-------
NOTES
SOIL MORPHOLOGY
• Color
• Texture
• Structure
• Consistency
• Horizon boundaries
S-13
SOIL MORPHOLOGY
Color
• Moisture content of soil
• Parent rock type
• Abundance of organic matter
• Degree of oxidation/reduction
S-14
SOIL MORPHOLOGY
Examples of Soil Color
Black-brown: organic material,
Mn-minerals
Reddish: iron oxides, oxidized
Yellow-brown: iron oxides, poorly drained
White: Ca-carbonates, silica/bauxite/clay
8/95
Soils
-------
NOTES
SOIL MORPHOLOGY
Examples of Soil Color (cont.)
• Greenish or bluish gray: wetlands, gleyed
soil
• Mottled soil: moving water table, oxidized
and reduced
s-ie
SOIL MORPHOLOGY
Soil Texture
• Percentage of sand, silt, and clay
• Water holding capacity
• Soil classification systems
S-17
DETERMINATION OF GRAIN SIZES
Particle
Type
Boulder
Cobble
Gravel
Sand
Silts and clay
Particle
Size (mm)
>305
76 0 - 305
4.76 - 76.0
0.074 - 4.76
< 0.074
Familiar
Example
Basketball
Grapefruit
Pea to orange
Rock salt to sugar
Talcum powder
^ S-16
Soils
8/95
-------
SOIL MORPHOLOGY
Structure
• Grade
• Shape
• Size
STRUCTURE
Grade
Structureless
Weak
Moderate
Strong
STRUCTURE
Shape
Platy
Prismatic
Blocky
Granular
NOTES
S-20
8/95
Soils
-------
NOTES
SOIL MORPHOLOGY
Consistency
• Cementation in soil
• Plasticity
• Strength
• Stickiness
S-22
SOIL PROPERTIES
• Infiltration
• Permeability
• Runoff
• Available water capacity
• pH/Eh
S-Z3
SOIL PROPERTIES (cont.)
• Cation exchange capacity
• Base saturation
• Mineralogy
• Bulk density
Soils
8/95
-------
SOIL PROPERTIES
Permeability
Ability to transmit water and contaminants
Depends on linkage of pore spaces
S-25
SOIL PROPERTIES
Cation Exchange Capacity
Negative charge on soil particles
High in clayey soils
Low in sandy soils
S-28
SOIL PROPERTIES
Bulk Density
• Ratio of the mass to total volume of soil
(g/cm3)
• Volume includes air, liquid, and solid
phases
• Particle density, solid phase only
NOTES
8/95
Soils
-------
NOTES
SOIL PROPERTIES
Bulk Density Examples
• Sandy soil 2.0 g/cm3
• Siltysoil 1.9 g/cm3
• Clayey soil 2.2 g/cm3
s-zs
SOIL PROPERTIES
Porosity
• Ratio of open space to total volume
• Ability to hold or store water
• High in sedimentary rocks
• Low in crystalline rocks
S-2B
SOIL PROPERTIES
Porosity Values (High)
Styrofoam > 90 %
Gravel 40 %
Clay 70 %
Shale < 20 %
Limestone (karst) 50 %
Fractured rock 50 %
S-30
Soils
10
8/95
-------
NOTES
SOIL PROPERTIES
Capillarity
• Capillary fringe
• Height water rises
above the water table
• Depends on size of
the pores
• Less water content than saturated zone
• Does not yield water
S-31
CAPILLAR
o
V
'FRINGE
i
T
Sand Silt Clay
S-32
SOIL TYPE VARIABILITY
• Moisture
• Organic
content
content
• Thickness
• Mineral composition
• Microbe
population
• pH and Eh
S-33
8/95
11
Soils
-------
NOTES
SOIL PROFILE
Vertical succession of various soil layers to |
bedrock j
• O-horizon
• A-horizon
• B-horizon
• C-horizon
a toMs tin* loimul during tfx to* 2 rnMon r*«n S-34
O-HORIZON
Characteristics
Mainly organic matter (>20%) mixed with
rock and mineral fragments
Contains decaying animal and plant matter
(humus)
A-HORIZON
Characteristics
• Rock/mineral fragments mixed with organic
matter
• Commonly known as "topsoil"
• Zone of leaching
• Contains large-sized pores
S-36
Soils
12
8/95
-------
NOTES
B-HORIZON
Soil Profile
• Zone of accumulation (illuviation)
• Insoluble minerals leached from A-horizon
C-HORIZON
Soil Profile
S-37
Partially decomposed bedrock
Grades into unweathered bedrock
S-M
8/95
13
Soils
-------
-------
DRILLING METHODS
STUDENT PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
At the conclusion of this unit, students will be able to:
1. Describe the following drilling methods:
a. Cable tool
b. Hollow-stem auger
c. Mud rotary
d. Air rotary
e. Rotasonic
2. List the advantages and disadvantages of the following
drilling methods:
a. Cable tool
b. Hollow-stem auger
c. Mud rotary
d. Air rotary
e. Rotasonic
NOTE: Unless otherwise stated, the conditions for
performance are using all references and materials
provided in the course, and the standards of
performance are without error.
8/95
-------
NOTES
DRILLING METHODS
USES FOR WELLS
Water supply
Monitoring
Remediation
Lithology
"Ground truthing"
Hydraulic properties
SELECTION CRITERIA
• Hydrogeologic environment
- Type of formation
- Depth of drilling
• Type of pollutant
• Location
• Availability
• Cost
3-1
S-Z
8/95
Drilling Methods
-------
NOTES
DRILLING METHODS
• Cable tool
• Hollow-stem auger
•Mud rotary
• Air rotary
• Rotasonic
S-4
CABLE TOOL DRILLING METHOD
Drilling
Bailing
s-s
CABLE TOOL
Advantages
Good sample recovery
Good delineation of water-bearing zones
during drilling
Highly mobile
Good drilling in most formations
Inexpensive
S-8
Drilling Meihods
8/95
-------
NOTES
CABLE TOOL
Disadvantages
Slow
Requires driving casing in unconsolidated
formations
S-7
HOLLOW-STEM
AUGER
DRILLING
s-s
S-0
8/95
Drilling Methods
-------
NOTES
HOLLOW-STEM AUGER
Advantages
Highly mobile
No drilling fluid required
Problems of hole caving minimized
Soil sampling relatively easy
S-10
HOLLOW-STEM AUGER
Disadvantages
• Cannot be used in consolidated formations
• Limited depth capability (-150 feet)
• Cross contamination of permeable zones is
possible
• Limited casing diameter
MUD ROTARY
DRILLING
S-12
Drilling Methods
8/95
-------
NOTES
MUD ROTARY
DRILLING
S-13
MUD ROTARY
Advantages
Availability
Satisfactory drilling in most formations
Good depth capability
MUD ROTARY
Disadvantages
Requires driliing fluid
- Difficult to remove
- May affect sample integrity
Circulates contaminants
Mobility may be limited
Poor rock or soil sample recovery
5/95
Drilling Methods
-------
NOTES
AIR ROTARY
DRILLING
Air
compressor
S-1S
AIR ROTARY
Advantages
No drilling fluid required
Excellent drilling in hard rock
Good depth capability
Excellent delineation of water-bearing
zones
S-17
AIR ROTARY
Disadvantages
• Casing may be required during drilling
• Cross contamination of different formations
possible
• Mobility may be limited
• Difficult formation sampling
s-ie
Drilling Meihods
8/95
-------
NOTES
Oscillator
High frequency
sinusoidal force
Drill bit
rotates and
vibrates
Counter-rotating weights
Standing
harmonic
wave in drill
pipe
ROTASONIC DRILLING
S-1Q
^
r
I
Inner drill
pipe and core
bit are
vibrated
and/or
rotated ^
into ground
ROTASO
NI
Outer drill
pipe and core
bit are
vibrated
down over
rinner drill
pipe
C DRILLING b
1 1 '
J
1 •
'--"•
AE
Outer drill
pipe is left
in place
while inner
drill pipe
is extracted
with core
THOD
S-20
ROTASONIC
Advantages
Fast (20 shallow boreholes/day)
Versatile (easily penetrates cobbly
materials)
Drills into consolidated and unconsolidated
material
Clean (cuttings and fluid minimized)
Excellent sampling (quality cores)
S-Z1
8/95
Drilling Methods
-------
NOTES
ROTASONIC
Disadvantages
Cost
Availability
Dense or cobbly materials are heated by
vibration (loss of volatiles)
Drilling Methods
8/95
-------
HYDROGEOLOGY
STUDENT PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
At the conclusion of this unit, students will be able to:
1. Describe the hydrologic cycle
2. Differentiate between porosity and permeability
3. Describe the difference between confined and unconfmed
aquifers
4. Evaluate the components of Darcy's Law, including
hydraulic conductivity
5. Describe the differences between Darcian velocity and
seepage velocity.
U.S. EPA Headquarters Library
Mai! code 3201
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue NW
Washington DC 20460
NOTE: Unless otherwise stated, the conditions for
performance are using all references and materials
provided in the course, and the standards of
performance are without error.
8/95
-------
-------
HYDROGEOLOGY
HYDROGEOLOGY
WATER USES
• Drinking
• Irrigation
• Fisheries
• Industrial
• Transportation
• Waste disposal
NOTES
S-1
The study of the interactions of
geologic materials and processes
with water, especially groundwater
s-z
S-3
8/95
Hydrogeology
-------
NOTES
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
S-4
HYDROLOGIC
CYCLE
Transpiration /
Groundwater
recharge Groundwater runoff
/' /'' •' '*'' *'•/'.'
Precipitation " ' •'•'•'•"•'•
Infiltration
Water
table
Hydrogeology
8/95
-------
NOTES
Water
table
S-7
CONTROLS ON INFILTRATION
• Soil moisture
• Compaction of soil
• Micro- and macrostructures in the soil
• Vegetative cover
• Temperature
• Topographic relief
Ground surface
Vadose
zone
•Pore spaces partially,
filled with water
Saturated
zone
Capillary fringe
• Groundwater
s-e
8/95
ffydrogeology
-------
NOTES
Vadose
zone
?ycr ? Capillary
Coarse sand \S s ~ - >« -
^^^ ^_j ^ vr>^ ^ —
/- ~ -
rise
Saturated
zone
S-10
STREAM FLOW
Q = Av
S-11
GAINING STREAM
Discharge = 8 cfs
Discharge = 10 cfs.
Hydrogeology
8/95
-------
LOSING STREAM
Discharge = 10 cfs,
Discharge = 8 cfs
S-13
POROSITY
(NT)
The volumetric ratio between the void
spaces (Vv) and total rock (VJ:
Vt
SY = specific yield
SR = specific retention
Void space
Percent _
Porosity
Total Volume - Volume Soil Particles
Total Volume
Soil particle
x 100
S-15
NOTES
8/95
Hydrogeology
-------
NOTES
ROCK AND WATER
CAPACITY
RELATIONSHIPS
VOID SPACE VOLUME
(Porosity)
s-tr
WATER SATURATION
S-18
Hydro geology
8/95
-------
WATER RETAINED AFTER GRAVITY
DRAINAGE
(Specific retention)
F
(Specific yield)
PRIMARY POROSITY
Refers to voids formed at the time
the rock or sediment formed
NOTES
S-20
POROSITY
Total Porosity Effective Porosity
(NT) (n.)
Clay
Sand
Gravel
40-85%
25-50%
25-45%
1-10%
10-30%
15-30%
8/95
Hydrogeology
-------
NOTES
SECONDARY POROSITY
Refers to voids that were formed
after the rock was formed
S-22
SECONDARY POROSITY
S-23'
PERMEABILITY
The ease with which liquid will
move through a porous medium
S24
Hydrogeology
8/95
-------
NOTES
HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
The capacity of a porous medium
to transmit water
S-2S
CONDUCTIVITY
Clay
Sand Gravel Sandstone
S-2«
AQUIFER
A permeable geologic unit with the
ability to store, transmit, and
yield water in "usable quantities"
8/95
Hydrogeology
-------
NOTES
HOMOGENEOUS
Having uniform sediment size and
orientation throughout an aquifer
HETEROGENEOUS
Having a nonuniform sediment size
and orientation throughout an aquifer
ISOTROPIC
s-ze
S-26
Hydraulic conductivity is independent
of the direction of measurement at a
point in a geologic formation
S-30
Hydrogeology
10
8/95
-------
AN1SOTROPIC
Hydraulic conductivity varies with the
direction of measurement at a point in
a geologic formation
Homogeneous
Heterogeneous
AQUITARD
S-31
S-32
A layer of low permeability that
can store and transmit groundwater
from one aquifer to another
NOTES
8/95
11
Hydrogeology
-------
NOTES
AQUICLUDE
An impermeable confining layer
3.34
TOTAL HEAD
Combination of elevation (z) and
pressure head (hp)
ht =z + hp
Total head is the energy imparted to a
column of water
S-35
*
t
Pressure
head ' •'
I
4
3f A
Point of I
measurement Slevation
head ,_
4
"l
Hydraulic
or
total '
head |
(usually sea level)
S-3S
Hydrogeology
12
8/95
-------
UNCONFINED AQUIFER
(Water Table)
A permeable geologic unit having the
ability to store, transmit, and yield
water in usable quantities
UNCONFiNED AQUIFER
onfining unit - aquitard
.-*,-•' /s
CONFINED AQUIFER
(Artesian)
S-M
An aquifer overlain by a confining layer
whose water is under sufficient pressure to
rise above the base of the upper confining
layer if it is perforated
S-38
NOTES
8/95
13
Hydrogeology
-------
NOTES
1
CONFINED AQUIFER
Confining
unit
- aquitard
Conf
^S
in!
\
Potentiometric
surface
Confined aquifer
ng unit - aquitard
/Base of
upper
confining
unit
S-40
AQUIFERS AND AQUITARDS
5< Vadose zone Qv ^
Unconfined aquifer
Water/
table
Aquitard
Confined aquifer
Aquitard
Confined aquifer
Recharge Vadose 2Qne
Water table
aquifer
Qonfinedaquifer
Confining layers
(aquitards)
S-42
Hydrogeology
14
8/95
-------
POTENT1OMETRIC SURFACE
The level to which water will rise in an
opening (well) if the upper confining
layer of a confined aquifer is perforated
S-43
ARTESIAN GROUNDWATER
SYSTEM •
Recharge area
Recharge area
S-44
ARTESIAN GROUNDWATER
SYSTEM
Potantiometfic
surface
Flowing
artesian
well
Overburden Aqgiclude
pressure
S-4S
NOTES
8/95
15
Hydrogeology
-------
NOTES
DARCY'S LAW
Q = KIA
• Q = discharge
• K = hydraulic conductivity
/dh\
• I = hydraulic gradient I ^j~ I
• A = area
S-46
DARCY'S LAW
The flow rate through a porous material is
proportional to the head loss and
inversely proportional to the length
of the flow path
Valid for laminar flow
Assume homogeneous and isotropic
conditions
S-47
HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
(K)
The volume of flow through a unit cross
section of an aquifer per unit decline
of head
Hydro geology
16
8/95
-------
dh
K = hydraulic conductivity
A = cross-sectional area
Q = rate of flow
I ss hydraulic gradient I—1
d!
(length of
flow path
DARCY'S LAW
S-48
Hydraulic Conductivity
nfc Q = K!A
S-50
NOTES
S-Sl
8/95
17
Hydrogeology
-------
NOTES
Decreasing the
hydraulic head
decreases the
flow rate
0,>Q2
s-s;j
Increasing the
flow path length
decreases the
flow rate
S-53
GROUNDWATER VELOCITY
• Darcys Law Q = KIA or Q = K!
A
Velocity equation Q = Av or Q
A
By combining, obtain:
v = Kl Darcian velocity
ss V
Hydrogeology
18
8/95
-------
NOTES
GRQUNDWATER VELOCITY
Because water moves only through pore
spaces that are connected, porosity
is a factor
NT=\A, or NT =SR + SY
V-
T
ne = SY = NT - SR ~ effective porosity
vs = HI seepage velocity
ne
s-ss
TRANSM1SSIVITY
The capacity of the entire thickness of an
aquifer to transmit water
T= Kb
T = transmissivity
K = hydraulic conductivity
b = aquifer thickness
S-Sfi
b = 100m
TRANSMISSIVITY
S-S7
8/95
19
Hydrogeology
-------
NOTES
TRANSMISSIVITY
T = Kb
T = (20m/d)(100m)
T = 2000 m2/d
STORATIVITY
• The amount of water available for "use"
in an aquifer (storage coefficient)
• "Specific yield" in an unconfined aquifer
s-se
Hydrogeology
20
8/95
-------
WELL INSTALLATION
STUDENT PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
At the conclusion of this unit, students will be able to:
1. List the materials necessary for the installation of a well
2. Describe the installation of a well in an unconfined aquifer
3. Describe the installation of a well in a confined aquifer
4. Describe the concept behind nested wells
5. Describe the most common well sampling methods.
NOTE: Unless otherwise stated, the conditions for
performance are using all references and materials
provided in the course, and the standards of
performance are without error.
8/95
-------
-------
NOTES
WELL INSTALLATION
Selection of Filter Pack
and Well Screen
s-z
WELL SCREEN
Surrounded by filter pack
Filter pack consists of:
- Coarser materials
- Uniform grain size
- Higher permeability
U.S. EPA Headquarters Library
Mail code 3201
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue NW
Washington DC 20460
8/95
Well Installation
-------
NOTES
FILTER PACK
Purpose
To allow groundwater to flow freely
into well
To minimize or eliminate entrance of
fine-grained materials
FILTER PACK
Selection
• Multiply the 70-percent retained grain size
of aquifer materials by 4 or 6
* Use 4 if formation is fine and uniform
• Use 6 if formation is coarser and
nonuniform
s-s
FILTER PACK
Uniformity Coefficient (UC)
40 percent retained
90 percent retained
= UC
UC should not exceed 2.5
Well Installation
8/95
-------
WELL SCREEN
Selection
Select screen slot opening to retain
90 percent of filter pack material
WELL MATERIALS
Well screen/riser/wel! points
- Teflon®
- Stainless steel
- PVC
Gravel/filter pack
Bentonite
Grout/cement
WELL INSTALLATION
Unconfined aquifer
Confined aquifer
s-a
NOTES
8/95
Well Installation
-------
MONITORING WELL - UNCONFINED AQUIFER
4-Steel cap
Well
e$###Xtf^^
MONITORING WELL - CONFINED AQUIFER
Steel cap
.Grout
.....
