OF
URGE DEIinSTRATION PROJECTS:
FIRST GEDERDTl)
UTILITIES FOR RFJITE COITl(l1UI)ITIES
U. $. ENVRONMENTAl PROTECTION AGENCY
ARCTIC ENVKONMENTA1 RESEARCH LABORATORY
COUEGE, ALASKA 99701
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ALASKA VILLAGE DEMONSTRATION PROJECTS: FIRST GENERATION
OF INTEGRATED UTILITIES FOR REMOTE COMMUNITIES
by
Barry H. Reid
Working Paper No. 22
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
ARCTIC ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
COLLEGE, ALASKA
Associate Laboratory of
National Environmental Research Center
Corvallis, Oregon
Office of Research and Development
October 1973
LIBRARY
. Prot. Agency, WOO
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A Working Paper presents results of investigations which are, to some
extent, limited or incomplete. Therefore, conclusions or recommendations
expressed or implied, are tentative. Mention of commercial products or
services does not constitute endorsement.
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Abstract
The U.S. Congress authorized projects to demonstrate provision of
sanitation utilities for remote villages using concepts not previously
applied. Water supply, waste treatment and personal sanitation facilities
were required. Costs of construction and operation were minimized in or-
der to allow future ownership by low income communities. Water, waste-
water and emissions are required to meet the State or Federal regulations
and guidelines. Projects were placed at two locations and brief ex-
perience indicates such concepts are practical. The systems approach
to village utilities appears to be worthy of further development.
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Introduction
Alaska, as much of the far north, has been marked by boom and bust
development (1). Overall, growth has been slow and progress in the san-
itary engineering and public health fields has kept a similar pace. As
the economics for boom were established, justification for application
of traditional sanitary engineering techniques was found {2}. This appli-
cation invariably required the expense of vast amounts of energy (and dol-
lars). As boom times passed the economic resources for supporting sani-
tary engineering public works disappeared and the works failed because the
few remaining people could not afford the cost.
Public health has been dependent upon engineering for a considerable
time to provide reliable water supplies, adequate waste treatment and dis-
posal and reliable sources of dependable power. Until Engineering can
provide these needs. Medicine is limited (3).
Conditions in rural Alaskan communities are as bad as any in the
western hemisphere as related to the economic, public health and social
problems dependent upon sanitary engineering utilities. Advancement be-
yond traditional subsistence living for residents of rural Alaska will be
based on economics primarily, but solution of many public health and so-
cial problems depends upon utility services (4) appropriate for the econo-
mic, social and natural environment.
The Congress of the United States, in Section 20. Public Law 91-224,
April 3, 1970 authorized the Alaska Village Demonstration Projects (AVDP).
Stating in part, the projects ... "shall includeprovisions for community
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safe water supply systems, toilets, bathing and laundry facilities, se-
wage disposal facilities, and other similar facilities ..." Responsi-
bility for the administration was assigned to the Secretary of the In-
terior who assigned the task to the Federal Water Quality Administration
(FWQA), forerunner of the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
Because of the developmental nature of the projects, they were assigned
further to the Office of Research and Development and the Arctic Environ-
mental Research Laboratory.
In 1972, Congress again authorized the Administrator of EPA to pro-
ceed with the Alaska Village Demonstration Projects under Section 113,
Public Law 92-500. These laws are appended.
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Project Concept
A review of earlier attempts to provide the required services by
other agencies yielded two important conclusions: (1) conventional wat-
ering point and honey bucket projects have been unsuccessful because they
fail to provide a real improvement, and (2) many projects have failed due
to the absence of financial and conceptual endorsement by the population
X they are intended to serve. Restated this means that any successful pro-
ject must be acceptable to its recipients and it must provide an actual
improvement. Conventional approaches were clearly to be avoided if pos-
sible.
