RESTRICTIONS ON THE USE;S OF COAL
United States Department of the Interior
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
June 1971
,,, 'to foster, serve
and promote the nation's
economic development
and technological
advancement.'
NATIONAL TECHNICAL INFORMATION SERVICE
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RESTRICTIONS ON THE USES
OF COAL
JUNE 1971
Conducted in cooperation with the
Office of Air Programs of the Environmental
Protection Agency by the Bureau of Mines
under a working fund agreement
UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
BUREAU OF MINES
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BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA
SHEET
1. Report No.
APTD-0717
3. Recipient's Accession No.
4. Title and Subtitle
Restrictions on the Uses of Coal
5. Report Date
June 1971
6.
7. Author(s)
8- Performing Organization Rept.
No.
9. Performing Organization Name and Address
United States Department of the Interior
Bureau of Mines - Mineral Supply
4800 Forbes Avenue
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213
10. Project/Task/Work Unit No.
11. Contract/Grant No.
12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Address
Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Air Programs
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
13. Type of Report & Period
Covered
14.
IS. Supplementary Notes
16. Abstracts
Although the United States has virtually .unlimited reserves of coal of all ranks, the
future availability of domestic coals may be limited by factors which range from the
inherent characteristics of the coal itself to the nation's capacity for producing and
transporting a high grade product suitable for various end-use markets. In addition to
coal's quality characteristcs that may restrict iLs use in certain markets, other
limiting factors -such as manpower and transportation availability, and inadequate mine
production and preparation and cleaning plant cap^ity are indirectly related to coal
supply and availability. Each of these constraint were evaluated in this report and
an attempt was made to show their quantitative effect upon the future consumption and
use of coal. .
17. Key Words and Document Analysis. 17a. Descriptors
Coal
Availability
Limiting
Coal constituents
Transporation
Coal preparation
Coal mining
Manpower
Safety
17b. Identifiers/Open-Ended Terms
17c. COSAT1 Field/Group 2lD
18. Availability Statement
Unlimited
19..Security Class (This
Report)
UNCLASSIFIED
20. Security Class (This
Page
UNCLASSIFIED
21. No. of Pages
62
22. Price
RM NTIS-35 ( 10-70)
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Contents
Introduction
Chemical and Physical Properties of Coal 4
Manpower Limitations 17
Transportation Limitations 26
Coal Preparation 36
Coal Preparation Plant Capacity and Availabilities 46
Effects o* Health and Safety Regulations 49
Summary 56
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TABLES
1-A. Coal Consumption at Electric-Utility Plants in FPC Areas
with Wet- and Dry-Bottom Furnaces, in 1969 7
1-B. Coal Consumption at Electric-Utility Plants in the
United States with Wet- and Dry-Bottom Furnaces, 'in 1969 .... 8
2-A. Coal Consumption in Wet-Bottom Furnaces at Electric-
Utility Plants in FPC Areas, by Sulfur Content, in 1969 9
2-B. Coal Consumption in Wet-Bottom Furnaces at Electric -
Utility Plants in the United States, by Sulfur Content,
in 1969 10
3. Industrial Combustion Equipment Application 13
4. Coal Properties Significance Chart For Combustion
Performance 14
5. Production and Employment Data in the Bituminous Coal
and Lignite Mining Industries, 1960-19,69 20
6. Projected Production and Manpower Requirements in the
Bituminous Coal and Lignite Mining Industries at the 1969
Rate of Froductivity 21
7. Projected Production and Manpower Requirements in the
Bituminous Coal and Lignite Mining Industries at 1%
Average Annual Rate of Growth in Productivity 21
8. Projected Production and Manpower Requirements in the
Bituminous Coal and Lignite Mining Industries at 2%
Average Annual Rate of Growth in Productivity 21
9. Projected Production of Bituminous Coal and Lignite in
the United States at Various Rates of Productivity 24
10. Float-and-Sink Data from Coal Channel Samples Showing
Reduction in Ash and Sul fur 39 -41
11. Selected Float-and-Sink Data on Coals from Published
Reports 43-44
12. New Bituminous Coal Preparation Facilities Contracted
for in 1970 47-48
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ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure
1 Bituminous Coal and Lignite Production, 1966-70 32
Railroad Serviceable Hopper Cars, 1966-70 (Excludes
Privately Owned Cars on Class I Railroads) 33
Transportation of Coal From Mines, 1966-70 34
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Introduction
Although the United States has virtually unlimited reserves of
coal of all ranks, the future availability of domestic coals may be
limited by a number of factors that range from the inherent character-
istics of the coal itself to the Nation's capacity for producing and
transporting a high grade product suitable for various end-use markets.
Coals vary greatly in chemical and physical properties and, in
most instances, one rank of coal can not be substituted directly for
another without maj'or changes in burning equipment and methods of
preparation and processing. Even coals of the same rank can not, many
times, be used to replace other coals. This applies particularly to
the coking coals, which must be used for coke production, and to the
coals with low ash-fusion-temperatures, which are required for use in
wet-bottom furnaces. Ash, sulfur, and volatile matter content also
are critical parameters of coal when it is burned in certain types of
i -
combustion equipment.
Bureau of Mines projections indicate that coal requirements of the-
United States will increase greatly within the next decade. Therefore,
in addition to coal's quality characteristics that may restrict its use
in certain narkets, other limiting factors such as manpower and trans-
portation availability, and inadequate mine production and preparation
and cleaning plant capacity are directly related to coal supply and
availability. Though data were lacking in some areas, these constraints,
as well as those concerned with the quality characteristics of coal,
were evaluated in this report and an attempt was made to show their
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Air pollution control regulations have restricted the burning of
high sulfur (more than 1 percent) coals in many parts of the United States
and a problem of immediate concern to electric utility plants in some
areas is the procurement of low sulfur coals with ash-fusion temperatures
suitable for use in wet-bottom furnaces. One part of this study, which
was developed from data supplied by electric-utility plants to the
Federal Power Commission, has assessed the current requirements for low
ash-fusion temperature coals of electric utilities in various geographical
areas. The tabular data in this report show that about five-sixths of
the 68 million tons of coal reportedly consumed in wet-bottom furnaces
in 1969 contained more than 2 percent sulfur. With the passage of more
stringent air pollution control regulations, the problem of coal supply
»
for these plants will become increasingty severe because the total pro-
duction of low-sulfur coals with low ash-iusion temperatures in 1969
was less then 35 million tons.
Manpower needs of the coal industry were projected for 1975, 1980,
and 1985 using Bureau of .Mines projections of bituminous coal demand in
these years and assuming various levels of productivity. Even with the
lower assumed rate of growth for productivity, which was less than that
recorded between 1968 and 1969, manpower requirements could increase by
90,000 men in 1980 and 143,000 men in 1985..
An adequate transportation system for transporting coal from mines
to markets is one of the most important factors in coal availability.
The number of railroad hopper cars available for transporting coal has
declined by about 35,000 during the past 5 years and it is indicated
that the number will decline further unless incentives such as governmental
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assistance in financing new cars are made available to railroads with
insufficient earnings to conduct their own car-building program.
However, other actions, such as the doubling of demurrage rates by
the Interstate Commerce Commission to discourage the accumulation
of railroad cars at transshipping facilities and consumer plants, and
the expansion of coal transportation on inland waterways may ease the
coal transportation burden presently consigned to railroads.
The development of adequate productive, preparation, and cleaning
capacity is, of course, a requisite for adequate supply. No data are
available, but it is thought that annual productive capacity to supply
domestic demand will have to increase from the present level of about
600 million to nearly 1 billion tons by 1985. Coal preparation and
cleaning capacity will have to expand at *-in even greater rate because
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Chemical and Physical Properties of Coal
Coals commonly moved to respective consumer markets may vary widely
in chemical and physical properties, depending, first, upon the coal's
general utilization and, secondly, upon its specific application to a
given process. The degree of acceptability of certain coals to its
end-use is commonly referred to as the quality of those specific type
coal supplies. For example, coals moving to coke plants to produce
coke for foundries and steel plants are evaluated physically by the
degree to which they form strong coke residues and the degree to which
they expand during the coking process. On the other hand, these coals
must also meet requirements which limit the amount of undesirable
chemical and inert materials inherent in the coal. Some of the more
» . '
limiting factors of coking coals, assuming they display satisfactorily
strong physical properties, are their ash and sulfur contents. Ash is
undesirable because it is of no practical value to the steel making
process, and sulfur because it imparts an undesirable quality to the
pig iron anc! must be removed by further processing, and at an added cost.
For these reasons, primarily, coking coalt. having low sulfur contents
(generally 1 percent or less) and low to medium ash content (6 to 8 percent)
preferentially are moved to the coke production industry.
Coals destined to find utilization as fuel for combustion processes
likewise are categorized as to their acceptability or compatibility to
one or more specific types of coal combustion equipment. Fundamentally,
combustion units are classed by type as fuel-bed burning, suspension
burning, or cyclone burning. Each appears to fall into general patterns
which depend to a great degree on size and characteristics of the coal
to be utilized. Some combustion unit designs are more tolerant of coal
-------
quality differences than are others. Indeed, some combustion units
are designed specifically to handle a wide variety of coals of differing
characteristics, while other units are designed to take advantage of
selected coal characteristics such as coal size, grindability, free
swelling index, moisture, volatile matter, and ash-fusion temperature.
