APPLY PESTICIDES CORRECTLY
A GUIDE FOR COMMERCIAL APPLICATORS
PUBLIC HEALTH
PEST CONTROL
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF PESTICIDE PROGRAMS
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
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Acknowledgments i
Preface 1
Introduction 2
Insects 2
Cockroaches 2
Sucking Lice 3
Fleas 4
Bed Bugs 4
Bees, Wasps, Hornets, and Yellow Jackets . . 4
Mosquitoes 5
Midges 6
Biting Flies 6
Eye Gnats 7
Domestic Flies 7
Mites, Ticks, and Spiders 7
Vertebrates 8
Domestic Rodents 8
Birds 10
Bats 10
1976
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
PREFACE
This guide has been developed by the California
State Department of Health under U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency contract number 68-01-
2908. This contract was issued by the Training
Branch, Operations Division, Office of Pesticide
Programs, EPA. The leader of the group effort was
Don J. Womeldorf of the California State Depart-
ment of Health, Sacramento, California. Editors
were Mary Ann Wamsley, EPA, and Donna M.
Vermeire, North Carolina State University.
Contributors were:
William E. Currie, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, D.C.
Richard F. Darsie, Center for Disease Control,
Atlanta, Georgia
G. Roy Hayes, Jr., Louisiana State Health and
Human Resources Administration, New Orleans,
Louisiana
John A. Mulrennan, Jr., U.S. Navy, Alameda,
California
William F. Rapp, Nebraska State Health Depart-
ment, Lincoln, Nebraska
Robert Snetsinger, Pennsylvania State University,
State College, Pennsylvania
Federal regulations establish general and specific
standards that you must meet before you can use
certain pesticides. Your State will provide material
which you may study to help you meet the general
standards.
This guide contains information you must know to
meet the specific national standards for applicators
who are engaged in public health pest and vector
control. Because the guide was prepared to cover
the entire nation, some information important to
your State may not be included. The State agency
in charge of your training can provide the other
materials you should study.
This guide will give you information about major
pests and vectors important to public health, in-
cluding:
recognition of pests and vectors,
their life cycles and habitats,
a knowledge of disease transmission,
methods you can use to control pests and vectors
without pesticides,
using pesticides in combination with other meth-
ods, and
the effect of pest control on the environment.
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INTRODUCTION
PUBLIC HEALTH PEST CONTROL
Public health pests are animals which:
are involved in the transmission cycle of disease
agents (pathogens) that affect humans,
* injure humans by biting or stinging,
cause internal and external parasitism (myiasis),
and
cause annoyance or discomfort.
Most public health pests are insects. There are
others, such as:
mites, ticks, and spiders, and
vertebrates.
The transmission of pathogens involves:
a virus, rickettsia, bacterium, fungus, or proto-
zoan,
reservoir (the animal where the pathogen occurs
in nature),
vector (the animal that transmits the pathogen
from the reservoir to man),
host (the animal on which the pest or vector
feeds).
In some instances you should work with a physician
or a veterinarian to control public health pests. Your
State Health Agency, your State Pesticide Regula-
tory Agency, or your Cooperative Extension Service
can advise you.
GENERAL TECHNIQUES OF
MANAGING PUBLIC HEALTH
PESTS
Effective control of public health pests is usually
accomplished by one or more of the following:
sanitationremoving a pest's source of food and
shelter; for example, trash and garbage where
rats live and feed;
habitat disruptionfor example, draining areas
where mosquitoes breed;
* biologxal controlsuch as introducing mosquito-
eating fish into aquatic areas;
* mechanical controldesigning and maintaining
buildings and other structures to physically ex-
clude public health pests such as flies, mosquitos,
and rats;
personal protectionwearing long-sleeved shirts,
long trousers, and using repellents;
suppressionuse of pesticides or mechanical de-
vices, su:h as traps, to reduce pest populations.
INSECTS
COCKROACHES
Cockroaches:
destroy and contaminate food and other ma-
terials,
produce a disagreeable odor when numerous, and
are repulsive.
