Air Quality Considerations in
Transportation and Urban Planning
A Five-Year Program Guide
alan m. voorhees & associates, inc. I TRANSPORTATION AND URBAN PLANNING CONSULTANTS
ryckman, edgerley, tomlinson, & associates • CONSULTING ENGINEERS
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AIR QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS IN TRANSPORTATION
AND URBAN PLANNING
A FIVE-YEAR PROGRAM GUIDE
Prepared for
Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Air Programs
Office of Land Use Planning
December 1971
By
ALAN M. VOORHEES & ASSOCIATES, INC.
Westgate Research Park
McLean, Virginia 22101
RYCKMAN, EDGERLEY. TOMLINSON & ASSOCIATES
12161 Lackland Road
St. Louis, Missouri 63141
EPA-CPA 70-100
AMV - .509
RETA - 594
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Chapter
1
2
3
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . .
............
. . . .
Objecti ves and Study Purpose. . . . . .
Report Organization. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDA TIONS .
. . . .
IMPROVING AIR QUALITY THROUGH TRANSPORTATION
AND URBAN PLANNING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Land Development Patterns and Density. . . . . . . . . . . .
Land Development Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Density Patterns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Industrial, Commercial, and Residential Land Use
Relationships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Open Space and Green Belts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heating and Power Plant Locations. . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spatial Arrangements of Buildings and Site Activities. . . . .
Locational Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Building and Site Activity Arrangements. . . . . . . . .
Centralization of Heating Plants. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Planning of Transportation Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transit-Highway Combinations. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Planning of Transit Systems, Airports, and Terminals.
Planning of Highway Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Design of Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transportation Facilities and Adjoining Activities. . . .
Highway Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transit, Airports, and Transportation Terminal
De"s ign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Construction Practices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Design of Stationary Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Operation of Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Freeway Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Arterial Street Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transit, Airports, and Transportation Terminals. . . .
Operation of Stationary Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Summary of Potential Pollution Reductions. . . . . .
Hi
Pa~e
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CONTENTS (Continued)
4
PROGRAM. . . . . . .
.....
......
. . . .
......
Needs and Objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Environmental Policy and Legislation. . . . . . . . . .
Legislation Related to Air Pollution. . . . . . . . . . .
National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 . . . . .
1970 Clean Air Act. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Regulations Progmulgated Pursuant to Clean Air
Act (Federal Register, August 14, 1971). . . . . .
1970 Federal-Aid Highway Act. . . . . . . . . . . .
Urban Mass Transportation Assistance Act of 1970.
Literature Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Planners I Needs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Program Objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Guidelines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Inducements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Basic Information and Training. . . . . . . . . . .
Work Items. . . . . . . ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Adaptation of Basic Research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Case Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Simulation Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Demonstration Projects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Legal and Administrative Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Information Dissemination and Training. . . . . . . . .
Program Administration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
PROJECTS. . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . . . .
Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I Adaptation of Research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Land Development Patterns and Density. . . .
B Spatial Arrangement of Buildings and Site
Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C Planning Transportation Systems. . . . . . . .
D Design of Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E Operation of Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
II Case Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Land Development Patterns and Density. . . .
B Spatial Arrangement of Buildings and Site
A c ti vi ti e s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Planning Transportation Systems. . . . . . . .
Design of Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Operation of Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C
D
E
iv
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CONTENTS (Continued)
III
Simulation Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Land Development Patterns and Density. . . . . . .
B Spatial Arrangement of Buildings and Site
A cti vities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C Planning Transportation Systems. . . . . . . . . . .
D Design of Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E Operation of Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Demonstration Projects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B Spatial Arrangement of Buildings and Site
Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D Demonstration and Design of Facilities. . . . . . .
E Demonstration and Operation of Facilities. . . . . .
Legislati ve and Administrative Studies. . . . . . . . . . .
Information Delivery and Training Program. . . . . . . .
IV
V
VI
APPENDIX A -- LIST OF REFERENCES.
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
APPENDIX B -- STUDY ORGANIZATION. . . . . .
. . . . .
. . . .
APPENDIX C -- INTRODUCTION TO AIR POLLUTION.
. . . . . . .
APPENDIX D -- FEDERAL. STATE AND LOCAL PRACTICES. . .
v
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Figure
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3.11
3. 12
3. 13
3. 14
FIGURES
Air Quality Considerations in the Planning Process.
. . . .
Potential Air Quality and Regional Development Plan
for Hartford for the Year 2000 . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
Potential Air Q,uality and Alternative Regional Development
Plan for Hartford for the Year 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . .
Alternative Land Use Plans for Hartford.
. . . . . .
. . . .
Air Pollution in Central Stockholm from 1963 to 1965
. . . .
Air Pollution in Central Stockholm Exceeding Acceptable
Medical Limits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Building A rrangements Examined for Exterior Zone in
Skopje. . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wind Velocity Distribution for Various Building Arrange-
ments in Skopje . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wind Velocity Distribution for Various Street Widths in
Skopj e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wind Velocity Distribution Due to Types of City Wall in
Aligned Arrangement in Skopje. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wind Velocity Distribution Due to Types of City Wall in
Offset Arrangement in Skopje. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Time Variation of Carbon Monoxide for a Gas-Heated
House. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Time Variation of Sulfur Dioxide for a Coal-Heated House.
Description of Urban Forms and Transportation Systems
Simulation Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Relationship of Carbon Monoxide and Hydrocarbon Emis-
sions to Speed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vi
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Figures
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4. 1
B.1
C.1
FIGURES (Continued)
Effect of Improved Transit Service on Modal Split and
Air Pollution in a High Density Corridor. . . . . . . . . .
Carbon Monoxide Concentrations Depending upon Traffic
Volume. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pollution Level versus Distance to Edge of Roadway. . . . .
Pollution Level versus Height Above Roadway. . . . . . . .
Pollutant Levels along Transverse Street Cross-Section,
Centered Expressway With Joint Development Structures.
Pollutant Levels along Transverse Street Cross -Section,
Centered Expressway without Joint Development
Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pollutant Levels along Transverse Street Cross-Section,
Centered Expressway Boulevard. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Effect of Speed on Relative Emissions of Carbon Monoxide
per Unit Time, per Length of Roadway. . . . . . . . . . .
Comparison of City and Freeway Conditions. . . .
. . . . .
Relative Emission of Carbon Monoxide During Operating
Cycle between Stops. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Effect of Traffic Flow on Emission of Carbon Monoxide per
Unit Time, per Unit Length of Roadway. . . . . . . . . . .
Sulfur Oxide Emissions from Burning Different Fuels in
Residential Heating, St. Louis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Interrelationship of Work Items... . . .
. . . .
. . . . . . .'
Work Flow Diagram. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
. . . . . . .
Hourly Carbon Monoxide Concentrations on Weekdays in
Detroit Area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Figure
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FIGURES (Continued)
Concentrations of Nitric Oxide, Nitrogen Dioxide, Hydro-
carbon, and Oxidant During a Smoggy Day in Cincinnati,
Ohio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Diurnal Variation of Ground Level Concentrations From
Elevated Urban Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Urban Circulation and Dispersion After Sunrise.
. . . . . .
viii
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Table
3. 1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3. 11
3. 12
4. 1
4.2
5. 1
5.2
5.3
TABLES
A verage Trip Length by Land Use for Hartford. . .
. . . .
Land Development Patterns and Density. . . . . .
. . . . .
Spatial Arrangement of Buildings and Site Activities. . . .
Summary of Auto and Transit Work Trip Lengths for
Various Urban Patterns and Transportation Systems -
Simulation Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Air Pollution Reductions for Changes in the Highway
System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Air Pollution Impacts for Alternati ve Transit Systems in
Twin Cities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Planning of Transportation Systems.
. . . . . . . .
. . . .
Maximum Carbon Monoxide Concentrations in Frankfurt
and Seven American Cities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Page
3-8
3-18
3-35
3-40
3-41
3-44
3-47
3-50
Design of Facilities. . . . . .
. . . .
. . . . . . 3-59
. . . . . . .
Estimated Yearly Sulfur Oxide Emissions in Tons for
Chicago. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Operation of Facilities. . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
What Can Be Accomplished. .
. . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
Techniques for Improving Traffic Flow, for Reducing
Pollution Concentration, and for Reducing Auto Traffic. .
Urban Planning Strategies and Techniques for Reducing
A ir Pollution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cost Percentage Breakdown for Five-Year Program. . . .
Cost Breakdown for Five-Year Program. .
. . . . . . . .
Percentage of Funds to Be Spent Each Year, By Work
Item. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Tables
5.4
5.5
5.6
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5.11
C. 1
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C.3
TABLES (Continued)
Distribution of Funds by Fiscal Year and Work Item
.. .. .. ..
Allocation of Funds to Action Areas in Work Item I:
Adaptation of Research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. .. .. ..
Allocation of Funds to Action Areas in Work Item II:
Case Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Allocation of Funds to Action Areas in Work Item III:
Simulation Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Allocation of Funds to Action Areas in Work Item IV:
Demonstration Projects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Allocation of Funds to Action Areas in Work Item V:
Legal and Administrative Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Allocation of Funds to Action Areas in Work Item VI:
Information and Training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Five-Year Program Summary Fund Allocation by Action
Area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Estimated Emissions of Air Pollutants By Weight
Nationwide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sulfur Content of Fuels. .
.. .. .. .. .. .. ..
.. .. .. . .. ..
.. .. .. .. ..
Sources of A tmospheric Particulate Matter. . . .
.. .. .. .. ..
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVES AND STUDY PURPOSE
The quality of air in urban areas is a matter of growing concern.
A generation ago, reference to Los Angeles! smog by prominent comedians
invariably drew laughter. Today, public opinion polls show air pollution
near the top of the list of problems identified by Americans.
Political
leaders find a need to be as conversant about the threat to the environ-
ment as they are about foreign affairs and local taxes.
The increasing awareness of the seriousness of air pollution has
been reflected in a series of legislative and administrative actions designed
for public agencies to forge the .tools for achieving satisfactory standards
of air quality.
This study was prepared to assist the public agencies in
their task.
Specifically, the purpose of the study was to develop a five-
year program of research and support activities to be undertaken by the
Office of Air Programs of the Environmental Protection Agency, in coor-
dination with other Federal bodies such as the Department of Transportation
and the Department of Housing and Urban Development.
The scope of the
research program is to determine and demonstrate the air pollution aspects
of urban and transportation planning and to encourage the inclusion of air
quality control considerations in the planning process.
Since air quality is related to other environmental matters, this
study fits into a broader framework.
Urban planning decisions related to
the optimization of environmental welfare should encompass all environ-
mental problems together - air. water. solid waste, wastewater. etc.
This kind of comprehensive thinking is illustrated in the creation of the
new Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which combines most Federal
organizations dealing with the environment 'into one organizational structure.
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The treatment of environmental problems through urban and transportation
planning is a complex process, as illustrated in Figure 1. 1. The five-year
program addresses the air quality problem within this environmental
planning framework.
It is hoped that the resulting program will serve as
a model for work in other areas of planning for environmental protection
so that similar tools for considering the aspects of such problems as water
pollution and solid waste disposal, for example, will be developed and
used in the environmental planning process.
The need for the study is based on the fact that urban planning de-
cisions, which have profound effects on ambient air quality, are often
made without proper consideration of their air pollution consequences.
For example, the choice of an all highway system instead of a transporta-
tion system including rapid transit will affect an urban area I s air quality.
Similarly, land use arrangements such as the location of industry or
houses and metropolitan growth patterns such as sprawl (development in
many directions), corridors, satellite cities and new towns, all influence
the levels of ambient air pollution. Most urban land use and transporta-
tion planning activities of the past have considered environmental effects
only indirectly, if at all, and then only in a non-quantitative manner.
The failure of planners and decision-makers to consider air quality
effects, despite the growing recognition of the undesirable consequences
of environmental pollution may be explained by two basic factors: the lack
of precise information on urban planning and air pollution relationships
and the absence of a methodology to incorporate air pollution considerations
in the urban and transportation planning processes.
Therefore, research
is needed to link planning actions quantitatively to their environmental
consequences.
The results of this research will inform planners and
decision-makers about the air quality consequences of their actions and
will point to the land use and transportation alternatives that can best be
used to control air pollution.
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ASSUMPTIONS, CONSTRAINTS, PROJECTIONS
n
- URBAN PLAN
-
. ~, .
OTHER PLAN TRANSPORTATION LAND USE
ELEMENTS PLAN PLAN
. I
L- - - - - - -
~ t
EMISSIONS
14- BACKGROUND
1. AREA AIR
2. POINT POLLUTION
3. LINE
U
PHYSICAL,
DIFFUSION ~ CHEMICAL,
BIOLOGICAL
CONSTRAINTS
~ ,
FEEDBACK FOR AIR
PLAN QUALITY
MODIFICATION
4~
1 ,
IDENTIFICATION IS INCORPORATION
OF TROUBLE. .... NO AIR QUALITY YES - OF DECISION
SOME ..... SATISFACTORY? ~ IN PLANNING
EMISSION PROCESS
SOURCES
Figure 1.1 Air Quality Considerations in the Planning Process
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REPORT ORGANIZATION
This introductory chapter is followed by a summary of findings and
recommendations (Chapter 2). The findings are page-referenced to aid
the reader in locating detailed text.
The recommendations include a
summary of the basic work items for the five-year program of research
and support activities.
The contribution that urban and transportation planning can make
to the improvement of air quality is developed in Chapter 3.
The inter-
relationships between air pollution, land use, and transportation systems
are described, based on an intensive state-of-the-art review.
The role
of urban and transportation planning in air quality control is discussed in
the following contexts: land development and density patterns; spatial
arrangement of buildings and si~e activities; planning of transportation
systems; design and construction practices; and operation of buildings
and transportation facilities.
Information about the impact of planning actions on air quality was
derived from a computer simulation study of work travel for a city of two
and one-half million people, library research of more than 200 references
listed in Appendix A, and analysis of data from various professional
papers published here and abroad, including Japan, Sweden, Germany,
and Great Britain. The chapter concludes with a strategy for encouraging
the incorporation of air quality considerations into the urban and trans-
portation planning process.
The proposed five-year program to incorporate air quality considera-
tions into transportation and planning functions is presented in Chapter 4.
The program objectives are supported by various legislative goals and,
in particular, the Clean Air Amendments of 1970.
Needs of the trans-
portation and urban planner based on review of Federal, state, and local
practices are outlined.
The types of needs are categorized into basic
1-4
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information, techniques, guidelines, governmental inducements, and
support activities.
Basic work items are developed to fulfill the needs
of the planner: adapting the basic research of OAP and other Federal
agencies to the planning process; performing case studies, simulation
studies, demonstration studies, and administrative and legal studies;
and providing information dissemination, training, and support activities.
Chapter 5 describes the projects to be undertaken during the five-
year program period. A preliminary project schedule is presented
together with cost budgets for the program.
The report includes four appendices.
