A ICE SURVEY OF USSR AIR POLLUTION LITERATURE,
VOLUME I. ATMOSPHERIC AND METEOROLOGICAL
ASPECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
M . Y . Nuttonson
American Institute of Crop Ecology
Silver Spring, Maryland
December 1969
NATIONAL TECHNICAL INFORMATION SERVICE
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Distributed ,.,'to fostet, seive
and promote the nation's
economic development
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Springfield,
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This report was furnished to the
Air Pollution Control Office by
the American Institute of Crop
Ecology in fulfillment of Contract
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BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA
SHEET
1. Report No.
APTD-OF35
3. Recipient's Accession No.
1. Title and Subtitle
AICE Survey of USSR Air Pollution Literature - Volume I
Atmospheric and Meteorological Aspects of Air Pollution
5. Report Date
December 1969
6.
7. Authot(s)
M. Y. Nuttonson
8. Performing Organization Rept.
No.
>. Performing Organization Name and Address
American Institute of Crop Ecology
809 Dale Drive
Silver Spring, Maryland 20910
10. Project/Task/Work Unit No.
11. Contract/Grant No.
AP00786-01
12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Address
EPA, Air Pollution Control Office
Technical Center
Research Triangle Park, N. C. 27709
13. Type of Report & Period
Covered
14.
15. Supplementary Notes
16. Abatracts
A collection of USSR studies of atmospheric and meteorological aspect of air pol-
lution. Some of the papers deal with the emission of noxious pollutants emitted
to the atmosphere in high concentration or near ground level and with exposure of
these pollutants to the continuous mixing, diffusion, stirring and dilution that takes
place in the atmosphere as a result of air turbulence. Other aspects discussed are;
the intensity and structure of air turbulence in relation to temperature and wind,
the direction frequencies and intensities of wind, and, the effect of rain on air
pollution levels and the state of diffusion under other various meteorological
factors that modify the behavior and distribution of air pollutants or affect the
natural cleansing capacity of the atmosphere.
17. Key Words and Document Analysis. 17a. Descriptors
Air Pollution
Climntology
Atmospheric Disturbances
Precipitation (Meteorology)
Wind (Meteorology)
ITb. Identifiers/Open-Ended Terms
.Dispersion
17e. COSATI Field/Group 13/B, 4/B
18. Availability Statement
Unlimited
19.. Security Class (This
Report)
UNCLASSIFI
20. Security Cla
Page
UNCLASSIFIED
IED.
(Thit
21. No. of Pages
125
22. Price
FORM NTIC-1B <'|0-7O)
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AICE" SURVEY OF USSR AIR POLLUTION LITERATURE
Volume I
ATMOSPHERIC AND METEOROLOGICAL ASPECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
Edited By
M. Y. Nuttonson
The material presented here is part of a survey of
USSR literature on air pollution
conducted by the
Air Pollution Section
AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF CROP ECOLOGY—
f
This survey is being conducted under Grant 1 ROJ/AB00786-01 APC
THE NATIONAL AIR POLLUTION CONTROL ADMINISTRATION
*AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF CROP ECOLOGY
809 DALE DRIVE
SILVER SPRING, MARYLAND 20910
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TABLE DISCONTENTS*
— •" V
'•— ^_ r
Page
PREFACE [[[ v
f- CHIEF PROBLEMS OF ATMOSPHERIC DIFFUSION AND AIR POLLUTION;
M. E. Berlyand ............................... . ...... 1
/U THE STRUCTURE OF AN AIRSTREAM AS A FACTOR IN THE TRANSPORT
OF PRODUCTS OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION ; ^
P. A. Vorontsov ..................................... 16
£ ANALYSIS OF AEROLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION
IN CERTAIN REGIONS OF THE EUROPEAN TERRITORY OF THE
USSR, (ETU) .
V. I. Selitskaya .................................... 35
-C SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PROPAGATION OF NOXIOUS POLLUTANTS
FROM HIGH SOURCES AS A FUNCTION OF SYNOPTIC-METEOROLOGI-
CAL FACTORS ,' \
B. B. Goroshko ...................................... 50
V SOME RESULTS OF SYNOPTIC-CLIMATOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIR
TION IN CITIES; ^
L. R. Son'kin...' .................................... 58
POLLUTION IN CITIES;
PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS OF OBSERVATIONS OF AIR POLLUTION
IN CITIES *
L. R. Son'kin and D. V. Chalikov 67
O THE THEORY OF ATMOSPHERIC DIFFUSION UNDER FOG CONDITIONS; N
M. E. Berlyand, R. I. Onikul and G. V. Ryabova...... 73
/^ GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF THE TURBULENCE COEFFICIENT IN
THE LOWEST ATMOSPHERIC LAYER IN DAYTIME IN SUMMER ,
V. P. Gracheva 85
INVERSIONS OF LOWER TROPOSPHERE AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON THE
AIR POLLUTION OF THE CITY OF MOSCOW,' "
E. Yu. Bezuglaya ~. 91
RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION
IN THE REGION OF THE-MOLDAVIAN ORES GifATE REGIONAL
ELECTRIC POWER PLANT,1 (SREPPj)
R. S. Gil'denskiol'd, B. B. Goroshko, G. A.
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Page
.THE SETTLING OF AN AEROSOL INTRODUCED INTO THE ATMOSPHERE
IN THE FORM OF A VERTICAL TURBULENT CURRENT. .' -. I
V. F. Dunskiy 100
CALCULATION OF DISPERSAL OF PRECIPITATING CONTAMINANT
FROM A LINEAR SOURCE IN THE BOUNDARY LAYER OF
THE ATMOSPHERE« <
V. F. Dunskiy, "I. S. Nezdyurova and R. I.
Onikul ,'. 109
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PREFACE
The behavior of atmospheric contaminants, notably gases and fine particles
discharged into the air, is similar to that of the air masses near the surface of
the earth — the distribution of the contaminants being influenced by atmospheric
stability, wind, precipitation, and topographic features of a given area or region.
The most outstanding and dominant characteristic of the atmosphere is its unceasing
change, a change resulting from variations of temperature, wind, and precipitation.
These meteorological conditions vary widely as a function of latitude, season, and
topography. Seasonal as well as diurnal temperature gradients, horizontal and
vertical, affect the speed of the wind flow. Generally, the greater the wind
velocity the more rapid is the dispersion of pollutants in the atmosphere. In con-
tinental areas the temperature gradients and the consequent wind flow increase
during the winter season and during the daytime periods, the latter being usually
subject to more turbulent winds of higher velocity than those that prevail during
night hours that are typically characterized by low-level stability with a minimum
dispersal and dilution of the pollutants.
Some of the papers of this volume deal with various noxious pollutants emitted
to the atmosphere in high concentration at or near ground level and with the
exposure of these pollutants to the continuous mixing, diffusion, stirring, and
dilution that take place between regions of the atmosphere as a result of air
turbulence. A number of papers deal with the intensity and structure of air turbu-
lence in relation to temperature and wind, which form the background of atmospheric
diffusion and stirring. Other papers deal with the direction frequencies and
intensities of wind, which differ markedly for stable and unstable conditions of
atmosphere; with the extremely slow diffusion through an inversion; and with the
general climatology of atmospheric turbulence, diffusion, and the dispersions of
air pollutants in different parts of the country and during different seasons of
the year. The effect of rain on air pollution levels and the state of diffusion
under fog conditions as well as a number of other meteorological factors that
modify the behavior and distribution of air pollutants or affect the natural
cleansing capacity of the atmosphere are also discussed.
'In the first paper in this volume it is pointed out that the studies of atmos-
pheric diffusion and air pollution constitute a new and rapidly developing area of .
meteorological sciences; that determination and analysis of the complex set of
meteorological factors causing the processes of atmospheric diffusion are being
extensively developed in conjunction with theoretical and experimental studies of
the pattern of propagation of contaminants in the atmosphere; that these methods of
study find application in the solution of a great many scientific and practical
problems; and that investigations of atmospheric diffusion are of essential impor-
tance in determining the effectiveness and improvement of aerosol methods of treat-
ment of agricultural crops by means of ground and airplane generators, and in the
development of methods by which atmospheric processes are actively affected.
It is hoped that the papers selected for presentation in this volume will per-
mit an assessment of some of the USSR studies of atmospheric and meteorological
aspects of air pollution. As the editor of this volume I wish to thank my co-workers
in the Air Pollution Section of the Institute for their valuable assistance.
Special thanks are due to Adam Peiperl, who as one of the principal translators
carried much of the load of this project.
M. Y. Nuttonson
Silver Spring, Maryland
September 1969
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CHIEF PROBLEMS OF ATMOSPHERIC DIFFUSION AND AIR POLLUTION
M. E. Berlyand (Doctor of PhysicoHmathematical Sciences)
From Trudy, Glavnaya Geofiz. Observat. im. A. I. Voeykova, No. 218, p. 295-
308 (1967).
Studies of atmospheric diffusion and air pollution constitute a new and
rapidly developing area of meteorological sciences.
At the present time, methods both of theoretical and experimental study
of the patterns of propagation of contaminants in the atmosphere and those of
determination and analysis of the complex set of meteorological factors causing
the processes of atmospheric diffusion are being extensively developed.
These methods find applications in the solution of a great many scientific
and practical problems. Such problems include primarily studies of atmospheric
contamination by noxious discharges from various types of sources, including
smokestacks and flues, various explosions and ground works, automobile trans-
port, etc., and associated problems of forecasting and control of the degree of
contamination of the air reservoir. Consideration should be given to the study
of both local contaminations and planetary propagation of contaminants of
artificial and natural origin, and also to the determination of changes in the
chemical composition of air., precipitation, and clouds.
Investigations of atmospheric diffusion are of essential importance in
determining the effectiveness and improvement of aerosol methods of treatment
of agricultural crops by means of ground and airplane generators, and in the
development of methods by which atmospheric processes are actively affected,
particularly in the prevention of first autumn frosts, involving dispersal of
fogs and clouds.
Of major importance is the solution of so-called reverse problems, whereby
the parameters of atmospheric diffusion are used to establish certain meteoro-
logical characteristics, primarily the components of the austausch coefficient,
etc. These characteristics, as well as methods of atmospheric diffusion already
developed, can be used for studying many natural processes, particularly heat
and humidity exchange. Such are the problems involved in the study of the
meteorological regime of small water reservoirs and in the theory of many
meteorological instruments, including various types of evaporimeters, thermal
anemometers, and radiation flow meters.
A common base connected with the study of the mechanism of atmospheric
diffusion underlies the solution of these problems. It is now widely recognized
that the processes of transport of the contaminant in the atmosphere are pri-
marily determined by the laws of turbulent mixing. This common character is
manifested most clearly in the construction of theoretical models of the pheno-
mena, based on the solution of the equation of turbulent diffusion under
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turbulence characteristics and the distribution of the meteorological elements
determining the mechanism of atmospheric exchange.
To a considerable extent, the development of work on turbulent diffusion
and atmospheric turbulence has proceeded in two parallel directions. The
above-mentioned problems stimulated the development of research on atmospheric
diffusion, and the latter promoted the study of turbulent exchange in the
atmosphere, particularly in the ground layer of air.
To date, numerous published papers have been devoted to these questions.
We shall consider only those papers which shed some light on certain basic
problems of atmospheric diffusion and air contamination as studied at the Main
Geophysical Observatory. This is justified not only by the fact that the
present collection of papers is devoted to problems of development of meteoro-
logical investigations of the MCO 50 years after the Great October Socialist
Revolution, but also by the fact that it was the MGO that began the investiga-
tions of atmospheric diffusion in our country, which had a considerable
influence on the development of these problems in other institutes.
The works of A. A. Fridman and L. V. Keller on problems of atmospheric
turbulence were already of fundamental importance for further studies of
atmospheric diffusion. They formulated hypotheses which apply to substances
obeying the laws of turbulent mixing.
In the 1920's-30's, the opinion developed that in many cases, the transport
of heat, moisture and momentum in the ground layer of air can actually be treated
as the transport of a passive contaminant. Their changes in the atmosphere are
essentially described by the same differential equations. Therefore, studies of
the theory of distribution of atmospheric elements in the vicinity of the under-
lying surface, the selection and validation of the model for the austausch
coefficient, etc., have been of great importance.
B. I. Izvekov (39) elaborated a simple theoretical mechanism for the change
of the ground moisture of air in the course of 24 hours. A. A. Dorodnits (24)
constructed a model of daily variation of temperature, assuming that the vertical
component of the austausch coefficient kz, usually called the austausch coefficient,
increases exponentially with height z. A theoretical mechanism of the change of
wind with height in the presence of a linear increase of kz with height was worked
out by E. N. Blinova and I. A. Kibel1 (33). A further development of this mechan-
ism was made by M. I. Yudin and M. E. Shvets (54), who proposed a model for the
dependence of kz on z with a "break." This model, which consisted in a linear
growth of kz to a certain height h and in the preservation of a constant value of
kz at z^ h, has simplified the solution of a great many problems. It is still
being used successfully in many investigations, particularly for describing the
process of diffusion from different types of sources.
The relationship between theoretical problems of atmospheric diffusion of a
contaminant and heat and moisture exchange in the ground layer of air is directly
manifested in the solution of the corresponding problems as well. Thus, the
Green functions obtained by solving differential equations of heat and moisture
exchange constitute the distribution functions of the diffusing substance from
sources for certain boundary conditions. In this connection, we should indicate
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& series of later investigations in the area of transformation of air masses,
local changes of the temperature and hjunidity of air, etc., carried out by
M. E. Berlyand (8, 9), D. L. Laikhtman (41, 44), M. E. Shvets (52), and others.
It was important to establish the form and type of equations describing
atmospheric diffusion. By analogy with molecular diffusion processes, para-
bolic-type equations of thermal conductivity frequently referred to as Pick's
equations, were used for this purpose. However, there were a number of objections
to this procedure. They followed from the known empirical results of L.
Richardson, which were subsequently interpreted theoretically by A. N. Kolmo-
gorov and A. M. Obukhov, according to whom the mixing coefficient in the atmos-
phere may depend on the scale of vortices.
One of the first pieces of evidence that Fick's equation could be used to
describe diffusion processes in the atmosphere on the basis of probability
considerations was given by L. V. Keller (33). This problem was developed
further in original investigations by M. I. Yudin (56, 57, 59). Analyzing the
process of atmospheric diffusion, Yudin suggested that the dispersion of
particles relative to the moving center be separated out, and the role of
the Lagrange effect be thus evaluated. In addition, he used his method of
"physical averaging" in a statistical description of turbulent fields and
identified a series of essential features of turbulent transport of a contam-
inant in the atmosphere. On this basis, he examined Richardson's conclusions
on the dependence of the austausch coefficient on the scale of vortices and
indicated the possibilities of describing processes of atmospheric diffusion
by means of Fick's equation. Certain Lagrange characteristics of turbulence
pertaining to problems of atmospheric diffusion were later examined by E. K.
Byutner (21).
The problem of describing atmospheric diffusion was also studied by E. S.
Lyapin (46), who showed the possibilities of using a system of hyperbolic
equations for this purpose. The results obtained made it possible to evaluate
the limits of applicability of Fick's equation and to refine the description
of contaminant diffusion in certain cases, particularly at the boundaries of
the cloud of contaminant, when consideration of the finite velocity of its
propagation is essential.
Even in the early foreign studies, two approaches to the theoretical
investigations of propagation of the contaminant in the ground layer of air
were indicated. One of them was retained in the study of Roberts, who obtained
a solution of the equation of turbulent diffusion with constant coefficients.
The other, developed by Settin, consisted in the use of formulas for determining
concentrations of the contaminant from a source, formulas obtained from
statistical considerations.
In the work of the M30, based to a certain extent on the above-indicated
investigations, the route of solving the equations of turbulent diffusion with
variable coefficients was chosen. This approach is more universal, and permits
one to study problems with sources of different types and different character-
istics of the media and boundary conditions. It enables one to use parameters
of turbulent austausch used in problems of heat and mositure exchange. This
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prompted studies aimed at determining the coeffficient of turbulent austausch.
They included the earliest studies involving construction of models for
determining the austausch coefficient; studies of the distribution of atmos-
pheric elements when allowing for the stability in the ground layer of air,
which were carried out by M. I. Budyko (15) and D. L. Laikhtman (40); the study
of E. S. Lyapin (46), aimed at developing a kinematic method of determination
of the austausch coefficient on the basis of measurements of fluctuations of
wind velocity; and also the development of these investigations and the deter-
mination of the austausch coefficient at higher levels in the subsequent works
of A. S. Dubov (36), S. N. Zilitinkevich, D. L. Laikhtman (38, 44), and others.
Of central importance for the solution of problems of atmospheric diffusion
are determinations of not only the vertical component of the austausch coefficient
but also its horizontal component.
One of the chief problems in the study of processes of dispersion of the
contaminant from different sources is to obtain solutions of the corresponding
equations by considering both the vertical and the horizontal components of
the austausch coefficient.
Important studies along these lines were made by Laikhtman. In particular,
he obtained a solution of the equation of turbulent diffusion for sources of
different kinds for an exponential law of change of kz with height z, and values
of the wind velocity and of the horizontal component of the austausch coefficient
ky constant with the height (cf., for example, the survey of A. S. Monin, pub-
lished in the collection "Uspekhi Fizicheskikh Nauk," vol. 67, no. 1, 1959).
We obtained (5, 12) values of ky from observations of the outline of a
smoke cloud and proposed a model for the change of the horizontal component of
the austausch coefficient ky with the height, according to which ky changes in
proportion to the wind velocity u. On the basis of this model, in our study of
1946 (given in Cl2^ ), a solution was obtained for the equation of turbulent
diffusion of a suspended contaminant whose coefficients u, kz, and ky are expressed
by exponential functions of the height z. Also formulated were initial condi-
tions for a high altitude source taking the influence of wind velocity into
consideration and using the delta function for this purpose; the possibility of
neglecting the influence of diffusion along the direction of the wind was noted.
L. S. Gandin and R. E. Soloveichik (28) obtained with the same model, for the
components of austausch coefficient and wind velocity, a solution of the equa-
tion of diffusion of a heavy contaminant from a high altitude source in the
ground layer of air. They also examined (29, 31) certain theoretical problems
of propagation of radioactive emanation at the earth's surface by solving the
equation of transport of contaminant decaying with time.
L. R. Arrago and M. E. Shvets (3, 4) undertook the first attempts at a
numerical study of turbulent dispersal of a contaminant from a linear source.
At close distances from the source, they used a known analytical solution with
simplified conditions as the initial condition for the numerical solution of the
problem.
The general study of the distribution of a contaminant is directly related
to the above-mentioned solutions of the reverse problems for determining
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turbulent characteristics of the atmosphere.
Important results along these lines were obtained by Yudin (55, 57, 58).
He obtained a solution for the equation describing the process of turbulent
diffusion of a heavy contaminant, and performed a physico-statistical analysis
of this process. On this basis, a method was proposed for determining the aus-
tausch coefficient from data of experiments with dispersal of falling particles
in the ground layer of air; it was also found that both the parameters of
dispersal of the contaminant and the austausch coefficient thus obtained
depended substantially on the fall velocity of the particles. Yudin was the
first to consider the characteristics of dispersal of a known conservative
(heavy) contaminant. The results he obtained are also of major importance for
the solution of direct problems of atmospheric diffusion of falling particles.
In a study of the influence of thermal stratification on turbulent aus-
tausch, M. I. Budyko (15, 17) obtained a criterion for the formation of con-
vection in the ground layer of air. He gave this criterion the interesting
interpretation as an indicator of instability of propagation of the smoke
cloud under convective conditions, related to the "detachment" of the cloud
from the earth's surface. Experiments set up by Budyko and Lyapin (16) con^
firmed these results.
Some methods of determination of the vertical component of the austausch
coefficient from data obtained by observing the distribution of the concentration
of smoke from a ground source were discussed by Lyapin (45).
In the reference cited (5), the horizontal component of the austausch
coefficient was determined from the outline of a smoke cloud. In a subsequent
study (11), we carried out a general study aimed at determining the horizontal
and vertical components of the turbulence coefficient from the outline of a
smoke plume from industrial smokestacks.
Among the first applications of the results of studies of atmospheric
diffusion were the investigations made at the M30 for the purpose of controlling
first autumn frosts by the methods of smudging and open heating. We carried out
(6, 7, 9S10) a theoretical analysis and evaluation of the thermal effect of a
smokescreen and open heating on plantations and orchards during the period of
the first autumn frost. The results of the analysis permitted the establishment
of a direct relationship between the increase of the temperature of air in the
smoke and the concentration of the smoke, and also the weight of the vertical
column of smoke particles attenuating the long-wavelength radiation of the earth.
The theory of open heating (7) was based on a solution of the equation of tur-
bulent diffusion from thermal sources for an exponential law of increase of the
wind velocity and components of the austausch coefficient with the height, the
horizontal component being assumed proportional to the wind velocity. Use of
this solution made it possible to determine the temperature field for isolated
heat sources produced by heaters or by brick fuel, and also to determine the
total thermal effect from a system of sources located between the plants being
heated. As a result, the degree of rise of air temperature at various heights
was determined as a function of the consumption of protective agents and
weather conditions, and a system of practical recommendations for taking
measures designed to protect the plants from first autumn frosts was also
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worked out.
Another application of the results of the completed investigations pertains
to the calculation of the dispersal of fogs achieved by raising the temperature
of air in the creation of thermal sources (M. E. Berlyand) and as a result of
the propagation of hygroscopic particles (M. I. Budyko).
Allowing for the influence of horizontal austausch, L. S. Gandin and R. E.
Soloveichik (27, 30) developed the theory of evaporation from confined water
reservoirs. They obtained a solution of the corresponding equation of turbulent
diffusion of moisture in the ground layer of air with the condition that the
concentration of water vapor on the evaporating surface be a known function of
the coordinates. Analysis of the solutions showed that the influence of
horizontal austausch on the distribution of moisture near the ground and on the
magnitude of the evaporation may sometimes be substantial, especially when the
size of the evaporating surface is small.
The works of G. Kh. Tseitin (50,51) have also been devoted to the calcu-
lation and analysis of the influence of horizontal austausch in the direction
perpendicular to the direction of the wind on the transport of moisture from
the evaporating band. In his studies, working formulas were derived and cal-
culations were made for a number of examples under certain simplifying condi-
tions. In particular, Tseitin evaluated the so-called coefficient of reduction
for converting the readings of evaporimeters to values of evaporation under
natural conditions.
In a certain sense, among the applications of studies of turbulent diffusion
of heat and moisture one can also include a wider group of studies of the
transformation of air masses under the influence of the underlying surface,which
was begun at the M20 by I. A. Kibel1 and N. R. Malkin. However, a discussion of
these studies is beyond the scope of this paper. Therefore, we shall confine
ourselves to references to surveys of the corresponding investigations (9, 44)
and note only some as supplements to the above-indicated papers.
A comprehensive cycle of studies of the transformation of an air stream
above water reservoirs was carried out by M. P. Timofeev (49). They proposed
methods of determination of evaporation from water reservoirs, and in cooperation
with T. V. Kirillova and T. A. Ogneva, studied the characteristics of the
meteorological regime above water reservoirs and in their vicinity. D. L.
Laikhtman and M. I. Yudin studied the solution of equations of heat and moisture
exchange in a moving air stream under steady conditions and discussed the
application of the solution to the evaluation of the effectiveness of irrigation
(18, 42, 43). The study of N. I. Yakovleva (60) is closely related to this work.
Our studies, summed up in ref. (9), discuss the problems of the theory of
unsteady and steady transformation of moving and of relatively stagnant air
masses. On the basis of these studies, the conditions of transition from one
type of transformation to the other were examined, and methods were developed
for taking the transformation into account in forecasting changes of the tem-
perature and humidity of the ground layer of the atmosphere. Of essential
importance are studies of the experimental verification of these methods and a
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synoptic-aerologies! analysis of the transformation conditions, carried out
by M. V. Zavarina (37) and later at the Central Forecasting Institute by A.
A. Bachurlna.
.The stationary transformation of an air stream, turbulent austausch and
vertical currents being considered, was studied by L. R. Arrago (2). Of major
importance for carrying out many of the indicated studies and also for the
purpose of investigating the characteristics of transformation under certain
conditions were the approximate methods of solution of boundary layer problems
worked out by M. E. Shvets (52, 53). The studies of M. E. Berlyand and R. I.
Onikul (13, 47) were devoted to the development of a theory of heat and
moisture exchange in a moving air stream above a highly irregular underlying
surface, using as an example the formation of river fogs, and to the use of
numerical methods of solution for this purpose.
Another interesting application of the methods of atmospheric diffusion
has recently been developed in the study of M. I. Budyko and L. S. Gandin
(19, 20). They are studying the theoretical problems of propagation of
carbon dioxide above the plant cover for the purpose of exploring the effects
of photosynthesis and possibly evaluating the productivity of the biomass.
Important results in a series of applied studies of atmospheric diffusion
and related problems were also obtained by V. A. Gaevskii, N. P. Rusin, M. S.
Sternzat, and others.
Starting in the middle 1950's, the work of the MSO in the area of atmos-
pheric diffusion was further expended, first at the Geophysical Institute of
the USSR Academy of Sciences, then at its daughter institutions, the Institute
of Atmospheric Physics and the Institute of Applied Geophysics (studies by A.
S. Monin, A. M. Obukhov, A. I, Denisov, I. L. Karol1, 0. S. Berlyand, A. Ya.
Pressman, V. N. Petrov, E. N. Teverovskii, N. L. Byzova, and others), and
toward the end of the 1950's and the beginning of the 1960's, at the Leningrad
Hydrometeorological Institute (studies by D. L. Laikhtman, L. G. Kachurin, F.
A. Gisina, Ya. S. Rabinovich, and others).
The problem of investigations of atmospheric diffusion has lately assumed
a special urgency and has attracted major attention. At the present rate of
development of industry and power engineering, the amount of noxious substances
discharged into the atmosphere is increasing rapidly. The protective measures
employed are proving insufficiently effective.
It is assumed that the discharges of noxious substances by chemical,
metallurgical, and other industrial plants will increase in the near future,
in spite of the purification steps being taken. This situation makes it
necessary to develop indirect methods of decreasing the concentration of
noxious substances near the ground; these methods consist primarily in increasing
the height of the discharging source and using the effect of dispersal of the
contaminant in the air. Hence derives the importance of an effective considera-
tion of weather conditions, when designing and operating industrial plants, for
the purpose of decreasing the harmful contamination of the ground layer of air.
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Attempts to utilize the results of earlier studies of atmospheric diffusion
for this purpose, including the known formulas of Setton, should undoubtedly be
evaluated positively. However, even the first episodic measurements of contam-
inant concentrations showed that the data obtained by calculation and by
experiment differed severalfold, particularly in the case of powerful sources.
Thus, practice has revealed new requirements for studies of atmospheric
diffusion. It is necessary to study the characteristics of turbulent mixing at
higher levels above the underlying surface and the conditions of dispersal of
the contaminant from sources to greater distances than in previous studies. The
meteorological factors should be taken into account more fully and more rigor-
ously. It is not enough, as was done earlier, to confine oneself solely to
data on the wind velocity and air temperature near the ground. In calculating
the dispersal of discharges from high sources, it is necessary to develop a
theory of turbulent diffusion in a layer of air with a thickness of several
hundred meters, allowing for possible changes of temperature, wind, and auetauach
coefficient. Also required is a switch from conditions of a level area, to
which the previous studies usually pertain, to actual topographical forms and
the development of methods of observations and characterization of the contam-
ination of the atmosphere over large areas, etc.
In this connection, several years ago special studies were undertaken
within the system of Gidrometsluzhba (Hydrometeorological Service). A section
for the study of atmospheric diffusion and atmospheric contamination, which
carried out a broad spectrum of theoretical and experimental work, was created
at the M30. The chief results of this research are described below (14, 22-26).
The theoretical studies made by M. E. Berlyand, E. L. Genikhovich, V. K.
Dem'yanovich, R. i. Onikul and others were based on the solution of the equation
of atmospheric diffusion from high altitude sources. The coefficients of the
given equation are generally functions of the coordinates, and the type of the
functions may be complex if one studies an atmospheric boundary layer several
hundred meters thick, particularly in the presence of elevated temperature
inversions, under hilly ground conditions, etc. This required the development
of numerical methods of integration and calculation by means of computers.
In the solution of the problem, consideration was given to the variability
of the direction of the wind with time, and corresponding averaging was made
for the time to which the concentration referred. This permitted a more accurate
evaluation of the horizontal dispersal of the contaminant and the determination
of the concentration values averaged for different time intervals.
Also taken into consideration was the increase of the effective height of
the source of the discharge, caused by the initial velocity of the ascent and over-
heating of the new gases. Since the initial ascent of the contaminant is a
function of the wind velocity, the dependence of the concentration near the
ground on the wind velocity assumes a complex character. There is a certain
unsafe wind velocity u^ at which the highest value of the maximum of the concen-
tration near the ground qM is reached.
On the basis of the solution of the problem obtained, working formulas and
schemes were derived for determining the concentration qM. They included the
-------
dependence of qM on the amount of noxious contaminant and on the volume of
flue gases discharged per unit time, height of the smokestacks and their
number, velocity at which the flue gases are carried off, difference in the
temperature of the gases discharged from the Smokestacks and the temperature
of the surrounding air, and also precipitation velocity of the contaminant.
The formulas contain a coefficient determining the influence of vertical and
horizontal mixing in the atmosphere. Its value is established as a function
of the characteristics of the vertical distribution of air temperature for
conditions under which the maximum value of the concentration above ground is
reac'hed for the unsafe wind velocity. The value of this coefficient proves to
be different for different climatic zones. It is greater for southern and
wooded regions, where an intense vertical turbulent exchange takes place.