Cockroaches are oval and flat-bodied. A shieldlike
covering extends over the head. Adults, depending
upon the species, are from Vi to 2 inches long.
The stages in the life cycle of a cockroach are:
the egg, enclosed in a capsule which contains
several eggs,
several stages of nymphs, which resemble the
adults except that they are smaller and have no
wings, and
the adult.
The entire life cycle may require 6 months to 2
years.
Cockroaches:
are active in the dark, preferring to hide when
it is light,
usually prefer warm, moist places,
are scavengers and will eat almost any food.
The four most common species in the United States
are the:
German cockroach, which may enter houses with
packages and bags of food. It prefers kitchens,
and is often found near plumbing fixtures and
heating ducts. This is the most common species
in restaurants. Adults are about ₯2 inch long and
tan to grayish in color.
American cockroach, a large insect found in alleys,
sewage systems, basements, and other warm,
moist places. Adults are up to 2 inches long and
are generally reddish-brown.
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Oriental cockroach, usually found outdoors, but
may come indoors during dry, cold weather.
Adults are about 1 inch long and are black. Wings
are much shorter than abdomen. Females are
wingless.
Brownbanded cockroach, which prefers drier
areas indoors, so may be found throughout a
building. Adults arc about 1 inch long. They are
brown with two lighter bands across the abdomen.
NONCHEMICAL CONTROL includes:
sanitation and good housekeeping to eliminate
food and harborage, and
close-fitting doors and screens to prevent entry.
CHEMICAL CONTROL includes:
applying residuals or space sprays, usually with
a hand sprayer, or
using baits.
Be careful to observe all label directions when
using pesticides in food-handling areas.
SUCKING LICE
Louse bites cause severe itching. Scratching the bites
can lead to secondary infections. The body louse
also may transmit diseases.
The stages in the life cycle of a louse are:
the egg or nit,
* three nymphal stages, and
the adult.
The entire life cycle may be completed in a mojith.
The sucking lice that affect people are the:
head louse,
body louse, and
crab louse.
The head louse:
attaches its nits to the hair close to the scalp.
As the hair grows, the nit moves away from the
scalp. An active infestation is indicated by nits
within Vi inch of the scalp.
nymphs and adults are found primarily in the
hair close to the scalp, most often around the
ears and nape of the neck. Sometimes they may
be found in hats, combs, brushes, or upholstered
furniture.
is transferred between people who share the
same bed, headgear, clothes rack, or combs and
brushes.
When looking for head lice, examine suspected nits
under magnification. Hair sheaths and droplets of
hair spray may resemble nits.
The body louse:
attaches its nits to fibers of clothing or to body
hairs, including pubic hairs,
moves out of the clothing to feed, then returns
to hide in the seams,
is acquired by physical contact or when one
shares the clothing or bedding of an infested
person.
The crab louse:
attaches its nits to the coarse pubic hairs and
hairs around the anus, infrequently to other body
hairs,
remains on the body, usually in the pubic area,
is transferred by direct contact (usually sexual)
or bv means of toilet seats or beds.
Body Louse and Head Louse Crab Louse
NONCHEMICAL CONTROL includes:
drycleaning or laundering headgear, clothing, and
bedding to control body lice.
Control of lice should be carried out in consultation
with a physician. It will be most effective if all
persons involved in the infestation (a family, a
school class) are examined and, if necessary, treated.
CHEMICAL CONTROL:
includes using pesticides that kill lice. These are
available as shampoos, lotions, emulsions, or
dusts.
may be complicated by resistance to the pesticide.
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FLEAS
Fleas affect people by:
bloodsucking, which causes skin irritation,
transmitting the pathogens that cause bubonic
plague and murine typhus.
The most common species bothering people in
houses are the cat flea and the dog flea. Fleas
are wingless, laterally-compressed insects from
l/2a to % inch long. The legs are adapted for jump-
ing.