Well
Potentiqmetic
surface
Well screen
Plug
"— Gravel pack
NOTES
Well Installation
8/95
-------
NESTED WELLS - MULTILEVEL SAMPLING
S-12
WELL AND AQUIFER
DEVELOPMENT
Surge block
Bailer
Pulse pumping
Air surging
S-13
NOTES
8/95
Well Installation
-------
POOR WELL DEVELOPMENT
Muddy water
WELL DEVELOPMENT - SURGE BLOCK
NOTES
Well Installation
8/95
-------
NOTES
WELL DEVELOPMENT - BAILER
WELL DEVELOPMENT - PULSE PUMPING
WELL DEVELOPMENT - AIR SURGING
8/95
Well Installation
-------
NOTES
SAMPLING METHODS
• Bladder pump
• Submersible pump
• Hand pump
• Bailer
S-10
GROUNDWATER SAMPLING
PROTOCOL
Flexible
Written and defensible document to be
used at all sites
S-20
PURGING
Volume is well specific
Verified by temperature, pH,
specific conductance, and
turbidity
Well Installation
8/95
-------
NOTES
DETERMINING WELL VOLUME
V = 0.041 d2h
V = Volume of water in gallons
d = Diameter of well in inches
h = Depth of water in well in feet
S-22
8/95
Well Installation
-------
-------
VADOSE ZONE
STUDENT PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
At the conclusion of this unit, students will be able to:
1. Describe the vadose zone
2. List three reasons why the vadose zone is important in
groundwater investigations
3. Describe the operation of pressure vacuum lysimeters
4. Characterize the limitations of vacuum lysimeters
5. Describe the principles of soil gas wells
6. Characterize the limitations of soil gas wells.
NOTE: Unless otherwise stated, the conditions for
performance are using all references and materials
provided in the course, and the standards of
performance are without error.
8/95
-------
-------
VADOSE ZONE
THE VADOSE ZONE
That part of the geologic profile
between the ground surface and the
water table, including the capillary
fringe
S 2
Ground surface
Vadose
zone
Water table
Phreatic i
S-3
NOTES
8/95
Vadose Zone
-------
NOTES
THE VADOSE ZONE
• Generally unsaturated
• < 100% water content
• Capillary pressure predominant
S-4
THE VADOSE ZONE
Consists of:
• Solid and participate material
• Vapors in pore spaces
• Liquids on grain surfaces
S-5
THE VADOSE ZONE
Liquid
S-6
Vadose Zone
8/95
-------
CAPILLARY FRINGE
Transition zone between saturated
and unsaturated zones
Result of capillary pressure pulling
water into unsaturated zone
S-7
CAPILLARITY
The result of two forces:
• Attraction of water to the walls
of the pore space (adhesion)
• Attraction of water molecules
to each other (cohesion)
s-a
CAPILLARY FRINGE
Sand
Silt
Clay
S-8
NOTES
8/95
Vadose Zone
-------
NOTES
THE VADOSE ZONE
Physical Properties
Physical properties vary according to:
• Atmospheric conditions
• Hydrogeologic conditions
• Geologic conditions
3-10
THE VADOSE ZONE
Cross Section - Ohio River Valley
VADOSE ZONE ADJACENT
TO STREAMS
Losing stream
V*do« znn«
S-12J
Vadose Zone
8/95
-------
VADOSE ZONE ADJACENT TO
WETUVND
THE VADOSE ZONE
Unsaturated Flow
Primarily affected by;
• Matric potential
• Osmotic potential
• Gravitational potential
• Moisture content
THE VADOSE ZONE
Matric Potential
S-14
Attraction of water to solid
particles
Responsible for upward flow of
water or capillary pressure
S-15
NOTES
8/95
Vadose Zone
-------
NOTES
THE VADOSE ZONE
Osmotic Potential
Attraction of water to ions
or other solutes in the soil
S-1S
THE VADOSE ZONE
Gravitational Potential
Gravitational pull on water
Encourages downward flow of water
or infiltration
THE VADOSE ZONE
Soil Potential
• Combination of matric and osmotic
potentials
• Impedes or binds the flow of water
in the unsaturated zone
S--8
Vadose Zone
8/95
-------
NOTES
THE VADOSE ZONE
Unsaturated Flow
Occurs when the gravitational
potential is greater than the soil
potential (matric + osmotic)
S-1B
THE VADOSE ZONE
Moisture Content
Increased moisture content decreases
soil potential (matric + osmotic),
increasing the ability of water to flow
S-20
Devices for Measuring
Moisture Content and
Soil Potential in the
Vadose Zone
S-21
8/95
Vadose Zone
-------
NOTES
MOISTURE CONTENT
Measured by:
• Radioactive devices
• Time domain reflectometry
S 22
MOISTURE CONTENT
Radioactive Devices
• Neutron - Neutron
- Directly measures soil or rock
water content and porosity
• Gamma - Gamma
- Determines soil or rock density
- Indirectly measures water content
and porosity
S-23
MOISTURE CONTENT
Radioactive Devices
Advantages
- In-situ measurements directly or
indirectly related to water content
- Average water content can be
determined at depth
- Accommodates automatic recordings
- Near-surface water content
measurements possible
S-24
Vadose Zone
8/95
-------
MOISTURE CONTENT
Radioactive Devices
Disadvantages:
- Expensive
- Radioactive source requires
special care and license
S-2S
MOISTURE CONTENT
Time Domain Reflectometry
Measures an electromagnetic pulse
emitted from one or more probes
Determines moisture content
3-19
MOISTURE CONTENT
Time Domain Reflectometry
Advantages
- Accurate
- Variable depth placement
- Variety of sensor configurations
- Remote and continual monitoring
NOTES
8/95
Vadose Zone
-------
NOTES
MOISTURE CONTENT
Time Domain Reflectometry
Disadvantages
- Probes must be placed properly
- Long-term use untested
- Cost of remote monitoring
equipment relatively high
S-2«
SOIL POTENTIAL
Measured by:
• Tensiometer
• Electrical resistance block
• Psych rometer
3-13
SOIL POTENTIAL
Tensiometer
Vado»«
zone
S-3O
Vadose Zone
10
8/95
-------
NOTES
SOIL POTENTIAL
Tensiometer
Measures the matric potential in soil
Advantages
- Inexpensive
- Durable
- Easy to operate
SOIL POTENTIAL
Tensiometer
Disadvantages
- Ineffective under very dry
conditions because of air entry
- Sensitive to temperature changes
- Sensitive to atmospheric pressure
changes
S-32
SOIL POTENTIAL
Tensiometer
Disadvantages (cont.)
- Sensitive to air bubbles in lines
- Requires a long time to achieve
equilibrium
8/95
11
Vadose Zone
-------
NOTES
SOIL POTENTIAL
Electrical Resistance Blocks
ct
~H Current source
Water
Water \
content
v Field calibration
Resistance
5.34
SOIL POTENTIAL
Electrical Resistance Blocks
Advantages
- Suited for general use
- Inexpensive
- Can determine moisture content
or soil potential
- Requires little maintenance
S-35
SOIL POTENTIAL
Electrical Resistance Blocks
Disadvantages
- Ineffective under very dry
conditions
- Sensitive to temperature
- Time-consuming field calibration
- Affected by salinity
- Ineffective in coarse or
swelling/shrinking soils
s-aa
Vadose Zone
12
8/95
-------
NOTES
SOIL POTENTIAL
Psychrometer
Measures soil potential under very
dry conditions
s-sr
SOIL POTENTIAL
Psychrometer
Advantages
- Continuous recording of pressures
- Variable depth placement
- Remote monitoring
S-38
SOIL POTENTIAL
Psychrometer
Disadvantages
- Very sensitive to temperature
fluctuations
- Expensive
- Complex
- Performs poorly in wet media
S-3B
8/95
13
Vadose Zone
-------
NOTES
SAMPLING FLUIDS AND VAPORS
Fluids
- Pressure-vacuum lysimeter
Vapors
- Soil-gas probe
Pressure-Vacuum Lysimeter
Closad
valv«i
Collection of Pore Water
S-40
S-4Z
Vadose Zone
14
8/95
-------
NOTES
Transfer to Sample Bottle
S-43
VADOSE ZONE VAPOR SAMPLING
[ Source|/
Vapors
Saturated
S-4«
SOIL GAS PROBE
Schematic
Vadose
zone
Seal
Boring
•Soil gas
S-4S
8/95
15
Vadose Zone
-------
NOTES
Uses for Vadose Zone
Monitoring Equipment
S-48
VADOSE ZONE MONITORING FOR
NEW TANK FARM
E*rth*n b»rm
Earthen b*mn
S«tur**d ion*
S-47
Vadose Zone
16
8/95
-------
GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
STUDENT PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
At the conclusion of this unit, students will be able to:
1. Describe the basic principles of operation of the following
surface geophysical methods:
a. Magnetics
b. Electromagnetics (EM)
c. Electrical resistivity
d. Seismic refraction
e. Ground-penetrating radar
2. Identify the limitations of the following geophysical methods:
a. Magnetics
b. Electromagnetics (EM)
c. Electrical resistivity
d. Seismic refraction
e. Ground-penetrating radar
3. Describe the basic principles of operation of the following
borehole geophysical methods:
a. Spontaneous potential
b. Normal resistivity
c. Natural-gamma
NOTE: Unless otherwise stated, the conditions for
performance are using all references and materials
provided in the course, and the standards of
performance are without error.
8/95
-------
-------
GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
STUDENT PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
At the conclusion of this unit, students will be able to:
1. Describe the basic principles of operation of the following
surface geophysical methods:
a. Magnetics
b. Electromagnetics (EM)
c. Electrical resistivity
d. Seismic refraction
e. Ground-penetrating radar
2. Identify the limitations of the following geophysical methods:
a. Magnetics
b. Electromagnetics (EM)
c. Electrical resistivity
d. Seismic refraction
e. Ground-penetrating radar
3. Describe the basic principles of operation of the following
borehole geophysical methods:
a. Spontaneous potential
b. Normal resistivity
c. Natural-gam ma
NOTE: Unless otherwise stated, the conditions for
performance are using all references and materials
provided in the course, and the standards of
performance are without error.
8/95
-------
STUDENT PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES (cont.)
d. Gamma-gamma
e. Neutron
f. Caliper
g. Acoustic
h. Temperature
4. Identify the limitations of the following borehole geophysical
methods:
a. Spontaneous potential
b. Normal resistivity
c. Natural-gamma
d. Gamma-gamma
e. Neutron
f. Caliper
g. Acoustic
h. Temperature.
NOTE: Unless otherwise stated, the conditions for
performance are using all references and materials
provided in the course, and the standards of
performance are without error.
8/95
-------
NOTES
GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
S-i
GEOPHYSICS
Nonintrusive, investigative tool
Site-specific methods
"Ground truthed" data
Professional interpretation
RELATIVE SITE COVERAGE
I
Volume of typical Volume of drilling
geophysical measurement or water sampling
S-3
U.S. EPA Headquarters Library
Mail code 3201
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue NW
Washington DC 20460
8/95
Geophysical Methods
-------
NOTES
GROUND TRUTHING
Correlation of physical evidence
(i.e., rock cores) to geophysical
data
S-4
ANOMALY
Significant variation from background
s-s
GEOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES
Magnetics
Electromagnetics (EM)
Electrical resistivity
Seismic refraction/reflection
Ground-penetrating radar
Borehole geophysics
Geophysical Methods
8/95
-------
MAGNETICS
Measurement of magnetic field strength
in units of gammas
Anomalies are caused by variations
in magnetic field strength in the vicinity of
the sensor
C*9 —
Chart and
magnetic tape
recorders
Amplifier
and
counter
circuits
Excitation
circuits
4
1 rri
till
Ground surface
Magnetometer
S-7
S-9
NOTES
—©—(
Ground surface
-©-
100
80 _'
60 I
20
0
11
S/95
Geophysical Methods
-------
NOTES
MAGNETICS
Advantages
Relatively low cost (cost-effective)
Short time frame required
Little, if any, site preparation needed
Simple survey sufficient (compass and
tape)
S-10
MAGNETICS
Disadvantages
Cultural noise limitations
Difficulty in differentiating between steel
objects (i.e., 55-gallon drums and a
refrigerator)
S-11
ELECTROMAGNETICS
Based on physical principles of inducing
and detecting electrical flow within
geologic strata
Measures bulk conductivity (the inverse
of resistivity) of geologic materials
beneath the transmitter and receiver coils
Geophysical Methods
8/95
-------
NOTES
Station
measurement
Continuous
measurement
S-13
CONTINUOUS MEASUREMENTS VS. STATION MEASUREMENTS
Continuous
measurements
Station
measurements
SOUTI
NORTH
Paraml. coninuouciy reco;ae
-------
NOTES
ELECTROMAGNETICS
Advantages
Rapid data collection with minimum
personnel
Lightweight, portable equipment
Commonly used in groundwater pollution
investigations for determining plume flow
direction
S-1B
ELECTROMAGNETICS
Disadvantages
Cultural noise limitations (when used for
hydrogeologica! purposes)
Limitations in areas where geology varies
laterally (anomalies can be misinterpreted
as plumes)
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY
Measures the bulk resistivity of the
subsurface in ohm-meter units
Current is injected into the ground
through surface electrodes
S-18
Geophysical Methods
8/95
-------
NOTES
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY
WENNER ARRAY
Current *ourc* Curr«n( motor
S-10
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY
Depth of investigation is equal to
one-fourth of the distance between
electrodes
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITIES OF
GEOLOGIC MATERIALS
Function of:
• Porosity
• Permeability
• Water saturation
• Concentration of dissolved solids in I
pore fluids !
8/95
Geophysical Methods
-------
NOTES
Horizontal Distance (meters)
100 200 300 400
500
RESISTIVITY PROFILE ACROSS GLACIAL CLAYS AND GHAVELS
S-22
RESISTIVITY SURVEYS
Profiling - lateral contacts using
constant electrode spacing
Sounding - stratigraphic changes
measured with successively larger
electrode spacings
S-23
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY
Advantages
Qualitative modeling of data is feasible
Models can be used to estimate depths,
thicknesses, and resistivities of
subsurface layers
S-24
Geophysical Methods
8/95
-------
NOTES
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY (cont.)
Advantages
Layer resistivities can be used to estimate
resistivity of saturating fluid
Extent of groundwater plume can be
approximated
S 25
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY
Disadvantages
Cultural noise limitations
Large area free from grounded metallic
structures required
Level of effort/number of operational
personnel
S 26
SEISMIC TECHNIQUES
Refraction method
Reflection method
S.27|
8/95
Geophysical Methods
-------
NOTES
SEISMIC REFRACTION
Cheaper and easier
Determination of velocity and depth of
layers
SEISMIC REFLECTION
• More expensive and complex
• Resolution of thin layers
Seismic
source
Geophonas
2500
fpSH
sand
5000
fps
saturated
sand
Reflected wave
Refracted wave
SEiSMIC WAVE PATHS
S-28
S-2S
S-30
Geophysical Methods
10
8/95
-------
SEISMIC REFRACTION
• Measures travel time of acoustic wave
refracted along an interface
• Most commonly used at sites where
bedrock is less than 500 ft below ground
surface
S 31
SEISMOGRAPH FIELD LAYOUT
SHOWING DIRECT AND REFRACTED WAVES
Fittt arrival w«v« f
S*cond armtl w«w« front*
S-32
NOTES
8/95
11
Geophysical Methods
-------
NOTES
SEISMIC REFRACTION
Advantages
Determine layer velocities
Calculate estimates of depths to different
rock or groundwater interfaces
Obtain subsurface information between
boreholes
Determine depth to water table
S34
SEISMIC REFRACTION
Assumptions
Velocities of layers increase with depth
Velocity contrast between layers is
sufficient to resolve interface
Geometry of geophones in relation to
refracting layers will permit detection of
thin layers
S-3S
SEISMIC REFRACTION
Disadvantages
Assumptions must be made
Assumptions must be valid
Data collection can be tabor intensive
S-38
Geophysical Methods
12
8/95
-------
NOTES
SEISMIC REFLECTION
• Measures travel time of acoustic wave
reflected along an interface
• Precise depth determination cannot be
made without other methods
SEISMIC REFLECTION (cont.)
Magnitude of energy required is limiting
factor
Requires more complex data review
S-38
GROUND-PENETRATING RADAR
A transmitter emits pulses of high-
frequency electromagnetic waves into
the subsurface which are scattered back
to the receiving antenna on the surface
and recorded as a function of time
8/95
13
Geophysical Methods
-------
NOTES
Recorder
Etoctronugrulic toure*
•nd antenna
Ground surface
GROUND-PENETRATING RADAR
S-40
GROUND-PENETRATING RADAR
Depth penetration is severely limited by
attenuation of electromagnetic waves into
the ground
GROUND-PENETRATING RADAR
(cont.)
Attenuating factors
- Shallow water table
- Increase in clay content in the
subsurface
- Electrical resistivity less than
30 ohm-meters
S-42
Geophysical Methods
14
8/95
-------
NOTES
GROUND-PENETRATING RADAR
Advantages
• Continuous display of data
• High-resolution data under favorable site
conditions
• Real-time site evaluation possible
S-43
GROUND-PENETRATING RADAR
Disadvantages
• Limitations of site-specific nature of
technique
• Site preparation necessary for survey
• Quality of data can be degraded by
cultural noise and uneven ground surface
S-44
Borehole Geophysics
S-4S
8/95
15
Geophysical Methods
-------
5ponl*n*out
f
GtoJogic
log
•my
, ,J_
twid
few cl*y
Uy«rs
(fttih w>t*r|
IMS
SH Uyirt
(bf«Ck.«h
w»«r)
f.- SS
d«AM rock
prob«b*y
gr»nrt«
r
COMPARISON OF ELECTRICAL AND
RADIOACTIVE BOREHOLE LOGS
S-46
NOTES
Geophysical Methods
16
S/P5
-------
NOTES
BOREHOLE GEOPHYSICS
• Spontaneous potential
• Normal resistivity
• Natural-gamma
• Gamma-gamma
BOREHOLE GEOPHYSICS (cont.)
