School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
Oklahoma State University
Final Report — Contract EHS 7O-1O3
DESIGN CRITERIA
FOR
HYDROGEN BURNING ENGINES
Prepared for
Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Air Programs
Division of Emission Control Technology
Ann Arbor, Michigan 481O5
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FINAL REPORT--CONTRACT EHS 70-103
DESIGN CRITERIA FOR HYDROGEN
BURNING ENGINES
Submitted by
Roger J. Schoeppel
Project Director
School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
Oklahoma State University
Stillwater, Oklahoma 74074
Prepared for
Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Air Programs
Division of Emission Control Technology
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105
Attention: Mr. Charles Gray, Jr.
Project Officer
October, 1971
-------
FOREWORD
This is the final report on research conducted at Oklahoma State
University entitled, IIDesign Criteria for Hydrogen Burning Engines. "
The work was sponsored by the Office of Air Programs (formerly National
Air Pollution Control Administration) of the Environmental Protection
Agency, under Contract EHS 70-103.
The report covers work performed during the contract period from
June 1, 1970 to September 30, 1971.
Respectfully submitted,
/) j u(
/~J.~ChO~~
Project Director
1
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ABSTRAC T
Laboratory experiments have demonstrated hydrogen not only to be
an excellent substitute for conventional hydrocarbon fuels in internal com-
bustion engines but also to have the inherent qualities necessary for a perman-
ent solution to the air pollution problem.
This conclusion was reached after
extensive tests were conducted with an air-cooled single-cylinder gasoline
engine converted to run on hydrogen.
The engine I s operational characteristics
compared favorable with those of its gasoline counterpart.
Furthermore,
the NOX content of the exhaust was an order of magnitude lower than that
expected from a gasoline engine.
Trace amounts of unburned hydrocarbons
and carbon oxides, also present, originated from the lubricating oil.
It was
concluded from these experiments that a multi-cylinder automotive engine
converted to run on hydrogen should be able to meet the 1975/76 Federal
Emission Standards.
11
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SUMMAR Y
A single-cylinder, spark ignition, air-cooled industrial engine was
converted to hydrogen operation.
The conversion was accomplished by addi-
tion of a second camshaft to actuate a double poppet valve controlling direct
cylinder injection of gaseous hydrogen fuel.
The objective of the work was to
conduct comprehensive engine performance and emission tests in order to
determine criteria for designing hydrogen burning multi-cylinder engines and
turbines.
The hydrogen engine was operated intermittantly for a cumulative 48 -3 /4
hours.
Its performance compared favorably with that claimed by the manu-
facturer for gasoline operation.
In contrast to other published works, reliable
hydrogen engine performance was achieved without pre-ignition or detonation.
This was made possible through use of a patented process involving direct
cylinder injection with combustion being initiated immediately upon hydrogen
injection and continuing throughout the injection period.
With these features,
the engine could be reduced to a considerably lower idle speed than with gaso-
line fueling.
By increasing the amount of hydrogen delivered during the
injection period, it was possible to "drive" the engine beyond its design horse-
power.
The principal emissions from a hydrogen fueled engine were found
to be steam, the constituents of air, and nitrogen oxides.
Some unburned
hydrogen was also present.
In addition, minor concentrations of carbonaceous
compounds were present but could be reduced by making engine design
111
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changes which minimize oil consumption.
It is concluded from this work
that the only pollutant of significanc e from a hydrogen fueled engine are
compounds of nitrogen (NOX).
The maximum NOX produced was 3. 0 grams
per brake-horsepower-hour (BHP-Hr) with 2.0 grams/BHP-Hr being about
average for all levels of engine performance.
(The inter-relationship of
emissions and performance for the air-cooled experimental hydrogen engine
is summarized in Figure 36.
A similar graph of the experimental data for
the water cooled version of this same engine is presented in Figure 37. )
Design criteria were established for improved mixing within the com-
bustion chamber, ignition without occasional misfire, and effective heat
removal.
Other variables studied included design criteria for injection valving,
glow ignition and NOX reduction.
IV
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The Project Director wishes to especially recognize Mr. Charles L.
Gray, Jr. under whose auspices the major portion of this work was done.
His efforts as a professional in insuring that the project attained a high
level of accomplishment are worthy of mention.
Appreciation is also ex-
pressed to Dr. Richard G. Murray whose enthusiastic and capable assistance
is reflected in the quantity and quality of work done.
Contributions made
by other members of the Project Team are also acknowledged.
The efficient
and helpful logistic support received from Mr. Raymond E. Chapel of Okla-
homa State University and Mr. Martin K. Trusty of the Environmental
Protection Agency was appreciated.
Appreciation is also extended for the loan of certain essential hardware
items from NASA's Manned Space Craft Center
and to the Phillips Petro-
leum Company for their assistance with the exhaust gas analyses.
v
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No.
Forward
Abstract
Summary
Acknowledgement
1.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
INTRODUCTION
A.
B.
Background
Program Scope of Work
ENGINE TEST APPARATUS
A.
B.
Instrumentation
Hydrogen Supply System
OXIDES OF NITROGEN APPARATUS
A.
B.
Sampling System
Infrared Analyzer
THE HYDROGEN ENGINE
A.
B.
Basic Design
Operating Principle
C.
Characteristic Emis sions
ENGINE TEST PROCEDURE
A.
B.
General Test Procedure
Low Power Experiments
FIRST PHASE OPERATION AND PROBLEMS
A.
B.
Test Procedure Problems
Mechanical Problems
C.
Overall Operation
FIRST PHASE DATA AND DATA ANALYSIS
A.
B.
Comprehensive Data
Low Power Experimental Data
C.
Discus sion
VIII. SECOND PHASE ENGINE MODIFICATION AND TESTING
A.
B.
Engine Modification
General
VI
i
11
111
v
1
1
4
6
6
8
9
9
10
12
12
13
15
17
17
19
21
21
22
23A
24
24
27
27
31
31
31
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd)
Page No.
C.
D.
Water Cooled Engine Tests and Data
Discus sian and Data Graphic s
31
32
IX.
GASOLINE TESTS
34
X.
XI.
COMPARISON OF EMISSIONS
CONC LUSIONS
35
38
XII.
RECOMMENDATIONS
40
41
XIII. CALCULATIONS
XIV. NOMENCLATURE
43
45
References
vii
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Fig.
No.
9.
10.
1l.
12.
LIST OF FIGURES
l.
2.
Page
No.
47
Fuel-engine System Emissions
Fuel Characteristics
48
49
3.
4.
Engine Test Apparatus
Fuel' Flowmeter Calibration Curve
50
51
5A. Nitric Oxide Sampling System Schematic
SB. Nitric Oxide Sampling
System
52
53
6.
Hydrogen Engine - Cast Iron Crank Case
Injection Mechanism Components
54
55
7.
8.
Disassembled Engine - Combustion Chamber
Valve Timing Diagram
56
57
Tree Diagram - OAP Data Format
Tree Diagram - Data Runs - Advanced Combination Angle
58
59
Engine Performance Characteristic s
13A. Cylinder Pressure - Time Diagrams - Low & Intermediate Speed
and Power
60
BB. Cylinder Pressure - Time Diagrams-Gasoline and Hydrogen Operation.
Intermediate Speed, High Power
14.
15.
61
Tree Diagram of Low Power, Lean Fuel Experiments
Head Gasket Failure
62
63
16A. Tree Diagram - Oxides of Nitrogen Emission - OAP Format -2000 RPM 64
16B. Tree Diagram - Oxid e s of Nitrogen Emis sion - OAP Format -2500 RPM 65
16C. Tree Diagram - Oxide s of Nitrogen Emission - OAP Format -3000 RPM 66
16D. Tree Diagram - Oxides of Nitrogen Emission - OAP Format - 3500 RPM 67
16E. Tree Diagram - Oxides of Nitrogen Emission - OAP Format -4000 RPM 68
17A. Emission-Mixture Relationships
17B. Emission-Mixture Relationships
69
70
1 7C. Emis sion-Mixture Relationships
17D. Emission-Mixture Relationships
17E. Emission-Mixture Relationships
71
72
73
viii
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LIST OF FIGURES (Cont'd)
Fig.
No.
1 7F. Composite Plot of Figures 17 A - 17E
Page
No.
74
75
l8A. Power-Mixture Relationships
l8B. Power-Mixture Relationships
76
77
18C. Power-Mixture Relationships
l8D. Power-Mixture Relationships
78
79
l8E. Power-Mixture Relationships
l8F. Composite Plot of Figures 18A-18E
1 <;). EmissiQn Concentra-1ion
20A. Emission-Power Relationships
20B. Emission-Power Relationships
80
81
82
83
84
21.
20C. Emission-Power Relationships
Exhaust Gas Temperature
85
86
22A. Emission-Mixture Relationships
22B. Emis sion-Mixture Relationships
23.
24.
25.
26.
27A.
27B.
87
88
Wide-Open Throttle Emissio:t;l Characteristics
Comparative Emis sions -Mas s Basis
89
90
Water Jacket Engine Modification
Tree Diagram- Water Jacketed Data Runs
91
92
Power-Mixture Relationships - Water Jacketed Engine
Power-Mixture Relationships - Water Jacketed Engine
93
94
27C. Power-Mixture Relationships - Water Jacketed Engine
27D.
27E.
Power-Mixture Relationships - Water Jacketed Engine
Power-Mixture Relationships - Water Jacketed Engine
95
96
2 7F . Compo site Plot of Figure s 27 A - 27E
28A. Emission-Mixture Relationships - Water Jacketed Engine
97
98
99
28B. Emission-Mixture Relationships - Water Jacketed Engine
28C. Emission-Mixture Relationships - Water Jacketed Engine
100
28D. Emission-Mixture Relationships - Water Jacketed Engine
28E. Emission-Mixture Relationships - Water Jacketed Engine
101
102
ix
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Fig.
No.
LIST OF FIGURES (Cont'd)
28F. Composite Plot of Figures 28A-28E
29A. Tree Diagram- Water Jacketed Engine Emissions - OAP Format
29C.
29B. Tree Diagram - Water Jacketed Engine Emissions - OAP Format
Tree Diagram
Water Jacketed Engine Emissions - OAP Format
Water Jacketed Engine Emissions - OAP Format
29D. Tree Diagram
29E.
Tree Diagram
Water Jacketed Engine Emissions - OAP Format
30A. Emission-Mixture Relationship - Advanced Combination Angle
30B. Emission-Mixture Relationship - Advanced Combination Angle
30C. Emission-Mixture Relationship - Advanced Combination Angle
30D. Emission-Mixture Relationship - Advanced Combination Angle
30E. Emission-Mixture Relationship - Advanced Combination Angle
31A. Power-Mixture Relationship - Advanced Combination Angle
31B. Power-Mixture Relationship - Advanced Combination Angle
31C.
31D.
31E.
Power-Mixture Relationship - Advanced Combination Angle
Power-Mixture Relationship - Advanced Combination Angle
Power-Mixture Relationship - Advanced Combination Angle
32A. Emission-Mixture Relationship - Retarded Combination Angle
32B. Emission-Mixture Relationship - Retarded Combination Angle
32C. Emission-Mixture Relationship - Retarded Combination Angle
32D. Emission-Mixture Relationship - Retarded Combination Angle
32E. Emission-Mixture Relationship - Retarded Combination Angle
33A. Power-Mixture Relationship - Retarded Combination Angle
33B.
Power-Mixture Relationship - Retarded Combination Angle
33C. Power-Mixture Relationship - Retarded Combination Angle
33D. Power-Mixture Relationship - Retarded Combination Angle
33E. Power-Mixture Relationship - Retarded Combination Angle
34.
35.
36.
37.
Engine Emissions (From Tables 5 and 7)
Engine Emissions (From Tables 5 and 7)
Engine Emissions Versus Performance,
Engine Emissions Versus Performance,
Air-Cooled Engine
Water-Cooled Engine
~
Page
No.
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
III
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
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DESIGN CRITERIA FOR HYDROGEN BURNING ENGINES
1.
INTRODUCTION
IA.
Background I
Intere st in usage of hydrogen as an energy fuel has developed from
man' s conc~rn over society's environmental crisis.
I
It has become evident
I
that combustion of fos sil fuels and waste burning must be controlled if satis-
factory ambient air quality is to be obtained.
Two primary problems are
associated with the use of fossil fuel:
1) atmospheric pollution and 2) mineral
fuel depletion.
Atmospheric pollution has become of international concern during the
past several years and is primarily attributed to the burning of fossil fuels
to produce energy.
This burning removes oxygen and nitrogen from the
atmosphere and replaces them with carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, water
vapor, the oxides of nitrogen and oxygenated organic compounds (See Figure 1).
Exposure to some of these compounds can cause damage to personal health
and property, a problem which is intensified in urban areas.
The internal
combustion engine has become the most serious offender in past years,
reportedly causing up to 60 percent (in certain areas at peak periods) of all
air pollution.
With a growing population and an increase in the basic
standard of living, the associated consumption of energy, viz. the burning
of fossil fuel, is increasing at a rapid rate.
Therefore, it becomes most
important that mankind not only becomes concerned about air pollution but
also that he formulate definite corrective actions to eliminate the problem.
1
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The supply of fossil fuels in the world is limited.
Sinc e mankind
has been consuming fossil fuels at an exponentially increasing rate, the
time is fast approaching when their rate of depletion will exceed the dis-
covery of new supplies.
This has already happened for the United States,
which now has to import almost one of every three barrels of oil it needs.
Since coal, natural gas, and other conventional supplies cannot be depended
on to make up the national needs, there has developed an energy supply
gap which is nearing "crisis" proportions.
The above reasons indicate why society should be concerned that
future supplies of ene rgy are available in a non- contaminatory, non-
depletable form.
Nuclear power systems eliminate most of the pollution-
depletion problem associated with fossil fuels and have recently received
renewed emphasis by the Nixon administration.
The supply of nuclear fuel
is quite extensive if low grade ores are considered.
Howeve r, unle s s the
breeder reactor becomes practical, nuclear power will not provide a very
practical-continuing energy supply.
Combined with this is the improbability
that nuclear power will be applicable to small mobile power plants.
A conceivable answer to the mobile power plant portion of the fuel
depletion-pollution problem is the generation and use of a synthetic fuel
such as hydrogen.
Hydrogen can be generated by electrolysis of water
into hydrogen and oxygen.
It has both excellent combustion characteristics
and a desirable energy to weight ratio (see Figure 2).
Relative to hydro-
carbon fuel, hydrogen's use as a fuel would not contribute to air pollutio::.
2
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SInce the only air contaminant would be oxides of nitrogen and these occur
with any combustion proces s involving au.
Fortunately, however, the
wide flammability limits of hydrogen offer
the opportunity of reducing this
pollutant to considerably lower levels than now exist
with fossil-fueled
engine s .
If hydrogen is seriously considered as a mobile power plant fuel,
then a system for its safe distribution, its handling and storage must be
developed.
Fortunately, much progres s has been made in the storage of
hydrogen within the last few years.
Super insulated cryogenic tanks are
now manufactured that permit the storage of liquid hydrogen with less than
O. 5 percent per day boil-off.
Also, recent work at Brookhaven National
Laboratories has shown that hydrogen may be more practically stored as a
metal hydride. I
For example, hydrogen reacts with various metals and
alloys such as magnesium-nickel or magnesium-copper to form hydrides.
To effect its release, heat is supplied to the hydride which in turn decomposes
evolving hydrogen in gaseous form.
In this case, the hydride could be stored
in a container in the form of a bed of fine particles, with the hydrogen being
evolved at any desired temperature above 550oF.
The pressure of the hydro-
gen produced depends upon the equilibrium temperature of the metal hydride.
If an adequate supply of hydrogen could be developed, mankind would
have solved both of the problems mentioned earlier.
It is technically
possible to produce large quantities of hydrogen by electrolysis during
periods of "off-peak" power operations.
This could be a significant
percentage of each day's output and allow the power companies to operate
3
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more efficiently.
The electrical demand of large scale electrolysis could
be met by new nuclear power plant installations.
From a cost standpoint, and depending on the "price of pollution, "
hydrogen is becoming more attractive as a fuel.
The present price for
liquid hydrogen in large quantity purchases is approximately fifty cents
per pound.
This makes it about ten times the cost of gasoline on a BTU
ba s is.
However, this price reflects a major expense for liquification
which would not be necessary in hydride storage.
Full scale production
of hydrogen could reduce its cost considerably as has been shown by prior
. d. 2
economIC stu les.
Thus the cost outlook for hydrogen appears increasingly
optimistic.
In contrast, the price of gasoline is expected to inc rease due
to the added refining expense to produce comparable quality non-leaded
gasoline and will undoubtedly undergo continual price increases as petroleum
becomes more scarce.
As a fuel, hydrogen could be used in either internal combustion engines
or fuel cells.
Because of the low cost per horsepower, the high power
output to weight ratio, and the extended range of operation of internal
combustion engines, the hydrogen-fueled internal-combustion engine appears
most promising.
B.
Program Scope of Work
For the past three years research has been conducted at Oklahoma
State University to evaluate problems associated with producing a practical
hydrogen fueled engine. During this
3-10
verted to hydrogen operation.
time, several engines have been con-
4
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Financial as sistance in this effort has been aided by the Office of
Air Programs, Environmental Protection Agency, since 1 June 1970.
It
is the purpose of this document to describe the work performed under
contract EHS 70-103 between 1 June 1970 and 30 September 1971 in fulfill-
ment of the following specific objectives:
Phase 1)
Conduct comprehensive engine performance and
emission tests for nitrogen oxides using hydrogen
to fuel a single cylinder prototype engine over its
range of speed and power output.
Phase 2)
Analyze the data obtained in Phase 1, above, then
redesign and retest the engine as pos sible within the
remaining time and funds.
The overall objective of the work was to conduct comprehensive engine per-
formance and emis sion tests in order to determine design criteria for designing
hydrogen burning multi-cylinder engines and turbines.
5
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II.
ENGINE TEST APPARATUS
The engine test apparatus is shown in Figure 3.
The engine and
dynamometer were mounted on a laboratory bench which was equipped with
an isolation panel to increase operator safety.
This panel was fabricated
of
a plywood steel laminate with a steel framework.
The central portion
of the panel was provided with an observation window which consisted of
two one -inch thick plastic sheets separated by two sheets of automotive
safety glass.
The right section of the panel served as a support for the
hydrogen delivery system which consisted of a supply valve, a pressure
regulator, and a purge and leak detection system.
A water absorption type dynamometer was installed directly on the
test bench.
This dynamometer was equipped with a load meter, tachometer,
and throttle and absorption load controls.
Load (and consequently speed)
control of this type dynamometer is somewhat sensitive to inlet water
pressure and therefore some difficulty was experienced in keeping a con-
stant RPM over any prolonged period of engine testing.
A.
Instrumentation
Engine intake air was measured with an ASME long radius nozzle
attached to a pulse damping drum.
Wind gust impingement on the nozzle
entrance gave erratic air flow measurements during preliminary tests.
However, relocation of the nozzle to the inside of the test cell eliminated
this difficulty.
6
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A heat transfer sensitive meter was utilized to measure hydrogen
flow.
This meter was given a static calibration (steady rather than pulsating
flow)before installation and yielded excellent initial results.
Once this
meter was subjected to dynamic conditions, however, it proved extremely
unreliable.
After lengthy analysis it was determined that the meter was
sensitive to average injection pressure, electrical interference from the
ignition system, and pressure pulsations in the delivery line.
A large volume high pressure test tank was used for hydrogen meter
calibration.
By measuring the time for a given pressure change (no noticeable
temperature changes occurred during this time), the mass of hydrogen
removed from the tank could be calculated by using the ideal gas law with
the compressibility factor.
The results of this calibration are shown in
Figure 4.
During initial tests, cylinder head, crankcase, and exhaust gas
temperatures were mea~ured and recorded by a multiple point recorder.
The exhaust gas temperatures, however, required the use of a chromel-
alumel thermocouple for this one parameter.
Cylinder head and crankcase
temperature recordings were discontinued at this time since the recorder
was not compatible with different thermocouple types.
Engine cylinder
pres sure was obtained f~om a transducer mounted in communication with
the combustion chamber.
The output of this device was displayed on an
oscilloscope in the form of a pres sure -time diagram. (see, for example,
Figures 13A and l3B).
7
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B.
Hydrogen Supply System
Gaseous hydrogen in high pressure bottles was used for the fuel
source.