Examples of such combustion unit designs are the spreader stoker-fired
units, which can handle a wide variety of coals; the hopper-fed chain
grate, which recognizes the limiting factors of moisture and a low to
medium (4 to 6) free swelling index of the coal; and the slag-tap
furnaces, wlrich require coal with an ash-fusion temperature in the
low to mid-fusion temperatures (2000-2600°F), with attendant ash
viscosity tolerances on the upper part of that ash-fusion temperature
range; and the pulverized coal (PC) furnaces which favor the more
easily ground coals.
The evolution of industrial and utility combustion equipment in tae
last 20 to 150 years is remarkable. Where once plant capacity was realized
from severaJ. medium sized units, it now consists of comparatively much
larger and more highly efficient units. To a great degree, increased
knowledge ol: the inherent coal characteristics allowed boiler designers
to capitalize on those characteristics and to design units specifically
to take advantage of heretofore undesirable coals. The slag tap furnace
is one case where the low ash fusion (which is generally a negative
factor in the selection of a boiler fuel) was made to work to the advan-
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the dry-ash furnaces which use finely pulverized coal and require coal
with a high ash-fusion temperature as most of the ash escapes through
the hot screen tubes in the rear of the boiler. A coal with low ash-
fusion utilized in a pulverized coal furnace would result in ash depo-
sition on these tubes with eventual boiler failure resulting. On the
other hand, with the slag-tap design, a low ash fusion is desirable
for the system because it is specifically designed to remove the ash
in molton form from the combustion chamber walls.
As a part of this coal restrictions ttudy, the Federal Power
Commission was consulted and permission We s granted the Bureau of Mines
to extract selected data from FPC's current canvass of the electric
utilities. Data related to the quality o'l steam coals consumed in
electric-utility plants are presented with respect to the type of
combustion equipment utilized. The data .ire arranged in several forms
•
to show the significance of coal quality.
The data presented represent about 80 percent coverage of all U.S.
electric-utility plants which were canvassed by FPC and are believed
to be representative of the wet-bottom furnace population in the U.S.
Table 1A indicates, by FPC area, the number of wet-bottom or slag-
tap furnaces reported and the quality and quantity of the coals consumed.
Table IB displays these data on a State basis.
These data are arranged in Tables 2A and 2B to show the distribution
of sulfur ranges with respect to the coals consumed in wet-bottom furnaces.
It is noted that over 56 million tons of the 68 million tons of coal re-
portedly consumed in wet-bottom furnaces possess sulfur contents of 2 per-
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TABLE 1A. - Coal Consumption at Electric-Utility Plants in FPC Areas
with Wet- and Dry-Bottom Furnaces, in 1969
FPC Area
F t Ur»r f-Vi .....«._..-
Tr»f-fl1
Number of
Plants with
Wet-Bottom
Furnaces
45
8
31
19
1
104
Coal Consumption
(Thousand Short Tons)
In Wet
j." iiA.ria.c3S
2.3,003
326
24,111
20,224
631
68,295
In Dry
Furnaces
11,071
417
3,971
1,170
16,629
Coal Analyses
Percent
Ash
11.7
11.9
12.4
12.5
6.6
12.1
(average)
Percent
Sulfur
3.27
3.02
2.88
2.47
0.50
2.87
(average)
Btu/lb.
11,056
11,795
12,158
11,379
12,673
11,556
(average)
Plant Fuel
Requirement
Percent
Coal
93
52
95
89
65
92
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TABLE IB. - Coal Consumption at Electric-Utility Plants in the United States
with Wet- and Dry-Bottom Furnaces, in 1969
State
Dist. of Columbia --
Tntal --
Number of
Plants with
Wet -Bottom
Furnaces
2
2
1
1
5
13
7
10
3
2
1
2
7
2
3
1
1
6
7
1
8
3
4
1
3
2
6
104
Coal Consumption
(Thousand Short Tons)
In Wet
Furnaces
2,000
40
451
2,286
6,729
' 9,784
8,434
1,488
168
5,054
896
1,065
3,020
1,740
118
631
953
3,459
3,390
536
5,587
3,560
1,975
1,382
262
722
2,565
68,295
In Dry
Furnaces
650
406
7,280
1,250
452
921
217
11
218
952
2,337
621
520
591
203
16,629
Coal Analyses
Percent
Ash
13.9
12.6
10.2
11.9
9.9
13.3
11.3
10.1
1207
16.8
8.0
8.4
9.8
11.0
10.6
C C.
W 0 W
6.9
10.0
13o5
13.4
13.5
16.6 •
11.9
9.4
7.7
17.2
10.3
12.1
(average)
Percent
Sulfur
2.09
0.40
1.40
3.80
1.41
3.73
3.42
3.01
3.20
4.02
2.40
1.13
1.77
3.22
3.63
0.50
2.50
2.40
2.45
1.80
4.09
2.22
1.13
2.80
1.13
4.01
2.79
2.87
(average)
Btu/lb.
12,094
9,932
13,228
11,280
11,153
10,304
11,091
11,039
11,340
10,592
13,582
13,084
12,597
11,501
11,416
12,673
13,500
13,155
12,411
12,352
11,666
12,068
12,496
12,070
13,692
11,167
11,655
11,556
(average)
Plant Fuel
Requirement
Percent
Coal
• 100
10
• 67
90
86
93
98
78
42
100
97
97
97
91
80
65
100
73
100
96
100
100
74
64
100
100
95
92
(average)
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TABLE 2A. - Coal Consumption in Wet-Bottom Furnaces at Electric-Utility Plants
in FPC Areas, by Sulfur Content, in 1969
FPC Area
T? 1- tJ/"»Y-t-Vi ..........
AM anf-a .............
Tof-al ..........
Number of
Plants with
Wet -Bottom.
Furnaces
45
8
31
19
1
104
Coal Consumption
(Thousand Short Tons)
Less than
2.0 Percent
1,979
40
1,760
7,37?
63:.
11,783
2.0-3.0
Percent
4,801
12,175
5,511
22,487
More than
3.0 Percent
16,223
286
10,176
7,340
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TABLE 2B. - Coal Consumption in Wet-Bottom Furnaces at Electric-Utility Plants
in the United States, by Sulfur Content, in 1969
State
Number of
Plants with
Wet-Bottom
Furnaces
Coal Consumption
(Thousand Short Tons)
Less than
2.0 Percent
2.0-3.0
Percent
More than
3.0 Percent
o Alabama 2
Colorado 2
District of Columbia -- 1
Florida 1
Georgia 5
Illinois 13
Indiana 7
Iowa 10
Kansas 3
Kentucky 2
Maryland 1
Massachusetts 2
Michigan 7
Minnesota 2
Missouri 3
Nevada 1
New Hampshire 1
vw Jersey 6
aw York 7
North Carolina 1
Ohio 8
Pennsylvania 3
South Carolina 4
Tennessee 1
Virginia 3
West Virginia 2
Wisconsin 6_
Total -- 104
40
451
4,600
1,065
1,977
631
242
,536
2
1,975
262
2,000
2,129
1,499
543
896
1,043
953
3,393
3,148
111
3,558
1,382
1.716
2,286
8,285
8,434
943
168
.>,054
L, 740
118
66
5,360
722
849
11,783
22,487
34,025
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under most of the current fuel regulations now in effect or being
considered in many of the geographical areas where wet-bottom furnaces
are currently operated.
While FPC did not collect information with respect to fuel other
than that shown in the above referenced tables, Bureau knowledge of
other characteristics (1C 7923, Fusibility of Ash of U.S. Coals) of
these coals reveals that essentially all this reported coal (86 million
tons) are below the critical ash-fusion temperature (2600°F). Replacement
i.
of coal supp'ies, currently being moved preferentially to wet-bottom fur-
naces, with coals of low sulfur content is not a simple coal substitution.
While some of the lower sulfur coals could be expected to possess ash
fusion temperatures compatible to wet-bottom furnaces, the bulk of those
quality coalt; would have ash-fusion temperature well above the 2600°F
limit and be totally unsuited to continuous boiler operation. In general,
boiler modifv.cations to allow use of higher fusion coal would not be
economically feasible.
The cyclone furnace is not the only type of coal combustion equipment
whose successful operation depends upon the judicious selection of coal
for ash characteristics. The pulverized coal-fired furnace requires coal
with select ash fusion above 2400-2500°F. Probably the most common broad
classifications of coals with respect to combustion are the tendencies for
the coal particles to either fuse together or to remain separate during
the combustion process. These characteristics are commonly referred to
as caking and free-burning characteristics, respectively. Pulverized
coal-fired (PC) units require coals that are free-burning as opposed to
the cyclone which can use the caking variety. In addition the PC units,
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by virtue of the degree to which the coal size must be reduced, require
coals that are easily ground (low coal grindability). Aside from the
critical factors of ash-fusion temperature and grindability, the PC
units can effectively handle all ranks of coal and are the most
versatile of all boilers.
In the industrial and smaller boiler applications, several types
of combustion systems have been developed--each with its particular
operation characteristics with respect to coal requirements. Some
indication oE the different firing methods developed, the types of
coal utilized and the size ranges for each method are shown in Table 3.
Table 4 further indicates the degree to which these methods display
sensitivity of operation with respect to coal characteristics. A
study by Professor T. S. Spicer, Pennsylvania State University, of
the methods shown in these tables revealed the following conclusion:
(1) The "single-retort stoker" will burn all coals from
anthracite to lignite but not necessarily with equal
success. Characteristics sueh as size consist, ash
fusibility, and degree of caking nature are important
and tend to influence the performance.
(2) The "multiple-retort stoker" performs best with the eastern
caking bituminous coals. As in the single-retort stoker,
size consist, ash fusibility and degree of caking are
important properties.