• Neutron
• Caliper
• Acoustic
• Temperature
SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL
Records natural potential between
borehole fluid and fluid in surrounding
materials
Can only be run in open, fluid-filled
boreholes
S-4S
8/95
17
Geophysical Methods
-------
NOTES
SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL (cont)
Primary uses:
• Geologic correlation
• Determination of bed thickness
• Separation of nonporous rocks from
porous rocks (i.e., shale-sandstone
and shale-carbonate)
S-50
RESISTIVITY
Measures apparent resistivity of a volume
of rock or soil surrounding the borehole
Radius of investigation is generally equal to
the distance between the borehole current
and measuring electrodes
Can only be run in open, fluid-filled
boreholes
S-51
GAMMA
• Measures the amount of natural-gamma
radiation emitted by rocks or soils
• Primary use is identification of lithology
and stratigraphic correlation
• Can be run in open or cased and fluid- or
air-filled boreholes
S-S2
Geophysical Methods
18
8/95
-------
NOTES
GAMMA-GAMMA
Measures the intensity of gamma
radiation from a source in the probe
after it is backscattered and attenuated
in the rocks or soils surrounding the
borehole
S-S3
GAMMA-GAMMA (cont.)
Primary use is identification of lithology
and measurement of bulk density ana
porosity of rocks or soils
Can be run in open or cased and fluid- or
air-filled boreholes
S-Si
NEUTRON
• Measures moisture content in the vadose
zone and total porosity in sediments and
rocks
• Neutron sources and detector are
arranged in logging device so that output
is mainly a function of water within the
borehole walls
8/95
19
Geophysical Methods
-------
NOTES
NEUTRON (cont.)
Can be run in open or cased and fluid- or
air-filled boreholes
s-s«
CALIPER
• Records borehole diameter and provides
information on fracturing, bedding plane
partings, or openings that may affect
fluid transport
• Can be run in open or cased and fluid- or
air-filled boreholes
s-57:
ACOUSTIC
• A record of the transit time of an
acoustic pulse emitted into the formation
and received by the logging tool
• Response is indicative of porosity and
fracturing in sediments or rocks
• Can be run in open or cased, fluid-filled
boreholes
S-SSi
Geophysical Meihods
20
8/95
-------
NOTES
TEMPERATURE
A continuous record of the temperature
of the environment immediately
surrounding the borehole
Information can be obtained on the
source and movement of water and the
thermal conductivity of rocks
Can be run in open or cased, fluid-filled
boreholes
s-s»
8/95
21
Geophysical Methods
-------
-------
GEOCHEMICAL MODELS
STUDENT PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
At the conclusion of this unit, students will be able to:
1. Evaluate the effect organic and inorganic contaminants have
on ground water chemistry
2. Identify chemical changes in ground water from petroleum
hydrocarbon contaminants
3. Identify chemical changes in groundwater from sewage and
municipal landfill contaminants
4. Identify chemical changes in groundwater from acid, base,
and ammonia spills and coal fly ash
5. Define the following chemical parameters:
a. Hardness
b. Alkalinity
c. pH
d. Eh
6. Describe how hardness, alkalinity, pH, and Eh affect water
chemistry
7. Describe the effects of the carbonate buffering system on
groundwater
8/95
-------
STUDENT PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES (cont.)
8. Define dense nonaqueous-phase liquids (DNAPLs) and light
nonaqueo us-phase liquids (LNAPLs)
9. Describe gas evolution in uncapped landfills.
NOTE: Unless otherwise stated, the conditions for
performance are using all references and materials
provided in the course, and the standards of
performance are without error.
8/95
-------
GEOCHEMICAL MODELS
S-1
PRIMARY DRINKING WATER
STANDARDS
• Inorganics
• Microbiological
• Pesticides
• Volatile organic compounds
• Radioactivity
S-2
SECONDARY DRINKING
WATER REGULATIONS
Chloride
Color
Copper
Corrosivity
Fluoride
Foaming agents
Iron
Manganese
Odor
PH
Sulfate
Total dissolved solids
Zinc
8/95
Geochetnical Models
-------
Anatomy of a Plume
s~t
Petroleum Contaminant
s-s
Source
Oxic
Anoxic
Slightly
oxygenated
increase
S-6
Geochemical Models
8/95
-------
Generation of
organic acids
HYDROLYSIS OF ORGANIC
CHEMICALS
O2 + H2O —*• HCO- + organic acids !
O
11 I
R - C- OH
5/95
LNAPL
Carbonic
acid
generation
Organic acids i
Geochemical Models
-------
LNAPL
PH
pH = - log [ H+]
s-to
LNAPL
CARBONATE BUFFERING SYSTEM
Organic chemicals-
H2O + CO2 v=
H2CO3
cartonic Kid
H2C03
HCOj
H + HCO:
H + COj
Alkalinity is HCO J + td J
LNAPL
DISSOLUTION OF LIMESTONE
(CaMg)CO3
Umestone
-t-Ca** * Mg++
Geochemical Models
8/95
-------
LNAPL
Source
HARDNESS
Type
mg/L
Soft
Moderately hard
Hard
Very hard
0-60
61-120
121-180
>180
MOBILITY OF ALUMINUM (Al) AND
ZINC (Zn) METALS
c
1
£
14
8/95
Geochemical Models
-------
Redox Potential (Eh)
Oxidizing or reducing environment
High negative volts - reducing reactions
High positive volts - oxidizing reactions
Oxic vs. aerobic
Anoxic vs. anaerobic
Eh REDUCTION/OXIDATION
Source
LNAPL
Ceochemical Models
8/95
-------
DENSITY - DNAPL
Source
Bedrock
DNAPL
Source
LNAPL
Source
DNAPL
Oxic
Anoxic
Siightiy
oxygenated
increase
SEWAGE AND
MUNICIPAL LANDFILLS
Leachate Containment
8/95
Geochemical Models
-------
Sewage and
Municipal Landfills
Oxic
Anoxic
Slightly
oxygenated
increase
$•£2
Source
Sewage and
Municipal Landfills
Carbonic
acid
generation
Sewage and
Municipal Landfills
ardne&s Ca**. My **
Geochemical Models
8/95
-------
Sewage and
Muiicipal Landfill*
: Sulfate reduction
to sulfide
1 Sewage and
Municipal Landfills
' DISSOLUTION OF SHEET ROCK
CaSQ,
Ca
++
(sheet rock)
'' ION EXCHANGE
Ca++| >
SULFATE REDUCTION
S04
+("water softening")
50=
S-26
Source
Sewage and
Municipal Landfills
Ammonia forms in anoxic environment
+ organic material »
--- NO"
3 ,
S-27 |
8/95
Geochemical Models
-------
Sewage and
Municipal Landfills
GEOCHEMICAL LIFE CYCLE
OF A LANDFILL
100%.
Landfill
Gas
(by Volume)
AmMc
AWQtMC
50%-
Cellulose
concentration
Time
S-2S
Sewage and
Municipal Landfills
LANDFILL LEACHATE INDICATORS
Excellent:
Ammonia (NH^)
i DOC
j
Low Eh
NoO2
High Fe* and Mn**
Good:
LowpH
High alkalinity (HCC^)
Low sulfate
cr.Na*,B***
S-29
Organic-Poor
Contaminants
Geochemical Models
10
8/95
-------
Coal fly ash (andfills; salt storage facilities;
bhne disposal; acid/base spills
Source
Organic-poor
contaminants
Low pH Contaminants
Source
LowpH
Eh, DO
Nothing to
con so me Q.,
pH
8/95
11
Geochemical Models
-------
LowpH
Source
Precipitation of Fe, Mn, and
Al
Precipitation of calcite
Scrption of trace metals
ion exchange S-K
High pH Contaminants
Geochemical Models
12
8/95
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High pH
IDS. cations
Mn**
"Precipitation of Fe and Mn
Precipitation of carbonate (?) plugging pores
iorpjion of trace metals s.37
8/95
13
Geochemical Models
-------
-------
GROUNDWATER MODELS
STUDENT PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
At the conclusion of this unit, students will be able to:
1. List the physical processes that affect groundwater and
contaminant flow
2. List the properties that are included in the retardation factor
3. List the parameters that are included in the basic equation
used in groundwater computer programs
4. List the variables that groundwater models can be used to
predict.
NOTE: Unless otherwise stated, the conditions for
performance are using all references and materials
provided in the course, and the standards of
performance are without error.
8/95
-------
-------
NOTES
GROUNDWATER MODELS
S-l
GRQUNDWATER MODELS
An attempt to simulate groundwater flow
conditions mathematically
• Used to predict groundwater levels
(heads) over time
• Used to predict contaminant transport
S-2
PHYSICAL PROCESSES
• Advection
• Dispersion
• Density
• Immiscible phase
• Fractured media
8/95
Groundwater Models
-------
NOTES
ADVECTION
Average groundwater velocity
Depends on:
- Hydraulic conductivity
- Porosity
- Hydraulic gradient
S-4
Q = Rate of flow
K = Hydraulic conductivity
A = Cross-sectional area of flow
I = Hydraulic gradient
ne = Effective porosity
s-s
Q
Q
v
vc
KAI
Av
Kl
v =
Darcy's Law
Velocity equation
Darcian velocity
Advective velocity*
Seepage velocity or average linear velocity
S-fl
Groundwater Models
8/95
-------
NOTES
t
o
10
c
0)
o
c
o
O
0
1
^—^— — — ^ Advpction
•i* Distance from source MB«^^
S-7
DISPERSION
• Tendency for solute to spread
• Caused by:
- Mechanical mixing
- Molecular diffusion
s-s
PATH LENGTH AND PORE SIZE AS
FACTORS IN CONTAMINANT TRANSPORT
_ \^/ \^^J L -J\ J L— — J Small pore size
^ J^"" I I* -\ f - — ~> r^^ S slow moveirient
^
cS
<^N
^d^^c^^
^^^Q L°n9 ^
__\ fast movement
s-e
8/95
Groundwater Models
-------
NOTES
t
c
o
c
0)
o
o
I
Advection
plus
dispersion
Distance from source
S-10
DENSITY - LNAPL
Groundwater flow
DENSITY - DNAPL
S-T2
Groundwater Models
8/95
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NOTES
IMMISCIBLE PHASE FLOW
• Mutually insoluble liquids
• Interferes with groundwater flow
• Liquids can become immobile at residual
saturation
S-13
IMMISCIBLE PHASE FLOW
Water
Solid
particle
Immiscible
fluid
S-M
Faulted and Fractured Porous Rock
Potertiat groun&vrat9r flow
S-15
U.S. EPA Headquarters Library
Mail code 3201
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue NW
Washington DC 20460
5/95
Groundwater Models
-------
NOTES
CHEMICAL PROCESSES
• Sorption
• Hydrolysis
• Cosolvation
• lonization
S-18
CHEMICAL PROCESSES (cont.)
• Dissolution and precipitation
• Complexation reactions
• Redox potential
S-17
BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES
Microorganisms
- Bacteria
- Fungi
Transformation of contaminants
- Aerobic conditions
- Anaerobic conditions
S-18
Groundwater Models
8/95
-------
NOTES
RETARDATION FACTOR
Relates groundwater velocity to
contaminant velocity
Current practice: lump chemical and
biological processes into retardation
S-lfl
RETARDATION
R
R
K'
NT
= 1 + Pb x K<
NT
= retardation factor
= bulk density
= distribution coefficient
= total porosity
S-20
t
c
0)
o
c
o
O
I
Advection
plus
retardation
I Distance from source i
S-21
8/95
Groundwater Models
-------
NOTES
Groundwater Modeling
CONCENTRATION
AT DISTANCE "L"
DL = longitudinal dispersion coefficient
C0 = solute concentration at source
v = average linear velocity
L ~ distance
t = time
erfc = complementary error function
MODELS CAN PREDICT:
Spatial variation
Temporal variation
Parameter variation
S 22
S-23
S-24
Groundwater Models
8/95
-------
NOTES
MODEL DIMENSIONS
One-dimensional
Two-dimensional
Three-dimensional
3-25
MODELING PROBLEMS
• Lack of appropriate modeling protocols
and standards
• Insufficient technical support
• Inadequate education and training
• Widely used, but selection and use
inconsistent
S-2S
KEYS TO SUCCESSFUL
USE OF MODELS
• Proper input of data and parameter
estimates
• Effective communication
• Understanding the limitations of the model
S-27
8/95
Groundwater Models
-------
NOTES
G.I.G.O.
Garbage in = Garbage out
The first axiom of computer usage
MOST COMMON EPA MODELS
Name
MODFLOW
HELP
RANDOM WALK
USGS-2D
USGS-MOC
Relative Use
29
24
21
20
19
S-JB
Groundwater Models
10
8/95
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PROBLEM 1
Cross-Section Exercise
-------
-------
PROBLEM 1: CROSS-SECTION EXERCISE
A. Student Performance Objectives
1. Use a topographic map to locate sites for the installation of monitoring wells at
specific elevations.
2. Draw a topographic profile of a specified area.
3. Calculate a vertical exaggeration for a topographic profile.
4. Obtain geological information from monitoring well logs.
5. Use the GSA Munsell color chart and geotechnical gauge to identify rock sample
colors and textures.
6. Given a geologic map, interpret elevations of geologic formations.
7. Draw a geologic cross-section using monitoring well logs and a topographic
profile.
8. Interpret subsurface geology to locate aquifers of concern, identify discontinuities
in geologic formations, and locate potential monitoring/remediation wells.
B, Background Information
Each group of students will have a set of six rock/sediment samples, labeled A through F,
to examine. These samples represent rock/sediment samples from six of the seven
different geologic formations encountered during the installation of monitoring wells at,
and in the vicinity of, the Colbert Landfill site in Spokane, Washington. During the site
investigation, these samples were collected from cuttings generated by mud rotary
drilling. Each sample tube is also oriented with an arrow that indicates the top. DO
NOT attempt to remove the orange caps and open the tubes!
C. Geologic Cross-Section
1. Using the GSA Munsell color chart and sample mask, match the overall color of
the rocks, sand, clay, or gravel within the samples to the color chart. Do not
determine every color if a sample is multicolored, but look for key sediment types
or specific marker colors.
2. Using the geotechnical gauge, generally determine and match the grain size of the
sediments with the written descriptions. For example, actual fine sand or coarse
sand sizes can be found on the chart. Sediments larger than coarse sand, such as
gravel and cobbles, are NOT shown on the geotechnical card. Using the
8/95 1 Cross-Section Exercise
-------
geotechnical gauge arid the sediment characteristic diagram depicted in Figure 1,
generally determine the degree of panicle rounding and sediment sorting. Well
sorted means most panicles are of similar size and shape, whereas poorly sorted
particles are of no particular size and vary greatly in size and shape, such as sand
mixed with gravel or cobbles.
3. Using the SAMPLES and well log together, match these descriptions and your
visual observations to the official published U.S. Geological Survey geologic
description of the formations. Then identify each formation on the well logs in
the space provided under the "STRATA" column; for example, Kiat, sample F.
START WITH WELL LOG #6 AND PROCEED TO LOG #1. EACH TUBE
REPRESENTS ONLY ONE ROCK FORMATION! Be sure to read the
information written under the "REMARKS" column at the right of the log sheet
for additional sample information. Your instructor will discuss the correct sample
identification at the end of this ponion of the exercise.
4. Using the appropriate topographic maps and graph paper provided, locate Wells 6
through 1 along the top of the graph paper from left to right along profile line
A-A'. Determine the respective elevations of the wells (your instructor will
demonstrate this technique).
5. Label the Y-axis of the graph paper to represent the elevation, starting from 2,100
feet at the top tc 1,400 feet at the bottom. Each box on the graph represents 20
feet in elevation.
6. Plot the location, depicting the correct surface elevation of each well on the graph.
Also determine and plot the elevations of several easily determined points on the
profile line between each of the wells in order to add more detail to the profile.
This will generate a series of dots representing the elevations of the six wells and
the other elevations you have determined. Make sure to select contour lines that
cross the profile line. The contour interval of these particular topographic maps is
20 feet.
7. After plotting these elevations on the graph, connect them with a smooth curve.
which will represent the shape of the topography from A-A'.
8. Using the well logs previously completed and the colored geologic map, add the
existing geology and formation thickness to each well location. Each formation
thickness is listed on the left side of the well log and is measured from the bottom
of the next overlying formation.
9. Sketch in and imerpret the geologic layers of the cross section, starting with the
lowest bedrock formation. Connect all of the same geologic formations, keeping
in mind that some formations have varying thicknesses and areal extent.
10. Using available groundwater information, locate the three aquifers in the cross
section.
Cross-Secrion Exercise ~> 8/95
-------
11. Using the completed cross section, locate potential sites for the installation of
additional monitoring wells or remediation wells and identify formation
discontinuities.
12. Compare your interpretation with the "suggested" interpretation handed out by the
mctT*i if t/"if»
instructor.
D. History of Colbert Landfill
The Colbert Landfill is located 2.5 miles north of the town of Colbert near Spokane,
Washington, and is owned by the Spokane County Utilities Department. This 40-acre
landfill was operated from 1968 to 1986, when it was filled to capacity and closed. It
received both municipal and commercial wastes from many sources. From 1975 to 1980,
a local electronics manufacturing company disposed spent solvents containing methylene
chloride (MC) and 1,1,1-trichloroethane (TCA) into the landfill. A local Air Force base
also disposed of solvents containing acetone and methyl ethyl ketone (MEK). These
solvents were trucked to the landfill in 55-gaIlon drums and poured down the sides of
open and unlined trenches within the landfill. Approximately 300-400 gallons/month of
MC and 150-200 gallons/month of TCA were disposed. In addition, an unknown volume
of pesticides and tar refinery residues from other sources were dumped into these
trenches.
The original site investigation was prompted by complaints from local residents who
reported TCA contamination of their private wells. The population within 3 miles of the
site is 1,500. In 1981, a Phase 1 investigation was conducted; a Phase 2 was completed
in 1982. Groundwater samples collected from nearby private wells indicated TCA
contamination at 5,600 pg/L, MC contamination at 2,500 pg/L, and acetone at a
concentration of 445 /*g/L. Investigation reports concluded that drinking groundwater
posed the most significant risk to public health. EPA placed the site on the National
Priority List (NPL) in 1983. Bottled water and a connection to the main municipal water
system was supplied to residents with high TCA contamination (above the MCL), and the
cost was underwritten by the potentially responsible parties (PRPs) involved.