These were attached to a common manifold and delivered hydrogen
to a series of valve s and controls located on the isolation panel.
A
nitrogen purge system was added for safety purposes.
8
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III.
OXIDES OF NITROGEN APPARATUS
As supported by previous observations~ I nitric oxide (NO) apparently
undergoes little oxidation to the dioxide by the time it is exhausted fron an internal
combustion engine. Thus, NO was assumed to be the primary nitrogen oxide
present in the exhaust system.
Accordingly, only NO measurements were made
and the data are reported as NOX on this basis.
The validity of this as sump-
tion is further supported by the fact that experimental transport times were
of les s than 20 seconds duration.
A.
Sampling System
Figures 5A and 5B show details of the sampling system which delivered
the raw exhaust gas sample to the analyzer.
This system was designed and
fabricated in such a way so as to allow the analysis to be completed within
20 seconds after the gas was exhausted from the combustion cnarnber of the
engine.
Not shown on the diagram is the exhaust mixing tank used to insure
that a representative sample was taken from the engine.
The sampling system consisted of a pump, control valves, flow meter,
refrigerator, and dryers.
The exhaust after leaving the engine was cooled
o
to 32 F, where the excess water was condensed leaving the gas in a cooled
and saturated condition.
A portion of this saturated gas was vented with the
remainder passing through the analyzer.
The rate of venting was controlled
so that the desired flow of sample gas through the analyzer was maintained.
In the flow train, the sample gas was dryed by passage through a Drierite
bed containing both indicating and non-indicating sections.
It was then
9
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delivered to the analyzer.
This sample then was finally metered for flow
rate before dumping to the outside.
The pump flow rate was maintained at
a high level so that minimum time was needed for the sample to travel from
the mixing tank to the analyzer.
Response time between a change in engine
operation and a change in analyzer reading was less than 20 seconds.
Acces sory to the sampling system were four cylinders of gas (I-zero,
3-calibration) needed for zero and range calibration of the analyzer.
B.
Infrared Analyzer
Analyses for NO were obtained with a Beckman Model 205 AL 3-range
(0-100, 0-500, 0-1000 PPM) infrared analyzer.
The manufacturer's
recommendahons for design of the sampling system were followed resulting
in the system just described.
In this design it was recommended that 1) a
separate calibration gas be used for each range, 2) the zero and span cali-
bration gases be introduced through the same drying system as the sample
to be measured, and 3) a refrigerated condenser be used in conjunction with
the drying tubes.
Calibration gases (consisting of a mixture of NO in NZ)
were ordered for 90 PPM + 9PPM, 450 PPM + 45PPM, and 900 PPM + 90PPM.
The gases supplied were certified to contain 94PPM, 468 PPM and 935PPM NO,
respectively.
The zero gas was prepurified N 2.
The repeaiability in percent of full scale was stated by the manu-
facturer to be:
Range No.
1
2
3
PPM Range
o - 1000
o - 500
o - 100
% of F. S.
1.0
1.0
2.0
10
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Calibration charts were furnished with the instrument for atmospheric
pressure operation.
Since all measurements were made at atmospheric
pressure, these charts were directly useful.
The recommended procedure for calibration of the instrument as
specified in Instruction Manual 81635-C and modified by revision dated
August, 1970, were followed.
Basically this consisted of first using the
range 1 calibrating gas to set the initial upscale standardization point.
Then
the calibration gas appropriate for range 2 (or 3) was pas sed through the
instrument and the upscale standardization point checked for this gas. Initially,
and twice during the four months of operation, the oscillator required tuning
in order to obtain the calibrated instrument response.
In summary, this device yielded "good" response and II stable" operation
insofar as is known or as was inferred from operation of the instrument
according to the manufacturer's recommended procedure.
By "good" response
is meant the time required for the instrument to respond to changes in con-
ceflhation of NO, and by 1'stablelfoperation is meant that the instrument did not
drift in meter output.
The "response time" of 20 seconds mentioned above
was with respect to the entire measuring system and includes the just dis-
cussed response time of the instrument.
11
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IV.
THE HYDROGEN ENGINE
A.
Basic Design
In order to minimize thermal expansion and provide a more wear-
resistant cylinder (in comparison with the earlier aluminum engines), a
cast iron crankcase engine, as specified in Table 1, was selected for
conversion.
The crankcase of this engine was modified by weld insertion of a
cam housing to provide room for a second camshaft (see Figure 6). This
camshaft was used to actuate the hydrogen injection valve through a series
of cam followers, pushrods (see Figure 7), and rocker arms.
Both
injection start and injector gate angles (which control the time and duration
of hydrogen injection) were adjustable by either stepping the camshaft gear
on the crankshaft through a tooth configuration or by rotating the cams on
the camshaft.
Ignition contact breakers were placed in a movable housing in such a
way that ignition timing could be adjusted.
These contact breakers were
connected to a normal automotive ignition system and the standard magneto
provided by the manufacturer for this engine was removed.
A water jacket was added to the engine after most of the experimental
data had been taken in a succes sful effort to reduce the effects of localized
heating.
Intake valve oil seals were also added at this time.
(The water
jacketed engine is discussed in detail in Chapter VIII. )
12
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Hydrogen flow was metered by a dual poppet valve which was contained
in a housi ng attached to the cylinder head.
From the valve the hydrogen
passed through a stainless steel tube (see Figure 8) directly into the cylinder.
Distribution ports in this tube distributed the hydrogen throughout the au
charge located in the combustion chamber.
Other design details associated with this installation of note are: an
I
electric starting system, a water spray cooling system, an index wheel-
strobe light timing system, visual oil indicator, and a manual injector
lubricator.
It should be noted that the carburetor was used only for a
throttling device. all other flow pas sages were blocked before hydrogen
operation.
B.
Operating Principle
The basic four cycle operating characteristic s of the Clinton engine
were unchanged.
Air alone was inducted and compressed, while gaseous
hydrogen was injected and ignited near the top dead center (TDC) piston
position.
Injection continued during the early portion of the expansion stroke
(see Figure 9 for engine valve timing details). Finally the products of com-
bustion were exhausted and the operational cycle repeated
(Clearance
gases, trapped in the cylinder at the end of the exhaust stroke, should be
high in water vapor content and may have aided engine operation significantly.)
Findings reported herein for the "hydrogen engine" must be qualified
with respect to the specific design used in construction of the engine.
In
13
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this case, a conventional gasoline engine was converted to operate on hydro-
5
gen according to the inventive scheme described in U. S. Patent 3,572,297.
The basic improvement over the conventional carbureted engine is the pro-
vision of means for injecting gaseous fuel directly into the cylinder.
In
application, air is inducted and compressed with hydrogen being injected
near the top dead center position of the piston.
This sequence of operations
allows the following capabilities:
Feature:
1.
control of the nature of the gases accumulating in the
crankcase
2.
3.
control of the nature of the gases in the induction manHold
control of the time hydrogen is introduced into the cylinder
4.
5.
control of the duration of hydrogen injection
control of the rate of hydrogen injection
6.
control of the time ignition first occurs
control of the combustion reaction during the injection period
7.
8.
control of the mass of the working fluid within the cylinder
control of the specific heat of the working fluid
9.
The OSU engine was designed to take advantage of these capabilities
insofar as was practical in the prototype development.
The design approach
allowed control over pre-ignition since the fuel was intentionally ignited
immediately upon entry into the cylinder (Feature 6).
It was possible to design
around the detonation problem, also reported by other workers in the field,
by controlling the rate of fuel and oxidant consumption during the combustion
period (Feature 7).
These design options in conjunction with those offered by
control of engine power.
Features 3,4,5,8 and 9 allow
In general it was
14
-------
expected that the performance of the hydrogen engine would be equal to or
surpass that of its gasoline counterpart.
Also, the undesirable emittants
were expected to be limited to oxides of nitrogen since the condition of com-
bustion could not be expected to allow any but a negligible portion of the
lubricating oil to be consumed.
Finally, Features 1 and 2 preclude the
accumulation of explosive gaseous mixtures in locations where their ignition
could lead to unsafe engine operation.
C.
Characteristic Emissions
Emissions from internal combustion engines varies as a function of
the air-fuel ratio.
For gasoline engines, low NOX emissions may be achieved
by either operating very lean or very rich.
In contrast, however, carbon
monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbon(HC) emissions can be minimized only by
ope rating lean.
Unfortunately, the narrow flammability limits of gasoline
prohibit operation beyond the approximate air-fuel ratio values of 10: 1 to 17: 1.
Thus engine misfire and poor performance result at the lean operating con-
ditions required for low emis sions of all three undesirable constituents:
CO, HC, and NOX.
In contrast to emis sions from the gasoline engine, the hydrogen
engine is capable of operating over much wider air-fuel ratios.
This is due
to the wide flammability limits of hydrogen which are from 4 percent to
74 percent in air.
By operating in the lean regions, the combustion tempera-
ture can be controlled depending on the air-fuel ratio.
This is apparently
related to the specific heat of the reactant and product gases.
Since the
15
-------
reaction temperature is reduced, the NOX would also be expected to be
reduced.
In addition, the low level of radiation exhibited by a hydrogen
flame reduces the heat transfer by this mechanism to the other cylinder
gases.
Consequently, the heat generated by combustion is primarily limited
to convection for its distribution to the non-combustible components of the
working fluid.
16
-------
v.
ENGINE TEST PROCEDURE
A.
General- Test Procedure
The
OAP Project Officer requested engine emISSIons data for a
minimum of 81 data points as illustrated by Figure 10.
Specifically, it
was requested that data be taken at the -following conditions: 1) for each
injector gate angle operate the engine at three RPM' s; 2) for each RPM
operate the engine at three air-fuel ratios; 3) for each air-fuel ratio operate
the engine for three ignition timings; 4) for each ignition timing operate
the engine at three load conditions.
Emis sion analyses were required for
NOX with the measurement of other emissions requested on an optional
basis.
In addition, the following information was requested: engine,
characteristic s and history; gas analysis technique; and type of fuel.
Since it would be extremely difficult to hold the air-fuel ratio constant
during the tests, permission was granted to conduct the tests as shown by
the first three columns of Figure 11 with the previously requested data to be
obtained from cross interpolation.
Also, since ignition timing has little
meaning unles s correlated with injector gate angle, permis sion to test at
three values of injection start, ignition timing, and injection termination,
rather than just at three ignition timings, was requested and granted.
Here-
after, the combination of the three angles controlling the injection period and
timing for ignition will be referred to as the combination angle.
The
three combination angles chosen were (+44? +20? and -19°); (+280, +7°, and
o ° ° °
-38 ); and (+14 , 0 , and -60 ).
They were manually set and had no provision
17
-------
for automatic adjustment.
Figure 12 shows the engine manufacturer's stated wide-open-throttle
(WOT) rating and the converted hydrogen engine's power characteristics.
The difference between the two curves represents the power loss caused by
addition of the various mechanisms required to control hydrogen injection.
It should be recognized that the modified WOT engine horsepower curve was
arbitrarily determined by designing for a one horsepower loss at peak per-
formance conditions.
(From experience with a similar size engine, it was
determined that the injection mechanism required about one brake horsepower
for its operation.
In order to make a comparison of hydrogen and gasoline
operation, the hydrogen injected was controlled to achieve this amount of
derated brake horsepower.
This procedure was implemented since hydrogen
can be injected to give an engine, output greater than 100 percent of its design
brake horsepower if desired.) This procedure was necessary in order to
establish a range in power levels which could be repeated in subsequent tests.
The experimental conditions necessary to obtain this design maximum were
determined by injecting increasing quantities of hydrogen until the power
output of the engine reached the design maximum power at that RPM.
For
reduced load testing, and for each level in RPM, the power level was reduced
to 65 percent and 35 percent of the maximum value at that RPM and the fuel
was again delivered to force the engine I s output to these reduced values.
It was decided to take data at five engine speeds instead of the three
requested so that the interpolated values at specific conditions would be
more accurate.
Engine speeds selected were 2000, 2500, 3000, 3500 and
18
-------
4000 RPM's.
The basic information, then, consists of emis sions and
performance data at five engine speeds for each of three power levels.
Thus, .
these fifteen runs were repeated for each of three relative air flows:
maxi -
mum air flow at a given RPM, 80 percent, and 70 percent of that maximum
air flow.
This procedure yielded variable air-fuel ratio data at each RPM
and power level.
When these 45 runs are repeated for each of three
combination angles a total of 135 experimental runs were required.
Data
taken for each run included:
NO emission, dynamometer force, RPM,
exhaust gas temperature, manifold vacuum, hydrogen flow rate, air flow
rate, ignition timing, injection pres sure, air temperature, and barometric
pres sure.
Cylinder pressure-time diagrams were observed during all testing.
Three such diagrams for low, intermediate, and high power operation are
shown in Figures 13A and l3B.
B.
Low Power Experiments
A series of low power, lean fuel, experiments were devised to more
accurately characterize the engine's emis sions as a function of its performance
in this region.
Investigations of this nature are important since automotive
engines are frequently operated at loads less than 35 percent power.
An outline showing values selected for experiments in this region is
presented in Figure 14.
In addition to requesting this emphasis, the Project
Officer also requested that a complete analysis be made of the exhaust gases
19
-------
for a few of the engine test conditions. As shown for each of five engine
speeds, and for a specific level in the rate of fuel injection, the rate of
air flow was varied.
Its effect on engine power can be found by referring
to the tabulated data in the Tables.
At each of the low power region WOT
runs, liter bottle samples of exhaust gas were collected and delivered to
Phillips Petroleum Company's research laboratory for analysis.
Two higher
power samples were also taken for comparison of emissions from higher
power runs.
These corresponded to 65% power at 3000 and 3500 RPM engine
speeds and WOT operation.
20
-------
VI.
FIRST PHASE OPERATION AND PROBLEMS
The greatest difficulty encountered in acquiring quality data was with
the response and reliability of hydrogen flow instrumentation.
Howeve r,
other problems arose due to the constraints of the test procedure and mechan-
ica1 limitations.
The instrumentation problem has been previously discussed.
A.
Test Procedure Problems
For experimental convenience, the procedure for first phase engine
tests was limited to operation at one ignition timing with variable gate angles.
As is explained below, this caused both loss of power and engine knock for
certain combination angles.
For best operation with smooth knock-free
combustion, the hydrogen must be ignited immediately after entry into the
combustion chamber.
If the ignition spark is too far advanced within any
injection gate angle, the hydrogen will arrive at the ignition source (spark
plug) after the spark and a misfire will occur.
This was observed for many
low speed, low injection pressure runs where injection pressure was
insufficient to drive the hydrogen to the spark plug by the time of ignition.
If, on the other hand, the hydrogen injection pressure is relatively high (as
in high RPM, high power runs), then hydrogen flow into the combustion
chamber is rapid and significant concentrations collect before the spark.
This condition results in engine knock with a corresponding increase in engine
temperature and a decrease in power level.
As will be shown in the dis-
cussion of "second phase engine modification and testing, " smooth knock-free
21
-------
operation was obtained when the gate angle was fixed and the timing adjusted
at each speed and power level.
B.
Mechanical Problems
Basically, the mechanical problems encountered can be divided into
two catagories:
1) those due to experimental variations in the basic design,
and 2) those caused by operation of the engine under severe stress conditions.
In the first catagory, two significant problems which occured were due
to injection cam index ring failure and localized overheating.
The teeth
of the cam index ring were purposely designed for minimum tooth width in
order to have maximum flexibility in injection angle selection.
Unfortunately,
these indexing teeth failed under prolonged high speed operation and the
camshaft was redesigned with a spring pin adjustment to replace the index
teeth.
Subsequent operation with this new design has been satisfactory.
The second problem developed apparently because the number and
spacing of holes in the injector tube allowed the heat released to be concen-
trated in isolated areas.
Thus, the thermal conductivity of the cast iron
cylinder, while subjected to only air cooling, was insufficient to carry the
reat away.
As a result, localized hot spots developed under moderate and
high power operations.
Specifically, it was observed that the area of the
cylinder adjacent to the exhaust valve and exhaust port attained extremely
high localized temperatures while the opposite side of the cylinder remained
relatively cool.
This resulted in both compression and power losses as well
as oil inf iltration past the ring s.
This condition in turn caused generally
22
-------
higher fuel requirements and a noticeable oil consumption.
In addition,
the high temperature of the adjoining intake port reduced volumetric
efficiency and attributed to difficulty in attaining steady-state operation
during long high-power runs.
As a result, high-power run length had to be
shortened and data reproducibility was accordingly affected.
This experi-
mental limitation was overcome in second phase engine tests by provision
of water cooling.
The second mechanical problem, caused by forcing the engine to
operate under severe stress conditions (prolonged knocking) - -which
by no means could be considered Ilnormal" or "recommended" operating
conditions--was loss in engine power.
The low thermal conductivity of
the cast iron engine block probably helped aggravate the situation.
In thi s
case,
operation under knocking conditions contributed to the localized hot
spots previously described.
These exces sive temperatures in turn caused
deterioration of the asbestos cylinder head gasket material.
When the
weakened gasket was subjected to repeated pressure pulses caused by com-
bustion knock, it failed by progressively increasing leak rates until engine
operation was no longer pos sible.
Figure 15 shows such a gasket condition.
It should be pointed out that these mechanical limitations were all
overcome by redesign and that no operating problems were encountered which
could be specifically attributed to the hydrogen fuel.
23
-------
c.
Overall Operation
In general, operation of this engine was smooth except near the
flammability limits or whenever the spark was either too early (resulting
in misfire) or too late (when detonation occurred).
All of the engine tests
were made with spark ignition although hot wire and compression ignition
were also found to give successful operation.
The engine was easy to start
and gave knock-free performance under significant power loadings for pro-
longed periods.
It ran smoothly under load up to 5000 RPM which is above
the maximum design operating speed of 4000 RPM for which it was designed.
The low flammability limit of hydrogen in air allowed smooth-steady engine
idling down to 1100 RPM whereas the engine could not be operated at less
than 2200 RPM when fueled with iso-octane.
The temperature of the exhaust from the hydrogen engine, as measured
at a point just downstream from the exhaust valve, varied between 5000F and
1 700oF.
Although "hot spots" developed within the combustion chamber as a
result of the flame being "jetted" to prescribed locations, it should not be
misconstrued that the engine's overall temperature was also "hot." In general,
the engine's operating temperature with hydrogen fuel was observed to be
comparable to or cooler than that produced with iso-octane fuel under similar
speed and power loadings.
23A
-------
VII.
FIRST PHASE DATA AND DATA ANALYSIS
A.
Comprehensive Data
Table 2 lists data compiled for the sequence of runs associated with
the first phase experiments.
Basic engine operational data were as recorded
on the record sheet of Table 3.
Pertinent information was then transferred
to IBM cards for automatic data proces sing.
of Table 2.
The computed results are those
Computations were made as shown under Calculations.
Mis sing
numbers indicate data runs which were excluded because of possible errors
in recording the basic data.
headings of Table 2 follows.
Column Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
2 1 and 22
23
24
25
An explanation of the nomenclature used in the
Further definitions are listed under Nomenclature.
Description
Run number
Engine-speed, revolutions per minute
Brake power output, horsepower
Brake torque, foot pounds
Air-fuel ratio
Total oxides of nitrogen emissions, parts per
million
Per cent throttle
Brake thermal efficiency, percent
Ignition angle, degrees
Manifold vacuum, inches of mercury
Brake specific fuel consumption, pounds per
horsepower hour
Brake mean effective pressure, pounds per sq. inch
Air-flow, pounds per hour
Fuel-flow, pounds per hour
Exhaust gas temperature, degrees Fahrenheit
Cylinder-head temperature, degrees Fahrenheit
Crankcase temperature, degrees Fahrenheit
Percent stochiometric air
Percent maximum power
Percent maximum brake mean effective pressure
Inj ection gate angle
Minimum ignition angle for best torque(MBT), degrees
Total oxides of nitrogen emission, grams nitric oxide
per brake horsepower hour
Injection pressure, pounds per square inch
24
-------
The data of Table 2 for the first phase experiments show
the NOX
emis sions
normalized to account for the size of the engine, i. e. gms NOX/
BHP-Hr..
Such computations are normally made so that the emis sions are
on an "indicated" horsepower basis.
Accordingly, it should be realized
that "brake" horsepower was used in computations shown in this report and
that the brake horsepower of an engine will always be less than the indicated
horsepower by a factor that depends on the mechanical efficiency.