The stages in the life cycle of a flea are:
the egg, laid loosely on the host or in its nest,
several larval stages, which feed upon organic
matter found in the nest of the host,
the pupa, which spins a silken cocoon incorporat-
ing bits of debris from its surroundings, and
the adult, which in most species lives in the nest
or burrow and jumps onto the host to feed. Adults
can live for several weeks without food, but
must have blood to produce eggs.
Flea
NONCHEMICAL CONTROL includes:
sanitation, such as cleaning and vacuuming cat
and dog quarters,
excluding wild-animal hosts from attics, wall
voids, basements, and crawl spaces.
CHEMICAL CONTROL may include:
applying insecticides as crack and crevice treat-
ments, or
use of flea collars.
BED BUGS
The bed bug, primarily a pest of man:
sucks blood, sometimes causing severe reactions,
produces a disagreeable odor, and
is repulsive.
The bed bug is a wingless, flat, reddish-brown in-
sect about V* inch long. Similar bugs, normally pests
of bats or birds, may bite people when their usual
hosts are absent.
The stages in the life cycle of a bed bug are:
the egg, glued inside cracks and crevices,
several stages of nymphs (these resemble the
adult, but are smaller and require a blood meal
for each molt), and
the adult.
Bed bugs avoid light by hiding in mattress seams
and tufts, bedframes, in cracks and crevices, under
wallpaper, and in similar places. They feed in the
dark. The life cycle may require from 1 to 5 months.
AH stages can survive starvation for several months.
Bedbug
NONCHEMICAL CONTROL includes:
using a mattress sterilizer, and
removing bird nests which touch houses, and
preventing the entry of bats.
CHEMICAL CONTROL consists of:
applying insecticides to the hiding places. Use
a pin nozzle for cracks and crevices and a fan
or cone nozzle for the mattress. Make sure the
mattress is dry before it is used again.
BEES, WASPS, HORNETS, AND
YELLOW JACKETS
The stings of bees, wasps, hornets, and yellow
jackets:
cause pain and swelling, and
sometimes result in a severe allergic reaction,
which may cause serious illness or even death.
These insects have similar life cycles including the
egg, several larval stages, pupa, and adult.
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Their habitats differ:
Honey bees are usually domesticated in hives, but
also may establish themselves in attics, wall voids,
or hollow trees.
Bumblebees and yellow jackets nest in the ground,
* Hornets build large paper nests above the ground.
Wasps (depending upon the species) build mud
nests, build paper nests in sheltered places and
under eaves, or dig holes in the ground.
NONCHEMICAL CONTROL includes:
trapping, and
* exclusion (screens).
CHEMICAL CONTROL: Special pesticide formu-
lations are available for control of these insects.
They may be used:
for treating the nest when the insects are inactive
(either early in the morning or after dark), or
as poisoned baits, which yellow jackets carry back
to their nest, thereby killing the larvae.
Many of these insects are highly beneficial as polli-
nators and predators. They should be controlled
only if they are a threat to people.
MOSQUITOES
Mosquitoes are bloodfeeding pests of birds and
animals, including man. They can lower property
values and reduce weight gain in animals.
They transmit diseases of man, including:
several kinds of encephalitis, transmitted from
mammal and bird reservoirs, and
malaria, yellow fever, and dengue fever, pres-
ently very uncommon in the United States.
Mosquitoes are two-winged insects Va to V2 inch
long. All have scales on the wing veins and fringes
and have relatively long legs.
The stages in the life cycle of a mosquito are:
the egg, which may be laid on water or in areas
which will later be flooded, depending upon the
species,
four larval stages, found only in water, which
feed upon microorganisms and other organic
matter,
the pupa, aquatic and motile but nonfeeding, and
the adult.
After mating, the female of most species seeks a
blood meal in order to produce viable eggs. The
male takes only plant juices, never blood.
Mosquito life cycles fall into two general types:
Permanent-water mosquitoes develop in water
which stands for relatively long periods. The fe-
males lay the eggs on water, either singly or in
masses. Most of these mosquitoes overwinter as
adult females.