Working formulas were obtained for comparatively frequent unfavorable
conditions. They are characterized by the fact that the temperature falls off
with the height, and the wind velocity changes approximately in accordance with
the logarithmic law. At the same time, the degree of turbulent austausch is
considerable, and an intensive transport of contaminant from high altitude
sources to the ground layer of air takes place. The theoretical studies that
were carried out showed that the concentrations above ground may reach still
higher values in the presence of elevated inversion layers with an attenuated
turbulence, which inhibit the upward transport of the contaminant. From the
results of the calculations it follows that in cases where the layer with
attenuated turbulence is located directly above the source, the maximum of the
concentration of light contaminant is sometimes more than doubled. In cases
where such a layer is located at a height of 100-200 m above the source, the
increase in concentration is substantially smaller.
The presence of elevated inversions may cause a substantial effect in
cold discharges as a result of restriction of their initial volume. In these
cases, the importance of the unsafe velocity decreases, and the concentrations
near the ground in the presence of a weak wind increase markedly.
In certain cases, substantial deviations in the vertical profile of the
wind from the logarithmic distribution, suitable mainly for average conditions,
are possible. The calculations that were performed show that the presence of
still layers at the underlying surface leads to a concentration rise, which is
greater the thicker these layers.
Specially arranged gradient observations in the ground layer (V. P. Gracheva,
G. P. Rastorgueva) and aerological studies (P. A. Vorontsov, I. V. Vasil'chenko)
in the region of powerful sources of discharge of noxious contaminants were of
great importance in this research.
In the presence of terrain irregularities or of complex topography,
movements of air arise, which may lead to substantial changes of the contaminant.
The use of modern methods of theoretical investigation of atmospheric diffusion,
including computers, has provided an approach to these difficult problems as well.
To date, calculations have been made for various areas with relatively slight
topographical irregularities. It was found that under these conditions, the
maximum of contaminant concentration near the ground was found to be generally
-------
higher than above level ground. This is sometimes noted even when the smoke-
stacks are located on high ground, but in the vicinity of the leeward slope,
where the wind velocity decreases sharply and downward flows are generated.
Analysis has shown that in the case of gentle topographic features, the air
stream flows around the latter and hence, a slight increase of concentration
takes place. The influence of rolling topography on the distribution of
concentration is manifested in places where the wind velocity changes sub-
stantially at a fixed height. In this connection, it was useful to utilize the
studies made earlier at the MGO by I. A. Gol'tsberg (32), S. A. Sapozhnikova (48)
and others on the microclimatic survey of an area, and also a similar study in a
region of electric power stations, recently made by I. I. Solomatina, et al.
At the present time, these studies are being carried on at the MGO in two
directions. Numerical studies of the equations of motion describing the structure
of an air stream in the presence of rolling topography are being made. In
cooperation with laboratories of the Leningrad Shipbuilding Institute and of
Moscow State University, experimental studies are being conducted in a wind
tunnel with models of rolling topography. The experiments are performed under
close to self-simulating conditions, making it possible to avoid certain
difficulties of simulation of atmospheric processes. The first stage produced
data on the vertical wind profile in different parts of the topography as a
function of the angle of slope of the underlying surface relative to the horizon,
height differential, etc.
Numerical methods of solving the equations of atmospheric diffusion are
also currently being used for studying distortions in the field of distribution
of the contaminant, caused by water reservoirs and usually produced in the
vicinity of large power and industrial facilities, and for analysis of the
influence of fogs on the contamination of the ground layer of air, etc.
In order to check the theory and obtain the necessary parameters, a number
of large expeditions were organized in 1961-1965 into regions of the Shchekin-
skaya, Cherepetskaya and Moldavskaya electric power stations, where the highest
smokestacks in the USSR have been erected. In these studies, the Moscow
Scientific Research Institute of Hygiene measured the concentration of ash and
sulfur gas at distances of 15-20 km from the stacks, while the Southern Branch
of the ORGRES Combine and the Ail-Union Power Engineering Institute determined
the extent of discharge of ash and sulfur gas into the atmosphere and the en-
trainment velocity and temperatures of the flue gases. The MGO made measurements
of the vertical distribution of temperature and wind, and also certain other
characteristics making it possible to obtain additional data on turbulent
austausch to a height of several hundred meters. Observations on the ground
were made with telescopic masts 17 m high, and at higher levels by means of a
captive balloon, light airplanes, and helicopters. In addition, systematic
ground photographs of the smoke plume were taken, and the parameters of the
plume were determined, particularly its width at various distances from the
airplane or helicopter. It should be pointed out that, to our knowledge, this
is one of the most complete studies of this type made thus far in the world.
The results obtained led to an optimistic estimate of the degree of con-
tamination of the atmosphere in regions of powerful industrial sources. Their
-------
comparison with calculated data showed a completely satisfactory agreement.
Agreement was observed between theoretical conclusions and data of special
experiments carried out at the Institute of Applied Geophysics (IAG), involving
dispersal of particles discharged from different heights by a 300-meter meteo-
rological mast.
The theoretical results were also confirmed by less detailed observations
made by the Moscow Institute of Hygiene in previous years and by public health
studies recently performed in the vicinity of a number of electric power
stations located in the central European USSR, the Ukraine and the Urals, in
Belorussia, Latvia, Estonia, Siberia and Kazakhstan, and in addition, in the
vicinity of some metallurgical plants.
On this basis, the M30 in cooperation with the IAG and the Moscow Institute
of Hygiene worked out a "tentative method of calculation of dispersal of dis-
charges from smokestacks of electric power stations in the atmosphere" (24, 26).
The method has been widely applied in the design of electric power stations in
the USSR and in certain other countries, and has been translated into many
foreign languages. It has now been used to work out an improved method and to
compile recommendations for calculating the dispersal in the atmosphere of dust
and sulfur gas discharged from powerful industrial sources. These recommenda-
tions are being distributed among a large group of plants in the metallurgical,
chemical, petroleum, and other branches of industry.
Certain limitations involved in the method of calculation are due to the
fact that it does not extend to cases of cold discharges. In this connection,
special studies have been planned at the M30. The first experimental studies
were made in the region of the Neva chemical plant, whose stacks discharge
nitrogen oxides at relatively low temperatures. Expeditionary investigations
have begun in regions of artificial fiber plants for the purpose of studying
the propagation of cold discharges of hydrogen sulfide and carbon disulfide.
Recently, extensive research, aimed at studying the contamination of the
atmosphere in the cities of the USSR, has begun at the M30. Data of observa-
tions made for many years at sanitary-epidemiological stations (SES) and
recently initiated measurements of the concentration of noxious substances over
a network of hydrometeorological stations have been analyzed and processed.
Despite the inhomogeneity and insufficiency of these data, they are as a whole
of considerable interest and have made it possible to reach certain conclusions,
particularly in regard to the patterns of change of maximum concentrations, etc.
They served as the basis for a compilation of the first surveys of the state of
contamination of the atmosphere on the territory of the USSR.
An interesting synoptic-climaticological analysis of experimental data was
carried out by L. R. Son'kin and E. Yu. Bezuglaya. Deserving of attention are
certain conclusions on the geographical distribution of dust of organic and in-
organic composition which were obtained by N. N. Aleksandrov. They were based
on a method of observation of dust by a network of stations. We should also
note a series of other studies made by N. N. Aleksandrov, B. B. Goroshko, and
others, aimed at improving methods of dust sampling and also certain techniques
of analysis of radioactive fallout described in (1, 22, 24). We should also
-------
note the theoretical studies recently carried out by M. E. Berlyand, E. L.
Genikhovich, and G. E. Maslova on the relationship between the concentration of
aerosols in the ground layer of air and their flow on a horizontal plane table.
They should permit a considerable expansion of the use of the experimental
data on dust observations which were obtained at stations with the aid of plane
tables and filtering ventilating units.
Investigations of atmospheric contaminations are being substantially
expanded. Under a coordinated program by SES and weather stations, measurements
of concentrations of noxious substances and meteorological and aerological
observations have now been made for about two years at eight large industrial
centers.
Systematic observations are being made on the territory of the country to
determine the change of the chemical composition of precipitation. Analysis
of the latter, made by V. M. Drozdova, 0. P. Petrenchuk, P. F. Svistov and E.
S. Selezneva (35), permitted an evaluation of the amount of chlorides, sulfur,
and certain other elements falling out in the precipitation in various parts
of the USSR. At two sections of the station (in the Don Basin and near Lenin-
grad), observations are now being made on precipitation in order to determine
the degree of its contamination by discharges from industrial plants.
In the 1950's, the Hydrometeorological Service organized regular observa-
tions of concentrations of noxious ingredients simultaneously at several points
located in areas with the highest contamination of the ground layer of air. To
carry out such observations, the MSO is preparing recommendations for the use
and improvement of known methods of determination of the concentration of
noxious substances, and has proposed a project for equipping automobiles and
special cabins, which have already been installed in many cities, for the
observations.
The installation of automatic recording gas analyzers and also recorders
of the direction of wind velocity and certain atmospheric elements should
assume a primary importance. These devices will make it possible to carry out
a continuous control of the degree of contamination of the atmosphere, will
detect cases of highest concentrations of noxious contaminants, and will
analyze the causes of their appearance.
The Design Office of Automation in cooperation with the MSO has now developed
the first automatic recorder of sulfur gas in the USSR.
At the MSO, a special expedition was organized, whose composition includes
a separate division under the Novosibirsk branch of the NIIAK for the systematic
investigation of air contamination in industrial cities; this expedition has
already begun studies in ten large cities of the Ukraine, Urals, and Siberia.
We shall not dwell on certain other problems indicated at the beginning of
the paper, since they have been studied less. Nevertheless, these problems have
also been the subject of a number of interesting treatments, and their role will
undoubtedly grow with time.
-------
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THE STRUCTURE OF AN AIRSTREAM AS A FACTOR IN THE TRANSPORT OF
PRODUCTS OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION
P. A. Vorontsov
From Trudy, Glavnaya Geofiz. Observat. im. A. I. Voeykova, No. 207, p. 138-
154, (1968).
Using materials of the latest expeditions of the GGO [Tbr. note, Main
Geophysical Observatory (MGO)} , the present paper gives an analysis of the
structure of the boundary layer of the atmosphere in September 1965 in the
region of the Moldavian GRES (Jr. note, State Regional Electric Power Plant
(SREPP)J , in October 1964, in the region of the Cherepet'GRES Ctr. note,
SREPP}, and offers a comparison for March 1964 in the region of the Shchekino
GRES (tr. note, SREPP) .
The studies were made by means of ascents on a captive aerostat carrying
the following instruments:
1) An instrument recording the horizontal (u1) and vertical (w1) components
of gustiness and wind velocity u at levels of 2, 100, 200 and 300 m;
2) A meteorograph recording the temperature and humidity of air, atmos-
pheric pressure, wind velocity and horizontal component of fluctuations of the
wind velocity at levels of 2, 15, 50, 100, 150, 200, 300, 400 and 500 m, aver-
aged over 5 min.
The studies were also made by using airplane and helicopter sounding.
The airplane usually carried an electrometeorograph which recorded on the
photographic film of an oscillograph the atmospheric pressure, temperature and
humidity of air, overloads on the airplane, and also temperature fluctuations.
We shall give a brief description of the meteorological conditions in the
regions of the work of the expeditions.
In the region of the Shchekino SREPP from 16 to 26 March 1964, a cloudiness
of the lower layer up to 10 points was observed, from 28 March the cloudiness of
the upper layer was 10 points with marked temperature fluctuations in the 8 hour
observations from -5.2° to -0.9° C. and fluctuations of humidity from 70 to 96%.
On the average, the temperature of air for 2:00 P.M. was about 0° C.
In the region of the Cherepet1 SREPP, from 8 to 10 October 1964 the weather
was slightly cloudy, from 13 to 30 October a continuous cloudiness of the lower
layer predominated, frequently with drizzle and with fogs in the morning. The
mean monthly temperature for 2:00 P.M. was about 10° C.
In the region of the Moldavian SREPP, from 1 to 6 September 1965 slightly
-------
cloudy weather predominated, from 8 to 12 September the cloudiness of the upper
layer was 8-9 points, and from 14 September to the end of the expedition, stable
anticyclonic weather with cloudiness of cumulus forms of 2-4 points was observed.
The wind was weak in the morning and its velocity was 4-6 in/sec during the day.
The temperature at 2:00 P.M. was about 24° C.
Structure of the Air Stream
We shall consider the characteristics of distribution of the following
structural elements of an air stream in the lower layers of the atmosphere: f u -
periods of fluctuations of the horizontal component, sec;6u and tfw - mean
square values of fluctuations u' and w1, ra/sec, or of their kinetic energy; 6u
and $w - intensities of kinetic energy of fluctuations u1 and w1; lu and u
lw ave¥age dimensions of eddy formations, m; &L - isotropy index of the
atmosphere.
The errors of aerostatic and airplane sounding have been discussed in
detail in ref. (3) and will not be considered here. W« shall note that in
aerostatic sounding, the measured dimensions of the horizontal component of the
eddy lu/although not equal, are commensurate with the true characteristic
dimensions of the eddies, whereas the vertical dimensions lw reflect only the
displacement of the eddy relative to the stationary instrument along the verti-
cal during passage of the eddy at the velocity of the wind. Therefore, the
values lw may be somewhat lower than the true dimensions of the eddies in the
vertical plane; values of lw characterize the approximate mixing length of the
eddy. It should be noted that all the characteristics of the structure of an
airstream are distinguished by considerable fluctuations of their average values
in time and space, and that these fluctuations usually increase with increasing
thermal instability. This is particularly apparent in horizontal airplane
sounding, when segments with different structures of the underlying surface
intersect rapidly.
These characteristics of the structure of an air stream were discussed in
ref. (1, 2) and also will not be considered here. Below we shall use quantities
characterizing the wind structure, averaged over time and space.
Let us now discuss the structure of an air stream based on data of aero-
static sounding. In view of the fact that the ascents were made only in the
daytime and their number was unevenly distributed over the hours of observation,
we shall subsequently consider only the values of the separate elements of
wind structure averaged for the day (Table 1).
The tables given below include only those observations in which fluctuations
of the vertical and horizontal components of the wind velocity 5-0.1 m/sec were
noted.
In Table 1, all of the data for each point are divided, except the Cherepet1
SREPP, into two groups:
a) ascents with u' ^ 0.1 m/sec;
b) ascents with u' "?, 0.6 m/sec.
-------
Thus, ascents with an intense turbulence were separated out. It should be
noted that in the region of the Cherepet1 SREPP, in 40 ascents of the instrument
with recording the wind structure, gustiness was absent in 67% of all cases,
and gusts were recorded in only 33%. Correspondingly, in the region of the
Moldavian SREPP, of 61 ascents, gustiness was absent in only 15% of the cases,
and in 85% well-developed wind gusts were observed.
•••••«•••*
Table 1 lists mean square values "f u12 -
All the other designations are standard.
and correspondingly,
The dsitribution of turbulent energy with the height in the boundary layer
depends on the inhomogeneities in the structure of the underlying surface and on
the thermodynamic stratification of the atmosphere. Points of observations on
the Moldavian and Shchekino SREPP, were located on an open platform, and those
of the Cherepet' SREPP, on a small clearing surrounded by a high forest.
Uean Values of the Structural Elements of tht Air Stream in the 2-300 • layer
3:
4
a
8
O
4
a
o
4
D
.
-
a
a
•
-"
««
ow
°w
4
•se
ii
* ^
Moldavian SRRPPt Sep. 1965 t» • 23»8| u«^ 0.1 «/MO| Ri « 0.6
2
100
200
300
3,5
5,0
5,5
5,9
_
1.8
1,0
0,9
0,53
0,90
0,93
0,99
1,38
1,78
2,15
1,97
0,30
0,56
0,58
0,67
40
47
48
200
256
283
_
74
94
76
_
0.18
0.17
0,17
_
0,12
0,11
0,11
_
0,62
0,63
0,68
._.
36
48
37
40
45
40
40
Moldavian SREPP» Sep. 19&5| u'^0.6 a/aee; Ri • - 0.8
2
100
200
300
4,0
5.3
5.9
6.4
1.7
0,9
1,0
0,64
0.95
1,00
1,06
1,37
2,15
1,83
1,98
0,34
0,59
0.65
0,69
46
44
46
295
260
280
70
78
76
0,18
0.17
0.17
0,11
0,11
0.11
0,62
0.65
0,66
39
53
43
30
32
30
30
Cherepet' SREPP| Oct. 1964; u' ^0.1 B/seoj f . 10.4» Ri . o.l
2
100
200
300
1.9
6.9
10,2
12,2
0,8
0,4
0,5
1,46
1,27
1,16
2,76
1,70
1,97
0,88
0,54
0,44
50
43
50
345
440
610
75
98
92
0,21
0,10
0,09
0,13
0,05
0,04
0.60
0.56
0,38
_
52
42
36
12
10
10
6
Shchekino SREPP; Harch 1965» u«> 0.1 n/secj t* • - 0.2| Ri . 0.8
2
100
200
4,5
6,2
6.7
—
0,9
0,5
0,75
0,83
0,77
1,62
1,66
1,44
0,24
0,34
0.32
33
38
37
—
237
248
—
48
51
0,17
0,13
0,11
0,05
0.06
0,05
0,32
0,41
0,40
—
13
13
28
37
33
Shchakino SHEPPt March 1465s u'^0.6 m/seoj Ri . 0.5
2
100
200
5.1
6.9
7,2
—
0,9
0,7
0,92
1,18
1,07
1,64
1,68
1,45
0,30
0,41
0,39
30
37
36
—
255
257
—
43
48
0,18
0.17
0,15
0,06
0,06
0.05
0,33
0.35
0,37
•
14
15
—
21
21
Table 1
-------
The therraodynamic stratification was determined by Richardson's number Ri,
calculated for the 2-300 m layer. It is apparent that during observations at
the Moldavian SREPP, the magnitude of Ri corresponded to unstable stratification,
at the Cherepet' SREPP it was close to an indifferent equilibrium, and at the
Shchekino SREPP, a stable thermodynamic stratification was observed. Table 1
shows average values of air temperature at the 2 m level for 2:00 P.M. The
values of wind velocity u m/sec and vertical temperature gradient
-------
dimensions of atmospheric eddies should range approximately from 10 to 10 .
According to the author's data, the values of lu range from 250-600 m, they
increase somewhat with the height and vary not so much with the stratification
as with the wind velocity; as u increases, so does lu.
The vertical component of the mixing length of the eddy 1^ depends on the
thermal stratification more than lu does; at Ri " from -0.6 to -0.8, it amounts
to 70-95 m, reaching a maximum at a height of 200 m, and the turbulence co-
efficient k also decreases somewhat with the height. As the stability increases
(at Ri «= 0.5), the absolute values of !„ decrease by almost one-half, but their
maximum always corresponds to a level close to 200 m.
In the first approximation, the maximum gusts are twice as high as their
mean values, although this is due in part to the method of treatment adopted
by the author.
If average values of the parameter ^ are taken in the 100-300 m layer,
the following relationship of these parameters with Ri is obtained (Table 2).
Table 2
Dependence of Parutter ^~ on Ri in
the 100-300 • Layer.
Ri
Ojy
°u
-0,8-0,6
0,65
0,1
0,51
0.5
0,35
The relationship obtained between the stratification of the atmosphere
and the anisotropy of the eddies is quite satisfactory; as the stability increases,
the vertical component rapidly decreases.
0 20 tv ou ou lOOm Iw
FIG. 1 Determination of Xw in the 0-3000 • layer.
1- Moldavian SREPP, 2 - Cherepet* SREPP, 3 -
Shohekino SREPP, 4 . after Uttau.
-------
In the first approximation, for the range of u from 5 to 12 m/sec, the
dependence of the horizontal component of the eddy on the wind velocity may be
expressed as lu » 40 u. Values of the mixing length of the eddy 1^ in the
0-300 m layer for certain points are given in Fig. 1. In the unstable state,
a marked increase of lw is observed. For comparison, this figure also gives
the data of Lettau (4), which are generally close to the data of the Shchekino
SREPP at Ri =» 0.5-0.8.
The frequencies of a'u and
(Table 3).
w are given for the three points considered
The frequency of
-------
Table 4
Mtan TtlMi off
t MoUavim SMPP.
Xiat
8
10
12
14
16
18
Hflleht, •
25
0,0
0.6
1.0
1,0
0,6
Ol5
50
0.0
o!s
0,8
10
0,6
ola
100
0.0
05
06
08
04
0.3
150
200
300
400
500
{
1 fc
a. M/MO
0.0
0,4
06
08
04
03
0,0
0,4
0,5
0.5
0,4
0,1
0.0
0,1
0.3
0,4
0,1
0,1
o.o
0,3
0,3
0.4
0.1
0.1
0,0
o.o
0,1
0.3
0,1
o.o
12
14
18
19
9
4
ft
10
12
14
16
18
0,0
0,21
0,23
0,21
0,13
0.14
0.0
0,16
0,16
0.20
0.11
0,07
0,0
0,14
0,12
0.15
0,07
0,06
0,0
0,10
0,11
0,15
0,07
0,06
(),<)
0,00
0,09
0,09
0,07
0,02
0.0
0,02
0,05
0,07
0,02
0,02
0,0
0,05
0,05
0.07
0.02
0,02
0,0
0,0
0,02
0,05
0,02
—
O u
Table 4 gives mean values of c* u and —e for all the ascents in the region
of the Moldavian SREPP, independently of whether wind gusts were observed or
not, i. e., for u1 ^> 0.1 m/sec. Of interest in .this case is the daily variation
of ^ u and —r- in the layer up to 500 m. The maximum of these quantities as
given by average data is observed in the lower layers (20-50 m) and decreases
with the height everywhere. At the 400-500 m level, the gustinees of the wind
weakens markedly, and only during daytime hours tfu = 0.3-0.4 m/sec, and -j* &
0.02-0.05. In the morning, the gustiness of the wind is reduced. Similar data
on the daily variation of the Cherepet' SREPP are given in Table 5. Here the
quantities
-------
Table 5
a u
tout Valm of ?u and -v t Ct»r«p«t* SRB*P
Tim
Might, •
25
50
100
150
200
300
400
500
it
*•»
•/MO
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
2
4
6
0,9
1,7
0,9
1.9
2.4
2.2
1.1
0,9
1,6
1.6
1.1
1.5
0,9
1.6
2,1
2,2
0,9
0,9
1.2
1,4
0,8
0,8
0.8
•1,4
1,7
1.1
0,6
1,0
1.5
1.0
0,6
0,8
0,8
1,1
1,5
1.0
0,6
0,8
0,8
0,8
0,5
0.6
0,9
1,0
1.4
0,9
0,9
0,8
0,6
0,5
0,0
0,0
0,9
0,7
1.0
—
0,6
0,2
0,5
0,2
0,0
0,0
0,6
0,8
0.5
. —
0.5
0,2
0,1
O-1
0,0
0,0
0,5
0,5
_
-__
—
0,2
0.0
o.o
12
•)
$
30
4
4
3
6
6
6
8
10
12
t -I
16
18
20
2
4
0,3
0,5
0,2
0,5
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,2
0,4
b i 0,4
0,3
0.4
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,2
0.2
0,2
0,2
0.2
0,3
0,3
0,2
0,1
0.1
0,2
0,1
t.l
0,1
0.2
0,2
0,2
0,1
0,1
0,1
0.1
0,1
0,1
0,1
0,'-'
0/2
0,2
0,1
.'- 2
0,1
0,1
0,1
1
0,0
o.o
0,2
_.
0,1
— -
0,1
0,0
0,1
0.0
0.0
0,0
0.1
— .
0,1
— .
0,1
0,0
o.o
0,0
0,0
0,1
MC.
_
—
_
«••
_
— -
Turbulence Coefficient
Turbulent mixing is one of the basic factors in the transport of atmospheric
impurities. The values of the turbulence coefficient, which can be used to
characterize mixing, depend on the vertical temperature gradients V and wind
velocity £4 , properties of the underlying surface, parameters of the free
atmosphere, and other conditions. In practice, it may be considered that the
magnitude and profile of the turbulence coefficient kz are chiefly determined
by the values of £ andy and their vertical distributions; more exactly, all
these three quantities are interrelated. Subsequently, we shall analyze only
the values of the turbulence coefficient along the vertical, and the coefficient
will be designated by K.
For data of aerostatic sounding
Lyapin's formula
12 *.
K- fc
the calculation was made by using E. S.
•w
u
2u'
(1)
-------
where w1 and u1 are in m/sec, T*w is the time of conservation of w' of the same
sign in sec, and u is the wind velocity at the given level.
In the calculation, K was averaged over a five minute interval.
Based on results of airplane sounding for recording overloads, the cal-
culations of K were made by using A. S. Dubov's formula (5) with correction
for the frequency of fluctuations proposed by M. A. German (6)
K »
w'2 tV3u ; (2)
W . • (3)
where va is the air velocity of the airplane; 7} is the correction factor
allowing for the frequency of fluctuations; b co is a transmission function
relating the overloads of the airplane in fractions an with the magnitude of
the vertical component of the wind velocity; a is a correction for density.
The quantity K, like any other quantity characterizing the structure of
an air stream, has a f luctuational character, but subsequently we shall use
only its averaged values.
Fig. 2 shows the profile of K based on data of Table 1 in the layer up
to 300 m as an average of two groups of tf u. In the presence of unstable
stratification, K has a maximum of
-------
Table 6
Man V«m«« of K and 1 fro. Gradation, rf tto
Win* V.lo«ity la th. S&OO • Uar«r. Moldavian SWP
u a/see • • •
If
/„ ...
miber of oases • •
2—4
49
17,3
5
4-6
71
32,2
16
6-8
97
50,5
7
8—10
53
36,5
2
10 20 30 40 SO 50 K, /see
Fig. 2. Profiles of K in the.O-300 m. Imyer. shorUoeriod profiles (l) and
- Moldavian .
SREPft 2 T ChtrjiMt' SRHPPj 3 - Shptokino SREPP, March 1965?
t»TShohekino SREPP, August 1963, airplan*. '
Dean Values of K, «* and 1 From Data of Airplane Sounding*
___ Shohekino SRiPP, August 196%
Table 7
HeiRht. •
150
A:
52
w'
1.3
lu
91
200
/<
58
w'
1,6
'„
97
300
K
64
w'
1,2
lu
%
400
K
70
w'
1,4
lu
103
500
K
61
w1
1,3
lu
750
K
1
95
63
w'
1.5
'u
106
1000
K
57
w'
1.2
lu
119
0
i
|
j^
14
According to the data of Table 7, the maximum values of K in August 1963
were located at a level of 400 m, a decrease of K was observed above this
level, and starting at 500 m, the values of K were nearly constant. The
vertical fluctuation w" reached the first maximum at a height of 200 m and a
second maximum at 750 m. The profiles of K and w1 in the 150-1000 m layer
are given in Fig. 3. The characteristic size of the atmospheric eddies
generally increased somewhat with the height, reaching their first maximum
at the 400 m level and second maximum at 1000 m.
-------
The frequency of the basic characteristics of the air stream according to
layers is shown in Table 8.
Therefore, it may be stated that in the presence of unstable stratification
(Moldavian SREPP), the turbulent energy of both the longitudinal component lu
and vertical component lw increases with the height, reaching a maximum above
300 m. The intensity of the turbulent energy of both components remains
constant in the entire 300 m layer. The parameter ^H , as an indicator
of the degree of anisotropy of atmospheric eddies, reaches a maximum at a
height of 300 m and amounts to 0.66-0.68.
0,7
o,S
0,3
16 36
20 30
SO
60
70
80 K, •?/•
•'• •/•*•
rig. 3, Profile of K (1, 2) and w (l, 3), Shohrtcino SREPP.
In an indifferent equilibrium (Cherepet1 SREPP), maxima of &u and *TW were
observed at a level of 100 m, and decreased above this level. Because of the
closed location of the area from which the aerostat ascended, there occurred a
particularly rapid increase of these values to the level of 100 m; all the other
characteristics of the structure of the air stream also underwent a marked
decrease to the same level.
In a stable equilibrium, small values of &v were observed. Under the given
conditions, the anisotropy of the atmospheric eddies increased even more, and
the ratio ^S was only 0.35-0.41. The magnitude of the mixing length of the
eddy lw depends on the thermal stratification, amounting to 70-95 m at Ri =»
-0.8, and as the stability increases, !„ is cut by almost one-half, but its
maximum always coincides with the 200 m level. The horizontal size of the
eddies lu depends more on the wind velocity, and for the range of u from 5 to
12 m/sec, the relation lu = 40 u is fulfilled.
-------
Table 8
Basis Characteristics of the Air Strean in the 150-200 B. 30O-50C a and 75O-100 • Lavers.
Xirplsna Sounding in tha Region of tha Sbohekino SREFP, August 1963.
Characteristic
Gradation of k •
Praqtmcy of k, (
* ", , .
Gradation of w* •
Preqaaney of •«
* ....
Gradation of In •
Fraqjoaney of In,
% ....
150—200 •
30
40
11
0.1
0.3
70
4
41
50
24
0.3
0.5
71
80
51
60
25
0,7
0.9
25
81
90
43
61
70
11
0,9
1.1
18
91
100
18
71
80
7
1.1
1,3
7
101
110
28
81
90
4
1.3
1.5
11
111
120
7
91
100
14
1.5
2.0
25
101
110
4
>2.0
14
111
120
*• *
as «j
28
28 ,
28
300—500 »
30
40
14
0.1
03
41
50
16
0,3
05
71
80
8
51
60
16
05
07
5
81
90
15
61
70
16
07
09
19
91
100
42
71
80
16
09
11
20
101
110
25
Characteristic
Gradation of k
Pwonanoy of it* *
Gradation of w* •
PraqoaBcy of w, %,
~
Grsdation of In •
Praojuenoy of
In,* • •
300-500 a
81
90
11
11
13
12
111
120
5
91
100
9
1.3
1.5
15
6
101
110
2
1.5
2.0
27
111
120
—
>2,0
2
a
h •
H
44
41
40
•
750—1000 m
30
40
16
0.1
0,3
41
50
15
03
05
4
71
80
4
51
60
23
05
07
—
81
90
8
61
70
15
07
09
11
91
100
40
71
80
15
09
11
19
101
110
24
81
90
4
1
13
19
111
120
12
91
100
8
113
15
31
12
101
110
—
1.5
2,0
4
111
120
4
>2,0
12
'*• S
J a
s ^
Z *j
26
•26
25
r-
-------
The magnitude of turbulent energy G~u and its intensity ^ have a well-
defined daily variation with a maximum during midday hours (Moldavian SREPP).