Conse-
quently, the recorded values of gms NOX/BHP-Hr are proportionately
larger than they would be if they had been computed on an indicated horse-
power basi s.
Since the engine! s power characteristics were requested in terms of
percent maximum brake mean effective pressure (BMEP), it was necessary
to establish this base under full power operation.
This condition was evaluated
to be 75.4 psi at
3000 RPM from theoretical design considerations.
(Actual
engine tests under nearly full loading produced a BMEP of 77 psi and could
have been "driven'! higher if desired.
For simplicity however, the 75.4 psi
BMEP will hereafter be considered as a base.)
Figures 16A through 16E presents the preliminary results of cross-
plot interpolations to obtain data in the form requested by OAP for the inter-
. . 000
mediate comblnatlon angle of 28 , 7 , -38 .
The values shown for the emissions
from tbe engine under different operating conditions (in terms of grams NOX
per brake horsepower hour) were determined from crossplots of the experi-
mental data plotted in Figure s 1 7 A through 1 7E.
(A compo site plot of Figure s
17A-17E is presented in Figure 17F to show that the total variation in emissions
25
-------
for all of these preliminary experiments was les s than 3. 0 grams NOX /
BHP-Hr.) Associated values for the level of engine load (in terms of per-
cent BMEP) were taken from crossplots of the data presented in Figures lSA
through lSE.
(A composite plot of the data contained in Figures lSA-lSF.
This plot is included in the report to illustrate the consistency obtained in
the experimental data which in turn provides some idea of the data quality.)
In addition to the conditions stated, each curve of Figures 17A through 17E,
as well as those of Figures lSA through lSE, represents experimental condi-
tions where the air intake was also maintained constant.
Thus the "100% air"
curves were taken at wide open throttle (WOT).
The "SO% air" and "70% air"
curves represent experimental conditions where the volumetric air flow was
SO% and 70% respectively of the WOT air flow.
(It should be noted that because
this was a fuel injected engine, the throttle controls air flow only with fuel
I
flow being independent of the throttle setting. )
As an example of how any particular data reporting point would be
determined, take the point specified as follows:
combination angle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . intermediate (2So, 70, -3So)
RPM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 000
air-fuel ratio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . stoichiometric
ai r flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100% of maximum
First refer to Figure 17A which portrays NOX for any air-fuel ratio
at the specified conditions.
Select an air-fuel ratio of 34.2 (stoichiometric)
and determine the appropriate NOX in grams per brake horsepower hour as
26
-------
related to the 100% air flow curve.
Next go to Figure 18A which specifies
the range of power outputs in percent maximum BMEP at any air-fuel ratio
for specified conditions.
Selecting the 100% air flow curve at stoichiometric
air-fuel, determine the percentage of maximum load.
Repeating thi s pro-
cedure for all other possible combinations, each endpoint for the 70 timing of
Figure 16A can be determined.
o
Similarly, data for the advanced (20 ) and
retarded (00) ignition timings shown on Figure 16A were taken from the plots
of experimental data shown in Figures 30A through 31E for the advanced com-
bination angle and in Figures 32A through 33E for the retarded combination angle.
Figure 19 gives additional emission characteristics when NOX is plotted
on a parts per million basis for the intermediate combination angle.
Figures
20A through 20C give emission characteristics as they relate to engine power.
Figure 21 relates exhaust gas temperature to NOX emission for all tests.
---~--~-~
B.
Low Power Experimental Data
Figures 22A and 22B present the various emission and power character-
istics obtained with the engine operating at reduced loads and in the lean fuel
region.
Table 4 lists the data recorded for these low power experiments.
Engine operation was as previously described and the data taken were accord-
ing to the format of Figure 14.
c.
Discus sion
It will be noted that the power-speed plot (Figure 12) for this engine
as modified resulted in a smooth curvalinear relationship.
Recall, however,
that the general trend and peak for this curve was arbitrarily established.
27
-------
That is, fuel was forced into the engine until the desired power output
was obtained.
When this circumstance is considered in the interpretation
of the BMEP air-fuel plots such as Fig~re l8A, an explanation for the
behavior of the 80% and 100% relative air curves (as compared to the 70%
air curve) is needed.
As previously mentioned, it is hypothesized that
localized cylinder heating resulted in the formation of a hot spot in the area
of the exhaust valve.
This hot spot could cause an elongation of the exhaust
valve such that compression (and consequently power) los s, as well as oil
consumption, would occur.
This power drop would in turn require more
fuel in order to force the power output to match the value shown by the curve
of Figure 12.
The fuel inc rease in turn would cause the 70% air curve of
Figure l8A to be skewed to the left and downward.
Actually this phenomena was observed in the low power-lean fuel
tests.
Therein at power levels that resulted in exhaust gas temperatures
o
above about 1150 F. a marked power drop was observed from the time of
cold start until steady state operation was attained.
This drop in power was
not observed to occur at cooler exhaust temperatures.
Roughly, this value
of exhaust gas temperature corresponds to all power level values above the
3,000 RPM, 350/0 maximum power condition.
As suming this analysis to be
correct, lower temperature operation such as could be achieved with a water.
cooled engine modification, should yield a smooth family of increasing power
curves with increasing relative air percent.
The expected decreased fuel
requirements accompanying this modification (i. e. that required to drive the
28
-------
engine to the same power level) would in turn dec rease the emis sions on a
grams NOX per brake horsepower basis.
Efficiency and other fuel related
terms would also be improved.
As expected, Figure 21 indicates that no particular relationship exists
between exhaust gas temperature and NOX emission.
In general, an increase
in exhaust gas temperature will indicate an increase in NOX.
Howeve r, othe r
factors, such as combination angle, strongly influence the trend so that no
general correlations can be made.
No matter how one judges the hydrogen engine emission character-
istics, whether on a parts per million or a grams per brake horsepower
hour basis, the results remain that the NOX emission is many times less than
reported for internal combustion engines using normal hydrocarbon fuels.
On a ppm basis, the hydrogen engine has been found by this study to have
between five and fourteen times less peak NOX emission when compared to
the referenced engines of Figure 23.
On a gram basis again the hydrogen
engine yields about three times les speak emis sion than the gasoline counter-
part (see Figure 24).
Note that the gasoline data of Figure 24 represents
emission values as related to indicated horsepower while the hydrogen data
is related to brake horsepower.
If the gasoline data were to be plotted relative
to brake horsepower, their NOX emission would be increased by a factor of 3
assuming a 33 1/3% mechanical efficiency.
Then the peak hydrogen emission
would be about nine times less than its hydrocarbon counterparts.
The fact that this hydrogen engine yields less NOX emission than gaso-
line engines should be considered a basic characteristic of the hydrogen engioe.
29
-------
This advant'age, however, should in no way be construed to be the minimum
NOX emission which can be achieved with hydrogen engines in general.
This statement is based on the fact that very little effort has been made
to reduce the NOX emitted from this engine.
Comprehensive exhaust gas analyses were performed at the low
power WOT tests for each of the five engine speeds.
Exhaust gas samples
were collected in liter bottles (under vacuum) directly after being cooled
and before passing through the dryers of the exhaust sampling system of
Figure 5A.
The samples were analyzed by Phillips Petroleum Company.
The resulting data are presented in Table 5.
The data from this analysis
supports the hypothesis that the hot spot
which had caused compression
los s was as sociated with a significant oil consumption.
(The measured hydro-
carbon concentrations are not large but the fact that any significantly measur-
able quantities exist in the exhaust of a hydrogen engine is a matter needing
explanation. )
-------
VIII.
SECOND PHASE ENGINE MODIFICATION AND TESTING
A.
Engine Modification
A decision to add a water jacket to the hydrogen engine was made
during the final phase of this research effort.
This modification (see
Figure 25) consisted of the design and fabrication of a shell encircling the
cooling fins of the cylinder.
Fresh water was admitted intermittently
through a water control valve and flexible plastic tubing.
Heat transfer was
facilitated by boiling the water within the jacket and venting the resultant
steam through a stand-pipe located near the top of the water jacket.
Cylinder
head cooling was achieved by spraying water onto the cooling fins.
B.
Gene ral
Water cooling considerably improved the heat transfer characteristics
of this engine to the point that long-duration high-power test runs without
!
head gasket deterioration or power loss due to compression leaks at local-
ized hot spots was possible for the first time.
As will be shown later, oil
consumption was reduced to a negligible quantity.
The cylinder wall near
the exhaust valve which formerly had been operating hot was now operating
at a much lower temperature.
c.
Water Cooled Engine Tests and Data
Remaining time and funds were sufficient for only limited additional
engine testing.
o 0
The combination angle of (+35 , X, -35 ) was selected for
water cooled engine operation.
For these tests, X represented a variable
spark ignition angle determined for each run for best power without knock.
31
-------
During the 39 water jacketed runs for which data were taken, this angle
varied between +15 and -4 degrees.
Figure 26 illustrates the variables
tested during the water jacketed engine runs.
Basically, this is a repeat of
runs made for the intermediate combination angle of Figure 10.
For these
tests, fuel was injected until the flow rate matched the flow rate used in
the non-water jacketed first phase tests.
Power output, oxides of nitrogen
I
and values for other variables recorded are presented in Table 6.
Liter bottle exhaust samples were taken for selected data points.
These bottles were delivered to Phillips Petroleum Company Research
Laboratory for chromatographic analysis.
The results of this analysis are
tabulated in Table 7.
]).
Discussion and Data Graphics
As expected, the water jacketed engine overcame the power losses
associated with high power,high temperature, air cooled runs.
An examination
of Figures 27 A through 27E illustrates the expected smooth drop in power level
with reduced throttle.
In contrast, Figures l8A through l8E show an increase
in power at some reduced throttle conditions.
The resulting predictable
behavior of the water jacketed engine data indicates that it is a more reliable
indicator of this engine I s true characteristics than is the above reported air-
cooled data.
(Figure 27F is a composite pbt of the data presented in Figures
27A-27E. )
Figures 28A through 28E and the accompanying scatterplot of Figure
28F provide output for the crossplot needed to convert the data to the form
required by the sponsor.
The resulting tree diagram (see Figures 29A
32
.
-------
through 29E) is the water jacketed data presented in this desired format.
Similar graphs showing engine emissions as a function of air-fuel
ratio
o
for various throttle settings with the engine timed at 20 BTC are
presented in Figures 30A through 30E for the range in engine speed from
2000 RPM to 4000 RPM.
Figures 31A through 31E present the performance
characteristics of the engine for this ignition timing.
Finally, Figures 32A
through 32E present the emissions as a function of air fuel ratio, air flow,
and engine speed for the ignition timing of 00 BTC.
Figures 33A through
33E present the associated engine performance data for these tests.
33
-------
IX.
GASOLINE TESTS
A set of five gasoline fueled engine tests were made for a final
comparative evaluation.
The water jacketed engine was used for these tests.
To facilitate the fuel change, the throttle tube was replaced by a standard
Clinton carburetor and" the hydrogen injection tube was plugged.
All runs
were taken at wide-open-throttle, best power mixture (rich), and best power
ignition timing.
Table 8 lists the observed and calculated data for this test sequence.
The data for run 757 shows an unexpected low value for fuel flow which is
probably erroneous.
(It is believed that the actual fuel flow was incorrectly
recorded for this run.
Unfortunately, no time was available to make confirm-
ing runs.) Note that maximum gasoline power proved to be almost identical
to the predicted value of maximum power used in initial hydrogen design
calculations.
Chromatographic analyses of liter bottle exhaust samples for all runs
was made by Phillips Petroleum Research Laboratory.
The results of those
analyses are presented in Table 9.
34
-------
x.
COMPARISON OF EMISSIONS
The data in Tables 5 and 7 show that components other than combustion
water and the constitue'nts of air were present in the exhaust of the hydrogen
fueled engine.
The emissions in this case reflect a) the two phases of hydro-
gen engine evolution represented by data contained within each Table, b) the
specific design used in each phase of the project effort, and c) the experi-
mental operating conditions.
As previously described, the first phase engine tests were made with
an "air-cooled" version whose exhaust contained significant concentrations of
carbon monoxide and unburned hydrocarbons.
The concentration of the se
components was found to increase with engine loading as shown by the data
presented in Figures 34 and 35.
Leakage of lubricating oil past the intake
valve stem and into the combustion chamber was the primary source of these
pollutants.
This condition was corrected in the second phase "water-cooled"
engine by insertion of an oil seal around the intake valve.
The resulting
decrease in hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions is shown by com-
parison of the air-cooled and water-cooled curves of Figures 34 and 35.
Figure 35 also shows that the concentrations of unburned hydrogen in the
exhaust decreases as engine power increases.
The same trend may be noted
for both the air-cooled and water-cooled engines.
The presence of hydrogen
in the exhaust is expected since stratified charge effects and po sition and
intensity of the ignition source influence the reaction.
Also the timing of the
injection, ignition and exhaust mechanisms may individually or collectively
prevent complete combustion of the hydrogen.
35
-------
The expected emissions from a hydrogen fueled engine were steam,
the constituents of air, and nitrogen oxides.
If any lubricating oil was con-
sumed in the process, the exhaust would also be expect~d to contain organic
compounds, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.
In addition, some unburned
hydrogen may be present.
All of these constituents were found to be present
in the exhaust from the hydrogen engine.
However, since carbonaceous com-
pounds present were of minor concentration, or could be reduced to a minimal
level by design changes which minimizes oil consumption, the only pollutants
accorded significance are compounds of nitrogen.
Comprehensive analyses for nitric oxide (NO) produced by the experi-
mental engine as a function of engine speed, throttle setting and loading were
conducted simultaneously with the engine performance tests.
(The measuring
apparatus was arranged so that the exhaust would be analyzed within 20 seconds
after it left the combustion chamber.
Under these conditions it appears
reasonable that very little of the primary oxide would be oxidized to the dioxide.
Accordingly, it was assumed the NO measured represented the total NOX. )
Nitrogen oxide emissions were then normalized to account for differences in
engine output and expressed as grams NOX/brake horsepower-hour.
The inter-relationship of emissions and performance for the air-cooled
experimental hydrogen engine is summarized in Figure 36.
A similar graph
of the experimental data for the water-cooled version of this same engine is
presented in Figure 37.
It will be noticed in both cases that NOX emissions
generally increase with an increase in torque (% Max. BMEP).
The maxi-
mum NOX produced is 3. 0 grams /BHP-Hr with 2.0 grams /BHP-Hr being
36
-------
about average for all levels of engine performance.
If the engine were
operated at 35% power or less, as is frequently the case for automobile
engines, the NOX would average about 1. 0 grams /BHP-Hr.
If the NOX emis-
sions were expres sed on the basis of "indicated" horsepower, and the engine
had a 33 1/3% mechanical efficiency, the NOX at less than 35% power would
average about 0.33 grams /IHP-Hr.
On this basis, the NOX emissions from
the hydrogen engine were about nine times less than would be expected from
a gasoline engine.
37
-------
XI.
CONCLUSIONS
The work performed under this contract has yielded much information
about design criteria for hydrogen fueled internal combustion engines.
In the first place, it has been shown that a conventional gasoline
fueled engine can be readily converted to hydrogen operation.
The specific
design approach utilized was unique in that it eliminated problems of pre-
~-
ignition and detonation which had plagued prior workers in this field. '"
Successful engine operation was obtained with spark, hot wire and compression
ignition.
The engine was easy to start and ran smoothly over the range in
fuel from ve ry ric h to ve ry lean.
It should be noted that the engine 's
operating temperature with hydrogen fuel was comparable to that obtained
with gasoline operation under similar operating conditions.
Secondly, hydrogen engine performance has been achieved which could
match or exceed that 0 btainable with gasoline operation as desired.
This
freedom in engine operation was possible at all engine speeds because of the
wide flammability limits for hydrogen which allowed fuel injection to exceed
that necessary to match the gasoline engine's power output.
For purposes of
comparison, the maximum brake mean effective pressure of 75.4 psi at 3000
RPM was considered although the engine was capable of being driven to higher
BMEP values.
The brake specific fuel consumption under varying loads was
always less than 0.5 pounds of hydrogen per brake horsepower hour.
* Smooth combustion is made possible only by the design used in this
engine. This claim cannot be made by other designs reported in the
literature. Accordingly, all claims for a hydrogen-fueled engine
made herein cannot be unilaterally applied to other engine designs.
38
-------
Thirdly, in support of expected results, the emissions from a hydrogen
engine were found to contain only trace to negligible concentrations of carbon
monoxide and other organic compounds normally associated with the exhausts
of gasoline engine s.
In addition, there should be no undesirable sulfur or
lead compounds in the exhaust.
The only pollutant found to be present in signi-
ficant quantity was nitric oxide.
Its concentration averaged about nine times
less than the NOX emissions typically reported for internal combustion engines
burning conventional hydrocarbon fuels.
A total of 48-3/4 hours of intermittant hydrogen engine operation witb-
out accident has been accumulated in the course of this work.
It appears from the research that a multi-cylinder hydrogen fueled
engine could be constructed which would meet the 1975/76 vehicle emission
standards.
39
-------
KIl.
RECOMMENDATIONS
This project was undertaken to determine if an engine run on hydro-
gen could give satisfactory operation without the undesirable pollutants
produced by gasoline engines.
It is believed the project has been very
succes sful in that the potential of hydrogen as a low polluting fuel has been
demonstrated.
Further efforts to improve the engine's performance or to establish
additional design criteria for other engines appear to be worthwhile and are
highly recommended.
At the same time, consideration should be given to
the development of fuel storage and distribution systems.
The use of more
optimal compression ratios in multi-cylinder engine applications should
also be considered.
40
-------
XIII.
CALCULATIONS
The following are the equations and relationships used to compute
the tabulated data.
gasoline runs only
hydrogen runs only
hydrogen runs only
P = FNC 1
10,000
1V1a = AC 1
CJ1 R = lOOP
-/0 max P
max
5250 P
T = N
~.A" = Wg
.LVl.g -
Y
~ = O. 309 QH
for QH $1. 3
MH = O. 542 QH - O. 314
for QH >1. 3
A/F = :tv1a
lVf
x
254500 P
E =
MxH
0/0 SA = 100(A/F)
S
41
( 1 )
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5A)
(5B)
(5C)
(6 )
( 7)
(8)
-------
for rich gasoline
mixture only
for lean gasoline
mixture only
for rich hydrogen
mixture only
for lean hydrogen
mixture only
BSFC = Mx
P
N - 8+ 3. 773 A 116 Mg
E - 4.773 F 28.9 116
A 116 M
NE = - - - 4. 5 ~
F 28.9 116
N = 1+ 1. 773 A 2 MH
E 4.773 F 28.9 Z-
NE = ~ 2 -0. 5
F 28.9
MH
(9)
(10A)
(lOB)
( 1 OC)
(1 OD)
M = (453.6 X 10-6) (NOX) (NE) tNO (11)
N
P
r"\. = 30 N(PD)
4 1728
M = 144 Ut (0.491) (Pb-P a)
at 53. 35 e
0/0 TH = 100 Ma
1Y1at
2545 P 778
BMEP =
144 ~
100 BMEP
0/0 Bmax =
75.4
42
(12 )
(13 )
( 14)
(15 )
(16 )
-------
XIV.
NOMENCLATURE
P
F
N
Cl
M
a
A
P
max
%Pmax =
T
Mg
Wg
y
MH
QH
A/F
Mx
E
H
%SA
S
BSFC
MN
NOX
NE
~NO
= brake horsepower
= dynamometer force - pounds
= engine speed -RPM
= pressure, temperature, and humidity correction factors
taken from dynamometer manufacturers curves
= ai r flow - pounds per hour
= uncorrected air flow reading
= maximum horsepower
percent of maximum horsepower
= torque - foot pounds
= gasoline flow - pounds per hour
= weight of gasoline - pounds
= time - hour s
= hydrogen flow - pounds per hour
= meter reading - standard C. F. M.
