COASTAL PROTECTION
PROGRAM
Workshops in Innovative Management
Techniques for Estuaries, Wetlands, and
Near Coastal Waters
A Two-Day Short Course
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SPCWSORED BY:
THE OFFICE OF WETLANDS, OCEANS AND WATERSHEDS
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, D.C.
uS Printed on Recycled Paper
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I
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page.
Physical Processes 4-22
Filtration 4-23
Movement of Dissolved Contaminants 4-24
Dispersion 4-25
t Dilution 4-25
Contaminant Density 4-25
Chemical Processes 4-26
Sorption/Retardation 4-26
Hydrolysis 4-26
Volatilization 4-28
Co-Solvent Effects 4-28
" Dissolution/Precipitation Reactions 4-28
Ion-Exchange 4-28
Transformation 4-28
Biological Processes 4-29
Biodegradation 4-29
Biological Assimilation 4-29
Biological Transformation 4-30
SECTION FIVE
IMPACT ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES 5-1
Water Quality Sampling and Analysis 5-1
Inventory of Potential Contamination Sources 5-3
Saturation Development/Buildout Analysis 5-3
Nutrient Loading Assessments 5-4
Nitrogen 5-4
Phosphorus 5-6
Evaluation of Potential Impacts 5-9
Critical Thresholds 5-11
Critical Habitat and Rare Species Evaluations 5-12
Threat Prioritization/Risk Assessment 5-13
Necessity for Prioritization 5-13
Risk Assessment Defined 5-13
Approaches to Prioritize Threats 5-13
Group Analysis and Decisions 5-14
Risk Ranking Matrices 5-14
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION SIX
RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND PROTECTION TOOLS
Regulatory Techniques
Overlay Water Resource Protection Districts
Watersheet Zoning
Prohibition of Various Land Uses
Special Permitting
Large Lot Zoning
Transfer of Development Rights
Ouster/Planned Unit Development Design
Growth Controls/Timing
Performance Standard;;
Health Regulations
Underground Storage Tanks
Privately-Owned Small Sewage Treatment Plants
Septic System Maintenance
Boat Pump-out Facilities and Head Use Limitations
Subdivision Rules and Regulations
Drainage Requirements
Environmental Impact Assessments
Performance Standards
Site Design/Landscaping
Wetland Bylaws
Natural Vegetated Buffers
Surface Water Discharges
Erosion and Sedimentation Control
Restriction on Pesticides and Fertilizers
Non-]
tory Techniques
nd Acquisition
Land Donation
Conservation Easements
Public Education
Water Quality Monitoring
Hazardous Waste Collection
Contingency Planning
Applicability of Techniques
Regional Coordination
Page
6-1
6-2
6-2
6-2
6-3
6-3
6-4
6-4
6-5
6-6
6-7
6-7
6-8
6-8
6-9
6-9
6-9
6-10
6-10
6-11
6-11
6-11
6-11
6-12
6-12
6-13
6-13
6-13
6-14
6-15
6-16
6-16
6-16
6-17
6-17
6-18
6-18
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Eage
Practical Exercise in Embayment Protection 6-26
SECTION SEVEN
FINANCING, IMPLEMENTING, AND ENFORCING
COASTAL PROTECTION 7-1
Financing Coastal Protection 7-1
Taxation 7-3
Property Taxes 7-3
Commodity or Excise Taxes 7-4
Tax Surcharges 7-5
Income Taxes 7-5
Fines/Penalties 7-5
Fees . 7-6
Impact Fees 7-6
User Fees 7-7
Intergovernmental Transfers 7-8
Bonds 7-9
Private Capital 7-12
Legislative Techniques 7-14
Implementation of Protection and Management Strategies 7-15
Oversight and Enforcement of Protection and Management Strategies 7-17
SECTION EIGHT
CASE STUDIES 8-1
Case Study #1: Protecting Water Quality in Buttermilk Bay. MA 8-1
The Problem 8-1
The Solution 8-2
References and Further Information 8-5
Case Study #2: Protecting the California Coast. San Francisco Bay. CA 8-6
The Problem 8-6
The Solution 8-6
1. Legislative Initiatives 8-6
2. San Francisco Bay Regulatory Agency 8-7
3. Federal National Estuary Project: Education and
Wetlands Enhancement 8-7
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
References and Further Information
SECTION NINE
PORTHARBOR EXERCISE
PORTHARBOR PLANNING COMMISSION PUBLIC HEARING
THE FACTS
THE PLAYERS
Notes for the Portharbor Planning Commission
Notes for the Portharbor/Neighbortown Alliance for
Clean Water
Notes for the Regional Planning Council
Notes for the Fishermen's Union
Notes for the Development Team
Page
8-8
9-1
9-1
9-2
9-7
9-8
9-9
9-10
9-10
9-11
REFERENCES
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LIST OF FIGURES
Page
1-1. Major Sources of Pollution in Estuaries 1-2
2-1. Major Coastal Habitat Systems 2-2
2-2. Distinguishing Features of Habitats in the Estuarine System 2-4
2-3. Salt Marsh Cross Section 2-8
2-4. Tidal Flat Cross Section 2-10
2-5. Beach and Bar Processes 2-14
3-1. Paths of Water Flow 3-2
3-2. Watersheds 3-3
3-3. Topography of East Pond and Surrounding Land 3-6
3-4. Types of Openings in Selected Water-Bearing Rocks 3-7
3-5. Zones of Saturation and Aeration 3-8
3-6. Perched Water Tables 3-9
3-7. Groundwater - Stream Interactions 3-10
3-8. Water Table Map for Part of Nantucket Island, MA 3-11
3-9. Groundwater Flow Rates 3-12
3-10. Salt Water - Fresh Water Interface 3-14
3-11. Salt Wedge in Estuary 3-15
3-12. Tidal Patterns 3-17
3-13. Occurrence of Tidal Patterns in North and Central
American Waters 3-17
4-1. Cycling of Nitrogen (N) in Marine Environments 4-5
4-2. Phosphorus (P) Cycling in Marine Environments 4-6
4-3. Groundwater Temperatures in the United States 4-10
4-4. Virus Decay Rate as a Function of Temperature 4-10
4-5. On-Site Septic Systems and Plume Generation 4-13
4-6. Sewage Treatment Plant Schematic Diagram 4-20
4-7. Combined Sewer Overflow 4-20
4-8. Contaminant Plumes 4-24
4-9. Movement of Contaminants Through Groundwater 4-27
5-1. Buildout Analysis of a Watershed 5-4
5-2. Nitrogen Loading to Buttermilk Bay Under Existing Conditions 5-7
5-3. Phosphorus Model Sample Spreadsheet 5-10
6-1. Watershed Overlay District 6-3
6-2. Small and Large Lot Zoning in Subdivision 6-4
6-3. Transfer of Development Rights 6-5
6-4. Subdivision Designs 6-6
6-5. Practical Exercise - Boot Bay 6-29
8-1. Buttermilk Bay Locus Map 8-2
8-2. Buttermilk Bay Watershed and Water Table Contours 8-3
Exhibit 1. Fortharbor Base Map and Natural Resources 9-3
Exhibit 2. Portharbor/Neighbortown Zoning Districts 9-4
Exhibits. Watershed to Portharbor Bay 9-5
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LIST OF FIGURES
Exhibit 4. Area of Proposed Development
Page
9-6
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
2-1. Characteristics of Coastal U.S. Regions 2-3
2-2. Distribution of Subclasses Within the Classification
Hierarchy Marine, Estuarine and Riverine (Tidal Only) 2-5
2-3. Productivity Comparisons 2*7
4-1. Representative Runoff Curve Numbers 4-23
5-1. Nitrogen Loading Analysis Parameters 5-5
5-2. Generalized Phosphorus Loading Rates 5-8
5-3. General Phosphorus Indicators for Lakes 5-9
5-4. Nitrogen Loading Limits 5-11
6-1. Comparative Costs of Stormwater Management Techniques 6-10
6-2. Summary of Water Resource Protection Tools 6-19
6-3. Applicability of Management Tools to Resource Threats Matrix 6-24
7-1. Cost-Benefit Comparisons for Local Revenue Sources 7-2
8-1. Buildout Analysis Results 8-3
8-2. Existing Nitrogen Loading 8-4
8-3. Potential Nitrogen Loading 8-4
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This document was prepared by Horsley & Witten, Inc. for the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Wetlands,
Oceans and Watersheds, under Contract No. 68-C1-0032. EPA
would like to thank the many reviewers who offered valuable
comments on earlier drafts of this document.
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SECTION ONE
INTRODUCTION
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SECTION
ONE
INTRODUCTION
In recognition of the importance of coastal resources, and the increasing
pressure being put on these resources as a result of the country's inevitable
growth and development, EPA's Oceans and Coastal Protection Division has
developed this workshop to help local leaders and citizens learn techniques
by which they can protect these valuable resources.
The Resource
Coastal resources range from oceanic waters to beaches to embayments to
estuaries to wetlands. There are 88,000 miles of coastline along the Atlantic,
Gulf, and Pacific coasts of the United States, with 11,000 more miles on the
Great Lakes, and 2,500 miles surrounding Hawaii, Guam, Puerto Rico and the
Trust Territories (US Dept. of Commerce, 1978). The coastal zone is extremely
diverse in terms of physical characteristics such as geology and climate, and in
biological and socio-economic characteristics.
Coastal areas have long been valued as producers of shellfish and finfish, as
shipping ports, as vacation areas with recreational opportunities and pleasant
vistas, as hunting and trapping areas, as repositories of culture and history, as
locations for mining and power generation, and as strategic military sites.
Coastal resources have less obvious, but increasingly important, values as
well. For example, coastal habitats have been found to be important in
erosion control, flood control and prevention of storm damage by retention
of runoff, slowing of runoff flow rates, and attenuation of wave energy; as
pollution attenuation and assimilation areas; and as wildlife habitat
including shellfish and finfish breeding and nursery areas. Many endangered
and threatened species, such as migratory birds and waterfowl, are found in or
use coastal areas. In some parts of the country, they are important
agricultural or silvicultural areas.
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
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The Risks
Because coastal areas have economic, aesthetic, and recreational value to
people, they attract an increasing number of residents and commercial
activities. This shift in population to the coasts has a direct effect on their
natural resources and valued uses. Historically, many large cities originated
in coastal areas, due to marine transportation considerations. New York, San
Francisco, and Boston, among others, were built on coastal waters; their
ambitions of growth and prosperity dependent on water-borne commerce.
Wetland and low-lying areas were not developed in the early days of these
cities, but were left open or used as landfills. Now, with little land available
for further development, wetlands are looked upon as developable, and
skyscrapers draw closer and closer to fragile shorelines. About 110 million
people currently live in coastal areas in the United States. It is estimated that
from 1960 to 2010, the coastal population of the United States will increase by
60 percent (NOAA, 1990). Larger populations, increased infrastructure, and
more vehicles represent increased contamination threats to coastal resources
at the same time that the resources become more and more desirable as open
space and recreational areas (Figure 1-1).
Figure 1-1. Major Sources of Pollution in Estuaries
Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1990
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
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Recent research has demonstrated an additional concern for coastal areas: the
possibility of sea level rise. Increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide
concentration from development worldwide threatens to increase global
temperatures. This warming may melt some polar ice and cause calving of
more icebergs than usual, resulting in a rise in sea level. Such a rise could
inundate many currently developed areas, and is likely to destroy many
coastal wetlands, since they cannot tolerate complete saturation. Under
undeveloped conditions, the wetlands could be expected to migrate landward,
but many adjacent upland areas are covered in pavement or protected by sea
walls. Consequently, a net loss in coastal wetlands has been predicted (US
EPA, 1988).
Not all coastal change is caused by human action. Nature is dynamic; many
coastal habitats represent stages in a long series, and will gradually change
irrespective of human land and water uses. For example, some estuaries may
be considered transient phenomena in geologic time, since natural
sedimentation rates gradually fill them (Peterson, 1984). Similarly, some
wetland vegetation builds up root tangles, diverting water flow, trapping
sediment, and gradually forming higher land, which may eventually become
upland. Habitat succession, to use the ecological term for this type of change,
happens slowly, allowing plant and animal species time to adapt, migrate, or
be replaced by more tolerant species. This natural succession may be in
conflict with human needs and desires for coastal resources.
Anthropogenic habitat change often occurs more quickly than natural change.
There may not be time for plant and animal adaptation, and migration
corridors may be destroyed as part of the development process. In addition,
human-caused changes may augment natural changes, accelerating the
inevitable, or they may cause change in a different direction than the system
might have taken without human action. Like natural changes, human-
induced changes in resource type or quality may be in conflict with goals for
resource use.
Efforts to address problems caused by man-induced changes over the past 20
years have focused primarily on reducing the flow of pollutants to coastal
waters by regulating their discharge from discrete point sources, such as
municipal and industrial outfalls. However, it has become clear that the
traditional approach of focusing solely on the end of a pipe to control sources
of specific contaminants does not ensure the protection or improvement of
coastal water quality. This is true for two reasons. First, pollutants from
nonpoint sources, such as contaminated runoff from agricultural and urban
Coastal Resource Management and Protection 1-3
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areas, account for about half of the total pollutant equation in some coastal
areas. These kinds of pollutant sources frequently do not lend themselves to
the same types of regulatory fixes that have been successful in addressing
point sources. Second, the problems experienced in coastal areas generally
reflect the combined impacts of multiple land and water uses, which continue
to require attention despite the gains experienced relative to the control of
point sources of pollution.
The extent of the problems experienced in coastal areas also depends on the
natural dynamics and uses of the area surrounding the waterbody (i.e., the
watershed). For example, wetlands play a major role in enhancing water
quality through their ability to filter and bind contaminants before they reach
the water column. Therefore, the protection of wetlands is critical not only
for their intrinsic value, but also because of their capacity to reduce water
quality impacts. However, with nearly 50 percent of the U.S. population
currently living in coastal areas, the needs of growing coastal communities
are frequently at odds with the protection of these important resources.
The Response
In an effort to strike a balance between the quality of coastal watersheds and
society's needs, federal, state, and local agencies have begun to take a broader,
more comprehensive view of environmental protection in coastal areas.
This has resulted in a trend toward greater cooperation among these entities
and a focus on the watershed as the fundamental management unit.
Using this "watershed approach," agencies are targeting areas where pollution
poses the greatest risk to human health and /or ecological resources, or where
especially valuable resources which are not yet degraded are under threat. All
parties with a stake in the specific local situation, including government
managers, university scientists, users of the resource, elected officials, and the
public, are invited to participate in the analysis of problems and the creation
of solutions. The management actions that develop out of this approach
draw on the full range of methods and tools available and are integrated in a
coordinated attack on environmental problems, focusing combined
authorities on areas of greatest need.
There are numerous examples of coastal watershed management projects
across the country, ranging from large-scale efforts that address entire
estuaries to small-scale projects that focus on discrete embayments. However,
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
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regardless of the geographic size of the area, the process of watershed
management generally includes four basic components:
* Delineating and targeting the watershed based on comprehensive
selection criteria.
Identifying the problems of the targeted watershed, characterizing the
extent and causes of the problems, and setting priorities for action.
Developing management options to address the priority problems, and
selecting priority management actions.
Implementing the priority actions and monitoring their effectiveness.
The decision to focus on a specific watershed is based on criteria that consider
such factors as the magnitude of ecological and human health risks in the
area, the level of understanding of the area's problems, the range and types of
problems encountered (both environmental and institutional), the likelihood
and extent of improvements that can be made, prospects for preventing
environmental degradation, and the relative value of the watershed to the
public. Once the watershed has been selected for action, scientists and policy
makers agree that there are three general approaches to managing land uses
and natural changes:
Exclusion or outright prohibition of all land and water uses which
could result in water resource quality or quantity decreases. For
example, industries using hazardous materials could be banned in the
coastal zone, or boats without sewage holding tanks forbidden. This
approach is often challenged as inequitable to land owners, not
scientifically justified, and rarely economically or practically feasible.
Inclusion or allowance of all land uses with monitoring, treatment, and
remediation. For example, a paper mill could discharge highly organic
effluent to an estuary tributary, with monthly water quality sampling. If
the biological oxygen demand exceeded a selected standard, the mill
could be required to stop discharge until water quality stabilized.
Remedial fish stocking might occur. This approach has been proven to
be cost ineffective, and it does not meet the objectives of a preventative
water resource protection and management plan.
Coastal Resource Management and Protection 1-5
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, Inclusion of certain land uses with specific performance standards. For
example, marina density might be limited in productive estuaries, and
sewage pump-out facilities required. Specific water quality standards
can be established within the receiving waters and the cumulative
impacts of development assessed as part of the permitting process. This
approach appears to be the most equitable and defensible, amounting to
preventative action for preservation of resource quality and quantity.
Along with these alternatives is the prospect of restoration of habitat quality
and creation of new habitats. Such restoration may compensate for past
resource degradation, or for likely future resource losses, such as the wetland
banking undertaken in a few states, where wetlands are created to compensate
for planned wetland filling. Restoration /creation may add to the resource base
for general or specific purposes; e.g., the planting of eelgrass beds to enhance
scallop habitat.
Selection of management strategies depends on the type of water resources
present, community goals, level of existing development, and technical and
financial wherewithal. Water resource protection is not a one-time effort, but
an ongoing process. Program objectives and needs change with time; available
technology and management strategies also evolve.
The Role of Local Government
Local government is a critical stakeholder in the process of coastal resource
management, playing a role that is defined by four distinct aspects. First, local
officials bring an understanding of the watershed and its problems that is key
to the collaborative management process. Second, their awareness of local
jurisdictions and available authorities provide a foundation for the
development of management strategies. Third, their understanding of public
perceptions and priorities is important for developing support for
management actions that will be implemented. Fourth, once the
management strategy has been developed, local government has responsibility
for many of the management tools that will need to be implemented to
address the problems of the coastal area. These tools are discussed in detail in
this workbook.
The Workshop
This two-day course and workbook are designed to assist the coastal manager
in growth planning and resource management. The course and workbook
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
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begin with an introduction to types of coastal resources (Section Two). Surface
water and ground water hydrology are discussed in Section Three, including
the identification of drainage basins. The curriculum continues with a
discussion of threats to coastal resources, identification of contaminant
sources, and contaminant transport processes and pathways (Section Four). In
Section Five, assessment techniques are considered, and management and
protection tools presented in Section Six. The course and manual also provide
protection plan financing and implementation guidance. To assist in
application of the concepts presented, two case studies and a group exercise are
included.
This workbook is designed to also serve as a reference for coastal protection,
beyond material presented in the two-day course. Consequently, technical
material is included, and not all material may apply to every community or
resource problem. The figures and reference information make the manual
"user-friendly" and the table of contents serves as a convenient index. The
workbook is grounded in science, yet is focused on practical management.
You are urged to ask questions and share experiences and concerns during the
course.
Thank you for your participation!
Coastal Resource Management and Protection 1-7
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SECTION TWO
COASTAL RESOURCE TYPES
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SECTION
TWO
COASTAL RESOURCE TYPES
As mentioned in the Introduction (Section One), there are many different types
of coastal resources: estuaries, beaches, wetlands, open water, etc. Each has its
own assimilative capacity for natural and human impacts. For example, a salt
marsh creek typically can withstand greater inputs of nitrogen than can a poorly-
flushed salt pond. Each resource area is best protected by specific management
strategies. Consequently, it is important to identify, or characterize, the type of
resource(s) present in the community. This section provides an introduction to
various coastal resource types, and provides guidance for resource
characterization. Not all of the habitats described in this section will be found in
a given community.
Classification of Water Resources
In general, near coastal waters and wetlands are areas where water is the primary
factor controlling the environment and the associated plant and animal life
(Niering, 1985). Scientists recognize five major water resource systems: marine,
estuarine, lacustrine, riverine, and palustrine. This section addresses marine
and estuarine systems, and riverine systems to the extent that those systems are
tidally influenced. Table 2-1 presents characteristics of some U. S. coastal regions.
Figure 2-1 shows major coastal wetland habitat systems.
A formal definition of wetlands continues to elude wetland scientists, managers
and regulators.
Wetlands definitions typically contain three parameters: standing or flowing water
(hydrology), hydric soils (soils containing unique conditions different from those in
upland conditions) and vegetation typically adapted to wet conditions (hydrophytic
vegetation). Legal definitions differ between states, and continue to evolve
between federal agencies.
Coastal Resource Management and Protection 2-1
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UPLAND
Upstream Limit
of Saltwater
*.*«1 Estuarine System
Riverine System
Rocky Shore
-.: -:| Intertldal Beach
Tidal Fiat
aT-yd Emergent Wetland
1 Forested Wetland
Figure 2-1. Major Coastal Habitat Systems
Source: Tiner, 1984
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
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Table 2-1. Characteristics of Coastal U. S. Regions
Coastal Region
Gulf of Maine
Middle Atlantic
South Atlantic
Caribbean
Shoreline Features
Rocky, embayed by
drowned river valleys;
fjords
Smooth coast, embayed by
drowned river valleys and
lagoons
Smooth, low lying, marshy;
many lagoons
Irregular, mangrove
swamps, coral reefs
Continental Shelf
Rocky, irregular,
250-400 km wide
Smoothly sloping,
90-150 km wide
Smoothly sloping,
50-100 km wide
East side 5-15 km
wide; west side 300
km wide
Boundary Current
Labrador
Gulf Stream
Gulf Stream
Gulf Stream
Gulf of Mexico
Pacific Southwest
Pacific Northwest
Southeast Alaska
Hawaiian
Smooth, low lying, barrier
islands, marshes, lagoons
Mountainous, few
embayments
Mountainous, few
embayments, some fjords
Mountainous, many
embayments and fjords
Mountainous, few rivers,
few embayments
Smoothly sloping,
100-240 km wide
Irregular, rugged
average 15 km wide
Irregular (Oregon) to
smoothly sloping
(Washington), 15-60
km wide
Seasonally
variable
California
California
Rocky and irregular Alaska
in places, 50-250 km wide
None
None
Source: U. S. Department of the Interior, 1970, National Estuarine Pollution Study, in Gross, 1982
Depending on one's training, education, interest, or objective, one can develop
definitions that reflect the influence of geologists, soil scientists, biologists,
ecologists, economists, or politicians.
In 1979, the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service established a hierarchical habitat
classification system in response to a need to develop sound ecological information
with which to make decisions regarding policy, planning, and management of the
country's water resources. This classification system was presented in a Fish and
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
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Wildlife Service publication entitled Classification of Wetlands and Deepwater
Habitats of the United States (Cowardin et alv 1979). Figure 2-2 illustrates the
distinguishing features of the Estuarine System and is taken from Cowardin et al.
Table 2-2 presents the distribution of the Fish and Wildlife Service subclasses
within Estuarine and Marine Systems and Riverine Systems where they are tidally
influenced. While planning purposes may not require such detailed identification
of resource types, the classification system provides a useful framework for
reference and for this introduction to habitats.
I
Irregularly Flooded
I 111 Irregularly Exposed
I.'»'.'.'.''I Regularly Flooded Ksr5J52«a Subtldal
EHWS s Extreme High Wator of Spring Tide* ELWS s Extreme Low Water of Spring Tides
Figure 2-2. Distinguishing Features of Habitats in the Estuarine System
Source: Cowardin et al., 1979
Coastal Resource Management and Protection 2-4
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Marine, Estuarine and Riverine (Tidal Only)
Svstem and Subsystem
Marine
Subtidal intertidal
Qass/SnhHa
-------
System and Subsystem
Marine
Eshiarine
Subtidal Intertidal
Subtidal Intertidal
Class/Subclass
Riverine
Tidal
Emergent Wetland
Persistent
Nonpersistent
Scrub-Shrub Wetland
Broad-leaved Deciduous
Needle-leaved Deciduous
Broad-leaved Evergreen
Needle-leaved Evergreen
Dead
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Source: Cowardin et al., 1979
Estuarine Habitats
The Estuarine System includes coastal wetlands such as salt and brackish tidal
marshes, mangrove swamps, and intertidal flats, as well as deepwater bays, sounds
and coastal rivers (Tiner, 1984). Cowardin et al. (1979) define the Estuarine System
as consisting of deepwater tidal habitats and adjacent tidal wetlands that are usually
semi-enclosed by land but have open, partly obstructed, or sporadic access to the
open ocean, and in which ocean water is at least occasionally diluted by freshwater
runoff from the land. This system is strongly influenced by its association with
land versus its association with the Marine System.
Cowardin et al. (1979) describe the Estuarine System as being comprised of estuaries
and lagoons. Lagoons are shallow estuarine systems, but unlike estuaries, lagoons
are areas where the flow of water to and from the ocean is restricted by a barrier
beach offshore. The two subsystems associated with the Estuarine System are
Subtidal and Intertidal. Cowardin et al. define the Subtidal Subsystem as those
areas where the substraite is continuously submerged. The Intertidal Subsystem is
an area where the substrate is alternately exposed and flooded by tides and includes
the associated splash zone (or area which is wet only by splashes from waves and
not by tides).
Estuaries formed as a result of sea level changes since the last period of glariation
resulting in coastal submergence of ancient river valleys. On the west coast of the
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
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United States, tectonic activity also influences the formation of different types of
estuaries. In general, estuaries are mixing areas, where rivers meet oceans. They
can be extremely productive, as compared to other habitats, as is shown in Table 2-
3. Estuaries are important habitats for many commercial fish stocks including pink
shrimp, striped and channel bass, bluefish, mackerel, croaker, and menhaden (U.S.
Department of Commerce, 1978). Estuaries are found along the entire United States
coastline, and may be small or large, such as Chesapeake Bay and Puget Sound.