Flood-water mosquitoes develop in water present
only intermittently. The females deposit eggs on
damp soil, debris, or plants, not water. The eggs
are resistant to drying and survive months or
even years until they are covered with water. At
that time, the larvae hatch and development con-
tinues. Most of these mosquitoes overwinter as
eggs.
MOSQUITO SURVEILLANCE, a vital prelimin-
ary step to control, involves:
collecting and identifying adults and larvae to
confirm the existence and source of the problem,
evaluate its importance, and help choose a con-
trol method. You will need special equipment,
such as traps, dippers, eyedroppers, and a micro-
scope.
recording and analyzing information about kinds,
numbers, and location of mosquito adults and
larvae; weather; and other factors (rainfall, tem-
perature, tide tables, irrigation cycles) that con-
tribute to mosquito production.
The goal of mosquito control is to maintain mos-
quito numbers at a low level so that they neither
transmit disease nor annoy people.
MECHANICAL-PHYSICAL CONTROL includes:
excluding mosquitoes from structures by using
screens on doors and windows, and
altering the environment so that the mosquitoes
cannot complete their life cycle. This can be done
by:
managing land and water by gfading and level-
ing, ditching, and draining so that water does
not stand long enough for larvae to develop,
fluctuating water levels to strand larvae and
harborage,
installing dikes and gates to keep salt marshes
flooded so that salt marsh mosquitoes cannot
lay eggs,
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draining, filling, or disposing of unnecessary
water-holding containers such as auto tires, and
designing and maintaining necessary water-
holding structures (such as impoundments,
water treatment facilities, and irrigation and
drainage systems) to eliminate or minimize
their potential as mosquito sources.
These measures can affect organisms other than
mosquitoes. In addition, they may affect the use of
the water for such things as wildlife, recreation, and
power. You must determine whether physical control
work would cause unreasonable adverse effects.
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL includes:
introducing mosquito-eating fish into permanent
or semi-permanent water. You must be sure that
your State wildlife agency permits such introduc-
tions. You can increase the effectiveness of fish
or other natural predators by eliminating harbor-
age for mosquito larvae.
CHEMICAL CONTROL includes the use of:
repellents, which provide personal protection
when applied to the body.
larvicides, which kill the developing mosquitoes
before they leave the water. Proprietary and pe-
troleum fuel oils, organophosphates, plant-derived
chemicals, and synthetic growth inhibitors of
mosquito larvae are available as larvicides. They
are formulated as solutions, emulsions, and gran-
ules (seldom wettable powders) for application to
the aquatic habitat by air, power, or hand equip-
ment. Consider accessibility of the area and
ground cover when selecting the application
method and formulation to use. Susceptibility to
certain pesticides by larvae (depending upon
species) will determine which pesticide to use.
adulticides, which kill adult mosquitoes. Several
plant-derived and synthetic pesticides are avail-
able as liquid and dust formulations for aerial,
ground, power, or hand equipment application.
These include pyrethrums, organophosphates, car-
bamates, organothiocyanates, and synthetic pyre-
throids. Some adulticides are used to kill mos-
quitoes that alight on treated surfaces. Most
adulticides are aerosols, which are pesticides ap-
plied as fogs (sometimes vapors or fine dusts) that
contact and kill the mosquitoes. Fogs consist of
very small droplets suspended in the air that con-
tact adults flying in the area. Suspended droplets
remain close to the ground and penetrate grass
and vegetation screens. Small droplet size is ob-
tained through the use of aerosol or ultra low
volume application equipment. Drift can be a
problem with fogs.
herbicides, which kill plants that harbor mos-
quito larvae or adults.
MIDGES
Biting midges:
are also called punkies, sandflies, or no-see-ums;
are tiny two-winged insects;
severely annoy people by bloodsucking;
have a body usually less than ]/10 inch long.
The stages in the life cycle of a biting midge are:
the egg, laid in salt marshes, mud around fresh-
water ponds, in soil cracks, or highly organic
water, depending upon the species,
several larval stages, worm-like and slow in de-
veloping.
the pupa, and
the adult.
There is usually only one generation per year.