It is logical that poor people cannot support projects which are ex-
pensive to operate and maintain, thus a concept was developed which would
minimize cost by maximizing overall system efficiency. At the outset it
was recognized that some rather sophisticated equipment would be used and
that operators would have to be prepared for the eventual responsibility.
Village councils were consulted in selection of some of the specific
components of the projects and in the selection of individuals to begin
training as operators. Design criteria were developed after surveying
^ requirements of the residents. In evaluating suggestions and comments
by village residents, intent was weighed more heavily than literal words.
* For example, when someone said, "I want a water system just like they
have in Anchorage", we interpreted that to mean the individual wants an
adequate supply of water in his home.
Study has shown that water consumption can be significantly reduced
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through the use of available conventional plumbing fixtures (5). Incor-
poration of these and other readily available devices of non-conventional
nature resulted in a decision to further reduce per capita quantities of
potable water.
The result of the background work was the formulation of a number
of "ground rules" and a few specific numbers upon which to begin design.
Ground rules established are:
1. Use adequate water but waste none. (No conventional toilets).
2. Water for consumption must meet quality requirements of Federal
and State drinking water standards.
3. Treat all wastes. Water pollution, air pollution and solid
waste disposal regulations and guidelines are to be acheived.
4. Consider water recycle for non-potable uses.
5. Minimize costs. Essentially this means, use as little energy as
possible.
6. Water must be distributed to the homes to assure its purity.
Since direct connections are prohibited, vehicular distribution
will be used.
7. Facilities must be relocatable.
The specific numbers used were:
1. Water supply
a. Home use - 3gpcd
b. Laundry - 2 loads/family/week
c. Showers - 2 showers/person/week
d. School - 250 gallons/teacher/day
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2. Wastewater - treatment capacity equal to water supply capacity.
3. Air pollution - emissions to be within future state require-
ments for CO, SOX, NOX and particulates.
4. Solid wastes to be disposed of by best practical method.
These few ground rules and numbers allowed us to contract for con-
struction of two projects within our allotted budget. The projects are
somewhat unconventional by design and we feel that so far they are per-
forming up to our expectations with the operators chosen by the villages
and trained by EPA for the job.
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Project Design
In order to avoid possible confusion this part of the discussion
will be limited to the project at Wainwright. Both projects are quite
sircilar and description of either is adequate to convey our message.
The contractor was issued a statement of the scope of work and not
a rigid set of specifications. Phase I of the contract provided for pro-
duction of a design which was implemented in Phase II. Close communica-
tion was maintained between the contractor and AVDP staff in order to
assure correct interpretation of guidelines and intent.
Cost reduction or minimization was of particular concern because of
the possible future village ownership of the facilities. Initial cost
had to be limited to the funds available, while operation and mainten-
ance costs were minimized so as to impose the least burden on village
economy. The nature of the R&D contract and the haste to complete it
within the allotted time impared the demonstration of lowest possible
costs.
Modularization of the structure was considered as a significant
means of reducing cost and increasing reliability. Construction in the
bush is both expensive and subject to the hazards of northern climate.
Furthermore, compromise of design features is occasionally necessitated
in order to complete the job at all. These factors strengthen the argu-
ment in favor of pre-building component modules of the facility, pre-
installing equipment, pre-assembly of the complete units and testing
prior to shipment to the ultimate project location. It was recognized
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also that modules which could be fairly easily transported may be useful
in another location if the initial village outgrew the capacity of the
system. Further attractive features are the potential of incremental mod-
ular addition to increase system capacity and possible mass production
of identical units for many locations. In this way the village or agency
might purchase a water treatment module, a waste treatment module and two
laundromat modules to satisfy immediate needs much as the drilling and
construction camps are designed.
Figure 1 is a schematic presentation of the facility at Wainwright.