Hydrogeological Investigation
The site lies within the drainage basin of the Little Spokane River, and residents with
private wells live on all sides of the landfill. The surficial cover and subsequent lower
strata in the vicinity of the site consist of glacially derived sediments of gravel and sand,
below which lie layers of clay, basaltic lava flows, and granitic bedrock. Beneath the site
there are three aquifers and three aquitards. The stratigraphic sequence beneath the
landfill from the top (youngest) to the bottom (oldest) is:
Qfg Upper sand and gravel glacial outwash and Missoula flood deposits which together
form a water table aquifer
Qglf Upper layers of glacial Lake Columbia deposits of impermeable silt and clay that
serve as an aquitard; lower layers of older glaciofluvial and alluvial sand and
gravel deposits that form a confined aquifer
8/95 3 Cross-Section Exercise
-------
Mvwp Impermeable but weathered Wanapuin basalt flow
Mel Impermeable and unweathered Latah Formation of silt and clay
Kiat Fractured and unfractured granitic bedrock that serves as another confined aquifer
In the upper aquifer (Qfg), which is 8-15 feet thick, groundwater flows from 4 to 13 feet
per day (ft/day). The lower confined sand and gravel aquifer (Qglf) varies from a few
feet thick to 150 feet thick and is hydraulically connected to the Little Spokane River.
Groundwater in this aquifer flows from 2 to 12 ft/day. To the northeast of the landfill,
the upper aquifer is connected to the lower aquifer. Both of these aquifers are classified
as current sources of drinking water according to EPA and are used locally for potable
water. The area impacted by the site includes 6,800 acres and the contamination plume
extends 5 miles toward the town of Colbert. Of the contaminants present, 90 percent
occur as dense, nonaqueous-phase liquids (DNAPLs) at the bottom of the upper aquifer,
and natural DNAPL degradation is slow. It has been estimated that only 10 percent of
the solvents have gone into solution, whereas the remainder occurs in pore spaces and as
pools of pure product above impermeable layers. The TCA plume in the upper aquifer
has extended 9,000 feet in 8-10 years and it moves at a rate of 2-3 ft/day. The flow rate
of the contamination plume in the lower sand and gravel aquifer (Qglf) has not been
calculated because of the complexity and variability of the subsurface geology. However,
TCA and MC have the highest concentrations in the lower sand and gravel aquifer.
Cross-Section Exercise 4 8/95
-------
Sediment Characteristics
O
^
O
Well Rounded
A
Poorly Rounded
Well Sorted
i
\
Poorly Sorted
Stratified
FIGURE 1
5/95
Cross-Section Exercise
-------
B
D
Map
view
Cut away
cross-
sect i on
DEVELOPMENT OF CONTOUR LINES
Consider an island in a lake and the patterns made on it when the water level recedes. The
shoreline represents the same elevation all around the island and is thus a contour line (see above
Figure, part A). Suppose that the water levels of the lake drop 10 ft and that the position of the
former shoreline is marked by a gravel beach (Figure B). Now there are two contour lines, the
new lake level and the old stranded beach, each depicting accurately the shape of the new island
at these two elevations. If the water level should continue to drop in increments of 10 ft, with
each shoreline being marked by a beach, additional contour lines would be formed (Figures C
and D). A map of the raised beaches is therefore a contour map (Figure E), which graphically
represents the configuration of the island.
Cross-Section Exercise
8/95
-------
PROBLEM 2
Sediment Analysis
-------
-------
PROBLEM 2: SEDIMENT ANALYSIS
A. Student Performance Objectives
1. Determine the grain size distribution of unconsolidated geologic materials
obtained from an aquifer.
2. Calculate a uniformity coefficient from the data obtained through sample
sieving.
3. Given a formation's sieve analysis, select filter pack and screen slot size.
B. Background Information
1. Keck Field-Sieving Kit
The Keck Field-Sieving kit will be used to provide information on the grain size
distribution of the unconsolidated sediments in the aquifer to be screened by the
monitoring well. It will also be used to determine the correct size of filter pack
material around the screen of a monitoring well, as well as determine the screen size.
Sieving is only done using a dry mixture of unconsolidated sediments such as gravel,
sand, silt, and clay. During the sieving, grain size ranges are retained by each sieve.
The coarsest materials are retained by the top sieve, whereas the finest are collected
by the bottom pan. The amount of sediment retained by each sieve is usually
determined by weighing each fraction on a balance. However, with the Keck Field-
Sieving Kit, this information is gathered by comparing the volume within each
cylinder to the vertical percent scale along the edge of the Keck sieve holder. By
initially using a sample volume that equals one full cylinder (100 percent), the percent
"retained" by each screen after 5 minutes of sieving can be easily obtained. The
"cumulative" percent of sand from each cylinder is calculated and plotted on special
graph paper. The Y or vertical axis on the left side of the graph will represent the
percent sample retained from 0 to 100 percent (the right side of the graph measures
cumulative percent sediment passing), and the X or horizontal axis (along the bottom)
will represent the grain size as measured in either thousandths of an inch or in U.S.
standard sieve sizes (grain size in millimeters is measured along the top of the graph).
Once the data points are plotted, they are connected with a smooth curve.
2. Particle Size Distributions
Because the sample is usually a mixture of sediment types, there is no single way to
describe the range of particle sizes. The Wentworth Scale was developed in 1922 to
classify particle size from boulders to clay. The Unified Soil Classification System
was adopted by the U.S. Department of Agriculture as an extension of the Wentworth
Scale to further classify fine-grained material. The panicle size distribution can also
be used to determine the size of the filter pack material to be used around the well
screen. This material is mainly used with fine-grained sediments to make the area
8/95 \ Sediment Analysis
-------
around the screen more permeable, while also increasing the hydraulic diameter of
the wefl. The grain size distribution of this material is selected such that 90 percent
of it is retained by the screen slot opening. This allows the well to produce mostly
sand-free water. Finally, the slope of the curve can also be used to determine the
uniformity of the grain size fay calculating the uniformity coefficient.
3. Uniformity Coefficient
The uniformity coefficient (UC) is calculated by dividing the 40 percent retained size
of the sediment by the 90 percent retained size. For example, 40 percent of the
sample was retained by 0.026 inches, while 90 percent was retained by 0.009
inches.
40% retained _ 0.026 in. _ __
90% retained 0.009 in.
The lower the value, the more uniform the particle size grading; the larger the value,
the less uniform the grading. Values for UC should be less than 5.
C. Determine the Grain Size Distribution of Unconsolidated Geologic Materials
Obtained from an Aquifer
1. Sieve a sample.
a. Get a prepared Keck Field-Sieving kit from the instructors.
b. Remove the cylinder stack from the frame by holding the frame at the TOP
and unscrewing the knob counterclockwise.
c. Fill the beaker with sand to the 100-ml line. This will equal one cylinder
volume '100 percent).
d. Remove the clear cap from the top cylinder and carefully pour approximately
one-half of the sample from the beaker into it. Make sure the box top is
beneath the cylinder to catch any spilled sand.
e. Replace the top cap and carefully replace the cylinder stack into the frame.
f. Slowly tighten the cap by turning the top knob clockwise.
g. Hold the frame by BOTH ends and shake in a circular manner. Add an
occasional vertical shake during this process.
h. Shake for 5 minutes.
i. CAREFULLY remove the cylinders from the holder, add the remaining sand
sample, replace the cylinders into the frame, and continue shaking for another
5 minutes.
j. Tap the cylinders with your fingers until the majority of the sample lies
roughly flat within each cylinder.
k. Using the vertical scale on the side of the frame, visually determine the
percent sample fraction within each cylinder and record the data on the sheets
provided.
1. Carefully remove the cylinders from the frame, invert the stack, and replace
the sand into the bag.
m. Clean out each cylinder by tapping it against your hand. DO NOT TAP
Sediment Analysis 2 8/95
-------
AGAINST THE DESK OR ANY HARD SURFACE! Use the paintbrush
to remove any remaining sand from the screens and gaskets.
n. Replace sieve set into box.
o. Calculate the cumulative percent of each cylinder and record the data on the
data sheets.
p. Using the graph paper provided, plot your data.
2. Determine the grain size distribution of your sediment sample using your data plots
and the unified soil classification scale on the bottom of the graph paper.
Calculate the uniformity coefficient for your sample.
8/95 3 Sediment Analysis
-------
Co
»'
Bottle #
Sediment Sieve Exercise
U.S. Sieve #
Percent Retained
Cumulative Percent
Uniformity Coefficient: UC = 40%/90%
-------
SELECTION OF FILTER
PACK AND WELL SCREEN
PURPOSE OF FILTER PACK
* Allow groundwater to flow
freely into well
• Minimize or eliminate entrance
of fine-grained materials
WELL SCREEN
Surrounded by:
• Filter pack coarser than the
aquifer material
• Filter pack of uniform grain size
• Filter pack of higher permeability
than the aquifer material
S-1
S-2
NOTES
8/95
Sediment Analysis
-------
NOTES
UNIFORMITY COEFFICIENT (UC)
• Measure of the grading uniformity
of sediment
• 40% retained size divided
by 90% retained size
• UC of filter pack material should
not exceed 2.5
FILTER PACK SELECTION
• Select by multiplying the 70%
retained grain size of the aquifer
materials by 4 or 6
• Use 4 if aquifer is fine grained
and uniform
• Use 6 if aquifer is coarse grained
and nonuniform
WELL SCREEN SELECTION
Select screen slot opening to
retain 90% of filter pack material
S-B
Sediment Analysis
8/95
-------
PROBLEM 3
Groundwater Model Demonstration
-------
PROBLEM 4
Hydrogeological Exercises
-------
PROBLEM 4: HYDROGEOLOGICAL EXERCISES
PART 1.
A. General Discussion
Groundwater-level data can be used to determine direction of groundwater flow by
constructing groundwater contour maps and flow nets. To calculate a flow direction, at
least three observation points are needed. First, relate the groundwater field levels to a
common datum—map datum is usually best—and then accurately plot their position on a
scale plan, as in Figure 1. Second, draw a pencil line between each of the observation
points, and divide each line into a number of short, equal lengths in proportion to the
difference in elevation at each end of the line. The third step is to join points of equal
height on each of the lines to form contour lines (lines of equal head). Select a contour
interval that is appropriate to the overall variation in water levels in the study area. The
direction of groundwater flow is at right angles to the contour lines from points of higher
head to points of lower head.
This simple procedure can be applied to a much larger number of water-level values to
construct a groundwater-level contour map such as the one in the example. Locate the
position of each observation point on a base map of suitable scale and write the water
level against each well's position. Study these water-level values to decide which contour
lines would cross the center of the map. Select one or two key contours to draw in first.
Once the contour map is complete, flow lines can be drawn by first dividing a selected
contour line into equal lengths. Flow lines are drawn at right angles from this contour, at
each point marked on it. The flow lines are extended until the next contour line is
intercepted, and are then continued at right angles to this new contour line. Always select
a contour that will enable you to draw the flow lines in a downgradient direction.
B. The Three-Point Problem
Ground water-flow direction can be determined from water-level measurements made on
three wells at a site (Figure 1).
1. Given:
Well Number Head (meters)
1 26.28
2 26.20
3 26.08
8/95 i Hydrogeological Exercises
-------
N
WELL 2
( head. 26.20 m )
0 25 SO
100
METERS (scale approximate)
WELL1
{ head. 26.28 m )
WELL 3
( head. 26.08 m )
2.
FIGURE 1
Procedure:
a. Select water-level elevations (head) for the three wells depicted in
Figure 1.
b. Select the well with water-level elevation between the other wells (Well 2).
c. Draw a line between Wells 1 and 3. Note that somewhere between these
wells is a point, labeled A in Figure 2, where the water-level elevation at
this point is equal to Well 2 (26.20 m).
d. To determine the distance X from Well 1 to point A, solve the following
equation (see Figures 3, 4, and 5):
- H
f.
Distance Y is measured directly from the map (200 m) on Figure 3. H,,
H2, and H3 represent head or water-level elevations from their respectively
numbered wells.
After distance X is calculated, groundwater-flow direction based on the
water-level elevations can be constructed 90" to the line representing
equipotential elevation of 26.20 m (Figure 6).
Hydrogeological Exercises
8/95
-------
N
WELL 2
( head. 26.20 m }
WELL1
( head. 26.28 m )
Point A
0 25 SO 100
WELLS
( head. 26.08 m )
METERS (scale approximate)
FIGURE 2
N
WELL 2
( head. 26.20 m )
WELL1
{ head. 26.28 m )
26.2° to
Point A
0 25 50 100
©
WELLS
( head, 26.08 m )
METERS (scale approximate)
FIGURES
8/95
Hydro geological Exercises
-------
(26.28 - 26.20) (26.28 - 26.08)
X
200
X = 80
FIGURE 4
N
X = 80m
WELL 2
( head. 26.20 m )
WELL1
( head, 26.28 m )
0 25 50 100
WELLS
( head. 26.08 m )
METERS (scale approximate)
FIGURES
Hydro geological Exercises
8/95
-------
WELL1
( head. 26.26 m )
WELL 2
( head, 26.20 m )
0 25 SO
100
Groundwater-Flow
Direction
WELLS
( head, 26.08 m )
METERS (scale approximate)
FIGURE 6
C. Colbert Landfill Three-Point Problem
1.
History of Colbert Landfill
The Colbert Landfill is located 2.5 miles north of the town of Colbert near Spokane,
Washington, and is owned by the Spokane County Utilities Department. This 40-acre
landfill was operated from 1968 to 1986, when it was filled to capacity and closed. It
received both municipal and commercial wastes from many sources. From 1975 to 1980,
a local electronics manufacturing company disposed spent solvents containing methylene
chloride (MC) and 1,1,1-trichloroethane (TCA) into the landfill. A local Air Force base
also disposed of solvents containing acetone and methyl ethyl ketone (MEK). These
solvents were trucked to the landfill in 55-gaIlon drums and poured down the sides of
open and unlined trenches within the landfill. Approximately 300-400 gallons/month of
MC and 150-200 gallons/month of TCA were disposed. In addition, an unknown volume
of pesticides and tar refinery residues from other sources were dumped into these
trenches.
The original site investigation was prompted by complaints from local residents who
reported TCA contamination of their private wells. The population within 3 miles of the
site is 1,500. In 1981, a Phase 1 investigation was conducted; a Phase 2 was completed
in 1982. Groundwater samples collected from nearby private wells indicated TCA
contamination at 5,600 jtg/L, MC contamination at 2,500 Mg/L, and acetone at a
concentration of 445 jtg/L. Investigation reports concluded that drinking groundwater
posed the most significant risk to public health. EPA placed the site on the National
8/95
Hydrogeological Exercises
-------
Priority List (NPL) in 1983. Bottled water and a connection to the main municipal water
system was supplied to residents with high TCA contamination (above the MCL), and the
cost was underwritten by the potentially responsible parties (PRPs) involved.
2. Hydrogeological Investigation
The site lies within the drainage basin of the Little Spokane River, and residents with
private wells live on all sides of the landfill. The surficial cover and subsequent lower
strata in the vicinity of the site consist of glacially derived sediments of gravel and sand,
below which He layers of clay, basaltic lava flows, and granitic bedrock. Beneath the site
there are three aquifers and three aquitards. The stratigraphic sequence beneath the
landfill from the top (youngest) to the bottom (oldest) is:
Qfg Upper sand and gravel glacial outwash and Missoula flood deposits which together
form a water table aquifer
Qglf Upper layers of glacial Lake Columbia deposits of impermeable silt and clay that
serve as an aquitard; lower layers of older glaciofluvial and alluvial sand and
gravel deposits that form a confined aquifer
Mvwp Impermeable but weathered Wanapum basalt flow
Mel Impermeable and unweathered Latah Formation of silt and clay
Kiat Fractured and unfractured granitic bedrock that serves as another confined aquifer
In the upper aquifer (Qfg), which is 8-15 feet thick, groundwater flows from 4 to 13 feet
per day (ft/day). The lower confined sand and gravel aquifer (Qglf) varies from a few
feet thick to 150 feet thick and is hydraulically connected to the Little Spokane River.
Groundwater in this aquifer flows from 2 to 12 ft/day. To the northeast of the landfill,
the upper aquifer is connected to the lower aquifer. Both of these aquifers are classified
as current sources of drinking water according to EPA and are used locally for potable
water. The area impacted by the site includes 6,800 acres and the contamination plume
extends 5 miles toward the town of Colbert. Of the contaminants present, 90 percent
occur as dense, nonaqueous-phase liquids (DNAPLs) at the bottom of the upper aquifer,
and natural DNAPL degradation is slow. It has been estimated that only 10 percent of
the solvents have gone into solution, whereas the remainder occurs in pore spaces and as
pools of pure product above impermeable layers. The TCA plume in the upper aquifer
has extended 9,000 feet in 8-10 years and it moves at a rate of 2-3 ft/day. The flow rate
of the contamination plume in the lower sand and gravel aquifer (Qglf) has not been
calculated because of the complexity and variability of the subsurface geology. However,
TCA and MC have the highest concentrations in the lower sand and grave! aquifer.
3. Remedial Measures
The remediation goal for this site is to use an extraction and interception system (pump
and treat) for removing groundwater contamination and to completely cap and regrade the
site. A line of 8 grouncwater extraction wells of variable depth, located downgradient of
the site, and 10 extraction wells 100 ft deep will be used for site remediation. The wells
in the lower sand and gravel aquifer will pump at a rate of 130 gallons per minute (gpm),
whereas the wells in the water table aquifer will pump at a rate of 20-30 gpm.
Hydrogeological Exercises 6 8/95
-------
Groundwater and soil gas monitoring is scheduled to continue for 30 years to monitor the
location and movement of the ground water contamination plume.
4. Groundwater Flow-direction Calculations
Using the data in Table 1 from monitoring wells in the vicinity of the Colbert Landfill
(see topographic map from the cross-section exercise), determine the groundwater flow
direction within the shallow and deep aquifers.
