RESEARCH TRIANGLE INSTITUTE
NAPCA Contract No. CPA 22-69-79
RTI Project No. OU-455
February 1970
FINAL REPORT
R-OU-455
COMPREHENSIVE ECONOMIC COST STUDY OF AIR
POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS FOR SELECTED INDUSTRIES
AND SELECTED REGIONS
by
M.E. Fogel, D.R. Johnston, R.L.Collins,
D.A. LeSourd, R.W. Gerstle, E.L. Hill
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RESEARCH TRIANGLE INSTITUTE
OPERATIONS RESEARCH AND ECONOMICS DIVISION
RESEARCH TRIANGLE PARK, NORTH CAROLINA
FINAL REPORT
FR-OU-455
Comprehensive Economic Cost Study of Air Pollution Control
Costs for Selected Industries and Selected Regions
by
M. E. Fogel, D. R. Johnston, R. L. Collins,
D. A. LeSourd, R. W. Gerstle, E. L. Hill
Prepared for:
The National Air Pollution Control Administration
United States Public Health Service
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the many people who contributed to
the research reported herein. RTI staff members who contributed signi-
ficantly to the research are: C. Benrud, T. E. Bingham, C. N. Click,
F. 0. Mixon, R. E. Paddock, H. G. Richter, A. R. Schleicher, and
D. Wilder. The authors appreciate the efforts of personnel of Resources
Research, Inc. in assisting in the cost analysis for the following
sources: solid waste disposal, petroleum refining, petroleum products
and storage, rubber, varnish, and plastics. C. Smallwood, Jr., and
W. S. Caller, both of North Carolina State University, provided guidance
in connection with solid waste disposal methods.
The authors also wish to acknowledge the continuing technical
guidance provided by the NAFCA project officers, N. G. Edmisten,
J. F. Citarella, J. R. O'Connor, and A. K. Miedema.
Finally, special appreciation is extended to the ladies who typed
and retyped the many drafts of this report: J. Billings, project
secretary; T. Batten, M. Davis, F. Heald, S. Powell, and T. Stone.
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ABSTEACT
t
I " Estimates were made of the costs of controlling the emissions of
selected pollutants from twenty-two sources within 100 metropolitan areas, o.-
f \l »\, . . . '-' '»'"/,- <--
Under the implementation plan assumed, these costs will be incurred during
the period of Fiscal Year 1970 through Fiscal Year 1975.S'The pollutants
selected are particulates, sulfur oxides, hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide.
The emission standards applied are considered "stringent in comparison with
many currently in use throughout the Nation. /(^The sources for which control
cost estimates were made are solid waste disposal, steam-electric generating
plants, industrial boilers, commercial and institutional heating plants,
residential heating plants, and the following industrial categories: kraft
pulp, iron and steel, gray iron foundry, primary nonferrous metallurgical
(copper, lead, zinc, and aluminum) ,^sulfuric acid, phosphate fertilizer,
petroleum refining, cement, lime, coal cleaning, petroleum products and
storage, grain milling (animal feed) "and handling, varnish, rubber (tires
and inner tubes), ^and secondary nonferrous metallurgical. (copper, lead,
zinc, and aluminum). ^Essential data defining regional and relevant process
and air pollution control engineering characteristics required to support
the cost analyses for each source are presented and analyzed in separate
appendixes to the report.^
The coking, plastics, rendering, and soap and detergent industries
were, "examined ; however, control cost estimates were not made.
^Air pollution control costs are presented for each region and source
by fiscal year in terms of investment and annual expenditures. The cost
estimates developed reflect the control of sources in operation as of
Calendar Year 1967 as well as additional sources assumed to be constructed
during the period of Calendar Year 1968 through Fiscal Year 1975. For the
sources in operation in 1967, it was assumed that compliance with the
standards and hence the rate at which the estimated costs are incurred is
defined by the assumed implementation plan. Control of additional sources
was assumed to take place immediately. In addition, emission estimates are
presented which reflect conditions both with and without implementation of
"tfie^emission standards. >£Che estimated investment costs for the 100 metro-
politan areas amount to $2.64 billion; an annual cost of $1.88 billion is
reached by Fiscal Year 1975. An extensive bibliography is also included.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT il;L
LIST OF TABLES vli
LIST OF FIGURES xlii
Chapter 1: Introduction 1-1
I. PURPOSE OF RESEARCH 1-1
II. SCOPE OF RESEARCH 1-2
III. LIMITATIONS 1-3
IV. PLAN OF REPORT 1-4
Chapter 2: Study Methodology 2-1
I. INTRODUCTION 2-1
II. METHODOLOGY OVERVIEW 2-1
III. SELECTION OF POLLUTANTS 2-2
IV. SELECTION OF SOURCES 2-2
V. ENGINEERING ANALYSIS 2-3
A. Source Analysis 2-3
B. Emission Estimates 2-3
C. Level of Control Estimates 2-3
D. Required Removal Efficiency 2-4
E. Selection of Control Alternatives 2-5
VI. SOURCE STATISTICS 2-6
VII. COST ANALYSES 2-12
A. General Approach 2-12
B. Accuracy of the Estimates 2-14
C. Amortization Procedures 2-15
VIII. VALIDITY OF COST ESTIMATES 2-15
Chapter 3: Cost Estimates 3-1
I. INTRODUCTION 3-1
II. TOTAL IMPLEMENTATION COSTS 3-1
III. SOURCE COSTS 3-1
IV. METROPOLITAN AREA COSTS 3-4
A. Total Implementation 3-4
B. Solid Waste Disposal 3-6
C. Stationary Combustion 3-6
D. Industrial Process 3-9
Chapter 4: Emission Reductions 4-1
I. INTRODUCTION 4-1
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
II,
III.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Appendix A:
Appendix B:
Appendix C:
Appendix D:
Appendix E:
Appendix F:
Appendix G:
Appendix H:
Appendix I:
Appendix J:
Appendix K:
Appendix L:
Appendix M:
Appendix N:
Appendix 0:
Appendix P:
Appendix Q:
Appendix R:
Appendix S:
Appendix T:
Appendix U:
Appendix V:
METROPOLITAN AREA SUMMARY
B. Particulates
C. Sulfur Oxide
SOURCE SUMMARY
B. 1967 Emission Levels
C. 1975 Emission Levels
'HY
L: Assumed Emission Standards
S: Selection of 100 Metropolitan Areas
Page
. . . . 4-1
. . . . 4-1
. . . . 4-3
. . . . 4-3
. . . . 4-6
. . . . 4-6
. . . . 4-7
. . . . 4-7
. . . . 4-7
. . . . 4-7
. . . . 5-1
. . . . A-l
. . . . B-l
Chronological Phasing of the Implementation of Air
Quality Control in 100 Metropolitan Areas . . .
1967 Base Year Air Quality Control Costs; Annual and
Investment Costs by Metropolitan Area, FY 1971-
1975
Solid Waste Disposal
Steam-Electric Power Plants
Industrial Boilers
Commercial-Institutional Heating Plants. .
Residential Heating Plants
Kraft (Sulfate) Pulp Industry
Iron and Steel Industry
Gray Iron Foundry Industry
Primary Nonferrous Metallurgical Industry.
Sulfuric Acid Industry
Phosphate Fertilizer Industry
Petroleum Refinery Industry
Asphalt Cement Industry
Cement Industry
Lime Industry
Coal Cleaning Industry ,
Petroleum Products Storage Industry. . . ,
Grain Milling and Handling Industry. . . .
C-l
D-l
E-l
F-l
G-l
H-l
1-1
J-l
K-l
L-l
M-l
N-l
0-1
P-l
Q-l
R-l
S-l
T-l
U-l
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Appendix W:
Appendix X:
Appendix Y:
Appendix Z:
Appendix AA:
Appendix BB:
Appendix CC:
Varnish Industry
Rubber (Tires and Inner Tubes) Industry. . .
Secondary Nonferrous Metallurgical Industry.
Coking Industry
Plastics Industry
Rendering Industry
Soap and Detergent Industry
Page
W-l
X-l
Y-l
Z-l
AA-1
BB-1
CC-1
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
2-1 Major Sources of Data for Stationary Combustion
Cost Estimating Analyses 2-8
2-2 Principal Sources of Data on Source Location,
Number, and Capacities 2-9
2-3 Principal Sources of Data on Production 2-10
2-4 Principal Sources of Data on Source Value of Shipments . . 2-10
2-5 1967 Statistics for Industrial Process Sources 2-11
3-1 Projected Costs for Controlling Facilities in 100
Metropolitan Areas 3-2
3-2 Total Control Cost by the End of Fiscal Year 1975 3-3
3-3 Expected Annual Control Costs Relative to Capacity and
Shipments of Industrial Process Sources 3-5
3-4 1967 Base Year Air Quality Control Costs Total Investment
(FY 1971-1975) and FY 1975 Annual Costs by
Metropolitan Area 3-10
4-1 Emissions and Control Levels for 100 Metropolitan Areas
With and Without Implementation of the Act, 1967
and 1975 4-2
4-2 Estimated 1967 Emission Levels - Stationary
Combustion Sources 4-4
4-3 Estimated 1967 Emission Levels - Industrial
Process Sources 4-5
4-4 Projected Emission Levels and Relative Effects of the Act
by the End of Fiscal Year 1975 4-8
A-l Allowable Rate of Particulate Emission Based on Process
Weight Rate A-6
B-l List of 100 Metropolitan Areas B-5
C-l 100 Metropolitan Areas by Groups C-5
C-2 Implementation Schedule for 100 Metropolitan Areas by
Group C-7
E-l Cost of Upgrading Municipal Incinerators E-5
E-2 Example Metropolitan Area Solid Waste Data E-6
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Table page
E-3 Summary of 1967 Example Metropolitan Area Costs E-7
E-4 Municipal Incinerator Control Costs E-9
E-5 Solid Waste Disposal: Estimates of Reduced Emission
Levels and Associated Costs E-13
E-6 Solid Waste Disposal: Estimated Cost of Controlling
Pollutant Emissions from Sources Added After 1967 . E-14
F-l Particulate and S02 Uncontrolled Emission Factors. . . . F-4
F-2 Particulate Removal Efficiencies Required F-5
F-3 Steam-Electric Power Plants: Estimates of Reduced
Emission Levels and Associated Costs F-8
F-4 Steam-Electric Power Plants: Estimated Cost of
Controlling Pollutant Emissions from Sources
Added after 1967 F-9
G-l Particulate Emission Factors for Industrial Boilers. . . G-5
G-2 SC>2 Emission Factors for Industrial Boilers G-5
G-3 Industrial Boilers: Estimates of Reduced Emission
Levels and Associated Costs G-7
G-4 Industrial Boilers: Estimated Cost of Controlling
Pollutant Emissions from Sources Added after 1967 . G-8
H-l Fuel Consumption for Commercial and Institutional
Heating, 1967 (Percentage Distribution of Gas, Oil,
and Coal by State) H-5
H-2 Uncontrolled Emission Rates for Commercial-
Institutional Space Heating H-6
H-3 Conversion Costs for Commercial-Institutional Space
Heating H-7
H-4 Commercial-Institutional Heating Plants: Estimates
of Reduced Emission Levels and Associated Costs . . H-8
1-1 Uncontrolled Emission Rates 1-5
1-2 Conversion Costs for Residential Heating 1-7
1-3 Residential Heating Plants: Estimates of Reduced
Emission Levels and Associated Costs 1-8
J-l Uncontrolled Particulate Emission Rates J-5
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Table Page
J-2 Estimated Particulate Control Levels and Emission
Rates after Control J-6
J-3 Required Removal Efficiencies for Kraft Processes J-7
J-4 Gas Volume vs. Production for Kraft Processes J-8
J-5 Control Systems Selected J-8
J-6 Kraft Recovery Furnace Emission Control Costs J-9
J-7 Rotary Lime Recovery Kiln Emission Control Costs J-17
J-8 Kraft Smelt-dissolving Tank Emission Control Costs .... J-17
J-9 Kraft Bark Boiler Emission Control Costs J-18
J-10 Kraft (Sulfate) Pulp Plants: Estimates of Reduced
Emission Levels and Associated Costs J-19
J-ll Kraft (Sulfate) Pulp Plants: Estimated Cost of
Controlling Pollutant Emissions from Sources
Added after 1967 J-21
K-l Uncontrolled Particulate Emission Rates K-5
K-2 Particulate Control Levels K-5
K-3 Required Removal Efficiencies for Emission Sources .... K-6
K-A Selected Control Systems K-7
K-5 Cost Estimating Parameters K-9
K-6 Iron and Steel Plants: Estimates of Reduced Emission
Levels and Associated Costs K-12
K-7 Iron and Steel Plants: Estimated Cost of Controlling
Pollutant Emissions from Sources Added after 1967 . . K-13
L-l Cupola Emission Control Costs L-6
L-2 Gray Iron Foundries: Estimates of Reduced Emission
Levels and Associated Costs L-8
L-3 Gray Iron Foundries: Estimated Cost of Controlling
Pollutant Emissions from Sources Added after 1967 . . L-9
M-l Uncontrolled Particulate Emission Factors for
Electrolytic Reduction Cells M-5
M-2 Required Particulate Removal Efficiency - Prebaked Cells . M-6
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Table Page
M-3 Required Particulate Removal Efficiency - Soderberg
Pots M-6
M-4 Capacity and Gas Volume - Prebaked Cells M-7
M-5 Capacity and Gas Volume - Soderberg Cells M-7
M-6 Metallurgical Processes for Copper, Lead and Zinc M-8
M-7 Primary Smelting - Model Plants M-9
M-8 Primary Nonferrous Metallurgical Plants: Estimates of
Reduced Emission Levels and Associated Costs M-20
M-9 Primary Nonferrous Metallurgical Plants: Estimated
Cost of Controlling Pollutant Emissions from
Sources Added after 1967 M-21
N-l Sulfuric Acid Emission Control Costs: Double
Absorption N-7
N-2 Sulfuric Acid Emission Control Costs: Mist Eliminator . . N-7
N-3 Sulfuric Acid Plants: Estimates of Reduced Emission
Levels and Associated Costs N-9
N-4 Sulfuric Acid Plants: Estimated Cost of Controlling
Pollutant Emissions from Sources Added after 1967 . . N-ll
0-1 Primary Phosphate Fertilizer Control Costs 0-6
0-2 Phosphate Fertilizer Plants: Estimates of Reduced
Emission Levels and Associated Costs 0-8
0-3 Phosphate Fertilizer Plants: Estimated Cost of
Controlling Pollutant Emissions from Sources
Added after 1967 0-9
P-l Hydrocarbon Emissions and Control Percentages P-5
P-2 Petroleum Refining Plants: Estimates of Reduced Emission
Levels and Associated Costs P-14
p-3 Petroleum Refineries: Estimated Cost of Controlling
Pollutant Emissions from Sources Added after 1967 . . P-16
Q-l Incremental Removal Efficiencies Required Q-4
Q-2 Asphalt Batching Emission Control Costs Q-6
Q-3 Asphalt Batching Plants: Estimates of Reduced Emission
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Table Page
Q-4 Asphalt Batching Plants: Estimated Cost of
Controlling Pollutant Emissions from Sources
Added after 1967 Q-9
R-l Present Control Status for the Cement Industry R-5
R-2 Ultimate Particulate Removal Efficiencies Required .... R-5
R-3 Production Rate Versus Gas Volume R-6
R-4 Cement Plant Emission Costs R-7
R-5 Cement Plants: Estimates of Reduced Emission Levels
and Associated Costs R-l2
R-6 Cement Plants: Estimated Cost of Controlling
Pollutants Emissions from Sources Added after 1967. . R-13
S-l Ultimate Control Efficiency Required S-5
S-2 Lime Kiln Gas Volumes S-6
S-3 Rotary Lime Kiln Emission Control Costs S-12
S-4 Vertical Lime Kiln Emission Control Costs S-13
S-5 Lime Plants: Estimates of Reduced Emission Levels and
Associated Costs S-14
S-6 Lime Plants: Estimated Cost of Controlling Pollutant
Emissions from Sources Added after 1967 S-16
T-l Uncontrolled Particulate Emission Rates from Coal
Cleaning Processes T-4
T-2 Coal Cleaning Emission Control Costs T-6
T-3 Coal Cleaning Plants: Estimates of Reduced Emission
Levels and Associated Costs T-10
T-4 Coal Cleaning Plants: Estimated Cost of Controlling
Pollutant Emissions from Sources Added after 1967 . . T-12
U-l Emission Factors for Bulk Gasoline Storage U-4
U-2 Petroleum Products Storage Plants: Estimates of Reduced
Emission Levels and Associated Costs U-8
U-3 Petroleum Products Storage Plants: Estimated Cost of
Controlling Pollutant Emissions from Sources Added
after 1967 U-9
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Table page
V-l Employment Size Category for Grain Elevators V-6
V-2 Grain Elevator Emission Control Costs V-7
V-3 Livestock Feed Mill Emission Control Costs V-8
V-4 Grain Elevators: Estimates of Reduced Emission Levels
and Associated Costs V-ll
V-5 Grain Mills: Estimates of Reduced Emission Levels and
Associated Costs V-12
V-6 Grain Elevators: Estimated Cost of Controlling Pollu-
tant Emissions from Sources Added after 1967 .... V-13
W-l Capacity vs. Annualized Cost Factors W-4
W-2 Varnish Plants: Estimates of Reduced Emission Levels
and Associated Costs W-8
W-3 Varnish Plants: Estimated Cost of Controlling Pollutant
Emissions from Sources Added after 1967 W-10
X-l Rubber (Tires and Inner Tubes) Plants: Estimates of
Reduced Emission Levels and Associated Costs .... X-7
X-2 Rubber (Tires and Inner Tubes) Plants: Estimated Cost
of Controlling Pollutant Emissions from Sources
Added after 1967 X-8
Y-l Uncontrolled Emission Rates from Secondary Nonferrous
Metals Industry Y-4
Y-2 Emission Control Costs for the Secondary Nonferrous
Metallurgical Industry Y-6
Y-3 Secondary Nonferrous Metallurgical Industry: Estimates
of Reduced Emission Levels and Associated Costs. . . Y-7
Y-4 Secondary Nonferrous Metallurgical Plants: Estimated
Cost of Controlling Pollutant Emissions from
Sources Added after 1967 Y-9
Z-l Emissions from Beehive and By-Product Ovens Z-4
Z-2 Levels of Control for By-Product Coke Ovens Z-4
Z-3 Uncontrolled Emission Rates for Coking Operations .... Z-5
Z-4 Gas Volumes for Coking Operations Z-6
AA-1 Plastics Manufacturing Emissions, Sources and Control . . AA-6
BB-1 Distribution of Rendering Plants in the United States . . BB-4
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure page
2-1 Control Cost versus Gray Iron Cupola Capacity 2-7
3-1 Distribution of FY 1971-1975 Investment Cost 3-7
3-2 Distribution of FY 1975 Annual Costs 3-8
A-l New York State Particulate Emission Regulation
for Refuse Burning Equipment A-5
A-2 Maryland Particulate Emission Standards for Fuel
Burning Installations A-7
E-l Municipal Incinerator Particulate Control Cost E-10
J-l Equipment Cost for Venturi Scrubbers J-10
J-2 Equipment Cost for Venturi Scrubbers . J-ll
J-3 Annual Direct Operating Cost for Venturi Scrubbers .... J-12
J-4 Annual Direct Operating Cost for Recovery Boiler
Venturi Scrubbers J-13
J-5 Annual Direct Operating Cost for Lime Kiln Venturi
Venturi Scrubbers J-14
J-6 Equipment Cost for Multi-tube Collectors J-15
J-7 Annual Operating Cost for Multi-tube Collectors J-16
M-l Equipment Cost for Packed Towers M-ll
M-2 Annual Direct Operating Cost for Packed Towers M-12
M-3 Equipment Cost for High-voltage Electrostatic
Precipitators ..... M-13
M-4 Capital Costs for the Contact Sulfuric Acid Process .... M-15
M-5 Annual Operating Costs for Contact Sulfuric Acid Process . M-16
M-6 Equipment Costs for Lime Wet-Scrubbing Process M-17
M-7 Operating Costs for the Lime-Burning Section of the
Lime Wet-Scrubbing Process M-18
M-8 Operating Costs-Scrubbing and Waste-Treating Section of
Lime Wet-Scrubbing Process at 100% of Capacity .... M-19
0-1 Equipment Cost for Venturi Scrubbers 0-10
0-2 Equipment Cost for Venturi Scrubbers 0-11
0-3 Annual Direct Operating Cost for Venturi Scrubbers .... 0-12
P-l Installed Cost of Floating Roofs on Petroleum Storage
Tanks P-6
P-2 Sulfur Recovery Plants Costs P-8
P-3 Annual and Installed Costs for Electrostatic Precipitators. P-ll
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Figure page
P-4 Cost of Carbon Monoxide Boilers P-12
Q-l Equipment Cost for Venturi Scrubbers Q-10
Q-2 Equipment Cost for Venturi Scrubbers Q-ll
Q-3 Annual Direct Operating Cost for Venturi Scrubbers .... Q-12
Q-4 Equipment Cost for Multi-tube Collectors Q-13
Q-5 Annual Operating Cost for Multi-tube Collectors Q-14
R-l Equipment Cost for Electrostatic Precipitator R-8
R-2 Operating Costs for Electrostatic Precipitators R-9
R-3 Equipment Cost of Fabric Filters R-10
S-l Equipment Cost for Venturi Scrubbers S-7
S-2 Equipment Cost for Venturi Scrubber S-8
S-3 Annual Direct Operating Cost for Venturi Scrubbers .... S-9
S-4 Equipment Cost for Cyclonic Scrubbers S-10
S-5 Annual Direct Operating Cost for Cyclonic Scrubbers. . . . S-ll
T-l Equipment Cost for Venturi Scrubbers T-7
T-2 Equipment Cost for Venturi Scrubbers T-8
T-3 Annual Direct Operating Cost for Venturi Scrubbers .... T-9
U-l Cost for Converting Fixed Roof Gasoline Storage Tanks
to Floating Roof Tanks U-5
V-l Equipment Cost of Fabric Filters V-9
W-l Installed Cost for Direct-fired Afterburner for Varnish
Plant W-5
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Chapter 1
Introduction
I. PURPOSE OF RESEARCH
This report is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
of National Air Pollution Control Administration (NAPCA) Contract No.
CPA 22-69-79. The research results presented herein are in support of
the cost estimates given in the Second Report of the Secretary of Health,
Education, and Welfare to the Congress of the United States as provided
for in section 305(a) of Public Law 90-148, the Clean Air Act, as Amended.
The purpose of the research reported in this document was to make
estimates of the air pollution control costs that will result from imple-
mentation of the Clean Air Act, as Amended. The section of the act perti-
nent to this research reads:
Sec. 305. (a) In order to provide the basis for eval-
uating programs authorized by this Act and the development
of new programs and to furnish the Congress with the infor-
mation necessary for authorization of appropriations by
fiscal years beginning after June 30, 1969, the Secretary,
in cooperation with State, interstate, and local air pollu-
tion control agencies, shall make a detailed estimate of
the cost of carrying out the provisions of this Act; a
comprehensive study of the cost of program implementation
by affected units of government; and a comprehensive study
of the economic impact of air quality standards on the
Nation's industries, communities, and other contributing
sources of pollution, including an analysis of the national
requirements for and the cost of controlling emissions to
attain such standards of air quality as may be established
pursuant to this Act or applicable State law. The secre-
tary shall submit such detailed estimates and the results
of such comprehensive study of cost for the five-year
period beginning July I, 1969, and the results of such
other studies, to the Congress not later than January 10,
1969, and shall submit a reevaluation of such estimate
and studies annually thereafter.
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II. SCOPE OF RESEARCH
Costs of control were estimated for three major categories of pollu-
tant sources: solid waste disposal, stationary combustion, and industrial
process. Included as stationary combustion sources are steam-electric
generating plants, industrial boilers, commercial and institutional heating
plants, and residential heating plants. Initially, the industrial process
sources studied were: the kraft (sulfate) pulp, iron and steel, gray iron
foundry, primary nonferrous metallurgical, sulfuric acid, phosphate ferti-
lizer, petroleum refining, cement, lime, coal cleaning, petroleum products
storage, grain milling and handling, varnish, rubber (tires and inner
tubes), secondary nonferrous metallurgical, coking, plastics, and rendering
industries. Of these, the coking, plastics, rendering, and soap and deter-
gent industries were deleted from the study for reasons included in
Appendixes Z, AA, BB, and CC.
The pollutants for which control costs were estimated (as appropriate
to each particular source) were particulates, sulfur oxides, hydrocarbons,
and carbon monoxide.
Costs of control were estimated for establishments of the selected
source categories that operated during 1967 in 100 metropolitan areas of
the Nation that were selected and defined by NAPCA. Both investment and
annualized costs for the affected areas were estimated and expected error
limits were assigned to all cost estimates.
Additionally, emission control costs that might be incurred by facil-
ities built during the period 1968 through Fiscal Year 1975 were estimated.
These estimates are limited to the sources and the 100 areas mentioned
above. Additional costs resulting from growth were estimated for all of
the 100 metropolitan areas; no estimates on an area by area basis were
made.
Air quality criteria and control technology documents for particulate
and sulfur oxides have been published by NAPCA; documents for hydrocarbons
and carbon monoxide are in preparation.
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III. LIMITATIONS
The principal and general limitations of this study are described
below. Limitations peculiar to a particular source are discussed in
the pertinent appendix. Estimates of numbers and sizes of sources,
emissions, and costs made in this study were based entirely on data
obtained from NAPCA surveys, technical and trade journals, the Bureau
of the Census, government reports, and manufacturing firms and trade
associations.
In a number of instances, the required data were not available in
a directly usable form. In those cases and when feasible, estimates
of the parameters were made and the sensitivity of the resulting cost
estimate to the estimated parameter was considered. For many industries
it was not possible to obtain sufficient detailed engineering data to
make reliable cost estimates for all of the pollutant sources within
the industry. Accordingly, cost estimates for those industries were
based only on those processes considered to be prime pollutant sources.
In some cases the cost of controlling emissions from materials handling
could not be estimated due to the paucity of appropriate data.
To estimate costs, it was also necessary to assume a level of emis-
sion control to be achieved for each pollutant emitted from each source
category. The assumed levels of control were based on emission stan-
dards selected by NAPCA and described in Appendix A. Cost estimates
are for control at the levels required by the assumed standards and, of
course, would be higher or lower if more or less stringent emission
standards were assumed.
The area and total cost estimates presented in this report apply
only to the control of particulates, sulfur oxides, hydrocarbons, and
carbon monoxide. The projected costs should not, therefore, be considered
the full cost of achieving clean air. There are many other pollutants
and sources that must be included in the calculation of such a figure.
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Finally,'it should be emphasized that making cost estimates required
a number of assumptions regarding control technology. In a few cases
these assumptions were somewhat arbitrary and do not necessarily reflect
the latest technology available. Insofar as possible, however, current
techniques of proven effectiveness were assumed. It is probable that
new and improved control equipment and methods will evolve during the time
span of the implementation plan assumed for this analysis. Such develop-
ments, as well as unpredictable price movements, may cause actual costs
to differ significantly from the estimates presented herein. Furthermore,
actual control costs may include some items of expense not predicted by
the simplified source descriptions assumed for this analysis.
IV. PLAN OF REPORT
The results of this research are presented in the following three
chapters. Chapter 2 discusses the methodology employed to obtain esti-
mates of the cost of controlling pollutant emissions from solid waste
disposal, stationary combustion, and industrial processes in 100 metro-
politan areas of the United States; Chapter 3 presents the cost estimates;
and Chapter 4 outlines the emission reductions that would be accomplished
by implementing the plan of control assumed herein. Appendixes to this
report describe the emission standards assumed, the metropolitan areas
studied, the implementation plan, the metropolitan area costs by fiscal
year, and the detailed engineering and cost data, by source, used in the
analyses.
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Chapter 2
Study Methodology
I. INTRODUCTION
The objective of this chapter is to describe in general terms the
methods and the data employed to estimate regional air pollution control
costs.
The methods are described under the following section headings:
"Methodology Overview," "Selection of Pollutants," "Selection of Sources,"
"Engineering Analysis," "Source Statistics," "Cost Analysis," and "Validity of
Cost Estimates." The general descriptions presented in this chapter are
supplemented by appendixes to this report which detail the procedures
followed for each of the sources.
II. METHODOLOGY OVERVIEW
The method used in the cost estimations included steps common to
all of the sources analyzed. First, it was necessary to determine which
of the pollutants under study were being emitted in concentrations or
at rates exceeding the assumed control standards. The next step was the
calculation of 1967 emissions, based on an estimate of the level of con-
trol in effect at that time. This established a baseline for subsequent
control cost analyses. Assuming such a baseline, calculations were
performed to determine the pollutant removal efficiencies required to
bring 1967 emissions into compliance with the emission standards assumed.
Control equipment and/or other control procedures that would achieve the
calculated pollutant removal efficiency were identified. Cost estimates
based on the control procedures identified were then made for each cate-
gory of polluting source segregated by area; the accompanying reduction
in emissions was also calculated.
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A special series of calculations to account for the control of
additional capacity constructed after 1967 was also performed. The
emissions and resulting control costs for the sources existing in 1967
were computed and tabulated by area according to the implementation
schedules assumed. The costs of controlling the sources assumed to be
constructed after 1967 were computed assuming that control takes place
in the same year the facility is constructed. The additional sources
were given credit for a control level, without the act in effect, equal to
the source average in 1967. Costs for controlling the additional sources
were calculated only as a single quantity for all the 100 areas.
III. SELECTION OF POLLUTANTS
Of the many pollutants for which control expenditures may eventually
be required, only four were selected by NAPCA for this study. They are
particulates, sulfur oxides, hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide. Choice
of these particular pollutants was based on two important considerations.
First, and most important, these pollutants are significant because of
their widespread and adverse effects on communities. Second, acceptable
emission control techniques exist for these four pollutants. In fact,
air quality criteria and control technology documents for particulate
and sulfur oxides have already been published by NAPCA; hydrocarbon and
carbon monoxide documents will be published in early 1970.
IV. SELECTION OF SOURCES
The sources selected for inclusion in this study are those that emit
particulates, sulfur oxides, hydrocarbons, or carbon monoxide in appreci-
able quantities. Initially, the sources selected by NAPCA included steam-
electric generating plants, industrial boilers, commercial-institutional
heating plants, residential heating plants, the grain milling and handling,
rendering, kraft (sulfate) pulp, sulfuric acid, soap and detergent, phos-
phate fertilizer, petroleum refining, asphalt batching, cement, lime, iron
and steel, gray iron foundry, primary nonferrous metallurgical, and secon-
dary nonferrous metallurgical industries, and solid waste disposal. Dis-
cussions with RTI personnel led to the addition of the plastics, varnish,
coking, rubber (tires and inner tubes), petroleum products storage, and
-------
coal cleaning industries to the list of sources. Subsequently, as was
indicated in Chapter 1, the coking, plastics, rendering, and soap and
detergent industries were deleted from the list for reasons cited in
Appendixes Z, AA, BB, and CC.
V. ENGINEERING ANALYSIS
A. Source Analysis
Before cost analysis could be performed, a thorough engineering
analysis of the sources was necessary. This involved an understanding
of production processes and an appraisal of their emissions, existing
levels of control, and other factors related to air pollution control
and control costs. In addition, there were numerous process steps for
which one or more unit processes could be employed, e.g., wet or dry
calcining of cement.
B. Emission Estimates
For each unit process, emission factors were either obtained from
published literature or derived. Discussions of the emission factors
employed for specific sources are presented in the appropriate appendixes.
Uncontrolled emissions were estimated for the unit processes simply by
multiplying emission factors by appropriate production estimates. Esti-
mates for a given source were made on hourly, daily, or yearly bases for
a given plant, an area, or the entire Nation.
C. Level of Control Estimates
To ascertain whether the 1967 emissions from a given source were in
compliance with the assumed standards, it was necessary to determine
the existing level of control. Ideally, the level of control should be
determined for each source within each metropolitan area. However, it
became apparent early in the project that area-specific information
could not be obtained during the available time, if at all. Accordingly,
These standards are discussed in detail in Appendix A.
-------
estimates of 1.967 control levels were based on the best obtainable secon-
dary data.-7 For some sources, average control levels for the Nation
were applied to the sources in all metropolitan areas.
In some cases where emissions were being controlled, the control
system was actually part of the production process; such costs were not
considered to be air pollution control expenses.
D. Required Removal Efficiency
The next step in the analysis was the calculation of the pollutant
removal efficiencies required to satisfy the emission standards assumed.
Given the allowable and the existing emissions, the required removal effi-
ciency was calculated using the following equation:
R.E. = Qe " Qa x 100%
where: R.E. is the removal efficiency (in
percentage) required;
Qe is the existing emission; and
Qa is the allowable emission.
This relationship holds for both concentration-based and mass rate emis-
sion standards. The New York State Standard was used for solid waste
incinerators. This standard relates the allowable particulate emissions
in pounds per hour to the pounds per hour of refuse charged. In the case
of stationary combustion equipment, the State of Maryland Standard was
used. This standard states the allowable particulate emission, in terms
of pounds per million Btu input, as a function of the equipment capacity
rating in millions of Btu per hour. The standard also provides for previ-
ously existing and new installations, with more stringent requirements
for new installations. A standard of 1.46 pounds of sulfur dioxide per
million Btu input was used for sulfur oxide emissions from stationary
combustion equipment; this corresponds to a 1.0 percent sulfur-content
2]
- Except the gray iron foundry industry for which plant by plant control
data were available from a post card survey.
These emission standards are discussed in more detail in Appendix A.
-------
coal. Allowable particulate emissions from industrial processes, expressed
in pounds per hour, were a function of tons per hour of input material;
the Bay Area Air Pollution Control District Process Weight Rate Standard
was employed in this analysis. To control hydrocarbon emissions from
industrial process sources, a standard that required a reduction of 90
percent or more by weight was selected. For sulfur dioxide emissions from
sources other than fuel combustion, a maximum concentration standard of
500 parts per million by volume was assumed. The control standard for
carbon monoxide requires that all emissions be reduced 95 percent by weight.
Petroleum storage tanks of more than 40 thousand gallons capacity, with
a vapor pressure equal to or greater than 1.5 p.s.i.a. must be equipped
with a floating roof, a vapor recovery system, or some other equally effi-
cient device. Gasoline storage tanks with a capacity of 250 gallons or
more must be equipped with a submerged filling inlet.
E. Selection of Control Alternatives
The final step of the engineering analysis was the identification of
applicable air pollution control alternatives. In nearly all cases, the
designation of an alternative on which to base the cost estimates was made
because of industrial experience with the control alternative. Occasion-
ally, it became apparent that one alternative was clearly superior to all
others, but this was the exception rather than the rule. In most cases,
there were several alternatives which would meet requirements. For example,
the control of particulates can be accomplished by use of cyclones, fabric
filters, electrostatic precipitators or wet-type scrubbers and, in the
case of combustion equipment, by fuel substitution. Sulfur oxide emis-
sions can be reduced by fuel substitution, gas scrubbing, and sulfur com-
pound recovery systems. In general, the designation of control alterna-
tives for carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons was straightforward since the
number of alternatives was more limited. The specific control alternatives
on which cost estimates for a given source were based are presented in
the related appendix. In general, the size of air pollution control equip-
ment is expressed in terms of gas throughput, and process size - gas volume
-------
relationships were determined for each unit process. In addition, certain
engineering factors related to equipment cost had to be established, e.g.,
required pressure drop for venturi scrubbers; construction material; type
of fabric filter material; wet- or dry-type electrostatic precipitator,
etc. Once these factors were determined, reasonable estimates of purchase,
installation, and operating costs could be made. An example of a produc-
tion - control cost relationship is shown in Figure 2-1 for the control
of gray iron cupolas. This figure also illustrates economy of scale.
VI. SOURCE STATISTICS
In order to apply the findings of engineering analysis to control
cost estimation, a variety of source statistics were required. These
source statistics included regional data for plant location and number
of plants, production, capacity, and value of shipments, as applicable.
Primary data on solid waste disposal were obtained from "The National
Solid Wastes Survey" and the 1968 National Survey of Community Practices.
For stationary combustion sources, the major sources of cost estimating
data are given in Table 2-1. The principal sources of these data for indus-
trial process sources are presented in Tables 2-2 through 2-4. Complete
citations for most references may be found in the bibliography.
A summary of statistics for industrial process sources is presented
in Table 2-5 on page 2-11.
-------
800
600
O
O
O
400
en
o
o
20O
O INSTALLED
Q ANNUAL
6.25
12.5
18.75 25 31.25
CAPACITY - TONS/HOUR
37.5
43.75
50.0
-------
Table 2-1
MAJOR SOURCES OF DATA FOR STATIONARY COMBUSTION
COST ESTIMATING ANALYSES
Source
Major Document(s)
Steam-electric power generation
plants
Industrial boilers
Commercial-institutional heating
plants
Residential heating plants
Steam-Electric Plant Construction
Cost and Annual Production Expenses
1963 Census of Manufactures
Supply and Demand for Energy in
the U.S. by States and Regions,
1960 and 1967.
Interstate Air Pollution Study; St. Louis,
Phase II, Project Report.
Air Pollution Emissions Inventory
1960 Census of Housing
-------
Table 2-2
PRINCIPAL SOURCES OF DATA ON SOURCE LOCATION, NUMBER, AND CAPACITIES
Data Class
United States
100 Metropolitan Areas
American Bureau of Metal Statistics
1968 Yearbook
Directory of^ Chemical Producers,
Stanford Research Institute
Directory of American Iron and Steel
Works of the United States and
Canada, 1967
Rubber Redbook, Directory of the
Rubber Industry. 1968 (20th ed.)
Waste Trade Directory
1963 Census of Business
Rock Products, July 1967 and May 1969
Mimeographed lists, U.S. Bureau of
Mines
Tape from Dun and Bradstreet
List prepared by Resources Research,
Inc.
N.E.S.S. Report, NAPCA
Lists from state highway departments
Lists from surveys by U.S. Department
of Commerce and NAPCA
Telephone contacts with firms
The sources used for the U.S. data
on number of employees from 1963
Census of Manufactures and 1964-67
County Business Patterns
-------
Table 2-3
PRINCIPAL SOURCES OF DATA ON PRODUCTION
Data Class
United States
American Bureau of Metal Statistics.
1968 Yearbook
Bureau of Mines Minerals Yearbook,
1966 and 1967
Survey of Current Business^ 1968
issues
1963 Census of Manufactures
1963 U.S. Census of Business
U.S. Industrial Outlook, 1969.
"Sulfuric Acid," Current Industrial
Reports. 1967
Hot-Mix Asphalt Production and Use
Facts for 1967
The Statistics of Paper, 1968
Supplement
Feed Situation. ERS, USDA, May 1969
100 Metropolitan Areas
U.S. capacity in the industry was
prorated to each of the 100 metro-
politan areas on data from the Dun
and Bradstreet tape, 1963 Census
of Manufactures and 1964-67 County
Business Patterns.
Table 2-4
PRINCIPAL SOURCES OF DATA ON SOURCE VALUE OF SHIPMENTS
Data Class
United States
100 Metropolitan Areas
Census of Manufactures, Preliminary
Report
1963 Census of Manufactures
1963 U.S. Census of Business^
Bureau of Mines Minerals Yearbook,
1967 ' '
"Sulfuric Acid," Current Industrial
Reports. 1967 ~'
U.S. Industrial Outlook 1969
Telephone contacts with firms
Estimates of U.S. production
Annual Report. International Paper Ho.
1966 ~~~ '
U.S. value of shipments by industry
was prorated to each of the 100
metropolitan areas on the basis of
the ratio of metropolitan area to
U.S. production.
-------
Table 2-5
1967 STATISTICS FOR INDUSTRIAL PROCESS SOURCES3
(nationally and in 100 metropolitan areas)
TYPE OF SOURCE
rimary non errous meta urgica p ants tons
u, , p T,°nS
A6 U°I*UK " lnerl^s arre sg
a^°xs P an s 8a °ns
Secon ary non errous meta urgica p ants
TOTAL NUMBER
OF
SOURCES
100
U.S. Areas
113 16
141 115
1,279 661
64 12
212 102
171 19
262 134
1,500 903
176 92
135 67
691 109
29,664 6,130
2,866 907
11,147 1,089
230 216
159 102
793 690
CAPACITY15
(million units/year)
100
U.S. Areas
32 9 41
165 0 116.0
17.0 10.0
16.7 3.4
38.7 24.4
22.9 3.5
4,210.0 2,530.0
658.0 250 0
578.0 279.0
25.4 9.6
350.0 61.4
7.8 5.1
64.0 43.9
5 5 1.3
56.0 52.0
250.0 170.0
2.7 2.4
b
PRODUCTION
(million units/year)
100
U.S. Areas
22.8 2.8
127.0 101.0
14.3 8 7
6.4 1.2
28.8 18.2
8.5 2.3
3,580.0 2,380.0
216.0 82.0
378.0 192.0
18.0 7 7
349.0 61.3
58.6 32.8
50.5 35 5
18.0 4.4
45.4 43.0
203.0 137.0
2.4 2.2
VALUE OF SHIPMENTS
(billions of dollars
per year)
100
U.S. Areas
3.4 0 4
13.3 10 5
2 7 1.7
3.4 0 6
0.3 0.2
1.2 0 4
20.3 13 5
1.5 0.6
1.2 0.6
0.2 0.1
1.5 0 3
17.5 9 8
46 37
N.A. N.A.
0.1 0.1
37 25
1.6 1 4
ISJ
The 100 areas are defined in Appendix B, N.A. means not applicable.
The capacity and production are in millions of units (tons, etc.) unless otherwise noted in "Type of Source" column.
Capacity is calculated assuming 1000 operating hours per year.
"Tons" applies to copper, lead, zinc, and aluminum smelters, for copper and lead, capacity is given as input material and production
is adjusted to remove effect of a labor strike.
Capacity is calculated assuming 1000 operating hours per year.
Capacity is in billion gallons of gasoline storage space, production, billion gallons of gasoline handled
-------
VII. COST ANALYSES
A. General Approach
Once a control alternative was designated and gas volume and other
design specifications determined, control costs were calculated as a
function of capacity and other production characteristics. The general
array of tasks essential to the estimation of emission control costs
3/
is briefly described in this section.- The initial task was that of
gathering information about the number of plants or establishments in
each of the 100 metropolitan areas. When available, detailed information
about the size or capacity of individual processes within each plant was
compiled. Most often, employment data were the best available indicator
of plant size and, indirectly, exhaust gas volume and emissions. In a
few cases, the number of plants or the total capacity in an area had to
be estimated because available records were incomplete. The amount of
specific information that was obtained determined to a major extent the
manner in which cost estimates were calculated.
Another task was to determine which plants needed emission controls,
i.e., which plants emitted pollutants in excess of the assumed standards.
Information inputs for this task were the 1967 level of control estimates
and other factors provided by the engineering analysis described above.
Next, unit cost estimates for control alternatives or a combination
of alternatives were computed. Data for these computations were obtained
from a variety of sources: surveys, previous NAPCA studies, technical
articles on specific control equipment, and articles dealing with specific
industries. Unit cost estimates included all recognizable significant
elements of costs; both initial investment and continuing annual costs
were estimated. In this and all other tasks, the most specific and detailed
data obtained were used to insure the best possible results; general infor-
mation and estimates or assumptions were used only in the absence of speci-
fic data.
- Minor but significant variations of the basic technique were necessary;
the relevant appendix describes the method for each source category.
-------
To account for the effect of required emission control efficiency
on the costs of installed emission control equipment, a set of cost-
efficiency parameters called multipliers were derived. The multipliers
were derived from the relationship that installed costs for 99-percent
control would be double the cost for 90-percent control and that costs
for 99.9-percent control would be three times the cost at 90 percent.
The three points, i.e., 90 percent equals 1.0, 99.0 equals 2.0, and
99.9 percent equals 3.0 were used to establish an exponential curve from
which cost multipliers for other specific control efficiency levels could
be read. With the multipliers taken from the curve, costs given in the
literature for one level of efficiency can be adjusted for any other
efficiency level. As an example, unit cost for a 95-percent efficient
control level can be adjusted for 98-percent efficiency as follows:
M
c - 98 ^ c
C98 ~MQ5 x C95
where: Cno = cost for 98% control
70
Cg,. = cost for 95% control
M = multiplier for 98% control
98
M = multiplier for 95% control
Control costs are reported in terms of the initial investment required
to implement controls and the continuing annual expenses related to that
investment. The investment cost is the total expense of purchasing and
installing control equipment. The annual cost is the sum of yearly charges
for capital-related costs (interest on the investment funds, property taxes
where applicable, insurance premiums, and depreciation charges) plus oper-
ating (fuel, labor, utilities, and supplies) and maintenance costs.
-------
For this study, the level of control which existed in an industry
as of 1967 was used as a baseline; cost estimates were calculated only
for providing controls in excess of the 1967 average level for a pollu-
tant and a source. For example, the 1967 average level of control in
the cement industry was 90 percent; therefore, the estimated costs of
control reflect expenditures that must be made to comply with the assumed
standard by the industry over and above the 1967 baseline of 90 percent.
This working assumption follows from the premise that the level of control
in effect when the Clean Air Act was amended in 1967 is not attributable
to the Act. It was further assumed that the additional sources constructed
after 1967 will be controlled at the 1967 control level and hence, only
the control required above this level would be attributable to the Act.
B. Accuracy of the Estimates
The estimates for both investment and annualized costs are reported
in a manner that indicates their expected accuracy. In addition to the
expected cost, which is the estimate calculated from the most specific
data and assumptions available, lower and upper limits to the costs are
given. The difference between the expected cost and the limits reflects
the uncertainty of the data upon which the cost estimates were based.
The lower and upper limits to the estimated expected costs were
measured in a systematic manner. This was done by identifying and evalu-
ating the elements of data that were used in calculating the expected
costs and then estimating and summing the uncertainty (expressed as a
percentage) contributed by each. In each element, there was a degree of
uncertainty that varied between elements and between emission sources.
The elements of data evaluated for the purpose of estimating total uncer-
tainty were those pertaining to number of emission sources, their locations,
their capacities, 1967 levels of control, unit costs for installed control
equipment, annual operating and maintenance costs, and values of recovered
materials. The study participants who dealt with a particular data ele-
ment formed, in conference, an estimate of the possible contribution of
the data element to the overall uncertainty of the cost estimates. This
-------
agreement was reached for each element for each source. The individual
uncertainty contributions, expressed as percentages, were summed and
the sum was assumed to be a reasonable measure of the total possible
uncertainty for each cost estimate. In some cases, it was thought that
a data element might be more uncertain in one direction than the other.
Accordingly, the positive and negative uncertainty terms were recorded,
summed, and applied separately.
C. Amortization Procedures
Except for the gray iron foundry industry and solid waste disposal,
estimates of annual control costs were based on ten-year, straight-line
(10 percent) depreciation of the indicated investment and 10 percent to
cover capital-related charges such as interest, taxes, and insurance.
In the gray iron foundry industry, depreciation and capital-related expen-
ses were obtained from plant survey data. For estimates in solid waste
disposal, accounting conventions normally used by operators were employed.
For all industries, maintenance and other operating expenses were estimated
on the basis of the types of process equipment and control equipment involved.
VIII. VALIDITY OF COST ESTIMATES
The validity of control cost estimates for the three major source types,
i.e. solid waste, stationary combustion, and industrial process, were found
to depend on either the assumptions required, the accuracy of the data avail-
able, or both.
The validity of the control costs for solid waste disposal is much less
dependent on the accuracy of the data used, but rests almost entirely on the
validity of assumptions reflecting anticipated changes in solid waste
disposal practices. If these assumptions are accepted, quite reliable control
cost estimates can be made from the data base available.
Estimating control costs for the four stationary combustion sources also
required the adoption of a major assumption reflecting a widespread change-
over to low-sulfur fuel oil. In addition, with the exception of steam-electric
power plants, data base insufficiencies also existed. Therefore, the validity
of these cost estimates varies with the apparent sensitivity of the estimate
to the various data inadequacies. The four stationary combustion sources
-------
should be ranked in terms of validity as follows:
a) Steam-electric power plants.
b) Industrial boilers.
c) Commercial-institutional heating plants and residential heating
plants.
In estimating control costs for industrial process sources, a variety
of methods were used; the method used depended largely upon the degree
of accuracy of the data available. The result is that the validity of
the cost estimates varies. In this regard, the industries dealt with can
be divided into three classifications:
a) Those for which detailed data on emissions and costs are
available from NAPCA studies.
These data permitted accurate estimates of costs that
may be incurred in the following industries: pulp, iron and
steel, gray iron foundry, and primary nonferrous metallurgi-
cal (primary copper, lead, and zinc).
b) Those for which special studies have not been made but data
are available on technical process variables.
These data made it possible to estimate emissions and
control costs by applying factors developed by NAPCA and
others. This group includes the following industries:
sulfuric acid, phosphate fertilizer, petroleum refining,
asphalt batching, cement, lime, coal cleaning, and petro-
leum products storage.
c) Those for which little or no detailed data about the speci-
fic industry are available.
In these industries, emission and cost estimates were
based on relevant process parameters and knowledge of other
types of industrial processes; the estimates are, at best,
rough approximations of the expenditures that may be required
to control emissions. This group includes the following
industries: grain milling and handling, varnish, rubber
(tires and inner tubes), and primary nonferrous metallurgical
(primary aluminum reduction) and secondary nonferrous metal-
lurgical (aluminum, copper, lead, and zinc recovery).
-------
Chapter 3
Cost Estimates
I. INTRODUCTION
As stated in Chapter 1, the purpose of this research was to make
estimates of the air pollution control costs that may be expected from
the implementation of the Clean Air Act, as Amended. This chapter
presents estimates of the investment and annual costs of controlling
particulate, sulfur oxide, hydrocarbon, and carbon monoxide emissions
in 100 metropolitan areas of the United States. Total implementation
costs, costs by source, and costs by metropolitan area are presented
in the following sections. Metropolitan area costs and source costs by
fiscal year are presented in Appendixes D and E through Y, respectively.
II. TOTAL IMPLEMENTATION COSTS
Implementation of the Act in the 100 metropolitan areas would require
an estimated investment of $2.64 billion with annual costs reaching $1.88
billion by FY 1975. The total investment cost includes $221 million,
$1.29 billion, and $1.13 billion to control emissions from solid waste
disposal, stationary combustion, and industrial process sources, respec-
tively. The corresponding annual costs, as well as annual and investment
costs by fiscal year, are shown in Table 3-1.
III. SOURCE COSTS
In Table 3-2, investment and annual costs to control emissions in
the 100 metropolitan areas are shown by source. It can be seen that the
control of emissions from stationary combustion sources is the most costly
of the three major source categories. The largest investment cost among
-------
Table 3-1
PROJECTED COSTS FOR CONTROLLING FACILITIES IN 100 METROPOLITAN AREAS*
(million dollars)
FISCAL
YEAR
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
Totals
COSTS BY SOURCE CATEGORY FOR FACILITIES OPERATING
IN CALENDAR YEAR 1967
Solid Waste
Disposal
Inv.
10
45
67
39
10
171
Ann.
5
27
60
79
84
255
Stationary
Combustion
Inv.
65
268
416
306
123
1178
Ann.
70
359
765
1000
1090
3284
Industrial
Processes
Inv.
41
208
344
224
65
882
Ann.
21
108
237
317
340
1023
Total Area
Control Cost
Inv.
116
521
827
569
198
2231
Ann.
96
494
1062
1396
1514
4562
COSTS BY SOURCE CATEGORY FOR FACILITIES EXPECTED
TO BE OPERATING AT END OF FY/5b
Solid Waste
Disposal
Inv.
17
56
80
50
18
221
Ann.
8
35
74
98
107
322
Stationary
Combustion
Inv.
82
291
443
331
142
1289
Ann.
107
445
912
1200
1330
3994
Industrial
Processes
Inv.
78
261
410
278
104
1131
Ann.
37
147
303
404
443
1334
Total Area
Control Cost
Inv.
177
608
933
659
264
2641
Ann.
152
627
1290
1710
1880
5659
I
10
Projected costs (Inv., Ann.) are the initial investment expenditure (for purchasing and installing control
equipment) and the sum of continuing annual costs (for interest, property taxes, insurance, depreciation, etc.,
and for operating and maintaining equipment). The 100 areas are defined in Appendix B.
These costs include control expenditures for 21 sources with facilities operating in calendar year 1967 plus
-------
Table 3-2
TOTAL CONTROL COST BY THE END OF FISCAL YEAR 1975
(100 metropolitan areas)
TYPE OF SOURCE
SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL
STATIONARY COMBUSTION
Steam-electric power plants
Industrial boilers
Commercial-institutional heating plants
Residential heating plants
Totals
INDUSTRIAL PROCESS
Kraft (sulfate) pulp plants
Iron and steel plants
Gray iron foundries
Primary nonferrous metallurgical plants
Sulfuric acid plants
Phosphate fertilizer plants
Petroleum refineries
Asphalt batching plants
Cement plants
Lime plants
Coal cleaning plants
Petroleum products storage plants
Grain mills and elevators
Varnish plants
Rubber (tire and inner tube) plants
Secondary nonferrous metallurgical plants
Totals
TOTAL CONTROL COST
(million dollars)3
Investment
219.0
161.0
546.0
30.7
550.0
1287.7
7.8
413.0
238.0
86.5
37.3
5.3
104.0
36.8
19.4
0.7
2.6
84.0
46.1
0.9
4.9
49.9
1137.2
Annua 1
323.0
2430.0
1180.0
16.6
376.0
4002.6
6.5
824.0
195.0
82.6
7.2
5.5
4.7
78.7
16.4
1.5
2.7
0.0
45.0
3.0
12.5
52.2
1327.5
3 Projected costs (Inv., Ann.) are the initial investment expenditure (for
purchasing and installing control equipment) and the sum of continuing annual
costs (for interest, property taxes, insurance, depreciation, etc., and for
operating and maintaining equipment). The 100 areas are defined in AppendixB
-------
the stationary combustion sources will be required to control emissions
from residential heating plants ($550 million). Investment costs to
control industrial process emissions range from $700 thousand for lime
plants to $413 million for iron and steel plants. Annual costs range
from zero for petroleum products storage plants to $824 million for
iron and steel plants.
The relationship between annual control cost and capacity and value
of shipments for the industrial process sources studied is shown in
Table 3-3. The annual control cost shown is for FY 1975 and, as such, is
a continuing cost of air pollution control. The relative cost estimates
in Table 3-3 permit a cursory examination of the economic impact of air
pollution control on industrial process sources.
IV. METROPOLITAN AREA COSTS
In this section, cost estimates, by major source category, are pre-
sented for each of the 100 metropolitan areas. The estimates vary consid-
erably from one area to another. While of interest, no attempt was made
to analyze inter-area cost variation; the time available for the research
precluded such a detailed study. However, certain relevant factors are
obvious and are mentioned below.
A. Total Implementation
In Table 3-4, which may be found at the end of this chapter, the
total investment costs (FY 1971-1975) and the FY 1975 annual costs to
control 1967 base year emissions from solid waste disposal, stationary
combustion, and industrial process sources are given for each metropolitan
area. The FY 1975 annual cost estimate is included in Table 3-4 since
it is a continuing cost of air pollution control.
As would be expected, the metropolitan areas for which cost estimates
are the highest include the very large, highly industrialized, more northern
cities of Chicago, New York, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Detroit,
- Estimated investment and annual costs by fiscal year for each metro-
politan area are given in Appendix D.
-------
Table 3-3
EXPECTED ANNUAL CONTROL COSTS RELATIVE TO CAPACITY AND SHIPMENTS OF INDUSTRIAL PROCESS SOURCES'
(1967 base; 100 metropolitan areas)
TYPE OF SOURCE
Asphalt batching plants tons paving mixture
Secondary nonferrous metallurgical plants tons
SOURCE TOTALS
Capacity
(millions
of units)
4.1
116.0
10.0
3.4
24.4
3.5
2530.0
250.0
279.0
9.6
61.4
5140.0
43.9
1330.0
52.0
170.0
2.4
Value of
Shipments
(billion
dollars)
0.4
10.5
1.7
0.6
0.2
0.4
13.5
0.6
0.6
0.1
0.3
9.8
3.7
N.A.