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TABLE 3. - Industrial Combustion Equipment Applications
Types of Coal
Method of Firing
Anthracite
Bituminous-
Caking
(Eastern Area)
Bituminous,
Free-Burning
(Midwestern)
Sub -bituminous
& Lignites
(Western)
Range of Boiler Capacity in rounds of Steam Per Hour
Multiple-Retort Underfeed
1,000-10,000
10,000-200,000
60,000-1,000,000
1,000-35,000
30,000-500,000
5,000-200,000
10,000-200,000^
60,000-1,000,000
and over
75,000-350,000
per furnace
5,000-30,000
5,000-200,000
10,000-200,000
60,000-1,000,000
and over
75,000-350,000
per furnace
5,000-200,000
10,000-200,000
60,000-1,000,000
and over
75,000-350,000
per furnace
NOTE: I/ Limited case.
2/ Certain coals with proper ash fusion.
3/ Steaming range may exceed maximum figures shown.
SOURCE:
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TABLE 4. - Coal Properties Significance Chart For Combustion Performance
Stokers *
S.R.
M.R.
T.G.
S.S.
P.F.
Cyclone
1. Size consist (as fired)-- V
2. Moisture -/ - M
3. Caking Index I/ I
4. Ash Fusibility I
5. Grindability --- N
6. Friability M
7. Volatile Matter M
8. Fixed Carbon N
9. Ash Content M
10. Calorific Value N
; 11. Ash Viscosity M
12. Ash Composition '•-
13. Sulfur ---
I
M
I
I
N
M
M
N
M
N
M
I
N
V.
M.
N
M
M
N
M
N
M
V
M
M
M
N
M
M
N
M
N
M
V
N
I
V
N
I
M
M
N
I
V
M
N
V
N
N
M
N
M
N
V
--See Footnote 4--
--See Footnote 5--
Rating Code; V Very important.
I Important.
M Minor importance.
N Little or no importance.
* Abbreviations shown below are for the respective methods listed in Table 3.
I/ Degree of fineness is a better term for P.F.
2/ Surface moisture is more critical than inherent moisture. Moisture is very
important from the standpoint of plant flowability.
3_/ Some engineers are attempting to use the F.S.I, as an index of the degree of
caking.
4/ Ash composition is very important as it affects fireside fouling, but not
important to combustion.
5/ Sulfur is important from a corrosive standpoint, but not important to
combustion.
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(3) "Spreader stokers" will handle all ranks of coal except
anthracite. Size consist appears to be the most im-
portant single characteristic for this stoker. Other
characteristics are of secondary importance in coal
selection.
(4) "Traveling-grate stokers" can handle every type of
solid fuel with the exception of strongly caking
bituminous coals. Recent experiments with careful
sizing to eliminate fines indicate that even these
ccals may be used with proper precautions. The
combination of the degree of free burning versus
size consist has been carefully studied in selecting
coal for this stoker.
(5) "Pulverized firing" appears to be the most universal
method of firing coal because all ranks of fuels may
be. used. Admittedly, the customer prefers coals which
are easiest to burn, most economical to use, and
which require the minimum capital outlay„ Ease of
grindability and ash fusion characteristics are
probably the two most important characteristics to
watch. The choice of wet- or dry-bottom furnace and
the selection of suitable unit furnace heat release,
extend the latitude of the ash fusibility range while
still securing optimum performance.
(6) Thus far, "Cyclone firing" has not attained the ver-
satility of pulverized firing in handling as wide a
range of coals. Ash characteristics and size consist
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appear to be the most important fuel characteristic.
In spite of the limitations cited above, the manufacturer
states that 70 percent of the bituminous and lignite coals
produced in the United States are considered suitable for
use in cyclone furnaces.
Despite the difficulty encountered in trying to correlate the many
characteristics of coal with actual performance, an attempt has been
made to summarize the significant relationship in Table 4. The author
is well aware of the hazards involved in ,;uch an effort, but feels that
at least it will stimulate future consideration of this matter. The
values in the chart are intended to indicate the relative importance
in the overall picture of a given combustion technique. The quality
of the properties considered is for the a/erage range instead of the
extremes. Moreover, the chart should be ased more as a "rule of thumb"
for design considerations than as a guide for an existing plant, where
obviously certain characteristics are of oaramount importance due to
limiting design deficiencies. Actually, the combination of two or
more properties changes the significance of a single item. For instance,
size consist and caking qualities, or size consist and moisture content
often present an entirely different degree of relative importance than
when considered separately.
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Manpower Limitations
One aspect of coal mining that may have a serious limiting effect
upon future coal availability is an adequate supply of manpower. Since
1949, production of bituminous coal and lignite in the United States has
increased about 25 percent. During the same period, employment in these
industries has decreased 70 percent. Approximately 300,000 less men were
employed in this industry in 1968 than were employed in 1949.
The large decrease in manpower is attributed principally to the
mechanization of mining operations. However, other factors such as the
closing of many marginal mining operations and the large increase in
production by strip-mining methods have contributed also to the decline.
A total of 124,532 men was employed in the production of bituminous
coal and lignite in the United States in 1969. The industry operated an
i
average of 226 days during the year arid production averaged 19.90 tons
per man day, or 4,497 tons per man year.
About 80 percent of the total number of employees (99,269 men) was
employed in underground mining in 1969; 1£ percent (22,323 men) was em-
ployed in strip mining; and the remainder (2,940 men) was employed in
auger mining. Employment by type of mining' has changed considerably in
recent years, however. Whereas between 1965 and 1969, employment in
underground mining decreased by more than 10,000 men, 594 more men were
working in strip mines and 672 more men were working in auger mines in
1969 than in 1965.
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Productivity in the bituminous-coal industry, measured in tons of
output per man per day, has increased from 12.83 tons in 'I960 to 19.90 tons
in 1969. This increase represented an average annual rate of growth of
5.0 percent for the last 9-year period. During the past 5 years, pro-
ductivity increased at an average annual rate of growth of A.25 percent.
Between 1967 and 1969, however, the growth rate declined to about 1.5 percent.
A number of interrelated factors influence productivity in bituminous
coal and lignite mining, but the principa . factors contributing to the lower
productivity gains of recent years were the smaller growth rates for coal
production by strip mining, and the decline in the rate of mechanization of
underground mines.
Overall increases or decreases in productivity in the future will
depend principally upon the type of mining as productivity varies tremen-
dously according to method of production. In 1969, productivity in terms
of tons of output per man day varied from 39.88 tons for auger mines, to
35.71 tons for strip mines, to 15.61 tons for underground mines.
Because of the implementation of recently enacted health and safety
regulations, and because much of the potential of mechanization appears
to have been reached, future gains in productivity will probably not
exceed 2 percent annually and may even be closer to 1 percent. In fact,
there is some speculation that productivity may remain at about the 1969
rate, or actually decline slightly, until about 1985.
-------
Approximately 80 percent of the bituminous coal is produced in
unionized mines and the bulk of the unionization is associated with
underground mining. In the event of a general industry strike, it
may be assumed that virtually all underground mines would cease to
operate. With such a curtailment of production, domestic coal supply
would decline by about two-thirds and, in terms of current domestic
requirements, there would be a shortage of about 300 million tons of
coal for domestic markets.
Table 5 shows production and employment data in the bituminous
coal and lignite mining industries from 1960 through 1969, and Tables t,
7, and 8 shows similar data projected for 1975, 1980, and 1985 at various
levels of productivity. Lignite mining is included because there are no
separate data for the lignite mining industry. The data are not affected
by this inclusion, however, because ligni.te production represents only a
fraction of 1 percent of the total outpu : of both fuels. Future lignite
production will have, however, increasing significance.
The analysis of manpower requirements for assumed increases in pro-
ductivity was based upon long-range Bureau of Mines projections for bi lu-
minous coal demand and production for the year 2000 that will be published
in a forthcoming 1970 issue of the Bureau's Mineral Facts and Problems
series. The low projection, based upon the assumption of present end
uses of coal, corresponds to a production figure of 850 million short tons
in 1985. The high projection, based principally upon the assumption that
economically competitive synthetic liquid and gaseous fuels become avail-
able, corresponds to a 1985 production figure of 1,350 million short tons.
Data for 1975 and 1980 were based upon the same assumptions.
-------
TABLE 5. - Production and employment data in the bituminous coal
and lignite mining industries, 1960-1969
Year
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
Production,
million short tons
415.5
403.0
422.1
458.9
437.0
512.1
533.9
552.6
545.2
560.5
Men
employed
169,400
150,474
143,822
141,646
128,698
133,732
131,752
131,523
127,894
124,532
Days worked,
average per year
191
193
199 .
205
225
219
219
219
219
»
226
Productivity,
tons /man /day
12.83
13.87
14.72
15.83
16.84
17.52
18.52
19.17
19.37
19.90
-------
TABLE 6. - Projected production and manpower requirements in the bituminous
coal and lignite mining industries at the 1969 rate .of productivity If
Year
1975
1 pan----.
1 QQC.
Required production,
million short tons
High
796
1,035
1,,350
Low
670
780
850
Manpower Requirements
High
Numb er
181,818
236,403
308,360
Increase
over 1969
57,286
111,871
183,828
Low
Number
153,038
178,164
194,153
Increase
over 1969
28,506
53,632
69,621
Based upon an average vork year of 220 days,
TABLE 7. - Projected production and manpower requirements in
the bituminous coal and lignite mining industries at 1% average
annual rate of growth in productivity _!/
Year
1975
1 qorv
1 QQS
Required production,
million short tons
High
796
1,035
1,350
Low
670
780
850
Manpower Requirements
High
Number
174,370
214,819
267,496
Increase
over 1969
49,838
90,287
142,964
Low
Number
146,769
161,893
168,424
Increase
over 1969
22,237
37,361
43.892
\J Based upon an average work year of 220 days.