= air-fuel ratio
= appropriate fuel flow - Mg or MH
= overall brake thermal efficiency - percent
= lower heating value of fuel - 51, 100 for hydrogen or
19, 000 fo r gasoline
=
percent stoichiometric air
stoichiometric air-fuel ratio - 34.2 for hydrogen or
15 for gasoline
=
= brake specific fuel consumption - pounds per horsepower
hour
nitric oxide mass emission - grams per horsepower hour
= nitric oxide concentration - parts per million
=
= mole rate of flow of exhaust - pound mole s
per mole fuel
= molecular weight of nitric oxide - 30
43
pe r hour
-------
at
PD
Mat
Pb
P
a
e
%TH
BMEP
= theoretical piston displacement - cubic feet per hour
= piston displacement per cycle - cubic inches
= theoretical air mass rate of flow - pounds per hour
= barametric pressure - inches of mercury
= air meter pressure drop - inches of mercury
= dry bulb temperature - degrees Rankine
= percent throttle
=
brake mean effective pressure -psi
%Bmax = percent maximum BMEP
44
-------
REFERENCES
1.
Hoffman, K. C., et. al., "Metal Hydrides as a Source of Fuel for
Vehicular Propulsion," Paper 690232, Presented SAE International
Automotive Engineering Congress, Detroit, (January 13-17, 1969).
2.
Johnsr,n, J. E., "Economics of Large Scale Liquid Hydrogen Produc-
tion, ". technical paper, presented Cryogenic Engineering Conference,
Boulder, Colorado (June 13-15, 1966).
3.
Deen, J. L. and Schoeppel, R. J., "Hydrogen and the Electric Economy,11
Proceedings, Frontiers of Power Technology Conference, Oklahoma
State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, September 30-0ctober 1, 1971,
p. 10-1.
4.
Murray, R. G. and Schoeppel, R. J., l'Emission and Performance
Characteristics of an Air-Breathing Hydrogen-Fueled Internal Com-
bustion Engine," proceedings, 1971 Intersociety Energy Conversion
Engineering Conference, Boston, Mass., Aug. 3-6, 1971, p. 38, SAE
paper No. 719009.
5.
U. S. Patent 3,572,297, III;Iydrogen Fueled Internal Combustion Engine,"
(March 23, 1971).
6.
Murray, R. G., and Schoeppel, R. J., "A Reliable Solution to the Environ-
mental Problem: The Hydrogen Engine, II Paper 700608, presented at
SAE I AIAAI ASME Reliability and Maintainability Conference, Detroit,
(July 20-22, 1970).
7.
Schoeppel, R. J., and Sadiq, S., liThe Role of the Power Industry in
Supporting the Hydrogen Engine and Clean Air," Proceedings, Frontiers
of Power Technology Conference, Stillwater, Oklahoma (October 15 -16,
1970).
8.
Schoeppel, R. J., "Design of a Total Energy Management System for
the Abatement of Air Pollution, II Technical Paper SPE-2877, Gas
Industry Symposium, Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME, Omaha,
Neb r as ka, (Ma y 2 1 - 22, 1 9 70).
9.
Murray, R. G., and Schoeppel, R. J., "A Progress Report on the Devel-
opment of OSU I s Hydrogen-Burning Engine." Proceedings, Frontiers
of Power Technology Conference, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater,
Oklahoma (1969), p.14.
45
-------
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Schoeppel, R. J., and Murray, R. G., "The Development of Hydrogen
Burning Engines." Proceedings, Frontiers of Power Technology
Conference, Oklahoma State University (1968), p. 12.
Wimmer, D. B. and McReynolds, L. A., "Nitrogen Oxides and Engine
Combustion, "SAE Transactions," Vol. 70, 1962.
Fleming, R. D. and Allsup, J. R., "Propane as a Fuel for Clean Air
Requirements, Part 1." Paper presented at L-P Gas Engine Fuel
Symposium, Detroit (October 21-22, 1970).
Coward, H. F. and Jones, G. W., "Flammability Limits, " U. S. Bureau
of Mines Bulletin 503 (1952).
Lichty, L. C., Combustion Engine Processes, McGraw-Hill, N. Y.
p. 208 (1967).
Mark's Mechanical Engineering Handbook.
46
-------
HYDROGEN
. ~:' .;jF~ .:>, -",
AIR
Expected
Emissions
. 7i"..~, . -- ':' ' '!it.'
~~J~;~~~~~~~JJl.~~:;~'t; .
. ': '....~. .. . t-,'1o ~ . - " '.- '\""1'1~ .iF,
kr~l;'1
rM'!:!'
~if;'
I'"
~,~
"'.:.';:'{"
'"
~:t
~!r,
F'
HYDRO
CARBON
FUEL
AIR
-1 t,:~;~:'~J~,~";1~:;!"}r ,,,-:;~.l.\
f"'''''''''''' . ~ ~
,. ~. I'\~'
AIR
'),"': .'i.'J '
WATER
NOX
CARBON
CO
,..'-" , _r~.~\{:~~:.!..-,'~ -.-'
C02
, .
~CO~~NDSI
802
HC
ALDEHYDE
FIGURE 1 FUEL-ENGINE SYSTEM EMISSIONS
47
-------
(H2) Hydrogen
~
t.
I "
(C2H2). Acetylene
l::.(CaH18) G..oIin.
fc.
."OH) ~ftVI Alcohol
(C4H10) Butan.
(CH4) Methane
,:I'
If'-'
I!' c'
.;r..
" ~
l'
HydrogeA .~
.'
, ,
Acetylen.
GasoHnf
"
Methyl Alcohol'!
"
Butu",
Methane
~l4~~'J:~;:;:~',
l!~tt,." . "
;f~¥.~1t~~: \'. '."
. Ii/,;,S"," t.
,ri-..pi~'i ...Ti .'. ~
~'S..",...;-:!,~:\""~,~I -'~...;
. ~ . ~ -"f ),~,.., ,\";' 'J''''''~ \1; . '. ','
J('iiI~~~,:',r~~i~i.::4~'>f'\f!\Jt.~~lt~i'Jr,
, ~~i~~~.:i.
o
"; 'j'
S
6'
1
2
3
4
HIGHER HE.ATING \t1\LUk. aru X 10.4 PER POUND
"
;
t
I "~;: ,,%i::'~nt::"~'>~~l:',i~:~';;;-, "
.
-
.......
.1).
L'
'~.
" ~,
""r
',"\
-.,.~
~~~.
'~':~~f.~~i[~ '
:,,.-.
~f
'[;j
i'l!
if:~;i:"
~~
'~"''', "
I~;j
f~e
..t?~d'-
~!i:"
;',,~ .
to..'....
r/
,>
.'.,'
",,'ti
:)
80
1{VJ
fO
30
20
40
60
60
70
FLAMM/~BllrlY LIMITS il~J ,~,R
(I,~ 8 ''(
.j "Uli\.\:,' l
, '- Vi .-1
, .,
. ;'"..' '. '; "'c ~' . )'
c , :; ,v:..:~,f~,\;~~t:~'.~-~J'
FIGURE 2 - FUEL CHARACTERISTICS FROM R . 1 15 ~".1;,
- ;~~= ~~.,f:.:t:..:.:..~~~..,...:£'-~1:I!~'~:
"_K', .'
"~t"","~;..,:;
48
9(1
-------
-...--.-.
...-..--
,
ATOR
[HW",..YDR.O. GEN.~~DWMG -
~- I!! OSCILLASCOPE
C -1
>1:>-)
-.D~
~
,'. c' ~ !'J
,
"
. . -
: 0 @"
.~ 0 o'~
,
..
-~;~
--~
;$
i
--:,/
--
-------
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
a:
:J .9
o
J:
in
..J .8
~'
o
..J
u.. .7
z
w
t?
0 .6
a:
c
>
J:
.5
.4
.3
.2
o
P-V- T TANK TEST DATA
.5
1.0 1.5 2.0
HYDROGEN FLOW METER READING
2.5
3.0
FIGURE 4 FUEL FLOWMETER CALIBRATION CURVE
-------
AIR
PURGE
U1 E ItHAUST
,..... SAMPLE.
2-ERO GAS
RANGE I
C"L. GAS
RANGE. 2
C AL. GAS
RANGE. 3
CAL.GAS
0-30 PSIG-
CONDENSER
.
00
DRAIN
FIGURE 5A NITRIC OXIDE SAMPLING SYSTEM SCHEMATIC
I-
Z
....
>
-
,
Q
N
,
o
f-Z.
D - DRIE.R
F - FILTER
PR- PRESSURE REGULATOR
~ HAND VALVE.
-i>
-------
u: ~~1 . .4
-"o=~.. ~ ,
GAS DRYING TUBE""S~,.'~¥i',.:. '-', H,"',
. ~FlOWMETER ,jg :. ~
' e" I';: I
,Q~ir: .J'. ~y - y
:aN, 1 !, I (,I, " ......' "'," NITRfC OXIDE
E.2~" , . >" ".. .', '. ANAL YZER
..';' ~ ---
.. - - .....; "'---"_._'-""-~-'-"-'-'" ',,--~.,~_.
':' - '~~
:&
. ~
......",-
~"'~t~ 7:j
~ * ~
"'-.,,;,;r '>",
h,~.t' ~,
"':;
'p
:.
~IGURe"'5'B'NJTRi'~~ox-fDESAMPlING SYSTEM
52
-------
------."-'--
.-- -- ,-~ -~-,~.~-
PUSH RODS
HYDROGEN PURGE
INJECTOR VALVE HOUSING
'.1 ',j ';' 'd
,.. ..
..\\ '.,~
., . "
-_.~
"
~~:
; ~~
~;?;~",
.
\\
..
'.
'\iI~
!f<
IGNITION CONTROL
~.
-.)
~
~
,
\f
,~
~
...
-".",;0!', ,
FIGURE 6 HYDROGEN ENGINE-CAST IRON CRANK CASE
53
-------
~~ - -- -- '--
- ---------~ -
tJt
i
.
I
~ ",'.,---~,'.~' "':,
1._, .', '.
.~I,!'}
,
!
\
\
\
!
!
t
!
t
.,
!
,
i
\:
~
j
1
I
....:
"
_. - ----.- - .~--------- ~------~ ----.----
" I
.~
I,t,"' ... ... "
-, . .
~
~('
I
(
---
l
~
Q:.9
\i
r
~,
\
~,:,' ~~,' ,,' "'""'-,'~'~"~.-' .-'
~. ~r . ';;;"'.~"'..w.,..',,'.h
~'.-
FIGURE 7 INJECTION MECHANISM COMPONENTS
54-
t
~~:r4'W;
'f~
,~
1.1.1..."
j.!
dl ~
;'-
B
-------
~I
~~~. -
,.~, ~tt~/I-"'"
~..
1.
-,;, "'"
~, .....>-.
""
~
~
~
""-'...3:
~,~,':'
~.
" ,~
~1
""".'" -,,,-
'~,'" "'" ,
-------
FIGURE 9
VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM
\
\
\
'-
~,~
~\~
U'I\t't'I
c,,) ""
~\J;>
o\~
~\t't'I
0\
\
\
\
\
(q J"'\V
~ ,,'J
;;f "<
~... 0
!?
~~
,,"< 14:;
~/&
/I~
lu
UI 0
u > I-
o -J,«
I- « 0
~/'tR
CI) M
=> CI)
« UI
:r ~
X -J
UI U
,
,
\
\
\
\
\
\ '
\ I
\1
I
,
~
~
O,+~
:roO '- ,
'"
56
-------
Figure 10
TREE DIAGRAM- - OAP DATA FORMAT
.PM
TIMING
DEG BTC
AIR-FUEL RATIO
% STOICHIOMETRIC
POWER
LEVEL
High
Medi um
Low
50
r
High
Medi um
Low
200
100
-1
High
Medium
Low
200
! Test High
50 Medi um
uenc e
'Each Low
\.f
000 70 100 ~High
000 Medium
Low
000
. I High
200 Medi um
Low
High
Medium
Low
50
High
Mejium
Low
00
100
L-ZDD
High
Medium
Low
l
57
-------
% MAX % MAX RPM RUN RUN RUN
AIR FLOW POWER NO.
NO. Np.
o 0
20 BTC 7 BTC 0 BTC
~2000 Misfire Misfir_e Misfire
2500 630 "- 563
Misfire
35% 3000 631 564 Misfire
3500 632 565 Misfire
4000 633 566 Mi sfi re
~~~~~ 634 558 Misfire
635 557 601
-100% 65% 3000 636 556 602
3500 637 555 603
4000 638 554 604
~~~~~ 639 579 Misfi re
640 577 605
100c:"o 3000 641 5 60 606
3500 642 5 59 607
4000 643 5 78 608
~~~~~ 644 567 Misfire
645 568 Misfire
35% 3000 646 569 Misfire
3500 647 5 70 Misfire
4000 648 5 71 6 ')9
~~~~~ 649 5 72 610
6 5 (j 5 73 611
-80% 65% 3000 6 51 5 74 612
3500 652 5 75 613
4000 653 5 76 614
~2000 654 584 615
2500 6 55 583 616
100% 3000 6 56 582 617
3500 Misfire 5 81 618
4000 657 5 80 619
~~~~~ 658 5 86 Misfi re
659 587 Misfire
35% 3000 660 588 Misfi re
3500 661 589 Misfire
4000 662 590 Misfir,-
-g2000 663 591 620
2500 664 592 621
-70% 65% 3000 6 65 593 622
3500 6 66 594 623
4000 6 67 595 624
~~~~~ 6 68 596 625
6 69 597 626
I
100% 3000 Misfire 598 627
I
3500 Misfire 599 628
4000 670 600 629
-~- --.----------
-~-._----
Figure 11
TREE DIAGRAM--DATA RUNS--ADVANCED
\j" ANGLE
58
-------
cr:
w
s:
o
\J1o..
-..oW
en
cr:
o
J:
w
~
«
cr:
OJ
3.0
2.0
1.0
o
1600
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
CLINTON MODEL 494
Factory reported W-O-T
engine horsepower
/
/"
I
I
'I
1
I /
:/
I
I
I 1(
I
/'
/
/
~
I
I
I
I
I
I
------L-.--
I
I
I
I
1
I
I .
-, I
~" I
~
....
I .....
I
>1
1
/'"
./ <-- Mod;!;edW-O-T
engine horsepower
----
--
-----
,.
,,/ "'-Modified W-O-T BMEP
"
/
Recommended operating range
1800
2000
2200
2400
FIGURE 12 ENGINE PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
2600
2800
RPM
3000
3200
3400
3600
3800
120
110 IX!
:II
»
"
m
s:
100 m
»
z
m
"T1
"T1
m
90 (")
~
<
m
-g
:II
80 m
en
en
C
:II
m
-g
70 en
-
60
4000
-------
400
350
£
300
01
CC
3 250
w
01
£ 200
CC
0 150
Z
5 100
0
50
INJECTION START
IGNITION
INJECTION STOP
INTERMEDIATE SPEED AND POWER
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
TIME (milliseconds)
LOW SPEED AND POWER
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
TIME (milliseconds)
FIGURE 13A CYLINDER PRESSURE-TIME DIAGRAMS
LOW AND INTERMEDIATE SPEED AND POWER
60
-------
GASOUNE
a
Ul
cc
I
111
cc
a.
DC
UJ
Q
Z
600
500
400
300
200
100
8 10 12 14 16 18
TIME (msec)
0 2
HYDROGEN
8 10 12 14 16 18
TIME (msec)
FIGURE 13B CYLINDER PRESSURE-TIME DIAGRAMS GASOLINE AND HYDROGEN
OPERATION, INTERMEDIATE SPEED, HIGH POWER
61
-------
Figure 14
TREE DIAGRAM OF LOW POWER, LEAN FUEL EXPERIMENTS
ENGINE
RPM
FUEL FLOW
RANGE pph
2000-{.16 - .19)
2500- (.21 - .23)
U)
~
Z
~
~
H
~
~
p,
~
~
fz.!
o
~
o
z
<
~
3800- (.31 - .32)
3500- (.37 - .38)
4000- (.40 - .44)
AIR FLOW RUN
0/0 MAX NUMBER
100 676
90 677
80 678
70 679
60 680
100 671
90 675
80 672
70 673
60 674
100 681
90 684
80 685
70 686
60 687
100 688
90 689
80 690
70 691
60 692
100 693
90 694
80 695
70 696
60 697
62
-------
"
-------
TREE DIAGRAM--OXIDES OF NITROGEN EMISSION-- OAP
-2000 RPM-
TIMING AIR-FUEL RATIO LOAD
DEG BTC % STOICHIOMETRIC LEVEL
0/0 MAX BMEP
E~~
90
Figure 16A
RPM
50
20°
E~i
58
100
200
E~~
24
50
El18
107
99
2000
7°
E~~
68
100
200
E:~
40
50
~123
106
0°
E~~
50
100
200
E16
16
16
64
FORMAT
NOX GRAMS/
BHP-Hr
8. J
6.8
5.6
5. 8
5.0
4. 1
2.3
2. 1
2.9
3.9
2.6
2.9
2. 5
2.0
1.2
0.7
1.0
0.2
0.9
O. 7
0.0
1.5
1.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
-------
Figure 16B
TREE DIAGRAM--OXIDES OF NITROGEN EMISSION-- OAP FORMAT
-2500 RPM-
RPM
TIMING
DEG BTC
20°
2500
7°
0°
AIR-FUEL RATIO
% STOICHIOMETRIC
50
100
200
50
100
200
50
100
200
65
LOAD LEVEL
% MAX BMEP
E~
E~
E;~
30
E07
100
96
E~~
66
E~
E~~
62
E;~
26
E~~
11
NOX GRAMS/
BHP- Hr
3.6
7. 7
4.9
4.3
3. 3
4.7
4.8
1.4
2.8
2.9
2.3
1.8
1.7
1.8
1.3
.7
1.0
.6
1.0
1.1
1.8
1.5
1.6
1.3
o
o
o
-------
Figure 16C
TREE DIAGRAM--OXIDES OF NITROGEN EMISSION-- OAP FORMAT
-3000 RPM-
RPM
TIMING AIR-FUEL RATIO
DEG BTC % STOICHIOMETRIC
LOAD LEVEL
0/0 MAX BMEP
NOX GRAMS/
BHP-Hr
o
E~
22
3.6
4:.9
5.3
20°
100
E~~
23
3.5
2.8
5.6
200
E42
26
26
1.7
1.2
2.4
50
E96
104
94
2.4-
2.4
1.8
3000
7°
100
E71
57
59
1.6
1.8
1.3
200
E~
.6
.6
.6
50
E95
58
65
. 9
1.1
1.3
0°
100
E~~
14
1.3
1.5
1.6
200
E;
o
o
o
6,6
-------
Figure 16D
TREE DIAGRAM--OXIDES OF NITROGEN-- OAP FORMAT
-3500 RPM-
RPM
TIMING AIR-FUEL RATIO
DEG BTC % STOICHIOMETRIC
50
20°
100
200
LOAD LEVEL
0/0 MAX BMEP
E~~
55
E51
37
35
E~~
22
-E96
50 - 89
83
3500
7°
100
200
50
0°
100
200
E~~
53
E40--
28-
-43
l=:~
47
e~
E~~
67
NOX GRAMS/
BHP-Hr
3.,2
2.,5
3.,4
3.8
3.3
3.9
2.0
1.7
2. 1
2.7
2.3
1.7
2.0
1.9
1.4
. 9
.8
.6
1.3
1.5
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.9
o
o
o
-------
Figure 16E
TREE DIAGRAM--OXIDES OF NITROGEN EMISSION-- OAP FORMAT
-4000 RPM-
RPM
TIMING
DEG BTC
AIR FUEL RATIO
0/0 STOICHIOMETRIC
LOAD LEVEL
0/0 MAX BMEP
NOX GRAMS/
BHP-Hr
50
E~~
50
4.9
4.7
5. 7
20°
100
E~~
25
2.2
3.4-
5. 5
200
E~~
-20
. 7
1.9
2. 1
50
-E85
80
84
2.2
1.9
1.8
4000
7°
100
E~~
56
2. 0
2.3
. 9
200
E~~
34
1.0
0.0
.5
ro
0~100
L200
E61
36
46
1.3
1.3
1.5
Er
25
-21
1.5
1.7
1.8
E~~
.5
.6
. 8
68
-------
a:: 9
::J
o
:I: 8
a::
O'w
""s:
o 7
Q.
W
(I)
a:: 6
o
:I:
w 5
~
-------
10
a:
:> 9
o
:z:
a: 8
w
s:
0 7
Q.