Table 2-3. Productivity Comparisons
System
Estuaries
Open Ocean
Continental Shelf
Lakes and Streams
Cultivated Land
'Productivity (Grams Per Square
Meter Per Year)
1,500
125
360
400
650
* Net primary production as dry matter
Source: Whitaker and Likens, 1975
The following text provides a description of several of the more common types of
estuarine water resources, including: tidal salt marsh, tidal freshwater marsh,
mangrove swamp, tidal flat, aquatic bed, fjord, and tidal rivers and streams.
Tidal Salt Marsh
Tidal salt marshes are low-lying coastal wetlands consisting primarily of
Spartina grasses (saltmarsh cordgrass and saltmeadow cordgrass) in the low
intertidal zone and Juncus (rushes) in the upper intertidal zone (Figure 2-3).
Salt marshes tend to develop in quiet, protected coastal areas and to build up
extensive peat layers. They may be dissected by streams and may include
ponds. Plants and animals in salt marshes have adapted to the stresses of
salinity, periodic inundation, and extremes in temperature. Salt marshes are
most prevalent in the United States along the Atlantic Coast from Maine to
Florida and continuing on to Louisiana and Texas along the Gulf of Mexico.
They are also found in narrow belts on the West Coast and along much of the
coastline of Alaska (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1986).
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EstuarbmOpsnWatsr
ImgutoilyFlocKtedMarah
Storm Tide
_DajlyHloJi TJde_
Dally Low Tide
smooth cordgrass
'
saltmarshsster
smooth .oordgrass (short)
Figure 2-3. Salt Marsh Cross Section
Source: Tiner, 1984
Salt marshes are important in trapping and stabilizing inorganic sediments as
well as in producing the organic matter mat forms the marsh peat. Salt
marshes are recognized for their value in exporting organic matter and
nutrients to coastal waters, and as nursery and habitat areas for fish, shellfish,
and other animals.
Tidal Freshwater Marsh
Tidal freshwater marshes are found somewhat further inland than salt
marshes, but close enough to the coast to be tidally influenced. They are
characterized by near freshwater conditions, plant and animal communities
dominated by freshwater species, and a daily, lunar tidal fluctuation (Odum et
al., 1984). These wetlands are found primarily along the middle and south
Atlantic coasts and along the coasts of Louisiana and Texas.
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They are dominated by a variety of grasses and by annual and perennial broad-
leaved aquatic plants (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1986). The biomass and primary
production of tidal freshwater marshes have been reported to be very high
(Odum et aL, 1984). Tidal freshwater marshes are different in appearance from
salt marshes since the plant diversity is much higher. Odum (1984) describes
tidal freshwater marshes as follows: "One of the most striking features of the
tidal freshwater marsh is the pronounced seasonal sequence of vegetation.
The low marsh undergoes particularly extreme changes. There is a period of
virtually bare mud in late winter and early spring. Then mere is a period of
domination by broad-leaved plants (e.g. arrow-arum) in the late spring, and
finally in late summer there is a period dominated by grasses and herbaceous
plants."
Mangrove Swamp
Mangrove swamps develop in subtropical and tropical regions, primarily in
Florida and portions of Louisiana and Texas in the United States. They are
dominated by mangroves (Rhizophora sp. and Avicennia sp.) and
buttonwoods (Bruguiera sp.), with extensive root systems that grow out over
the water. Their ecological role is very similar to that of a salt marsh. As in
salt marshes, mangrove swamps show distinct floral zonation as one
progresses inland (Goldman and Home, 1983). Mangroves grow rapidly and
support large communities of attached animals and plants on their root
systems. The tangle of roots traps sediments, gradually building up the swamp
area which provides shelter for numerous wildlife species, and is an ideal
rearing area for juvenile fish, shellfish, and reptiles.
Tidal Hat/Mud Flat
Intertidal sand and mud flats are soft to semi-soft substrate, shallow water
habitats (Figure 2-4). Tidal flats are found along the entire United States
coastline. Tidal flats develop as depositional features (e.g. deltas) expand.
Organisms that inhabit tidal flats rely on organic materials imported from
adjacent coastal, estuarine, riverine and salt marsh habitats. Many species of
fish migrate over tidal flats with the incoming tides to feed on the organisms
found on and in the sediments (Whitiatch, 1982). Despite their lack of
vegetation, tidal flats are recognized for their high productivity which is
attributed to the diverse variety of primary food types (e.g. benthic microalgae,
phytoplankton, imported particulate organic materials) that are available to
the organisms of the flat (Whitiatch, 1982).
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Figure 2-4. Tidal Hat
Source: Whitlatch, 1982
Aquatic Bed
Aquatic beds are wetlands and deepwater habitats dominated by plants that
grow principally on or below the surface of the water for most of the growing
season in most years (Cowardin et al, 1979). They can be dominated by algal
beds, moss, or by rooted vascular plants/ although aquatic mosses are not as
common as algae or vascular plants. Aquatic beds are found in all United
States coastaline areas, but the dominant plant species varies with location.
For example, algae beds are well developed along the rocky northeast and west
coast areas, while submerged, vascular plant beds are more common in the
tropical and subtropical areas of Florida and the Gulf Coast. Algal beds are
found both within the Estuarine System and the Marine System (see below).
The most common coastal vascular plant species in aquatic beds along the
temperate North American coast are shoalgrass (Halodule), surf grass
(Phyllospadix), widgeon grass (Ruppia), and eelgrass (Zostera).
Fjords and fjordlike estuaries are located in areas that have been deeply eroded
by glacial activity and have subsequently been inundated by rising coastal
waters. Glaciers moving down mountain valleys carved gorges hundreds of
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meters deep and often deposited boulders and day at the mouths of the
valleys. The glacial debris left at the mouths of the ancient river valleys forms
an underwater sill at the entrance to many fjords. The sill acts to restrict
movement of bottom waters. In the United States, fjords and fjordlike
estuaries are located in New England and along the Pacific coast from the
Strait of Juan de Fuca (Washington) northward into Canada and Alaska
(Gross, 1982).
Tidal River and Stream
Tidal rivers and streams are distinguished from inland rivers by tidal water
elevation changes, which may extend a considerable distance upriver, and
which may move upriver with high energy, such as the Bay of Fundy "tidal
bore". The velocity of tidal entry and exit may be sufficient to restrict the
growth of attached plant species and animal populations. Tidal changes may
or may not be symmetric: some tidal streams are flood or ebb-dominated, with
elevation changes requiring different time periods to rise versus fall. Tidal
rivers and streams are found along all United States coastlines.
Marine Habitats
The Marine System, as defined by Cowardin, et al. (1979), consists of the open ocean
overlying the continental shelf and its high-energy coastline. The Marine System
extends from the outer edge of the continental shelf shoreward to one of three
lines: 1) the landward limit of tidal inundation; 2) the seaward limit of wetland
emergents, trees, or shrubs; or 3) the seaward limit of the Estuarine System.
As with the Estuarine System, Cowardin et al. have re-established two subsystems:
the Subtidal Subsystem where the substrate is continuously submerged, and the
Intertidal Subsystem where the substrate is alternately exposed and flooded.
Some of the more common marine environments including reefs, rocky intertidal
zones, beaches, bars and dunes are discussed below.
Reef
Reefs are ridge-like or mound-like structures formed by the colonization and
growth of sedentary invertebrates. They are characterized by a raised elevation
above the surrounding substrate and resulting interference with normal water
flow. Cowardin et al. (1979) have identified three types of reefs: Coral
(predominantly within the Marine System), Mollusk (within the Estuarine
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System) and Worm (in both the Marine and Estuarine Systems). Corals,
oysters, and tube worms are the most visible organisms and are mainly
responsible for reef formation, however, other mullusks, foraminifera,
coralline algae, and other forms of life also contribute to reef growth.
Coral reefs are common in tropical and subtropical coasts, such as southern
Florida, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands, where there are no rivers
to bring large amounts of sediment to the ocean. Additionally, the ocean
waters must be warmer than 18°C throughout the year (Gross, 1982). Coral
reefs are carbonate structures built of coral skeletons bound together by
calcareous algae. Carbonate sediment collects in the open structure of the reef
forming a solid carbonate mass. The dominant coral types include Parties,
Acropora, and Montipora (Cowardin et al., 1979). The ecosystems associated
with a coral reef are very productive and are highly diversified.
Mollusk reefs, found on the Pacific, Atlantic, and Gulf Coasts, as well as in
Hawaii and the Caribbean, are controlled in their distribution by variations in
water level, salinity, and temperature. Worm reefs are constructed by large
colonies of Sabellarud worms living in tubes constructed from cemented sand,
grains. They are generally confined to tropical waters of Florida, Puerto Rice,
and the Virgin Islands.
Rocky Intertidal Shore
Rocky intertidal shores, found primarily along the northeastern and
northwestern coasts,, including Alaska, are high-energy habitats which are
subject to continuous erosion by wind-driven waves or strong currents.
Therefore, the ability to attach firmly to the shore is critical for plants and
animals using this habitat. Intertidal areas range from being rarely inundated
at the extreme high tide level to being almost continuously submerged at the
extreme low tide level.
Barnacles and limpets (snails) are most successful in the upper, more exposed
portion of these shores, whereas lower in the intertidal zone, tube worms and
sea anemones compete with the barnacles. Cowardin et al. (1979) describe the
uppermost area as the littorina-lichen zone which is dominated by
periwinkles (Littorina and Nerita) and lichens. Below this zone, limpets such
as Acmaea and Siphonaria replace the periwinkles. The limpet band roughly
corresponds with the upper limit of the regularly flooded intertidal zone. The
next lower zone is dominated by mollusks, green algae, and barnacles of the
balanoid group. Cowardin et al. describe this lower zone as the balanoid
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As one progresses closer to the low tide mark, dense mussel beds may be
common. The most populous portion of a rocky beach is below the low tide
level, where starfish, crabs, sea anemones, snails, sea urchins and sea
cucumbers may grow (Gross, 1982).
In more protected environments (e.g. tidal pools), a variety of specialized
animals and plants may establish themselves. While the protected
environment allows colonization by more delicate and diverse populations,
the residents must be able to withstand extremes since tidal pools are subject to
wide environmental fluctuations. Evaporation, overheating, and oxygen
depletion can occur as readily as exposure to heavy rains, which lower salinity
and raise oxygen levels.
Beach, Bar, and Dune
Beaches, bars, and dunes fall within the unconsolidated shore class. These
shores are described as having the following characteristics: unconsolidated
substrates with less than 75% areal cover of stones, boulders, or bedrock; less
than 30% areal cover of vegetation other than pioneering plants; and any of
the following water regimes: irregularly exposed, regularly flooded,
irregularly flooded, saturated, or artificially flooded (Gowardin et al., 1979).
Differing patterns of erosion and deposition by waves and currents produce
the various types of these coastal wetlands types. Excellent examples of beach,
bar, and dune habitats can be found along the Gulf Coast (especially Hordia
and Texas (and the Coastal Barrier Islands along the south and mid-Atlantic
Coast.
Beaches can be formed of cobble and gravel size materials, infilled with shell
fragments, sand and silt, or they can be formed of calcareous or land-derived
sands. The dominant animals on a cobble-gravel beach are barnacles, limpets,
periwinkles and mussels. The dominant animals on a sand beach include
wedge shells, soft-shell clam, quahogs, beach hoppers and crabs (Cowardin et
al., 1979).
Sediment bars are found offshore, and move with wave action, often with a
pronounced seasonal variation. In summer, there typically is a relatively
steep berm and few bars. In winter, a storm profile develops, with a sharp
eroded scarp landward of a flat beach and parallel bars offshore (Komar, 1976).
These bars migrate toward shore through the summer, to reform the berm,
and sometimes, dune areas.
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well (summer)
profile
Figure 2-5. Beach and Bar Processes
Source: Komar, 1976
Dunes are found landward of beaches, and may or may not be vegetated.
Some dunes migrate with wind action/ and have even moved so far as to bury
towns, albeit slowly (e.g. the Town of Singapore, Michigan).
Dunes, bars, and beaches are important in flood control and storm damage
prevention. Coastal engineering structures such as groins, jetties, revetments,
and sea walls are occasionally installed to replace or augment natural wave
barriers. These structures tend to disrupt wave actions and sediment transport
patterns, and may do more harm than good. Natural water level changes,
such as those in the Great Lakes in the past two decades, and projected sea .
level changes may result in loss of beach, bar, and dune habitat.
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SECTION THREE
HYDROLOGY: WATER LOCATION
AND MOVEMENT
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SECTION
THREE
HYDROLOGY: WATER LOCATION AND MOVEMENT
According to Dunne and Leopold (1978), "The paths taken by water determine
many of the characteristics of a landscape, the generation of storm runoff, the
uses to which land may be put, and the strategies required for wise land
management." When precipitation reaches the land, it has three possible paths
to ultimate discharge in the oceans (Dunne and Leopold, 1978; Figure 3-1):
Path 1: The water may flow over the land surface, without infiltrating.
The extent of overland flow is a function of ground cover, i.e. type
and extent of vegetation or impervious surface, soil type, climate,
and water quantity and velocity.
Path 2: The water may infiltrate to groundwater, flow toward and,
ultimately, discharge to coastal waters. The extent of infiltration is
a function of local conditions.
Path 3: The water may move as "interflow", i.e. in the subsurface, above
the normal groundwater system, in what amounts to a temporary,
storm or melt induced groundwater system. Local conditions
dictate the amount and likelihood of interflow.
Water may move between these three pathways, and it may also return to the
atmosphere, via evaporation or transpiration by vegetation. The water
movement process is driven by natural forces as well as being affected by
human actions. Water moving in any of the pathways can affect coastal
resources, both by its quantity and by its quality. Consequently, both surface
water and groundwater must be considered in coastal resource protection. This
section discusses water movement over land, through the subsurface, and in
embay ments.
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According to EPA definition (Office of Water, 1991), a watershed is a
"geographic area in which water, sediments, and dissolved materials drain to a
common outleta point on a larger stream, a lake, an underlying aquifer, an
estuary, or an ocean".
Precipitation
Overland Flow
[2J Groundwater Ftow
(3] Shallow Subsurface Stormflow
Figure 3-1. Paths of Water How
Source: Dunne and Leopold, 1978
A watershed includes two components:
The surface drainage basin, or the land area from which all surface
water flows drain toward a surface waterbody at a lower elevation (Le.
water following Path 1, above)
* The groundwater drainage basin, or the land area and associated
subsurface through which groundwater drains to a surface waterbody
at a lower elevation (i.e. water following Paths 2 or 3, above).
The surface drainage basin may be much larger, or much smaller than the
groundwater drainage basin, depending on local conditions.
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Surface water and groundwater are discussed in the following sections.
Surface Water
Geology, along with climate, determines where and in what quantity water will
be found in a region. Thus the geology and topography are used to determine
watersheds. For example, the Continental Divide (Rocky Mountains) serves as
a major watershed divide for North America.
Watersheds come in different sizes, and local watersheds are subsets of larger,
regional ones. For example, the watershed to a small tributary is a
subwatershed of the watershed to a larger river, which in turn is part of a larger
watershed (Figure 3-2).
WATERSHED TO
RIVER C
% WATERSHEDTO %
\ STREAM A..*.-V
Figure 3-2. Watersheds
Source: Horsley & Witten, Inc., 1992
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' Management of a water resource may require analysis on a watershed-wide
basis, or it may require separate analyses for each subwatershed, depending on
the size and type of resource and the nature of the problem. Watersheds are a
useful planning and management unit, and are used as such by federal agencies
such as the US Geological Survey and the US Forest Service. As a planning
unit, watersheds may be less useful to a local government, because municipal
boundaries are unlikely to match watershed ones. However, it is important to
consider the watershed as a unit because pollution anywhere in that unit may
impact the resource.
Surface water may move through a watershed in diffuse "sheet flow", in
shallow, concentrated rivulets, in open channels, or in a combination of these
types. Sheet flow usually becomes concentrated into rivulets after 300 feet.
The rivulets then concentrate into channels (USDA Soil Conservation Service,
1986).
The extent of land area over which runoff may flow directly, without
infiltrating, into an embayment, coastal wetland, or open ocean, will depend
partly on the ground cover and roughness. Impervious surfaces, such as
pavement, rock, or day, typically convey more runoff than pervious surfaces
such as lawn, field, or woods. Channelized streams, where flow is directed in
paved ditches, convey runoff without infiltration and frequently at high
speeds.
Steep slopes retard infiltration, as does compaction of soil. Steep slopes also
increase the velocity of runoff. In steep, barren areas, runoff may flow at speeds
rapid enough to cause erosion. In these areas, runoff may also be rapidly
concentrated into the sudden high flows known as flash floods.
The term "time of concentration" is used to describe the time needed for runoff
to move from the hydraulically most distant part of a watershed to a point of
interest. This time is decreased by such factors, mentioned above, as steep
slopes, impervious surfaces (pavement), and smooth ground covers (USDA
Soil Conservation Service, 1986).
Watershed Delineation Exercise
A watershed is delineated on the basis of topography. Working with a
topographic map with appropriate scale, the following two rules are used to
determine watershed boundaries:
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1).. Draw watershed boundaries perpendicular to land topographic contour
lines. The contour lines are lines of equal land surface elevation. For
example, the 20-foot contour represents all points on the land surface
with an elevation of 20 feet above mean sea level (MSL). Water flows
downhill, at right angles, or perpindicular to the contour lines.
Watershed boundaries are also perpendicular to contour lines as they
are the divide between water moving toward and away from the
surface water body of intersect.
2) At the tops of hills, draw watershed boundaries through the center of
contour saddles and dosed contour loops.
Flow direction for valley contours (v-shaped) is from the base to the wide
opening of the contour Vs.
Perhaps the simplest way to delineate the watershed is to scrutinize the
topographic map for the area of interest, starting at the water resource and
working outwards, imagining the path a falling raindrop would take. The
watershed is then the sum of possible paths that a raindrop could take to
reach the water resource over the land surface.
On the topographic map shown on the following page (Figure 3-3), complete
the delineation of the watershed to East Pond, located on Tuckernuck Island,
a small island that is part of the Town of Nantucket and located between
Nantucket Island and Martha's Vineyard, off the south coast of
Massachusetts. Use the rules discussed above to draw the divide. Start at one
of the two starting points at the edge of East Pond as shown on Figure 3-3.
Groundwater
Groundwater is water that saturates geologic or soil formations in the
subsurface environment. Groundwater may be stored in pore spaces in
unconsolidated sedimentary deposits (such as sand and gravel), in solution
channels in carbonate rocks, in lava tubes or cooling fractures in extrusive
igneous rocks, and in fractures in intrusive igneous rocks (Figure 3-4).
The portion of the subsurface which is saturated with groundwater is known
as the zone of saturation (Figure 3-5). The top of the zone of saturation (at
atmospheric pressure) is the water table (or the phreatic surface). The soils
above the water table are known as the zone of aeration or the unsaturated
zone.
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Figure 3-3. Topography of Tuckernuck Island
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, 1972
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3 milllm«ter»
Pores In unconsolidaiad
sedimentary deposits
Rubbto zone and cootoiy fractures
In ertuswe Igneous racks
Caverns in Imesteme
nddotomite
FneUrwbiMiisiw
Igneous nxks
Figure 3-4. Types of Openings in Selected Water-Bearing Rocks
Source: United States Geological Survey, 1984
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water
film sand
grain
ZONE
OF
AERATION
.^i-r. ..-*-.'!- iv^f ?.::..---.
-{WATER TABLE]-?-
«»>**~ * f-A'* ^ > ;*' ^> f'- *.
'
ZONE
OF
SATURATION
Figure 3-5. Zones of Saturation and Aeration
Source: Strahler, 1972
Water table elevations fluctuate. Typically, seasonal highs are found in the
winter or spring months following recharge during the winter from rains and
snowmelt. In winter or early spring, when plants are not yet taking up much
water, the water table may rise. Throughout the summer months water
tables commonly decline due to evaporation, uptake by plants (transpiration),
and withdrawals by man for public water supplies, and irrigation of
agricultural crops and lawns.
Water tables are affected year-round by withdrawals for commercial,
industrial, and residential water use. Water table elevations commonly reach
their lowest point in the early fall.
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A perched water table occurs when infiltrating water is trapped by a low
permeability-layer such as day or silt and is held above and separate from the
regional groundwater system (Figure 3-6). Perched water tables may result in
wetland or pond formation. If impermeable layers causing the perched water
table are damaged (such as by the installation of a septic system), the surface
water features may be altered. Water in interflow (Figure 3-1) is temporarily
perched.
The source of groundwater is recharge from precipitation or surface water
that percolates downward. Depending on local conditions, approximately 5%
- 50% of the annual precipitation commonly results in ground-water
recharge. Recharge rates in permeable sands and gravels can be expected to
approach 50% of annual precipitation, whereas recharge in less permeable
silts and days are expected to be considerably lower with a larger percentage of
the precipitation resulting in surface runoff.
land surface
perched water table
.-,; .y; '..-.]! m perm eab le strata!.': ',.
'
** - *-* ***
4* » * * ^ «' rt.
ffiW^Ky^^^-TJ^
Figure 3-6. Perched Water Tables
Source: Horsley & Witten, Inc. 1988
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In some areas "losing" streams contribute recharge through stream bed
infiltration. In other areas "gaining" streams derive their baseflow from
groundwater discharging to the stream (Figure 3-7). Artificial sources of
recharge include sewage discharges and road runoff which may be imported
into the natural drainage basin.
« « 7*^^ **».»*.*. '" »
'.'".«. \H T. J»'.'. .'.* .»'-*. .»'."
» . « I. I !« » - * -
*. . -» * - « -«-. A *~ ', '_ s ' IMPERIJg^BLE- , ' \ ^ ' ^
Losing Stream
Figure 3-7. Groundwater - Stream Interactions
Source: Horsley & Witten, Inc., 1988
Groundwater Movement
The top elevation of the water table can be measured with the installation
of monitoring wells. Water levels in the wells are measured relative to a
surveyed measuring point at the top of the well casing. These elevations
can be evaluated to produce a water table map which will show the slope
of the water table (Figure 3-8). The water table map is a series of contours
of equal elevation that looks very much like a land topographic map.
Groundwater flows perpendicular to the water table contours and moves
to areas of lower water table elevations.
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The velocity of water in streams is commonly measured in the range of
feet per second, about 50,000 times faster than groundwater in sand. The
rate of groundwater flow through the intergranular pores of sand is
commonly measured in feet per day, while it may seep along at hundreds
or thousands of times slower in deep bedrock or other poorly-permeable
materials. Generally, the deeper the groundwater flow goes into the earth,
the slower its velocity. The tremendous amount of surface friction
between the water and the surface of rock grains or fractures causes the
flow to be so very slow.
water table
elevation contour, ft.
\drection of ground
water flow
Figure 3-8. Water Table Map for Part of Nantucket Island, MA
Source: U. S. Geological Survey, 1972, and Horsley &
Witten, Inc., 1990.
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Heath (1983) describes groundwater flow along progressively deeper
pathways as requiring years in the shallow zones, to millennia in the
deepest zones (Figure 3-9), and varies tremendously from a few feet per
year (in low-permeability deposits such as silt/day) to a few feet per day (in
permeable sand and gravel).
WATER
TABLE
DIVIDE
RECHARGE AREA
DISCHARGE
AREA
+JL*.
Figure 3-9. Groundwater Flow Rates
Source: Heath, 1983
Groundwater-Surfacc Watey Interactions
Groundwater to Fresh Surface Water
Fresh groundwater moves downward in response to gravity to discharge
at lower levels in springs, fresh wetlands, streams, ponds, lakes, salt
marshes, bays, estuaries and the oceans. Circulation of groundwater
through the earth from the areas of recharge to ultimate return to sea
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level is driven by the force of gravity and derives its energy from the
solar driven processes of evaporation and precipitation.
Groundwater flows follow various, most efficient paths to dissipate their
potential energy, ultimately arriving back at sea level. Local or shallow
groundwater flow systems discharge to the closest, faster route back to sea
level, usually streams. More regional (medium depth) transport is to
major river systems, and continental (deepest) transport is to the ocean
shores.
Since groundwater and fresh surface water are usually not too dissimilar
chemically, contaminants carried in groundwater are generally passed on
into fresh surface water, and there are no abrupt changes at the interface.
Groundwater to Saline Surface Water
Groundwater discharge to salt water bodies is somewhat complicated by
the presence of salt water in the pores of earth materials near the shores.
The relation between fresh groundwater and saline groundwater is
controlled largely by their differences in density. The density of fresh
water is 1.00 gram per cubic centimeter (g/cm3) and of sea water is 1.025
g/cm3), making sea water l/40th more dense than fresh water. Because of
this difference in densities, fresh groundwater tends to "float" on
underlying saline groundwater near the shore, and a salt water wedge may
extend beneath the shore (Figure 3-10).
The boundary between the fresh and salt water is commonly not a sharp
demarcation, but is a diffuse transition zone a few tens of feet thick in which
groundwater flow is parallel to the zone rather than across it. When fresh
and saline waters meet, there is frequently a disruption of chemical
equilibrium. For example, salt water is alkaline, while groundwater and
fresh surface water may be neutral or acidic. Compounds and elements,
such as metals, which dissolve in acidic solutions but not in alkaline (basic)
solutions, will precipitate out at the fresh-salt interface. Saline surface water
may also be richer in dissolved oxygen than fresh water, particularly in the
case of fresh groundwater. Consequently, there is a change in dissolved
oxygen levels at the interface. This change may also affect dissolved
substances, causing precipitation of those which require a reducing (low
oxygen) solution to remain dissolved.
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Figure 3-10. Salt Water - Fresh Water Interface
Source: Todd, 1989
Although there are temperature and density differences at the salt water-
fresh water interface, these differences have little effect on the dissolved
substances. The precipitation of inorganic particles occurs continually at
the interface and is referred to as "salting out" (Goldman & Home, 1983).