The literature that has been
surveyed is presented in Appendix A. Appendix B describes the study
organization which led to the preparation of this report and the supple-
mentary guides - "A Guide for Reducing Automotive Air Pollution" and
"A Guide for Reducing Air Poll':1tion Through Urban Planning." Appendix
C is an introduction to air pollution written for the urban and transporta-
tion planner who may not be familiar with the multifaceted aspects of
air pollution. Appendix D reviews existing governmental practices at
the Federal, state and local levels.
1-5
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I ~--
,.-
CHAPTER 2
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The causes of air pollution are complex.
The elimination or sub-
stantial reduction of air pollution is equally as complex.
The pollution
sources with which this report is concerned relate to the use of energy.
a use which is closely correlated with the productivity of our society.
The most desirable control measures by which air quality could be im-
proved would be those that do not hinder useful productivity but avoid
. waste of energy. The principle of conservation is therefore a real factor
in air quality control.
Measures which help to disperse pollutant concentrations or which
reduce exposure of human beings. animal and plant life to pollutants are
an essential part of an effectiv~ control program.
Measures which filter
out or reduce the amount of harmful emissions from a source also are a
major part of a control program.
In a world of rapidly growing population
and productivity. however. the avoidance of unnecessary or uneconomic
travel. unnecessary use of heat or light. or other forms of energy waste
will become increasingly important.
There are no easy answers.
Indeed. many actions that will be
beneficial will have concomitant harmful effects.
This situation is not
unique to the field of air pollution.
Every day. individuals make decisions
which involve trade-offs. selecting those actions which produce benefits
that outweigh the costs.
So it must be with improving the quality of air
in urban America.
It is important to recognize what some of these trade-
offs involve. For example. increasing the average travel speed of a group
of vehicles traversing a section of roadway will reduce the ambient con-
centration of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide. but probably increase
the concentration of oxides of nitrogen. Increased travel speed also tends
to lengthen trips. thus resulting in increased use of automobiles.
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Decreasing the density of land development reduces concentrations of air
pollution, but increases dependence on the automobile as a transportation
mode.
Such circumstances underline the importance of stringent control
of the sources of pollutants.
The following
But much can be done through better planning,
design and operation of pollutant sources in urban areas.
measures can result in improvements in air quality:
.
A verage trip lengths can be significantly reduced by the
controlled development of land (page 3-3).
Planned relationships among industrial, commercial and
residential land use can reduce pollution levels (page 3-11).
.
.
More effective use of open space and green belts can reduce
pollutant concentrations and the number of people exposed to
unacceptable air pollution levels (page 3-11).
A major portion of the impact of sulfur dioxide pollution can
be eliminated by proper location of heating and power plants
(page 3-13).
.
.
Response to geographical location, topography, and
meteorological-climatological factors can be effective in
a voiding exposure to pollutant concentrations or the develop-
ment of such concentrations (page 3 -19).
Buildings and site activities can be arranged to take advantage
of topographical, climatological and meteorological factors to
reduce exposures (page 3-23).
.
.
Centralized heating plants can be effective over the long term
in reducing emissions from large- scale developments
(page 3-34).
Improved public transportation can reduce vehicular travel
in varying amounts, depending upon the areas involved
(page 3-36).
.
.
Significant reduction in certain air pollutants can be gained
through effective highway planning (page 3-45).
Designing transportation facilities to be compatible with
adjoining land uses can ha ve a significant impact on the number
of people exposed to undesirable levels of air pollution
(page 3-48). .
.
.
Highway design with respect to gradients, curves, and points
of conflict can have modest effects on the reduction of air
pollution (page 3-56).
2-2
-------
I ~
.
Incorporation of air quality considerations in the design of
sta tionary sources of pollutants can have a major effect on
long-term reductions (page 3-58).
Control of freeway operations to ensure smoother traffic flow
can be significant both for short-range and long-range reduction
of certain pollutants (page 3-62).
.
.
Significant reductions in the emission of some pollutants can
be achieved through the use and arrangement of various
traffic control devices (page 3-65).
Changes in raw materials and fuels. changes in processes and
equipment. and changes in maintenance practices can sub-
stantially reduce pollution derived from stationary sources
(page 3-68).
.
A five-year work program has been designed to help achieve higher
air quality. The basic work items in this program are:
. Adaptation of basic air pollution research to the planning
process (page 4-16).
.
Case studies on the impacts of transportation and land use on
air quality (page 4-18).
Simulation studies on the impact of transportation and land
use on air quality (page 4-21).
.
.
Demonstration projects aimed at showing air quality changes
through transportation and land use planning (page 4-23).
. Legislative and administrative studies to implement urban
and transportation plans and programs critical to reducing
air pollution (page 4-25).
.
.
Dissemination of information and development of training
programs (page 4-27).
2-3
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CHAPTER 3
IMPROVING AIR QUALITY THROUGH TRANSPOR TA TION
AND URBAN PLANNING
INTRODUCTION
Increasingly stringent air pollution emission controls are a logical
first step in reducing air pollution in an urban area.
But what other
courses of action can the urban and transportation planner and engineer
take to reduce not only total emissions but also their impact on the
,community? Better planning, design, and operating policies are not only
possible, but also necessary to achieve effective air quality control.
A comprehensive approach to all aspects of air pollution reduction
has not generally been included in urban and transportation plans and
programs. Such an approach ranges from broad-scale or regional land
use planning through zoning and neighborhood or other small area planning.
It involves architecture and landscaping, public works planning and en-
gineering, and traffic engineering, including transportation engineering
and planning.
The fields of public administration, legislation, and
enforcement are also involved.
This chapter examines the opportunities for air quality improve-
ment within this broad framework of urban expertise. A compendium of
case examples is presented to illustrate how air pollution emissions,
concentrations and exposure levels can be reduced through better planning,
design, and operation of transportation systems and other aspects of urban
development.
These case studies are presented as a basis for estimating
some of the benefits attainable through the proposed five-year program to
be undertaken by the Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air
Programs (OAP)in coordination with the Department of Transportation
Department of Housing and Urban Development, and other Federal
agencies. With this program as a base, better direction can be given to
3-1
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indicate methods for reducing air pollution and its effects through means
other than emission control devices on stationary and mobile sources.
In this chapter, air pollution in urban areas and the role of trans-
portation and urban planning in mitigating air pollution are considered in
the following five categories:
.
Land development patterns and density
Spatial arrangement of buildings and site activities
Planning of transportation systems
Design of facilities
.
.
.
.
Operation of facilities
The present status of knowledge in each area is reviewed, reports
and case histories cited, and information given to indica te the present
state of technology.
There is discussion of the increas'ing role of planning
that will be necessary in the future if air pollution is to be controlled.
Conclusions are drawn as to the needs for research, demonstration, and
other projects and actions over the next five years to improve the capa-
bility for incorporating air quality consideratlOns into transportation and
urban planning.
Each of the five sections concludes with a summary, presented in
tabular form, of the payoffs or an index of benefits, that can be expected
from the types of actions discussed in that section.
These payoffs are
presented separately for short-term and long-term planning purposes.
Payoffs were derived by first estimating the proportion of the population
that could be affected by the changes in question. This is purely a judg-
mental estimate by the consultant, based on experience and research.
Second, the approximate percentage reduction in ambient air pollution
levels that might be expected to affect this population was estimated based
on case studies and consultant review with the Office of Air Programs.
The product of these two percentages provides an index to indicate the
payoff that might be achieved from the improvement.
This index is an
3-2
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approximate guide to the relative merits of the different improvement
measures possible. It should be emphasized, however, that the figures
are judgmental rather than empirical and that they are highly approximate.
As research progresses, more precise information will be obtained.
"Short~term" refers to the kinds of changes that can be expected
within the next five years. These are obviously limited because changes
in the infrastructure (the base transportation and utility networks and
industrial plants) and in the patterns of population and employment distri-
bution cannot generally be expected to reach significant magnitude within
tha t time.
"Long-term" payoffs are those that can be expected over a period of
20 years or more.
In that period it is expected that the urban population
in the United States will increase by 75-80 million.
Provision for this
enormous increase, together with replacement of obsolete development,
will provide a substantial opportunity to plan and build in a rational manner
to minimize air pollution and other negative social, environmental, and economic
impacts.
Thus, long-term payoffs can be much greater than short-term.
LAND DEVELOPMENT PATTERNS AND DENSITY
Land Development Concepts
The arrangement of land development patterns can be instrumental
in improving air quality. The following results for Hartford, Connecticut,
and Chicago, Illinois, illustrate the effect land development patterns can
have on air pollution.
A comprehensive analysis of the relationships between air pollution
and land use was undertaken for Hartford, Connecticut, by Yocom. et. al. [235].
This study showed clearly. as one would expect. that the distribution
of air pollution sources was related to the arrangement of land develop-
ment.
Forecasts were made to develop emission inventory maps based
3-3
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on the predicted geographical distribution of land development and
population, as well as on assumptions about control technology.
The land use development pattern for the year 2000, approved by
the (Connecticut) Capitol Region Planning Agency, was used as a basis for
estimating future air quality. Figure 3.1 is a map of the Capitol Region
showing the proposed general land use in the year 2000, and the anticipated
air quality without air pollution controls.
An alternative plan for the Capitol Region would terminate all further
development in the Connecticut Valley, and instead concentrate future
development along Route 44 to the northwest and Route 2 to the southeast.
, This arrangement would produce a developed area elongated in a direction
perpendicular to the prevailing winds.
total population, at similar densities.
Both plans would contain the same
By the year 2000 air quality would
be as shown in Figure 3. 2 if there were no air pollution controls in the
region. It may be seen, comparing this with Figure 3.1 that while the
area of questionable air quality might be somewhat larger, the overall
area of less than "acceptable" quality would be much the same and the
area of unacceptable air quality would probably be reduced.
Another study for the Hartford region [215] looked into the inter-
relationship between land use and trip length.
The study considered five
alternative land use plans, illustrated in Figure 3.3 for the year 2000.
These land use plans represent the development pattern required by
present zoning regulations and four other arrangements of land use that
might be selected as desirable goals for the region's growth. In each
case, the population and number of jobs are the same but their distribu-
tion and density vary.
The black dots in the figure represent regional or
subregional centers and the gray areas stand for intense urban develop-
ment, primarily industry or high density residence. The remaining
white areas can be considered low-density development and open space.
3-4
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[-
~
"UNACCEPT ABLE"
AIR QUALITY
D
"QUESTIONABLE"
AIR QUALITY
D
"ACCEPTABLE"
AIR QUALITY
Figure 3.1 Potential Air Quality and Regional
Development Plan for Hartford for the Year 2000 [2341
3-5
-------
-1
D "ACCEPTABLE"
AIR QUALITY
Figure 3.2 Potential Air Quality and Alternative Regional
Development Plan for Hartford for the Year 2000 [2341
3-6
-------
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.: ':.:',.:.:.:.:.....'
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BALANCED
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............... ':':':':'.':':':':';';'.
,., ")!j\,,,t::l:f""""'"
SATELLITE
PRESENT ZONING
Figure 3.3
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LINEAR
....... ..
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SINGLE CENTER
LEGEND
.
REGIONAL OR
SUBREGIONAL CENTERS
[}~::::d
CJ
INTENSE URBAN
DEVELOPMENT
LOW DENSITY DEVELOPMENT
AND OPEN SPACE
Alternative land Use Plans for Hartford [215]
3-7
-------
The air quality significance of Figure 3. 3 can be seen from Table
3. 1, which gives the average trip length for each of the different land use
plans. This table indicates that trip lengths in the Single Center concept
would average 24 percent longer than in the Balanced concept, with the
other alternatives lying between. If all other factors (e. g., average
speed, amount of transit use) remain constant, a change in trip length
would result in an equivalent change in all automotive emissions.
Table 3.1. AVERAGE TRIP LENGTH BY LAND USE
FOR HARTFORD [215]
Land Use Plan
Balanced
Trips Length Relative to Existing
Zoning
Existing Zoning
Sa tellite
0.92
1. 00
Linear
1. 01
1.11
Single Center
1. 14
In Chicago [137], the air pollution implications of three alternative
metropolitan plans were analyzed on the basis of emission estimates for
two pollutants: oxides of nitrogen and suspended particulate matter from
certain industry groups. The alternative plans investigated consisted of
a Finger Plan (high density corridors), a Multi-Towns Plan, and a
Satellite Cities Plan. It was found that the Finger Plan and Satellite
Cities Plan were equivalent with respect to particulates, and both were
superior to the Multi-Towns Plan.
The Finger Plan produced fewer
oxides of nitrogen than the other two alternatives.
The study concluded:
3-8
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"On the basis of these limited tests, the Finger Plan
appears to have an advantage from an air quality standpoint.
In this plan, although there are fairly high residential and
industrial concentrations, there is also dilution potential
for pollutants. This is because the development corridors
are elongated and bordered on either side by large green
areas. The plan also has an advantage in terms of
motor vehicle pollution because of the greater potential
for rail and bus travel. "
Because changes in metropolitan land development concepts are
largely related to new development, the short-term benefits will be
small.
Concepts related to development in built-up areas will have a
minor impact.
However, the long-term benefits of new land development
patterns could affect about 25 percent of the future population.
Air
pollution reduction achieved in this way may be as high as 20 percent.
This would mean that significant long-term reductions in air pollution
problems could be expected in urbanized areas because of changes in
development patterns.
Density Patterns
Population density affects automotive air pollution because it
influences the amount of travel in a given area.
Rydell and Collins [158]
carried out a simulation study in which a formula was developed to indicate
the relationship between average ground-level automobile pollution and
population density under normal conditions.
When applied to the simulated city, the formula indicated that a
decrease in population density would reduce the average level of air
pollution, in spite of the fact that the decrease in density would cause
automobile travel to increase.
This can be illustrated as follows.
If an area were to experience a
decrease in population density by an amount sufficient to increase average
3-9
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trip length by 10 to 20 percent, overall travel would increase by the same
10 to 20 percent. Assuming that no shifts of mode took place and that the
average speed of automobile travel remained constant, automotive emis-
sions would increase by the same amount.
The spreading of the popula-
tion at lower densities, under a larger air shed, however, would result
in reduced emissions per square mile.
This is significant in light of existing fiscal pressures to build
higher densities of development. It indicates that more attention should
be given to control technology and micro scale (small area) planning in
order to keep air pollution at safe levels for the urban activities that will
occur in these areas.
It should be emphasized that these findings do not
consider the fact that higher densities encourage transit usage and can,
therefore, result in lower emissions.
The selection of density patterns will largely be restricted to new
development. There will be more limited opportunities to change density
in built-up areas. It would seem that changes in density patterns to
reduce air pollution might affect the equivalent of one-half of new develop-
ment, recognizing that other constraints will be operative. Therefore,
density changes probably would affect only about 25 percent of the fore-
ca st population in urbaniz ed area s.
A reduction of only 5 percent in
ambient air pollution levels related to such density changes could be
expected.
This would mean only a slight long-term reduction in air
pollution problems in our urbanized areas.
Little or no short-term
benefits related to density patterns can be foreseen.