W
en
a: 6
o
:z:
-.J w
0 ~ 5
«
a:
CD
a: 4
w
Q.
en 3
~
«
a: 2
C1
X
0 1
2
00
ENGINE SPEED = 2500 RPM
TIMING = 7° 8TC
SEE FIGURE 188 FOR LOADING
~~.,
0---- ~ 80% AIR
~0- "---
/100%AIR
~
10
20
30
40
50 60 70
AIR-FUEL RATIO
80
90
100
110
120
FIGURE 178 EMISSION-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIPS
-------
10
~ 9
o
:J:
a: 8
w
s:
~ 7
w
en
a: 6
o
:J:
w
~ 5
~
-.] CC
.- IX! 4
a:
w
Q.
en 3
:!:
~
a: 2
o
X'
0 1
z
o 0
ENGINE SPEED = 3000 RPM
TIMING = 7° BTC
SEE FIGURE 18C FOR LOADING
. /100%AIR
Q~~ .
70% AIR I!>-
@~
-.
10
20
30
40
50 60 70
AIR-FUEL RATIO
80
90
100
110
120
FIGURE 17C EMISSION-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIPS
-------
a: 9
::>
o
J: 8
a:
w
s: 7
o
0..
W
CI) 6
a:
-.] 0
N ~ 5
~
<{
a: 4
co
a:
~ 3
CI)
:iE
<{ 2
a:
o
X' 1
o
:z
10
. 100% AIR
80% AIR )C :---:.::...::.~~
@ -X~
70% AIR -(!)
-=-
~.
ENGINE SPEED = 3500 RPM
TIMING = 7° BTC
SEE FIGURE 18D FOR LOADING
o 0
10
20
30
40
FIGURE 17D EMISSION-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIPS
50 60 70
AI R-FUEL RATIO
80
90
100
110
120
-------
10
a: 9
:J
0
J: 8
a:
w
3:
0 7
0..
W
en
a: 6
0
J:
w 5
~
-J
-------
10
a: 9
::>
0
J: 8
a:
w
3: 7
-.) 0
>f>. Q.
W
en 6
a:
o
J:
w 5
~
«
a: 4
IX)
a:
w
Q. 3,
en
:2:
« 2
a:
CJ
X' 1
o
2
0,
o
o
---0 0 <;) ""
--..::.~.
o (;)0 0
<:> <%> 0 <:> 0 . 0~ 0 <:>
<:> Q) 0-
<:>
o
G>
10
20
30
40
50 60
AIR-FUEL RATIO
h -
FIGURE 17F COMPOSITE PLOT OF FIGURES 17A-17E
TIMING = 7° BTC
VARIABLE SPEED
AND LOADING
(i)
~(i)-~-0- G\..-i:\,.
W "'\U -"=I.1:!)
70 80
<:>
90
100
m-
1"--0
-------
100
90
80
0.
W
::?: 70
In
-.J . 60
U1X
«
::?:
I- 50
z
w
~ 40
w
0.
30
20
10
0
0 10
,
,
" "
, "
" ,
, "
" ,
, ,
, "
... ,
" ,
, "
" "
, ,
, ,
'IC
TIMING = 7° BTC
RPM = 2000
'0
"'-SO
0,,-- '7n"""""""'"
~ ~ """"'-<:0--
--.....
--
--
--
"""~...--
--
20
30
40
50
60 70
AIR-FUEL RATIO
FIGURE 18A POWER-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIPS
80
90
100
110
120
-------
100
..
,
"
, '\ ,
'\ '\ ,
,'\ ,
'\ '\ ,
" ,
" \.
'to .
~o
90
80
0..
W 70
:?i
In
-..J . 60
0' X
«
:?i 50
I-
Z
~ 40
a:
w
0.. 30
20
10
o 0
10
20
TIMING = 7° BTC
RPM = 2500
30
50 60 70
AIR-FUEL RATIO
90
40
80
FIGURE 18B POWER-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIPS
--
--
..--
---
100
110
120
-------
100
90
80
CI.. 70
w
::iE
...J co
...J 60
X
c:( 50
::iE
I-
2: 40
w
(.)
a:
w 30
CI..
20
10
o
o
\
\
\
\ \
\ \
,\ \
,~ \
~~\
TIMING = 7° BTC
RPM = 3000
...::.----- ------
--
--
--
II- -- - -.-. -...._--
---- ~----
- ~- ---------
10
50
110
120
60 70
AIR-FUEL RATIO
80
90
20
30
40
100
FIGURE 18C POWER-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIPS
-------
100
90
80
Q..
~ 70
CD
--1 X 60
C1J «
:iE
I- 50
z
w
~ 40
w
Q..
30
20
10
o
o
.
,
"
"
, '.
TIMING = 7° BTC
RPM = 3500
10
20
40
50 60 70
AIR-FUEL RATIO
30
FIGURE 18D POWER-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIPS
.--
---
..... ..... - - ---
x-
-- --
---
--
---
-- .
--
80
90
100
110
120
-------
100
90
80
70
D..
W
-.J ~ 60
-..D
X
« 50
~
I-
Z 40
w
u
ffi 30
D..
20
10
0
0 10
TIMING = 7° BTC
RPM = 4000
--
-- ---...... -- '-
........ ------
............
............
............
............
-........
20
30
40
50 60
AIR-FUEL RATIO
70
FIGURE 18E POWER-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIPS
80
100
90
110
-------
120
110
100
90
Q. 80
w
:E
co 70
X
«
:E 60
00 I-
0 Z
w
(,) 50
a:
w
Q. 40
30
20
10
o
o
o
(9
€)
o 6)
6) ~ 6)
(9 6) <:)~
~ .
10
20
30
40
6)
6)
FIGURE 18F - COMPOSITE PLOT OF FIGURES 18A-18E
TIMING = 7° BTC
VARIABLE SPEED
AND LOADING
CD 0
<:)
6)
(9
<:)
50
'60 10
AIR-FUEL RATIO
100
80
90
110
120
-------
500
450
400
z
0
...I
:: 350
:!:
a:
0:> ~ 300
....
en
I-
a:
« 250 0
Q.
X'
~ 200
150
100
50
o
15
20
25
5
10
VARIABLE LOAD
IGN - 7° BTDC
G)
o
of.
<:>
of.
30
35
40
45 50 55
AIR-FUEL RATIO
60
70
85
90
95
)I.
100
75
80
65
FIGURE 19
EMISSION CONCENTRATION
-------
QO:
N'
13
VARIABLE RPM
AI R FLOW = 100% OF MAXIMUM
TIMING = 7° BTC
12;
a::
5 11
:J::
ffi I 10:
3::
~i 9'
Wi
en
a:
0' 8:
:J: .
w
~ 7
«
a:
CD 6'
a:' '
wi
a.~
en 5 i
:E.
«,
a:' 4
~.
X- 3
o
z
<:>
o
<:>
2
-0-~-
<:>
1
<:>
-------er-
E) --~
<:> 0
o
o
<:>
---:-G::>-e
10
20
30
50
40
60
70
80
100
110 :
90
PERCENT MAXIMUM BRAKE HORSEPOWER
FIGURE 20A EMISSION-POWER RELATIONSHIPS
-------
CXlj
WI
!i: 11'
o
:E:I
a:110,
w'
~
~ 9:
w
U) ,
a: 8:
o '
:E:,
w! 7'
~' ;
«
a:j 61
£a, '
a:
Wi 5'
a..! !
1
U)
:E
~ 4:
0,
X- 3
o
z
13
12
2
1
o 0
<=> 0 (:)
<=>
10 20
c:::>-
0~
Ci\3~
o
o
30
40
-Q-
50
VARIABLE RPMi
AI R FLOW = 80% OF MAXIMUM
TIMING = 7° BTC
o
0-0-
60
70
80
FIGURE 20B EMISSION-POWER RELATIONSHIPS
PERCENT MAXIMUM BRAKE HORSEPOWER
(;)
90
G
0- :
100
11~
-------
VARIABLE RPM
13 AIR FLOW = 70% OF MAXIMUM
12 TIMING = 7° BTC
11
a:
w 10
3:
0
a.. 9
w
en
a:
0 8
J:
w
00 ~ 7
"'" «
a:
a:I
a: 6
w
a..
en 5
~
«
a: 4
CJ
X
0 3
z
2
o
o
o
0-0~0 0
<:>
o
<:>
- 0-00-
o -----
o 0 G>
<:>
0-0
1
10
20
30
40
50 60 70 80
PERCENT MAXIMUM BRAKE HORSEPOWER
90
100
110
FIGURE 20C EMISSION-POWER RELATIONSHIPS
-------
r 14
13
12
a:
5 11
:I:
a: 10
w
~
0
Q. 9
w
CI)
a:
0 8'
:I:
w
~ 7
~\ «
a:
m 6
a:
w
Q.
CI) 5
:ii:.
«
a: 4
Co:)
X" 3
0
z
2
1
0
0 1
2
4
3
5
--------- ----~
o
/ 00 0
. . . .
o 0
o
6
/
--~-~
.
.
. .
o . .
.
,
.,
o 0
,
, ,
o 0
. : 0, 0 :.. o. ~
. . . ..... 8. ~
, , . , ,:' ,0 ~:" ' " : 0 , .
. .. . .
o 0 ,
o
o .
. .
.... ...
. . ... ..8 .. . .
. 8. .. . .
"
.
o
7 8 9 10, 11 12 13 14 15
EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE,_DEG F x10-2;
20
FIGURE 21'EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE
16
17
18
19
-------
90 100
AIR-FUEL RATIO
FIGURE 22A EMISSION-MIXTURE REL~TIONSHIPS'
-2.0
a:
w
~
A.
W
en
a:
0
:E:
w
~ 1.0
«
a:
00 at
0-- a:
w
A.
en
:E
«
a:
CJ
X
0
z
0
- 50
VARIABLE AIR FLOW
IGN - 'fBTDC
EXPERIMENT FORMAT
!\S_PER FIGYRE 14
.
~'b
. ~A
.~
~~.
%00', .
~ .~ It""" e
~ °\0
V~ ~0-
'~EJ-
~V\
.
-0
o ,?OOO RPM
.~0
2_~OO RPM EJ-
E
EJ
60
70
80
11P
120
130
-------
3.0
a:
~
0
J:
a:
w
3:
0
CL.
W
(I)
a:
0
J:
w
~ 2.0
«
a:
cc
00
-.J a:
w
CL.
(I)
~
«
a:
CJ
X'
0
z
1.0
o
o
10
20
30
40
FIGURE 228 EMISSION-MIXTURE RB..ATIONSHIPS
(;)
50 60 70
AIR-FUEL RATIO
(j) ~
IGN - 7- BTDC
COMPOSITE OF FIGURE 2~
e
E)
E)
E)
e
E)
G'j)
(i)
80
----
o
(j)
90
Q
e
100
(j)
110
o
-------
FIGURE 23 WIDE-OPEN THROTTLE EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS
HYDROGEN (THEORETICAL)
COMPRESSION RATIO 6.5
GASOLINE FLEMING & ALLSUP (1970)
ISOOCTANE (THEORETICAL)
COMPRESSION RATIO 6.5
BENZENE WIMMER & MC REYNOLDS (1962)
HYDROGEN MURRAY & SCHOEPPEL (1971)
1.0
(FUEL LEAN )
1.5 2.0 2.5
AIR - FUEL EQUIVALENCE RATIO
88
3.0 3.5
( FUEL RICH )
-------
24
20
'Q:)j
....0'
-
~
::E:
I
~.16,
en
~
«
~
~
; 12
o
~
~
w
, XI 8
I '
0,
2
4
o
40
NOX EMISSIONS
100% THROTTLE
Gasoline
RELATIVE TO IHP
Hydrogen
/ELATIVE TO BHP
140 160 180
% STOICHIOMETRIC FUEL
FIGURE 24iCOMPARATIVE EMISSIONS-MASS BASIS
60
80
100
120
200
220
240
-------
'"
~:i>
TIMING
WHEEL
FIGURE 25 WATER JACKET ENGINE MODIFICATION
90
-------
Figure 26
TREE DIAGRAM- WATER JACKETED DATA RUNS
:TION AIR FLOW LOAD RPM RUN NO. NOX GRAMS/
[NG % MAX % MAX RATING BHP-Hr
AT RPM
~2000 710 2.0
2500 711 1.1
35% 3000 712 1.3
3500 713 1.5
4000 714 1.6
~2000 715 2.3
2500 716 2.6
10 0% 65% 3000 717 2.4
3500 718 2.3
4000 719 2. 1
~~~~~ 720 2.8
721 2.3
100% 3000 722 2.2
3500 723 2. 1
4000 724 2.5
~~~~~ 725 2.4
726 1.2
35% 3000 727 1.3
3500 728 1.3
4000 729 1.5
~~~~~ 730 2.6
731 1.8
) -250 80% 65% 3000 732 1.8
3500 733 1.9
4000 734 2.2
~;~~~ 735 3.0
736 1.8
100% 3000 737 1.1
3500 738 1.3
4000 739 1.7
. ~~~~~ 742 2.2
743 0.9
35% 3000 744 1.0
3500 745 1.2
4000 746 1.0
~~~~~ 747 1.9
748 1.6
70% 65% 3000 749 1.5
3500 750 1.6
4000 751 1.7
~2000 752 2.6
2500 753 1.9
100% 3000 754 1.4
. 3500 755 1.3
4000 756 1.8
91
m...,
-------
50 60
AIR-FUEL RATIO
FIGURE 27A POWER-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIPS - WATER JACKETED ENGINE
110
100
90
)I.
80
~ 70
~
I:Q
--0
N X 60
«
~
~
Z 50
w
0 )(
a:
w
Q. 40
30
20
10
o
10
20
30
40
OPTIMUM TIMING FOR POWER
2000 RPM
JC
@
70
80
90
110
-------
110
100
90
80 X
70
a..
w
::!!:
co 60
--D .
J,..VX
«
::!!:
....50
z
w
Co)
ffi 40
a..
30
20
10
OPTIMUM TIMING FOR POWER
2500 RPM
)(-
-0
o
10
50 60
AIR-FUEL RATIO
FIGURE 278 POWER-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIPS - WAT-ER JAcKf:i1:D ENGINE
20
30
40
70
80
90
100
110
-------
110
OPTIMUM TIMING FOR POWER
3000 RPM
.
90
0.. 70
w
:E
-.D m
tf>. X
«
:E
I- 50
z
w
Co) e.......
a:
w
0..
30
10
10
20
30
40
70
80
90
100
50 60
AIR-FUEL RATIO
FIGURE27C POWER-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIPS - WATER JACKETED ENGINE
-------
-.D
U1
0..
W
:E 70
In
X
«
:E
I-
Z
~ 50
a:
w
0..
110
90
30
10
OPTIMUM TIMING FOR POWER
3500 RPM
.
.
.
(&
,,- -
50 60
AIR-FUEL RATIO
FIGURE 27D POWER-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIPS - WATER JACKETED ENGINE
70
80
90
100
10
20
30
40
-------
110
100
90
80 .
a. 70
w
:i:
In
'" X 60
0' «
:i:
I-
Z 50
w
u
a:
w
a. 40
30
20
10
OPTIMUM TIMING FOR POWER
4000 - RPM
.
o
10
20
30
70
50 60
AIR-FUEL RATIO
FIGURE27E POWER-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIPS - WATER JACKETED ENGINE
80
90
100
-------
110
100
90
80
CI.
~ 70
£D
X
'" « 60
-J:?:
I-
2 50
w
u
a:
w
CI. 40
30
20
10
o
o
<:>
<:>
<:>
<:> <:)
<:)
o 0 0
<:)
o
30
FIGURE 27F COMPOSITE PLOT OF FIGURES 27A-27E
0E>
<:)
o
e
10
20
OPTIMUM TIMING FOR POWER
VARIABLE SPEED AND LOADING
G)
e
o
e
o
o
40
50
AIR FUEL RATIO
60
70
<:>
80
<:>
e
G>
e
90
100
-------
6
5
a:
:)
0
:r:
a:
w 4
3:
o
Q.
W
CI)
a:
0
-,D:r:
OOw
~ 3
«
a:
m
a:
w
Q.
CI)
:!: 2
«
a:
"
><
0
z
1
)(
~~
(;)
70% Throttle
o
10
30
20
40
50 60
AIR-FUEL RATIO
FIGURE 28A EMISSION-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIPS - WATER JACKETED ENGINE
OPTIMUM TIMING FOR POWER
2000 RPM
SEE FIGURE 27A FOR LOADING
80% Throttle
J(
-0___-<:>------ -.
70
110
80
90
100
-------
6
OPTIMUM TIMING FOR POWER
2500 RPM
SEE FIGURE 278 FOR LOADING
5
a:
::::>
o
:I:
a: 4
W
3:
o
0..
W
en
a:
o
:I:
-.DW 3
-.D:!II:
«
a:
IX!
a:
W
0..
~ 2
«
a:
C)
I
.-------.
100% Throt'de
>c
o
:z
0~-x-
~
o
80% Throttle
1
)(
o
o
10
20
30
40
70
80
90
100
110
50 60
AIR-FUEL RATIO
FIGURE288 EMISSION-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIPS - WATER JACKETED ENGINE
-------
I
OPTIMUM! TIMING f=O« POWER
3OOO RPM
SEE FIGURE 27C FOR LOADING
o
o
O
X
tc.
LLJ
1
01
c/>
cc
o
LU
oc
00
cc
Ul
a.
100% Throttle
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
AIR-FUEL RATIO
FIGURE 28C EMISSION-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIPS - WATER JACKETED ENGINE
-------
I
cc
o
i
cc
UJ
I
Q.
Ill
CO
cc
o
X
UJ
UJ
a.
GO
cc
o
x 2
O
OPTIMUM TIMING FOR POWER
3500 RPM
SEE FIGURE 27D FOR LOADING
100% Throttle
10
20
30
40
50 60
AIR-FUEL RATIO
70
80
90
FIGURE28D EMISSION-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIPS - WATER JACKETED ENGINE
-------
OPTIMUM TIMING FOR POWER
400O RPM
SEE FIGURE 27E FOR LOADING
1
o
CO
cc 3
UJ
Q.
CO
100% Throttle
10
30
40
50 60
AIR-FUEL RATIO
70
80
90
100
110
FIGURE 28E EMISSION-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIPS - WATER JACKETED ENGINE
-------
a:
:J
o
::I:
ffi 4
3:
o
a..
w
CI)
a:
o
::I:
0-- W 3
o ~
V.> «
a:
CD
a:
w
a..
~ 2
«
a:
CJ
0)(
Z
6.
5
<:>
<:>
<=>
<:>
e---- (.)
? . . CC1 (j)
G
o
G)
o
00
G)
E>
&
E>
1
E>
E>
c.:>
e
30
(1)
G)
FIGURE 28F COMPOSITE PLOT OF FIGURES 28A-28E
o
o
10
20
OPTIMUM TIMING FOR POWER
VARIABLE SPEED AND LOADING
<:>
(i)
<:>
40
50
AIR-FUEL RATIO
60
(1)
(i)
o
(1)
c:::>
o
E>
70
90
100
80
-------
Figure 29A
TREE DIAGRAM--WATER JACKETED ENGINE EMISSIONS--. OAP FORMAT
RPM
AIR-FUEL RATIO
0/0 STOICHIOMETRIC
LOAD% Max
BMEP
-NOX GR...'\MSI
:BfW-Hr
ut of test range
80
out of te st range
out of test range
out of test range
2000
100
out of test range
out of test range
58
2.4
200
46
2.6
31
1. 75
OPTIMUM TIMING
104
-------
Figure 29B
TREE DIAGRAM--WATER JACKETED ENGINE EMISSIONS-- OAP FORMAT
RPM
Air-Fuel Ratio
% Stoichiometric
LOAD% Max.
BMEP
NOX GRAMS/
BHP-Hr
104
2.3
80
104
1.8
76
1.9
87 2. ,5
2500 100 73 .1. 8
65 1.7
55
2.3
200
36
1.6
36
1.1
OPTIMUM TIMING
105
.., .
-------
Figure 29C
TREE DIAGRAM--WATER JACKETED ENGINE EMISSIONS-- OAP FORMAT
RPM
Air-Fuel Ratio
0/0 Stoichiometric
LOAD % Max
BMEP
NOX GRAMS/
-------------- - - ..
BHP-Hr
91
2.3
80
76
1.6
64
1.5
",. I
81
2.4
3000
100
65
1.8
53
1.5
55
2.0
200
38
1.5
34
1.1
OPTIMUM TIMING
10-6-
.&'
-------
Figure 29D
TREE DIAGRAM--WATER JACKETED ENGINE EMISSIONS-- OAP FORMAT
RPM
Air-Fuel Ratio
% Stoich'iometric
LOAD% Max.