Dashed lines on the plan indicate the dimension of the modules (12 in
all) which are approximately 9'0" H x 9'6" W x 18'0" L. These units were
built at Lacey, Washington, where equipment was installed and pre-tested
as much as time would allow. They were then uncoupled and prepared for
shipment to Wainwright. Sea transportation proved more economical in this
case but the modules were of a size and weight to permit shipment by truck
or C-130 (Hercules) aircraft. All materials used in shipment such as ply-
wood covers for openings, lifting cages and skids were later used in final
assembly of the structure.
Timing did not permit complete testing of the AVDP units but it is
felt that the principle has been adequately justified. Subsystems which
were tested were simple to restart and have operated reliably. Conversely,
the subsystems which were not tested prior to shipment exhibited numerous
minor flaws which caused problems of grave proportion when they were dis-
covered in Wainwright. Problems were not due to unique equipment because
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all subsystems were bought as ready-to-install packages. Rather, the
difficulties were manifest in the form of faulty air regulators, defec-
tive electrical relays and other such minor flaws which escaped factory
inspection. Diagnosis of problems and acquisition and replacement of
defective subsystem parts in the bush cost at least twice as much as it
would have in the city and worse, it cost precious time.
If any single factor were to be singled out as the most important
design consideration it would be the economics of operation and mainten-
ance (1). Virtually all utility services are cost dependent, that is
you get what you pay for -- quality wise. AVDP attempts to show that
high quality central utilities can be provided at lower cost. However,
recognizing that utility services will not be inexpensive.
The schematic diagram of Figure 2 is presented to show the inter-
faces between the various processes and the general flow pattern. Essen-
tial processes are water supply, water treatment, laundry, showers, waste-
water treatment, human waste collection, human waste disposal and heating.
It will be noted that the incinerator and heat exchanger are linked to
virtually every process which requires heat energy. This in effect per-
mits the use of a process which is usually called extravagant by reclaim-
ing the usable by-product.
It cannot yet be stated from our experience that incineration is an
economical means of disposing of human wastes. AVDP includes incineration
because it was apparently the best of the available alternatives. Unless
more than one building requiring heat is part of the system, there should
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be more than enough heat generated by the incinerator. Improvement of
heat exchangers and salvage of heat from diesel-electric generators
will increase the amount of "free" heat available and indicates poten-
tial resource for heating schools, homes and other buildings.
In order to illustrate the value of heat salvage, let us consider
an example. The Wainwright facility requires approximately 25 kw elec-
trical power which is provided by diesel generator. Thermal energy
amounting to 4000 BTU/kw/hr can be readily recovered with equipment pre-
sently on the market (6). In terms of BTU's, this is about 2,400,000
BTU/day or 8.7 X 108 BTU/year. Incineration of human wastes will also
release a quantity of thermal energy. Using 0.5 Ib. dry solids per cap-
ita per day with a heat value of 8000 BTU/lb dry solids (7) for calcula-
tions at Wainwright, we calculate that 4.4 X 108 BTU/year is available.
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Adding a conservative figure of 4 X 10 BTU/year for domestic garbage
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and trash, a total of 1.71 X 10 BTU/year is obtained. In terms of fuel
oil (140,000 BTU/gallon) this equates to about 12,200 gallons which at
prices in Wainwright ($0.35 per gallon) has a value of $4300 annually.
Water and energy are two very important elements of utility service
and in the Arctic, particularly, they are inseparably linked. Ambient en-
ergy at Wainwright as expressed in terms of temperature is well below
that which water can be readily found and stored in its useful liquid
state. This of course means the application of additional energy either
to acheive that state or to maintain it. Consequently, water becomes an
extremely important factor. By reducing water use, energy requirements
U S EPA Headquarters Library
Mail code 3404T
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue KW
Washington, DC 20460
202-566-0556
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are reduced and costs are reduced.
Figure 3 is a flow sheet for both water and heat. It will be
noted that hourly heat requirements are linked to water requirements
and are carried through the systems. Close examination will disclose
large gaps in this concept, however, since electric power generation
1s not included. Early plans called for purchase of electricity from
the city generating plant but it was discovered that the facilities
were incapable of meeting AVOP requirements. Electrical generation was
added too late to interface this subsystem with others.