In addition to the small payoff factor, two disadvantages of lower
density should be noted.
One is that mass transit is less attractive and
more costly to provide under conditions of low development density.
Under certain conditions it is conceivable that lowered use of transit due
to low density would add sufficient automobile travel to offset the theoreti-
cal gain in air quality. A second disadvantage of lower density is that
3-10
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the overall amount of automotive emission is increased. policies which
result in an increase of automotive emissions, even though pollutant con-
centrations may be reduced, must be questioned.
Industrial, Commercial, and Residential Land Use Relationships
It has long been a common practice to take into account the pre-
vailing winds in an area when locating industries, but errors have been
made in giving inadequate attention to conditions that may arise during
periods of different wind direction.
Because it is always desirable to
ensure that air-borne emissions are blown away from residential areas,
the planner must make increasingly comprehensive studies of local
meteorology, climatology, and topography in order to improve spatial
arrangements of industrial, commercial, and residential areas.
In an article [159] reviewing literature in the field, Rydell and
Schwarz gave examples of efforts to relate land use and wind direction:
"Stalingrad offers the most clear-cut example of
designing the macro form of an urban area to minimize air
pollution costs. Taking advantage of a wind that almost
always blows from the same direction, the planners of
this new city organized the major land uses in strips per-
pendicular to the wind direction. The prevailing wind
passes over the residential, recreational, and park areas
and only when it is beyond these zones does it accumulate
major pollutants by reaching the highway, railroad, and
industrial land uses [98]."
They cite Linz, Austria as a planning error in this regard:
"Because the prevailing wind comes from the west,
Linz was planned with residential areas to the west and
industrial sites to the east. The attempt to have the wind
blow pollution away as in Stalingrad largely failed, however.
The mild east wind banks the pollution against the western
mountains around this valley city. As a result the residential
3-11
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area is often blanketed by smoke [99]. The failure of the
Linz plan was due to an incorrect understanding of the
relationship between wind and air pollution concentrations.
High velocity winds cause rapid vertical and horizontal
dispersion of pollution. while low velocity winds slowly
carry pollution through nearby areas causing high
pollutant concentrations. Wind frequencies must be weighted
by the inverse of wind speed before they can be used to
locate residential areas out of the path of industrial air
pollution. "
Open Space and Green Belts
The use of open space or of green belts may be a way of achieving
the theoretical advantage of lower density without some of the disadvant-
ages.
There are other advantages as well.
For example, the Rydell and Schwarz article [159] states:
"Traditionally, planners have used open space as a
major tool to improve the quality of life in the city.
Today we have even more reason to use this technique
because open space, especially planted open space is not
only aesthetically desirable, but acts to diminish the
impact of air pollution in several ways.
"Greenery absorbs moisture and cools by evaporation,
creating a cooler, more humid climate than stone and
exposed soil. Temperatures over grassy surfaces on
sunny summer days are 10 to 14 degrees cooler than over
exposed soil, and there can be as much as 1. 500 BTU per
square foot less heat per season over grassy surfaces
[139]. This cooler moister air prevents dust formation."
The same source also describes the use of green or open spaces as
buffers to protect pollution sources such as industrial areas.
The buffer
areas. which can be related to prevailing winds, provide an opportunity
for pollutants to be diluted or dispersed.
Hilberseimer [77] is referred
to in this context.
Others have studied wind and temperature changes
3-12
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over green areas compared to urban development, the implication being
that such areas may aid in generating air currents that will carry away
pollutants.
Cross [41] identifies approaches for the establishment of green
belts as a control mechanism against air pollution. These are (1) control
of plantings to reduce particulates or gases. (2) regional planning schemes
that indirectly reflect air pollution considerations, such as satellite com-
munities and corridor towns, and (3) planning schemes that directly
reflect air pollution considerations. such as green belt neighborhoods.
cluster subdivisions. and green belt towns.
Most effective use of open space and green belts in urban areas
cannot be expected to reduce emissions but it can reduce concentrations
and the number of people exposed to unacceptable air pollution levels.
It is difficult. however, to predict what proportion of the population might
be affected, based on information available at this time.
Heating and Power Plant Locations
In Stockholm [182] it was found that one of the principal sources of
air pollution in the urban area was the heating of buildings, with sulfur
dioxide the main polluting agent. In the winter of 1964 air pollution in
Central Stockholm on several occasions exceeded the medical limit
recommended by the National Board of Air Pollution Control (see
Figures 3.4 and 3. 5).
This led planners to conclude that:
". . . the power sources for the urban area must be concen-
trated and the power plants located outside the built-up area.
The high energy consumption per person will probably make
it economically possible to rely on extremely large units with
a high combustion level, which could be located so far outside
the urban area that the amount of flue gases in the atmosphere
in the center of the region and in other inhabited areas would
not exceed the medically accepted limit. II
3-13
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16
14
12
10
SULPHUR
DIOXIDE 8
(pphml
6
4
2
o
AT 30 METERS .....1963-64
AT 30 METERS -- 1964-65
AT 2 METERS .-. 1964-65
,..
. ." ..
I .....' .
- ..", PROPOSE D
,.,: ....._-,", LONG-TERM MEDICAL
r.tr.:I.. ... \.. LIMIT
------~~~ ~~-~----
/l/ '. \ .
.JI!,.."/' ,,'- - Jor. -.~,
...7 ~ -,."Il1o..- ....x. .
J ~ ~.
~- ....'
/ ,
--~
JULY
JAN.
JUNE
Figure 3.4 Air Pollution in Central Stockholm from 1963
to 1965 [182]
The location of heating and power plants offers planners potential
for reducing air pollution exposures.
For example, if plants now being
planned to replace existing ones are properly loc~ted an almost immediate
improvement can result. Although the number of such plants probably is
small, the impact of relocation could be substantial for those living nearby.
There would thus be a small short-term impact. The long-range
impact would be substantial if all new plants were located so that new
development had direct exposure to such plants.
Based on forecast urban
population growth, the outcome may be that 50 percent of the population
in 20 years could benefit from such a reduction. Proper location of these
plants could reduce air pollution exposure problems as much as 20 percent.
3-14
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-
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LIMIT FOR CLEAN AI R
~
-
TRANSITIONAL ZONE: OUTER PART, MODERATE
POLLUTION, INNER PART, SEVERE POLLUTION
- HEAVY POLLUTION
- URBAN AREA (1966)
Figure 3.5 Air Pollution in Central Stockholm Exceeding
Acceptable Medical Limits [1821
3-15
-------
The problem of introducing pollutant sources into previously clean -
areas tends to act as an offsetting factor and redirect attention toward
emission control. It will be increasingly difficult to find acceptable
locations for major pollutant sources such as power plants, but this will
not negate the importance of placing them where large populations will
not be exposed to pollutant concentrations.
Summary
Land development patterns have pronounced effects on the formation
and dispersal of pollutant concentrations, the extent of ha-rmful exposures
and even the quantity of pollutant emissions.
In terms of overall land
development patterns, planning efforts can improve air quality in a number
of ways. These include positioning development so that prevailing winds
carry pollutants away from developed areas, choosing patterns that tend
to shorten average automobile trip lengths, avoiding large continuous
expanses of development, using configurations that facilitate use of transit,
and planning relationships among various land uses with a view toward
pollutant dispersal patterns.
The density of development affects pollutant concentrations; lower
density generally will result in better air quality although total pollutant
emissions will be greater due to increased trip lengths, and a larger land
area will be affected.
Open space or green belts may be used to good
effect, promoting air movement, serving as a moisture source, and pro-
viding a buffer between pollutant sources and land uses requiring protection.
They may be a means, used properly, of lowering overall density with
minimal tendency toward increased trip length or loss of mass transit
potential.
The location of major pollutant sources such as power plants offers
planners an opportunity to prevent exposure of developed areas although
it will be increasingly difficult to find acceptable undeveloped locations.
Because of the long term injurious effects of deteriorating air
quality on a global scale, emission control remains a primary requirement.
3-16
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For this reason, the land development opportunities that help to limit
emissions, such as those that shorten automobile trip lengths or encour-
age transit use, must receive particular attention. No matter how
effective these steps may be, however, it will be worthwhile to choose
development patterns that help to direct pollution flows away from
developed areas and otherwise maximize their dilution and dispersion.
An encour aging feature is that models to predict conditions and
strategies for the future are being developed.
Although they are inade-
quate at the present time, they can be perfected and will become useful
tools for urban and transportation planners in incorporating into future
decisions all the complex aspects of minimizing air pollution.
Based on review and analysis of available material, it may be
expected that a program dealing with the control of land development
patterns and density in new areas could reduce air pollution problems
significantly in the long range, assuming anticipated growth in urban
areas. Short-term benefits would be minimal.
From the point of view of direct urban air quality improvement,
the greatest impact would be brought about by proper control of power
plant locations and, second, by new land development concepts. These
techniques could affect at least one-half the increase in population that
will occur in urban areas.
Issues related to density, to industrial, com-
mercial and residential land use relationships, and to open space can also
contribute in the long run to air pollution reduction, but only slightly.
None of these latter approaches appears to have significant short-term
benefits.
The table below summarizes order of magnitude judgments of the
possible impact within each subject area. These values are, of course,
only general indications, not precise values, and the actual benefits
attainable in a particular urban setting will depend upon the variables of
existing and committed development patterns, physical constraints, growth
3-17
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rates, and the like.
Nevertheless the figures are a starting point that
will aid in selecting priorities, both for planning decisions and the new
research and experimentation that are needed.
The first column indicates
the estimated percent of U. S. urban area population that might be affected
by planning decisions in each subject area, while the second column is
an estimate of the air quality improvement that might be experienced by
the affected population. Thus, the third column, which contains the
product of the first two, provides an estimate of the net areawide impact
attainable.
The indexes are additive only insofar as the concepts, i. e. ,
land development, density, etc., are mutually exclusive.
Each of the
three columns is subdivided into short-term (5-year) and long-term
(20-year) categories.
Table 3.2. LAND DEVELOPMENT PATTERNS AND DENSITY
Percent of Percent Reductions in Air
Population Affecteda Pollution Concentrationsb Net Impact
Land Development Patterns Short-Term Long-Term Short-Term. Long-Term Short-Term Long-Term
and Densitv (1) (2) (3) (4) (1) x (3) (2) x (4)
Land Development Concepts 25 20 5
Density Patterns 25 5 1
Industrial, Commercial,
and Residential Land Use
Relationships 20 10 2
Open Space and Green Belts 10 10 1
lI"ating and Power Plant
Locations 10 50 -- 20 -- 10
-
Total -- 19
aBased on judgment on the part of the consultant.
bBased on estimates by consultant in conjunction with discussions with Office of Air Programs personnel.
3-18
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SPATIAL ARRANGEMENT OF BUILDINGS AND SITE ACTIVITIES
Locational Considerations
The atmosphere's capacity to disperse noxious emissions differs
from one area to another, although most, if not all, large metropolitan
areas are subject at times to conditions that produce high exposure levels.
Nevertheless, the geographic location of an urban area helps to determine
the total amount of air pollutant emissions that can be accommodated.
Some cities are located alongside oceans or in other areas where
wind currents predominate in directions that consistently carry air
pollutants away from the cities and over uninhabited regions.
Some cities
are located nearer the path of major global air streams and have stronger
or more consistent winds than others.
Other cities are handicapped by
the presence of major generators of air pollution and already use much
of their air resource capacity. It may be necessary to limit the develop-
ment of some urban areas or modify urban and transportation plans in
accordance with the air quality aspects of geographical location. Quan-
tifying the air resource aspects of an area for urban and transportation
planning requires the development of new tools and new conceptual
approa9hes.
In Toronto [123 L the role of Lake Ontario as both a sourc e of
water and a receptor of sewage effluent, the importance of the major
east-west transportation facilities, and the difficulties of servicing the
northern portion of the planning area have tended to create a broad
urban ribbon along the shore of Lake Ontario. Gr adually, as industrial
and commercial establishments have become less dependent on central-
city facilities, and as they have sought larger tracts of land, employment
concentrations within the Toronto area have become more dispersed.
3-19
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Where cities exist or are planned, topographic features, such as
mountains, valleys, and river basins have a substantial impact on the
dispersion of materials discharged into the atmosphere by man I s activi-
ties. A city in a valley surrounded by mountains may experience such
confinement of local air currents that air pollution becomes a major con-
sideration in the planning process. Historical records are replete with
incidents of air quality degradation caused by topographic factors that
limit the size of the natural airshed over an urban area.
When the airshed
is small and air currents are confined, relatively small amounts of human
activity may result in a substantial concentration of noxious air pollutants.
Planners must develop guidelines to evaluate topography and its
effects on air quality in preparing land use and transportation plans and
locating industries and transportation systems. Knowledge of the subject
is far from complete, and additional studies are needed to permit the
incorporation of air quality aspects of topography in urban and transporta-
tion planning.
Both the general meteorology and micro-meteorology of each urban
area has a great impact on the dispersion of air pollutants, and must be
considered.
The height location of buildings channel and change air currents.
A great deal of thermal energy is released from any developed area.
Under normal conditions warm air from this source will rise and disperse
into the atmosphere.
In this way, heat produced by man's activities
causes a slight amount of turbulence in the atmosphere above most cities.
Under normal atmospheric conditions the rising heat and gases are dis-
persed into huge circulating masses of air above the city, and many of the
pollutants are carried away.
If temperature inversions occur (the temperature of the atmosphere
remains approximately constant or even increases slightly with elevation)
warm air is trapped and will not rise; there tends to be little vertical
mixing or atmospheric dispersion.
Gases and particulates released into
the atmosphere under these conditions remain in a confined space and
3-20
-------
concentrations build up because the effective airshed is reduced.
Tem-
perature inversions are usually of short duration, but they can cause
serious atmospheric pollution problems, such as those occurring from
time to time in Los Angeles, New York City, Chicago, and other major
cities.
Many aspects of an area's climate, such as temperature, diurnal
variation in temperature, seasonal variations in climate, humidity, pre-
cipitation, whether as rain or snow, should all be considered by the planner
as he includes air quality among his concerns.
Planners have noted that transportation and urban planning activities
should include air quality implications of geographical location, topographic
considerations. and meteorological-climatological factors. For
example. Shields. [171]identifies the following factors as worth considering
in urban planning activities:
.
The avoidance of air pollution source locations inside an
area where temperature inversions are frequent
The avoidance of coastal sections of sharp river valleys
as the location of heavy industry
.
.
The proximity of adjacent city pollutant source areas to
new developments
The preservation of green belts between residential and
industrial areas
.
.'
The location of principal traffic arteries as far as practicable
from residential areas
The proper arrangement of structures to promote maximum
vertical movement of air
.
The effect of new pollution sources on farming activities
adjacent to the city area
Rydell and Schwarz [159] point out the following:
.
"Buildings in different topographical locations are
subJect to different microclimates. which'in turn_are
associated with different concentrations of pollution. A
building on the crest of a hill is subject to a more moderate
climate than a structure 25 feet lower in an adjacent valley.