Organic particles frequently move out of solution or suspension at die
same time, because they adsorb to the inorganic precipitate particles.
Fresh Surface Water to Saline Surface Water
Fresh surface water discharges into saline surface water in marshes, rivers,
bays and estuaries, and occasionally as diffuse overland runoff. Although
turbulent flow in surface water bodies and wave action tend to mix the
waters, the mixing process can become very complicated by tidal fluxes and
retarded by differences in density between the fresh and saline water. At
many river mouths and in estuaries, water can be observed moving both
upstream and downstream at the same time in different parts of the
mixing water bodies. In the Hudson River, New York, estuary, tidal fluxes
are transmitted over 100 miles inland to Albany, and a salt water wedge
moves up the river about 50 miles to near Newburgh.
Tides, wind, and river or stream inputs also affect mixing and circulation.
For example, movement of tides up an estuary can be slowed by friction
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and fresh water inputs, but may also be reflected back from estuary sides to
complicate circulation. Size and shape are an important factors in water
movement in estuaries (Fig. 3-11).
Figure 3-11. Salt Wedge in Estuary
Source: Gross, 1982
The mixing of waters of significantly different physical and chemical
properties in these transition areas causes changes in transport processes
and creates special conditions for marine life support and reproduction.
The introduction of nutrient-rich water is one factor in the high
productivity of estuaries.
Water Movement in Embayments
In coastal areas, tides are the most obvious type of water movement. Tides, or
vertical rises and falls in water elevation, occur in three general patterns in US
coastal waters:
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diurnal, or one high and low tide per tidal day;
semi-diurnal, or two high and two low tides per tidal day, where the
highs are approximately equal in range, and the lows approximately
equal;
and mixed tides, where there is one "high high tide", one "low high
tide", one "low low tide", and one "high low tide" per tidal day (Rgures
3-12 and 3-13).
Since a tidal day is 24 hours and 50 minutes, tide patterns shift daily (Gross,
1982).
Tides may have associated tidal currents, or horizontal water movements,
referred to as ebb and flood currents. Not all coasts have these currents, and
some coasts may have the currents without a change in water elevation. Tidal
patterns may be altered by wind, such as with a storm, and by runoff. In
general, tidal currents are the strongest currents in coastal regions, while other
currents may have more effect in off-shore areas (Gross, 1982).
Embayments (indentations in shorelines), including estuaries, generally are
partly isolated from, and more shallow than the open ocean. They are
influenced by proximity to land, and circulation patterns become more
complicated than those in the open ocean. Water temperature and salinity
changes, due to shallowness and land-based inputs, cause density differences
which result in localized mixing.
Hydraulic Flushing
Tides serve to flush out contaminants in many estuaries, and a rapid-flushing
estuary can potentially assimilate more anthropogenic pollution than a slow-
flushing estuary. Flushing rate, or retention time (the inverse), should
therefore be calculated as part of coastal protection efforts. Flushing may be
determined by calculations or by modelling, which requires more data and time
than the calculations. Calculations provide an estimate, accurate enough for
many planning purposes.
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24 hours
DAILY
24 hours
24 hours
SEMI-DAILY
MIXED
-Low Water 0- High Water
Figure 3-12. Tidal Patterns
Source: Gross, 1982
2JS
PACIFIC
OCEAN
Dally Tld. ,_,
MhcadTlde
Spring TO* Rang* In Mcten
Figure 3-13. Occurrence of Tidal Patterns in North and Central American Waters
Source: Gross, 1982
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Two calculation methods for hydraulic flushing are the tidal prism and fraction
of fresh water methods. The tidal prism method, which estimates the flushing
time based on the volume change between high and low tide, is the simplest
method but tends to overestimate flushing (Dyer, 1973). The fraction of fresh
water approach may provide a more accurate estimate of flushing than the tidal
prism method.
Tidal Prism Approach
To calculate flushing using the tidal prism approach, the following
equation is applied (Dyer, 1973):
where
T
V
P
flushing rate in tidal cycles
low tide volume
intertidal volume or
tidal prism.
Low tide volume and tidal prism are calculated from physical
measurements of the size and shape of the estuary or stream. In salt
marsh creeks or other systems that drain nearly completely, low tide
volume may be assumed to be zero.
Fraction of Fresh Water Approach
To calculate flushing using the fraction of fresh water approach, the
following equations are applied (Pilson, 1985):
Vf/Fw*86400
where
and
Vc(l-Sc/Sb)
where
T
Vf
Fw
86,400
Vc
Sc
Sb
flushing rate in days
volume freshwater in cubic feet
freshwater input in cubic
feet/second
number of seconds/day
volume of waterbody at
mean tide in cubic feet
mean salinity in waterbody
in parts per thousand
salinity in ocean in parts
per thousand.
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The freshwater input, Fw, is a function of precipitation, groundwater
discharges, and surface sources. Recharge calculated for a nitrogen loading
analysis (Section Five) may be used as the total freshwater input, since this
analysis incorporates both precipitation and groundwater discharges (e.g.
from septic systems). Volume of the waterbody may be estimated from
surface area measurements (e.g. planimetry from map or aerial photo)
combined with depth or bathymetric data.
Creek salinity is usually taken from water quality sampling results or
direct measurement of salinity in the waterbody. Typical oceanic
salinities range from 29 to 34 parts per thousand (ppt; Gross, 1982), and
should be measured offshore from the embayment.
Numerical modelling of tidal flushing usually requires installation of
recorders in and outside of the estuary, to determine tidal fluctuations and
volume of water passing in and out. This method is therefore expensive,
and this level of accuracy may not always be required for protection
planning purposes.
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SECTION FOUR
THREATS TO COASTAL RESOURCES
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SECTION
FOUR
THREATS TO COASTAL RESOURCES
Threats to the integrity of coastal waters and habitats include reductions in
water inputs; inputs of heated water; a variety of contaminants, such as
floating debris, dissolved inorganic compounds, such as nitrogen and heavy
metals, dissolved organic compounds such as pesticides, and pathogens.
Some threats have natural causes, such as volcanic eruptions, tsunamis,
("tidal waves"), floods, landslides, or droughts. Others are anthropogenic,
such as overuse, commercial and industrial land uses, road and roof runoff,
septic systems, and household hazardous materials. Some threats originate
as point sources, or focused inputs. Others are diffuse, called non-point
sources. Point sources and non-point sources may be difficult to
distinguish, and are often managed in different ways. Types of threats,
sources, and contaminant transport are discussed in this section.
Water Input Reductions
Decreases in normal or historic fresh water flow to an estuary or other
surface water feature can negatively impact water resources. Retention of
usual water discharge is required to maintain salinity, nutrient balance,
habitat quality and productivity of estuarine ecosystems. There are many
uses of water, some of which consume the water, some of which change
water quality without decreasing quantity. These uses must be balanced
with downgradient water needs (Armstrong, 1984).
Input reductions are primarily a concern in arid and semi-arid
environments, such as California and Texas, where water users upriver
may deplete flows that historically discharged to estuaries. Natural or man-
made droughts may shift the salt-water interface upriver, while floods may
shift it downriver. A selected salinity range, such as the historic average
±10%, may be used as the standard for water quantity maintenance
(Armstrong, 1984).
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Thermal Pollution
Thermal pollution, or artificially raised temperatures, in surface waters can
negatively impact water resources. Nuclear and steam turbine power plants
commonly discharge heated water to surface waterbodies.. Biological
processes are temperature dependent, and increased temperatures may
allow increased growth of undesirable species or disrupt food webs.
Similarly, colder than normal water, such as is occasionally discharged from
reservoir bottom waters, may disrupt aquatic life (Western Reg. Env. Educ.
Council, 1987).
Algal Blooms
When their populations are elevated above normal conditions, due to
natural or anthropogenic causes, naturally-occurring algae can be
problematic in surface water. For example, some Cyanobacteria, or blue-
green algae, can cause health problems ranging from skin irritations on
swimmers to stomach problems if ingested. More well-known is the
dinoflagellate group of algae which can cause "red tides". Blooms of these
algae (usually Gonyaulax and Gymnodinium species) often occur in areas of
upwelling, or in estuaries, where terrestrial runoff provides nutrients
necessary for exponential growth (Sze, 1986). The algae can cause a reddish
color in the water, and also release toxins which may be taken up by filter
feeding shellfish. When these shellfish are eaten by humans, paralytic
shellfish poisoning (PSP), which can be fatal, may result. Red tides can also
impact fish populations: some 22 million fish were killed in Texas in 1986
by a red tide (U.S. EPA, 1990).
In 1987, a new form of algal toxin poisoning, amnesic shellfish poisoning
(ASP), was reported for Canadian Atlantic waters. Diatoms
(Bacillariophyceae) release demoic acid which apparently causes symptoms
of memory loss, gastrointestinal distress, and central nervous system
damage in people consuming tainted shellfish (P. Rubinoff, Massachusetts
Coastal Zone Management, C. Rask, Barnstable County Extension Service,
1991, pers. commun.). It presently is not found in the United States.
However, a similar species of diatom was implicated in a pelican and
cormorant die-off in California, where accumulation of the algae in
anchovies was sufficient to kill the birds ingesting the anchovies (New
England Environmental Network News, 1992).
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A^ien Species
Introduction, whether accidental or deliberate, of non-native species to
surface waters can wreak havoc on natural systems. For example/ in the
Great Lakes in the 1970's, introduction of sea lamprey via the Saint
Lawrence Seaway reduced the populations of lake trout and salmon which
predate alewives, a herring-like fish (themselves alien). Consequently, the
alewife population soared beyond carrying capacity, and hundreds of dead
fish washed up on lake beaches.
A more recent example is mat of entry of the zebra mussel into the Great
Lakes and other inland waters, including the Mississippi River. The
mussels are small bivalves, usually less than 0.25 inch in diameter, native
to Europe, which have entered the Lakes via ship ballast water. The
mussels dog water intake pipes, can out-compete many native species, and
are spreading rapidly. Research is on-going into control mechanisms; one
possibility is the use of a species of scaup (a diving duck) which eats the
mussels.
Contaminants
Floatables
In recent years, considerable trash and debris has floated onto coastal
shores with tides. This floating debris is highly variable, but
commonly includes aluminum beverage cans and plastic soda bottles,
plastic caps and lids, plastic eating utensils, plastic and styrofoam
fragments, plastic bags, medical wastes, and construction wood and
debris,. During a national beach cleanup in the fall of 1988, two million
pounds of debris were collected, 62% of which was plastic. (EPA, 1989).
Land-based sources of floatables are discussed below. However,
floatables may also derive from offshore practices, such as ocean
dumping of solid waste and release of materials from fishing and
cruise boats. Data from Texas beach cleanups show that 75% of the
trash is derived from offshore sources: merchant vessel cleaning
bottles, naval ship egg cartons, fishing gear, and hard hats from
offshore oil crews (EPA, 1990).
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Inorganic Contaminants
Nutrients:
Nutrients are required for plant and animal growth. The amount
available is, however, critical, for too much or too little can change
the balance of species and result in unproductive (oligotrophic) or
overproductive (eutrophic) habitats. Ecologists use the term
"limiting nutrient" to describe that nutrient which is least available
for uptake, relative to the need for that nutrient in plant or animal
tissues. Typically, if concentrations of the limiting nutrient are
raised, many populations experience a sudden increase.
The two most important nutrients in terms of pollution are
nitrogen and phosphorus, since they are most commonly the
limiting nutrients in aquatic ecosystems. In some ecosystems, the
ratio between nitrogen and phosphorus availabilities can be more of
a limiting factor than the availability of either nutrient on its own.
Occasionally, carbon availability may be important, as may other
nutrients, such as silica, for example, for diatoms. Copper
concentrations are thought to play a role in some algal blooms.
1. Nitrogen
Excessive nitrogen has been found to accelerate eutrophication in
some coastal and estuarine waters (Wetzel, 1983). The critical
concentration for marine waters can be as low as 0.2 mg/1,
depending on the rate of tidal flushing (Nielson, 1981; Buzzards Bay
Project, 1991). Excessive nitrogen loading to marine and brackish
ecosystems can cause algae blooms, decreased water clarity, and
declines in eelgrass beds which are important shellfish and finfish
habitat.
In marine waters, nitrate is the predominant inorganic form of
nitrogen, although the majority of nitrogen occurs as dissolved
organic nitrogen (Valiela, 1984). There is little nitrite. Ammonia is
more common in shallow coastal areas, such as salt marshes, where
it is generated by decay of organic materials.
Nitrogen compounds may be rapidly transformed in estuaries
where phytoplankton have short life cycles. Marine algae take up
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ammonia and nitrate, and some producers can also use organic
nitrogen sources (Valieia, 1984). Some blue-green algae and bacteria
fix nitrogen from nitrogen gas (N2) to useable forms. Dominant
nitrogen forms vary with time of day, season, and point in tidal
cycle. Nitrogen transformations are shown in Figure 4-1.
In groundwater, nitrogen can be found in many forms including
nitrate-, nitrite-, ammonia- and organic nitrogen. In oxygenated
groundwater, nitrate-nitrogen is the most stable form, and other
forms will convert to this readily.
Figure 4-1. Cycling of Nitrogen (N) in Marine Environments
Source: Valieia, 1984
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Anoxic conditions coupled with the presence of denitrifying bacteria
can allow for the transformation of complex forms of nitrogen to
nitrogen gas which can pass to the atmosphere.
2. Phosphorus
Phosphorus is usually the limiting nutrient in fresh surface waters
and may be limiting in some brackish and marine systems,
depending on the phosphorus to nitrogen ratio. Algal growth, the
primary consequence of excessive nutrient inputs, is optimal when
nitrogen and phosphorus are in a 16:1 ratio (Redfield, 1934),
although this optimal ratio may range from 10:1 to 20:1.
Figure 4-2. Phosphorus (P) Cycling in Marine Environments
Source: Valiela, 1984
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In surface waters/ phosphorus is usually found as dissolved
inorganic phosphorus (primarily phosphates), dissolved organic
phosphorus, particulate phosphorus, or in organisms. Particulate
forms are the most common (Valiela, 1984). Phosphorus is readily
taken up by producers (e.g. phytoplankton) and is therefore usually
at low concentrations in surface waters.
In oxygenated groundwater, phosphorus readily precipitates,
usually with iron, which is nearly ubiquitous in many soils. It has
been shown, however, to travel through groundwater systems in
anoxic conditions, and enter surface water bodies (EPA, 1980).
Phosphorus may also enter surface waters through runoff from
land uses and via storm drain systems.
Metals:
Metals can be discharged to surface water and groundwater from a
variety of sources including industrial plating operations, waste oil
discharges containing impurities, and pesticides applied on
turfgrasses. Some metals, such as iron, manganese, selenium and
arsenic occur naturally. Some, such as cadmium, are extremely
toxic, while others, like chromium, can be carcinogens if present in
certain forms. Some are not toxic at all. (See below, Biological
Processes, for accumulation of metals in organisms.)
Many metals are multi-valent, meaning they can be found in more
than one charge state. For example, iron can exist as Fe2* or Fe3*,
depending on the chemical composition of the solution. The ability
of metallic compounds to change from one ionic state to another
makes it more difficult to predict their movement and fate. Such a
prediction requires information on the pH, electropotential (Eh),
temperature, and dissolved oxygen concentration of the solution.
Organic Contaminants
Synthetic
By definition, organic compounds include any molecules
containing carbon. The most common organic contaminants are
synthetic, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), semi-volatile
compounds, PCBs and insecticides, fungicides, herbicides,
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nematicides, etc (usually lumped together as pesticides). VOCs
include many petroleum-based compounds as well as many
chlorinated solvents. They have relatively low solubilities in water
and will therefore readily volatilize into the gas phase or
atmosphere, e.g., in surface waters. Semi-volatile compounds
include heavier petroleum products such as napthalenes and
phenols. Pesticides include a wide variety of chemicals utilized for
the control of fungi, insects, arthropods, nematodes, and weeds.
Many are lethal to numerous species of aquatic plants and animals.
Most organic compounds are hydrophobic, meaning they are
relatively insoluble in water. As a result, they are often called non-
aqueous phase liquids (NAPLs). However, the low solubility levels
are still high enough to cause dissolved contaminant
concentrations that can pose human health threats and problems
for wildlife. 'These compounds are also toxic in the floating phase.
Oil spills, as was demonstrated by the 1989 Exxon Valdez spill in
Prince William Sound in Alaska, can greatly reduce marine wildlife
populations with effects and vestigial compounds persisting for
decades.
Natural:
Natural, organic materials, such as those released from sewage
treatment plants, seafood processing plants, canneries, paper mills,
tanneries and similar industries can also cause oxygen depletion in
receiving waters. Oxygen is consumed as part of the breakdown of
these materials by decomposers. The resulting hypoxic (low oxygen)
or anoxic (zero oxygen) state can cause fish kills and decreases in
aquatic insect populations, as well as disruptions in the normal food
web and water chemistry balance (Western Reg. Env. Educ. Council,
1987).
Pathogens
Pathogens can cause significant problems in coastal waters where direct
discharges of untreated sewage occur. Waters contaminated by pathogens,
including bacteria and viruses, contribute to shellfish contamination and
may present health hazards. In surface water, bacterial survival is
dependent on temperature and salinity, but few species can live in
brackish water (Goldman and Home, 1983). Coliform bacteria tend to be
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common, and may indicate sewage pollution, if they are of the fecal
coliform group. pH, light and nutrient availability may also affect
organism survival (Brock and Madigan, 1988).
The movement and survival of bacterial contaminants in the
groundwater has been studied extensively. It has been shown that most
bacteria are attenuated within a short distance of the point they enter
groundwater; between 4 feet and 100 feet in permeable sands and gravels
(Canter and Knox, 1986). They can move considerably further in fractured
bedrock (EPA, 1987) and limestone aquifers. Bacteria are attenuated by
adsorption to soil materials filtration or by death. Bacteria have
commonly been used as indicator organisms to determine whether or not
microorganisms are present in a groundwater system.
In surface water, viral survival is related to association with sediments,
water temperature, and solar radiation. Viruses can accumulate and
persist in sediments. For example, polio viruses were able to retain
infectivity for 19 days in sediment, but only for 9 days in sea water
(Heufelder, 1988). As is true for groundwater, sea water temperature has a
inverse effect on viral survival. Solar radiation can inactivate viruses
(Heufelder, 1988); however, solar radiation has a limited penetration into
water. Hepatitis can be transmitted to humans via viral infection of
shellfish, and consumption of the tainted shellfish in the raw state (Brock
and Madigan, 1988).
There is some evidence that pathogens enter a dormant stage upon
discharge to coastal waters. In this state, the organisms remain viable, but
are not culturable. Virulence may remain high while the decay rate
lowers with the dormant stage (Xu et al., 1982; Grimes et al., 1986).
Studies of viral contamination of water have demonstrated that viruses
can survive considerably longer than bacteria in groundwater, and can
therefore migrate further from a discharge point: up to 1,300 feet in a
bedrock aquifer (EPA, 1987). This has raised concerns with the use of
bacteria as indicators of all other microorganisms. The survival of viral
particles in groundwater appears to be controlled by the thickness of the
unsaturated zone, temperature, pH, Eh and dissolved oxygen content of
the groundwater (EPA, 1987; Jansons et al., 1985). Groundwater
temperatures across the United States range from 5 - 25°C, resulting in
significant differences in viral survival rates (Todd, 1980; Figures 4-3 and
4-4).
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Figure 4-3. Groundwater Temperatures in the United States
Source: Adapted from Todd, 1980
700 .
600
500 _
W
V 400 -
300 -
200 -
100 -
0
Inactlvation Rate (log/day) =
0.181 * (0.0214 x temp., *C)
° o o
O
I I I I 1 I
10 11 12 13 14 IS
GROUND WATER TEMPERATURE (*C)
20
Figure 4-4. Virus Decay Rate as a Function of Temperature
Source: Yates and Yates, 1987
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Sediments
While not themselves toxic, sediments can adsorb and transport nutrients,
metals, and pathogens to water resources. Sediments can also accumulate
and change circulation patterns in embayments, thereby decreasing the
flushing rate. Suspended sediments contribute to reduced water clarity,
which in turn affects productivity and reduces habitat quality for many
animal and plant species. Sediments can dog the gills of bottom fish and
cause suffocation (Western Reg. Env. Educ. Council, 1987).
SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION AND OTHER COASTAL THREATS
As mentioned at the start of this section, sources of contamination may be
focused (point sources) or diffuse (non-point sources). The sources described
here are potential sources only correct construction, operation, and
maintenance of land use activities can keep the potential from becoming
reality.
Non-point Sources
According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1991), "nonpoint
source pollution is pollution from diffuse sources. It is caused by rainfall or
snowmelt moving over or through the ground, carrying natural and man-
made pollutants into lakes, rivers, streams, wetlands, estuaries, other coastal
waters, and groundwater".
Precipitation/Atmospheric Deposition
Precipitation and atmospheric deposition can carry increasing amounts of
inorganic contaminants and sediments to ground and surface waters,
particularly in heavily developed areas. Oxides of nitrogen and sulfur are
frequently found in the atmosphere, and can be carried down in
precipitation. These compounds originate from automobile exhaust and
power plant emissions, as well as from other minor sources. Atmospheric
deposition of phosphorus directly to a surface waterbody can be a large
component of the total phosphorus in the waterbody.
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Wildlife and Pets
Wildlife may contribute nutrients, para'culate organic material, and
pathogens to surface waters in occasionally significant amounts. For
example, Portnoy and Soukup (1989) found that 42% of phosphorus inputs
to a freshwater pond on Cape Cod were from gull defecation (averaged 7.5-
12.3 milligrams (mg) phosphorus per defecation over a year), while 54%
came from septic system leachates, 2% from precipitation and 2% from
groundwater.
Terrestrial wildlife rarely contributes significant nutrients to surface
waterbodies. However, pet wastes deposited on curbs and paved surfaces
may enter surface waters as runoff during storm events and contribute
significantly to excessive nutrient pollution as well as shellfish bed
bacterial contamination.
Individual On-site Septic Systems
Septic systems are comprised of a septic tank and a leaching facility (Figure
4-5). The septic tank provides for the separation of solids and liquids and
some treatment The leaching facility serves to dispose of the liquid
wastes.
If septic tanks are not properly maintained (pumping once every three
years is recommended for single-family homes), solids may pass to the
leaching facility causing plugging, backups into the dwelling, or breakouts
of effluent on the land surface. In these cases, the effluent may directly
impact downgradient coastal waters via overland flow. Once this has
occurred, repairing the leaching facility is expensive and may result in
further groundwater contamination if septic cleaners containing solvents
are utilized.
Conventional septic systems provide only minimal treatment of
wastewater. Effluent contains approximately 40-60 milligrams per liter
(mg/1) nitrogen. As the effluent mixes with groundwater and moves
downgradient, nitrogen concentrations decrease. Effluent also contains
phosphorus, typically 15-20 mg/1 total phosphorus, and pathogens.
Those septic systems which discharge directly into surface waters, rare in
present times except for on boats and houseboats, can also contribute
significant amounts of particulate organic contamination.
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Figure 4-5. On-Site Septic Systems and Plume Generation
Source: Horsley & Witten, Inc. 1988
Even if functioning properly, the cumulative effects of numerous small
septic systems may result in excessive nutrient concentrations in
groundwater and downgradient receiving surface waters. These impacts
are dependent upon locations of septic systems relative to water resources
and overall septic system density.
There are several alternative septic systems, including composting toilets
and denitrifying systems, that may be used more frequently as technology
improves, and that will reduce the impacts of septic systems on natural
resources.
Underground Storage Tanks
Petroleum products stored in underground storage tanks pose one of the
greatest threats to groundwater quality in the United States. EPA estimates
that approximately one-third of all existing tanks nationwide are currently
leaking. The average expected lifespan of steel tanks in acidic soils is
approximately 15 years. At this point, corrosion may begin, resulting in
pinhole leaks which may discharge hundreds of gallons of fuel over
several months. These leakage rates are small enough to go unnoticed to
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the tank owner, but are large enough to cause significant ground-water
contamination problems.
Leaking underground storage tanks can be significant sources of oil, fuel,
and synthetic volatile organic compound contamination. These
contaminants may move into surface water resources with groundwater
flow. However, many of these compounds are volatile, and will
evaporate from the surface water system.
Gas Stations and Automotive Service Stations
V «
Service stations can be sources of petroleum hydrocarbons to
groundwaterfrom underground storage facilitiesand to surface waters
via runoff or groundwater. Detergents used in car washing can also be a
source of phosphorus. Also, improper disposal of used motor oil and
antifreeze can lead to serious contaminantion of groundwater and nearby
surface waters.
Pesticide and Fertilizer Use
Pesticides are commonly used in agriculture, silviculture, and lawn and
golf course maintenance to restrict growth of weeds, fungi, insects,
rodents, nematodes, and other undesired species. Factors which affect the
level of risk for water contamination include the pesticide's chemical
formulation, rates of application, timing of application, soil conditions
and hydrologic conditions. Many of these compounds are not very water
soluble, but are actively adsorbed by organic soil particles. A mathematical
model has been developed by the US EPA (called the Pesticide Root Zone
Model) which evaluates the environmental mobility and persistence of
various pesticides in the specific soil structures. This model simulates the
mobility of pesticides in the root zone and the lower unsaturated zone
based upon soil infiltration characteristics and the chemical characteristics
of various pesticides.