The turbulence coefficient at Ri » -0.8 has maximum values 2sL 50 m2/sec at
the 200 m level, and for indifferent Ri " 0.0 the maximum of K will be at a
height of 100 m. In the presence of stable stratification of the atmosphere, the
absolute values of K - 13-15 m2/sec undergo little change in the 100-200 m layer.
?or the Moldavian SREPP, the optimum conditions of intense vertical austausch
occurred at wind velocities of 6-8 m/sec. According to the data of airplane
sounding, in August 1963 the maximum of K was at 400, and starting at 500 m its
magnitude was practically constant.
Experience in calculating the components of the equation of turbulent
energy balance is based upon data of aerostatic sounding. The process of
generation of transport and dissipation of turbulent energy may be followed by
analyzing the equation of turbulent energy balance,which, without taking the
terms of horizontal diffusion and advection into account, is of the form
d_i _ K0 2 _ K 8 fre-Xo _fc_ „ .M -t . (4)
dt - *P Kt T
where
222
(• <5>
Here E is the kinetic energy of turbulent fluctuations of wind velocity along
axes x, y and z, referred to the unit mass.
We shall subsequently assume that
then
2 ^ „
E = a- u + —ir=- . (6)
A
In equation (4) Kftz = B is the work of turbulent friction of the moving
stream (dynamic factor;;
g (ye -y0)
Kfc T = A
is the inflow-outflow of energy due to work done against the buoyant forces (power
of convection); £- is the dissipation rate of turbulence energy; according to
ref. (7) we shall assume that
€ - a — , (7)
where a is a constant factor equal to 0.046; K and Kfc are the coefficients of
turbulence of viscosity and thermal diffusivity; K = K .
-------
Remaining symbols: ^ - vertical gradient of wind velocity at 100 m; T -
average temperature of layer; g - acceleration due to gravity; f - and "YQ -
equilibrium and observed vertical gradients of air temperature referred to the
100 m layer;
yz-K^T53 D (A)
where D is the magnitude of diffusion of turbulence energy.
In accordance with ref. (8), D will be calculated from the formula
D = JL K -M
fcz *z
Near the earth's surface, the values of E and K were taken to be equal to
zero. The values of D in observations at levels of 100, 200 and 300 m could be
calculated only at heights of 100 and 200 m.
dE
The ratio dt gives the inflow-outflow of kinetic energy between two
segments of time in a given layer; when dE^O, kinetic energy is gained, and
when dE/ 0, it is expended. °^
dt N
This term was not calculated by the author.
According to ref. (9), we shall assume that Ve a 0.6°/100 m.
f\
The values of K m /sec were determined from Lyapin's formula.
o
The quantity K$ always has a plus sign: the energy is gained as a
result of friction of moving air masses; the quantity i , which is the dissipation
of turbulent energy, always has a minus sign; the energy of total motion is
expended and converted into thermal energy.
In the expression
A- -K g(Ye -/o)
T
the sign will be determined by the relationship of *f to y o .
In accordance with the author's assumption that ye = 0.6, when ^ ^ 0.60/
100 m, A will be positive, and when V ^ 0.6°/100 m, it will be negative; when
Y 0 = 0.6°/100 m, A - 0. '
The diffusion flow is given by the expression
D - _b K ^E • (B)
F *z
At positive values, D is directed downward, and at negative values, upward.
-------
Since the turbulence coefficient K enters into all of the terms of
equation (4), it is necessary to note certain aspects of its calculation:
1) The initial sensitivity of the receiver u* was 2-2.5 m/sec, and for
this reason the values of K at winds of less than 2.5 m/sec were not used in
the calculation;
2) At u and u1 * 0, the turbulence coefficient, according to Lyapin's
formula, becomes zero or infinity. Therefore, cases with u' ^ 0.1 m/sec and
u^2.5 m/sec are considered below; '
3) The time of conservation of vertical fluctuations of the same sign is
determined by the spectrum of the eddies.
In calculating K, "long-period" fluctuations with 7*w » 20-50 sec were
taken. In this case, the value of K changed from a few units to a few tens of
nr/sec in the 300-meter layer.
The literature does not contain any data on direct measurements of com-
ponents of the balance of turbulent energy in the boundary layer with its
quantitative characteristics. We can only mention the study of Panofsky (10),
which gives an estimate of the main terms of equation (1) based on data of
measurements at levels of 233, 46 and 91 m on the Brookhaven tower. Panofsky
established that up to a height of 91 m, all the energy fluxes are positive,
i. e., directed upward, and increase with height. It was assumed that the
energy flux varied linearly with the height, and was equal to zero on the
ground. Comparison of the numerical values of i u (i - Ri) and 5flBw)
showed that the major part of the turbulent energy formed in the 100 nPzlayer
in the presence of unstable stratification is carried upward. At high values
of Ri, only a small part of the energy formed is propagated upward.
Some data on the distribution of certain components of the balance of
turbulent energy are given in the papers of V. N. Ivanov and Z. I. Volkovitskaya
(11) and in the author's paper (12).
The starting data for the author's calculations were the results of ascents
of an instrument recording the structure of the air stream, using a captive
aerostat, in the region of the Cherepet' SREPP in October 1964, Shchekino SREPP
in March 1965.and Moldavian SREPP in September 1965.
In view of the fact that the ascents of the instruments were made every
two hours, but only in the daytime, and that their number was unevenly distri-
buted in time, it was necessary to bring them together in a single group with-
out considering the time.
Tables 9 and 10 given here include only those observations in which fluctua-
tions of the horizontal component of the wind velocity u'^ 0.1 m/sec were ob-
served.
All of the data for the Moldavian SREPP were divided according to heights
of 100, 200 and 300 m into two groups:
-------
a) ascent at
0.1 m/sec,
b) ascents at u1 ^ 0.6 m/sec.
Tables 9 and 10 give the initial data and values of the components of the
balance of turbulent energy.
Table 10 gives a column with values of £, , which are given by
+ A + D - (,.
(C)
dE
The term Jt from equation (4) does not appear here. In an accurate calcu-
lation of all the terms of the equation of the turbulent energy balanceX " 0.
In the present paper, the author did not attempt to give an analysis of the
complete equation (4) for a certain period, but only to consider the character-
istics of the distribution of its various terms in the layer up to 300 m. The
main source of penetration of turbulent energy into the atmosphere, particularly
during the cold period, is the energy of average motion of the stream due to
friction, characterized by the term B = Kfj2 . The maximum values of term B
will be in the vicinity of the earth's surface, but they are relatively high at
a height of 100 m as well. We should note the characteristics of the distribu-
tion of this quantity in the region of the Cherepet' SREPP. The platform from
which the aerostat ascended was located in a forest, and for this reason a
rapid increase of the wind velocity was observed, particularly in the lowest
100 m at (J =• 5 m/sec for 100 m; in the 100-200 m layer ^ » 3.3 m/sec. These
characteristics of the orography of the point of ascent are obviously a purely
local distribution of the quantity K£2 .
In the summertime, according to data of observations at the Moldavian SREPP,
B CA in the entire 300 m layer, i. e., the contribution of the convection energy
to the balance is greater than the contribution of the energy of average motion.
Table 9
Average Values of E m2/a»Q2 , ftn/s«e x 100 m "\ K m2/s»e anA'f'/iOO m*
" m
E
P
K
V
Moldavian SMTP, u« • 0.1 Q/MO
100
200
300
0.97
1,04
1,20
1,5
0,5
0,4
36
48
37
1.8
1,0
0,9
Chtreptt1 SREPP
100
200
300
2,51
1, 77
1,45
5,0
3,3
2,0
52
42
36
0,8
0,4
0,5
£
?
A:
T
Moldavian SREPP, a1 • 0,6 •/«•«
1,07
1,21
1.36
1.3
0,6
0,5
39
53
43
1.7
0.9
1.0
Stetekino SREPP
0,74
0,64
1.7
0.5
13
L3
0.9
0,5
-------
Table 10
CoHpomnts of Balance of Turbulant
H»
KP
A
D
— *
£
Moldavian SREPP * «' • 0.1 «/••«
100
200
300
100
200
300
81
12
6
1300
456
145
143
62
37
Chanpal
35
—28
—12
-15
3
; SKEff
-90
22
26
10
18
56
34
27
222
67
1180
416
ATP2
A
D
— *
i
HaldATiaB SREPP, a* - 0.6 «/MO
66
19
11
38
3
142
52
57
J
Styrfwfeina
14
-_5
—5
14
13
20
son*
42
32
180
59
=
It is interesting to follow the change of B with the height. This is
given in the following table, where values of KB2 at the 100-m level are
taken as 100%.
Moldavian SREPP
H m
100
200
300
«'>0.1
•/Sao
100
15
7
u'^0.6
m/M*
100
29
17
Charapat
SREPP
100
35
11
Shahakino
SREPP
100
8
—
(D)
In this case, there takes place a relatively rapid 20-to 8-fold attenuation
of friction intensity with the height to a level of 300 m, and as the energy of
turbulant motion E rises, the friction intensity decreases, for example, at the
Moldavian SREPP at u' 7, 0.6 m/sec and at the Cherepet' SREPP. In the practical
conditions of our experiment, beginning at the 0.5 km level, B was close to
zero. The energy of convective motions, expressed by the term
-'-§
o»
eterminedbyheelati°n8hiP of Ve to yo. At large values of
, e
takes place in daytime hours of the summer, the contribution of the
ton*r henMr?S ^ co"8iderable> and hence A ? B, as is obvious from observa-
tions at the Moldavian SREPP. During the cold period of the year, A is small and
with the
alway
alway hasminus rd the
yS.^Jl^Tf'afr ^ l°° m l6Vel' U Chan8eS 8ign> 8nd thifcor"^:
to the direction of diffusion transport from the upper layers toward the ground.
-------
Of great interest is the dissipation of turbulent energy C . Usually,
the magnitude of dissipation has a maximum at the earth's surface and decreases
with the height in the presence of stable stratification, something that is
amply illustrated by the data of the Cherepet1 SREPP and partially by those of
the Shchekino SREPP.
According to observations in the region of the Moldavian SREPP, there
occasionally occurs a certain increase of £ at the 300 m level, this being
obviously due to the instability, and hence, the growth of the total kinetic
energy E at this height. The contribution of each component into the balance
of turbulent energy is given in Table 11, where the arithmetic sum of all the
components is taken as 100%, and the value of each term has been calculated at
the 100 and 200 m levels.
Table 11
Contribution of the Component into the Balance of Turbulent Energy 00
H n
B
A
D
c
Moldavian SREPP, u* ~%> 0.1 m/seo
100
200
31
14
54
71
5
4
10
11
Cherepet' SREPP
100
200
88
85
I
6
4
4
6
B
A
D
*
Moldavian SMTP, u*2'0.6 «/«eo
28
22
60
61
6
2
6
15
Shohekino SREPP -
38
14
_5
43
During the warm period of the year, in an unstable state, the greatest
contribution is made by the convection energy, and its fraction increases at
the 200 m level. The energy of friction makes a maximum contribution during the
cold period of the year under conditions of broken terrain or in the presence of
a stable state of the atmosphere.
Data of the Cherepet1 SREPP reflect the characteristics of only the plat-
form on which the ascent of the captive aerostat took place.
The data cited constitute a first attempt to utilize the results of
aerostatic sounding for energy calculations. Subsequently it will be necessary
to validate the accuracy of the calculation of the separate components of the
turbulent energy balance and to perform calculations of their daily variations.
-------
Literature Cited
1 BopoHiioan. A. HccjieaoBamie Typ6yjieHTHoro o6neHa a paflone
PP3C no MarepHaflBM aspocraiHoro H caMOJierHoro 30HAHpoMHH«. Tp. ITO,
sun. 172, 1965. . .„
2 BopoHUoen. A. HccjieaoBaHHe cipyKTypbi ao3Ay«UHoro noroKa B paftoHe UUKHH-
cicofi PP3C. Tp. Pro. sun. 172, 1965.
3. B n p o ii u o n II. A. MOTO.UJ a3po.iorn00 M.
Ht'ilr. Phys. H. Atiunsph.irr, I9.">7.
5. flyfion A. C. Oiipc;iP.ncimi' cKopocru iicpTHKa.ii,nux nopunon neipa npH CBMO/ICT-
HOM 3on;iiiponainiii c IIOMOIULIO aKcc.rirporpai|ia. Tp. [TO, nun. 16, 1940.
6. Pep Ma n A\. A. C) Typi'iyviniTiiDM ofiMcnc u ofi.inKax. MrTPopo.iornn H
Ni 10. 1963.
7. /I a H x T M a H H. J]., 3 mi H T it n K p n II.M C. C. Typfiy.iCHTiihifi po>KiiM B
c.ioo aTMnc(|icpu. HIM. AH CCCP, cop. <|>in. aTMocip. H oKoniia, T. I, N« 2, 1965.
8. KOJI M o ro p o D A. H. VpaBiieiuie TypCy^etiTHori) ARHWeHHH HCOKHraeMoA >KIIA-
KOCTII. Hsu. AH CCCP, crp. (pin., T (>. JV» 1—2. I9'12.
9. By.iMKo A\. H.. iO;inn A\ II. NV.TOBIIH rrpMii'iocKoro paBHOBCCHn a aTMOCibcpe.
flAH CCCP. I'.HH, T f.3. .N« 7
10. Pa no [sky II. A. The UiUcot of Turbulent EncrRy in the Lowest 100 meters. J.
Bcophys. Res., v. 07. No «, I!I02.
II. Hnai.OB B. H, Bo^KOBiiUKat, 3. H. Hrnnropuc xapaKTCpiicriiKii CTpyKiypu no-
rpaHHMHoro oron aiMocijiepu. Tp. Hfir. Bun. 2, 1965.
12. BopoiiHOB n. A. K OIIOHKC iicKoropux cocraB^nioiuHx 6a^iHca TypfiyjieirrHoA 3Hep-
THH. Tp. Pro, nun Iffi. 1966.
-------
ANALYSIS OF AEROLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION IN CERTAIN
REGIONS OF THE EUROPEAN TERRITORY OF THE USSR (ETU);
V. I. Selltskaya
From Trudy, Glavnaya Geofiz. Observat. im. A. I. Voeykova, No. 207, p. 188-
201, (1968).
In order to study the aerological conditions of atmospheric pollution
associated with the operation of many state regional electric power plants
(SREP?) located in various regions of the European territory of the USSR,
special meteorological observations are conducted in the lowest 500-meter
layer. The present paper gives results of treatment of the observational
data obtained.
We shall first cite some characteristics of the structure of the atmos-
phere, based on data of aerostatic sounding at the Moldavian SREPP.
The sounding was carried out in daylight (from 8:00 A. M. to 6:00 P. M.)
up to a height of 500 m (sometimes up to 200 m). At even hours a meteorograph
was sent up to 500 m to record the temperature, pressure, air humidity, average
wind velocity and horizontal component of wind velocity fluctuations with 5
minute plateaus at standard heights; and, at odd hours, a meteorograph was
sent up to record the average wind velocity and fluctuations with the horizon-
tal and vertical components of the wind velocity at 100, 200 and 300 m levels.
Average values of air temperatures are given in Table 1 of the Appendix. A
rapid growth of air temperature took place from 8:00 A. M. to 2:00 P.M. in the
entire 2-500 m layer.
The amplitude of air temperature from 8:00 A. M. to 6:00 P0 M. decreased
rapidly with the height, dropping from 11.2° at the 2 m level to 3.8° C. at
200 m and 2.3° C. at 500 m. The chief decrease of amplitude was observed up to
a height of 200 m, and there was little change in amplitude above this level.
Correspondingly, the greatest changes of vertical temperature gradients were
observed in the lowest 100 meter layer.
At 10:00 A. M., ground inversions were still taking place. The average
thickness of the inversion layer at 8:00 A. M. was 230 m (Table 1) with a 7.2°
C. rise in temperature (average value), and in some cases with a 9.4° C. rise.
The average vertical gradient of air temperature at that time was -3.0° C. at
100 m. By 10:00 A. M., the average height of the upper boundary of the inver-
sion was about 140 m, and its magnitude was -1.7° C. (in some cases -3.7° C.)
with a vertical temperature gradient of -1.6° C. at 100 m.
Positive gradients occurred between 10:00 A. M. and 11:00 A. M., and a
superadiabatic gradient was observed at 12:00 Noon in the 100 m layer; above,
the y 's were close to 1°. This gradient remained until 6:00 P. M.
-------
Table 1
might. Int»niity md Ctptoity of Vtrioai Ore** I»w«ioai.
DcU
ur.
V
<2°
«-
^
7 - 8 A. M.
5/Sao
vEr*
6/Sep
19/Sep
19/Sep
i8z§S£
25/s5p
24/Sep
Average
200
200
190
100
260
175
130
400
400
230
16,6
15,0
10,8
11,8
8,6
10,0
11,8
9,2
10,4
—
21,6
22.6
14.2
14.7
16,4
16,0
16,0
18,6
18,6
—
5,0
7.6
3,4
2,9
7,8
6,0
4,2
9,4
8.2
7,2
-2,50
—3,80
-1,78
-2,90
—3,00
—3,40
-3,20
—3,50
—3,00
—3.00
Bat*
*».
V
V
*
1
10 A. M.
5/S.
10/S«p
l9/S»p
-.
2VS*p
„
24/Stp
Average
200
180
50
—
110
—
200
140
21,8
18,7
16,6
— '
17,3
17^5
23,8
22,4
17,2
—
17,8
19,2
_
2,0
3,7
0,6
— .'
^0.5
*U
1,7
—1,0
—2.05
-1.20
— .
-1,00
—
-0,85
—1,60
An elevated inversion was observed only on 2 September at 8:00 A. M. in
the presence of fog. The height of its lower boundary was 50 m, and of its
upper boundary, 200 m.
Pig. 1. Profiles of air Uaptntur* (l), rtlatiw tnnddity (2) and
wind wlocity (3) on various days with inversions.
Fig. 1 shows the distribution of temperature t, relative humidity r and
average wind velocity v over individual inversions, when the height of the
inversion was above (24 Sept. - solid line) and below the smokestack level
A /'i* "" 6 e)< The Presence of 8ro^d inversion of air temperature
?efd« t y"i W!th f attenuated wind« henc«. »lth a decreased turbulent austausch
leads to a slowing down of the transport of contaminants both vertically and
horizontally, something that occurred on 24 Sept.
-------
In the second case (19 Sept.). the invetslon was below the height of the
smokestacks. In ref. (1) it is shown that a ground inversion whose lower
boundary approximately coincides with the smokestack level or runs below it,
has no effect whatsoever on the form of the smoke spread, and the transport
conditions are determined by data of the vertical temperature gradient and
wind velocity in the layer above the inversion.
By using the classification of profiles of air temperature and wind
velocity given in ref. (2), one can establish a relationship between them
from data of aerostatic sounding in the region of the Moldavian SREPP (Table 2).
Table 2
Frequency of types of Wind Profiles as a Rotation of
Types of Stratification
Type of
Stratifica-
tion
I
II
111
IV
V
VI
Ntnober of
Cases
Type of Wind Profile
la
3
1
2
6
16
18
8
7
—
—
_
33
Ila
1
1
4
—
6
116
—
—
—
—
2
2
Ilia
1
—
—
—
.2
12
15
1116
2
1
2
—
—
— -
5
||
1-3
22
• 10
16
—
3
16
67
Unstable stratification (types I and II) is characterized by wind profile
type Ib (increase of wind velocity in the lowest 25-50 m layer and approximate
constancy of the velocity up to 500 m).
For conditions with ground and elevated inversions (types V, VI), the
predominant wind profile is 3a (presence of maximum of wind velocity or marked
discontinuity due to the inversion layer within the 500 m layer).
Table 3
Frequency of Teoptrature Profiles from Data in the
Region of the Moldavian SREPP.
Type of
Strati-
fication
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
Ntnfcer of
cases
line, hours
7
0
0
0
0
0
3
3
8
0
0
0
0
1
8
9
10
0
0
4
0
1
8
13
12
7
4
5
0
0
0
16
14
8 '
5
5
0
0
0
18
16
7
1
0
0
0
0
8
L
9
e
33
15
21
3
28
-------
The frequency of any given type of stratification according to the time
of day is shown in Tab lei 3. It is evident from these data that profiles with
unstable stratification (types I and II) are characteristic from 12:00 Noon
to 4:00 P.M. They comprise 48% of the total number of observations. In the
morning (from 7:00 A. M. to 10:00 A. M.), 31% are made up of inversion types
of stratification, whereas type III (state of equilibrium) was observed in
of the cases of all ascents.
Fig. 2 shows average wind profiles for various temperature stratifications
in the 2-500 m layer, observed in the region of the Moldavian SREPP.
300
200
100
SOOr
2. Awrap *ind ProfilM at Various TMptraturt Stratifications,
a) Moldavian SREPP, b) Chsrapctskaya
For the unstable type of stratification (type I), above 150 m, the wind
velocity is nearly constant with the height. The more stable the stratification
at the lower levels (100-150 m), the greater the wind shift. Thus, profiles V
-------
and VI have inversion gradients at the bottom and stable gradients at the top.
However, profile VI has a more stable stratification in the entire layer, and
the wind shift of almost 507. at the 150 m level is greater when compared with
profile V.
The distribution of the relative and specific air humidity in the region
of the Moldavian SREPP is shown in Tables 3 and 4 of the Appendix.
The relative humidity maximum occurs at 8:00 A. M. in the 2-100 m layer,
and the minimum in the entire 2-500 m layer, on midday hours (2:00 A. M. -
4:00 A. M.). The variation of the relative humidity is the reverse of the
variation of air temperature. The amplitude of the relative humidity is
maximum near the earth's surface, 487., and the minimum humidity is 197. at the
500 m level.
In the variation of the specific humidity, the latter increases until
10:00 A. M., while the minimum of the specific humidity occurs at 4:00 P. M.
in the entire 2-500 m layer. The decrease of the specific humidity from
10:00 A. M. to 4:00 P. M. amounts to 1.8 g/kg near the ground and 1.1 g/kg
at 500 m; up to a height of 100 m, it takes place rapidly, and further
changes are relatively slight.
500 r
300
200
WO -
H,B
tOOOr
500
Fig. 3. .Ratii
airostatio an
observations,
4«..Wind velocity based on
tatjo and pilot pallocn
-.ens ana rfp.6.
? in..
i :
An average wind velocity was also obtained from data of aerostatic sounding
(Table 5 of Appendix). The wind velocity values are low (3-5 m/sec) and change
little with the height. The presence of a rapid increase of wind velocity from
the earth's surface to the 100-150 m level is characteristic only of the lower
layer. The wind velocity near the ground increases until 2:00 P. M., then decreases,
-------
At high levels, however, its values undergo little change from 12:00 Noon to
6:00 P. M.
_
The value of yT up to the 500 m level was 1.3-1.5 in the daytime hours
(Table 4). Fig. 3 shows the ratio of Z& based on aerostatic and pilot balloon
observations. The variation of the horiBontal components of the wind velocity
can also be followed rather well (Table 5). At 8:00 A. M. , an even stream of
air was observed in the inversion layer, but from 10:00 A. M. on, a certain
fluctuation of the wind velocity was already developing. By noontime, this
fluctuation was maximum over the entire height, and then the magnitude of the
fluctuations decreased.
Ite Ratio f
±o
Table 4
Tim,
ftf.
8
10
12
14
16
Kbictt, k»
o.i
0,2
0,3
0.4
0.5
Aorwtat
4,1
1,7
1,3
1,3
1,4
5,6
2,0
1.4
1.3
1.7
6.7
2,3
1.4
1,3
1.9
7,0
2,3
1.4
1.3
1,9
7,2
2,4
1.5
1,3
1,9
0,1 '
2.9
1,4
1.4
1.2
1.5
0.2
0.3
0.4
0,5
i.o
Pilot WllOOB
8,0
M
1.4
1.3
1,8
7,2
2.4
1,5
1,4
15
7,3
2.4
1.6
1.5
1,4
7,1
2.6
1.7
1,5
1,6
7,1
2.8
1,6
1,7
.1,1
Table 5
Av»n«i Values «f FlMtwtioM of Horiswtal Co^oooot
of Wind.
hour
8
10
12
14
16
18
H.**, .
25
0,0
0,5
0,8
0,8
0.5
0,4
50
0,0
0,4
0,6
0,8
0.5
0,2
100
0,0
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,3
0.2
150
0,0
0,3
0.5
0.6
0,3
0.1
200
0,0
0.3
0,4
0.4
0,3
0,1
.
300
0,0
0.1
0,2
0,3
0,1
0.1
400
0.0
0.2
0.2
03
OJ
0,0
500
0,0
0,0
01
02
01
oo
In addition to aerostatic observations, pilot ballon observations were
also taken. Average values of the wind velocity obtained from aerostatic and
pilot balloon observations are given in Fig. 4. On the average, the data of
these two methods are in good mutual agreement. The discrepancy at 500 m was
£0.5 m/sec.
However, larger discrepancies were also observed on certain days. The
mean square error of the wind velocity with respect to heights for double pilot
-------
balloon observations was ±0.2 - ±0.4 ra/sec.
Observations in the region of the Cherepet1 SREPP were conducted in
October 1964 to a height of 200-500 m (depending on the weather conditions).
Average values of air temperature are given in the Appendix (Table 1).
Starting at 8:00 A.M., a rise of air temperature took place, and the maximum
in the 2-200 m layer occurred at 2:00 P. M. The daily amplitude of air temp-
erature at a height of 2 m was 6.3° C. and at a height of 200 m, approximately
2.3° C.
The magnitude of the vertical temperature gradient is one of the charac-
teristic features of the temperature regime of the lowest atmospheric layer.
Table 2 of the Appendix gives average values of vertical temperature gradients
relative to the periods of observation. The maximum of y ° up to a height of
150 m occurred at 2:00 P. M. Positive gradients in this layer were noted from
10:00 A. M. to 6:00 P. M. Temperature inversions were observed during the
remaining time of the day. As is evident from Table 6, both surface and ele-
vated inversion were observed.
Table 6
Average Height of Boundaries, Intensity & t* and Capacity^ H • of Ground
and Elevated Inversions in the Region of the Cherepet1 SREPP.
i
'I
20
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Start
"1-
0
0 (175')
0 (160)
0 (200)
0 (100)
0 (80)
(220)
(280)
<.°
6,0
2,9 (4,5)
2,8 (8,3)
2.0 (7,9)
3,8 (8,6)
9,9 (7,3)
(9,6)
(11,6)
End
H2.
60
120 (380)
290 (330)
270 (360)
175 (260)
220 (240)
(510)
(500)
/2°
6,4
7,3 (7,4)
7,4 (10,6)
7,0 (10,5)
8,5 (10,1)
10,9 (8,0)
(13,1)
(12,1)
A<°
(<3-'l)
0,4
4,4 (2,9)
4,6 (3,3)
5,0 (2,6)
4.7 (1,5)
1,0. (0,7)
(3,5)
(0,5)
A H »
(//a--//,)
60
120 (205)
220 (170)
270 (160)
175 (160)
220 (160)
(290)
(220)
11
2 (3)
3 (2)
3 (2)
4 (2)
1 (2)
(1)
(1)
1 Data for elevated inversions are given in parentheses.
The upper boundary of ground inversions was located at heights from 70 to
460 in. On the average, a ground inversion reached its highest capacity by 4:00 -
6:00 A. M. The lower boundary of elevated inversion was located at heights of
50-300 m, and the upper boundary, from 150 m and above 510 m.
Data on the distribution of the relative and specific humidity of air are
shown in Tables 3 and 4 of the Appendix. Maximum values of the relative humidity
were observed near the ground at 8:00 A. M., by 2:00 P. M. the humidity had de-
creased to 20%, and beyond that it was seen to increase. The change in height
was maximum at 8:00 A. M. and amounted to 12% at 200 m.
The specific humidity in the entire layer beginning at the ground increased
slightly starting at 8:00 A. M. Its decrease with height occurred rapidly up to
a height of 50-100 m.
-------
Average values of the wind velocity are given in Table 5 of the Appendix,
but this material is insufficient for characterizing daily variations of the
wind velocity.
It may be stated that near the earth's surface during the day (2:00 P. M.)•
a faint maximum of the wind velocity was observed, and a minimum was noted
during night hours (8:00 P. M. - 2:00 A. M.). From a height of 50 m, However,
the wind velocity had a faint reverse cycle; a minimum was observed there in
daytime hours, and a maximum in nighttime hours.
In the region of the Shchekino SREPP, observations were made from 15 March
to 2 April 1965 from 8:00 A. M. to 5:00 P. M. up to a height to 200-300 m.
During this period, weather with heavy and continuous clouds predominated, with
the following air temperature fluctuations: at 8:00 A. M. from -5.2 to -0.9°,
humidity from 78 to 96%; at 2:00 P. M., the temperature varied from -2.0 to 2.0;
and the humidity from 73 to 947.. For analyiing and detecting certain particular
features of the main meteorological elements, the data obtained were subdivided
into the periods of 8:00 A. M., 10:00 A. M., 12:00 Noon, 2:00 P. M. and 4:00 P.M.
We shall consider the variation of air temperature (Table 1 of Appendix). A
rise of air temperature in the 2-200 m layer took place after 4:00 P. M., and itB
amplitude was 2.0° at the 2 m level and approximately 1.9° C. at a height of
200 m. The curves of the daily temperature variation up to 100 m were almost
parallel. To characterize the change of air temperature with the height, Table 2
of the Appendix gives average values of the vertical temperature gradient J °/100
m. Values of the vertical temperature gradient are very changeable, particularly
in the lower layers, where the influence of the thermal behavior of the under-
lying surface is manifested. In midday hours in the layer up to 50 m, supera-
diabatic gradient values of 1.2°-1.6° C./100 m were observed, and on some days
the values of y° exceeded 4.0° C./100 m.