3-21
-------
Cooler air sinks into the "fog hole" and pollution will col-
lect there, while the crest is exposed to high velocity which
will blow the pollution by, minimizing its impact. The
slopes not only experience warmer temperatures than either
the crest or the valley, they receive the least impact from
pollution. The windward slopes, which are struck by the
brunt of the winds, are subject to less pollution than the
leeward slopes, which have the more moderate climate [58,
95, 147]. Although the leeward slopes provide the best climate,
the windward slopes are freest from air pollution.
"The way a building is located with respect to a lake
also partly determines the impact of air pollution on the
building's inhabitants. Locations on any shore of the lake
are subject to clearer air than inland sites. This is due to
the different heating and cooling rates of land and water.
Water holds heat longer than land. In the daytime the lake
will heat up more slowly than the surrounding shore.
Because warm air is lighter than cool air, the warmer air
over the surrounding land rises out over the lake, as the
cooler lake air moves inlapd, bringing cooling breezes along
the ground. In the evening the cycle reverses. Cool air from
the shore moves out over the water and warm lake breezes rise
over the land. The circulation thus produced sweeps pollution
emitted along the shore away and up over the lake. Buildings
sited on the lake leeward of the prevailing winds experience
even greater temperature moderation from the lake breezes
and even more effective dispersal of air pollution [90]."
The factors of geographical location, topography, meteorology and
climate have a combined effect which is extremely important in deter-
mining the size of airsheds over urban areas and the degree of dispersion
of gaseous and particulate emissions into the atmosphere.
In the past
most information has been obtained as the result of experience with
existing s itua tions.
It is essential that a more sophisticated approach be
developed, giving maximum priority to air quality potential, in order for
planning to be carried out in a way that will avoid air pollution problems
in major urban areas in the future.
We continue to build in areas with topographic and meteorological
conditions that cause air pollution problems, creating bowls and pockets
of air pollution.
To prohibit development in such areas would not only
3-22
-------
reduce air pollution concentration but would also reduce the population
exposed to such conditions. It is difficult to determine the land area
subject to adverse meteorological effects, but it is conceivable that 10
to 20 percent of the forecast population could avoid such conditions in the
long term if the policy were vigorously enforced. The improvement in
air quality that this population would be exposed to could be on the order
of 20 percent. The short-term impact would be much less, although some
reduction in the number of people exposed to undesirable conditions might
be achieved.
Building and Site Activity Arrangements
Air pollution concentrations in an urban atmosphere may vary over
several orders of magnitude within short distances and are influenced to
a large degree by the geometric configuration of buildings. The concentra-
tion of sulfur dioxide (802) within the chimney of a coal-fired heating plant
may be in the range of 1000 ppm, while day-to-day samples taken at
street level may be O. 1 ppm or less. Within this range of concentrations
S02 levels of 10 ppm are found quite frequently on roof tops, and 1 ppm
may be found in upper-story apartments under certain conditions of local
wind currents.
James Halitsky has published a number of papers dealing with
various aspects of atmospheric diffusion of air pollutants in urban areas.
In establishing typical pollution patterns [70], he lists the three major
source groupings as follows:
.
Tall chimneys at power plants, refineries, and municipal
incinerators
.
Numerous heating plant and incinerator exhausts
roof-level of older five- and six-story buildings
Automotive exhaust at street level
at the
.
None of these source groupings is amenable to strict analytical
treatment. The tall stacks may be consiclered as elevated continuous
point sources, but there is a dearth of information regarding diffusion
3-23
-------
coefficients over urban areas.
The roof-top emissions may be treated as
rectangular area sources separated by clear bands formed by streets and
avenues, but it is difficult to predict how rapidly the gases penetrate down-
ward between buildings.
Diffusion from ground-level sources (automobiles)
is greatly affected by the channeling of air currents between buildings and
the back flow in eddies created by building corners. Analytical methods
for modeling such sources are inadequate.
The effect of buildings on air pollution was studied in a detailed urban
design project for Skopje, Yugoslavia, [185].
The effect of rows of tall
buildings in the exterior urban zone on the nature of air flow in the interior
of the city was investigated by model experiments. Figure 3.6 illustrates
the alternative arrangments of buildings examined for the tall buildings in the
exterior zone. These tall buildings constituted what was labeled the "city
wall." The relationships between the velocity distribution of local air cur-
rents and the height of buildings, distances between buildings or blocks,
open spaces within buildings, and the relative location of buildings to adja-
cent streets were examined.
Figure 3.7 illustrates the findings of one test that was performed.
Here, the impact on wind flow of the relative arrangment of the city wall
structures and interior buildirg s is investigated. The same type of city
wall (Type 1) is used throughout the experiment shown in this figure. In
Alternative A, only the city wall is present; in Alternative B only the interior
buildings are present; in Alternative C both types of structures are present
and are offset with respect to each other.
under each one of the alternatives.
The figure shows the wind profile
Figure 3.8 is concerned with the impact of the relative width of streets
on wind flow. Here again, only one kind of city wall (Type 1) is used and
the arrangement of the two kinds of buildings is kept constant.
In Alterna-
tive A the city wall structures are more widely separated from each other
than are the interior walls; in Alternative B the separation is the same for
both types of buildings; in Alternative C the interior structures are set
3-24
-------
CITY WALL TYPE 1
CITY WALL TYPE 2
CITY WALL TYPE 3
CITY WALL TYPE 4
LxWxH: 96 x 24 x 90 mm
S: 24 mm
LxWxH: 96 x 24 x 90 mm
S: 24 mm
V: 10 mm
LxWxH: 96 x 24 x 90 mm
S: 24 mm
V: 20 mm
LxWxH: 96 x 24 x 90 mm
S: 24 mm
V: 10 mm
Figure 3.6 Building Arrangements Examined for Exterior
Zone in Skopje [1851
3-25
-------
MODEL SCALE -1:1000 ~ ALTERNATIVE A LJ
8 +
I \
7 I \ "
I \
I \' \
6 , \ ALTERNATIVE B I..-..J
'tI I ' \ D
c: \ ---------
o \
~ 5 I \ \
~ \ \
Q) ~ \
~ 4 \ \ ALTERNATIVE C U~
J \
>" --"'--.... \. \ ----~
!::
g 3 - --- ---""'
.... '-\
...J .... "
w
> \
2 ,\ ALTERNA'-OO_OE
'<, TIVE D
'
...
WIND --- . ...
,-
o
'tI
c:
o
~ 6
~
J!!
Q)
E 5
>"
....
U 4
o
...J
W
> 3
24
12 6 0 0
DISTANCE~
~
6
12
18
18
24
em
DISTANCE
.
Figure 3.7 Wind Velocity Distribution for Various Building
Arrangements in Skopje [185]
MODEL SCALE. 1: 1 000
AL TERNATIVE A Y ~,
~~~
ALTERNATIVE B U U
~~
ALTERNATIVE C U L-J
-~~~
9
8
7
2
o
20
o 0
em
5
10
15
10
5
15
20
25
.
DISTANCE
DISTANCE
~
Figure 3.8 Wind Velocity Distribution for Various Street
Widths in Skopje [185]
3-26
-------
farther apart from each other than are the city wall structures. Again, the
impact of the alternative arrangements on wind flow is shown in the figure.
Figure 3.9 uses the same relative arrangement of buildings, but
varies the design of city wall structures. In all cases the outer and inner
buildings are aligned with each other. Alternative A utilizes city wall Type
1; Alternative B consists of city wall Type 2; Alternative C consists of city
wall Type 4. The wind profiles are again shown.
9 ALTERNATIVE A
MODEL SCALE - 1: 1000
8 L.JLJ
7 00
"0 ALTERNATIVE B
g 6 E
&i ----
..
-
..
~ 5
Q)
E
)-' 4 ALTERNATIVE C
.... DO
u -..-..-
o
u:j 3
> ~.. 00
2
pm
WIND-
0
20 15 10 5 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 em
.. DISTANCE DISTANCE .
Figure 3.9 Wind Velocity Distribution Due to Types of City Wall
in Aligned Arrangement [185]
Figure 3.10 shows a situation very similar to that of Figure 3.9.
The only difference between the two cases is that in the test described in
Figure 3. 10 the outer wall structures and the interior structures were
offset with respect to each other. The marked reduction in wind velocity
that this change causes can be seen by comparing the wind profiles in the
two figures.
3-27
-------
8 ALTERNATIVE A
MODEL SCALE - 1: 1 000
7 OLJ
6 nD
"t:I
c:
0
~ 5 ---- nD
~
r! 8
Q)
~ E
E 4 ALTERNATIVE C
>-
I-
U 3 -..-..-
o Do
-I
w
>
2 ~'I'P 0.,
20
15
10
5
o 0
5
10
15
20
25
em
11
DISTANCE
DISTANCE
.
Figure 3.10 Wind Velocity Distribution Due to Types of
City Wall in Offset Arrangement in Skopje [1851
These experiments on wind flow have important implications for air
quality because they show that the arrangement of structures can be used
to alter wind velocities.
The desirable wind velocities for various circum-
stances should be identified by further research and the design alternatives
to achieve desirable wind velocities should be clearly pointed out.
The Rydell and Schwarz review [159] also discusses air quality
implications of building and site arrangements:
3-28
-------
liThe orientation of a building with respect to winds
also has an important influence on the impact of air
pollution. Various building configurations with respect
to winds create different sized eddies around the structure.
An eddy. which is a slowly revolving stationary mass of
air. can trap pollution. increasing its concentration many
times. The larger the eddies around a building. the
smaller the volume of the wind that passes by the building
to sweep the pollutants away [90]. As the pitch of the
roof. the thinness. and the height and width of a building or
a building block increases, the size of the eddies around
the building increases. A row of uneven roofs creating
rough surfaces can slow the wind. holding pollution in the
area longer [90, 91, 95]. Yet, if controlled. these factors can be
used to minimize the effect of pollution on the buildings.
Building shapes can redirect or even reverse the direction
of the wind [113]. Buildings can be constructed to main-
tain beneficial topographical effects. In some southern
climates houses on stilts allow hot ground air to nrolltt
under rather than through the buildings, avoiding the heat
and any pollution carried in the wind.
"Not only is the impact of air pollution on a building
affected by how the building changes winds and eddies. but
by the kind of climate the edifice itself creates. Placed on
a slope. a building or mining debris can act like an artificial
hill. creating a new slope climate [97]. The building can
block cold air from spreading downhill. holding the air
stagnant to gather increasing concentrations of pollution.
. "Building materials and soil content also influence
microclimate and the effects of air pollution. Masonry heats
and cools slowly. moderating temperatures much as a body
of water does. remaining warmer in the early evening and
warming up later in the morning. Sand and gravel around
the structure create a local desert-like climate - hot and dry -
which encourages air to cool and rise. creating circulation.
Loam and clay soils are cool and moist. conducive to station-
ary air and pollution [64].
"Streets. like buildings. alter microclimate by
changing topography and creating new land shapes. Canyon
like rows of tall buildings along narrow streets create a
funnel effect. frequently doubling the wind speed. or. if the
wind enters at a 45-degree angle. accelerating the velocity
3-29
-------
on the windward side and creating slower currents on the
leeward [64.95]. At night heat losses are larger at higher
floors of tall buildings than at lower ones. These tempera-
ture variations over the height of tall buildings create up-
ward currents in the city streets which can act with the
high velocity winds to sweep pollution away. However. if
much of the rooftop area of the city is about the same
height, the rooftops and streets will radiate their warmth
upward so rapidly as to create a cool layer of air at that
rooftop level. Warm air above the cool layer forms a
stable stratification. trapping the warmer polluted air
below in the streets and between the buildings.
"In the natural environment hills or uneven slopes can
block up pools of cool air. When streets or railroad beds
are constructed that cut through these cold air dams, they
may create cold air floods. If pollution is involved. air
drainage may have serious consequences for the health of
people in the valley. A new highway can also create a new
alley for cold air and pollution to settle in. Anyone who
drives knows of the efficiency of open-cut highways for
trapping automobile exhausts. This principle also works
in reverse: where there was once free drainage a railroad
embankment or an artificially level highway c an dam up
pools of cold air and highly concentrated pollution.
"Streets. like stone masonry and different kinds of
soil. affect the climate of the urban area. Concrete streets
absorb heat during the day. then radiate it slowly into the
early evening [95]. They provide no cooling evaporation.
as does the foliage in the countryside. When streets make
up 20 to 50 percent of the surface of the city. these factors
are influential in causing the city to have a significantly
more moderate. dryer climate. conducive to the formation
of the" dust dome. It
Yocom. Clink and Cote [263]
describe a study in which air quality
data was gathered for four pollutants inside and outside three pairs of
structures during different seasons of the year. Suspended particulates,
soiling particulates, carbon monoxide, and sulfur dioxide were mea-
sured at pairs of public buildings. office buildings, and private homes
in the Hartford. Connecticut area.
It is interesting to note that in a gas-
3-30
-------
heated home, the data indicated (Figure 3. 11) that the carbon monoxide
concentration inside the home was substantially higher than that outdoors
and that in a home heated by coal (Figure 3. 12) the sulfur dioxide concen-
tration inside the house was at times much higher than that outdoors.
The data gathered from the preliminary program of summer season
measurements in 1969 led to a number of interesting conclusions, some
of which are listed below:
.
In homes with gas heating and cooking, the heating system
had no effect upon carbon monoxide levels; however, the gas
stoves had a significant effect on indoor CO levels.
Attached garages having a door opening from the garage
directly to the house proper are a significant source of
carbon monoxide inside such homes.
.
.
Suspended particulate matter readily penetrated private
homes in this study. Public buildings and air-conditioned
office buildings were penetrated to a lesser extent.
Carbon monoxide readily penetrated all the structures and
existed in higher or lower concentrations only where
proximity to sources or other obvious reasons existed.
From carbon monoxide measurements in the summer
season, there appeared to be little detectable influence
from a submerged roadway on structures over the roadway
other than the contribution to general pollution concentration
outdoors; nor was there much detectable influence from an
underlying parking garage on an air-conditioned building
above.
.
.
With parking garages becoming an integral part and occupying the
lower floors of many buildings in urban areas, and with increasing trends
toward enclosing larger complexes to provide controlled or artificial air
environments, it is clear that additional information ,is necessary to
evaluate the impact of ambient air pollution on the indoor environment.
While it is apparent that the environment can be improved by better
siting of buildings and by more effectively arranging the activities related
to them, these techniques will not reduce overall air pollution emissions
in such areas, but will reduce .the number of people exposed to undesirable
3-31
-------
VJ
I
VJ
I:\J
E
0.
0.
W
o
x
o
5 3.0
:2:
z
o
II:!
II:
«
u 2.0
6.0
KITCHEN
FAMILY ROOM
FRONT WINDOW
.
LIVING RM FAMIL Y
ROOM
. GARAGE
----
..........
FAMILY ROOM WINDOW
OUTDOOR
5.0
. SAMPLE POINTS
DINI~. KITCHEN
RM STOVE
:'f'1
f'=\
"J :.
j )
-1 .