Water saving devices were widely used for two reasons: (1) to re-
duce operating cost and (2) to prove that conventional per capita re-
quirements for water can be reduced while maintaining health and com-
fort. Flow regulating devices are used in the central facility to con-
trol the amount of water used. Showers are controlled by both timers
and flow regulators which limit the water used per shower to about 6
gallons. We are contemplating reducing this to about 4 1/2 gallons. A
totally adequate and satisfying shower is provided by such a quantity
of water.
Sauna baths are provided to permit bathing with even smaller volumes
of water. This technique has been used for centuries in northern cli-
nrates with acceptance becoming wadespread in recent years (8). It is
unnecessary to say more about this water saver at this time.
Toilet flushing uses as much as 70 percent of all water used in the
average American home (4). By eliminating this extravagance, one begins
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to realize significant water conservation. Such savings are being real-
ized in the village projects ay substituting air for water as the trans-
port medium in sewers. Homes are not yet equipped with toilets but
plans are to install them this summer. These toilets will be of the
recycling type which are common in jet aircraft, and use only 3 gallons
of water for about 150 flushes. Toilets in the school and the central
facility are also of this type. Compare this with the usual 5 gallons
per flush of the common water closet.
Vacuum is used to periodically evacuate these toilets which are
then recharged with treated wastewater and a deodorant/disinfectant chem-
ical. There has been no objection to these toilets and they have opera-
ted quite reliably thus far.
No reliable figures for water requirements were available for this
type of system during our design phase. The numbers used are quite specu-
lative and only time and use of facilities will test our assumptions. At
this early date it would appear that the design values we used were quite
adequate.
At Wainwright no year-round supply of fresh water is available so a
one million gallon storage tank was provided. Design of the system was
required to stay within this 1,000,000 gallon volume for the eight months
of the year when water is frozen. The tank was provided by the U. S.
Public Health Service (USPHS) and its cost is not reflected in any costs
mentioned in this report. Similarly, vehicles for distribution of water
to homes and for collection of human wastes and refuse were provided by
the USPHS and their cost is not reflected in this report.
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Water for potable uses is treated to insure its purity. Equipment
included in the Wainwright facility has consistently produced water which
meets USPHS drinking water standards (9). A schematic diagram of the
water treatment subsystem is presented in Figure 4. Operational problems
have indicated that inadequate attention was given to design of mixing
facilities. Floes form in the mixing chambers and have caused deposits
in the distributor to the sedimentation chamber. This is not a serious
problem but could have been avoided by using a mechanical mixer and
shorter mixing time (10). Similar problems were encountered in the waste-
water treatment unit which is nearly identical.
Sewage treatment is a technique which has been well developed to re-
move wastes from water. It does not provide for ultimate disposal of the
wastes. AVDP concept was to provide a non-conventional approach to util-
ity service so it did not seem logical to put human wastes in water for
later removal when the problem of ultimate disposal still remained. Tra-
ditional methods of putting containers of human waste on the ice for na-
tural disposal at breakup is more convenient than conventional sewage
treatment and disposal. However, this method leaves much to be desired
since it violates environmental guidelines and poses a danger to health.
Incineration is not usually considered economical but when properly in-
terfaced with other processes, can be utilized at reasonable overall
cost with superior results (10).
To avoid contaminating water with human wastes, a vacuum transport
system is used. In this manner, wastes are collected in a small tank and
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pumped directly into the pathological incinerator. Sludges generated in
the water treatment and wastewater treatment processes are disposed of in
the same way. Use of vacuum also allows freedom from grades normally re-
quired in conventional sewers and drains and permits complete evacuation
of pipes as prevention of damage due to freezing.