0.1
2.5
1.4
Annual
Control
Cost
(million
dollars)
2.5
204.0
49.1
23.5
2.2
5.5
1.4
18.6
5.7
0.5
0.5
0.0
7.9
7.5
0.8
2.5
11.9
RELATIVE COST
Cost per
Unit of
Annual
Capacity
(dollars
per unit)
0.61
1.76
4.91
6.91
0.09
1.57
0.00
0.74
0.02
0.05
0.01
0.00
0.18
0.01
0.02
0.01
4.96
Cost per
100
Dollars
of
Shipment
(dollars)
0.63
1.94
2.89
3.92
1.10
1.39
0.01
3.10
0.95
0.50
0.17
0.00
0.21
N.A.
0.80
0.10
0.85
b
c
d
e
f
Costs for controlling particulate, sulfur oxide, hydrocarbon, and carbon monoxide emissions from facilities
operating in calendar year 1967. The areas are defined in Appendix B. N.A. means not applicable.
Capacity is calculated assuming 1000 operating hours per year.
Tons applies to copper, lead, zinc, and aluminum smelters; for copper and lead, capacity is input material.
Capacity is calculated assuming 1000 operating hours per year.
Capacity is in million gallons of gasoline storage space.
-------
and St. Louis?. The lowest cost estimates are for such areas as Jackson
(Miss.), Burlington (Vt.), Cheyenne, Albuquerque, and San Diego. The
Virgin Islands have negligible investment and annual costs.
Figure 3-1 illustrates the distribution of total investment costs
over the 100 metropolitan areas; as shown, costs in 73 of the areas are
less than $20 million. The distribution of total FY 1975 annual costs
is shown in Figure 3-2; costs in 81 of the areas are less than $20 mil-
lion. Not surprisingly, investment and annual costs in several areas
exceed $70 million.
B. Solid Waste Disposal
FY 1971-1975 investment and FY 1975 annual costs to control pollu-
tant emissions from solid waste disposal are also presented for each area
in Table 3-4. Control costs for solid waste disposal are primarily a
function of population and the method of disposal, whether landfill, open
burning, or incineration. The highest cost estimates are for large commun-
ities now using open burning; the control alternative costed is either
incineration, with gas cleaning, or sanitary landfill.
In Figure 3-1 it can be seen that the estimated FY 1971-1975 invest-
ment costs in 98 of the areas are less than $10 million; FY 1975 annual
costs are less than $10 million in 99 areas (Figure 3-2) . Only New York,
at $10.6 million, exceeds $10 million.
C. Stationary Combustion
Table 3-4 also shows the estimated FY 1971-1975 investment costs
and FY 1975 annual costs to control particulate and sulfur oxide emissions
from stationary combustion sources.
For many of the metropolitan areas studied, control of stationary
combustion sources resulted in the greatest estimated cost. The bulk of
this cost was for control of particulate and sulfur oxide emissions from
coal combustion. However, the use of high-sulfur content oil also resul-
ted in significant sulfur oxide emissions. Control of stationary combus-
tion emissions by fuel switching was assumed for cost estimation; control
-------
36
34
LJ
^ 32
z
£ 30
NUMBER OF METROPOLI
ro J> en oo o
_EL
Total
-:
*
Lw
1".
? n n
CM
-
en
O)
6
0
w~
en
40.0-49
".
en
en
in
6
o
in
n
en o
en o
6 A
0
42
40
w 38
£
< 18
H Ifi
NUMBER OF METROPOLI
ro J> ff> CD O ro J>
u. ..
-
-
Solid Waste
Disposal
Lll
^^ 0^ O^
^^ ^5 0^
d
0^ O^ 0^ 0"^ O) ^^ ^^
^n ^M O* ^^ 0) ^^ ^^
q o q q o o A
o Q o d d d
36
cc
LJ
CD
^
24
18
12
10
8
MILLION DOLLARS
MILLION DOLLARS
.Stationary.
n
ot
62
(0
< IA
1,2
_l
O
°- in
0 I0
cc
t 0
LJ a
S
ft 6
O «
tr
3 o
^ £
n
Industrial
Process
1 nn
c o
a? fs.
o d d o
IO ^ if) y>
o S o o 6 6 S 6
O o O O O O
(\i 10 ^ m in
J T CM
o -
MILLION DOLLARS
MILLION DOLLARS
Fig. 3-1. Distribution of FY 1971-1975 Investment Costs.
-------
CO
<
o
Q.
O
(T
m
5
48
4b
44
20
18
16
12
10
8
2
_n_
| 1
-
n
Total
n
n n
irTTI
~^o)0>0)0)0)0)0) o) q
°G>O)0)0)O)0)0) 0>o
v i_i c\i*?^-in * « «>
MILLION DOLLARS
64
62
60
*> * « U
MILLION DOLLARS
«t
I
d
Q.
g
u.
o
44
42
40
oO
oc
24
18
16
14
12
IO
' ~
0)
__
en
Process
_
^^_
_
__ _
0) 0) 0) 0> en °1 '
o 9 o 6
0 ~ p d
o 6 6 Q
o ci d o
10 5t in IB
MILLION DOLLARS
Fig. 3-2. Distribution of FY 1975 Annual Costs.
-------
costs tended to be proportional to the amount of coal burned. As a
result, 20 of the areas where negligible amounts of coal were burned
showed negligible to zero costs. These cost estimates were based on pro-
jections from the base year 1967 and knowledge that the use of coal for
heating residential and commercial and institutional structures has been
declining steadily throughout the country. In fact, its use had become
insignificant in some areas by 1967. This will be true for most metro-
politan areas by 1975. In some areas, switching from coal to oil, gas,
or electricity resulted in a significant saving in fuel costs which has
accelerated the trend toward the use of cleaner fuels. The price differ-
ential resulting from fuel cost savings explains the negative annualized
control cost in six areas.
As shown in Figure 3-1, FY 1971-1975 investment costs are less than
$20 million in 87 of the 100 areas. Annual costs for FY 1975 (Figure 3-2)
are less than $20 million in 85 areas.
D. Industrial Process
The estimated FY 1971-1975 investment costs and FY 1975 annual costs
to control industrial process emissions in each metropolitan areas are
shown in Table 3-4. Twenty of the metropolitan areas studied are in the
industrial northeastern states of Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York,
New Jersey, and Pennsylvania with another 18 in Ohio, Indiana, Michigan,
and Illinois, also highly industrialized states. The estimated costs
of control for these areas indicate the range of air pollution control
costs for industrial SMSA's.
The estimated FY 1971-1975 investment costs are less than $10 million
in 77 metropolitan areas (Figure 3-1). In 90 areas the estimated FY 1975
annual costs are less than $10 million (Figure 3-2).
-------
Table 3-4
1967 BASE YEAR
AIR QUALITY CONTROL COSTS
TOTAL INVESTMENT (FY 1971-1975) and FY 1975 ANNUAL COSTS BY METROPOLITAN AREA8
(million dollars)
>ETROPOLITAN
AREAS
GROUP 1
1 Washington
2 New York
3 Chicago
4 Philadelphia
5 Denver
6 Los Angeles
7 St Louis
8 Boston
9 San Francisco
10 Pittsburgh
U Buffalo
12 Cincinnati
13 Cleveland
GROUP II
lit Kansas City
13 Baltimore
16 Minneapolis-
St Paul
17 Hartfordb
18 Indianapolis
19 Detroit
20 Milwaukee
Kenosha /Racine
21 Providence-
Pautuckett/
Fall River
22 Seattle-
Everett/Tacoma
23 Louisville
24 Dayton
25 Phoenix
AIR POLLUTION SOURCE CATEGORY
Industrial
Process
Inv Ann
13 04
24 4 63
93 7 48 9
47 0 14 6
42 14
19 1 82
21 6 69
61 14
86 32
60 8 37 4
25 4 13 5
21 8 54
40 2 17 9
10 1 27
22 4 10 8
13 4 47
62 21
52 13
32 8 14 0
88 24
63 17
14 2 53
46 14
44 13
20 07
Stationary
Combustion
Inv Ann
43 0 25 8
88 6 79 8
119 0 173 2
43 2 40 8
48 15 6
38
50 7 65 7
18 1 63
1 9
39 4 41 7
45 9 21 9
31 4 39 3
39 8 38.0
30 66
15 1 15.0
14 9 12 5
68 97
16 7 12 7
39 6 69 6
43 5 32 3
28
25 -0.1
19 1 39.2
11 6 11 8
18 7 03
Solid
Waste
Inv Ann
33 21
17 0 10 6
15 1 69
33 16
60 21
37 13
72 34
-.
74 32
33 16
39 19
92 40
04 05
53 23
52 21
63 28
31 13
94 43
41 18
25 11
06 06
1.8 0 9
2.4 1.0
03 03
TOTAL AIR QUALITY CONTROL COST
Lower
Limit
Inv Ann
35 6 21 9
85 1 71 6
157 3 167 2
74 7 41 6
10 4 14 9
12 5 83
53 5 54 2
22 6 83
56 33
76 2 59.3
52 9 25 9
43 9 37 4
62 0 42 6
86 73
30 8 20 9
23 1 14 5
13 4 11 0
17 5 11 1
57 8 63 4
35 7 27 4
60 51
90 33
17 9 31 1
12 8 10 4
13 2 09
Expected
Inv Ann
47 6 28 3
130 0 96 7
227 8 229 0
93 5 57 0
15 0 19 1
19 1 12 0
76 0 73 9
31 4 11.1
86 51
107 6 82 3
74 6 37 0
57 1 46 6
89 2 59 9
13 5 98
42 8 28 1
33 5 19 3
19 3 14 6
25 0 15 3
81 8 87 9
56 4 36 5
8 8 5.6
17 2 58
25 5 41 5
18 4 14 1
21 0 13
Upper
Limit
Inv Ann
63 2 35 6
148,2 116 0
314 4 300 0
154 3 74 1
20 2 23 7
25 5 16 0
107 2 96 8
42 0 12 5
11 8 70
142 1 107 0
100 7 51 1
77 0 62 9
120 4 80 9
19 3 12 1
55 6 35 4
46 6 24 1
26 1 18 3
34 5 20 5
110 5 117 8
68 8 47 1
11 7 70
20 1 73
35 0 53 9
25 3 18 2
30 9 20
See footnotes at end of table
-------
Table 3-4 (continued)
1967 BASE YEAR
AIR QUALITY CONTROL COSTS
TOTAL INVESTMENT (FY 1971-1975) and FY 1975 ANNUAL COSTS BY METROPOLITAN AREA8
(million dollars)
METROPOLITAN
AREAS
26 Houston/
ralveslnn-
Texas ( ity
27 Dallas/Ft
Worth
28 San Antimio
29 Birmingham
30 Toledo
31 Steubenville/
Weirton/
Wheeling
32 Chattanooga
33 Atlanta
34 Memphis
35 Portland
C.ROUP III
36 Salt Lake City
37 New Orleans
38 Miami/tort
Lauderdale
39 Oklahoma City
W Omaha
41 Honolulu
42 Beaumont-Port
Arthur-Orange
43 Charlotte
44 Portland, Maine
45 Albuquerque
46 Lawrence-
Haverhill/
lowell/
Manchester
47 El Paso
AIR POLLUTION SOURCE CATEGORY
Industrial
Process
Inv Ann
, 33.8 7 4
77 21
21 06
20 3 10 2
67 10
21 1 12 3
38 11
43 13
32 09
19 0 66
67 33
33 1 77
36 05
1.6 0 5
28 08
14 03
15 0 07
21 05
16 03
07 02
1.1 0 3
5.0 1.9
Stationary
Combustion
Inv Ann
12 4 31
93 23
33 08
5 3 21.3
59 13 9
24 7 43 1
11 05
31 90
09 -03
03
10 0 29
.-
04 03
12 9 22
12 8 55
1 7
00 00
99 30
31 07
01
14 23
Solid
Waste
Inv Ann
51 23
07 08
03 03
02 02
02 03
01 01
01 01
33 15
02 03
28 11
19 06
16 13
31 18
02 02
02 02
22 08
01 01
01 01
01
01 01
1.3 0 5
01 01
TOTAL AIR QUALITY CONTROL COST
Lower
Limit
Inv Ann
34 3 91
13.2 3 8
40 13
18 3 24 1
84 12 0
33 5 42 0
33 11
76 91
30 05
12 4 43
11 7 41
17 9 49
36 19
96 19
10 8 48
24 22
81 05
79 24
40 07
07 02
26 25
26 11
Expected
Inv Ann
51 3 12 8
17 7 52
57 17
25 8 31 7
12 8 15 2
45 9 55 5
50 17
10 7 11 8
43 09
22 0 77
18 6 68
34 7 90
71 26
14 7 29
15 8 65
36 28
15 1 09
12 1 36
47 11
09 03
38 31
51 20
Upper
Limit
Inv Ann
75 7 16 7
22 8 67
7 ? 22
33 6 39 5
18 8 18 4
60 8 70 2
68 24
13 9 14 3
61 12
27 2 95
26 6 90
4J 0 1! f)
91 3 J
21 9 43
22 4 84
46 35
28 0 11
17 7 54
80 1 b
11 (t l(
50 40
76 25
-------
Table 3-4 (continued)
1967 BASE YEAR
AIR QUALITY CONTROL COSTS f
TOTAL INVESTMENT (FY 1971-1975) and FY 1975 ANNUAL COSTS BY METROPOLITAN AREA
(million dollars)
METROPOLITAN
AREAS
-18 Las Vegas
49 Fargo-Moorhead
50 Boiae
51 Billings
52 Sioux Falls
53 Cheyenne
54 Anchorage
55 Burlington
56 San Juan
57 Virgin Islands
GROUP IV
58 Allentown-
Bethlehem-
Easton
59 Anderson/
Muncie
60 Bakersfield
61 Columbus
b2 Davenport-Rock
Island -Moline
63 Flint
b4 Grand Rapids/
Muskegon-
Muskegon Hts
65 (.leenaboro
66 Harrisburg
67 Jacksonville
68 Knoxville
69 Nashville
AIR POLLUTION SOURCE CATEGORY
Industrial
Process
Inv Ann
10 03
17 05
06 01
28 02
06 01
07 01
02
01
02
12 5 68
13 04
27 07
43 12
55 16
23 07
39 11
25 05
64 39
34 07
11 4 40
20 04
Stationary
Combustion
Inv Ann
01
19 -05
16 01
.-
02 02
03
-0 1
12 02
07
18 9 14 0
68 43
45 12
10 3 13
05 34
60 19 1
09 07
16 8 40
01 20
79 26
07 -03
Solid
Waste
Inv Ann
11 04
-
-.
0.1
01
-
01
-
02 02
20 06
01
03 03
0.1 0 1
02 02
02 03
01 01
16 05
22 10
02 02
02 02
TOTAL AIR QUALITY CONTROL COST
Louer
Limit
Inv Ann
1.5 0 4
2.6
1.6 0 1
1.5 0 2
0.6 0 3
06 01
0 1
08 02
0.3 0 8
24 1 15 0
57 32
18 04
63 18
10 8 20
20 28
72 16 0
24 09
17 2 60
42 29
11.3 3 9
20 02
Expected
Inv Ann
22 06
36
22 03
28 03
08 04
10 01
02
13 03
04 10
33 4 21 4
81 48
27 '07
91 27
15 9 30
30 43
10.1 20 5
35 13
24 8 84
57 37
19 4 68
2 9 0.3
Upper
Limit
Inv Ann
30 08
51 01
29 03
54 04
10 05
16 03
04
18 04
04 12
45 3 29 L
11 7 70
36 12
12 7 18
22.4 4 2
41 b 3
13 5 >'i )
48 19
33 4 12 2
74 4 b
25 7 * 0
38 04
-------
Table 3-4 (continued)
1967 BASE YEAR
AIR QUALITY CONTROL COSTS
TOTAL INVESTMENT (FY 1971-1975) and FY 1975 ANNUAL COSTS BY METROPOLITAN AREA*
(million dollars)
METROPOLITAN
AREAS
70 Peoria
71 Richmond
72 Rochester
73 SaRlnaw/Bay
Cltv
74 Scranton/
Vilkes Barre-
Hazelton
75 Syracuse
76 Tampa
77 Tulsa
78 Worcester/
Fitchburg-
Leominster
79 Youngstoun-
Uarren
CROUP V
80 Albany-
Schenectady-
Troy
81 Binghamton
82 Charleston,
South Carolina
83 Charleston,
West Virginia
84 Des Motnes
85 Fresno
86 Fort Wayne
87 Jackson,
Mississippi
88 Johnstown
89 Lancaster
90 Mobile
91 Norfolk-
Portsmouth/
Neuport Neus-
Hampton
92 Raleigh/Durham
93 Reading
94 Rockford
95 Sacramento
96 San Diego
97 South Bend
98 Utlca-Rome
99 Wichita
100 York
AIR POLLUTION SOURCE CATEGORY
Industrial
Process
Inv Ann
51 16
24 07
2 3 0.6
4 4 1.1
06 01
3.3 1.1
81 22
53 16
11 04
23 7 17 4
34 09
18 07
39 11
10 02
1 7 0.5
16 07
16 05
1.4 0 3
69 45
34 11
32 08
42 08
06 02
40 13
0 9 0.4
08 04
08 04
3 8 1.2
11 05
46 07
24 08
Stationary
Combustion
Inv Ann
11 7 10 8
10 1 27
56 66
11.6 20 0
79 6 15 1
36 09
02 10 6
13 2 26
14 03
84 50
3 2 5.2
7 7 3.0
26 16
58 15 7
90 36
54 42
17 6 12
68 29
75 82
12 5 51
56 14
12 8 4.3
88 48
-.
-.
11 4 95
32 04
..
4.3 7.1
Solid
Waste
Inv Ann
0.1 0 1
02 02
32 14
01 01
02 02
02 02
19 10
03 02
03 02
17 06
20 08
10 04
01 01
06 02
01 01
..
01 01
01 01
01
01 01
01 02
24 11
01 01
01 01
01
--
..
01 01
14 04
01 01
16 05
TOTAL AIR QUALITY CONTROL COST
Lower
Limit
Inv Ann
12 0 93
93 25
77 60
11 1 16 2
58 8 11 2
50 15
7.2 10 6
10.8 2 6
29 06
24 1 15 1
57 50
66 26
43 19
53 11 8
74 27
11 03
45 32
10 03
17 6 39
55 31
60 72
13 3 47
42 11
14 8 4.4
63 37
06 02
06 02
10 5 77
41 09
29 06
59 64
Expected
Inv Ann
16 9 12 5
12 7 36
11 1 86
16.1 21 2
80 4 15 4
71 22
10.2 13 8
18 7 44
41 09
33 8 23 0
86 69
10 5 41
66 28
74 16 1
10 8 42
16 07
71 48
15 04
24 5 58
10 3 41
10 8 92
19 1 70
63 17
16 9 57
97 53
08 04
08 04
15 3 10 8
57 13
4.7 0 8
83 84
Upper
Limit
Inv Ann.
23 2 16 3
17 3 48
15 2 11 9
22 0 27 2
110 4 i\ 2
98 31
13 2 16 9
23 9 71
56 12
44 5 29 6
11 2 10 0
14 7 62
85 38
10 2 21 7
15 3 52
24 10
10 2 70
20 05
33 5 79
14 0 72
12 5 11 4
27 0 10 5
94 25
22 8 75
14 6 76
12 05
13 05
22 0 14 7
76 18
78 12
11 1 12 1
" The 100 areas
investment and "An
listed by groups in Appendix B,
is annual coat
blanka (--) Indicate negligible expenditure required "Inv
Also Includes New Haven/Waterbury/Merldan SMSA's, although not In originally proposed AQCR
-------
Chapter 4
Emission Reductions
I. INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents estimates of particulate, sulfur oxide, hydro-
carbon, and carbon monoxide emissions from solid waste disposal, station-
ary combustion, and industrial process sources for 1967 and 1975, with
and without implementation of the Clean Air Act. Emission reductions
are discussed on a metropolitan area and individual source basis. For
comparative purposes, the investment and ultimate annual costs of reducing
emissions are also included.
II. METROPOLITAN AREA SUMMARY
A. Introduction
The cost estimates given in Chapter 3 are more meaningful when related
to the associated reductions in pollutant emissions. In this study, esti-
mates were made of the emissions and the percentage of control in effect,
by source, within 100 metropolitan areas as of 1967 and for fiscal years
1971 through 1975. These estimates were aggregated for the 100 areas, by
source and type of pollutant, and include 18 sources of particulate emis-
sions, 7 of sulfur oxide emissions, 4 of hydrocarbon emissions, and 3
of carbon monoxide emissions. For 1967, it is estimated that the selected
sources in the 100 metropolitan areas accounted for 53 percent of the
total particulate emissions, 48 percent of sulfur oxide emissions, 48 per-
cent of hydrocarbon emissions, and 33 percent of carbon monoxide emissions
from like sources in the entire United States.
Table 4-1 presents a summary of the estimates of 1967 and 1975 emis-
sions and control levels for sources in the 100 metropolitan areas, illus-
trating the potential effectiveness of the proposed implementation plan.
-------
Table 4-1
EMISSIONS AND CONTROL LEVELS FOR 100 METROPOLITAN AREAS WITH AND WITHOUT
IMPLEMENTATION OF THE ACT, 1967 and 1975
Pollutant
Particulates
Sulfur Oxides
Hydrocarbons
Carbon
Monoxide
Source
Category
Solid Waste
Stationary
Combustion
Industrial
Process
Solid Waste
Stationary
Combustion
Industrial
Process
Solid Waste
Stationary
Combustion
Industrial
Process
Solid Waste
Stationary
Combustion
Industrial
Process
1967
Emissions
(1000 tons)
844
3960
3634
12548
1547
160
1228
1950
2330
1967 Control
Level
(percent)
53.5
78.1
67.6
0.0
30.5
63.0
51.2
63.0
34.6
1975 Emissions
at 1967
Control Level
dnooi
947
4722
4656
15136
1866
204
1498
2089
3043
1975 Emissions
at 1975
Control Level
(1000)
187
391
505
6001
987
49
518
299
228
1975 Control
Level
(percent)
89.4
98.2
96.6
61.2
65.8
91.1
83.2
94.5
95.0
Emission
Decrease
(percent)
77.8
91.7
86.1
i
52.2
36.2
69.4
57.8
84.7
90.2
I
1-0
-------
For convenience and to emphasize the potential impact of the plan, pollu-
tant sources have been grouped into the three categories: solid waste
disposal, stationary combustion, and industrial process. In so doing,
some detail has been lost.
B. Particulates
Particulate emissions from solid waste disposal sources were 840
thousand tons in 1967. Emissions from stationary combustion sources
amounted to 3960 thousand tons in 1967 (Table 4-2), nine-tenths of which
were from steam-electric power plants and industrial boilers. The bal-
ance of stationary combustion emissions was from commercial-institutional
and residential heating plants. Steam-electric plants and industrial
boilers are distributed rather unevenly throughout the metropolitan areas
and not uniformly with population. In contrast, residential and commer-
cial-institutional heating plants are distributed more uniformly with
population. Emissions from residential and commercial-institutional
sources will be less effectively controlled than steam-electric and indus-
trial emissions by 1975.
Among the industrial process sources, iron and steel plants, grain
mills, and cement plants were the largest sources of particulates in
1967, accounting for approximately 61 percent of the total (Table 4-3).
With iron and steel industry emission control levels increased to 95.5
percent in 1975 and grain elevator and cement plant levels increased to
99 percent, this disproportion will be substantially reduced. Iron and
steel plants will, however, remain the largest contributor of particulate
emissions in 1975.
C. Sulfur Oxide
The largest source of sulfur oxide emissions among stationary com-
bustion sources was steam-electric generating stations (Table 4-2). They
accounted for more than 64 percent of the estimated emissions for this
group in 1967 when there was little significant control of emissions.
-------
Table 4-2
ESTIMATED 1967 EMISSION LEVELS - STATIONARY COMBUSTION SOURCES5
TYPE OF SOURCE
Q
Steam-electric power plants
Industrial boilers (thousands)
Commercial-institutional heating
plants (thousands)
Residential heating plants (millions)
TOTAL
NUMBER
OF
SOURCES
U.S.
410
307
999
58
100
Areas
252
219
607
35
TOTAL QUANTITY OF EMISSIONS
(1000 tons/year)
United States
Part
5550
3000
105
314
8970
S°K
15000
5260
1110
1530
22900
HC
CO
100 Metropolitan Areas
Part
2190
1540
64
163
3960
S0x
6860
3970
675
1040
12500
HC
--
--
CO
--
--
Totals for facilities in operation in 1967. Blanks in the table indicate the emission levels meet applicable
regulations (App. A).
Particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO).
it
-------
J.CHJJ.B t--l
ESTIMATED 1967 EMISSION LEVELS - INDUSTRIAL PROCESS SOURCES
TYPE OF SOURCE
Kraft (sulfate) pulp plants
Iron and steel plants
Gray iron foundries
Primary nonferrous metallurgical plants
Sulfuric acid plants
Phosphate fertilizer plants
Petroleum refineries
Asphalt batching plants
Cement plants
Lime plants
Coal cleaning plants
Petroleum products storage plants
Grain mills and elevators
Varnish plants
Rubber (tire and inner tube) plants
Secondary nonferrous metallurgical plants
TOTAL
NUMBER
SOURCES
U.S.
113
141
1279
64
212
171
262
1500
176
135
691
29,664
14,013
230
159
793
100
Areas
16
115
661
12
102
19
134
903
92
67
109
6130
1996
216
102
690
b
TOTAL QUANTITY OF EMISSIONS
(1000 tons/year)
United States
Part
633
1490
217
95
60
20
96
522
908
450
160
--
1210
__
--
48
5919
SO
X
__
--
3848
750
__
2100
__
__
__
__
--
__
__
--
--
6708
HC
--
--
--
--
__
932C
__
__
__
--
1100
__
5
-_
--
2037
CO
_-
3200
--
--
__
2000
__
_ M
__
__
_-
__
__
__
--
5200
100 Metropolitan Areas
Part
109
1060
94
22
40
11
48
206
525
251
27
__
1200
__
__
45
3638
SO
X
_-
__
144
480
__
923
__
M _
__
__
__
_ ..
_ B
__
1547
HC
--
-_
--
-_
__
587C
__
_ _
__
__
636
_ _
5
__
--
1228
CO
--
1250
--
__
__
1080
__
_ _
__
__
__
_ .
_ H
__
--
2330
Totals for facilities in operation in 1967. Blanks in the table indicate the emission levels meet applicable
regulations (App. A); levels for rubber plants could not be estimated due to lack'of data.
Particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO).
X
-------
In 1975, even with the projected use of low-sulfur content fuel, steam-
electric generating stations will continue to account for a similar per-
centage of emissions from stationary combustion sources.
The largest industrial process source of sulfur oxide emissions
studied was petroleum refining, (Table 4-3), followed by sulfuric acid
and primary nonferrous metallurgical plants. Since the 1975 control
level for petroleum refining was estimated at only 50 percent, this source
will account for nearly all of the sulfur oxide emissions from industrial
sources.
D. Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbon emissions from solid waste disposal operations amounted
to 160 thousand tons in 1967. Estimated 1975 emissions are 49 thousand
tons (Table 4-4).
Good operating practice and maintenance procedures limit hydrocarbon
emissions from stationary combustion sources to very low levels; there-
fore, such emissions were not estimated.
It is estimated that significant hydrocarbon emissions will occur in
only three of the industrial processes studied: varnish, petroleum refin-
ing, and petroleum storage (Table 4-3). The latter two accounted for
approximately 99 percent of the estimated 1967 industrial process emis-
sions.
E. Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide emissions from solid waste disposal operations were
1950 thousand tons in 1967, exceeding both gray iron foundry and petro-
leum refining emissions.
Carbon monoxide emissions from stationary combustion sources were
not estimated, since such emissions are negligible with good operating
practices.
-------
Emissions of carbon monoxide were estimated for only two of the
industrial process sources, gray iron foundries and petroleum refining;
gray iron foundry emissions were greater (see Table 4-3).
III. SOURCE SUMMARY
A. Introduction
The emission estimates presented in Table 4-1 for solid waste dis-
posal, stationary combustion, and industrial process sources are, as
mentioned previously, composites representing a number of individual sources.
This section presents some of the source estimates upon which Table 4-1
is based.
B. 1967 Emission Levels
Tables 4-2 and 4-3 present 1967 emission estimates for individual
sources within the stationary combustion and industrial process source
categories. In addition to emissions for the 100 metropolitan areas,
estimates are also included for the entire Nation.
C. 1975 Emission Levels
Table 4-4 presents projected emissions by individual source for the
year 1975, with and without implementation of the Clean Air Act, as
Amended. The emission estimates include emissions from sources in exis-
tence in 1967 as well as additional sources assumed to be added between
1967 and 1975. The 1975 emission levels without the Act assume that the
sources in existence in 1967 as well as the new sources are controlled
at 1967 levels. The 1975 emission levels with the Act assume that
both the sources in existence in 1967 and the new sources are controlled
to the levels required by the assumed emission standards.
For convenience, total investment (FY 1971-1975) and ultimate annual
costs (FY 1975) are also included in Table 4-4.
Control levels, by source and fiscal year, are given in the appropriate
appendixes.
-------
Table 4-4
PROJECTED EMISSION LEVELS AND RELATIVE EFFECTS OF THE ACT BY THE END OF FISCAL YEAR 19753
(100 metropolitan areas)
-P-
00
STATIONARY EMISSION SOURCE
SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL
STATIONARY COMBUSTION
Steam-electric power plants
Industrial boilers
Commercial-institutional heating plants
Residential heating plants
Totals
INDUSTRIAL PROCESS
Kraft (sulfate) pulp plants
Iron and steel plants
Gray iron foundries
Primary nonferrous metallurgical plants
Sulfuric acid plants
Phosphate fertilizer plants
Petroleum refineries
Asphalt batching plants
Cement plants
Lime plants
Coal cleaning plants
Petroleum products storage plants
Grain mills and elevators
Varnish plants
Rubber (tire and inner tube) plants
Secondary nonferrous metallurgical plants
Totals
1975 EMISSION LEVEL
WITHOUT THE ACTb
(1000 tons/year)
Part
947
2550
1930
69
173
4722
164
1420
129
29
55
16
63
306
723
289
47
1350
--
65
4656
SO
X
--
8520
4780
736
1100
15136
175
561
--
1130
--
«
--
--
--
1866
HC
204
-_
--
--
--
--
--
719
--
--
«
779
--
6
--
--
1498
CO
2089
..
--
--
--
1720
--
1323
--
--
--
--
3043
1975 EMISSION LEVEL
WITH THE ACT
(1000 tons/year)
Part
187
231
72
31
57
391
33
134
15
17
32
6
34
122
51
29
5
20
4
505
SO
X
--
3121
1759
580
541
6001
_
< 5
78
--
903
--
--
--
--
--
--
987
HC
49
--
--
--
--
--
97
--
419
--
< 2
-.
--
518
CO
299
--
--
--
--
--
104
--
--
124
--
--
..
--
--
--
228
TOTAL AREA
CONTROL COST
(million dollars)
Inv.
221
161
547
31
550
1289
7
412
238
81
37
5
103
34
19
1
3
84
46
1
5
55
1131
Ult Ann.
107
786
412
6
129
1333
3
263
78
28
3
2
2
28
6
1
1
0
16
1
5
18
455
Clean Air Act, as Amended. Blanks in the table indicate the emission levels meet applicable regulations (App. A ),
could not be estimated due to lack of data.
levels for rubber plants
Particulates (Part ), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO)
c Projected costs (Inv., Ult. Ann.) are the initial investment expenditure (for purchasing and installing control equipment) and the continuing annual
-------
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-------
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-------
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-------
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-------
Appendix A
Assumed Emission Standards
-------
Appendix A
Assumed Emission Standards
I. INTRODUCTION
Under the Clean Air Act, as Amended, air quality standards will be
adopted for Air Quality Control Regions (AQCR's), then plans for implemen-
tation of the standards will be adopted. Ordinarily, implementation plans
must include emission standards intended to permit a region to attain and
maintain its established air quality standards. For this report, emission
standards were selected without going through the above steps, which would
have required many assumptions about air quality standards and a massive
computational effort to derive appropriate emission standards for all the
100 metropolitan areas. The emission standards selected for this report
are representative of those now used throughout the Nation.
II. STANDARDS FOR PARTICULATES
For process sources, the process weight rate regulation (."process
weight regulation") of the San Francisco Bay Area Pollution Control District
was used as the basis of control cost estimates. This regulation limits
the weight of particulate emissions per hour as a function of the total
weight of raw materials introduced into a process operation. This regula-
tion, as shown in Table A-l was applied to all industrial process sources.
For incinerators, the New York State Incinerator Standard for new
units was used. This standard limits total particulate emissions on the
basis of mass rate (pounds/hour), rather than concentration. Several areas
have adopted a variation of this; the New York State standard for new
installations (Figure A-l) was used to determine the control efficiency of
incinerators. For fuel-burning equipment, the combustion regulation of
the State of Maryland was used (see Figure A-2).
-------
III. STANDARDS FOR SULFUR OXIDES
For fuel-burning equipment, a regulation based on mass emission rate
per million Btu input was used. It allows an emission rate of 1.46 pounds
of sulfur dioxide per million Btu input; this limit is based on an equi-
valent sulfur content of 1.0 percent by weight in coal (1.38 percent by
weight in oil). For process sources, a concentration standard of 500 parts
per million of sulfur dioxide was used.
IV. STANDARDS FOR HYDROCARBONS
For process sources, cost estimates were based on treatment of all
exhaust gases to remove organic material by 90 percent (or more) by weight.
For petroleum products storage, it was assumed that all stationary tanks,
reservoirs, and containers with more than a 40,000-gallon capacity and a
vapor pressure of 1.5 pounds per square inch absolute (or greater) must
be equipped with floating roofs, vapor recovery systems, or other equally
efficient devices. In addition, it was assumed that submerged filling inlets
must be installed on all gasoline storage tanks with a capacity of 250
gallons or more.
V. STANDARDS FOR CARBON MONOXIDE
Costs estimates were based on treatment of all exhaust gases to remove
or reduce the weight of carbon monoxide emissions by at least 95 percent.
-------
O
100
50
0)
T)
§
O
cx
10
w
CO
en
w
,J
1
1.0
0.5
CO
d
o
o
-------
Table A-l
ALLOWABLE SATE OF PARTICIPATE EMISSION BASED ON PROCESS WEIGHT RATE3
Process Weight
Rate
Lbs/hr
100
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
4,000
5,000
6,000
7,000
8,000
9,000
10,000
12,000
Tons/hr
0.05
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
1.75
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
4.50
5.00
6.00
Rate of
Emission
Lbs/hr
0.551
0.877
1.40
1.83
2.22
2.58
3.38
4.10
4.76
5.38
5.96
6.52
7.58
8.56
9.49
10.4
11.2
12.0
13.6
Process Weight
Rate
Lbs/hr
16,000
18,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
70,000
80,000
90,000
100,000
120,000
140,000
160,000
200,000
1,000,000
2,000,000
6,000,000
Tons/hr
8.00
9.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
35.00
40.00
45.00
50.00
60.00
70.00
80.00
100.00
500.00
1,000.00
3,000.00
Rate of
Emission
Lbs/hr
16.5
17.9
19.2
25.2
30.5
35.4
40.0
41.3
42.5
43.6
44.6
46.3
47.8
49.0
51.2
69.0
77.6
92.7
Data in this table can be interpolated for process weight rates up
to 60,000 Ib/hr by using equation E-4.10 P°'67 and can be interpolated
and extrapolated for process weight rates in excess of 60,000 Ib/hr
by using equation E=55.0 P0'11 -40 (E = rate of emission in Ib/hr;
P = process weight rate in tons/hr).
-------
4-1
m
vD
O
CO
ja
co
§
M
CO
CO
1
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.06
(Existing)
(New)
I
I
I
10
102 103
EQUIPMENT CAPACITY RATING (106 Btu/hr)
Fig. A-2. Maryland Particulate Emission Standards for Fuel Burning Installations.
0.19
-------
Appendix B
Selection of 100 Metropolitan Areas
-------
Appendix B
Selection of 100 Metropolitan Areas
The Clean Air Act, as Amended, specifies a plan for control of air
pollution on a regional basis. In brief, after the DHEW has issued air
quality criteria and a report on control techniques for a specific type
of air pollutant, State governments are expected to adopt and implement
air quality standards for that pollutant applicable to the Air Quality
Control Regions designated by the Department.
As of June 1, 1969, Air Quality Control Regions (AQCR's) had been
designated in 13 metropolitan areas (cities 1-13 in Table B-l). In
addition, the central city or cities of each of 44 additional areas had
been officially identified as places where regions would be designated by
the end of Fiscal Year 1970. Thus, there are 57 areas in which AQCR's
either have been or definitely will be designated; however, it is possible
that they will be designated in a different order than that given in Table B-l
and that recommendations by States may result in the designation of additional
AQCR's before the initial 57 listed are officially designated.
Because this report covers a five-year period ending June 1975, it is
likely that more than 57 AQCR's will have been designated by that time; thus
43 other areas are included and estimates of cost are presented for stationary
source controls in 100 metropolitan areas.
With respect to their status as actual or projected AQCR's (see Table B-l),
the 100 areas can be divided into four groups:
1) Cities 1-13; these areas were officially designated as AQCR's
as of June 1, 1969; the Secretary of DHEW announced the boundaries
in the Federal Register and sent letters of notice to the respective
State governors.
2) Cities 14-18; for these areas, boundaries of AQCR's were proposed
as of June 1, 1969, but are not yet officially designated; for
these, a Federal Register notice has been published stating what
geographic area will be the basis of a consultation with State
and local officials.
-------
3) Cities 19-57; these areas are scheduled to be designated as
AQCR's; as of June 1, 1969, boundaries had not been proposed,
but*NAPCA has identified these 39 central cities as places
in which AQCR's will be designated at some time in the future.
4) Cities 58-100: these 43 additional areas were arbitrarily
selected for this report. Standard Metropolitan Statistical
Area (SMSA) boundaries were assumed and the areas were ranked
on the basis of population, estimated emissions, and number of
business establishments of the stationary source categories
considered in this report; compilation of the areas does not
imply intentions on the part of NAPCA to designate or not to
designate them as AQCR's. No attempt is made to anticipate
choices of areas for designation as AQCR's beyond NAPCA's
announced 57, and even if some of these 43 are chosen for
designation, official boundaries will not necessarily be the
same as those assumed for this report.
Table B-l was compiled on the basis of information available as of
June 1, 1969. Designations, proposals, consultations, other announcements,
or other information pertaining to the designation of AQCR's after that
date have not been considered in this report.
-------
Table B-l
LIST OF 100 METROPOLITAN AREAS
a
Air Quality Control Regions - Designated as of June 1, 1969
1. Washington, D. C. (Maryland, Virginia) 8.
2. New York, New York (New Jersey, Delaware) 9,
3. Chicago, Illinois (Indiana) 10.
4. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (New Jersey, 11.
Delaware) 12.
5. Denver, Colorado
6. Los Angeles, California 13.
7. St. Louis, Missouri (Illinois)
Boston, Massachusetts
San Francisco, California
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Buffalo, New York
Cincinnati, Ohio (Indiana,
Kentucky)
Cleveland, Ohio
Air Quality Control Regions - Proposed as of June 1, 1969
14. Kansas City, Missouri (Kansas)
15. Baltimore, Maryland
16. Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minnesota
17. Hartford, Connecticut
(Massachusetts)
18. Indianapolis, Indiana
Metropolitan Areas - Announced for Designation
19. Detroit, Michigan
20. Milwaukee/Kenosha/Racine, Wisconsin
21. Previdence-Pawtucket, Rhode Island/
Fall River, Massachusetts
22. Seattle-Everett/Tacoma, Washington
23. Louisville, Kentucky (Indiana)
24. Dayton, Ohio
25. Phoenix, Arizona
26. Houston/Galveston-Texas City, Texas
27. Dallas/Ft. Worth, Texas
28. San Antonio, Texas
29. Birmingham, Alabama
30. Toledo, Ohio (Michigan)
31. Steubenville-Weirton, Ohio/Wheeling,
West Virginia
32. Chattanooga, Tennessee (Georgia)
33. Atlanta, Georgia
34. Memphis, Tennessee (Arkansas)
35. Portland, Oregon (Washington)
36. Salt Lake City, Utah
37. New Orleans, Louisiana
38. Miami/Fort Lauderdale, Florida
39. Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
40. Omaha, Nebraska (Iowa)
41. Honolulu, Hawaii
42. Beaumont-Port Arthur-Orange,
Texas
43. Charlotte, North Carolina
44. Portland, Maine
45. Albuquerque, New Mexico
46. Lawrence-Haverhill/Lowell,
Massachusetts/Manchester,
New Hampshire
47. El Paso, Texas
48. Las Vegas, Nevada
49. Fargo-Moorhead, North Dakota,
Minnesota
When a state name is in parentheses, it indicates that the area
extends into that State.
Also includes New Haven, Waterbury, and Meridan SMSA's, although not
in originally proposed AQCR.
Slashes separate two or more SMSA's which comprise one metropolitan
area.
-------
Table B-l (continued)
Metropolitan 'Areas - Announced for Designation (continued)
50. Boise, Idaho
51. Billings, Montana
52. Sioux Falls, South Dakota
53. Cheyenne, Wyoming
54. Anchorage, Alaska
55. Burlington, Vermont
56. San Juan, Puerto Rico
57. Virgin Islands
Additional Metropolitan Areas - Selected for this Report
58. Albany-Schenectady-Troy, New York 80.
59. Allentown-Bethlehem-Easton, 81.
Pennsylvania, New Jersey
60. Anderson/Muncie, Indiana 82.
61. Bakersfield, California 83.
62. Binghamton, New York (Pennsylvania) 84.
63. Charleston, South Carolina 85.
64. Charleston, West Virginia 86.
65. Columbus, Ohio 87.
66. Davenport-Rock Island-Moline, 88.
Iowa, Illinois 89.
67. Des Moines, Iowa 90.
68. Flint, Michigan 91.
69. Fresno, California
70. Fort Wayne, Indiana 92.
71. Grand Rapids/Muskegon- 93.
Muskegon Hts., Michigan 94.
72. Greensboro, North Carolina 95.
73. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania 96.
74. Jackson, Mississippi 97.
75. Jacksonville, Florida 98.
76. Johnstown, Pennsylvania
77. Knoxville, Tennessee 99.
78. Lancaster, Pennsylvania 100.
79. Mobile, Alabama
Nashville, Tennessee
Norfolk-Portsmouth/Newport
News-Hampton, Virginia
Peoria, Illinois
Raleigh/Durham, North Carolina
Reading, Pennsylvania
Richmond, Virginia
Rochester, New York
Rockford, Illinois
Sacramento, California
Saginaw/Bay City, Michigan
San Diego, California
Scranton/Wilkes Barre-Hazelton,
Pennsylvania
South Bend, Indiana
Syracuse, New York
Tampa, Florida
Tulsa, Oklahoma
Utica-Rome, New York
Wichita, Kansas
Worcester/Fitchburg-Leominster,
Massachusetts
York, Pennsylvania
Youngstown-Warren, Ohio
Slashes separate two or more SMSA's which comprise one metropolitan area.
-------
Appendix C
Chronological Phasing of the Implementation of Air Quality
Control in 100 Metropolitan Areas
-------
Appendix C
Chronological Phasing of the Implementation of Air Quality
Control in 100 Metropolitan Areas
The Clean Air Act, as Amended, sets forth in Section 108, the procedures
through which air quality standards are enacted and implemented in Air Quality
Control Regions (AQCR's). It is in reducing air pollution to comply with
such standards that owners and operators of pollution sources will incur
the costs for which estimates are presented in this report.
To make realistic estimates of air pollution control costs for stationary
sources in each of the 100 metropolitan areas covered in this report, each
area was treated as though it either had been designated as an AQCR or would
be so designated on a specific date. It was further assumed that:
1) Air quality criteria and reports on control techniques for sulfur
oxides, particulates, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons were avail-
able on the assumed designation dates.
2) The cognizant State governments will adopt air quality standards
and implementation plans in accordance with the time schedule
prescribed by Section 108 of the Clean Air Act, as Amended.
3) In general, the installation of controls will be completed no
later than three years after the States' implementation plans
have been approved by DHEW.
The following schedule is a general representation of the flow of
events from the time of the designation of an AQCR to the time at which
control is complete:
Day 1 Official designation of boundaries for AQCR's
(or already designated AQCR's); the distribution
of air quality criteria and reports on control
technology by DHEW.
Day 90 Governor of the State(s) in which the AQCR lies
files a letter of intent to adopt ambient air
quality standards.
Day 270 State(s) adopts AQCR air quality standards con-
sistent with air quality criteria and reports on
control technology issued by DHEW; upon issue of
control technology documents for other pollutants,
AQCR's must adopt other air quality standards for
these additional pollutants.
-------
Day 450" State(s) submits a plan to DREW specifying the
methods they will use to implement, maintain,
and enforce the air quality standards.
Day 540 DREW approval of implementation plan.
After 2.5 yrs. First 25 percent of total control cost incurred.
After 3.5 yrs. Additional 50 percent of total control cost.
After 4.5 yrs. Final 25 percent of total control cost.
(Not later than
6/30/75)
Compliance with emission standards obviously cannot be achieved
immediately upon the adoption of standards, because of such constraints
as the limited enforcement agency staff and design, fabrication, and
delivery time requirements for control equipment. By similar reasoning,
the three-year period was reduced to two and one-half for the last group
of cities (Group V below) since some of the earlier limitations will have
been reduced by the time control is required for their sources.
Since all facilities will be assumed to be in compliance by the end
of Fiscal 1975, all groups listed below will have expended 25 percent of
the total investment at the end of the first year after the adoption of
standards and 50 percent at the end of the second. Groups I-IV will have
expended the final 25 percent during the third year; Group V will have
incurred the final 25 percent during the first half of the third year and
will be in compliance by the end of Fiscal 1975. Table C-l lists the areas
by groups; Table C-2 gives this scheduling plan in detail.
-------
Table C-l
100 METROPOLITAN AREAS BY GROUPS.
(according to designation dates)'
Group 1 (all designated by June 1969).
1. Washington, D. G. (Maryland, Virginia) 8.
2. New York, New York (New Jersey, Delaware) 9.
3. Chicago, Illinois (Indiana) 10.
4. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (New Jersey, 11.
Delaware) 12.
5. Denver, Colorado
6. Los Angeles, California 13.
7 St. Louis, Missouri (Illinois)
Boston, Massachusetts
San Francisco, California
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Buffalo, New York
Cincinnati, Ohio (Indiana,
Kentucky)
Cleveland, Ohio
Group II (assumed to be designated by December 1969)
14. Kansas City, Missouri (Kansas)
15. Baltimore, Maryland
16. Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minnesota
17. Hartford t Connecticut
18. Indianapolis, Indiana
19. Detroit, Michigan
20. Milwaukee/Kenosha/Racine, Wisconsin
21. Providence-Pawtucket, Rhode Island/
Fall River, Massachusetts
22. Seattle-Everett/Tacoma, Washington
23. Louisville, Kentucky (Indiana)
24. Dayton, Ohio
25. Phoenix, Arizona
26. Houston/Galveston-Texas City,
Texas
27. Dallas/Ft. Worth, Texas
28. San Antonio, Texas
29. Birmingham, Alabama
30. Toledo, Ohio (Michigan)
31. Steubenville-Weirton, Ohio/
Wheeling, West Virginia
32. Chattanooga, Tennessee (Georgia)
33. Atlanta, Georgia
34. Memphis, Tennessee (Arkansas)
35. Portland, Oregon (Washington)
Group III (assumed to be designated by June 1970)
36. Salt Lake City, Utah
37. New Orleans, Louisiana
38. Miami/Fort Lauderdale, Florida
39. Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
40. Omaha, Nebraska (Iowa)
41. Honolulu, Hawaii
42. Beaumont-Port Arthur-Orange, Texas
43. Charlotte, North Carolina
44. Portland, Maine
45. Albuquerque, New Mexico
46,
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
Lawrence-Haverhill/ Lowell, Massachusetts 56.
/Manchester, New Hampshire 57.
El Paso, Texas
Las Vegas, Nevada
Fargo-Moorhead, North Dakota,
Minnesota
Boise, Idaho
Billings, Montana
Sioux Falls, South Dakota
Cheyenne, Wyoming
Anchorage, Alaska
Burlington, Vermont
San Juan, Puerto Rico
Virgin Islands
a A State name in parenthesis indicates the area extends into that State.
b Includes New Haven, Waterbury, and Meridan SMSA's that are not in
originally proposed AQCR.
-------
Table C-l (continued)
Group IV (assumed to be designated by December 1970)
58
Allentown-Bethlehem-Easton,
Pennsylvania, New Jersey
Anderson/Muncie, Indiana
Bakersfield, California
Columbus, Ohio
Davenport-Rock Island-Moline,
Iowa, Illinois
Flint, Michigan
64. Grand Rapids/Muskegon-Muskegon Hts.,
Michigan
65. Greensboro, North Carolina
66. Harnsburg, Pennsylvania
67- Jacksonville, Florida
68. Knoxville, Tennessee
59
60
61
62
63
69. Nashville, Tennessee
70. Peoria, Illinois
71. Richmond, Virginia
72. Rochester, New York
73. Saginaw/Bay City, Michigan
74. Scranton/Wilkes Barre-Hazelton,
Pennsylvania
75. Syracuse, New York
76. Tampa, Florida
77. Tulsa, Oklahoma
78. Worcester/Fitchburg-Leominster,
Massachusetts
79. Youngstown-Warren, Ohio
Group V (assumed to be designated by June 1971)
80. Albany-Schenectady-Troy, New York 91.
81. Binghamton, New York (Pennsylvania)
82. Charleston, South Carolina 92.
83. Charleston, West Virginia 93.
84. Des Moines, Iowa 94.
85. Fresno, California 95.
86. Fort Wayne, Indiana 96.
87. Jackson, Mississippi 97.
88. Johnstown, Pennsylvania 98.
89. Lancaster, Pennsylvania 99.
90. Mobile, Alabama 100.
Norfolk-Portsmouth/Newport
News-Hampton, Virginia
Raleigh/Durham, North Carolina
Reading, Pennsylvania
Rockford, Illinois
Sacramento, California
San Diego, California
South Bend, Indiana
Utica-Rome, New York
Wichita, Kansas
York, Pennsylvania
-------
Table C-2
IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULE FOR 100 METROPOLITAN AREAS BY GROUP
STEPS IN IMPLEMENTING THE CLEAN AIR ACT, AS AMENDED
Day 1: designation of AQCR
Day 90: submit letter of intent
Day 270: adopt standard
Day 450: submit implementation plan
Day 540 : DHEW approval of implementation plan0
ACCUMULATED RATES OF EXPENDITURES
After 2k yrs: 257. of total investment incurred
After 3% yrs: 50% of total investment incurred
After 4% yrs: 100% of total investment incurredd
EXPECTED DATES OF EVENTS BY AREA GROUPS3
Group I
(Part, SO )
A
6/1969
9/1969
3/1970
9/1970
12/1970
12/1971
12/1972
12/1973
(HC, CO)
1/1970
3/1970
9/1970
3/1971
6/1971
6/1972
6/1973
6/1974
Group II
Group III
Group IV
Group V
(Part, SO , HC, CO)
12/1969
3/1970
9/1970
3/1971
6/1971
6/1972
6/1973
6/1974
6/1970
9/1970
3/1971
9/1971
12/1971
12/1972
12/1973
12/1974
12/1970
3/1971
9/1971
3/1972
6/1972
6/1973
6/1974
6/1975
6/1971
9/1971
3/1972
9/1972
12/1972
12/1973
12/1974
6/1975
For Group I, particulate and sulfur oxide control will precede hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide control by 6 months
due to January 1970 publication of control and criteria report; for Groups II-V, planning the control of all four
pollutants is expected to begin with Day 1 (Designation).
Or the date of publication of criteria and control technology reports, whichever is later.
Assumed period of 90 days for DHEW approval.
-------
Appendix D
1967 Base Year Air Quality Control Costs
Annual and Investment Costs by Metropolitan Area, FY 1971-1975
-------
Appendix D
1967 ll.iae Ye.ir Air Quality Control Costa
Annual nnd Investment Costs by Metropolitan Area. FY 1971-1975°
(million dollars)
METROPOLITAN
AREAS
GROUP I
1. Washington
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
2. New York
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
3. Chicago
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
4. Philadelphia
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
5. Denver
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
6. Los Angeles
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
AIR POLLUTION SOURCE CATEGORY
Industrial
Process
Inv 1 Ann.
0.1
0.4 0.1
0.6 0.3
0 2 0.4
0.0 0.4
1.3 1.3
2.1 0 7
8.2 3.0
10.1 5.5
4.0 6.3
0.0 6.3
24.4 21.8
10.2 6.1
33.7 24.4
36.6 42.7
13.2 48.9
0.0 48 9
93.7 171.0
4.6 1.8
16.4 7.2
18.9 12 7
7.1 14.6
0.0 14.6
47.0 50.9
0.4 0.2
1 5 0.7
1.7 1.2
0.6 1.4
.0^ _1^
4.2 4.9
2.4 1.0
7.2 4 1
7.2 7.2
2.3 8 2
0.0 8.2
19.1 28.7
Stationary
Combustion
Inv. 1 Ann.
5.4 3.2
16.1 12.9
16.1 22.6
5.4 25 8
0.0 25.8
43.0 90.3
11.1 10.0
33.2 39 9
33.2 69.9
11.1 79.8
0.0 79.8
88.6 279.4
14.9 21.6
44.6 86.6
44.6 151.5
14.9 173.2
0 0 173.2
119.0 606.1
5.4 5.1
16.2 20.4
16.2 35.7
5.4 40.8
0.0 40.8
43.2 142.8
0.6 2.0
1 8 7.8
1.8 13.7
0 6 15.6
0.0 15.6
4.8 54.7
07
1.9
3.3
3.8
^_ -L&
13.5
Solid
Waste
Inv. | Ann.
0.4 0.3
1.3 1.0
1.2 1.8
0.4 2.1
0.0 2.1
3.3 7.3
2.1 1 3
6.4 5.3
6.4 9 3
2.1 10.6
0.0 10.6
17.0 37.1
1.9 0.9
5.7 3.5
5.6 6.0
1.9 6 9
0.0 6.9
15.1 24.2
0 4 0.2
1.3 0.8
1.2 1 4
0 4 1.6
_9^0 _J^A
3.3 5 6
0.8 0.3
2.2 1.1
2.2 1.9
0.8 2.1
,0^2. _a*l
6.0 7.5
"
TOTAL AIR QUALITY CONTROL COST
Lower
Limit
Inv. 1 Ann
4 4 2.7
12 2 10.9
13.4 19.1
4 5 21.9
0.0 21.9
35 6 76 5
10 0 89
31.3 35.7
32.5 62 7
11.3 71.6
0.0 71.6
85.1 250.5
18.6 20 9
58.0 83.6
60 0 146.1
20.7 167 2
0 0 167.2
157.3 585.0
8.3 5.2
27.1 20.7
29.0 36.4
10.3 41 6
0.0 41.6
74.7 145.5
1.2 2.0
3.8 7 5
4.0 13 1
1.4 14 9
0.0 14.9
10.4 52.4
1.6 1.2
4.7 4.1
4.7 7.3
1.5 8.3
0.0 8.3
12.5 29.2
Expected
Inv. | Ann.
5.9 3.5
17 8 14.1
17.9 24.7
6.0 28.3
0.0 28 3
47.6 98.9
15.3 12 0
47 8 48.2
49.7 84.7
17.2 96.7
0.0 96.7
130.0 338.3
27.0 28.6
84.0 114.5
86.8 200.2
30.0 229.0
0 0 229.0
227.8 801.3
10 4 71
33.9 28 4
36.3 49.8
12.9 57.0
Q.£ 57.0
93 5 199.3
1.8 2.5
5.5 9.6
5.7 16.8
2.0 19.1
0.0 19.1
15 0 67.1
2 4 1.7
7.2 6.0
7.2 10 5
2.3 12 0
0.0 12.0
19.1 42.2
Upper
Limit
Inv 1 Ann
7.8 4 4
23 6 17 7
2J.8 31.0
80 35 6
00 35 6
63.2 124.3
17 4 14 4
54.5 57 8
56 7 101.6
19.6 116 0
0.0 116.0
148.2 405.8
37.3 37 5
115.9 150 0
119.8 262 3
41.4 300 0
0.0 300 0
314.4 1049 8
17 2 9.2
55.9 36 9
59.9 64 7
21 3 74 1
0.0 74 1
154 3 259 0
2.4 3.1
7.4 11 9
77 20 8
27 23 7
0.0 23.7
20 2 83.2
3 2 2.J
9.6 8.0
9.6 14.0
3.1 16 0
0.0 16.0
25.5 56.3
--Negligible but non-zero expenditure required.