~ ~
, ~
,1
3
:1
:,
~
4.0
GAS-HEATED HOUSE
:f1
:, ',,\
:, ,\
.1 ',\
:I : \
., ',\
" . \
4 ',\
" \
',\
" \
'.\
1.0
o
1200
0800
1800
0900
1400
2300
2200
1300
0400
1700
0300
MARCH 4 (TUESDA Y)
MARCH 5 (WEDNESDAY)
TIME, hours
MARCH 6 (THURSDAY)
Figure 3,11 T;me Variation of Carbon Monoxide for a
Gas-Heated House [236]
-------
W
I
W
W
E
a.
a.
w' 0.60
o
X
o
o
a:
:>
~ 0.40
:>
(/)
1.00
LIVING ROOM
--- INSIDE KITCHEN WINDOW
........ OUTSIDE KITCHEN WINDOW
0.80
- FAR OUTSIDE
. SAMPLE POINTS
0.20
0.0
1200
MARCH 17 (MONDAY)
I
I
I
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
"
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
MARCH 18 (TUESDAY I
TIME, hours
FRONT
"
DINING
ROOM
BEDRM.
COAL-HEATED HOUSE
.
MARCH 19 (WEDNESDAY)
Figure 3.12 Time Variation of Sulfur DiDxide for a
Coal-Heated House [236]
-------
levels of air pollution.
Bearing in mind that other techniques may
alleviate the problem of pollutant sources such as tall stacks or rooftop
emissions, motor vehicle pollutants may be the main source subject to
avoidance through building and site arrangement.
Effective response
to available opportunities might affect 20 percent of the long-term
population and produce a 10 percent improvement in air quality for those
affected.
There would not likely be more than a slight short-term
impact.
Centralization of Heating Plants
The concept of economy of scale applies to heating and power plants
and their fuel consumption when air pollution reduction is considered.
planning function that should not be overlooked, therefore, is the sub-
A
stitution of large plants for small ones. The latter tend to be relatively
inefficient and generate a comparatively large amount of air pollution
per unit of heat and power produced.
Large plants may serve an entire
area and produce relatively little air pollution per unit of energy con-
verted.
Buildings within a single complex, such as an industrial opera-
tion or an apartment park, often contain a single power plant from which
power or heat is conveyed to each separate building through underground
conduits.
It would seem appropriate for this concept to be more widely
utilized to provide heat for large blocks of residential and commercial
buildings, thereby significantly decreasing the air pollution compared
with use of numerous small and inefficient power plants.
Unfortunately there has not been enough research on the impact of
centralized heating plants on air pollution, but a number of European
countries, particularly Sweden, have moved toward central heating
primarily to reduce air pollution.
It does appear that managing central
heating plants properly can have a very significant impact on reducing
3-34
-------
emissions and that these reductions can affect the buJk of the new popu-
lation, particularly in view of the extent to which the urban population is
being housed in multi-family units. The short-term impact, of course,
would be slight in terms of air pollution reduction and the people that
would be affected.
Summary
Consideration of local variations in climate, topography and mete-
orologic conditions in locating urban development is a valid means of
avoiding pollutant exposures.
Microscale variations in temperature,
humidity and wind direction and strength can be used to advantage by
locating pollutant sources where dispersal is advantageous and avoiding
the placement of sensitive development where concentrations may tend
to occur.
The height, shape, orientation and grouping of buildings and
other structures demonstrably influence air movement and quality.
It
will be possible to achieve better air quality through manipulation of
these variables, as a better understanding of these phenomena is developed.
Heating plants are a significant source of urban air pollution; small
plants generally are less efficient than large ones and produce larger
amouB~s of pollutant per unit of heat produced. Consequently the centrali-
zation of heating plants is an effective means of reducing emissions from
this source.
Table 3.3. SPATIAL ARRANGEMENT OF
BUILDINGS AND SITE ACTMTIES
Percent of Percent Reductions in Air
Population ACCecteda Pollution Concentrations b Net Impact
Spatial Arrangement of Short-Term Long-Term Short-Term .Long-:rerm Short-Term Long-Term
Buildings and Site Activities (1) (2) (3) (4) (1) x (3) (2) x (4)
Locational Considerations 15 20 3
Building Arrangements 20 10 2
Contralization of Heating Plants 20 20 4
-
Total --- 9
. a .
Based on Judgment on the part of the consultant.
bn3sed on estimates by consultant in conjunction with discussions with Office of Air Programs personnel.
3-35
-------
PLANNING OF TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS
In the preceding sections of this chapter the air quality signifi-
cance of land use variables was discussed.
The following section
examines aspects of transportation systems alternatives on air quality.
It should be noted that a distinction is made in this report between
planning, which can be likened to strategic decisions of location, size,
and general standards, and design, which may be termed the tatical
aspect -- decisions involved in the particular location and specific
detailing of a facility.
Transit-Highway Combinations
The effect of transit, highways, and urban development on a
number of variables, including air pollution, has been simulated by
computer for a hypothetical 625 square-mile metropolitan area of two
and one-half million people.
Varying assumptions about urban patterns,
highway networks, and transit networks were used in the analysis as
illustrated in Figure 3.13 [217].
Eight different urban patterns of
spatial allocations of population and employment were investigated:
8 sprawl
. Moderate corridors
8 Heavy corridors
8 Corridors rotated
8 Extreme corridors rotated
3-36
-------
r~
URIAN PATTERNS
Potte," A
Sp,aw\
Pattern B
Moderate Co"ic:fon
W
I
W
-J
HIGHWAY NETWORKS
Th. &asie AII-Art.riol Grid
F,"woys AlOO9 Mgjor RCKfiol.
~
Patte", C
Haa...., COffld1:."
Patte", D
Corridors Rotated
Additionol Radial freeways And An Inner
B.hwoy Add.d FOI' Mo.imutn Coverage
Pottem F
Sat.lli.. Citi..
TRANSIT NETWORKS
, \ I
~
--t~~T-
,,~0(
I I -\'-',
Altemot. 1
~a.ic Bus N.twor. "ith E.pre" SUI Service
Ah.,"OI8 2
Combines RapId Roil Along Moior
Radlol. With Bus Service
P-!.I
......~iJ
Pot...." G
C4'f1.h'oli,;ed Spr"I POptllalion
PattemH
Employment Radiol Population
R.locOte' Rap.d Rod Radlol s.r...'ce
And Adds An Out.r RClpid Rod Loop
Figure 3.13 Description of Urban Forms and
Transportation Systems Simulation Study (217]
0-3~ I
3SOO-S250 .""
52.\0-12250
AND OVER
POPULA TICH
PER ZCHE
- ARTERIAL GRID
- FREEWAYS
LEGEND
i 0-1100
. 1100-2200
2200-6600
AND OVER
EMPLOYMENT
PER ZONE
- BASIC BUS LINES
____n- EXPRESS BUS LINES
- RAPID RAIL
-------
.
Satellite cities
Centralized employment, sprawl population
.
.
Centralized employment, radial population
Four highway networks were examined:
.
A basic arterial grid
Freeways along major arterials
.
.
Major radial freeways with an outer beltway and inner
loop added
Additional radial freeways and an inner beltway added for
maximum coverage
.
Three basic transit networks were reviewed:
.
A basic bus network with express bus service
Rapid rail along major radials with bus service
.
.
Relocated rapid rail service and an outer rapid rail loop
A series of alternatives were constructed which defined various
land use, highway, and transit configurations and work travel patterns
were simulated to arrive at estimates of work trip length, average
network speed, and transit usage for each alternative.
Table 3.4 shows the vehicular work trip length and average speed
noted from the simulation of various combinations of urban patterns,
highway, and transit systems. For each urban pattern considered it is
possible to examine the effect of the transportation alternatives.
What do the changes in trip length, speed, and transit use mean
with respect to air pollution reduction?
An increase in average network speed decreases carbon monoxide
and hydrocarbon emission rates per vehicle mile.
Figure 3. 14 shows
emissions per vehicle mile versus average network speed in miles per
hour for two major air pollutants, carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons.
. 3-38
-------
200
.!! 150
'E
..
u
:E
~
...
!
~ 100
..
...
!:II
Z
0
en
en
~
w
50
HC
o
10.
20
15
25
30
AVERAGE SPEED, mph
Figure 3.14 Relationship of Carbon Monoxide and
Hydrocarbon Emissions to Speed [204]
3-39
35
-------
Table 3.4. SUMMARY OF AUTO AND TRANSIT
WORK TRIP LENGTHS FOR VARIOUS URBAN PATTERNS
AND TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS -
SIMULATION STUDY [221]
Mean Trip Length
Auto
Urban Highway Transit Speed Trans it
Pattern System System Minutes Mile s (MPH) Minute s
A 1 1 14.84 4.77 19.3 26.28
Sprawl 2 1 12.83 5.08 23.8 26.06
4 1 9.47 5.78 36.6 25.85
B 2 1 12.15 4.94 24.2 25.79
Moderate 2 2 12.31 5.02 24.4 20.75
Corridors 3 2 10.97 5.27 28.8 20.69
C
Hea vy 4 2 9.07 5.58 36.9 20. 19
Corridors
D
Corridors 1 3 14.25 4.60 19.4 20.27
Rotated
F
Satellite 1 3 13.98 4.41 18.9 19.68
Cities
G
Centralized 1 3 15.79 4.85 18.4 27.93
~prawl
!population
H
Employment 1 3 10.12 4.71 27.9 21. 09
Radial Popu-
a tion
3-40
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Table 3.5. AIR POLLUTION REDUCTIONS FOR CHANGES IN THE HIGHWAY SYSTEM
Percent Reductions8
Urban in Emission Rales
Pattern Highway System Base Network CO HC
Pre-19B8
A Sprawl 2 Freeways along 1 Bask arterial grid -13 4
major radials
A Sprawl 4 Additional radial I Basic arterial grid -35 -14
freeways and an inner
beltway Cor maximum
coverage
B Moderate 3 Major radial freeways 2 Freeways along major -II + 5
Corridors with outer beltway and radials
inner IOOD added
POSl-1975
A Spra w 1 2 Freeways along 1 Basic arterial grid - 9 -29
major radials
A Sprawl 4 Additional radial I Basic arterial grid -31 -19
freeways and an inner
beltway for maximum
coverage
B Moderate 3 Major radia t freeways 2 Free\91Ys along major + 5 + 5
Corridors with outer beltway and radials
inner loop added
Bpercent reduchons are calculated 00 the difference between an atternative highway system and the
base network.
These emission rates may be applied to the travel simulation
informa tion in Table 3. 4 to determine the effect of alterna ti ve land use
patterns on emissions per vehicle mile.
Changes in total emissions of
these pollutants from motor vehicles used in work travel are shown in
Table 3.5 for urban patterns A and B.
The figures account for total
vehicle miles and average speed in each alternative.
From these data
it may be observed that a more extensive freeway type system does
result in reduced carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions.
The relationship between nitrogen oxide emissions and vehicular
speed is less well known.
It is known that nitrogen oxide emissions
increase with higher air-fuel ratios, but the relationship between nitrogen
oxide emissions and speed is not direct.
Although it can be assumed
that nitrogen oxide emissions increase as vehicular speed increases, the
increase in emissions may not be so large as to produce higher concen-
trations along a given length of road.
Improved transit service helps to increase transit usage for work
trips and reduce air pollution during the peak period. Figure 3. 15
illustrates for the same study the effect of improved transit service on
3-41
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Split and Air Pollution in a High Density
Corridor [217]
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modal split and motor vehicle air pollution reductions taking into account
distance from the central business district. Transit System 2 represents
an improved level of transit service over Transit System 1, thereby
diverting riders from automobiles and causing a reduction in automobile
emissions.
The effect is to reduce air pollution from 18 percent in the CBD to
one percent in the periphery of the hypothetical city. At a distance of four
to five miles from the CBD there is a significant reduction in automobile
air pollution as a result of the improved transit service. Note that all
motor vehicle emissions including oxides of nitrogen would be affected.
In a study of transit improvement in the Twin Cities area [216] the
overall regional air pollution impact of transit was found to be negligible.
However, the positive impact (air pollution reduction) in the downtown
area would be considerable. Auto use during peak hours could be reduced
by about 13 percent by 1985 in and within about 2 miles of the downtown
area as a result of substantially improved express transit. Automobile
induced air pollution in these critical areas could be expected to be
reduced by a similar amount. On the regional scale, the test systems
that could produce the largest diversion from automobiles would reduce
regional 1985 auto use by about 3 percent compared to current auto use.
These findings for Twin Cities are based on a given land use plan for
1985 and a constant highway network.
Greater emphasis on transit improvements thus will favorably
affect air quality. Various tests indicate that reasonable expenditures
on transit encouraged by present Federal programs might reduce highway
usage between 10 and 20 percent depending upon the areas involved. This
effort, of course, would be on a long-term basis. It would probably
affect a large portion of the urban population that now uses the automobile,
presently about 80 percent. But the short-range impact is generally much
smaller.
3-43
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Planning of Transit Systems, Airports, and Terminals
The most significant impact of transit on air quality relates to the
transfer of tra vel between one mode and the other - - between auto and
transit.
Transit systems also differ in the amount of pollution they
create directly. The Twin Cities study l216J investigated the direct air
pollution created by alternative transit systems. The findings of the
study are illustrated in Table 3.6. Air pollution levels related to transit
are generally low, and there is not much that can be done to reduce them
further.
Therefore, actions in this direction can only have a minor effect.
Table 3.6. AIR POLLUTION IMPACTS FOR
AL TERNA TlVE TRANSIT SYSTEMS
IN TWIN CITIES [216J
Direct Air Pollution Impact
System Downtown Regional
Rapid rail transit Excellent Negligible
Rapid rail transit with extended station
spacing Excellent Negligible
Buses in freeways and streets Fair Negligible
Commuter railroad Good Negligible
Busways without CBD subways Fair Negligible
Busways with CBD subways Fair Negligible
Metered freeway buses Fair Negligible
Air travel currently constitutes only about 10 percent of passenger
transportation expenditures in the United States [23J. Although most
air trips are relatively long (in excess ot 300 miles), aircraft in flight
generate a negligible proportion of pollutants. Airport operations do not
3-44
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constitute a major air quality problem compared with other urban sources.
There is, however, a potential problem of pollutant exposures at air
terminal sites, although weather protection and noise control measures
tend to protect air quality as well. As major airport activity increases
there is also potential for air pollution efforts downwind from the
facility [53].
Although no direct data are available, it appears that motor
vehicle emissions at airports may generate as much pollutant concentra-
tion as do aircraft operations.
Increased transit use for airport access
could help to reduce the motor vehicle emission problem. No measurable
regional-scale improvement in air quality can be expected from airport
planning efforts, however.
The number of vehicle-miles traveled in parking structures' and
other terminals is low; the impact of improvements would nofbe very
significant, except to reduce undesirable air pollution levels at the,
terminals caused primarily by exhaust from idling buses and / or auto-
mobiles waiting in queues.