Fertilizers are applied to fields, lawns, and forest areas to increase the
availability of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium to crops, turf grasses,
and trees. Once applied to the land, fertilizers are often carried by rain or
runoff into surface water and groundwater, making fertilizers a significant
source of nutrient pollution. Generally, fertilizers can be classified into
water soluble or "fast release" compounds (including calcium nitrate,
sodium nitrate, ammonium sulfate and urea) which have been shown to
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be subject to leaching, and "slow release" compounds (including
ureaformaldehyde, methyulene urea, isobutylidene diurea, and sulfur-
coated urea) which are less prone to leaching. Similar to pesticides,
fertilizer leaching is also controlled by soil and hydrologic conditions.
Estimates for the percentage of applied fertilizers (nitrogen) which leaches
to groundwater ranges from 2 - 60% (Brown, 1977; Nelson, 1980; Hesketh,
1986). The leaching rate is dependent upon the type of fertilizer, method
of application, type of ground cover, climate, irrigation practices, and soil
conditions.
In addition to use of pesticides and fertilizers, agricultural practices can
impact water resources in other ways. Feedlots and manure piles,
common in many agricultural areas, can be significant sources of nitrogen
and phosphorus pollution to surface and groundwaters. Bacterial
pollution from farms and septic systems resulted in closure of many
commercial shellfish beds between 1986 and 1990 in Puget Sound (EPA,
1990).
Runoff from Impervious Surfaces
Rain water falling on paved surfaces (roads, driveways, sidewalks, parking
lots) may become contaminated with nutrients, metals, oils and grease,
salts and volatile organic compounds that have accumulated there. As the
rain water "runs off, it carries these containments with it, thus polluting
ground- and surface waters. The oncentration of contaminants in the
runoff depends on the extent of the source, the type of contaminant, the
intensity and duration of a storm, and the timing between storms.
Highest contaminant concentrations are generally found in the "first
flush" of runoff (the runoff generated at the beginning of a storm). Runoff
from paved areas has lower concentrations of dissolved nutrients than
septic system or lawn fertilizer sources. However, the total volume of
runoff can be much greater than the volume from other sources, making
the contribution significant. Numerous studies have shown that metal
(lead, copper, cadmium) loadings from paved surfaces are significant
pollution sources.
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Marinas
Marina operations can directly contribute petroleum hydrocarbons,
metals, participate organic matter, nutrients, floatables, and pathogens to
surface waters. Many marinas do not have pump-out stations, and many
boats do not have holding tanks, so human wastes are frequently
discharged from boat toilets directly to coastal waters. Furthermore,
marinas are often located in embayments, in order to provide protection
from waves and wind. These areas tend to be poorly flushed for the same
reasons that they are protected, and nutrients and other contaminants may
be trapped there and can have a significant impact on water quality.
Hydromodification Projects
Dredging stirs up sediments, which may release adsorped contaminants to
the surface water body. Dredging may also aerate sediments which were
previously anaerobic, and thereby allow the occurrence of oxidation-
reduction reactions which may release more contaminants. Dredging also
changes circulation patterns which may increase or decrease flushing rates
and related contaminant assimilation in the water body.
Similarly, the installation of coastal protective structures~groins,
revetments, breakwaters, may stir up sediments and change circulation
patterns. Hurricanes, major storms, undersea volcanic eruptions,
tsunamis, and landslides can also stir up surface waters and change
circulation patterns.
Construction Projects
Construction projects, be they major municipal renovation, subdivision
construction, or individual home repairs and additions, can contribute
floating wood debris and petroleum hydrocarbons from machinery to
water resources. Such projects can be major sources of sediment, if
drainage, grading, and revegetation are not well planned and controlled.
Hazardous Materials Users
Any land use which results in the generation, use, or storage of materials
classified as hazardous may be a source of inorganic or organic
contamination to ground and surface waters. Large-scale hazardous
materials use is regulated by federal, state, and often local statute, but
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household use of small amounts of hazardous materials is rarely
adequately regulated. Small scale users may accidentally introduce
contaminants to ground and surface waters, e.g. use of septic system
"cleaners".
Landfills
Landfills represent significant sources of .metals, nutrients, pesticides,
pathogens, and synthetic organic compounds. Many of the household
hazardous wastes mentioned in the above paragraph end up in landfills.
As landfill surfaces are typically devoid of vegetation, rainwater easily
percolates down through the earth, encouraging the leaching of
contaminants from refuse into underlying groundwater or into nearby
surface waters.
Human Use of Coastal Resources
Human use of coastal resources takes many forms, such as hiking,
sunbathing, driving off-road and recreational vehicles (RVs), swimming,
boating, fishing and shellfishing, waterskiing, and enjoyment of vistas.
These activities can exceed a resource's resilience, leading to overuse and
degradation, or loss of the habitat. This in turn may lead to loss of species
inhabiting the area as well as loss of the resource for human, water-
dependent uses. Typical human impacts are described below.
RV/off-road vehicle use of beaches can be responsible for breakdown of
dune and coastal bank formations. Driving on dunes or beaches compacts
sands /soils and can destroy stabilizing vegetation, increasing erosion
potential. Driving may also destroy nesting habitat for such beach-
requiring species as piping plovers and terns, or destroy aquatic
plant/seaweed habitats used by various species. Hiking and sunbathing
along beaches and dunes can have similar impacts, although to a lesser
degree per use. Both RV users and hikers also may leave trash such as
picnic remains on the beach.
Boating in coastal areas may impact habitats through discharge of oils and
fuel into waters, through discharge of human sewage (see Marinas, above),
and through excessive wakes which wash away sands or change
circulation patterns. Boaters may launch their boats by dragging them
across beach areas, contributing to breakdown of vegetation cover and
habitat loss.
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Commercial boatingshippingmay also impact coastal habitats, for
example, through accidental discharge of oil or of alien species carried in
ballast water (see Alien Species, above). Increased shipping brings
increased likelihood of collision and discharge of potentially hazardous
materials. In addition, oceanic disposal of plastics and other wastes from
fishing and military vessels has impacted marine mammals, seabirds,
turtles, and fish. For example, it is estimated that commercial fishing
fleets lost 300 million pounds of plastic fishing gear in 1975 and the
Cousteau Society estimates that six million tons of litter enter the sea
annually (Western Reg. Env. Educ. Council, 1987). Animals die by
ingestion of plastics .and by entanglement and suffocation in cords, nets,
and other materials.
Fishing and shellfishing may occur in excess of the fished species' abilities
to maintain their populations. Overfishing is rampant in many areas of
the world, stocks have decreased, and the species composition in some
areas has changed. For example, on Georges Bank, the cod and halibut
populationscommercially attractive speciesare being replaced by dogfish
and skate. In the Bering Sea, pollack fisheries have been depleted. While
the total production is not changing, desirable species are being "fished
out" and less desirable, "trash" species are increasing in numbers
(J. Broadus, Director Marine Policy Center, Woods Hole Oceanographic
Institution, pers. commun., April 1992).
Coastal areas attract large populations, and the migration towards the
coasts takes its toll. Urban developments encroach on resources, allowing
more and more people the opportunity to use beaches, wetlands, and bays.
Each habitat use has a one-time impact and a cumulative effectmany
small impacts add up over time. Development also fragments existing
habitats, restricting the territory available to plant and animal species,
eliminating buffers between them and human use areas, and sometimes
preventing use of historic corridors for travel between populations. Many
species have a critical habitat size or population number below which
their survival is threatened.
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Point Sources
Point sources refer to land uses and activities which concentrate discharges into
a single, identifiable point. Point sources may overlap with non-point sources;
for example, when parking lot runoff is collected and channelized to discharge
via a culvert into a stream.
Sewage Treatment Plants
Sewage treatment plants (Figure 4-6) are engineered wastewater disposal
systems which are designed to provide a greater degree of treatment than
that associated with conventional septic systems. They are commonly
proposed where conventional systems are inadequate to handle the
planned wastewater load, or where sensitive water resources require a
higher degree of treatment and a higher quality effluent
Advanced (tertiary level) treatment (including nutrient removal) is
commonly required for systems discharging in sensitive areas. Using this
level of treatment, it is possible to meet the drinking water quality
standard for nitrate-nitrogen of 10 mg/1. Unfortunately, many sewage
treatment plants only have primary treatment and discharge effluent with
high levels of nitrogen and phosphorus. Furthermore, in order for a
treatment plant to maintain tertiary treatment, operation and
maintenance of the facility are critical. Without proper operation and
maintenance treatment, system failure may occur resulting in violations
of water quality standards.
Finally, treatment to 10 mg/1 may not protect coastal waters given the low
critical thresholds for nitrogen. Also, phosphorus, pathogens, participate
organic material, and floating debris, such as plastic tampon applicators
and condoms, may be released from sewage treatment plants.
Combined Sewer Overflows and Stormwater Overflows
Combined sewers are pipes that carry both household wastewater and
Stormwater to a sewage treatment plant (Figure 4-7). During heavy
rainfalls or with rapidly melting snow, combined wastewater and
Stormwater flows can exceed the capacity of the receiving sewage
treatment plant.
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FLOW
EQUALIZATION
PRIMER CLARIHER
(Septic Tar*}
SECONDARY
CLAR1RERS
POLISHING
FILTERS
EFFLUENT
PUMPS
ROTATING
BIOLOGICAL
CONTACTORS
Figure 4-6 Sewage Treatment Plant Schematic Diagram
Source: Horsley & Witten, Inc., 1989
v:'.tb
Storm Drain
Smlipry
.'Drain
Combined OMW
Figure 4-7. Combined Sewer Overflow
Source: US Environmental Protection Agency, 1991
Excess flows are frequently diverted and dischargd without treatment
directly into a body of water. These excess flows are called combined sewer
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overflows (CSOs). CSOs carry both raw sewage and the contaminants
found in stormwater directly into streams, rivers, lakes, and estuaries.
CSOs can also be used to divert flows intentionally to a receiving body of
water in order to prevent hydraulic overload of a sewerage system. This
kind of diversion is known as a bypass. Combined sewers may also
overflow during dry weather, due to structural problems in the drainage
system, physical blockages of the flow regulators, and groundwater
entering the system.
EPA estimates that approximately 1,200 combined sewer systems currently
operating in the United States have as many as 20,000 CSO discharge
points. Fifty-three of the largest CSO systems discharge to estuaries and
marine waters. CSO systems serve about 43 million people nationwide.
CSOs are sources of floatables, metals, synthetic and natural organic
compounds, oils and grease, pathogenic bacteria and viruses, and
nutrients.
Community Septic Systems
In cluster developments, units are sometimes tied into a single, larger
septic system. In these cases, a concentration of effluent into a point
source may result. For example, a 20-unit housing development will
discharge approximately 6,000 gallons per day into one discharge point.
An equivalent discharge volume for single-family homes with individual
septic systems would be distributed over a 20-acre area (with one-acre
zoning). This concentration of effluent may result in the development of
a plume of contaminated groundwater which will migrate downgradient
from the discharge point.
Chemical constituents such as nitrogen, phosphorus, sodium, chloride
and possible volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are likely to be found
elevated above natural background levels. Anoxic conditions are likely to
result in certain portions of the plume, further mobilizing chemicals such
as iron and phosphorus. Pathogens may also be transmitted. Down-
gradient resources such as wells, lakes, ponds, and wetlands and coastal
waters may be impacted by the movement of the constituents through the
subsurface.
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Power Plants
Nuclear and steam turbine power generating plants can be major sources
of thermal pollution to coastal waters since they use large quantities of
water to cool machinery. Used cooling water is generally discharged at a
significantly higher temperature, causing localized temperature increases
which can have negative impacts on fish and shellfish populations.
Organic Material
Fish, seafood and other organic material processing plants are frequently
located in the coastal zone, and may be less strictly regulated man other
industrial land uses. These processing plants can release nutrients,
pathogens, and parliculate organic matter.
Industrial Discharges
Industries which generate effluent containing any toxin or contaminant
can be sources of coastal pollution, if their effluent is allowed to discharge
into coastal resources or tributaries to coastal resources. For example, in
Narraganset Bay, Rhode Island, metal plating effluent has resulted in
elevated concentration of metals in sediments and shellfish tissue
(Horsley, 1981).
CONTAMINANT TRANSPORT AND ATTENUATION
Transport of contaminants through the environment is controlled by a variety
of physical, chemical, and biological processes. The movement of each
contaminant will differ based on its chemical composition and the manner in
which it reacts with surrounding materials. A summary of specific processes
involved in contaminant transport is provided below. This summary includes
surface and groundwater processes.
Physical Processes
A number of physical processes control transport of contaminants in surface
and groundwaters. They are a. function of the water composition and type, size,
and density of the contaminant. Not all processes will operate in a given
habitat or for a given contaminant.
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Filtration
Overland runoff can be filtered to a significant extent by vegetation. The
extent is a function of hydrologic soil group, cover type, cover treatment,
hydrologic condition, and preceding runoff conditions (U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, 1986). The hydrologic soil
groupings reflect the abilities of different soils to allow infiltration. For
example, sands and gravels can absorb water more quickly than can silts
and clays. Cover types include vegetation, bare soil, and impervious
surfaces, and "treatment" describes condition of the cover. Hydrologic
condition relates to amount of surface detritus (duff), degree of surface
roughness, density of vegetation, etc.
A runoff model, TR-55, developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Soil Conservation Service (1986), combines these factors with a runoff
curve number, or index of runoff likelihood and extent. Lower curve
numbers mean greater infiltration. Selected curve numbers are shown in
Table 4-1.
Table 4-1.
Representative Runoff Curve Numbers
Cover Types
Urban Open Space
Grass <50%
Grass >75%
Paved Parking Lots
Industrial Districts
Commercial Districts
Residential Districts (1/2 acre average lot size)
Residential Districts (1 acre average lot size)
Fallow Agricultural Lands, Bare Soil
Straight Row Crops
Pasture or Range
Hay Meadow
Woods
Sagebrush With Grass
Desert Shrub
Curve Numbers*
79
61
98
88
92
70
68
86
78-81
61-79
58
55-66
35-67
68-77
* Hydrologic Soil Group B
Source: US. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, TR-55 Model, 1986
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The extent of filtration is also affected by the slope over which the runoff
flows, by the amount of water, and by its velocity. Detention ponds,
retention ponds, and vegetated swales are used to slow flows, allowing
deposition of sediments and contaminants, thereby cleaning overland
flow. Conversely, channelized flow and stormwater collection systems
may speed flow, decreasing the likelihood of filtration and contaminant
attenuation.
Filtration by soil and vegetation may attenuate various contaminants,
including bacteria, viruses, sediments, nutrients, metals, and organic
chemicals. Wetland soils, in particular, can adsorb large amounts of
synthetic organic contaminants, such as pesticides.
Movement of Dissolved Contaminants
The movement of contaminants caused by the flow of water is called
advection (Freeze and Cherry, 1979; Figure 4-8). Many contaminants
dissolve in groundwater and can then be carried with the flow of
groundwater in a downgradient direction, forming a contaminant plume.
Figure 4-8. Contaminant Plumes
Source: Horsley & Witten, Inc. 1988
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Calculations of the groundwater flow velocities provide a maximum
velocity for contaminant movement. In surface water, the flow is affected
by tides and circulation patterns.
Conservative compounds that do not degrade or otherwise react with the
water in which they are dissolved will move at the same speed as the
water. Nitrogen, sodium, and chloride are examples of conservative
compounds.
Dispersion
As a contaminant plume moves through a ground or surface water system
it spreads out by a process known as dispersion. Dispersion involves both
molecular diffusion and mechanical mixing of dean and contaminated
water. In most situations, the movement of contaminants by molecular
diffusion is orders of magnitude slower than movement by mixing,
especially in surface waters where wind, tides, currents, and salinity
differences contribute to rapid mixing.
Dilution
Contaminant plumes are diluted via mixing with uncontaminated water,
such as occurs when contaminated stream water discharges into a river.
Dilution can be a major mechanism for attenuation of contaminants in
surface waters, since wind and waves can cause rapid mixing. Dilution is
hampered at salt-fresh water interfaces due to the precipitation reactions
discussed in Section Three.
Contaminant Density
The density of the contaminant can control how it migrates. This is
especially true for non-particulate organic compounds. Organic
compounds less dense than water, such as gasoline and fuel oil, will float
or pool at the surface of a waterbody or of the water table (Figure 4-9).
They will dissolve into the water up to their solubility level, and migrate
in the direction of water flow. They are often called light non-aqueous
phase liquids (LNAPLs), or "floaters".
Organic compounds denser than water are often called dense non-aqueous
phase liquids (DNAPLs), or "sinkers". If spilled or discharged in sufficient
volume to remain in a separate phase, they will sink into surface water
Coastal Resource Management and Protection 4-25
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until a more dense layer is encountered, or into groundwater until a low
permeability layer is encountered. As with LNAPLs, the pools of separate
phase contaminant will slowly dissolve up to the level of their solubility.
Contaminants that are highly soluble in water are called mixers. They neither
pool nor sink, but instead form a dissolved contaminant plume (Figure 4-9).
Mixers are typically inorganic compounds such as nitrogen, sodium, etc.
Chemical Processes
The chemical processes controlling contaminant transport are a function of the
contaminant composition, other reactive compounds present, and the type of
water containing the contaminants (i.e., fresh or salt, acid or alkaline, etc.). The
most important processes are described below.
Sorp lion/Retardation
Many organic contaminants are hydrophobic, meaning they prefer to
remain in contact with other organic material instead of dissolving in
water. As a result, they will adsorb to organic material, with only a small
percentage dissolving. The extent of dissolution is controlled by the
solubility of the contaminant. The movement of an organic compound is
retarded by its adsorbtion to the organic matter in the sediments.
Retardation can also occur through other chemical reactions such as
precipitation and ion-exchange processes (described below).
Hydrolysis
The reaction of dissolved compounds with water is called hydrolysis.
The importance of hydrolysis reactions is different for different types of
compounds, in part because the rates of the reactions can vary. Hydrolysis
reactions can be an important degradation mechanism for chlorinated
compounds because they happen quickly relative to other reactions (EPA,
1989).
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SOURCE
Dense Vapor
Direction ol Ground Water Flow Dissolved Organtes
"Floater"
Land Surface
SOURCE
I * 1
Ground Water Flow
Immiscible Organics
"Sinker"
SOURCE
al Product
Dense Vapor
Cap|tery Fringe '
Water Table
Ground Water Flow
"Mixer"
Figure 4-9. Movement of Contaminants Through Groundwater
Source: Horsley & Witten, Inc. 1988
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VolatUization
Volatilization is an important transport pathway in the unsaturated zone
of soils or at the surface water-atmosphere interface. Volatilization is less
important after a contaminant has dissolved into surface or groundwater,
since it is less likely to be exposed to the atmosphere or soil gas.
Co-Solvent Effects
Reactions between individual contaminants can affect their movement.
For a particular compound, the rate of adsorption to organic material in the
sediments can be altered by the presence of other compounds. As a result,
retardation rates are changed and transport can be enhanced or slowed.
Dissolution/Precipitation Reactions
Dissolution and precipitation reactions are most important for inorganic,
ionic compounds. Dissolution reactions involve the transfer of solid
compounds into the water system. Compounds in water can also
precipitate, forming a solid. These reactions are controlled by the
solubility constants of the compounds, and the chemical composition of
surface or groundwater and surrounding sediments. As discussed in
Section Three, precipitation can occur at the salt water-fresh water
interface in estuaries.
Ion-Exchange
Ion exchange reactions can occur where compounds in the water take the
place of similar compounds in sediments or suspended particles. This is
common for ionic compounds such as sodium, potassium and calcium,
especially in clay sediments. There is a finite number of exchange sites in
sediments which can limit the rate of exchange if a compound's
concentration is high.
Transformation
Both organic and inorganic compounds may react with other compounds
present in water or sediments, to form new compounds which may be
more or less toxic, more or less reactive, and more or less mobile than the
original compounds.
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Biological Processes
Biological processes are often temperature-dependent, and may be seasonal as
well. They are carried out by different classes of organisms in different habitats.
Biodegradation
Biodegradation is the process whereby concentrations of contaminant are
reduced through chemical reactions catalyzed by microorganisms.
Bacterial and other micro-organisms have been found in virtually every
natural environment including deep geologic formations (Kuznetsov et
al., 1983). Many of these organisms have the ability to "feed" off
contaminants. Complex compounds such as petroleum, hydrocarbons are
degraded into simpler molecules, and the energy released by the reaction is
used by the bacteria. Bacteria also degrade many contaminants without
obtaining energy through a process called co-metabolism. If a
contaminant is similar to a compound typically used by a bacteria, the
enzymes in the bacteria will degrade it. Even though bacteria may lose
energy in the process, they are not capable of making a distinction between
the useful compound and the contaminant. Biodegradation can occur in
both oxygenated and anoxic waters, depending on the type of bacteria and
contaminants that are present. For example, petroleum hydrocarbons can
be degraded effectively in the presence of oxygen which is used in the
reactions that break the hydrocarbon chains. The degradation can retard,
or slow, the movement of the hydrocarbons more than other processes
such as sorption. When the oxygen is depleted, the degradation rate
decreases significantly.
Biological Assimilation
Biological assimilation is the process by which living organisms take in
and incorporate substances. Once a metal or other contaminant is
assimilated within an organism, its retention period may vary from hours
(alcohols) to years (cadmium), depending upon which organs or tissue
systems are affected. In the case of plant assimilation of nutrients or
metals, the substances may be released to affect water quality after the plant
dies. Some contaminants are not metabolized, but accumulate in
organisms, so that tissue levels may build over time to toxic
concentrations. This bioaccumulation can be "biomagnified" up the food
chain. For example, a salt marsh mud snail may feed on diatoms (algae)
which have taken in cadmium from contaminated runoff entering the
Coastal Resource Management and Protection 4-29
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marsh. If each diatom contains 1 part per billion (ppb) cadmium and the
snail eats 1,000 diatoms, the snail contains 1 part per million (ppm)
cadmium. If 1,000 snails are then eaten by a herring gull, cadmium in the
gull would measure one part per thousand (ppt). While one part per
billion of cadmium may not be toxic to a diatom, 1 part per thousand
cadmium may be toxic to a gull.
Wetlands ecosystems which border estuaries may play a major role in
attenuation of contaminants. Wetlands plants are capable of taking up a
variety of contaminants and have been shown to be effective buffers
between contaminant sources and receiving waters.
Biological Transformation
Bacteria, fungi, protozoa, plants, and animals take up a variety of chemical
compounds and transform them through their metabolic processes into
other compounds. The most important biologically-mediated
transformations affecting watershed water quality typically occur in the
topsoil, in wetlands, and at sediment-water interfaces because of the
tremendous number of organisms living in these zones. For example,
some bacteria species mediate the transformation of nitrogen from nitrate
to nitrite forms while other mediate the transformation from nitrate to
nitrogen gas.
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SECTION FIVE
IMPACT ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES
-------
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SECTION
FIVE
IMPACT ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES
Impact assessment or analysis techniques for coastal resources vary with the
type of resource, the size of its watershed, its existing condition, and protection
goals for the resource. The first step (assuming responsible parties and
respective duties have been specified, and community goals for the resource
determined) is to gather and review all available information on the resource,
land uses within its watershed, and historical use of the resource itself.
Frequently, university and public agency reports will have useful information.
The next step is to ascertain existing and potential threats to resource quality. It
is possible that the information review will already have suggested the nature
of the problem. If not, water quality sampling may be required to determine if
contamination is present and whether the resource has already been negatively
impacted. This section presents analysis tools applicable to common,
development-related coastal problems.
Water Quality Sampling and Analysis
Water quality sampling and analysis provides a direct assessment of existing
conditions in a waterbody. Sampling should be more than a one-time
measurement, which would provide only a "snapshot" of conditions at that
moment. Water quality in coastal waters varies with time of day, point in tidal
cycle, and with the seasons. Therefore, samples should be collected through at
least one tidal cycle, for example, at high and low tides. If possible, additional
samples should be collected in other seasons. Local universities, harbor
masters, shellfish wardens, conservation groups and environmental
consultants may be able to provide water quality data for specific locations.
Analysis parameters will vary with the type of coastal resource, with existing or
potential impacts, and with community goals. Typical water quality testing
parameters for surface water are:
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Nitrogen: nitrate-N (NOs), nitrite-N (NOa) / ammonia-N (NH4+), and
total Kjeldahl-N
Phosphorus: Orthophosphate (PO4), Dissolved organic P, Particulate P,
and total P
Salinity or Conductivity
Dissolved Oxygen
Fecal and Total Coliform Bacteria/ Fecal Streptococcus Bacteria
Turbidity, Water Clarity, or Total Dissolved Solids (indicates
sedimentation and water turbulence)
Selected Metals
Biological Oxygen Demand (indicates decomposition activity)
Chlorophyll A (indicates algal levels)
Acute Toxitity Tests for Selected Aquatic Organisms, particularly
"canaries" or indicator organisms
Shellfish tests
pH, Alkalinity or Acidity
Temperature
The water quality data may point out specific threats. If a specific analysis
parameter is found in high levels, a specific source may be suspected. For
example, high fecal coliform levels may suggest sewage contamination. A
shoreline survey for discharge points of storm drains or sewage treatment plant
effluent pipes may be warranted. Alternatively, data analysis may suggest that
the resource is threatened by nutrient enrichment.
Water quality monitoring is frequently incorporated into management
programs, to evaluate effectiveness of implemented strategies, to provide early
Coastal Resource Management and Protection 5-2
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warning of threats, and to detect unforeseen complications. Volunteers have
been used effectively in many areas for continued monitoring (see Section Six).
Inventory of Potential Contamination Sources
Once a watershed to a coastal embayment has been mapped, an inventory of
land uses can be conducted within it (see Watershed Delineation, page 3-4).
Potential sources of contamination such as septic systems, landfills, industries,
and agricultural areas can be delineated. In certain cases, inspections of
facilities such as industrial buildings may be warranted. In most instances, a
carefully prepared watershed map showing potential contamination sources
will serve as a catalyst to initiating a watershed protection program.