* No additional expenditure required.
See footnotes at end of table.
-------
Appendix D (Continued)
1967 Base Year Air quality Control
Coats
Annual and Investment Costa by Metropolitan Area, F
(million dollars)
METROPOLITAN
AREAS
7 bt louis FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
8 Boston FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
9 San Francisco FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
10 Pittsburgh FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
11 Buffalo FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
12 Cincinnati FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
13 Cleveland FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
t 1971-1975"
AIR POLLUTION SOURCE CATEGORY
Industrial
Process
20 08
74 34
88 60
34 69
00 69
16 24 0
05 02
21 07
25 12
10 14
0 0 1 4
61 49
11 04
32 16
32 28
11 32
0 0 3 2
86 11 2
74 47
22 6 18 7
23 0 32 6
78 37 4
00 37 4
60 8 130 8
30 17
93 67
97 11 8
34 13 5
0 0 13 5
25 4 47 2
20 06
74 25
89 46
35 54
0 0 5 4
21 8 18 5
47 22
14 8 89
15 4 15 6
53 17 9
00 17 9
40 2 62 5
Stationary
Combustion
63 81
19 1 32 5
19 0 56 9
6 3 65 7
0 0 65 7
50 7 228 9
23 78
68 31
67 55
23 63
00 63
18.1 29 0
02
09
16
19
1 9
65
49 52
14 8 20 8
14 8 36 5
4 9 41 7
0 0 41 7
39 4 145 9
57 27
17 3 10 9
17 2 19 1
5 7 21 9
0 0 21 9
45 9 76 5
39 49
11 8 19 7
11 8 34 4
3 9 39 3
0 0 39 3
31 4 137 6
50 48
14 9 19 0
14 9 33 3
5 0 38 0
00 38 0
39 8 133 1
Solid
Waste
Inv.
0 5
1 4
1 3
0 5
0 0
3 7
0 9
2 7
2 7
0 9
0 0
7 2
Ann.
0 2
0 7
1 1
1 3
1 3
4 6
0 4
1 7
3 0
3 4
3 4
11 9
0 9
2 8
2 8
0 9
0 0
7 4
0 4
1 3
1 2
0 4
0 0
3 3
0 5
1 5
1 4
0 5
0 0
3 9
1 2
3 4
3 4
1 2
0 0
9 2
0 4
1 6
2 8
3 2
3 2
11 2
0 2
0 8
1 4
1 6
1 6
5 6
0 2
1 0
1 7
1 9
1 9
6 7
0 5
2 0
3 5
4 0
4 0
14 0
TOTAL AIR QUALITY CONTROL COST
Lower
Limit
Inv.
6 2
19 6
20 5
7 2
0 0
53 5
2 7
8 3
8 6
3 0
0 0
22 6
0 7
2 1
2 1
0 7
0 0
5 6
9 4
28 5
28 7
9 6
0 0
76 2
6 5
19 8
19 9
6 7
0 0
52 9
4 9
15 9
17 0
6 1
0 0
43 9
7 6
23 0
23 4
8 0
0 0
62 0
Ann.
6 7
26 8
46 9
54 2
54 2
188 8
6 3
4 1
7 3
8 3
8 3
34 3
0 4
1 6
2 9
3 3
3 3
11 5
7 4
29 6
51 8
59 3
59 3
207 4
3 2
12 9
22 6
25 9
25 9
90 5
4 6
18 6
32 7
37 4
37 4
130 7
5 3
21 3
37 3
42 6
42 6
149 1
Expected
Inv.
8 8
27 9
29 1
10 2
0 0
76 0
3 7
11 6
1) 9
4 2
0 0
31 4
1 1
3 2
3 2
1 1
0 0
8 6
13 2
40 2
40 6
13 6
0 0
Ann.
9 1
36 6
64 0
73 9
73 9
257 5
8 4
5 5
9 7
LI 1
11 1
'(5 8
0 6
2 5
4 4
5 1
5 1
17 7
10 3
41 1
71 9
82 3
82 3
07 6 287 9
91 46
27 9 18 4
28 1 32 3
9 5 37 0
0 0 37 0
74 6 129 3
64 57
20 7 23 2
22 1 40 7
7 9 46 6
0 0 46 6
57 1 162 8
10 9
33 1
33 7
11 5
0 0
7 5
29 9
52 4
59 9
59 9
89 2 209 6
Upper
Limit
Ann
12 4 11 9
39 4 47 9
41 0 8J 8
14 4 96 8
00 96 8
07 2 337 2
50 95
15 5 b 2
15 9 11 ii
56 \i b
00 12 5
42 0 51 7
15 n 8
44 J 4
44 b 0
15 / 0
0 0 7 n
11 8 24 1
17 4 13 4
53 1 53 4
53 6 93 5
18 0 107 0
00 107 0
142 1 374 3
12 3 64
37 7 25 4
37 9 Vi 6
12 8 >! 1
0 0 51 1
100 7 178 b
8 b 77
27 9 31 3
29 8 54 9
10 7 62 9
0 0 62 ')
77 0 219 7
14 7 10 1
44 7 4(1 4
45 5 70 7
15 5 80 9
00 80 9
120 4 283 0
-------
Appendix D (Continued)
1967 Base Year Air Quality Control Costs
Annual and Investment Costs by Metropolitan Area. FY 1971-1975
(million dollars)
METROPOLITAN
AREAS
GROUP II
14 Kansas City
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
15 Baltimore
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
rY 74
FY 75
Total
16 Minneapolis-St Paul
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
17 Hart£ordb
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 7
-------
Appendix D (Continued)
1967 Base Year Air Quality Control Costa
Annual and Investment Coats by Metropolitan Area. FY 1971-1975
(million dollars)
ASEAS
-u Milwaukee/kenosha/Racine
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
lit 74
FY 75
Total
21 Providence-Pawtuckett/Fall River
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
22 Seatcle-Everett/Tacoma
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
23 Louisville
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
24 Dayton
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
25 Phoenix
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
AIR POLLUTION SOURCE CATEGORY
Industrial
Process
Inv. ' Ann.
0 0 0.0
2.2 0 6
4 4 1.8
22 24
00 24
88 72
0.0 0 0
1.6 0 4
3.1 1.3
1 6 1.7
0 0 1.7
6.3 5 1
0.0 0 0
35 13
7.1 4.0
36 53
0 0 5.3
14.2 15 9
00 00
1.2 0 4
23 11
11 14
00 14
46 43
0 0 0.0
1 1 0.3
2.2 0.9
1.1 1.3
0 0 1.3
44 38
00 00
05 02
1 0 0.5
05 07
0.0 0 7
20 21
Stationary
Combus tion
Inv. | Ann.
00 00
10.9 8 1
21 7 24.2
10.9 32.3
0.0 32 3
43.5 96 9
00
07
21
2.8
2.8
8.4
0 0 0.0
01
2 3 -0.1
0.1 -0 1
0.0 -0 1
25-03
0 0 0.0
48 98
9 5 19.6
4 8 39.2
0 0 39.2
19 1 107.8
0 0 0.0
2.9 3 0
58 89
2.9 11 8
0.0 11.8
11.6 35 5
0 0 0.0
4 7 0.1
9.3 0.3
4.7 0.3
0.0 0.3
18 7 1.0
Solid
Waste
Inv. I Ann.
00 00
10 05
2.1 1 4
1.0 1 8
00 18
4 1 5.5
0.0 0.0
06 03
1 3 0.8
0.6 1.1
0.0 1 1
2 5 3.3
0.0 0.0
01 01
0 3 0.4
0.2 0.6
00 06
06 17
00 00
04 02
09 07
0.5 0.9
00 09
18 27
0 0 0.0
06 02
12 07
0 6 1.0
0 0 1.0
24 29
0 0 0.0
02 02
0.1 0 3
0 0 0.3
0.3 0.8
TOTAL AIR QUALITY CONTROL COST
Lower
Limit
Inv.
0 0
8 9
17 9
8 9
0 0
35 7
0 0
1 5
3.0
1.5
0.0
6.0
0.0
2.2
4.5
2 3
0.0
9.0
0 0
4 5
8 9
4.5
0.0
17.9
0.0
3.2
6.4
3 2
n n
12 8
0.0
3 3
6 6
3 3
0.0
13 2
Ann
0 0
6 t
20 6
27 4
27.4
82.3
0 0
1.3
3 8
5 1
5 ]_
15 3
0 0
0 8
2.4
3.3
3 3
9 8
0.0
7 8
16.1
31 1
86.1
0 0
2 6
7.8
10 4
1Q £
31.2
0 0
0 2
0.7
0 9
0.9
2 7
Expected
Inv
0.0
14 1
28 2
14 I
0 0
56 4
0 0
2 2
4 4
2.2
0.0
8.8
0 0
3 7
9 7
3 8
0 0
17 2
0 0
6 4
12 7
6.4
0 0
25 5
0 0
4 6
9.2
4 6
0 0
18 4
0.0
5.2
10 5
5.3
0.0
21.0
Ann.
1) 0
9 2
27 4
36.5
36 5
109 6
0 0
1.4
4 2
5 6
5 6
16 8
0 0
1 4
4 3
5.8
5 8
17 3
0 0
10.4
21.4
41.5
41.5
114 8
0.0
3 5
10 5
14 1
14.1
42 2
0.0
0.3
1.0
1.3
1.3
3.9
Uppur
Limit
Inv. i Ain
00 00
17 2 11 9
34.4 35 J
17.2 47 1
00 47 1
68 8 141 4
0.0 () 0
29 18
59 52
29 70
00 70
11.7 21 0
00 00
50 18
10 1 55
50 73
00 73
20 1 21 9
1
oo on
88 13 5
17 4 27 8
88 53 9
00 5J 9
3I> 0 149 1
00 00
63 46
12 7 13 7
63 18 2
0.0 JS.2
25 3 54 7
00 00
7.7 0 >
15.5 1 5
7.7 2 n
00 20
30 9 60
-------
Appendix D (Continued)
1967 Base Year Air Quality Control Costa
Annual and Investment Costs by Metropolitan Area. FY 1971-1975°
(million dollars)
METROPOLITAN
AREAS
26 Houston/Galveston-Texas City
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
27 Dallas/Ft. Worth
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
28 San Antonio
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
29. Birmingham
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
30 Toledo
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
31 Steubenville/Wlerton/Wheeling
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
AIR POLLUTION SOURCE CATEGORY
Industrial
Process
Irv Ann
00 00
84 19
16 9 56
85 74
00 74
33 8 22.3
00 00
19 05
3.9 1 6
1 9 2.1
00 21
77 63
00 00
0.5 0 2
1.1 0 5
05 06
00 06
21 19
00 00
51 25
10.1 7 6
51 10 2
00 10 2
20 3 30.5
00 00
17 02
33 08
17 10
00 10
67 30
00 00
53 31
10 6 93
52 12 3
00 12 3
21 1 37 0
Stationary
Combustion
Inv. I Ann
00 00
31 08
62 23
3.1 3 1
0 0 3.1
12 4 9.3
00 00
2 3 0.6
47 18
23 23
0 0 2.3
9 3 7.0
0.0 0.0
0.8 0.2
1.6 0.6
0.9 0.8
0.0 0.8
3.3 2.4
00 00
1.3 5.3
27 15 9
1 3 21.3
0 0 21.3
53 63 8
0.0 0 0
15 35
29 10 4
1.5 13 9
00 13 9
59 41 7
00 00
62 10.8
12 3 32 3
6.2 43 1
00 43 1
24 7 129 3
Solid
Waste
Inv. I Ann
00 00
1.3 0 6
25 17
13 23
00 23
51 69
00 00
0 1 0.2
0.4 0.6
0 2 0.8
00 08
0 7 2.4
0.0 0 0
0.2 0 2
0.1 0 3
00 03
03 08
00 00
01 01
01 02
00 02
0 2 0.5
00 00
01 02
0 1 0.3
00 03
0.2 0 8
00 00
01 01
01
00 01
01 03
TOTAL AIR QUALITY CONTROL COST
Lower
Limit
Inv. 1 Ann
00 00
86 23
17 1 68
86 91
00 91
34 3 27 3
00 00
33 09
66 28
3.3 3 8
00 38
13 2 11 3
00 00
10 03
20 10
10 13
00 1 J
00 0(1
4 6 60
91 18 1
46 24 1
0.0 24.1
18 3 72 3
00 00
21 30
42 90
21 12 0
00 12 0
84 36 0
00 00
83 10 5
16 9 31 5
83 42 0
00 42 0
33 5 126 0
Expected
0 0
12 8
Z5 6
12 9
0.0
51 3
0 0
4 3
9 0
4 4
0 0
17 7
0.0
1.3
2.9
1.5
0.0
0 0
6 4
12 9
6 5
0 0
25 8
0 0
3 2
6 3
3.3
0 0
12 8
0 0
11 5
23 0
11 4
0 0
45 9
0 0
3 3
9 6
12.8
12 8
38 5
0.0
1.3
4.0
5.2
5.2
15.7
0.0
0.4
1.3
1.7
1.7
0 0
7 8
23 6
31 7
31.7
94 S
0 0
3 7
11 4
15 2
15 2
45 5
0 0
13 9
41 7
55 5
55 5
166 6
Upper
Limit
00 00
18 9 42
37 9 12 5
18 9 16 7
00 16 7
75 7 50 1
00 00
57 17
11 4 50
57 67
00 67
22 8 20 1
0 0 0.0
18 06
3 6 1.7
1.8 2 2
00 22
00 00
84 99
16 8 29 6
84 39 5
0 0 39 5
33 6 118 5
00 00
47 46
94 13 8
47 18 4
00 18 4
18 8 55 2
00 00
15 2 17 6
30 4 52 7
15 2 70 2
00 70 2
60 8 210 7
-------
Appendix D (Continued)
1967 Base Year Air Quality Control Costs
Annual and Investment Costs by Metropolitan Area. FY 1971-1975
(million dollars)
}H.IR0rOLITAN
AkEAb
32 Chattanooga
nr 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
33 Atlanta
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
Fi' 74
FY 75
Total
34 Memphis
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
35 Portland
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
AIR POLLUTION SOURCE CATEGORY
Industrial
Process
Inv. | Ann
00 00
0 9 0.3
19 09
10 11
_0_0 1 1
38 34
0.0 0.0
1.1 0 3
11 13
0 0 1.3
43 39
0 0 0.0
0 8 0.2
1.6 0.7
0.8 0.9
0 0 0.9
3.2 2.7
00 00
4 8 1.7
95 49
4 7 6.6
00 66
19 0 19 8
Stationary
Combustion
Inv. | Ann
00 00
03 01
05 04
0.3 0 5
0.0 0 5
1 1 1.5
0.0 0,0
0.8 2.2
08 90
00 90
3.1 26.9
0.0 0.0
02 -OX
0 5 -0.2
02 -03
00 -03
0.9 -0 9
00
0.1
01
0.1
0.0
0.3
Solid
Waste
Inv. 1 Ann.
0.0 0.0
0.1 0.1
0.1
0.0 0.1
0.1 0.3
0.0 0.0
0 8 0.4
0.8 1.5
0 0 1.5
3.3 4.5
0.0 0.0
0.1 0.2
0.1 0.3
0 0 0.3
0.2 0.8
00 00
0.7 0 3
1.4 0 8
0.7 1 1
0.0 1 1
28 33
TOTAL AIR QUALITY CONTROL COST
Lower
Limit
Inv. 1 Ann
0 0 0.0
0.8 0.3
17 09
0.0 1.1
3.3 3 4
00 00
1 9 2.2
3 8 6.8
1 9 9.1
00 91
7.6 27 2
0.0 0.0
07 01
1 5 0.4
08 05
0.0 0.5
3.0 i 5
0.0 0 0
32 11
61 32
31 43
0.0 4.3
12.4 12 9
Expected
Inv I Ann
00 00
12 04
2.5 1 4
00 17
5.0 5.2
0.0 0 0
2.7 2 9
5.3 8 8
2.7 11.8
0 0 11.8
10 7 35 3
0 0 0.0
1 0 0.1
i.2 0.7
1.1 0 9
0.0 0.9
4.3 2 6
0 0 0.0
5 6 2.0
10.9 5 7
5.5 7 7
00 77
22 0 23 1
tipper
Limit
Inv 1 Ann
00 00
17 06
3.4 1.8
00 24
68 72
00 00
35 35
6 9 10.7
3.5 14 3
00 14 3
13 9 42 8
0.0 0 0
14 01
31 09
16 12
00 12
61 34
00 00
69 25
13.5 7 0
6 8 9.5
0.0 9.5
27.2 28.5
-------
Appendix D (Continued)
1967 Base Year Air Quality Control Coats
Annual and Investment Coats by Metropolitan Area. FY 1971-1975*
(million dollars)
M-HOPOLllAN
\SF\S
Group III
36 Salt Lake City
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
1Y 7-t
FY 75
TotJl
37 Nev Orleans
nr 71
F\ 72
FY 73
n 74
FY 75
Total
38 Miami /Fort Lauderdale
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
39 Oklahoma City
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 7,
FY 75
Total
40 Omaha
F\ 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
41 Honolulu
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
AIR POLLUTION SOURCE CATEGORY
Industrial
Process
Inv I Ann
00 00
09 04
24 17
25 29
09 33
67 83
00 00
41 10
12 4 39
12 4 68
42 77
33 1 19 4
00 00
04 01
14 03
14 04
04 05
36 13
00 00
02 01
06 03
06 04
02 05
16 13
00 00
04 01
10 04
10 07
04 08
28 20
00 00
02 01
05 02
05 03
02 03
14 09
Stationary
Combustion
Inv I Ann
00 00
13 04
37 14
37 25
13 29
10 0 72
..
00 00
01
02 02
01 03
03
04 08
00 00
16 03
48 11
48 19
17 22
12 9 55
00 00
16 07
48 27
48 48
1 6 5 5
12 8 13 7
00
02
09
15
17
43
Solid
Waste
Inv 1 Ann
00 00
02 01
07 03
08 05
02 06
1 9 1'5
00 00
02 02
06 06
06 11
02 13
16 32
00 00
04 02
11 09
12 16
04 18
31 45
00 00
01 01
01 02
02
02 05
00 00
01 01
01 02
02
02 05
00 00
03 01
08 04
08 07
03 08
22 20
TOTAL AIR QUALITY COu'lBOL COSf
Lower
Limit
Inv | Ann
00 00
1405
4420
4436
11 7 10 2
0000
2207
6724
67 43
2349
17 9 12 3
0000
0402
14 10
1417
0419
3648
0000
1203
36 10
36 16
12 19
9648
0000
1406
4024
4042
1 4 4 8
10 8 12 0
00 00
03 02
0909
09 14
0322
2447
Expected
Tnv. | Ann
00 00
2401
6834
7059
2468
18 6 17 0
00 00
43 12
13 0 4 5
13 0 7 9
44 90
34 7 22 6
0000
0903
27 14
2723
0826
7166
0000
1804
5515
5525
1929
14 7 7 3
0000
2008
5932
5957
_2_0 6 5
15 8 16 2
0000
05 04
1315
1325
0528
36 72
L'pper
Lir.it
Inv ' i-nn
00 00
33 11
99 45
10 1 79
33 9 (1
26 6 22 5
00 00
53 15
16 1 55
16 1 "56
5 5 UJZ_
43 n 27 6
00 00
11 05
34 18
35 29
11 33
91 8 5 t
00 00
27 06
82 22
82 37
28 43
21 9 10 8
00 00
28 10
84 41
84 74
2 8 8.4.
22 4 20 9
00 00
06 05
17 11
17 31
06 35
46 90
-------
Appendix D (Continued)
1967 Base Year Air Quality Control Costs a
Annual and Investment Costs by Metropolitan Area. FY 1971-1975
(million dollars)
ML! lOrULITAN
AREAS
42 Beaumont-Pore
Arthur-Orange
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 7,
FY 75
Total
43 Charlotte
F\ 71
n 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
44 Portland, Maine
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
45 Albuquerque
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
rY ?..
FY 75
Total
46 Lawrence-Haverhlll/
Lowell/Manchester py 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
47 El Paso
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
AIR POLLUTION SOURCE CATEGORY
Industrial
Process
Inv I Ann
00 00
19 01
56 03
56 06
19 07
15 0 17
00 00
0 3 0.1
08 03
08 05
0V2 0 5
21 14
00 00
02 ~
0 6 0.2
06 03
02 03
1 6 0.8
00 00
01
0 3 0.1
02 02
01 02
0 7 0.5
00 00
02
04 02
04 03
01 03
11 08
00 00
06 02
19 09
1 9 1.6
06 19
5 0 4.6
Stationary
Combustion
Inv.
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0.0
1 2
3 7
3 7
1 3
9 9
0 0
0.4
1 2
1 2
0 3
3 1
0 0
0 1
Ann.
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 4
1 5
2 6
3 0
7 5
0 0
0 1
0 4
0 6
0 7
1.8
0 0
--
01
0 0
0 2
0 5
0 5
0 2
1 4
0 0
--
0 0
0 3
1 2
2 0
2 3
5 8
0 0
-
Solid
Waste
Inv. 1 Ann.
00 00
01
01
01
01 02
00 00
01
01
01
01 02
00 00
01
0.1
00 00
01
01
01
01 O1 2
00 00
01
05 02
0 5 0.4
02 05
13 11
00 00
01 01
01
0.1 0 2
TOTAL AIR QUALITY CO. THOL COST
Lower
Limit
Inv I Ann
00 00
10 01
31 02
30 04
1.0 0 5
8.1 1 2
00 00
1.0 0 3
30 12
2.9 2 1
10 24
7 9 6.0
00 00
0.5 0 1
15 04
15 06
05 07
40 18
00 00
01
03 01
02 02
01 02
0.7 0 5
00 00
05 02
1.3 1 3
13 22
05 25
26 62
00 00
03 01
10 05
10 09
0.3 1 1
26 26
Expected
Inv
0 0
1 9
5 7
5 6
1 9
15 1
0 0
1 5
4 6
4 5
1 5
12 1
0 0
0 6
1.8
1 8
0.5
4 7
0 0
0 1
0 4
0 3
0 1
0 9
0 0
0 5
1 4
1 4
0 5
3.8
0 0
0 6
1 9
2.0
0 6
5 1
Ann
0 0
0 1
0 4
0 8
0 9
2 2
0 0
0 5
1 8
3 2
3 6
9 1
0 0
0 1
0 6
0.9
1 1
2 7
0 0
0 1
0 3
0 3
0 7
0 0
0 3
1 6
2 7
3 1
7 7
0 0
0 2
0 9
1 7
2 0
4 8
Upper
LiriL
Inv i /inn
00 00
36 01
10 5 05
10 3 09
36 11
28 0 26
00 00
22 08
67 27
66 48
22 54
17 7 13 7
00 00
10 02
30 10
30 14
10 16
80 42
00 00
0.1
0.4 0 1
04 04
01 04
11 09
00 00
07 04
18 21
18 35
07 40
50 10 0
00 00
09 03
28 11
30 21
09 25
76 60
-------
Appendix D (Continued)
1967 Base Year Air Quality Control Costa
Annual and Investment Costs by Metropolitan Area. FT 1971-1975"
(million dollars)
Mi'wi'OLm\'
\RE\S
48 Las Vegas
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
F\ 74
FY 75
Total
49 Fargo-Moorhead
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
50 Boise
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
51 Billings
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
52. Sioux Falls
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
53 Cheyenne
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
AIR POLLUTION SOURCE CATEGORY
Industrial
Process
Inv I Ann
00 00
01
04 02
04 03
0.1 0 3
10 08
00 00
02 01
06 02
07 04
02 05
00 00
01
02 01
02 01
01 01
06 03
00 00
04
10 01
10 02
0 4 0.2
28 05
00 00
01
02 01
02 01
01 01
06 03
00 00
01
02 01
03 01
01 01
0.7 0.3
Stationary
Combus tion
Inv. | Ann.
00 00
0.1
01-01
00 00
02-01
07-02
08 -04
0.2 -0 5
0.0 0 0
02
06
0.6
02 01
1.6 0 1
00 00
-
0.0 0 0
01 01
01 02
02
0.2 0 5
00 00
02
0.1
0.3
Solid
Waste
Inv. 1 Ann
00 00
01
04 02
05 03
01 04
11 09
00 00
01
00 00
01
00 00
01
01
00 00
01
01
00 00
TOTAL AIR QUALITY CONTROL COS1
Lower
Limit
Inv I Ann
00 00
01
06 02
06 03
02 04
15 09
00 00
03
09
11
03
26 01
00 00
02
06
06 01
02 01
16 02
00 00
02
05 01
05 01
02 02
15 04
00 00
01
02 02
02 02
0.1 0 3
06 07
0.0 0 0
01
02 01
0.2 0 1
01 01
06 03
L/ poctcd
Inv. I Ann
00 00
02
09 04
09 06
02 06
22 16
00 00
04
13 --
15
04
36 01
00 00
03 --
08 01
08 01
0 3 0.3
22 05
00 00
04
10 01
10 02
0.4 0 3
28 06
00 00
01
03 02
03 03
01 04
08 09
00 00
01
04 01
0.4 0 1
01 01
10 03
Upper
Li- it
In7 1 rnn
00 00
03
12 04
12 06
03 08
JO 18
00 00
06 --
18
21
06 01
51 01
00 00
04
11 01
10 02
04 03
29 06
00 00
08
19 01
19 03
08 04
5.4 0 8
00 00
01
04 03
04 04
_2_1_ 0^5
10 12
00 00
02
06 03
06 03
02 03
16 09
-------
Appendix D (Continued)
1967 Base Year Air Quality Control Costs
Annual and Investment Coats by Metropolitan Arei. FY 1971-1975*
(million dollars)
METROPOLITAN
AREAS
54 Anchorage
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
55 Burlington
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
56 San Juan
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
57 Virgin Islands
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
AIR POLLUTION SOURCE CATEGORY
Industrial
Process
Inv. 1 Ann.
0.0 0 0
0.2 0 1
00 00
0.1
01 01
0.0 0.0
0.1
0.1
02 01
00 00
Stationary
Combustion
Inv. 1 Ann.
00 00
-0 1
-0 1
0.0 0 0
01
04 01
0.5 0.2
0.2 0 2
12 05
00
1.1 '
0.4
06
07
18
00 00
Solid
Uaate
Inv. 1 Ann.
00 00
01
01
00 00
0.0 0.0
0 1 0.1
0.1 0.2
0.2
0.2 0 5
00 00
TOTAL AIR QUALITY CONTROL COST
Lower
Limit
Inv. 1 Ann.
00 00
01
00 00
01
03 01
03 02
01 02
08 05
0.0 0.0
0.1
02 04
0.2 0 7
0.8
03 20
00 00
Expected
Inv. 1 Ann.
00 00
01
01
02
00 00
01
05 01
05 02
02 03
13 06
0.0 0 0
01
0 2 0.5
02 08
10
0.4 2 4
00 00
Upper
Limit
Inv. (Ann.
00 00
02
02
0.4
00 00
01
07 02
07 04
0.3 0.4
1 8 1.0
00 00
01
0.2 0 7
0.2 1 1
1.2
04 31
00 00
-------
Ajipumllx I) (Ciiiitlnucil)
1967 II.IHO Yc.ir Air Quality Control C\iat»
Aimuit .nul Investment. Costa liy Metropolitan Arua. 1'Y 1971-1975"
(million dollars)
METROPOLITAN
AREAS
GROUP IV-
58 Allentoun-Beehlehem-Easton
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
59 Anderson/Muncie
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
60. Bakersfield
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
61 Columbus
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
62. Davenport-Rock Island-Moline
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
63 Flint
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
AIR POLLUTION SOURCE CATEGORY
Industrial
Process
Inv 1 Ann
00 00
0.0 0 0
31 17
63 51
31 68
12 5 13.6
0.0 0 0
00 00
03 01
07 03
03 04
1 3 0.8
00 00
00 00
06 02
1 4 0.5
07 07
27 14
00 00
00 00
11 03
21 09
11 12
43 24
00 00
00 00
14 04
28 12
13 16
55 32
00 00
00 00
06 02
12 05
05 07
23 14
Stationary
Combustion
Inv. 1 Ann.
00 00
00 00
47 35
95 10 5
47 14 0
18 9 28 0
00 00
0 0 0.0
17 11
34 33
17 43
68 87
00 00
00 00
00 00
00 00
11 03
23 09
1 1 1.2
45 24
00 00
00 00
26 03
5.1 0 9
26 13
10 3 25
00 00
00 00
01 08
03 26
0 1 3.4
0.5 6 8
Solid
Waste
Inv 1 Ann.
00 00
00 00
05 02
10 04
05 06
20 12
00 00
0 0 0.0
00
01
01
02
00 00
00 00
__
-
00 00
00 00
01 01
01 02
01 03
03 06
00 00
00 00
00 00
01 01
0 0 0.1
01 02
00 00
00 00
00 01
01 02
01 02
02 05
TOTAL AIR QUALITY CONTROL COST
Lower
Limit
Inv.
0 0
0 0
6 0
12 1
6 0
24 1
0 0
0 0
1 4
2 9
1 4
5 7
0 0
0 0
0 4
0 9
0 5
1 8
0 0
0 0
1 6
3 1
1 6
6 3
0 0
0 0
2 7
5 4
2 7
10 8
0 0
0 0
0 5
1 0
0 5
2 0
Ann
0 0
0 0
3 8
11 2
15 0
30 0
0 0
0 0
0 8
2.5
3 2
6 5
0.0
0 0
0 1
0 3
0 4
0 8
0 0
0 0
0 5
1 3
1 8
3 6
0 0
0 0
0 5
1 5
2 0
4 0
0.0
0 0
0 7
2 1
2 8
5 6
Expected
Inv | Ann
00 00
00 00
83 54
16 8 16 0
83 21 4
33 4 42 8
00 00
00 00
20 12
20 48
81 97
00 00
00 00
0 6 0.2
14 05
07 07
27 14
00 00
00 00
23 07
45 20
23 27
91 54
00 00
00 00
40 07
80 22
39 30
15 9 59
00 00
00 00
07 11
1.6 3 3
07 43
30 87
Upper
Limit
Inv | Ann
00 00
00 00
11 3 73
22 7 21 8
11 3 29 1
45 3 58 2
00 00
00 00
29 18
29 70
11 7 14 2
00 00
00 00
08 03
19 08
09 12
36 23
00 00
00 00
32 10
63 28
32 38
12 7 76
00 00
00 00
56 10
11 3 31
55 42
22 4 83
00 00
00 00
10 16
21 48
10 63
41 12 7
-------
Appendix D (Continued)
1967 Base Year Air Quality Control Coats
Annual and Investment Coats by Metropolitan Area. FY 1971-1975°
(million dollars)
METROPOLITAN
AREAS
64 Grand Rapids /Muskegon-
Muskegon Hts
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
65 Greensboro
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
66 Harrlsburg
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
67 Jacksonville
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
68 Knoxville
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
69 Nashville
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
AIR POLLUTION SOURCE CATEGORY
Industrial
Process
Inv. 1 Ann
00 00
0 0 0.0
10 03
2.0 0 8
09 11
3.9 2 2
00 00
00 00
06 01
1.2 0 4
07 05
173" T~S
00 00
00 00
1.6 1 0
3.2 2 9
16 39
6.4 7 8
00 00
00 00
08 01
17 05
09 07
34 13
00 00
00 00
28 10
57 30
29 40
11 4 80
00 00
00 00
05 01
10 03
05 04
20 08
Stationary
Combustion
Inv. | Ann.
00 00
00 00
15 48
3.0 14.3
15 19 1
60 38 2
00 00
00 00
02 02
0 5 0.5
02 07
"ITS' ~TT
00 00
00 00
42 10
84 30
42 40
16 8 80
00 00
00 00
00 05
01 15
00 20
01 40
00 00
00 00
20 07
39 20
20 26
79 53
00 00
00 00
02 -01
03 -02
0.2 -0 3
07 -06
Solid
Waste
Inv. | Ann.
00 00
0.0 0 0
01
01 02
0.1 0 3
02 06
00 00
00 00
00 00
01 01
0.0 0 1
TTT -OT-
00 00
00 00
04 01
08 04
04 05
16 10
00 00
00 00
06 02
10 08
06 10
22 20
00 00
00 00
00 01
01 02
01 02
02 05
00 00
00 00
00 01
01 02
01 02
02 05
TOTAL AIR QUALITY CONTROL COST
Lower
Limit
Inv. 1 Ann
oo on
00 00
18 40
36 11 9
18 16 0
72 31 9
00 00
00 00
06 02
12 07
06 09
TT~ T"B~
00 00
00 00
43 15
86 45
43 60
17 2 12 0
D u (i n
00 00
1 11 06
21 2 2
11 29
42 57
00 00
00 DO
28 10
57 30
28 39
11 3 79
00 00
00 Of)
05 01
10 02
05 02
20 05
Expected
Inv. 1 Ann
00 0 u
00 'II
25 52
5 J 15 1
25 20 >
10 1 41 0
00 (10
oo "0
Ob 0 J
18 10
09 13
TT 2 r
00 00
00 00
62 21
12 4 63
62 84
24 8 16 8
1) 11 u I)
il o i} 0
1 'i (18
28 2 B
15 37
5 / 71
00 MO
0 i] 0 U
48 i a
47 52
i y f> B
194 13 8
H U 0 0
n o u o
07 n i
14 03
08 0 i
29 07
Upper
Limit
Jnv 1 Ann
<> U 0 ll
u ii (1 0
13 ', .
6 A 1. >i
i , 2< 1
13 5 11 .
00 fj ii
0 0 0 1)
J i (14
2 ^> 1 >
1 i i '1
T 7 r B
00 00
00 00
81 30
Ib 7 9 i
84 12 2
33 4 24 I
i. II il i,
(i r> o D
18 1 il
J / 3 -
1 'I . 1,
7-1 1 '
I) i) il i
00 i (i
o 't ^ '
12 8 l> ''
6 b < il
25 7 18 )
on ii ii
0 0 il II
il 9 ft 1
18 0 ,
11 (1 'l
18 01
-------
Appendix D (Continued)
1967 Base Year Air Quality Control Coats
Annual and Investment Coats by Metropolitan Area. FY 1971-1975"
(million dollars)
METROPOLITAN
AREAS
70 Peoria
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
71 Richmond
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
72 Rochester
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
73 Saginau/Bay City
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
74 Scranton/Wllkes Barre-Hazilton
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
75 Syracuse
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
AIR POLLUTION SOURCE CATEGORY
Industrial
Process
Inv. | Ann.
00 00
0.0 0 0
13 04
26 12
1 2 1.6
51 32
00 00
00 00
0.6 0.2
12 05
06 07
2.4 1.4
0.0 0 0
0.0 0.0
0.6 0 1
1 2 0.4
0.5 0.6
2.3 1 1
00 00
0.0 0 0
11 03
22 08
11 11
44 22
00 00
00 00
01
03 01
02 01
06 02
00 00
00 00
08 03
17 09
08 11
33 23
Stationary
Combustion
Inv. | Ann.
0.0 0 0
00 00
29 27
59 81
29 10 8
11.7 21 6
0 0 0.0
0 0 0.0
2.5 0 7
5.1 2.0
2 5 2.7
10 1 54
0.0 0 0
0.0 0.0
1.4 1.6
2.8 4 9
1.4 6 6
56 13 1
00 00
00 00
29 50
58 15 0
29 20 0
LI 6 40 0
00 00
00 00
L9 9 38
19 8 11 3
19 9 15 1
'96 30 2
00 00
00 00
09 02
18 07
09 09
3.6 1 8
Solid
Waste
Inv. ] Ann.
00 00
00 00
01 01
01
01 02
00 00
00 00
01
0.1 0 2
01 02
02 05
00 00
0.0 0 0
0.8 0 4
16 10
08 14
3.2 2 8
00 01)
00 00
01 01
01
01 02
00 00
00 00
01 01
01 02
02
02 05
00 00
00 00
01 01
01 02
02 03
TOTAL AIR QUALITY CONTROL COST
Lower
Limit
Inv. 1 Ann
00 00
00 00
30 23
61 70
29 93
12 0 18 6
00 00
00 00
23 07
4 / IS
23 25
93 51
0.0 0 0
00 00
1.9 1 5
39 44
19 60
77 11 9
0 u 'I ii
00 il 0
28 40
55 12 1
28 16 2
11 1 U 1
00 ) (i
00 00
14 7 2 )
29 4 85
14 7 11 2
58 8 22 b
00 00
oo no
12 03
25 12
13 15
50 JO
Expected
Inv | Ann
00 0 n
00 0 (I
42 31
86 9 H
4 ] 12 5
16 9 25 0
00 00
00 00
31 10
64 2 1
32 36
12 7 7 i
00 00
00 00
28 21
56 63
27 86
11 1 17 0
il i! II H
11 II 0 ')
40 53
81 15 1
4 0 21 2
16 1 42 4
00 on
00 00
20 1 39
40 2 11 6
20 1 15 4
80 4 30 9
00 00
I) n 00
17 05
36 17
18 22
71 44
Upper
Limit
Inv | Ann
0 Cl 01;
oo oo
) R 40
Jl 8 is 3
56 16 3
712 35 f,
00 00
00 Ii 0
42 13
8 / 16
44 48
17 J 97
00 00
00 00
38 29
77 87
37 11 9
15 2 23 5
i, (1 0 ,j
u 0 0 0
5 i 68
11 n 20 L,
55 11 i
11 (i S4 4
0(1 (Ii
on no
27 6 5 i
55 2 Hi 0
27 6 21 .'
110 4 iJ 6
U D U U
n d n ii
21 (17
5 '1 24
25 i J
98 f. 1
-------
Appendix D (Continued)
1967 ll.ise Yoir Air Quality Control Costs
Annual and Investment Costs by Metropolitan Area. FY 1971-1975*
(million dollars)
METROPOLITAN
AREAS
76 Tampa
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
77 Tulsa
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
78 Worcester /Fltchburg-Leomlnater
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
79 Youngs town-Warren
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
AIR POLLUTION SOURCE CATEGORY
Industrial
Process
Inv | Ann
00 00
00 00
2.0 0 6
4.1 1 7
20 22
81 45
00 00
0 0 0.0
1.3 0 4
27 13
13 16
5 3 3.3
00 00
00 00
02 01
06 03
03 04
11 08
0.0 0 0
00 00
59 43
11.9 13.0
59 17 4
23 7 34.7
Stationary
Combustion
Inv. | Ann
00 00
00 00
27
01 80
0.1 10 6
0.2 21 3
00 00
00 00
33 06
66 19
33 26
13 2 51
00 00
00 00
0.4 0 1
06 02
0.4 0.3
1.4 0.6
00 00
00 00
2 1 1.3
4 2 3.8
2 1 5.0
8.4 10.1
Solid
Waste
Inv
0 0
0 0
0 5
0 9
0 5
1.9
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 1
0 1
0 3
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 1
0 1
0 3
0 0
0 0
0 4
0.9
0.4
1,7
Ann.
0 0
0 0
0 2
0 8
1 0
2,0
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 2
0 2
0.5
0 0
0 0
0.1
0 2
0 2
0.5
0 0
0 0
0 2
0 4
0 6
1 2
TOTAL AIR QUALITY CONTROL COST
Lower
Limit
Inv. | Ann.
00 00
00 00
1 8 2.7
36 81
18 10 6
72 21 4
00 00
00 00
26 07
5.4 2 0
27 26
10 8 53
0.0 0 0
0 0 0.0
07 02
1 5 0.5
0 7 0.6
29 13
00 00
0 0 0.0
6 0 3.8
12 1 11 3
60 15 1
24 1 30 2
Expected
Inv
0 0
0 0
2 5
5 1
2.6
10 2
0.0
0 0
4 6
9 4
4 7
18 7
0 0
0 0
1.0
2 1
1 0
4 1
0 0
0.0
8 4
17 0
8.4
33 8
Ann.
0 0
0 0
3 5
10 5
13 8
27 8
0 0
0 0
1 1
3 4
4 4
8 9
0 0
0 0
0 3
0 7
0 9
1 9
0 0
0 0
5 8
17.2
23 0
46 0
Upper
Limit
Inv | Ann
00 00
00 00
32 43
66 12 9
34 16 9
13 2 34 1
00 00
00 00
59 18
12 0 55
6.0 7 1
23 9 14 4
00 00
00 00
14 04
28 09
14 12
56 25
00 00
00 00
11 0 14 1
22.4 22 1
11 1 29 6
44 5 65 8
,
-------
Appendix D (Continued)
1967 Base Year Air Quality Control Coats
Annual and Investment Costs by Metropolitan Area. FY 1971-1975°
(million dollars)
METROPOLITAN
AREAS
OROUP V
BO Albany-Schenectady-Troy
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
81 Binghamton
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
82 Charleston, South Carolina
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
83 Charleston, West Virginia
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
8't Deb Monies
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
85 Fresno
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
AIR POLLUTION SOURCE CATEGORY
Industrial
Process
Inv | Ann
00 00
0 0 0.0
04 01
13 05
17 09
34 15
00 00
00 00
02 01
0.7 0 4
09 07
1.8 1 2
0 0 0.0
00 00
0 5 0.1
1.4 0 4
2.0 1 1
3.9 1.6
00 00
0 0 0.0
0 1
04 01
05 02
10 03
00 00
00 00
02 01
06 03
0.9 0.5
17 09
00 00
00 00
02 01
06 04
08 07
1 6 1.2
Stationary
Combustion
Inv. 1 Ann.
0.0 0 0
0 0 0.0
0.4 0 7
1.2 2 6
1 6 5.2
3 2 8.5
00 00
00 00
1.0 0 4
2.9 1 5
38 30
77 49
0.0 0 0
0.0 0 0
0 3 0.2
10 08
13 16
2 6 2.6
0 0 0.0
00 00
0 7 2.0
2 2 7.9
2 9 15.7
58 25 6
00 00
00 00
11 04
34 18
45 36
90 58
..
~
Solid
Waste
Inv 1 Ann.
00 00
00 00
03 07
07 04
10 08
2.0 1 9
00 00
00 00
0 1
04 01
05 04
1.0 0 5
00 00
00 00
01 01
01 01
00 00
00 0 II
0 1
02 01
0 3 0.2
06 03
00 00
00 00
01 01
0 1
01 02
..
TOTAL AIR QUALITY CONTROL COST
Lower
Limit
Inv | Ann
00 00
00 00
07 11
29 50
57 86
00 00
00 00
08 03
25 13
3 3 2.6
66 42
00 00
00 00
05 02
16 08
2 2 1.9
43 29
00 00
0 0 11 0
0 6 1.5
20 60
27 11 8
5 J 19 J
0 li 00
00 00
09 03
28 14
37 27
74 44
00 00
00 00
01 01
04 02
06 03
11 06
Expected
Inv | Ann
00 00
oo o ii
11 15
43 69
8 6 11 9
00 00
0.0 0 0
13 05
40 20
52 41
10 5 6.6
00 00
00 00
08 03
24 12
34 28
66 43
00 00
on oo
09 20
28 81
3 7 16 1
7 4 26 2
on DO
oo no
13 05
41 22
54 42
10 8 69
00 00
00 00
02 01
06 04
08 07
16 12
Upper
Limit
Inv | Ann
Of) DO
00 (11)
14 2 i
56 in 0
11 2 17 3
00 00
00 DO
18 08
56 30
73 62
14 7 10 0
00 00
00 00
10 04
31 16
44 38
85 58
oo on
in n i
12 i i
29 in 9
51 21 7
10 2 35 1
0 n ii n
00 no
27 Ob
59 27
77 52
15 3 85
00 on
00 0 II
03 01
09 05
12 10
24 Id
-------
Appendix D (Continued)
1967 Base Year Air Quality Control Costs
Annual and Investment Costs by Metropolitan Area. FY 1971-1975°
(million dollars)
METROPOLITAN
AREAS
8fa Furl Wayne
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
87 Jackson, Mississippi
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
88 Johnstown
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
89 Lancaster
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
90 Mobile
FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
91 Norfolk-Portsmouth/Newport
News -Hampton
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
AIR POLLUTION SOURCE CATEGORY
Industrial
Process
Inv 1 Ann
00 00
00 00
02
06 03
08 05
16 08
00 00
00 00
02
05 01
07 03
14 04
00 00
00 00
09 06
26 23
34 45
69 74
0 0 0.0
00 00
04 01
13 05
1 7 1.1
34 17
00 00
00 00
04 01
12 05
1.6 0 8
32 14
00 00
00 00
05 01
16 04
21 08
4 2 1.3
Stationary
Combustion
Inv 1 Ann.
00 00
0.0 0 0
07 05
20 21
27 42
54 68
--
-.
00 00
00 00
22 02
66 06
8.8 1 2
17 6 20
00 00
00 00
09 04
26 15
33 29
68 48
00 00
00 00
09 10
28 41
3.8 8.2
75 13 3
00 00
00 00
16 06
47 26
62 51
12 5 83
Solid
Waste
Inv | Ann.
00 00
00 00
01 01
01 01
00 00
00 00
01 01
01
01 02
00
00
01
0.1
00 00
0.0 0 0
01 01
0.1
0.1 0 2
00 00
00 00
01 01
02
01 03
0 0 0.0
00 00
0 3 0.1
09 06
12 11
24 18
TOTAL AIR QUALITY CONTROL COST
Lower
Limit
Inv. 1 Ann
00 00
00 00
04 02
17 16
24 32
45 50
00 00
00 00
01 00
04 01
05 03
10 04
00 00
00 00
22 05
66 20
88 39
17.6 6 4
00 00
0.0 0 0
0 7 0.4
21 16
27 31
55 51
no oo
00 00
07 09
23 37
30 72
60 11 8
00 00
00 00
1 7 0.5
50 24
6.6 4 7
13 3 76
Expected
Inv | Ann.
no oo
00 00
09 05
26 24
71 77
00 00
00 00
02 00
06 02
07 04
15 06
0.0 0 0
00 00
31 08
92 29
12 2 58
24 5 95
00 00
00 00
1.3 0 5
40 21
50 41
10 3 67
00 00
00 00
13 11
41 47
54 92
10 8 15 0
00 00
00 00
24 08
7.2 3 6
95 70
19 1 11 4
Upper
Limit
Inv | Ann
oo no
oo oo
13 07
37 35
52 70
10 2 11 2
00 0 II
00 00
03 no
08 n j
09 05
20 08
00 00
00 00
42 11
12 6 39
16 7 79
33 5 12 9
00 00
oo on
18 09
54 37
6 8 7.2
14 0 11 8
oo on
oo n n
15 14
47 58
63 11 4
12 5 18 6
oo on
o.o n o
3.4 1 2
10.2 5 4
13 4 10 5
27 0 17 1
-------
Appendix D (Continued)
1967 Base Year Air Quality Control
Costs
Annual and Investment Coata by Metropolitan Area, F
(million dollars)
METROPOLITAN
AREAS
92 Rilcigh/Durham FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
93 Reading FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
94 Rockford FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
95 Sacramento FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
96 San Diego FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
97 South Bend FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
98 Utlca-Rome FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
~59 Wichita FV 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
100 York FY 71
FY 72
FY 73
FY 74
FY 75
Total
r 1971-1975*
AIR POLLUTION SOURCE CATEGORY
Industrial
Process
Inv. 1 Ann.
00 00
00 00
01
02 01
03 02
06 03
00 00
00 00
05 02
15 07
20 13
40 22
O'O 00
00 00
01
03 02
0.5 0 4
09 06
00 00
00 00
01 01
03 02
04 04
08 07
00 00
00 00
01 01
03 02
04 04
08 07
0.0 0 0
0 0 0.0
05 01
14 06
19 12
38 19
00 00
00 00
01 01
04 02
06 05
11 08
00 00
00 00
06 01
17 04
23 07
46 12
00 00
00 00
03 01
09 04
1.2 0 8
2 4 1.3
Stationary
Combustion
Inv. | Ann.
00 00
00 00
07 02
21 07
2 8 1.4
56 23
0 0 0.0
00 00
1 6 0.5
48 22
6 4 4 3
12.8 7 0
00 00
00 00
11 06
33 24
4 4_ 4 8
88 78
.-
-.
_.
00 00
00 00
14 12
43 48
57 95
11 4 15 5
00 00
00 00
04 01
12 02
16 04
32 07
..
00 00
0.0 0 0
05 09
16 36
22 71
4.3 11 6
Solid
Waste
Inv.
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 1
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 1
0 '0
0 0
Ann.
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 1
0 2
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 1
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 1
02
--
..
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 1
0 0
0 0
0 2
0 5
0.7
1.4
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 1
0.0
0 0
0.2
0 6
0 8
1 6
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 1
0 0
0 0
0 2
0 4
0 6
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 1
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 2
0 5
0 8
TOTAL AIR QUALITY CONTROL COST
Lower
Limit
Inv.
0 0
0 0
0 5
1 6
2 1
4 2
0 0
0 0
1 8
5 5
7 5
14 8
0 0
0 0
0 8
2 3
3 2
6 3
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 2
0 3
0 6
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 2
0 3
0 6
0 0
0 0
1 3
3 9
5 3
10 5
0 0
0 0
0 5
1 5
2 1
4 1
0 0
0 0
0 4
1 0
1 5
2 9
0 0
0 0
0 7
2 2
3 0
5 9
Ann.
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 6
1 1
1 8
0 0
0 0
0 5
2 2
4 4
7 1
0 0
0 4
1 9
3 7
6 0
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 1
0 2
0 4
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 1
0 2
0 4
0 0
0 0
0 9
3 8
7 7
12 4
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 4
0 9
1 4
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 3
0 6
1 0
0 0
0 0
0 8
3 2
6 4
10 4
Expected
Inv.
0 0
0 0
0 8
2 4
31
6 3
0 0
0 0
2 1
6 3
8 5
16 9
0 0
1 2
3 6
4 9
9 7
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 3
0 4
0 8
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 3
0 4
0 8
0 0
0 0
1 9
5 7
7 7
15 3
0 0
0 0
0 7
2 1
2 9
5 7
0 0
0 0
0 6
1 7
2 4
4 7
0 0
0 0
1 0
3 1
4 2
8 3
Ann.
0 0
0 0
0 2
0 9
1 7
2 8
0 0
0 0
0 7
2 9
5 7
9 3
0 0
0 6
2 7
5 3
8 6
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 2
0 4
0 7
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 2
0 4
0 7
0 0
0 0
1 3
5 4
10 8
17 5
0 0
0 0
0 2
0 6
1 3
2 1
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 4
0 8
1 3
0 0
0 0
1 1
4 2
8 4
13 7
Upper
Limit
Inv 1 Ann.
00 00
00 00
12 03
36 13
46 25
94 41
00 00
00 00
28 09
85 38
11 5 75
22 8 12 2
00 00
18 09
54 39
74 76
14 6 12 4
00 00
00 00
02 01
04 03
06 05
12 09
00 00
00 00
02 01
05 03
06 '15
13 09
00 00
00 00
27 18
82 73
11 1 14 7
22 0 23 8
00 00
00 00
09 03
28 US
39 18
76 29
00 00
00 00
10 02
28 06
40 12
78 20
00 00
00 00
13 16
42 60
56 12 1
11 1 19 7
The 100 areas are listed by groupa In Table C-l of Appendix C, blanks (--) indicate negligible expenditure required
"Inv " is investment and "Ann " la annual cost
b
Also Includes New Haven/Waterbury/Merldan SMSA's, although not in originally proposed AQCR
-------
Appendix E
Solid Waste Disposal
(SIC No. 4953)
-------
Appendix E
Solid Waste Disposal
I. INTRODUCTION
In 1967, the Nation's households, industries, and other commercial
activities generated 329 million tons of solid wastethe equivalent of
over nine pounds daily for each person. Some of the methods used to dis-
pose of solid waste contribute to the problem of air pollution. Open-
burning dumps emit not only significant amounts of particulates but also
carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons. Incineration results in the emission
of all three pollutants; particulate emissions represent the greatest
problem.
In the 100 metropolitan areas, the pattern of solid waste disposal
is as follows: 46 percent by open burning; 16 percent by incineration;
and the remaining 38 percent by landfill and miscellaneous methods, such
as composting or dumping at sea. In 1967, there were an estimated 12,000
land disposal sites (open-burning dumps and landfills) and about 300
municipal incinerator facilities in the Nation. Emissions from open burn-
ing and incineration in the 100 areas were estimated at 844 thousand tons
of particulates, one million tons of hydrocarbons, and 1,950 thousand tons
of carbon monoxide.
II. CONTROL OF EMISSIONS
About 75 percent of the land disposal sites in the 100 areas practice
open burning and about 90 percent of the incinerators do not meet the
requirements of the New York State Incinerator Standard, which was the
particulate regulation selected for this analysis. None of these
incinerators, however, is thought to exceed the standard of 1.46 pounds of
sulfur dioxide per million Btu input, which is the sulfur oxides regulation
applied in this report to incinerators (see Appendix A).
Measured as methane.
-------
Estimates were made of the costs of reducing emissions from solid
waste disposal facilities through elimination of open-burning dumps in
favor of incineration and sanitary landfill and the installation of
particulate control equipment on all municipal incinerators.
III. EMISSION CONTROL COSTS
A. Methodology
Air pollution control costs for solid waste were obtained by:
1) Determining the quantity and method of disposal of collected
refuse.
The total collected refuse generated in any metropolitan
area was computed on the basis of 5.3 pounds per capita per
day [Ref. 1]. Specific data for a metropolitan area were used
when available. The amount of refuse incinerated was obtained
from incinerator listings obtained from previous studies [Ref. 2].
All incinerators were assumed to be operating at their stated
capacity, and the balance of the refuse which was not incin-
erated was assumed to be disposed of by other methods:
landfill, burning dumps, ocean dumping, composting, etc.
When no detailed information on the method of disposal existed,
it was assumed that 75 percent of this remaining amount was
open burned [Ref. 1] .
2) Determining the quantity and method of disposal of uncollected
refuse.
Uncollected refuse was estimated using a rate of 4.7 pounds
per capita per day [Ref. 1]. This refuse was assumed to be
presently disposed of by 50 percent landfill, 25 percent open
burning, and 25 percent domestic and commercial incineration.
3) Determining incinerator control costs.
All existing municipal incinerators must be upgraded to some
extent to comply with regulations. The cost for this upgrading
is presented in Table E-l.
-------
Table E-l
COST OF UPGRADING MUNICIPAL INCINERATORS
Year of
Construction
Before 1961
1961-1964
1965-1967
Cost of Upgrading
($ per daily ton of capacity)
Investment
500
400
200
Annual
360
330
310
4) Determining opening burning control costs for collected refuse.
All present open burning must be discontinued. It was
assumed that 25 percent of this amount would go to new incin-
erators at a cost of $5,600 per daily ton for furnaces in the
300 ton per day or larger size, and $7,500 per daily ton for
furnaces smaller than 300 tons per day [Refs. 3, 4, 5]. The
annualized cost of operating an incinerator was based on $6
per daily ton and 300 days per year. The remaining 75 percent
of open burning would go to sanitary landfills at an additional
cost of $0.30 per ton. No initial investment costs were
included since land and personnel for the burning dump were
already on hand. In metropolitan areas where there are no
municipal incinerators, all open burning would be converted to
sanitary landfill; that is, no new incinerators will be built
in these areas.
5) Determining control costs for uncollected refuse.
Uncollected refuse control costs were based on all current
open burning (25 percent of all solid waste) going to sanitary
landfill at a cost of $0.40 per ton, and existing incineration
(also 25 percent of the total) requiring upgrading at an invest-
ment cost of $1000 per daily ton of capacity with an annualized
cost of $259 per daily ton. Twenty percent of existing small
- This is the only cost above that required to operate a burning
dump. (See Reference 3.)
-------
incinerators were assumed to presently meet the New York State
regulation, and 20 percent were assumed to convert to landfill
at no additional cost.
6) Determining additional costs incurred by 1975.
These costs were based on the 1967 disposal practices,
but were varied to accommodate population changes as well as a
3 percent yearly increase in the amount of solid waste generated
per capita. These increases were then treated in the same manner
as the 1967 values to arrive at a control cost.
7) Assuming that all California metropolitan areas were controlled
through local efforts and any costs incurred were not due to
Federal action.
The following examples of computing a typical metropolitan area cost
for controlling emissions from solid waste disposal (collected and uncollected
refuse) were based on metropolitan area data presented in Table E-2 below.