At 4:00 P. M. the gradient began to decrease, remaining superadiabatic in
the layer up to 50 m. In the 100-200 m layer the gradient was equal to an
average of 0.70° C./100 m.
Table 7
Avenge Gradients in the 0-200 • Layer From Data of Shchekino SREPP and
Shchekino SREPP (March 1965)
layer, •
ti«»f
hour*
08
10
12
14
16
8
0
0,98
1,20
1,23
1,58
.1.25
8
T
s
0,85
0,83
0,94
0,91
0,86
8
7
o
0,92
0,90
1,13
1,22
1.14
?
8
0,63
0,79
0,62
0,67
0.57
Dolgoprudnaya Station (coring)
layer, •
ti»,
hours
7
10
13
14
s§
o
0,98
'2,32
1,45
1.80
8
S
0.62
0,80
1.00
0,95
8
. 1
0.80
1,56
1,22
1,38
I
8
0,28
0,68
0.93
0,88
-------
Table 7 shows temperature gradients obtained from March 1965 in the region
of the Shchekino SREPP; for comparison, we shall cite the same values for
Dolgoprudnaya station for the spring period (3).
It is apparent that the average values of the gradients in these regions
are in good mutual agreement.
Changes of the relative (r%) and specific (q g/kg) humidity of air are
given in Tables 3 and 4 of the Appendix. At 8:00 A. M. near the ground, max-
imum humidity values were obtained, by 12:00 Noon, the humidity decreased
insignificantly, then rose slightly; the relative humidity may be considered
to be practically constant during this period.
Changes of the specific humidity were very slight along the height; they
amounted to approximately 0.4 g/kg in the 2-200 m layer. In examining the
average wind velocity values (Table 5 of Appendix), it should be noted that in
March 1965, ascents of an aerostat with a volume of 39 m3 were made which
permitted the study of the wind only in the interval up to 8 m/sec near the
ground and 12 m/sec at higher levels. At greater wind velocities, no aerostat
ascents were carried out.
The data cited show that the average wind velocity in the 2-200 m layer
changed little with the height. It increased somewhat faster in the bottom
100-meter layer, and above this level the increase in velocity was slower.
At the earth's surface and along the height, the wind velocity by 12:00 Noon
was slightly less than in the morning. The difference in velocities did not
exceed 0.4 m/sec at almost any level.
Data of aerostatic sounding are in agreement with those of Dolgoprudnaya
station for the spring period (Table 8).
Table 8
Region
Shohelciao SREPP, March
Dolgoprudnaya station,
spring
Htight, M
2(12)
4,7
2,3
50
6,0
4,9
100
6,3
6.0
150
6,4
6,3
200
6.5
6.5
300
7.3
7,1
The divergence in the data for heights of 12 m and 50 m may be explained
by the influence of the regional topography, which markedly alters the wind
velocity even at a short distance, and by the remoteness of the points of
observation from each other.
The average wind velocity was also measured by a gustiness meteorograph.
The average wind velocity values obtained by two meteorographs are close to
each other (Table 9).
-------
Table 9
til*,
hours
10
12
14
16
Hatch
3
100
200
Main s*t«orograph
4.5
4,3
5,1
5.2
6.4
5,8
6,6
6.0
6.5
6,2
6,8
6,9
t« •
3
100
200
•QvstiMM Mtooromph
4,3
4.3
4,7
50
6,1
6,0
6,1
6,5
6,6
68
67
62
Aerological studies of the lowest atmospheric layer up to 500 m were made
in the region of the Shchekino SREPP and earlier (1962 and 1963). Some results
of these observations were published in ref. (4, 6). Data on the distribution
of temperature and wind velocity during the spring period of observations are
listed in Table 10.
Table 10
Awngo Vttlws of t* and v •/«•« Curias Ptriodc of Studios of
Expeditions of the Mainaoophysioal Otersratory at th> Sbshokino SRtTP,
Woathor
i
5
Might, •
2
25
50
100
150
200
300
400
n
Slightly
cloudy
Cloudy
Slightly
cloudy
Cloudy
Cloudy
March 1962
I
V
t
V
-1,2
4,1
-0,2
5,0
—1,6
4,9
-0,7
5,7
-l.fi
5,1
—1,0
6,0
-2,0
5,3
-1,5
6,2
-2.2
5,4
-1.9
6,2
-2,5
5.6
-2.3
6.2
-3,0
5,7
-3.1
6.5
-3.8
5,7
-3,6
6.9
OR
*O
March 196}
t
V
t
V
—15,1
3,5
— 10,1
6.3
-15.1
4,1
-10.6
7,6
—14,8
4,7
—10,8
8,0
-14,8
5,2
—11,0
8,2
-14,2
5,5
-11.3
8.5
—13,9
5,6
-11,3
9,1
—14,8
5,7
-11,3
9,6
—15,4
5,9
-11.2
10,6
March 1965
t
V
-1.0
4.7
-1.3
5,6
-1,6
6,0
-1.9
6,3
-2.2
6,4
-2,5
6,5
50
As was noted above, a heavy and continuous cloudiness was observed chiefly
™ ^r±.}965' *f lcyclonic weather with low air temperatures predominated in
March 1963, and high air temperatures, a frequent change of weather types and
a heavy cloudiness predominated in March 1962. For this reason, all of the data
were divided into two groups, for cloudy and slightly cloudy weather. Cloudy
days were considered to be those with a cloudiness of the lower cloud layer of
6-10 points or with a cloudiness of the middle layer of 8-10 points. All the
-------
other days were considered to be slightly cloudy.
In March 1965, the number of cloudy days was 94%, in March 1963, 28%, and in
March 1962, 22%. Therefore, Table 8 lists data for only cloudy weather for March
1965.
Average air temperatures and average velocities on days with cloudy weather
for March 1965 and 1963 are close to the absolute values at all heights. The
temperature divergence on the ground is 0.8° C., and at a height of 200 m, only
0.2° C., and the average wind velocity of these heights diverges by 0.3 m/sec.
The value of the temperature and wind velocity for March 1963 differs sharply
from these data.
The difference of surface temperatures (March 1965 and 1963) is 9.1° C. and
at a height of 200 m, 11.4° C. The average wind velocity for all heights in
March 1963 was greater than 1.6-2.6 m/sec.
In conclusion, it may be noted that the given characteristics of the lowest
layer (500 m) during the period of study of the expeditions indicate a signifi-
cant daily variability of all the meteorological elements.
In further studies, the number of ascents during the night should be increased,
in order to make it possible to carry out more detailed investigations of the
capacity and intensity of the inversion layers, which create unsafe conditions for
pollution of the lowest layer.
-------
A«mo* Vahwc of Air Xnporttm.
•ttldaviaa SREPP
Chtropot1 SNEPP
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
02
04
06
6,1
7,4
9.7
10,4
9.2
8,5
7.7
4.9
4.5
4.1
6.1
7.1
9,2
9,8
8.8
8,4
7.9
5,2
4.6
4.4
6.1
6,8
8,8
9,5
8,5
8,1
7,5
5,6
4.9
4.6
6.4
6,6
8,3
8.9
8,2
7.7
7.3
5.8
5,3
5,2
6,6
6.6
7.9
8.4
7,7
7,5
7.4
5.8
5,5
5.6
6.4
6,5
7,6
8.0
7,2
7,0
7.1
5.7
5,7
5.7
_
~
7,2
6.3
6,3
6.4
6,3
5.8
5,8
_
—
6^6
5.8
5.7
5,6
5,9
6,3
6,6
Shotekino SREPP
8
10
12
14
16
-2,2
-1.4
—1,0
—0,2
0.2
2.4
-1,7
-1.4
-0,7
-0,2
-2,7
-1,9
—1,7
-1.0
-0,5
-3,1
-2,4
—2,1
-1.4
-0,9
-3,5
-2,8
-2,5
-1,8
—1,4
-3,7
-3,2
—2.8
-2.1
-1.8
Avtng* Values of Vertical Te^Mraturo Gradient.
Moldavian SREPP
APPENDIX
Table 1
II
Hoieht, •
2
25
50
100
150
200
300
400
500
11
8
10
12
14
16
18
12,6
18,8
22,2
23,8
23,8
19.1
13,8
19,0
21,3
22,7
22,6
18,6
14.6
19.1
20,8
22,3
22,2
18,2
15,9
19,0
20,4
21,8
21,6
17.7
16,8
18,7
20.0
21,3
21.1
17,4
17.1
18,5
19,6
20,9
20,6
17.0
17,3
18,1
18,8
20,0
10.8
»6,4
16.7
17.5
18,0
19,2
19.0
15,6
16,1
16,7
17.2
18,4
18,3
—
12
14
18
19
9
4
7
. 7
6
10
4
4
3
6
6
6
11
10
12
10
ft
tt-t
hours
Haieltt, •
25
50
100
150
200
300
400
500
8
10
12
14
16
18
-4.90
—0,97
3,31
4,06
4,57
1.80
—3.40
-0.14
1,55
1,51
1,77
1.50
—2,46
-0,24
1,11
1,01
1,24
1,10
-1,65
0,54
0,83
0,98
0,89
1,00
0.71
0,44
0.73
0,86
0,94
0,82
0,02
0,78
0,76
0,89
0,94
0,90
0,54
0,64
0,80
0,87
0,80
0,80
0,33
0,72
0,78
0,78
0,77
Table 2
-------
Iiwt
houra
Height, •
25
50
100
150
200
300
400
500
Ctenpat* SREPP
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
02
04
06
0,00
1.31
2,13
2,20
1.50
0,70
—0,80
-1.27
—0,53
—0,87
—0.90
1,09
1,33
1,40
1,10
0.90
0,13
-1.33
-1,06
—1,07
—0,95
0,51
0.97
1,06
0,75
0,90
0,49
—0,57
—0,73
-1,10
—0,62
0,03
0.87
1,06
0,85
0.60
0,40
0,07
—0,37
—0,48
0,09
0.24
0,63
0,80
0,95
0,70
0,60
0,25
—0,57
—0,12
_
—
—
0,73
0,90
0,68
0,73
—0,53
—0.27
-0.13
—
—
0,66
0,80
0,31
0,83
-0,32
0,03
0.04
Sbetekino SREPP
8
10
12
14
16
0.98
1,20
1,40
1,96
1,83
0,98
1,04
1;07
1.04
1,03
0,85
0.92
0,93
0,91
0,86
0,67
0,82
0,67
0,76
0,91
0,58
0,78
0,76
0,60
0.71
Awrags Values of th» Rtlatiw Humidity of Air.
Moldavian SREPP
Ch*r*p«tf SREPP
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
02
04
06
92
86
74
72
82
85
88
87
89
91
91
86
74
72
84
85
86
85
88
91
90
87
75
73
84
86
85
82
86
89
88
88
76
74
85
87
84
80
83
86
85
86
76
76
87
88
84
78
83
83
80
85 •
76
76
89
88
85
78
78
81
„-. _
—
75
89
89
87
70
75
73
,_ _
77
89
90
88
70
70
71
Table 3
Tina,
houra
Might, »
2
25
50
100
150
200
300
400
500
8
10
12
14
16
18
88
68
51
41
40
52
80
63
50
41
41
53
74
62
51
42
43
54
68
60
51
43
43
55
61
60
52
42
44
57
58
59
53
43
44
57
54
60
53
44
44
58
50
61
55
45
44
60
50
64
54
47
45
-------
hom
H.i«», .
2
25
50
100
150
200
300
400
500
8
10
12
14
16
86
83
80
82
82
85
80
82
81
81
84
80
82
81
81
84
81
83
13
82
84
82
83
•4
82
85
84
82
85
83
Awn*
tt tto
tadtlty «f Air
Table 4
Ti..,
h(wrs
feieM, •
2
25
50
100
150
300
300
400
500
8
10
12
14
16
18
8.2
9,1
8.2
7,5
7.3
7,6
8.2
8,5
7,8
7,2
7.1
7,5
8.2
8.4
7.7
7.2
7.1
7.5
7,8
8,1
7,6
7.0
7,0
7,6
7.6
7,9
7.5
6.9
6.9
7,5
7,2
7.8
7,5
0,0
6,8
7,0
6.9
7,6
7,5
6,9
6,6
6.7
6.9
7,5
7.5
6,9
6,3
6,7
6.8
7,4
7,2
6,3
6.5
SBEPP
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
02
04
06
5,4
5,5
5,6
5,7
5.9
6.1
6.0
4,8
4.8
4,8
5.3
5,5
5,4
5.5
6,0
6.0
5.9
4.8
4,8
4,8
5,3
5,4
5,4
5.4
6.0
5,9
5.8
4,7
4.7
4.9
5,3
5,4
5,3
5,4
6.0
5,9
5,8
4,6
4.7
4.7
5,2
5,3
5,2
5,4
6,0
5,9
5,8
4.5
4.6
4,7
4.9
5.2
5.1
5,3
6,0
5,8
.5,7
4,3
4,5
_
—
5,1
5,8
5,6
5,6
4,2
4.5
4.6 4,3
_
—
—
5.0
5,6
5,5
5,4
4.0
4.0
4,1
Stehkino SfOff
8
10
12
14
16
2,7
2,8
2,9
3,0
2,9
2.6
2,7
2.8
2,9
2,8
2.6
2.6
2,8
2,8
2,7
2.6
2.6
2.8
2.8
27
2,5
2,6
2,7
2,7
26
2,4
2,6
27
2,7
26
-------
Table 5
Avaract Valuta of Wind Valooity,
TUa
hoar*
Haight, •
2
25
50
100
150
^200
300
400
500
Moldavian SRffP
8
10
12
14
16
18
0,6
2,3
3,6
4,0
3,7
2.5
1,0
2,8
4,4
4,7
4,8
3,6
1,9
3,2
4.9
5,0
5,3
4,3
2,7
3,7
5,0
5,3
5,6
4,9
3,0
4.1
5,3
5,4
5,5
5,3
3.3
4.4
5,3
5,5
5,4
5.8
4,0
5.1
5.5
5,5
5.2
6,4
4,3
5.5
5.6
5.6
5,1
6.6
4.6
5.6
5,7
5.6
5.0
Cbarapat' SREPP
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
02
04
06
1,4
1,1
1,1
2.1
1,8
1,9
0,6
0,8
1.2
1,2
3,2
3,3
4,0
3,9
4,9
4,1
2.8
4.2
3.9
4,2
3,9
4,2
4,5
4,(>
5,5
4,9
3,4
5,8
5,1
6,0
5,3
5,0
4,9
4,9
6,5
6,7
4,8
7,2
6,6
7,1
5,8
5,6
5,3
5.2
7.2
7.2
5,4
8.4
7,6
8,2
5,9
6,0
5.8
5,3
7.7
7,9
6,1
9,0
8,3
8.7
—
—
5.8
8,0
8,5
6.6
9.3
9.4
9.8
—
_
6.2
8,2
8,8
7.4
9,5
10,1
10,7
Shohakino SREPP
8
10
12
14
16
4.7
4,5
4,3
5,1
5,2
5,3
5,7
5.2
5,7
6,0
5,8
6.1
5.6
6,2
6,6
6,0
6,4
5,8
6,6
6.9
6,1
6,5
5,9
6,8
6,9
6,4
6.5
6,2
6.8
6.9
—
—
—
—
_
,_
—
—
—
Litaratura Citad
I. BeJiHUioaa M. A., B a CH.I mciixo H. B., Tpa-jCBa B. Fl. flaHHue o $opMax
(paKejia AHiwa H CBHSII c ocoficmiocinMii cTpoeiuia iiorpamimioro C.HOH Tp [TO,
Bwn. 172, 1965.
2. BacHJibMOiiKo H. B. OctioBHbie Tiinu BCpTiiKa;ibHbix npcxpHJieft TeMneparypu
H aerpa B HIOKIICM 500-MerpoBOM cjioe no aspocTaTiibiM HafijuoAemiHM B pafloHe
lUeKHHCKoii TP3C. Tp. rrO, Bbin. 172, 1965 r.
3. H,eBflTOBaB»A. MnKpoa3po^orHMecKHe Hcc^eAOBaimti HHWHero KHJiOMeTpoaoro cnoa
aiMocipepbi. rHApOMereoH3/iaT, Jl., 1957.
4. BacH^bMenKo H. B., CejiHUKan B. H. riorpciiiHocTH aapojionmecxnx ii3Mepe-
HHH H conocraB^etiHe Aamibtx, noJiyqeuHbix pa.iHUMH MeroAaMH B nepuon SKcneAH-
IIHOHHUX HaC^iOAeHHH Ha LU,eKHHCKOfl FP3C. Tp. Pro, sun. 172, 1965.
5. BopoHuoB IT. A. Hcc;ieAOBaHHe crpyKTypbi soaAyiUHoro noroKa B paftone LLLeKHH-
CKoft FP3C. Tp. ITO, Bbin. 172, 1965.
-------
SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PROPAGATION OF NOXIOUS POLLUTANTS FROM HIGH
SOURCES AS A FUNCTION OF SYNOPTIC-METEOROLOGICAL FACTORS
B. B. Goroshko
Trudy, Glavnaya Geofiz. Observat. im. A. I. Voeykova, No. 207, p. 69-
75 (1968).
At the present time, the meteorological aspect of the problem of preventing
air pollution caused by industrial enterprises and transport is of major impor-
tance. Particular attention should be given to the study of pollution of the
atmosphere by high-capacity industrial and power sources, when noxious substances
may spread to great distances in large concentrations. For example, the smoke
spread from large State Regional Power Stations (SRPS) with stack heights above
100 m has been observed at distances of over 20-30 km under certain meteorolo-
gical conditions.
One of the essential conditions for the study of the influence of meteoro-
logical elements on the magnitude of ground-level concentrations of noxious
substances discharged from smokestacks is the necessity of obtaining systematic
and reliable data on air pollution with a simultaneous measurement of a broad
group of meteorological parameters determining the dispersal of impurities in
the atmosphere. In this connection, major expeditionary studies were carried
out in the region of the Shchekino SRPS. They were conducted for many years in
various seasons and under different meteorological conditions by the Main Geo-
physical Observatory im. A. I. Voeikov, by the Moscow Scientific Research
Institute of Hygiene im. F. F. Erisman and by the southern division of the State
Trust for the Organization and Efficiency of Electric Power Plants.
A number of papers (1, 2, 4, 5, 6) on the completed work have already been
published, which discuss the problem of pollution of the atmosphere by thermal
power stations; a theoretical treatment has been given, and comparison of
theoretical calculations with experimental data is made.
The present paper is devoted to a synoptic-meteorological study of results
of the observations.
In order to analyze the effect of baric formations on the degree of pollu-
tion of the atmosphere by sulfur gas in the region of the SRPS, synoptic charts
for the periods of selection of air samples were studied. The following grada-
tions were thus established: anticyclonic formations, including anticyclones
and crests; cyclonic formations—cyclones and troughs; intermediate baric field
between the cyclones and anticyclones for a rectilinear position of the isobars
or a diffuse baric field. In Table 1, which gives the number of cases with
corresponding formations, it is apparent that the samples were taken most
frequently in anticyclonic weather. It has been shown theoretically (1, 2) that
in the case of dispersal from high sources, an increase in ground level concen-
trations takes place in the presence of unstable stratification and reinforce-
ment of turbulent austausch. This is in good agreement with results obtained
-------
oy processing factual material and comparing with meteorological data,
Table 1
Baric formation
ant icyc Ionic
53
cyclonic
48
intermediate
? 45
Total cases
146
W k»
.on of sulfur
2 -
The material was treated in accordance with a method proposed by M. E.
Berlyand, given in ref. (6). Illustrated are figures representing data on
the concentration of sulfur gas as a function of changes of meteorological
elements and characteristics of turbu-
lence in various gradations, taking into
account the synoptic conditions, time of
day, etc.
Fig. 1 shows a graph of the distri-
bution of concentrations of sulfur gas
from SRPS stacks in February-March 1962-
1963 in a cyclone and anticyclone. The
curve running through the maximum con-
centrations observed in anticyclonic
weather differs little from the one for
cyclonic conditions. A similar picture
is observed in the intermediate baric
field. This is due to the fact that the
daily variation and distribution of the meteorological elements determining the
dispersal of contaminants coincide or compensate one another in the various baric
formations. Therefore, the degree of pollution should not be discussed solely on
the basis of the synoptic situation or without considering the specific distri-
bution of the various meteorological elements and their influence on the distri-
bution of contaminants.
In order to elucidate the influence of the daily variation of meteorolo-
gical elements on the dispersal of noxious substances during the period of
experimental studies at the Shchekino SRPS, the selection of sulfur gas samples
was made along a grazing graph, i. e., two days a week, in the morning, daytime,
and evening. All the data for the observation period 1962/63 were initially
divided into three groups. The first group included data obtained on days with
anticyclonic isobars, the second group included cyclonic isobars, and the third,
the intermediate baric field. All three groups were then divided according to
the time of sampling: morning period from 5:00 A.M. to 9:00 A. M., daytime
period from 9:00 A.M. to 4:00 P.M., and evening period from 4:00 P.M. to 7:00
P.M.
It was found that the largest number of cases of selection of concentrations
under the smoke spread coincided with the intermediate baric field in the daytime.
-------
Unfortunately, there were very few cases in the evening, and there was a
complete lack of morning periods for the anticyclonic and cyclonic bend of
isobars. This is due to the fact that a fog or low cloud cover is frequently
observed in the morning, and it was impossible to determine the direction of
the smoke spread from the SRPS.
Fig. 2 shows the distribution of sulfur gas concentrations as a function
af the distances to the source in the intermediate baric field at different
times of the day. The curves running through the maximum concentrations
differ markedly from morning to daytime and from daytime to evening. It is
apparent from the available data that
the lowest surface concentrations of
sulfur gas are observed in the morning
in the intermediate baric field and
reach maximum values at a distance
of 3-4 km from the source (up to 0.9
rag/nH). Concentrations near the
maximum permissible standard (MFC)
and above are encountered at dis-
tances of 1.5-5.5 km.
The curve running through the
maximum concentrations in the daytime
differs substantially from the morn-
ing curve, its maximum is smoother,
and the highest concentrations range
from 2 to 5 km. The concentrations
increase rapidly with the distance
from the source (the curve rises steeply upward) and, having reached a maximum,
decrease slowly, spreading to large distances. Concentrations above MFC during
the day occur from 1 to 13 km, i.e., in this case the zone of high concentrations
broadens appreciably, and large areas are subjected to its action; the maximum
increases to 1.9
1 - Horning, 2 - day, 3 - timing.
The curve of concentration distribution in the evening time is similar to
the one for daytime, but in this case the maximum concentrations decrease at all
distances from the source, and its maximum exceeds the concentration maximum in
the morning period by a factor of only 1.5. The zone where concentrations above
MFC occur decreases, and is located at a distance of 1 to 9 km.
Therefore, it may be concluded that the most unfavorable conditions in the
intermediate baric field arise in the daytime, when the concentrations increase
substantially, and the pollution zone expands considerably. In the evening, the
concentrations decrease again.
Graphs of the distribution of maximum concentrations in anticyclonal
weather in the daytime and evening were plotted in similar fashion. In general,
curves for daytime and particularly evening periods in the intermediate baric
field and in the anticyclone were similar. This is because of the fact that the
daily variation of the number of meteorological elements in these baric forma-
tions is similar, and hence, the conditions of propagation of noxious substances
are also similar.
-------
We shall now consider the distribution of concentrations in cyclonic for-
mations. The corresponding, graphs indicate that the maximum concentrations
differ slightly from the values in the intermediate and anticyclonal baric
fields. The daytime concentrations also increase rapidly with the distance from
the source, reach a maximun, and, in contrast to previous cases, decrease much
more slowly, i.e., they can be observed at large distances in cyclonic fields
of considerable magnitude. This may be explained by an increase of the wind
velocities in cyclones.
The graph obtained for evening conditions in a cyclone is different from
the preceding ones. Here, maximum concentrations are given that are fairly
close to the corresponding values in the intermediate and anticyclonic baric
fields, but the position of the maximum is shifted to the right, i. e., to
large distances from the stacks. There takes place a smooth increase of con-
centrations with the distance to the maximum, and the same kind of smooth
decrease to larger distances. This may also be because of a reinforcement of
the influence of the wind velocity on the
transport of impurities. Hence, the
greater the heating and the more developed
the instability, the closer to the source
can one expect the maximum concentrations
to be located.
Having examined the influence of
large-sized baric formations on the pro-
pagation of noxious substances from SRPS
stacks, we shall now consider the analysis
of the influence of individual meteorolo-
gical elements on the magnitude of surface
concentrations from the same source.
It was noted above that the magnitude
of concentrations undergoes a considerable
change from morning to daytime conditions
and from daytime to evening conditions. It
is natural to postulate that, in this case,
the greatest influence on this change is
exerted by the daily variation of the temperature gradient and of the wind velo-
city. Therefore, we shall first consider the influence of the change in the
temperature gradient on the magnitude of surface concentrations.
In ref. (2), a substantial influence of the vertical distribution of temp-
erature and wind velocity on the propagation of contaminants was theoretically
demonstrated. The author discussed factual material on the influence of the
temperature change with the height on the magnitude of the surface concentration
of a light contaminant (sulfur gas).
Fig. 3 shows the change of concentrations as a function of the distance
from the stacks when the temperature difference in the 0.5-2 m layer, based on
data of gradient observations, was equal to or less than zero, and for cases
where this difference was above zero. The figure shows curves for winter-
spring and summer-fall conditions. It is apparent from these curves that,
summer conditions atf 16 0 in the 0.5-2.0 m
»-2-for winter conditions &t&.tjtQ in tne _
or simmer c
ayer.
ions at
.itions at
-------
in any seasons, the temperature gradient has a great influence on the distri-
bution of pollutants near the ground. The establishment of an isothermal or
inversion distribution of temperature even in the lowest two-meter atmospheric
layer leads to a substantial decrease of the surface concentrations of sulfur
gas. Concentrations above MFC at^t^O in winter occur in a zone ranging from
1.5 to 7 km from the source, and in summer from 1 to 6 km. The maximum then
shifts from 4 to 2 km. Thus, from winter to summer there takes place a shift
of the maximum toward the source, while the width of the zone with concen-
trations above MFC remains the same.
If one considers graphs for summer and winter at & t> 0, it is apparent
that the maximum in the general case is observed at a distance of approximately
3 km from the source; concentrations above MFC in winter can be found from 1
to 7.5 km and in summer from 1 to 11 km, i. e., the zone of influence of the
source expands by a factor of 1.5 from winter to summer. In addition, during
warm periods of the year, the ground concentrations are higher than in winter.
0 n°° llts I7*° 1S'S IS40 l<)os I930 13"
rim of Saipliag
a)
?3 2* 2S 26 27 23 &t*C
b) x" at *50 P'M*» *• 8t
On the basis of the above, one can speak of the great influence of the
temperature distribution on surface concentrations. Isotheray and inversion
lead to an attenuation of turbulent diffusion and transport of pollutants from
upper layers. This is apparent from Fig. 4, which shows an example of the
distribution of sulfur gas concentrations at distances of 1, 2, 4 and 10 km
on August 9, 1962, and also gives the temperature profiles based on data of
aerostatic sounding in this region.
On that day, the samples were taken in the evening from 5:00 P.M. to
8:00 P.M., and 70 samples were taken at four distances from the source. Two
-------
to three samples were taken simultaneously at all distances, and of these, the
maximum concentration at each distance was taken at a given time.
Comparing the concentrations and the distribution of temperature with the
height, we see that during the initial period of sampling, at 3:50 P.M. and
5:40 P.M., the atmosphere was stratified unstably. At the same time, maximum
concentrations were observed, particularly at a distance of 2 km. At 5:50 P.M.,
at distances of 4 and 10 km, a sharp decrease of concentrations took place, and
the temperature difference at that time in the 0.5-2 m layer was close to zero.
When the aerostat rose at 7:20 P.M., isothermy was recorded in the 0-50 m
layer, and at that time the concentrations at all distances were minimal.
The author selected cases in which the temperature gradient in the 0-100
m layer was equal to or less than zero. The maximum concentration values are
shown in Table 2, from which it is apparent that the maximum possible concen-
trations are much lower than when the temperature decreases with the height.
Table 2
Distance from source, km....0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 10.0
Maximum concentrations
of sulfur gas, mg/m
,0.7 0.37 0.22 0.08 0.20 0.07 0.06 0.11
From Figs. 3 and 4 and from Table 2 it is apparent that one of the basic
factors affecting the magnitude of surface concentrations of light pollutants
is the temperature gradient in the lowest layer. The establishment of iso-
thermy or inversion in the lowest layer leads to substantial changes of the
concentrations toward a decrease of its magnitude. Here the author confines
himself to an examination of the influence of the temperature gradient on the
diffusion of noxious pollutants only in the layer up to the height of the source;
however, even these data show the great
influence that the forecasting of the
temperature profile has on the preparation
of the forecast of pollution from high
sources of high capacity.
Fig. 5 gives an idea of the dependence
of the surface concentrations on the wind
velocity at a height of 2 m. The following
gradations of wind velocity were used in
the treatment of the data: 0-2.0; 3.0-6.0,
and above 6.0 m/sec.
PIG. 5 .Distribution of sulfur gas con-
centrations at various wind v» loo It its.
1) 0-2 m/s«c, 2) 3-6 B/seo, 3) 6 n/s«o.
The curves of the graphs show that the
minimum surface concentrations are observed
at wind velocities up to 2 m/sec, and that
there is no sharply defined maximum. The
concentrations do not exceed the MPS and are
one-fourth the value at a wind velocity of over 2 m/sec. As the wind velocity
increases, there is a simultaneous increase of the surface concentrations of
sulfur gas, reaching a maximum value of 1.8 mg/m3 for the 3.0-6.0 m/sec gradation.
-------
As the wind velocity increases further, the maximum changes little in absolute
value, but it shifts in distance toward the source.
This is explained by the fact that at a wind velocity of 6 m/seo and higher,
the effective height of ascent of the smoke plume is moderate and the plume is
almost horizontal, and, as a result of turbulence, sulfur gas is rapidly trans-
ported into the ground layer in the vicinity of the source, where the maximum
concentrations are observed.