Choose three wells that are relatively close together and on the same side of the Little
Spokane River. Assume that north is located at the top of the page. Check your
calculations.
a. Shallow groundwater flow direction:
b. Deep groundwater flow direction:
8/95 7 Hydrogeological Exercises
-------
TABLE 1. CONSTRUCTION DATA ON MONITORING WELLS LOCATED IN THE
VICINITY OF THE COLBERT LANDFILL, SPOKANE. WA
Table 1
B
Well
Number
(MW#)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Top of
Casing
Elevation
(ft msl)
1923.25
1958.45
1929.88
1868.05
1675.50
2003.70
1948.26
1703.20
1906.11
Ground
Surface
Elevation
(ft msl)
1920.14
1955.50
1926.94
1865.85
1672.15
2000.79
1945.55
1 700.00
1903.60
Ground
Water
Elevation
(ft msl)
1877.14s
1745.50d
1615.94d
1556. 85d
variable
1958.79s
1431.21s
1695.00s
1610.75d
Monitoring
Weil Depth
(ft below
ground)
105.10
263.50
341.20
340.40
210.50
322.80
75.90
120.90
350.70
Bedrock
Depth
(ft below
ground)
83.40
269.40
344.30
343.50
184.10
321.10
80.10
124.60
350.20
s = shallow aquifer
d = deep aquifer
Hydro geological Exercises
8/95
-------
PART 2.
A. Groundwater Gradient Calculation
1. Purpose
This part of the exercise uses basic principles defined in the determination of
groundwater-flow directions. Groundwater gradients (slope of the top of the groundwater
table) will be calculated as shown in the three-point problem.
2. Key Terms
• Head—The energy contained in a water mass produced by elevation,
pressure, and/or velocity. It is a measure of the hydraulic potential due to
pressure of the water column above the point of measurement and height
of the measurement point above datum which is generally mean sea level.
Head is usually expressed in feet or meters.
• Contour line—A line that represents the points of equal values (e.g.,
elevation, concentration).
• Equipotential line—A line that represents the points of equal head of
groundwater in an aquifer.
• Flow lines—Lines indicating the flow direction followed by groundwater
toward points of discharge. Flow lines are always perpendicular to
equipotential lines. They also indicate direction of maximum potential
gradient.
101-9 962 94.8
99.6
99.1
102.0
100.8
400
FEET (scale approximate)
102.4
89.4
88 9
94.8
.91.0
101.9
101.8
FIGURE 7. WELL LOCATIONS AND HEAD MEASUREMENTS
8/95
Hydrogeological Exercises
-------
3. After reviewing Figures 7-9, perform the following:
a.
Select an appropriate contour interval that fits the water levels available
and the size of the map on Figure 10. (Twenty-foot contour intervals
should 1x5 appropriate for this problem.)
100'
101.9
FEET (scale approximate)
FIGURE 8. EQUIPOTENTIAL LINES WITH WELL HEAD MEASUREMENTS
Hydro geological Exercises
10
8/95
-------
100'
101.9
I I I I I
FEET (scale approximate)
FIGURE 9. FLOW LINES ADDED TO EQUIPOTENTIAL LINES AND
CALCULATION OF HYDRAULIC GRADIENT
8/95
11
Hydrogeological Exercises
-------
Y
Y
•420
,nn
•400
320
480
380
380
52°
sf280
400* 360
34°
or I oen
or, 360
*— i ~.
500
360
oon
320
460
300
320
i340 380
340
380 • 420
420
400
340
I
N
360
420
440
• 480
'420
Figure 10
MOO
>
420
'460
Y'
Y'
500
LLJ
UJ
400 LL
300
Hydro geological Exercises
12
8/95
-------
b. Draw the equipotential lines on the map (see Figure 8), interpolating
between water-level measurements.
c. Construct flow lines perpendicular to the equipotential lines drawn in step
3 (see Figure 9).
d. Select a distance on your contour map between two contour lines and
compute the gradient. The hydraulic gradient is calculated by measuring
the scale distance between equipotential lines along a flow line that crosses
the site, and dividing that value into the calculated change in head across
the same distance (H2 - HJ.
For example, (see Figure 9):
Head at A = 100' (Ht)
Head at B = 90' (HJ
Measured distance between the points is 850' (L)
Head at point A minus head at point B divided by the distance between the points
equals hydraulic gradient (slope from point A to point B).
100 feet -90 feet = J0_ = Qn feetjfoot
850 feet 850
B. Profile of the Site's Groundwater Surface
After completing the contour map, plot a profile of the sites groundwater surface at Y-Y1
on Figure 10.
8/95 13 Hydrogeofagical Exercises
-------
PART 3.
A. Bakers Quarry Flow Net Construction
1. Site History /Operation
The quarry operation began in 1905 providing local construction-grade granite. The
quarry was closed in 1928 when the volumes of groundwater seeping into the pit made it
economically unfeasible to continue mining (Figure 11). The site was abandoned and the
pit filled with water. The owners of the quarry declared bankruptcy and ownership fell to
the city of Tippersville in lieu of delinquent tax payments.
The quarry was used as a swimming hole and occasional dump site for local citizens until
1958, when several children drowned. The site was fenced and patrolled to prevent
swimming. Uncontrolled dumping by individuals and local industry increased
dramatically with the swimming ban. Dumping took place around the rim of the quarry,
and the bulldozer from the town landfill was periodically used to push material into the
pit. Gradually the pit was filled and several fires forced the town to terminate dumping in
1971. The surface of the site was covered with local material, primarily sand and gravel.
The site gained notoriety when an area-wide survey identified it as a potential industrial
dump site. A preliminary site investigation, started on April 14, 1982, included sampling
a spring located approximately 25 ft from the limits of quarrying. Priority pollutant
analysis of this water sample identified ppm levels of poly chlorinated biphenyls and
trichloroethylene. Results from this preliminary investigation were used to justify a more
extensive hydrogeologic study of the site.
2. Elements of the Hydrogeological Investigation
The first step of this investigation was to do a literature review of geologic information.
A discussion with a local amateur geologist revealed a paper from a geologic investigation
performed during active quarrying. Information from this study and observations at an
outcrop onsite provided a geologic background for the investigation. The quarry material
is a slightly gneissoid biotite-muscovite granite. Several dikes were identified in the
quarry wall.
The probable high permeability and infiltration rate of the less-consolidated waste material
compared to that of the granite could cause groundwater mounding in the pit area.
Potential mounding, and inadequate information about groundwater flow direction,
dictated a ringing of the site with monitoring wells.
Twenty-two monitoring wells were planned and installed at the site from October 1 to
November 14, 1982. Eleven monitoring wells were installed in bedrock, and the
unconsolidated zone was sealed with steel casing and grouted. Eleven monitoring wells
were installed in the unconsolidated, heavily weathered bedrock or unconsolidated zones.
For this exercise, use only the data from the 11 wells listed in Table 2. An explanation
of these data is depicted in Figure 12.
Hydrogeological Exercises 14 8/95
-------
400'
8001 12001
Site Boundary
FIGURE 11. SITE MAP - BAKERS QUARRY, TIPPERSVILLE, MAINE
8/95
15
Hydrogeological Exercises
-------
TABLE 2. MONITORING WELL DATA
Well
Number
MW 1
MW2
MW3
MW4
MW5
MW6
MW7
MW8
MW9
MW TO
MW 11
(a)
Top of
Casing
Elevation
(feet)*
87.29
89.94
88.04
82.50
82.50
72.50
80.58
86.03
114.01
108.67
105.07
(b)
Ground
Surfaice (GS)
Elevation
(feet)*
84.79
87.99
85.44
79.80
80.05
69.50
78.28
83.53
111.21
10(5.67
103.37
(0
Ground water
Elevation
(feetr
80.49
84.69
75.29
72.40
73.40
67.50
74.78
76.93
92.36
93.97
94.97
(d)
Well Depth
(feet below
GS}
151.9
103.05
103.1
102.3
102.45
99.6
99.5
99.2
99.9
98.7
102.1
Bottom of
Well
Elevation
(feet)*
-67.11
-15.06
-17.66
-22.50
-22.40
-30.10
-21.22
-15.67
11.31
7.97
1.27
(e)
Bedrock
Depth
(feet below
GS}
7.5
7.5
2.0
14.0
8.5
9.0
8.0
8.5
10.5
10.8
2.5
Datum: mean sea level
Hydrogeological Exercises
16
8/95
-------
MW 1
c
-------
B. Site Profile Development
1. Purpose
The development and comparison of topographic profiles across the site will help the
student to understand the variability of the surface terrain usually found on most of the
larger sites. The water-table profile will also be constructed.
2. Procedure
a. To construct cross-section lines, lay the edge of a piece of paper along the
cross-section iine selected and draw a straight line. Mark the location of
the monitoring wells along the edge of the paper. (The placement of some
wells may need to be projected because not all of the wells lie along a
straight line.)
A - A' MW9, MW2, and MW4 (in that order)
B-B' MW1, MW8,andMW7
C-C' MW11, MW3, MW7, and MW5
NOTE: Projection ofwdls to a cross-section line could cause distortions
that might affect interpretation of the distribution of subsurface geology or
soil.
b. Using the graph paper provided, transfer these well locations to the bottom
of the page along the horizontal axis.
c. The vertical axis will represent elevation in feet. Mark off the elevations
in 10-ft increments. Each division of the graph will represent an elevation
increase of 2 ft.
d. Graph the ground surface elevation for each of the chosen monitoring
wells. (This information is found in the monitoring well data, Table 2.)
e. Graph the groundwater elevations for these same locations.
f. Repeat this procedure for the other cross-sections lines.
g. Compare the topographic profile to the water table-profile. Are they
identical? After looking at these data, are there any conclusions that can
be drawn?
Hydrogeological Exercises 18 8/95
-------
PART 4.
A. Student Performance Objectives
1. Perform a falling head test on geologic materials.
2. Calculate total porosity, effective porosity, and estimated hydraulic conductivity.
3. Given groundwater elevations in monitoring wells, determine the equipotential
groundwater surface.
4. Given groundwater's equipotential surface, determine groundwater flow direction.
B. Perform a Falling Head Test
1. Set up burets using the stands and tube clamps.
2. Clamp the rubber tube at the bottom of the burets using the hose clamp. Fold the
rubber hose to ensure a good seal before clamping (to help eliminate leaking
water).
3. Position the small, round screen pieces in the bottom of the burets. Use the
tamper to properly position the screens.
4. Measure 250 ml of clean water in the 500-mI plastic beaker.
5. Pour the water slowly into the buret to avoid disturbing the seated screen.
6. Measure 500 ml of gravel or sand material in the 500-ml plastic beaker.
7. Pour the gravel or sand material slowly into the water column in the buret to
prevent the disturbance of the screen traps and to allow any trapped air to flow to
the surface of the water in the buret.
8. Add additional measured quantities of water or gravel/sand as needed until both
the water and sediment reach the zero mark on the buret. To calculate the final
total volumes of water and sediment, add the volumes of additional water and
gravel/sand to the initial volumes of 250 and 500 ml of water and sediment. The
total volumes of water and sediment are designated W and S respectively.
9. Measure the static water level in the buret to the base of the buret stand. This is
the total head of the column of water at this elevation. This measurement is
designated hfl.
10. Place a plastic, 500-ml graduated beaker below the buret. (The beaker will be
used to collect the water drained from the buret.) The volume of water in the
beaker is designated WD.
8/95 19 Hydrogeological Exercises
-------
11. Undo the clamp and simultaneously start the timer to determine the flowrate of
water through the buret. When the drained water front reaches the screen, stop the
timer, clamp the buret hose, and record the elapsed time. Also record the volume
of water drained during this time interval. This time is designated t.
12. Allow the water level in the buret to stabilize. Measure the length from this level
to the base of the buret stand. This is the total head of the water column at this
elevation after drainage has occurred. This measurement is designated h,.
13. Subtract the measurement at h, from the height measurement at h,,. This length is
designated L.
14. The porosity in the sediment of each buret is the volume of water necessary to fill
the column of sediment in the buret to the initial static water mark at ho divided by
the sediment volume (S). This value is total porosity and is designated N.
15. The effective porosity is estimated by dividing the volume of drained water by the
sediment volume. Effective porosity is designated n.
16. Compare the initial volume of water (W) in the column before draining with the
drained volume (WD). The difference represents the volume of water retained
(Wg), or the specific retention. The volume drained represents specific yield. To
determine the percent effective porosity, divide the volume of drained water by
the volume of total sediment volume.
17. The equation to estimate the hydraulic conductivity (K) of each buret column is
derived from falling head permeameter experiments. The equations for this
exercise are depicted at the bottom of Table 3.
Hydro geological Exercises 20
-------
TABLE 3. TOTAL HEAD WORKSHEET
Sample
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
§
u
Volume Sedim
g
Volume Water
i
4i
£
1?
Volume Draine
i
k.
oj
CO
•g
c
"is
ai
"o
S
"S
rt
•3
"55
U
o
£
'S'
f
^;
U
.§•
Effective Poro
s
t
^>
.1
a
'S
i
1
3
c
E
c
g
:»
O
•o
o
U
•o
Porosity
N .
5
Effective Porosity
_
5
n =
£sr. Hydraulic Cortd.
"2.3 * L
K =
.hi
*!
S/P5
21
Hydrogeological Exercises
-------
PROBLEM 5
Aquifer Stress Tests
-------
-------
AQUIFER STRESS TESTS
STUDENT PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
At the conclusion of this unit, students will be able to:
1. List the two factors that control aquifer response during an
aquifer test
2. List four aquifer test methods
3. List the purposes of the step-drawdown test
4. List the advantages and disadvantages of a slug test
5. List the advantages and disadvantages of a distance-
drawdown test
6. List the advantages and disadvantages of a time-drawdown
test
7. Given graph paper, graphically represent groundwater flow
to show the difference between aquifer tests in unconfmed
and confined aquifers
8. Given aquifer test data, use the Jacob method to calculate a
hydraulic conductivity for the given conditions.
NOTE: Unless otherwise stated, the conditions for
performance are using all references and materials
provided in the course, and the standards of
performance are without error.
8/95
-------
NOTES
AQUIFER TESTS
S-l
GROUNDWATERAND
CONTAMINANT MOVEMENT
• Position and thickness of aquifers and
aquitards
• Transmissivity and storage coefficient
• Hydraulic characteristics of aquitard
S-2
GROUNDWATER AND
CONTAMINANT MOVEMENT (cont.)
• Position and nature of boundaries
• Location and amounts of groundwater
withdrawals
• Locations, kinds, and amounts of pollutants
8/95
Aquifer Stress Tests
-------
NOTES
AQUIFER RESPONSE DEPENDS ON:
• Rate of expansion of cone of depression
- Transmissivity of aquifer
- Storage coefficient of aquifer
• Distance to boundaries
- Recharge
- Impermeable
S-4
Limits of cone
of depressio
Land surface
Unconfined Aquifer
s-s
Limits of c
of depres
Land surface
/[
S'°">/^ Potentiomet
/V '
/ /
***
>..__
Drawdown """N
• AqLHCludo-Confining layer
>
ric
Q
T
I
1
*
I
.*
surface Ni>^ N^
!x\
\\
''XCone of
depression
4
4
:::::. Aquiclude-Confining layer
Confined Aquifer
S-6
Aquifer Stress Tests
8/95
-------
AQUIFER TEST METHODS
• Step-drawdown/well recovery tests
• Slug tests
• Distance-drawdown tests
• Time-drawdown tests
S-7
STEP DRAWDOWN
Well Recovery Tests
Well is pumped at several successively higher
rates and drawdown is recorded
Purpose
- Estimate transmissivity
- Select optimum pump rate for aquifer tests
- Identify hydraulically connected wells
s-s
STEP DRAWDOWN
Well Recovery Tests (cont.)
• Advantages
- Short time span
- One well
NOTES
8/95
Aquifer Stress Tests
-------
NOTES
SLUG TESTS
Water level is abruptly raised or lowered
Used in low-yield aquifers (<0.01 cm/s)
SLUG TESTS
Advantages
• Can use small-diameter well
• No pumping - no discharge
• Inexpensive - less equipment required
• Estimates made in situ
• Interpretation/reporting time shortened
S-1
SLUG TESTS
Disadvantages
Very small volume of aquifer tested
Only apply to low conductivities (0.0000001 to
0.01 cm/s)
Transmissivity and conductivity only estimates
Aquifer Stress Tests
8/95
-------
NOTES
SLUG TESTS
Disadvantages (cont.)
Not applicable to large-diameter wells
Large errors if well not properly developed
Do not give storativity
S-13
DISTANCE-DRAWDOWN TESTS
Advantages
• Can also use time-drawdown
* Results more accurate than single well test
• Represent more of aquifer
• Can locate boundary effects
S-U
DISTANCE-DRAWDOWN TESTS
Disadvantages
• Requires multiple piezometers or
monitoring wells (at least three wells)
• More expensive than single well test
• Must handle discharge water
• Requires conductivities >0.01 cm/s
S-15
8/95
Aquifer Stress Tests
-------
NOTES
TIME-DRAWDOWN TESTS
Advantages
Only one well required
Tests larger aquifer volume than slug test
Less expensive than multiple-well test
s-ie
TIME-DRAWDOWN TESTS
Disadvantages
Pump turbulence may interfere with
water-level measurements
Tests smaller aquifer volume than
multiple-well test
Must handle discharge water
Requires conductivities above 0.01 cm/s
S-17
THE1S METHOD
First formula for unsteady-state flow
- Time factor
- Storativity
Derived from analogy between
groundwater flow and heat flow
S-18
Aquifer Stress Tests
8/95
-------
THEIS METHOD (cont.)
• Laborious method
- Log-log paper
- Curve matching
• More accurate than Jacob method
S-19
THEIS'S ASSUMPTIONS
Aquifer is confined
Aquifer has infinite areal extent
Aquifer is homogeneous and isotropic
Piezometric surface is horizontal
S-20
THEIS'S ASSUMPTIONS (cont.)
• Carefully controlled constant pump rate
• Well penetrates aquifer entirely
• Flow to well is in unsteady state
S-2!
NOTES
8/95
Aquifer Stress Tests
-------
NOTES
Confining layer-Aquidudg
Confined aquifer
••••••••••H
Confining layer-Aquiclude
THEIS EQUATION
T =
S =
QW(u)
4Ts
4Ttu
T = transmissivity
Q = discharge (pumping rate)
W(u) = well function of u
s = drawdown
S SB storage coefficient
t = time
r s radial distance
5-23
WELL FUNCTION - W(u)
W(u) = -0.577216 - log u + u -;
and u =
S = storage coefficient
t = time
—
4Tt
r = distance
J = transmissivity
W(u) is an infinite exponential series and cannot
be solved directly
S-24
Aquifer Stress Tests
8/95
-------
NOTES
JACOB METHOD
Somewhat more convenient than Theis's
method
- Semilogarithmic paper
- Straight line plot
- Eliminates need to solve well function
W(u)
- No curve matching
S-2S
JACOB METHOD (cont.)