Planning of Highway Systems
The analysis of an abstract city, described at the beginning of this
section on transportation systems planning, dealt with variations in land
use, th'e relative attractiveness of highways and transit, and alternative
plans within each mode.
While the previous discussion was concerned
primarily with choice of mode, the data also illustrate the impact o~
highway system variations. Highway planning can provide for (a) capacity
sufficient to reduce congestion, (b) higher speed linkages, and (c) in some
cases, shorter, more direct paths between points.
The first two types
of highway improvement tend to reduce vehicular emissions of carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbons due to smoother traffic flow and higher
average speeds, but tend to induce longer trips for the same reasons.
The third type of improvement will generally reduce all emissions.
All
3-45
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three tend to generate more highway travel, including those trips which
are attracted away from transit. Consequently, it is important to con-
sider other transportation policy and/or land use changes along with
plans for highway improvements.
Since so much of the travel in future years is going to take place
in urban areas, the long-term impact of improved planning of urban
highway systems is significant.
If the long-term effects are applied to
projected urban populations it may be assumed that 40 percent or more
of the population could be affected by new highways and ancillary improve-
ments. As indicated by the research that has been done to date, a 10 to 15
percent reduction in carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions can be
achieved by planning highways more effectively.
Summary
The studies described in this section have considered the relative
reductions in air pollution emissions and concentrations that may be
realized through the planning of transportation systems. It can be seen
from the abstract city analysis that transportation plan features can
significantly influence the choice of tra vel mode.
Because transit pro-
duces relatively small pollutant emissions per passenger mile accommo-
dated, increasing the use of transit reduces motor vehicle emissions.
Although this air pollutant reduction is not great enough to ha ve much
regional importance, it is highly significant in such hea vy activity centers
as downtown areas or major development corridors.
Because of the low scale of transit-caused pollution, changes in the
transit vehicle or other changes in the way a transit system is planned
will not generally ha ve a useful air quality impact, except for the effect
on choice of mode and hence the amount of auto travel.
Airports and
other transport terminals including parking facilities are seen as having
air quality significance within the immediate site area only.
3-46
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Air pollution can be ameliorated through highway planning actions.
Such actions include increasing capacity and speed, or shortening linkages.
Transit improvements and appropriate controls on land development and
transportation pricing may help to overcome the tendency of highway im-
provements to induce more and longer trips.
As shown in Table 3.7, greater emphasis on planning of transit
and highway improvements could have a significant impact on air pollution
problems in the long range, but would have little impact in the short-term.
The impact of improvements to airports and other transportation terminals
is rather slight, although they can affect the air quality related to users
of the terminals to some extent. The estimates in the table are highly
judgmental and attempt to assess the significance of the areas that would
be affected as well as the amount of improvement attainable.
Table 3.7. PLANNING OF TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS
Percent of Percent Reductions in Air
Population Affecteda Pollution Concentrationsb Net Imoact
Planning of Transportation Short-Term Long- Term Short- Term. Long-Term Short-Term Long- Term
Systems (1) (2) (3) (4) (1) x (3) (2) x (4)
Transit-Highway Combinations 60 10 6
Transit Systems. Airports. and
Tcrminals 5 5 ---
Highway Systems 40 10 ..
Total 10
aBased on judgment on the part of the consultant.
baa sed on estimates by consultant in conjunction with diScuBllions with Office of Air Programs personnel.
3-47
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DESIGN OF FACILITIES
Transportation Facilities and Adjoining Activities
Statistics demonstrate dramatically the enormous increase in the
use of automobiles in urban areas over 'the past quarter century.
In 1945,
19 million passengers used mass transit systems annually in the nation;
today, in spite of population increases and urbanization, the number is
under 7 million.
In 1945 there were 25 million privately owned auto-
mobiles and under 2 million miles of highways in the United States, while
today there are about 90 million automobiles and nearly 4 million miles
of highways.
During this 25-year period, well over 100 transit systems
have ceased operation in urban areas.
Considerable information has been accumulated on the relationship
between the design of transportation systems and the amount of air
pollution generated.
It has been found that the design of transportation
systems, especially of highways, can be an effective tool in reducing
air pollution concentrations. Design that benefits air quality requires
an understanding of the interrelationships between highways and air
pollution in the vicinity of the roadway.
A number of studies have been made of air pollution distribution
patterns vertically and horizontally from roadways to understand the
effects of highways on pollution in adjacent buildings.
Geor gii, Busch
and Weber [60]
reported an investigation of the time and space distribu-
tion of carbon monoxide emission concentrations in Frankfurt-am-Main.
Figure 3. 16 shows the carbon monoxide concentrations on both the
leeward and windward sides of a roadway at heights of 3, 16, and 33
meters above the roadway. The carbon monoxide concentration study in
Frankfurt-am-Main produced a basic, typical daily street air concentra-
tion pattern with one consistent morning and one consistent afternoon
3-48
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upon Traffic Volumes (60)
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maximum.
A good correlation was found between the carbon monoxide
concentration and the pattern of traffic density.
It was found that the
inverse of wind strength was second only to traffic density as a factor
in determining carbon monoxide levels.
Table 3.8 compares the Frankfurt-am-Main carbon monoxide con-
centrations with those reported by the U. S. Continuous Air Monitoring
Program (CAMP) conducted in 1964 in seven large American cities.
Table 3.8. MAXIMUM CARBON MONOXIDE CONCENTRATIONS
IN FRANKFURT AND SEVEN AMERICAN CITIES [60J
Annual Monthly Daily Hourly 5- Minute
Sample Average Average Average Average Value
Sample Site Days nnm cnm ncm nnm ccm
Frankfurt 228 10 12 22 49 --
Chicago 297 12 17 27 46 60
Los Angeles 353 11 14 22 47 50
Philadelphia 311 7 13 21 37 46
Cincinnati 218 6 11 17 22 49
St. Louis 295 6 9 17 25 45
Washington 253 6 6 13 28 37
San Francisco 326 5 6 10 22 40
In Frankfurt-am- Main, carbon monoxide concentration exceeded
30 ppm for short periods of time, with unfavorable diffusion character-
istics prevailing on the lee side of buildings and for low wind speeds.
The highest concentrations were measured during peak traffic times,
at the beginning and at the end of the working day.
The timing of traffic
peaks in Frankfurt was far from optimum in use of the natural dilution
characteristics of the atmosphere.
Maximum atmospheric transport
conditions occurred around noon, while in the early morning and evening
peak hours air pollution situations were prevalent.
3-50
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Figures 3. 17 and 3.18 provide additional information on the
de~rease of carbon monoxide concentrations with distance vertically and
horizontally from the roadway in relation to pollution level at the road-
way. Such information is useful in deciding where to build a structure
in relation to the highway so that pollution will not be likely to exceed a
safe acceptable level. Similarly. the curve showing the decline of
pollution with height above the roadway can be useful in determining air-
rights construction.
Criteria for joint development of air-rights structures and major
highways were published by Tippetts et ale [186]. A direct relationship
was found between traffic density and carbon monoxide concentration at
the roadway level.
Emission studies showed an average of 0.3 to 1. 5
ppm carbon monoxide concentration level for every 100 vehicles per hour.
As reported by Sturman [184]. concentrations of nitrogen oxides.
hydrocarbons. and carbon monoxide were measured at various levels
above five different types of highways. including a centered expressway
with adjacent structures nearby. a centered expressway without these
joint development structures. and a centered expressway boulevard. The
data in these three cases are shown in Figures 3. 19. 3. 20 and 3.21. The
effects of the different configurations on pollution concentration can be
seen by calculating the average concentrations at the roadway level for
each highway type.
For example. the average concentration on the four
lanes for the centered expressway without joint development structures
was 39 ppm. whereas a similar concentration for a boulevard expressway
was 49 ppm. a difference of 26 percent.
T. R. McCurdy [105] identifies the following traffic corridor design
considerations as possible steps toward minimizing the effects of vehicular
air pollution:
.
Absorption of pollutants at the roadway through the use of
absorbent guard rails or other devices.
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Centered Expressway With Joint Development Structures [184]
3-53
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Section, Centered Expressway without Joint
Development Structures [184]
3-54
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Figure 3.21 Pollutant Levels along Transverse Street Cross-
Section,Centered Expressway Boulevard (184)
3-55
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.
Micro-meteorological factor controls to increase
atmospheric dispersion of vehicular air pollution by
increasing the wind turbulence in a particular locale.
This can be accomplished through the design and location
of structur es.
Open space planting considerations choosing plants that are
resistant to air pollution damage.
.
The aspects of transportation facility design discussed here
obviously cannot reduce emissions in the short or long range.
They
canl however I have a significant impact on the number of people exposed
to undesirable levels of air pollution originating from transportation
facilities.
Many arterial streets generate high levels of air pollution.
Between 10 and 20 percent of the population live along these streetsl
and 20 to 40 percent of the employment is along such streets. Thusl a
significant number of people could be affected by improving the design
of transportation facilities in relation to adjoining activities through use
of greater setbacks or proper elevation relationships.
Highway Design
A recent study conducted in Chicago [186] showed that pollutants
resulting from unburned fuel emitted from auto tailpipes are at a minimum
when the vehicles are cruising at a constant speed.
When vehicles are
idlingl the rate is 1.5 times the cruising rate and during decelerationl
the rate is 9 times the cruising rate.
The study also showed that traffic in the central business district
produced four times more carbon monoxide per vehicle mile than express-
way traffic I while arterial and local street traffic produced about twice
as much. Thereforel freeways designed to reduce stop-and-go traffic
can contribute substantially to lessening the amount of carbon monoxide
discharged into the atmosphere.
3-56
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Highway design can affect the amount of air pollution emissions
through, for example, alternative alignments and proper location of
ramps. Although research on these aspects is limited, it appears that a
small amount of air pollution reduction can be achieved by giving these
factors the proper consideration in highway design. Based on anticipated
population growth and concomitant needs for improved transport systems,
nearly one-half of the travel in the future could be affected by such
improvements.
Transit, Airports, and Transportation Terminal Design
Since transit systems and terminal facilities serve only a relatively
small portion of the population and the possibilities for improvement
are limited, the impact of design improvements would be very small.
At the present time, there are few significant changes that can be made
in the design of these facilities to reduce air pollution. However, there
are situations that should be avoided in designing new facilities, in order
not to expose people to undesirable levels of air pollution.
A design
practice to be avoided, for example, is the location of waiting rooms
close to and inadequately protected from areas where many vehicles idle
or warm up.
Construction Practices
Although research in this area is limited, it is evident that small
reductions in air pollution can be achieved through improved construction
practices and that these can have both short-and long-range impacts.
Although the number of people affected will be fairly small, such improve-
ments are justified on the basis of their immediate effect.
Impacts to
be avoided include on-site dust and fumes as well as certain manufacturing
or processing operations associated with construction materials.
3-57
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I
,-
Design of Stationary Facilities
The design and construction of industrial plants can provide
opportunities to reduce air pollution in urban areas.
For example. the
design of tall stacks for emission of air pollutants is generally an
effective and economical method for reducing ground-level air pollution.
There must, however, be a practical upper limit to the maximum stack
I
I
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height and size- because of the diminishing returns and questions of cost,
construction difficulty, and aircraft hazards. Other limiting factors
include the frequency of unfavorable meteorological conditions, and the
amount and type of emissions to be controlled.
One critical problem in air quality control today is to determine
the limiting size of a single fossil fuel plant. This depends upon,
among other factors, an accurate assessment of the ability to disperse
pollutants. Differences in dispersion calculations alone cause estimates
to vary by almost an order of magnitude. Resolution of these differences
depends on improving the understanding of relationships between stack
heights and dispersion of air pollutants.
These relationships will, in
turn, influence the design and location of stationary power units in the
urban planning process.
In France. a new city. Vaudreuil, is being planned for the lower
Seine region outside Paris.
for up to 150.000 residents.
The city will provide housing and employment
The design will utilize new technology to
eliminate as much noise and air pollution as possible. Among the concepts
under consideration are routing of traffic through underground passages
and tunnels. carrying smoke from factories in underground conduits.
burning gases off at the source. and processing refuse to supply part of
the city's central heating. The U. S. Department of Housing and Urban
Development. together with other U. S: agencies. will make technical
contributions to the French effort. The results of such innovative
demonstrations will have great significance for our existing cities.
3-58
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Although it is difficult to anticipate improvements to be brought about
by the design of stationary sources, it seems from recent experience
that emissions could be halved with such improvements in the short term
and reduced by 75 percent in the long term.
This, of course, would
affect some of the population in the short range but the greatest impact
would be in the long range.
Summary
As shown in Table 3.9, there are two areas that could have a
significant impact on air quality - - highway design and the design of
stationary facilities. Highway design probably has the greater potential
because design improvements can actually reduce air pollution emissions,
provided that the tendency for improvements to generate more travel is
controlled.
Improvements in construction practices could have short- and
long-range benefits, although they would be relatively small in comparison
with some of the other programs that have been described.
Table 3. 9. DESIGN OF FACILITIES
Percent of Percent Rcductions in Ail!;
Ponul;ltion Affccteda Pollution Concentrations Net Impact
Short-Term Long-Term Short-Term Long-Term Short-Term Long-Term
Desirn of Facilities (1) (2) (3) (4) (1) x (3) (2) x (4)
Transportation Facilities
and Adjoining Activities 10 10 1
IIIghway Dcslgn 40 10 4
Transit, Airports, and
Tcrmina1 Dcsign 5 5
Construction Practices 10 10 10 10 1 1
Dcslgn of Stationary
Facllitlcs 10 '10 10 10 1 'I
Total 2 13
a Based on judgement on the part of the consultant.
b .
Based on estimates by consultant In conjunction with dlscutlslons with Office of Air Programs personnel.
3-59
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OPERATION OF FACILITIES
The automobile is a major source of air pollution.
Up to 85 percent
of the pollution in some sprawling urban areas has been attributed to the
automobile.
Nationwidel it produces 90 percent of all carbon monoxide
pollution.
If air pollution is to be curtailed I dangerous emissions from
automobiles must be substantially reduced.
One long-range hope for solving the vehicular air pollution problem
is to substitute new propulsion systems which produce few pollutants and
perform as well as or better than the present ones.
Such systems should
have good emission qualitiesl be reliablel and when mass produced be no
more costly than present propulsion systems.
Considerable attention has been devoted to electric vehicles, how-
ever I the battery powered vehicle cannot yet be considered a feasible
alternative to the present internal combustion engine passenger car.
Batteries are bulky I expensivel and permit only limited range and speed.
Refinements of electric vehicle propulsion systems are being madel but
much more progress is necessary before the electric car can offer per-
formance similar to the internal combustion automobile.
The Rankine engine and other engines utilizing steam are also under
development.
In the Rankinel or vapor cycle propulsion systeml fuel is
burned to heat up a working fluid consisting of water or some other
neutral liquid. When the fluid is heatedl it converts to vapor. This con-
version takes place in a steam generator I and the vaporized fluid becomes
the power source for the engine.