The author examined the dependence of the surface concentration on the
change of the turbulence coefficient, which was calculated from the formula
of M. I. Budyko from data of gradient observation (3, 6)
*!'
where u-. is the wind velocity at a height of 1 m, ZQ is the roughness of the
underlying surface under equilibrium conditions, and 23 and Z£ are the heights
of observations of air temperature in the 0.5-2 m layer.
The data obtained for the turbulence coefficient were distributed into
three gradations: 0-0.10, 0.11-0.20, and 0.21-0.3 m2/sec.
Graphs similar to the preceding ones were plotted for these gradations.
They show that the magnitude of the concentration in the lowest atmospheric
layer depends substantially on the turbulence coefficient: the higher kj,
the lower the sulfur gas concentrations. If kj » 0.2-0.3 m /sec, maximum
concentrations qm = 1.5 mg/rn^ were noted, and the distance at which the con-
centrations exceed MFC ranged from 1 to 10 km; then at k, = 0.1-0.2 ra^/sec,
qm « 1.2 mg/m and the distance was 1-5 km; and at kj ° 0-0.1 m /sec., qm ™
0.5 mg/nP at a distance of about 2 kilometers from the source.
Thus, as the austausch coefficient increases, an increase of the surface
concentrations is observed, and the distances at which concentrations above
MFC can be found change considerably.
These data indicate the influence exerted by the turbulence coefficient
on the dispersal of light contaminants in the atmosphere and on the magni-
tude of surface concentrations. The significant decrease of concentrations at
low values of kj near the ground is explained by the fact that most of the
dispersal of the contaminant takes place at a comparatively great height.
The low values of the turbulence coefficient under winter conditions can
also explain the fact that lower concentrations than during other seasons are
obtained in repeated samplings for sulfur gas in the zone of the smoke spread
of the Shchekino SRPS near the ground.
Considering that for any latitudes in all seasons there is, in the lowest
layer, a distinct manifestation of the daily and annual variation of the
-------
turbulence coefficient characterized by high values in the daytime hours
and during warm periods of the year, the results obtained can be used for
evaluating the influence of meteorological conditions on the contamination
of the lowest atmospheric layer.
Literature Cited
1. Bep;isiHA M. E., FeHHXOBHM E. Jl., O H H K y fl P. H. O paciete aarpnaueHHH ar-
Mocepw Bu6pocaMH H3 AbiMOBUx Tpy6 anexTpocraHUHfi. Tp. ITO, Bbin. 158, 1964.
2. BepJifliiA M. E., reHHXOBiie-
H o p o B a F. A. MeteopOJiOrHMecKHe Ha6j\\ojieHHa npn HCC^eflosaHHn n
HUX 3arpn3HeHHft npHseMHcro C^OH BOSAyxa. Tp. FTO, sun. 138, 1963.
5, PacTopryeaa F. U. O pacMetax KoadxpHUHCHra Typ6yflCHTHoro ofiMCHa no
eHTHbiM AaHHbiM. Tp. Fro, Bbin. 158, 1964.
6. O H H K y ;i P. H., riaH
-------
SOME RESULTS OF SYNOPTIC-CLIMATOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF
AIR POLLUTION IN CITIES
L. R. Son'kin
From Trudy, Glavnaya Geofiz. Observat. im. A. I. Voeykova, No. 207, p. 56
64, (1968).
The problem of air pollution in cities sets before meteorologists a whole
series of tasks, including those aimed at studying the influence of climatic
factors on air contamination and its forecasting. It is well known that for
the same discharges, the contamination of air in the lowest layer may vary
considerably depending on the meteorological conditions. For this reason, in
cities having discharges of approximately the same character but located in
different climatic conditions, a substantially different degree of air con-
tamination may arise. Knowledge of the nature of the influence of climatic
conditions on the degree of contamination of city air is required for solving
the problem of atmospheric purity. Such data must be taken into account in
the planning and construction of new cities and industrial centers and also
of new industrial plants in existing cities.
The forecasting of contamination is also of great significance in the
efforts designed to maintain the purity of air. It is particularly necessary
during periods of extensive contamination of air in cities, when the health
of many thousands of people is jeopardized. In this case, effective measures
to decrease the degree 'of contamination of the atmosphere should be taken
in accordance with the forecast.
The solution of these two problems would not present any fundamental
difficulties if the problem of influence of meteorological conditions on
air contamination in cities was fully understood. At the present time, the
process of air contamination by various sources under different meteorological
conditions is understood in its general features (1, 2, 3). In an industrial
city, the problem is complicated by the presence of a large amount of most
diverse discharges: cold and hot, low and high, organized and disorganized.
Random discharges frequently occur. The prolonged action of a large number of
sources in a city leads to a qualitatively new effect in air contamination,
i. e., the creation of a background concentration of contaminants (9, 12, 18).
Among other phenomena connected with the characteristics of contamination of
city air, a heat island and the creation of local air circulation directed
toward the center of the city should be mentioned (17).
Along with a general complication of the problem, there arises the possibi-
lity of simplifying the analysis of the influence of meteorological conditions
on the contamination of city air. In the city, the influence of various sources
on the creation of the contaminant concentration in air is evened out. In this
case it may be expected that fluctuations of the concentration of the contami-
nants will be determined more by the weather conditions than by changes in the
-------
discharges of the various industrial plants. Therefore, in the first approxi-
mation, the characteristics of contamination of air by various sources located
in the city may be neglected, and the concentrations of contaminants at
stationary points should be directly correlated with the meteorological
characteristics. Such treatment sheds light on the extremely important problem
of the influence of meteorological conditions on air contamination in real cities.
At a later stage, in order to solve the problem completely, it is necessary
also to consider the character of the discharges of noxious contaminants in the
city.
It has been pointed out in many studies that the most unsafe conditions
for the contamination of city air are weak winds and the stability of the
atmosphere. This has been utilized by American researchers as the basis for
forecasting air contamination in cities (10, 11, 13, 15, etc.). It is known
at the same time that in industrial cities there is a large amount of high,
hot discharges; an unsafe contamination of the lowest layer of air in such
discharges takes place essentially under opposite meteorological conditions
(1, 2, 3). If one also considers the above-mentioned additional effects in
the mechanism of contamination of city air, it becomes clear that the problem
still requires a thorough study.
At the present time, data have been collected at the Main Geophysical
Observatory on the contamination of air with noxious contaminants in many of
the country's cities. This has been achieved largely thanks to units of the
Sanitation and Epidemiology service, which have supplied us with observational
data. At the same time, it has been possible to utilize the initial data
obtained by the network of stations of the Hydro-meteorological Service.
However, analysis of this material involves major difficulties because of
its heterogeneity and the lack of a definite system for conducting the obser-
vations. If one adds to this the considerable variability of the character-
istic being studied plus constant changes in the amount of contaminants dis-
charged, the difficulties of the analysis of individual cases becomes under-
standable. To elucidate the basic regularities, it is advisable to carry out
a statistical treatment of the mass of data. Of particular importance in this
regard is the synoptic-climatological analysis of data on air contamination in
cities.
Annual Variation of Contamination of City Air
Data on the annual variation of air contamination in cities may be used
in planning the operating conditions of industrial plants.
In addition, analysis of the annual variation of atmospheric contamination
is of interest from a climatological point of view, since the annual variation
of atmospheric contamination should be largely determined by seasonal character-
istics of the development of meteorological processes.
The annual variation of air contamination in cities is determined by at
least three factors: 1) change of the amount of discharges in the course of the
-------
year, 2) seasonal characteristics of the development of atmospheric processes,
3) nature of the discharges, i. e., relative proportions of high and low, cold,
and overheated discharges. The second and third factors are interrelated, since,
as was indicated above, the influence of meteorological conditions on the con-
tamination of the atmosphere depends on the nature of the discharges. Analysis
of factual data for the annual variation of air contamination makes it possible
to identify the role of these factors to some extent.
In the first place, it was interesting to determine whether a heavier con-
tamination of the city atmosphere takes place during the warm or cold half of the
•year. The periods, April-September and October-March, were taken as the warm and
cold halves of the year, respectively. Such data for certain ingredients and in
different cities were plotted on maps, one of which (for dust) is shown in Fig. 1.
It is apparent from the figure that with some exceptions, in all regions of
the country, the heaviest contamination of the city atmosphere with dust is
observed during the warm half of the year.
No such clear-cut relationship was found
for other contaminants. However, it may be
positively stated that the existing point of
view of a winter maximum of air contamination
due to maximum fuel combustion is not con-
firmed in many cases. This may be due to
the influence of climatic conditions on
atmospheric contamination.
The analysis showed the presence of
common features in the characteristics of
the annual variation of contamination of air
by various noxious impurities in cities
located in certain geographical regions.
Several regions with approximately the same
characteristics of annual variation have been
shown to exist on the territory of the Soviet
Union (Fig. 2). It was found that above most
of the European part of the Soviet Union, two
maxima in the annual variation of air contam-
ination are observed during the intermediate
seasons, the values of the spring maximum
being in most cases higher than those of the
fall maximum. On the territory of Western
Siberia, Kazakhstan, and part of Central Asia,
a summer maximum of air contamination was
observed, and a winter maximum was noted in Eastern Siberia. In the southernmost
regions of the country there is a tendency for a maximum air contamination to
arise in the annual variation both during the intermediate seasons and in winter.
The above-mentioned characteristics of the annual variation of air contamina-
tion on the territory of the USSR are linked in their general features with the
nature of the atmospheric processes. In Eastern Siberia, the winter maximum of
rig..!. Ch*r»otfri*tio£ of atm-
pHriT oentaainatiw nth dust IB
CM OOUTM or a year.
Qaglitii
cent—
pcMoartd to
fodata on f
tigos abovt I
ana •mrljflffli oonotet
denoainator).
-------
air contamination is related to the existence of the Siberian anticyclone during
that time of the year. The emergence of developed winter cyclones periodically
removes contaminants from cities of the European territory of the USSR (ETU).
Figure 3 shows the annual variation of the number od days per month with anti-
cyclonic circulation above the ETU (region 4, after L. A. Vitel's), based on
data for 1961-64 (4), where two anticyclonicity maxima appear during the inter-
mediate seasons with greater values of the spring maximum, which generally
correspond to the annual variation of air contamination.
I Transition
^v , ^X\s . \V
period
&
Transition period
and winter
Fig. 2» Geographical distribution of characteristics of annual
variation of air contamination indicating seasons during which
the TM»"""i«' air contamination is observed in the annual variation*
The summer maximum of contaminant concentrations
of air in cities of Western Siberia and Kazakhstan is
apparently connected with the high turbulent austausch
in these regions, resulting in a considerable contam-
ination of air by high discharges of large-capacity
industrial plants.
Thus, despite considerable changes in the
amount of discharges in the course of the year,
analysis of the massive material has shown the
presence of a relationship between the contamina-
tion of the atmosphere and the frequency of anti-
cyclonic fields in the annual variation.
I II III IV V VI VII VIIIIX X XI XII
Synoptic Conditionality of Air Contamination in Cities
Analysis of the synoptic conditionality of air contamination is of great
interest because in principle, the synoptic situation reflects the entire variety
of processes occurring in the atmosphere. Weather maps of the northern hemisphere
-------
have been published (7), and therefore the synoptic analysis of air contamination
of any city does not require any additional selection of material.
On the other hand, an objective physical evaluation of situations in the
presence of their appreciable variability presents major difficulties. For this
reason, at this stage of the investigation it is inadvisable to consider the
relationship between air contamination and daily meteorological situations. The
synoptic conditionally of air contamination manifests itself in two ways:
1. From data of all stationary points of the city, days with the most
contaminated and relatively pure air are selected, and the synoptic situations
which are then observed are examined. Also examined are the synoptic situations
observed for the maximum values of the contaminant concentration (for a month, a
season, etc.).
2. Clearly defined and long-lasting (no less than 3 days) synoptic situa-
tions are selected and the associated air contamination is described.
Thus, in order to find the functions being sought, the extreme, most clearly
manifested cases of air contamination and corresponding synoptic situations are
subjected to analysis. This method is being widely and successfully employed in
synoptic-climatological investigations (6, etc.).
As in earlier research (8, etc.), the following synoptic situations were
selected: anticyclone — ac, cyclone — C, intermediate field -- I, low-gradient
field — L. The most diversified situation is I, which includes cases where
transfer of air between cyclonic and anticyclonic formations was observed above
the region under consideration. Consequently, it is necessary to subdivide the
given situation further. This was done as a function of the direction of the
transfer. In a more detailed analysis, situation I may also be subdivided as a
function of the curvature of the isobars in the following manner: I -- for
rectilinear isobars, IAC — for anticyclonic curvature of isobars, 1C — for
their cyclonic curvature. This subdivision is used in the present paper. It was
also found desirable among cyclonic situations to select the situation of a weak
cyclone -- Cw, since for a weak cyclone the conditions of air contamination
differ substantially from those in a developed cyclone.
Analysis of these observations showed that periods of time occur when at
most or even all stationary points of the city a consistent growth of contaminant
concentration is observed. This phenomenon is also known from the literature,
and manifests itself most distinctly in smogs (9, 12, etc.). In many cases, all
these stationary points of the city were also found to register low contaminant
concentrations. This supports the point of view of the establishment of a
background concentration in the city.
To analyze the synoptic conditionally of the contamination of city air, use
was made of relatively complete data of observations in one of the industrial
cities of the Urals. Daily samples of air for the analysis of dust and sulfur
gas were taken almost every day at three stationary points. It is obvious that
for this investigation, daily values of the contaminant concentration with
averaging of their random fluctuations have a distinct advantage over single
values. Observations for the 1961-1964 period were examined. Relatively strict
-------
criteria were set for the selection of days with contaminated and those with
clean air. Days with contaminated air corresponded to cases where more than
half of the observations per day showed concentrations above MFC, and days
with clean air corresponded to cases where all the samples showed concentrations
of no more than ^ MFC. It was required that no fewer than four daily samples
out of six be taken during a day (at three points for dust and sulfur gas).
When the indicated points were used, of the total number of days with data on
air contamination, 243 days were taken with contaminated air and 134 days with
clean air, and also the synoptic situations in which these cases were observed
were analyzed. The frequency of the synoptic situations in each of the two
groups of days was calculated separately for the cold and hot half-years
(Table 1). In the case under consideration, depending upon the direction of the
transport, it was found convenient to analyze two situations with an intermediate
field: one of them includes cases of transport of air from north and east; and
the other, from west and south. This subdivision was made in accordance with the
relative positions of the main industrial plants and stationary points.
Table 1
Freoutnoy (#) of Synoptic Situations on Jays with Clean and Contaminated Air
Half-year
Cold
Warm
Days
With pur* air
With contaminated air
With absolute maxim*
per nooth
With pun air
With contaminated air
With absolute maxim
per month
Synoptic Situations
AC
9
54
42
0
38
22
v
3
23
27
3
27
27
s«
69
9
11
55
7
15
C
15
2
6
28
2
2
e.
2
3
6
4
7
10
L
2
9
8
10
19
24
Notation of synoptic
situations: AC - anti-
cyclone, In e - inter-
mediate field with north-
ern and eastern transport
of air, I8>w - intermedi-
ate field with southern
and western transport of
air, C - cyclone, GV weak
cyclone, L - low gradient
field.
Analysis of the table shows that substantially different synoptic situations
are observed on days with clean and on those with contaminated air. On days with
contaminated air, chiefly anticyclones are observed, and also situations In ,
and on days with clean air — situations Is>w and cyclones. The nature of the
relationship under consideration is clearly'manifested when one compares the
frequency of the different situations on days with the opposite state of air con-
tamination. Situations Is w and C are observed much more frequently on days with
clean air than situations AC on days with contaminated air; In e and L — vice
versa. It is characteristic that in the presence of a weak cyclone (associated
with weak winds, the lack of precipitation, growth of pressure), days with con-
taminated air are observed more frequently than those with clean air.
A more detailed analysis of data on air contamination in intermediate
fields showed that, other things being equal, a greater air contamination is
associated with the anticyclonic bend of isobars (IAC) and a lesser air contam-
ination is associated with the cyclonic bend (1C) than with rectilinear isobars (I)
-------
Table 1 also lists data on the frequency of synoptic situations on days with
absolute maximum values of the contaminant concentration per month. For each
month, two values were considered, for dust and for sulfur gas. As is evident
from Table 1, at the maximum contaminant concentrations, the same synoptic
situations prevailed as in cases of general contamination of city air. This
conclusion means that the same causes are usually attributed to the absolute
maximum concentrations of contaminants at individual points and to the air
contamination above the entire city. It is characteristic that in 71% of the
cases, the maximum monthly concentrations of contaminants coincide with
periods of general contamination of the air above the city.
Periods of prolonged presence of clearly defined synoptic situations were
then selected, and the frequency of concentrations above MFC during these
periods was analyzed. It was found that the results of the computations could
be illustrated graphically (Fig. 4), although not rigorously, since the situa-
tions cannot be expressed quantitatively. However, the situations can be
arranged according to the indicator of their similarity by starting with a
stationary anticyclone and ending with a developed cyclone. Intermediate fields
with the cyclonic bend of the isobars are not included in the graph because of
the small number of cases of their stable existence. In Fig. 4 it is apparent
that the highest dust content during the cold as well as the warm half of the
year is observed in stationary anticyclones
(SAC). Contamination of air by sulfur gas
in anticyclones is also substantial, but the
highest frequency of concentration above MFC
takes place in this case in the presence of
intermediate fields with a northern and
eastern transport (In,e and
lowest air contamination was
oped cyclones and in intermediate fields
with western and southern transport.
100
80
60
20
e)*
found in devel-
1 * J^0
V
' eonoentration
synoptio
uations.
/
In general, a tendency was shown toward
a decrease of contamination from IACm e to
In>e and from IAC8>W to I8)W (see Fig.'4). A
secondary maximum of air contamination for weak
cyclones which showed up consistently on all
four curves was characteristic. It should
be noted that an examination of data on the
contamination of the air of other cities
also showed the presence of cases of heavy
contamination in cyclonic fields. Apparently,
the purification of air in cyclones is chief-
ly due to precipitation and strong winds.
In the absence of these phenomena (in weak
cyclones, in diffuse cyclonic fields), cyclones are more unsafe for air contamina-
tion than intermediate fields. This may be termed the secondary effect of air
contamination in cyclones.
Thus, the analysis of synoptic situations for extreme values of contaminant
concentrations in air and the characteristics of air contamination in clearly
1 - dust m sunaer, 2 -.di
•iMUr. 5 - suIfur*gM in
T- sulfur gu in nattr.
r, 2 -.dust in
-------
defined synoptic situations have led to consistent results.
The data given in the present paper indicate the same synoptic conditioning
of air contamination in cities during winter and summer. This means that a great
influence on the degree of air contamination is exerted by those characteristics
of synoptic processes which are the same in the course of the entire year. For
stationary anticyclones, which are associated with the heaviest air contamination,
the following signs are common to all seasons: weak winds and absence of di-
rected transport in the bottom layer, 3-5 km thick, absence of precipitation,
downward motions, inversion of compression at a height of 1-2 km. It is evident
that the main cause of the substantial air contamination in industrial cities is
the absence of horizontal outflow of contaminants. The accumulation of a large
amount of contaminants above a city in an unsteady process leads to a consider-
able contamination of air in the lowest layer. This is promoted by downward
motions and by inversion at a height of 1-2 km, which hinder vertical mixing.
The relationship between monthly characteristics of air contamination
(frequency of concentrations above MFC in specific months) and monthly pressure
anomalies was analyzed. Fig. 5 shows the corresponding correlation graph, where
a direct relationship is observed between air contamination and monthly pressure
anomalies (^ P). The coefficient of linear correlation r = 0.54 + 0.12. The
• •
80
70
60
SO
30
20
10
-10 -5 0 5
Pig. 5. Frequency of contaainant concentrations above UPC in the
course of a month as a function of monthly pressure anomalies.
same correlation coefficients were calculated for two cities at the center of
the ETU. They were also found to be positive, but with a lesser closeness of
the relationship (r » 0.49 and 0.21). Here, relatively clean air is almost
always observed at negative values of A P. Months with contaminated air are
associated in most cases with high positive values of A, P. Of the 15 months
with high values of the frequency of concentrations above MFC, 11 occurred at
A P 7> 2 mb. However, the remaining four months were observed at considerable
negative AP values (-2, -1, -4, -7 mb). This may be due to the secondary
-------
effect of air contamination in cyclonic fields.
The results obtained shed some light on the problem of influence of
meteorological conditions on air contamination in cities. Further development
of this research will give a more detailed picture of the mechanism of the
process considered, and will make it possible to arrive at some practical
recommendations for taking meteorological conditions into account in efforts
aimed at achieving purity of the atmosphere.
Literature Cited
1. Bep/mHfl M. E., TeHHXOBHM E. Jl., OdHKyji P. H. O pacwere
aTMoc<}>epbi BuCpocaMH H3 AUMOBUx Tpy6 s-neiapocTaHUHft. Tp. rrO, Bbin. 158,
2. B e p fl fl ii A M. E., F c H H x o n H >i H. Jl., Jl o >K K n 11 a B. I~I., O n n K y jj P. H. MHC-
•ncimoo iiccjicAoiiainie aTMoci|icpnoi'i ;im|><|)y:iini npn nopMajibiibix H aiioMa-ibiibix yc-
JIOBIIMX CTpaTiii|)iiKiiiiiin. Tp. I'l'C), uun. 158, 1904.
3. 5cpjiHii/i M. E., 1'c u M x r> H n >i H. Jl., II c M b n u o B H 'i B. K. HeKoiopue aiay-
ajihiiuc Donpocu iiccjic4on»inifl aTMoc(|>epnoii ;ui(p(py3mi. Tp. [TO, Bbin. 172, 1965.
4. BHTe.nbc Jl. A. XapaKTCpHCTHKii GapHKo-UHpKy.ifimioiiHoro pc>KHMa. FH/ipoMCTeo-
muar. Jl., 1905.
5. K p a T u c p n. A. KjiiiMar roprua. H/I., M., 1958.
6. rioKpOBCKafl T. U. CTaTiiCTii'iccKaii oucima npornoaoB Mecnmioft TCMneparypbi Ha
EsponciicKoii TcppnTopmi CCCP c Hcno.nb:)OBaHneM xapaKtepHCTHK UHpKyflHiiHii, no
F. 91. BanrcHreiiMy. Tp. ITO, awn. 133, 1962.
7. CiinonTimccKHii 6mji^eTeiib. rii;ipo.MeTeoH3,iaT, M., 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964 rr.
8. CoiibKHH Jl. P. CMIIOIITIIMCCKIIC ycjiooiisi (JiopumpoBaMMH KHBCpCHii B HHWIIQM
500-MerpoBOM cjioc. Tp. rrO, Bbin. 172, 1965.
9. Ba rrctt C. F. Correlation of smoke concentration in Great Britain. Jnt. J; Air Wat.
Poll. v. 7, 1963.
10. Boettgcr C. M. Air pollution potential cast of the Rocky Mountains. — Fall 1959.
B. A. M. S., v 42, 19C1.
11. Boettgcr C. M. and Smith H. J. The Noshville daily, air pollution forecast.
M. W. R., v 89, 1961.
12. Disussion of smog. Quart J. Roy. Met. Soc. v 80, 1954.
13. Ho Iz worth G. C. A study of Air Pollution Potential for the Western United
States. J. of Applied Meteor, v. I, No 3, 1962. '
14. Kan no S. and other. Atmospheric SOj concentrations observed, in Kcihin indu-
strial center and their relation to meteorological elements. Jnt. J. Air Poll., v I,
1959.
15. M i I 1 e r M. E. Semi — objective forecesting of atmospheric stagnation in the western
United States. M. W. R., v 92, No 1, 1964.
16. N o a c k R. Untersuchungen iibcr Zusammenha'nge zwischcn Luftverunreinigung and
meteorologischcn Faktoren. Angewandte Meteorologic. Band. 4, H 8 — 10, 1963:
17. Pooler F. Jr. .Airflow over a' city in terrain of moderate relief. ,,J. Appl. Met."
v2, No 4, 1963.
18. Weather ley M. Interpretation at date, from air pollution Surveys in towps, talc-
ing into account the siting of the instruments. A simple approach to a very com-
plex subject. Jnt. J. Air. Wat. Poll., v 7, 1963.
-------
PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS OF OBSERVATIONS
OF AIR POLLUTION IN CITIES
L. R. Son'kln and D. V. Chalikov
From Trudy, Glavnaya Geofiz. Observat. im. A. I. Voeykova, No. 207, p. 51-
55, (1968).
The analysis of observations of the concentration of noxious contaminants
in cities may be useful for determining the influence of meteorological condi-
tions on the contamination of city air and for understanding the physical
mechanism of this phenomenon. In this connection, research of this type was
recently begun at the Main Geophysical Observatory. The present paper gives
results of an analysis of data on the air contamination of the cities of Moscow
and Leningrad in 1961-1964, based on observations of sanitation and epidemiology
stations. The meteorological characteristics were obtained from observations
of hydrometeorological stations. In all, use was made of about 7,000 observa-
tion*! of the concentration of dust and sulfur gas in air, of which about 2,000
pertain to Leningrad and about 5,000 to Moscow.
A special program was set up on the "Ural-4" computer for processing the
data. A large quantity of different variants were checked during a relatively
short time because of the rapid action of the computer.
The most suitable method for establishing the statistical relationships
between contamination and the determining meteorological factors is multiple-
correlation type statistical analysis. However, such analysis is ineffective
for a large number of predictors. Therefore, it is necessary to carry out
preliminary research on the, selection of the main determining factors that are
responsible for most of the dispersion of the concentration of contaminating
ingredients.
To this end, a program for the "Ural-4" computer was written, which made
it possible to calculate the frequency of ingredient concentrations above a
certain value, and also the average ingredient concentrations for arbitrary
conditions of the meteorological parameters. A large quantity of the material
introduced into the computer required the use of an external memory, i. e.,
two magnetic drums with a total capacity of about 64,00 entries. The calcu-
lation of a single variant required 3-4 minutes of computer time.
The difficulties of the analysis of observations of contaminant concen-
trations in air lay in their great disconnectedness and inhomogeneity.
Nevertheless, some results of the calculations are of definite interest. In
principle, a meteorological analysis of the observations of air contamination
would be desirable at each point, consideration being given to the nature of the
contamination. However, in the present paper, because of the inadequate quan-
tity and quality of the material, principal attention has been given to the
meteorological analysis of all the data of the observations, independently of
the part of the city where they were made. A combined analysis was performed
-------
for observations carried out at 13 stationary points of the city of Leningrad
and also 7 stationary points of the city of Moscow, and an attempt was made
to find some of the most general relationships between the meteorological
characteristics and the air contamination in cities. Curves giving the
distribution of the frequency of the dust and sulfur gas concentration for
Moscow and Leningrad were obtained first (Fig. 1). It is evident from the
figure, for example, that the frequency of contaminant concentration above
the maximum permissible value (MFC) of 0.5 mg/m3 is 8% for dust and 107. for
sulfur gas in Moscow; in Leningrad, 18% for dust and 19% for sulfur gas;
above 1.0 mg/m3 (2 MFC), respectively 2, 3, 4, and 5%.
0,25 0,5 0,75 1,0 1,25 1,5 t,75 2,0q
\ :
A calculation of the annual variation of the contaminant concentration in
Leningrad and Moscow showed a tendency toward a high contamination of air during
spring and fall. An explanation of possible reasons for this annual variation
is given in other papers (2, etc.). It is essential to note the parallel
annual variation of two characteristics of air contamination, which were consi-
dered: the frequency of the concentration above MFC (g), % and average concen-
tration values, mg/m3.
The weak relationship between the concentration of contaminants in air
and the direction of the wind in Leningrad was noted earlier. In Moscow, a
-------
different picture is observed in this respect; the relationship between air
contamination and the wind direction in the region of the individual stationary
points was found to be rather close. The difference of g for different wind
directions exceeds 20%, and of qav, 0.3 mg/nH.
Analysis of the change of the concentration of contaminants as a function
of wind velocity, based on data for both Leningrad and Moscow (Fig. 2), gen-
erally confirmed, the effect noted earlier (2); the first miximum is observed
during calm owing to low discharges and to the background concentration; and
the second, at a wind velocity of 4-6 m/sec, apparently owing to high discharges.
A whole series of calculations was made in the analysis of the indicated rela-
tionship. The dependence of air contamination on the wind velocity was analyzed
during various seasons and also with the stipulation that at the time of the
sampling and during the preceding 5 hours there had been no precipitation, which,
obviously, would remove the contaminants from
the air. In summer, the second maximum (at a
velocity of 5-6 m/sec) is more pronounced than
the first; whereas in winter, the first maximum
is more predominant. According to data on sul-
fur gas, as compared to dust, the second
maximum is more pronounced and the first
maximum, less. If one eliminates cases with
precipitation during the preceding 5 hours
(,yy5 hours), these relationships are more
distinct (Fig. 2).
,
30r
25
The effect of removal of dust and sulfur
gas from air by precipitation has been noted
in a number of studies (1, 3, 6, etc.). In
the present paper and in an earlier study (2),
consideration is given to the dependence of
air contamination on the time between the end
of precipitation and the start of sampling
m.
10 •
s •
*
3u
FIQ. 2 Pnq
oooMntratic
ptrwnt as a function of
wlooity.
Ifur
Some results
given in Table 1.
of the calculations are
It is apparent from the table that in
Leningrad, several hours after the end of
precipitation, the air is much cleaner than average. The manifestation of this
effect in Leningrad is shown more convincingly in ref. (2). In Moscow such a
phenomenon is also observed, but it is les manifest, particularly on the basis
of data on the dust concentration in the air. Thus, the level of air contamin-
ation in Moscow is restored faster after precipitation, when compared with
Leningrad. This conclusion, and also earlier calculations of the characteris-
tics of air contamination as a function of the wind direction permit one to
postulate differences in the nature of the phenomenon in Moscow and Leningrad.
In Leningrad, a comparatively high background contamination of the atmosphere
above the city takes place. For this reason, the dependence of the contaminant
concentration on the wind velocity is not clearly manifested, and for several
-------
hours after the precipitation the air is substantially cleaner than average.