BMEP
NOX GRAMS/
-BHP-':Hr
80
3500
100
200
OPTIMUM TIMING
107
86
69
57
77
61
50
52
38
29
2.-3
1.8
1.6
2.3
1.9
1.6
2.0
1.5
1.2
-------
Figure 29E
'REE DIAGRAM-- WATER JACKETED ENGINE EMISSIONS-- OAP FORMAT
RPM
Air-Fuel Ratio
% Stoichiometric
LOAD % Max.
BMEP
NOX GRAMS/
BHP-Hr
74 2.4
80 69 1.9
63 1.8
65 2.3
4000 100 60 2. 1
54 1.8
41 1.8
200 31 1.6
25 1.0
OPTIMUM TIMING
108
-------
ENGINE SPEED = 2000 RPM
TIMING = 20° BTC
SEE FIGURE 31A FOR LOADING
10
......
o
-0
a:
:)
o
J: 8
a:
w
~
o
Q.
W
U)
a: 6
o
J:
w
::.:::
-------
10
.-
.-
o
a:
::>
o
:r:
a: 8
w
3:
o
tL.
w
en
~ 6
:r:
w
~
«
a:
m 4
a:
w
tL.
en
::!:
«
a: 2
C)
X'
o
Z
o
o
10
20
30
ENGI!\IE SPEED = 2500 RPM
TIMING = 20° BTC
SEE FIGURE 31B FOR LOADING
100% AIR FLOW
.-----
40
70
80
G)~
~0-
X
50 60
AIR-FUEL RATIO
FIGURE 308 EMISSION-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIP - ADVANCED COMBINATION ANGLE
o
.....
.....
x.- - -
90
100
110
120
-------
10
..-
..-
..-
a:
::I
o
J:
a: 8
w
s:
o
Q.
W
(I)
a:
o 6
J:
w
~
~
a:
m
a: 4
w
Q.
(I)
~
~
a:
c:J 2
X'
o
z
x...........
. ............
X
o
o
20
30
10
40
50 60 70
AIR-FUEL RATIO
FIGURE30C EMISSION-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIP - ADVANCED COMBINATION ANGLE
ENGINE SPEED = 3000 RPM
TIMING = 20° BTC
SEE FIGURE 31C FOR LOADING
80
90
100
110
120
-------
10
....
....
N
a:
:)
o
J:
a: 8
w
3:
o
A-
W
U)
a: 6
o
J:
w
~
«
a:
In 4
a:
w
A-
U)
::.iE
«
a: 2
CJ
X'
o
Z
- -Q 70% AIR FLOW
~.
: f\,.O'l'l --~
nL p.\\\ ...... - 80% AIR FLOW
'\ OO'-fV
o
o
10
20
30
40
50 60 70
AIR-FUEL RATIO
FIGURE30D EMISSION-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIP - ADVANCED COMBINATION ANGLE
ENGINE SPEED = 3500 RPM
TIMING = 20° BTC
SEE FIGURE 31D FOR LOADING
100
110
120
-------
a:
::I
o
::E: 8
a:
w
3:
o
a..
w
(I)
a: 6
o
::E:
w
0- ~
0- c{
W a:
IX3 4
a:
w
a..
(I)
~
~ 2
o
X'
o
z
10
ENGINE SPEED = 4000 RPM
TIMING = 20° BTC
SEE FIGURE31E FOR LOADING
~~
X
x--
'" --
'" --
"
.-----
.---
o
10
20
30
40
50 60 70
AIR-FUEL RATIO
FIGURE30E EMISSION-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIP - ADVANCED COMBINATION ANGLE
80
90
110
120
-------
,
,',
, ,
, ,
, ,
, ,
, ,
"
"
"
"
" ,
'e'1L
~ 80% Air flow
c:>
50 60 70
AIR-FUEL RATIO
FIGURE 31A POWER-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIP - ADVANCED COMBINATION ANGLE
120
"
,
,
,
,
,
, 100% Air flow
,
,
,
,
,
"
"
,
,
'.
80
.....
.....
~
0-
W
::E
CO
X
~ 60
....
z
w
CJ
II:
~ 40
20
o
o
10
20
30
40
/
ENGINE SPEED = 2000 RPM
TIMING = 20° BTC
. ...... .....
--
----------....
<:>
80
90
100
x--
110
120
-------
120
100
ENGINE SPEED = 2500 RPM
TIMING = 200 BTC
....
....
\.Jl
0.. 80
w
:E
IX1
X
«
:E 60
~
z
w
o
a:
w
0..
40
-----.
100% AIR FLOW
..-- - .,O~tL-
,,-
1(
-0
.......111-
.....~
~~
20
o
o
50 60 70
AIR-FUEL RATIO
FIGURE 318 POWER-MIXTUBE RELATIONSHIP - ADVANCED COMBINATION ANGLE
10
20
30
40
80
90
100
110
120
-------
120
ENGINE SPEED = 3000 RPM
TIMING = 20° BTC
100
I-'
I-'
0"
80
a.
w
:E
In
X
~ 60
I-
Z
w
o
a:
~ 40
'\'
'.
\\\~.
.~
)<.~AIRFLOW
- ..:.. -::::. ~ -- -
-c:)--- --.....
'"
20
-,- - ----G)
70% AIR FLOW
10
20
30
40
50 60 70
AIR-FUEL RATIO
FIGURE 31C POWER-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIP - ADVANCED COMBINATION ANGLE
80
90
100
110
120
-------
80
a.
w
:E
03 60
X
.- «
.- :E
-..,J I-
Z
w
CJ 40
a:
w
a.
20
120
100
o
ENGINE SPEED = 3500 RPM
TIMING = 20° BTC
,
,
,
,
,
,
"
"
"
"
, .,
, ,
, ,
, ,
'....,
,.....,
"~~~AIRfLOW
AIR FLOW
70% AIR FLOW
.----- --
-e-~--------._---
--- -- -- -.- - -.....
20
30
40
50 60 70
AIR-FUEL RATIO
FIGURE 310 POWER-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIP - ADVANCED COMBINATION ANGLE
80
90
100
110
120
-------
,
"
, '.
"
'<''J(~
' .
'\~
'" ~I(~FLOW
70%AIRFLO~C!)-
120
100
80
Q.
W
:!E
CD 60
X
«
:!E
...... I-
...... ;2:
00 w
CJ 40
a:
w
Q.
..
"-
"
"-
....
ENGINE SPEED = 4000 RPM
TIMING = 0° BTC
50 60 70
AIR-FUEL RATIO
FIGURE 31E POWER-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIP - ADVANCED COMBINATION ANGLE
20
o
o
10
20
30
C1
"--
)(- - .- -- .- ~ ~ - -
--.
40
80
90
100
110
120
-------
10
......
......
-.0
~ 9
o
:J:
a: 8
w
3:
~ 7
w
CI)
~ 6
:J:
~ 5
«
a:
a3 4
a:
w
Q.
CI) 3
:e:
«
a: 2
"
X'
o 1
z
ENGINE SPEED = 2000 RPM
TIMING = 0° BTC
SEE FIGURE 33A FOR LOADING
- --::"-=--=-0~- - - 80% AIR FLOW
- -- )(.
;;.-- - 70% AIR FLOW ~
--.....~x
........... I
20 30 40 50 60 70
AIR-FUEL RATIO
FIGURE 32A EMISSION-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIP - RETARDED'COMBINATION ANGLE
o
o
10
80
-------
10
.....
N
a
~ 9
o
J:
a: 8
w
3:
~ 7
w
(I)
gs 6
J:
w
~ 5
-------
~O%AIR FLOW -G_7~~R FLOW
x,-- ---~---. """--
....-~!!-~.- 100% AIR FLOW'-~~~~
/ ~~
50 60 70
AIR-FUEL RATIO
FIGURE 32C EMISSION-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIP - RETARDED COMBINATION ANGLE
....
N
....
~ 9
o
:I:
a: 8
w
s:
~ 7
w
en
~ 6
:I:
~ 5
ex:
a:
a:I 4 .
a:
w
CL.
en 3
:!:
ex:.
a: 2 -
C,:)
X'
o 1
z
o
o
10
20
ENGINE SPEED = 3000 RPM
TIMING = 0° BTC
SEE FIGURE 33C FOR LOADING
40
80
-------
80% AIR FLOW 70% AIR FLOW
"'~ -)0- ::::::-@=.:.~::.. ..... - .....
"\........... ~. - .:::- ~ "'"
P' 100% AIR FLOW -';;:::::::::--..""""
-.....;;.::::::::'
I ~~
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
AIR-FUEL RATIO
IFIGURE 32D EMISSION-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIP - RETARDED COMBINATION ANGLE
10
.....
tV
tV
a: 9
~
o
:E: 8
a:
w
~ 7
Q.
W
(I)
a: 6
o
:E:
~ 5
«
a:
CD 4..
a:
w
Q. 3
(I)
:ii:
«
a: 2 .
CJ
~ 1
2:
o
o
ENGINE SPEED = 3500 RPM
TIMING = 0° BTC
SEE FIGURE 33D FOR LOADING
80
-------
50 60 70
AIR-FUEL RATIO
FIGURE 32E EMISSION-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIP - RETARDED COMBINATION ANGLE
10
......
N
W
~ 9
o
J:
a: 8
w
s:
~ 7
w
(I)
~ 6
J:
~ 5
«
a:
co 4
a:
w
c:\.
(I) 3
:E
«
a: 2
CI
X
o 1
z
~I.~'
~......
~~
"/~
10
20
ENGINE SPEED = 4000 RPM
TIMING = 0° BTC
SEE FIGURE 33E FOR LOADING
70%:IR ~:~- 80% AIR FLOW
-, --- ---- --- ~
100% AIR FLOW - - ...;..-~ :---
~'::::::"'-,
30
40
80
-------
120
100
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
,
,
,
\
,
\
\
',80% Air flow
,
\.
,
,
,
,
,
ENGINE SPEED = 2000 RPM
TIMING = 0° BTC
.....
N
~
Q..
W
:2: 60
m
X
«
:2:
I-
ffi 40
u
a:
w
Q..
.......~
...... --
--
---
----
20
60 70
AIR-FUEL RATIO
FIGURE 33A POWER-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIP - RETARDED COMBINATION ANGLE
20
30
40
50
80
90
100
-------
\
~\
,\
~
~~
"......
...... ~ 80% Air flow
~"""'-
.............. --
- ---
- --
--
--
70% Air flow - -
,
,
,
,
,
,
80
......
N
U1
CI..
W
~
In 60
X
«
~
I-
Z
w 40
(.)
a:
w
CI..
o
o
ENGINE SPEED = 2500 RPM
TIMING = 0° BTC
..........
......
-
--
--
---
40
70
60 70
AIR-FUEL RATIO
FIGURE33B POWER-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIP - RETARDED COMBINATION ANGLE
20
30
50
80
90
100
-------
Q.
W
~
...... In 60
N X
'"
-------
120
ENGINE SPEED = 3500 RPM
TIMING = 0° BTC
100
60 70
. AIR-FUEL RATIO
FIGURE 33D POWER-MIXTURE RELATIONSHIP - RETARDED COMBINATION ANGLE
"
"
\ '.
\
\~
\
\)(
.
........
.............. 100% Air flow
.......
.......
......
N
-J
D.. 80
w
::2!:
Ct3
X
«
::2!: 60
I-
Z
w
t)
a:
w
D.. 40
.......
-
--- --
--
20
--
o
o
10
20
30
40
50
80
90
100
-------
120
ENGINE SPEED = 4000 RPM
TIMING = 0° BTC
B:i 80
~
In
X
-------
KEY:
<:> AIR-COOLED FIRST GENERATION HYDROGEN
ENGINE
A WATER-COOLED SECOND GENERATION HYDROGEN
ENGINE
450
400
<:>
350
:!:
t 300
2"
Q
~
~ 250 <:>
2
0
III
a:
:I:
150
50
<:>
100
8
~-
-8-
8
8 -8_8-
o
0.2
0.4
1.2
1.4
0.6 0.8 1.0
BRAKE HORSEPOWER
FIGURE 34 - ENGINE EMISSIONS (FROM TABLES 5 & 7)
129
-------
KEY:
--~_.- ----~-----~-
0,. AIR-COOLED FIRST GENERATION
HYDROGEN ENGINE
A I. W~!~R-CQQ~_E~~_~COND GENERATIOi\f
HYDROGEN ENGINE
, i
! I
8
7
-6
I
:)
-
(
2
.
;:
~ -tr
..
,.
,
)
i
; -4
i
~
I
.
...
.
...
.
I
I 3
.
o
f
------0-
. -----0
~,-Ji) CO
J.rf?~0 ...& b-A-A~-.
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
BRAKE HORSEPOWER
-FIGURE 36- ENGlN1E EMlssaONS,(FROM TABt.ES5& 7)
130
o
o
.
0.2
1.2
1.4
-------
,....
\,»
,....
COMPOSITE OF FIGURE 11
DATA FOR 7° BTDC IGNITION
75.4 PSI MAXIMUM BMEP
3
a:
::>
o
J:
a:
w
s:
o
Q.,
w
(I)
a:
~ 2
w
~
«
a:
co
en
~
«
a:
~
X'
o
Z
<:>
<:>
c::::>
o
o
0~0
o
1
o "
(>«,
~~
~«;
,,~ 0 0
000 ;/:' 0
~ 0
J5 0
o 0
o
o
10
20
30
40
50
60 70
% MAX BMEP
FIGURE 36 - ENGINE EMISSIONS VERSUS PERFORMANCE, AIR-COOLED ENGINE
80
90
100
110
120
-------
COMPOSITE FROM FIGURE 26
OPTIMUM TIMING FOR POWER
3 75.4 PSI MAXIMUM BMEP 0
~0 0 ~
o
G> ~~..,.." 0
a: 0 0 0
::>
0 0 0 0
:I: 0-
ci:
w 2 0
::
0 0 0
c:L (;) 0 0
w
en 0 0
a:
0
,..... :I:
I.J.) w 0 0
N ~
« 0
a: c::::> '~Q
a1
......
en 00
~
«
a:
C) 1 0
X
0
2
o
o
10
20
30
40
50 60
% MAX BMEP
'FIGURE 37 ENGINE EMISSIONS VERSUS PERFORMANCE, WATER-COOLED ENGINE
90
70
80
100
110
120
-------
TABLE 1 - Engine Specifications
Manufacturer
Clinton Engine Corporation
Type
Single cylinder, L-head, 4 cycle, air cooled
Model
494-0301
Bore
2.37511
Stroke
1. 875"
Compres sion Ratio
6. 5 to 1
Piston Displacement
8. 3 cubic inches
133
-------
TABLE 2 ENGINE OPERATIONAL DATA-FIRST SEQUENCE
THIS IS A HYDROGEN FUELED RUN
RUN RPM HP TORQUE A/F NOX ~ HBT [GN MA-PR ASFC BMEP AflO FflC EX-T CHT CRT :c ~MAX ~"AX INJ-FROM MBT GM NOX INJCT
NO fT-PD PPM THR :C ANG IN-HG PPHH PSI PPH PPH 0-1'- D-F D-F S TOK PWR BMEP B TDC-ATDC DEG PER BHPH PRES
554 4000 1.62 2.12 45.2 212 85. 10. 1. 0.35 0.48 39. 34.8 0.17 1250 0 0 132. 65. 51. 28 38 o. 1.8 500
555 3500 1.18 2.68 35.4 325 83. 11. 1. 0.21 0.46 49. 29.2 0.82 1330 0 0 103. 11. 65. 28 38 o. 2.0 500
556 3000 1.60 2.80 36.9 258 19. 12. 1. 0.11 0.41 51. 24.4 0.66 1400 0 0 108. 64. 61. 28 38 O. 1.5 440
551 2500 1.23 2.57 43.5 201 82. 13. 1. 0.11 0.39 41. 21.0 0.48 1210 0 0 121. 49. 62. 28 38 o. 1.3 360
558 2000 0.10 1.84 69.9 63 86. 14. 1. O. 13 0.36 33. 11.1 0.25 860 0 0 204. 28. 44. 28 38 O. 0.1 230
559 3500 2.68 4'.02 16.6 440 11. 8. 1. 0.22 0.62 13. 21.6 1.66 1420 0 0 48. 101. 91. 28 38 o. 2.7 920
560 3000 2.26 3.96 11.8 433 14. 9. 1. 0.15 0.51 12. 22.9 1.28 1340 0 0 52. 91. 95. 28 38 O. 2.4 180
561 4000 1.58 2.08 44.6 125 '81. ll. 1. 0.33 0.41 38. 33.1 0.14 1350 0 0 130. 63. 50. 28 38 O. 1.0 480
563 2500 0.59 1.23 107.3 23 88. 14. 1. 0.18 0.36 22. 22.5 0.21 830 0 0 314. 23. 30. 28 38 O. 0.4 220
564 3000 0.87 1.52 85.0 21 88. 14. 1. 0.19 0.31 28. 21.0 0.32 910 0 0 248. 35. 31. 28 38 O. 0.3 270
565 3500 0.97 1.46 82.6 35 e 1. 13. 1. 0.26 0.39 21. 31.1 0.38 1020 0 0 241. 39. 35. 28 38 o. 0.5 310
566 4000 0.89 1.11 17.2 36 84. 10. 1. 0.37 0.50 21. 34.3 0.44 1050 0 0 226. 36. 28. 28 38 O. 0.6 340
567 2000 0.21 0.72 101.7 19 81. 9. 1. 0.64 0.51 13. 16.6 0.15 120 0 0 315. 11. 11. 28 38 O. 0.5 110
568 2500 0.39 0.83 99.9 13 79. 10. 1. 0.18 0.51 15. 20.1 0.20 820 0 0 292. 16. 20. 28 38 O. 0.3 195
569 3000 0.10 1.23 17.5 30 18. 11. 1. 0.69 0.44 22. 23.9 0.31 1020 0 0 226. 28. 30. 28 38 O. 0.4 260
570 3500 0.11 1.06 72.6 37 11. 9. 1. 0.16 0.53 19. 21.4 0.38 1010 0 0 212. 28. 26. 28 38 O. 0.6 290
511 4000 0.16 1.00 59.6 40 63. 9. 1. 0.71 0.56 18. 25.5 0.43 1130 0 0 114. 31. 24. 28 38 O. 0.6 360
512 2000 0.58 1.52 71.4 82 18. 13. 7. 0.55 0.39 28. 15.9 0.22 1000 0 0 209. 23. 37. 28 38 o. 1.0 200
513 2500 1.13 2.31 39.1 266 72. 12. 1. 0.73 0.42 43. 18.5 0.47 1390 0 0 114. 45. 57. 28 38 O. 1.7 260
514 3000 1.31 2.40 33.6 315 65. 11. 7. 0.64 0.45 44. 20.8 0.62 1510 0 0 98. 55. 58. 28 38 O. 1.8 410
575 3500 1.66 2.49 31.4 330 72. 10. 7. 0.68 0.49 45. 25.5 0.81 1600 0 0 92. 66. 60. 28 38 o. 2.0 500
516 4000 1.59 2.09 42.1 252 78. 10. 7. 0.44 0.48 38. 32.0 0.76 1590 0 0 123. 64. 50. 28 38 O. 2.0 500
511 2500 1.76 3.69 26.6 412 83. 11. 7. 0.15 0.46 61. 21.7 0.81 1430 0 0 18. 10. 89. 28 38 O. 2.2 480
578 4000 2.42 3.18 22.8 330 78. 8. 1. 0.33 0.59 58. 32.3 1.42 1650 0 0 67. 91. 11. 28 38 o. 2.1 850
519 2000 1.13 2.96 47.4 242 87. 15. 7. 0.10 0.34 54. 18.2 0.38 1215 0 0 139. 45. 71. 28 38 O. 1.6 310
580 4000 2.38 3.12 22.2 348 11. 9. 1. 0.16 0.56 57. 29.6 1.33 1520 0 0 65. 95. 15. 28 38 O. 2.1 860
581 3500 2.61 3.91 15.1 365 11. 8. 1. 0.58 0.66 71. 25.9 1.12 1200 0 0 44. 104. 94. 28 38 o. 2.3 1010
582 3000 2.20 3.86 19.8 425 74. 9. 7. 0.41 0.53 10. 23.0 1.16 1360 0 0 58. 88. 93. 28 38 O. 2.3 730
583 2500 1.16 3.69 22.2 407 '76. 10. 7. 0.53 0.51 67. 19.8 0.89 1310 0 0 65. 70. 89. 28 38 o. 2.2 540
584 2000 1.10 2.90 42.3 282 81. 14. 1. 0.23 0.36 53. 11.0 0.40 1320 0 0 124. 44. 10. 28 38 o. 1.1 320
585 3000 0.43 0.16 90.0 10 63. 10. 7. 1.00 0.51 14. 20.0 0.22 935 0 0 263. 11. 18. 28 38 O. Q.2 220
586 2000 0.61 1.60 82.3 50 70. 17. 1. 0.18 0.29 29. 14.7 0.18 1040 0 0 241. 24. 39. 28 38 O. 0.5 225
587 2500 0.63 1.32 96.3 25 71. 16. 1. 0.78 Ch31 24. 18.8 0.19 1030 0 0 282. 25. 32. 28 38 o. 0.3 240
588 3000 0.98 1.11 70.2 68 10. 15. 1. 0.76 0.32 31. 22.1 0.32 1050 0 0 205. 39. 41. 28 38 O. 0.6 315
589 3500 1.18 1.71 67.3 63 69. 16. 7. 0.53 0.32 32. 25.4 0.38 1230 0 0 197. 41. 43. 28 38 O. 0.6 350
590 4000 1.09 1.43 66.0 41 68. 13. 1. 0.62 0.40 26. 28.1 0.43 1190 0 0 193. 44. 35. 28 38 o. 0.5 400
591 2000 0.72 1.88 46.9 63 61. 13. 1. 0.75 0.38 34. 12.7 0.21 1130 0 0 131. 29. 45. 28 38 O. 0.4 250
592 2500 1.19 2.50 38.8 212 66. 13. 1. 0.57 0.37 45. 11.3 0.44 1400 0 0 114. 48. 60. 28 38 O. 1.2 360
593 3000 1.52 2.67 30.3 266 63. 11. 1. 0.59 0.43 48. 20.0 0.66 1520 0 0 88. 61. 64. 28 38 O. 1.4 450
594 3500 1.59 2.39 21.5 247 62. 10. 1. 0.75 0.52 43. 22.6 0.82 1560 0 0 80. 64. 58. 28 38 O. 1.5 520
-------
TABLE 2 ENGINE OPERATIONAL DATA-FIRST SEQUENCE (CONT.)