Disposal of all combustible wastes is accomplished in the incinerator
as shown in Figure 5. The unit is of the California Retort type and em-
ploys a secondary burner in the stack for air pollution control. Design
of the incinerator was based upon simultaneous destruction of 150 pounds
of refuse and 30 gallons of sludge per hour. This allows village wastes
to be disposed of in a 10-hour-per-day operation.
The incineration subsystem was designed as an integral component of
the facility so as to minimize some of the classical disadvantages of its
use. We do not believe that analysis of incineration is valid without
consideration of the other processes which are linked to it.
Building heat, for example, is taken from a heat exchanger in the in-
cinerator exhaust. This device also provides heat for the sauna baths,
hot water, clothes dryers and heat trace in the utiliduct to the Bureau
of Indian Affairs (BIA) School.
The treatment of wastewater is by physical/chemical processes and
treated wastewater is recycled to the laundry to minimize overall fresh
water requirements. From the several collecting sumps, gray water is
pumped into a holding tank. Air is injected into the tank to provide
turbulence and prevent settlement of solids. The process train consists
of gross solids removal by hydrasive, coagulation and flocculation using
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alum, lime and polyelectrolyte, sand filtration, carbon absorption and
disinfection with hypochlorite. The treated wastewater is then stored
for reuse in the laundry. Hydrants for fire protection in the central
facility are also connected the treated water distribution system as are
the chemical toilets.
The water reclamation plant has been plagued with numberous minor
problems including chemical mixing and pH control. Hydraulic problems
resulting from sludge buildup in the mixing chambers have further compli-
cated operation. For the most part, however, wastewater treatment has
been quite satisfactory with significant reduction of COD, turbidity, and
solids. Insufficient data are available for a numerical analysis but the
process looks encouraging at this time.
Preliminary water use figures obtained indicate that laundry use
(reclaimed water) is about 2-1/2 times the present demand on potable
water. When the system is fully operational and all homes are served,
this ratio will undoubtedly be reduced.
Because the chemicals used in the processes would tend to accumulate
in the wastewater treatment system, a method of removing these was required,
Sludge is generally too soft to be removed by the hydra-sieve 30 it is
centrifuged for solids remova. This procedure has been quite successful.
Solids removed by the centrifuge are of the consistency and texture of
plaster of paris and can be collected in disposable containers for later
incineration.
Connection of homes to the AVDP facility was determined to be beyond
the scope of the project but service to the BIA school is provided. This
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was done to minimize government expense for water supply and waste treat-
ment and to provide a source of revenue to help offset the cost of opera-
tion.
A "utiliduct" is provided as protection for pipes connecting AVDP
with the school and for the affluent line carrying treated wastewater to
the beach. The "utiliduct" is considerably smaller than the conventional
utilidor of many northern communities and is much cheaper to install and
maintain. A utiliduct typical of those used at Wainwright is shown in
Figure 6. Carrier pipes are 1-inch diameter but could be slightly larger.
These ducts are factory built of light materials and are pre-insula-
ted. Twenty-foot sections can be easily lifted and placed by two men with-
out heavy equipment. Urethane insulation and heat from water and waste-
water provide protection against the cold. A heat trace is provided as a
backup for emergency use only. Manholes and other special junctions are
built of similar materials to complete an installation. Sections are
joined with a bolted coupling and joints are insulated with special flex
foam pillows.
The AVDP is new and experience is limited. The data we have accumu-
lated at this point in time is minimal and precludes a technical evalu-
ation. There are other details of the system which remain to be worked
out to satisfaction of the recipient villages before the projects can be
called viable. These details are mostly of an institutional nature. In
tne coming year we hope to obtain e. great deal of data on the two facili-
ties and to evaluate them; however, two data points are insufficient for
the eventual need. Additional projects of this kind should be completed
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20 'Sections
Cross Section
Treated
Effluent
Heal
Return
Shell
Potable
Water
RawWater
Intake
"Black Water"
Vacuum
-Gray Water"
Vacuum
Heat Trace
iner
TYPICAL UTILIDUCT
Figure 6. Pipe diameters may be varied to suit the application at the
time of design.