Saruratjory Pevelopment/Buildout Analy^js
To evaluate the water quality threats associated with future potential land uses,
a saturation development /buildout analysis must be conducted. The analysis
should first determine the type, intensity and distribution of existing land uses.
This can best be accomplished utilizing assessor's tax maps, aerial photographs
and field checking. This analysis is then supplemented by determining the
development potential of all vacant parcels within the watershed. This is done
by evaluating the highest development potential of each parcel according to
existing zoning, subdivision and other land use codes. Wetlands, soil
limitations, and other building constraints should be considered during this
analysis. Certain parcels (particularly those owned by a government agency)
may have permanent conservation or deed restrictions and, therefore, should
be considered undevelopable.
State land use enabling legislation throughout the country dictates that once a
community programs itself through zoning and subdivision control, it is tied
into a development "blueprint" which is difficult to alter. Unfortunately, this
blueprint often allows for land development that exceeds the assimilative
capacity of water resources with respect to a variety of contaminants,
particularly nitrate-nitrogen (Witten, 1984).
A particularly difficult issue to resolve in controlling land use within the
watershed is that of "grandfathered" lots. Most zoning bylaws and ordinances
allow for significant protection of subdivided but still vacant land from
proposed zoning changes. Consequently, watersheds may contain a significant
number of small, vacant lots which, if developed, could result in significant
contamination of the water resource.
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The total development potential of the watershed is determined by summing
existing development and future potential development. This calculation will
result in a quantification of the "saturation" development or "build-out"
population. An illustration of this analysis is provided in Figure 5-1.
Additional discussion of the "buildout" analysis is presented in Section Eight,
Case Study #1.
Figure 5-1. Buildout Analysis of a Watershed
Source: Horsley & Witten, Inc., 1988
Nutrient Loading Assessments
Nitrogen
Once the saturation/buildout analysis has been completed, a nitrogen
loading analysis can be conducted if nitrogen is thought to be the limiting
nutrient for the coastal resource as discussed in Section Three. First, all
potential sources of nitrogen are assessed and tabulated. As discussed in
Chapter 4, these sources typically include wastewater, residential and
agricultural fertilizers, road run-off and precipitation.
Coastal Resource Management and Protection 5-4
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' Two analytical models have been developed to predict the nitrogen
loading to groundwater from development within watersheds (Nelson,
Horsley, Cambareri, Giggey and Pinnette, 1988; and Frimpter, Douglas, and
Rapacz, 1988). These models predict nitrate-nitrogen concentrations in
groundwater by dividing the annual nitrogen loading from various
sources by the annual dilution due to natural and artificial groundwater
recharge.
These models allow for cumulative impact assessment, meaning that it
provides a comparison of the impacts of the proposed project with other
development which might also be affecting a resource area and predicts
the additive effects of all development within a particular area. Loading
rates were selected for major nitrogen sources on the basis of a literature
review, and also to correspond with a recently calibrated nitrogen loading
model developed for the Town of Yarmouth, Massachusetts (Nelson et aL,
1988). The loading rates used are summarized in Table 5-1.
Table 5-1. Nitrogen Loading Analysis Parameters
Source
Concentration
Loading Rate
Flow/Recharge
Sewage 40 mg N/liter
gallons/person-day
Fertilizer (Lawns)*
Pavement Runoff 2.0 mg N/liter
Roof Runoff 0.75 mg N/liter
Precipitation** 0.05 mg N/liter
Average Loading Rate Per Dwelling
(6.72 Ibs N/person-yr)
(165 gallons/dwelling)
(0.9 Ibs N/1000 sq ft-yr)
(0.42 Ibs N/1000 sq ft-yr)
(0.15 Ibs N/1000 sq ft-yr)
(0.005 Ibs N/1000 sqft-yr)
(25.3 lbs/yr)
55
18 inches/year
40 inches/year
40 inches/year
18 inches per year
* Agricultural fertilizer loading rates should be determined for dominant local crops.
* * Use local or regional precipitation data.
Source: Adapted from Nelson et al., 1988
Nitrate-nitrogen concentrations in groundwater are then calculated using
a mass balance equation, in which nitrogen levels are a function of the
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annual rate of nitrogen loading and the annual rate of dilution through
recharge:
NO3-N,mg/l = (N loading, Ibs/yrtWHOOO mg/lb)/Recharge, liter/yr.
Sources of recharge to groundwater include precipitation, surface runoff
from impervious areas and artificial recharge from on-site sewage
disposal. Recharge rates used in the nitrogen loading analysis are shown
in Table 5-1.
Use of this nitrogen loading model is shown in the following spreadsheet
(Figure 5-2) for nitrogen loading under existing conditions to the
contributing area for Buttermilk Bay, Massachusetts, a shallow
embayment at the head of Buzzard's Bay (see also Section Eight, Case
Study #1).
Phosphorus
Phosphorus loading models are used to evaluate water quality impacts
which could result from the development of watersheds. In one model,
developed for Carroll County, Maryland, loading rates for each land use
were determined based upon review of the scientific literature (such as the
National Urban Runoff Program studies) and conversation with staff of
the Washington Council of Governments (H&W, 1991). Phosphorus
loading rates were identified for inputs from agricultural fertilizers,
suburban storm water runoff, on-site sewage disposal systems, and waste
water treatment plants and were used to project loading to streams (Table
5-2). Total phosphorus loading inputs to surface waters were estimated
using the following equation:
Total P = Stormwater P -f Septic System P + Treatment Plant P + Agriculture P.
The phosphorus loading model predicts average annual conditions; actual
phosphorus concentrations will vary seasonally and with storm events.
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
5-6
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INPUT FACTORS
No. residential twin sewered
No. residential unto unsewered
Sewage flow per hotue (gal/day)
Sewage flow Commercial (gal/day)
N-conc, in effluent (mg/1)
Lawn area per house (square feet)
Pavement per hone (sonar* feet)
Road area (square feet)
Roof area per house (square feet)
Cranberry bogs (acres)
Total recharge ana (acres)
Estuary (acres)
Recharge rate pervious area (in/yr)
Recharge rate impervious area (ia/yr)
INPUT
3049
165
9000
900
2578092
1900
398*
»53
530
40
CALCULATIONS
RESULTS
Sewage (gal/day)
549,951
Lawn area (*q ft)
15,245,000
Pavement area Up ft)
4,1023»2
Roof area (sq ft)
4,573,500
Natural area (acres)
6,005
Cranberry Bog* (acre*)
399
Acid Precipitation to Estuary
530
Recharge from sewage (gal/day)
549.951
Total pervious area (sq ft)
294,196388
Total impervious area (sq ft)
8*76,092
TOTAL NITROGEN LOAD/TOTAL RI
CALCULATED LOADING (LBS/YR)
x N-ccnc Cong/0 x 3,785 1/ gal x 365 days/yr : 454000 mg/lb
xO00091bN/sqft
x 0.00042 IbN />q ft
xaOOOlSlbN/sqft
x 43560 sq ft/acre k 0 Ib N/tq ft
xl61bs/acre
x3-031bsN/acre
TOTAL NITROGEN LOADING (LBS/YR)
x 365 dav»/vr : 1,000,000 gal/million gal
x 18 in/ vr /12 in /ft x 7.48 teal/cu ft : 1.000,000 gal /million gal
x 40 in/yr /12 in/ft x 7M fU/eu ft : 1,000,000 gal/million gal
TOTAL RECHARGE (MGAL/YR)
CHARGE X 454,000 MG/LB : 3,785X00 L/MGAL
RECHARGE NITROGEN CONCENTRATION (mg/1 orppm)
66940
13721
1723
686
0
6378
1606
91053
TOTAL RECHARGE (MG/YR)
200.73
3300.89
216.32
3717.94
2.94
Figure 5-2. Nitrogen Loading to Buttermilk Bay Under Existing Conditions
Source: Horsley & Witten, Inc. 1991
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
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Generalized Phosphorus Loading Rates
Export Rates (Ibs/acre/yr) Total P
Forest 02
Noruow Crops 0.6
Pasture 0.7
Mixed Agriculture 1.0
Row Oops 2.0
Feedlcn, Manure Storage 227.0
Urban 1.8
Total Atmospheric Input Rates (Ibs/acre/yr)
Forest 023
Agricultural/Rural 025
Urban Industrial 1.01
C. Wastewater Input Rates (Ibs/capita/yr)
Septic Tank Input 32
6.
The most important forms of phosphorus for the purpose of predicting
water quality are total phosphorus, orthophosphate, and participate
phosphorus. Total phosphorus refers to all the phosphorus located within
an aquatic system. Orthophosphate (known as soluble inorganic
phosphorus, PO4) is the form of phosphorus which is most readily
available for biological assimilation. Particulate phosphorus is found
within living or dead biomass, including algae. It has been estimated that
100% of the dissolved and 25% of the particulate phosphorus found in
urban run-off is available for algal uptake (Cowens and Lee, 1976) and that
in general, dissolved phosphorus accounts for only 20-50% of the total
phosphorus input to water body (Maine Department of Environmental
Protection, 1989). Based on this information, it is estimated mat
approximately half of the total phosphorus will be available for algal
production.
Runoff, recharge, and evaporation are estimated from climatic data for the
area and from standard evaporation equations. Typically 50% or more of
the annual precipitation is lost via evaporation and transpiration by
plants. The remainder is either runoff or recharge. The following
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
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spreadsheet, Figure 5-3, demonstrates use of the phosphorus loading
model.
Evaluation of Potential Impacts:
The phosphorus loading analysis does not predict phosphorus
concentrations in surface waterbodies, since these predictions
require information regarding the characteristics of the
waterbodies such as flushing, total volume, mean depth, and
withdrawals. Instead, projected average phosphorus
concentrations for streams can be compared with the standard
indicator values shown below (Table 5-3) to evaluate whether
the level of development analyzed will encourage problems
associated with eutrophication.
Table 5-3. General Phosphorus Indicators for Lakes
Total P
(mg/1)
0.008
0.026
0.080
Predicted Productivity
Condition
oligotrophic
mesotrophic
eutrophic
In general, for coastal systems, phosphorus is not likely to be the
limiting nutrient, which, in excess, will accelerate
eutrophication (see Section Four). The phosphorus loading
analysis described above provides a general estimate as to
whether phosphorus inputs are excessive and need to be
managed: excessive phosphorus inputs may be indicative of
other pollution problems in the watershed. In the Great Lakes,
phosphorus has been a significant pollutant. States bordering
the lakes have banded together to limit phosphorus inputs from
laundry detergents (a major source) and succeeded in reducing
inputs.
Coastal.Resource Management and Protection
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I *
"
1
ooveot^rooo
S£3
* ^,
o ep ts
ep
5Q ! S S: ° $2
"Ii
,B
I
5
i
i
S O 2 wi «J
]!!«
1
ir
en
Ii!
*Sj
i
oooooocio
2
£
£ s> S 5
ft. s
2 8
S - "
OOOOOO
i^
I
O O Q O O O O
o -jj o o o o
CO
o o o o
3:
1
tn
Figure 5-3. Phosphorus Model Sample Spreadsheet
Source: Horsley & Witten, Inc., 1991
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
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Critical Thresholds
*
In managing nitrogen inputs to coastal waters, there have been several
attempts to define a "critical" nitrogen concentration for estuarine waters, at
which point symptoms of cultural eutrophication may begin to develop. For
example, the Town of Falmouth, Massachusetts, (1984) adopted a three-tiered
nitrogen concentration approach intended to limit future nitrogen inputs: 0.32,
0.50 and 0.75 mg/1 as critical concentrations for water bodies of varying water
quality and usage.
One of EPA's National Estuary Program projects, the Buzzard's Bay
(Massachusetts) Project, recommended that a critical nitrogen loading rate be
established for anthropogenic sources of nitrogen which is independent of
measured nitrogen concentrations in the water column, and tentatively
adopted 240 mg per cubic meter per residence time (mg/m3/R) as the critical
loading rate for nitrogen sensitive embayments (Buzzard's Bay Project, 1991).
More recently, the Buzzard's Bay Project has revised this standard to a tiered
approach reflecting state water quality standards, flushing of the coastal system,
and special designations (J. Costa, 1991, pers. commun.). The current
recommended nitrogen loading limits are shown in Table 5-4 (Buzzard's Bay
Project, 1991).
Table 5-4. Nitrogen Loading Limits
Tvoe of Embavment-
SB* Waters
SA* Waters
Sensitive Waters
Shallow:
Flushing in £ 5 days
Flushing > 5 days
Deep:
Use lesser loading rate
350mg/m3/Vr 2DOmg/m3/Vr
30g/m2/yr
100mg/m3/Vr
500mg/m3/Vr 260mg/m3/Vr 130mg/m3/Vr
or or or
45 g/rn2/yr
Vr = residence time/square root (1 + residence time).
* SB and SA are classifications relating to existing, desired water quality based on waterbody
type, location, size, etc. and adjacent land uses. SB is a lower water quality than SA.
Source: Buzzards Bay Project, 1991
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
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The annual nitrogen loading to groundwater required to reach a critical
threshold of water quality standard can be calculated if the surface area, volume
and flushing rate of the waterbody are known, as shown in the following
equation:
L m Criticanoadingrate(lbs/yr)
where
A
d
r
V
f
TN
Area
Water depth (MLW)
Average tidal range
Bay volume at mean tide = (A)(d+r/2)
Flushing rate (times per year)
Total nitrogen standard or threshold (mg/m^/R).
The equation can also be rearranged to calculate what the loading will be under
a given development scenario:
TN (mg/m3/yr) = (1*454,000 mg/lb)/(V*f).
Using a standard such as that developed by the Buzzard's Bay Project, the
likelihood of exceeding the threshold under existing zoning can be assessed,
and preventative steps taken if needed. (See Section Eight, Case Study #1, for a
more detailed discussion of the use of this standard.)
Critical Habitat and Rare Species Evaluations
In addition to assessment of contamination threats to coastal resources, an
inventory of rare species and critical habitats may be appropriate, depending on
community location and extent of existing development The federal
government maintains lists of endangered speces, and each state and several
Indian tribes have natural heritage programs which inventory rare species
occurrences and maintain databases of population locations, frequency, and
other relevant information. These agencies may be able to provide
information on local rare species or habitats. If a community has not yet been
inventoried, a professional ecologist, botanist, or zoologist may be retained to
identify rare species and habitats critical to their survival. These habitats may
be protected using techniques described in Section Seven.
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Threat Prioritization/Risk Assessment
For any given coastal resource area there are many potential contamination
threats as discussed in Section Four. Once these threats are listed, inventoried
and cataloged, the total number of sites and activities can be overwhelming.
All of the threats and contaminant sources may have the potential to impact
water quality and aquatic life. However, it is important to develop or use a
mechanism to assess which threats are of most importance, and are likely to be
controllable through some form of a management program.
Necessity for Prioritization
Coastal resource managers are frequently required to make difficult
decisions on priorities to protect the resource. Often this is accomplished
intuitively through the identification of a particularly important class of
pollutants or activities (i.e. wastewater treatment plant discharge,
stormwater outfalls, combined sewer overflows, etc.). However, in most
instances it is not obvious which of the many potential contamination
sources present the greatest risk to the resource. In order to develop
effective and efficient management programs, threat prioritization or
general risk assessments are necessary to prioritize management efforts.
Risk Assessment Defined
The term risk assessment is used to describe the detailed analysis of the
effects of environmental pollutants on aquatic systems and human health.
In assessing risk, in depth information needs to be collected on:
exposure of organisms and humans to toxic pollutants; the
measurement of the effects of this exposure; and
the assessment of the likely response of human and aquatic
organisms to this exposure. A detailed risk assessment for a
particular contaminant in an aquatic environment can be very
costly, time-consuming, and complex.
Approaches to Prioritize Threats
Since site specific risk assessments can not feasibly be conducted in every
estuary, for every possible contaminant, or its impact on all organisms,
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
5-13
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threat prioritization techniques can be used as a screening mechanism.
Estuary characterization is one of the first steps necessary in order to
prioritize threats. Detailed information on historical trends, present
conditions, and probable future conditions should be organized.
Group Analysis and Decisions:
A simple prioritization process is to use trained professionals to
help rank the problems from most important to least. Once the
estuary characterization information is collected, it can be organized
and presented to a group of professionals knowledgeable in coastal
impact assessment for their ranking so that effort and funding
levels can be allocated effectively.
Risk Ranking Matrices:
Another objective method is to organize the data into a relative-risk
ranking matrix. For each pollutant source or group of sources, the
likelihood of contamination can be evaluated against the probability
of impacts. The likelihood of contamination is a combination of
the presence of contaminant sources and number of sources that
could release contaminants. For example, a buildout assessment
and nitrogen loading analysis can quantify the input of nitrogen to a
coastal resource based upon the hydrogeology of the drainage basin
and knowledge of contaminant transport.
The next step is to take this information and compare it to the
probable impact that these releases will have on aquatic life. By
understanding the levels of toxicity of the various contaminants to
different organisms, the impact can be determined in a relative
sense.
This information and ranking can be organized in a comparative
matrix format where low, medium and high values for the
likelihood of contamination can be displayed in relation to the
probable impact in low, medium, and high categories. The
following chart shows a sample ranking of potential contamination
sources.
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Likelihood of
Contamination
High
Medium
Low
Low
Wildlife
Probable Impact
Medium
USTs
Septic Systems
Marinas
High
CSOs
If the majority of threats in a community or watershed fall in the
high-high and high-medium boxes, management action will be
different than if the majority fall within the low-low and low-
medium categories. This method provides a quick and objective
method to set priorities for actions and management controls from
the many potential sources of contamination that are found to
impact coastal resources.
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SECTION SIX
RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
AND PROTECTION TOOLS
?, , ;^;./:&;-:^.ii.^:»jajjl^
-------
-------
SECTION
SIX
RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND PROTECTION TOOLS
Once local goals and objectives for coastal resource protection have been
defined, watersheds delineated, sources of contamination inventoried and
assessed, management techniques can be developed. There are many options
available to manage existing sources of contamination and to ensure that
future land use activities do not pose a threat to water quality. However, it is
important to distinguish between coastal resource management~a piecemeal
endeavorand coastal zone mangement-a comprehensive, regional approach
(Hershman and Feldman, 1979). While coastal zone management may be
more desirable, local goals, time, and monetary resources may dictate that
initial efforts, at least, are focused on particular resources. This section presents
various management options and includes a summary matrix that shows
which tools are applicable to which threats.
Health regulations, zoning ordinances, land acquisition and voluntary controls
are some of the options available to local government in its mission to protect
and manage coastal resources. Health regulations can address both proposed
and existing development and their impacts on water quality. Zoning controls
are limited in that they are prospectivethey typically apply only to future
development and not to existing activities which are exempt or
"grandfathered". General police powers are available under a community's
home rule powers to protect the public health, safety, and general welfare.
Non-regulatory options may include educational efforts, monitoring, the
adoption of certain best management practices, and land acquisition.
The type of control that a community may be considering will also help to
determine who in the local community should be involved. For example, if
boat sanitary waste dumping is considered a threat, the local harbormaster
should be involved in the planning of any regulatory measures. It would also
be valuable to gather support from local marinas that may be affected by new
mooring and pumpout regulations.
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
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Nevertheless, surface water clean up is possible and a major focus of
community activities. Many of the tools listed in this chapter are designed for
protection of groundwater, which amounts to preventative action for coastal
waters as polluted groundwater can be a significant source of contamination in
surface waters. For both surface and groundwaters, prevention of pollution is
much cheaper than dean up after the fact
Regulatory Techniques
Zoning
Zoning regulations have been used throughout the country, in coastal and
inland areas, to segregate (different and possibly conflicting activities into
different areas of a community. Following are important techniques than can
be used to protect Coastal Resources.
Overlay Water Resource Protection Districts
Watersheet Zoning
Prohibition of Various Land Uses
Special Permitting
Large Lot Zoning
Transfer of Development Rights
Cluster/PUD Design
Growth Controls/Timing
Performance Standards
Overlay Water Resource Protection Districts
One technique designed to update zoning regulations for protection of a
surface or groundwater resource is the creation and adoption of overlay
water resource protection districts through an ordiance or bylaw(see Figure
6-1). These ordinances and bylaws, while varying in their approach
toward resource protection (i.e. prohibition of various uses vs. special
permitting and/or performance criteria), are similar in their goals of
defining the resource! by mapping watershed boundaries and enacting
specific legislation for land uses and development within these
boundaries.
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
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Watersheet Zoning
A new zoning technique that has been instituted in a few communities
(but not yet tested extensively) is watersheet zoning. This is simply the
idea of extending zoning districts onto water bodies. Under traditional
zoning, specific areas of a community are set aside for various land uses.
Under watersheet zoning, certain areas of the waterbody are set aside for
such water-dependent uses as navigation channels, mooring areas,
waterskiing, and so on.
Estuarine Protection Overlay District
Figure 6-1 Watershed Overlay District
Source: Horsley & Witten, Inc., 1989
Prohibition of Various Land Uses
Virtually every community that has adopted zoning prohibits certain land
uses from specific sections of the community, although the rationale
behind such prohibition may or may not be related to water resource
protection. While not the most creative nor effective approach toward
resource protection, prohibition of land uses such as gas stations, sewage
treatment plants, landfills, or others involving the use, storage and
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
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disposal of toxic and/or hazardous materials is a first step toward the
development of a comprehensive water resource protection strategy.
Special Permitting
If applied strictly, the special permitting process can be used effectively to
regulate uses and structures that may potentially denigrate water quality.
For example, many communities use the special permitting process to
prohibit underground storage tanks or limit lawn fertilizer use within
critical areas.
Large Lot Zoning
Large lot zoning, as the title implies, seeks to limit water resource
degradation by reducing the number of buildings and, therefore, septic
systems within a protection area (see Figure 6-2). Large lot zoning has
limited effectiveness in rapidly growing areas, since zoning and
subdivision enabling legislation provides broad protection to land owners
from increases in minimum lot sizes. Nevertheless, when used as part of
an overall protection strategy, large lot zoning within resource
contributing areas can be an effective tool against water contamination.
There is no definition of "large lot" zoning, although case law has upheld
different variations on local government's use of minimum lot size.
6
8
Figure 6-2. Small and Large Lot Zoning in Subdivision
Source: Horsley & Witten, Inc., 1988
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
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Transfer of Development Rights
The idea of "transfer of development rights" (TDR) is based on the concept
that a parcel of land has a bundle of different "rights" associated with it. A
TDR program allows a landowner to separate his or her right to develop
the land, as permitted by zoning, from the other rights associated with the
land, and sell those development rights (Figure 6-3).
To implement a TDR program, a governmental entity such as the town
would prepare a plan designating the parcels or districts from which
development rights could be transferred (a "sending" or "donor" parcel),
and the parcels or districts which would receive those development rights
and develop at a higher density than allowed by the underlying zoning
district (a "receiving parcel").
Figure 6-3 Transfer of Development Rights
Source: Horsley & Witten, Inc., 1988
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
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Typically, a sending parcel or district might be within a contributing area
to an estuary or other water resource. A receiving parcel is able, both from
a physical standpoint and in terms of the community's growth program,
to accommodate additional development beyond that allowed as-of-right
by zoning. In selling his or her development rights, a landowner would
gain the cash value of whatever development rights the market associates
with the land, and yet would keep the land in a less intensive use and
help protect the resource in question. A perpetual easement or some
other development restriction would be recorded with the deed of the
sending or donor parcel. The purchaser of the development rights gains
the ability to develop the receiving parcel at a higher density than allowed
"as-of-right" and can recapture the cost of the purchased development
rights through the more intensive use of the receiving parcel.
Cluster/Planned Unit Development Design
Cluster zoning, or planned unit development (PUD), is an alternative to
the standard grid-style subdivision. It allows buildings to be "clustered"
more densely on the portion of the site most suitable for development, in
exchange for preserving the rest of the site, including any sensitive coastal
areas, as contiguous open space (Figure 6-4). In a duster development,
smaller building lots are allowed, with resulting land savings set aside in
contiguous areas of open space.
Watershed
Figure 6-4. Subdivision Designs
Source: Horsley & Witten, Inc., 1991
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
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Clustering can be done at the same overall density that could be obtained
in a grid system by using smaller individual lots, therefore preserving
important natural areas. Often a greater number of lots (units) are allowed
as a bonus for leaving more open space. Typically, duster development
allows shorter streets, reducing impervious surfaces and decreasing
runoff, which may carry contaminants, as discussed in Section Four.
Cluster design and PUDs provide tremendous flexibility for both the
developer and municipality, and often allow for greater creativity in the
division of large land parcels.
Growth Controls/Timing
Growth controls are techniques that are used to slow or guide a
community's growth, ideally in concert with its ability to "support"
growth. The term "support" has been broadly defined, and can include
issues ranging from a city or town's physical and financial ability to
provide public facilities (roads, water, sewer, schools and public safety) to
its ability to retain its once rural, historic character. Growth controls vary
in their application and have included outright moratoria to limitations
on numbers of building permits issued in any twelve month period. One
of the most widely referenced examples of growth control is the 1969
Ramapo, New York, ordinance that limited growth and development in
the community to a rate commensurate with the town's ability to provide
services to new (and existing) residents.
Falmouth, Massachusetts, used growth contols to limit land subdivision
within the rapidly developing watersheds to its coastal ponds. In 1985, the
town adopted a subdivision phasing regulation designed to slow
development within these sensitive resource areas. The idea was to "buy
time" for the town to implement other management controls such as re-
zoning, land acquisition and monitoring to protect the coastal water
resources.