THIS-IS A HYDROGEN FUELED RUN
RUN RPM HP TORQUE A/F NOX 1: EFBT IGN MA-PR BSFC BMEP AFLO FFLO EX-T CHT CRT 1: 1:MAX 1:MAX INJ-FROM HBT GM NOX INJCT
NO FT-PD PPM THR : ANG IN-HG PPHH PSI PPH PPH D-F D-F D-F STOK PWR BMEP BTDC-ATDC DEG PER BHPH PRES
595 4000 1.52 1.99 42.0 93 11. 11. 7. 0.41 0.46 36. 29.6 0.70 1320 0 0 123. 61. 48. 28 38 O. 0.1 480
596 2000 0.95 2.50 38.4 188 68. 13. 1. 0.48 0.39 45. 14.2 0.31 1190 0 0 H2. 38. 60. 28 38 O. 1.1 300
591 2500 1.64 3.45 23.6 326 68. H. 1. 0.50 0.46 63. 11.9 0.16 --1380 0 0 69. 66. 83. 28 38 O. 1.6 480
598 3000 2.26 3.96 16.6 353 63. 9. 1. 0.46 0.53 12. 20.0 1.20 1160 0 0 49. 90. 95. 28 38 O. 1.8 840
599 3500 2.64 3.96 14.3 303 63. 8. 1. 0.59 0.62 12. 23.3 1.63 1240 0 0 42. 106. 95. 28 38 o. 1.1 980
600 4000 2.59 3.40 18.1 293 64. 9. - 1. 0.51 0.51 62. 26.9 1.49 1490 O' 0 53. 104. 82. 28 38 o. 1.1 890
601 2500 1.09 2.29 45.3 93 18. 12. o. 0.13 0.41 42. 20.2 0.44 1330 0 0 133. 44. 55. 14 60 o. 0.7 360
602 3000 1.24 2.18 42.1 146 '86. 10. O. 0.19 0.50 40. 26.6 0.62 1430 0 0 125. 50. 52. 14 60 6. 1.2 440
603 3500 1.49 2.23 34.6 198 114. 8. o. 0.21 0.59 41. 30.6 0.88 1520 0 0 101. 60. 54. 14 60 O. 1.5 540
604 4000 1.19 1.56 45.2 111 85. 8. O. 0.35 0.65 28. 35.0 0.18 1500 0 0 132. 41. 31. 14 60 o. 1.3 490
605 2500 1.52 3.20 28.1 259 S1. 10. O. 0.15 0.52 58. 22.4 0.80 1460 0 0 82. 61. 11. 14 60 o. 1.6 480
606 3000 1.96 3.42 23.2 193 86. 8. O. 0.19 0.59 62. 26.6 1.15 1560 0 0 68. 18. 82. 14 60 O. 1.2 140
601 3500 2.21 3.31 16.9 110 19. 1. o. 0.24 0.16 60. 28.4 1.68 1440 0 0 49. 88. 80. 14 60 O. 1.3 1000
608 4000 1.10 2.23 23.8 160 82. 6. o. 0.33 0.83 41. 33.1 1.42 1760 0 0 69. 68. 54. 14 60 O. 1.5 910
609 4000 0.40 0.53 66.1 25 68. 4. O. 1.00 1.11 10. 29.4 0.44 1210 0 0 193. 16. 13. 14 60 O. 0.8 320
610 2000 0.39 1.02 54.9 21 68. 1. o. 0.82 0.69 19. 14.8 0.21 1150 0 0 160. 16. 25. 14 60 o. 0.3 200
6H 2500 0.61 1.41 31.2 141 61. 1. O. 0.82 0.13 26. 18.2' 0.49 1420 0 0 109. 21. 34. 14 60 O. 1.4 320
612 3000 0.52 0.91 31.4 94 64. 4. O. 0.81 1.21 11. 2C.8 0.66 1550 0 0 92. 21. 22. 14 60 o. 1.5 400
613 3500 0.54 0.80 30.1 81 66. 3. o. 0.15 1.52 15. 24.9 0.81 1600 0 0 90. 21. 19. 14 60 O. 1.5 460
614 4000 0.10 0.91 40.2 93 12. 4. o. 0.82 1.11 11. 31.2 0.18 1500 0 0 118. 28. 22. 14 60 o. 1.6 480
615 2000 0.11 2.02 44.0 124 18. 10. 0.- 0.51 0.49 31. 16.1 0.38 1210 0 0 129. 31. 49. 14 60 o. 1.1 28,0
616 2500 0.99 2.08 22.9 111 11. 6. O. 0.12 0.85 '38. 19.2 0.84 1480 0 0 61. 40. 50. 14 60 o. 1.6 480
611 3000 1.22 2.13 19.0 125 11. 5. o. 0.21 0.99 39. 22.9 1.20 1460 0 0 56. 49. 51. 14 60 o. 1.3 160
618 3500 1.46 2.19 15.0 138 68. 4. O. 0.59 1.11 40. 25.5 '1.1C 1400 0 0 44. 58. 53. 14 60 o. 1.5 1010
619 4000 1.08 1.41 19.8 109 65. 4. O. 0.81 1.32 26. 28.2 1.42 1620 0 0 58. 43. 34. 14 60 o. 1.5 890
620 2000 0.39 1.02 51.4 28 63. 7. o. 0.89 0.61 19. 13.5 0.26 1110 0 0 150. 16. 25. 14 60 O. 0.4 200
621 2500 0.51 1.08 34.4 119 61. 5. O. 0.94 0.93 20. 16.4 0.48 1410 0 0 101. 21. 26. 14 60 O. 1.4 320
622 3000 0.52 0.91 29.9 101 62. 4. O. 0.86 1.28 11. 1<1.9 0.61 1590 0 0 81. 21. 22. 14 60 o. 1.6 400
623 3500 0.46 0.69 21.4 95 61. 3. o. 0.89 1.82 13. 23.1 0.84 1690 0 0 80. 18. 11. 14 60 o. 2.0 480
624 4000 0.10 0.91 33.4 115 66. 4. O. 0.98 1.22 11. 28.5 0.85 1530 0 0 98. 28. 22. 1.4 60 O. 1.8 500
625 2000 0.13 1.91 35.1 169 61. 9. o. 0.16 0.56 35. 14.5 0.41 1320 0 0 105. 2<1. 46. 14 60 o. 1.3 300
626 2500 1.02 2.13 20.5 131 64. 6. o. 0.11 0.83 39. 11.3 0.85 1460 0 0 60. 41. 51. 14 M O. 1 .2 480
621 3000 1.51 2.74 16.8 151 64. 6. o. 0.12 0..19 50. 20.8 1.24 1290 0 0 49. 63. 66. 14 60 o. 1.2 180
628 3500 1.83 2.14 13.5 145 61. 5. O. 0.96 0.93 50. 22.9 1.10 1200 0 0 39. 13. 66. 14 60 o. 1.2 1010
629 4000 1.33 1.74 19.2 133 64. 5. O. 0.85 1.01 32. 21.4 1.43 1580 0 0 56. 53. 42. 14 60 o. 1.5 900
630 2500 0.41 0.81 122.4 9 98. 10. 20. 0.18 0.51 16. 25.1 0.21 680 0 0 358. 11. 21. 44 19 o. 0.2 220
631 3000 0.15 1.32 89.6 6 94. 11. 20. 0.23 0.44 24. 29.6 0.33 880 0 0 262. 30. 32. 44 19 o. 0.1 280
632 3500 0.11 1.15 88.9 13 92. 10. 20. 0.30 0.49 21. 33.5 0.38 940 0 0 260. 31. 28. 44 19 o. 0.2 305
633 4000 0.15 0.98 83.1 28 89. 8. 20. 0.40 0.59 18. 37.0 0.44 950 0 0 243. 30. 24., 44 19 o. 0.6 340
634 2000 0.61 1.60 16.3 149 95. 12. 20. 0.12 0.43 29. 19.8 0.26 880 0 0 223. 24. 39. 44 19 o. 2.1 255
-------
TABLE 2 ENGINE OPERATIONAL DATA-FIRST SEQUENCE (CONT.)
THIS IS A HYDROGEN FUELED RUN
RUN RP M HP TORQUE A/F NOX ~ HBT IGN MA-PR BSFC BMEP AHa FHa EX-T CHT CRT ~ ~MAX ~MAX INJ-FROM MBT GM NOX INJC T
NO FT-PD PPM THR ~ ANG IN-HG PPHH PSI PPH PPH D-F D- F D-F STOK PWR BMEP BTDC-ATDC DEG PER BHPH PRES
635 2500 1.11 2.33 17.5 360 132. 12. 2~. 0.14 0.40 42. 34.5 0.44 1200 0 0 221. 44. 56. 44 19 o. 4.8 340
636 3000 1.40 2.44 31.5 412 84. 10. 20. 0.21 0.50 44. 26.4 0.10 1350 0 0 110. 56. 59. 44 19 O. 3.4 420
631 3500 1.31 2.05 35.6 460 83. 8. 20. 0.26 0.62 31. 30.3 0.85 1500 0 0 104. 55. 49. 44 19 o. 3.8 480
638 4000 1.35 1.11 48.8 125 81. 9. 20. 0.39 0.55 32. 36.2 0.14 1200 0 0 143. 54. 43. 44 19 O. 1.3 440
639 2000 0.91 2.39 48.3 462 89. 12. 20. 0.10 0.42 43. 18.1 0.39 1110 0 0 141. 36. 58. 44 19 O. 3.8 315
640 2500 1.38 2.89 26.8 610 83. 8. 20. o. 13 0.59 53. 21.8 0.81 1380 0 0 18. 55. 10. 44 19 O. 4.1 455
641 3000 1.12 3.00 20.0 492 18. 1. 20. 0.11 0.71 55. 24.4 1.22 1300 0 0 59. 69. 12. 44 19 o. 3.6 660
642 3500 2.15 3.23 16.3 410 "75. 6. 20. 0.23 0.19 59. 21.6 1.69 1240 0 0 48. 86. 18. 44 19 O. 3. 1 910
643 4000 1.99 2.61 22.4 462 79. 1. 20. 0.31 0.14 41. 33.0 1.41 1580 0 0 65. 80. 63. 44 19 O. 3.1 800
644 2000 0.25 0.65 115.9 60 86. 8. 20. 0.54 0.63 12. 11.9 0.15 130 0 0 339. 10. 16. 44 19 o. 1.9 200
645 2500 0.41 0.81 81.6 48 14. 9. 20. 0.17 0.54 16. 19.5 0.22 810 0 0 256. 11. 21. 44 19 O. 1.0 220
646 3000 0.59 1.04 15.8 56 14. 10. 20. 0.80 0.52 19. 23.2 0.31 1010 0 0 222. 24. 25. 44 19 O. 0.9 255
641 3500 0.66 0.98 12.1 81 14. 9. 20. 0.89 0.51 18. 21.2 0.31 1050 0 0 213. 26. 24. 44 19 O. 1.4 300
648 4000 0.62 0.81 11.1 89 13. 1. 20. 0.96 0.69 15. 30.5 0.43 1080 0 0 208. 25. 20. 44 19 O. 1.8 340
649 2000 0.46 1.21 62.1 114 11. 10. 20. 0.11 0.52 22. 15.0 0.24 930 0 0 182. 1 B. 29. 44 19 O. 2.3 225
650 2500 0.81 1.83 35.8 420 61. 9. 20. 0.89 0.56 33. 11.5 0.49 1260 0 0 105. 35. 44. 44 19 O. 3.2 240
651 3000 0.91 1.60 32.4 336 61. 1. 20. 0.81 0.11 29. 21.1 0.65 1500 0 0 95. 31. 39. 44 19 O. 3.0 400
652 3500 1.10 1.66 30.4 310 69. 1. 20. 0.91 0.15 30. 25.1 0.82 1500 0 0 89. 44. 40. 44 19 O. 3.3 480
653 4000 0.96 1.26 31.1 261 13. 6. 20. 0.18 0.84 23. 30.1 0.81 1600 0 0 110. 39. 30. 44 19 O. 3.2 500
654 2000 0.11 2.02 43.0 399 81. 10. 20. 0.62 0.49 31. 16.2 0.38 1180 0 0 126. 31. 49. 44 19 O. 3.3 300
655 2500 1.01 2.25 25.9 51t3 84. 7. 20. 0.51t 0.76 41. 21.0 0.81 1400 0 0 16. 43. 54. 44 19 O. 4.1 460
656 3000 1.39 2.42 19.9 455 80. 6. 20. 0.36 0.87 44. 23.9 1.20 1290 0 0 58. 55. 58. 44 19 O. 4.1 650
651 4000 1.49 1.96 22.4 41t2 15. 6. 20. 0.59 0.89 36. 29.9 1.33 1600 0 0 66. 60. 41. 44 19 O. 4.2 720
658 2000 0.28 0.73 102.3 136 82. 9. 20. 0.55 0.58 13. 16.4 '0.16 880 0 0 299. 11. 18. 44 19 O. 3.5 200
659 2500 0.43 0.91 83.8 85 15. 10. 20. 0.87 0.52 16. 18.6 0.22 1010 0 0 245. 11. 22. 44 19 O. 1 .6 210
660 3000 0.65 1.14 14.4 106 18. 10. 20. 0.13 0.48 21. 23.5 0.32 1140 0 0 218. 26. 27. 44 19 c. 1 .6 260
661 3500 0.60 0.90 68.1 115 73. 8. 20. 0.91 0.63 16. 25.1 0.38 1190 0 0 199. 24. 22. 44 19 o. 2.1 300
662 4000 0.65 0.85 66.5 119 74. 7. 20. 0.94 0.69 15. 29.6 0.44 1230 0 0 195. 26. 20. 44 19 O. 2.3 330
663 2000 0.51 1.49 49.3 316 68. 10. 20. 0.80 0.49 21. 13.1 0.28 1180 0 0 144. 23. 36. 44 19 O. 3.6 240
664 2500 0.19 1.66 39.9 524 11. 9. 20. 0.81 0.56 30. 11.8 0.44 1350 0 0 117. 32. 40. 44 19 O. 4.5 320
665 3000 0.55 0.96 34.6 392 10. 5. 20. 0.71 1.10 18. 21.0 0.61 1600 0 0 101. 22. 23. 44 19 O. 5.6 380
666 3500 1.03 1.55 30.2 432 67. 1. 20. 0.98 0.16 28. 23.6 0.18 1400 0 0 88. 41. 31. 44 19 o. 3.9 440
667 4000 0.69 0.91 38.2 320 15. 4. 20. 0 . 16 1.13 16. 29.8 0.18 1630 0 0 112. 28. 22. 44 19 O. 5.3 480
668 2000 0.11 2.02 39.6 555 19. 10. 20. 0.51 0.52 31. 15.9 0.40 1200 0 0 116. 31. 49. 44 19 o. 4.4 310
669 2500 0.82 1.12 22.5 462 12. 5. 20. 0.45 0.98 31. 18.1 0.80 1320 0 0 66. 33. 42. 44 19 O. 4.9 460
610 4000 1.18 1.55 24.5 432 81. 4. 20. 0.15 1.20 28. 34.9 1.42 1400 0 0 72. 41. 37. 44 19 O. 5.8 160
-------
TABLE 3 ENGINE TEST FORM
CAST-IRON ENGINE ANALYSIS DATA SHEET
Test Date
Fuel Type
Wet Bulb Temperature
Remarks
of
Test Observers
Raw
Data
Final
Data
Punch
Card
Data
Run No.
Dry Bulb Air Temperatur e
Barometric Pressure, Inches Hg. .
Correc tion Factor, Humidity .
Engine RPM
Dyn. Load, Pounds Force :.
Intake Air Meter, inches HZO .
Air Flow, Lb. per hr. I.
-
Exhaus t Gas u.
Temp. , F
Cylinder Head Temp., -.:rF
Crankcase Temp., vF
Manifold Vacuum, Inches Oil .
Igni tion, Degrees from TDC t
Tes t Time, Min. I~
Inj ec tor Delivery Press, Psi g.
Hydrogen Flowmeter Reading .
NOx Reading, ppm.
Gasoline Flow, gm. .
Injection start, DEG, BTC
Injection End, DEG, ATC
Minimum Angle for Best Torque, DEG .,. j
-
(1-3)
(4-5)
(6-9)
(10-13)
(14-17)
(18-19)
(20-22)
(23-25)
(Z6-29)
(30-32)
(33-35)
(36-38 )
(39-41)
(42-45)
(46-49)
(50- 52)
(53-55)
(56 - 58 )
(59-60)
(61-62)
(f)3-65)
Note:
decimal point is "understood,"
it does not appear on punch card.