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and more data collected and evaluated before rational design criteria can
be formulated.
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The Future
A limited systems approach has been developed for the Wainwright
project. The essential difference between this first generation and fu-
ture generations of utility systems will be the type and number of sub-
system interfaces included. In order to economize, it appears necessary
to systematize. The extent of integration (interfacing) of subsystems
will determine the degree of instrumentation and automation. Progress to-
ward highly developed systems will require consideration by multi-disci-
plinary teams including engineers, sociologists, politicians, educators,
economists and ecologists. Engineers will have to broaden their view from
subsystem to system and learn to account for more variables.
The systems approach to village utilities must consider virtually all
of the requirements of a residence. Future systems will probably not re-
semble the first generation AVDP just described and will be more complex
and invoke numerous changes in our thinking.
Every residence is a system which involves people and "things". Sat-
isfaction and well being of the people is the justification for "things".
A residential system includes the following subsystems to name a few:
1, Shelter
2. Heating
3. Lighting
4. Water supply
5. Wastewater disposal
6. Refrigeration
EPA Headquwers Library
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7. Human waste disposal
8. Solid waste collection
Community systems contain all of these subsystems and more such as:
1. Power supply and distribution
2. Communication
3. Water treatment and distribution
4. Waste collection and disposal
5. Environmental protection
6. Public safety
7. Schools
8. Roads
9. Food production
10. Resource conservation
11. Economics
The "systems approach" will not be truly employed until all of the
residential and community subsystems have been examined and effectively
integrated. Processes are by nature of limited efficiency and many are
mutually dependent.
Side by side addition of two processes has the effect of averaging
their efficiencies. For example, electric power generation is 30 percent
efficient and electric motors are 80 percent efficient so the overall energy
conversion is (80 + 30) 12 = 55 percent efficient. The efficiency of this
energy conversion subsystem is characteristic and fixed for all practical
purposes. If processes are added end to end, the efficiency may be cumula-
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tive. This is easiest to demonstrate with two dissimilar subsystems:
Electric power generation is 30 percent efficient with 35 percent loss
in stack heat and 35 percent loss in cooling water for the engine. If
the 35 percent loss in cooling water is recovered for home heating, then
overall energy use is 65 percent efficient. In the village this would
allow a very significant reduction in fuel costs.
By examining subsystems carefully and with the application of imag-
ination, system efficiencies can be increased by salvaging wastes or by-
products. Solid wastes of households contain a certain amount of energy
which can be liberated and partially recovered in the process of solid
waste incineration as was previously illustrated. Reuse of wastewater
permits reclaiming both the water and the thermal energy already imparted
to it with little additional cost.
System design is not in common practice among engineers, not because
it is too clever or too difficult, but because it does not fit the poli-
tical mold. That is, full scale system application requires integration of
bureaucratic responsibilities and professional disciplines. Governmental
agencies with individual responsibilities for schools, sanitation, housing,
communication, environment and the many other subsystems must meet at a
solution which is mutually attractive. Identification of subsystems should
not and cannot be accomplished by engineers alone, but needs the partici-
pation of administrators, village people, physicians, teachers, sociologists
and economists (11).
The systems approach offers potential for solution to many problems.
It may not be extremely efficient, but it is much more efficient than
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a multiplicity of unit processes and may allow provision of services which
singly were economically unfeasible. Progress is required in the north
now and the systems approach to utility services offers progress. The
Arctic Environmental Research Laboratory is actively seeking new ideas
and unit processes for integration 'nto systems which will accelerate
progress in cold climates and remote areas.