Table E-2
EXAMPLE METROPOLITAN AREA SOLID WASTE DATA
Year
1967
Population
(1000)
1536
Refuse
(ton
Generated
7680
Collected
4060
Quantities
s/day)
Incinerated
1325
Open Burned
2050
The following example represents metropolitan area cost calculations
for collected refuse:
1) Cost to control incineration (all pre-1961):
1967 investment: 1325 tons/day x $500/ton = $662,500
annual: 1325 tons/day x $360/ton/year = $477,000
-------
2) Cost to control open burning:
Convert 3/4 to landfill; 3/4 x $0.30/ton x 360 days/year
x 2050 tons/day - $166,000/yr.
Convert 1/4 to new incinerators; 1/4 x 2050 x $5600/ton = $47,870,000,
Annualized cost for incinerators @ $1800/ton ($6/daily ton)
1/4 x 2050 x $1800/ton = $925,000/year.
A metropolitan area cost for uncollected refuse is as follows:
Uncollected = Generated - Collected =4.7 Ibs/capita/day-
1) To convert open burning to landfill:
1/4 x (7680 - 4060) tons/day x $0.40/ton x 360 days/year
= $130,000/yr.
2) Capital and annualized cost to upgrade small incinerators:
1/4 x (7680 - 4060) x .60 x $259/daily ton = $142,000/year:
1/4 x (7680 - 4060) x .60 x $1000/daily ton = $544,000.
The resulting 1967 costs are presented in Table E-3.
Table E-3
SUMMARY OF 1967 EXAMPLE METROPOLITAN AREA COSTS
Waste Disposal Practice
Municipal Incinerators
Collected Open Burning to Landfill
Collected Open Burning to Incinerator
Uncollected Open Burning to Landfill
Uncollected Open Burning to Incinerator
Totals
Investment
($1000)
662.5
-
2879.0
-
544.0
4076.5
Annualized
($1000)
477
166
925
131
142
1841
A similar procedure was carried out for each year from 1967 through 1975
to determine the costs of controlling the emissions from the incremental
solid waste generated annually.
This example provides some insight into those factors which sub-
stantially affect the final costs. The major single factor is the cost
-------
for new incinerators required to control 25 percent of the existing open
burning. The high initial costs and the high yearly costs accounted for
about 50 percent of the total annual costs for this metropolitan area.
The installation of electrostatic precipitators (ESP's) in place of
scrubbers on existing municipal incinerators was also investigated.
Annualized costs for ESP's are about 50 percent of scrubber costs. How-
ever since no ESP's are currently used for controlling particulate
emissions from incinerators, they were not considered in this analysis.
Assuming some of the larger incinerators were to go to ESP's as a means
of control, a typical metropolitan areas annualized cost would be reduced
by about 10 percent.
Cost estimates for disposing of junked automobiles in controlled
incinerators were based on an assumption that 50 percent of these automo-
biles were not being open burned. Based on data presented in Section
III.B., costs of controlling participates from auto body incinerators
would only add about 1 to 3 percent to the metropolitan area investment
cost and even less to the annualized cost. Therefore, separate estimates
of the cost of controlling junked auto disposal were not made because the
percent contribution of these costs was less than the expected error of
the major cost estimates.
Accuracy of the cost estimates made for solid waste disposal emission
controls cannot be well established. Since the distribution of solid
waste disposal methods is not as well known as the specific control costs
for the hardware, etc., a change in the basic assumptions regarding the
present and planned solid waste disposal methods could drastically affect
estimates of control costs. Assuming that the basic assumptions are
correct and charging the entire cost of those new incinerators required
to control part of the open burning to air pollution control, it is
believed that these costs are accurate within + 30 percent. Annualized
costs are believed accurate to within + 25 percent.
B. Control Costs
The following air pollution control costs were utilized in estimating
metropolitan area solid waste disposal expenditures.
1. Municipal Incinerator Control Costs
Table E-4 presents the cost of controlling municipal
incinerators with wet scrubbers.
-------
Table E-4
MUNICIPAL INCINERATOR CONTROL COSTS
1
Size
ons/day)
50
100
200
300
500
600
700
1000
Flue Gas Volume
(1000 acfm)a
40
80
160
240
350
420
420
600
Collection
Eff . (percent)
85
85
85
85
90
90
95
95
Installed Cost
($1000 total)b
28
52
100
150
250
300
350
480
($/daily ton)
560
520
500
500
500
500
500
480
Annualized Cost
($1000)
20
39
77
115
172
207
213
302
($ /daily ton)
400
390
380
380
340
340
300
300
For sizes 50 - 300 tons per day, use 800 acfm/ton.
For sizes 500 - 600 tons per day, use 700 acfm/ton.
For sizes 700 - and larger, use 600 acfm/ton
See Figure E-l.
Since installed costs did not vary by more than about 10 per-
cent, an average cost of $500 per daily ton was used. For incinera-
tors built between 1961 and 1964, 80 percent of the control costs
were used. For units built after 1965, a control cost of $200 per
daily ton was arbitrarily used since these units were assumed to
have some type of acceptable control device already in place.
Annualized costs were based on a 13.3 percent capital charge
and on the following operating cost equation [Ref. 6]:
G = S [0.7457HK ( Z + - ) + WHL + M] = 0.3985
where: S = acfm;
H = 7200 hours /year;
K = $.01/kwh
Z = 0.006 HP/acfm;
W = 0.005 gal/hr-acfm;
h = 30 feet; _
L = $0.5 x 10 /gal-hr.
-------
I 0001
500
400
300
200
o
o
o
CO
o
o
100
A= Installed CostESP
B= Installed CostScrubber
C = Annual CostsScrubber
D = Annual CostsESP
50
20 50 100 200 300 400 500 700 100"
Incinerator Size (tons/day)
Fig. E-l. Municipal Incinerator Particulate Control Costs.
-------
Operating costs for a wide range of incinerator size were
calculated and an average cost based on dollars per ton used for
cost estimating purposes.
2. Control Costs for Smaller^Sized Incinerators
A one ton per day model size unit operating for 5 hours per day and
360 days per year (1800 hours per year) was used as a base for calcu-
lating control cost. Installed cost of a scrubber for this size
unit (400 pounds per hour capacity) designed to meet the New York
3/
State regulation is about $1000.' Particulate control efficiencies
on the order of 60 to 80 percent are required.
Annualized control costs were calculated as follows [Ref. 7]:
G = S[0.7457HK Z + Qh + WHL + M] = 920 (0.119)
1980
= $109 /year /daily ton
where:
S = 920
H = 1800 hours /year;
K = $0.01/kwh;
Z = 0.006 hp/acfm;
Q = 0.01 gals/acfm;
h = 30 feet;
W = 0.005 gal/hr-acfm;
L = $0.05 x 10-3/gal-hr;
M = $0.03/acfm.
Capital charges at 15%, (.15 x $1000) = $150/year/daily ton
TOTAL Annualized Cost = $259/daily ton
3. Auto Body Disposal Costs
Calculations to determine investment and annual costs of auto
body disposal for a metropolitan area are presented below. A controlled
incinerator handling 30 cars per day costs about $25,000 [Ref. 10].
^ An average value; control costs for small incinerators vary from
$1300 to $600 per daily ton of refuse burned [Ref. 8].
y Based on 16,000 ft3 of flue gas per 106 Btu of heat input, and 5000
Btu/lb of refuse.
5000 Btu x 4000 Ib/hr x l_ x 16.000 ft3 = 535 ft /min at 70°F,
357 60 min/hr 10° Btu
or about 920 acfm at 450°F.
-------
a) Investment Cost:
Investment $25.000 _ $2
Co^st/Car ~ 30 cars/day x 300 days/year ~ * *
Metropolitan Area _ metropolitan area population 27 cars
Investment Cost ~ 1000 x 1 year
x 0.505-' x $2.8/car/year = $39/1000 population.
b) Operating Cost, assuming $4/car:
. . . metropolitan
Metropolitan Area area PODUiation 27 cars/1000 population
Operating Cost = innn x i ^
^ e 1000 1 year
x
0.50^ x $4/car = $56/1000 population/year.
C. Estimated Costs
The resulting costs were totaled for the 100 metropolitan areas;
these are shown in Table E-5. Annual control costs would average approxi-
mately $1.18 per ton of solid waste when the plan is fully implemented.
The emissions of particulates, hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide would
be reduced from 844, 160 and 1950 thousand tons, respectively, in 1967
to 167, 43, and 262 thousand tons, respectively, by 1975.
IV. CONTROL COSTS RESULTING FROM GROWTH
The amount of solid waste generated is expected to grow in proportion
to the population of each area. In addition, a three percent per year
increase in the per capita production for solid wastes was assumed. The
projected growth costs were based on the expected ultimate control levels
of 91.0, 95.0, and 90.0 percent- for particulates, hydrocarbons and carbon
monoxide, respectively. The calculations consisted of multiplying the 1967
total investment and annual costs for controlling the base production by
the population growth factor including the increase in per capita production
to obtain annual investment and annual costs to control the growth in pro-
duction. The results of the cost analysis of controlling additional solid
waste loads are shown in Table E-6 along with the expected emissions resulting,
assuming that control is at the ultimate levels for each pollutant'.
- Assuming 50 percent of all scrapped cars are presently being burned.
-------
Table E-5
SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL
ESTIMATES OF REDUCED EMISSION LEVELS AND ASSOCIATED COSTS
(100 metropolitan areas)
VPAO
1967
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
EjArELltilJ fcMlaolUN LhVbL
(thousand tons/year)
Part
844
809
646
389
220
167
S0x
HC
160
160
142
108
61
43
CO
1950
1950
1520
1200
525
262
ASSOCIATED EMISSION
CONTROL LEVEL
(percent)
Part
53.5
55.5
64.5
78.6
88.0
91.0
SO
X
HC
63.0
63.0
69.0
78.0
90.0
95.0
CO
63.0
63.0
67.0
75.0
86.0
90.0
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
Investment Cost
Lower
Limit
6.9
31.5
46.7
27.6
7.3
120.0
Expected
9.9
45.0
66.7
39.4
10.4
171.4
Upper
Limit
12.9
58.5
86.7
51.2
13.5
222.8
Annual Cost
Lower
Limit
3.6
20.0
44.6
59.3
63.4
190.9
Expected
4.8
26.7
59.5
79.1
84.5
254.6
Upper
Limit
6.0
33.4
74.4
98.9
106.0
318.7
M
i-"
10
Cost estimates are for the control of only those facilities in operation in calendar year 1967. The areas are
defined in Appendix B.
For levels of particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks in the
-------
Table E-6
SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL
ESTIMATED COST OF CONTROLLING POLLUTANT EMISSIONS FROM SOURCES ADDED AFTER 1967*
(100 metropolitan areas)
FISCAL
YEAR
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
Totals -
ADDED
CAPACITY
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
ADDITIONAL
PRODUCTION
(thousand
tons/year)
17
22
27
34
40
EMISSION LEVELb
(thousand tons/year)
Part
8
10
13
16
19
S0x
^^
HC
2
3
4
5
6
CO
16
21
26
31
37
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
INVESTMENT COST
Lower
Limit
5.3
7.7
9.1
7.2
5.3
34.6
Expected
7.5
11.0
13.0
10.4
7.5
49.4
Upper
Limit
9.7
14.3
17.0
13.5
9.7
64.2
ANNUAL COST
Lower
Limit
2.5
6.3
10.7
14.3
16.8
50.6
Expected
3.4
8.4
14.4
19.0
22.5
67.7
Upper
Limit
4.3
10.4
17.8
23.7
27.9
84.1
M
I-"
t-
These costs are for new facilities which are assumed to be constructed to meet applicable regulations (App. A); areas
are defined in Appendix B. N. A. indicates not applicable.
Particulates (Part.)» sulfur oxides (SO^), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks indicate the emissions
need no control.
-------
REFERENCES
1. R. J. Black, et al. "The National Solid Wastes Survey." Paper
presented at American Public Works association, Miami, Florida,
October 24, 1968.
2. A. J. Munich, et al. 1968 National Survey of Community Practices.
HEW, PHS, EGA, Solid Waste Program, 1968, and Combustion Engineering
Company Incinerator Study, 1967 PHS Contract.
3. C. Smallwood, Jr. Private communications, August 12, 1969.
4. Elements of Solid Waste Management. Training Manual. EGA, Washington,
D. C.: Public Health Service, March 1969.
5. T. Casberg. Department of Defense, Washington, D, C. Private
Communication, October 1968.
6. Control Techniques for Particulate Air Pollutants. PHS Publication
No. AP-51. Washington, D. C.: National Air Pollution Control
Administration, (PHS), January 1969.
7. R. E. Zinn, and W. R. Niessen. "The Commercial Incinerator Design
Criteria," ASME, 1968, National Incinerator Conference, New York,
May 5-8.
8. A. B. Walker. Electrostatic Precipitators. American City, September
1964.
9. J. E. Heer, et al. Solid Waste Disposal Study. Vol. I. Jefferson Co.,
Kentucky, University of Louisville: Institute of Industrial Research,
April 1969.
10. E. R. Kaiser, and J. Tolciss. "Smokeless Burning of Automobile Bodies,"
Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association. Vol. 12, No. 2
(February 1962), pp. 64-73.
-------
Appendix F
Steam-Electric Power Plants
(SIC No. 4911)
-------
Appendix F
Steam-Electric Power Plants
I. INTRODUCTION
Steam-electric power plants consume 21 percent of the Nation's fuel,
including 64 percent of the coal; as a result, they produce tremendous
quantities of air pollutants. Nationally, power plants contribute about
20 percent of the particulates, although particulate emissions from them
are approximately 80 percent controlled, and 49 percent of the sulfur
oxides, which are essentially uncontrolled.
In 1967, about 252 of the national total of 410 power plants were
located in the 100 metropolitan areas; these plants generated 420 billion
kilowatt hours of electricity. This study did not include power plants of
the Tennessee Valley Authority.
II. CONTROL OF EMISSIONS
Present control practice for particulates, a problem only with coal
21
burning, is to use electrostatic precipitators sometimes along with high
efficiency mechanical collectors. The present level of industry control of
these emissions is estimated at about 80 percent. Reduction of sulfur oxide
emissions has been accomplished only in a few locations and generally by substi-
tuting low-sulfur content fuel for high-sulfur fuel of the same type or by
switching to another fuel type. Nationally in 1967, the burning of fossil
fuels accounted for 15.0 million tons of sulfur oxides and over 5.5 million
tons of particulates. Within the 100 metropolitan areas, 1967 emissions
amounted to over 6.8 million tons of sulfur oxides and approximately 2.2
million tons of particulates.
- Steam-electric power plants with capacities of 25 megawatts and greater
that burn coal and/or fuel oil.
y Oil and gas fired plants, uncontrolled, meet the requirements of the
particulate emission standard assumed in this analysis.
-------
III. DISCUSSION AND EVALUATION OF ENGINEERING
DATA IN COST ESTIMATION
The basic engineering data information required to estimate control
costs for the power generating industry consisted of: (a) an evaluation
of the various combustion processes found within the industry, (b) an
analysis of the pollutants involved, their uncontrolled emission rates,
present levels of control and final levels as required by the various
standards adopted for this study, and (c) an engineering evaluation to
select the most satisfactory control systems to achieve the required
emission levels.
Uncontrolled emission rates for SO- and particulates for the various
fuels are tabulated in Table F-l.
Table F-l
PARTICULATE AND S02 UNCONTROLLED EMISSION FACTORS
Fuel
Coal
Pulverized firing
Cyclone firing
Oil
Gas
Particulate Emission Factor
(lb/106 Btu input)
0.69A3
0.08A
0.069
0.015
SO- Emission Factor
(lb/106Btu input)
1.46S?
1.46SD
1.06S
Negligible
a
b
0.69 multiplied by the percent ash content, A.
1.46 multiplied by the percent sulfur content, S.
At present, the average level of particulate control is estimated at
80 percent. Control of S02 in the flue gas is practiced only at a few
experimental sites. Sulfur dioxide control is being approached on the
basis of fuel substitution, either by switching fuels or by changing to
a lower sulfur content fuel of the same type.
-------
On the basis of the State of Maryland Particulate Standard for Fuel
Burning Installations, removal requirements were calculated as a function
of input heat rate. These are shown for coal in Table F-2.
Particulate emissions from all boilers using oil and gas are acceptable
at all firing rates.
Table F-2
PARTICULATE REMOVAL EFFICIENCIES REQUIRED
Input
(106Btu/hr)
100
500
1000
5000
10000
Percent Efficiency Required
Cyclone Boiler
50.0
62.5
67.5
75.0
77.5
Pulverized Boiler
93.0
95.5
96.0
96.8
97.2
For the purpose of this study, acceptable S02 emission (Btu basis)
were equal to those that would result from the use of 1 percent sulfur
content coal. The equivalent sulfur percentage in fuel oil which would
satisfy this standard was calculated to be 1.38 percent based upon an
average residual oil Btu value of 145 thousand Btu per gallon. Of course,
any type of natural gas would result in acceptable levels of S02 emissions.
This study considered several S02 control alternatives. Of these, the
wet dolomite process seemed to be promising; however, recent reports
[Ref. 3] indicated that selection of this system would be premature at
this time. Therefore, it was decided that fuel switching was the most
reliable alternative available. Based on available data indicating the
feasibility of fuel oil desulfurization [Refs. 4, 5], a switch to fuel oil
desulfurnizated to 1.14 percent sulfur was selected to control S02
and particulates. Selection of this alternative herein should not be
3/
Cost data were available for this oil.
-------
construed as a recommendation. It was chosen basically for two reasons:
first, it can satisfy the SCL control levels required for this study and
second, simplified calculations have shown that the adoption of this
alternative would lead to control costs consistent with other alternatives
A/
available for the simultaneous control of both particulates and S02.^
IV. CONTROL COSTS FOR 1967 BASE YEAR
A. Methodology
Data on steam-electric power plants of 25 megawatts and greater in capacity
and data about their fuels were compiled from Federal Power Commission reports
[Refs. 6,7]. The basic data included annual consumption of coal and oil by
plant. Plant capacity and location were also known.
Estimated cost of controlling emissions from steam-electric plants was
approximated by using the costs of changing from high-sulfur content coal or
oil to desulfurized fuel oil. If a plant, according to the FPC survey, was
burning coal with greater than 1 percent sulfur, or oil with greater than
1.38 percent, then it was assumed to require low-sulfur content fuel oil.
When a switch to desulfurized residual oil was indicated, annual operating
costs of control were based on the cost differential between Btu equivalents of
coal and oil at local metropolitan prices, plus a premium of $0.40 per barrel
of oil for desulfurization to 1.14 percent. If the switch was from coal to
oil, it was necessary to estimate boiler-burner conversion costs. Data
supplied by private sources were used to develop a conversion cost per unit
of capacity. An investment cost of $2864 per megawatt of capacity was used.
If a plant was reported to have used fuel oil or coal and fuel oil in 1967,
conversion costs were not assigned because it was assumed that all boilers
were capable of burning oil. Plant costs were totalled for the 100 metro-
politan areas.
4/
At a premium of 40
-------
B. Estimated Control Costs
The resulting costs, which exclude plants already using low-
sulfur fuel, were totalled for the 100 metropolitan areas; these are shown
in Table F-3. Total investment costs amount to $161.3 million with an
ultimate annual cost of $631.0 million by FY 1975. Overall emission control
levels of 98.7 and 63.6 percent for particulates and sulfur oxides, respec-
tively, would be achieved as a result of the control alternative chosen.
These would result in ultimate emissions of 198 thousand tons and 2.5
million tons for particulates and sulfur oxides, respectively, in contrast
to the 2.19 million and 6.86 million tons in 1967.
V. CONTROL COSTS RESULTING FROM GROWTH
This study assumed that there would be net increases in the number of
fossil-fuel burning power generating plants during the period of implementation
in the 100 metropolitan areas. For the purposes of cost analysis, it was
further assumed that these plants would be designed to burn residual fuel oil
and hence no added investment would be required. Annual costs were based on
the price differential in fuel costs, assuming the 1967 fuel mix for the new
plants.
In the 100 metropolitan areas an average annual growth rate in generating
capacity of 3 percent per year was assumed. This is much less than the
expected national growth; however, there are noticeable trends to locate
steam-electric power plants in lightly populated locations. The cost analysis,
as shown in Table F-4, indicates that annual costs of $155.2 million would be
required to control the added capacity put into service within the 100 areas
by 1975. Without the additional controls imposed by the standards, emissions
of particulates and sulfur oxides from both the 1967 base and additional
growth would amount to 2.55 million tons and 8.52 million tons by 1975;
with the act in effect, the emissions would be reduced to 231 thousand
tons and 3.12 million tons.
-------
Table F-3
STEAM-ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS
ESTIMATES OF REDUCED EMISSION LEVELS AND ASSOCIATED COSTS3
(100 metropolitan areas)
VI? A P
1967
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
b
EXPECTED EMISSION LEVEL
(thousand tons/year)
Part
2190
2050
1500
719
292
198
SO
X
6860
6577
5361
3640
2707
2500
HC
CO
__
ASSOCIATED EMISSION
CONTROL LEVELb
(percent)
Part
86.0
86.8
90.4
95.4
98.1
98.7
SO
X
0.0
4.1
21.9
47.0
60.6
63.6
HC
_^
~
CO
__
~"~
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
Investment Cost
Lower
Limit
5.4
31.8
51.9
31.4
8.6
129.1
Expected
6.7
39.7
64.9
39.2
10.8
161.3
Upper
Limit
8.0
47.6
77.9
47.0
13.0
193.5
Annual Cost
Lower
Limit
32.8
174.0
371.0
481.0
505.0
1563.8
Expected
41.0
217.0
466.0
601.0
631.0
1956.0
Upper
Limit
49.2
260.0
559.0
721.0
757.0
2346.2
00
Cost estimates are for the control of only those facilities in operation in calendar year 1967. The areas are
defined in Appendix B.
For levels of particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks in the
-------
Table F-4
STEAM-ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS
ESTIMATED COST OF CONTROLLING POLLUTANT EMISSIONS FROM SOURCES ADDED AFTER 1967*
(100 metropolitan areas)
FISCAL
YEAR
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
Totals
ADDED
CAPACITY
(number of
sources)
27
36
45
53
62
ADDITIONAL
PRODUCTION
N.A.
N A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
EMISSION LEVELb
(thousand tons /year)
Part
14
19
23
28
33
S0x
273
356
442
530
621
HC
~
--
CO
M
--
~
~
«
c
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
INVESTMENT COST
Lower
Limit
--
--
Expected
^
--
-
Upper
Limit
--
--
ANNUAL COST
Lower
Limit
20.0
47.7
79.5
104.9
124.2
376.3
Expected
25.0
59.6
99.4
131.1
155.2
470.3
Upper
Limit
29.9
71.5
119.3
157.3
186.3
564.3
These costs are for new facilities which are assumed to be constructed to meet applicable regulations (App. A); areas
are defined in Appendix B; N.A. indicates not applicable.
Particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks indicate the emissions
need no control. x
It is assumed that the plants will be designed to burn residual fuel oil; hence, no added investment will be
-------
REFERENCES
1. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Control Techniques
for Particulate Air Pollutants: Preliminary Statement. Washington,
D. C.: National Air Pollution Control Administration (PHS), Publication
No. AP-51, 1968.
2. . Control Techniques for Sulfur Oxide Mr Pollutants; Pre-
liminary Statement. Washington, D. C.: National Air Pollution Control
Administration (PHS), Publication No. AP-52, December 1968.
3. J. F. McLaughlin, Jr. "Operating Experience with Wet Dolomite Scrubbing."
Presented at the 62nd Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control
Association, New York, June 1969.
4. The Economics of Residual Fuel Oil Desulfurization. Prepared by The
Bechtel Corp. (PB-166-14S). Cincinnati, Ohio: U.S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare (PHS), Division of Air Pollution, 1964.
5. H. H. Meredith, Jr. "Desulfurization of Caribbean Fuel," Journal of
the Air Pollution Control Association. Vol. 17, No. 11 (November
1967), pp. 719-723.
6. Steam-Electric Plant Construction Cost and Annual Production Expenses:
Twentieth Annual Supplement. 1967. Federal Power Commission. Washington,
D. C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968.
7. "Federal Power Commission Survey of Fuels Consumed by Electric Utilities
in 1967." (mimeographed). Compiled by the Federal Power Commission,
Washington, D. C.
-------
Appendix G
Industrial Boilers
-------
Appendix G
Industrial Boilers
I. INTRODUCTION
In the United States and 100 metropolitan areas in 1967, there were an
estimated 307 thousand and 219 thousand industrial boilers, respectively,
that supplied steam for material processing, space heating, and, in some large
industrial complexes, electric-power. Though the boilers involved were gener-
ally smaller than those in steam-electric power plants, they caused a signi-
ficant amount of pollution in highly industrialized areas. Overall, they
accounted for 32 percent of particulates and 24 percent of sulfur oxides emitted
from stationary combustion sources in the 100 metropolitan areas.
In 1967, boilers in industrial plants in the 100 areas emitted 1.5 million
tons of particulates and about 4.0 million tons of sulfur oxides compared to
the U.S. emissions of 3.0 million tons for particulates and 5.3 million tons
for sulfur oxides. Average control at that time was estimated at 62 percent
for particulates; little, if any, control of sulfur oxide emissions was in
effect.
II. CONTROL OF EMISSIONS
The Federal particulate emission control regulation for fuel combustion
sources can be met by using various types of gas-cleaning equipment. However,
such control devices have little effect on sulfur oxides. As mentioned in
Appendix F, techniques for removing sulfur from gas streams have not been
fully developed; therefore, this report assumes the change from high-sulfur
content coal or oil to a low-sulfur content oil. Such a change in fuel will
reduce both particulates and sulfur oxides to comply with the applicable
regulations.
-------
III. DISCUSSION AND EVALUATION OF TECHNICAL
DATA USED IN COST ESTIMATION
The procedure used for estimating the cost of air pollution control for
industrial boilers was as follows:
a) Relevant data on the industry [Ref. 1] were projected to 1967-
b) Particulate and S02 emissions were calculated by region.
c) Emissions for the average plant in each region were evaluated for
compliance with emission standards, and control methods determined.
d) Cost of control was estimated.
Baseline data on fuel consumption for heat and power production by
manufacturing firms [Ref. 1] were tabulated for each region by 2-digit SIC
code along with the number of firms in each classification. Consumption
was then estimated for 1967 by expanding the 1963 figure by the Federal
Reserve Board index of production [Ref. 2] for each manufacturing class,
assuming that national growth had been evenly distributed to all regions.
Particulate and S0« emissions for 1967 were calculated from the estimated
consumption of coal and oil, aggregated for each region.
Fuel consumption for 1963 divided by the number of firms in each SIC
category gave the average consumption per plant for that year. On the
assumption that growth had occured in the number of plants rather than in
the scale of operation, the average 1963 plant size for each SIC category
in each region was divided into the corresponding 1967 fuel consumption
estimates to determine the 1967 number of plants. Consumption of coal in
the 100 areas was estimated to be 36,759,000 tons in 1967, equal to 37 percent
of the estimated U.S. industrial consumption of 99,205,000 tons. Consumption
of oil was estimated to be 136,738,000 barrels in 1967, equal to 75 percent
of the estimated U.S. industrial consumption of 181,293,000 barrels [Ref. 3].
To determine the particulate and S09 emission rates per plant, it was
assumed that boilers were operated continuously throughout the year. The
analysis showed that in all cases uncontrolled particulate emissions from
coal consumption exceeded the specified standard at all levels of operation
in all regions.
-------
Particulate emission factors are presented in Table G-l. An overall level
of particulate control of 62 percent was assumed; 1967 emissions were
calculated on this basis.
Table G-l
PARTICULATE EMISSION FACTORS FOR INDUSTRIAL BOILERS
Annual Btu Input
- 87 x 109
- 87 x 109
Fuel Type
Coal
(Ib/ton coal)
5Aa
13Aa
Oil
(lb/1000 gal)
19
19
Ash content expressed as a percent'
Emission factors for SO are presented in Table G-2 . The sulfur
of residual oils in the Eastern Region (Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Massa-
chusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey. Pennsylvania, Ohio,
West Virginia, and Kentucky) averaged 1.26 percent and this resulted in enissions
within the specified standard. In all other areas, combustion of residual oils,
on the average, produced emissions of S0? in excess of the assumed standard.
Table G-2
SO EMISSION FACTORS FOR INDUSTRIAL BOILERS
Fuel Type
Emission Factor
Coal
Oil
Gas
J8S (pounds/ ton coal)
J
-------
IV. COST ESTIMATION
Estimates of control costs were made by assuming that all uncontrolled
coal combustion was replaced by low-sulfur oil-fired units and that uncon-
trolled oil-fired units were switched to low-sulfur content oil. The resul-
tant cost differentials were based on coal and oil price survey data [Ref. A]
interpolated geographically for regions not included in the survev. Cost
of conversion fron coal to oil was calculated on the basis of an investment
cost of $16,500 resulting in annual depreciation and capital charges of
$3,300 per unit converted. The estimated cost of controlling emissions from
the 1967 sources are shown in Fable 0-3.
V. CONTROL COSTS RESULTING FROM GROWTH
Fuel consumption for 1967 was estimated by projecting 1963 industrial
census data using the Federal Reserve Board index of production for each
Industrial classification. This technique was also used to project the
number of industrial boilers through Fiscal Year 1975. It was assumed,
for the purpose of estimating costs, that growth would be through increases
in the number of boilers; that is, the average size of boilers was assumed
not to increase.
Costs attributable to growth in the number of industrial boilers
arc given in Table G-4. Projected costs consist onlv of additional fuel
costs; no conversion costs arc involved. By 1975, without the act in
effect, emissions in the 100 areas from both 1967 base sources and growth-
related sources would reacli 1930 thousand tons of pnrticulates and 4780
thousand tons of S02; with the act in effect, emissions would be reduced
to 72 thousand tons and 1759 thousand tons, respectively.
-------
Table G-3
INDUSTRIAL BOILERS
ESTIMATES OF REDUCED EMISSION LEVELS AND ASSOCIATED COSTS4
(100 metropolitan areas)
YEAR
1967
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
EXPECTED EMISSION LEVELb
(thousand tons/year)
Part
1540
1454
1108
595
223
50
S0x
3970
3820
3240
2380
1750
1460
HC
"
CO
__
~
ASSOCIATED EMISSION
CONTROL LEVELb
(percent)
Part
62.0
71.3
78.1
88.3
93.6
98.8
S°x
0.0
3.6
18.2
40.0
55.7
63.0
HC
_-.
~~
CO
__
~~
Total ---------------------_-_
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
Investment Cost
Lower
Limit
14.3
59.7
96.9
77.4
35.2
283.5
Expected
22.0
91.9
149.0
119.0
54.2
436.1
Upper
Limit
33.0
138.0
224.0
178.0
81.3
654.3
Annual Cost
Lower
Limit
12.3
61.8
135.0
189.0
213.0
611.1
Expected
19.0
95.0
208.0
290.0
328.0
940.0
Upper
Limit
28.5
142.0
312.0
435.0
492.0
1409.5
o
Cost estimates are for the control of only those facilities in operation in calendar year 1967. The areas are
defined in Appendix B.
For levels of particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC) , carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks in the
-------
Table G-4
INDUSTRIAL BOILERS
ESTIMATED COST OF CONTROLLING POLLUTANT EMISSIONS FROM SOURCES ADDED AFTER 1967
(100 metropolitan areas)
FISCAL
YEAR
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
ADDED
CAPACITY
25,300
32,600
39,800
47,100
54,300
ADDITIONAL
PRODUCTION
(number o;
sources)
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
EMISSION LEVELb
(thousand tons /year)
Part
6
7
9
11
12
S0x
140
179
219
259
299
HC
CO
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
INVESTMENT COST
Lower
Limit
10.8
14.6
17.9
16.2
12.6
72.1
Expected
16.6
22.5
27.5
24.9
19.4
110.9
Upper
Limit
24.9
33.8
41.3
37.4
29.1
166.5
ANNUAL COST
Lower
Limit
7.8
17.7
30.7
46.0
54.5
156.7
Expected
12.0
27.2
47.3
70.8
83.8
241.1
Upper
Limit
18.0
40.8
71.0
106.0
126.0
361.8
o
00
These costs are for new facilities which are assumed to be constructed to meet applicable regulations (App. A); areas
are defined in Appendix B; N.A. indicates not applicable.
Particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks indicate the emissions
-------
REFERENCES
1. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1963 Census of Manu-
factures. I, Summary and Subject Statistics. Washington, D. C.: U.S.
Government Printing, 1966, pp. 7-92 - 7-93.
2. Federal Reserve Bulletin (various issues). Washington, D. C.: Board
of Governors, Federal Reserve System.
3. Supply and Demand for Energy in the United States by States and Regions.
1960 and 1965. Washington, D. C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969.
4. The Fuel of Fifty Cities. Report to the National Air Pollution Control
Administration (PH 86-68-37). Washington, D. C.: Ernst and Ernst,
November 1968.
-------
Appendix H
CommercjLal-Institutxonal Heating Plants
-------
Appendix H
Commercial-Institutional Heating Plants
I. INTRODUCTION
Within the 100 metropolitan areas in 1967, there were approximately
607 thousand heating plants that provided heat and steam for hotels, retail
stores, schools, hospitals, and other such establishments. In 1967 in the
100 metropolitan areas, an estimated 3 million tons of coal, 170 million
barrels of oil, and one trillion cubic feet of gas were consumed in these
heating plants. More than 64 thousand tons of particulates and 675 thousand
tons of sulfur oxides were emitted compared to the national emissions of
105 thousand tons and 1110 thousand tons, respectively.
II. CONTROL OF EMISSIONS
Currently, little or no control is being used for heating plants. How-
ever, the emissions from commercial and institutional establishments can be
reduced readily by changing to fuels with low ash and sulfur contents, namely,
natural gas and oil. Thus, by FY 1975, particulate and sulfur oxide emissions
can be reduced by 51.5 and 14.0 percent, respectively. The pattern of use for
fuel oil and natural gas among commercial and institutional establishments varies
by area; the 1967 pattern of consumption of medium grade oil (No. 4) and natural
gas was used as the basis for calculating costs.
III. DISCUSSION AND EVALUATION OF ENGINEERING
DATA USED IN COST ESTIMATION
In order to estimate the cost of controlling air pollution caused by com-
mercial and institutional space heating, it was necessary to (a) determine the
amount of coal, oil, and gas consumed by this group of users in each metro-
politan area; (b) determine the extent of uncontrolled emissions and the control
-------
methods appropriate for achieving the required degree of control; and (c)
determine the investment and operating cost differentials per unit resulting
from compliance.
On the basis of fuel balance data for 24 regions [Ref. l] , it was found
that the amount of energy consumed in heating commercial and institutional
buildings correlated closely (r = 0.86) with population. This relationship
is expressed by the following equation:
log H = 14.96941 + 1.17502 log P;
g
where: H = energy required in 10 Btu per degree day and
P = the area population.
The estimated population of each area for 1967 was inserted into this
equation to calculate total Btu's per degree day for each area. Total
Btu's per degree day multiplied by the average annual degree days gave the
estimated metropolitan area energy consumption in Btu's. This value was
apportioned among the three fuelscoal, oil and gas in proportion to the
estimated ratio of consumption for the state in which the metropolitan area
was located, based on fuel consumption data [kef. 2J . The percentage dis-
tribution of fuels consumed by state is shown in Table H-l.
Since data were not available showing the distribution of boiler sizes
for commercial and institutional heating plants by metropolitan area, a model
plant was used for the estimation of emissions and control costs. Information
available for St. Louis indicated that over 90 percent of the establishments
clustered closely around a mean energy use of 816 thousand Btu's per degree
day [kef. 3] . This was adopted as the model plant for this study.
-------
Table H-l
FUEL CONSUMPTION FOR COMMERCIAL AND INSTITUTIONAL HEATING, 1967
(PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF GAS, OIL, AND COAL BY STATE)
State
Maine
New Hampshire
Vermont
Massachusetts
Rhode Island
Connecticut
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Delaware
Maryland
District of Columbia
Virginia
West Virginia
North Carolina
South Carolina
Georgia
Florida
Kentucky
Tennessee
Alabama
Mississippi
Ohio
Indiana
Illinois
Michigan
Wisconsin
Minnesota
Iowa
Missouri
North Dakota
South Dakota
Nebraska
Arkansas
Louisiana
Oklahoma
Texas
New Mexico
Kansas
Montana
Idaho
Wyoming
Utah
Colorado
Washington
Oregon
Arizona
Nevada
California
Alaska
Hawaii
Gas
0.0
8.2
0.0
14.6
23.8
18.6
30.0
31.6
49.7
25.1
38.0
26.0
29.5
82.2
14.7
36.0
72.4
27.1
66.8
62.5
81.1
68.6
76.7
53.5
61.3
64.2
37.8
49.4
62.8
71.6
34.9
45.5
75.5
78.1
85.6
75.0
78.9
77.0
78.7
67.9
31.8
72.1
73.8
77.8
26.2
22.3
84.7
49.7
95.2
24.9
0.0
Percentage Di
Oil
97.6
89.6
99.5
85.1
76.2
80.4
69.6
68.2
47.7
72.8
59.5
71.2
60.3
9.5
76.2
54.1
23.7
70.3
24.4
18.2
17.9
31.4
17.7
40.8
30.0
28.6
47.0
45.8
34.0
28.4
64.1
51.3
23.9
21.9
14.4
25.0
21.0
20.0
21.3
25.7
57.2
26.5
20.5
16.1
70.5
75.2
11.7
43.2
4.8
72.2
100.0
stribution
Coal
2.4
2.2
0.5
0.3
0.0
1.0
0.4
0.2
2.6
2.1
2.5
2.8
10.2
8.3
9.1
9.9
3.9
2.6
8.8
19.3
1.0
0.0
5.6
5.7
8.7
7.2
15.2
4.8
3.2
0.0
1.0
3.2
0.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
3.0
0.0
6.4
11.0
1.4
5-j
.7
6.1
3.3
2£
.5
3f
.6
7.1
0.0
2.9
0.0
Source: Reference 2
-------
Particulate and SO- emissions were calculated in each metropolitan area,
using the uncontrolled emission rates shown in Table H-2.
Table H-2
UNCONTROLLED EMISSION RATES FOR
COMMERCIAL-INSTITUTIONAL SPACE HEATING
Fuel
Coal
Oil
Gas
Emission Rates
Particulate
20 Ibs/ton
8 lbs/1000 gal.
19 lbs/106 cf
so2
38(S)a Ibs/ton
157(S)a lbs/1000 gal.
1.4 lbs/106 cf
Q
"S" is sulfur content of fuel expressed in percentage.
Evaluation of the estimated emissions for the model plant in each metro-
politan area showed that uncontrolled coal burning units produced particulate
emissions in excess of the standard and S0_ emissions in excess of the standard
when burning coal with more than one percent sulfur content. It was assumed
that gas cleaning was not an appropriate control measure for these emissions.
Therefore, the control method specified for cost analysis was use of substitute
fuels for all existing coal-burning installations. Installations burning gas
or oil meet the standards. For simplicity, it was assumed that gas and oil were
substituted for coal in proportion to the established consumption of those fuels.
IV. CONTROL COSTS FOR 1967 BASE YEAR
Control costs were calculated on the basis of the difference in fuel cost
plus the conversion cost shown in Table H-3.
-------
Table H-3
CONVERSION COSTS FOR COMMERCIAL-INSTITUTIONAL SPACE HEATING
Substitute Fuel
Gas
Oil
Conversion Costs
Investment
($)
1600
2000
Annual Cost
($)
320
400
The estimated costs of controlling emissions from sources operating in
1967 are shown in Table H-4.
V. CONTROL COSTS RESULTING FROM GROWTH
It was assumed for the purpose of this study that all heating plants
installed after 1967 would not be coal-fired and accordingly, would be in com-
pliance with the assumed emission standards. In light of this assumption, no
additional compliance costs resulting from growth have been calculated for fiscal
years 1971 through 1975.
-------
Table H-4
COMMERCIAL-INSTITUTIONAL HEATING PLANTS
ESTIMATES OF REDUCED EMISSION LEVELS AND ASSOCIATED COSTS
(100 metropolitan areas)
VI? AD
1967
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
(thousand tons/year)
Part
64
63
55
42
33
31
S0x
675
672
650
612
585
580
HC
_l
«
CO
_
~
ASSOCIATED EMISSION
(AWIlJxUL LCiVEiL
(percent)
Part
0.0
1.8
9.0
34.3
48.8
51.5
SO
X
0.0
0.5
3.7
9.3
13.3
14.0
HC
_
CO
..
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
Investment Cost
Lower
Limit
1.3
5.8
8.9
5.6
1.5
23.1
Expected
1.7
7.7
11.9
7.4
2.0
30.7
Upper
Limit
2.3
10.4
16.1
10.0
2.7
41.5
Annual Cost
Lower
Limit
1.5
1.1
2.8
4.0
4.3
13.7
Expected
0.2
1.5
3.8
5.4
5.7
16.6
Upper
Limit
0.2
2.0
5.1
7.3
7.7
22.3
oo
3 Cost estimates are for the control of only those facilities in operation in calendar year 1967. The areas are
defined in Appendix B.
For levels of particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks in the
-------
REFERENCES
1. Michael McGraw, NAPCA. Private communication.
2. Supply and Demand for Energy in the United States by States and Regions,
I960 and 1965. Washington, D. C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969.
3. Interstate Air Pollution Study; St. Louis, Phase II Project Report.
Cincinnati: U.S. Public Health Service, May 1969.
-------
Appendix I
Residential Heating Plants
-------
Appendix I
Residential Heating Plants
I. INTRODUCTION
Residential heating plants, especially coal-fired furnaces in single-
family homes and apartment houses, are significant sources of particulates
and sulfur oxides. In 1967, the United States contained an estimated 58
million residential heating plants with about 35 million of these located
within the 100 metropolitan areas. These 100 areas contained an estimated
2.2 million dwelling units using coal, 10.9 million using oil, and 17.6
million using gas; some are heated with electricity. Coal, and to some extent,
oil account for both types of emissions; however, the emissions from oil burning
do not exceed the maximum limit of the applicable regulations for either partic-
ulates or sulfur oxides.
II. CONTROL OF EMISSIONS
Because of the small size of residential heating plants, the most prac-
tical control strategy is switching to a different fuel or converting to
electric heating. Under the plan assumed as a basis for estimating emission
control costs, coal would be replaced by other fossil fuels or electricity.
These changes were prorated on the basis of the 1967 pattern of usage in each
area. In 1967, national emissions from residential heating plants amounted to
314 thousand and 1,530 thousand tons of particulates and sulfur oxides, res-
pectively. The 1967 emissions for the 100 metropolitan areas were 163 thousand
and 1^043 thousand tons of particulates and sulfur oxides, respectively.
- Projected from corresponding 1960 data and adjusted for trends or new
installations and conversions as shown by associated statistics provided by the
Electric Heating Association and the American Gas Association (also Refs. 1,
2, and 3).
-------
III. DISCUSSION AND EVALUATION OF TECHNICAL
DATA USED IN COST ESTIMATION
The method.used in estimating the cost of controlling air pollution
caused by residential heating plants was as follows:
a) Estimate number of occupied dwelling units in each metropolitan
area in 1967.
b) Allocate occupied dwelling units by type of fuel consumed.
c) Calculate consumption of coal, oil, and gas for each metropolitan
area.
d) Calculate particulate and S0_ emissions on the basis of fuel
consumption.
e) Determine whether calculated emissions are within the standards
assumed herein.
f) Determine appropriate control method to achieve compliance with
specified standards.
g) Determine the investment and operating cost differential resulting
from compliance.
The number of occupied dwelling units in each metropolitan area in 1960,
classified by fuel used in heating, was obtained. In order to project this to
1967, data were collected on the relative use of oil, gas, and electricity as
the heating fuel in new construction and the rate of conversions from one fuel
21
to another. The number of dwelling units in each metropolitan area was pro-
jected by dividing the projected population by the median number of persons per
dwelling unit (based on the 1960 census) . The increase in the number of occupied
dwelling units, 1960 to 1967, then was allocated to fuel type using construction
and fuel conversion data for each state, and the resultant additional units using
each fuel were added to the 1960 totals.
Given the number of occupied dwelling units in each metropolitan area for
1967 classified by fuel used, and using the method outlined by Ozolins [Ref. 4],
the consumption of each fuel was calculated:
a) Assumptions
1) Heating values: coal, 26 x 10 Btu/ton; oil, 145,000 Btu/gallon;
gas, 1,000 Btu/cubic foot.
2) Efficiency of heating plant: coal, 50%; oil, 60%; gas, 75%.
3) Heating requirement: 115,200 net Btu/dwelling unit-degree-day.
2/
Data obtained from the Electric Heating Association, the American Gas
Association and References 2 and 3.
-------
4) Average number of annual heating degree days for the nation
equals 4600.
5) Average dwelling unit of 5 rooms.
b) Derived fuel requirements
1) 0.0012 ton coal/dwelling unit-degree day, Fc.
2) 0.18 gallon oil/dwelling unit-degree, Fo.
3) 2215 cubic feet gas/dwelling unit-degree day, Fg.
To calculate the amounts of each fuel used in each metropolitan area, the
following equation was used:
Ti = N x Fi x D x S/5
where; for each region:
Ti is the total quantity of the particular fuel type (i) used;
N is the number dwelling units;
Fi is the derived fuel requirement for each dwelling unit per degree day;
D is the average annual degree days; and
S is the average dwelling unit size in rooms.
Particulate and S0« emissions were calculated from the above estimated con-
sumption data and the uncontrolled emission rates given in Table 1-1.
Table 1-1
UNCONTROLLED EMISSION RATES
Fuel
Type
Coal
Oil
Gas
Emission Rate
Particulate
20 Ibs/ton burned
12 lbs/1000 gal. burned
19 lbs/106 cu. ft.
burned
S02
38 (S)3 Ibs/ton burned
157 (S)3lbs/1000 gal burned
0.4 lbs/106 cu. ft.
burned
a "S" is sulfur content expressed as percentage.
Source: Reference 5.
Analysis of particulate emissions revealed that areas with less than
25 heating degree days on the average January day would be in compliance with
the specified standard. The S02 emission standard was met in areas using
coal with 1 percent or less sulfur by weight. These criteria were met in
8 regions: (29) Birmingham, (32) Chattanooga, (43) Charlotte, (65) Nashville,
(72) Greensboro, (76) Knoxville, (81) Norfolk, (97) Raleigh.17 In another
3/
See Appendix B for list of 100 areas,
-------
36 areas, coal consumption was estimated to be negligible or zero. Partic-
ulate and SO- emissions from oil and gas combustion were in compliance with
specified standards. Control was required in the remaining 56 areas.
It was assumed that the only feasible control technique for residential
heating was a change in fuel. Therefore, elimination of excessive pollutant
emissions from coal combustion required substitution of oil, gas, or elec-
tricity, and control costs were calculated for this substitution. The coal
consumption eliminated was allocated on a Btu basis to oil, gas, or electricity
in proportion to the estimated consumption of these fuels already existing in
each metropolitan area and translated into gallons, cubic feet, or kilowatt
hours, respectively.
IV- COST ESTIMATION
Data on the price of coal for domestic use were not available for most
metropolitan areas; however, estimated industrial prices were available for some
metropolitan areas [Ref. 6]. Estimates of industrial prices for the remaining
metropolitan areas were made by estimating differentials in cost due to trans-
portation from the region of origin. It was then assumed that the price to
commercial consumers would average 2 1/2 times the industrial price and that
the price to residential users would average $5 per ton more than the commercial
price. Thus, residential user prices were estimated which were felt to reflect
reasonable differences in the cost of coal by metropolitan area.
Oil and gas prices based on the Ernst and Ernst report [Ref. 6] were used
to estimate prices for metropolitan areas not covered. Electric rates were taken
from the Federal Power Commission's Electric Rate Book [Ref. 7], using metro-
politan area rates, where separately stated, or the lowest residential rate
applicable.
Using these prices, the differences in the cost to consumers resulting from
substituting fuels were calculated and aggregated for each metropolitan area. In
a number of metropolitan areas, fuel substitution resulted in a reduction in cost.
Standard costs for conversion, presented in Table 1-2, were assumed and the
annualized cost of conversion added to the differential fuel cost by metropolitan
area.
-------
Table 1-2
CONVERSION COSTS FOR RESIDENTIAL HEATING
Conversion Unit
Gas
Oil
i Electricity
i
Inves tment
Cost
($)
250
400
650
Annual Cost
($)
50
80
130
Control cost estimates for residential heating plants existing in 1967
are presented in Table 1-3.
V. CONTROL COSTS RESULTING FROM GROWTH
Industry data indicate that new residential construction using coal as
the heating fuel is virtually zero within the 100 areas. Therefore, it
is assumed that all residential construction since 1967 is in compliance
with the applicable standards and no additional costs resulting from growth
were calculated.
-------
Table 1-3
RESIDENTIAL HEATING PLANTS
ESTIMATES OF REDUCED EMISSION LEVELS AND ASSOCIATED COSTS5
(100 metropolitan areas)
YEAR
1967
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
EXPECTED EMISSION LEVELb
(thousand tons/year)
Part
163
155
126
92
77
57
S0x
1043
1004
887
705
635
541
HC
__
~
CO
"
ASSOCIATED EMISSION
CONTROL LEVELb
(percent)
Part
0.0
5.0
22.6
43.9
52.9
65.2
SO
X
0.0
3.7
16.7
32.4
39.1
48.1
HC
»»
CO
~
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
Investment Cost
Lower
Limit
26.3
96.8
142.0
105.0
41.6
411.7
Expected
35.1
129.0
190.0
140.0
55.5
549.6
Upper
Limit
47.4
174.0
256.0
189.0
74.9
741.3
Annual Cost
Lower
Limit
7.4
33.7
65.2
78.7
96.6
281.8
Expected
9.8
45.0
87.0
105.0
129.0
375.8
Upper
Limit
13.2
60.7
117.0
142.0
174.0
506.9
I
00
Cost estimates are for the control of only those facilities in operation in calendar year 1967. The areas are
defined in Appendix B.
For levels of particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks in the
-------
REFERENCES
1. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census. U.S. Census of Housing. I960,
Washington, D. C.; U.S. Government Printing Office, 1963.
2. "1966 Installations," Fueloil & Oil Heat. (Reprinted from the April 1967
issue), pp. 3-11.
3. "1968 Oil Heating Sales Analysis," Fueloil & Oil Heat. (Reprinted from
the January and April 1969 issues), pp. 3-11.
4. Guntis Ozolins and Raymond Smith. A Rapid Survey Technique for Estimating
Community Air Pollution Emissions. Cincinnati, Ohio: U.S. Department
of Health, Education, and Welfare (PHS), 1966.
5. R. L. Duprey. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. Public
Health Service Publication No. 999-AP-42. Durham, N. C.: U.S. Department
of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution Control,
1968.
6. The Fuel of Fifty Cities. Report to the National Air Pollution Control
Administration (PH 86-68-37). Washington, D. C.: Ernst and Ernst, November
1968.
7. Federal Power Commissions's Electric Rate Book. Washington, D. C.: U.S.
Government Printing Office.
-------
Appendix J
Kraft (Sulfate) Pulp Industry
(SIC No. 2611)
-------
Appendix J
Kraft (Sulfate) Pulp Industry
I. INTRODUCTION
The pulp industry manufactures pulp from wood and other materials
for use in making paper and related products. The several methods by
which pulp can be produced are generally classified as either chemical
or mechanical. Only the chemical methods, however, cause significant
air pollution problems. Among the chemical pulp production methods, sul-
fite and sulfate (kraft) pulp plants account for the major proportion of
all pulp productionabout 75 percent of the total industry output. Sulfite
production, although a potentially serious source of sulfur dioxide when
waste liquor incineration is practiced, is not included in this study because
the cost of control can be completely offset by the value of recovered heat
and process chemicals.
In kraft pulp mills, four major processes emit significant amounts of
particulates: process chemicals from recovery furnaces and smelt-dissolving
tanks, lime from lime recovery kilns, and bark char from bark boilers.
Recovery furnaces also emit sulfur oxides, but the best available estimates
indicate that these emissions do not exceed the 500 ppm regulation limit
assumed for this analysis.
In 1967, there were 113 kraft pulp plants in the United States with
only 16 of these in the 100 metropolitan areas. The national and area
capacities were 32.9 million and 4.1 million tons, respectively; production
was 22.8 million tons for the United States and 2.8 million tons for the 100
areas with value of shipments amounting to $3.4 billion and $0.4 billion,
respectively. Kraft pulp plants emitted a national total of 633 thousand
tons of particulates in 1967; 109 thousand tons originated in the 100
areas.
-------
II. CONTROL OF EMISSIONS
Current (1967) average levels of particulate control for recovery fur-
naces, lime kilns, smelt-dissolving tanks, and bark boilers are 86, 80, 50
and 75 percent, respectively [Ref. 1]. These result in a weighted average
industry control level of 81 percent. When the standards are implemented,
the overall industry control level will reach 96.3 percent, resulting in
emissions of 21 thousand tons from the 1967 base industry.
III. DISCUSSION AND EVALUATION OF ENGINEERING DATA
USED IN COST ESTIMATION
The basic engineering approach taken to estimate air pollution control
costs for the pulp and paper industry consisted of: (a) an evaluation of
the various production processes commonly found within the industry, (b) an
analysis of the pollutants involved, their uncontrolled emission rates,
present levels of control and final levels as required by the various
standards adopted for this study, and (c) an evaluation to select the most
satisfactory control systems to achieve the required levels.
The three most important classes of pulp-making operations from the
standpoint of potential air pollutant emissions are: (a) the sulfate
(kraft) process, (b) the sulfite process, and (c) the neutral sulfite semi-
chemical process. The sulfite process is a potentially serious source of
S02; however, several factors contributed to the omission of this process
from this study. First, in those plants which do not practice waste liquor
incineration, S02 emissions are practically negligible. In those plants
practicing incineration, chemical and thermal recovery is economically
attractive [Refs, 2,3]. Therefore, this report assumes that all sulfite
plants have or will soon have chemical and thermal recovery systems which
profitably reduce SO- emissions to less than the 500 ppm limit.
-------
In neutral sulfite semichemical (NSSC) pulping, participates are not
a problem; therefore, NSSC pulping was not considered for the purposes
of this study.
The kraft process, however, represents an emission source which must
be considered. Particulate emissions from this pulping process are being
emitted to the atmosphere in quantities exceeding the standard adopted
for this study. The kraft pulping process includes the following unit pro-
cesses: (a) black liquor recovery furnaces, (b) lime regeneration kilns,
(c) smelt-dissolving tanks, and (d) bark boilers.
Uncontrolled rates of particulate emissions are presented in Table J-l.
Table J-l
UNCONTROLLED PARTICULATE EMISSION RATES
Process
Recovery furnace
Lime kiln
Smelt-dissolving tank
Bark boiler
Emission Rate
(Ib/ton air dried pulp)
150
94
20
18
Source: References 5 and 6.
The emissions from the recovery furnace and lime kiln consist mainly of
very fine sodium and calcium salt fumes, while those of the smelt tank are
very fine mists containing carbonates and sulfides of sodium. Presently, all
of the processes are, on the average, controlled to some extent. Table J-2
presents estimated particulate control levels.
~ Non-bark burning boilers are also present, but are considered under
industrial boiler sources.
-------
Table J-2
ESTIMATED PARTICULATE CONTROL LEVELS AND EMISSION
RATES AFTER CONTROL
Process
Recovery furnace
Lime kiln
Smelt-dissolving tank
Bark boiler
Control
Ef f. (percent)
86
80
50
75
Emission Rate After Control
(Ib/ton air dry pulp)
21.0
18.7
10.0
4.5
Based upon the process weight rate particulate emission standard,
ultimate removal efficiencies were calculated for the various processes
as a function of gas volume as presented in Table J-3.
The relationship between gas volume and production for each process
is given in Table J-4.
To achieve the required control efficiency levels, the control systems
presented in Table J-5 were selected.
The equipment costs data used in the analysis will be discussed in
the next section of this report.
IV. CONTROL COSTS FOR 1967 BASE YEAR
A. Methodology
Data on location and total capacity of each kraft pulp mill [Ref. 7]
and on the capacity of each lime recovery kiln within each mill [Ref. 8]
were available for the 100 metropolitan areas. The data on total capacity
of each mill were used along with data from a NAPCA survey [Ref. 9] to
determine the capacity of recovery furnaces, smelt-dissolving tanks, and
bark-burning boilers in each mill.
All recovery furnaces were assumed to be of equal size within a plant
and to have an associated smelt-dissolving tank of corresponding capacity.