Performance Standards
Performance standards are based on the assumption that any given
resource has a threshold, beyond which the resource's ability to function
deteriorates to unacceptable levels. Performance controls assume that
most uses are allowable within a designated area provided mat the uses do
not and will not overload the resources. A good example of a
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
6-7
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performance standard is one designed to protect surface water quality by
setting a critical threshold for a contaminant. Those land uses which will
cause the threshold to be exceeded in the waterbody are not allowed.
Approximately one year before Falmouth, Massachusetts, adopted the
growth controls noted above, the town instituted a unique and precedent-
setting approach to manage development in watersheds to the town's
coastal resources. All development within defined, mapped areas
(mapped as an overlay zoning district) was required to adhere to strict
performance standards. In effect, these standards were designed to ensure
that all development within watersheds to coastal ponds, when analyzed
cumulatively, would not exceed the assimilative capacity of the resources.
Health Regulations
The development of health regulations is an extremely effective method of
rounding out a community's regulatory protection program. The following are
examples of well accepted techniques using health regulations to protect coastal
and water resources.
Underground Storage Tanks
* Privately-Owned Waistewater Treatment Plants (Small Sewage
Treatment Plants)
Septic System Maintenance
Boat Pump-out Facilities and Head Controls
Underground Storage Tanks
Leaking underground storage tanks may be the single largest source of
groundwater contamination in the nation. The larger underground
gasoline storage tanks associated with automotive service stations have
caused numerous groundwater contamination incidents. As noted
earlier, if compounds from these tanks enter estuaries, they may be
accumulated by shellfish, presenting a health risk to consumers.
Potential components of tank regulations are: leak testing and
construction standards for new, large tanks such as those at automotive
service stations; prohibition of new residential underground storage tanks
if they cannot be adequately monitored; removal of existing residential
'Coastal Resource Management and Protection
6-8
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underground storage tanks; and prohibition of all new underground tank
installation (except for replacements) within watersheds.
Privately-Owned Small Sewage Treatment Plants
Privately-owned small sewage treatment plants (SSTPs) have been utilized
as a technological solution to prevent overloading of the natural
capabilities of land and associated water resources to assimilate wastewater
discharges. The use of these small treatment plants has, in some cases,
allowed development of land beyond the development that would be
possible using conventional, individual septic systems.
The effectiveness of SSTPs is dependent upon the proper functioning of
more components than that associated with a standard septic system.
SSTPs also require supervised operation and maintenance. Consequently,
they are more likely to malfunction and their use may be a risk in critical
resource areas. To eliminate these risks in critical water resource areas,
some communities have entirely banned the use of SSTPs.
Septic System Maintenance
The maintenance of on-site septic systems is frequently overlooked. The
result is typically an overloading of solids moving to the leaching facility
and subsequent clogging. When this occurs, the system needs to be
rehabilitated. This is commonly done with the use of strong acids or
organic solvents. However, these chemicals are contaminants and can
degrade ground and surface water quality. To minimize this danger and to
ensure proper maintenance of septic systems, many communities have
developed a voluntary septic system maintenance program. The key
component of such a program is pumping every two to three years for
residential septic systems.
Boat Pump-out Facilities and Head Use Limitations
Since near shore dumping of human wastes from boats can cause
contamination of shellfish beds, swimming areas, and nutrient
enrichment, some communities have enacted limitations on dumping
and taken action to provide pump-out facilities. For example, Kent
County, Maryland requires all new or expanding marinas to install pump-
out facilities and to provide signs notifying boaters of the facility. In Prince
William County, Virginia, the county supplements state requirements to
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
6-9
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ensure that at least one pump-out facility is available per creek with
marinas (Jenkins, 1991).
Subdivision Rules and Regulations
Subdivision regulations fine tune zoning bylaws and ordinances in that they
focus less on land use and more on engineering concerns such as road
construction, utilities and site plan lay-out of individual subdivisions.
Protecting coastal water resources via subdivision control is therefore less
effective than via zoning, but can still be used to ensure that drainage and
landscaping designs fit with the goal of resource protection. Following are
some important techniques to consider.
Drainage Requirements
Environmental Impact Assessments
Performance Standards
Site Design/Landscaping
Drainage Requirements
Overland runoff from subdivisions often contributes nutrients, metals,
and other contaminats to surface waters. To help control this problem,
drainage requirements may be established by local planning commissions
and boards as part of subdivision review processes. (Drainage best
management practices are also effective in non-subdivision areas.) Table
6-1 shows costs and benefits for seven drainage management options.
Tab^e 6-1. Comparative Costs of Stormwater Management Techniques
Technique
Grassed swales
Infiltration basin
Infiltration Trench
Porous pavement
Detention Pond
Retention Pond
Constructed wetland
Construction Costs
Low
Moderate-high
Low-moderate
High
Low-moderate
High
High
Maintenance Costs Water Quality Benefits
Moderate
High
Moderate-high
High
Moderate-high
Moderate-high
Low
Moderate
Moderate-high
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate-high
High
High
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
6-10
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Effective drainage management should minimize the volume of runoff
generated as well as enhance filtration (see Section Four). Steepness of
constructed slopes should be minimized, and bare surfaces revegetated as
quickly as possible.
Environmental Impact Assessments
Proposed subdivisions exceeding a minimum size, such as 10 lots, may be
required to prepare Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs). EIAs may
include varying information, depending on community needs and water
resource protection goals. Possible requirements are: identification of
sensitive water receptors on site and downgradient, information as to
existing condition of these resources, and potential impacts from the
proposed development on coastal areas, or other sensitive areas nearby.
Performance Standards
Subdivisions may be regulated on the degree of impact the full
development could have on water resources. Performance standards,
such as nitrogen and phosphorus loading limitations, may thus be
specified to keep contamination from the subdivision below assimilation
capacity of the downgradient water resource. The developer can be
required to determine impacts, perhaps through the EIA process (above).
(See also Performance Standards under Zoning, above.)
Site Design/Landscaping
Water quality protection may be enhanced via requirements for vegetated
buffer zones, natural landscaping in key areas and the reduction of
impervious areas through stringent percent cover standards and
alternative roadway designs. In establishing landscaping requirements,
communities should encourage xeriscaping techniques. Xeriscaping
focuses on the use of native plant materials having lower water and
nutrient requirements than standard landscape species. Use of highly
demanding exotics should be discouraged.
Wetland Bylaws
It is a well-documented fact that wetlands are a critical component in the
protection of both surface and groundwater quality. Wetlands absorb and
contain flood waters and have been shown to remove significant quantities of
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
6-11
-------
pollutants through a combination of physical, chemical and biological
processes. Clearly, the first step in protecting water quality is to protect the
wetlands themselves, both by enforcing applicable state regulations to their
fullest extent and, where authorized by statute, by adopting local bylaws to
protect wetlands and wetland functions. Following are some techniques for
protecting wetlands.
Natural Vegetated Buffers
Surface Water Discharges
Erosion and Sedimentation Control
Restrictions on Pesticides and Fertilizers
Natural Vegetated Buffers
Natural vegetated buffers have tremendous value in protecting wetlands
and surface waters from a variety of impacts. Buffer strips aid in reducing
direct stormwater runoff discharge to surface waters, stabilize shoreline
areas and provide wildlife habitat and corridors. Buffer strip widths may
vary depending on the resource in question. For example, Queen Anne's
County, Maryland, requires a 300 foot buffer around tidal wetlands and
waters, 50% of which must be forested. If not currently wooded, trees
must be planted. The non-wooded portion is maintained as natural
ground cover (Jenkins, 1991).
Surface Water Discharges
Land development frequently results in increased discharges of surface
run-off to wetlands and watercourses which may cause downstream
flooding, severe alterations to wetlands hydrology, and degradation of
water quality. To prevent this, direct discharge of surface run-off from
roads and other paved areas to wetlands and watercourses can be
prohibited by local ordinances. Developers can be encouraged to
minimize the extent of paving within buffer zones and to use permeable
paving materials where possible. Surface run-off should be recharged on
site, using a combination of vegetated swales, detention basins and similar
techniques (see also drainage controls under Subdivision Regulations,
above).
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
6-12
-------
Erosion and Sedimentation Control
The discharge of sediments to wetlands and waterways often has severe
consequences, ranging from direct sedimentation of wetland flora and
fauna to reduction in water clarity. Therefore strict erosion and
sedimentation controls for construction activities should be enacted.
Different types of erosion controls will dearly be required for different
slopes, soil conditions and construction activities. Subsequent
revegetation requirements can also be specified, to insure long-term site
stability.
Restrictions on Pesticides and Fertilizers
Fertilized lawns often contribute substantial levels of nutrients, pesticides
and herbicides to surface waters directly, via surface water runoff, and
indirectly, via leaching to groundwater. Therefore, it is recommended
that the extent and the location of lawn areas proposed within the buffer
zones to water resources be controlled.
Non-Regulatory Techniques
Many communities have recognized that over-reliance upon regulatory tools
merely programs a municipality for development and allows little flexibility if
the original program was inaccurate, or if better information has been made
available since the program was devised. Consequently, an effective resource
program should also utilize non-regulatory tools.
Although many non-regulatory water resource programs are available to cities
and towns, they have traditionally focused on seven categories:
Land Acquistion
Land Donation
Conservation Easement
Public Education
Water Quality Monitoring
Hazardous Waste Collection
Contingency Planning
Land acquisitions, land donations, and conservation easements (the following
three techniques) are all management techniques that may be more efficiently
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
6-13
-------
conducted by non-profit land conservation organizations than by
municipalities. These organizations are frequently created as land trusts for
particular towns, counties, or watersheds, and often have names such as
"Smith County Land Trust", "Friends of Pleasant Lake", or "Jonesville
Conservation Trust". These organizations are tax-exempt, not-for-profit
corporations. Therefore, donations and bargain sales to the conservation trust
are usually considered charitable donations and may have positive federal and
state tax consequences. These organizations can provide expertise in arranging
land transfers, drafting conservation easements, and explaining advantages and
disadvantages of real estate transfers to both land purchasers and sellers;
coordinate with and solicit aid from various foundations; and, in some cases,
have the capacity to provide funds for acquistion or to serve as land owners
and stewards. Some of these organizations can only serve as temporary land
owners while others may hold lands permanently.
Land Acquisition
One obvious way for a community to protect a resource it to buy the land
outright. Acquisition priorities may include wetlands and streambanks
within coastal watersheds, often for access opportunities as well as for
resource protection. Outright purchase of land can take four variations:
a) Purchase at fair market value: The buyer (community or
conservation group) pays the seller the fair market value for the
property.
b) Bargain purchase: The purchase of property below fair market value
by a conservation organization or municipality. The difference
between fair market value and the reduced price may qualify as a
charitable deduction from income taxes for the seller.
c) Installment purchase: The property is purchased over a period of
years. Installment purchases allow the town to spread the purchase
costs over a number of years.
d) Purchase with a reserved life estate: The property is transferred to the
town upon the death of the individual land owner. This option
allows landowners to sell now, but to continue to use their property
during their lifetime and/or the lifetimes of other members of their
immediate family. Because of the continued use, the purchase price
may be lower than fair market value.
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
6-14
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An innovative technique for land acquisition is the land bank Land
banks receive a. percentage of fees generated by real estate transfers/ and use
this money to fund land acquisition. Land banks are usually created by the
state legislature and may apply to specific regions or statewide (see also
Section Seven for more information).
A more traditional, frequently controversial, form of land acquisition is
through eminent domain. If a community can demonstrate the value of a
given parcel for the public good, it can take ownership of that parcel.
However, due compensation must be given to the previous owner, in
accordance with the Fifth Amendment to the US Constitution which
states, "...nor shall private property be taken for public use without just
compensation." Public approval is usually required for eminent domain
action, since public money is spent to compensate the previous owner.
Eminent domain takings are frequently contested by the previous owner,
who believes the land to be worth more than he is offered by the
community.
Eminent domain takings should not be confused with a "takings" claim,
where a land owner challenges a town that a zoning bylaw or other
regulation prohibits him from all uses of his land, i.e., his land has
effectively been taken without any compensation.
Land Donation
Land owners are often in the position of being able to donate a piece of
land either to the community or a non-profit organization such as local
land trusts. If so< they will find that giving the land for preservation costs
them far less than they might think, particularly when a variety of tax
savings are taken into account.
The initial benefit to the person donating the land comes in the
elimination of estate or capital gains taxes. In addition, real estate taxes,
insurance and maintenance costs are avoided. And, the entire value of
the donation can be deducted, over time, from federal and, in many cases,
state income tax obligations.
Donations of ecologically significant land within coastal watersheds can be
a particularly important technique for resource protection. Donations
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
6-15
-------
which provide access to water often help fulfill community goals of
increased public access to waterways.
Conservation Easements
An easement is a limited right to use or restrict land owned by someone
else. Easements are either positive (rights-of-way) or negative
(conservation, scenic) and may take a variety of forms. Easements can
effectively assist a community in protecting land from development by
restricting all or a portion of the property to open space or limited
development uses. "The granting of a conservation easement does not
involve the transfer of ownership of the land; instead it means giving up
certain development rights of the property. For example, a conservation
easement may restrict the number of houses to be built upon a parcel;
restrict the types of development allowed on the parcel; or specify that
portions of the parcel remain undeveloped in perpetuity.
Public Education
There are many examples around the country where innovative public
education programs on water use issues have been developed. Public
education can be used to build support for regulatory efforts, or to
implement voluntary protection efforts such as water conservation, waste
oil collection, and water quality monitoring.
Public education on water resource protection can include: press releases;
press conferences; newsletters; meetings and workshops; establishing
voluntary committees; and preparing brochures on water protection. For
example, Bothell,. Washington, paints a warning sign by storm drains,
stating that the drain leads to a stream and that no waste should be
dumped. The program is part of an effort to restore water quality in Puget
Sound (EPA, 1990). Similarly, in the Chesapeake Bay drainage in Prince
George's County, Maryland, the Department of Public Works is putting
stickers on storm drains, stating," Do not litter, Chesapeake Bay drainage"
(Jenkins, 1991).
Water Quality Monitoring
Water quality monitoring is becoming a very important aspect of a non-
regulatory approach to water protection. Local governments have
developed programs to identify problem areas in their community where
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
6-16
-------
contamination has already affected water quality. In addition, monitoring
can be used to measure the effectiveness of the water protection program
or as an early warning of threats. Monitoring can be conducted by state
and local governments and water utilities, or industry and commercial
activities may wish to develop their own water quality monitoring
programs. Frequently volunteers, particularly retired citizens and high
school or university classes, can serve as effective resource quality
observers.
For example, in Rhode Island, the volunteer Salt Pond Watchers monitor
water temperature, clarity, nutrient, chlorophyll, and bacterial levels in
coastal lagoons. The state Department of Environmental Management
has used the Watchers Program data to determine shellfish and beach
closures (EPA, 1990). In Chesapeake Bay, approximately 130 stations are
monitored by volunteers for pH, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, water depth
and temperature, air temperature, weather conditions, and rainfall
(Jenkins, 1991).
Hazardous Waste Collection
Another non-regulatory protection tool is the collection of household
hazardous waste. Although these materials are generated in small
amounts, they can represent large threats to surface and groundwater
quality. Motor oil allowed to drain onto the land surface when
automobile oil is changed, excess paint discarded in the gutter, fungicides
and herbicides left in a shed that is flooded during a hurricane are possible
routes from contaminant container to water. To avoid these scenarios,
many communities have implemented hazardous waste collection days.
For example, in Arlington County, Virginia, the Water Pollution Control
Plant accepts household hazardous wastes from residents. The Plant
Chemist classifies and stores the wastes and periodically ships them to a
licensed hazardous waste facility (Jenkins, 1991).
Contingency Planning
Planning for emergencies is an important non-regulatory protection tool.
This planning includes advance consideration of the type of emergency
that could occur to impact coastal resources and populations, the
likelihood of occurrence, the possible ways of combating the emergency,
designation of alternative power supplies if necessary, and determination
of emergency authority and responsibility. Contingency planning includes
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
6-17
-------
knowing which backhoe operator can be contacted in the middle of the
night to repair a burst sewer main, knowing which laboratory can
accurately test for a breakout of paralytic shellfish poisoning (see Section
Four), what local service agency will shelter hurricane victims and what
local wildlife group will resuscitate waterfowl hurt in an oil spill.
In coastal areas, according to federal regulation (Tide 33, Federal Water
Pollution Control Act), contingency plans must be prepared for
contaminant spills to surface waters. Flans should also be developed for
catastrophes such as hurricanes, tropical storms and flooding. Ideally, new
development in floodplain areas, at least in the velocity zone, should be
prohibited and existing development phased out. However, contingency
plans should include consideration of floodplain areas. Human, wildlife,
water quality, and infrastructure needs should be part of contingency
plans, and prioritization of response planned if necessary.
APPLICABILITY OF TECHNIQUES
Not all management techniques discussed above are effective for all resource
quality threats. Selecting appropriate techniques will depend in part on local
politics and regulatory structures, as well as on technical and financial
wherewithal. Table 6-2 provides a summary of the techniques listed above and
is followed by Table 6-3 which shows applicability of common management
techniques to common resource quality threats. A combination of techniques
may be more effective than a single technique, and new techniques can be
added to supplement a program as needs or financing develop.
Regional Coordination
Three communities sharing a common estuary may find that methods of
protecting the watershed from contamination vary from community to
community. Town 1 may have enacted stringent land use controls within the
watershed. City 2, however, facing an economic decline, may be encouraging
commercial growth in the watershed, particularly as the locus has easy access to
the interstate highway. The solution to the problem lies at the State level
because local governments do not possess inherent sovereign power-their
jurisdiction rests almost exclusively with state constitutional provisions,
charters, statutes, ordinances, and regulations.
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
6-18
-------
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6-21
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Coastal Resource Management and Protection
6-24
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(Continued)
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
6-2S
-------
State-mandated regional planning would provide an ideal mechanism to
ensure that resource protection issues, as illustrated above/ are addressed on a
regional, as opposed to a piece-meal, basis.
To avoid the obvious planning concerns of the example cited, the state could
adopt a regional water management program requiring all communities
sharing a common water resource to adopt stringent watershed protection
measures. For example, all communities within the watershed could be
required to adopt minimum lot size and use requirements commensurate with
the goal of water quality protection.
Moreover, the communities--precisely because they are required to do so-can
share the cost of defining the boundaries of the water resource and ideally assist
each other in managing the area of concern. While local governments may
become concerned that their "home rule" authority is being usurped, history
has proven clearly that critical natural resources spanning regional boundaries
cannot be adequately protected at the local government level alone.
For example, on the Florida-Alabama border, Ferdido Bay was impacted by
paper mill discharges to a tributary of the estuary. A joint water management
council was created to allow monitoring and reduction of the algal blooms and
discolored, odorous water (EPA, 1990). Similarly, the Washington state
legislature created the Fuget Sound Water Quality Authority in 1985 to prepare
and implement a conservation and management plan for the Puget Sound
resource which straddles multiple municipal boundaries (EPA, 1990).
Practical Exercise in Embayment Protection
Figure 6-5, following these instructions, depicts Boot Bay, a hypothetical
embayment The watershed to the Bay is also shown. The overlay shows
potential contamination threats to Boot Bay. Using these figures, answer the
following questions, which are designed to walk you through the
contamination identification and resource protection process.
1. What are the greatest threats to Boot Bay, based on the worksheet?
2. What other typical contamination threats might occur in the Boot Bay
community that are not shown on the overlay?
3. Is the landfill to the west a threat to Boot Bay water quality?
Coastal Resource Management aind Protection
6-26
-------
Assume that the industrial area is not yet developed. What techniques do
you recommend to prevent impacts to the Bay?
Where would you recommend placing a new shorefront public access
point? How would you treat the parking area, in terms of surface
material?
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
6-27
-------
-------
SECTION SEVEN
FINANCING, IMPLEMENTING, AND
ENFORCING COASTAL PROTECTION
-------
-------
SECTION
SEVEN
FINANCING, IMPLEMENTING, AND ENFORCING COASTAL
PROTECTION
Financing Coastal Protection
Coastal resource protection can require extensive funding. Few coastal
planners or managers can authorize expenditure of public funds; the raising
and appropriating of tax and other dollars is usually relegated to town meetings
and city councils. Further, the economic slowdown affecting much of the
country's coastal areas results in very limited municipal funding being
available for what are often seen as competitive and mutually exclusive local
programs - including coastal protection efforts. This section of the workbook
focuses on mechanisms coastal planners and managers can use to fund coastal
protection programs.
Local governments rely on a range of financing mechanisms for coastal
resource assessment, monitoring and protection including:
levying taxes;
collecting fees;
borrowing money;
intergovernmental transfers;
raising private capital.
Several factors must be considered when designing a community's funding
program, including equitable cost sharing, efficient collection of funds, degree
of financial risk, and political feasibility. In addition, a local government may
use its financial program to modify behavior or land use practices through
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
7-1
-------
economic disincentives (e.g. altering management practices and development
approaches by imposing penalties for practices considered threatening to water
quality).
The benefits and drawbacks of various funding mechanisms differ. Table 7-1
provides cost and benefit informationfor local revenue sources.
Table 7-1. Cost-Benefit Comparisons for Local Revenue Sources
Revenue
Source
Taxes
impact Fees
Permit Fees
Fines/Penalties
Excise Taxes
Unit Charges
Access Fees
Service Fees
Who Pavs
Taxpayers
Polluters
Polluters
Polluters
Varies
Beneficiary
Beneficiary
Beneficiary
Revenue
Yield
High
High
Low
Moderate
Moderate
High
High
High
Predict-
ability.
High
Low
Low
Low
Moderate
High
Moderate
High
Cost
Low
High
Moderate
High
Moderate
Low
Low
Low
Incentive*
Effects
Weak
Strong
Strong
Strong
Moderate
Moderate
Strong
Moderate
1 = Indicates whether incentives for changing behavior are relatively strong or weak.
Source: US EPA Office of Water, 1989.
While some tools, such as impact fees, may accrue significant funds, there may
be other considerations which limit the usefulness of the tool. For example,
impact fees provide low funding predictability and high program cost. In other
words, impact fees may be a useful tool during growth periods of a community
since revenues will be predictable. Conversely, during periods of economic
stagnation, impact fees provide little revenue and have limited utility as a
financing tool.
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
7-2
-------
The political climate of an area must also be considered. While taxes generate
significant funds and are relatively efficient and easy to administer, local
opposition to tax increases may make this source of income infeasible.
The following pages describe several mechanisms for raising revenues for
coastal resource protection programs.
Taxation
Governments typically rely upon taxes to provide the majority of their
revenue, including income taxes, property taxes, sales taxes, commodity
taxes and tax surcharges. The use of taxation is a popular and somewhat
"accepted" form of local government funding. However, the allocation of
tax revenues is often subject to competitive pressures within the local
budgetary process. Although total tax revenues may be fairly stable,
distribution for particular activities, such as coastal resource protection,
may vary with public sentiment.
Use of taxes is most suited to funding activities which provide broad-based
benefits to taxpayers. Taxation is less equitable and politically feasible in
cases where the tax base only includes a small percentage of benefactors.
Local governments may choose to adjust tax structures in response to
concern over who should paywater users (e.g. boaters), polluters (e.g.
industries which discharge to an estuary) or the general public (all
residents of the community).
Property Taxes:
Property taxes are the greatest revenue source for most local
governments, representing in some states almost 90% of local
government's available funding. Property taxes are collected once
or twice per year and are deposited in the municipality's general
fund. This fund is the principal pool of money for daily
expenditures. School and police budgets come from the general
fund, as do park and open space budgets. Since many activities and
departments are funded from the general fund, allocation is a
highly competitive and often politically divisive process. Resource
management programs may be overlooked in favor of issues such
as school and public safety programs.
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An interesting variation of the traditional property tax levy was
developed in Nantucket, Massachusetts. In 1984, the Massachusetts
Legislature approved "An Act Relative to the Nantucket Island's
Land Bank," which placed a tax upon real property being transferred
from one party to another. Revenue generated by the transfer tax is
used, among other specific purposes, to fund land acquisition for
coastal protection. Similarly, although its intentions were not to
protect coastal systems, the State of Vermont recently doubled its
real estate transfer tax to one percent to provide revenue for local
and regional land use planning and acquisition of environmentally
sensitive lands. (See also Section Six.)
Commodity or Excise Taxes:
State governments typically exact a compulsory tax on a range of
products or commodities. Several states have adopted so-called
"sin" taxes on commodities such as gasoline, liquor and tobacco.
The State of Washington finances water pollution control facilities
and dean up activities through imposing a sales tax on all tobacco
products and water pollution control equipment.
Commodity taxes may function as a general tax or may represent an
indirect tax on polluters and program beneficiaries. For instance,
some states arid local governments impose commodity taxes on
plumbing fixtures, lawn sprinkling equipment, and water and
sewer usage. Since 1981, a tax on diesel fuel consumed by tugboats
has helped finance maintenance dredging of the nation's inland
waterways. likewise, a local government or state could impose a
tax on fuels sold at marinas to fund a coastal water quality program.
Use of coastal resources may also be taxed to support resource
maintenance and protection. For example, the State of Maryland
funds maintenance of oyster harvesting areas through imposing a
tax on harvested bushels of oysters. Commodity taxes represent an
equitable form of funding for coastal programs in cases where mere
is a direct link between the product being taxed and polluters or
beneficiaries.
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Tax Surcharges:
A tax surcharge is typically imposed on a temporary basis to raise
revenues for a particular project or emergency. A surcharge is an
additional levy added to an established tax rate. A tax surcharge
may be added to sewer bills to fund repairs and maintenance to a
local sewage treatment plant or sewer lines, or may be added to
property taxes to fund retrofitting of storm water collection systems
discharging directly to a local shellfishery. Tax surcharges are
generally only approved for payment of principal or interest on
bonds for major capital improvements/ and do not provide a steady
source of revenue.