3-60
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Since fuels used in automobiles and other modes of transportation
contribute so significantly to air pollution, new energy conversion units
will continue to be sought, while fuel for the present internal combustion
engines will be modified to reduce air pollution. For example, non-
leaded gasolines are being produced and utilized in greatly increasing
quantities. Possibly,the conversion to use of the cleaner-burning
natural or liquified petroleum gases will be increased. It will be
necessary for urban and transportation planners to encourage changes
in fuel utilization and to promote those changes that will lead to a
lessened amount of air pollution within the urban area.
A 1967 British report, Cars for Cities [66] showed that the level
of atmospheric pollution from motor vehicles could be reduced by acting
on factors other than the amount of pollution from individual engines.
Atmospheric levels are affected by engine size (which is roughly pro-
portional to the quantity of exhaust gas emitted), the number of vehicles
in operation. the density of traffic (which affects the proportion of time
the engine is idling, accelerating. decelerating. or cruising), and the
rate at which pollutants are dispersed by air movement.
According to the study, it is reasonable to set a short-term air
quality objective of lowering the average concentration of carbon mon-
oxide in the exhaust of new cars to half its present level.
To do this,
particular attention would have to be given to reducing the idling emission
level. The report concludes that in the long-term the average concentra-
tion of carbon monoxide in engine exhausts could be reduced to about
one-third the present level.
The study considers the use of smaller automobiles having engines
that would emit about one-third the volume of exhaust gas of present
medium-size cars. Assuming they would emit no higher concentration
of carbon monoxide. the benefit could be substantial, depending on the
number of such cars in use. If the automobile population twenty years
3-61
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hence consisted entirely of such vehicles, the amount of carbon monoxide
per vehicle would be reduced to a third through this "size" factor alone.
These emission effects can also be mitigated by operating techniques on
highways and streets.
Freeway Operations
Figure 3. 22 shows the relative carbon monoxide emissions
corresponding to five different modes of operation. If, instead of the
stop-start traffic conditions of the typical city, a network allowed un-
obstructed movement at a uniform cQntrolled speed of, say 30 mph, the
reduction in the level of overall pollution would be as shown in Figure
3.23.
Today, 20 to 30 percent of travel in urban areas is on freeways,
and it is expected that in the long-term this proportion will be doubled.
This means that anything that can be done to reduce emissions related
to freeway use can ha ve a significant impact, both in the short- and long-
range. Operating practices that will ensure smoother flow on freeways
during the peak-hour might reduce carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon
emissions by one-third during that period. This could mean a reduction
over 24-hours of 5 to 10 percent in the short-term, and 10 to 20 percent
in the long-term. People affected by such an improvement would largely
be those using the facility during peak periods, perhaps 10 percent of the
total population in the short-term and probably twice that, due to the
spreading of congested periods, in the long-term.
Therefore, operational
improvements on freeways could have a significant impact in the short-
and long-range toward improving urban air quality.
3-62
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o
u
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IJ)
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::2:
w
w
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i=
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w
a:
6
5
4
3
2
o
PERCENT OF OPERATING TIME
Idling Accelerationl 30
Deceleration MPH
1 60 40
2 44 56
3 33 43 24
4 26 34 40
5 100
.3
" 4
8,,----:
t>
o
5
10
15
20
25
30
JOURNEY SPEED, miles per hour
Figure 3.22 Effect of Speed on Relative Emissions of
Carbon Monoxide per Unit Time, per Length
of Roadway (66)
3-63
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8
o 7
u
u. 6
o
z
0 5
;j)
en
:2 4
w
w 3
>
i=
« 2
...J
W
a: 1
o
o
7% MPH
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
VEHICLE, flow/hour
Figure 3.23 Comparison of City and Freeway Conditions [66]
o 5
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u.
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en 4
Z
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en
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w
w
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i= 2
«
...J
w
a:
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6
IDLING
ACCELERATION
I
CRUISING
I
DECELERATION
I
STOP
liGHT
I
o
STOP
LIGHT
I
700
I
200
I
300
I
400
I
500
I
600
I
100
800
DISTANCE, feet
Figure 3.24 Relative Emission of Carbon Monoxide During
Operating Cycle between Stops [66]
3-64
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Arterial Street Operation
The smoothness of traffic flows on arterial streets is an important
determinant of the amount of pollution emitted.
The regulation of traffic
flow, therefore, offers an opportunity to reduce emissions if the patterns
of emission during different stages of the operation of a vehicle are
understood.
The British study [66], considered the relative rates at which
successive sections of a length of roadway are polluted by carbon mon-
oxide.
The case chosen for study was that of three cars stopped at
traffic signals, idling, accelerating to 30 mph, running at that speed,
decelerating for a stop at the next traffic light 800 feet away, and repeating
the cycle. The result is illustrated in Figure 3.24, which shows the
highly localized peak just before the traffic lights due to idling levels of
carbon monoxide from stationary vehicles.
The subsequent acceleration
of the vehicles results in an immediate reduction in local pollution
because, although the rate at which exhaust gas and carbon monoxide are
emitted is higher, the time the vehicle spends in each successive unit
of roadway diminishes as the vehicle gathers speed.
When the car attains
a uniform speed of 30 mph, there is a reduction in power requirement
and pollution; a further reduction in carbon monoxide emission occurs
when the vehicle decelerates because the throttle is still further closed.
But Figure 3.24 gives an indication of the relative importance,
for local levels of pollution, of the levels emitted when idling, accelerating,
cruising and decelerating. The general, rather than local, level of pollu-
tion in a length of roadway depends on the cycle of idling, acceleration,
steady speed, and deceleration to which the traffic is subject.
The information on the relative emissions during the different cycles
of operation, together with known relationships between the loading of the
roadway and the operational characteristics of the vehicles, have been
used to derive Figure 3. 25.
This figure suggests a rapid rise in carbon
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15 --- IDLING
14
13 \
12 \
\
11 \
0 10 \
u
u.. ,
0 9
z
0
in 8
en
~ 7
w
w
> 6
f:
«
oJ 5 /
w
a::
4 IDLING
EMISSION
3 HALVED
2
0
0 10 20 30
MEAN TRAFFIC SPEED, miles per hour
Figure 3.25 Effect of Traffic Flow on Emission of Carbon
Monoxide per Unit Time, per Unit Length of
Roadway (66)
monoxide emissions as average traffic speed falls, particularly in the
range from 0 to 15 mph. Thus, there is a fourfold increase in pollution
when traffic speed is reduced 50 percent from 15 to 7-1/2 mph, and a
ninefold increase when traffic is slowed to a standstill, as in a traffic jam.
The preceding discussion points out the need for regulating traffic
flow on arterial streets.
Significant reductions can be achieved by care-
ful arrangement of traffic signaling systems, and other operational pro-
cedures to ensure the smooth flow of vehicles on arterial streets.
3-66
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One of the more significant methods which can be used to reduce
air pollution levels is the recent TOPICS (Traffic Operations Program
to Increase Capacity and Safety) program. Federal funds from the
Department of Transportation ha ve been available since January 1969 to
assist cities in developing programs to obtain maximum efficiency and
safety from existing major street networks through a systematic applica-
tion of engineering techniques. Although air pollution reduction is not an
objective of the program, it is an important by-product of improved traffic
flow.
Such actions as synchronization and computerization of traffic
signal systems can improve traffic flow up to 30 percent and more; a
comparable decline in air pollution can be expected.
Since the bulk of travel in urban areas, both now and in the future,
will be on arterial streets, better operation of these facilities can have
a material effect on urban air pollution levels. At the present time, about
70 percent of daily travel is on arterial streets.
With further freeway
improvements in urban areas this proportion may be reduced to 50 percent.
It is anticipated, however, that congestion will continue to build up on
arterial streets.
Since about 40 percent of the travel on these facilities
will be during congested periods, a reduction of air pollution emissions
by one-half during these assumption periods could probably result in a
20 percent reduction in emissions throughout the day in the short-range
and possibly twice that in the long-range.
Thus, potential reductions,
both in the short- and the long-range, are probably greater through
improvements in the operation of city streets than through any other
means considered in this study.
Transit, Airports, and Transportation Terminals
Although transit systems, airports, and terminal buildings provide
service to a relatively small number of people each day, the operation of
these systems can be improved substantially.
Improved maintenance and
3-67
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operation of buses can reduce their emissions; new propulsion systems
could also be effective.
The decrease of aircraft taxiing, smoother
ground access operations at airports, and the reduction of vehicle idling
in parking garages and terminals can have an impact on the air quality
in the neighborhood of these facilities.
The number of people affected by
these changes, however, would not be as large as those affected by
improvements in arterial streets and freeways.
Operation of Stationary Facilities
One prime area of consideration in the operation of stationary
facilities is that of fuel alternatives for the overall reduction of air
pollu tion.
Demands for energy in the United States are increasing daily
and some experts predict that by the year 2000 demand for electric
power will have increased tenfold from the present production.
To fulfill
the need for energy, fossil fuels are being converted to heat and light,
generating air pollutants in the process.
The smoke from such com-
bustion contains concentrations of sulphur dioxide, sulphur trioxide,
oxides of nitrogen, particulates, and numerous other compounds.
Three courses of action are a vailable to solve the a ir pollution
problem caused by the national appetite for energy, aside from regula-
ting the individual components of the region, such as manufacturing,
residential, utility, and commercial areas.
Table 3.10 presents data
and projections for total yearly SO emissions for 1970, 1975, and 1980,
x
based upon anticipa ted control of the sulfur content of fuels and on
changing patterns in the urban area.
Note that coal em issions are
expected to drop markedly by 1975 and remain relatively level to 1980.
The authors also discuss the types of air pollution - urban systems
models that are being developed or should be developed in order to allow
controlled urban evolution while minimizing air pollution. These models
would eliminate some of the shortcomings of existing models and would
3-68
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'..~
Table 3. 10. ESTIMATED YEARLY SULFUR OXIDE EMISSIONS
IN TONS FOR CHICAGO
Heavy
Manufacturinl! Residential Utility Industry Commercial Total
1970 56, 300 69, 400 169,800 30,900 11, 300 337,700
170/. 210/. 50% 9% 3% 1000/.
1975 32,700 32,900 200 17,000 6,800 89,600
360/. 37"/. 0% 19% 8% 1000/.
1960 35,900 27, 300 0 19,600 6,800 89, 800
400/. 30"/. 0% 22% 6% 100"/0
lead to more effecti ve long-range air pollution strategies; they should
become tools for urban and transportation planners to assist In incor-
po rating air pollution control into the normal planning function.
As an example of the impact of fuel changes, Figure 3.26 shows
the reduction in pollution achieved through switching from high-sulfur
fuel to low-sulfur fuel in residential hea ting units.
The changes from
coal to fuel oil and natural gas ha ve substantial impact on em lssion
quantities.
The use of oil as a fuel began more recently and has greatly
diminished particulate air pollution compared to coal because of its more
complete combustion.
The third fossil fuel, natural gas, has now become
a major source of energy for power production and is attractive because
of its extremely low alr pollution characteristics.
Cohen and Hurter [34] developed models of air pollution in Chicago,
from which forecasts of sulfur oxide (SO) emissions for the years 1970,
x
1975, and 1980 were obtained. The four basic factors that influence the
change in the SO levels in Chicago discussed by Cohen and Hurter were
x
the control ordinance limiting the sulfur content of fuel, the natural
evolution of the city, changes in fuel use patterns, and industrial migra-
tion. They discussed the degree to which each of these factors affects
the demand itself: (1) substituting non-combustive methods of energy
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200
.!!
"E
GI
..
!
i
.. 150
!
VI
c:
0
..
>
!:
en
Z
w 100
o
Z
0
~
:E
w
50
250
GAS
o
o
2,000
4,000 6,000
DWELLING UNITS PER SaUARE MILE
8,000
10,000
Figure 3.26 Sulfur Oxide Emissions from Burning
Different Fuels in Residential Heating, St. Louis
production; (2) cleaning-up combustion by-products, using currently
available control equipment; and (3) varying the fuels used in accordance
with local air pollution conditions.
Major changes in energy sources,
however, such as from fossil fuel to nuclear fission are considered
designor planning decisions rather than operating techniques.
As a
matter of convenience, however, all these alternatives are discussed
in this section.
Forecasts considering use trends and known reserves indicate that
combustion of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) will continue to
increase for a number of years.
Of the three, coal combustion creates
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the worst air pollution.
Stationary energy con version plants were initially
designed to use coal, since that was the only fossil fuel known to exist.
The types of coal used in early times, and even until recent years, were
selected on the basis of cost and BTU production rather than on their air
pollution potential. Often characterized by high sulfur content and low
combustion temperature, they result in the emission of vast amounts of
sulfur compounds and soot into the air en vironment.
Since air pollution is successively reduced when substituting oil
and natural gas, respectively, for coal, it is possible and it may be
increasingly necessary in the future to plan for fuel switching throughout
the year depending on the demand for energy and potential for air pollu-
tion crisis. K. G. Croke and E. J. Croke [40J investigated the Chicago
urban area's capability to make significant changes in its emission pattern
by emergency switching from high sulfur or oil to natural gas.
Du rin g
times of air pollution emergency, proper planning can reduce emissions
either by fuel switching techniques or by production curtailment.
It is significant to note that increasing attention is given to the use
of natural gas in stationary con version units because of its lower pollution
potential.
Croke and Croke described the planning process for selecting
different fuels for different seasons of the year and different air quality
situations. They concluded that more attention should be given to develop-
ing criteria for selecting alternati ve fuels from the standpoint of air
pollution control.
With proper guidelines and criteria, it may be possible
to allow coal and oil to be used in some plants, while natural gas may be
prescribed for other plants within the same urban area.
The total planning
procedure would have as its final result, therefore, an overall reduction
in amount, concentration, and location of air pollution through proper
selection of the several energy sources.
Two non-combustive sources of energy are of particular interest.
These are nuclear and hydroelectric power plants.
It is conceivable
3-71
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that solar energy will eventually be a major "clean" source but major
technological development will be required.
Hydroelectric power is a limited source because of the practical
restriction in available sites for power generating plants. Hydroelectric
plants account for less than 5 percent of the energy produced in the
United States, considering both stationary and non-stationary sources.
Although the amount of energy from this source will increase substan-
tially, it is forecast to decline as a percentage of total national energy
consumption.
The use of increasing amounts of nuclear energy is imminent.
One forecast indicates it will equal Goal as a source of energy by the
end of the century. A vital planning function in the coming decade,
therefore, will be the location of nuclear power plants on a regional
basis.
To meet future energy requirements, urban planners will be
called upon to locate nuclear energy plants in the vicinity of major
urban areas.
Nuclear power plants require approximately 50 percent more
cooling capacity than do fossil fuel plants of equivalent size.
If cooling
towers are installed, as proposed for some nuclear power plants, air
quality effects such as fog and humidity should be considered.