-------
Table J-3
REQUIRED REMOVAL EFFICIENCIES FOR KRAFT PROCESSES*
Process
Recovery furnaces
Lime kiln
Smelt-dissolving
tanks
Bark boilersb
Gas Volume (103 acfm)
25
75
125
175
225
275
325
5
15
25
35
45
55
65
75
85
95
105
2.5
7.5
12.5
17.5
22.5
55.0
16
24
32
40
48
56
64
72
80
Percent Efficiency Required
95.0
97.8
98.5
98.9
99.1
99.3
99.4
96.9
97.8
98.2
98.3
98.6
98.8
98.9
99.0
99.1
99.2
99.3
84.0
93.2
95.2
96.0
96.4
98.8
93
93
93
95
95
95
96
96
97
Gas volume data taken from a 1969 NAPCA summary of unpublished surveys;
required efficiencies were calculated.
Bark boilers were considered in this study as a process step; there-
fore, the more stringent process weight rate standard was applied instead
of the Maryland Combustion Regulation.
-------
Table J-4
GAS VOLUME VS. PRODUCTION FOR KRAFT PROCESSES
Process
Gas Volume Production
(acfm/100 T/D)a
Recovery furnace
Lime kiln
Smelt-dissolving tank
Bark boiler
25,000
3,200
3,100
8,000
100 tons per day air-dried pulp.
Adapted from Reference 6.
Table J-5
CONTROL SYSTEMS SELECTED
Process
Control System
Pressure Drop
Recovery furnace
Lime kiln
Smelt-dissolving tank
Bark boiler
Venturi scrubber
Venturi scrubber
Venturi scrubber
Multi-cyclone
30" w.g.
20" w.g.
10" w.g.
4-5" w.g.
a
Assumed to follow existing electrostatic precipitator,
-------
For each mill, a pair of equal-sized bark boilers were assigned a total capa-
city appropriate to the total mill capacity and a bark factor (tons of bark
2/
per ton of pulp) was used. A complete list of lime mud recovery kilns by
size was obtained from Rock Products [Ref. 8].
The type of control varied with the type of process equipment. Recovery
furnaces and smelt-dissolving tanks were assigned venturi scrubbers that use
a weak black liquor scrubbing medium; lime kilns were assigned venturi scrubbers;
and bark boilers were assigned specially-designed multicyclone collectors.
Control costs were calculated from the data in Tables J-6 through J-9.
Gas volume - equipment cost and gas volume - annual operating cost relationships
are presented for the various required control systems in Figures J-l through
J-7. Installed costs are 3 times the equipment costs for the black liquor
scrubbers, 2 times for the wet scrubbers, and 2 times for the multicyclones.
Annual costs are operating costs plus 20 percent of the investment. The
resulting costs for controlling each mill were totalled for each of the 100
metropolitan areas.
Table J-6
KRAFT RECOVERY FURNACE EMISSION CONTROL COSTS
Furnace Gas
Volume (10-^ acfm)
25.0
75.0
125.0
175.0
225.0
275.0
325.0
Associated Capacity
(tons /day)
96
290
485
680
870
1065
1260
Investment Cost
($1000)
92.0
123.0
198.0
258.6
309.0
375.0
420.0
Annual Cost
($1000)
20.1
48.6
78.1
94.7
130.0
158.0
180.4
Tons of air-dried pulp per day.
-1 Calculated from the Sirrine report (see Reference 6).
-------
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
o
o
o
to
o
4J
g
a
H
cr
w
10
9
8
A = 316 ELC Stainless Steel
B = 304 Venturi/MS Concrete Lined
Separator
C = All Mild Steel
I
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60708090
Inlet Gas Volume (lO3 acfn)
Source: Poly Con Corporation.
Fig. j-1. Equipment Cost for Venturi Scrubbers.
-------
1000
800
600
400
200
/o
o
o
1-1
100
u
i 80
u
6
P.
!60
40
20
A = 316 ELC Stainless Steel
3 = 304 Venturi/MS Concrete Lined Separator
C = All Mild Steel
. .... i
i i i i i i i
40
60 80 100
200
400
600 800 1000
Inlet Gas Volume (10 acfm)
Source: Poly Con Corporation.
Fig. J-2. Equipment Cost for Venturi Scrubbers.
-------
1000
800
600
500
400
300
200
o
o
o
UJ
o
o
60
c
-------
10
9
8
7
6
500
400
300
200
o
u
jjl) 100
S 90
2 80
J 70
« 60
s
50
40
30
20
10
SCRUBBER
EFFICIENCY
99%
I
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I
10
20 30 40 5060708090100
Inlet Gas Volume (10 acfm)
200
300 400 600 800
Source: Poly Con Corporation.
Fig. J-4. Annual Direct Operating Cost for Recovery Boiler Venturi Scrubbers.
-------
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
o
§ 20
BO
u
0)
M
10
e
8
7
6
Q I
I
SCRUBBER
EFFICIENCY
99.5%
I I I I I I I I
I I I -LLL1
5 6 7 8 9 10
20 30 40 50 60 708090101
Inlet Gas Volume (10 acfm)
Source: Poly Con Corporation.
Fig. J-5. Annual Direct Operating Cost for Lime Kiln Venturi Scrubbers.
-------
35
30
25
o
o
o
? 20
a
H
D1
15
10
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
o
Inlet Gas Volume (10 acfm)
Source: Poly Con Corporation.
Fig. J-6. Equipment Cost for Multi-tube Collectors.
-------
30,000
af
3
a
e
M
01
CD
4J
0)
o
20,000
l-i
0)
10,000
I
I
25,000 50,000
I
I
100,000 150,000
Inlet Gas Volume (acfm)
I
200.0OO
250,000
Source: Poly Con Corporation.
-------
Table J-7
ROTARY LIME RECOVERY KILN EMISSION CONTROL COSTS
Capacity
(tons /day)
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
Installed Cost
($1000)
14.0
17.3
20.0
22.5
25.0
26.5
28.0
29.7
32.0
34.6
37.8
40.9
44.0
Annual Cost
($1000)
8.8
12.0
15.0
17.7
20.5
23.4
26.5
29.2
31.4
34.3
37.6
41.2
45.2
Table J-8
KRAFT SMELT-DISSOLVING TANK EMISSION CONTROL COSTS
Tank Gas Volume
CLO3 acfm)
2.5
7.5
12.5
17.5
22.5
27.5
32.5
37.5
42.5
47.5
52.5
55.0
Associated Capacity
a
(tons /day)
80
240
400
560
720
880
1040
1200
1360
1520
1680
1760
Investment Cost
($1000)
5.2
13.0
17.0
20.0
23.2
25.9
28.7
31.4
34.0
36.8
39.6
41.0
Annual Cost
($1000)
2.0
6.2
8.5
10.8
13.1
15.3
17.6
19.9
22.1
24.4
26.7
29.7
Tons of air-dried pulp per day
-------
Table J-9
KRAFT BARK BOILER EMISSION CONTROL COSTS
Boiler Gas Volume
(1(T acfm)
16
24
32
40
48
56
64
72
80
Associated Capacity
(tons /day)
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
Costs
($1000)
Investment
13.4
18.5
23.0
33.8
40.0
43.8
49.0
53.7
57.5
Annual
3.5
4.3
5.1
6.1
7.0
7.8
8.6
9.4
10.1
B.
Tons of air-dried pulp per day.
Estimated Costs
The resulting costs that take into account existing controls were totalled
for the 100 metropolitan areas and are shown in Table J-10. Annual control
costs would average approximately $0.61 per ton of kraft pulp capacity.
The emission of particulates would be reduced from over 109 thousand tons
in 1967 to approximately 21 thousand tons by 1975. Total investment would
amount to $6.4 million with an ultimate annual cost of $2.4 million.
V. CONTROL COSTS RESULTING FROM GROWTH
Air pollution control costs were calculated not only for existing capacity
but also for projected increased capacity in the kraft pulp industry beyond
the base year of 1967. The projected growth costs were based on the expected
ultimate overall control level of 96.3 percent. The calculations consisted
of multiplying the 1967 total investment and annual control costs by the
annual growth in capacity to obtain annual investment and annual costs to
control the emission from industry growth.
-------
Table J-10
KRAFT (SULFATE) PULP PLANTS
ESTIMATES OF REDUCED EMISSION LEVELS AND ASSOCIATED COSTS
(100 metropolitan areas)
V1TAP
1967
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
T?YPl?PTl?n ITMTCCTnW T PT7ITT
(thousand tons/year)
Part
109
109
101
73
43
21
SO
X
~
HC
~
CO
_
~
ASSOCIATED EMISSION
LiUNlKUL LlWhiL
(percent)
Part
81.0
81.0
82.5
87.2
92.5
96.3
S0x
._
HC
CO
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
Investment Cost
Lower
Limit
0.3
0.5
1.5
1.8
1.2
5.3
Expected
0.3
0.6
1.8
2.2
1.5
6.4
Upper
Limit
0.4
0.7
2.2
2.7
1.9
7.9
Annual Cost
Lower
Limit
0.1
0.2
0.7
1.4
1.9
4.3
Expected
0.1
0.2
0.9
1.8
2.4
5.4
Upper
Limit
0.1
0.3
1.1
2.2
2.9
6.6
Cost estimates are for the control of only those facilities in operation in calendar year 1967. The areas are
defined in Appendix B.
For levels of particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC) , carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks in the
-------
An average growth rate of 8.0 percent per year was assumed for the
1967 - FY 1975 period. This was based on the American Paper Institute esti-
mates for the entire industry. The capacity estimates, derived from the
production estimates, were based on achieving 90 percent utilization of
capacity by FY 1975. The results of the cost analysis of controlling the
new capacity are shown in Table J-ll. As shown, the cost in each year
reflects immediate control of the incremental capacity at ultimate control
levels.
By 1975, without the act in effect, particulate emissions in the 100
areas would reach 164 thousand tons from the 1967 capacity plus the additional
capacity added after 1967. With the act in effect, emissions would be reduced
to 33 thousand tons.
-------
Table J-ll
KRAFT (SULFATE) PULP PLANTS
ESTIMATED COST OF CONTROLLING POLLUTANT EMISSIONS FROM SOURCES ADDED AFTER 1967*
(100 metropolitan areas)
TPTCPAT
r loUAL
YEAR
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
Totals
ADDED
CAPACITY
(thousand
tons/yr)
119
199
278
358
438
ADDITIONAL
PRODUCTION
(thousand
tons/yr)
329
564
790
1016
1241
EMISSION LEVELb
(thousand tons /year)
Part
6
7
9
11
12
SO
X
-_
~
--
HC
_
--
~
CO
~
~
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
INVESTMENT COST
Lower
Limit
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.8
Expected
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
1.0
Upper
Limit
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.3
1.3
ANNUAL COST
Lower
Limit
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.9
Expected
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
1.1
Upper
Limit
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
1.1
CH
NJ
These costs are for new facilities which are assumed to be constructed to meet applicable regulations (App. A); areas
are defined in Appendix B.
Particulates (Part.)> sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC) , carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks indicate the emissions
-------
REFERENCES
1. R. L. Collins, et al. Cost to Industry of Compliance with National
Emission Standards. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina: Research
Triangle Institute, 1969.
2. N. S. Lea and E. A. Christoferson, "Save Money by Stopping Air Pollution,"
Chemical Engineering Progress. Volume 61, No. 11 (November 1965),
pp. 89-93,
3. E. L. Smith, "Sulfite Pulping and Pollution Control," Combustion.
(June 1967), pp. 42-44.
4. Gene Tucker. National Air Pollution Control Administration. Private
communication.
5. R. L. Duprey. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. Public
Health Service Publication No. 999-AP-42. Durham, N. C.: U. S. Depart-
ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution
Control, 1968.
6. Systems Analysis Study of Emissions Control in the Wood Pulping Industry;
First Milestone Report. Conducted by Environmental Engineering, Inc. and
the J. E. Sirrine Co. for the National Air Pollution Control Administration,
February 10, 1969.
7. Lockwood's Directory of the Paper and Allied Trades. New York, N. Y.:
Lockwoods Trade Journal Co., Inc., 1968.
8. "Regenerated Lime - The Quiet Boom," Rock Products. (July 1968), pp. 54-60.
9. J. Sableski, National Air Pollution Control Administration. Private
communication.
-------
Appendix K
Iron and Steel Industry
(SIC No. 3312)
-------
Appendix K
Iron and Steel Industry
I. INTRODUCTION
In 1967, the capacity of the 141 iron and steel plants located in
the United States was 165 million tons, and the annual national pro-
duction of raw steel was 127 million tons. The annual value of shipments
was $13.3 billion. For the 115 plants located in the 100 metropolitan
areas, capacity was about 116 million tons. Production reached approxi-
mately 101 million tons with value of shipments amounting to $10.5
billion.
Several major processes are a part of the iron and steel industry.
Coking is an important method of producing fuel for melting operations.
Sintering aggregates or fuses iron ore into larger particles which are
used in blast furnaces; blast furnaces produce iron in molten or pig
form from iron ore. Iron and some scrap are then converted to steel in
one of three types of steel furnaces: open hearth (which usually have
oxygen lancing), basic oxygen, and electric arc. Scarfing is an opera-
tion to remove surface defects from steel. Of course, the industry
employs many other processes, but the ones mentioned above are of major
importance with respect to air pollution.
Estimates of control costs for the blast furnace operation are not
included because the effluent gases are cleaned for use in other
processes instead of being released into the air. Two other major
processes, coking and scarfing, are also excluded from this analysis
due to insufficient data to prepare even a minimally reliable cost
estimate. The cost estimates that were prepared reflect the projected
reduction in particulate emissions from all three types of steelmaking
furnaces and from the sintering operations.
-------
II. CONTROL OF EMISSIONS
In 1967, in the 100 metropolitan areas particulates from these sources
totalled about 1060 thousand tons and were controlled at an overall level
of about 52.5 percent efficiency. The application of gas-cleaning equipment
such as electrostatic precipitators and wet scrubbers can result in an overall
collection efficiency among these facilities of about 95.5 percent, reducing
emissions to 101 thousand tons by FY 1975.
III. DISCUSSION AND EVALUATION OF ENGINEERING DATA
USED IN COST ESTIMATION
The basic engineering approach to estimating control costs for
the iron and steel industry consisted of: (a) an evaluation of
production processes within the industry, (b) an analysis of uncon-
trolled emission rates, present levels of control, and final levels as re-
quired by various standards adopted for this study, and (c) an evaluation
to select the most satisfactory control systems to achieve required emission
levels.
The processes considered for the cost analysis in this report were the
following: open hearth furnace, basic oxygen furnace, electric arc furnace,
and the sintering operation.
Particulate control levels are well below technically feasible levels
resulting in annual national emissions of about 1.5 million tons. On the
other hand, carbon monoxide, a potentially significant emission, is con-
trolled to a great extent by burning in waste heat boilers or in nonproductive
complete combustion of off-gases to convert the carbon monoxide to carbon
dioxide. Consequently, only costs to increase the level of control of parti-
culates are included.
-------
Totally uncontrolled rates of particulate emissions vary from
process to process. Table K-l presents the emission rates for each pro-
cess.
No one has attempted a comprehensive analysis of the present level
of particulate control levels in the iron and steel industry. However,
some information [Refs. 1, 2, 3], fragmentary as it is, was used to set
average nationwide control levels for the various processes. These are
presented in Table K-2. For this table and the rest of the discussion of
present emission estimates, open hearth control facilities are assumed to
have been installed only where oxygen lancing is practiced.
Table K-l
UNCONTROLLED PARTICULATE EMISSION RATES
Process
Emission Rate
(Ib/ton produced)
Open hearth (nonoxygen lanced)
Open hearth (oxygen lanced)
Basic oxygen
Electric furnace
Sintering (windbox)
Sintering (discharge)
7.3
21
40
15'
20
22
a
3 From the Battelle report [Ref. 2] and assumed to update the
emission factors given in Reference 1.
Source: References 1 and 2.
Table K-2
PARTICULATE CONTROL LEVELS
Process
Controlled Production
(percent)
Average Control
Efficiency (percent)
Open hearth furnace
Basic oxygen furnace
Electric furnace
Sintering (windbox)
Sintering (discharge)
27
92
61
90
0
90
90
90
75
-------
Required particulate removal efficiencies for the various processes
were calculated as a function of process size on the basis of the process
weight rate standard and are presented in Table K-3.
Table K-3
REQUIRED REMOVAL EFFICIENCIES FOR EMISSION SOURCES3
Emission
Source
Open hearth furnace
Basic oxygen furnace
Electric arc furnace
Sintering machine
,
Sintering discharge
Capacity
(tons/melt)
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
50
100
150
200
250
300
25
50
100
150
200
250
(tons/day)
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
1000
2000
3000
Required
Efficiency
(percent)
89.5
91.4
92.3
94.0
94.9
95.6
96.1
96.4
96.7
97.1
97.3
97.5
98.0
99.0
99.3
99.4
99.5
99.6
84
87
89
92
94 !
95
(percent)
95.0
97.0
98.0
98.3
98.6
98.8
95.0
97.0
98.0
4000 98.5
5000 98.7
6000 | 98.9
Based on process weight rate standard.
All open hearth furnaces are assumed in this study to be oxygen
lanced prior to installation of control equipment.
-------
Based on these required removal efficiencies, as well as particle
size distribution functions, the choice of feasible control systems was
made for the various processes. From the set of feasible alternatives,
industry practice and other expert opinion was used to arrive at the
control system requirements shown in Table K-4.
Table K-4
SELECTED CONTROL SYSTEMS
Process
Control System
Comments
Basic oxygen furnace
Open hearth furnace
Electric arc furnace
Sintering (windbox)
Sintering (discharge)
venturi scrubber
venturi scrubber
electrostatic
precipitator3
fabric filter
venturi scrubber
venturi scrubber
50" w.g.
50" w.g.
high temperature
20" w.g.
10" w.g.
3 At present, open hearth furnaces (all oxygen lanced) have a 50-50
combination of scrubbers and precipitators.
Control cost estimating relationships adopted from engineering analyses
developed by the Swindell-Dressier Corporation for each process are discussed
in the next section.
IV. CONTROL COSTS FOR 1967 BASE YEAR
A. Methodology
Estimating air pollution control costs for the iron and steel industry
was extremely complex because of the number of processes requiring differ-
ent control levels.
-------
Data were available on capacities and locations of all furnaces [Ref. 4].
Sintering machine locations were known from Reference 4, but capacities had to
be estimated from the known range of capacities (2000 to 6000 tons per day) and
the reported grate dimensions which were assumed to be related to capacities.
Control cost data were obtained which presented investment and operating
costs for the extreme ends of the expected capacity range [Ref. 5]. Inter-
mediate levels and capacities were calculated for each process using a cost
function:
b
y = ax
where: y = control cost;
x = capacity; and a and b are parameters that
depend on each process.
Cost parameters for all furnace and machine types are presented in Table K-5.
All types of furnaces and machines were assumed to need some additional
control. Basic oxygen furnaces were assigned high energy wet scrubbers; open
hearth furnaces, half high energy wet scrubbers and half electrostatic preci-
pitators; electric arc furnaces, fabric filters; sintering machine windboxes
and discharges, medium energy wet scrubbers.
The 1967 average levels of control and the national percentages of capa-
city controlled were known for all furnaces and machines; regional data were
lacking, however. Accordingly, the estimated relationship between national
and regional control levels for the gray iron foundry industry [Ref. 6] was
applied to the iron and steel industry.
The cost relationship for electric arc furnaces was calculated using data
from Reference 5, assuming two furnaces exhaust into a single control system
with appropriate staggering of operations. If possible, two furnaces of equal
capacity were paired; if not, furnaces with no more than a 25 percent difference
were paired.
-------
Table K-5
COST ESTIMATING PARAMETERS2
Unit
Operation
Open hearth furnace
Basic oxygen furnace
Electric arc furnace
Sintering (windbox)
Sintering (discharge)
Control
Equipment
high energy venturi scrubber
electrostatic precipitator
high energy venturi scrubber
fabric filter
medium energy venturi
scrubber
medium energy venturi
scrubber
Units
of
Capacity
tons /melt
tons /melt
tons /melt
tons /melt
tons of sinter/day
tons of sinter/day
Cost Estimating Parameters3
"a"
Investment
8,308b
35,775
12,902
837
15,835
Annual
6,576b
16,318
8,400
518
5,541
"b"
Investment
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.8
0.3
Annual
0.7
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.3
I
so
n V\
The cost function is y = ax , where y - control cost, x - capacity, and "a" and "b" are cost parameters that depend
on the type of process. The same function was applied to the calculation of both annual and investment cos-ts by simply
using the appropriate a's and b's. To illustrate the use of the parameters, suppose that it is required to determine the
investment and annual cost of controlling a basic oxygen furnace with a capacity of 400 tons per melt. The investment cost
(y) is therefore $35,775 (400)°.7 = $2.36 million with an annual cost(y) = $16,318 (400)°«8 = $1.96 million.
For all open hearth furnaces, the b parameters for both types of control equipment were the same, so a single cost
function, with the average of two a's was used. Since the number of this type furnace is large in most metropolitan areas
-------
Control costs for electric arc furnaces were calculated using the y = ax
cost function; when two furnaces of different capacities were controlled, the
larger capacity was assumed. Control costs for single furnaces were calculated
by dividing the control cost for two furnaces (each of which has a capacity
equal to the single furnace) by 1.4 to allow for a reduced ducting and blower
requirement as well as reduced average load. These calculations yielded basic
costs at the Swindell-Dressier efficiency level [Ref. 5]. The basic costs were
then adjusted to the control efficiency required by the selected standards of
this study by using a cost multiplier as described in Chapter 2, "Study Metho-
dology." The cost multiplier was again applied to furnaces to which existing
control levels had been assigned to obtain the cost for the required control
efficiency. When the difference between the costs for required efficiency and
current efficiency was positive, it was recorded as the net control cost; no
negative costs were recorded, although they did occasionally occur where the
present level of control exceeded the standard.
B. Estimated Costs
The resulting costs, which take into account existing controls, were totalled
for the 100 metropolitan areas; these are shown in Table K-6. Control costs
would average approximately $1.76 per ton of steelmaking capacity when the plan
is fully implemented.
The emission of particulates would be reduced from over 1 million tons in
1967 to approximately 101 thousand tons by 1975. The investment cost for this
level of control would total $319.5 million, with an annual cost of $204.4 million
in 1975.
V. CONTROL COSTS RESULTING FROM GROWTH
Air pollution control costs were calculated not only for existing
capacity (Section IV) but also for projected increased capacity in the
iron and steel industry beyond the base year of 1967. The projected growth
costs were based on the required ultimate control level for each process.
The calculations consisted of multiplying the 1967 total investment and
annual control costs by the annual growth in capacity to obtain annual
investment and annual costs to control the emission from industry growth.
-------
An expected growth rate through FY 1975 of 4.5 percent per year
was used [Ref. 2]. The capacity estimates, derived from the production
estimates, were based on achieving 90 percent utilization of capacity
by FY 1975.
The results of the analysis of costs for controlling additional
production facilities are shown in Table K-7. As shown, costs in each
year reflect immediate control of incremental capacity; cumulative emis-
sions shown in the table reflect compliance with the emission standards
assumed herein. By 1975, without the act in effect, emissions in the 100
areas would reach 1420 thousand tons of particulates from the 1967 capac-
ity plus the additional capacity added after 1967- With the act in
effect, emissions would be reduced to 134 thousand tons.
-------
Table K-6
IRON AND STEEL PLANTS
ESTIMATES OF REDUCED EMISSION LEVELS AND ASSOCIATED COSTS*
(100 metropolitan areas)
lEiAK
1967
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
EXPECTED EMISSION LEVEL
(thousand tons/year)
Part
1060
986
638
258
127
101
SO
X
~
HC
~
CO
~
ASSOCIATED EMISSION
CONTROL LEVELb
(percent)
Part
52.5
55.8
62.8
88.4
94.3
95.5
S0x
___
"~~
HC
___
_.
CO
__
~~
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
Investment Cost
Lower
Limit
17.1
65.1
86.3
46.1
8.9
223.5
Expected
24.5
93.1
123.3
65.9
12.7
319.5
Upper
Limit
31.8
121.0
160.2
85.7
16.5
415.2
Annual Cost
Lower
Limit
11.0
52.2
106.9
136.1
143.0
449.2
Expected
15.7
74.7
152.8
194.4
204.4
642.0
Upper
Limit
20.4
97.1
198.6
252.8
265.7
834.6
Cost estimates are for the control of only those facilities in operation in calendar year 1967. The areas are
defined in Appendix B.
For levels of particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks in the
-------
Table K-7
IRON AND STEEL PLANTS
ESTIMATED COST OF CONTROLLING POLLUTANT EMISSIONS FROM SOURCES ADDED AFTER 1967°
(100 metropolitan areas)
T?TCPAT
YEAR
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
Totals
ADDED
CAPACITY
(thousand
tons/year)
15,788
20,299
24,810
29,321
33,832
ADDITIONAL
PRODUCTION
(thousand
tons/year)
15,908
20,453
24,998
29,543
34,088
EMISSION LEVELb
(thousand tons /year)
Part
15
20
24
29
33
S0x
__
~
HC
__
~
CO
w_
--
--
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
INVESTMENT COST
Lower
Limit
10.3
15.0
17.0
13.1
9.5
64.9
Expected
14.7
21.4
24.3
18.8
13.6
92.8
Upper
Limit
19.2
27.8
31.6
24.4
17.7
120.7
ANNUAL COST
Lower
Limit
6.6
16.2
27.1
35.5
41.6
127.0
Expected
9.4
23.1
38.7
50.7
59.4
181.3
Upper
Limit
12.2
30,1
50.3
65.9
77.3
235.8
These costs are for new facilities which are assumed to be constructed to meet applicable regulations (App. A); areas
are defined in Appendix B.
Particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks indicate the emissions
-------
REFERENCES
1. R. L. Duprey. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. Public
Health Service Publication No. 999-AP-42. Durham, N. C.: U.S. Depart-
ment of Health Education, and Welfare, National Center for Air
Pollution Control, 1968.
2. A Systems Analysis of Process Technology and Air Quality Technology in
the Integrated Iron and Steel Industry, Preliminary Report. Battelle
Memorial Institute, Columbus, Ohio, March 31, 1969.
3. Proceedings; The Third National Conference on Air Pollution (Washington,
D. C. - December 12-14, 1966). Washington, D. C.: U. S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare, (PHS), 1967-
4. Annual Statistical Report. 1967. American Iron and Steel Institute.
New York, N. Y.: American Iron and Steel Institute, 1967.
5. Systems Analysis of the Integrated Iron and Steel Industry (Appendix C),
PH22-68-65. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: Swindell-Dressier Company,
March 31, 1969.
6. R. L. Collins, et al. Cost to Industry of Compliance to National Emission
Standards. Research Triangle Park, N. C.: Research Triangle Institute,
1969.
-------
Appendix L
Gray Iron Foundry Industry
(SIC No. 3321)
-------
Appendix L
Gray Iron Foundry Industry
I. INTRODUCTION
Gray iron foundries produce castings, such as machine and automobile
parts, from gray iron, pig and scrap. The foundries are generally small,
competitive businesses and nearly half of them are captive (owned by other
businesses). To melt iron for casting, the industry generally uses three
types of furnaces: electric arc and electric induction furnaces, which
account for only 7 percent of the metal used, and cupolas which use the
remaining 93 percent.
Since electric arc and electric induction furnaces emit relatively
small amounts of pollutants and are fewer in number than cupolas, they were
not included in this analysis.
In 1967, the national capacity for the 1,279 gray iron foundries was
about 17.0 million tons. Production was 14.3 million tons, and the value
of shipments was about$2.7 billion nationally and $1.7 billion within
100 metropolitan areas. The 661 foundries within the 100 areas with cupolas
had a capacity of about 10.0 million tons and accounted for 8.7 million tons,
or 61 percent of the total production.
Nationally in 1967, foundries with cupolas emitted an estimated 217
thousand tons of particulates and 3,200 thousand tons of carbon monoxide.
In 100 metropolitan areas, they emitted 94 thousand tons of particulates
and 1,250 thousand tons of carbon monoxide. Particulates from cupolas include
dust, fumes, and smoke; about 10 percent of the exhaust gas, by volume,
is carbon monoxide. With no control, about 17.4 pounds of particulates and
250 pounds of carbon monoxide are emitted for each ton of metal charged.
II. CONTROL OF EMISSIONS
Gas-cleaning equipment, such as wet scrubbers, in combination with
afterburners can reduce the emission levels of particulates and carbon
-------
monoxide from cupolas to achieve compliance with the process weight rate
standard for particulates and 95-percent removal for carbon monoxide. The
regulations selected for this report would require the industry to increase
its present average removal efficiency of 12 percent for particulates to
90 percent. Control of carbon monoxide, presently 18 percent, would be
increased to 95 percent.
III. DISCUSSION AND EVALUATION OF DATA
USED IN COST ESTIMATIONS
The basic data and information required to estimate air pollution
control costs for the gray iron industry consisted of: (a) an evaluation
of the various production processes found within the industry, (b) an
analysis of the pollutants involved, their uncontrolled emission rates,
present levels of control and final levels as required by the two standards
adopted for this industry, (c) an engineering evaluation to select the most
satisfactory control systems to achieve the required levels.
To date, the foundry industry has been a consistent user of high
efficiency control equipment on its numerous in-plant dust problems in sand
preparation, shakeout, abrasive cleaning and grinding operations. However,
equipment to control the fume-laden gases from the melting operation has
been installed in only a few locations.
Data on the present levels of control for particulates and carbon
monoxide were obtained from a joint NAPCA-Department of Commerce survey.
From these data, regional control level estimates on a cupola by cupola
basis were made. Nationally, the overall control levels for particulates
and carbon monoxide are 12 and 18 percent, respectively.
-------
IV- CONTROL COSTS FOR 1967 BASE YEAR
A. Methodology
Two bodies of data were available to estimate costs of controlling
emissions from cupolas in gray iron foundries. Data describing features
of all gray iron foundries that operate cupolas were obtained by the Depart-
ment of Commerce during 1968 via a mail survey. The information gave the
location of all plants and the number of cupolas and some facts on emission
controls presently installed for most plants. Cupola capacity ratings
were not reported.
A representative sample of 67 foundries with cupolas was visited by
NAPCA personnel to obtain extensive data on control systems. The collected
data included information about investment and annual costs. From the sample
survey, information on the sizes of cupolas in each plant was used to derive
a distribution by size for the total industry. Data from the sample survey
were also subjected to statistical analyses to relate costs to cupola control
factors. Venturi scrubbers were selected as the particulate control device.
For venturi scrubbers, costs were a function of two factors, gas volume and
pressure drop. Sample data were also used to estimate gas volume as a
function of melt rate. Investment and annual costs for venturi scrubbers
are given in Table L-l. Afterburners were selected as the control device
for carbon monoxide. However, the data from the survey, as presented in
Table L-l, does include costs of installing and operating afterburners.
Therefore, separate cost estimates were not made. By using these cost
estimates and the distribution of cupolas, an average cost per control
system was estimated.
When a foundry operates two cupolas of approximately the same capacities
one emission control system is used for the pair. It was assumed that, where
possible, one system would serve two cupolas. The data on foundries in each
area were screened, taking into account cupolas that could be paired, to determine
the number of systems required. These estimates and the estimate of average
control system cost were then used to calculate an estimate of the investment
cost for each area.
-------
Table L-l
CUPOLA EMISSION CONTROL COSTS
Cupola Size
(tons /hour)
2.5
7.5
12.5
17.5
22.5
37.5
32.5
37.5
42.5
47.5
Number of
Cupolas
232
323
279
211
139
20
0
0
48
29
Control Costs
($1000)
Investment
103.5
179.0
246.7
318.4
386.2
457.8
529.4
604.9
678.1
752.0
Annual
31.2
54.0
74.5
96.1
116.6
138.2
159.8
182.6
204.7
227.0
Annual costs were estimated by multiplying the investment cost by 0.302.
This factor was determined by statistical analysis of survey data and the esti-
mates allow, in accordance with industry practice, about 18 percent for depre-
ciation and other oapital-related charges. Annual depreciation and capital costs
for other sources in this study except solid waste disposal allow 20 percent.
In those cases of foundries reporting installed control systems, it
was assumed that presently installed mechanical collectors would be replaced
by venturi scrubbers but that fabric filters, wet scrubbers, and the one
reported electrostatic precipitator would be adequate. No credit was allowed
in the cost estimates for the value of mechanical collectors that would be
replaced.
-------
B. Estimated Costs
The resulting costs, which include credits for existing controls, were
totalled for the 100 metropolitan areas and are shown in Table L-2. Control
costs would average approximately $4.91 per ton of annual gray iron capacity
when the plan is fully implemented.
The emission of particulates would be reduced from over 94 thousand tons
in 1967 to about 11 thousand tons in 1975, while the emission of carbon monoxide
would be reduced from about 1,250 thousand tons to about 76 thousand tons.
The investment cost during this period would amount to $172.7 million and an
annual cost of $49.0 million.
V. CONTROL COSTS RESULTING FROM GROWTH
Air pollution control costs were calculated not only for existing
capacity (Section IV) but also for additional capacity in the gray iron
industry beyond the base year of 1967. The projected growth costs were based
on the expected ultimate average control level of 90 percent for particulates
and 95 percent for carbon monoxide. The calculations consisted of multiply-
ing the 1967 total investment and annual control costs by the annual growth
in capacity to obtain annual investment and annual costs to control the
emission from industry growth.
An average annual growth rate of 4.5 percent was used to estimate the
increase in production during the period 1967 to FY 1975 [Ref. 2] . The
capacity estimates were based on the production estimates and on achieving
90 percent utilization of capacity by FY 1975.
The costs of controlling the additional capacity are shown in Table L-3.
As shown, costs in each year reflect immediate control of the incremental
capacity. Without the act in effect it is estimated that by 1975 emissions
in the 100 areas from the 1967 base plus the additional capacity would
amount to 129 thousand tons of particulates and 1,720 thousand tons of
carbon monoxide; with the act, these emissions would be limited to 15 and
104 thousand tons, respectively.
-------
Table L-2
GRAY IRON FOUNDRIES
ESTIMATES OF REDUCED EMISSION LEVELS AND ASSOCIATED COSTS2
(100 metropolitan areas)
«.
1967
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
b
EXPECTED EMISSION LEVEL
(thousand tons/year)
Part
94
90
71
40
18
11
S0x
__
~
HC
~
CO
1250
1250
1040
545
182
76
ASSOCIATED EMISSION
CONTROL LEVELb
(percent)
Part
12.0
19.2
36.2
64.1
83.8
90.0
SO
X
__
"
HC
__
"
CO
18.0
18.0
32.0
64.4
88.2
95.0
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
Investment Cost
Lower
Limit
4.5
24.0
43.9
29.0
10.7
112.1
Expected
7.0
37.0
67.6
44.6
16.5
172.7
Upper
Limit
9.4
50.0
91.3
60.2
22.3
233.2
Annual Cost
Lower
Limit
1.3
8.6
20.4
29-. 1
31.9
91.3
Expected
2.1
13.3
31.4
44.8
49.0
140.6
Upper
Limit
2.8
17.9
42.4
60.6
66.2
189.9
Cost estimates are for the control of only those facilities in operation in calendar year 1967. The areas are
defined in Appendix B.
For levels of particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC) , carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks in the
-------
Table L-3
GRAY IRON FOUNDRIES
ESTIMATED COST OF CONTROLLING POLLUTANT EMISSIONS FROM SOURCES ADDED AFTER 1967*
(100 metropolitan areas)
FISCAL
YEAR
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
Totals
ADDED
CAPACITY
(tons/hour
melt rate)
1,750
2,250
2,750
3,250
3,750
ADDITIONAL
PRODUCTION
(thousand
tons/year)
1,530
1,960
2,400
2,830
3,270
EMISSION LEVELb
(thousand tons /year)
Part
1
2
3
3
4
S0x
__
HC
__
~
CO
13
17
20
24
28
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
INVESTMENT COST
Lower
Limit
6.2
8.6
11.1
9.2
7.0
42.1
Expected
9.5
13.3
17.1
14.2
10.7
64.8
Upper
Limit
12.8
18.0
23.1
19.2
14.4
87.5
ANNUAL COST
Lower
Limit
1.8
4.2
7.4
10.0
12.0
35.4
Expected
2.7
6.5
11.4
15.4
18.5
54.5
Upper
Limit
3.6
8.8
15.4
20.8
25.0
73.6
These costs are for new facilities which are assumed to be constructed to meet applicable regulations (App. A), areas
are defined in Appendix B.
Particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks indicate the emissions
-------
REFERENCES
1. R. L. Duprey. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. Public
Health Service Publication No. 999-AP-42. Durham, N. C.: U.S. Depart-
ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution
Control, 1968.
2. National Emissions Standards Study. First Draft. U.S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare, NAPCA, Durham, N. C., July 23, 1969.
-------
Appendix M
Primary Nonferrrous Metallurgical Industry
(Primary Aluminum Reduction; Copper, Lead, and Zinc Smelting)
(SIC Nos. 3331-3334)
-------
Appendix M
Primary Nonferrous Metallurgical Industry
(Primary Aluminum Reduction; Copper, Lead, and Zinc Smelting)
I. INTRODUCTION
The primary metal plants of the nonferrous metallurgical industry
produce aluminum, copper, lead, and zinc from raw or refined ore with a
variety of operations: the smelting of copper, Lead, and zinc from ore;
the refining of much of this metal into higher purity metal; the reduction
of alumina (refined aluminum ore) to aluminum; and the refining of aluminum
by several processes.
Of the pollutants considered in this study, only sulfur dioxide
is emitted in significant quantities by the smelting and refining
of copper, lead, and zinc. Even though the potential for particulate
emissions from these sources is significant, these industries have con-
trolled them at a level of at least 95 percent efficiency, which meets the
requirements of the process weight rate standard. Alumina reduction is not a
major source of sulfur dioxide; however, the electrolytic cells (pots) in
which reduction takes place and the associated operations with the pots
emit large amounts of particulates, including fluorides. Emissions from
aluminum refining are unknown but are thought to be small in comparison
with those from reduction.
In 1967, the capacity of the 64 plants in the United States was 16.7
million tons and production reached 6.4 million tons. For the 12 plants in
the 100 areas, capacity was 3.4 million tons with production of 1.2 million
tons. The value of shipments for the United States and the 100 areas was
$3.4 billion and $0.6 billion, respectively. Particulate emissions amounted
to 95 thousand tons for the United States and 22 thousand tons for the 100
areas. Sulfur dioxide was emitted in the amounts of 3848 thousand tons
in the United States and 144 thousand tons in the 100 areas.
-------
II. CONTROL OF EMISSIONS
The analysis indicated the need for increased control of sulfur
dioxide emissions from copper, zinc, and lead plant operations and of
particulate emissions from aluminum plants. Current average sulfur
dioxide removal efficiencies of 49 percent for copper, lead, and zinc
plants can feasibly be increased to 98.9 percent; however, even this
level will not lead to complete compliance with the requirement of a
500 ppm maximum sulfur oxide concentration assumed for this report.
Aluminum producers must upgrade the present average collection efficiency
of 85 percent to an average efficiency of 96 percent to meet the process
weight rate standard. For estimating costs to control the sulfur
dioxide emissions from copper, lead, and zinc smelting operations, it
was assumed that the industry would install acid recovery plants and
gas-cleaning equipment where such equipment is considered reasonable
as well as feasible. Sulfur dioxide emissions will thereby be reduced
from 50,000 ppm to 100,000 ppm to a level of 1000 ppm to 1800 ppm.
For aluminum plants, cost estimates were based on the use of either
packed towers or electrostatic precipitators on the effluent gases from
aluminum reduction pots.
III. DISCUSSION AND EVALUATION OF ENGINEERING
DATA USED IN COST ESTIMATION
The basic engineering data and information required to estimate air
pollution control costs for the nonferrous metallurgical industry
(primary copper, lead, zinc, and aluminum) consisted of: (a) an evalua-
tion of the various production processes found within the industry(s),
(b) an analysis of the pollutants involved, their uncontrolled emission
rates, present levels of control and final levels as required by
the various standards adopted for this study, and (c) an engineering
evaluation to select the most satisfactory control systems to achieve
the required levels, including equipment - process size relations.
For the sake of clarity, this section will treat aluminum production
separately.
-------
A. Production of Primary Aluminum
The process considered in the production of primary aluminum is the
electrolytic reduction of alumina (aluminum oxide) to metallic aluminum.
This is accomplished in two primary types of electrolytic reduction cells:
the Soderberg cell and the prebaked cell. This study considered only
particulate emissions, which are mainly fluorides of sodium
and aluminum, alumina dust, and in the case of Soderberg cells, volatilized
tarry substances. On the basis of available data [Refs. 1, 2], uncontrolled
particulate emission factors for both types of cells were derived and are shown
in Table M-l.
Table M-l
UNCONTROLLED PARTICULATE EMISSION FACTORS FOR
ELECTROLYTIC REDUCTION CELLS
Cell Type
Uncontrolled Emission
Factors
(Ib/ton aluminum)
Prebaked
Soderberg
60C
3601
a
b
Derived from data found in Reference 2.
Derived from data found in Reference 1.
Precise data on the present level of control were not available.
However, on the basis of several references [Refs. 1, 2, and 3], it became
apparent that the use of dry mechanical collectors to control coarse
particulates in series with open type spray towers to control gaseous
fluorides are in common use throughout the industry- Therefore, this
system, which is capable of 85 percent particulate removals, was assumed.
Required removal efficiencies were calculated for both cell types and
are shown in Tables M-2 and M-3.
-------
Table M-2
REQUIRED PARTICULATE REMOVAL EFFICIENCY - PREBAKED CELLS
Annual Capacity
(1000 tons of Aluminum)
70
105
140
175
210
245
280
Removal Efficiency Required
(percent)
93.2
94.4
95.6
96.3
96.8
97.1
97.5
Data compiled from Reference 1.
Table M-3
REQUIRED PARTICULATE REMOVAL EFFICIENCY - SODERBERG POTS
Annual Capacity
(1000 tons of Aluminum)
Removal Efficiency Required
(percent)
70
105
140
175
210
245
280
98.9
99.1
99.2
99.3
99.4
99.5
99.6
Data compiled from Reference 2.
-------
Notable in the aluminum industry are the copious quantities of
process off-gases. These result from the need of ventilating entire
potline buildings. The relationships between gas volume and process
size were calculated from data available in several references [Refs. 1,
2, 3, and 4]. These are presented in Tables M-4 and M-5.
Table M-4
CAPACITY AND GAS VOLUME - PREBAKED CELLS
Annual Capacity
(1000 tons of Aluminum)
70
105
140
175
210
245
280
Total Gas Volume
(cfm)
5 x 106
7.5 x 106
10 x 106
12.5 x 106
15 x 106
17.5 x 106
20 x 106
Table M-5
CAPACITY AND GAS VOLUME - SODERBERG CELLS
Annual Capacity
(1000 tons of Aluminum)
70
105
140
175
210
245
280
a
Total Gas Volume
(cfm)
8 x 106
12 x 106
6
16 x 10
6
20 x 10°
24 x 106
28 x 106
32 x 106
For all cells.
~ A potline is a series of aluminum reduction cells called pots.
-------
To achieve the required removal efficiencies, the following types of
control equipment in series with existing equipment were chosen on the basis
of available information: packed towers for prebaked cells and electrostatic
precipitators for Soderberg cells. (Process size - equipment cost relation-
ships are discussed in Section IV.)
B. Primary Smelting of Copper. Lead and Zinc
Obtaining and analyzing air pollution control costs for these primary
metal industries was limited to the primary smelting processes only. The
refining steps were not considered a problem from the point of view of
particulate or SO- emissions [Ref. 1]. In addition, particulate emissions
resulting from primary smelting operations are consistently controlled to
levels in excess of 95 percent. Therefore, the resulting cost analysis
focused on the control of SO from primary smelting operations. The primary
metallurgical processes analyzed in the smelting operations for each metal
are shown in Table M-6.
Table M-6
METALLURGICAL PROCESSES FOR COPPER, LEAD, AND ZINC
Metal
Primary Smelting Processes
a
Copper
Lead
Zinc
Roaster-reverberatory furnace - converter
or
Reverberatory furnace-converter
Sintering - blast furnace
b
Roaster
c
The analysis was limited to these process systems because they
represent the systems present in the study areas. There are other
possible configurations for each metal.
S0~ emissions negligible.
Followed by a usually well controlled electrolytic reduction
step.
-------
Based upon data developed in the McKee report [Ref. 5], a model
plant approach was adopted as the basis of the cost analyses. The model
plants are presented in Table M-7.
Table M-7
PRIMARY SMELTING - MODEL PLANTS
Metal
Copper
Lead
Zinc
Processes
Roaster & converter
Converter alone
Reverberatory furnace
Combined gas stream
after acid plant
Sinter machine
Roaster
_ Model Plants
Gas Volume
(1000 scfm)
75
50
100
175
50
50
SO- Concentration
(percent by volume)
5
8a
1 or 2b
0.8C or 1.4C
5.
8
3 This gas stream is representative when smelting operation includes only
a reverberatory furnace and converter.
One percent when preceded by roaster; two percent when furnace is the
initial smelting step.
C Acid plant tail-gas plus reverberatory furnace off-gas.
The use of these models requires further explanation. Information
was obtained on the presence or absence of acid conversion facilities at
each plant location in the study areas [Ref. 6]. Therefore, the cost
estimating methodology, which is fully discussed in the next section, was
based upon the addition of acid conversion plants where none now exist
plus wet lime scrubbing systems, where reasonable, to reduce S02 concen-
tration to economically feasible limits; the 500 ppm standard cannot be
reasonably met.
Copper smelting plants within the study areas use either reverbera-
tory furnace-converter smelting systems or roaster-reverberatory furnace-
converter systems. With the first process, only converter off-gases are
-------
21
amenable to acid plant conversion of SOf and the resulting combined
gas stream from the reverberatory furnace and acid plant tail-gas must
be further treated in a wet lime scrubber. In the second copper smelting
configuration, combined roaster and converter off-gases are sent to an
acid conversion plant and the combined tail gas - reverberatory furnace
off-gas stream must then be sent to the secondary scrubber.
In lead smelting operations, only sinter machine off-gases must be
treated in an acid plant. The blast furnace operations which take place
in series with the sintering step emits negligible SO,. It is not con-
3/
sidered reasonable to further treat the acid plant tail-gas.
In zinc smelting operations, only the roasting process results in
serious S0_ emissions. The off-gases should be treated in an acid
conversion plant to obtain effective control. Again, it is not con-
sidered reasonable to further treat the acid plant tail-gas.
IV. CONTROL COST FOR 1967 BASE YEAR
A. Methodology
Due to the limited number of primary smelters and aluminum plants
within the 100 metropolitan areas, cost estimates were developed for each.
Four of the five aluminum reduction plants are prebaked cell
operations and one is a Soderberg cell operation. For the prebaked
operations, unit costs of packed tower systems were available from the
Poly Con Corporation. Total installation costs were determined by
multiplying the equipment cost by a factor of 2 [Ref. 7]. The equipment
and operating costs curves are presented in Figures M-l and M-2.
For the one Soderberg operation, the equipment cost for electro-
static precipitators were obtained from Figure M-3. However, annual
operating and maintenance costs had to be computed using the two
empirical relations given in Reference 7.
Costs for copper, lead, and zinc smelters were based on the costs
for building and operating acid conversion plants in locations where
there were none and for building and operating wet lime scrubbing systems
where applicable. Capital and operating cost relationships for these
21
- The criterion is 3 percent or greater S02 concentration (see Table M-7)
3/
The resultant S02 concentration should be less than 0.1 percent.
-------
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
o
o
o
g 'o
0 9
u a
c o
V
I 7
H
g- 6
w
I
I I I I I I
5 6 7 8 9 10
20
30 40 50 60 7080 100
Inlet Gas Volume (10 acfm)
Source: Poly Con Corporation.
Fig. M-l. Equipment Cost for Packed Towers,
-------
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
o
o
o
(0
o
o
c
H
n I 0
QJ
a 0.9
« °8
2 07
2 06
9 05
c
Q
0.41
0.3
02
0 I
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 607080
Inlet Gas Volume ( 103 acfm)
Source: Poly Con Corporation.
Fig. M-2. Annual Direct Operating Cost for Packed Towers.
-------
1000
500
1000
Inlet Gas Volume (10 acfm)
Source; Edmisten, N. G. and F. L. Bunyard, "A Systematic Procedure for Determining
the Cost of Controlling Particulate Emissions from Industrial Sources."
Presented at the annual meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association,
New York, June 1969.
Fig. M-3. Equipment Cost for High-voltage Electrostatic Precipitators.
-------
facilities were obtained from the McKee report [Ref. 5] and are presented
in Figures M-3 .to M-8- The expected annual sales value for sulfuric acid
produced in the conversion plants, assuming sale of the acid, exceeded
the total annual cost of operating, maintaining, and depreciating the
facilities.
B. Estimated Costs
The resulting costs, which take into account existing controls, were
totalled for the 100 metropolitan areas and are shown in Table M-8.
Control costs would average approximately $6.91 per unit of capacity when
the plan is fully implemented.
The emission of particulates and sulfur dioxide would be reduced
from 22 thousand tons and 144 thousand tons respectively in 1967 to 15
thousand tons and 4 thousand tons by 1975.
V. CONTROL COSTS RESULTING FROM GROWTH
Air pollution control costs were calculated not only for existing
capacity (Section IV) but also for increased capacity in the industry
beyond the base year 1967. The projected growth costs were based upon the
ultimate control levels of 98.8 percent for sulfur dioxide emissions in the
copper, lead, and zinc industries and 96.0 percent for particulates in the
aluminum industry. The calculations consisted of multiplying the total 1967
investment and annual control costs by percent growth of the additional capacity
Estimates of 9, 3, 1, and 0 percent were used for the growth of
the aluminum, copper, lead, and zinc industries respectively in the 100
metropolitan areas [Refs. 8 and 9]. The capacity estimates, derived
from the production estimates, were based upon achieving a capacity utili-
zation rate of 90 percent by FY 1975.
The costs of controlling the additional capacity are shown in Table M-9.
Costs in each year reflect immediate control of the incremental capacity at
the ultimate control levels. In the 100 metropolitan areas, without the
act in effect, emissions from the 1967 capacity plus the additional capacity
would reach 29 thousand tons of particulates and 175 thousand tons of S0?.
With the act in effect, emissions of 17 thousand tons of particulates and
less than 5 thousand tons of S0_ would result.
-------
e
o
6
-co-
(0
o
u
4J
H
o.
cd
o
4J
CO
10 20 30 40 70 100 200 300
Total Sulfur Equivalent in Feed Gas
(short tons per day)
a Percent sulfur dioxide in feed gas.
Source: Systems Study for Control of Emissions in the Primary
Nonferrous Smelting Industry. San Francisco, California:
Arthur G. McKee and Company, June 1969.
Fig. M-4. Capital Costs for the Contact Sulfuric Acid Process.
-------
3000
o
o
o
CO
o
u
00
fi
cu
a.
o
a
1
13
0)
U
CO
W
2000
1500
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
I I
I I
I I I I
I
10
I I I I I I I I
I I
I
20 30 40
70 100
200 300
Total Sulfur Equivalent in Feed Gas
(short tons per day)
Source: Systems Study for Control of Emissions in the
Primary Nonferrous Smelting Industry. San
Francisco, California: Arthur G. McKee and
Company, June 1969.
Fig. M-5. Annual Operating Costs for Contact Sulfuric
Acid Process.
-------
c
o
6
co-
co
o
o
I
ex
H
3
cr
W
30
20
10
7
5
3
2
1.0
.7
.5
,3
.2
.1
T T
1I I I I I
Lime Burning
Scrubbing and
Waste Treati
I I
I I I I I I
50 70 100 200 300 500 700 1000
Sulfur Equivalent In Offgas (short tons per day)
Source: Systems Study for Control of Emissions in the Primary
Nonferrous Smelting Industry. San Francisco, California:
Arthur G. McKee and Company, June 1969.
Fig. M-6. Equipment Costs for Lime Wet-Scrubbing Process.
-------
en
3,
100
M-l
O
CD
4-1
10
3 3
er
00 0)
a
I> 3
td iw
ex
o
c
o
4-1
M
O
J3
CO
70
g 50
30
10
I I I I I
1 1 I I I I
I I I I!
I
I
I I I I I I
£ 50 70 100 200 300 500 700 1000
Sulfur Equivalent in Offgas (short tons per day)
Source: Systems Study for Control of Emissions in the Primary
Nonferrous Smelting Industry. San Francisco, California:
Arthur G. McKee and Company, June 1969.
Fig. M-7. Operating Costs for the Lime-Burning Section of the
Lime Wet-Scrubbing Process.
-------
td
t>o
o
0)
U
c
C
U 3
V
so
-------
Table M-8
PRIMARY NONFERROUS METALLURGICAL PLANTS
ESTIMATES OF REDUCED EMISSION LEVELS AND ASSOCIATED COSTS6
(100 metropolitan areas)
VI? AP
1967
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
TTYPT? r"n?Tl ITMTCCTniff T T7171TT
(thousand tons/year)
Part?
12/10
12/10
12/9
12/7
12/4
12/3
SO
X
144
144
125
71
20
4
HC
--
--
--
CO
--
«
--
ASSOCIATED EMISSION
CONTROL LEVEL
(percent)
Part
95. 0/
85.0
95. 0/
85.1
95. 0/
86.2
95. 0/
90.2
95. 0/
94.4
95. 0/
96.0
SO
X
49.0
49.2
55.9
74.8
92.9
98.8
HC
__
--
--
"
CO
_-
--
--
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
Investment Cost
Lower
Limit
0.0
5.1
13.6
11.8
3.3
33.8
Expected
0.0
10.2
27.1
23.7
6.6
67.6
Upper
Limit
0.0
12,2
32.5
28.4
7.9
81.0
Annual Cost
Lower
Limit
0.0
1.8
6.6
10.6
11.8
30.8
Expected
0.0
3.6
13.1
21.2
23.5
61.4
Upper
Limit
0.0
4.3
15.7
25.4
28.2
73.6
I
to
O
Cost estimates are for the control of only those facilities in operation in calendar year 1967. The areas are
defined in Appendix 8.
For levels of particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks in the
table indicates the emission levels meet the applicable regulations (App. A) without additional control.
Emission levels and emission control levels are shown for copper, lead, and zinc plants combined and for aluminum
-------
Table M-9
PRIMARY NONFERROUS METALLURGICAL PLANTS
ESTIMATED COST OF CONTROLLING POLLUTANT EMISSIONS FROM SOURCES ADDED AFTER 1967'
(100 metropolitan areas)
FISCAL
YEAR
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
Totals
ADDED
CAPACITY
(thousand
tons/yr)
529
662
794
927
1,060
ADDITIONAL
PRODUCTION
(thousand
tons/yr)
245
312
379
445
512
EMISSION LEVELb
(thousand tons /year)
Part
1
1
1
1
2
S0x
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
HC
CO
"»
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
INVESTMENT COST
Lower
Limit
1.1
1.6
1.8
1.3
1.0
6.8
Expected
2.2
3.2
3.6
2.7
2.0
13.7
Upper
Limit
2.6
3.9
4.3
3.2
2.4
16.4
ANNUAL COST
Lower
Limit
0.3
0.9
1.5
1.9
2.2
6.8
Expected
0.7
1.8
3.0
3.9
4.5
13.9
Upper
Limit
0.8
2.1
3.6
4.6
5.5
16.6
s
These costs are for new facilities which are assumed to be constructed to meet applicable regulations (App. A); areas
are defined in Appendix B.
Particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC) , carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks indicate the emissions
-------
REFERENCES
1. F. M. Alpiser. Private communication.
2. R. R. Ott. "Control of Fluoride Emissions at Harvey Aluminum,
Inc.Soderberg Process Aluminum Reduction Mill," Journal of the
Air Pollution Control Association. Vol. 13, No. 9 (September 1963),
pp. 437-443.
3. Louis C. McCabe. "Atmospheric Pollution: Aluminum industry has
means for solving its air pollution problems," Industrial and
Engineering Chemistry. Vol. 4 (1955), n.p.
4. H. R. Hickey. "Controlling Aluminum Effluent Reduction," Air
Engineering. (October 1963), pp 20-22.
5. Systems Study for Control of Emissions in the Primary Nonferrous
Smelting Industry (3 vols.). San Francisco, California: Arthur
G. McKee and Company, June 1969.
6. Norm Plaks, NAPCA. Private communication.
7. N. G. Edmisten and F. L. Bunyard. "A Systematic Procedure for
Determining the Cost of Controlling Particulate Emissions from
Industrial Sources." Paper presented at the annual meeting of
the Air Pollution Control Administration, New York, June 1969.