In Moscow, the background contamination of air is apparently slight. Various
sources of contamination operate against a background of a relatively clean
atmosphere. If, as was done by M. Wetherley (8), the concentration of con-
taminant in the city is divided into local and background concentrations, it
will be noted that the contribution of the local factor is considerable in
Moscow. That is why a close relationship was found in this case between the
concentration of contaminants and the wind direction. It is also evident that
the contamination of air by specific sources is relatively independent of past
precipitation.
Table 1
Contamination of city air as a function of tiaa betvsen end
of precipitation and start of sampling (f).
City
Moscow
Leningrad
Intervals
of values
hours
<5
>5
<5
>5
Dust
g*lo
9
20
8
8
oav. K/M
0,25
0,34
0,20
0,25
Sulfur gas
g*l9
16
21
9
13
qav. »B/»5
0.29
0,32
, 0,20
0,32
A whole series of variants taking into consideration the contamination of
air as a function of various meteorological characteristics was checked by means
of a "Ural-4" computer. Part of the computations did not yield any results.
This applies primarily to aerological characteristics of the atmosphere. The
above appears to be closely related to the great complexity of the mechanism of
air contamination in cities, with different influences of meteorological condi-
tions on the formation of contaminant concentrations in the lowest layer of air
from various sources and with certain other causes.
According to the data of observations made in Leningrad, it was possible
to analyze the characteristics of air contamination as a function of the
austausch coefficient at the level of 1 m-k^. The values of kj[ were calculated
from gradient observations of the Koltushi station. All the cases were sub-
divided into two groups according to the values of kj., and the results are given
in Table 2.
Table 2
Contamination of air in Leningrad as a function of ki»
^1 • /seo
<0,20
>0,20
Dust
goto
16
25
qav, «g/«J
0,31
0,43
Sulfur gas
g*lo
19
21
qav, sg/B
0,30
0,34
-------
From Table 2 it is apparent that at high
region, air contamination is high in the city.
values in the Leningrad
In the first variant, data on synoptic situations were put on punched
cards. Preliminary computations confirmed the hypothesis, known from the
literature, on the high contamination of air in anticyclones (2). However,
later it was found that a synoptic analysis of data on the contaminant
concentration does not always produce a sufficient effect. In view of the
marked variability of the synoptic location, in many cases the recorded
synoptic situation may contain no information on the actual processes occur-
ring in the atmosphere. In this connection, clearly manifested synoptic
situations that have existed for a long time are of greatest interest. In
the first place, it was found of interest to examine the contamination of
air in stationary anticyclones, which are linked with the most unsafe con-
ditions (4, 5, 9).
In Table 3, these data, expressed in deviations from average values,
are given for Leningrad and Moscow. Results of the computations are represented
separately for the cold and warm parts of the city.
Table 3
Deviation from Average Frequency of Contaminant
Concentration MFC in Stationary Antioyolones (#)
City
HOMO* ....
Leningrad . . .
Dust
cold
period
+7
+21
•an
period
+ 1
+ 13
Sulfur gas
cold
period
+ 18
+ 13
*um
period
—2
— 1
It is apparent from the table that during the cold part of the year, the
contamination of air in stationary anticyclones is substantially higher than
average. During the warm part of the year, this effect manifests itself only
for dust, in Leningrad, and does not manifest itself at all in Moscow. In order
to check how real this dependence is, the frequency of contaminant concentra-
tions above MFC in stationary anticyclones in Sverdlovsk and Magnitogorsk was
examined. The air contamination in these cities in stationary anticyclones
was also found to be much higher than average in summer. The impression is
created that in summer, high contaminant concentrations in stationary anti-
cyclones are characteristic of cities with a rapid industrial development,
where the process involved in the contamination of air occupies a considerable
layer of air. In relatively clean cities, the establishment of a stationary
anticyclone in summer does not result in high contaminant concentrations.
During the cold part of the year, a high contamination of city air in
stationary anticyclones is apparently a general rule.
-------
In conclusion, it may be noted that the initial results indicate the
advisability of continuing this work, using a large quantity of observations
of the concentration of contaminants in many cities of the country. When
sufficient material becomes available, analysis of observations at individual
stationary points, taking into account the character of air contamination,
will be of great interest.
Literature Cited
1. 3arpsi3HeHHe aiMoc(j>epHoro Boa.iyxa. JUopeit Hauwfl, >KeHCBa, 1962.
2. CoHbKiiH Jl. P., PaaCeraeea E. A., Tepexoaa K. M. K Bonpocy o nereo-
pojiorHMecKoft o6ycjioBJieHHOCTH DarpnsHeHHR aosayxa NBA roooAaMii. Tp. FFO,
sun. 185, 19G6.
3. Dlckson R. R. Meteorological factors affecting participate air pollution of a city.
BAMS, v. 42. N 3. 1961.
4. G a r n o 11 A. A survey of air pollution in Sheffield under characteristic winter an-
ticyclonic condition. Jnt, J. Air Wat. Pollution, v. 7. 1963.
5. Hoi z worth G. C. A study of air pollution potenzial for the western United States.
J. Appl. Meteorology v. I, N 3, 1962.
6. Kan no S. Atmospheric SOj— concentrations observed in Kcihin industrial center
and their relation to meteorological elements. Jnt. J. Air pollution, v I, 1959.
7. Nieweyer L. E. Forecasting air pollution, potential. M.W.R. v 88, N 3, I960.
8. Wet her ley M. L. Interpretation of data from air pollution Surveys in towns, tak-
ing into account the siting of the instruments. Jnt. J. Air Wat. Pollution, v 7,
1963.
-------
THE THEORY OF ATMDSPHERIC DIFFUSION UNDER FOG CONDITIONS
M. E. Berlyand, R. I. Onikul and G. V Ryabova
From Trudy, Glavnaya Geofiz. Observat. im. A. I. Voeykova, No. 207, p. 3-13,
(1968).
An effective protection of an air reservoir from contamination with harmful
industrial waste requires the development of studies of the mechanisms of atmos-
pheric diffusion in various weather situations. Of particular importance are
studies of "hazardous" weather conditions, when high concentrations of contami-
nant can be observed in the ground layer of air. Consideration of these mechan-
isms in the design and operation of industrial plants permits a standardization
of the industrial waste for the purpose of avoiding intolerable concentrations
of noxious substances in the atmosphere, even in the presence of an unfavorable
combination of the meteorological factors determining the distribution of con-
taminants .
Analysis of cases of heavy air contamination shows that some of them
correspond to periods of lasting fogs. The harmful effect of smoke and gas
contaminants associated with fogs is observed more distinctly than under other
weather conditions, their unpleasant presence is felt more keenly, and the
presence of contaminants in fogs causes an additional decrease of visibility,
etc. The opposite effect is also noted, i. e., the presence of smoke promotes
the condensation of atmospheric moisture. Thus, a mutually reinforcing effect
of smokes and fogs takes place. A special term, "smog," made up of the begin-
ning and end of the two words smoke and fog, has come into widespread use for
describing the smoke-fog condition. The presence of fogs and their variety,
smogs, is held responsible for many periods of high morbidity and mortality
rates in many cities and industrial areas of Great Britain, the U.S.A., Belgium,
and other countries.
Nevertheless, the conditions of air contamination associated with fogs and
the nature of the direct action of fogs on the diffusion of impurities have been
little studied. The available experimental data have been very scarce, and in-
adequately classified and analyzed. This is due in part to the difficulty of
sampling for the purpose of comparing cases with and without fogs, other similar
weather conditions being the same. The influence of fogs on the content of
contaminants in air is very complex in character. On the one hand, fogs are
frequently associated with specific conditions of distribution of weather con-
stituents promoting an increase in the concentration of contaminants near the
ground. Some theoretical estimates in this area, made by F. A. Gisina (9),
pertain chiefly to the evaluation of the contamination of the ground layer of
air under certain conditions of distribution of the intensity of the vertical
component of turbulent austausch. On the other hand, in the presence of fogs,
the qualitative composition of atmospheric impurities and the toxic nature of
their interaction change. They are partially absorbed by droplets of water,
thus occasionally causing the formation of new substances, while the concen-
tration of contaminant in air decreases. The nature of the interaction of
-------
gases and certain aerosols, especially hygroscopic ones, varies. On hygro-
scopic particles, the condensation of moisture and formation of fog may start
at a relative humidity below 1007.; the microphysical characteristics of a fog
are affected by the quantity and properties of the condensation nuclei. The
deposition of moisture on aerosols increases their size and the rate of gravi-
tational displacement toward the earth's surface.
Considering the complexity of the processes taking place, it becomes
particularly important to develop the theoretical aspects of atmospheric con-
tamination in the presence of fogs, using computers for the calculations. It
then becomes necessary to consider as fully and rigorously as possible such
characteristics as the size of the zone occupied by the fog, (:he water content,
the temperature stratification, etc. Since experimental data on these charac-
teristics are scarce at the present time, for some types of fogs it is desirable
to make use of completed theoretical studies. This paper presents evaluations,
obtained in this manner, of the influence of river fogs (the theory of which has
been developed in ref.^6, 7, Il3) on the propagation of gaseous contaminants.
The study of the diffusion of contaminants in the presence of river fogs is
of special interest. River fogs forming in winter in the valleys of nonf reccing
rivers, for example Angara River in the region of the major industrial city of
Irkutsk, not only cause substantial and lasting impairments of visibility,
which interfere with flights along many important air routes, but may also
promote air contamination. The paper also discusses certain characteristics of
the diffusion of a contaminant in the presence of radiation fogs.
A steady process of turbulent diffusion of a gaseous contaminant under fog
conditions is approximately described by the following differential equation:
Here axis x is directed along the mean wind, axis y is perpendicular to it
in the horizontal plane, axis z is directed vertically upward, q is the concen-
tration of contaminant at a comparatively large distance from the fog droplets,
u is the wind velocity, kz and ky are respectively the vertical and horizontal
components of the coefficient of turbulent austausch, and a characterizes the
relative degree of absorption of the contaminant by water droplets of the fog.
The influence of the fog is determined by the last term on the right side
of equation (1), which characterizes the outflow of the contaminant as a result
of its absorption by the fog droplets. This component should play no part out-
side the fog, i.e., coefficient a is equal to zero outside the fog. .
The boundary conditions in the given problem are formulated as in the
general case of propagation of the contaminant from high-altitude sources at
x - 0
0 - .2. 8 («_/,) 8 (y), (2)
where H is the height of the source, Q is the power of the source, and 6 (y)
is the delta function.
-------
On the underlying surface, the boundary conditions differ, depending on
its character. ^
In considering river fogs on the water surface it is assumed at at z - 0
q - 0, <3a)
and on the surface of dry land at z = 0
In the case of radiation fogs, boundary condition (3 ) is also employed.
It is also assumed that at a sufficiently large distance from the source,
concentration q tends to zero.
The last term of equation (1), describing the outflow of the contaminant
in the fog, may be expressed by the formula
where P(r) is the amount of contaminant absrobed by a fog droplet of radius r
per unit time, and N(r) is the size distribution function of the droplets. The
quantity P(r) is usually determined by studying the interaction of the contami-
nant with the fog droplets. These points are discussed in the survey of A. G.
Zimin (10) and other sources.
In the immediate vicinity of the droplet surface, a boundary layer is
created in which the contaminant concentration (it will be designated c) is
less than q, since on the surface of the water droplet, c is equal to zero as a
result of absorption of the contaminant.
In the steady state, the distribution of concentration c may be determined
approximately, as was done, for example, by A. G. Zimin (10), by solving the
equation of molecular diffusion in spherical coordinates.
where f is the radius vector; using as the boundary conditions the equality
c = 0 on the surface of the droplet (at f = r) and o^q at a sufficient distance
from the droplet (when ^-»-co ). This solution is of the form c Jf q ( !-•*•),
whence we immediately find the flow of contaminant toward the surface of the
droplet
where v is the coefficient of molecular diffusion of the contaminant in air.
-------
The size distribution function of the fog droplets may, according to A. Kh.
Khrgian and I. P. Mazin (13), be approximated by the following relation
", (6)
where A is the water content of the fog; rm is the radius of the drops corre*
spending to the maximum of the distribution functions ;p^ « 1 g/cnr is the
density of water.
Substituting (5) and (6) into (4) and integrating, we get
From the formula obtained it follows that the absorption of the contaminant
by fog droplets, other things being equal, increases with rising water content
of the f og ^ or with decreasing drop size rm.
Thus, the problem consists in solving equation (1) for boundary conditions
(2) and (3), taking expressing (7) for a into consideration. In general, the
coefficients of the original equation are complex functions of the coordinates;
this applies primarily to the vertical coordinate z. In the case of a river
fog, the dependence of kz on the horizontal coordinate x assumes a considerable
importance. At different distances from the winward bank, there are substantial
differences in the values of the water content of the fog A and in its vertical
distribution a, and hence in coefficient a. The vertical temperature gradients
change markedly with the distance x, giving rise to a complex field of the
vertical components of the austausch coefficient. The change in the values of
these quantities was studied in ref. (6,7).
In the present paper, the solution of the formulated problem was carried
out on the basis of numerical methods developed earlier in ref. (2-6) for
transport processes in the boundary layer of the atmosphere. The use of the
relation proposed by M. E. Berlyand for the proportionality of the horizontal
component of the austausch coefficient and wind velocity ky » kou (1) made it
possible to carry out the substitution of variables
l-y'
. _, <•**** (8)
and reduce the three-dimensional system of equations and boundary conditions (!)•
(3) to a two-dimensional system analogous to the system describing the distri-
bution of a contaminant from a linear source. The value of s, proportional to
-------
concentration q on the axis of a smoke plume standardized for the source
emission rate, was calculated on a "Ural-4" computer on the basis of
differential factoring:
(9)
The wind velocity was assumed to increase as the log of the height
(B)
*o
where' u, is the wind velocity at height z^, and ZQ is the roughness of the
underlying surface.
On the basis of the numerical solution, some characteristics of the diffusion
of the contaminant in the presence of river fogs and radiation fogs were inves-
tigated.
In the study of contaminant diffusion in the presence of river fogs, use
was made of the distribution of fog moisture content above the river and the
bank necessary for calculating coefficient a; this distribution was calculated
theoretically by using the method given in ref. (7). Results of a theoretical
evaluation of the intensity of vertical turbulent austausch above the river were
also used.
As an example, Fig. 1 shows the results of a calculation of the austausch
coefficient above the river and fog water content, corresponding to the following
initial assumptions: width of river 700 m, temperature of water surface 0°,
temperature and relative humidity in the equilibrium-stratified stream of air
flowing over the river, -20° and 90% respectively, wind velocity at a height
of 1m, 0.5 m/sec. The left side of Fig. la shows the profile of the austausch
coefficient k° on the windward bank, and on the right side, isolines have been
plotted for the ratio of the austausch coefficient above the river k1 to the
austausch coefficient k° at the same height. It is evident from this figure
that the austausch coefficient above the river increases substantially in some
boundary layer. Isolines of the fog water contents g/m , characterizing the
change of the height and fog water content in space, have been plotted in plane
zox of Fig. 1 b.
The calculations were made for different source heights and under different
weather conditions, including both the presence and absence of fog. The effect
of contaminant absorption by the fog droplets was evaluated from the difference
in the distribution of contaminant concentrations in these cases. In addition,
to analyze the part played by the main operating factors, the influence of some
of these factors was artificially excluded in the calculations. Thus, for example,
the effect of reinforcement of turbulent austausch above the river, absorption of
contaminant by the water surface of the river, etc., were excluded.
-------
ZM n\
Mr a)
fit. I.
The calculations showed that river fog conditions are characterized by the
absorption of a considerable portion of the contaminant by fog droplets above
the river and near the bank, where the highest values of the fog water content
were observed; almost no contaminant in the gaseous state is left at any height
in the fog layer, and this effect decreases on the windward bank with increasing
distance from the river and decreasing water content. It is also noted that in
this case, when the source of contaminant is located above the fog layer, a
decrease of concentration is observed not only inside the fog, but also above it.
This may be due to the fact that because of the heavy absorption of the contami-
nant by the fog droplets in the bottom layers, the intensity of the diffusion
flow of the contaminant, directed downward, is enhanced.
As an example, Table 1 gives results of a calculation of the concentrations
of gaseous contaminant from a source 80 m high, located on the windward bank 1 km
from the river, for river fog conditions, for which the distribution of water
content and austausch coefficient are shown in Fig. 1. The drop radius rm,
corresponding to the maximum of the distribution function, was taken as 2/J . The
table gives values of s at heights of 2, 50 and 80 m above the river at distances
of 200 and 700 m from the edge of the windward bank and on the leeward bank at
distances of 500 and 1000 m from its edge. For each height, the top row gives
values of s calculated without considering the absorption of the contaminant by
the fog droplets (a » 0), and the bottom row also gives values of s, but calcu-
lated by taking this factor into account (a ^ 0).
-------
Table 1
Height,
2
50
80
Distance fro* windward •
bank, •
200
140
7-10-2
790
56
1200
630
700
230
10~8
640
53
840
180
Distance fro* leeward
bank, •
500
300
3,4
550
51
650
110
1000
330
11
480
50
530
80
It follows from this table that in the fog, the concentration of the con-
taminant in air decreases sharply owing to its dissolution in the droplets.
Although, as is evident from Fig. 1, the 50 and 80 m levels are located above
the fog, even at these levels the concentration substantially decreases. Thus,
the presence of the fog is responsible for the fact that its droplets concen-
trate not only the contaminant which would be located near the underlying
surface in the absence of the fog, but also a considerable portion of the con-
taminant from the superjacent and in this case the most contaminated layers.
Thus, the fog droplets may be said to accumulate the contaminant from a highly
extended layer, thus substantially increasing the total contamination of air
in the vicinity of the underlying surface.
Conclusions regarding the influence of fog on the atmospheric diffusion of
contaminants were reached on the basis of an analysis of Table 1 (and other data),
based on a comparison of calculations made by neglecting the capture of the
contaminant by the fog droplets and by taking it into account. It is of interest
to elucidate the role of various factors in the formation of the concentrations.
Fig. 2 shows curves of the distance dependence of the concentration S at a
height of 2 m above the underlying surface for different variants of the calcu-
lation at a = 0. In the first variant (curve 1) it was assumed that above the
river there is no reinforcement of turbulence and no absorption of the contami-
nant by the underlying surface. The second variant (curve 2) differs from the
first only in the fact that the absorption of the contaminant by the water surface
of the river is taken into account. Comparison of these curves indicates that if
the intensity of turbulent austausch above the river is the same as above the bank,
the absorption of contaminant by the water surface slightly decreases the con-
centration of contaminant above the river, but even in the vicinity of the water
surface this effect is slight, and the decrease does not exceed 30%. Beyond the
river, curves 1 and 2 come together rapidly. Curve 3 was calculated by consider-
ing the increase of the austausch coefficient above the river, but neglecting the
absorption of the contaminant by the fog droplets and by the river surface.
Comparison of curve 3 with curve 1 shows that if an increase of the austausch
coefficient such as takes place above the river were observed above dry land,
the maximum contaminant concentration would be approximately doubled, and the
distance at which the maximum concentration is observed at the underlying surface
would be closer to the source. However, as is evident from a comparison of curve
3 with curve 4, in the calculation, of which the effect of absorption of the
-------
contaminant by the river surface was also considered, this is not observed
because the effect of reinforcement of turbulent austausch is offset by the
increasing absorption of the contaminant on the underlying surface.
S
600
500
•tOO
300
200
too
0,5
f
1,5 2
Pig. 2.
45 J
A similar technique may be used in studying the turbulent diffusion of
contaminant in the case of the presence of radiation fog above a homogeneous
underlying surface. One of,the interesting characteristics of the structure
of the boundary layer of the atmosphere in the presence of developed radiation
fogs is an elevated temperature inversion, which frequently arises on their
upper boundary. In particular, reference may be made to the experimental data
of P. A. Vorontsov (8) and other studies, which cited cases where in the presence
of fog, a layer of elevated temperature inversion was located at heights of 100-
300 m, whereas below this layer, an equilibrium stratification was present in
the fog layer.
It is well known that in the presence of elevated temperature inversions,
the chance of contamination of the ground layer of air increases. Theoretical
studies of the influence of elevated temperature inversions on atmospheric
diffusion have been made in ref. (2-5), but did not consider the turbulence
of fogs. In the present paper, the same pattern of vertical distribution of the
austausch coefficient was employed as in these studies. In particular, k was
assumed to increase linearly with the height in the ground layer of air, then to
remain constant down to the lower boundary of the inversion, and to decrease
rapidly to very low values in the inversion layer. In regard to the water
content of the fog £± , it was assumed to be constant throughout the fog layer
to simplify the problem.
The calculations were made for a number of source heights under different
weather conditions; as in the case of river fogs, the presence of the fog was
found to have a substantial effect on the propagation of the contaminant in the
atmosphere.
Let us consider the important features of dispersion of the contaminant
-------
in the presence of an elevated inversion located directly above the
source, the absorption of the contaminant by water droplets being,,
initially neglected. These calculations were used for two purposes. First,
for the given type of fogs, elevated inversions result from their existence,
and it was of interest to make a quantitative estimate of the associated
concentration change. Secondly, and most importantly, as in the case of
river fogs, the direct influence of absorption of the contaminant by the fog
droplets can be evaluated by comparing calculations made both by neglecting
and by considering this effect.
Table 2 gives, for different levels, the ratio of the contaminant con-
centrations in the presence of an elevated temperature inversion above the
source to the concentrations in its absence. It was noted at a * 0; the
height of the source located at the lower inversion boundary was 100 m; the
wind velocity u-^ =» 2 m/sec. It is known (2, 3) that in the absence of inver-
sion in the vicinity of the source, the maximum concentrations are observed
at z - H, and above and below the concentrations decrease in approximately
symmetrical fashion; with increasing distance from the source, the vertical
concentration gradients decrease, and the line of maximum concentrations
gradually approaches the underlying surface.
Table 2
Height, n
2
50
100
115
Distance fron source, •
1000
1,14
1,23
1,59
0,80
2000
1,26
1,41
1,77
1,32
3000
1,36
1,52
1,88
1,60
4000
1,45
1,60
2,02
1,85
5000
1,53
1,68
2,16
2,10
The presence of an elevated inversion above the source causes an asymmetry
of the vertical distribution of the concentration at close distances, due to a
sharp increase in the contamination of air in the subinversion layer, where the
bulk of the contaminant is concentrated. At a sufficiently large horizontal
distance from the source, the contaminant gradually penetrates into the lower
part of the inversion, which also becomes contaminated.
Table 3 gives the ratio of the contaminant concentration in air, allowing
for absorption of the contaminant by droplets of the fog, to the concentrations
in its absence for the same conditions and levels as in Table 2. The height of
the fog was taken as 100 m, the water content £ was 0.2 g/m3, and the droplet
radius was r = 5U.
The calculations showed that in the case under consideration, a decrease in
the contaminant concentration is observed at all levels, and decontamination takes
place in the elevated inversion layer, in which, as was indicated above, part of
the contaminant becomes concentrated at large distances from the source in the
-------
Table 3
1B». 1 — «- J- _
mlCnt, •
2
50
100
115
Diitano* fro* sourw, •
1000
0,16
0,30
0,53
0,80
3000
0,06
0,12
0.27
0,59
3000
0,02
0,05
0,13
0.41
4000
0.01
0,01
0,01
0,08
5000
0,00
0,00
0,01
0,01
absence of fog. This confirms the conclusion, reached earlier on the basis of
calculations of the influence of river fogs on the diffusion of contaminants
from high altitude sources, on the "accumulation" by the fog of contaminants
from superjacent layers, resulting in an increase of the total concentration
at levels located in the fog and in a decrease of the concentration of gaseous
contaminant above the fog. The presence of a fog under the inversion prevents
the contaminant from penetrating into the inversion layer, even at large distances
from the source, and causes it to penetrate almost completely into the water
droplets, which change into a solution of noxious substances. As another example,
we shall describe the results of calculations under the same weather conditions,
but at a source height H « 150 m. In this case, the source was located inside
the inversion layer at a distance of 50 m from its lower boundary. Because of
the weak turbulence at such heights, the contaminant disperses slowly and moves
above the fog in the form of a concentrated plume. Only a small amount of
contaminant reaches the ground, the concentrations are low, and reach a maximum
at large distances from the source. The presence of a weak turbulence layer
between the source and the fog hinders any appreciable accumulation of the
contaminant from superJacent layers, although, as in the cases discussed above,
the bulk of the contaminant that has entered the fog dissolves in its droplets.
Of major interest is the study of the influence of a fog on the diffusion
of sulfur gas, which is one of the most common noxious contaminants present in
the atmosphere. As was pointed out above, if the total contamination in air
and water droplets is considered, a contamination in the fog frequently increases
substantially as compared to the case where no fog is present, most of the con-
taminant passing into the fog droplets. Dissolution of sulfur gas in the fog
droplets causes the formation of an aerosol of sulfuric acid. The latter has a
higher toxicity than sulfur gas, and its presence in the atmosphere considerably
increases the corrosion of metal objects, etc. Moreover, sulfur gas dissolved
in fog droplets oxidizes to sulfuric anhydride much faster than does sulfur gas
in the gaseous state. This is due to the fact that the fog droplets usually
contain certain trace elements having catalytic properties, and in their presence
the oxidation is more rapid. In view of the fact that sulfuric anhydride reacting
with water form sulfuric acid, for the sake of simplicity we may refer to the
partial oxidation of sulfur gas in the atmosphere to sulfuric acid. This mechan-
sim of formation of sulfuric acid in fog droplets is characteristic of the so-
called "sulfuric acid-sulfate" smogs of Great Britain, Belgium and some other
countries. The paper of R. E. Waller (15) gives a survey of a large number of
studies devoted to the investigation of the sulfuric acid content of town air.
It was found that sulfuric acid droplets in air were detected in appreciable
amounts only in the presence of fogs. A rapid oxidation of sulfur gas to sulfuric
-------
acid in London smog was pointed out by Ellis (13).
In the Los Angeles smogs, an acceleration of the oxidation of sulfur gas
to sulfuric acid takes place during the day in photochemical reactions occurring
under the influence of solar radiation. According to the data of Moyer (14),
the strongest oxidation is observed in the presence of a weak wind, a temper-
ature inversion at moderate heights, and a large amount of oxidants; in this
case, up to 20% of the sulfur present in sulfur gas discharged into the atmos-
phere oxidizes to sulfuric acid. The relative amount of oxidizing sulfur gas
decreases as its concentration rises.
Attention should be given to the increase in the weight concentration of
harmful contaminants, taking place as a result of the reaction of sulfur
dioxide and trioxide with water and formation of sulfurous and sulfuric acids
respectively. Thus, for example, the oxidation of 1 g of sulfur dioxide
molecular weight 64) yields approximately 1.5 g of sulfuric acid (molecular
weight 98).
We have mentioned above a number of factors that might substantially
increase the contamination of the atmosphere in the presence of a fog and their
toxicity for the case of a single source. In the case of several sources
located along some line or scattered over an area, in the presence of an eleva-
ted temperature inversion, which is frequently associated with fogs, additional
causes of increased contamination of the ground layer of air may appear. Under
such conditions, as shown by theoretical calculations (2), there is a sub-
stantial increase of the distance at which the maximum concentration is observed,
and a decrease of the concentration with the distance after its maximum takes
place very slowly. As a result, there is an increase in the influence of the
mutual superposition of the concentration fields from the several sources, and
a more homogeneous contamination in the industrial area is produced than under
convective conditions. In addition, even if the concentrations from an indi-
vidual source are relatively low, the total contamination may be very significant,
A definite part in the contamination of ground layers of air may be played
by the precipitation of large fog droplets, in which the dissolved contaminant
is transported from superjacent layers, which are frequently highly contaminated,
to the underlying surface; thus, for example, Waller (15) points out that in
London in the presence of heavy fogs, drizzle whose droplets contain substantial
concentrations of sulfuric acid precipitates on the underlying surface. He
named this effect the "acid rain."
The results obtained have shown that the methods of study employed permit
one to elucidate a number of major aspects of the propagation of contaminants
in the presence of a fog. However, this problem is very complex and requires
further study.
Literature Cited
I. Be p.n anA M. E. K leopmi aTMoccpepxem AtupipyaHH. Tp. FTO, sun. 138. 1963.
2. BepjiflHA M. E., feHHXOBHM E. Jl.. /I OJKK H Ha B. IL, OHHKyji P. H. MHC
jieimoe HCCjieAosaHHe arMoupepHoft AH(pd>v3iiK npw HopMajibHUx H
yCJIOBHHX CTpaTHIpHKBUHH. Tp. ITO, BUH. 158, 1964.
-------
3. Be p Ji H n A M. E., OH HK y .i P. H, rcitiixoHHM li. .'I., Jlowxniia B. II.
0 aarpHiHPHHH aTMnc(pepw npoMuiiMicMHMMii HMtipocaMii npn aiinMajibtiux yc/ioiiHdx
crpariKpHKamiH. Mercopo^onifl 11 rHApojtornii, Ms 8, 1963.
4. B c p Ji n H A M. E., f c ii H x o B H H. HaynH. Mercop. coaetu., T. VII, PHapOMeTeoHsaaT. Jl., 1963.
7. bepnann. M. E., O n H K y a P. H. K Teopmi rpanccpopMauHH B03AyuiHUx mace H
oGpaaoBaiutfl pe. A. PacnpeAC^eiuie npiiMccn, nocrynaiouieA H3 nenpepUBHoro TOMCMHoro
HCTOMHiiKa npii tyMaHC. H.IB. AH CCCP, ccp. rcotpH.i., AT? 7, 1964.
10. 3 H M H n A. P. BbiMWBaHur paAHoaKTHBHMX aapoao^efi H3 aTMOCifiepbi ocaAKaMH. C6.
«Bonpocu fl;iepHoft MCTeopo^orHii» AroMiii.'iaT, M., 1962.
M. OHHKy^ P. H. Hcno^b.ioBaHHe pacqerHbix MCTOAOB npn HCUieAOBaHHH H nporHOJH-
POB3HHH llpKVTCKIIX TyMailOB. (CM. II8CT. L'6opHHK).