137
-------
TABLE 4 ENGINE OPERATIONAL DATA. LOW POWER ,?XPERIMENTS
THIS (S A HYDROGEN FUELED RUN
RUN RPM HP TORQUE A/F NOX ~ H8T IGN MA-PR 8SFC BMEP AFLO FHO EX-T CHT CRT % %MAX %MAX (NJ-FROM MBT GM NOX (NJCT
1110 FT-PD PPM THR % ANG IN-HG PPHH PSI PPH PPH D-F D-F D-F STOK PWR 8MEP BTDC-ATDC DEG PER BHPH PRES
611 2500 0.51 1.19 122.2 22 103. 13. 1. 0.11 0.31 22. 25.1 0.21 100 0 0 351. 23. 29. 28 38 O. 0.4 230
612 2500 0.51 1.0B 92.0 26 BO. 12. 1. 0.18 0.42 20. 19.9 0.22 840 0 0 269. 21. 26. 28 38 o. 0.4 230
613 2500 0.49 1.02 85.1 2B 15. 11. 1. 0.91 0.45 19. 18.8 0.22 900 0 0 251. 19. 25. 28 38 O. 0.5 230
614 2500 0.43 0.90 6B.4 38 63. 9. 1. 1.09 0.54 16. 15.8 0.23 1010 0 0 200. 11. 22. 28 38 O. 0.6 220
615 25CO 0.51 1.08 101.1 26 93. 12. 1. 0.51 0.42 20. 23.2 0.22 180 0 0 313. 21. 26. 28 38 O. 0.5 230
616 2000 0.43 1.14 124.5 30 100. 13. 1. 0.12 0.31 21. 20.0 0.16 110 0 0 364. 11. 21. 28 38 o. 0.6 200
611 2000 0.41 1.08 101.4 34 'H. 12. 1. 0.53 0.41 20. 18.3 0.11 740 0 0 314. 16. 26. 28 38 o. 0.1 200
618 2000 0.39 1.02 98.2 34' 88. 11. 1. 0.63 0.46 19. 17.6 0.18 110 0 0 281. 16. 25. 28 38 o. 0.1 200
619 2000 0.39 1.02 86.9 34 . 19. 11. 1. 0.13 0.41 19. 15.8 0.18 810 0 0 254. 16. 25. 28 38 o. 0.6 200
680 2000 0.39 1.02 11.9 36 61. 10. 1. 0.86 0.48 19. 13.3 0.1<;1 880 0 0 210. 16. 25. 28 38 o. 0.5 200
681 3000 0.18 1.31 92.1 11 96. 13. 1. 0.22 0.40 25. 28.1 0.31 <;150 0 0 269. 31. 33. 28 38 O. 0.3 ~10
682 2000 0.31 0.96 134.6 14 100. 12. 1. 0.12 0.40 18. 20.0 0.15 620 0 0 393. 15. 23. 28 38 O. 0.3 195
683 2500 0.51 1.08 116.4 11 98. 12. 1. 0.15 0.41 20. 24.5 0.21 120 0 0 340. 21. 26. 28 38 o. 0.4 230
684 3000 0.72 1.26 82.5 34 81. 11. 7. 0.55 0.44 23. 26.0 0.32 <;110 0 0 241. 29. 30. 28 38 O. 0.5 310
685 3000 0.68 1.20 79.1 38 82. 11. 1. 0.66 0.45 22. 24.5 0.31 930 0 0 231. 27. 29. 28 38 O. 0.6 300
686 3000 0.65 1.14 74.8 38 78. 10. 7. 0.13 0.48 21. 23.4 0.31 940 0 0 219. 26. 27. 28 38 O. 0.6 300
681 3000 0.45 0.79 61.5 48 70. 7. 7. 0.86 0.69 14. 21.1 0.31 1060 0 0 197. 18. 19. 28 38 O. 0.9 300
688 3500 0.84 1.26 86.3 39 94. 11. 7. 0.28 0.45 23. 32.8 0.38 960 0 0 252. 34. 30. 28 38 O. 0.7 350
689 3500 0.88 1.32 19.4 57 86. 12. 1. 0.67 0.43 24. 29.9 0.38 990 0 0 232. 35. 32. 28 38 O. 0.8 350
690 3500 0.84 1.26 75.9 63 82. 11. 7. 0.81 0.45 23. 28.6 0.38 1010 0 0 222. 34. 30. 28 38 O. 0.9 350
691 3500 0.80 1.20 69.2 71 75. 11. 7. 0.93 0.41 22. 26.1 0.38 1070 0 0 202. 32. 29. 28 38 O. 1.1 350
692 3500 0.76 1.14 64.2 83 69. 10. 7. 1.03 0.49 21. 24.0 0.37 1110 0 0 188. 30. 21. 28 38 O. 1.1 350
693 4000 0.63 0.83 86.8 12 94. 7. 7. 0.44 0.70 15. 38.6 0.44 860 0 0 254. 25. 20. 28 38 O. 0.3 350
694 4000 0.46 0.60 82.5 32 81. 6. 7. 0.95 0.88 11. 33.1 0.40 840 0 0 241. 18. 14. 28 38 O. 1.0 340
695 4000 0.46 0.60 74.7 31 13. 6. 7. 1.12 0.88 11. 30.0 0.40 910 0 0 218. 18. 14. 28 38 O. 1.0 340
696 4000 0.41 0.54 71.5 42 10. 5. 1. 1.17 0.97 10. 28.1 0.40 930 0 0 209. 17. 13. 28 38 O. 1.2 340
697 4000 0.31 0.49 66.3 49 64. 5. 7. 1.21 1.07 9. 26.3 0.40 990 0 0 194. 15. 12. 28 38 O. 1.5 340
698 3500 0.86 1.29 90.4 24 95. 11. 7. 0.32 0.44 23. 34.1 0.38 820 0 0 264. 34. 31. 28 38 O. 0.4 320
.99 3000 0.13 1.29 97.1 23 91. 12. 1. 0.24 0.42 23. 30.0 0.31 720 0 0 284. 29. 31. 28 38 O. 0.4 280
}.OO 2500 0.48 1.00 113.2 25 <;18. 11. 7. 0.19 0.47 18. 25.2 0.22 640 0 0 331. 19. 24. 28 38 O. 0.6 220
101 2000 0.40 1.06 125. 3 29 102. 12.. 7. 0.14 0.41 19. 20.9 0.11 590 0 0 366. 16. 25. 28 38 0. 0.7 190
1'02 3000 1.00 1.14 46.1 130 91. 8~ 1. 0.21 0.61 32. 28.0 0.61 1330 0 0 135. 40. 42. 28 38 O. 1.4 450
"3 3500 1.28 1.91 36.6 130 90. 7. 7. 0.30. -0.69 35. 32.2 0.88 1450 0 0 107. 51. 46. 28 38 O. 1.2 580
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TABLE 5
Comprehensive Exhaust Gas Analysis
Air-Cooled Engine
-,
Run and (1) 0 (1) N (1) CO (l) CO (1) (2)
Sample No. H2 2 2 2 Hydrocarbon
Blank 0.000 20.00 77.9 0.000 0.0 9
693 0.284 15.40 82. 1 0.039 0.01 118
698 0.405 14.37 81. 8 0.128 0.15 407
699 0.526 15. 76 81. 8 0.044 0.00 200
700 0.607 16.66 80.8 0.017 0.00 63
701 0.526 16.50 81. 1 0.017 0.00 69
702 0.243 9.38 88.2 0.061 0.17 84
703 1. 130 7.01 89.3 0.084 0.33 249
(1) Values given are in mol (or volume) percent
(2) Values given are in ppmc (parts per million on the basis of gram atoms
carbon per mol of gas).
139
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TABLE 6 ENGINE OPERATIONAL DATA-WATER JACKETED ENGINE
THIS IS A HYDROGEN FUELED RUN
RUN RPM HP TORQUE A/F NOX ~ HBT IGN MA-PR BSFC BMEP AFLO FFLO EX-T CHT CRT ~ ~MAX ~MAX INJ-FROM MBT GM NOX I N JC T
NO FT-PD PPM THR ' ANG IN-HG PPHH PSI PPH PPH D-f D-F D-F STOK PWR BMEP BTDC-ATOC D EG P ER BHPH PRES
704 2000 0.33 0.86 140.4 66 106. 11. 7. 0.13 0.45 16. 20.8 0.15 405 0 0 410. 13. 21. 35 25 o. 1.9 215
705 2500 0.46 0.97 124.6 35 105. 11. 7. 0.19 0.45 18. 25.8 0.21 500 0 0 364. 19. 23. 35 25 o. :>.9 220
706 3000 0.83 1.45 96.4 79 101. 13. 7. 0.23 0.37 26. 29.8 0.31 651 0 0 282. 33. 35. 35 25 o. 1.2 275
707 3500 0.92 1.39 93.4 87 103. 12. 7. 0.33 0.41 25. 35.2 0.38 130 0 0 273. 37. 33. 35 25 o. 1.4 325
708 4000 0.79 1.03 83.4 92 95. 9. 7. 0.40 0.57 19. 37.1 0.44 790 0 0 244. 31. 25. 35 25 O. 1.9 370
709 4000 1.55 2.04 45.9 283 93. 10. 7. 0.39 0.51 37. 36.5 0.80 1020 0 0 134. 62. leCj. 35 25 o. 2.6 540
11 0 2000 0.44 1.15 141.9 92 107. 15. -1. 0.13 0.34 21. 21.0 0.15 410 0 0 415. 18. 28. 35 25 o. 2.0 200
111 2500 0.63 1.33 118.4 65 103. 15. -1. 0.18 0.34 24. 25.3 0.21 510 0 0 346. 25. 32. 35 25 o. 1 . 1 215
112 3000 1.03 1.80 91.5 107 101. 16. -2. 0.23 0.32 33. 29.7 0.32 680 0 0 268. 41. 43. 35 25 O. 1.3 275
113 3500 1.12 1.68 89.6 115 97. 15. 2. 0.31 0.33 31. 33.2 0.37 715 0 0 262. 45. 41. 35 25 O. 1.5 320
114 4000 1.15 1.51 79.7 115 93. 13. 4. 0.37 0.40 27. 36.3 0.46 800 0 0 233. 46. 36. 35 25 o. 1.6 400
715 2000 0.80 2.10 78.8 220 96. 16. 15. 0.10 0.31 38. 19.5 0.25 725 0 0 230. 32. 51. 35 25 O. 2.3 260
716 2500 1.41 2.97 47.5 407 90. 15. 10. 0.15 0.34 54. 22.9 0.48 995 0 0 139. 57. 72. 35 25 O. 2.6 360
11 7 3000 1.13 3.03 42.3 395 88. 14. 5. 0.22 0.37 55. 26.8 0.63 108C 0 0 124. 69. 73. 35 25 o. 2.4 415
718 3500 1.98 2.97 39.9 372 88. 13. 1. 0.30 0.39 54. 31.1 0.78 1130 0 0 117. 79. 72. 35 25 O. 2.3 460
719 4000 1.69 2.22 48.3 258 85. 12. 3. 0.37 0.42 40. 34.6 0.72 1010 0 0 141. 68. 53. 35 25 o. 2.1 470
720 2000 1.28 3.37 46.6 505 88. 17. 4. 0.10 0.30 61. 11.8 0.3€ 790 0 0 136. 51. 81. 35 25 O. 2 .8 330
721 2500 2.02 4.24 27.9 465 Cj4. 12. O. 0.15 0.42 77. 23.8 0.85 113C 0 0 82. 81. 102. 35 25 O. 2.3 480
722 3000 2.39 4.18 22.1 415 85. 10. o. 0.19 0.49 16. 26.0 1.18 1200 0 0 65. 96. 101. 35 25 o. 2.2 640
723 3500 2.79 4.18 18.0 340 86. 8. O. 0.27 0.61 76. 30.5 1.69 0 0 0 53. Ill. 101. 35 25 O. 2.1 840
724 4000 2.53 3.31 22.6 405 81. 9. 8~ 0.35 0.57 60. 32.71.45 C 0 0 66. 101. 80. 35 25 o. 2.5 780
725 2000 0.41 1.07 101.8 128 85. 12. o. 0.49 0.42 19. 11.30.11 0 0 0 298. 16. 26. 35 25 O. 2.4 200
726 2500 0.54 1.12 94.0 72 80. 12. -4. 0.75 0.40 20. 20.3 0.22 0 0 0 215. 21. 27. 35 25 o. 1 .2 200
721 3000 0.84 1.41 75.5 106 78. 13. O. 0.15 0.38 21. 23.8 0.32 0 0 0 221. 34. 35. 35 25 o. 1.3 235
728 3500 0.94 1.41 75.8 106 1Cj. 13. o. 0.15 0.39 26. 28.1 0.31 0 0 0 222. 38. 34. 35 25 O. 1.3 280
129 4000 0.99 1.30 68.8 112 75. 11. o. 0.85 0.45 24. 30.6 0.44 0 0 0 201. 40. 31. 35 25 o. 1 .5 320
130 2000 0.71 1.87 70.0 212 80. 15. O. 0.12 0.32 34. 16.2 0.23 0 0 0 205. 29. 45. 35 25 O. 2.6 230
731 2500 1.22 2.57 37.7 315 72. 12. 3. 0.82 0.40 41. 18.4 0.49 0 0 0 110. 49. 62. 35 25 O. 1.8 340
132 3000 1.53 2.68 34.4 336 .72. 12. o. 0.85 0.41 49. 21.8 0.63 0 0 0 101. 61. 65. 35 25 o. 1.8 400
733 3500 1.75 2.62 32.4 330 74. 11. 1. 0.90 0.46 48. 26.2 0.81 0 0 0 95. 70. 63. 35 25 o. 1 .9 460
734 4000 1.65 2.16 42.1 283 80. 11. O. 0.15 0.47 39. 32.4 0.77 0 0 0 123. 66. 52. 35 25 O. 2.2 480
735 2000 1.33 3.49 43.8 590 85. 11. 3. 0.21 0.30 63. 11.3 0.40 0 0 0 128. 53. 84. 35 25 O. 3.0 330
736 2500 1.17 3.72 32.1 320 100. 11. o. 0.61 0.45 68. 25.4 0.19 0 0 0 94. 11. 90. 35 25 O. 1.8 460
137 3000 2.19 3.83 20.1 218 15. 10. -2. 0.71 0.50 70. 22.1 1.10 0 0 0 61. 88. 92. 35 25 O. 1.1 620
738 3500 2.40 3.60 16.5 192 16. 1. 5. 0.82 0.68 65. 26.8 1.63 0 0 0 48. 96. 81. 35 25 o. 1.3 820
139 4000 2.39 3.14 21.9 268 17. 8. 6. 0.84 0.59 57. 31.1 1.42 0 0 0 64. 96. 16. 35 25 o. 1.7 710
740 2000 0.30 0.79 139.0 32 109. 10. 20. 0.15 0.51 14. 21.5 0.15 400 0 0 406. 12. 19. 35 25 o. 1.0 200
741 2000 0.10 1.85 84.6 HO 106. 14. 15. 0.13 0.35 34. 20.9 0.25 540 0 0 241. 28. 45. 35 25 o. 1.4 230
742 2000 0.41 f.09 90.7 135 78. 12. 3. 0.84 0.41 20. 15.4 0.17 405 0 0 265. 17. 26. 35 25 o. 2.2 200
743 2500 0.60 1.26 84.1 65 79. 13. -4. 0.86 0.39 23. 19.5 0.23 515 0 0 246. 24. 30. 35 25 o. 0.9 200
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TABLE 6 ENGINE OPERATIONAL DATA.WATER JACKETED ENGINE (CONT.)
THIS I S A HYDROGEN fUELED RUN
RUN RPM HP TORQUE A/f NOX ~ EfBT IGN MA-PR 65fC BMEP AflO fflO EX-T CHT'CRT ~ :r:MAX :MAX INJ-fROH MBT GM NOX INJCT
NO fT-PO PPM THR ~ ANG IN-HG PPHH PSI PPH PPH O-f O-F O-F STOK PWR BMEP 6TOC-ATDC DEG PER BHPH PRES
744 3000 0.79 1.38 74.8 78 78. 13. -1. 0.84 0.39 25. 23.L 0.31 610 0 0 219. 32. 33. 35 25 o. 1.0 230
745 3500 0.80 1.20 68.4 91 75. 11. 5. 0.94 0.47 22. 25.8 0.38 690 0 0 200. 32. 29. 35 25 o. 1.2 210
746 4000 0.83 1.09 66.3 70 75. 9. 8. 1.00 0.54 20. 29.5 0.44 760 0 0 194. 33. 26. 35 25 o. 1.0 320
747 2000 0.75 1.97 49.2 272 67. 14. o. 0.93 0.36 36. 13.2 0.27 660 0 0 144. 30. 47. 35 25 o. 1.9 240
748 2500 1.16 2.44 4L.3 258 74. 13. 7. 0.94 0.38 44. 18.4 0.44 830 0 0 121. 46. 59. 35 25 o. 1.6 320
749 3000 1.32 2.32 31.9 242 71. 10. 10. 0.91 0.50 42. 20.9 0.66 960 0 0 93. 53. 56. 35 25 O. 1.5 390
750 3500 1.51 2.26 30.4 242 70. 9. 10. 1.02 0.53 41. 24.2 0.80 1050 0 0 89. 60. 54. 35 25 o. 1.6 460
751 4000 1.50 1.97 40.3 212 "18. 10. 10. 0.94 0.51 36. 30.6 0.76 1020 0 0 118. 60. 47. 35 25 O. 1 .7 450
752 2000 1.31 3.43 40.0 547 /fO. 16. 2. 0.45 0.30 62. 15.9 0.40 750 0 0 117. 52. 83. 35 25 o. 2.6 330
153 2500 1.58 3.32 24.2 349 78. 10. 3. 0.84 0.50 60. 19.3 0.80 980 0 0 71. 63. 80. 35 25 O. 1.9 450
754 3000 2.06 3.61 18.5 242 14. 9. 3. 0.81 0.58 66. 22.0 1.19 930 0 0 54. 83. 87. 35 25 O. 1.4 650
755 3500 2.33 3.49 14.7 188 72. 7. 7. 0.95 0.72 63. 24.8 1.69 830 0 0 43. 93. 84. 35 25 O. 1.3 850
756 4000 2.35 3.0B 20.5 294 74. 8. 7. 0.96 0.61 56. 29.2 1.42 1140 0 0 60. 94. 74. 35 25 o. 1.8 760
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TABLE 7
Comprehensive Exhaust Gas Analysis - Water Jacketed Engine
---------
Run No. & H (1) 0 (1) N (1) CO(1) CO (1)
Sample No. 2 2 2 2 PPMC
704 0.41 17.29 80. 75 0.000 0.0 15
705 0.45 16.65 81. 5 0.000 0.0 13
706 0.36 15.27 82.9 0.006 o. 0 44
707 0.27 15.05 83.2 0.006 0.0 25
708 0.36 14.42 83.8 0.004 0.0 29
710 0.50 16.85 81. 2 0.000 0.0 14
711 0.45 16.24 81. 8 0.000 0.0 18
712 0.45 14.74 82.9 0.006 0.0 29
Blank 0.0 20.21 78.6 0.047 0.0 8
1) Values given are in mol (or volume) %
2) Values given are in PPMC (parts per million on a gram atom carbon per
mol of gas basis)
142
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TABLE 8 ENGINE OPERATIONJ}L DATA-GASOLINE TESTS
THIS I S A GASOLINE fUELEO RUN
RUN RPM HP TORQUE A/f NOX :l; HBT IGN MA-PR BSfC BMEP AHO fHO EX- T CHT CRT :l; :l;MAX :l;MAX INJ-fROM MBT GM NOX INJCT
NO FT-PD PPM THR :l; ANG IN-HG PPHH PSI PPH PPH D-f D-F D-f STOK PWR BMEP BTDC- AT DC DEG PER BHPH PRES
157 2000 1.80 4.71 18.9 405 86. 27. 16. O. 12 O. 50 ~6. 11.0 0.90 960 0 0 125. 72. 114. 0 0 16. 1.7 0
758 2500 2.22 4.65 14.7 635 93. 19. 18. 0.21 0.71 85. 23.1 1.57 1080 0 0 97. 89. 112. 0 0 18. 2.9 0
759 3000 2.53 4.42 13.9 435 92. 17. 23. 0.26 0.78 BO. 27.2 1.96 1060 0 0 92. 101. 107. 0 0 23. 2.1 0
760 35QO 2.36 3.54 14.1 690 89. 15. 24. 0.35 0.88 64. 30.8 2.09 1100 0 0 98. 94. 85. 0 {) 24. 3.9 0
761 4000 2.03 2.66 14.0 260 92. 11. 30. 0.44 1.27 48. 36.2 2.59 1080 0 0 93. 81. 64. 0 0 30. l.O 0
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TABLE 9
Comprehensive Exhaust Gas Analysis - Gasoline Tests
Run No. & ( 1) 0 (1) N (1) CO (1) CO (1) (2)
Sample No. H2 2 2 2 Hydrocarbon
757 1. 39 4.48 80.2 3.82 9.99 2535
758 0.93 4.17 80.9 2. 75 10.62 2290
759 1. 52 3. 71 79.8 4.24 9. 71 2620
760 0.76 3.91 80.9 2.59 12.27 2280
761 2.28 4.58 78.8 5.70 8.95 2660
(1) Values given are in mol (or volume) percent.
(2) Values given are in PPMC (parts per million on the basis of gram atoms
carbon per mol of gas.
144
-------
AP6.1-63
1971
Schoe
AUTHOR
Desi n Criteria for H dro-
T~~ Burning Engines.
Final Re ort
~--
AP6.1-63
1971
Schoeppe1, Roger J.
Design Criteria for Hydrogen
Burning Engines. Final Report
"
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