8. H. Landsberg, et al. Resources in America's Future. Baltimore:
The Johns Hopkins Press, 1963.
9. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. Bureau of Mines
Mineral Yearbook. 1967. Washington, D. C.: U.S. Government
Printing Office, 1968.
-------
Appendix N
Sulfuric Acid Industry
(SIC No. 2819)
-------
Appendix N
Sulfuric Acid Industry
I. INTRODUCTION
Sulfuric acid is a strong, economically priced, inorganic acid that
is used in the manufacture of fertilizer and tin plate, in the puri-
fication of petroleum, and in the dyeing of fabrics as well as in many
other industrial processes. Most sulfuric acid is produced by the contact
process which involves burning sulfur or pyrite to form sulfur dioxide that
is catalyzed to sulfur trioxide and then absorbed in weak acid. Sulfur
dioxide that remains unconverted and acid mist which escapes from the acid
absorption tower are the major pollutant emissions.
Of the 212 sulfuric acid plants in the Nation, there are 102 contact
process plants within the 100 metropolitan areas. The small number of lead
chamber process plants in the United States and the 100 areas produce less
than five percent of the acid. For the Nation, capacity totalled 38.7
million tons, production amounted to 28.8 million tons, and value of
shipments was $0.3 billion. For the 102 contact plants within the 100 metro-
politan areas, capacity totalled 24.4 million tons with production amounting
to 18.2 million tons and a value of shipments of $0.2 billion. For the
Nation, emissions amounted to 60 thousand tons of acid mist particulates and
750 thousand tons of SO-; for the 100 metropolitan areas, emissions amounted
to 40 thousand tons and 480 thousand tons, respectively.
II. CONTROL OF EMISSIONS
To comply with the process weight rate regulation for particulate
emissions and the 500 parts per million (ppm) standard for sulfur oxides,
sulfuric acid producers must increase the average collection efficiency of
particulates from the present 46 percent to about 67 percent; sulfur oxides,
which are not presently controlled, must be increased from 0 to 86 percent.
-------
To obtain effective control, it was assumed that the typical plant would
*
require the installation of a second absorption tower to decrease emissions
of sulfur dioxide and the emplacement of gas-cleaning equipment, such as a
demister, to lower particulate emission levels.
III. DISCUSSION AND EVALUATION OF ENGINEERING
DATA USED IN COST ESTIMATION
The basic engineering data and information required to estimate control
costs for the sulfuric acid industry consisted of: (a) an evaluation of the
various production processes found within the industry, (b) an analysis of
the pollutants involved, their uncontrolled emission rates, present levels of
control and final levels as required by the various standards adopted for
this study, and (c) an engineering evaluation to select the most satisfactory
control systems to achieve required levels, including equipment cost - process
size relationships.
The rate of emission of tail-gas from a contact sulfuric acid plant
is determined by the concentration of SO- in the feed stream to the SO--
to-S03 convertor; this concentration is subject to process control. Many plants
take enough air into their sulfur burner to provide adequate excess oxygen
for conversion, others add so-called "dilution air" after burning but prior
to one or more stages of the convertor. To maintain plant thermal balance,
it is necessary for the S02 concentration to be in excess of about 3 percent.
As the SO^ concentration is increased, stack losses of unconverted S0_ also
increase. Most plants vary the S02 concentration in order to vary produc-
tion, but avoid concentrations causing conversion efficiency to fall below
about 96 percent.
It was assumed that 96 percent conversion is obtained with an 8 per-
cent SO^ concentration to the convertor and that the actual tail-gas rate is
thus about 74 acfm (at 150° F) per ton-per-day (tpd) plant capacity.
The concentration of S02 in the tail-gas from a contact sulfuric
acid plant operating at 8 percent S02 concentration to the convertor and
96 percent conversion efficiency is fixed at about 3500 ppm. This figure
-------
was assumed to represent average operations for the industry and agrees
with literature, industrial, and NAPCA sources as representative of
present-day operations. The assumed SO. standard of 500 ppm thus requires
an 86-percent reduction in the present average emissions.
With the exception of oleum production (sulfuric acid containing excess
S0_), acid mist emissions from contact sulfuric acid plants are less subject
to process control variation than are SO emissions. Acid mists arise from
two independent sources, moisture-SO, reactions within and outside of the
process equipment and liquid sulfuric acid entrainment in exhaust from the
S0« absorber. The moisture-SO., reactions include reactions of SO, with
residual moisture in the dried process air, moisture arising from the oxida-
tion of hydrocarbon impurities in the sulfur, and atmospheric moisture that
contacts the tail gas exiting the stack. The moisture-SO, sources depend
on the operation of the drier and whether or not oleum is being manufactured.
Fine acid or S0_ mists are formed after the converter when either moisture
reacts with S0_ or the S0_ dew-point (50° C = 122° F) is reached. Both
types of mists pass through the absorber with little removal and thence
through the stack. If SO- mists are emitted, they react with atmospheric
moisture to produce acid mists.
For this report, a value of 16 mg mist per scf of tail-gas was assumed.
This value is somewhat higher than the average reported in Reference 1
but is in line with the more recent data reported in Reference 2. The
particulate emission standards are the process weight rate standards. Because
combustion air is excluded, the weight rate factor is (32+18)/98 = 0.51, i.e.,
0.51 pounds of raw materials yield 1.00 pound of product. The required
efficiency for particulate control ranges from 43 percent for a 50 tpd plant
to 93 percent for a 5000 tpd plant.
The basis for control of S02 emissions was that of improving process
yield, but because very high (about 99.5 percent) overall S02-to-S03 con-
versions were required to meet the 500 ppm standard, cost estimating was
limited to the double absorption method. The basis chosen for estimating
the cost of acid mist control was utilization of glass-fiber mist eliminators
-------
capable of removing 100 percent of particles greater than 3 microns and
about 80 percent of particles less than 1/2 micron. Reference 1 gives
limited data indicating that mist particles may be assumed to be such
that adequate control will result. These devices were assumed to operate
with 6" to 8" w.g. pressure drop.
IV- CONTROL COSTS FOR 1967 BASE YEAR
A. Methodology
Sulfuric acid plants were reported by location and capacity [Ref. 3].
The controls selected were second absorption towers in the acid-making
process and additional acid mist eliminators in the exhaust streams, where
necessary. Some plants need another catalyst bed, however, such would be
an investment in production equipment.
Available information led to the assumpton that 35 of the plants with-
in the metropolitan areas already control mists adequately. For lack of
more complete information, mist eliminators were assumed to be in use at
all plants in Los Angeles and at the 26 largest plants in other areas.
Costs were calculated assuming one process stream per plant, since no
plant was reported to have a capacity larger than the known maximum process
stream size. The cost of adding a second tower was included in the estimated
control cost, but the cost of another catalyst bed was assumed to be compen-
sated for by the increased production efficiency. Cost parameters for a
second absorption tower were based on data from Chemical Engineering Progress
[Ref. 4], which gives costs for a new plant of 1000 tons per day production
using either single or double absorption. The difference in costs was
multiplied by 1.3 to allow for modification of existing equipment, and
then scaled to other plant sizes based on the cost being proportional to
capacity to the 0.6 power. Cost parameters for mist eliminators were
based on data from the Monsanto Chemical Company (Brinks Mist Eliminators).
Costs were calculated for each plant by capacity and then aggregated for
the 100 metropolitan areas. These costs are presented in Tables N-l and N-2.
-------
Table N-l
SULFURIC ACID EMISSION CONTROL COSTS: DOUBLE ABSORPTION
Plant Size
(100% H2S04, tons/day)
50
100
200
500
1000
5000
Costs
($1000)
Investment
81
123
186
323
505
1420
Annua 1
18.9
28.9
44.7
81.1
139.0
444.0
Table N-2
SULFURIC ACID EMISSION CONTROL COSTS: MIST ELIMINATOR0
Plant Size
(100% H2S04, tons /day)
50
100
200
500
1000
5000
Costs
($1000)
Investment
4.5
9.5
19.5
43.8
82.5
375.0
Annua 1
0.9
1.9
3.9
8.8
16.5
75.0
Brink Mist Eliminator, Type H-V or S-C.
-------
B. Estimated Control Costs
The resulting costs, which include credits for additional sulfuric acid
recovery, were totalled for the 100 metropolitan areas and are shown in
Table N-3. Annual control costs would average approximately $0.09 per
ton of sulfuric acid capacity when the plan is fully implemented. This
rather minimal cost can be accounted for by the fact that double contact
units and, to a lesser extent, fiber glass demisters lead to an increased
yield of sulfuric acid from raw materials.
The emission of particulates would be reduced from over 40 thousand
tons in 1967 to approximately 24 thousand tons by 1975, while sulfur dioxide
emissions would be reduced from 480 thousand to 56 thousand tons. The in-
vestment cost for this level of control would total $32.6 million with an
annual cost of $2.2 million by FY 1975.
V- CONTROL COSTS RESULTING FROM GROWTH
Air pollution control costs were calculated not only for existing
capacity (Section IV) but also for additional capacity in the sulfuric acid
industry beyond the base year of 1967. The projected control costs for
additional capacity were based on the expected ultimate control level of
86.0 percent and 67.0 percent for sulfur dioxide and particulates, respec-
tively. The calculations consisted of multiplying the 1967 total invest-
ment and annual control costs by the annual growth in capacity to obtain
annual investment and annual costs to control the emission from industry
growth.
An average annual growth rate of 4.5 percent was used to estimate in-
creases from 1967 to FY 1975 [kef. l] . The capacity estimates were derived
by assuming production would achieve 90 percent utilization of capacity by
FY 1975. The costs of controlling the additional capacity are shown in
-------
Table N-3
SULFURIC ACID PLANTS
ESTIMATES OF REDUCED EMISSION LEVELS AND ASSOCIATED COSTS
(100 metropolitan areas)
vi? An
1967
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
EiArtiLlEU fcHlbbiUN LtVEL
(thousand tons/year)
Part
40
39
35
29
25
24
SO
X
480
381
293
160
78
56
HC
^_
*~~
CO
__
~~
ASSOCIATED EMISSION
CONTROL LEVEL
(percent)
Part
45.7
46.8
52.2
60.5
65.6
67.0
SO
X
0.0
7.7
26.6
60.1
80.4
86.0
HC
_
CO
_
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
Investment Cost
Lower
Limit
1.4
6.4
9.9
6.4
2.0
26.1
Expected
1.7
8.0
12.4
8.0
2.5
32.6
Upper
Limit
2.1
9.6
14.8
9.6
3.1
39.2
Annual Cost
Lower
Limit
0.1
0.4
1.0
1.3
1.5
4.3
Expected
0.1
0.6
1.4
1.9
2.2
6.2
Upper
Limit
0.1
0.8
1.9
2.5
2.8
8.1
a
VO
Cost estimates are for the control of only those facilities in operation in calendar year 1967. The areas are
defined in Appendix B.
For levels of particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks in the
-------
Table N-4. As. shown, costs reflect immediate control of the incremental
capacity at the ultimate control levels. By 1975, without the act in
effect, emissions in the 100 areas from 1967 base sources plus the addi-
tional sources would reach 55 thousand tons of particulates and 561
thousand tons of S0~. With the act in effect, emissions would be reduced
to 32 thousand tons and 78 thousand tons, respectively.
-------
Table N-4
SULFURIC ACID PLANTS
ESTIMATED COST OF CONTROLLING POLLUTANT EMISSIONS FROM SOURCES ADDED AFTER 1967*
(100 metropolitan areas)
YEAR
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
Totals
ADDED
CAPACITY
(thousand
tons/yr )
1219
1567
1915
2263
2611
ADDITIONAL
PRODUCTION
(thousand
tons /yr )
2859
3676
4493
5310
6127
EMISSION LEVELb
(thousand tons/year)
Part
3
5
6
7
8
S0x
10
13
16
19
22
HC
^
--
~
CO
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
INVESTMENT COST
Lower
Limit
0.5
0.7
0.9
0.7
0.5
3.3
Expected
0.6
0.9
1.1
0.9
0.7
4.2
Upper
Limit
0.8
1.1
1.3
1.1
0.8
5.1
ANNUAL COST
Lower
Limit
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.6
Expected
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.8
Upper
Limit
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.3
.9
These costs are for new facilities which are assumed to be constructed to meet applicable regulations (App. A); areas
are defined in Appendix B.
Particulates (Part.)> sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks indicate the emissions
-------
REFERENCES
1. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Atmospheric
Emissions from Sulfuric Acid Manufacturing Process. Public Health
Service Publication No. 999-A-13. Washington, D. C.: U.S. Govern-
ment Printing Office, 1965.
2. National Emissions Standards Study, First Draft. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, Durham, N. C., July 23, 1969.
3. Chemical Economics Handbook. California: Stanford Research Institute,
December 1967.
4. J. G. Kronsider. "Cost of Reducing SC^ Emissions," Chemical Engineer-
ing Progress. Larry Resen, editor. Vol. 64, No. 2 (November 1968),
pp. 71-74.
-------
Appendix 0
Phosphate Fertilizer Industry
(SIC No. 2871)
-------
Appendix 0
Phosphate Fertilizer Industry
I. INTRODUCTION
The segment of the phosphate fertilizer industry studied produces
phosphoric acid by the wet acid process, and using this production inter-
mediate, produces various phosphate fertilizers. Wet process phosphoric
acid is manufactured by treating phosphorus-bearing rock with sulfuric acid,
and fertilizer is produced by reacting the phosphoric acid with other
chemicals. In some instances, only phosphoric acid is produced at a plant.
Particulates released from rocks during the acid-making process are the
primary concern of this report; however, particulates (mostly fluorides)
emitted from fertilizer handling operations in sheds where fertilizer is
stored for curing also need control. In 1967, there were 171 phosphoric
acid and/or phosphate fertilizer production sources in the United States with
combined acid and fertilizer capacity of 22.9 million tons (of equivalent
P_05) with a production of 8.5 million tons. Within the 100 metropolitan
areas, there were 19 such sources with a capacity of 3.5 million tons and
producing 2.3 million tons. Value of shipments amounted to $1.2 billion
and $0.4 billion for the United States and the 100 areas respectively.
Twenty thousand tons of particulates were emitted in the United States in
1967; 11 thousand tons were attributed to the 100 areas.
II. CONTROL OF EMISSIONS
Although practically the entire industry is presently exercising some
control of gaseous and particulate fluoride emissions, fluoride and nonfluoride
particulates are still being emitted. These emissions, in the case of large
plants, exceed the process weight rate regulation adopted for this study.
Installation of secondary gas-cleaning systems on the gas stacks of manufac-
- Including normal superphosphate (NSP), diammonium phosphate (DAP) and
more recently triple superphosphate (TSP).
-------
turing plants sftid on curing shed exhaust is assumed for reducing the total
amount of particulates to comply with the standard. Emissions in the 100
areas can be reduced from 11 thousand tons per year to 4 thousand tons by
FY 1975 with secondary emission control equipment.
III. DISCUSSION AND EVALUATION OF ENGINEERING
DATA USED IN COST ESTIMATION
The basic engineering data and information required to estimate control
costs for the phosphate fertilizer industry consisted of: (a) an evaluation
of the various production processes found within the industry, (b) an analysis
of the pollutants involved, their uncontrolled emission rates, present levels
of control and final levels as required by the various standards adopted for
this study and (c) an engineering evaluation to select the most satisfactory
control systems to achieve the required levels, including equipment cost -
process size relationships.
The rate of tail gas emission from a phosphate fertilizer plant is
a function of plant capacity, the processes included, and the degree of venti-
lation provided. Major volumes of gas generation are associated with (a) rock
beneficiation and calcining, (b) wet acid and subsequent phosphate fertilizer
processing, and (c) curing for run of pile TSP. Due to the magnitudes of the
flows and the nature of the processes, the following assumptions were made:
processes (a) and (b) may be treated at one tail-gas stack and together they
produce two-thirds of the overall gas flow; process (c) is treated at a separate
stack and produces the remainder of the overall gas flow. The overall rate
was assumed (from Reference 1 and industrial sources) to be about 750 acfm/ton
per day capacity (as P2°5^ at 150° F'
Phosphate fertilizer production is a major source of fluoride and partic-
ulate emissions. This study excludes gaseous fluorides but includes both
fluoride and nonfluoride particulates. Because of the extreme toxicity of
fluoride emissions, all plants were assumed to have at least primary gas-
cleaning equipment and were assumed to be emitting 0.03 to 0.10 grains total
particulate matter/acf tail-gas [Ref. 1].
-------
The emission standard assumed was the process weight rate type.
The weight rate factor is the sum of the tons of mined rock per hour
plus sulfuric acid per hour introduced into the process. The relation-
ship between raw materials and product is 6.2, i.e., 6.2 pounds of raw
materials yield 1.0 pound of product [Ref. 2]. The required control
efficiency varies from 0 percent for 50 to 100 ton-per-day plants to
80 percent for 1000 ton-per-day plants.
The basis for control of particulate emissions was secondary or
tail-gas scrubbers. Curing sheds were assumed to provide one-third of
the overall gas flow and to require 10" w.g. at the scrubbers. The
remaining two-thirds of overall gas flow was assumed to require 15" w.g.
at the scrubbers. Scrubbers assumed were venturi-stack type of stain-
less steel construction requiring an installed cost equal to 300 percent
of the equipment cost. Systems rated at up to 500 tons per day of PO^C
equivalent were assumed single train (two tail-gas stacks, one for the
acid-making train and one for the shed) and those larger were assumed
to consist of multiples of the 500 ton-per-day units.
IV. CONTROL COSTS FOR 1967 BASE YEAR
A. Methodology
Plants making basic phosphate fertilizer material were included in
the analysis. In 1967, some of the 19 plants in the 100 areas also pro-
duced phosphoric acid by the wet process. Data on plant location, types
of processes, and capacity were obtained from industrial publications
[Refs. 3 and 4]. Data were obtained from private sources on gas flows
and other parameters such as number of exhaust stacks [Ref. 5]. Unit
costs for the wet scrubbers needed were also obtained [Ref. 5].
Costs were estimated on the assumption that the largest single stream
(one stack) corresponded to 500 tons per day (P205 equivalent) acid train.
-------
Larger plants were assumed to be linear multiples of 500 tons per day.
However, additional stacks were not assumed for the curing sheds of larger
plants. Industry practice of material control is sufficient to control
air pollution for plants making less than 150 tons per day. See Table 0-1
for the individual plant control cost estimates.
Table 0-1
PRIMARY PHOSPHATE FERTILIZER CONTROL COSTS
Plant Capacity
(1000 tons/year)
3.12a
15. 6a
31. 2a
47. Oa
62.4
156.0
312.0
624.0
Investment Cost
($1000)
32.0
80.0
120.0
181.0
240.0
530.0
1060.0
2120.0
Annual Cost
($1000)
11.0
30.0
50.0
72.0
110.0
225.0
450.0
900.0
Plants of up to 47.0 thousand tons/year capacity assumed to
have adequate control. Costs are shown for reference purposes
only.
Plants that need additional control would likely use low or medium
energy wet scrubbers; these were the bases of individual plant costs.
It was assumed that plants operate 312 days per year.
-------
B. Estimated Control Costs
The resulting costs, which take into account existing controls, were
totalled for the 100 metropolitan areas; these are shown in Table 0-2. Annual
control costs would average approximately $1.57 per ton of annual capacity
when the plan is fully implemented. The total investment costs would reach
$4.8 million with an ultimate annual cost of $2.0 million.
V. CONTROL COSTS RESULTING FROM GROWTH
Air pollution control costs were calculated not only for existing produc-
tion (Section IV) but also for anticipated increased production in the phos-
phate fertilizer industry. The projected growth-related costs were calculated
on the basis of the ultimate particulate control level of 99.0 percent.
An average annual production growth rate of 6.5 percent was chosen based
on available information [Ref. 6]. Although the phosphate fertilizer industry
is in the process of shutting down portions of its 1967 capacity, the newly
added capacity and production can probably be explained by three trends.
These are: (a) the trend to larger more efficient operations, (b) the trend
away from the use of NSP toward the use of TSP, and (c) the trend toward the
use of higher-yield DAP. In 1967, there was some surplus capacity; however,
new capacity will be required to satisfy the need by 1975.
As shown in Table 0-3, the costs in each year reflect immediate control
of the incremental capacity at the ultimate control efficiency. By 1975, with-
out the act in effect, emissions in the 100 areas from both 1967 base capacity
and the additional growth would amount to 16 thousand tons of particulates;
with the act in effect, emissions would amount to about 6 thousand tons.
-------
Table 0-2
PHOSPHATE FERTILIZER PLANTS
ESTIMATES OF REDUCED EMISSION LEVELS AND ASSOCIATED COSTS*
(100 metropolitan areas)
VPAP
1967
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
t.
(thousand tons/year)
Part
11
11
10
7
5
4
SO
X
__
~
HC
__
~
CO
__
"
ASSOCIATED EMISSION
OUNlKULi LEVcL
(percent)
Part
97.0
97.1
97.3
98.0
98.7
99.0
SO
X
HC
CO
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
Investment Cost
Lower
Limit
0.0
0.4
1.2
1.1
0.4
3.1
Expected
0.0
0.6
1.8
1.8
0.6
4.8
Upper
Limit
0.0
0.8
2.5
2.5
0.9
6.7
Annual Cost
Lower
Limit
0.0
0.1
0.6
1.1
1.3
3.1
Expected
0.0
0.2
1.0
1.7
2.0
4.9
Upper
Limit
0.0
0.3
1.4
2.4
2.7
6.8
o
00
Cost estimates are for the control of only those facilities in operation in calendar year 1967. The areas are
defined in Appendix B.
For levels of particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks in the
-------
Table 0-3
PHOSPHATE FERTILIZER PLANTS
ESTIMATED COST OF CONTROLLING POLLUTANT EMISSIONS FROM SOURCES ADDED AFTER 1967*
(100 metropolitan areas)
FISCAL
YEAR
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
Totals
ADDED
CAPACITY
(thousand
tons/yr)
107
138
168
199
230
ADDITIONAL
PRODUCTION
(thousand
tons/yr)
518
667
815
963
1110
EMISSION LEVELb
(thousand tons /year)
Part
1
1
1
2
2
S0x
--
--
HC
>»
--
CO
_-
--
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
INVESTMENT COST
Lower
Limit
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.5
Expected
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.5
Upper
Limit
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.5
ANNUAL COST
Lower
Limit
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.5
Expected
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.5
Upper
Limit
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.7
o
I
vo
These costs are for new facilities which are assumed to be constructed to meet applicable regulations (App. A); areas
are defined in Appendix B.
Particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC) , carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks indicate the emissions
-------
o
o
o
en
o
o
H
w
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
9
8
7
6
I
= 316 ELC Stainless Steel
= 304 Venturi/MS Concrete Lined
Separator
C = All Mild Steel
' 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60708090
Inlet Gas Volume (103 acfm)
Source: Poly Con Corporation
Fig. 0-1. Equipment Cost for Venturi Scrubbers.
-------
1000
800
600
400
200
o
o
o
§100
o
g
60
20
A
B
C
316 ELC Stainless Steel
304 Venturi/MS Concrete Lined Separator
All Mild Steel
, , I
.11.11
20
40 60 80 100
200
,3
400
600 800 1000
Inlet Gas Volume (10 acfm)
Source: Poly Con Corporation.
Fig. 0-2. Equipment Cost for Venturi Scrubbers.
-------
lOOO
800
600
500
400
300
ZOO
o
o
o
co
o
u
M
C
01
IX
O
a
ai
H
a
100
80
60
50
40
30
20
10
8
6
5
4
PRESSURE DROP
40 inch
2 3 45678910
20 30 405060 80100 200 300400 600800
Inlet Gas Volume (10 acfm)
Source: Poly Con Corporation.
Fig. 0-3. Annual Direct Operating Cost for Venturi Scrubbers.
-------
REFERENCES
1. A. J. Teller. "Control of Gaseous Fluoride Emissions," Chemical
Engineering Progress. Vol. 3 (1967), pp. 75-79.
2. R. N. Shreve. The Chemical Process Industries (2nd ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1956.
3. Commercial Fertilizer Yearbook, 1968-69. Atlanta, Georgia: Walter W.
Brown Publishing Co., Inc., 1969.
4. Directory of Chemical Producers. Menlo Park, California: Stanford
Research Institute, 1969.
5. Texas Gulf Sulfur Co. representative. Private communication.
6. U.S. Department of Commerce, Business and Defense Services Administration.
U.S. Industrial Outlook, 1969. Washington, D. C.: U.S. Government
Printing Office, December 1968.
-------
Appendix P
Petroleum Refining Industry
(SIC No. 2911)
-------
Appendix P
Petroleum Refining Industry
I. INTRODUCTION
In 1967, the national annual capacity for the 262 petroleum refineries
amounted to 4,210 million barrels; the annual production was 3,580 million
barrels; and the value of shipments amounted to $20.3 billion. Capacity of
the 134 refineries in the 100 metropolitan areas was 2,530 million barrels,
and accounted for production of about 2,380 million barrels, or 66 percent
of national production. Value of shipments was $13.5 billion, about 67
percent of the national total.
Although there is a variable number of sources of emissions in each
petroleum refinery, a few sources account for the bulk of the pollutants.
The major sources are catalyst regenerators which emit carbon monoxide, hydro-
carbons, particulates, and sulfur oxides; combustion processes, which emit
primarily sulfur dioxide; and storage facilities, which emit primarily hydro-
carbons. The following 1967 emissions in thousands of tons represent the
United States and 100 metropolitan areas, respectively: particulates, 96 and
48; sulfur oxides, 2100 and 923; hydrocarbons, 932 and 587; and carbon
monoxide, 2000 and 1080.
II. CONTROL OF EMISSIONS
The regulations and control methods which apply to petroleum refinery
operations include all of the following: (a) the process weight rate
regulation for particulate control, (b) maximum of 500 parts per million
of sulfur oxides in exhaust gas, (c) the removal of 95 percent of carbon
monoxide in exhaust gases, (d) the use of a floating roof to control hydrocarbon
emissions from storage tanks, and (e) the removal of 90 percent or more of
organic materials in exhaust gases for hydrocarbon reduction. The control
methods which are normally applied to meet these standards are highly individu-
alized, depending upon the specific process types. In general, however,
I/
- From storage evaporation, transfer operations, and catalytic cracking.
-------
particulates are controlled by the use of gas-cleaning equipment, sulfur
oxides by sulfur recovery plants, hydrocarbons from storage tanks by
floating roofs, and carbon monoxide by waste heat boilers. These control
methods will increase average control efficiencies for particulates from
67 to 82 percent, for sulfur oxides from 37 to 50 percent, for hydrocarbons
from 48 to 93 percent, and for carbon monoxide from 47 to nearly 100 percent
(see Table P-2).
The Los Angeles Air Pollution Control District accepts the operation
of sulfur recovery plants as sufficient to control sulfur oxides. Even
though this technique does not reduce sulfur oxides in catalyst regenerator
gas to 500 parts per million, it was used in this study since it is the
only feasible control technique acceptable to the refining industry.
III. DISCUSSION AND EVALUATION OF ENGINEERING
DATA USED IN COST ESTIMATION
A. Methodology
1. Crude Oil and Gasoline Storage
a) Cost Estimating Procedure
The total crude oil storage capacity for each region was
based on a 30-day refinery supply, and gasoline storage capacity
21
was based on 43 percent of this value [Refs. 1 and 2]. A
model tank size of 80 thousand barrels was selected, and the total
storage capacity in each region (based on refinery capacities)
was divided by 80 thousand to determine the equivalent number of
model tanks in the region. The fractional capacity remaining
after accounting for all the model tanks was costed as a separate
item and added to the model plant costs. Three-fourths of these
tanks were assumed already to have floating roofs and submerged
fill lines; therefore, no further control was required. Since the
2/
Later information indicated that nationwide crude oil storage capacity
represented a 23-day supply and gasoline storage represented 17-day supply.
-------
cost for converting to a floating roof tank and installing
submerged filling techniques was considerably less than install-
ing a new tank, it was assumed that all tanks would be converted
and not replaced.
b) Engineering Process Data
Figure P-l presents the data used to determine tank conver-
sion costs. The tank size of 80 thousand barrels was chosen as
the average based on talks with various knowledgeable people
[Refs. 3 and 4] and personal observation of refinery tank farms.
Operating and maintenance costs were not determined since these
are low and are usually equal to or less than the value of the
recovered gasoline and crude oil.
Emissions of hydrocarbons result from refinery activities
including crude oil storage, gasoline storage, and gasoline trans-
fer. The emission factors and percent control attainable with
current technology is shown in Table P-l.
Table P-l
HYDROCARBON EMISSIONS AND CONTROL PERCENTAGES
Operation
Crude oil storage
Gasoline storage
Gasoline transfer
Uncontrolled Emissions3
of Hydrocarbons
9 lb/1000 bbl
47 lb/1000 bbl
11.5 lb/1000 gal
turnover
a
Percent Control
Attainable
56
90
40
From data in Reference 5.
-------
150
o
o
o
J-l
CO
o
-------
In determining current emissions, the following assumptions were
made for a typical metropolitan area:
1) Three-fourths of all crude oil storage tanks are con-
trolled [Ref. 5].
2) Three-fourths of all gasoline storage tanks are con-
trolled [Ref. 5].
3) One-half of all gasoline transfer operations are con-
trolled [Ref. 5].
4) All gasoline capacity is turned over 10 times per year.
5) Gasoline storage equals 43 percent of crude oil storage.
6) A thirty-day supply of crude oil is stored.
7) All storage facilities in California are fully controlled.
Sulfur Recovery Plants
a) Cost Estimating Procedure
Sulfur oxide emissions were controlled by installing sulfur
recovery plants at those refineries which did not already have
them. The size of the sulfur recovery plants was based on each
refinery's capacity and on estimated sulfur oxide emissions.
b) Engineering Process Data
Figure P-2 presents sulfur recovery plant costs based on
information obtained from References 6, 7, and 8. Existing
sulfur plant locations were also obtained from these references.
Since specific data on the composition of a refinery's
crude oil or its exact processing techniques were not available,
a general sulfur dioxide emission factor of 50 tons per 100
thousand barrels of crude oil throughput was used [Ref. 9]. Vari-
ations in this emission factor were made based on crude oil sulfur
content. Thus, in the Gulf Coast and California areas, this
factor was reduced by 30 percent; on the East Coast it was increased
by 25 percent; and it was not changed for the balance of the
country. Only 50 percent of this emission is amenable to recovery
-------
8001
700
600
500
o
o
o
II
co-
4J
CO
o
400
100
300
200
40 60 80 100
Plant Capacity (tons sulfur per day)
Fig. P-2. Sulfur Recovery Plant Costs.
-------
in a sulfur plant [Ref. 10]. Since operation of sulfur plants
smaller than 7 tons per day is not economically feasible, the
smaller refineries (sulfur dioxide emissions less than 28 tons
per day) were not included in the cost estimates.
3. Catalyst Regenerators
a) Cost Estimating Procedure
To meet the particulate regulation, only fluid catalytic
cracking (FCC) units larger than 10 thousand barrels per day
required additional controls. All smaller FCC units and all
Thermofor (TCC) and Houdriflow (HCC) catalytic cracking units
can meet the regulations with existing controls. In addition,
all FCC units requiring control were costed separately, and the
total metropolitan area cost was simply the sum of the FCC control
costs within that area. Control costs were based on using a
high-efficiency electrostatic precipitator; operating and mainte-
nance costs were based on the size of the unit; and a 20 percent
capital plus depreciation charge was used to derive the annual
costs.
For controlling carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions,
the cost of a carbon monoxide (CO) boiler was estimated for each
FCC unit. The eight HCC units located in the 100 areas already
have CO boilers, and TCC units with their lower CO emissions are
not generally amenable to control with a CO boiler and were not
included in the cost estimate. Only 50 percent of the capital
investment for these boilers was charged as an air pollution
control cost since steam is generated in these units for inplant
purposes [Ref. 11]. Annual charges were also not included as an
air pollution cost since they are a general plant cost.
CO boiler costs were estimated according to the heat content
of the exit gas stream and the available boiler cost data [Refs.
12 and 13J. Locations of existing CO boilers, when known, were
taken into account. However, on a nationwide basis, approxi-
mately 25 boilers could not be located.
-------
b) Engineering Process Data
Precipitator costs were based on the gas flow rate leaving
the catalyst regenerator. Based on limited data [Refs. 12, 14,
and 151, the following relationship between barrels of total
feed and exit gas rate was determined:
acfm = 2830 acfm x fged rate (±n 1000 bbl/day) + 75}000 acfm
1000 bbl/day
With the exit gas rate known, cost functions relating cost
and feed rate were prepared and used to determine total and annual
charges [Ref. 16]. (See Figure P-3.)
Emissions of particulates from FCC units with normal process
controls, but without electrostatic precipitators for air
pollution abatement purposes, were based on 6.25 pounds of particu-
3/
late per 1000 barrels ; particulate emissions from Thermofor
4/
and Houdriflow units were based on 0.52 pounds per 1000 barrels.
Estimates of controlled emissions were based on an electro-
static precipitator collection efficiency of 82 percent.
CO boiler costs are shown in Figure P-4. These costs could
vary depending on the amount of supplementary fuel used to gen-
erate plant steam; however, the costs shown do represent that
portion of the cost chargeable to air pollution control.
Uncontrolled emissions of CO from FCC units were based on
5.6 tons of CO per 1000 barrels total feed [Ref. 17]. Uncontrolled
emissions from Thermofor units were based on 1.2 tons of CO per
1000 barrels total feed [Ref. 17]. There are no significant CO
or hydrocarbon emissions from Houdriflow units since they are all
presently controlled. In all cases units were assumed to operate
360 days per year. CO and hydrocarbon emissions from controlled
units were assumed to be zero.
FCC units emit 0.10 pounds particulate per ton of catalyst [Refs. 14
and 17].
0.10 Ib part. 62.5 ton catalyst - 6.25 Ib part, per 1000 bbl
ton catalyst 1000 bbl total feed
4/
TCC and HCC units emit 0.04 pound particulate per ton of catalyst
[Refs. 13 and 16].
0.04 Ib part. 13 ton catalyst 0.52 Ib part, per 1000 bbl
ton catalyst 1000 bbl total feed = total feed
-------
100
O
o
O
CO
4-1
-------
o
o
o
r-t
w-
co
o
0)
1-1
1-1
(0
H-l
o
c
a>
o
h
4-l
-i-t
1,400,
1,200
1,000
8,001
6,001
4,001
2,00
40 80 120 160 200
Catalyst Regenerator Capacity (1000 bbl/day)
240
Fig. P-4. Cost of Carbon Mbnoxide Boilers.
-------
Uncontrolled HC emissions from fluid units were based on
180 pounds HC per 1000 barrels total feed and those from Thermofor
units were based on 57 pounds HC per 1000 barrels total feed [Ref.
17]. These figures can be converted to 32.4 and 10.3 tons HC per
year per 1000 barrels total daily feed, respectively. In all
cases, emissions from controlled units were assumed to be zero.
B. Estimated Costs
The resulting costs, which include credits for materials recovered
or saved and take into account existing controls, were totalled for the
100 metropolitan areas; and are shown in Table P-2. Annual control costs
average less than one cent per barrel capacity when the plan is fully
implemented. Emissions would be reduced from 48 thousand tons of partic-
ulates to 26 thousand tons; 923 thousand tons of sulfur dioxide to 737
thousand tons; 587 thousand tons of hydrocarbons to 79 thousand tons; and
1080 thousand tons of carbon monoxide to 102 thousand tons by 1975. Total
estimated investment costs amount to $80.3 million with estimated ultimate
annual costs of over $3.6 million.
IV. CONTROL COSTS RESULTING FROM GROWTH
Air pollution control costs were calculated not only for existing
production facilities (Section III) but also for additional capacity pro-
jected beyond the base year 1967. The projected growth costs were based
upon the ultimate control levels of 82 percent for particulates, 50 per-
cent for sulfur oxides, 93 percent for hydrocarbons, and 95 percent for
carbon monoxide. The calculations consisted of multiplying the 1967 total
investment and annual control costs by the annual growth in capacity to
obtain annual investment and annual costs to control the emission from
industry growth.
Based on predictions of future production, the expected annual growth
rate through FY 1975 was determined to be 3 percent [Ref. 18]. Capacity
estimates, derived from the production estimates, were based upon achieving
a capacity utilization rate of 90 percent by FY 1975.
-------
Table P-2
PETROLEUM REFINING PLANTS
ESTIMATES OF REDUCED EMISSION LEVELS AND ASSOCIATED COSTS5
(100 metropolitan areas)
VT7AR
1967
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
(thousand tons/year)
Part
48
46
40
32
28
26
S0x
923
910
863
790
749
737
HC
587
587
489
267
114
79
CO
1080
1080
855
595
163
102
ASSOCIATED EMISSION
LUlNlKUL LtiVrjL
(percent)
Part
67.0
68.0
72.0
78.0
81.0
82.0
S0x
37.0
38.2
41.3
46.3
49.1
50.0
HCC
48.5
48.5
57.0
77.0
90.0
93.0
CO
47.0
47.0
54.0
71.0
92.0
95.0
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
Investment Cost
Lower
Limit
0.3
8.3
17.5
11.7
2.5
40.3
Expected
0.6
16.5
35.0
23.2
5.0
80.3
Upper
Limit
1.2
33.1
70.1
47.0
10.0
161.4
Annual Cost
Lower
Limit
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.6
0.6
1.7
Expected
0.1
0.4
0.4
1.3
1.4
3.6
Upper
Limit
0.1
0.7
0.8
2.5
2.7
6.8
I
I"
4^
Cost estimates are for the control of only those facilities in operation in calendar year 1967. The areas are
defined in Appendix B.
For levels of particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO).
-------
The results of the cost analysis of controlling the additional capa-
city are shown in Table P-3. As shown, costs in each year reflect
immediate control of the incremental capacity at the ultimate control
levels. Without the act in effect, for the 1967 base year capacity plus
the additional capacity added after 1967, emissions in the 100 areas
would amount to 63 thousand tons of particulates, 1,130 thousand tons
of S0_, 719 thousand tons of hydrocarbons, and 2,323 thousand tons of
carbon monoxide by FY 1975. With the act in effect, emissions would be
reduced to 34 thousand, 903 thousand, 97 thousand, and 124 thousand tons,
respectively.
-------
Table P-3
PETROLEUM REFINERIES
ESTIMATED COST OF CONTROLLING POLLUTANT EMISSIONS FROM SOURCES ADDED AFTER 1967*
(100 metropolitan areas)
FISCAL
YEAR
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
Totals -
ADDED
CAPACITY
(million
barrels/yr]
334
429
525
620
716
ADDITIONAL
PRODUCTION
(million
barrels/yr]
250
322
393
465
536
EMISSION LEVELb
(thousand tons /year)
Part
3
4
6
7
8
SO
X
77
99
122
144
166
c
HC
8
10
13
15
18
CO
10
14
16
21
22
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
INVESTMENT COST
Lower
Limit
1.5
2.3
3.2
2.6
1.7
11.3
Expected
3.1
4.6
6.3
5.2
3.5
22.7
Upper
Limit
6.2
9.2
12.7
10.5
7.0
45.6
ANNUAL COST
Lower
Limit
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.7
Expected
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
1.1
Upper
Limit
0.1
2.6
0.4
0.6
0.7
4.4
These costs are for new facilities which are assumed to be constructed to meet applicable regulations (App. A); areas
are defined in Appendix B.
Particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks indicate the emissions
need no control.
-------
REFERENCES
1. American Petroleum Institute, New York, June, 1969. Private communi-
cation .
2. L. Laster, National Air Pollution Control Administration, August,
1969. Private communication.
3. Chicago Bridge and Iron Company, June and August, 1969. Private
communication.
4. Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District, August, 1969.
Private communication.
5. R. L. Duprey. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. Public
Health Service Publication No. 999-AP-42. Durham, N. C.: U.S. Depart-
ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollu-
tion Control, 1968.
6. Grekel, et al. "Why Recover Sulfur from H S," Oil and Gas Journal
(October 28, 1968).
7. E. W. Sledjeski and R. E. Maples. "Impact of Residual Sulfur Limits
on U.S. Refining," Oil and Gas Journal (May 13, 1968), pp. 90-95.
8. HPI Construction Boxscore, Hydrocarbon Processing, June 1968.
9. F. Rohrman and J. Ludwig. "Sources of Sulfur Dioxide Pollution."
Paper No. 46e, presented at the 55th meeting of the American Insti-
tute of Chemical Engineers, February 7-11, 1965.
10. E. Vincent, National Air Pollution Control Administration, July 1969.
Private communication.
11. Air and Water Conservation Expenditures of the Petroleum Industries
in the U.S. New York: Crossley, S-D Surveys, Inc., August 1968.
12. Bulletin G-87A. Barberton, Ohio: Babcock and Wilcox Company, 1956.
13. H. S. Bauman. Fundamentals of Cost Engineering in the Chemical
Industry. New York: Reinhold Book Corporation, 1964.
14. J. S. Danielson (ed.). Air Pollution Engineering Manual. PHS Publi-
cation No. 999-AP-40. Cincinnati, Ohio: Department of Health, Educa-
tion, and Welfare, 1967.
-------
15. R. P. Hangefcrauck, et al. Sources of Polynuclear Hydrocarbon in the
Atmosphere. PHS Publication No. 999-AP-33. Washington, D. C.: U.S.
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1967.
16. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Control Tech-
niques for Particulate Air Pollutants. PHS Publication No. 999-AP-51.
Washington, D. C.: National Air Pollution Control Administration,
January 1969.
17. Atmospheric Emissions From Petroleum Refineries. No. 763. Washington,
D. C.: Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, PHS, 1960.
18. H. Landsberg, et al. Resources in America's Future. Baltimore:
The Johns Hopkins Press, 1963.
-------
Appendix Q
Asphalt Batching Industry
(SIC No. 2951)
-------
Appendix Q
Asphalt Batching Industry
I. INTRODUCTION
Asphalt batching is the production of a road surface paving mixture
from hot asphalt and stone aggregate that is crushed, dried, and heated
prior to the batching process. Fine dust, the major emission, is released
during this drying and heating of the stone aggregate.
During 1967, capacity of the estimated 1500 asphalt batching plants lo-
cated in the United States was approximately 658.0 million tons; that of the
903 plants in the 100 metropolitan areas was 250.0 million tons. In 1967,
the national production reached 216.0 million tons with 82.0 million attri-
buted to the 100 areas. The value of shipments for the United States and the
100 areas was $1.5 billion and $0.6 billion, respectively.
II. CONTROL OF EMISSIONS
In 1967, particulate emissions, the major emission, totalled 522
thousand tons per year for the United States and 206 thousand tons per
year for the 100 areas.
Currently, almost all plants have primary collection devices which
yield a control level of about 80 percent. By 1975, an overall average
control efficiency of 92.0 percent following primary collection will be
required to satisfy the process weight rate regulation adopted for this
study.
III. DISCUSSION AND EVALUATION OF ENGINEERING DATA
USED IN COST ESTIMATION
The basic engineering data and information required to estimate
control costs for the asphalt batching industry consisted of: (a) an
evaluation of the various production processes found within the industry,
-------
(b) an analysis of the pollutants involved, their uncontrolled emission
rates, present levels of control and final levels as required by the various
standards adopted for this study, and (c) an engineering evaluation to select
the most satisfactory control systems to achieve the required emission levels,
including process size - control system size relationships.
The processes considered in this study include the major source of
dust in the industry, the aggregate drier, as well as secondary sources, which
include aggregate elevators, vibrating screens, hot aggregate bins, weigh
hoppers and aggregate mixers. The trend in the industry is to combine the off
gases from the drier and all the secondary sources (captured in a so-called
ventline) and send the resulting gas stream to a single collector [Ref. 1].
Uncontrolled emissions amount to 25 pounds of dust per ton of asphalt
batched [Ref. 2]. Presently, it is estimated that the industry as a whole
controls to a level of 80 percent; therefore, present emissions which are con-
sidered herein as uncontrolled amount to 5 pounds per ton of asphalt produced.
Required removal efficiencies were calculated on the basis of the process weight
rate standard and an uncontrolled emission rate of 5 pounds per ton. These are
shown in Table Q-l.
Table Q-l
INCREMENTAL REMOVAL EFFICIENCIES REQUIRED
Process Size
(tons /hour)
40
100
150
200
Incremental
Efficiency Required
(percent)
79
91
93
95
-------
To achieve these removal efficiencies, it has been reported that multiple
cyclones will be satisfactory to process sizes of 100 tons per hour, while for
larger capacities venturi scrubbers with a pressure drop of 15 inches, w.g.
will achieve required removals [Ref. 1]. In all cases, an 80 percent efficient
primary collector was considered as process equipment.
To relate process size to control system size, a factor of 15 thousand
s.c.f.ra. (at an inlet temperature of 200 F) per 100 tons per hour was
used [Ref. 3].
IV. CONTROL COSTS FOR 1967 BASE YEAR
A. Methodology
Data regarding numbers, sizes, and locations of asphalt batching plants
were sought for each individual state through a variety of sources; data for
about half of the states were obtained. Some states listed plants by location
and capacity; others reported location and total annual capacity or annual
production; some listed only the total asphalt paving mix used annually in state-
financed construction (primarily roads and streets); and many had or provided
no data. For all cases, except the first, production and capacities were esti-
mated according to the metropolitan area population (weighted when possible by
data on plant location). All capacities were scaled to an hourly production rate
because asphalt batching plants have widely varying operating schedules.
Drying-heating capacities for aggregate were calculated assuming 95 percent
of final product weight was aggregate. No information about aggregate drying-
heating kiln capacity was obtained; however it was reported that for the great
majority of plants, there is only one kiln [Ref. 4]. Distributions of estimated
kiln capacities and control system sizes were constructed. Unpublished cost data
for control equipment provided by the PolyCon Corporation and presented in
Figures Q-l through Q-5 at the end of this appendix provided control cost
estimates for a range of plant sizes (see Table Q-2). These average costs
were then multiplied by estimated capacities for each area to determine
each area's emission control costs.
-------
Table Q-2
ASPHALT BATCHING EMISSION CONTROL COSTS
Number of Plants
with Known
Capacity
3
40
65
208
123
150
106
35
10
13
2
9
'
Kiln Gas Volume
(103 acfm)
4.5
9.0
13.5
18.0
22.5
27.0
31.5
36.0
40.5
45.0
49.5
54.5
Equivalent Plant
Capacity
(tons of mix per hr.)
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
360+
Costs
($1000)
Investment 1 Annual
2.95 1.19
4.05 1.61
5.55 2.11
13.0 9.8
17.0 12.1
18.6 13.9
20.2 16.3
31.6 17.5
23.2 19.2
24.4 20.9
25.6 22.4
27.0 24.4
Costs for emission controls from 0.5 to 1.5 tons per batch are for a multicyclone;
remaining costs are for 15" w.g. wet scrubber.
-------
B. Estimated Control Costs
The resulting costs were totalled for the 100 metropolitan areas and are
shown in Table Q-3. Annual control costs would average approximately $0.74
per ton of annual capacity when the plan is fully implemented.
The emission of particulates would be reduced from 206 thousand tons
in 1967 to approximately 82 thousand tons by 1975. The investment cost for
this level of control would total $24.5 million, with ultimate annual cost
of $18.5 million.
V. CONTROL COSTS RESULTING FROM GROWTH
Air pollution control costs were calculated not only for existing
production (Section IV.B.) but also for anticipated increases in pro-
duction in the asphalt batching industry beyond the base year of 1967. The
projected growth costs were based on the expected ultimate particulate control
level of 92 percent following primary collection. The calculations consisted
of multiplying the 1967 total investment and annual control costs by the
annual growth in capacity to obtain annual investment and annual costs to
control the emission from industry growth.
An average annual production growth rate of 6.5 percent was used in this
study [Ref. 5]. The capacity estimates derived from the production estimates
were based upon achieving 90 percent utilization of capacity by 1975.
The results of the cost analysis of controlling the incremental production
through 1975 are shown in Table Q-4. As shown, costs in each year reflect
immediate control of the incremental production at the ultimate control efficiency
By 1975, without the act in effect, emissions would reach 306 thousand tons of
particulates from the 1967 capacity plus the additional capacity added after 1967.
With the act in effect, emissions would be reduced to 122 thousand tons.
-------
Table Q-3
ASPHALT BATCHING PLANTS
ESTIMATES OF REDUCED EMISSION LEVELS AND ASSOCIATED COSTS8
(100 metropolitan areas)
VT?AP
1967
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
T7YPT?rwri
-------
Table Q-4
ASPHALT BATCHING PLANTS
ESTIMATED COST OF CONTROLLING POLLUTANT EMISSIONS FROM SOURCES ADDED AFTER 1967
(100 metropolitan areas)
FISCAL
YEAR
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
Totals
ADDED
CAPACITY
(thousand
tons/hour)
57
73
89
105
122
ADDITIONAL
PRODUCTION
(million
tons/year)
19
24
29
35
40
EMISSION LEVELb
(thousand tons /year)
Part
18
24
29
34
40
SO
X
__
HC
*M
CO
~
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
INVESTMENT COST
Lower
Limit
0.8
1.0
1.1
1.0
0.9
4.8
Expected
1.7
2.0
2.3
2.1
1.8
9.9
Upper
Limit
2.5
3.0
3.4
3.2
2.7
14.8
ANNUAL COST
Lower
Limit
0.6
1.6
2.7
3.7
4.5
13.1
Expected
1.3
3.2
5.4
7.4
9.0
26.3
Upper
Limit
2.0
4.8
8.2
11.2
13.5
39.7
sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks indicate the emissions
-------
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
o
o
o
<3
0.
H
cr
10
91
6
5
A = 316 ELC Stainless Steel
B = 304 Venturi/MS Concrete
Lined Separator
C = All Mild Steel
3 4 56789 10
Inlet Gas Volume (10J acfm)
Source: Poly Con Corporation.
Fig. Q-l. Equipment Cost for Venturi Scrubbers.
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 9C
-------
I000|
8001
600
400
§200
0
u
u
SlOO
60
40
?C
A = 316 ELC Stainless Steel
B = 304 Venturi/MS Concrete Lined Separator
C = All Mild Steel
20
40
60 80 100
200
400
600 800 1000
Inlet Gas Volume (10 acfm)
Source: Poly Con Corporation.
Fig. Q-2. Equipment Cost for Venturi Scrubbers.
-------
1000
800
600
500
400
300
200
o
o
S 100
en
O
u
80
60
g. 50
n 40
a
o
-------
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
o
o
o
10
3 9
3 8
§ 7
o1
w
i i I I I
1
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Inlet Gas Volume (103 acfm)
20
30 40 50 60 70 80 100
Source: Poly Con Corporation.
Fig. Q-4. Equipment Cost for Multi-tube Collectors.
-------
-------
REFERENCES
1. H. E. Friedrich. "Air Pollution Control Practices and Criteria for
Hot-Mix Asphalt Paving Batch Plants." Paper presented at the 62nd
Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, New York,
June 22-26, 1969.
2. R. L. Duprey- Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. Public
Health Service Publication No. 999-AP-42. Durham, N. C.: U.S. Depart
ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Center for Air
Pollution Control, 1968.
3. J. A. Danielson (ed.). Air Pollution Engineering Manual. Public
Health Service Publication No. 999-AP-40. Cincinnati, Ohio:
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1967.
4. John Grey, Executive Director of the National Asphalt Pavement
Association, Riverdale, Maryland. Private communication.
5. H. Landsberg, et al. Resources in America's Future. Baltimore,
Maryland: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1963.
-------
Appendix R
Cement Industry
(SIC No. 3241)
-------
Appendix R
Cement Industry
I. INTRODUCTION
Portland cement accounts for 98 percent of all cement made in the
Nation; therefore, this report deals only with this type.
In 1967, capacity for the 176 cement plants located in the United
States was 578.0 million barrels; production was 378.0 million barrels;
and value of shipments amounted to approximately $1.2 billion. For the
92 plants in the 100 areas, capacity was 279.0 million barrels; production
was 192.0 barrels; and value of shipments was $0.6 billion.
In manufacturing cement, a combination of ingredients is crushed,
ground, mixed, and then fired in kilns to about 2700 F, producing an
intermediate product which is ground again to a fine powder. There are
two manufacturing processes used by the industry: the wet and the dry pro-
cesses. Of the two different processes, the wet process produces 58
percent of the cement and emits 38 pounds of dust per barrel to the dry
processes's 46 pounds. Particulate emissions for the United States and
the 100 metropolitan areas in 1967 were 908 million tons and 525 million
tons, respectively.
II. CONTROL OF EMISSIONS
Although there are some particulate emissions from all the manu-
facturing steps, the major source is the kilns. For the same production,
dry process kilns emit about 21 percent more dust than wet process kilns.
Almost all kilns have at least a primary dust collector, resulting in an
overall collection efficiency of 86 percent. By installing secondary
collectors on the kilns, the industry will be able to meet the process
weight standard for particulate control and obtain about 99 percent over-
all control.
-------
III. DISCUSSION AND EVALUATION OF ENGINEERING
DATA USED IN COST ESTIMATION
The basic engineering data and information required to estimate
control costs for the cement industry consisted of: (a) an evaluation
of the various production processes found within the industry, (b) an
analysis of the pollutants involved, their uncontrolled emission rates,
present levels of control and final levels as required by the various
standards adopted for this study, and (c) an engineering evaluation to
select the most satisfactory control systems to achieve the required
levels, including process size - equipment size relationships.
The primary difference with respect to pollution between the wet and
dry processes is the state in which the ground raw material is fed into the
kiln. The major unit processes involved are: crushing and grinding, drying
(dry process only), clinker production (calcining), and final grinding.
Dusts from crushing and grinding operations present only minor air pollution
problems as these are essentially closed systems, and the dust collected is
returned to the unit from which it was collected. The same is most often
true of the drier off-gases which are usually vented to either grinding
or calcining control systems. This study focuses on controlling partic-
ulate emissions from the calcining operation. The kiln represents the
major source of particulate emissions in the cement industry, which is
not well controlled at present.
Totally uncontrolled emissions from wet process kilns average 38
pounds per barrel of cement produced, while the average from dry pro-
cess kilns is 46 pounds per barrel produced [Ref. 1]. The calcining
operation is controlled to some degree. Table R-l reflects an estimate
of the present status of control for the industry.
A barrel equals 376 pounds of cement.
-------
Table R-l
PRESENT CONTROL STATUS FOR THE CEMENT INDUSTRY
Control Systems
No control
Cyclone
Multicyclone
Electrostatic precipitator (old)
Electrostatic precipitator (new)
Electrostatic precipitator or
fabric filter
Plants Controlling
(percent)
5
5
10
15
10
55
Control Efficiency
(percent)
0
70
85
90-95a
96-97
> 99
Ninety-five percent can be achieved if precipitator is in series
with multicyclone.
New electrostatic precipitator in series with multicyclone.
Source: Reference 2 and informed industry observers.
On the basis of the process weight rate standard, ultimate parti-
culate removal efficiencies were calculated for both wet and dry process
kilns. These are shown in Table R-2.
Table R-2
ULTIMATE PARTICULATE REMOVAL EFFICIENCIES REQUIRED
Kiln Capacity
(1000 barrels /day)
1
2
4
6
8
10
Percent Efficiency Required
Wet Process
97.6
98.2
99.3
99.4
99.6
*
Dry Process
97.8
98.4
99.5
99.6
99.8
99.9
*Not applicable.
-------
To achieve these removal efficiencies, it was established that the
most effective control system for wet process kilns is a combination of
a precleaner plus an electrostatic precipitator, while the system of
choice for dry process kilns is a precleaner plus a fabric filter [Ref. 3].
The precleaner in each case must be considered process equipment because
the captured particulates are always placed back in the kiln. On the other
hand, the fine particulates collected by the precipitator or the fabric
filter is often too high in alkali concentration and therefore cannot be
returned to the process without further processing.
The relationships between production rate and equipment size were
calculated for both wet and dry process kilns. The relationships are shown
in Table R-3.
Table R-3
PRODUCTION RATE VERSUS GAS VOLUME
Production Rate
(1000 barrels/day)
0.5
1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
9.0
10.0
Gas Volume
(103 acfm)
Wet Process
20
40
120
200
280
360
*
Dry Process
24
48
144
240
336
432
480
*Not applicable.
-------
IV. CONTROL COSTS FOR 1967 BASE YEAR
A. Methodology
Each plant in the nation was identified by location, total capacity,
and process type (wet or day) in a current list from Rock Products [Ref 4].