CONTROL METHODS include:
applying adulticides with aerial or ground equip-
ment,
using repellents, and
using very fine mesh screens. Ordinary window
screens will not keep midges out.
There are also some nonbiting midges which cause
annoyance when they are very abundant.
BITING FLIES
Bitting flies are bloodsucking pests which can cause
problems in local areas. They include:
blackflies,
horse and deer flies, and
stable flies.
The stages in the life cycle of biting flies are:
egg,
several larval stages,
pupa, and
adult.
CHEMICAL CONTROL includes the use of:
adulticides,
larvicides for blackflies, and
repellents for personal protection.
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EYE GNATS
Eye gnats annoy people by persistently flying around
the face.
CONTROL may be achieved by:
nontillage of agricultural breeding grounds,
applying suitable larvicides,
using traps or poison baits to control the adults,
using repellents for personal protection.
DOMESTIC FLIES
Domestic flies are those that live in close associa-
tion with people. The most common are:
housefly,
little housefly,
face fly,
* vinegar flies or fruit flies,
blow flies or bottle flies, and
flesh flies.
Flies are not only annoying insects, but also are
involved in human diseases, including:
* mechanically transmitting the pathogens that
cause typhoid, dysentery, and other diseases of
the digestive system,
myiasis, which is the condition caused by fly
larvae living upon or within the body.
These flies are two-winged insects, ranging from
1-)o to l/2 inch in length, depending upon species.
Most are about 1A inch long. The stages in the life
cycle of a domestic fly are:
the egg (deposited in a moist place),
several stages of larvae (maggots),
a pupa, and
adult.
In most species, the larva crawls to a drier location
to pupate. The life cycle typically requires 2 to 3
weeks, but can be as short as 1 or as long as 6
weeks, depending upon the species and conditions.
The domestic fly develops in many types of moist
organic matter, including:
animal manure,
garbage,
decaying plant and animal material,
fruit and vegetable culls and wastes.
CONTROL is based upon sanitation. This includes:
collecting garbage twice a week in residential
areas so that flics cannot emerge.
disposing of garbage to prevent fly production.
Incinerators may be allowed if they do not cause
air pollution. Sanitary landfills are widely used.
Each day's deposits must be covered, then the
earth compacted.
managing manures by appropriate cleanout, dry-
ing, or other means, to prevent fly emergence.
properly disposing of fruit and vegetable culls
and dead animals.
sanitary treatment and disposal of liquid wastes
and sludge.
NONCHEMICAL CONTROL includes:
screening doors and windows and keeping them
shut,
air barriersfans that produce air currents which
prevent flies from entering openings impractical
to screen,
introducing predators and parasites. This is es-
pecially effective for reducing the number of flies
produced in poultry manure.
CHEMICAL CONTROL:
can be a useful supplement to sanitation.
may be hampered by resistance, especially to
residual insecticides.
may include the use of baits.
is difficult to attain with larvicides, which may
kill fly predators and parasites.
MITES, TICKS,
AND SPIDERS
MITES
Several species of mites cause skin irritation by
biting man (chiggers), burrowing into the skin
(scabies mite), or crawling over the skin (pigeon
mites, grain mites). Mites on birds or rodents may
invade houses and bite people if their normal hosts
leave or die. Most species are barely visible to the
unaided eye.
The stages in the life cycle of a mite are:
the egg,
the six-legged larva (chiggers are larvae of certain
species),
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several stages of nymphs, and
adult.
In most species the life cycle is completed in less
than 4 weeks.
CONTROL:
of chiggers may be achieved by keeping grass
cut in public areas, or spot-treating with acari-
cides.
of species infesting the human body must be
guided by a physician.
includes use of repellents for personal protection.
TICKS
Diseases transmitted by ticks include:
Rocky Mountain spotted fever, caused by a rick-
ettsia,
tularemia, caused by bacteria, and
Colorado tick fever, caused by a virus.
Tick paralysis is caused not by a pathogen, but by
tick bites around the head or neck.