Income Taxes:
Income taxes are charges to citizens and businesses based upon
income, and are typically levied only by the federal and state
government. Income taxes collected by these governments are
placed in a general fund and are used to provide state and federal
services, programs and agencies. A portion of the funds collected
through income taxes may be used to support federal and state
coastal management programs and agencies, such as the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and National Estuary
Program. Most local governments do not have the authority to
impose income taxes.
Fines/Penalties
Fines or penalties are often used as a means to correct actions which
violate a local protection program. For instance, an industry might be
fined for releasing effluent exceeding contaminant levels specified in its
discharge permit. At the local level, this source of revenue is most
effective in modifying actions, versus raising revenues. While ideally the
use of fines or penalties would raise significant revenue, the overall
financial benefit is often low due to the high cost of enforcement and
litigation.
The Massachusetts Bays Project provides an example where fines imposed
by the federal government have been used to fund coastal projects. In
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1988, the US Environmental Protection Agency fined the Commonwealth
of Massachusetts and the Metropolitan District Commission (MDC)
approximately 2.5 million dollars for violating their National Pollutant
Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits for two wastewater
treatment facilities. In the settlement, the court ordered the
Commonwealth and MDC to provide a 2 million dollar trust fund for
study and remediation of Boston Harbor-Massachusetts Bay.
Fees
Fees, like taxes, are a popular financial tool for local governments. One
benefit of fees is that there is a direct link between the users demanding a
service and its payment. Fees may be imposed through charging polluters
a fee for the cost of cleanup associated with an activity, or through
charging beneficiaries of a service for its cost. Therefore, fees are an
equitable means of funding environmental programs since the user pays.
There are two primary types of fees which may be used to fund local
coastal resource protection programs: impact fees and user fees.
Impact Fees:
Impact fees are a relatively new means of accruing revenue to offset
the costs of providing service to new developments. Through
impact fees, developers are charged directly for the costs of necessary
infrastructure such as roads, schools, sewage treatment, etc The
local government estimates the average cost of providing a service
to new developments. For example, the developer would be
charged a fee of so many dollars per gallon of projected sewage
effluent, or per square foot of road. Developers in turn typically
distribute these costs to future homebuyers and commercial and
industrial business owners. The fee generally consists of a one-time
lump sum payment to a local government.
The advantage of imposing impact fees is that the user pays. In
areas where residents find it difficult to maintain existing facilities,
impact fees are a desirable tool to allow for increased growth. The
disadvantage is the relatively high cost of implementation and lack
of revenue stability. To withstand public criticism and court
challenges, local governments must be careful to impose a fee
which corresponds to the services received. Therefore, considerable
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administrative time and expense is required to develop a fee
structure which accurately reflects development costs for services.
The revenue accrued from impact fees will also vary with economic
growth and downturns in the local economy.
User Fees:
A common way to recover the costs of public utilities and
environmental programs is through user fees: users of particular
services are charged a fee which helps to finance current operations.
User fees typically impose either a one time access fee or a unit
charge which is dependent upon consumption of a service. Access
fees are generally a one-time charge to new consumers. Examples of
access fees include water and sewer hook up fees. This type of fee is
beneficial since it helps a community to recoup the cost of pro-
viding public facilities for future, as well as existing, users. The City
of Houston, Texas, uses wastewater access fees to fund improve-
ments. However, access fees are less reliable and will vary with
development trends.
Unit charges are generally charged over time with the charge being
dependent upon the amount of a service which is consumed.
A common example of unit charges are water and sewer bills.
Customers are typically charged some rate for each gallon of water
consumed or sewage generated. Unit charges may be used to
finance a wide range of coastal resource protection measures. For
example, coastal water quality may be maintained by pre-treating
storm water runoff through wet or dry ponds/ infiltration basins
and constructed wetlands (see Section Six for a discussion of
stonnwater management tools). A community may recover the
cost of installing these measures by charging a user fee to the
occupants of the area were drainage improvements are constructed.
Another example is the imposition of a mandatory septic system
inspection and pumping fee. A local or state government may also
charge users of coastal resources. For example, adoption of tidal
fishing license fees may be a revenue source. In 1985 the State of
Maryland initiated sport fishing licenses for its tidal waters.
Collected fees are credited to the Fisheries Research and
Development Fund and are used to propagate and conserve native
fish stocks.
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The concept behind user fees is that they are equitable since only tine
users of the system pay, and generated revenues are substantial and
predictable. Dependent upon the rate structure, user fees may also
be effective in modifying behavior or actions which are detrimental
to the environment. Higher fees may induce users to waste less
water, for example.
Intergovernmental Transfers
Intergovernmental transfers occur when one level of government collects
fees or revenues and then redistributes these funds to another level of
government. These transfers typically occur through grant programs. In
the 1970s and early 1980s, intergovernmental transfers were commonly
available to finance major capital improvements and studies. More
recently, intergovernmental transfer programs have been eliminated or
have faced budget cuts as all levels of government are faced with reduced
levels of funding. Today, intergovernmental transfers are infrequent and
are no longer a reliable source of income for local governments.
An on-going example of a successful intergovernmental transfer program
for coastal resource protection is the National Estuary Program. This
program was established by Congress under the Clean Water Act with the
intent of showing how estuaries and other ecosystems may be protected
and enhanced through development of comprehensive conservation and
management plans (CCMPs). This program provides technical assistance
in monitoring, sampling, data management, and public education and
outreach. The program seeks to identify ways that communities may
finance their own protection programs. This program currently provides
funding for 17 estuaries across the nation (Buzzard's Bay Project, 1991,
pers. comm.)'
Albemarle-Famlico Sound, North Carolina
Barataria-Terrebonne Estuarine Complex, Louisiana
Buzzard's Bay, Massachusetts
Casco Bay, Maine
Delaware Bay, New Jersey/Delaware/Pennsylvania
Delaware Inland Bays, Delaware
Galveston Bay, Texas
Indian River Lagoon, Florida
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Long Island Sound, Connecticut/New York
Massachusetts Bays-Cape Cod Bay-Boston Harbor, Massachusetts
Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island
New York/New Jersey Harbor
Puget Sound, Washington
San Francisco Bay, California
Santa Monica Bay, California
Sarasota Bay, Florida
Tampa Bay, Florida.
Grants for coastal resource research and development may be obtained
through the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (Title 33, Section 1255
and following). This act provides grants for demonstration projects
researching several issues involving storm waters, advanced waste
treatment, prevention of water pollution by industry, agricultural
pollution, and pollution from sewage in rural areas. Interested
communities should contact the Office of Wetlands, Oceans and
Watersheds, US EPA, Mail Code WH556F, 401 M Street, SW., Washington,
D.C., 20460 (202-260-7166).
Coastal programs vary nationally, therefore, it is recommended that local
governments contact their appropriate state coastal resource protection
agency to obtain more specific information. In some cases, a program
which is not geared directly toward providing funding for coastal resource
management may nonetheless be applicable. For instance, the State of
Maryland's Open Space Program provides funds to communities for
acquisition of sensitive habitats. The program began with an initial $20
million bond and is continually funded by a 0.5% real estate transfer tax.
Local governments may protect unique or sensitive coastal habitats as
open space through mis program.
Bonds
Bonds are used by communities and state governments to provide upfront
funding to finance major capital improvements such as water and sewer
treatment plants. Bonds are different from other funding sources
primarily because they are not a source of revenue but rather, they must be
repaid. Bonds are a means for spreading the costs of funding a project
over time, especially where the benefits of the project extend into the
future. Communities which issue bonds receive money upfront from a
Coastal Resource Management and Protection 7-9
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large number of lenders or bondholders, and repay the bond over time
through "debt service", which includes interest expense plus the
repayment of principle. The debt service can be paid from general
revenues, special taxes, user fees, or other mechanisms that generate
capital.
When a community considers using bonding for program funding, the
following considerations apply:
Determine the expenditure needs of the program, and where other
revenue sources (fees, taxes, general revenues, etc.) cannot be
reasonably raised to support the program, bonding may provide a
source of funds;
Determine how the bonds will be repaid, since they are not a source
of revenue;
Determine the equity of bond financing, since the cost of repayment
will spread out: over many years. Future beneficiaries will support
the cost of repayment of the bonds;
Consider the cost of bonds. The interest expense can extend over 20
or 30 years, which can more than double or triple the initial project
cost.
Use of bonds is considered an equitable means of financing large capital
improvements since the entire cost of the improvement is not born
upfront by current users. Instead, the cost of the improvement is paid
over time by current as well as future users.
Government bonds can be classified according to how they will be repaid:
* General obligation bonds;
Revenue bonds;
Special tax bonds.
General obligation bonds are paid out of the general revenues of the
government agency and have their repayment insured by the full faith,
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
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credit, and taxing power of the issuer. The issuer is legally obligated to
either raise taxes or broaden the tax base to obtain the necessary funds to
make the interest payments. Bond purchasers generally consider these
types of bonds to be the most secure, since they are backed by the full faith
and credit of the state or locality. General obligation bonds are usually
subject to voter approval, and they are limited by the maximum general
obligation debt that can be issued by the state or locality.
Revenue bonds are repaid from the revenues generated at the facilities
constructed with the proceeds of the bond. For example, "toll" bridges and
roads are often funded with revenue bonds, with the toll charges, or rents
collected, used to repay the debt. Interest rates on revenue bonds are often
higher than on general obligation bonds because they represent a greater
risk. There is a possibility that the revenues generated from the user fees
will not be sufficient to repay the debt service. In addition, most revenue
bonds lack the full faith and credit backing of the government. Revenue
bonds do not require voter approval and do not count against a state or
local government's debt ceiling.
Special tax bonds are repaid only with funds raised by a special tax. These
taxes or assessments can be paid by those that will benefit from the facility
or program. Interest rates on these bonds are usually higher than the rates
on general obligation bonds, because the risk of repayment is higher.
These bonds generally do not require voter approval or count against state
or local debt ceiling.
Bonds can also be used to "capitalize" a revolving loan fund program.
A revolving loan fund program lends money to localities at interest rates
equal to or less then the state's own borrowing rate. Localities can borrow
money to finance specific projects and repay the loan in some manner.
The money repaid is then used to make other loans. These programs
usually do not operate completely on a revolving basis, where the
borrowers would cover all of the costs of the initial loan repayment.
Instead, they usually require additional capitalization.
Short and long-term bonds are available, depending upon the time period
and method for repayment Short-term bonds are generally used to
provide interim funds for projects awaiting long-term financing. Long-
term bonds are typically used to pay for long-term public infrastructure
investments. For instance, a long-term bond might be used to pay for a
Coastal Resource Management and Protection 7-11
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water treatment plant with an anticipated 30 year longevity. The duration
of the bond typically equals the longevity of the project to ensure that
current and future users pay for the cost of its service. However, in some
cases communities are limited in the amount of debt which they may
accrue. Therefore/ they may desire a shorter term bond in order to lessen
the duration of future debt and to provide flexibility in case of future
emergencies. There are two primary types of long-term bonds, term bonds
and serial bonds, which vary in their method of repayment With term
bonds, the entire principal amount is due at the dose of the lending
period; with serial bonds, the principal is repaid in installments
throughout the life of the loan.
Private Capital
One means of financing projects designed to provide coastal resource
protection is to use private capital. A private entity or public/private
partnership may be formed to finance construction of storm water
systems, solid waste disposal facilities, and sewer and water treatment
plants and other projects.
Public/private partnerships are often formed in cases where a facility may
be publicly run, but funding provided from both public and private
sources. Local governments may convince private developers or
businesses to contribute to local improvements which would make the
area more attractive to potential homebuyers or employees.
Programs may also be established to encourage voluntary donations of
private funds. The State of Maryland has developed an innovative
program: designer license plates picturing a great blue heron are sold for
$10.00. Revenues accrued through the sale of these plates go toward study
of the Chesapeake Bay.
Several private non-profit organizations, such as The Nature Conservancy
and the Trust for Public Land provide funds for coastal resource
acquisition and research. Communities interested in protecting coastal
lands may work with these organizations to assist them in acquiring lands.
The Nature Conservancy is a national non-profit organization committed
to preserving biological diversity by protecting public lands. The Nature
Conservancy works with state agencies and local governments to identify
key lands which support rare and endangered species or unique habitats.
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Lands are selected for acquisition based on the presence of rare and
endangered species habitat and the feasibility for acquisition from private
property owners. Funding for land acquisition is provided through
memberships and donations from foundations and corporations. The
Nature Conservancy has acquired lands throughout the United States,
including significant tracts of coastal land. For example, they have
acquired approximately 40,000 acres of land on the eastern shore of
Virginia in order to protect its unique marsh habitat (The Nature
Conservancy, 1991, pers. comm.).
The Trust for Public Land was founded in 1972 with the goal of acquiring
scenic, recreational, urban, rural and wilderness lands. In essence, the goal
of the Trust for Public Land is to protect land for people (A. Lay, 1991, pers.
comm.). This goal differs from the Nature Conservancy, whose goal is to
protect land for wildlife and vegetation. The Trust for Public Land is not a
permanent steward of property, instead the organization acts as an
intermediary between private landowners and the public. Protected lands
are eventually transferred to a local land trust, or the local, state or federal
government.
A community interested in protecting coastal lands may contract the Trust
for assistance. The Trust will conduct an assessment of the property to
determine:
1) whether the land has public benefit;
2} whether the project is feasible;
3) whether there is a clear commitment to resource protection on the
part of the community and local land trust.
For appropriate projects, Trust staff will research and attempt to attain
funding to purchase the property and finance necessary environmental
assessments and appraisals. In addition to assisting communities in
protecting land, the Trust for Public Land also provides short-courses on
land conservation techniques.
A local land trust or watershed association may also be established to
provide private capital for protection of coastal resources. Land trusts are
non-profit organizations directly involved in acquiring and managing
Coastal Resource Management and Protection 7 *13
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land for its natural, recreational, scenic or historic qualities. Watershed
associations are primarily engaged in advocating public use, water quality
and public education about a particular water resource. An advantage of
establishing a local group is that its goals can be more focussed on local
concerns and priorities. As private non-profit organizations, local land
trusts or watershed associations can work with local governments to
achieve resource protection goals.
Communities interested in setting up a land trust or watershed association
may receive assistance from the Land Trust Alliance, which is a national
association of land trusts located in Alexandria, Virginia. Staff of the Land
Trust Alliance are capable of providing information about necessary steps
in the formation of land trusts and can direct communities to the nearest
land trust in their area. Assistance may also be available through state and
regional programs or organizations. For instance, many states have
regional alliances of land trusts, including Connecticut, New York, Maine
and Rorida. In California, assistance and funding for non-profit land
trusts may be obtained through the California State Coastal Conservancy.
In Massachusetts, the Compact of Cape Cod Conservation Trusts, Inc.
provides technical assistance to local land trusts on Cape Cod.
Legislative Techniques
Financing measures presented earlier in this section include options
which state and load governments may use to fund coastal protection
programs and improvements. However, implementation of coastal
programs may be difficult in cases where a resource is located in several
jurisdictions (see also discussion of Regional Coordination in Section Six).
Therefore, legislative action may be necessary to establish an regional
entity which would be responsible for overseeing the program. Legislative
action may also be necessary to extend an entity's powers and authority to
regulate or undertake improvements, and to accrue revenue.
Legislative action is typically used to establish public authorities and
special financing areas for the purpose of administering environmental
programs. A public authority is a unit of government which is operated
by independently appointed boards and revenue sources. Through
legislative action, public authorities may be granted powers and functions
specifically designed to provide comprehensive, coordinated, and cost
effective service. An example is legislation in Florida (Chapter 373 of
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Florida State Laws) which establishes water management districts for the
purpose of water resource management. A similar district might be
established for the purpose of providing regional coastal resource
protection.
Special financing areas may be established to provide funding to specific
areas in need of services or improvements, such as watersheds.
Improvements made to storm water management and sewage systems in
the watershed for the purpose of improving estuarine quality could be
financed solely through imposition of taxes or fees on residents and
businesses in that area.
In Bellevue, Washington (EPA, 1988), a storm water utility was established
as an independent government entity to control storm water runoff,
urban flooding and nonpoint source pollution to lakes eventually
discharging to Puget Sound. The storm water utility has constructed a
series of channels and storm water runoff detention basins. Funding is
provided through acreage fees paid by landowners within its jurisdiction.
Acreage fees vary depending upon the type and intensity of development
on each parcel of land.
Legislative action may also be necessary to establish specific innovative
funding mechanisms for coastal resource protection. One example is the
formation of the Nantucket Land Bank (discussed earlier as an example of
innovative property taxation). As a result of significant coastal
development, islanders became concerned about the potential lack of
public access to island shoreline and unique environments. In 1983 the
Nantucket Land Bank was formed through legislative action to acquire
and manage public lands. The Land Bank is funded primarily by a 2% real
estate transfer fee imposed on property purchases. The Land Bank is
administered by a 5 member commission which is given the following
powers and responsibilities: 1) land purchases and acquisitions; 2) use of
eminent domain to acquire lands; 3) hiring of staff; 4) acceptance of gifts of
lands or funds; and 4) the power to incur debt.
Implementation nf Protection and Management Strategies
A comprehensive strategy must be developed to successfully implement a
coastal resource protection program. Once a strategy is developed, a program
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
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manager must consider and coordinate staffing needs, public education,
program oversight and enforcement.
Depending upon the size and complexity of the protection program, a wide
range of experienced staff may be necessary. A local protection and
management plan typically incorporates several on-going actions including
resource assessment and monitoring, public education, and regulatory reform.
Staff must be trained in coastal resource science, planning and program
administration in order to make informed decisions and set realistic program
goals, objectives and work plans.
In cases where a local government is financially constrained and is unable to
hire staff meeting all areas of necessary expertise, assistance may be available
from local individuals and agencies, such as:
Town Planner
Department of Health
Town Engineer
Town Biologist
Water Quality Laboratory
Shellfish Warden
Harbormaster
Water and Sewer or Public Works Department
Soil Conservation Service Regional Office
National and Regional EPA Offices
US Geological Survey District Office
US Forest Service Regional and District Offices
US Bureau of Land Management Regional and District Offices
National Park Service Regional and District Offices
Federal and State Fish and Wildlife Offices
State Natural Resources Agencies
State Coastal Zone Management Program
State Planning or Regional Planning Office
Colleges and Universities
Local Citizens with Appropriate Expertise
Communities may also gain valuable experience through contacting other
areas with coastal programs, since discussions with managers of similar
programs may provide insight as to actions suitable for specific problems.
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
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Public education is a key aspect of any coastal resource protection program.
In many cases, changes in local behavior are necessary in order to resolve
coastal problems. For instance, improper-use of lawn fertilizers or poor
maintenance of on-site septic systems may lead to problems of nutrient
contamination. Local citizens must understand the connection between their
own actions and their impact on the coastal environment Public support is
also a key factor in maintaining program funding and adopting necessary
protective regulations. The general public will not support what it does not
understand. A public educational program may rely upon a mix of techniques,
including public informational meetings; mailings, advertisements and flyers;
questionnaires; thematic posters and artwork; demonstration projects; and
community events (see also Non-regulatory Tools in Section Six).
Oversight and Enforcement of Protection and Management Strategies
Program oversight is necessary to ensure that program's goals, objectives and
work plans address current coastal resource problems. The effectiveness of
management measures must be constantly evaluated in light of new
information about threats to resources, and changes in technology and public
behavior. As a program proceeds, program goals and objectives must be re-
evaluated and revised.
In cases where a program includes regulatory requirements, inspections and
enforcement measures are necessary. Inspections should be conducted to
ensure compliance with specific requirements. In cases where a landowner or
business has violated program requirements, staff should discuss the situation
with the responsible party and outline what actions are necessary to correct the
situation. In some cases, non-compliance may be due to confusion about the
specific requirements. A program will be more successful if its requirements
are dear and realistic. Landowners and businesses must know what is expected
of them, and ideally, dear standards should be outlined which determine
whether requirements are met. Compliance may be ensured through
providing incentives such as tax reductions, or disincentives through the
imposition of fines and penalties.
A program management and protection strategy should dearly indicate who is
responsible for enforcement, and their powers and duties. An inspections
timetable should be established to ensure ongoing compliance. The
ramifications of program violations should be spelled out and known to the
enforcer and enforced.
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Local and state governments typically rely on the following enforcement and
oversight methods:
Permits
Licenses
Fines and Penalties
Inspections
Monitoring.
The cost of enforcement may be minimized through use of available staff
completing similar tasks. For instance, local inspectors may be responsible for
enforcing coastal program, regulations/ as well as the local zoning ordinances,
subdivision regulations, or health regulations. Enforcement responsibilities
may also be minimized through requiring landowners to hire consultants to
perform periodic investigations such as monitoring and to report information
to program officials.
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SECTION EIGHT
CASE STUDIES
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I
SECTION NINE
PORTHARBOR EXERCISE
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SECTION
EIGHT
CASE STUDIES
The two case studies presented on the following pages demonstrate how
communities have assessed and managed threats to their coastal resources.
The studies therefore show the application of principles covered in this course,
and may suggest management techniques applicable to coastal problems in
your community.
Case Study #1; Protecting Water Quality in Buttermilk Bay. Massachusetts
The Problem
Buttermilk Bay is a 530-acre (214.6 ha) shallow coastal embayment located
at the northern end of Buzzard's Bay in Massachusetts (Figure 8-1), and is
part of the Buzzard's Bay National Estuary Program project. Buttermilk
Bay experiences complete tidal exchange, or flushing, approximately every
five days (Valiela and Costa, 1988). Portions of three towns, Bourne,
Plymouth, and Wareham, are situated within the 953-acre (2,815 ha)
watershed. Existing land use is predominantly residential and includes
both high-density seasonal communities along the western and northern
shorelines of the bay, and low-density development throughout most of
the remainder of the drainage basin. Most development within this area
relies on individual subsurface sewage disposal systems, although a few
areas are currently in the process of being sewered.
Increasing nitrogen levels have been attributed to Buttermilk Bay, as
evidenced by nuisance algae blooms, elevated chlorophyll concentrations
(i.e. phytoplankton) and declining "eelgrass beds in localized areas (J. Costa,
1989, pers. commun.).
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Figure 8-1. Buttermilk Bay Locus Map
Source: Horsley & Witten, Inc.
The bay also has a history of shellfish closures dating from 1984 caused by
bacterial contamination. Previous investigations have documented that
the bacterial contaminants are derived primarily from stormwater runoff
(Heufelder, 1988).
The Solution
The impacts of existing and potential development within the watershed
were evaluated with a buildout study and a nitrogen loading analysis
(discussed in Section Five). The buildout analysis indicated that 3,049
residential units and 39 commercial units currently exist within the
Buttermilk Bay watershed (Figure 8-2). An additional 2,267 units could
eventually be constructed under full buildout conditions; i.e. the
watershed is currently 57% developed (Table 8-1).
The nitrogen loading analysis showed that loading for all existing sources
of nitrogen within the Buttermilk Bay watershed was calculated to be
91,053 Ibs/year. Seventy-four percent of this nitrogen is derived from on-
site sewage disposal, followed by lawn fertilizers (15%), cranberry bog
fertilizers (7%), and other sources (4%).
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Figure 8-2. Buttermilk Bay Watershed and Water Table Contours
Source: Horsley & Witten, Inc.
Table 8-1. Buildout Analysis Results
Existing Land Use
Residential Units
Commercial Units
Cranberry Bogs (acre)
Open Space (acre)
Potential Land Use
Vacant (Grandfathered) lots
Approval Not Required lots
Subdivision lots
Total Lots
% Developed
Area (acres)
Existing Density (units/acre)
Buildout Density (units/acre)
Warehatn
755.0
28.0
52.2
206.1
222.0
9.0
90.0
1,106
71%
1,395.0
0.6
0.8
Plymouth
1,075.0
0
335.4
663.3
350.0
359.0
639.0
2,423
44%
4,160-0
0.3
0.6
Bourne
1,219.0
11.0
11.0
125.7
128.0
147.0
321X)
1£26
67%
1,398.0
0.9
1.3
Total
3,049.0
39.0
398.6
995.1
700.0
515.0
1,050.0
5355
57%
6,953.0
0.4
0.8
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The majority of the nitrogen under buildout conditions (three people per
dwelling) is also derived from on-site sewage disposal (72%). The predicted
total pounds nitrogen per year, 126,664 Ibs, represents a potential increase of
39% over existing conditions (Tables 8-2 and 8-3).
Using the loading standards determined by the Buzzard's Bay Project (see
Section Five), total "permissible loading" to Buttermilk Bay was calculated to be
115,617 Ibs/yr. At buildout, an excess of 11,047 Ibs/year above the critical rate
was predicted - the equivalent of approximately 440 single-family dwellings.
Table 8-2. Existing Nitrogen Loading
Source Wareham
Sewage 20,013
Lawn Fertilizers 3,398
Cranberry Bog Fertilizers 835
Roads 413
Roofs 170
Acid Precipitation to Bay
Total Loading 24,829
(Pounds Per Year)
Predicted Average 3.86
NQ3-N (mg/1) in ground water
Plymouth
21,590
4,838
5366
646
242
32,682
1.83
Bourne
25,337
5,486
176
665
274
31,937
4.75
Total
66,940
13,721
6378
1,723
686
1,606
91,053
2.94
Table 8-3. Potential
Source
Nitrogen Loading
Wareham , Plymoi
tith Bourne
Total
Sewage
Lawn Fertilizers
Cranberry Bog Fertilizers
Roads
Roofs
Acid Precipitation to Bay
Total Loading(lb/yr)
Predicted Average
NQj-N (mg/1) in groundwater
8,837
4,851
835
481
243
15,246
2.45
48,663
10,904
5366
929
545
66,407
353
33,863
8,168
176
790
408
43^05
6.14
91363
23,922
6378
2,199
1,196
1,606
126,664
3.94
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
8-4
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The buildout and nitrogen analyses suggested that action should be taken to
protect water quality in Buttermilk Bay.