TABLE 8. - Projected production and manpower requirements in
the bituminous coal and lignite mining industries at 2% average
annual rate of growth in productivity I/
Year
i Q7S
1 OOf)
1985
Required production,
million short tons
High
796
1,035
1,350
Low
670
780
850
Manpower Requirements
Hie
Number
162,615
192,022
226,267
h
Increase
over 1969
38,083
67,490
101,735
Low
Number
136,874
144,712
150,845
Increase
over 1969
12,342
20S180
26.313
I/ Based upon an average work year of 220 days.
-------
Tables 6, 7, and 8 show projected high and low manpower requirements
in 1975, 1980, and 1985 at various levels of productivity necessary to
meet projected coal requirements in these years, assuming a constant
work year of 220 days. It is impractical to attempt to predict precisely
productivity gains of the future, but a reasonable assessment appears to
be an average annual rate of growth of 1 percent. At this growth rate and
an assumed average of 220 days worked per year, manpower requirements for
producing the projected low range of outputs will be 18 percent higher
in 1975, 30 percent higher in 1980, and 3f percent greater in 1985. At
the projected high range of output, corresponding manpower increases will
be 40 percert in 1975, 73 percent in 1980> and 115 percent in 1985. These
percentage increases represent additional manpower requirements varying
*
between 22,237 and 49,838 men in 1975, .27,'361 and 90,287 men in 1980,
and 43,892 and 142,964 men in 1985. These, data are shown in Table 7.
Table 6 shows similar data based upon the 1969 rate of productivity,
and Table 8 shows projected manpower requirements if productivity in-
creases at an average annual rate of 2 percent. At the 1969 rate of an
average output of 19.90 tons per man per day, additional manpower re-
quirements to meet the projected high output will range from 57,286 men in
1975 to 183,828 men in 1985. Projected low demand at the 1969 productivity
level can be met if there are approximately 29,000 additional workers in
1975, 54,000 additional workers in 1980, and 70,000 additional workers in
1985.
-------
With a 2.0 percent average annual increase in productivity,
additional manpower requirements at the high and low levels of demand
will range from 12,342 to 38,083 men in 1975; 20,180 to 67,490 men in
1980; and 26,313 to 101,735 men in 1985.
Table 9 shows the potential output of bituminous coal and lignite
in 1975, 1980, and 1985,.at various levels of productivity if manpower
for production remains at the 1969 level and working days per year
remain constant. The data shown in this table indicate that production
in these years will, in all instances, fall below the Bureau of Mines
projected low level of demand in these years, even with an assumed
average anm.al rate of growth in productivity of 2 percent.
Four States - Illinois, Kentucky, Pennsylvania and West Virginia
»
account for approximately three-fourths of the bituminous coal production.
These States also employ about three-fourths of the total number of men
producing bi.tuminous coal. Unfortunately, these States have the lowest
supply of available labor. According to bureau of the Census data, the
National growth rate for available male labor in the United States in the
18-64 year category is nearly twice that of the four-mentioned coal pro-
ducing States. West Virginia, in particular, has the greatest potential
shortage of manpower, followed in order by Pennsylvania, Kentucky, and
Illinois.
It is beyond the scope of this report to attempt to assess potentially
available manpower for coal mining in the future, but it should be recog-
nized that, in addition to the increased numbers of new miners that will
be needed, there will be an additional man-power requirement to replace
-------
TABLE 9. - Projected production of bituminous coal and lignite in the
United States at various rates of productivity
1 Q7S
i Qfin-----.
1 005
Production
Million
short tons _!/
595.0
625.3
657.2
Million
short tons 2/
631.2
696.9
769.5
Projected Required
High,
million
shoTf tons
796.0
1,035.0
1,350.0
Low,
million
short t^ns
670.0
780.0
850.0
Days worked,
average
per year
220
220
220
Manpower
availability 3>/
Number
of miners
124,532
124,532
124,532
NJ
I/ Based upon a 1% average annual rate of growth in productivity.
2f Based upon a 2% average annual rate of growth in productivity.
-------
I.
workers lost by death, retirement, or transfer to other work. Retire-
ment, however, will claim the greatest number as a recent Bureau of
Mines study for internal use has concluded that the age distribution
of miners currently employed shows a peak at 51 years.
Recruiting young men for work in the coal mines may become in-
creasingly more difficult because of the poor public image of the
industry, the hazardous nature of the work and adverse publicity stem-
ming from mine disasters, and the remote location of mines from readily
accessible urban areas. It may be expected that there will be also a
limited number of mining engineers and supervisory mining personnel
available during the next decade because fewer college students are
pursuing mining as a course of study.
On the positive side, the coal mining manpower problem has attracted
the attention of the Congress where a bill recently was introduced to
relax immigration regulations to permit experienced foreign miners to
migrate to tie United States if they agree to work in coal mines. This,
however, would be only a temporary solution to the problem. The real
solution sho-ild be directed toward long-term remedies. These could be
programs thau include training in vocational schools established by the
government or industry or scholarship grants for young men who would
agree to study mining engineering as a career.
-------
Transportation Limitations
An adequate supply of transportation equipment, particularly
railroad hopper cars, for moving coal from mines to markets, is one
of the most important facets of coal availability.- Except for unit
train loadings there is little or no storage of bituminous coal at
the mines and coal mines cannot operate without regular supply and
a sufficient number of railroad cars. At the same time, transportation
costs represent a substantial portion (more than 60 percent above the
f.o.b. mine value) of the delivered price of coal, and so are signif-
icant in coal's competition with other energy sources, particularly
oil and natural gas, which are transmitted by pipelines at lower cost.
One of -the principal factors contributing to coal shortages during
1970 was a 35,000 decrease in the number of railroad hopper cars avail •
able for coal transportation in the past 5 years. Although most of
the decrease was attributed to retired cars of the old 50-60 tons
capacity cliiss, their capacity was equivalent to around 50 million
tons of annual coal production, on the basis of 28 turnarounds per
year. This production could have been taken care of by one-half as
many of the newer 100-ton cars. On a car-for-car basis, with the
larger cars the production equivalent would have been in excess of
95 million tons.
These figures do not include cars owned by large consumers,
particularly electric power utilities, or by coal producing companies.
Most of these cars are used in unit trains which, together with unit
train cars owned by the railroads, have substantially improved car
efficiencies, including the need for fewer cars, with corresponding
-------
cost savings. It is estimated that unit trains and other train-loads
carry approximately one-third of total coal shipments.
Emergency transportation measures .that helped appreciably towards
the increase of 30 million tons of coal movement in 1970 were the
"permit" system established by the N. & W. and C. & 0. Railroads,
which limited shipments to tidewater only to those scheduled to
coincide with ship arrivals at Hampton Roads; the doubling of de-
murrage rates by the Interstate Commerce Commission to discourage
the accumulation of cars at transshipping facilities, consumer
plants, and at non-operating mines; I.C.C. orders requiring the
prompt return after unloading of open top cars to the owning rail-
roads; and other actions which effected a better distribution of
cars.
In the overall, however, the number of cars available for coal
movement still is far below what is, and will be, required to assure
adequacy of coal supplies, both in emergencies and as energy demand
continues to accelerate. If developing and programmed increases in
mining capacity are to be fully effective in supplying additional
coal requirements, and if estimated future demands for coal are to
be met, on both a short- and long-term basis (610 million tons of
production in 1971, 690 million tons in 1975, and 933 million tons
in 1980), it is vitally necessary that additional railroad cars and
auxiliary transportation equipment, including locomotives, be made
available from one source or another.
A 100-ton hopper car today costs approximately $16,000. To ini-
tiate a car-building program involving, for example, 2,000 of these
cars, a railroad company is forced to spend about 32 million dollars,
-------
It is understandable that necessary car-building expenditures are
deferred by some large coal-carrying railroads as long as possible
in view of their low level of earnings. These additional cars could
be provided, however, by car building and leasing services, coal pro-
ducers or consumers, government authorities, or otherwise, through
private financing or governmental assistance or surveillance. Among
possible alternatives for the latter are direct financing, guaranteed
loans, tax incentives or'penalties of one kind or another, subsidies,
or other methods of funding. Whatever the means, something must be
done, and the lead should be taken by those with primary responsibilities;
i.e., the Interstate Commerce Commission and the Department of Transportation.
Also, it may be necessary that the Government or others encourage research
toward the development of less costly transportation methods and/or more
reliable means of providing adequate coa! or coal-produced energy at all
times. The latter could include studies on the fundamental reasons fo?r
the decrease in car supplies and for the lack of replacement of retired
equipment, the expanded use of coal slurry pipelines and of extra-high-
voltage (EHV) transmission of coal-generated power from "minemouth"
plants located in or near the coal fields, of railroad freight rate
structures in relation to their compatibility with services rendered,
and of whatever further authority is needed by the I.C.C. to establish
such rules and regulations as may be necessary to assure better dis-
tribution of cars among essential commodities.
-------
A shortage of hopper cars is a major problem in coal producing
and marketing areas east of the Mississippi River because of the low
earnings of certain Eastern carriers and their inability to maintain
adequate rolling stock. One possible means of increasing car utili-
zation by these carriers is to build on-ground storage facilities at
the coal ports at Toledo, Hampton Roads and Newport News similar to
those now in operation at Conneaut, Ashtabula, and Sandusky, Ohio.