Another list from this source identified all plants installed since 1960
by total capacity, process type, number and capacity of kilns, and kiln emis-
sion control equipment [Ref. 5]. When a plant in the second list had two or
more kilns, they had the same capacity. This was then assumed as the stan-
dard design for all plants for the purposes of estimating costs.
All plants in the second list (six of which were within the 100 metro-
politan areas) are controlled sufficiently to meet the process weight rate
standard, and thus were excluded from the costing procedure. Due to the lack
of control information on a plant-by-plant basis, all other plants were assumed
to have only a primary cyclone.
Wet process kilns were assigned high efficiency electrostatic pre-
cipitators and dry process kilns were assigned baghouses for secondary con-
trol. The cost-of each type of control was calculated separately on the basis
of gas volume. Control equipment cost data (Figures R-l to R-3) were obtained
from the analyses by Edmisten and Bunyard [Ref. 6] and from information sup-
plied by the Poly Con Corporation [Ref. 7]. Emission control costs for the
wet and dry processes are presented in Table R-4.
Table R-4
CEMENT PLANT EMISSION CONTROL COSTS
Plant Capacity
(1000 barrels/
day)
1
2
4
6
8
10
R ,
a
Emission Control Costs
($1000)
Wet Process
(high efficiency ESP)
Investment
7.15
14.50
48.90
73.50
111.00
Annual
1.72
3.34
11.72
17.70
26.60
Dry Process
(fabric filter)
Investment Annual
6.33 2.34
18.25 6.75
79.90 31.10
135.00 50.00
232.00 85.90
354.50 131.40
AUc (-HUlld.cii.eu CUnCiUJ- CUSL. va-Luca WGJ.C gtcn<».»«-»» ,_- , j
°f the complex relationships of variable emission control levels and the
cost credit calculated for presently-existing 90-percent control. Costs
for all plants were then read from the graphs as a function of plant capacity,
-------
99.5% STEEL
95.0% STEEL
I 2345
Inlet Gas Volume (105 acfm)
Source: Poly Con Corporation.
Fig. R-l. Equipment Cost for Electrostatic Precipitator.
-------
150,000
I
vO
100,000
e
CO
o
CJ
00
c
H
cd
0)
ex
o
50,000
99.5% STEEL-DRY/WET
95% STEEL-DRY/WET
I
I
100,000 200,000 300,000
Inlet Gas Volume (acfm)
Source: Poly Con Corporation.
Fig. R-2. Operating Costs for Electrostatic Precipitator.
400,000
-------
100
50
o
o
o
01
o
u
c
(U
H
3
o-
W
10
100
500
o
Inlet Gas Volume (10 acfm)
A - High Temperature Synthetics, Woven and Felt. Continuous Automatically Cleaned.
B - Medium Temperature Synthetics, Woven and Felt. Continuous Automatically Cleaned.
C - Woven Natural Fibers. Intermittently Cleaned - Single Compartment.
I I I
10
50 100
Inlet Gas Volume (10 acfm)
500
Source: Edmisten, N. G. and F. L. Bunyard, "A Systematic Procedure for Determining
the Cost of Controlling Particulate Emissions from Industrial Sources."
Presented at the annual meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association,
New York, June 1969.
Fig. R-3. Equipment Cost of Fabric Filters.
-------
The control cost for each kiln in the detailed Rock Products list was
calculated and used to find the weighted average cost per barrel of capac-
ity, and graphs of costs for the two process types were plotted as func-
tions of capacity. Cost per plant was read directly from the graph and
totalled for the 100 metropolitan areas.
B. Estimated Control Costs
The resulting cost estimates are shown in Table R-5. Annual control
costs would average approximately $0.02 per barrel of cement producing
capacity when the plan is fully implemented.
The emission of particulates would be reduced from over 525 thousand
tons in 1967 to approximately 37 thousand tons by 1975. The investment
cost for this level of control would total $18.3 million, with an annual
cost of $5.6 million by FY 1975.
V. CONTROL COSTS RESULTING FROM GROWTH
Air pollution control costs were also calculated for increased pro-
duction in the cement industry after the base year of 1967- The projected
growth costs were based on the expected ultimate particulate control level
of 99.0 percent. The calculations consisted of multiplying the 1967 total
investment and annual control costs by the annual growth in capacity to
obtain annual investment and annual costs to control the emission from
industry growth. An average annual growth rate of 5.0 percent was used to
estimate production increase between 1967 and FY 1975 [Ref. 8]. The capacity
estimates, derived from the production estimates, were based on achieving
90 percent utilization of capacity by FY 1975. The costs of controlling
the additional capacity are shown in Table R-6. As shown, costs in each
year reflect immediate control of the incremental capacity at the ultimate
control efficiency. For the 1967 capacity plus the additional capacity
added after 1967, without the act, particulate emissions in the 100 areas
would reach 723 thousand tons by 1975. With the act in effect, emissions
would be reduced to 51 thousand tons.
-------
Table R-5
CEMENT PLANTS
ESTIMATES OF REDUCED EMISSION LEVELS AND ASSOCIATED COSTS*
(100 metropolitan areas)
1967
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
b
(thousand tons/year)
Part
525
510
420
246
99
37
SO
X
_
HC
_
CO
_
ASSOCIATED EMISSION
CONTROL LEVELb
(percent)
Part
86.0
86.4
88.8
93.5
97.4
99.0
SO
X
_
HC
CO
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
Investment Cost
Lower
Limit
0.5
2.7
4.8
4.0
1.6
13.6
Expected
0.7
3.6
6.4
5.4
2.2
18.3
Upper
Limit
0.9
4.5
8.0
6.7
2.7
22.8
Annual Cost
Lower
Limit
0.1
0.9
2.4
3.8
4.2
11.4
Expected
0.2
1.2
3.3
5.0
5.6
15.3
Upper
Limit
0.3
1.6
4.1
6.3
7.1
19.4
Cost estimates are for the control of only those facilities in operation in calendar year 1967. The areas are
defined in Appendix B.
For levels of particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks in the
-------
Table R-6
CEMENT PLANTS
ESTIMATED COST OF CONTROLLING POLLUTANT EMISSIONS FROM SOURCES ADDED AFTER 1967
(100 metropolitan areas)
FISCAL
YEAR
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
Totals
ADDED
CAPACITY
(thousand
barrels/yr)
6,690
8,600
10,500
12,400
14,300
ADDITIONAL
PRODUCTION
( thousand
barrels/yr)
33,600
43,200
52,800
62,400
72,000
EMISSION LEVELb
(thousand tons /year)
Part
6
8
10
12
14
S0x
HC
~
--
CO
__
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
INVESTMENT COST
Lower
Limit
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.7
Expected
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.8
Upper
Limit
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.2
1.2
ANNUAL COST
Lower
Limit
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.7
Expected
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.9
Upper
Limit
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
1.1
1
I'
u>
These costs are for new facilities which are assumed to be constructed to meet applicable regulations (App. A); areas
are defined in Appendix B.
Particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks indicate the emissions
-------
REFERENCES
1. R. L. Duprey. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. Pub-
lic Health Service Publication No. 999-AP-42. Durham, N. C.: U.S.
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Center for
Air Pollution Control, 1968.
2. Costs and Economic Impacts of Air Pollution Control. Report to the
National Air Pollution Control Administration. Washington, D. C.:
Ernst and Ernst, 1968.
3. A Study of the Cement Industry in the State of Missouri for the Air
Conservation Commission of the State of Missouri. Reston, Virginia:
Resources Research, Inc., December 1969.
4. "Cement Capacity in North America," Rock Products. Vol. 72, No. 5
(May 1969), pp. 49-54.
5. "Major Process Equipment in New U.S. Cement Plants, 1960-1967," Rock
Products. (May 1968), pp. 120-121.
6. N. G. Edmisten and F. L. Bunyard. "A Systematic Procedure for Deter-
mining the Cost of Controlling Particulate Emissions from Industrial
Sources." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Air Pollution
Control Administration, New York, June 1969.
7. Poly Con Corporation, unpublished data.
8. T. E. Kreichelt, D. A. Kemnitz, and S. T. Cuffe. Atmospheric Emis-
sions from the Manufacture of Portland Cement. PHS Publication
No. 999-AP-17. Cincinnati, Ohio: U.S. Department of Health. Educa-
tion, and Welfare, (PHS), 1967.
-------
Appendix S
Lime Industry
(SIC No. 3274)
-------
Appendix S
Lime Industry
I. INTRODUCTION
Lime is produced in the form of quicklime, hydrated lime, and burned
dolomite from quarried lime-bearing stone. Lime products are used mainly
in construction, the manufacture of cement, or as a flux in the manufacture
of products such as steel. The principal manufacturing step is the high
temperature kiln operation that converts limestone to lime. The major
pollutants emitted by operations in the industry are particulates in the
form of lime dust, carbonates of calcium and magnesium, calcium sulfate,
and fly ash. Kilns cause the most severe air pollution problem. Rotary
kilns, which account for about 80 percent of production, emit approximately 10
times the amount of particulates emitted by vertical kilns per unit of pro-
duction. A minor amount is emitted from limestone quarrying, transportation,
preparation, lime handling, hydrating, and other operations, but these were
not considered in this study for reasons given in Section III of this appendix.
In 1967, the national production amounted to 18.0 million tons. The
Nation's 135 plants have an annual capacity of about 25.4 million tons and
the 67 plants within the 100 metropolitan areas accounted for about 9.6
million tons, or 38 percent of total capacity. Production was about 7.7
million tons in the 100 areas. Value of shipments for the Nation and 100
areas was $0.2 billion and $0.1 billion, respectively. Nationally, in 1967,
the industry emitted about 450 thousand tons of particulates while in the 100
regions emissions amounted to 251 thousand tons. Rotary kilns emit approxi-
mately 10 percent of the product as particulates whereas vertical kilns emitted
only 1 percent.
-------
II. CONTROL OF EMISSIONS
Vertical kilns, in general, are uncontrolled and their dust emissions
need to be reduced by 50 to 90 percent, depending on kiln capacity, to
comply with the process weight rate standard for particulates. Although
rotary kilns are generally controlled to a level of about 80 percent,
they need additional controls to meet the above-mentioned regulation.
Gas-cleaning equipment was assumed to provide the additional emission con-
trol needed for both kiln types. About 92 percent of present emissions
would be eliminated resulting in a 96-percent level of overall collection
efficiency.
III. DISCUSSION AND EVALUATION OF ENGINEERING
DATA USED IN COST ESTIMATION
The basic engineering data and information required to estimate con-
trol costs for the lime industry consisted of: (a) an evaluation of the
various production processes found within the industry, (b) an analysis
of the pollutants involved, their uncontrolled emission rates, present
levels of control and final levels as required by the various standards
adopted for this study, and (c) an engineering evaluation to select the
most satisfactory control systems to achieve the required levels, including
equipment cost - process size relationships.
At the lime plant, the kiln operation is the major source of uncontrolled
particulate emissions. Rotary kilns have been found to emit between 5 to 15
percent by weight of the lime produced. Vertical kilns emit significantly
less dust, amounting to only about 1 percent of the lime produced. In addi-
tion to the emissions from kiln operations, which represent a major portion
of dust generated, there are emissions from other operations. Limestone
quarrying and transportation cause localized emissions for which efficient
solutions are not available. Other than moderately effective dust suppression
techniques at the quarry site and improvement of the road from the quarry to
the lime plant, little else can be done at present. Limestone crushing and
screening operations represent a potentially significant source of particulate
emissions. Generally, however, plants which have well constructed build-
ings with adequate dust ventilation systems enclosing the crushing and
screening operations may be considered satisfactorily controlled. This
is the case with most modern plants. In older plants which have poorly
-------
constructed buildings and inadequate ventilation systems, the dust remains
a problem only in the building and the immediate surrounding area. Lime
hydrating, processing, and packaging are significant sources of noxious
material; however, the use of adequate dust ventilation and control systems
is quite widespread in this area of the plant.
Various types of lime kilns are presently used by the industry. Of
these, rotary and vertical kilns produce the major percentage of lime and
emit the major quantity of particulates. If uncontrolled, rotary kilns emit
approximately 200 pounds of particulates per ton of lime produced while
vertical kilns emit about 20 pounds of particulates per ton of lime [Ref. 1].
At present, rotary kilns are generally controlled with dry mechanical
collectors resulting in average reductions of about 80 percent. Vertical
kilns in general are presently uncontrolled. Control efficiencies were
calculated to comply with the process weight rate standard. These are shown
in Table S-l.
Table S-l
ULTIMATE CONTROL EFFICIENCY REQUIRED
Capacity
(tons /day)
10
50
100
200
300
400
500
600
Control Efficiency Required
(percent)
Rotary Kiln
*
*
97.8
98.1
98.8
98.9
99.2
99.3
Vertical Kiln
52.4
78.6
79.8
83.8
*
*
is
*
*Not applicable.
-------
Control systems to achieve required control limits were selected on
the basis of incremental control required as well as on industry experience.
For rotary kilns, medium energy (15" w.g.) venturi scrubbers were assumed
as the secondary collector. For vertical kilns, cyclonic wet scrubbers
(6" w.g.) were chosen as the basis for the control cost estimates. To
relate process size to control equipment capacity, the estimated gas volumes
shown in Table S-2 were used.
Table S-2
LIME KILN GAS VOLUMES
Kiln type
Rotary
Vertical
Unit Volume
(acfm/ton/hour)
5500
3200
Adapted from data in Reference 2.
Equipment cost - process size relationships [Ref. 3] for the control
equipment selected are presented in Figures S-l through S-5. For both
types of equipment, stainless steel was selected as the construction
material with an installed cost to equipment cost ratio of two.
IV. CONTROL COSTS FOR 1967 BASE YEAR
A. Methodology
The data available to describe the lime industry were limited. One
list of plants by location was used to form a list by metropolitan area
[Ref. 4]. Another list furnished by the U.S. Bureau of Mines gave the
number and capacity of plants by states, but the number and capacity, or both,
were lacking for a few states [Ref. 5]. Capacities of the recently installed
rotary kilns were obtained from several kiln manufacturers.
Because of the limited data, the costing method was indirect. The
average plant capacity was calculated for each state; if data on a state were
insufficient, the average capacity was assumed to be the national value.
The total capacity was then calculated for each area.
-------
100
90
60
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
e
8
7
= 316 ELC Stainless Steel
= 304 Venturi/MS Concrete Lined
Separator
= All Mild Steel
3 4 56789 10
Inlet Gas Volume (10 acfm)
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Source: Poly Con Corporation.
Fig. S-l. Equipment Cost for Venturi Scrubbers.
-------
1000
800
600
A. = 316 ELC Stainless Steel
B = 304 Venturi/MS Concrete Lined Separator
C = All Mild Steel
400
200
o
o
o
10
o 100
I 80
60
40
20
20
40
60 80 100
200
400 600 800 10
Inlet Gas Volume (10 acfm)
Source: Poly Con Corporation.
Fig. S-2. Equipment Cost for Venturi Scrubber.
-------
1000
800
600
500
400
300
200
100
80
60
50
40
30
20
10
PRESSURE DROP
40 inch
3 4 5 6 78910 20 30 405060 80100
Inlet Gas Volume (LO3 acfm)
200 300 400 600 800
Source: Poly Con Corporation.
Fig. S-3. Annual Direct Operating Cost for Venturi Scrubbers.
-------
= 316 ELC Stainless Steel
B = 304 Stainless Steel
C = Mild Steel, Concrete Lined
D = Fiberglass
6 7 8 9 10
20
30 40 50 60 7080 100
Inlet Gas Volume (10 acfm)
Source: Poly Con Corporation.
Fig. S-4. Equipment Cost for Cyclonic Scrubbers.
-------
100
80
60
50
40
30
20
§"
U
M
HI
0,
O
u
u
01
I 0.8
0.6
0-5
04
0.3
Q2
1 I I I LLLLL
I I I I I I III
3 4 5 678910
20 30 40 50 60 80 100
200 300 400 5 6 7 8 910
Inlet Gas Volume (10 acfm)
Source: Poly Con Corporation.
Fig. S-5. Annual Direct Operating Cost for Cyclonic Scrubbers.
-------
The distribution of capacities according to manufacturer's reports
of rotary kilns and other data were used to calculate a weighted average
cost of control per ton of capacity using the data in Table S-3. For
rotary kilns, the weighted average installed cost was $73.30 per ton of
capacity per day, the weighted average annual cost was $66.20 per ton of
capacity per day.
Table S-3
ROTARY LIME KILN EMISSION CONTROL COSTS
Capacity
(tons /day)
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
Number of
Kilns
4
3
16
8
10
9
14
4
18
6
2
4
2
Installed Cost
($1000)
14.0
17.3
20.0
22.5
25.0
26.5
28.0
29.7
32.0
34.6
37.8
40.9
44.0
Annual Cost
($1000)
8.8
12.0
15.0
17.7
20.5
23.4
26.5
29.2
31.4
34.3
37.6
41.2
45.2
Since data were not available on the capacity distribution for vertical
kilns, the rotary kiln capacities were used to design a known distribution for
vertical kilns. The weighted average cost of control per ton of capacity was
then calculated using data in Table S-4.
-------
For vertical kilns, the weighted average installed cost was $179.20
per ton of capacity per day and the weighted average annual cost was $64.20
per ton of capacity per day.
Table S-4
VERTICAL LIME KILN EMISSION CONTROL COSTS
Capacity
(tons /day)
10
26
42
58
74
90
106
122
138
154
170
186
200
Number of
Kilns
4
3
16
8
10
9
14
4
18
6
2
4
2
Installed Cost
($1000)
5.8
7.2
9.0
11.1
13.9
17.0
20.2
22.1
23.7
24.9
26.1
27.1
28.0
Annual Cost
($1000)
2.0
2.8
3.1
3.9
4.9
6.2
7.3
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.3
9.7
10.0
To get the overall average cost per ton of capacity, the two average
costs were combined using the known production ratio of 80 percent for
rotary and 20 percent for vertical kilns. This cost was multiplied by
estimated metropolitan area capacity to get the final control costs for
each area.
B. Estimated Control Costs
The resulting costs, which take into account existing controls on
rotary kilns, were totalled for the 100 metropolitan areas and are shown
in Table S-5. Annual control costs would average $0.05 per ton of capacity.
The annual emission of particulates will be reduced from over 251
thousand tons to approximately 25 thousand tons by 1975. Total investment
cost will amount to $0.9 million with an ultimate annual cost of $1.4 million.
-------
Table S-5
LIME PLANTS
ESTIMATES OF REDUCED EMISSION LEVELS AND ASSOCIATED COSTS8
(100 metropolitan areas)
VI? A P
1967
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
1? YPP PTFTl TTMTCQTrHfl HH7T7T
(thousand tons/year)
Part
251
242
192
106
45
25
SO
X
~
HC
__
~
CO
~
ASSOCIATED EMISSION
LUNiKUL Jj£jV£iL
(percent)
Part
60.0
61.4
69.2
83.2
92.8
96.0
SO
X
__
~
HC
__
~
CO
__
~~
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
Investment Cost
Lower
Limit
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.5
Expected
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.9
Upper
Limit
0.1
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.1
1.2
Annual Cos\
Lower
Limit
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.3
1.0
Expected
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.4
0.5
1.4
Upper
Limit
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.7
2.0
I
I-"
-p-
Cost estimates are for the control of only those facilities in operation in calendar year 1967. The areas are
defined in Appendix B.
For levels of particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks in the
-------
V- CONTROL COSTS RESULTING FROM GROWTH
Air pollution control costs were calculated not only for existing
production (1967) but also for increased production in the lime industry
beyond the base year. The projected growth-related air pollution control
costs were based on the average overall particulate control level of 96
percent. The calculations consisted of multiplying the 1967 total invest-
ment and annual control costs by the annual growth in capacity to obtain
annual investment and annual costs to control the emission from industry
growth. Based primarily on information received from the National Lime
Association, an expected annual production growth rate of two percent
per year was chosen. Incremental capacity estimates were based on achieving
90 percent utilization of capacity by 1975. The results of the cost
analysis of controlling the new capacity are shown in Table S-6. As shown,
the cost in each year reflects immediate control of the incremental capacity
at ultimate control levels. Without the act in effect, emissions from the
100 areas from 1967 capacity plus the additional capacity added after 1967
would reach 289 thousand tons by 1975. With the act in effect, emissions
would be reduced to 29 thousand tons.
-------
Table S-6
LIME PLANTS
ESTIMATED COST OF CONTROLLING POLLUTANT EMISSIONS FROM SOURCES ADDED AFTER 1967'
(100 metropolitan areas)
YEAR
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
Totals -
ADDED
CAPACITY
(1000 tons/
year)
100
128
157
185
213
ADDITIONAL
PRODUCTION
(1000 tons/
year)
536
689
842
996
1150
EMISSION LEVELb
(thousand tons/year)
Part
1.76
2.26
2.76
3.26
3.77
S°K
__
--
~
HC
__
--
CO
__
«
CONTROL COSTS *
(million dollars/year)
INVESTMENT COST
Lower
Limit
__
~
Expected
__
--
-_
~
Upper
Limit
__
--
"
ANNUAL COST
Lower
Limit
__
--
Expected
._
--
~
--
.1
Upper
Limit
_-
--
.1
CA
I
These costs are for new facilities which are assumed to be constructed to meet applicable regulations (App. A); areas
are defined in Appendix B.
Particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks indicate the emissions
-------
REFERENCES
1. C. J. Lewis and B. B. Crocker. "The Lime Industry's Problem of
Airborne Dust," Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association.
Vol. 19, No. 1 (January 1969), pp. 31-39.
2. A Study of the Lime Industry in the State of Missouri for the Air
Conservation Commission of the State of Missouri. Reston, Virginia:
Resources Research, Inc., January 1968.
3. Systems Analysis Study of Emissions Control in the Wood Pulping
Industry; First Milestone Report. Conducted by Environmental
Engineering, Inc., Gainesville, Florida, and J. E. Sirrine Co.,
Greenville, S. C. for NAPCA, February 1969.
4. "Commercial Lime Plants in the U.S. and Canada." A map and list
prepared by the National Lime Association, Washington, B.C., 1967.
5. "Lime Producers of the United States in 1964." Mimeographed paper
with corrections to 1968 by the Bureau of Mines.
-------
Appendix T
Coal Cleaning Industry
(SIC No. 1211)
-------
Appendix T
Coal Cleaning Industry
I. INTRODUCTION
Coal cleaning is the process by which undesirable materials are removed
from both bituminous and anthracite coal. This analysis deals only with
coal cleaning, not other related operations such as coal crushing, screen-
ing, or sizing. Cleaning is accomplished by washing the coal with water
or air; if water is used, drying is required.
There are three major sources of air pollution in coal cleaning plant
operationsflash driers, fluidized-bed driers, and pneumatic cleaners.
Farticulates in the form of dust constitute the major air pollution problem
in the industry.
In 1967, the 691 coal cleaning plants in the United States had a
capacity of 350.0 million tons with a production of 349.0 million tons.
Value of shipments amounted to $1.5 billion. The 109 plants in the 100
areas had a capacity of 61.4 million tons and production was about 61.3
million tons. Value of shipments was approximately $0.3 billion. Particulate
emissions were 160 thousand tons and 27 thousand tons for the United States
and the 100 areas, respectively.
II. CONTROL OF EMISSIONS
The best information at present indicates that about 87 percent of
all thermal driers (flash and fluidized-bed) are controlled at a level of
80-percent efficiency; 16 percent of the pneumatic cleaners are also con-
trolled at an 80-percent level. The composite level of control is about 58
percent.
Control costs were estimated for the installation and operation of
gas-cleaning equipment that would increase the industry's overall collec-
tion efficiency to 95 percent. Such an increase would upgrade the control
of particulates to meet the process weight rate regulation used in this
analysis.
-------
III. -DISCUSSION AND EVALUATION OF ENGINEERING DATA
USED IN COST ESTIMATION
The basic engineering approach to estimating control costs for the
coal industry consisted of: (a) an evaluation of production processes
within the Indus try; (b) an analysis of uncontrolled emission rates, present
levels of control, and the final level required by the standards adopted
for this study, and (c) the selection of the most satisfactory control
systems to achieve the final control level.
Coal is cleaned by both wet and dry methods. In this analysis three
processes within the coal cleaning industry were considered: flash and
fluidized-bed thermal driers (for coal cleaned by wet methods), and pneu-
matic cleaners. These three processes are significant sources of par-
ticulate emissions mostly in the form of coal dust. Uncontrolled parti-
culate emission rates from these three processes are shown in Table T-l.
Table T-l
UNCONTROLLED PARTICIPATE EMISSION RATES
FROM COAL CLEANING PROCESSESa
Process
Flash drier
Fluidized-bed drier
Pneumatic cleaner
Uncontrolled Emissions
(Ib/ton coal feed)
12
13
3
A cyclone is assumed part of process equipment,
not air pollution control equipment.
Source: Reference 1 and calculated from data given
in References 2 and 3.
Available data on the current level of control reveal that 87 per-
cent of both types of thermal driers and 16 percent of pneumatic cleaners
are controlled at an efficiency of 80 percent [Ref. 4]. The composite
level of control was about 58 percent, when the processes were weighted
according to the quantity of coal handled. To comply with the process
-------
weight rate standard assumed in this analysis, flash driers, fluidized-
bed driers, and pneumatic cleaners will have to be controlled to efficiencies
of 93.2, 97.8, and 94.5 percent, respectively.
The model processes considered in this analysis have the following
sizes: flash drier, 50 tons of coal feed per hour; fluidized-bed drier,
208; and pneumatic cleaner, 70 [Refs. 2 and 5], The gas volumes (control
system sizes) are 27, 99.9, and 25 thousand actual cubic feet per minute
for the flash drier, the fluidized-bed drier, and the pneumatic cleaner,
respectively [Refs. 2,3,5]. The gas stream temperature assumed for this
analysis was 159° F [Ref. 5]. The annual hours of operation were 3,750,
assuming 2 shifts per day, 7.5 effective hours per shift, 5 days per week,
and 50 weeks per year [Ref. 6].
Due to the considerable fire and explosion hazard associated with
coal dust, wet scrubbers instead of baghouses are preferred as control
devices [Refs. 5,7]. A 16" w.g. venturi scrubber was assumed as the con-
trol device for the fluidized-bed drier and a 5" w.g. venturi was assumed
for both the flash drier and the pneumatic cleaner. These pressure drops
correspond to the required control efficiencies stated above.
IV. CONTROL COSTS FOR 1967 BASE YEAR
A. Methodology
Costs estimates for controlling emissions from coal cleaning establish-
ments were based on the types of processes and on the production [Ref. 8]
in each metropolitan area. Output or production of total coal cleaned
was prorated to the different processes as follows: 7.1 percent by pneumatic
methods with the remainder to wet washing. Nationally, only 20.7 percent
of cleaned coal is thermally dried and 43.5 percent of thermally dried
coal is dried in fluidized-bed driers [Ref. 9]. The remaining 56.5 per-
cent of thermally dried coal was assumed to be dried in flash driers. As
appropriate, state data on the percent of cleaned coal that is thermally
dried were used [Ref. 9].
Number of plants is not known; however, metropolitan area capacity
was obtained [Ref. 1 ]. Therefore, only a model plant approach could be
used. Because of the coal dust content of the off-gases and the consequent
-------
explosion potential, wet scrubbers constructed of mild steel were selected
as the gas-cleaning device. Data from the PolyCon Corporation [Ref. 10]
were used to develop unit costs for the model plant and derive investment
and annual costs per ton of coal cleaned for control of emissions.
Cost estimating factors were calculated separately for pneumatic
cleaners, fluidized-bed driers, and flash driers (see Table T-2). The
cost factors then were applied to the estimated capacity by process type
in each area.
Table T-2
COAL CLEANING EMISSION CONTROL COSTS
Equipment Type
Pneumatic cleaners
Fluidized-bed driers
Flash driers
Costs
($1000 /ton/hour
Investment
0.316
0.247
0.463
Annual
0.107
0.098
0.158
B. Estimated Costs
The resulting costs, which include credits for existing controls,
were totalled for the 100 metropolitan areas and are shown in Table T-3.
Control costs would average approximately $0.01 per ton of coal cleaning
capacity when the plan is fully implemented.
The emission of particulates in the 100 areas would be reduced
from over 27 thousand tons in 1967 to approximately 3 thousand tons by
1975. The investment cost for this level of control would total $1.5
million, with an ultimate annual cost of $0.5 million.
-------
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
9
8
7
6
A = 316 ELC Stainless Steel
B = 304 Venturi/MS Concrete Lined Separator
C = All Mild Steel
I
3 4 56789 10
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Inlet Gas Volume (10"" acfm)
Source: Poly Con Corporation.
Fig. T-l. Equipment Coat for Venturi Scrubbers.
-------
1000
800
600
400
200
o
o
o
8 100
80
I
H
w 60
40
20
A = 316 ELC Stainless Steel
B = 304 Venturi/MS Concrete Lined Separator
C = All Mild Steel
40
1
1
20
60 80 100 200
Inlet Gas Volume (LO acfm)
400
600 800 IOCC
Source: Poly Con Corporation.
Fig. T-2. Equipment Cost for Venturi Scrubbers.
-------
1000
800
600
500
400
300
200
o
o
100
80
60
> 50
40
30
H
nl
I
20
PRESSURE DROP
40 inch
I I
I L.I
3 4 5678910
20 30 40 5060 80100
200 300 400 600 800
Inlet Gas Volume (10° acfm)
Source: Poly Con Corporation.
Fig. T-3. Annual Direct Operating Cost for Venturi Scrubbers.
-------
Table T-3
COAL CLEANING PLANTS
ESTIMATES OF REDUCED EMISSION LEVELS AND ASSOCIATED COSTS*
(100 metropolitan areas)
VPAP
1967
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
TTYPFPTFn T7MTQQTHM T TTITTTT
(thousand tons/year)
Part
27
26
20
12
6
3
SO
X
- - ~
HC
__
CO
__
^
ASSOCIATED EMISSION
(percent)
Part
57.5
59.3
67.8
81.2
90.3
94.6
SO
X
~
HC
~
CO
__
~
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
Investment Cost
Lower
Limit
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.9
Expected
0.1
0.4
0.5
0.3
0.2
1.5
Upper
Limit
0.1
0.5
0.8
0.5
0.3
2.2
Annual Cost
Lower
Limit
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.9
Expected
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.5
1.6
Upper
Limit
0.1
0.2
0.5
0.7
0.8
2.3
H
t-'
o
Cost estimates are for the control of only those facilities in operation in calendar year 1967. The areas are
defined in Appendix B.
For levels of particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks in the
-------
V. CONTROL COSTS RESULTING FROM GROWTH
Air pollution control costs were calculated not only for existing
capacity but also for projected increased capacity in the coal cleaning
industry. The projected growth costs were based on the required ultimate
control level for the industry. The calculations consisted of multiplying
the 1967 total investment and annual control costs by the annual growth
in capacity to obtain annual investment and annual costs to control the
emission from industry growth. An average annual growth rate of production
of ten percent per year is expected for the period. The capacity estimates
were derived from the production estimates and based on achieving 90 per-
cent utilization of capacity by FY 1975. Cost estimates for controlling
emissions from production added after 1967 are shown in Table T-4. By
1975, the 1967 capacity plus the capacity added after 1967 would result
in emissions in the 100 areas of 47 thousand tons of particulates without
the act in effect; with the act in effect, emissions would be reduced to
5 thousand tons.
-------
Table T-4
COAL CLEANING PLANTS
ESTIMATED COST OF CONTROLLING POLLUTANT EMISSIONS FROM SOURCES ADDED AFTER 1967'
(100 metropolitan areas)
FISCAL
YEAR
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
Totals
ADDED
CAPACITY
(thousand
tons/yr.)
27,000
34,700
42,400
50,100
57,800
ADDITIONAL
PRODUCTION
(thousand
tons/yr.)
21,500
27,600
33,700
39,800
46,000
EMISSION LEVELb
(thousand tons/year)
Part
1
1
1
2
2
S0x
_..
--
HC
__
~
~
CO
__
~
--
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
INVESTMENT COST
Lower
Limit
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.5
Expected
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.2
1.1
Upper
Limit
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.3
1.8
ANNUAL COST
Lower
Limit
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.7
Expected
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
1.1
Upper
Limit
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.5
0.6
1.8
rt
i
These costs are for new facilities which are assumed to be constructed to meet applicable regulations (App. A); areas
are defined in Appendix B.
Particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks indicate the emissions
-------
REFERENCES
1. National Emission Standards Study, First Draft. U.S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare, NAPCA, Durham, N. C., July 23, 1969.
2. H. R. Brown, et al. Fire and Explosion Hazards in Thermal Coal-drying
Plants. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines Report of
Investigations 5198. Washington, D. C.: U.S. Government Printing
Office, February 1956.
3. E. Northcott. "Dust Abatement at Bird Coal," Mining Congress Journal.
(November 1967), pp. 29-34; 36.
4. David H. Ellis. West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission,
Charleston, West Virginia, July 11, 1969. Private communication.
5. H. A. Schrecengost and M. S. Childers. Fire and Explosion Hazards
in Fluidized-bed Thermal Coal Dryers. U.S. Department of the Interior,
Bureau of Mines Information Circular 8258. Washington, D. C.:
U.S. Government Printing Office, 1965.
6. R. J. Frankel. "Economic Impact of Air and Water Pollution Control
on Coal Preparation." Presented at the 1968 Coal Convention, American
Mining Congress, Pittsburgh, May 5-8, 1968.
7. A. C. Stern (ed.). Air Pollution. Vol. Ill (2nd ed.). New York:
Academic Press, 1968.
8. Keystone Coal Buyers Manual. 1967. New York: McGraw-Hill Co., 1968.
9. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. Bureau of Mines
Minerals Yearbook (four editions: 1964-67). Washington, D. C.:
U.S. Government Printing Office.
-------
Appendix U
Petroleum Products Storage Industry
(SIC No. 5092)
-------
Appendix U
Petroleum Products Storage Industry
I. INTRODUCTION
Principal types of wholesale petroleum and petroleum storage establish-
ments are: (a) petroleum bulk stations and terminals, (b) liquified petro-
leum gas terminals, (c) crude oil wholesalers, and (d) packaged petroleum
products wholesalers.
In 1967, a national total of 29,664 plants had a storage capacity
of 7.8 billion gallons of gasoline and handled about 58.6 billion gallons.
Value of shipments amounted to $17.5 billion. Capacity was about 5.1 billion
gallons for the 6,130 plants located in the 100 metropolitan areas. The gaso-
line handled amounted to 32.8 billion gallons and value of shipments amounted
to approximately $9.8 billion.
The only significant emissions are hydrocarbons evaporated during
storage in fixed roof tanks and during transfer operations. For 1967, uncon-
trolled emissions amounted to 1,100 thousand tons of hydrocarbons in the United
States and 636 thousand tons in the 100 metropolitan areas.
II. CONTROL OF EMISSIONS
Seventy-five percent of all storage tanks have floating roofs and about
50 percent of the terminals use submerged or bottom-fill transfer tech-
niques which substantially decrease hydrocarbon emissions. Floating roofs in
storage tanks control evaporation by about 90 percent, whereas submerged filling
during transfer operations eliminates about 40 percent of potential emissions.
The current overall control level for storage and transfer is about 53.5 percent.
-------
The standard for hydrocarbon emission control used in this study
requires that storage tanks be equipped with floating roofs or equally
effective devices. Gasoline storage tanks require submerged filling
inlets. The application of these devices to all uncontrolled tanks
would result in overall control of 75 percent.
III. DISCUSSION AMD EVALUATION OF ENGINEERING DATA
USED IN COST ANALYSIS
A. Cost Data
Costs for converting fixed-roof storage tanks to floating roof tanks
are shown in Figure U-l. Costs for submerged fill techniques were not readily
available; however, these techniques usually require only a modified nozzle
on the hose used to fill tank trucks, and a length of pipe attached to the
inside of the tank for submerged tank filling; the costs for such are mini-
mal. Complete gasoline emission loading systems utilizing vapor recovery
would, of course, cost much more.
B. Emission Data
The factors used to determine emissions from bulk gasoline storage
[Ref. 1] are presented in Table U-l.
Table U-l
EMISSION FACTORS FOR BULK GASOLINE STORAGE
Process
Emission Factors
Uncontrolled
Controlled
Storage losses
Tank filling
Truck filling
47 lbs/day/1000 bbl
8.2 lbs/1000 gal
11.5 lbs/1000 gal
4.7 lbs/day/1000 bbl
4.9 lbs/1000 gal
6.9 lbs/1000 gal
-------
300
Flg. U-l.
stora
ee
-------
Transfer Icfsses were based on ten full turnovers in tank contents per
year; which was estimated by dividing total volume of gasoline sold by total
gasoline storage capacity. To determine total metropolitan area emissions,
three-fourths of all tanks were assumed to have floating roofs, and one-
half of all transfer operations used submerged fill techniques [Ref. 1].
IV. CONTROL COSTS FOR 1967 BASE YEAR
A. Methodology
While the costs for converting a specific sized, fixed-roof gasoline
storage tank to a floating roof tank were fairly well known, the distribution
of tank sizes within any area was not known. A model tank approach was
therefore used to estimate tank conversion costs for the various areas.
The model tank size selected was 290 thousand gallons based on the fact that
an average bulk gasoline storage facility has a capacity of 2.9 million gal-
lons, assuming 10 turnovers per year. This was calculated using the present
estimated national capacity of 8.8 billion gallons and approximately 30
thousand storage facilities. Seventy-five percent of all gasoline storage
tanks were assumed to be presently controlled except for California which has
100 percent control.
The cost for converting a model-sized tank with a capacity of 290 thou-
sand gallons from a fixed-roof to a floating roof unit was estimated to be
$16 thousand as shown in Figure U-l. Costs for smaller sized tanks were also
taken from Figure U-l and were used to estimate the costs for the remaining
storage capacity not accounted for by an even number of model tanks. Thus,
in any given area, the average capacity of each establishment was determined
(total area capacity [Ref. 3] divided by number of establishments [Ref. 3]);
the equivalent number of model tanks within each average establishment was
then obtained (average capacity divided by 290 thousand gallons) and costed
at $16 thousand each; the remaining capacity was then costed as a separate
item and added to the cost of the model plants. ThLs total cost was then
multiplied by one-fourth of the number of establishments to arrive at the
total area cost; this takes into account the estimate that 75 percent are
already controlled.
-------
It was assumed that all plants would prefer converting their uncon-
trolled tanks to floating roof units to the alternative of installing new
tanks. The cost for installing submerged filling equipment was included in
the cost of converting the tank.
Annualized costs were not included since the amount of gasoline saved
will usually more than cover the annualized expenses incurred in converting
the tank.
B. Estimated Costs
The resulting investment costs, which include allowance for existing
controls, were totalled for the 100 metropolitan areas; these are shown in
Table U-2. The emission of hydrocarbons would be reduced from over 635
thousand tons in 1967 to approximately 343 thousand tons by 1975. The
investment cost for this level of control would total over $68.2 million;
however, there would probably be no or very small annual costs due to the
reduction of product losses.
V. CONTROL COSTS RESULTING FROM GROWTH
In addition, air pollution control costs were calculated for projected
increased capacity in the petroleum products storage industry after the base
year of 1967. The projected growth costs were based on the expected ultimate
control level of 75.0 percent. The calculations consisted of multiplying
the 1967 total investment and annual control costs by the annual growth in
capacity to obtain annual investment and annual costs to control the
emission from industry growth. An average annual growth rate of 3.0
percent in gasoline production and therefore new storage capacity was
assumed for the period 1967 to FY 1975 [Ref. 4]~. The estimated costs of
controlling the projected additional capacity are shown in Table U-3. As
shown, costs in each year reflect the installation of floating roof tanks.
By 1975, without the act, hydrocarbon emissions in the 100 areas would reach
779 thousand tons for the 1967 capacity plus the capacity added after 1967.
With the act in effect, emissions would be reduced to 419 thousand tons.
-------
Table U-2
PETROLEUM PRODUCTS STORAGE PLANTS
ESTIMATES OF REDUCED EMISSION LEVELS AND ASSOCIATED COSTS2
(100 metropolitan areas)
VI? A P
1967
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
b
(thousand tons/year)
Part
~
SO
"""
HC
636
636
586
493
374
343
CO
_
~
ASSOCIATED EMISSION
(percent)
Part
__
~
SO
X
__
~
HC
53.5
53.5
57.0
64.0
73.0
75.0
CO
"
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
Investment Cost
Lower
Limit
0.0
9.2
22.2
17.4
5.7
54.5
Expected
0.0
11.5
27.7
21.7
7.1
68.0
Upper
Limit
0.0
14.9
36.1
28.2
9.3
88.5
Annual Cost
Lower
Limit
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Expected
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Upper
Limit
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
oo
Cost estimates are for the control of only those facilities in operation in calendar year 1967. The areas are
defined in Appendix B.
For levels of participates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks in the
-------
Table U-3
PETROLEUM PRODUCTS STORAGE PLANTS
ESTIMATED COST OF CONTROLLING POLLUTANT EMISSIONS FROM SOURCES ADDED AFTER 1967'
(100 metropolitan areas)
T?TCPAT
r loUAL
YEAR
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
Totals
ADDED
CAPACITY
(million
gallons
storage)
541
695
850
1,000
1,160
ADDITIONAL
PRODUCTION
(million
gallons
per year)
3,530
4,430
5,410
6,390
7,380
EMISSION LEVELb
(thousand tons/year)
Part
--
S0x
^
--
HC
35
45
56
66
76
CO
MM
--
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
INVESTMENT COST
Lower
Limit
1.6
2.3
3.3
3.0
2.1
12.3
Expected
2.1
2.9
4.2
3.7
2.6
15.5
Upper
Limit
2.7
3.8
5.5
4.9
3.4
20.3
ANNUAL COST
Lower
Limit
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Expected
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Upper
Limit
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
cl
VO
These costs are for new facilities which are assumed to be constructed to meet applicable regulations (App. A); areas
are defined in Appendix B.
Particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks indicate the emissions
-------
REFERENCES
1. R. L. Duprey. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. PHS
Publication No. 999-AP-42. Durham, N. C.: U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution Control,
1968.
2. Based on data received from R. Lunche, Los Angeles County Air Pollution
Control District, July 15, 1969.
3. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census. 1963 Census of Business.
Washington, D. C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1964.
4. H. Landsberg, et al. Resources in America's Future. Baltimore: The
Johns Hopkins Press, 1963.
-------
Appendix V
Grain Milling and Handling Industry
(SIC No. 204X)
-------
Appendix V
Grain Milling and Handling Industry
I. INTRODUCTION
Commercial grain mills process grain into flour, livestock feeds,
cereals, corn syrup, and various bread and pastry mixes. Grain elevators
provide storage space and serve as collection and transfer points.
In 1967, there were 2,866 grain mills in the Nation, with 907 of these
located in the 100 areas. National capacity and production were 64.0
million tons and 50.5 million tons, respectively; capacity and production
for the 100 areas were 43.9 million tons and 35.5 million tons, respective-
ly. Value of shipments was $4.6 billion for the Nation and $3.7 billion
for the 100 areas.
The 11,147 grain elevators in the United States had a capacity of
5.5 million bushels, and production (throughput) was about 18.0 million
bushels. Capacity and production for the 1,089 elevators in the 100
areas was 1.3 million bushels and 4.4 million bushels, respectively.-
Dusts are generated in both the milling operations in grain mills
and the handling and cleaning of grain in elevators; however, large dust
particles are generally controlled. In the milling of products other
than livestock feed, fine dusts are also controlled because of their value.
Estimates are presented in this report for the milling operation in live-
stock feed mills and the cleaning and handling operations in terminal
grain elevators. Terminal elevators contribute the vast majority of the
particulate emissions from the grain milling and handling industry and
nearly all terminal elevators in the United States are located in the
100 metropolitan areas. In 1967, total particulate emissions from
livestock feed mills and elevators were about 1210 thousand tons for
the Nation and 1200 thousand tons for the 100 areas.
- Value of shipments is not applicable.
-------
II. CONTROL OF EMISSIONS
Control of dust emitted from livestock feed milling and handling
can be accomplished with air-cleaning devices, such as fabric filters, to
give 99 percent or better control as compared to the present average
control level of 35 percent. Such controls will bring the level of
emission into compliance with the process weight rate regulation for
particulate control.
III. DISCUSSION AND EVALUATION OF ENGINEERING
DATA USED IN COST ESTIMATION
The basic engineering approach taken in order to estimate air pollu-
tion control costs for grain mills and elevators consisted of: (a) an
attempt to determine the number and size of all grain mills and elevators
in the United States, (b) estimating the total amount of grain processed
in the United States, (c) estimating the operations through which an
"average grain" passes from field to final product, and (d) determining
the quantities of dust generated during each of the elevator and milling
operations. Since only dusts are generated during these operations, and
considering the nature of the industry, the preferred control systems were
cyclones plus fabric filters. Use of these is adequate to reduce
emissions to acceptable levels.
Determining the number of grain elevators and mills in the United
States was difficult because of differing opinions as to what constitutes
an elevator and lack of accurate census data for elevators and mills. The
estimates used in this study came from a U.S. Department of Agriculture
listing of warehouses approved to handle grain under the Commodity Credit
Corporation agreements [Ref. 1]. Since all elevators and mills are not
parties to these agreements, it has been estimated that only 85 percent
of total storage capacity is accounted for in this listing [Ref. 2].
-------
The grain from field to consumer goes through many processes; more-
over, different grains receive different treatment during the processing
steps. To simplify calculations, all grain was assumed to proceed through
the following steps: (a) after harvesting, the grain is taken to a country
elevator; (b) there it is unloaded, weighed, and stored for an indefinite
period; (c) it is then loaded into a type of conveyance and taken to a
terminal elevator; and (d) it is then unloaded, weighed again, given a
preliminary cleaning, and again stored for an indefinite period.
During storage at the terminal elevator, some of the grain must be
"turned" or "transferred" that is, transferred from one bin to another,
usually for the purpose of reducing its temperature which has been slowly
increasing due to any of several biochemical reactions. Also, it was
estimated that 80 percent of all corn is dried mechanically at terminal
elevators [Ref. 3]. It was further assumed that all grains in terminal
elevators are either exported or processed into animal feeds, with the
exception of wheat. Seventy-five percent of the wheat in this country
is milled into flour for human consumption.
Dust generated during most of these processing steps results princi-
pally from mechanical abrasion of the individual grains. Best estimates
of the quantities of dust generated during each step have been obtained
from two experiments [Refs. 3, 4, and 5], but even these must be considered
only approximations because of the experimental difficulties involved.
The overall emission factors selected on the basis of these studies are 19.1
pounds of particulate per ton of grain for grain handling at terminal elevators,
and 6.0 pounds of particulate per ton of grain processed for grain milling
for the production of animal feed.
It has been assumed further that few, if any, country elevators are
equipped with dust control devices. This is not necessarily important
in this study, however, since few country elevators are within the 100
metropolitan areas. In contrast nearly all terminal elevators are located
in the 100 metropolitan areas. Only 50 percent of terminal elevators and
animal feed mills are assumed to be equipped with cyclones, which remove
only 70 percent of the dust conveyed to them [Ref. 3]. Fabric filters
will be required to reduce the remaining dust emissions to acceptable
levels. Calculations of costs to equip the elevators with cyclones and
baghouses were based partly on an assumed minimum air velocity (3500 ft/min)
-------
required to prevent dust settling in horizontal ducts, the size of ducts
for small installations (6 inches in diameter), and the detailed equip-
ment cost analyses presented in Figure V-l. It was assumed that all
wheat flour mills are equipped with fabric filters and that the dust
emissions from baghouse exhausts meet the proposed process weight rate
standard.
IV. CONTROL COSTS FOR 1967 BASE YEAR
A. Methodology
1. Grain Elevators
A list of grain elevators by counties was obtained [Ref. 7] and
data were classified by employment size category as shown in Table
V-l.
Table V-l
EMPLOYMENT SIZE CATEGORY FOR GRAIN ELEVATORS
Employment Size
Category
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Capacity
(tons /day)
unknown
< 25
25-74
75-150
150-250
250-500
500-1000
1000-2500
2500-5000
5000-10,000
> 10,000
-------
The next step was to compile a distribution of elevator
capacities for each metropolitan area. Data concerning total
grain handled were used to estimate total industry capacity which was
in turn prorated to individual grain elevators on the basis of
employment range. For each area, the plants with unknown employ-
ment were distributed among the other categories by one of two
methods. If an area had a large number of plants already distributed
according to employment, the smaller number of unknowns was prorated
among the categories according to this distribution. On the other
hand, if the majority in an area was unknown, it was distributed in
proportion to the distribution for the total known capacities in the
100 metropolitan areas.
Finally, an investment cost for each grain elevator size
category was determined. An estimated equipment purchase cost was
developed for each size category [Ref. 6]. The sum for each area
was multiplied by 1.75 to get the investment costs and by 0.35 to
estimate annual costs. These costs are shown in Table V-2. Costs for
each area were calculated as the sum of costs for elevators in all
size categories.
Table V-2
GRAIN ELEVATOR EMISSION CONTROL COSTS
Size
Category
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Nominal Capacity
(tons /day)
< 25
25-74
75-150
150-250
250-500
500-1000
1000-2500
2500-5000
5000-10,000
> 10,000
Equipment Costs
($1000)a
5.1
7.3
9.4
11.2
10.8
12.0
13.6
15.2
16.6
18.5
Investment Costs
($1000)b
8.9
12.8
16.5
19.6
18.9
21.0
23.8
26.6
29.1
32.4
Annual Costs
($1000)c
3.1
4.5
5.8
6.9
6.6
7.4
8.3
9.3
10.2
11.3
Equipment costs are for multicyclones followed by baghouses.
to be already installed on elevators of Category 5 and higher.
Investment costs calculated at 1.75 times equipment costs.
Annual costs calculated at 0.35 times investment costs.
V-7
-------
2. Grain Mills (Livestock Feed)
A listing of livestock feed mills and the number of employees
at each mill was obtained from Dun and Bradstreet data. Capacities
(tons/day) for each area in 1963 [Ref. 8] were scaled upward to 1967 by
using the 1967 to 1963 ratio of high protein feed, which comprises the
major proportion of all livestock feed. The area capacities
were then prorated to individual plants according to the number of
employees at each plant.
Costs for each mill were estimated on the basis of three oper-
ations per plant: loading, transferring and handling, and cleaning.
Cleaning was included only for plants producing less than 615 tons
a day; larger mills are reported not to clean grain. Gas volumes
were calculated for each process, and seven sizes of fabric filter
systems were assigned according to the estimated gas volume.
Purchase cost for fabric filters as a function of gas flow
is shown in Figure V-l. Installation costs were estimated at
1.75 times the purchase cost, and annual costs as 0.35 times the
investment cost. The resulting process size relationships are pre-
sented in Table V-3.
Table V-3
LIVESTOCK FEED MILL EMISSION CONTROL COSTS
Mill Capacity
(tons/day)
10.3
30.8
71.8
154 0
615 0
1538 0
2563.0
Equipment Costs
($1000)
Unloading
4.0
4.3
4.6
4.6
4.6
5.3
7.2
Transferring &
Handling
5.5
6.2
6 8
6.8
6.8
8.2
11.9
Cleaning
4.0
5.5
8.8
15.4
o.oc
o.oc
o.oc
Total Costs
($1000")
d
Investment
23.6
28.0
35 4
46.6
20.0
23.6
33.4
Annual
8.26
9.80
12.40
16.30
7.00
8.26
11.70
Investment cost calculated at 1 75 times total equipment costs.
Annual cost calculated at 0.35 times total investment cost.
No grain cleaning in plants of these sizes.
-------
Inlet Gas Volume
A = High Temperature Synthetics, Woven and Felt. Continuous Automatically Cleaned.
B = Medium Temperature Synthetics, Woven and Felt. Continuous Automatically Cleaned
Intermittently Cleaned - Single Compartment.
Woven Natural Fibers.
50 100
Inlet Gas Volume
500
1000
ac
fm)
Source: Edmisten, N. G. and F. L. Bunyard, "A Systematic Procedure for Determining
the Cost of Controlling Particulate Emissions from Industrial Sources."
Presented at the annual meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association,
New York, June 1969.
Fig. V-l. Equipment Cost of Fabric Filters.
-------
B. Estimated Control Costs
The resulting costs that take into account existing cyclone collectors
were totalled fo» the 100 metropolitan areas and are shown in Tables V-4
and V-5. Annual control costs would average $0.01 per bushel of storage
capacity and approximately $0.18 per ton of animal feed mill capacity.
Emissions of particulates would be reduced from 1.1 million tons
per year to 17 thousand tons per year for grain elevators and from 96
thousand to 1 thousand tons per year for animal feed mills when the plan
is fully implemented. Total investment costs would amount to $21.3
million for grain elevators and $22.1 million for animal feed mills.
Annual costs would reach $7.5 million for the elevators and $7.8 million
for the animal feed mills by FY 1975.
V. CONTROL COSTS RESULTING FROM GROWTH
Air pollution control costs were calculated not only for existing
elevator storage capacity but also for increased capacity beyond the
base year of 1967. Present (1967) capacity for animal feed milling is
considered adequate to 1975. The projected costs were based upon the
required ultimate control level of 99 percent. The calculations consisted
of multiplying the 1967 total investment and annual control costs by the
annual growth in capacity to obtain annual investment and annual costs to
control the emission from industry growth. A growth rate of 1.5 percent
per year was selected based primarily upon information included in
Resources in America's Future [Ref. 9]. The capacity estimates were based
on maintaining the same capacity - production relationship that existed
in the 1967 base year.
The results of the cost analysis are shown in Table V-6. Costs
reflect immediate control of the incremental storage capacity at the
ultimate control efficiency. By 1975, for the 1967 capacity plus the
capacity added after 1967 without the act in effect, particulate emissions
for mills and elevators in the 100 areas would reach 1350 thousand tons;
while \/ith the act in effect, these emissions would be reduced to 20
thousand tons.
-------
Table V-4
GRAIN ELEVATORS
ESTIMATES OF REDUCED EMISSION LEVELS AND ASSOCIATED COSTS5
(100 metropolitan areas)
VI? AP
1967
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
i.
TTYPPPTirn FMTQQTOM T TTVTTT
(thousand tons/year)
Part
1100
1078
858
443
143
17
SO
X
__
~
HC
_
CO
_
~
ASSOCIATED EMISSION
(AwllKUL Lit V ILL
(percent)
Part
35.0
36.3
49.3
73.8
91.5
99.0
SO
X
_
~
HC
..
~
CO
..
~~
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
Investment Cost
Lower
Limit
0.3
2.6
5.2
4.1
1.6
13.8
Expected
0.5
4.0
8.0
6.4
2.4
21.3
Upper
Limit
0.7
5.4
10.8
8.7
3.3
28.9
Annual Cost
Lower
Limit
0.1
1.0
2.8
4.3
4.8
13.0
Expected
0.1
1.5
4.3
6.6
7.5
20.0
Upper
Limit
0.2
2.1
5.9
8.9
10.1
27.2
Cost estimates are for the control of only those facilities in operation in calendar year 1967. The areas are
defined in Appendix B.
For levels of particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks in the
-------
Table V-5
GRAIN MILLS
ESTIMATES OF REDUCED EMISSION LEVELS AND ASSOCIATED COSTS2
(100 metropolitan areas)
YFAR
1967
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
h
FYPTTPTTm TTMTQQTnKT TT?T7PT
(thousand tons/year)
Part
96
91
68
39
10
1
S0x
___
__
HC
__
CO
__
~~
ASSOCIATED EMISSION
L-UNIKUL LLVtiL
(percent)
Part
35.0
38.6
53.7
73.3
93.0
99.0
S°x
__
HC
_
~
CO
..
__
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
Investment Cost
Lower
Limit
0.5
2.4
4.0
2.9
1.2
11.0
Expected
1.0
4.8
7.9
5.9
2.5
22.1
Upper
Limit
1.5
7.2
11.9
8.8
3.7
33.1
Annual Cost *
Lower
Limit
0.1
1.0
2.4
3.5
3.9
10.9
Expected
0.3
2.0
4.9
7.0
7.8
22.0
Upper
Limit
0.5
3.0
7.4
10.5
11.8
33.2
<
I
Cost estimates are for the control of only those facilities in operation in calendar year 1967. The areas are
defined in Appendix B.