Since traditional management tools are localized in their applicability and
rarely serve to protect regional resource systems, even small systems such as
Buttermilk Bay, the coordinated adoption and enforcement of strategies by all
three communities in the watershed was required.
Therefore, several management strategies were proposed, including the
creation of health and subdivision regulations, wetlands protection guidelines
and storm water management recommendations. The primary tool selected
was an overlay water resource protection district which was created and
adopted by the three communities within the watershed. The overlay district
"downzoned" (raised minimum lot size) within the watershed, effectively
removing the potential for an additional 440 new single-family dwellings the
number determined to be in excess of the critical loading threshold.
References and Further Information
Dr. Joseph Costa, David Janik, and Bruce Rosinoff at the Buzzard's Bay Project
(508) 748-3600.
Heufelder, G.R. 1988. Bacteriological monitoring in Buttermilk Bay. Barnstable
County Health & Environmental Department, BBP-88-03.
Horsley & Witten, Inc. 1991. Quantification and control of nitrogen inputs to
Buttermilk Bay, Volumes I and II, prepared for Buttermilk Bay Project.
Nelson, M. E., S. W. Horsley, T. Cambareri, M. Giggey and J. Pinette. 1988.
Predicting nitrogen concentrations in groundwater an analytical model.
In Proc. Nat. Water Well Assoc.
Town of Falmouth. 1986. Nutrient loading bylaw.
Valiela, I. and Costa, J. 1988. Eutrophication of Buttermilk Bay, a Cape Cod
coastal embayment: concentrations of nutrients and watershed nutrient
budgets. Env. Mgmt. 12(4): 539-553.
Witten, J.D. and S.J. Trull. 1991. Quantification and control of nitrogen inputs
to Buttermilk Bay, Massachusetts. In Proc. National Ground Water Assoc.
FOCUS Conference, Portland, ME.
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
8-5
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Witten, J.D. and SJ. Trull. 1991. Quantification and control of nitrogen inputs
to Buttermilk Bay, Massachusetts. In Froc. National Ground Water Assoc.
FOCUS Conference, Portland, ME.
Case Study #2: Protecting foe California Coast. San Francisco Bay. California
The Problem
The literature on California's coastal resources is full of statistics regarding
wetland losses in that state. One number commonly referenced is that up
to 90% of California's wetlands have been filled or altered; the rest are
significantly degraded (EPA, 1991). Ray and Woodroof (1986) state that,
based on California Coastal Zone Conservation Commission data, the
natural value of 52% of the coast's original wetlands and estuaries have
been destroyed by dredging and filling. Of the remaining estuaries and
wetlands, 81% have been subjected to moderate or severe damage.
San Francisco Bay has also experienced extensive tidal marsh losses. It
may be one of the largest estuaries in the United States to have been
significantly modified by human activity. According to a report written by
the San Francisco Estuary Project, a member of EPA's National Estuary
Program, since the Gold Rush of the 1850's, more than 150 square miles of
the Bay have been filled; an estimated 94% of its tidal marshes are gone;
and up to 65% of its freshwater inflow is diverted annually for
agricultural, domestic, and industrial uses. The loss of this inflow also
reduces the required sediment and nutrients necessary for salt marsh
accumulation and maintenance.
The Solution
1. Legislative Initiatives
Responding to these losses, California passed a "Save the Coast" initiative
in 1972 which eventually led to the California Coastal Zone Protection Act
of 1976 (Cal. Pub. Res. Code 30000 - 30900). The Act establishes a state
policy to maintain and, where feasible, restore, the biological productivity
and quality of wetlands and estuaries. Every municipality and county
must prepare a local coastal plan which must be approved by the
California Coastal Commission, the permitting agency under the Act.
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
8-6
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However, the coastal zone does not include the area of jurisdiction of the
San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission.
The California State Coastal Conservancy is a non-regulatory agency
created to implement the Coastal Zone Protection Act. One of the
Conservancy's largest programs is resource enhancement including
restoration of coastal wetlands (Marcus, 1988).
2. San Francisco Bay Regulatory Agency
In the San Francisco Bay area, the San Francisco Bay Conservation and
Development Commission (BCDC) regulates and controls development in
the Bay region. The BCDC was established as a result of grass roots
activities developing into passage of the McAteer-Petris Act in 1965.
The San Francisco Bay Plan contains several policies on marshes and
mudflats:
Marshes and mudflats should be maintained to the fullest
possible extent to conserve fish and wildlife and to abate air
and water pollution...;
Any proposed fills, dikes, or piers should be thoroughly
evaluated to determine their effects on marshes and
mudflats, and then modified as necessary to minimize any
harmful effects;
To offset possible additional losses of marshes due to
necessary filling and to augment the present marshes, (a)
former marshes should be restored, (b) in areas selected on
the basis of competent ecological study, some new marshes
should be created through carefully placed lifts of dredged
spoils, and (c) the quality of existing marshes should be
improved by appropriate measures whenever possible
(Cuneo, 1987).
3. Federal National Estuary Project: Education and Wetlands
Enhancement
In addition to these regulatory, management and restoration programs,
the National Estuary Program has initiated the San Francisco Estuary
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
8-7
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Project. The Project is jointly managed by EPA Region 9, the State of
California, and the Association of Bay Area Governments. The Project's
approach is directed 'toward creating a diverse public participation and
decision making coalition. In addition, the Project and the State have
agreed that California's water quality management process, including
issues on water rights, will be included as part of the estuary program. The
Project is developing a data and information management system, has
taken steps to carry out a wetlands enhancement project at eight sites, and
has identified five major problem areas to be investigated. The
Comprehensive Conservation and Management Plan (CCMP) is
scheduled to be completed in November of 1992.
Preserving the Bay's remaining wetlands is likely to be a major element of
the San Francisco CCMP. The Project and the California State Coastal
Conservancy are jointly funding a $1.575 million wetlands enhancement
project at eight sites. The goal is to restore various types of wetlands in
different locations by building levees, regrading channel bottoms,
establishing water distribution systems and controlling water flow.
Several of the sites will be replanted, and at least four sites will use treated
effluent as water sources.
References and Further Information
California Coastal Zone Conservation Commission. 1975. The California
coastal plan. CCZCC, San Francisco, CA.
Cuneo, K. 1987. A predictive formula for use in planning salt marsh
restorations in San Francisco Bay, CA.Ja Proc. Society Wetland Scientist's
Eighth Annual Meeting, Seattle, WA.
Josselyn, M. and J. Buchholz. 1984. Marsh restoration in San Francisco Bay: a
guide to design and planning. Technical Report #3, Tiburon Center for
Environmental Studies, San Francisco State University.
Josselyn, M., J. B. Zedler, and T. Griswold. 1990. Wetland mitigation along the
Pacific Coast of the United States. In Kustler and Kentula (eds.). 1990.
Wetland Creation and Restoration, the status of the science.
Kustler, J. and M. Kentula (eds.). 1990. Wetland creation and restoration, the
status of the Science. Island Press, Washington, D.C.
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
8-8
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Marcus, L. 1988. Wetlands enhancement and riparian restoration through
watershed management in California. In Froc. National Wetlands
Symposium on Urban Wetlands, Assoc. of Wetland Mgrs., Berne, NY.
Ray, D. K and W. O. Woodroof. 1986. Mitigating Impacts to Wetlands and
Estuaries in California's Coastal Zone. In Proc. National Wetland
Symposium, Association of State Wetland Managers, Inc., Berne, NY.
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water. 1990. Progress in the
National Estuary Program, Report to Congress. EPA 503/9-90-005
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water. 1991. Protecting
Coastal and Wetlands Resources: A Guide for Local Governments. Pre-
print.
US Fish and Wildlife Service. 1979. A concept plan for wintering waterfowl.
US FWS/OBS, Portland, OR.
Zedler, J. B. 1984. Salt marsh restoration, A guidebook for Southern California.
CA Sea Grant College Program, University of California, A-032, La Jolla,
CA.
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
8-9
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SECTION
NINE
PORTHARBOR EXERCISE
Group Exercise in Estuarine Protection and Management
Goal of Exercise: To familiarize workshop participants with the various topics
discussed during Day 1 and 2 through a simulated Planning Commission
public hearing. The exercise requires participants to divide into five (5) groups,
each representing a different entity with disparate goals. The exercise will
require individuals to assume roles relevant to their group and requires the
five groups to set forth their specific agenda. Focus will be on the application of
the various tools and estuarine protection principles discussed during Days I
and 2. The exercise concludes with a formal vote by the Planning Commission
relative to the development application before it.
PORTHARBOR PLANNING COMMISSION PUBLIC HEARING
IN THE MATTER OF COASTAL DEVELOPMENT COMPANY, INC.
PROPOSAL TO DEVELOP 150 CONDOMINIUM UNITS, TENNIS COURTS,
SWIMMING POOL, HEALTH CLUB, AND PRIVATE MARINA WITH
SAILING SCHOOL ON 100 ACRES OF LAND IN PORTHARBOR.
GOAL OF TODAYS PUBLIC HEARING: To evaluate the potential impacts of
the proposed development on Portharbor Bay. At the close of the Public
Hearing, the Planning Commission will vote on what actions, if any, it will
take regarding this application. Options include: 1) enacting regulatory and
non-regulatory protection measures for the bay; 2) approving the development
as proposed because of the development's numerous economic and housing
benefits; 3) a combination of 1) and 2) above; or 4) any other action the
Commission believes prudent, within the parameters allowed by law.
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
"9-1
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THE FACTS:
1. The Township of Portharbor contains approximately 120 square miles.
Approximately 35% of the Township is rural and undeveloped.
Unemployment is currently averaging 11%, five points higher than the
state-wide average.
2. The Township provides public water to 60% of its residents. There are
no town-wide sewer or municipal sewage treatment facilities within
Portharbor. Neighbortown, however, has a municipal sewage treatment
facility which releases effluent to Portharbor Bay after secondary
treatment (Exhibit 2).
3. Portharbor Bay is approximately 700 acres in size, and includes valuable
shellfish beds and a productive striped bass fishery, as well as swimming
and boating areas. The tourism economy of the area is dependent upon
continued viability of multiple use of the estuary. Portharbor Bay also
includes areas of wetlands and sea cliff, which is currently eroding at a
rapid rate due to recent storms. Portharbor Bay lies partly within the
Town of Portharbor and partly within the Town of Neighbortown
(Exhibit 1).
4. Portharbor has a zoning ordinance, adopted in 1960. It divides the
Township into three zoning districts; residential, commercial, and
industrial (Exhibit 2). Residential uses require a minimum of one-half
acre (20,000 square feet) per unit. Commercial and industrial uses
allowed are broad; the ordinance prohibits only those uses involving the
storage and disposal of radioactive materials. The Township's
subdivision regulations, written in 1975, are considered inadequate by
many as they establish only basic requirements for road construction and
placement of utilities.
5. As a result of strong lobbying by the Portharbor/Neighbortown Alliance
for Clean Water, the township applied for and received state funds to
conduct a detailed estuarine dynamics study of Portharbor Bay. The
recently completed study included delineation of the Portharbor Bay
watershed (Exhibit 3), calculation of the flushing rate (exchange 80 times
per year), bathymetry (mean depth * 5 feet), and water quality
information. The water quality data show mat the bay typically has a
total nitrogen loading of 180 milligrams /cubic meter/residence time.
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
9-2
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OCEAN
PORTHARBOR
' PORTHARBOR
/ BAY
PORT - --*
NEIGHBORTOWN
Salt Marsh
Baach
Shellfish Bada
Town Una
HARBOR
RIVER
Exhibit "L Fortharbor Base Map and Natural Resources
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
9-3
-------
OCEAN
Municipal Sewage
Treatment Plant
I. " . J Commercial
Residential
Industrial
Town Une
Exhibit 2. Portharbor/Neighbortown Zoning Districts
Coastal Resource Management and Protection 9-4
-------
OCEAN
PORTHARBOR
' PORTHARBOR
/ BAY
PORT
RIVER
NEIGHBORTOWN
I I I I II Watershed to
Portharbor Bay
(extends off map)
Town Une
Exhibit 3. Watershed to Portharbor Bay
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
9-5
-------
OCEAN
PORTHARBOH
NEIGHBORTOWN
PWV1 Ar*a of D»v»lopm«nt
Town LJn»
Exhibit 4. Area of Proposed Development
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
9-6
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6. At the Planning Commission meeting last month, a local developer
proposed a 150-unit condominium development with swimming pool,
health dub, tennis courts and private marina with sailing school, on 100
acres of land fronting on Portharbor Bay (Exhibit 4). The marina is to
include 30 slips: 10 for boats less than 10 feet long, 10 for boats from 10 -
20 feet long, and 10 for boats from 20 - 30 feet long. There will also be 25
moorings: 5 sized to accommodate boats exceeding 30 feet, 10 for boats
from 20 - 30 feet long, and 10 for smaller boats. As part of his proposal,
he has pledged to set aside 10% of all the condominium units as
affordable to the average income group in Portharbor, and is willing to
work with the Portharbor Housing Authority to ensure that the
Township's serious housing problems are addressed. The developer also
pledged to provide sailing school scholarships to 5 students per summer,
with the local Youth Club to determine recipients. The State Division of
Employment estimates that the development, if approved, will generate
100 temporary jobs and 20 permanent positions.
7. During preliminary meetings with the developer, the Planning
Commission expressed serious concerns relative to the proposed
development's impact upon water quality in the bay. Fully aware that
their zoning ordinance has not been revised since 1972, the Planning
Commission has organized this meeting to discuss whatever options
and strategies exist to protect the bay water quality from degradation
while simultaneously allow for economic and housing growth in the
community.
THE PLAYERS:
Participants will be divided into the following five groups with goals and
agendas as specified:
1. The Portharbor Planning Commission, whose goal is to objectively
weigh the merits of the development against the risks of contamination
within Portharbor Bay. The Planning Commission called this meeting
today to request advice from those present on appropriate strategies to
protect the bay from contamination in light of the proposed
development discussed above. According to the Township zoning
ordinance, the Planning Commission's time for reviewing the proposed
development expires this afternoon.
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
9-7
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2. The Portharbor/Neighbortown Alliance for Clean Water, whose goal is
to ensure that water quality in the bay is not degraded. Also, the Alliance
has repeatedly argued that the Planning Board not allow further
development within the watershed to the bay unless and until an
emergency contingency plan is developed. The cost of preparing mis
plan, the Alliance has argued, should be borne by the development
community. The Alliance has been accused in the past of representing a
faction of the citizenry that favors strong regulations to limit further
growth and land development in Fortharbor and Neighbortown.
3. The Regional Planning Council, whose goal is to provide technical
advice on wetlands, estuarine and near coastal waters protection
techniques to member Planning Commissions. The Regional Council is
charged with ensuring the protection of regional resources and has been
an outspoken advocate of regional cooperation among communities
with shared natural resources.
4. The Fishermen's Union, whose goal is to ensure mat shellfish beds and
finfish nursery areas are protected from contamination. The Union is
especially concerned with development in the higher reaches of
Portharbor Bay, where wetlands and tidal flats provide important
habitat, and where the estuary is less well flushed.
5. The Developer, whose goal is to ensure approval of his proposal and
who argued mat the Portharbor zoning ordinance is a "blueprint" for
development and that changing the ordinance merely because his
proposal has been filed constitutes an unconstitutional "taking" of
property. Moreover, it is argued, the development proposal will provide
badly needed jobs, housing and further economic development
opportunities for Portharbor.
Each participant should do his best to represent the interests of his agency or
group, even if this role is unfamiliar to you. Remember that the goal of this
exercise is to provide the Portharbor Planning Commission with sufficient
information so that it can vote, today, on its response to the development
proposal and the issues it raises.
Notes for the Portharbor Planning Commission
1. To assist discussions during the "public hearing" to occur this afternoon,
it is recommended that you appoint/elect a Chairperson of the
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
9-8
-------
3.
4.
Commission. This individual should identify himself/herself during
the hearing process and conduct the meeting as would the chair of a local
regulatory board
Reminder: The Commission's charge is to objectively weigh the merits
of the proposal under consideration. Included in this test are local,
regional and state-wide issues, most specifically the protection of water
quality in the bay.
Reminder: The Commission may impose, as a condition of approval,
that the developer adhere to new regulatory and non-regulatory resource
protection measures, including expenditure of funds to ensure
protection.
Reminder: Exhibits 3 and 4 identify the location of the proposed
development relative to the delineated bay watershed, wetlands, and
rivers.
Notes for the Portharbor/Neighbortown Alliance for Clean Water
1. To assist discussions during the "public hearing" to occur this afternoon,
it is recommended that you appoint/elect a spokesperson for the
Alliance. This individual should identify himself/herself during the
hearing process.
2. Reminder: The Alliance's goal is to ensure the protection of water
quality in Portharbor Bay. It has been accused in the past of ignoring
other issues deemed critical by community leaders in favor of the
protection of water resources.
3. Reminder: The Planning Commission may impose, as a condition of
approval, that the developer adhere to new regulatory and non-
regulatory resource protection measures. The Alliance is concerned that
the Planning Commission will not exercise this right because the
Alliance believes the Commission does not fully understand the
protection measures available, nor the importance of limiting
development within the watershed. The Alliance supports the concept
that the development community should pay, through a variety of
mechanisms, to protect the Township's water resources.
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
9-9
-------
4. Reminder: Exhibit*. 3 and 4 identify the location of the proposed
development relative to the delineated bay watershed, wetlands, and
rivers.
Notes for the Regional Planning Council
1. To assist discussions during the "public hearing" to occur this afternoon,
it is recommended mat you appoint/elect a staff Director of the Council.
This individual should identify himself/herself during the hearing
process.
2. Reminder: The Council's charge is to provide objective advice to
members of the Planning Commission relative to the development
proposal. The council is concerned about the impact of the proposed
development on Portharbor Bay as well as about cumulative impacts
from existing and potential development in the watershed.
3. Reminder: The Planning Commission may impose, as a condition of
approval, that the developer adhere to new regulatory and non-
regulatory resource protection measures. In the past, the Council has
provided much needed advice in this area, and is highly regarded by
members of the Planning Commission.
4. Reminder: Exhibits 3 and 4 identify the location of the proposed
development relative to the delineated bay watershed, wetlands, and
rivers.
Notes for the Fishermen's Union
1. To assist discussions during the "public hearing" to occur this afternoon,
it is recommended that you appoint/elect a spokesperson for the Union.
This individual should identify himself/herself during the hearing
process.
2. Reminder: The Union's goal is to protect shellfish beds and finfish
nursery areas within Portharbor Bay and Portharbor/Neighbortown near
coastal waters and wetlands, and thereby protect its members'
livelihoods. The Union has recently delegated some of its members to
read the estuarine dynamics report and to research water quality issues.
Hie Union is particularly concerned with the proposed marina,
shoreline land uses, and drainage plans.
Coastal Resource Management and Protection
9-10
-------
3. Reminder: The Planning Commission may impose, as a condition of
approval, that die developer adhere to new regulatory and non-
regulatory resource protection measures, including the expenditure of
funds to ensure resource protection.
4. Reminder: Exhibits 3 and 4 identify the location of the proposed
development relative to the delineated bay watershed, wetlands, and
rivers.
Notes for the Development Team
1. To assist discussions during the "public hearing" to occur this afternoon,
it is recommended that you appoint/elect members of the Development
Team who will act as spokespersons for the group. This could include
the developer, the team's attorney, the team's water resources
consultant, and so on. It is recommended, however, that no more than
three individuals from your group speak during the public hearing
process.
2. Reminder: The Development Team's goal is to win approval. While
you may be willing to accept certain modifications to your proposal as a
condition of approval, you are unlikely to do so if these modifications
reduce the "bottom-line" profit that you and your partners have agreed
on.
3. Reminder: The Planning Commission may impose, as a condition of
approval, that you adhere to new regulatory and non-regulatory resource
protection measures. Knowing this, your consultants have advised you
to offer certain water quality protection measures as part of your
proposal, with the hope that the Commission will be satisfied and not
impose stringent conditions of their own. You will need to outline what
protection measures you plan on employing.
4. Reminder: Exhibits 3 and 4 identify the location of die proposed
development relative to the delineated bay watershed, wetlands, and
rivers.
Coastal Resource Management and Protection 9-11
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REFERENCES
Armstrong, N.E. 1984. Water management and estuarine productivity. In Copeland et
al., pp. 27-42.
Buzzard's Bay Project. 1991. Draft Comprehensive Conservation and Management
Plan. US EPA Region I/MA Coastal Zone Management Office.
Brock, T.D. and M.T. Madigan. 1988. Biology of microorganisms. Prentice-Hall, NJ,
835pp.
Brown, K.W., R.L. Duble, and J.C. Thomas. 1977. Influence of management and season
on fate of N applied to golf greens. Agron. J. 69:667-671.
Canter, L.W. and R.C Knox. 1985. Septic tank system effects on ground water quality.
Lewis Publishers, Inc., MI.
Copeland, BJ.,K. Hart, N.Davis, and S.Friday. 1984. Research for managing the
nation's estuaries: proceedings of a conference in Raleigh, NC. Univ. North
Carolina Sea Grant College Program, NC, 420 pp.
Cowardin, L.M., V. Carter, F.C. Golet and E.T. LaRoe. 1979. Classification of Wetlands
and Deepwater Habitats of the United States. US Fish and Wildlife Service, Office
of Biological Services, FWS/OBS-79/31, DC.
Cowens, W.F. and G.F. Lee. 1976. Phosphorus availability in particulate materials
transported in urban runoff. J. Water Pollution Control Fed. 48(3):580-591.
Cuneo,K. 1987. A predictive formula for use in planning salt marsh restorations in
San Francisco Bay, CA. In Proc. Society of Wetland Scientists Eighth Annual
Meeting, WA.
Dunne, T. and L.B. Leopold. 1978. Water in environmental planning. W.H. Freeman
and Co., NY, 818 pp.
Dyer, K.R. 1973. Estuaries: a physical introduction. Wiley & Sons, Inc., NY, 133 pp.
Town of Falmouth, Massachusetts. 1984. Nutrient loading bylaw.
Freeze, R.A. and J. Cherry. 1979. Ground water. Prentice Hall, Inc., NJ.
Frimpter, M.H., J.J. Donohue, IV, and M.V. Rapacz. 1988. A mass-balance nitrate
model for predicting nitrate in ground water. J. New England Water Works
Assoc. 104(4):219-232.
Coastal Resources Management and Protection
-------
Goldman, C.R., and A.J. Home. 1983. Limnology. McGraw-Hill Publishing Company,
NY.
Grimes etal. 1986.
Gross, MG. 1982. Oceanography. Prentice-Hall, Inc., N.J, 498pp.
Heath., R.C. 1983. Basic ground-water hydrology. U5GS Water Supply Paper 2220,
DC, 84 pp.
Hershman, M.J. and J.H. Feldman. 1979. Coastal management readings and notes.
Univ. of Washington, WA, 806 pp.
Hesketh, ES. 1986. The efficiency of nitrogen use by Kentucky bluegrass turf as
influenced by nitrogen rate, fertilizer ratio and nitrification inhibitors. MS Thesis,
Univ. of Rhode Island.
Heufelder, G.R. 1988. Bacteriological monitoring in Buttermilk Bay. Bamstable County
Health and Environmental Department, BBP-88-03.
Horsley,S.W. 1981. The impacts of trace metal pollution of Narragansett Bay-a case
study of the quahog fishery. Master's Thesis, Univ. of Rhode Island.
Horsley & Witten, Inc. 1991. Carroll County water resource management
standards/master plan compatibility study. Prepared for Carroll County Bureau
of Water Resource Management and Department of Planning, Cambridge, MA.
Horsley & Witten, Inc. 1991. Quantification and control of nitrogen inputs to
Buttermilk Bay. Prepared for New England Interstate Water Pollution Control
Commission, Barnstable, MA, 2 vols.
Horsley & Witten, Inc. 1989. Aquifer Protection - A Guide for Local Officials. Horsley
& Witten, Inc., MA.
Horsley & Witten, Inc. 1989. Small Sewage Treatment Plants. Horsley & Witten, Inc.,
MA.
Jansons, J., L.W. Edmonds, B. Speight, M.R. Bucens. 1985. Movement of viruses after
artificial recharge. Water Resources Research 23(3).
Jenkins, E.W. 1991. Chesapeake Bay restoration: innovations at the local leveL
Chesapeake Bay Local Government Advisory Committee, DC, 74 pp.
Komar, P.D. 1976. Beach processes and sedimentation. Prentice-Hall, NJ.
Kuznetsov, S.I., N.V. Ivanov and N.N. Lyalikova. 1983. The distribution of bacteria in
groundwaters and sedimentary rocks. In: Oppenheimer, C. Introduction to
Geological Microbiology.
Coastal Resources Management and Protection
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Larcher, W. 1983. Physiological plant ecology. Springer-Verlag, NY, 301 pp.
Maine Department of Environmental Protection. 1989. Phosphorus control in lake
watersheds: a technical gide to evaluating new development ME DEP, ME, 80
pp.
Mitsch, WJ. and J.G. Gosselink. 1986. Wetlands. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., Inc., NY.
Nelson , K.L., A.J. Turgeon, and J.R. Street. 1980. Thatch influence on mobility and
transformation of nitrogen carriers applied to turf. Agronomy J. 2:487-492.
Nelson, M.E., S.W. Horsley, T. Camberari, M. Giggey and J. Pinette. 1988. Predicting
nitrogen concentrations in ground water an analytical model. In Proc. National
Water Well Assoc. Conference.
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