The stages in the life cycle of a tick are:
* egg,
six-legged larva,
nymph (or nymphs), and
adult.
The life cycle may take 2 or 3 years, depending
upon the species of tick and the availability of hosts.
CONTROL includes:
inspecting oneself and removing ticks,
clearing brush and cutting weeds to remove habi-
tat of ticks and their rodent hosts.
If illness develops after a tick bite, consult a
physician.
SPIDERS
Two kinds of spiders cause injury to man:
black widow spiders. A bite may cause severe
pain. The bite is rarely fatal. The female black
widow spider has a red hourglass-shaped pattern
on the underside of its shiny, black, round abdo-
men.
brown recluse (fiddleback) spiders. A bite may
result in pain, followed by death of flesh around
the bite. Brown recluse spiders have a dark,
violin-shaped pattern on the top of the fused
head and thorax on a yellow to brown body.
Many other species look fearsome, but are harm-
less. A spider develops from an egg into an imma-
ture spider which may molt several times before
becoming an adult.
CONTROL:
can be accomplished by applying pesticides to
the places where spiders build their webs and
hide.
VERTEBRATES
DOMESTIC RODENTS
The term "domestic rodents" includes:
Norway rats,
roof rats, and
house mice.
Rats and mice not only cause severe economic
damage, but also damage structures, contaminate
food and feed, and bite man. They are reservoirs
for several diseases.
All three domestic rodents have:
a well-developed sense of touch in their whiskers
and guard hairs. They prefer to run where they
can keep these sensors in contact with side sur-
faces.
good eyesightreadily detect motion, but are
color blind,
a keen sense of smell, but are not repelled by
the smell of man,
a discriminating sense of taste,
keen hearing (try to escape from unusual noises),
excellent balance,
good climbing ability, and
good swimming ability, even through drains and
toilet-bowl traps.
Domestic rodents are nocturnal and rarely appear
during the day. However, they leave characteristic
signs which make it possible to tell what species are
present and whether an infestation is current or
old, heavy or light.
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These signs include:
droppings, which are moist, soft, shiny, and dark
when fresh, but become dry and hard in a few
days. They are dull, grayish and easily crumbled
when old.
outdoor runways, which are narrow pathways
swept clear of debris. Indoors, they are greasy
paths along walls, steps, and rafters (cobwebs and
dust indicate an unused runway).
rubmarks, which are dark greasy marks along
the sides of regularly traveled runways. Fresh
marks are soft and will smear if rubbed, while
old marks are dusty and will flake off if scratched.
Rats leave rubmarks along runways at or near
ground level (usually the Norway rat), and leave
swing marks overhead where beams or rafters
connect to a wall (usually the roof rat). Mice do
not leave rubmarks unless the infestation is heavy.
burrows, used commonly by Norway rats and
house mice for nesting and harborage, only oc-
casionally by roof rats. Fresh burrow entrances
are free of cobwebs and dust and may show
rubmarks. There may also be fresh earth or
food fragments near the openings.
tooth marks caused by daily gnawing which
keeps the incisors short enough to use. Fresh
gnawings in wood are lighter in color and show
distinct teeth marks, while aged gnawings are
darker and become smoothed.
tracks, sharp and distinct when fresh but dusty
and less distinct when old. Smooth patches of
dust (flour, talc) may be placed along runways
and checked for recent activity by holding a
flashlight at a low angle so the tracks cast
shadows. Tail marks may also be seen.
The Norway rat:
lives outdoors in any protected place which is
near the ground, close to food and moisture.
lives indoors between floors and walls, in en-
closed spaces of cabinets, shelving, and appli-
ances, in rubbish, and in any other concealed
place.
has an average feeding range of 100-200 feet
in an urban area, more in a rural situation.
requires % to 1 ounce of dry food, and ]/z to
1 ounce of water each day.
The roof rat:
lives outdoors in any protected place above the
ground near food and moisture.
lives indoors in attics, between walls, and in
enclosed spaces of cabinets and shelving.
has an average feeding range of 100-200 feet,
sometimes more.
requires '/z to 1 ounce of dry food, and up to
1 ounce of water each day.