For levels of particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks in the
-------
Table V-6
GRAIN ELEVATORS
ESTIMATED COST OF CONTROLLING POLLUTANT EMISSIONS FROM SOURCES ADDED AFTER 1967*
(100 metropolitan areas)
FISCAL
YEAR
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
Totals
ADDED
CAPACITY
(million
bushels
storage
space)
70
90
110
130
150
ADDITIONAL
PRODUCTION
(million
bushels/yr)
230
296
362
428
494
EMISSION LEVELb
(thousand tons /year)
Part
1
1
2
2
2
S0x
__
--
HC
__
«
CO
__
_-
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
INVESTMENT COST
Lower
Limit
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.2
1.4
Expected
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.5
0.4
2.2
Upper
Limit
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.7
0.5
3.0
ANNUAL COST
Lower
Limit
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.6
1.7
Expected
0.1
0.3
0.5
0.7
0.9
2.5
Upper
Limit
0.2
0.4
0.7
0.9
1.1
3.3
u>
These costs are for new facilities which are assumed to be constructed to meet applicable regulations (App. A) ; areas
are defined in Appendix B.
Particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks indicate the emissions
-------
REFERENCES
1. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Stabilization and Con-
servation Service. "Warehouses Approved to Handle Grain Under the
Commodity Credit Corporation Uniform Grain Storage Agreement"
(unpublished Kansas City Data Processing Center computer listing).
Kansas City, Missouri, January 1969.
2. Dr. William Faught, Chief of Fibers and Grain Section, Economics
Research Service, U.S.D.A. Private communication.
3. H. Bland, Aeroglide Corporation. Private communication.
4. R. F. Hubbard, Assistant General Superintendent, The Cargill Company.
Private communication.
5. D. J. Thimsen and P. W. Aften. "A Proposed Design to Grain Elevator
Dust Collection," Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association.
Vol. 18 (1968), pp. 738-742.
6. N. G. Edmisten and F. L. Bunyard. "A Systematic Procedure for Deter-
mining the Cost of Controlling Particulate Emissions from Industrial
Sources." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Air Pollution
Control Administration, New York, June 1969.
7- U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Wholesale Prices & Price Indexes.
Washington, D. C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1966.
8. U.S. Department of Commerce, Office of Business Economics. 1963
Census of Manufactures, I, Summary and Subject Statistics. Washington,
D. C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1966.
9. H. Landsberg, et al. Resources in America's Future. Baltimore,
Maryland: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1963.
-------
Appendix W
Varnish Industry
(SIC No. 2851)
-------
Appendix W
Varnish Industry
I. INTRODUCTION
Varnish production, unlike that of paint and lacquer, involves a
cooking process which results in the evaporation and emission of hydro-
carbons. In 1967 there were 230 varnish plants in the United States;
216 of the U.S. total were in the 100 metropolitan areas. National capacity
and production were estimated at 56.0 million gallons and 45.4 million
gallons, respectively. National value of shipments amounted to $0.1 billion
In the 100 areas, capacity and production were estimated at 52.0 million
gallons and 43.0 million gallons, respectively and value of shipments
approached $0.1 billion.
II. CONTROL OF EMISSIONS
All varnish plants in California were assumed to be controlled, while
only about 20 percent of the plants located elsewhere were assumed to be
controlled. Those controlled by afterburners were assumed to have an effi-
ciency of 90 to 95 percent. The overall national level of control was
estimated to be 18 percent. To meet the standards selected for this report,
varnish plants need to reduce the organic content of the effluent gas
stream by 90 percent.
III. DISCUSSION AND EVALUATION OF ENGINEERING
DATA USED IN COST ESTIMATES
The cost of a direct-fired afterburner system serving two varnish
cookers varies from about $2,000 to $3,000 depending on the type of venting
system and the exact type of afterburner [Refs. 1,2, and 3]. Exit gas
rates on the order of 350 acfm to about 1,000 acfm are normally encountered.
More than one varnish cooker is usually used at a plant, and for the
-------
purposes of this report, a step-wise increase in cost was used as the
manufacturing capacity at an establishment increased. This cost versus
size relationship is shown in Figure W-l.
Operation and maintenance costs, assuming gas stream input and out-
put temperatures of 500° and 1200° F, respectively, were based on the
following equation:
where:
S[195.5 x 10~6PHK + HF± + M]
S - acfm, 600 acfm for up to 250 gal tank, and 1200 acfm
for 250-1000 gal tank;
P = 1" water;
H = 2400 hours/year (240 days at 10 hrs/day) ;
K = $0.01/kw-acfm;
F^ $0.0027/acfm-hr (0.03 cfm fuel/acfm exit gas) [Ref. 4],
fuel cost = $0.00015/ft3;
F= $0.0015/acfm-hr, fuel cost = $.00085/ft ;
F_= $0.0009/acfm-hr, fuel cost
M = $0.06/acfm.
$.00050/ft
The various fuel costs (F.) were based on average gas rates for differ-
ent parts of the country [Ref. 5]. Using these fuel costs, the annualized
cost factors (including 20 percent depreciation and capital charges) pre-
sented in Table W-l were obtained.
Table W-l
CAPACITY VS. ANNUALIZED COST FACTORS
Capacity
(gal)
0-250
250-1000
Annualized Cost Factors
($)
East Coast,
Northwest, Hawaii
4390
8705
Midwest
2650
5225
Southwest
1820
3365
-------
Ui
15
o
o
o
to
o
u
rt
u
09
c
M
10
1
1
500
1,000
2,000
Plant Capacity (gallons)
3,000
-------
Emissions for 1967 were estimated by using an emission factor of 4
percent of throughput [Ref. 6] and assuming 20 percent of the plants
were already controlled. Fully controlled emission estimates were based
on all plants being controlled with a hydrocarbon removal efficiency of
90 percent.
IV. CONTROL COSTS FOR 1967 BASE YEAR
A. Methodology
Due to the varied types of varnish plants, a model plant approach
was used to determine control costs. Plant names, locations, and numbers
of employees for plants producing varnish were extracted from a Dun
and Bradstreet listing. Area varnish-making capacity was estimated
by relating regional employment to the ratio of national production of
varnish to national employment in the industry. The control costs for
the model plant were based on a production rate of 250 gallons per cooker
and on a direct-fired afterburner (without heat exchange) control system.
A step-wise increase in control costs based on as many as four tanks
venting into a single control system was used. Any plant larger than one
thousand gallons (4 cookers at 250 gal. each), therefore, required at
least two control systems.
Twenty percent of the plants throughout the country were assumed
to have adequate existing controls and all plants in California were assumed
to be adequately controlled.
The average size of the plants within a region was obtained by first
dividing the annual regional varnish manufacturing capacity by 240 days
per year and then dividing this daily capacity by the number of establish-
ments. Where one or two plants in a region were extremely large, as indi-
cated by their employment, they were handled separately, i.e., not averaged
in with the smaller plants. Only plants with more than 2 employees were
included in the cost analysis.
-------
The cost for the average plant (indicated in Figure W-l) was multi-
plied by O.8. Costs for very large plants were estimated as separate
items and added to the cost of the average plants.
Annualized costs included operating and maintenance costs and 20
percent of capital investment. Variation in fuel cost was taken into
account as previously shown in Table W-l.
B. Estimated Costs
The resulting costs, that take into account that 100-percent of plants
are controlled in California and 20-percent are controlled in the rest of
the Nation, were totalled for the 100 metropolitan areas and are shown
in Table W-2. Control costs would average approximately $0.02 per gallon
of varnish-making capacity when the plan is fully implemented.
The emission of hydrocarbons would be reduced from approximately 5
thousand tons in 1967 to approximately 0.1 thousand tons by 1975. The
investment cost for this level of control would total $700 thousand with
an annual cost of $800 thousand by FY 1975.
V. CONTROL COSTS RESULTING FROM GROWTH
Air pollution control costs were calculated not only for existing
capacity (Section IV) but also for increased capacity estimated to be
installed in the varnish industry between 1967 and FY 1975. The projected
growth costs were based on the expected ultimate control level of 90.0
percent. The calculations consisted of multiplying the 1967 total invest-
ment and annual control costs by the annual growth in capacity to obtain
annual investment and annual costs to control the emission from industry
growth.
2/
An average annual production growth rate of 5.0 percent was used.
The capacity estimates, derived from the production estimates, were based
Eighty percent of the plants were assumed uncontrolled.
- The primary source for this estimate was The National Paint, Varnish,
and Lacquer Association.
-------
Table W-2
VARNISH PLANTS
ESTIMATES OF REDUCED EMISSION LEVELS AND ASSOCIATED COSTS5
(100 metropolitan areas)
VPAp
1967
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
b
(thousand tons/year)
Part
_
SO
X
__
HC
5
5
4
2
1
1
CO
ASSOCIATED EMISSION
(percent)
Part
so
X
HC
18.0
18.0
33.9
66.1
85.6
90.0
CO
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
Investment Cost
Lower
Limit
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.5
Expected
0.0
0.1
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.7
Upper
Limit
0.0
0.2
0.5
0.3
0.1
1.1
Annual Cost
Lower
Limit
0.0
0.1
0.3
0.4
0.4
1.2
Expected
0.0
0.2
0.5
0.7
0.8
2.2
Upper
Limit
0.0
0.2
0.7
1.0
1.1
3.0
00
Cost estimates are for the control of only those facilities in operation in calendar year 1967. The areas are
defined in Appendix B.
For levels of particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC) , carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks in the
-------
on achieving 90-percent utilization of capacity by FY 1975.
The estimated cost of controlling the additional varnish-making
capacity are shown in Table W-3. As shown, costs in each year reflect
immediate control of the additional capacity. Without the act, 1975
emissions from the 1967 capacity plus the additional capacity in the 100
areas would reach 6 thousand tons of hydrocarbons annually. With the
act in effect, annual emissions would be reduced to less than 2 thousand
tons.
-------
Table W-3
VARNISH PLANTS
ESTIMATED COST OF CONTROLLING POLLUTANT EMISSIONS FROM SOURCES ADDED AFTER 1967*
(100 metropolitan areas)
FISCAL
YEAR
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
ADDED
CAPACITY
(thousand
gallons/yr)
5,600
7,200
8,800
10,400
12,000
ADDITIONAL
PRODUCTION
(thousand
gallons/yr)
6,810
8,760
10,700
12,700
14,600
EMISSION LEVELb
(thousand tons /year)
Part
S0x
__
HC
I
CO
__
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
INVESTMENT COST
Lower
Limit
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.5
Expected
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.5
Upper
Limit
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.5
ANNUAL COST
Lower
Limit
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.5
Expected
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.8
Upper
Limit
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.4
0.4
1.3
Si
I-1
o
These costs are for new facilities which are assumed to be constructed to meet applicable regulations (App. A) ; areas
are defined in Appendix B.
Particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks indicate the emissions
need no control.
-------
REFERENCES
1. R. G. Lunche, et al. Air Pollution Engineering in Los Angeles County,
July 1, 1966, pg. 30.
2. J. L. Mills, et al. "Design of Afterburners for Varnish Cookers,"
Journal of Air Pollution Control Association. Vol. 10, No. 2, (April,
I960), pp. 161-168.
3. R. L. Chass, et al. "Contribution of Solvents to Air Pollution and
Methods for Controlling Emissions," Journal of Air Pollution Control
Association. Vol. 13, No. 2, (February 1963), pp. 64-72.
4. J. A. Danielson, (ed.). Air Pollution Engineering Manual. PHS Pub-
lication No. 999-AP-40. Cincinnati, Ohio: Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, 1967.
5. The Fuel of Fifty Cities. Report to the National Air Pollution Con-
trol Administration. Washington, D. C.: Ernst and Ernst, November
1968.
6. R. L. Duprey. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. PHS
Publication 999-AP-42. Durham, N. C.: U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution Control,
1968.
-------
Appendix X
Rubber (Tires and Inner Tubes) Industry
(SIC No. 3011)
-------
Appendix X
Rubber (Tires and Inner Tubes) Industry
I. INTRODUCTION
This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in manu-
facturing pneumatic tire casings, inner tubes, solid and cushioned tires
for all types of vehicles, and tire repair and retreading materials.
The various operations within the industry emit particulates (mostly
carbon black, but also fine dust, fumes, and smoke) and hydrocarbons
from cord dipping.
In 1967, there were 159 rubber plants in the United States with a
combined capacity of 250.0 million tires and tubes per year. Production
was 203.0 million tires and tubes and value of shipments amounted to $3.7
billion. For the 102 plants in the 100 metropolitan areas, capacity was
170.0 million tires and tubes; production was 137.0 million tires and
tubes; and value of shipments amounted to $2.5 billion.
II. CONTROL OF EMISSIONS
At the present time, insufficient data are available to estimate
pollutant emissions from tire and tube production. Even though emissions
of carbon black particulates and hydrocarbons are unknown, cost estimates
can be based on industry practice which is to control the carbon black
with fabric filters to prevent the loss of this valuable material. These
devices will enable tire and tube producers to meet the process weight rate
regulation. After-burners will readily meet the assumed standard of 90-
percent hydrocarbon emission control.
-------
III. DATA USED IN COST ANALYSIS
The engineering process data required to develop control costs for
the rubber industry included estimates for afterburners and fabric filter
systems.
A. Afterburner for Tire Cord Dipping Operation
For direct gas-fired systems with no heat exchange, installed cost
equals $25 thousand + 25 percent [Ref. 1].
The following equation and calculations were used in determining
annual costs [Ref. 2]:
G = S[195.5 x 10~6 PHK + HF + M]
where: S = 15,000 acfm;
P = 1" water;
H = 2400 hours/year (200 days, 12 hours/day of
afterburner operation);
K = $0.011/kwh;
F = $0.00056/acfm-hr;
M = $0.06/acfm.
Thus, G = 1.435S or: $21,400/yr
Capital charges plus depreciation @ 20% 5,000
Total annual cost: $26,400
B. Fabric Filter System
Installed cost of Orion bags with a continuous air jet cleaning
system and a capacity of about 10,000 acfm is estimated to be $30 thou-
sand [Refs. 1 and 3]. Recovery of carbon black is sufficient to cover
the annualized costs of the system.
Since 80 percent of the plants were assumed to already have fabric
filter systems, the estimated investment for control of an average model
plant is:
$25,000 (for an afterburner) + 0.20($30,000 for a fabric filter) = $31,000
-------
The following is an example calculation for a sample metropolitan area:
. 3285 employees ,
350 employees/model plant = 9 model PlantsJ
$31,000/plant x 9 plants = $279,000 investment cost;
$26,400/plant x 9 plants = $238,000 annual cost.
No estimate of emissions from this manufacturing process was made
due to a lack of emission data. Plants in California are primarily con-
trolled because of an opacity problem and not because of a quantitative
emission violation.
IV. CONTROL COST FOR 1967 BASE YEAR
A. Methodology
To determine the air pollution control costs for tire and tube
manufacturing plants, a model plant concept was used. This model plant
employed 350 persons and produced 825 thousand tires and 206 thousand
tubes per year. Many plants do not produce innertubes; however, their
control costs would not be much lower since the types of air pollution
control equipment required are largely for controlling emissions from
tire production.
The model plant was equipped with a direct-fired afterburner to
control organic emissions from the tire cord dipping operation, and
a fabric filter system for controlling particulate emissions from Banbury
mixers. Eighty percent of the plants were assumed to have a fabric filter
system, and all plants in California were assumed to be controlled. The
installed cost of these control systems in the model plant is $31 thou-
sand. Annualized cost computed only for the afterburner system is $26.4
thousand. The fabric filter system collected valuable raw material
which was returned to the manufacturing operation. It was assumed that
the recovery of the raw material would offset the annual charges incurred
in owning and operating the baghouse.
- Carbon black at $130 per ton.
-------
In all areas, costs were estimated by determining the number of
equivalent model plants within each area (rounded off to the nearest
whole number) and multiplying by $31 thousand and $26.4 thousand, respec-
tively, to obtain investment and annual costs.
B. Estimated Costs
The resulting costs, taking into account existing controls and value
of recovered carbon black, were totalled for the 100 metropolitan areas
and are shown in Table X-l. Control costs on an annualized basis would
average approximately $0.01 per tire or tube making capacity when the
plan is fully implemented. The investment cost for this level of control
would total $2.9 million, with an annual cost of $2.5 million by FY 1975.
V. CONTROL COSTS RESULTING FROM GROWTH
Air pollution control costs were calculated not only for existing
capacity (Section IV) but also for increased capacity in the rubber indus-
try beyond the base year of 1967. The projected growth costs were based
on the expected ultimate control level of 90.0 percent. The calculations
consisted of multiplying the 1967 total investment and annual control costs
by the annual growth in capacity to obtain annual investment and annual costs
to control the emission from industry growth.
An average annual growth rate of 10.0 percent was used to estimate
21
production increase during the period of 1967 through FY 1975. The capa-
city estimates, derived from the production estimates, were based on
achieving 90 percent utilization of capacity by FY 1975. The cost of
controlling the additional capacity are shown in Table X-2. As shown,
costs in each year reflect immediate control of the additional capacity
at the ultimate control efficiency.
2/
This estimate was based on Rubber World forecasts.
-------
Table X-l
RUBBER (TIRES AND INNER TUBES) PLANTS
ESTIMATES OF REDUCED EMISSION LEVELS AND ASSOCIATED COSTS'
(100 metropolitan areas)
VTTATS
1967
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
EXPECTED EMISSION LEVEL
(thousand tons/year)
Part
~
"°*
__
~
HC
~*~
CO
_
_
ASSOCIATED EMISSION
CONTROL LEVELb
(percent)
Part
..
__
S0x
_
HC
CO
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
Investment Cost
Lower
Limit
0.0
0.3
0.6
0.4
0.1
1.4
Expected
0.0
0.6
1.3
0.8
0.2
2.9
Upper
Limit
0.0
0.9
2.0
1.3
0.3
4.5
Annual Cost
Lower
Limit
0.0
0.3
1.0
1.5
1.6
4.4
Expected
0.0
0.5
1.6
2.3
2.5
6.9
Upper
Limit
0.0
0.6
2.1
3.1
3.4
9.2
X
Cost estimates are for the control of only those facilities in operation in calendar year 1967. The areas are
defined in Appendix B.
For levels of particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO). Data are
-------
Table X-2
RUBBER (TIRES AND INNER TUBES) PLANTS
ESTIMATED COST OF CONTROLLING POLLUTANT EMISSIONS FROM SOURCES ADDED AFTER 1967*
(100 metropolitan areas)
FISCAL
YEAR
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
Totals -
ADDED
CAPACITY
(million
tires and
tubes per
year)
45
58
71
84
97
ADDITIONAL
PRODUCTION
(million
tires and
tubes per
year)
48
62
76
89
103
EMISSION LEVELb
(thousand tons/year)
Part
__
SO
X
_.
«
HC
__
CO
__
--
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year) ,
INVESTMENT COST
Lower
Limit
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.7
Expected
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.4
0.2
1.6
Upper
Limit
0.3
0.5
0.7
0.6
0.4
2.5
ANNUAL COST
Lower
Limit
0.1
0.4
0.7
1.0
1.2
3.4
Expected
0.2
0.6
1.1
1.5
1.9
5.3
Upper
Limit
0.3
0.8
1.5
2.1
2.5
7.2
X
I
oo
These costs are for new facilities which are assumed to be constructed to meet applicable regulations (App. A) ; areas
are defined in Appendix B.
Particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO). Data are not available to estimate
-------
REFERENCES
1. Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District, September 15,
1969. Private communication.
2. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Control Tech-
niques for Particulate Air Pollutants. PHS Publication No. AP-51,
Washington, D. C.: National Air Pollution Control Administration,
(PHS), January 1969.
3. I. Drogin. "Carbon Black," Journal of the Air Pollution Control
Association. Vol. 18, No. 4 (April 1968) p. 227-
-------
Appendix Y
Secondary Nonferrous Metallurgical Industry
(SIC No. 3341)
-------
Appendix Y
Secondary Nonferrous Metallurgical Industry
I. INTRODUCTION
This industry consists of establishments primarily engaged in recov-
ering nonferrous metalsaluminum, copper, lead, and zincfrom scrap
materials. These establishments purchase sorted scrap, recover the metal
and often refine it, and finally sell it to other firms that use the
metal for further processing.
A substantial quantity of zinc is recovered indirectly through dis-
tillation. Also, significant quantities of zinc and lead are recovered by
adding zinc- or lead-containing scrap to furnaces preparing copper-based
alloys.
In 1967, capacity for the 793 plants in the United States was 2.7
million tons; production reached 2.4 million tons; and value of shipments
amounted to $1.6 billion. For the 690 plants in the 100 areas, capacity
was 2.4 million tons; production was about 2.2 million tons; and value
of shipments was $1.4 billion. Particulate emissions, the major emis-
sions, were 48 thousand tons and 45 thousand tons for the United States
and 100 areas, respectively.
Emission of particulates from recovery plants occurs in the melting of
scrap and the refining of the molten metal. Scrap metal is invariably con-
taminated with paint, oils, dirt, and organic materials, which are combined
with slag during melting or emitted as particulates in the effluent; oxides
of zinc or lead are emitted when those metals are present in the melt.
II. CONTROL OF EMISSIONS
Available estimates indicate that about half of the recovery plants
are now controlling emissions. Knowledge of the control devices being
used permits the assumption that those plants that do control have an
-------
efficiency of 95 percent. The resulting national level of control is
about 49 percent.. Further reduction of particulate emissions from these
operations to achieve an overall collection efficiency of 95 percent will
be accomplished by FY 1975 with the use of gas-cleaning equipment.
III. DISCUSSION AND EVALUATION OF ENGINEERING
DATA USED IN COST ANALYSIS
The basic engineering approach to estimate control costs for the
secondary nonferrous metals industry consisted of: (a) an evaluation
of production processes within the industry, and (b) an analysis of uncon-
trolled emission rates and present levels of control.
The processes of the secondary nonferrous metals industry considered
in this analysis were brass and bronze melting, secondary aluminum melting,
secondary zinc melting, and lead refining. Reverberatory furnaces were
assumed for brass and bronze melting and secondary aluminum melting.
For secondary zinc melting, kettles were assumed, and a cupola was assumed
for lead refining [Ref. 1]. The emissions from the secondary nonferrous
metals industry are particulates in the form of dust, fume, and smoke [Ref. 2],
Uncontrolled emission rates for these processes are shown in Table Y-l.
Table Y-l
UNCONTROLLED EMISSION RATES FROM
SECONDARY NONFERROUS METALS INDUSTRY
Process
Brass and bronze melting
Reverberatory furnace
Secondary aluminum melting
Reverberatory furnace
Secondary zinc melting
Galvanizing kettles
Lead refining
Cupola
Emission Rate
(Ib/ton metal charged)
26.3
4.3
5.3
300.0
Source: Reference 3.
-------
According to a recent survey [Ref. 4], 51 percent of the primary
metal plants control pollutants; this percentage was assumed for the
secondary nonferrous metals industry. Plants controlling were further
assumed to control at 95-percent efficiency since the equipment nor-
mally used to control emissions in this industry includes high energy
wet scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators, and fabric filters [Ref. 1].
The resulting average industry level of control was 48.5 percent.
The following data were not used in this analysis, nor were they
readily available: process size, gas volume, gas stream temperature,
annual hours of operation, and detailed information on control systems.
Fortunately, the approach taken in estimating the cost of emission controls
in this industry did not require such data since costs per ton of production
were available from a recent survey performed by the Department of Commerce
[Ref. 1]. Because process size data could not be obtained, it was not
possible to determine the efficiency needed to comply with the process weight
rate standard. Accordingly, no assumptions as to specific types of control
equipment were made, except that current practices which achieve efficiencies
of approximately 95 percent will be continued.
IV. CONTROL COSTS FOR 1967 BASE YEAR
A. Methodology
Data obtained from a number of sources were used to identify secon-
dary nonferrous metallurgical plants in the 100 metropolitan areas.
Secondary aluminum plant locations were obtained [Ref. 5], and secondary
zinc plants were identified [Ref. 6]. Data from Reference 6, supplemented
with information from the Bureau of Mines [Ref. 7], were used to compile
lists of secondary copper and lead plants in the areas.
-------
Plant capacities for copper, lead, and zinc were estimated indirect-
ly. Production data for the Nation were obtained [Refs. 7 and 8] and peak
monthly output was assumed to approximate capacity. Because of the lack
of additional information, the assumed capacity was apportioned to each
area according to the number of plants in each. The average plant size for
each metal was estimated by dividing national capacity by the number of plants
in the Nation.
Cost data were abstracted from a publication of the Department of Com-
merce [Ref. 1], which included investment and annual costs per pound of pro-
duction. Investment costs were given by type of metal, and annual operating
costs were given as an average for all types of metals. Depreciation and
capital charges were added to the annual operating cost to obtain total annual
costs for each area. Unit costs are shown in Table Y-2.
Table Y-2
EMISSION CONTROL COSTS FOR THE
SECONDARY NONFERROUS METALLURGICAL INDUSTRY
Metals
Brass,
bronze, &
copper
Aluminum
Zinc
Lead
Average Plant
Size
(tons/yr)
7,349
4,082
268
1,418
Investment Cost
($)
Per Ib/yr
capacity
0.0095
0.0101
0.0097
0.0051
Per plant
139,631
82,456
5,199
14,464
a
Annual Operating Cost
($)
Per Ib/yr
capacity
0.0012
0.0012
0.0012
0.0012
Per plant
17,638
9,797
643
2,413
Annual Operating Cost as reported does not include depreciation and
capital-related expenses.
Source: Reference 1.
B. Estimated Costs
The resulting costs were totalled for the 100 metropolitan areas
and are shown in Table Y-3. Annual control costs would average approximately
$4.96 per ton of capacity when the plan is fully implemented.
-------
Table Y-3
SECONDARY NONFERROUS METALLURGICAL PLANTS
ESTIMATES OF REDUCED EMISSION LEVELS AND ASSOCIATED COSTS*
(100 metropolitan areas)
VT7AP
1967
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
EXPECTED EMISSION LEVELb
(thousand tons/year)
Part
45
42
29
13
6
4
SO
X
HC
_
~
CO
__
__
ASSOCIATED EMISSION
CONTROL LEVELb
(percent)
Part
48.5
52.4
66.7
84.8
93.4
95.0
SO
X
..
~
HC
_
~
CO
..
~
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
Investment Cost
Lower
Limit
1.4
5.5
6.9
3.3
0.6
17.7
Expected
2.9
11.0
13.9
6.7
1.3
35.8
Upper
Limit
4.4
16.5
20.8
10.1
1.9
53.7
Annual Cost
Lower
Limit
0.5
2.3
4.6
5.7
5.9
19.0
Expected
0.9
4.6
9.2
11.4
11.8
37.9
Upper
Limit
1.4
6.9
13.8
17.1
17.7
56.9
I
~J
Cost estimates are for the control of only those facilities in operation in calendar year 1967. The areas are
defined in Appendix B.
For levels of particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks in the
-------
The emission of particulates would be reduced from 45 thousand tons
in 1967 to approximately 4 thousand tons by 1975. The investment cost
for this level of control would total $35.8 million, with an annual cost
of $11.8 million by FY 1975.
V. CONTROL COSTS RESULTING FROM GROWTH
An average growth rate of 5 percent per year was used to estimate
growth in production from 1967 to FY 1975 [Ref. 9]. The capacity estimates
were derived from the production estimates and were based on achieving
90-percent utilization of capacity by FY 1975. Cost estimates for control-
ling particulate emissions from the projected additional capacity are shown in
Table Y-4. By 1975, from the 1967 capacity plus the capacity added subse-
quent to 1967, emissions of particulates in the 100 areas would reach 65
thousand tons without the act in effect. With the act in effect, emissions
would be reduced to 4 thousand tons.
-------
Table Y-4
SECONDARY NONFERROUS METALLURGICAL PLANTS
ESTIMATED COST OF CONTROLLING POLLUTANT EMISSIONS FROM SOURCES ADDED AFTER 1967*
(100 metropolitan areas)
FISCAL
YEAR
FY71
FY72
FY73
FY74
FY75
Totals
ADDED
CAPACITY
(thousand
tons/yr)
432
556
679
803
926
ADDITIONAL
PRODUCTION
(thousand
tons/yr)
377
485
593
701
809
EMISSION LEVELb
(thousand tons /year)
Part
1
1
2
2
3
SO
X
<1
<1
1
1
1
HC
_ _
~
CO
_
~
~
CONTROL COSTS
(million dollars/year)
INVESTMENT COST
Lower
Limit
1.2
1.7
2.5
2.3
1.5
9.2
Expected
2.5
3.4
5.0
4.7
3.1
18.7
Upper
Limit
3.7
5.2
7.5
7.1
4.7
28.2
ANNUAL COST
Lower
Limit
0.6
1.4
2.3
2.8
3.3
10.4
Expected
1.2
2.9
4.6
5.7
6.6
21.0
Upper
Limit
1.8
4.4
6.9
8.5
9.9
31.5
These costs are for new facilities which are assumed to be constructed to meet applicable regulations (App. A); areas
are defined in Appendix B.
Particulates (Part.), sulfur oxides (SO ), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO). Blanks indicate the emissions
-------
REFERENCES
1. U.S. Department of Commerce. Economic Impact of Air Pollution Con-
trols on the Secondary Nonferrous Metals Industry. Washington, D. C.:
U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969.
2. J. A. Danielson (ed.). Air Pollution Engineering Manual. Public
Health Service Publication No. 999-AP-40. Cincinnati, Ohio: U.S.
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1967.
3. R. L. Duprey. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. Public
Health Service Publication No. 999-AP-42. Durham, N. C.: U.S. Depart-
ment of Health, Education, and Welfare (PHS), National Center for
Air Pollution Control, 1968.
4. H. F- Lund. "Industrial Air Pollution Control Equipment Survey:
Operating Costs and Procedures." Journal of the Air Pollution Control
Association. Vol. 19, No. 5 (May 1969), pp. 315-321.
5. "Producer profiles: Summary of the major secondaries," Metals Week.
(August 18, 1968).
6. The Waste Trade Directory, 1966-67 Edition. New York, N. Y.: Atlas
Publishing Company, 1967.
7- U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. U.S. Bureau of
Mines Minerals Yearbook, 1967. Washington, D. C.: U.S. Government
Printing Office, 1968.
8. U.S. Department of Commerce, Office of Business Economics. 1967
Business Statistics. Washington, D. C.: U.S. Government Printing
Office, 1968.
9. Mr. Levin, U.S. Department of Commerce. Private communication.
-------
Appendix Z
Coking Industry
(SIC No. 2999)
-------
Appendix Z
Coking Industry
I. INTRODUCTION
The coking industry was included among the industrial sources con-
sidered in this research since it was known to be a significant source
of particulates and sulfur oxides. However, since acceptable methods
of controlling these emissions are not available currently, control
cost estimates were not made for this industry. The data obtained on
the industry and its emissions are presented in this appendix.
Coke is a major fuel in the metallurgical industry and a process
material in some chemical operations. In addition, miscellaneous products
such as briquettes made from a variety of fuels such as charcoal, sawdust,
and peat, are included in the category of coke. However, the primary raw
materials from which coke is produced are coal and petroleum residuals.
A major portion of coke from coal is produced by the iron and steel indus-
try and coke from petroleum is produced by petroleum refineries.
During the period 1963-1967, the national average annual production
of metallurgical coke was 63 million tons and miscellaneous coke production
was 3 million tons [Ref. 1]. The annual value of shipments for
metallurgical coke and miscellaneous coke for 1967 was $935 million and
$75 million, respectively [Refs. 1,2,3,4, and 5], Annual particulate
emission from the coking industry in the United States amounted to 43
thousand tons and sulfur oxide emissions 430 thousand tons.
II. CONTROL OF EMISSIONS
Beehive and by-product slot oven coking were the processes considered
in the analysis. Miscellaneous coke is produced in both beehive and by-
product ovens while metallurgical coke is produced almost entirely in by-
The European coking industry has developed innovative approaches
to the control of emissions from coke ovens. To date, however, no method
has met with acceptance by American industry.
-------
product ovens. The unit operations which result in pollutant emissions
are shown for both processes in Table Z-l.
Table Z-l
EMISSIONS FROM BEEHIVE AND BY-PRODUCT OVENS
Operation
Process Emissions
Beehive Oven
By-product Oven
Coal handling & charging
Coking with gas combustion
Coking
Pushing
Quenching
Discharging & coke handling
Coke gas combustion
Dust, tars, gas
Dust, tars, H2S,CO,S02
*
Dust, CO, CH
Dust
*
Dust, tars, gas
*
Minor leaks
Dust, tars, H_S
Dust, CO, CH,
Dust
SO,,
Not applicable.
Beehive coke ovens are not controlled, but some of the operations in
by-product ovens are. The percent of by-product ovens controlled and the
control efficiency achieved are given in Table Z-2. Particulate emissions
from coal handling and from charging and quenching are reduced by steam jet
ejectors in gas lines and baffles in towers, respectively. Sulfur compound
emissions from coke gas combustion may be reduced by coke gas scrubbers
(H^S and Glaus sulfur recovery units). Feasible methods for obtaining
adequate control of all operations have not been developed.
Table Z-2
LEVELS OF CONTROL FOR BY-PRODUCT COKE OVENS
Operation
Percent Using Control Techniques
Average Efficiency
(percent)
Coal handling
Charging
Coking
Pushing
Quenching
Coke gas combustion
50
50
10
10
90
90
90
Unknown
Source: Reference 6
-------
III. ENGINEERING ANALYSIS
Data obtained for the two coking processes are described in this
section.
A typical beehive oven charge is 6.5 tons of coal, while the typical
charge for a by-product oven is 18 tons [Ref. 7], Beehive ovens yield
only 60 percent of the charge as coke and volatilize one-third more mate-
rial than by-product ovens. Beehive volatiles burn at the vent during
coking at a temperature of 2600° F. Combustion of by-product oven gas
at 2000° F oxidizes H2S to S02 [Ref. 8]. The processes are batch operated
and tend to emit large quantities of pollutants in a very short time
period. They were assumed to operate 8500 hours per year.
Uncontrolled emission rates for coking operations by process are
shown in Table Z-3.
Table Z-3
UNCONTROLLED EMISSION RATES FOR COKING OPERATIONS
Operation
Coal handling & charging
Coking
Coking with gas combustion
Pushing
Quenching
Coke gas combustion
Beehive Oven
1 Ib dust/ton coal
charged
*
50% of sulfur in coal
as S0n
0.33 Ib dust/ton coal
charged
By-product Oven
1 Ib dust/ton coal
charged
Negligible
*
Unknown
0.33 Ib dust/ton
coal charged
10 Ib S02/ton coal
charged
(assumes a coal of
0.5% S content,
releases 50% of S
in coking)
Not Applicable.
Source: References 7, 8, and 9.
-------
The estimated gas volumes to be handled by air pollution control
systems for beehive and by-product ovens are shown in Table Z-4 and
the assumptions employed to make the estimates are discussed in the
following paragraphs.
Table Z-4
GAS VOLUMES FOR COKING OPERATIONS
Operation
Coking
Quenching
Coke oven gas
combustion
Beehive Oven
(10 acf/ton coal charged)
400
50
*
By-product Oven
(10 acf/ton coal charged)
*
50
420
Not applicable.
For beehive ovens, it was assumed that the coal contains 20 percent
total moisture [Ref. 10], that coking produces a 60 percent yield based
on coal charged, and that complete combustion takes place at the vent.
The volumes of nitrogen, equivalent to the oxygen used, are included in
the calculation. The exit temperature is 2600° F, and standard temperature
is 60 F. The coking gases are those evolved at 2600° F during an 18
hour interval. The quenching gases are evolved at 150° F during a 2
minute interval.
For by-product ovens, it was assumed that approximately 11,000 scf
of coke oven gas is produced per ton of coal charged [Refs. 11 and 12].
It was further assumed that all of this gas is consumed (primarily to
heat the by-product ovens) with 50 percent excess combustion air and that the
equivalent nitrogen is included in the calculated volume. The stack exit
temperature was assumed to be 2200° F and the gases are evolved during
an 18 hour interval. The quench gases have the same evolution time and
temperatures as the beehive ovens.
-------
REFERENCES
1. C. S. Finney, W. C. De Sieghardt, and H. E. Harris. "Coke Making
in the United StatesPast, Present, and Future," The Canadian
Mining and Metallurgical Bulletin. Vol. 60 (September 1967),
pp. 1032-1040.
2. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1963 Census of
Manufacture, I. Summary and Subject Statistics. Washington, D. C.:
U.S. Government Printing Office, 1966.
3- . 1964 and '65 Annual Survey of Manufactures. Washington,
D. C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1967.
4. _. 1966 Annual Survey of Manufactures, Statistics for Divisions,
SMSA, and Large Industrial Counties, Parts 1-9. Washington, D. C.: U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1968.
5. . 1967 Census of Manufactures, Preliminary Report. Series
No. MC67 (P)-28B-1. Washington, D. C.: U.S. Government Printing
Office, 1969.
6. National Emissions Standards Study, First Draft, U.S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare, NAPCA, Durham, N. C., 1969.
7. J. Varga, Jr. and H. W. Lownie, Jr., Final Technological Report on A
Systems Analysis Study of the Integrated Iron and Steel Industry.
Columbus, Ohio: Battelle Memorial Institute, May 1969.
8. , Control Techniques for Sulfur Oxides Air Pollutants,
Second Draft Copy. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
NAPCA, n.d.
9. R. W. Fullerton. "Impingement Baffles to Reduce Emissions from Coke
Quenching," Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association. Vol. 17,
No. 12 (December 1967), pp. 807-809.
10. Olaf A Hongen and K. M. Watson. Chemical Process Principles. New
York, N. Y.: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1943.
11. John H. Perry, (ed.). Chemical Engineering Handbook (3rd ed.). New
York, N. Y.: McGraw-Hill, 1950.
12. R. Norris Shreve. The Chemical Process Industries (2nd ed.). New
York, N. Y.: McGraw-Hill, 1956.
-------
Appendix AA
Plastics Industry
(SIC No. 2821)
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Appendix AA
Plastics Industry
I. INTRODUCTION
The plastics industry was included among the sources considered in
this research. However, an analysis of the manufacturing processes used
in this industry showed that the emissions from the industry are of
minor significance. Accordingly, control cost estimates were not prepared
for the plastics industry. The information collected is presented below.
The plastics industry consists of those establishments primarily
manufacturing plastic resins. Non-chemical firms who buy resin for their
use and chemical or petro-chemical plants that only manufacture the basic
chemicals (monomers) from which the resin is made are classified elsewhere.
Plastic resins are used to make fabricated products such as plastic milk
containers, film, and sheets. Currently, the three largest selling plastics
are polyethylene, polystyrene, and polyvinyl chloride.
In 1967, the national capacity of this industry was 8 million tons of
all plastic resins [Ref. 1]. The 1963 through 1967 average annual production
for the United States was 5.14 million tons, and the average annual value
added was $1.49 billion for the same period [Refs. 2,3,4,5,6, and 7]. The
1967 value of shipments was $3.5 billion [Ref. 7]. In 1967, there were 661
plants, 341 of which had 20 or more employees [Ref. 7], By 1968, the total
number of plants had grown to 675 [Ref. 8].
Data for estimating emissions were not available. However, Lund [Ref. 9]
reported that 77 percent of plants reporting in a survey of the rubber and
plastics industry had unsolved air pollution problems, with 26 percent of
emissions not under control. However, it is probable that most of the uncontrolled
emissions reported were in the rubber industry. Pollutants related to plastics
manufacture specifically identified in the survey as uncontrolled were resin
fumes from treating ovens and phenolic odors.
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II. CONTROL OF EMISSIONS
Odorous gas emissions constitute the primary pollution problem associated
with the plastics industry, with other emissions very minor. However, there
are no data available to quantify odorous gas emissions. In general, it appears
that materials are handled in gas-tight containers or vessels at all stages
during production. To maximize recovery of materials, control equipment is
incorporated into the production system and as such is not considered air
pollution control equipment. This equipment includes floating roofs on tanks
containing volatile materials, vapor recovery systems (absorption or conden-
sation), and recovery systems on vacuum exhaust and purge lines. Since
the processes are operated at very high pressures and are not vented to
the atmosphere, pollutant emissions result from leaks or the opening of vessels
to add materials. Very little pollutant, apparently, is discharged to the
atmosphere as a normal part of the production process. Considerable additional
data will be required to estimate emissions and calculate the degree of control
needed, if any.
III. ENGINEERING ANALYSIS
The manufacture of most plastics begins with a catalyzed polymerization
or linking of the basic compound (monomer), usually a gas or liquid, into a
high molecular weight non-crystalline solid. Washing and drying follow the
polymerization step. The final molding or forming step to make plastic pro-
ducts is usually done in a separate operation, often at a different location
or by a resin customer.
Detailed descriptions of the individual manufacturing processes are
available but do not provide information on the air pollution aspects. Most
plastics are polymerized or otherwise reacted in a jacketed, indirectly heated,
stainless steel vessel, which is completely enclosed, equipped with a
stirring mechanism, and generally contains an integral reflux condenser.
Since most of the reactions are exothermic, cooling coils are usually required.
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Some resins, such as the phenolics, require that the kettle be under vacuum
during part of the cycle. Vacuum is provided either by a pump or by a
steam or water-jet ejector. Moreover, for some reactions, e.g., polyvinyl
chloride, the vessel must be capable of being operated under pressure to
keep the normally gaseous monomer in a liquid state. The sizes of resin-
processing kettles vary from a few hundred gallons to several thousand
gallons capacity.
Because of the many types of raw materials (gaseous, liquid, and solid),
storage facilities varyethylene, a gas, is handled as such; vinyl chloride,
a gas at standard conditions, is liquified easily under pressure, and it is
stored, therefore, as a liquid in a pressurized vessel. Most of the other
liquid monomers do not present any particular storage problems. Styrene and
vinyl chloride, however, must be stored in an inert atmosphere to prevent
premature polymerization. Some of the more volatile materials are stored in
refrigerated tanks to control vapor loss. Some of the materials have strong
odors, and care must be taken to prevent emission of odors to the atmosphere.
Solids, such as phthalic anhydride, are usually packaged and stored in air-
tight bags or fiber drums.
Treatment of the resin after polymerization varies with the proposed
use. Resins for moldings are dried and crushed or ground into molding powder.
Resins, such as the alkyd resins used for protective coatings are normally
transferred to an agitated thinning tank where they are thinned with a solvent.
Storage is in large steel tanks equipped with water-cooled condensers to prevent
loss of solvent to the atmosphere. Still other resins are stored in latex
(dispersion) form as they come from the kettle.
Possible major air pollutant emissions in plastics manufacturing are
emissions of raw materials or monomer to the atmosphere, emissions of solvent
or other volatile liquids during the reaction, emissions of sublimed solids
such as phthalic anhydride in alykd production, and emissions of solvents
during storage and handling of thinned resins. Table AA-1 lists the most
probable types and sources of air pollutants from various plastic-manufacturing
operations and how the pollutants may be controlled.
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Table AA-1
PLASTICS MANUFACTURING EMISSIONS, SOURCES, AND CONTROL
Plastic
Emission
Source
Control
Phenolic
Amino
Polyesters
Polyvinyl Acetate
Polystyrene
Polyurethane
Aldehydes
Aldehydes
Oil cooking odors,
phthalic anhydride,
solvents
Odors, solvents
Odors
Tolylene
diisocyanate
Storage, leaks,
condenser outlets,
vacuum pumps
Storage and leaks
Cooker discharge,
condenser discharge
Storage, condenser
outlets
Leaks
Product
Additional condenser
capacity, maintenance
Maintenance
Condensers, scrubbers
Additional condenser
capacity
Maintenance
Dilute
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REFERENCES
1. "Chemicals," BDSA Quarterly Industry Report. Washington, D. C.: U.S.
Department of Commerce, Bureau of Defense Service. June 1968.
2. U.S. Department of Commerce, Office of Business Economics. 1967 Business
Statistics. Washington, D. C. : U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968.
3 . 1967 Business Statistics; A Supplement to the Survey of
Current Business. Washington, D. C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968
4. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1963 Census of Manu-
factures, I, Summary and Subject Statistics. Washington, D. C.: U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1966.
5. . 1964 and '65 Annual Survey of Manufactures. Washington, D. C.:
U.S. Government Printing Office, 1967-
6. . 1966 Annual Survey of Manufactures; Statistics for Divisions,
SMSA's, and Large Industrial Counties. Parts 1-9. Washington, D. C.:
U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968.
7- . 1967 Census of Manufactures, Preliminary Report. Series No.
MC67(P)-28B-1. Washington, D. C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969.
8. U.S. Department of Commerce, Business and Defense Services Administration.
U.S. Industrial Outlook, 1969. Washington, D. C.: U.S. Government
Printing Office, 1969.
9. H. F. Lund. "Industrial Air Pollution Control Equipment Survey: Operating
Costs and Procedures," Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association.
Vol. 19, No. 5 (May 1969), pp. 315-321
10. J. A. Danielson (ed.). Air Pollution Engineering Manual. Public Health
Service Publication No. 999-AP-40. Cincinnati, Ohio: U.S. Department
of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1967.
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Appendix BB
Rendering Industry
(SIC No. 2094)
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Appendix BB
Rendering Industry
I. INTRODUCTION
The rendering industry was included in the original list of sources
considered. However, since odors are the primary air pollutant emitted
by the rendering industry and because odors were not included in this
research, this source was deleted from the study; no control cost esti-
mates were made. However, the results obtained in the preliminary analy-
sis of this source are presented herein.
Rendering is the process through which fish and animal matter are
reduced by heating with steam to separate their fat and oil content. The
1967 U.S. capacity was assumed to be approximated by the 1963 production
of 5,290,420 tons [Ref. 1]. The corresponding 1967 approximation of the
100 metropolitan area capacity was 3,545 thousand tons. In 1967 there
were approximately 931 rendering plants in the United States with an aver-
age annual production of 4,774,600 tons for the years 1961 through 1966
[Refs. 2 and 3]. Estimated production for the same period for the 100
metropolitan areas was 3,183,500 tons. Production in 1968 for the United
States consisted of 306.5 thousand tons of fish meal [Ref. 3]. Annual
value of shipments for the United States averaged $621 million for the
years 1963 through 1967 [Refs. 1,4,5, and 6]. Estimated value of ship-
ments for the same period for the 100 metropolitan areas was $424 million.
Assuming feedstock containing 50 percent moisture, forty percent evapora-
tion, and dry rendering, the potential emissions for the Nation would be
8.82 (10) odor units per year.
Rendering plants vary in the type of feedstock rendered, e.g., fish
and poultry. The distribution of rendering plants by type of feedstock
and operations is shown in Table BB-1.
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Table BB-1
DISTRIBUTION OF RENDERING PLANTS IN THE UNITED STATES
Type.
Independent Tenderers (from
butchers, stockyard deaths,
dead animals, etc.)
Livestock slaughter-house
Tenderers
Marine (fish) Tenderers
Poultry slaughter house
Tenderers
Blenders (receive, mix, and
sell)
Number of
Plants
395
381
104
36
15
Percent
of Total
42
41
11
Source: References 3, 7, and 8.
II. CONTROL OF EMISSIONS
Air pollutant emissions from rendering plants consist almost entirely
of organic compounds characterized by unpleasant odors. Some of the odors
result from the handling and storage of material, but most result from the
operation of cookers at relatively high temperatures. Expert opinion holds
that approximately 50 percent of plants have some control but only 20 per-
cent have effective control. Control efficiency probably ranges from 50
to 99 percent.
Control of these odors can be accomplished by the use of incinerators
in the exhaust gas stream from the cookers, with or without condensers. In-
cineration at 1200 F for 0.3 seconds destroys most odorous compounds. With
condensers, removal efficiencies above 99.9 percent are possible [Ref. 9].
Good sanitation and housekeeping can prevent most oJor emissions resulting
from storage and handling processes.
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III. ENGINEERING ANALYSIS
Of the two types of rendering processes, dry and wet, the former Is
by far the most widely used. For this reason the model plant - described
below is of the dry type.
The model continuous dry rendering plant produces 120 tons of finished
product per day from 224 tons of raw feedstock, based on 24 hours of operation.
The model plant consists of seven 8 thousand pound capacity cookers that re-
quire three hours per batch. The annual production of the plant is 37,440
tons, assuming a six-day week and 52 weeks per year. Annual hours of operation
thus amount to 7488, assuming a 24-hour day.
The uncontrolled exit gas volume from the plant is 4 million cubic feet
per day at 60° F or 192 thousand cubic feet per hour at 140° F [Ref. 10].
The gas stream temperature is 212° F at the cooker, 140° F at the condenser,
and 1200 F at the afterburner [Ref. 10]. Ninety-five percent of the exhaust
gas volume is steam which may be completely reduced by condensation [Ref. 8].
Uncontrolled annual emissions amount to 6.24 (10 ) odor units per year,
based on 312 days of operation. Odorous compounds can be destroyed by heat-
ing to 1200° F for 0.3 seconds.
The control system selected consists of an afterburner and an interceptor
followed by an air-cooled surface condenser. Natural gas would be required
to fuel the afterburner.
The afterburner would be designed for a maximum flow rate of 515 cubic
feet of natural gas per hour and a maximum exhaust gas flow rate of 320 cfm
at 140° F. The dimensions of the afterburner are: throat diameter, 13.4 inches;
combustion chamber diameter, 16 inches; and combustion chamber length, 4 feet.
This control system reportedly will achieve 99.9 percent odor removal [Ref. 9].
The low, medium, and high investment costs for the control system described
above are $150 thousand, $225 thousand, and $450 thousand, respectively. The
corresponding annual costs are $30 thousand, $50 thousand, and $70 thousand,
respectively.
The available data were insufficient to construct a continuous relation-
ship between gas volume and process size.
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REFERENCES
1. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1963 Census of
Manufactures, I, Summary and Subject Statistics. Washington, D. C.
U.S. Government Printing Office, 1966.
2. U.S. Department of Commerce, Office of Business Economics. 1967 Business
Statistics; A Supplement to the Survey of Current Business. Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968.
3. "A Working Reference List of Rendering and Marine Protein Establishments
in the United States." Prepared by the Animal Health Division, Agricul-
tural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Hyattsville,
Maryland, 1969.
4. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1964 and '65 Annual
Survey of Manufactures. Washington, D. C.: U.S. Government Printing
Office, 1967.
5. . 1966 Annual Survey of Manufactures; Statistics for Divisions,
SMSA's, and Large Industrial Counties. Parts 1-9. Washington, D. C.:
U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968.
6. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census. 1967 Census of Manufactures,
Preliminary Report. Series No. MC67(P)-1. Washington, D. C.: U.S. Govern-
ment Printing Office, 1967.
7. Dr. John Walker, Department of Agriculture, Animal Health Division, Hyattsville,
Maryland. Private communication.
8. Industrial Fishery Products. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of
Commercial Fisheries. Washington, D. -C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,
1968.
9. R. T. Walsh. "Air Pollution Aspects of the Inedible Rendering Industry,"
Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association. Vol. 17, No. 2
(February 1967), pp. 94-97.
10. J. A. Danielson (ed.). Air Pollution Engineering Manual. Public Health
Service Publication No. 999-AP-40. Cincinnati, Ohio: U.S. Department
of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1967.
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Appendix CC
Soap and Detergent Industry
(SIC No. 2841)
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Appendix CC
Soap and Detergent Industry
I. INTRODUCTION
The soap and detergent industry was one of the pollutant sources
originally selected for analysis. However, a preliminary study indi-
cated that particulate emissions from this industry did not exceed the
assumed emission standard and odors were subsequently deleted from con-
sideration. Accordingly, control cost estimates were not prepared for
the soap and detergent industry. The findings of the preliminary study
are reported in this appendix.
The soap and detergent industry includes the manufacture of soap
(granulated, liquid, cake, flaked and chip) and detergents (synthetic
organic and inorganic alkaline). In 1968, the national annual capacities
were 1,150 million pounds and 5,630 million pounds of soap and detergent
respectively [Refs. 1 and 2]. The average annual production for the
period 1964 through 1968 was 1,140 million pounds of soap and 5,130
million pounds of detergent [Refs. 1 and 2], Also for the period 1964
through 1968, the average annual value of shipments was $432 million for
soap and $1,014 million for detergent [Refs. 1 and 2].
In 1968 there were 1,066 soap and detergent plants in the United
States [Ref. 3], Particulate emissions from these plants ranged from
0.03 to 0.15 percent of total soap and detergent production [Ref. 4].
Spray tower exhaust may contain 4 to 5 odor units per scf [Ref. 4].
II. CONTROL OF EMISSIONS
Emissions from the soap and detergent industry consist primarily of
orders and particulates entrained in the spray drier. Cyclones, often in
combination with other types of particle collection equipment, are used
throughout the industry to control particulate emissions. The control
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efficiencies achieved with cyclones, cyclones and spray chambers, cyclones
and packed chambers, and cyclones and venturi scrubbers are 90.0, 95.0,
96.6, and 98.4 percent, respectively [Refs. 5 and 6]. Cyclones are con-
sidered to be process equipment rather than air pollution control equip-
ment. The extent to which odors are controlled in this industry is unknown.
III. ENGINEERING ANALYSIS
The data and information obtained in the preliminary study of the
soap and detergent industry are presented below.
Production rates in this industry vary from 100 to 10,000 pounds
per hour and the exhaust gas volume is approximately 30 standard cubic
feet (scf) per pound of product. The temperature of the exhaust gas
stream ranges from 150° to 250° F [Ref. 4]. Control systems, if applied,
would range in size from 3 thousand to 300 thousand scfh. Fifty percent
of emitted particles are less than 50 microns in diameter [Ref. 4].
The analysis which led to the conclusion that particulate emissions
do not exceed the assumed emission standard was based largely on data
presented by Phelps [Ref. 4]. This analysis is described in the following
paragraphs.
It was known that the resultant emissions following primary cyclones
amounted to 0.01 to 0.3 grains per cubic foot. It remained then to calcu-
late volumetric gas flow rates as a function of production. This volume
calculation was made as follows: (a) the drier was assumed to operate
on heated ambient air containing 0.0009 pounds of H^O per pound of dry air
(dew point = 54 F) and to exhaust air at average dry bulb and wet bulb
temperatures of 200 and 135° F, respectively [Ref. 4]corresponding to
a water content of 0.131 pounds of H_0 per pound of dry air [Ref. 7]
and (b) hot liquid soap detergent was assumed to contain 36 percent H90
before drying and 15 percent after [Ref. 8],
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A material balance on the drier showed that 100 pounds of wet soap
containing 36 pounds of H20 requires 172 pounds of ambient air (or 3000
ft ) to dry the soap. Thus, 30 standard scf air per pound of product
is required for drying. It should be noted that the wide range of wet
bulb temperatures given for the drier exhaust (120° to 150° F) results
in a correspondingly wide range around the estimate of the required
air volume per pound of product. However, it is clearly not feasible to
operate the drier with the exhaust gas very close to the dew point; there-
fore, the assumption of a dew point of 135 F results in a reasonable but
conservative estimate (30 scf air per pound of product). Using the 30
scf estimate and the emission factors stated above, it can be shown that
this results in emissions ranging from 0.03 to 0.15 percent of production.
For particulates, the process weight rate standard was assumed.
The process weight rate factor was assumed to be 1.0 [Ref. 8], i.e.,
1 pound of raw material produces 1.00 pound of product. Using the high-
est value for emissions (0.15 percent of production), all the listed U.S.
plants, except the two largest (200 to 300 million and 300 to 400 million
pounds/yr), comply with the standard without additional control. Because
it appeared that only two plants could likely exceed the standard (and
minimal secondary control, e.g., spray chambers would adequately control
these), it was concluded that additional controls were not needed for
particulate emissions from this industry. However, it is not known whether
these two plants have secondary controls.
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REFERENCES
1. Sales Census for 1968. New York: The Soap and Detergent Associa-
tion, 1969.
2. National Emission Standards Study, First Draft. U.S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare, NAPCA, Durham, N. C., July 23, 1969.
3. Dun and Bradstreet Computer Print-out.
4. A. H. Phelps. "Air Pollution Aspects of Soap and Detergent Manu-
facture," Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association. Vol.
11, No. 8 (August 1967), pp. 505-507-
5. J. E. Molos. "Control of Odors from a Continuous Soap Making Process,"
Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association. Vol. 11, No. 1
(January 11, 1961), pp. 9-13; 44.
6. John A. Danielson, (ed.). Air Pollution Engineering Manual. Cinci-
nnati, Ohio: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
1967.
7. John H. Perry, (ed.). Chemical Engineering Handbook (3rd ed.). New
York, N. Y.: McGraw-Hill, 1950.
8. R. N. Shreve. Chemical Process Industries. New York: McGraw-Hill,
1956.
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