The proposition of ground storage facilities represents an attractive
financial solution to hopper car shortages. It is estimated, that
construction of these facilities would release at least 25,000 hopper
cars for use other than for the coal export and tidewater trade and
would annually process 55 million tons of coal. It is estimated
that these facilities would cost 50 million dollars versus 400 million
dollars for the cars. Because of the current level of railroad earn-
ings and shortage of capital it may be necessary that the Government
consider a Federal investment of such a sum to initiate the. program.
Overall, the existing coal transportation restrictions should eas3
somewhat as the trend of increasing production in Western States con-
tinues. In the West, transportation facilities are planned for ade-
quately to coincide with increases in production whether it be in
maintaining sufficient hopper-car fleets, the trend toward extra-high
voltage transmission or coal pipelines such as the one now in operation
from a mine in Arizona to a powerplant in Nevada.
In Eastern States the steady growth in river tonnage in recent years
is expected to accelerate in the immediate years ahead and thereby, to
some extent, ease the coal transportation burden of railroads. The major
reasons for the anticipated growth in coal transportation on the inland
waterway system include the following:
-------
1. The long-range construction and expansion program of the
Army Corps of Engineers to modernize and extend the inland
waterway system.
2. The continuing improvement in the design of tow, barge
and dock equipment to provide more efficient haulage and
handling.
3. The continuing migration of industrial plants to river
areas where ample supplies of water are available in
addition to the availability of low-cost transportation
of raw materials, and finished goods.
The importance of river transportation can be gauged by the fact
that in 196S: more than 160 million tons of coal moved on the inland
waterways. This waterway movement is concentrated largely in six
j
areas: .
1. Kanawha, Ohio and Monongahela Rivers to the Pittsburgh area.
2. Illinois River to the Chicago area.
3. Illinois and Mississippi Rivers to the Twin Cities area.
4. Western Kentucky to Tampa via the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers
to New Orleans and across the Gulf.
5. Western Kentucky and southern Illinois to steam plants on the
Lotfer Ohio, Mississippi and Tennessee Rivers.
6. Along the Black Warrior River in Alabama.
The Army Corps of Engineers is continually improving and extending
the network of waterways. It is about.to complete a new waterway known
as the Arkansas-Verdigris Navigation System. This waterway when com-
pleted will make completely navigable for the first time a 436-mile
section of tie Arkansas River and its tributary, the Verdigris, from
Catoosa, head of navigation for the system, to the Mississippi. It
will link the Arkansas River with some 25,000 miles of inland and
coastal waterways from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, in-
cluding such major industrial markets as Chicago, Cleveland and
-------
This waterway will help in making it possible to open for
development the vast coal resources adjacent to or within the so-
called Arkansas Basin. About 160,000 square miles in area, the
Basin covers most of Arkansas and Oklahoma, half of Kansas, the Texas
Panhandle, and portions of Colorado, New Mexico and Missouri.
Figures 1, 2, and 3 show, respectively, bituminous coal and
lignite production, serviceable railroad hopper cars, and the quan-
tities of coal shipped from mines by various methods for the period
1966-1970.
In summary, the non-rail modes of transportation, in all likeli-
hood, will be adequate in meeting the demands placed upon them. In
order to assure adequate rail transportation, the following sequence ;
of actions will assist in achieving the proper availability of hopper
cars through 1975.
1. The intensified application of the Interstate Commerce
Commission of its several powers in the area of car util-
ization, including the continuation of increased demurrage
charges now in effect. Additionally, the Commission should
further accelerate the formation of unit trains by encouraging
appropriate rate adjustments and applications for service,,
Incentive per diem should be immediately levied on hoppers
to encourage prompt return of cars and to foster equitable
growth in ownership. Free time should be reduced from 48 to
24 hours, except at lake and tidewater ports, where gradual
reduction should be made toward at least a 50 percent
improvement. •;
-------
Fig. 1 - Bituminous Coal and Lignite Production, 1966-70
650
1966
1967
1968
1969
-------
OJ
u>
co
n
CO
U-l
o
CO
to
§
500
450
400
350
300*
1956
Fig. 2 - Railroad Serviceable Hopper Cars, 1966-70
(Excludes Privately Owned Cars on Class I Railroads)
1967
-------
600
Fig. 3 - Transportation o.f Coal from Mines, 1966-70
500 !-
Other (truck, minemouth
conveyor, etc.)
400 I
Waterways
Railroads
to
C
o
to
G
O
300
200
100
1966
1957
1969
-------
2. For the immediate and long-term period, government assistance
in financing new cars under a program administered by the
I.C.C. should be made available to railroads with in-
sufficient earnings to conduct their own car-building
program.
3. Greater utilization of the existing fleet of hopper cars
should be attained by construction of on-ground storage
facilities at the coal ports at Toledo, Ohio and Hampton
Roads and Newport News, Virginia.
4. It should be recommended that tha Interstate Commerce
Commission administer a program to guarantee loans to
those coal-carrying railroads with inadequate hopper-
car fleets.
-------
Coal Preparation
Coal washing or cleaning refers to the removal of extraneous
material such as pyrite, ash, or shale, from.the raw coal. Other
than froth flotation, coal cleaning processes are based primarily
on the specific gravity of the materials present. High ash coal
or coal middlings may also be separated. The greater the quantity
of intermediate near gravity material, the more difficult is the
cleaning process. An excellent reference on coal preparation has
been published by the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical
i /
Engineers. --'
The Bureau of Mines published a repor1: _' tabulating pyritic,
sulfate, and total sulfur contents of 2,000 coal samples obtained
»
in 29 states.
The te.on pyritic sulfur is used in reference to two crystal forms
of iron suicide, either pyrite or marcasite. The crystal structure is
generally determined by the use of X-rays,
Macroscopic pyrite is present in the coalbed as veins, lenses,
nodules or balls.
Microscopic pyrite occurs as small globules, discrete grains,
cavity fillings, and crystalline bundles and aggregates. Published
photomicrographs depict pyrite grains 1 to 2 microns in diameter.
!_/ Leonard, Joseph W., and David R. Mitchel, and others, Coal
Preparation, third edition, AIME, 1968.
"lj Walker, F. E. and F. E. Hartner, Forms of Sulfur in U.S.
Coals, Bureau of Mines, I.C. 8301, 1966, 51 pp.
-------
Theoretically, the pyrite and marcasite with specific gravities
of 4.9 to 5.0 should be able to be removed from coal since coal is
considered to have specific gravities of 1.2 to 1.7.
In coal washing practice the actual percentage of iron sulfides
removed ranges greatly between coals from various coalbeds. If the
pyrite is free (not in or attached to the coal particles) most of the
pyrite can be rejected by the proper cleaning techniques. Sulfur in
the forms of organic sulfur or sulfates is affected little by clean-
ing and in general cannot be removed.
Prior to the erection of a coal preparation plant, the coal prop-
erty should be sampled at various points to assure a representative
sample has been obtained of the area to be mined. A complete washa-
bility study should be made. Each set o* coal washability curves .?_/
presents the following curves. The cumulative ash and sulfur curves
indicate the- analysis in percent at a given yield of float coal. The
specific-gravity curve indicates the yield of float coal at any given
specific gravity. The + 0.10 specific-gravity curves indicate the
distribution of near gravity of separation material and are used in
estimating the difficulty of separation.
A size consist curve should be prepared to aid in the determining
types and the required capacities of the cleaning equipment.
_3/ Coe, G. D., and Explanation of Washability Curves for the
Interpretation of Float-and-Sink, I.C. 7045, 1938, 10 pp.
-------
An alternate procedure would be to run the raw coal through an
existing coal preparation plant. Such a test would require a tonnage
sufficient for several hours operation of the plant at or near its
rated capacity. The results of one plant-test using 500 tons of
4/
raw coal were presented in Bureau of Mines R.I. 5397. —
In connection with the APCO program, face or tipple samples were
taken at mines in the Appalachia Region. Each sample weighed about
600 pounds and was loaded into steel drums for shipment. At the labo-
ratories, eich coal sample was crushed to pass a 1 1/2-inch square
mesh screen, and was reduced to about 250 pounds by quartering. The
sample was iedusted by screening on a 100-mesh screen. Float-and-sink
tests using organic liquids were made at the following gravities; 1.30,
1.40, 1.60.
Table LO presents the results of laboratory separations of channel
samples at 1.60 specific gravity. This specific gravity approximates
the effective specific gravity at which many steam coals are cleaned.
The float-sink fractions were analyzed for ash, pyrite sulfur, and
total sulfur. Cumulating data from the float-sink fractions, the
100 percent yield shows the percentage of ash, pyritic sulfur, and
total sulfur contents of the raw coal sample. The main purpose of
presenting this table is to indicate coalbeds amenable to reduction
in sulfur content by cleaning. In counties where more than one channel
sample was taken, the results were averaged with some loss in accuracy.
This was done to avoid too voluminous a table.
4/ Perry, R. E., B. W. Gandrud, H. L. Riley, J0 B. Gayle, and
W. H. Eddy, Laboratory and Full Scale Sulfur Elimination Tests on Coals
from t.he Pratt Bed, Alabama, Bureau of Mines, R.I. 5397, 1958, 25 pp.
-------
TABLE 10. - Float-and-sink data from coal channel samples T./ showing reduction in ash and sulfur
OJ
Coalbed
Pittsburgh
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
America
Clements
Gwin
Mary Lee '"•
Baker st own
Do.