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Section 20. Pub. Law 91-224. April 3, 1970
Alaska Village Demonstration Projects
"Sec. 20. (a) The Secretary is authorized to enter into agreements
with the State of Alaska to carry out one or more projects to demonstrate
methods to provide for central community facilities for safe water and
the elimination or control of water pollution in those native villages of
Alaska without such facilities. Such projects shall include provisions
for community safe water supply systems, toilets, bathing and laundry fa-
cilities, sewage disposal facilities, and other similar facilities, and
educational and informational facilities and programs relating to health
and hygiene. Such demonstration projects shall be for the further purpose
of developing preliminary plans for providing such safe water and such
elimination or control of water pollution for all native villages in such
State.
"(b) In carrying out this section the Secretary shall cooperate with
the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare for the purpose of utiliz-
ing such of the personnel and facilities of that Department as may be ap-
propriate.
"(c) The Secretary shall report to Congress not later than January
31, 1973, the results of the demonstration projects authorized by this sec-
tion together with his recommendations, including any necessary legisla-
tion, relating to the establishment of a statewide program.
"(d) There is authorized to be appropriated not to exceed $1,000,000
to carry out this section."
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Section 113. Pub. Law 92-500
Alaska Village Demonstration Projects
"Sec. 113. (a) The Administrator is authorized to enter into agree-
ments with the State of Alaska to carry out one or more projects to demon-
strate methods to provide for central community facilities for safe water
and elimination or control of pollution in those native villages of Alaska
without such facilities. Such project shall include provisions for com-
munity safe water supply systems, toilets, bathing and laundry facilities,
sewage disposal facilities, and other similar facilities, and educational
and informational facilities and programs relating to health and hygiene.
Such demonstration projects shall be for the further purpose of developing
preliminary plans for providing such safe water and such elimination or
control of pollution for all native villages in such State.
"(b) In carrying out this section the Administrator shall cooperate
with the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare for the purpose of
utilizing such of the personnel and facilities of that Department as may
be appropriate.
"(c) The Administrator shall report to Congress not later than July
1, 1973, the results of the demonstration projects authorized by this sec-
tion together with his recommendations, including any necessary legisla-
tion, relating to the establishment of a statewide program.
"(d) There is authorized to be appropriated not to exceed $2,000,000
to carry out this section.
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I
References
1. Alter, Amos J. "Arctic Environmental Health Problems", CRC, Criti-
cal Reviews in Environmental Control, January, 1972.
2, Alter, Amos J. "Arctic Sanitary Engineering", Federal Housing Ad-
ministration, 1950.
3. "Proceedings of Conference on Man's Health in a Changing Arctic
Environment", May 12-14, 1970, DREW Publication No. (HSM) 72-10001.
4. Rickey, John L. S. "Electric Power and Environmental Health in
Alaska Native Villages", Public Health Reports, Vol. 79, No. 12, De-
cember, 1964.
5. Bailey, James R., e_t al_. "A Study of Flow Reduction and Treatment
of Waste Water from Households", Federal Water Quality Administra-
tion, Program #11050 FKE, December, 1969.
6. Zarambo, Frank Riley-Beaird, Inc., Personal Communication, July,
1973.
7. Balakrishnan S., D. E. Williamson and R. W. Okey "State of the Art
Review on Sludge Incineration Practice", Federal Water Quality Admin-
istration, Project # 17070 DIV, Washington, D. C., April, 1970.
8. Viherjuuri, H. S. "Sauna, the Finnish Bath", The Stephen Greene
Press, Brattleboro, Vermont, 1965.
9. "Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards 1962", U. S. Depart-
ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service,
Rockville, Maryland, 1962.
10. Stenquist, Richard J. and Warren J. Kaufman "Initial Mixing in Co-
agulation Processes", U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Project
# 17030 DLX, Washington, D. C., November, 1972.
11. Alter, Amos J. "An Evaluation of Waste Disposal Practices in Alaska
Villages", Symposium on Wastewater Disposal in Cold Climates, Univer-
sity of Saskatchewan, August 22-24, 1973.
U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFPICE; 1973-798-165
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