12. XprHaH A. A., Ma;iini H. n. O pacnpeAe^eHHH Kanejib no pajnepaM a o&iaicax.
Tp. UAO, Bbin. 7, M., l%2.
13. Ellis B. A. "Report on the ilclerniinalion of sulphur gases in air". Investigation
of atmospheric Pollution, 17 Report, Dept Scientific and Industrial Research,
HMSO, London, 1931.
14. Moyer D. Thomas. SO,, HjSO, and Visibility in Los Angeles. International
Journal of air and water Pollution.
15. Waller R. E. Acid droplets in town air. International Journal of, Air and water
Pollution, vol. 7, 8, X. 1963.
-------
GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF THE TURBULENCE COEFFICIENT IN THE LOWEST
ATMOSPHERIC LAYER IN DAYTIME IN SUMMER
V. P. Gracheva
From Trudy, Glavnaya Geofiz. Observat. im. A. I« Voeykova, No. 207, p. 164-
169, (1968)
Turbulent exchange in the lowest layer of air is one of the essential
meteorological factors causing dispersal of industrial discharges in the
atmosphere. To calculate the surface concentrations of noxious industrial
discharges from smokestacks, it is important to know the characteristics of
turbulent mixing in various climatic zones of the USSR at different times of
the year and day. It is well known that unfavorable meteorological conditions
promoting the generation of high concentrations of contaminant from high smoke-
stacks in the lowest layer of air arise from extensive turbulent exchange.
According to literature data on the manual and daily variation of the vertical
component of the turbulence coefficient in the lowest layer of air under
different climatic conditions( Ql-43 etc.),the turbulence usually takes on
the highest values in summer and during noon hours.
In this connection, the present paper discusses the turbulent mixing
intensity characteristic over the territory of the USSR in the lowest layer
of air in July for the 12:00 noon to 1:00 P. M. period.
The initial material used were data on heat balance observations by a
network of meteorological stations, including measurements of wind velocity,
temperature and air humidity at two heights (0.5 and 2.0 m), and also measure-
ments of the temperature and humidity of the soil, radiation balance, and
cloud cover.
The heat balance observations are usually carried out on primary instru-
ment platforms or air weathe:r stations of the Civil Air Fleet, located if
possible in open level areas in different physico-geographical regions of the
USSR. Observational data from 92 heat balance stations for the period 1954-
1966 were analyzed. Unfortunately, many of the observations obtained were
heterogeneous because the work at the various stations began in different years
during this period. The number of stations which carried out the observations
can be evaluated from Fig. 1. If the total number of stations is divided into
groups according to the number of years of observations at these stations (from
one to 12 years) in July in hours, then there will be 17, 12, 15, 8, 8, 6, 3,
7, 6, 5, 3 and 2 stations in each group respectively. Hence, at approximately
70% of all the stations the observations were carried out in the course of
three or more years.
The distribution of stations over the territory of the USSR is also irregu-
lar. More than half are located on the European territory of the USSR (ETU), 18
in Kazakhstan and Central Asia, and approximately the same number on the huge
-------
territory of Siberia and the Far East, chiefly in the southern parts. In the
northern parts of West and East Siberia there are only 4 stations, three of
which have been opened in the last few years. The same may be said for the
northeastern part of the ETU.
In selecting the method of calculation of the vertical component of the
turbulence coefficient at a height of 1 m in the lowest layer of air, the main
criteria were the presence of original observational data and the simplicity of
the method of calculation. During the indicated period, the most frequent
conditions of the state of the atmosphere were unstable. For calculating the
turbulence coefficient under these conditions, it was considered possible to
use the method of determination of Kj given
in a handbook on gradient observations (5)
and currently recommended as the chief
method for the network of heat balance stations
According to this method, the turbulence
coefficient was determined for the 1:00 P.M.
period every day of the month of July with
the exception of days when no observational
data were available. After determining its
daily values, mean monthly July values were
obtained for the individual years, then an
average value for the series of available
years. The mean monthly values of the tur-
bulence coefficient obtained for each
station for 1:00 P. M. in July, the average
for the series of years and the period of
averaging are given in Table 1. Asterisks
denote stations currently shut down because
they are not representative for the heat
balance observations (the conditions of
homogeneity of the underlying surface were
disturbed, houses were constructed near
the platform, trees grew, etc.). The
required condition of quasi-stability of
the lowest layer of air is not met at these stations. Stations conducting
observations in accordance with the program of joint studies by sanitation
epidemiological stations and hydrometeorological stations are underlined.
In order to evaluate the influence of the inhomogeneity of the series in
the averaging for the period under consideration, and the influence of disturb-
ances of the homogeneity of the underlying surface at stations marked with
asterisks in the table, graphs of the distribution of July values of the tur-
bulence coefficient were plotted for a series of individual years (1958, 1959,
1963, 1964) on the basis of all the stations, and also a map was plotted from
average values of Kj for the available series of years, calculated only from
data of representative stations. Analysis of these data showed that the ex-
clusion of K, values at nonrepresentative stations (marked with asterisks) did
not change the basic pattern of this distribution, and that the mean monthly
values for each individual year are in fairly good agreement with values at
neighboring stations obtained for the series of years. On all the maps,
I9S5
i960
OSS
fit* 1. H» ntnbcr of stations (a),
conducting observations at 1*00 P.I. in
July in difftrMt y«ar».
-------
Table 1
Average Values of Turbulenoe CosffioUnt at a Hei«ht of 1 • for the
It 00 P. H. Period in July
Nan* of Station
/seo
Period of Observations
Khibiny | 0,«
Petrozavodsk
Arkhaneal'sk
Kotkino
' •
"•
TaUin °-142
Priowrsk*
Voyeykovo
Bikolayevskoye
^Sikoyya
K.S.,. : : :
DJMeiV
rinSK .
Smolensk
toropets 0. 3-
Tonhok », lib
RoihnoYSkiy mya* ,1-18
- *
Qor'kiy - • -
S. I. Nebol1 sin Station
Pawlets . .
Hikitskiy sad
Voronezh* .... n' -i
Hi»hn«de»itakir ...... ". I
U«hakovo* ...
«__._4.__ U lol
KOnOCOp I n iro
Borispol'-Kiev
Poltara
Derkul*
K«.. Step-
BereKoro .
Ki»hlnev*».
Bolsrad*
A«kaniya-»ova .
Verkhnly Anadol" .... 0,171
Gi«««t . . 0.
Volibskiy* .... 0 197
..... 0,201
Kubysher
XelBhanka*
Astrakhan1
Port Shevohenko ,,on
Arte. Island • • .... 0.205
Yershor .... °. ~
Churuk 0,18'J
Nakhichevan' 0,149
Toilisi* °.136
T ' ,»..•
Telavi . .
/\'. An
0 49
Kushnarenkovo . .
Vysokaya Dubrava* °,107
Chardzhou . ... . 0,1'26
0.190
0,175
1959. 1963-1966
1962—1966 •
1964—1966
1965— 1966
1964—1966
1950-1966
1%5— 1966
1 950— 1958
1 954— 1958, 1966
1955 1964. 1966
1956— 1S:>7, 1960-1966
1955—1966
1956
1963—1966
1056-1965
1959-1964
1056-1966
1956—1958, 1900—1962
1950— 1958, 1960—1965
1956, 1958-1959
1955—1966
1956—1966
1966
19C7-1959
1958-1959
1057-1959
1957—1959
1954, 1958—1959, 1961—66
1958—1909, 1961-1966
1956-19,0?
1957—1959, 196!, 1963—1966
1957-1959, 1962-1906
11)57—195!)
1956—1959, 1% 1 — 1965
1957—1959
1958-1906
1958-1961
1956
1955-1963, 1966
1955—1958, 1960
1958—1959, 1963—1966
1959—1964. 1966
1957-1966
19C6
1965 1966
1965
1956— 10&8
1958, 1962-1966
1956—1958
1957-1963, 1965
1963— 19GG
1954-1959, 1965
1963-1966
1958-1966
1961, 1963-1966
1958—1966
1964—1966
-------
Table 1 (Continued)
HUM of Station
ftrgana • • •
Dushanbe. . .
(MMt
Aydarly . « •
Pmso .
Tran'-Shan"
Radon • •
0«U?
TMlinognd
Ogurtsovo • •
KopaslMVO* • •
Solyanka • • •
Khkasskaya • • •
Kyiyl .....
KhOSntOYO * * *
Turukhansk. • •
Tvra .....
Skerorodino . •
Tolstovka , . •
Khabarovsk* . .
Sad-gorod* . • •
Yakutsk ....
Okhotsk*. . . .
Bol'shojr Shantar*
Kalsykovo ...
Priaorskaya . .
Magnitogorsk . .
Beramiki . . .
Irkutsk . . . .
Chita . „ . . .
Mangut ....
Verkhoyansk . .
J
KX «2/soo
0,118
0,125
0,175
0,192
0,122
0,157
0,162
0,181
0.156
0,224
0.153
0,176
0.170
0,164
0,156
0,133
6,149
0,156
0,116
0,131
0,152
0,135
0,122
0,148
0.203
0,282
0,201
0.200
0,190
0,160
0.116
0,178
0,165
0,165
19
Period of ObstrntioM
_——•—
1964—1966
1959-1966
1957—1959
1962-1963, 1965
1956—1959
1954-1956. 1958-1950, 1964-1966
1957—1958
1962-1966
1955
1961, 1963—1966
1957—1960
1961—1963, 1965-1966
1957—1958
1957-1966
1956—1959, 1965—1966
1965—1966
1963—1966
1965-1966
1965
1962—1966
19G5
1959
1957
1957—1962, 1964—1965
1957
1956
1958—1963, 1966
1965—1966
1965
1965
1965
1965-1966
1966
1966
approximately the same arrangement of regions with maximum and minimum turbulent
austausch is observed. From one year to the next, only a slight shift of these
regions to one side or the other is noted. Thus, the inhomogeneity of the
series in the averaging and the values of K-^ at nonrepresentative stations have
only a slight effect on the distribution of the intensity of turbulent austausch
over the territory of the USSR. Therefore, in the analysis we shall use a
scheme plotted from average data on the magnitude of turbulent austausch in the
lowest layer of air for the 1 P. M. period in July at all stations for the entire
series of years available at each station, as shown in Fig. 2, (see following map)
Analysis of this map shows that the highest values of the turbulence co-
efficient in the lowest layer of air (0.20-0.24 m2/sec) at midday in July are
noted in the deserts of Central Asia and Kazakhstan, regions of the lower Volga
River, and in southern Ukraine.
The central regions of the ETU and certain western regions, with the excep-
tion of the coast of the Gulfs of Riga and Finland, are characterized by compara-
tively moderate values of turbulent austausch (0.12-0.15 m2/sec). When compared
-------
00
VO
60
2. Distribution of Taints of the tarbalmot eotffiaiMt «t a height of 1 • oftr the
-------
with the central part, a certain Increase of turbulent mixing (0.14-0.18 m /sec)
is observed in the northwest and northeast of the ETU. A somewhat attenuated
turbulent austausch (0.12-0.14 m^/sec) is observed in the foothills of Tyan1-
shan', Altay and Sayan, and also in the Far East, with the exception of the
shore of Okhotskoye Sea, where the turbulent austausch is considerable (0.20
nr/sec) because of strong winds in July. Data on the turbulent conditions in
the Far East are tentative, since values of the turbulent coefficient in this
region were obtained from data for only one to two years of observation.
Values of the turbulence coefficient calculated for different geographic
regions are in agreement with the magnitude of the radiation balance and with
the state of humidity of the soil, and also with the frequency of probability
of wind of different velocities. Thus, in the deserts of Central Asia, Kazakhstan
and the lower Volga River and in the south of the ETU, in addition to large values
of the radiation balance and to a slight humidity of the soil, there is also
noted a maximum of frequency of strong winds in July. Conversely, in the central
and western regions of the ETU, a maximum in the frequency of weak winds together
with a substantial humidity of the soil, which decreases the vertical temperature
gradient, causes low values of the turbulence coefficient. The substantial
frequency of strong winds in the northwest of the ETU and weak winds in the
southeastern regions of Central Asia and in the south of western Siberia may
be explained respectively by a reinforced and by an attenuated turbulent
austausch in these regions. The same may be observed in other physico-geograph-
ical conditions as well.
Material on data of gradient observations collected on the network of heat
balance stations will later aid in explaining the characteristics of the distri-
bution of the turbulence coefficient in the lowest layer of air over the terri-
tory of the USSR in different seasons and days of the year.
Literature Cited
1. OrHesa T. A. HeKOTOpwe OCOOCHHOCTM Ten-noiior.o GaJiauca ACflTevibHOH noaepxnocTH.
THnpoMeTCOHS/iaT, .H., 1955.
2. AfiseHiuTaT B. A. CYTOMHWH XOA H cpaBHiircflbHan xapaKrepwcTHKa KO3(p(pnuHeHTa
TypGyJieHTHOCTH no ncKOTOpUM paiioHaM Cpe/uicfl ASHH. Tp. CAHHTMH, sun. 16,
1963.
3. C a n o >K H H K o a a C. A. H:iMCHeHHC CKODOCTH eeipa c BbicoTofi B HHJKHCM cjioe BOS-
ayxa. Tp. HHV FyrMC, cep. I, awn. 33, 1946.
4. f p a M e B a B. FI. Hccjie/ioaaHHe fypGyjieHTHoro pewiiMa npxaeMHoro CJIOH aosayxa
B pasrniMHUx reorpacpimecKHX paftoHax. Tp. ITO, BMH. 183, 1966.
5. PyKOBOACTso no rpaAHCHTHbiM Ha6^K)fl€HHHM H onpeAe/ieHHio cocTaMHKtiUHX reruiOBoro
a. ruApoMereoHSAaT, J1. 1964.
-------
INVERSIONS OF LOWER TROPOSPHERE AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON THE AIR
POLLUTION OF THE CITY OF MDSCOW
E. Yu. Bezuglaya
From Trudy, Glavnaya Geoflz. Observat. im. A. I. Voeykova, No. 207, p.
(1968).
202-206,
The presence of elevated inversions limits the layer of air in which mixing
takes place, and thus promotes an increase in the concentration of noxious con-
taminants in air in the presence of steady sources of discharges (1, 7).
A study of the influence of different meteorological conditions on the
distribution of concentrations of noxious substances in air has shown that the
wind velocity and degree of stability of air in the lower troposphere play an
essential role (8, 9). It is noted that particularly unsafe conditions of
accumulation of pollution arise in the presence of ground and elevated inver-
sions, which decrease the thickness of the layer of mixing of contaminants (6,7).
In this connection, it was of interest to study the distribution of inver-
sion layers in the lower troposphere, and to calculate their frequency and
location at different levels in an annual cycle.
Observational results of airplane soundings above Moscow (Vnukovo station)
for the period 1953-1957 were used for this purpose. Data of airplane ascents
for 4:00 A. M. and 4:00 P. M. were used to extract values of the height of the
upper boundary of ground inversions and also of the lower and upper boundaries
of elevated inversions. Isothermy layers were also included in the estimates.
If more than two inversion layers were noted during the ascent, the
estimates included characteristics of only the ground inversion and of the
lowest layer of the elevated inversion.
The number of observations used in the present paper are listed in Table 1
for day and night ascents separately.
Table 1
Numbers of Observations
Time of
observations
Night
Day
I
151
142
II
115
126
HI
142
140
IV
142
140
V
148
148
VI
145
146
VII
150
150
VIII
150
150
IX
127
129
X
138
146
XI
134
135
XII
147
140
Table 2 lists the frequencies of ground inversions based on the total number
of observations for day and night ascents separately, and also the frequencies of
ground inversions in stationary anticyclones.
-------
Table 2
Court* of tto Frequency of around Inversions Astve MeMOv,
Period and oharaoter-
istios of observations
At night
for entire porioi
in stationary anti-
oyoloMS
Daring the day
for entire poriod
in stationary anti-
cyclones
I
40
38
30
43
11
58
83
17
21
111
48
62
15
18
IV
59
60
7
13
V
70
72
ft
—
VI
82
100
7
VII
74
83
2
VIII
78
93
2
— —
IX
60
83
2
—
X
41
71
11
67
XI
32
53
21
50
XII
36
78
32
87
As is evident from Table 2, the frequency of diurnal ground inversions
for the entire period in December and January amounts to 30-32% and decreases
to 2% during the period July-September.
The frequency of nocturnal ground inversions is somewhat greater and has
the opposite annual variation. The maximum of ground inversions (70-82%)
is observed from May to August, and the minimum (32-40%) in winter. A similar
annual variation was obtained for Moscow in an analysis of the temperature
profiles in the lowest 500-meter layer (2).
Of greatest interest, however, is the analysis of the annual variation of
the frequency and height of the base of elevated inversions (Table 3).
Table 3
Animal Courto of tha Frequency of Inversions of Free Ats*spher* (#)
at Various Heights
Tia» and characteristic
of observations
At night
for entire period
in stationary anti-
, cyclones
with Base In layer
%1-rksi ^
1-2 taa
3-3 k»
5-Ak.
Daring the day
I
90
95
67
26
4
3
for entire period 92
during stationary antir 81
cyclones
with base in layer
0.1-1 k»
li-2 ks>
2-3 lot
3-4 km
69
22
8
1
II
98
100
51
41
5
3
96
100
74
20
6
— *
III
89
95
57
36
4
3
93
94
43
46
8
3
IV
82
93
42
34
18
6
81
87
15
47
27
11
V
73
100
26
30
28
16
78
86
6
36
37
21
VI
67
71
16
40
15
29
68
71
6
30
42
22
VII
66
59
22
24
27
27
67
77
4
24
46
26
VIII
71
79
22
21
as
22
67
72
2
33
36
29
IX
83
87
25
39
27
9
73
82
12
48
34
6
X
90
100
30
50
14
6
86
100
28
49
18
5
XI
88
87
54
32
10
4
89
93
46
47
6
1
XII
90
67
61
34
4
1
96
100
65
30
3
2
-------
As IB evident from Table 3, elevated inversions above Moscow occur very .
frequently. From September to April, their frequency both at night and during
the day amounts to 82-98%, and in summer decreases to 66-70% (June-August).
In winter, over 90% of all the elevated inversions both during the day and
at night have the lower boundary in the layer up to 2 km. In summer, the
frequency of inversions forming at higher levels increases, and in June - August
the frequency of inversions with a base above 3 km increases to 22-29%.
The frequency data show a great stability of the position of the layer of
elevated inversions during the winter.
Fig. 1 shows the annual variation of the position of the layer of ground and
elevated inversions based on data of the entire period (1) and in stationary
anticyclones (2). As is evident from the figure, the average height of ground
inversions undergoes little change in the course of the year; only a slight
increase in height (up to 0.5-0.6 km) is observed during the period from December
to February in both diurnal and nocturnal observations.
According to ref. (6, 7), as the mixing layer decreases to 1.0-1.5 km,
favorable conditions arise for the accumulation of pollution.
Analysis of air contamination in Moscow also shows a definite role of
elevated inversions during the winter period. During the winter, there is
observed a gradual increase of contaminants with a maximum in April and a
sharp decrease of the sulfur gas concentration in the summer months, when the
height of elevated inversions increases considerably.
A number of studies (4, 5, 8, 9) have noted a major influence of stationary
anticyclones, giving rise to conditions of air stagnation that promote the
accumulation of noxious contaminants in air.
In order to explain the manner in which the structure of the lower
troposphere changes under conditions of stationary anticyclones, average values
of ground inversions, their frequency, and the frequency and average height of
elevated inversions were calculated for the period 1962-1964 for days when a
stationary anticyclone was located above Moscow (the anticyclone was considered
stationary if it remained above Moscow for over four days). At a height of the
isobaric surface of 500 m, such an anticyclone is manifested by a heat crest.
It is evident from Table 2 that the frequency of ground inversions in
stationary anticyclones in winter is greater than the frequency based on data
of observations for any synoptic situations. In summer, their frequency in
the stationary anticyclone at night is also higher, and ground inversions are
not observed in a stationary anticyclone during the day.
The frequency of elevated inversions (see Table 3) is greater in stationary
anticyclones during most of the year. Only in December and January does their
frequency decrease, something that can be explained by the fusion of ground and
elevated inversions as the power of ground inversions increases.
-------
H. In
I
VO
V VI VII VIII IX X XI
x" I II Hi IV y Yf
1. Animal ooorw of nocturnal (a) and diurnal (b) immion
-------
As in the case of the entire period of observations, in stationary
anticyclones the height of the lower boundary of the intercepting inversion
layer increases from winter to summer. However, as is evident from Fig. 1,
during most of the year the layer of elevated inversions in a stationary
anticyclone is located somewhat lower than its average position for the
entire period: in winter, at a level of 0.7-0.9 km and, in summer, at a
height of 1.6-2.0 km. The greater frequency of ground inversions in a
stationary anticyclone and the decrease of elevated inversions result in a
decrease of the layer of mixing over Moscow to 0.2-0.3 km in winter.
Comparison of data for the concentration of sulfur gas in stationary
anticyclones and under average conditions in the air of Moscow in winter
shows a rise in the concentration of the contaminant in stationary anti-
cyclones. A particularly marked increase of sulfur gas concentration is
observed in April. For this reason, the maximum content of noxious contami-
nants in the air in an annual cycle, observed in spring, cannot be attributed
solely to the increase in the frequency of anticyclones during this period.
Obviously, an important part is played by the thermal structure of the lower
troposphere and by its change in spring.
The great stability of the layer of elevated inversions during the year
and its influence on the change of the ground concentration of contaminants in
city air indicates the necessity of a further study of inversions, their changes
in the annual and daily cycle, and also above various geographical regions.
Literature Cited
1. BepJiniiAM. E., I" c n u x o 11 u M 12. ./I., Jl o >K K n n a B. II., O a it K y ;t P. M. 4itc-
jiemioc nccjie;iOBainie aTMnc<|>cpnoiJ .'iwp(|>y:jiiii iipn nopMa;u>iibix u aiioMa;n>nuix yc-
.'itmiiflx CTpaTHipHKamui. Tp. ITU, 111,111. 158, 19(i4.
2. C o ii b K u u Jl. P. I'OAOBOH xo;i u cmionTii'iecKaii oGyoioBJieuiiocTb TeMneparypUbix
upocpHJieii B HHJKIICM 500-MCTpoiioM cjiou. Tp. Pro, BUII. 185, 1966.
3. CoHbKHii JI. P. HcKOiopwc pcayjibTaxu cniionTiiKO-K,niiMaTo;iorHMecKoro aiiajiiua aa-
rpxaiiciuiH BOSAyxa B ropo;iax. CM. nacj. cG.
4. G a r n i o f t A. A survey of Air Pollution in Sheffield under characteristic winter
unticyclonic condition. -Inter. Journal Air and Water Pollution, v. 7, pp. 963—968,
1963.
5. Hoi zworth G. C. Some meteorological aspects of community Air Pollution Air
Enginicring 1964.
6. H o I z w o r t h G. C. Estimates of mean maximum mixing depths in the contiguous
United States Monthly Weather Review, 92, N 5, 1964.
7. Kauper E. K. and Hopper C. J. The Ulilinalipn of optimum meteorological condi-
tions for Reduction o( Los Angeles automotive Pollution. Journal of Air Pollu-
tion cotrol. assoc, v. 15, N 5, 1965.
8. M i 11 c r M. E. Semi-objective forecasting of atmospheric stagnation in the western
United States. Monthly Weather Revicn. v. 92, N 1, 1964.
9. N i c m c y e r L. E. Forecasting Air Pollution Potential. Montly Weather Rivicw, v. 88,
N 3, 1960.
-------
RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION IN THE REGION
OF THE MOLDAVIAN GRES [STATE REGIONAL ELECTRIC POWER PLANT (SREPPjJ
R. S. Gil'denskiol'd, B. B. Goroshko, G. A. Fanfllova and B. V. Rikhter
From Trudy, Glavnaya Geofiz. Observat. im. A. I. Voeykova, No. 207, p. 65-68,
(1968).
The A. A. Voeikov Main Geophysical Observatory in cooperation with the
F. F. Erisman Moscow Scientific Research Institute of Hygiene and the southern
division of ORGRES C£r. note: the State Trust for the Organization and
Efficiency of Electric Power Plants (STOEEPPQ in August-September 1965 con-
ducted studies of the dispersal of sulfur gas and ash from the stack of the
Moldavian GRES [jr. note: SREPlQ .
During the period of the study, the Main Geophysical Observatory con-
ducted a large group of the following meteorological and aerological studies:
gradient observations of wind velocity, temperature and air humidity to a
height of 17 m; actinometric observations of all the components of heat balance,
temperature and soil humidity; aerological observations consisting of aero-
static and airplane sounding of the atmosphere, and pilot balloon observations.
The method and program of the observations are described in ref. (1, 3, 5).
The F. F. Erisman Moscow Institute of Hygiene conducted measurements of
the concentrations of sulfur gas and ash in the zone of influence of the smoke
plume from the SREPP at various distances from the source.
The southern division of the STOEEPP measured the following parameters
characterizing the discharges: total volume of gases discharged from the stacks;
temperature of the effluent gases (behind ash-trapping units); amount of ash
discharged and its fractional composition.
The main purpose of these studies in the region of the Moldavian SREPP was
to check on high stacks (H = 180 m, D = 6 m) the experimental data of the
"Tentative Method for Calculating the Dispersal of Discharges (Ash and Sulfur
Gas) in the Atmosphere from Smokestacks of Electric Power Stations" (4), in the
verification of which use was made earlier of data on the pollution of the
atmosphere in the vicinity of electric power stations with stacks of 40-150 m.
In addition, the influence of specific meteorological conditions of the region
of the Moldavian SREPP, located in the southern part of the territory of the
USSR, was investigated. Such studies were first carried out in the region of
the SREPP with the so-called wet method of ash trapping, which causes a lowering
of the temperature of the effluent gases and their wetting.
The discharge of sulfur gas is determined by calculation in accordance with
a method using the amount of fuel consumed, its sulfur content, etc.
The samples were taken in the daytime for 3-4 hours, along a grazing graph
-------
[.Ed. note: hymograptf) under a visually determined axis of the smoke plume
at a distance of 0.5 to 10 km. Measurements of sulfur gas concentrations were
made simultaneously at three to four distances from the source at approximately
5 points at each distance by means of suction tanks and automobile aspirators.
Measurements of the ash concentrations were made with two automobile aspirators
at three to four points at two to three distances. The duration of each
sampling was 20 min.
All the data obtained were processed according to a method proposed by
M. E. Berlyand (6). Graphs of the concentrations of noxious contaminants
versus wind velocity at the height of the wind vane were plotted separately
for each distance. On each graph, an enveloping line was drawn which bounded
the majority of the points. Table 1 lists concentrations of sulfur gas (mg/m3)
taken from the enveloping lines for each distance at different wind velocities.
Table 1
x, km
1
2
3
4
5-6
8—9
Ntotor of
oases
44
48
73
25
105
56
U, i/ste
2
0,08
0,18
0,23
0,22
017
0,08
3
0,09
0,18
0,22
0,27
0,20
0,08
4
0,09
0,18
0,20
0,20
0,15
0,07
6
0,07
0.16
0,16
0,10
.011
0,06
From the above table it is apparent that the maximum sulfur gas concentrations
were around 0.3 mg/m3. A zone of high sulfur gas content was observed at distances
of 3-4 km, i. e., in the zone of 10-40 H at wind velocities of 2-3 m/sec at the
height of the wind vane.
From [_4j, one can calculate the maximum sulfur gas concentration for the
entire period of observations and the unsafe wind velocity at which the maximum
concentrations were calculated from the following formulas:
'"so,
f
JV
~vTAf"i
= 0,65-
(1)
(2)
where A is a coefficient dependent on the temperature stratification, in this case
equal to 160; MSQ2 is the total discharge of sulfur gas; H is the stack height;
F and M are dimensionless coefficients; N is the number of stacks; V is the volume
of effluent contaminants; 4 T is the difference between the temperature of the
effluent gases Tg and that of the surrounding air Ta.
-------
From the data of these studies it was found that q««>2 « 0.26 mg/m3 and UM -
2.5 m/aec; this is in good agreement with the experimental data. -'\"\.
Table 2 gives the theoretical changes of the concentrations of sulfur gas
at various distances from the source at different wind velocities, in a manner
analogous to Table 1.
Comparison of the data of calculation and experiment should be considered
satisfactory in this case.
Analysis of measured ash concentrations showed that for simultaneous
sampling at several points, markedly different values were obtained. The spread
of these values is due to the fact that the air contained large amounts of
natural soil dust, particularly in cases where harvesting work was being carried
out in the vicinity of the points of sampling. After an examination of the
samples under the microscope, they were found to contain a large amount of organic
particles. Therefore, the maximum concentrations of the dust cannot be due solely
to discharges from stacks of the SREPP.
Table 2
x, k»
1
2
3
4
5-6
8-9
0, M/s«e
2
0,02
0.14
0,22
0,24
0,23
0,18
3
0,06
0,21
0,24
0,22
0,21
0,15
4
0,06
0,20
0,22
0,21
0,18
0,12
6
0,05
0,14
0,15
0,14
0,12
0,08
Simultaneously with meteorological observations and sampling of air, the
smoke plume was photographed in the ddytime. Photographs taken every 15-20 min.
were used to determine the height of the smoke plume above the stack,A H Graphs
were plotted for the dependence of the ascent of the smoke plume on the wind
velocity at the height of the wind vane and at the height of the stack. The
highest ascents of smoke were observed in the presence of a weak wind and amounted
to about 400 m. Values of the wind velocity at the height of the source were
taken from the aerological observations performed (7). Only those cases were
selected in which the photographing of the smoke plume and the determination of
the wind velocity at the height of the stack were carried out simultaneously.
iVJ S*? 7° SUCh Ca8eS W6re f°Und* For each' the mean 81uare deviation
AH for different gradations of the wind velocity was calculated. Fig 1 repre-
sents a plot of the average values of A H and their mean square deviations, based
on experimental data, as a function of the wind velocity at the height of the
*r»nh«'a S0mP?ri?°n *" nade °f ascents of the 8moke Plume obtained from photo-
graphs and calculated from the formula obtained in ref. (2)
(2,5 +
(3)
-------
Tjhere WQ is the average velocity of discharge of the flue gases, RQ is the
stack radius and U is the wind velocity at the height of the wind vane.