Jawbone
Upper Banner
Splash Dam .
Tiller
Upper
Freeport
Do.
Do.
Do.
State
Ohio
do.
do.
do.
Pa.
do.
W. Va.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
Alabama
do.
do.
do.
Md.
do.
Va.
Va.
do.
do.
Pa.
do.
do.
do.
County
Belmont
Gallia
Harrison
Jefferson
Greene
Washington
Brooke
Harrison
Marion
Marshall
Monongalia
Ohio
Walker
do.
Jefferson
do.
Allegany
do.
Russell
Dickenson
do.
Russell
Allegheny
Armstrong
Butler
Cambria
Number
of
samples
3
1
2
5
4
1 •
1
3
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
2
.1
1
1
1
1
"1
1
2
1
1
Ash in
Yield 2/ float 2/
91.2
9'6.1
83-2
90.9
9U.it
93-7
65.1*
93-5
94.5
91.2
95-9
92.?
83-7
. 90.5
91.6
87-9
80.5
92.7
84.2
'87.7
76.2
95-2
78-7
72.3
8l.O
8l. 4
7-7
7-0
8.6
8.6
7-6
5-6
9-4
7-4
6.5
7-5
8.0
6.6
7.1'
8.8
IV. 1
10.0
15.8
. 10.2
10.3
5-3
5-8
4.8
10.0
13.2
10.6
. 8.6
PERCENT
Ash in Ash Sulfur in
sample reduction 2/ float 2/
12.5
8.6
18.3
13-5
10.1
8.5
34.1
10.1
9-4
10.9
9-7
8.9
13.9
13.5
16.3
16.5
21.8
13.2
20.2
12.8
21.9
7.5
22.5
28.0
' 20.4
18.6
38.4
18.6
42.3
36.3
24.8
34.1
72.4
26.0
30-9
31-2
17.5
25.8
48.9 •
34.8
12.9
39-4
27-5
22.7
49.0
58.6
73-5
3-6
77-6
52.9
48.0
53-8
3.90
2-74
3-31
3.26
2.22
1.50
4-53
3-56
2.24
3-42
2.31
3.13
1.52
3-40
1.47 -
' .88
1-97
2.31
.58
.66
•83
.48
1-52
1-39
1.20
2.30
Sulfur in
sample
4-35
3.26
3-73
3.66
3-02
1.67
4.04
5-01
2.98
4.40
2.75
3-61
1.71
3.75
•1-77
.89
2.6l
2.80
•54
.69
.80
.47
1.90
2.01
1.28
4.47
Sulfur
reduction 2/
10.3
16.0
11-3
10.9
26.5
10.2
3/ 12.1
28.9
24.8
22.3
16.0
13.3
11.1
9-3
16.9
1.1
24-5
, n-5
3/ 7-4
4.3
3/ 3-8
3/ 2.1
20.0
30-8
6-3
48.5
-------
TABLE 10. - Float-and-sink data from coal channel samples I/ showing reduction in ash and sulfur - Continued
Coalbed
Upper
Freeport
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Brookville
Do.
Do.
Clairon
Lower
; Baker st on
Mahoning
Middle .
Kittaning
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Lower
Kittaning
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
State
Pa.
do.
do.
W. Va.
do.
Ohio
do.
Pa.
do.
W. Va.
Ohio
do.
do.
do.
do.
Pa.
¥. Va.
Ohio
do.
do. ,
Pa.
do.
do.-
Number
of
County samples
Clearfield
Tioga
Westmoreland
Grant
Preston
Mahoning
Jackson
Lawrence
Clairon
Grant
Guernsey
Columbia
Perry
Muskingum
Tuscarawas
Clairon
Barbour
Jefferson
Lawrence
Muskingum
Armstrong
Bedford
Cambria
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
4
3
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
'2
Yield 2/
81.7
96.3
73-3
61.8
89.2
95.3
90.5
96.6
90.2
63.1
70.3
89.6
82.5
95-7
85.3
98.1
81.4
84.4
88.1
93.3
84.1 .
84.9
79-8 .
Ash in
float 2/
10.6
8-3.
6.4
12.1
9-0
5-4
4.9
3.4
8.0
12.3
8.6
5-6
10.0
• 4.4
5-6
6.6
10.9.
9-2
9.4
9.6
8.4
6.6
8.7
PERCENT
Ash in Ash
sample reduction 2/
17-9
10.0
22.4
34.4
13-7
5-7
10.3
4.8
29.1
-28.3
11.2
.18.5
6.4
13.2
6.7
18.5
17-3
14.4
11.6
• 16.5
13-5
19-0
40.8
17-0
71.4
64.8
34.3
5-3
52.4
29.2
57-7
69.6
JpU.O
45.9
31.3
57-6
1-5
41.1
46.8
34.7
17.2
49-1
5L1
54.2
Sulfur in
float 2/
3.29
.98
2.19
1.54
1.19
2.06
3.20
1-55
2.33
1.36
3-73
2.29
2.39
2.31
2.94
•79
1.86
2-95
3-35
3-84
3-42
1.03
.81
Sulfur in
sample
4.83
1-55
3.60
2.42
1-53
2.60
4.03
2.35
3-39
3-01
- 4.44
3.85
4.71
2.99
5.40
.80
2.68
3.80
4.72
4.85
5.09
2.06
1.43
Sulfur
reduction 2/
.-31-9
36.8
39-2
36.4
22.2
20.8
20.6
34.0
31-3
54.8
18.4
40.5
49-3
22.7
45-6
1-3
30.6
22.4
29.0
20.8
32.8
50.0
43-4
-------
TABLE 10. - Float-and-sj.nk data from coal channel samples I/ showing reduction in ash and sulfur - Continued
Coalbed
Lower
Kittaning
Do.
Do.
Sewickley
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Jordon
Klondike
Sewanee
Walnut
Mountain
State
Pa.
do.
do.
Ohio
do.
do.
do.
¥. Va.
Tenn.
Tenn.
do.
do.
County
Clairion
Indiana
Jefferson
Belmont
Harrison
Morgan
Noble
Monongalia
Claiborne
Anderson
Marion
Campbell
Number
of
samples
1
7
1
1
2
2
3
1
1
1
1
1
Ash in
Yield 2/ float 2/
92.0
84.5
96.9 '
95-6
• 96.6
87-5
92.3
92-9
98.1
94-7
96 ,Q
92.4
6.5
6.6
7.1
12.0
9.9
12.4
13.2
10.4
3-0
7-1
8.2
5-3
PERCENT
Asb in Ash
sample reduction 2/
9-5
14.5
8.4
13-3
11.0
17-0
15-6
13-3
4.0
9-1
10.8
10.0
31-6
5^.5
15-5
9.8
10.0
27 .-1
15.4
21.8
25.0
22.0
24.0
47-0
Sulfur in
float 2/
2.24
1.87
1.12
2.57
1.66
4.77
5-01
3.56
.69
1.06
• 67
• 71
Sulfur in Sulfur
sample reduction 2/
3-65
3-9^
1.34
3.03
2.08
5.54
5.70
4.56
.76
1-99
• 71
.81
38. 6
52.5
16.4.
15-2
20.2
13.9
12.1
21.9
9.2
46.7
5-6
18.1
I/ Minus 1 1/2 inch by 100 mesh.
2y At 1.60 specific gravity.
-------
Table 11 was compiled from a series of Bureau of Mines reports of
investigations. The report number is listed in the table. When the
raw coal sample contained less than one percent sulfur, sulfur analyses
were not run on the float-and-sink fractions.
A short description is given of float-and-sink results on seven
coalbeds which have some of the largest reported reserves.
Currently additional float-and-sink tests are being conducted by
the Bureau for EPA. Additional coal preparation data will be needed
to estimate the percentage of coal reserves which can be mined and
upgraded to the desired standards.
Twenty-nine channel samples were taken from the Pittsburgh coalbeds
in twelve counties in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia. Five
channel samples from Greene, and Washing>:on Counties, Pennsylvania,
and Marion and Monongalia Counties in Went Virginia had float 1.60 frac-
tions with 1.1 to 2.0 percent sulfur-con :ent.
The Pocahontas No. 3 coalbed has been sampled in conjunction with
coking coal reports in Buchanan, Dickenson, and Tazewell Counties in
Virginia, and in Mercer, Raleigh, and Wyoming Counties in West Virginia.
The ash content in the cleaned coal should be 6.0 percent or less. The
total sulfur content is less than 1.0 percent in the raw coal. This coal
is used in coal blends to make metallurgical coke. *
The Mary Lee Coalbed in Warrior Coalfield in Alabama was channel
sampled. The float 1.60 fractions contained 0.7 and 1.1 percent total
sulfur, respectively. The ash content of the float product averaged
10.0 percent. In Jefferson County the washed coal is used in blends
for coke production.