• Applicable to:
- Zone of steady-shape
- Entire zone if steady-state
S-28
JACOB'S FORMULA
T =
264 Q
AS
K =
T = transmissivity gallons per day per ft (gpd/ft)
Q = pump rate (gpm)
As = change in drawdown {ft/log cycle)
K = hydraulic conductivity in gpd/ft2
b = aquifer thickness in feet
8/95
Aquifer Stress Tests
-------
NOTES
Cone o! depression
(unsteady shape)
NONEQUILIBRIUM
River
Unsteady shape
Steady shape
NONEQUILIBRIUM
Rivsr
EQUILIBRIUM
S-2S
S-30
Aquifer Stress Tests
10
8/95
-------
PERFORMING AN AQUIFER TEST
Jacob Time-drawdown Method
Each student will be given a sheet of four-cycle semi logarithmic graph paper. Then, follow these
directions:
1. Label the long horizontal logarithmic axis (the side with the punched holes) of the graph
paper t-time (minutes). Leave the first numbers (1 through 9) as is, Mark the next series
of heavy lines from 10 to 100 in increments of 10 (10, 20, 30, etc.). Mark the next series
from 100 to 1000 in increments of 100 (100, 200, 300, etc).
2. Label the short vertical arithmetic axis s-drawdown (feet). This will be the drawdown (s)
measured from the top of the casing (provided in Table 1), Mark off the heavy lines by
tens, starting with 0 at the top, then 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, and 70 (the bottom line). Each
individual mark represents 1 foot.
3. Plot the data in Table 1 on the semilogarithmic paper with the values for drawdown on the
arithmetic scale and corresponding pumping times on the logarithmic scale.
4. Draw a best-fit straight line through the data points.
5. Compute the change in drawdown over one log cycle where the data plot as a straight line.
6. Using the information given in Table 1 (Q = 109 gpm and b = 30 feet) and Jacob's formula
(provided in the manual on slide 27), calculate the value for hydraulic conductivity.
us EPA Headquarters Library
' Mail code 3201
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue
Washington DC 2<-.4bu
8/95 11 Aquifer Stress Tests
-------
TABLE 1. PUMPING TEST DATA
Pumping Time (t)
(minutes)
Q = 109 gpm
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
18
20
22
24
26
28
32
35
40
45
50
55
60
90
120
Drawdown (s)
Measured from Top of Casing
(ft)
b = 20 ft
6.1
6.5
7.5
8.0
8.6
9.5
10.5
11.2
12.0
13.0
14.0
15.5
17.0
18.0
19.3
20.5
23.5
25.2
26.7
28.2
29.5
30.5
32.0
34.5
36.6
38.5
40.5
42.0
43.5
50.1
54.8
Aquifer Stress Tests
12
8/95
-------
PROBLEM 6
Groundwater Investigation Problem
-------
-------
PROBLEM 6: GROUNDWATER INVESTIGATION {BETTENDORF, IOWA)
A. Student Performance Objectives
1. Determine the source(s) of hydrocarbon contamination at a contaminated site.
2, Perform a Phase I field investigation using soil gas surveys, soil borings, and
monitoring wells.
3. Present the results of the field investigation to the class.
4. Justify the conclusions of the field investigation.
B. Background Information
Task
Your environmental consulting firm has been retained by the attorney representing the
Leavings to:
• Determine the source of the hydrocarbon contamination. This is not an emergency
response action.
• Provide a brief report that includes the names of the source(s) of contamination, the
total cost of investigation, and a drawing of a representative cross section through the
contaminant plume.
• Justify the data that are obtained and the conclusions of the report.
Leavings Residence
On October 12, 1982, the Bettendorf, Iowa, fire department was called to the Leavings
residence with complaints of gasoline vapors in the basement of the home.
On October 16, 1982, the Leavings were required to evacuate their home for an indefinite
period of time until the residence could be made safe for habitation. The gasoline vapors
were very strong, so electrical service to the home was turned off. Basement windows were
opened to reduce the explosion potential.
08/95 1 Groundwcuer Investigation
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Pertinent Known Facts
The contaminated site is in a residential neighborhood in Bettendorf, Iowa. It backs on
commercially zoned property, which has only been partially developed to date. The
residential area is about 10 years old and contains homes in the $40,000 to $70,000 range.
There was apparently some cutting and filling activity at the time the area was developed. 1
Within 1/4 mile to the northwest and southwest, 11 reported underground storage tanks
(USTs) are in use or have only recently been abandoned:
i
• Two tanks owned and operated by the Iowa Department of Transportation (IDOT)
are located 1000 ft northwest of the site.
• Three in-place ".anks initially owned by Continental Oil, and now by U-Haul, are
located 700 ft southwest of the site. According to the Bettendorf Fire Department
(BFD), on of the three tanks reportedly leaked.
• Three tanks owned and operated by an Amoco service station are located 1200 ft
southwest of the site. BFD reports no leaks.
• Three tanks owned and operated by a Mobil Oil service station are located 1200 ft
southwest of the site. BFD reports no leaks.
Neighbors that own lots 8 and 10, which adjoin the Leavings residence (Lot 9), have
complained about several trees dying at the back of their property. No previous occurences
of gasoline vapors have been reported at these locations.
The general geologic setting is Wisconsin loess soils mantling Kansan and Nebraskan glacial
till. Valleys may expose the till surface on the side slope. Valley soils typically consist of
the colluvial and alluvial silts.
Previous experience by your environmental consulting firm in this area includes a
geotechnical investigation of the hotel complex located west of Utica Ridge Road and
northwest of the Amoco service station. Loess soils ranged from 22 ft thick on the higher
elevations of the property (western half) to 10 ft thick on the side slope. Some silt fill (5-7
ft) was noted at the east end of the hotel property. Loess soils were underlain by a gray,
lean clay glacial till which apparently had groundwater perched on it. Groundwater was
typically within 10-15 ft of ground surface. This investigation was performed 8 years ago
and nothing in the boring logs indicated the observation of hydrocarbon vapors. However,
this type of observation was not routinely reported at that time.
Other projects in the area included a maintenance yard pavement design and construction
phase testing project at the IDOT facility located northwest of the Leavings residence. Loess
soils were also encountered in the shallow pavement subgrade project completed 3 years ago.
Consulting firm records indicated that the facility manager reported a minor gasoline spill a
year before and that the spill had been cleaned up when the leaking tank was removed and
replaced with a new steel tank. The second tank at the IDOT facility apparently was not
replaced at that time.
Groundwater Investigation 2 8/95
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Budget
The budget for implementing the field investigation is $25,000.
Interviews
• Lot 9 (the Leavings residence): Observations outside the residence indicate that the
trees are in relatively good condition. The house was vacant. Six inches of free
product that looks and smells like gasoline was observed in the open sump pit in the
basement. The power to the residence was turned off, so the water level in the sump
was allowed to rise. The fluid level in the sump was about 3 feet below the level of
the basement floor.
• Neighbors (Lots 8 and 10): These property owners reported that several trees in
their back yards died during the past spring. They contacted the developer of the
area (who also owns the commercial property that adjoins their lots) and complained
that the fill that was placed there several years ago killed some of their trees. No
action was taken by the developer. Both neighbors said that when the source of the
gas was located, they wanted to be notified so they could file their own lawsuits.
The neighbors also noted that this past September and October were unusually wet
(lots of rainfall).
* IDOT: The manager remembers employess of your firm testing his parking pad.
He reported that one UST was replaced in 1979, whereas the other tank was installed
when the facility was built in 1967. Both of the original tanks were bare metal tanks.
The older tank has always contained gasoline, but the newer one contains diesel fuel.
No inventory records or leak testing records are available. The manager stated that
he has never had any water in his tanks. He will check with his supervisor to have
the USTs precision leak tested.
• U-Haul: The manager said that the station used to be a Continental Oil station with
three USTs. The three USTs were installed by Continental in 1970 when the station
was built. Currently, only one 6000-gal UST (unleaded) remains in service for the
U-Haul fleet, this tank was found to be leaking a month ago, but the manager does
not know how much fuel spilled.
• Mobil: The manager was pleasant until he found out the purpose of the interview.
He did state that he built the station in 1970 and installed three USTs at that time.
He would not answer any additional questions.
• Amoco: The manager was not in, but an assistant provided his telephone number.
In a telephone interview, the manager said he was aware of the leaking tank at the
U-Haul facility and was anxious to prove the product was not from his station. He
said they installed three USTs for unleaded, premium, and regular gasoline in 1972.
An additional diesel UST was installed in 1978. The tanks are tested every 2 years
using the Petrotite test method. The tanks have always tested tight. No inventory
08/95 3 Groundwater Investigation
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control system is being used at present. He stated that if monitoring wells were
needed on his property, he would be happy to cooperate.
Developer (Mr,. M. Forester): Mr. Forester bought the property in question in the
1960s. He developed the residential area first and some of the commercial
development followed. About 40 acres remain undeveloped to date. He plans to
build a shopping center on the remaining 40 acres in the future.
Mr. Forester obtained a lot of cheap dirt and fill when the interstate cut went through
about 1/2 mile west of the property in the late 1960s. He filled in a couple of good-
sized valleys at that time. He has a topographic map of the area after it was filled.
He stated that he will cooperate fully with any investigation. If any wells are needed
on the property, he would like to be notified in advance. There are no buried utilities
on the property except behind the residential neighborhood.
Review of Bettendorf City Hall Records
An existing topographic map and scaled land use map are available.
Ownership records indicate the land was previously owned by Mr. and Mrs. Ralph Luckless.
The city hall clerk stated that she had known them prior to the sale of the farm in 1964.
Zoning at that time was agricultural only. The section of the farm now in question was
primarily used for grazing cattle because it was too steep for crops. The clerk remembered
a couple of wooded valleys in that same field. She also remembered a muddy stream that
used to run where Golden Valley Drive is now and that children used to swim in it. She also
stated that one valley was between Golden Valley Drive and where all the fill is now (near
U-Haul and Amoco).
The current owner of the undeveloped property is Mr. M. Forester, a developer with an
Iowa City, Iowa address.
There is no record of storm or sanitary sewer lines along Utica Ridge Road south of Golden
Valley Drive. Storm and sanitary sewer lines run along Spruce Hills Drive.
Iowa Geological Survey
There are no records of any wells in the section.
Adjoining section wells indicate top of bedrock at about 650 feet mean sea level (MSL). The
uppermost usable aquifer is the Mississippian for elevations from 350 feet to 570 feet MSL.
The materials overlying the Mississippian are Pennsylvanian shales and limestone.
Groundwater Investigation 4 8/95
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Soil Conservation Survey maps
The 1974 edition indicates "Made Land" over nearly all of the area not designated as
commercial zone. Made Land normally indicates areas of cut or fill.
Groundwoter Investigation
-------
ASSIGNMENT: PHASE 1 FIELD INVESTIGATION
TABULATION OF FEES FOR PHASE 1 FIELD INVESTIGATION GROUP
WORK SHEET #1
Recommendation for making residence
habitable
Soil gas survey - mobilization fee
Soil gas survey
Soil boring - mobilization fee
Soil boring with photo ionitation detector -
25 feet deep max - grouted shut
Convert soil boring to PVC monitoring well
(additional cost for each conversion)
Convert soil boring to stainless steel
monitoring well (additional cost for each
conversion)
Monitoring wells - mobilization fee
2" PVC
1 5 ft screen - 25 ft deep
2" stainless steel
15 ft screen - 25 ft deep
Well security - locking protector pipe
Field investigation engineering analysis and
report
# UNITS
1 ea
1 ea
1 ea
1 ea
1 ea
COST
$500 LS
(lump sum)
$500 LS
$1500/ac
$500 LS
$500 ea
$800 ea
conversion
$1300 ea
conversion
$500 LS
$1200 ea
$1700 ea
$300 ea
15%
$2000 mtn
TOTAL COST:
TOTAL
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
Groundwater Investigation
8/95
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GROUP
MONITORING WELLS
WELL NUMBER
1
GRID LOCATION ||
FILL
LOESS
ALLUVIUM
TILL
NON DETECTED
DISSOLVED PRODUCT
FREE PRODUCT
WATER ELEVATION
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
SOIL BORINGS
SOIL BORING A
GRID LOCATION
FILL
LOESS
ALLUVIUM
TILL
HITI + )
MISS {-)
1
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
1
J
08/95
Groundwater Investigation
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5
O A
8 A
O
o
O
o
o
a
/ O lr= O
^ o LS==i o
ao r~
H
I K 1 L
600 N
500 N
400 N
300 N
200 N
100 N
GROUP
: 1
Soil gas survey
hit" " miss "-"
\ Monitoring well
fill
loess
till
alluvium
nondetection
free product
gw elevation
Soil borings
fill
loess
till
alluvium
hit "+"
miss "-"
100 S
200 S
300 S
1C
400 S
11
500 S
600 S
700 S
800 S
900 S
1000 S
Groundwaier Investigation
8/95
-------
in
GROUP
L
a
CD
7
10
11
cm
4
vi «3sa
Do
08/95
Groundwater Investigation
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600 N
1
500 N
8J 8 K'gL
idwa DOT
Maintenance
Facility
Ground-water Investigation
10
8/95
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O &\ O
c\j A T-
600 N
Pfedevelopment
Topographic" Map
1000 S
08/95
11
Groundwater Investigation
-------
Existing Topographic Map
Groundwater Investigation
12
S/P5
-------
APPENDIX A
Checklist for a Hydrogeological Investigation
-------
-------
CHECKLIST FOR A HYDROGEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION
HAZARDOUS WASTE SITES INFORMATION LIST
When evaluating activities at sites where hazardous wastes may be causing or contributing to
groundwater contamination, it is important to gather as much information as possible. The
development of as much site information as possible can often provide valuable insight about site
history, waste disposal practices, regional and local geology, and the potential for impacts to the
environment in the site vicinity.
To make your information-gathering efforts easier, the following checklist includes some of the types
of questions that could helpful to ask during a site investigation. Although these questions are
oriented more toward field activities, they may also prove to be helpful to those people responsible
for evaluating the adequacy of other site assessment documents.
Sources
National Water Well Association. 1991. Groundwater and Unsaturated Zone
Monitoring and Sampling. 45 pp. In: Practical Handbook of Groundwater
Monitoring.
U.S. EPA. 1986. RCRA Ground Water Monitoring Technical Enforcement
Guidance Document. 208 pp.
Stropes, D.F. 1987. Unpublished Research: Technical Review of Hazardous
Wastes Disposal Sites. 25 pp.
I. SITE/FACILITY HISTORY
A. Waste disposal history of the site.
1. Is this a material spill or other emergency response activity not at a Toxic
Substances Storage and Disposal Facility (TSSDF)?
2. What hazardous wastes are being manufactured, stored, treated, or disposed
of at the site?
3. For active manufacturing operations, what industrial processes are being used
and what raw materials are used in the industrial processes?
4. Are the raw materials altered or transformed in any way during industrial
processes to result in waste materials that are different from the raw
materials?
5. How long has the facility been in operation?
8/95 i The Hydro geological Investigation
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6. Have the types of hazardous wastes manufactured, stored, treated, or
disposed of at the site changed during the history of the site?
7. Have the industrial processes used at the site changed over the history of the
site?
8., If the industrial processes are different, what previous industrial processes
were used in the past, how long were they used, and what types of wastes
were end products of the processes?
9. What environmental media (i.e., air, land, or water) have been or are being
affected by the facility/site activities?
10. What is the form of the site wastes (e.g., sludge, slurry, liquid, powder,
containerized, bulk storage)?
11. How much waste is generated or disposed of at the location daily?
12. What is the history of aboveground and underground storage tank use at the
site?
13. What types of regulated manufacturing or pollution control units exist at the
facility?
14. What governmental agencies are responsible for the regulated units?
15. Do any historical records about the site exist? If so, where are these records?
16. Has a check of any existing historical maps or aerial photos been performed
to provide further insight about past site activities?
17. Is there any history of groundwater contamination as a result of the site
activities?
B. Details of the site disposal activities.
1. Are the site disposal units currently in compliance with all applicable rules,
regulations, and standards?
2. Are disposal areas isolated from the subsurface by the use of liners,
impermeable material, etc.?
3. What type of isolating material is in use?
4. Are multiple isolation systems in use?
5. Is a leachate/contaminant collection system in use?
The Hydro geological Investigation 2 B/95
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6. Are any monitoring wells installed adjacent to the disposal/collection system
units?
7. Is there a surface water runoff control system?
8. Are any parts of the site/facility capped with an impermeable cover material?
9. What is the condition of the cap?
10. Are areas of previous waste disposal well defined?
C. What is the nature of groundwater usage from aquifers beneath the site or in adjacent
areas?
1. Do any water supply wells exist in the aquifers beneath the site and adjacent
areas?
2. Are water supply wells used for potable water supplies or for industrial
process water?
3. Is the groundwater treated prior to use?
4. What are the pump rates of the water supply wells? Daily? Monthly?
Annually?
5. What are the depths of the wells' screened intervals?
6. What other well drilling, well construction, or well completion information
is available?
7. Do subsurface geologic well logs exist for the wells?
8. Are the wells upgradient, at, or downgradient of the site/facility?
9. Does pumping from these wells modify the regional groundwater table or
potentiometric surface?
II. HYDROGEOLOGIC CHARACTERIZATION
A. Has the purpose of the hydrogeologic investigation been clearly and adequately
defined?
1. Characterize the hydrogeologic system at the site.
2. Determine whether there has been downgradient degradation of water quality
from a potential source of contamination.
8/95 3 The Hydrogeological Investigation
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3. Determine the upgradient source of contamination at a known downgradient
contamination receptor (well, spring, or surface water body).
B. Has the site location and all major site features been shown on a map?
1. Has the site been located on a state map?
2. Has the site been located on a USGS 7-1/2 minute topographic quadrangle
map published at a scale of 1:25,000?
3. Have coordinates for further site identification (latitude, longitude, degrees,
minutes, seconds, or a site-specific grid system) been provided?
C. Has a base map of the site been prepared?
1. What is the map source?
2. Are aerial photos available?
3. Are all components of a map (north arrow, scale, map legend) shown and
defined on the base map?