The house mouse:
lives in any convenient protected space inside
or outside.
has an average feeding range of 1030 feet.
requires 1i,, ounce of dry food and ;ip,o ounce
of water each day.
Field Identification of Domestic Rodents
ROOF RAT Ratlin tolitii YOUNG RAT
./-*>-.
HOUSE MOUSE
NORWAY RAT SoMtw nwngicus
Successful rodent control depends upon controlling
entire rodent populations. A population may be the
rodents within a city block, sewer, farm, feed mill,
or smaller area.
NONCHEMICAL CONTROL of rodents includes:
managing refuse so that it will not provide food
and harborage to rodents. It should be stored in
leakproof containers and either recycled or dis-
posed of at a sanitary landfill.
storing usable materials so that food and harbor-
are are at a minimum. Packaged bulk foodstuffs
should be 12 to 18 inches off the floor and
away from the wall. Keep food from opened
packages in closed glass or metal containers.
Sweep floors clean to reduce food for rodents
and to aid in detecting fresh rodent signs. A 6-
inch-wide white band painted on the floor along
the wall of food-handling establishments will
make fresh rodent signs more visible.
modifying existing buildings or designing new
buildings to keep rodents out. Doors, windows,
and other openings must fit snugly (less than
'/4-inch clearance) and be equipped with metal
or concrete barriers. Eliminate dead spaces such
as double walls, floors, or other enclosed areas.
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trapping, useful when poisons fail or would be
too risky, when the odor of poisoned carcasses
would be a problem, or (using live traps) when
rodents must be captured alive to collect their
blood and ectoparasites for disease studies.
CHEMICAL CONTROL can be accomplished by:
fumigating burrows, or
using poison baits, poisoned water, or
poisoned tracking powders.
Types of baits most often used include the:
single-dose poisons, which kill quickly if enough
is consumed at one feeding, and
multiple-dose poisons, which must be eaten re-
peatedly during a period of several days to be
effective.
Considerations when using poisoned baits include:
prebaiting (using untreated bait for several days
before offering treated bait) to increase bait ac-
acceptance,
considering the rodent species and other food
available when selecting the poison and bait,
avoiding secondary poisoning by picking up
rodent carcasses before dogs or cats find them,
placing baits so that they will be eaten by ro-
dents but not by other animals or people, and
* possible problems due to resistance or bait shy-
ness.
BIRDS
Most species of birds are valuable and desirable
members of the environment, but some are pests
of man. Birds which are sometimes pests include
pigeons, starlings, and English sparrows. Some birds
contribute to the spread of encephalitis, caused by
viruses and transmitted by mosquitoes from reservoir
birds to man.
PEST BIRD CONTROL involves:
sanitation to reduce sources of food,
installing screens, barriers, and other devices to
keep the birds away,
trapping, shooting, or hand capture,
using pesticides, which may be avicides, repel-
lents, or chemosterilants. Poisons may kill de-
sirable birds or may cause secondary poisoning
in cats and other scavengers.
BATS
Bats are one of the most important mammals which
are public health pests.
Bats affect man in these ways:
Rabies is fairly common in bats, and people can
get the disease when they handle or are bitten
by an infected bat.
Bat droppings can be a source of the fungus which
causes histoplasmosis.
* Bat noise and odor can be annoying.
Bats feed upon insects. Some species roost singly,
but most form colonies in caves, mines, or buildings.
They have a low birth rate (usually only one off-
spring per year) but may live 20 years. Bats are
generally beneficial. They should be controlled only
if they pose a threat to public health.
BAT CONTROL can be accomplished by:
bat-proofing buildings by closing openings where
bats can enter. Eliminate openings larger than
\A inch by covering them with hardware cloth
or sheet metal, or plugging cracks with caulking
or steel wool.
using repellents or pesticides.
fumigation.
If bats are controlled, you may need to watch for
and control their ectoparasites.
A few other mammals transmit rabies or plague.
10
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1878-6151.3.1
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