From the wind velocity at the
level of the wind vane one can switch
to the wind velocity at the level of
the source UQ. Therefore, in the
calculations, the wind velocity at
the height of the wind vane is re-
placed in the formula by the wind
velocity at the height of the
stack by introducing a suitable
coefficient. The theoretical curve
is given in the figure, from which
it is apparent that the agreement
between the experimental and
theoretical data is also satisfact-
ory. There is a slight discrepancy
at low wind velocities, but it
should be kept in mind that few
data were available for velocities
below 2 m/sec.
Fig. 1. Asomts of *•<*• plttM verms
wind velocity at height of sourot.
Analysis of the experimental material and its comparison with the results
of calculations using formulas show a satisfactory agreement.
Literature Cited
1 B e n a w o B a M. A., B a c H n i, M e H K o H. B., K o H o a a ji o B fl. A., M a c n o B C. I
MecTHaH H. H. MeroflHKa a3po.norn
-------
THE SETTLING OF AN AEROSOL INTRODUCED INTO THE ATMOSPHERE
IN THE FORM OF A VERTICAL TURBULENT CURRENT
V. F. Dunskiy
From Trudy, Glavnaya Geofiz. Observat. im. A. I. Voeykova, No. 207, p. 215-
222,' (1968).
In the theory of convective diffusion of an aerosol from a point or linear
source, usually only the output of the source is taken into consideration; its
other properties (the initial kinetic and thermal energies, etc., imparted to
the aerosol) are not touched on by theory.
In the majority of cases, such a simplification is permissible. However,
in solving certain technical problems connected with a high-power current source,
this simplification creates great misrepresentations and deprives the results of
practical value.
In solving similar problems, it is expedient to utilize the semiempirical
theory of turbulent currents £ij. An investigation of the trajectory of thermal
currents in the surface layer of the atmosphere, conducted using this theory,
can serve as an example
la ye
C2J.
Certain elements of this theory can be used in solving the present problem
of the settling of an aerosol from a vertical current.
In the fine-droplet spraying of farm crops using a ground generator that
makes a stream of roughly dispersed aerosol (air with droplets suspended in it),
the effective working width can be increased substantially by directing the
stream upward. Simultaneously, the stream raises the droplets to a certain
height from which they settle over a considerably wider zone than when the stream
is directed horizontally. The height to which the droplets are carried is de-
creased with increased wind velocity; because of this, the effect of wind velocity
on the spread of drops over the treated zone is decreased; i. e., the dependency
of the results of treatment on meteorological conditions is decreased. These
advantages have been a stimulus for carrying out a number of experimental works
(see C3U , for example) that basically confirm the advantages of this method.
The height to which the droplets are carried is determined by the form of
the current in the wind carrying it. The form of the axis of the air stream
flowing in a cross current from a round nozzle can be determined by the following
empirical equation proposed by Shandorov
* «.JL(' Y«.f *
2«o 002 \ 2"0 / *#o
(1)
where x, z are the coordinates of points of the stream axis (the z axis is
directed upward, the origin of the coordinates is placed in the center of the
output cross-section of the nozzle; the x axis is in the direction of the driving
-------
stream); RO and ao are the radius of the nozzle and the angle between the
direction of the nozzle axis and the direction of the driving stream:
Pi"2 W\
?oi = -5" • voa — -2
are the high-speed pressures in the dirving stream and in the output cross-
section of the nozzle, respectively.
The equation is accurate in a variability range of qo 2/qo 1 from 2 to 22
and of ao from 45° to 90°.
Yu. V. Ivanov £.53 derived a different empirical equation that is accurate
in the interval i2<^02/<7oi<1000, 60° 20000), even in the degree of
turbulence of an accompanying or drive stream, do not greatly affect the current's
structure (C13 . P- 575). Therefore, it can be assumed that equations (1) and
(2) are roughly applicable to the investigated outflow of a vertical turbulent
drop-air stream into the atmosphere under conditions that hinder spraying (in-
version, isotherms, weak convection).
According to equations (1) and (2), the ordinate of spray trajectory z
grows without limitation with an increase in distance from nozzle x. However,
with the stream's increase its average velocity v quickly decreases (the result
of intensive interspersion with surrounding air and the maintenance of constant
momentum), and for a certain value z » 4 H the vertical component vz of average
stream velocity nears in value the vertical component u_~ of the average pulsation
velocity of a driving stream, after which the difference between the jet and the
driving stream practically disappears. It can be shown that the equality vz « u*
roughly corresponds to the inclination of the stream tg a a 0.2, from which the
formula
for the height to which the stream rises (i. e., the rise of the particles above
the generator nozzle) is derived by equation (2).
-------
The corresponding A x - 1.66 AH. As long as the width of the zone the
droplets settle on exceeds H by a factor of 10(see below), £ x can be disre-
garded in calculations.
When the rate of gravitational settling of particles w7* uz (i. e., for
the coarser aerosol fractions), the height of particle rise can prove to be
less than calculated by equation (3); such particles fall from the stream in the
immediate vicinity of the generator. With proper generator construction and
correct selection of operating conditions, these particles comprise a miniscule
fraction of the sprayed substance.
After the effective height of the source H » HI + AH (Hi is the height
of the initial stream cross-section above the ground) is determined, the theory
of atmospheric diffusion can be used for a calculation of the additive's
settling to the ground. The task is formulated as follows: a continuous point
source (i)P of the settling additives moves at height H at a constant velocity
vn Qlsually written vc in English; left here for typographic convenience. - -
TransT| perpendicular to the wind and follows path 1 for time T. The solution
of an equation of nonstationary diffusion in corresponding originating and
marginal conditions is sought.
With the problem prepared in this manner, the solution is complicated and
the derivation of simple calculated formulas is most difficult; further simpli-
fications are desired.
It is assumed that the existing simplifications are possible without loss
of solution precision if it is limited to the determination of the area of
additive precipitation on the ground. The nonstationary process has been
investigated: the localized values of additive concentration c (x, y, z, T)
in the ground layer of atmosphere change with time. However, the cumulative
.e>
values i c(x, y, z, T) dt =
-------
gravitational settling of particles w is,
or after conversion of the variable under the integral T « 8 + t and of the
corresponding change in the integration limits
The continous point source with output 62 kg. /sec. is now approached.
Using the principle of superposition, it will be examined as the aggregate
of an ever increasing number of elementary, instantaneous point sources with
output &2d T, subsequently operating in an ever increasing period of time T .
The concentration field dc formed by each source at the moment t • t is
The total additive concentration, formed by the aggregation of elemental
sources at moment "*" = t,
I -00
c = Q2 J /(*, y, z, *-T)ck = 02 J /(*, y, z, /-*)
expressions (4) and (5) are identical, and g-^ = g2; equivalency is demonstrated.
In an analogous manner, the equivalency (in the given sense) of both in-
stantaneous and continuous linear sources of infinite length, instantaneous and
continuous linear sources of finite length, etc., can be demonstrated. The
equivalency of sources applicable to this problem, especially those following
path £ for T time, and that of continuous linear source of length f, also can
be demonstrated. When neglected by limiting effects, the latter can be approxi-
mated by the source of infinite length.
As the result of introduced simplifications, the problem is reduced to the
solution of an equation of stationary diffusion
-------
applicable to the settling of a roughly dispersed aerosol on a growing plot of
ground, i. e., by taking into consideration not only gravitational but inertia
precipitation. As shown in CO> in this case the limiting factor on the upper
limit of the growing plot z=h is
.*<*• *l-flC(jc. A), (7)
at
where
= o
6 c(JtA) ; a is the coefficient of particle retention by plants; p is the
specific area of plant projection at the surface, normal u; pj* is the specific
area of the horizontal plant projection; and K is the coefficient of convective
diffusion.
The source specification is
where & is the symbol of the delta function; G is the output of the continuous
linear source, kg. /m. /sec.
The infinity specification is
The solution for this problem when
K(z)==k.\ «(.?) -«„-"'
(which corresponds to an isotherm), is given in CO. u* is the "flow rate", zo
is the coefficient of roughness. Together with the precise solution, there is
a rough formula for area of additive precipitation on the ground
where
G (1 -)- q) exp (— A/x) I jc \P~'1
Hu(H) -f(l-T) (T) ' (1Q)
This is the solution of Rounds C?]] when z = 0 for the same problem, but
without taking into consideration inertia precipitation; along with condition
(7), the condition is adopted
-------
Here P is the gamma-function symbol,
. Hu (H) _ »
A = M"(1+?2)U; ' ^ ~ " "( 4u,
-------
Table 1
(.
I
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
i
Ti^_ -f
is* or
start of
test
6 42
6 12
6 12
14 16
16 10
16 38
19 47
19 05
Test
Sit*
Generator
Krasnodar
Kray
*
"
Irwnian S3?
Knstany
oblast
EAU-1 with
directional
nozzle..
n
M
AG-L6 nth
directional
nozslg
OPS-30 with
directional
nozzle (two-
fold treat-
Liquid
Transformer
oil
n
tt
n
Solar Oil
•
Height of
nossle open
end off
ground! B.
1.70
70
.70
.70
ISO
,80
.80
2,8
Radius of
nozsle
open ead|
•
0,04
0,04
0,04
0.04
0.022
0.022
0,022
0,1
Velocity
of aerosol
esmoatien.
seo.
3?
32
32
32
73
73
! 73
41
Outlay
of
liquid
Kg*/saiu
3,26
3,21
3,02
3,16
3,05
3,15
2,98
13.5
Vial Velosit;
••/see,
0,5
2,3
2,3
2.2
2.2
4.5
5.1
4.3
3.4
2,0
3.0
3,0
DifferwM
ia air
tasyeretoie
t - 1
0.5 2.0
-0.07
-f-0.1
2,9 +0.06
2,9 , +0,12
6,3
7,0
5.7
4,5
+1.9
-1-2.1
+0.5
-0.0|
j_l MwUbJ
o
1
FrMtiea d • 90 to 122
Table 2
Tert
jjafcir
1. 2. 3, 4
5, 6. 7
8
€'
1.0
1.0
i.o
*4/>M.
0,214
0,214
0,214
i
A' M
0,05
0,05
0,06
a?A<
0 0015
0,0015
0,006
«(AW«.«.
1.5
2,8
2.8
QCT/—.
69,5
61
257
C
0.144
0,248
0.310
ft M ' ^0 M
3.80
3,07
6,60
0,0052
0,0043
0,0066
"' m/m»
0.199
0.42
0,30
f
0,176
0,213
0.150
i (!) •/•••.
3.3
6.7
-------
In order to decrease the effect of fluctuations in the area of aerosol
settling g, for comparison it is expedient to use the average results of several
tests conducted in approximately identical meteorological conditions, or during
a twofold treatment when fluctuation is less. These test conditions are pre-
sented in Table 1.
For comparisons, the average values of settling area go of individual
fractions of an aerosol for each group of tests were selected, and the values
of parameters given in Table 2 were used in calculations.
120
80
AO-L6
120
BAU-1
too
200
300XM
Pig. 1. Calculated and B»a*ured values of density of gj,
drops of a diutter 8-11A no at a flow of aerosol* directed
upward*
It is not hard to ascertain that in view of the small values of afih, the
denominator in the right section of formula (9) is close to one (i. e., in'the
given conditions (low, sparse grass, 100-micron drops] inertial settling plays
a secondary role).
In Figure 1, the results of calculations (unbroken lines) and tests (dots)
-------
for one of the aerosol fractions in three different generators are compared.
Agreement between measured and calculated values of g0 is satisfactory. Ana-
logous results have been obtained for other fractions also.
•In this manner, the adopted method (using the theory of convective diffusion
with the inclusion of the theory of turbulent currents) gives results that
satisfactorily agree with test data, and leads to formulas applicable for
approximate practical calculations.
(i) The element of an aerosol stream at height H can be roughly
examined as a point source, since the sizes of the stream cross-
section at this height are small in comparison with H.
(ii) In the sense of generated precipitations.
Literature Cited
I. A 6 p a M o B H q F H. TeopHu Typ6y.neHTHbix crpyfl. 4>H3MaTrH.i, M. I960.
2. A y H c K H H B. 4>. TpaexTopiiH reiumx crpyA B npmeMHOM cjioe Bosayxa. )KT<& 1955
25,2501; 1957, 27, 1056.
3. a y H c K H ft B. *.. n a ft K H H fl. M. Momm-ifl MejiKOKanevibHbift onpbicKHBarejb. 3a-
iwiia pacieHHA, ATs 4, 15, 1959.
4. Ul a H A o p o a T. C. HcreicHHe MS Kanaka B noABHwnyto H flBHwymywcq cpeay,
5. H B a H o B KD. B. VpaBHCHHe rpaeKTopHH crpyft ocrporo jiyna. COBCTCKOC KOTflocrpoe-
HHC, AT» 8, 1952. r
6. flyHCKHfl B. . O6 iiHepuMOHHOM MexaHHSMe oce.iaHHH rpyOojHcnepcHoro aspoaonn
Ha pacTHTe^bHHfl nonpOB 3et»au. flAH CCCP. 1964, 159, j* 6, 1276.
7. W Rounds, Solution of tlie two — dimensional diffusion equation, Trans. Amcr
Geophys. Union, 1955, 36, 395.
8- /ayI!.5.5H/4,J?;,
-------
CALCULATION OF DISPERSAL OF PRECIPITATING CONTAMINANT PROM
A LINEAR SOURCE IN THE BOUNDARY LAYER OF THE ATMOSPHERE
V. F. Dunskiy, I. S. Nezdyurova and R. I. Onikul
From Trudy, Glavnaya Geofiz. Observat. im. A. I. Voeykova, No. 207, p. 28-37,
(1968).
Each year, industrial plants and electric power stations discharge millions
of tons of dust and ash into the atmosphere, and agricultural aviation disperses
mineral fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides, etc., over tens of millions of
acres. In this connection, the study of the characteristics of atmospheric
diffusion of a precipitating aerosol is of great practical importance. Consi-
deration of the rate of atmospheric diffusion as a function of meteorological
conditions permits an efficient organization of a set of steps designed to
insure the purity of air in the lowest layer of the atmosphere, and in parti-
cular, makes it possible to select the height of stacks and cleaning units and
to carry out aircraft spraying in the most economic manner.
In view of the complexity of the process of atmospheric diffusion and of the
large number of factors that affect it, the calculation of the concentration or
density of precipitation on the underlying surface from the characteristics of
the initial discharge and meteorological parameters should be carried out on the
basis of a solution of the equation of turbulent diffusion. Comparison of the
calculations and experiments refines the parameters of atmospheric diffusion and
the scope of applicability of the theory, errors are discovered, and possibilities
of generalizing the results to other climatic conditions are evaluated.
The solution of the equation of turbulent diffusion of a precipitating con-
taminant by analytical methods taking into consideration the actual variations
of the austausch coefficient and wind velocity with the height involves consi-
derable difficulties. In this connection, a few years ago, the Main Geophysical
Observatory (4, 5) conducted studies on the numerical solution of this equation
with computers for a wind changing as the log of the height, and for a model with
a discontinuity for the vertical component of the coefficient of turbulent
• diffusion. Tables were complied for concentrations of the contaminant near the
ground as a function of the height of the source, distance from the latter, and
I rate of precipitation of the contaminant; and formulas were obtained for con-
version of these tables to various wind velocities and austausch coefficients.
On the basis of the numerical solution, calculations were made for the
o contamination of the air reservoir by ash from smokestacks of thermal power
plants; they were confirmed by experimental data taken for various climatic
conditions, with a wide variation of the height, diameter and number of stacks,
rate of discharge and temperature of the stack gases and other parameters of the
discharge (3,9). Experiments on the dispersal of a polydisperse precipitating
contaminant, carried out by using a 300-meter meteorological mast, were processed
on the same basis (1). The agreement of the calculations with the observations
-------
proved satisfactory, and data were obtained on the dependence of both the
coefficient of turbulent diffusion and the contaminant concentrations near the
ground on the height of the source, wind velocity, stratification of the
atmosphere and fall velocity of the aerosol (6).
In (3-6), a method for using the numerical solution is presented for the
case of a monodisperse contaminant. We shall discuss it here as it applies to
the calculation of the precipitation on an underlying surface of a polydisperse
contaminant dispersed uniformly over a segment of length L by an airplane
flying at velocity v at right angles to the direction of the wind.
The calculation is based on the use of the principle of superposition,
whereby the aerosol is subdivided into n fractions, for each of which the
capacity of the source is known. The size of the particles in each fraction
changes over a relatively narrow range, and this is used to find the preci-
pitation velocity sufficiently characteristic of each fraction from the average
diameter of the particles by means of the Stokes formula. The diffusion of
each fraction is assumed to occur independently, i. e., the coalescence,
evaporation and fine subdivision of the aerosol particles do not play any
appreciable part in the experimental conditions. The concentration of the
polydisperse aerosol at any point in space is treated as the sum of the con-
centrations of all the fractions.
We shall use a coordinate system whose origin is located on the underlying
surface under the center of the source (lines of spraying of the aerosol),
axis x being directed along the wind and axis y being parallel to the source.
The complete precipitation of the aerosol on a unit area of underlying
surface q is calculated as the sum of the precipitations of the separate
fractions
^=_
t=i
The amount of aerosol of fraction q. precipitating on a unit area of the
underlying surface is calculated from thepformula
Here C^ipz =0 is the concentration on the underlying surface of the
aerosol fraction i from a source of length L; t is the time during which the
source is acting
L
t - (3)
v
Wi is the fall velocity of fraction i of the aerosol,
, y),
-------
cip I z « 0 is tne ground concentration of fraction i of an aerosol from a linear
source of infinite length located at the same height and having the same capacity
Qi ( m fee ) as the llnear source of finite length under consideration; K (x, y)
is a correction factor allowing for the finiteness of the length of the source.
(5)
expression for K (x, y) was found by M. E. Berlyand with the assumption
of similarity of the vertical distributions of the coefficient of horizontal
turbulent diffusion and of the wind velocity ky » kgu (2). This formula was
obtained for a gaseous contaminant, but it also applies to a precipitating
contaminant.
Taking (2-4) into consideration, one can write
lf<(JC, y). (6)
The quantity Cjn is determined from the solution of the equation
with the following boundary conditions:
=0 c=-. (A)
For z - 0 *,--«0; (B)
For 2 -:• ^ <7-~0.
Ref. (5) gives tables of a numerical solution of (7) with
. _|v + A,2 npii
* ~"{v + *,A npii
Here k-^ and u^ are the vertical component of the coefficient of turbulent
diffusion and the wind velocity at unit height z^ respectively, v is the
coefficient of molecular diffusion for air, ZQ is the roughness of the under-
lying surface, and h is the height of the lowest layer of air.
In ref. (5), two tables (for h = 50 m and h » 100 m) at different values
-------
of the source heights H, distances x and fall velocities vi give the quantity
s, related in the CGS system to the quantities C^p | z - 0 necessary for the
calculation by the following formula:
(10)
Considering G^, the total amount of fraction i of the aerosol discharged
during the experiment
G,=Q«4- (ID
and substituting (10) into (6), we obtain
i
glp=sOlsVx'wlK(x, y) - 10- 4. (12)
In the calculations, G± is taken in g/m, x in m, WA in m/sec; the quantity
s is taken directly in the units in which it is given in the tables of (5); in
this case, the quantity qi is obtained in g/m2.
(1 N
The indicated tables were calculated for uj » Uj^1) » 4 m/sec, kj = kj «
0.2 m/sec and ZQ ° 0.01 m. We shall designate the.Quantity,s.given in the
tables as 9 }• If it is necessary to determine s* ' at u^ ' »* uj'1' and
kj(2' 7* kj'1', the following working formula will be used for a linear source
s(jc, wt) = AsW(x', w'i)t- (13)
where a
(D)
According to formula (13), s(2) is found from tables calculated for the same
H, h and ZQ. To this end, the value of s(*) at distance x « x' for w^ « w^1 is
determined. The value obtained is multiplied by A.
Data on experiments carried out in June-July 1960-1961 were published in
ref. (8). In these experiments, using an AN-2 airplane on which an Avia sprayer
U?d. note "for aerosol spraying'^? was mounted, a linear source of finite length
approximately perpendicular to the wind was created at heights of 100 to 600 m.
The flight velocity v was 170 km/hr, and the source length L varied from 8 to
16 km. The airplane sprayed a water-glycerine mixture. The principal method
of measurement of the amount of aerosol deposited on the underlying surface
-------
consisted in a microscopic analysis, made after the experiment, of glass plates
laid out on the experimental field in rows parallel to the line of flight. The
distance between plates in the same row was 500 m, and the length of the row
was close to the length of the source. The distance between neighboring rows
in some of the experiments was 500 m, and in the remaining ones, 1000 m. The
aerosol was considered to consist of 7 to 8 fractions. Each fraction was
considered to be approximately monodisperse, and from the average particle
size, using the Stokes formula, the mean fall velocity w^, which varied from
0.01 to 1 m/sec, was calculated for each fraction.
A method of determination of the capacity of the source G^ for each fraction
was developed in special experiments. In the microscopic analysis of the glass
plates, the number of droplets of different sizes was counted, and after con-
version to the number per unit area, the density of deposition of each fraction
was determined.
If the above-mentioned superposition principle is used, each experiment
with a polydisperse aerosol (flight) may be treated as several combined
experiments with different monodisperse aerosols under the same meteorological
conditions.
At one point on the edge of the experimental field, the vertical distribution
of temperature and wind velocity was determined by means of an aerostat and pilot
balloons. On the basis of these observations, the parameter characterizing the
stratification of the atmosphere was calculated for each flight:
*==: Au T ' (1A "\
100 —!•* ^1*U
where A T^QO-1.6 andA U^QQ_^ g are, respectively, the differences of temperature
and wind velocity at heights of 100 and 1.6 m averaged over the time of the
experiment. The necessity of averaging was due to the fact that the experiments
were conducted in the morning (5-6 A. M. or evening (6-8 P.M.), so that there
wera marked changes in the meteorological conditions.
In all, data for 12 of the most qualitative experiments are given, divided
into the following two groups according to the values of parameter «C '•
A (-0.3<«CC +0.1) and B (+0.3<«C<+0.5).
M. I. Yudin (10) showed the necessity of carrying out experiments that make
it possible to make separate studies of the atmospheric diffusion of particles
with different fall velocities. The above-described studies apparently constitute
one of the first attempts to gather such experimental material, which is suitable,
in particular, for studying the dependence of the vertical coefficient of turbu-
lent diffusion on the fall velocities of the aerosol. Use of data on the dis-
persal of an aerosol from a linear source permits the study of this effect in a
comparatively pure form, since the influence of turbulent diffusion in the
direction of axis y is excluded in this case.
Processing and analysis of the experiments were carried out on the basis
of the above-described method of utilizing the results of a numerical solution
-------
of the equation of turbulent diffusion. In view of the fact that ref. (8) gives
only the value of wind velocity u averaged over the layer from the underlying
surface to the source and over the time of the experiment, the value of the
calculated velocity u^) was determined from the formula
uln-*-
'- <»>
For ui given by formula (15), and ZQ « 0.01 m, for which the numerical
solution of the equation of turbulent diffusion was carried out, the mean value
of the wind in the layer from z_ to H is also equal to u.
In ref. (8), for leveling purposes, values are given for the precipitation
of the aerosol on the underlying surface, averaged over the entire sampling
line, "which was parallel to the source. Calculations made with formula (5)
showed that for the source length and sampling lines employed, considering
that kQ is of the order of 1 m, one can compare the calculation with observa-
tions at K (x, y) » 1 with an accuracy sufficient for practical purposes.
The available tables of numerical solution of the equation of turbulent
diffusion, partially published in ref. (5), proved to be sufficient for pro-
cessing the data of 8 flights: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 6, 9 and 11, using the
numbering given in ref. (8). For four of them, the flight altitude was 100;
for three, 200; and for one, 400 m. Use of the superposition principle made
it possible to process independently each fraction of each flight, 1. e.,
essentially, 56 experiments were analyzed. The results showed that in ten of
them, the arrangement of the plates on the ground did not permit the determination
of the maximum precipitation of a given fraction on the underlying surface. For
the lightest fractions, this was due to the lack of measurements at large distances
from the source, and for heavy fractions, at short distances. Therefore, 46
experiments were found to be suitable for processing.
We shall use the following designations: qmie and x^g -- experimentally
determined values of the maximum precipitation of a given fraction of aerosol
on the underlying surface and distance from the source to the line' where the
maximum precipitation was observed; qmj_c and x,,^ -- corresponding values ob-
tained by calculation. At the first stage of processing for each experiment,
the solution of the reverse problem was used to obtain the optimum kj_ independently
from the following relation: .
min,
provided that
xmic
0.8<.2i£- < 1.2. (17)
^* xmie ^
In 8 out of 46 cases it was found that ..fo4c for the same value of ki does
not fall within the 0.5-2 range; these cases we?5eexcluded from further analysis,
since apparently the aerosol deposits had been measured with substantial errors.
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In all, 38 values of kj^ were
determined; for six experiments of
the first, second and ninth flights;
five experiments of the fourth and
seventh flights; four experiments of
the third flight; and three experi-
ments of the fourth and eleventh
flights,, From these data, the
average value of the austausch
coefficient kj^av was determined for
each flight. ' "~'~oj ofr ' OjS * flfi"i •/«•«
k Fig. 1 shows the dependence of
-.. on the fall velocity w^.
Normalization of k^ values to their average value from several experiments
pertaining to the same meteorological conditions made it possible to plot the
data of all 38 experiments on one graph. The entire range of change of w^ was
broken up into intervals 0.05 m/sec each, the graph shows the average value
of fcl for each interval, and indicates the number of cases in the given
interval.
The figure shows a certain dependence of the austausch coefficient on the
size of the aerosol particles, which is possibly determined by the influence of
the effect theoretically predicted by M. I. Yudin (10). Studies in this direction
should be continued by processing a substantially larger, volume of observations,
so that it will be possible to reduce the influence of errors inherent in the
experiment and theory.
Under the experimental conditions employed, the influence of this effect
was comparatively slight, and apparently, at the present time, we can confine
ourselves in practical calculations to certain average values of the coeffi-
cients of turbulent diffusion. Let us consider this question in more detail.
The solid lines of Figs. 2 and 3 characterize the frequency of errors of the
numerical calculation in the determination of k^ according to conditions (16)
and (17); in the majority of cases, the agreement was found to be satisfactory
both in the magnitude of maximum precipitations and in the distances at which
they are observed. In approximately 80% of the cases, the error in the calcu-
lation of qmic does not exceed 0.3 qmie- The errors in the calculation of
are also small, but the shape of the graph of the frequency of different
values indicates that the results from which Fig. 1 was plotted are not
free from systematic errors.
In Fig. 2 and 3, the dashed lines show the frequency of errors for the case
where a constant value of k^ equal to k^av was taken in the calculation for all
the experiments of a single flight. On the average, the errors in the calcula-
tion of the magnitude of maximum precipitations were found to change insignifi-
cantly. Errors in the determination of distances at which the maximum precipi-
tations were observed increased somewhat more markedly, but the shape of the
error distribution became more reliable. Therefore, considering that the
dependence of the austausch coefficient on the fall velocity of the aerosol has
been insufficiently studied, it is possible to carry out the calculations at
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constant ki.
s-
This is confirmed by Fig. 4, on which for the sixth
-
at
Sdo
5(7
0,8
/\
1,0
-------
1,0
0,5
0
Fig. 4. a) « « 0.02 •/*•«;
b) W • 0.06 B/MOJ 0) • •
0.21 i/seei d) w » 0.3* •/
s«oi •) w « 0.58 */s«o| O
w « 0.75 «/stoj e) • -
0.95 B/MO.
It follows from this figure that for the heaviest fractions at a frequency
of sampling lines of 0.5 km and even more so at 1 km, considerable errors may
occur in the determination of the magnitude and position of the maximum preci-
pitations of the aerosol on the underlying surface. This accounts in particular
for the undesirability of striving for an accurate agreement between the calcu-
lation and experiment and a very high accuracy of the numerical solution of the
equation of turbulent diffusion, since the latter involves a considerable invest*
ment of equipment and computer time.
Hu
We shall compare xmic with XQ = ^—• , which characterizes the distance at
which all of the contaminant would precipitate at fall velocity w<, if the
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Influence of turbulent diffusion is excluded. The dependence of
based on the data of all 38 cases is given in Fig. 5.
xmic
X0
on w4
It is apparent from the figure that as the rate of turbulent austausch
increases, the distance from the source to the line on which the maximum
precipitation is observed decreases. For a stable stratification, as w^
increased, x,^ rapidly approached XQ. Under such conditions, the values
of qmic and the width of the band where the dispersal of the contaminant takes
place depend primarily on kij therefore, in determining k,, a decisive part
is played by the agreement between qmic and qmte. In the presence of strong
turbulence, over the entire range
of W£ considered (0.01-1 m/sec),
the maximum precipitation of the
contaminant was observed at dis-
tances substantially less than
XQ. The figure also shows that in
',0
0,8
Ofi
determining ,,
J L
• i ' 1 L-r-J
Of 0,8 Wt B/8M
rig. 5.
k,, the agreement
between x^g and x^g plays the most
decisive part in light fractions.
It was indicated above that all
the experiments were divided into
two groups, A and B, depending upon
parameter «C > which characterizes
the stability of the atmosphere.
The calculations showed that for
experiments of group A, conducted
in the presence of a more stable
stratification, the average value
of the coefficient of turbulent
diffusion at source level H, equal
to k,avH, ranged from 2 to 20 nr/sec,
and in the presence of unstable
stratification (group B), from 25 to
40 m2/sec.
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flOBH«x crpaTHCpHKauHH Tp. rrO. Bbin. 158, 1964.
-------
Literature Cited (Continued)
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