4. Does the map show elevations and contours?
5. Is the scale of the map adequate to delineate dimensions of onsite features
adequately?
6. Does the map show features adjacent to the site that may be pertinent to the
hydrogeologic investigation?
7. Are all natural physical features (e.g., topography, surface waters, surface
water flow divides) shown on the map?
D. Has the subsurface geology been identified?
1. Is the geologic interpretation based on soil borings and well drilling logs?
2. Have any other reference materials been used?
3. Are aquifers present beneath the site?
4. Is the first aquifer encountered confined or unconfmed?
5. Are all aquifers and confining units continuous across the site?
6. Have all geologic strata been described (e.g., thickness, rock type,
unconsolidated/consolidated materials, depth)?
The Hydrogeological Investigation 4 8/95
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7. Do multiple aquifers exist at the site?
8. Have any porous vs. fractured flow media been described?
E. Do the driller's logs of the deepest borings at each well cluster show that soil
material samples were collected at 5-ft intervals? If not, at what intervals were
samples taken?
1. Is there a stratigraphic log of the deepest boreholes?
2. Were the borings extended to a depth below any confining beds beneath the
shallowest aquifer?
3. Have enough borings of the area been done to adequately define the
continuity and thickness of any confining beds?
4. Have all logs been prepared by a qualified geologist, soil scientist, or
engineer using a standardized classification system?
5. Were any laboratory tests conducted on the soil and soil material samples?
What types of tests were performed?
6. Were grain size distributions used to determine the size of the gravel pack or
was sand filter placed in the annular space opposite the well screen?
F. Have field and/or laboratory permeability tests been performed to identify variations
in aquifer and confining bed properties?
1. What type(s) of tests were performed?
2. What was the range of hydraulic conductivity values found in the aquifer?
What was the arithmetic mean value?
3. What was the range of hydraulic conductivity values found in the confining
bed? What was the arithmetic mean value?
4. Where are the most permeable subsurface zones located relative to the waste
disposal facility?
5. Have geologic cross sections been constructed?
G. Have field and/or laboratory tests been performed to determine the specific yield,
storativity, or effective porosity of the aquifer?
1. What type(s) of tests were performed?
2. What is the range of specific yield, storativity, or effective porosity values?
8/95 5 The Hydrogeological Investigation
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3. What are the average values?
H. Has the horizontal groundwater flow direction been determined?
1. Have a minimum of three piezometers been installed to determine the
direction of flow in the aquifer?
2. Do any water-level readings show local variations of the water table caused
by mounds or sinks?
3. Do any identified mounds or sinks result in alterations of the regional or local
horizontal groundwater direction of flow?
4. Do any surface features which may have an effect on the horizontal flow
exist?
5. Have all piezometer installations in the uppermost aquifer been screened at
approximately the same depth below the water table?
6. Do any discernible seasonal variations in water levels exist?
7. Do any short-term variations in water levels exist? If so, what possible
causes may explain these variations?
I. Has the magnitude of the horizontal hydraulic gradient been determined at various
locations across the site?
1. What is die average horizontal hydraulic gradient at the site?
2. Where is the horizontal hydraulic gradient the steepest?
3. Does this location correlate to a known area of lower hydraulic conductivity
in the aquifer?
4. Does this location correlate to a known area of lower aquifer thickness?
5. Where is the horizontal hydraulic gradient the lowest (flat)?
6. Does this location correlate to a known area of greater hydraulic conductivity
in the aquifer?
7. Does this location correlate to a known area of greater aquifer thickness?
J. If multiple aquifers exist, have wells been installed in each aquifer to determine the
vertical component of groundwater flow?
1. Have the wells in each aquifer been installed in a single borehole or in
separate boreholes?
The Hydrogeological Investigation 5 8/95
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2. If a single borehole was used, what tests were conducted to ensure that no
leakage between the upper and lower aquifers exist?
3. If a single borehole was used, what well installation, construction, and
development techniques were used to ensure that no leakage between the
upper and lower aquifers exist?
4. Based on the difference in hydraulic head between upper and lower aquifers,
can the site be described as:
a. Predominantly a recharge area?
b. Predominantly a discharge area?
c. Predominantly an area of horizontal flow?
5. If recharge, discharge, or horizontal flow areas exist, have these locations
been shown on a hydrogeologic map (including supporting cross sections) of
the site?
K. Has the magnitude of the vertical hydraulic gradients been determined at various
locations across the site?
1. What is the average vertical hydraulic gradient at the site?
2. Where is the vertical hydraulic gradient the steepest?
3. Can this location be correlated to any known areas of lower hydraulic
conductivity?
4. Where is the vertical hydraulic gradient the flattest?
5. Based on the vertical hydraulic gradient, what relationship exists between the
shallow and deeper aquifers?
6. Is there any regional or offsite vertical hydraulic gradient information that
may support or conflict with the site's vertical hydraulic gradient data?
L. Determination of seepage velocities and travel times.
1. What is the average seepage velocity of water moving from the waste facility
to the downgradient site boundary?
2. What is the average travel time of water to move from the waste facility to
the nearest downgradient monitoring wells?
3. What is the basis for the seepage velocity and travel time determinations?
8/95 7 The Hydro geological Investigation
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M. Have potentiometric maps, flow nets, geologic maps, and cross sections been
prepared to show the direction of groundwater flow at the site?
Horizontal Flow Components (plan view)
1. Do the contours and contour intervals between the equipotential lines
adequately describe the flow regime?
Suggested Contour Intervals:
a. 0.1-0.5 ft if the horizontal flow component is relatively flat.
b. 0.5-1.0 ft if the horizontal flow component is moderately steep.
c. 1.0-5.0 ft if the horizontal flow component is extremely steep.
2. Have the equipotential lines been accurately drawn:
a. With respect to the elevations of water levels in the wells or
piezometers?
b. With respect to nearby or onsite rivers, lakes, wells, or other
boundary conditions?
c. With respect to other naturally occurring or man-made physical
features that might cause groundwater mounds or sinks in the area?
3. Do variations in the spacing of equipotential lines correspond to known areas
with relative transmissivity variations?
4. Do the constructed groundwater-flow lines cross equipotential lines at right
angles?
5. Can conclusions about the aquifer(s) relative homogeneity and isotropy be
made based on variations in the flow lines?
Vertical Flow Components (cross sections)
1. Is the transect for the vertical flow component cross section(s) laid out along
the line of a groundwater flow path as seen in the plan view?
2. Is the variation in land-surface topography accurately represented on the cross
section(s)?
3. Have both vertical and horizontal scales been provided?
4. What differences exist between the vertical and horizontal scales?
The Hydro geological Investigation g 8/95
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5. Are all monitoring wells, piezometers, and screened intervals accurately
shown?
N. What is the site water quality and geochemistry?
1. What are the upgradient groundwater quality conditions?
2. What are the downgradient groundwater quality conditions?
3. What water-quality parameters have been determined downhoie?
4. What water-quality parameters have been determined at the well head?
5. Have all appropriate field water-quality determinations, equipment selections,
and procedures been followed?
6. Does an adequate QA/QC procedure exist?
7. What if any, relationship exists between the site water-quality conditions and
the past and/or present activities at the site?
III. DETECTION MONITORING SYSTEM
A. Are the facility upgradient and downgradient monitoring wells properly located to
detect any water-quality degradation from the waste source(s)?
Horizontal Flow
1. Will groundwater from the upgradient well locations flow through or under
the waste source in an unconfined aquifer?
2. Will groundwater from the upgradient well locations flow beneath the waste
source and under an overlying confining bed in a confined aquifer?
3. Will groundwater from the upgradient well locations flow beneath the waste
source in an unconfined aquifer separated from the waste source by an
impervious liner?
4. Will groundwater from the waste source area flow toward downgradient
wells?
Vertical Flow
1. Are the monitoring wells correctly screened to intercept a possible
contaminant plume from the waste source based on an accurate interpretation
of the vertical flow regime (recharge area, discharge area, or area of
horizontal flow)?
8/95 9 The Plydrogeological Investigation
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B. Are the monitoring wells located adequately to provide sufficient groundwater flow
information?
1. Are regional water levels unaffected by local groundwater mounds or sinks?
2. Are additional monitoring wells located to provide water-level information
from local groundwater mounds or sinks?
3. Do upgradient and downgradient monitoring wells provide representative
samples?
C. Monitoring Well Construction
1. Were precautions taken during the drilling of the borehole and installation of
the well to prevent introduction of contaminants into the well?
2. Is the well casing and screen material inert to the probable major
contaminants of interest?
3. What type of well casing and screen material was used?
4. Does the casing and screen material manufacturer have any available
information about possible leaching of contaminants from the casing and
screen material?
5. How are ihe well casing and screen segments connected?
6. If cement or glue has been used, what is the potential for contaminants to
leach into the groundwater?
7. Were all downhole well components steam cleaned prior to installation?
8. If another cleaning technique was used, what materials were used?
D. Are there as-built drawings or details of each monitoring well nest or cluster showing
information such as depth of well, screen intervals, type and size of screen, length
of screen and riser, filter packs, seals, and protective casings?
1. Do the figures show design details of as-built wells as opposed to details of
proposed wells?
2. Are the well depth(s) and diameter(s) shown?
3. Are the screened intervals and type and size of screen openings shown?
4. Is the length of the screen shown?
5. Is the length of the riser pipe and stick-up above the land surface shown?
The Hydrogeological Investigation \Q 8/95
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6. Is the filter pack around the screened interval shown?
7. Does the filter pack extend at least 1 ft above and below the screened
intervals?
8. What type of sealant was placed in the annulus above the filter pack?
9. What is the thickness of the seal?
10. How was the seal put in place?
11. Will a protective casing or reinforced posts be necessary to protect the
monitoring well from damage?
12. Is any manufacturer's information available to verify that all materials used
in the well construction do not represent potential sources of water
contamination?
13. Have samples of well construction materials been kept for future analysis to
verify that the materials do not represent sources of water contamination?
E. Are the screened intervals appropriate to the geologic setting and the sampling of a
potential problem?
1. Is the screen set opposite a stratigraphic layer with relatively high hydraulic
conductivity?
2. Is the screened interval set sufficiently below the water table so that water-
level measurements can be taken and water samples can be collected during
periods of low water level?
3. Is the screened interval placed in the aquifer(s) of concern?
4. If a single long screen was installed over the entire saturated thickness of the
aquifer, what effect will this have on analytical data from this monitoring
well?
5. Has the entire aquifer thickness been penetrated and screened?
6. Have piezometers been installed to determine vertical and horizontal flow
directions?
7. Is the base of the waste disposal unit above the seasonal high water table?
8. What is the thickness of the unsaturated zone between the base of the waste
disposal unit and the seasonal high water table?
8/95 \ i The Hydro geological Investigation
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F. Has a professional survey been conducted to determine the elevation and location of
the measuring point at each well with reference to a common datuni?
1. Is the survey at each monitoring well accurate to ±0.01 ft?
2. Is each surveyed measuring point located at the top of the well casing?
3. What benchmark was used as a starting point for the survey?
4. Are the elevations of the measuring point at each well referenced to mean sea
level and not to some local datum?
G. Has an adequate: sampling and analysis program been written for the site?
1. Are the major contaminants inorganic compounds?
2. Will field filtering and preservation be done in the field?
3. Are the major contaminants organic coumpounds?
4. Where would you expect to find the contaminants in the aquifer?
a. Floating at the top of the aquifer (LNAPLs)?
b. Dissolved in the groundwater and flowing with it?
c. Concentrated at the bottom of the aquifer (DNAPLs)?
5. What are the possible degradation end products of the original organic
contaminants?
6. Is the sampling method adequate to prevent any loss of volatile constituents?
7. Are field measurements such as pH, Eh, specific conductance, dissolved
oxygen, and temperature taken in the field?
8. Does a generic sampling and analysis protocol exist?
9. Does the sampling and analysis protocol address sample preservation, storage,
transport, container identification, and chain-of-custody procedures?
10. Is the analytical laboratory certified by EPA for the analyses to be
performed?
11. Did the laboratory provide input to the sampling and analysis program?
12. Is the sampling and analysis program written, clear, concise, understandable
and site specific?
The Hydro geological Investigation 12 8/95
-------
H. Has a QA/QC plan been written for the groundwater monitoring program?
Water-Level Measurements
1. Have worksheets containing relevant fixed data, some of which are indicated
below, been prepared for use by the person taking water-level readings?
a. Well identification number?
b. Location of measuring point of each well?
c. Elevation of measuring point at each well relative to mean sea level?
d. Elevations of screened interval at each well?
e. Type of measuring instrument to be used?
2. Do the worksheets for use by the person taking water-level readings have
columns for computation of:
a. Depth to the water table?
b. Measuring point data to be added to or subtracted from readings of
measuring instrument?
c. Adjusted depth to water surface?
d. Conversion of depth to water surface?
3. Do the worksheets have a space for pertinent comments?
Sample Collection
1. Are well purging procedures prior to sampling described as written
procedures?
2. Is the method of purging specified?
3. Is the sample collection technique specified?
4. Is the sample storage vessel described?
5. Is the sample volume specified?
6. Is the sample identification system described?
7. Are there provisions for:
8/95 13 The Hydrogeoiogical Investigation
-------
a. Trip blanks?
b. Spiked samples?
c. Duplicate, replicate, or blind samples?
8. Is the sampling frequency specified?
Sample Analysis
1. Does the laboratory have a QA/QC program for all samples?
2. Is the QA/QC program written?
3. Does the laboratory provide information on the accuracy and precision of the
analytical results?
4. Did the laboratory participate in the development of the sampling and analysis
plan for the groundwater monitoring program and the QA/QC plan for the
nonlaboratory portion of the sampling program?
I. Is the QA/QC plan being followed during implementation of the sampling and
analysis program?
1. Is the same consultant who prepared the QA/QC plan responsible for its
implementation?
2. How many copies are there of the QA/QC plan?
3. Who has copies and where are they located?
4. Does the field person taking water-level measurements and collecting samples
have a copy?
5. Does the field person understand the importance of following the QA/QC
plan explicitly each time?
6. What safeguards and checks are there to ensure there will be no deviation
from the QA/QC plan in the field and the laboratory?
J. If any more field work or data will be necessary to meet the objectives of the
hydrogeologic investigation, what types of additional field installations and data will
be needed?
The Hydrogeological Investigation {4 8/95
-------
APPENDIX B
Sampling Protocols
-------
-------
GENERALIZED GROUNDWATER SAMPLING PROTOCOL
Step
Goal
Recommendations
Hydrologic measurements Establish nonpumping water level
Well purging
Sample collection
Filtration/preservation
Field determinations
Field blanks/standards
Sample storage,
transportation, and chain
of custody (COO
Remove or isolate stagnant H20,
which would otherwise bias
representative sample
Collect samples at land surface or
in well bore with minimal
disturbance of sample chemistry
Filtration permits determination of
soluble constituents and is a form
of preservation; it should be done
in the field as soon as possible
after sample collection
Field analyses of samples will
effectively avoid bias in
determining
parameters/constituents that do
not store well (e.g., gases,
alkalinity, and pH)
These blanks and standards will
permit the correction of analytical
results for changes that may
occur after sample collection.
Preserve, store, and transport
with other samples.
Refrigerate and protect samples to
minimize their chemical alteration
prior to analysis. Document
movement of samples from
collector to laboratory.
Measure the water level to
±0.3 cm (±0.01 ft)
Pump water until well purging
parameters (e.g., pH, T, flr1,
Eh) stabilize to ± 10% over at
least two successive well
volumes pumped
Pumping rates should be
limited to ~ 100 mL/min for
volatile organics and gas-
sensitive parameters
For trace metals, inorganic
anions/cations, and alkalinity.
Do not filter TOC, TOX, or
other volatile organic
compound samples; filter other
organic compound samples
only when required
Samples for determining gases,
alkalinity, and pH should be
analyzed in the field if at all
possible
At least one blank and one
standard for each sensitive
parameter should be made up
in the field on each day of
sampling. Spiked samples are
also recommended for good
QA/QC.
Observe maximum sample
holding or storage periods
recommended by EPA.
Documentation of actual
holding periods should be
carefully performed. Establish
COC forms, which must
accompany all samples during
shipment.
Adapted from: U.S. EPA. 1985. Practical Guide for Ground-Water Sampling. EPA/600/2-85/104.
Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory, Ada, OK.
8/95
Sampling Protocols
-------
APPENDIX C
References
-------
REFERENCES
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AIPG. 1985. Ground Water Issues and Answers. American Institute of Professional Geologists,
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Bachmat, Y., J. Bredehoeft, B. Andrews, D. Holtz, and S. Sebastian. 1980. Groundwater
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Cedergren, H.R. 1977. Seepage, Drainage and Flow Nets. Second Edition. John Wiley & Sons,
New York, NY.
8/95 1 References
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Cole, J.A. (ed). 1974. Groundwater Pollution in Europe. Water Information Genter Inc., Port
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Dawson, K.J., and J.D. Istok. 1991. Aquifer Testing. Lewis Publishers, Inc., Chelsea, MI.
DeWiest, R.J.M. 1965. Geohydrology. John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY.
Dobrin, M.B. 1960. Introduction to Geophysical Prospecting. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY
Domenico, P.A. 1972. Concepts and Models in Groundwater Hydrology. McGraw-Hill, New
York, NY.
Domenico, P.A. 1990. Physical and Chemical Hydrogeology. John Wiley & Sons, New York,
NY.
Dragun, J. 1988. Soil Chemistry of Hazardous Materials. Hazardous Materials Control
Research Institute, Silver Spring, MD.
Drever, J.I. 1988. Geochemistry of Natural Waters. Second Edition. Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
DriscoII, F.G. 1986. Groundwater and Wells. Second Edition. Johnson Division, St. Paul, MN.
Everett, L.G., L.G. Wilson, and E.W. Hoylman. 1984. Vadose Zone Monitoring for Hazardous
Waste Sites. Noyes Data Corporation.
Fetter, C.W., Jr. 1980. Applied Hydrogeology. Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co., Columbus,
OH.
Freeze, R.A., and W. Back. 1983. Physical Hydrogeology, Benchmark Papers in Geology/v. 72.
Hutchinson Ross Publishing Co., Stroudsburg, PA.