-------
TABLE 11.- Selected float-and-sink data on coals I/ from published reports
PERCENT
Coalbed
Upper Elkhorn #3
or
Cedar Grove
Cedar Grove
Eagle
Fire Clay
State County
Kentucky Floyd
Harlan
Knott
Knott
Letcher
Letcher
Pike
Pike
West Boone
Virginia Boone
Kanawha
Kanawha
Logan
Logan
Logan
McDowell
Mingo
. West McDowell
Virginia Nicholas
Nicholas
Raleigh
Raleigh
Virginia Buchanan
Kentucky Perry
Yield
3/
3/
3/
3/
3/
I/
94
97
98
83
99
76
85
95
92
95
98
97
93
88
94
85
88
95
91
95
86
79
88
98
.•o
.4 '•
.0
• ;3
.4
.8
.6
.6
• 3
.2
•3
• 5
.8
.9
.4
• 7
• 5
.1
• 3
•3
.6
.2
.6
.6
Ash in
float
3-4
1.8
3-4
4.6
3-5
2-9
5.5
5-5
5-3
4.1
4.9
' 3.8
4.1
6.8
7.4
5.6
4.1
4.6
5.3
5-7
5-1
4-9
2.9
3.4
Ash in
sample
6-9
3.1
4.1
16.7
3-8
21.6
13-4
7-5
9.0
6.3
5-7
5-0
7-6
12.8
10.3
15-2
12.1
6.8
9.5
7.4
14.0
20.4
10.1
3.9
Sulfur
in float
1.06
1.76
1.16
2.25
.68
1.06
1-33
1,14
1.27
l.Uf
1.10
1.11
0.65
Sulfur in Reduction BuMines Rept
sample of sulfur of Inv. No.
1.49
2/ 1.0
1.96
2/ 1.00
1.21
2/ 1.00
3.64
.87
2/ 0.8
1.26
1-59
1.29
1.91
1.43 '
1.18 '
2/ 1.0
2/ 1.0
1.21
2/ 0.7
2/ 0.7
1.0
2/ 0.6
2/ 0.8
0.87
28.
10.
.
38.
21.
15-
16.
11.
33-
25.
6.
8.
25.
9
2
4
2
2
9
4
6
5
2
8
3
3
4920
.- 5140
4993
4993
5135
5135
4910
4910
5909
5909
6296
6296
5306
5306
5306
5094
• 5278
509;
6136
6136
5070
5070
674o
5230
-------
TABLE 11. - Selected float-and-sink data on coals I/ from published reports - Continued
PERCENT
Coalbed
Flagg
Harlan
Hindman
Lower Elkhorn
or
Imboden
>
>
Pocahontas #3
State
Kentucky
Kentucky
Kentucky
Kentucky
Virginia
West
Virginia
Virginia
County
Perry
Harlan
Harlan
Let cher
Pike
Pike
Pike
Wise
Mercer
Raleigh
Wyoming
Buchanan
Dickenson
Tazewell
Yield
93-2
99-2
99-2
84.5
82.7
95-6
95-3
95-7
94-5
96.2
3o.o
3/ 92.3
93-1
3/ 96.5
Ash in
float
.1 -^
2-3
3.4
7.4
3-6
5.7
6.8
5-3
4-7
6.0
5-9
3-2
5-6
' 4.9
Ash in
sample
?.4
2-7
3.8
15-7
16.4
8.1
9-1
7-3
6-9
' -I'l
7-7
10.2
6.6
Sulfur Sulfur in Reduction BuMines Rept.
in float sample of sulfur of Inv. No.
-/
2/
2/
1.07
^
2/
2/
2/
J
6.4
^
2/
0.9
1.0
1.0
1.36 21.3
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.8
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6l 4/ -5
0.9
0.5
5230
5l4o
5140
5135
4910
4910
4910
5391
6227
5070
5112
6740
5405
6297
I/ Minus 1 1/2-inch by 100 mesh.
2/ Raw coal.
3/ All specific gravities of separation 1.60 except that those indicated by footnote were 1.58.
-------
Based on published data, a sample of the Lower Elkhorn coalbed
in Letcher County, Kentucky, yielded a. float 1.60 specific gravity
fraction of 1.1 percent sulfur. In Pike County, Kentucky and Wise
County, Virginia, four samples of raw coal from this bed had a sulfur
content of less than 1.0 percent.
Sixteen channel samples were taken in the Lower Kittanning
coalbed at 15 mines in 8 counties located in Ohio and Pennsylvania.
In four samples, the float 1.60 fractions contained 1.0 or less total
sulfur. For five, the float 1.60 fractions ranged from 1.1 to 2.0 per-
cent total sulfur. The balance exceeded 2.1 percent. The coal samples
obtained in Cambria and Bedford Counties, Pennsylvania indicate the
coals from the Lower Kittanning coalbed should be capable of being
cleaned to 1.0 percent sulfur or less.
Based on published literature, 16 references to float-and-sink
tests were tabulated on the Upper Elkhorn No. 3 or Cedar Grove in Floyd,
Knott, Letcher, and Pike Counties in Kentucky and Boone, Kanawha, Logan,
McDowell and Mingo Counties in West Virginia. Six samples of raw coal
had a sulfur content of less than 1.0 percent. Eight float 1.60 frac-
tions had a sulfur content of 1.1 to 1.5 percent.
One sample from the Eagle coalbed in McDowell County, West Virginia
had a float 1.60 fraction with 1.0 percent sulfur. Five other raw coal
samples, from the Eagle coalbed in Nicholas and Raleigh Counties, and
Buchanan County in Virginia had less than 1.0 percent sulfur.
-------
Coal Preparation Plant Capacity and Availability
In 1969, the total production of bituminous coal and lignite was
560.5 million tons. Of this production 334.8 million tons, or 59.7 per-
cent was cleaned by wet and pneumatic methods. According to one trade
journal, the cleaned coal capacity of coal cleaning equipment sold in
1970 totaled 20.1 thousand tons per hour compared with 11.6 thousand
tons per hour for equipment sold in 1969. Based on an estimated use
of 12 hours per day and 220 days per year, 53.1 million tons of cleaned
coal capacity was added in 1970. This added capacity was about 9 percent
of the estimated 1970 coal production.
The lead time, from signing the contract to the time the preparation
plant is operational, may range from one»uo two years. This lead time
does not include the time required for coal sampling or coal washability
tests.
Several companies building new facilities reported three to four
bidders on contracts to erect coal washability plants. Considering
that 59.7 percent of the 1969 production was cleaned, and plant capac-
ity in 1970 increased 9 percent, the erectors should be able to keep
up with a normal increase in demand for new preparation plants.
New bituminous coal preparation facilities contracted for in 1970
are shown in Table 12.
-------
TABLE 12. - New Bituminous Coal Preparation Facilities Contracted for in 1970
Coal company
Plant location
Capacity, Preparation equipment
tph
Allegheny Mining Corp
Allegheny River Mining Co. .
(
f
Doavor Creek Consolidated
Coal Co
Bethlehem Mines Corp ,
I
Doonc County Coal Corp. . . j
f
\
Cllnchflcld Coal Co 4
1
Consolidation Coal Co
Eastern Associated Coal Corp. '
1
Gorg.is, Ala. 1,COO
Ml. Storm W. Va. 200
Kittannlng, Pa. 600
Logan, W. Va. 300
Sl.iglc. W. Va. 400
• Fabius, Ala. 500
Ocllc Rive, III. . 800
Monlcoal, W. Va.
Twilight, W. VA. ...
Phillppl, W. Va. ...
Darncsboro, Pa. . . .
Carrolltown, Pa. 250
Wayland, Ky. 650 '
Jenkins, Ky. . . .
Kayford, W. Va. 650
Monclo, W. Va.
Sharpies, W. Va. 250*
Kcrnilt, W. Va. ...
Cannclton, W. VA, ...
Carbon, W. Va.
Wcvaco, W. Va. 324
t Wincfrcdc.-W. Va. ...
Clarion, Pa. 400
New Haven. W. Va.
Pueblo, Colo. ' ...
Feds Creek, Ky. 200
Mouthcard, Ky. ...
. Clinchficld, Va. 20
•Bccklcy, W. Va. ...
Raleiflh, W. Va. 20
Affinity, W. Va. 400
Coono County, W. VA. ...
Stone. Ky. 25
Enosville, Ind. ...
Oakland City, Ind.
Ounlap, Ky. 200
Pike County, Ky. . . .
McNally Pittsburg
Irvin-McKcIvy
Jrvln-McKcIvy
Bird Machine
\ Dr.ivo1-0
I Hcyl «. Patterson
McNally Piltsburo
McN.illy Pittsburg
•Kanawlia'
Daniels
Hcyl f« Paltrrson
J.O. Lively
Hcyl & Patterson
McNally Pittsburg
Oclstcr
Hcyl & Patterson
[McN.illy Pittsburg
HcyldPattcrson
Heyl e. Patterson
i Daniels
Dcislcr
Daniels .
Daniels
Galis
f McNally Pittsburg
{ Galis
L Hcyl & Patterson
Galis
Irvin-McKcIvy
i McNally Pittsburg
Dlrd Machine
Roberts & Schaefcr
[' Dravo
L Bird
Dravo
Dlrd
Hcyl & Patterson
Dlrd
Roberts & Schaefcr
Roberts 4. Schaefcr
! OTA vo
Bird Machine
Hcyl & Patterson
Roberts t, Schaefcr
iZcni-McKinncy-Willlanis
Dcistcr
Dravo
-------
TABLE 12. - New Bituminous Coal Preparation Facilities Contracted for in 1970
(continued)
Coal company
Plant location
Capacity, Preparation equipment
ton
Jcwrll liid
-------
Effects of Health and Safety Regulations
Recently enacted Federal health and safety regulations will
restrict coal availability principally from the standpoint of available
manpower. However, a small amount of production is expected to be
curtailed because of the closing of some marginal mines that can not
afford to provide the required health and safety requisits.
Essentially, the regulations require continuous checks on venti-
lation and the accumulation of coal dust to insure against explosions;
the inspect:.on of roof support systems, electrical and mechanical
equipment; and the virtual discontinuance of operations until all
deficiencies", in equipment and operating areas have been corrected.
Undoubtedly, these requirements will have a profound effect upon pro-
•
ductivity and, in effect, will increase manpower requirements. The
implementation of these regulations are, primarily, the basis for our
conservative estimate of 1 percent as the average annual rate of growth
in productivity through 1985.
Major inovations in the Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act
enacted in 1969 are the health standards vhich were enacted for the
first time. These standards include limitations on respirable coal dust;
control of rock dust from drilling holes for roof bolts; medical exam-
inations, including chest roentgenogram; noise standards; furnishing
potable water at the working place; and sanitary facilities.
The law also has standards for ventilation, mining and roof
support plans, rock dusting, mine maps, blasting, lighting and communi-
cations. Standards for permissible electrical mining equipment, high
-------
and low voltage electric power transmission, and for electrical
grounding, and for trailing cables are included in the law. The
Act also has requirements for fire protection, including water
lines installed parallel to the entire length of belt conveyors
and rail haulage ways.
The law further requires that, effective June 30, 1970, each
operator shall continuously maintain the average concentration of
respirable dust in the mine atmosphere during each shift and that
the level of suspended dust to which each Miner is exposed should
be 3.0 milligrams or less per cubic meter of air.
Effective December 30, 1972, the concentration of respirative
dust in the mine atmosphere shall be reduced to no more than 2.0 mil-
«
ligrams per cubic meter. The Act defines, respirable dust as partic-
ulates 5 microns or smaller in size.
The mine operator must take the samples in a prescribed manner and
mail these samples to the Bureau of Mines. The results of sampling
were reported in Bureau of Mines Technical Progress Report 32, April
1971, as follows: "As of March 1, 1971, ever 152,000 respirable dust
samples have been processed by the Bureau of Mines„ Approximately
75 percent of underground working sections are being sampled in ac-
cordance with Federal regulations. Results indicate that 72 percent
of the sections which have completed at least one basic sampling cycle
o
are below 3.0 mg/m , the (present) standard in effect under the
Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969 (P. L. 91-173).
-------
Notices of Violation were issued on 1,670 underground mines for
failure to begin a sampling program; withdrawal orders were issued
in 64 of these instances. Notices of Violation were issued on
1,121 sections were applicable dust levels were exceeded; withdrawal
orders were issued in seven of these instances. There are 381 mining
sections currently operating on permits from the Interim Compliance
Panel."
The report's conclusions are:
"Assessment of data obtained from the operators' sampling program
and Federal inspections indicates that th>2 first level of Federal
respirable dust standards is clearly attainable at this time. Many
coal mines .ire now registering remarkably low respirable dust concen-
trations. Although previous work done by the Bureau of Mines indicated
that miners working in "high-risk" areas had an average exposure of
f\
5.6 mg/m , in assessment after 8 months under the act indicates that the
exposure of a significant percentage of such miners is now between 2 and
O
3 mg/m . Furthermore, 45 percent of the working sections which have
completed a basic sampling cycle have dusl: concentrations lower than
o
2.0 mg/m . This indicated real promise for the achievement of the
2.0 mg/m3 standard when it takes effect on December 30, 1972."
In general, the reduction in respiratory dust has been achieved
by more and better water sprays available at the coal face, increased
ventilation at the face, and better brattice maintenance.
The Act also requires that dust from drilling in rock shall be
controlled by the use of permissible dust collectors, or by water,
or water and wetting agents.
-------
In general, after one year from the effective date of this Act,
all low horsepower electrical equipment taken in by the last open
cross cut must be permissible. This includes items such as hand-
held electric drills, blower and exhaust fans, electric pumps, etc.
In addition, all junction or distribution boxes used for making
multiple power connections must be permissible.
For coal mines, which have coalbeds above the water table and
which have not been declared gassy, a permit for non-compliance may
be granted to allow the use of non-permissible equipment. However,
permits for non-compliance will not be given to exceed 48 months after
the enactment of this act. After one year from enactment, all replace-
ment equipment acquired for use in any mine must be permissible and so
maintained.
Any coal mine classed as gassy prior to the operative date of
this Act shall continue to use permissible equipment.
Each operator shall carry out a continuing program to improve
the roof control system. The roof and ribs of all active under-
ground roadways, travel ways, and working places shall be supported
or adequately controlled to protect personnel from falls of the
roof or ribs.
The Act states "A roof control plan and revisions thereof suit-
able to roof conditions and mining system of each coal mine and
approved by the Secretary shall be adopted and set out in printed
form within sixty days after the operative date of this act. The
plan shall show the type of support and spacing approved by the
Secretary. Such plan shall be reviewed periodically, at least
-------
every six months by the Secretary, taking into consideration any falls
of roof or ribs or inadequacy of support of roof or ribs. No person
shall proceed beyond the last permanent support unless adequate tempo-
rary support is provided or unless such temporary support is not
required under the approved roof control plan and the absence of such
support will not pose a hazard to the miners. A copy of the plan shall
be furnished the Secretary or his authorized representative and shall
be available to the miners and their representatives."--"When instal-
lation of roof bolts is permitted, such roof bolts shall be tested in
accordance with the approved roof control plan."
In summary, specific measurement of production losses is difficult
at the present. In Bureau of Mines personnel's conversations with mine:
operating officials, expressions of opinion are that decreases of produc-
tivity may range from 10 to 25 percent. However, losses in productivity
at individual mines or the closure of marjinal mines appears to have
been compensated for by the opening of new mines, additional sections in
older mines, and increased employment.
The production of bituminous coal increased from 560.5 million tons
in 1969 to an estimated 596.5 million tons in 1970, or an increase of
6.4 percent.
In an attempt to evaluate the effect of current safety requirements
on production per man-hour and per man-day, the estimated production
and estimated man-hours for the combined months of August through
December in 1969 were compared with the same months in 1970.
-------
The man-hours estimates were compiled from monthly reports submitted
to the Bureau of Mines from operators producing approximately 80 per-
cent of the Nation's bituminous coal and lignite. Production data
are estimates based on railroad carloadings and river shipments with
an allowance made for truck shipments and coal used at mines. We
wish to point out that normally these statistics would not be used
to determine productivity. However, at this time, these are the only
available data with which we can tend to evaluate this impact. The
tonnages and man-hours include surface ami underground production.
The tons pe:r man-hour are as follows:
Difference
1969 1970 Tons/man-hour
August
September
October
November
?)ecember
2.4569
2.4234
2.4718
2.4669
2.5288
2.4b39
2.3971
2.4703
2.3286
- .0188
+ .0605
- .0747
+ .0039
- .2002
Average . 2.4694 2.4220 - .0474
The tons per man-hour August to December 1969 period was 2.4694 in 1969
and 2.4220 for the 1970 period. Based on an 8-hour work day, the tons
per man-day were 19.76 for the 1969 period and 19.38 for 1970, or a
decline of 0.38 tons.
In 1969, 61.9 percent of the coal was produced in underground mines.
Assuming the same ratio existed in 1970, f:he reduction in tons per man-
day would be:
.38 +• .619 = .613 tons per man-day
Based on the average, the decline is a little more than 0.6 tons
per man-day.
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The Health and Safety Act will increase mining costs and the
coal's market value.
If a company delays ordering permissible equipment too long,
or does not have its equipment made permissible and maintained in
this condition, a drop in this company's production will result from
lack of usable equipment. If this condition becomes widespread,
total coal production could decline.
Current lead times for equipment purchases such as a small
continuous miner are reported to be 9 to 18 months. Current lead
times for conventional equipment was estimated at 12 to 18 months.
One medium size mine has its name on the manufacturer's list for
conventional equipment as far in advance as 1975. This company
plans to replace present equipment within four to five years.
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Summary
In summation, the following points are emphasized:
1. Coals vary greatly in chemical and physical properties and
one rank of coal can not be generally substituted for another.
Even coals of the same rank can not be interchanged, in many
instances, for one another.
2. A p?-oblem of immediate concern to electric-utility plants
j
in r.ome areas is the procurement of low-sulfur coals with
ash-fusion temperatures suitable for use in wet-bottom furnaces.
It appears that demand for such coals in the near future will
far outweigh supply.
•
3. Manoower needs of the coal industry are expected to increase
substantially during the next decade and the industry is faced
particularly with the problem of attracting and recruiting the
needed manpower at a time when it.? image has grossly deterio-
rated because of recent mining disasters, health problems of
miners, and undesirable working conditions. A number of inter-
related factors will, of course, affect requirements, but it
is estimated that the additional niners that will be needed to
produce the coal that will be required in 1985 will range from
a low of 26,000 to a high of 184,000.
4. Non-rail modes of coal transportation will, in all probability,
be adequate to meet the demands placed upon them. Railroad
transportation will, however, not be adequate unless the actions
mentioned in the report, or others, are instituted to increase
the supply of railroad hopper cars.
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5. Coal preparation and cleaning plant capacity must be
expanded greatly in order that the coal industry can meet
the more severe requirements being imposed upon coal quality,
Presently, from 1 to 2 years elapses between the times when
initial construction of a coal preparation plant begins and
the plant is completed and becomes operational. It should
be i ecognized that there is a relatively small number of
coim; anies that construct coal preparation plants and that
any large influx of orders for such plants will greatly
extend the time span for delivery.
6. The Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969 is
• *
expected to restrict coal availability, principally
bee luse it is expected to lower productivity and increase
manpower requirements. As assessment of the effects of
health and safety legislation upon coal availability is
premature at this time because of the lack of data.
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