Freeze, R.A., and J. Cherry. 1979. Groundwater. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Fried, J.J. 1975. Groundwater Pollution. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., Amsterdam.
Garrels, R.M., and C.L. Christ. 1987. Solutions, Minerals, and Equilibria. Harper and
Corporation Publishers.
Gibson, U.P., and R.D. Singer. 1971. Water Well Manual. Number 4101. Premier Press,
Berkeley, CA.
Harr, M.E. 1962. Groundwater and Seepage. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
References 2 8/95
-------
Heath, R.C. 1987. Basic Ground-Water Hydrology. USGS Water Supply Paper 2220. U.S.
Geological Survey.
Heath, R.C., and F.W. Trainer. 1992. Ground Water Hydrology. National Ground Water
Association, Dublin, OH.
Hem, J.D. 1989. Study and Interpretation of the Chemical Characteristics of Natural Water.
United States Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 2254. U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC.
Hillel, D. 1971. Soil and Water: Physical Principles and Processes. Academic Press, New York,
NY.
Hoehn, R.P. 1976-77. Union List of Sanborn Fire Insurance Maps Held by Institutions in the U.S.
and Canada. Western Association of Map Libraries. Santa Cruz, CA.
Johnson, A.I., C.B. Pettersson, and J.L. Fulton (eds). 1992. Geographic Information Systems
(GIS) and Mapping - Practices and Standards. American Society for Testing and Materials.
Kranskopf, K.B. 1967. Introduction to Geochemistry. McGraw Hill, Inc., New York, NY.
Kruseman, G.P., and N. A. de Ridder. 1990. Analysis and Evaluation of Pumping Test Data. ILRI
Publication 47. International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, Wageningen, The
Netherlands.
Larkin, R.G., and J.M. Sharp, Jr. 1992. On The Relationship Between River-Basin
Geomorphology Aquifer Hydraulics and Ground-Water Flow Direction in Alluvial Aquifers.
Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 104, pp. 1608-1620.
LeBIanc, R.J. 1972. Geometry of Sandstone Reservoir Bodies, pp. 133-190. In: American
Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 18. Underground Waste Management and
Environmental Implications. T.D. Cook (ed). 412 pp.
LeRoy, L.W. 1951. Substance Geologic Methods. Colorado School of Mines.
Lohman, S.W. 1979. Ground-Water Hydraulics. Geological Survey Professional Paper 708. U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
Mackay, D., W.-Y. Shiu, and K.-C. Ma. 1992. Illustrated Handbook of Physical-Chemical
Properties and Environmental Fate for Organic Chemicals. Volumes I, II, and HI. Lewis
Publishers, Inc., Chelsea, MI.
Mandel, S., and Z.L. Shiftan. 1981. Groundwater Resources: Investigation and Development.
Academic Press.
Marthess, G. 1982. The Properties of Groundwater. John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY.
8/95 3 References
-------
Mazor, E. 1991. Applied Chemical and Isotropic Groundwater Hydrology. Halsted Press (a
division of John Wiley and Sons Inc.), New York, NY.
McDonald, M.G., and A.W. Harbaugh. 1988. A Modular Three-Dimensional Finite-Difference
Ground-Water Flow Model. Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations of the United States
Geological Survey. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
McWhorter, D., and D.K. Sunada. 1977. Ground-Water Hydrology and Hydraulics. Water
Resources Publishing, Ft. Collins, CO.
Montgomery, J.H., and L.M. Welkom. 1990. Groundwater Chemicals Desk Reference. Lewis
Publishers, Inc., Chelsea, MI.
Morrison, R. 1983. Groundwater Monitoring Technology. Timco Mfg. Company, Prairie du Sac,
WI.
Morrison, R.T., and R.N. Boyd. 1959. Organic Chemistry. Allyn and Bacon, Inc.
NGWA. 1991. Summaries of State Ground Water Quality Monitoring Well Regulations by EPA
Regions. National Ground Water Association, Dublin, OH.
NWWA. No date. Selection and Installation of Well Screens and Ground Packs: An Anthology.
National Water Well Association, Dublin, OH.
Niaki, S., and J.A. Broscious. 1987. Underground Tank Leak Detection Methods. Noyes Data
Corporation Publishers.
Nielsen, D.M. (ed). 1991. Practical Book of Ground-Water Monitoring. Lewis Publishers, Inc.,
Chelsea, MI.
Nielsen, D.M., and A.I. Johnson (eds). 1990. Ground Water and Vadose Zone Monitoring.
American Society for Testing and Materials.
Nielsen, D.M., R.D. Jackson, J.W. Cary, and D.D. Evans. 1972. Soil Water. American Society
of Agronomy, Madison, WI.
Nielsen, D.M., and M.N. Sara (eds). 1992. Current Practices in Ground Water and Vadose Zone
Investigations. American Society for Testing and Materials.
Palmer, C.M., J.L. Peterson, and J. Behnke. 1992. Principles of Contaminant Hydrogeology.
Lewis Publishing, Inc., Chelsea, MI.
Pettyjohn, W.A. (ed). 1973. Water Quality in a Stressed Environment. Burgess Publishing,
Minneapolis, MN.
Pettyjohn, W.A. 1987. Protection of Public Water Supplies from Ground-Water Contamination.
Noyes Data Corporation, Park Ridge, NJ.
References 4 8/95
-------
Polubarinova-Kochina, P.Y. 1962. Theory of Groundwater Movement. Princeton University Press,
Princeton, NJ.
Powers, P.J. 1981. Construction Dewatering: A Guide to Theory and Practice. John Wiley &
Sons, New York, NY.
Princeton University Water Resources Program. 1984. Groundwater Contamination from
Hazardous Wastes. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Ciiffs, NJ.
Remson, I., G.M. Hornberger, and F.J. Molz. 1971. Numerical Methods in Subsurface
Hydrology. WHey-Interscience, New York, NY.
Sanborn Map Company. 1905. Description and Utilization of the Sanborn Map. Pelham, NY.
Sanborn Map Company. 1905. Surveyor's Manual for the Exclusive Use and Guidance of
Employees of the Sanborn Map Company. Pelham, NY.
Summers, W.K., and Z. Spiegel. 1971. Ground Water Pollution, A Bibliography. Ann Arbor
Science Publishing, Ann Arbor, MI.
Sun, R.J. 1978-84. Regional Aquifer-System Analysis Program of the U.S. Geological Survey
Summary of Projects. U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1002.
Telford, W.M., L.P. Geldart, R.E. Sheriff, and D.A. Keys. 1976. Applied Geophysics.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England.
Todd, O.K. 1980. Ground Water Hydrology. Second Edition. John Wiley & Sons, New York,
NY.
Todd, D.K., and D.E.O. McNulty. 1976. Polluted Groundwater. .Water Information Center, Inc.,
Port Washington, NY.
Travis, C.C., and E.L. Etnier (eds). 1984. Groundwater Pollution, Environmental & Legal
Problems. American Association for the Advancement of Science, AAAS Selected Symposium 95.
U.S. EPA. 1984. Geophysical Techniques for Sensing Buried Wastes and Waste Migration.
EPA/600/7-84/064. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
U.S. EPA. 1985. Practical Guide for Ground-Water Sampling, EPA/600/2-85/104. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
U.S. EPA. 1985. Protection of Public Water Supplies from Ground-Water Contamination: Seminar
Publication. EPA/625/4-85/016. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
U.S. EPA. 1986. RCRA Ground-Water Monitoring Technical Enforcement Guidance Document.
OSWER-9950. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
8/95 5 References
-------
U.S. EPA. 1986. Superfunc! State Lead Remedial Project Management Handbook. EPA/540/G-
87/002. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
U.S. EPA. 1987. Data Quality Objectives for Remedial Response Activities Example Scenario:
RI/FS Activities at a Site With Contaminated Soil and Ground Water. EPA/540/G-87/004. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
U.S. EPA. 1987. Superfund Federal Lead Remedial Project Management Handbook.
EPA/540/G-87/001. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
U.S. EPA. 1988. Guidance of Remedial Actions for Contaminated Ground Water at Superfund
Sites. EPA/540/6-88/003. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
U.S. EPA. 1988. Selection Criteria for Mathematical Models Used in Exposure Assessments:
Ground-Water Models. EPA/600/8-88/075. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
U.S. EPA. 1988. Superfund Exposure Assessment Manual. EPA/540/1-88/001. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
U.S. EPA. 1988. Technology Screening Guide for Treatment of CERCLA Soils and Sludges.
EPA/540/2-88/004. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
U.S. EPA. 1989. Ground-Water Monitoring in Karst Terranes: Recommended Protocols &
Implicit Assumptions. EPA/600/X-89/050. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
U.S. EPA. 1990. Basics of Pump-and-Treat Ground-Water Remediation Technology.
EPA/600/8-90/003. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
U.S. EPA. 1990. Catalog of Superfund Program Publications. EPA/540/8-90/015. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
U.S. EPA. 1990. Handbook: Ground Water Volume I: Ground Water and Contamination.
EPA/625/6-90/016a. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
U.S. EPA. 1990. Quality Assurance Project Plan. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Emergency Response Branch, Region VIII.
U.S. EPA. 1990. Subsurface Contamination Reference Guide. EPA/540/2-90/001. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
U.S. EPA. 1991. Compendium of ERT Ground Water Sampling Procedures. EPA/540/P-91/007.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
U.S. EPA. 1991. Compendium of ERT Soil Sampling and Surface Geophysics Procedures.
EPA/540/P-91/006. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
References 6 8/95
-------
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Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste.
U.S. EPA. 1991. Handbook Ground Water Volume II: Methodology. EPA/625/6-90/016b. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
U.S. EPA. 1993. Subsurface Characterization and Monitoring Techniques: A Desk Reference
Guide. Volume I: Solids and Ground Water, Appendices A and B. EPA/625/R-93/003a. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC.
U.S. EPA. 1993. Subsurface Characterization and Monitoring Techniques: A Desk Reference
Guide. Volume II: The Vadose Zone, Field Screening and Analytical Methods, Appendices C and
D. EPA/625/R-93/003b. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and
Development, Washington DC.
Van Der Leeden, F., F.L. Troise, and O.K. Todd. 1990. The Water Encyclopedia. Second
Edition. Lewis Publishers, Inc., Chelsea, MI.
Practical Applications of Ground Water Models. National Conference August 19-20,1985. National
Water Well Association, Dublin, OH.
Verruijt, A. 1970. Theory of Groundwater Flow. Gordon & Breach Sciences Publishing, Inc.,
New York, NY.
Walton, W.C. 1962. Selected Analytical Methods for Well and Aquifer Evaluation. Bulletin 49,
Illinois State Water Survey.
Walton, W.C. 1970. Groundwater Resource Evaluation. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
Walton, W.C. 1984. Practical Aspects of Ground Water Modeling. National Water Well
Association, Dublin, OH.
Walton, W.C. 1989. Analytical Groundwater Modeling. Lewis Publishers, Inc., Chelsea, MI.
Walton, W.C. 1989. Numerical Groundwater Modeling: Flow and Contaminant Migration. Lewis
Publishers, Inc., Chelsea, MI.
Wang, H.F., and M.P. Anderson. 1982. Introduction to Groundwater Modeling. W.H. Freeman
Co., San Francisco, CA.
Ward, C.H., W. Giger, and P.L. McCarty (eds). 1985. Groundwater Quality. John Wiley &
Sons, Somerset, NJ.
Wilson, J.L., and P.J. Miller. 1978. Two-Dimensional Plume in Uniform Ground-Water Flow.
Journal of Hydraulics Div. A. Soc. of Civil Eng. Paper No 13665. HY4, pp. 503-514.
8/95 7 References
-------
APPENDIX D
Sources of Information
-------
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
SOURCES OF U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY DOCUMENTS
Center for Environmental Research Information (CERI) (no charge for documents)
Center for Environmental Research Information (CERI)
ORD Publications
26 West Martin Luther King Drive
Cincinnati, OH 45268
513 569-7562
FTS 8-684-7562
Public Information Center (PIC) (no charge for public domain documents)
Public Information Center (PIC)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
PM-211B
401 M Street, S.W.
Washington, DC 20460
202 382*2080
FTS 8-382-2080
Superfund Docket and Information Center (SDIC)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Superfund Docket and Information Center (SDIC)
OS-245
401 M Street, S.W.
Washington, DC 20460
202 260-6940
FTS 8-382-6940
National Technical Information Services (NT1S) (cost varies)
National Technical Information Services (NTIS)
U.S. Department of Commerce
5285 Port Royal Road
Springfield, VA 22161
703 487-4650
l-800-553-NTIS(6847)
Superintendent of Documents
Government Printing Office
202 783-3238
8/95 1 Sources of Information
-------
SOURCES OF MODELS AND MODEL INFORMATION
Superfund Exposure Assessment Manual
EPA/540/1-88/001, April 1988
Chapter 3 "Contaminant Fate Analysis" - 35 models
National Ground Water Association
National Ground Water Association
6375 Riverside Dr.
Dublin, OH 43017
614761-1711
International Groundwater Modeling Center (IGWMC)
Paul K. M. van der Heijde, Director IGWMC
Institute for Ground-Water Research and Education
Colorado School of Mines
Golden, CO 80401-1887
303 273-3103
303 273-3278 (fax)
Groundwater Flow Mode!
Groundwater Education of Michigan (GEM) Regional Center
Institute for Water Sciences
1024 Trimpe Hall
Western Michigan University
Kalamazoo, MI 49008
616 387-4986
Cost (as of 3/95): $275.00 (including shipping)
UST Video: Groundwater Cleanup
Industrial Training Systems Corp.
20 West Stow Road
Marlton, NJ 08053
609 983-7300
Cost: $595.00
Sources of Information 2 8/95
-------
GEOPHYSICS ADVISOR EXPERT SYSTEM VERSION 2.0
Gary R. Olhoeft, Jeff Lucius, Cathy Sanders
U.S. Geological Survey
Box 25046 DFC - Mail Stop 964
Denver, CO 80225
303 236-1413/1200
U.S. Geological Survey preliminary computer program for Geophysics Advisor Expert
System. Distributed on 3.5" disk and written in True BASIC 2.01 to run under Microsoft
MS-DOS 2.0 or later on IBM-PC or true compatible computers with 640k or greater memory
available to the program. No source code is available.
This expert system program was created for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Las Vegas, Nevada. The expert system is
designed to assist and educate non-geophysicists in the use of geophysics at hazardous waste
sites. It is not meant to replace the expert advice of competent geophysicists.
COMPREHENSIVE LISTING OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY
U.S. Department of Agriculture, ASCS
Aerial Photography Field Office
2222 West 2300 South
P.O. Box 30010
Salt Lake City, UT 84130-0010
801 524-5856
8/95 3 Sources of Information
-------
APPENDIX E
Soil Profiles
-------
SOIL PROFILE DEVELOPED ON ALLUVIAL FAN DEPOSITS
fc^alj^l i _Ti liAarV- 111 I i ial •••< 1 i !•* 1*11 I i li fr^M1 1*11 ' • ' • "*^i*—f*v ' - >~ <
Gravelly Sandy clay
Sand, sandy clay
Interbedded (stratified) silt,
sand, and gravel
'-:'•'"-' ::~:
-;y-~- •<-"•-"
/ Y---;.
^^iy
m
v^-Vv>f^v1
V'.VJ** vVt V*X;!a
Silt
U
','\\'\' '*•"'• *«***".
'''.•'iVV.-'iV'i,*-
Sand
C
rool
ODD
.) (\ f\
„„__.; _. . _,
3 rave
1
-------
SOIL PROFILE DEVELOPED ON VALLEY FILL DEPOSITS
[^^WM^Mf<
Sandy clay
Sandy clay
Interbedded (stratified)
fine sand and silt
Interbedded (stratified) silt,
sand, and gravel
.,..__, .......
>>:•". ":-::
V.-'l
'&&W-Q
;£'•£#$£•••&
^{ivifeili'
"••.•;••.•:.•,•:••.•:•".•
.;v;^\v;.'-;-;.
!'vV.''V.'V.'i.":
PTTol
Ooo
!_..--. '2.
y Silt Sand Gravel
-2
-------
SOIL PROFILE DEVELOPED ON ALLUVIUM
B
4'
Silty clay
Clay
Clay
Clay Silt
S-3
-------
SOIL PROFILE DEVELOPED ON COASTAL PLAIN
DEPOSITS IN A HUMID CLIMATE
Horizon
B
/—•f"~ ' .' ' . "J7~"
f' ,* '
Clayey sand and silty clay;
unsorted and unstratified
Silty sandy clay;
stratified and sloping
toward ocean
Silty sandy clay;
stratified
6'
Clay Silt Sand
-------
SOIL PROFILE DEVELOPED ON COASTAL BEACH DEPOSITS
IN A HUMID CLIMATE
Sifty sandy clay
Clay Silt Sand
Stratified quartz sands;
poorly graded with little or
no fines
.•••;••.•••.•••.•.• .•••.•••.•••.•••.••.•••.•••.16'
S-5
-------
SOIL PROFILE DEVELOPED ON SAND DUNE DEPOSITS IN
A SEMI-ARID CLIMATE
Horizon
A
LiiiiiiiiiwiJ 6
O1
Clayey fine sand and silty
clay
Fine to coarse sand;
poorly graded sediment
Clay Silt Sand
-------
SOIL PROFILE DEVELOPED ON LIMESTONE IN A HUMID
CLIMATE
Horizon
B
i •" >:* '*
f«-V**"
f-<
% ^M
O1
Silty clay
Silty clay
Clay
Limestone bedrock
10'
Clay Silt Sand Limestone
S-7
-------
SOIL PROFILE DEVELOPED ON SLATE IN A HUMID CLIMATE
Horizon W
B
:-ft$!:
iftii'iifiit^ '•f{^ii^f(jfiffftj^isi!ifi(f^is!-fti!^fffs''^ft1-
Clay iate'sJit
0'
Slaty clay
Slaty silty clay
Slaty silty clay
Slate bedrock
6'
-------
SOIL PROFILE DEVELOPED ON GRANITE IN A HUMID
CLIMATE
Horizon M
A
B
J1/.T/XWiv £f&'t~+&fafr'' Hijfzf.'ffiJ+jiff'f**** W
0'
Silty clay
Sandy clay
Sandy clay; bedrock
fragments
Granite bedrock
•«•" + 4- "+
•f + + -f +
Clay Silt Sand Granite
S-13
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