If cooling
is accomplished by cold water from ri vers, lakes, or oceans, the
quantities of water required will affect site selection.
Nuclear energy has important potential for air quality improvement,
although its pollution hazards remain a subject of concern.
Criteria for
the selection of the particular energy system from the standpoint of air
pollution control have not been well defined, and must be developed.
In
a nuclear reactor the split atoms, or "fission products, " remain essen-
tially within the fuel cladding until the reactor is refueled.
Then the used
fuel elements are removed, stored under water for a cooling-off period,
and shipped to a reprocessing plant where unused fuel and valuable radio-
isotopes are extracted for future use.
The remaining waste products are
3-72
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then discarded in storage tanks at underground burial sites, or can be
packaged for disposal in other ways. The small amount of radio-activity
produced by these operations can be controlled so that ordinarily it
poses no health hazard.
A bout one-third of the air pollution in urban areas is related to
stationary sources.
Improvement from these sources is therefore
essential and will have both short- and long-term effects.
If stationary
source pollution can be reduced by one-quarter in the short-range and
one-half in the long-range, ambient air pollution would be reduced by
about 10 percent in the short-range and 20 percent in the long-range.
This reduction is judged to have an effect on over one-half of the popula-
tion in both the short- and long-range period.
Summary
The use in urban areas of smaller cars requiring less energy for
propulsion could aid in reducing all types of automotive emissions.
Increasing the smoothness and average speed of traffic flow on freeways
and particularly arterial streets can substantially reduce emissions of
carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons. Advances in technology may allow
use of alternative energy sources to a significant degree for automobiles.
Transit, airports and transportation terminals are subject to
operational improvements that would improve air quality, especially for
those persons actually using terminals.
Selection of cleaner fuels is a valuable means of reducing pollution
caused by stationary energy sources. Response to regulatory measures
including use of emission control devices also will be important. Increased
use of non-combustive energy sources will have a long-term payoff.
3-73
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1-
,
Table 3. 11. OPERATION OF FACIUTIES
Percent of Percent Reductions in A~
PODulation Affecteda Pollution Concentrations Net Impact
Operation of Facilities Short-Term Long-Term Short-Term. Long-Term Short-Term Long-Term
(1) (2) (3) (4) (1) x (3) (2) x (4)
Freeway Operation 10 20 10 20 1 4
Arterial Street Operation 20 50 20 40 4 20
Transit. Airports, and
Terminal Operation 5 5 5 5
Operation of Stationary
Facilities 50 50 10 20 5 10
- -
Total 10 34
~ased on judgment on the part of the consultant.
briased on estimates by consultant in conjunction with discussions with Office of Air Programs personnel.
GENERAL SUMMARY OF parENTIAL POLLUTION REDUCTIONS
This chapter has described the kinds of urban and transportation
planning, design and operational measures that would have useful air
quality implications.
Many of these measures are substantiated by
research or case studies, while others are more speculative at this stage
of air quality control.
identified.
Based on present knowledge. tentative values have been placed on
Some of the needs for further research have been
the potential impact of each measure identified. These can be used as
preliminary indicators for decision making. They also suggest, together
with the assessment of the present gaps in knowledge, where efforts to
gain better quantitative information might best be directed.
3-74
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Table 3.12 indicates these preliminary estimates of what could be
. accomplished in both the short- and long-range through the different
programs considered. Improved operation of facilities appears to have
the greatest payoff within both time scales. In additionJ significant
reductions in air pollution could be achieved by better planning for urban
development and transportation systemsJ although the benefits would be
limited mainly to the long-term.
The next greatest payoffs could be derived from the design of
facilities and construction of facilitiesJ which could also have some short-
term payoffsJ particularly in construction practices. The spatial arrange-
ment of buildings and site activities appears to have the least payoffJ but
could have a psychological effect due to the potential direct impact on the
visible physical environment in which people find themselves.
a
Table 3.12. WHAT CAN BE ACCOMPLISHED
Payoff Index
Short-Term Long-Term
Land Development and Density
Patterns
Spatial Arrangement of Buildings
and Site Activities
19
Planning of Transportation Systems
Design of Facilities
9
10
Operation of Facilities
2
10
13
34
aThe assumptions on which the payoff indexes are based are explained on
pages 3-2 and 3-3 and in Tables 3.2, 3.3, 3.7, 3.9 and 3.11.
3-75
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CHAPTER 4
PROORAM
NEEDS AND OBJECTIVES
The primary purpose of this study was to develop a short-range
program of research and support activities in transportation and urban
planning to be undertaken by the Office of Air Programs and other
Federal agencies. With this objective in view. the existing state-of-the-
art was reviewed and the potential payoffs for reducing air pollution
through planning actions were estimated.
This chapter describes the proposed program which is derived
from several sources including existing legislation and policy at the
Federal. State. and local levels; an intensive library research effort;
a survey of professionals in the urban and transportation fields. and
a dialogue with Federal and state agencies that were formulating pro-
j ects related to their area of concern.
The program. as discussed in this chapter, is expected to yield a
set of products to aid the planner:
.
Techniques
Guidelines
.
.
Inducements
.
Basic information and training
The program is structured around six work items:
.
Adaptation of basic air pollution research to the planning
process
Case studies on the impacts of transportation and land use
on air pollution
.
.
Simulation studies on the impact of transportation and land
use on air pollution
Demonstration projects aimed at showing air pollution
changes through transportation and land use planning
.
4-1
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.
Legislative and administrative studies to implement urban
and transportation plans and programs critical to reducing
<;tir pollution
Dissemination of information and support activities
.
Environmental Policy and Legislation
The need for the program can be derived from public policy state-
ments and Federal legislation.
The President in his message to Congress in 1970 identified the
following goals:
.
For motor vehicles: the establishment of strict motor
vehicle standards, testing representative samples of actual
production, regulation of fuel composition and additives,
and a research and development program in unconventional
vehicles that would be virtually pollution free.
For stationary sources: the establishment of nationwide
air quality standards, designation of interstate air quality
control regions, the establishment of emission standards.
increase in court action, and higher fines against polluters.
.
Russell E. Train, Chairman of the Council on Environmental
Quality has stated,
". .. environmental factors are now being given
serious attention in our decision-making process --
a development that has been long overdue.
". .. delays related to environmental concerns
may well increase in the future unless advance
planning of the kind envisioned in the administra-
tion's power plant siting bill is initiated.
"It is time that we stopped looking at environ-
mental programs simply as a problem and start
seeing them as an opportunity. "
(The Washington Star, November 28. 1971.)
4-2
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Pertinent sections of several air pollution acts are summarized
below. The planner is most affected by the National Environmental Policy
Act of 1969 and the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970. Of note in the
latter Federal act is the mention of land use and transportation controls.
Legislation Related to Air Pollution
.
Clean Air Act (1963/1965)
- Grants to aid air pollution agencies
- Federal enforcement authority to attack interstate air
pollution
National regulation of air pollution from new motor
vehicles
.
Air Quality Act (1967)
- Air quality control regions
- Air quality criteria
- Air quality standards to be set by states
- Comprehensive plans by states to implement air quality
standards
.
National Environmental Policy Act (1969)
- Systematic interdisciplinary approach for planning
evaluation and design
.
- Methods to consider unquantified environmental amenities
1970 Clean Air Act Amendments
- National air quality standards supersede state standards
- Option for states to adopt more stringent standards
- Achievement of air quality standards within 3 years of
publication of plans
- Land use controls in urban areas
- Transportation controls to reduce impact of pollution
from moving sources
- Fuel policies in urban areas
- Standards for existing and new stationary sources
4-3
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- Public participation through public hearings, citizen
action to seek enforcement
.
Federal-Aid Highway Act (1970)
- Guidelines consistent with air quality implementation
plans
.
Urban Mass Transportation Assistance Act (1970)
- Impact of urban mass transit plans
The more recent Federa11aws and regulations which relate to
urban and transportation planning are:
National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 -- This act establishes
a broad national policy directed toward improving the relationship
between man and his environment, and creates the Council on Environ-
mental Quality (CEQ). Section 102 (2)(C) of the act is designed to
ensure that the environmental effects of all major proposed Federal
legislation, plans, and programs are properly considered and a detailed
statement be submitted which analyzes the environmental impact.
The Office of Management and Budget has revised the clearinghouse
procedure for communicating environmental information among Federal,
state, and local agencies by amendment February 9, 1971 to include the
coordination of environmental impact analyses. If, after reviewing the
comments, the Federal agency determines there will be a significant
impact on the environment, it must submit an impact statement to the
CEQ. The impact statement, reflecting all the comments received
through the clearinghouse pr9cess, becomes part of the public record.
1970 Clean Air Act -- This act calls for the establishment of
primary (relating to health) and secondary (relating to welfare) ambient
air quality standards by the Administrator of the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA). The Administrator is also required to set standards of
performance for new stationary sources of pollution and for motor
4-4
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vehicles.
The act requires states to prepare plans by January 30, 1972
for achieving and maintaining the air quality standards within 3 years.
The act states that the EPA Administrator shall approve air quality
implementation plans prepared by states if such plans include:
". . . emission limitations, schedules, and timetables
for compliance with such limitations, and such other
measures as may be necessary to insure attainment and
maintenance of such primary or secondary standard,
including, but not limited to, land use and transportation
controls. II Section 110 (a) (2) (B).
In addition, the act provides for an accelerated research program
to improve knowledge of the short- and long-term effects of air pollutants
on health and welfare. (Section 103(8».
Regulations Promulgated Pursuant to Clean Air Act (Federal
Register, August 14, 1971) -- The EPA set out requirements by which
the states should prepare, adopt, and submit implementation plans for
air quality standards achievement, describing a "control strategyU by
which a combination of measures are designated to achieve the aggregate
reduction of emissions necessary to achieve and maintain a national
standard. The measures might include:
.
Emission limitations.
Federal or state emission charges or taxes, or other
economic incentives or disincentives.
.
.
Closing or relocation of residential, comJ:Ilercial, or
industrial facilities.
Changes in schedules or methods of operating commercial
or industrial facilities or transportation systems. These
would include any short-term changes made in accordance
with standby plans.
.
.
Periodic inspection and testing of motor vehicle emission
control systems.
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.
Emission control measures applicable to in-use motor
vehicles, including mandatory maintenance. installation
of control devices, and conversion to gaseous fuels.
Measures to reduce motor vehicle traffic, such as commuter
taxes, fuel rationing. parking restrictions and staggered
working hours.
.
.
ExPanded use of mass transportation through measures such
as increased frequency, convenience, or capacity. or by
providing special bus lanes on streets and highways.
Any other land use or transportation control measures.
.
.
Any other variation of, or alternative to. the above measures.
1970 Federal-Aid Highway Act -- This act requires the Secretary
of the Department of Transportation (DOT) to promulgate guidelines by
October 1972 designed to ensure that new highways will be consistent
with a state's air quality implementation plan. These guidelines will
enable planners to predict and to minimize the effects of a proposed
roadway on air quality.
Urban Mass Transportation Assistance Act of 1970 -- This act
amends the Urban Mass Transportation Act of 1964, placing grant and
loan applications under the "A-95" review process. In addition.. it
requires that the applicant afford adequate opportunity for public hearings
for all parties interested in the economic, social. and environmental
impact.
Literature Review
To identify the current state of knowledge with respect to air
pollution related to urban planning and transportation an intensive
library research was undertaken. More than 200 articles were examined;
these did not include the set of Air Pollution Technical Information Center
4-6
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(APTIC) abstracts a1ready on record.
The articles have been abstracted
and are a separate by-product of this study.
Although us eful information was found that quantified or qualified
interrelationships between air quality and transportation-urban planning
policies, the state-of-the-art review pointed to the fact that there is
much work needed to develop the tools necessary to assess the conse-
quences of public work actions (be they project or system related) on
air quality or the effect of poor air quality on the uses and activities
occupying the land.
Planners' Needs
This void in information was further substantiated through a survey
of and discussion with professionals and agencies at various levels of
government, as well as with citizens' committees.
Federal, state and
local practices were reviewed and the findings are documented in
Appendix D.
Listed below are the agencies that were found to be concerned
with air pollution:
.
Environmental Protection Agency
Executive Office of the President
Department of Agriculture
.
.
.
Department of Commerce
Department of Health, Educ ation and Welfare
Department of Housing and Urban Development
.
.
.
Department of Justice
Department of State
.
.
Department of Transportation
Independent Agencies, such as AEC and FPC
.
.
Selected Boards such as the Federal Radiation Council
4-7
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States are actively involved in the formulation of implementation
plans; the practices of several states were examined as described in
Appendix D.
State agencies examined consisted of environmental
protection agencies~ departments of transportation~ air resource
boards~ and planning agencies.
Local institutions were also consulted, as described in Appendix D.
These consisted of planning~ transportation~ and regulatory agencies
as well as utility companies and public relations firms.
Professional groups contacted included the American Institute of
Planners~ American Public Works Association, Institute of Traffic
Engineers, American Institute of Architects, and others with planning
and design interests.
The review and discussions pointed out a basic need on the part
of the planner for a set of tools that would assist in the assessment of
relationships between air pollution and its causal factors.
generally fell into these categories:
These needs
.
Techniques
Guidelines
.
.
Inducements
. Information and Training
Many groups complained also that they were being pressured to
prepare air pollution impact statements and lacked the fundamental
relationships needed to assess the consequences of key policy actions
that were before the decision-makers. These needs of the professional
emerged in spite of the fact that there were numerous Federal agencies
involved with air pollution to some degree.
With involvement by so many agencies why do gaps in fundamental
understanding and knowledge exist? Several reasons might explain this:
1. The funding levels for air pollution research were in many
cases limited.
4-8
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2.
The research performed usually conformed to the
immediate concern of the respective functional agency.
Until the recent establishment of EPA no single compre-
hensive forum existed to correlate and identify the inter-
relationships between air quality and transportation-urban
planning policies.
3.
Program Objectives
Based on these above findingsl a five-year program to include
air quality considerations in urban and transportation planning was
formulated with the following objectives:
. Reduce air pollution through urban and transportation planning
activities
.
Assist in the implementation of the Environmental Policy
Act of 1969 and the 1970 Clean Air Act amendments
Carry out the above objectives through existing agencies
and programs at all levels of government.
.
Select individual projects of the program in the most
cost-effective manner.
This five-year program has been prepared in order to describe
the activities which the Office of Air Programs (OAP) and other Federal
.
agencies should undertake to determine and demonstrate the air pollution
impacts of different urban and transportation planning actions and to
encourage the inclusion of these considerations in the planning process.
The identified needs can be met with a set of program products
which will become the planners 'tools':
.
Techniques
Guidelines
.
.
Inducements
.
Information and Training
4-9
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Techniques -- One of the aims of the program is to apply tech-
niques that will enable the planner to measure the air pollution impacts
of the various planning actions. These techniques will be based on
research that will be carried on outside the scope of this program.
The
Office of Air Programs is conducting a number of research programs
that will be designed to develop air pollution simulation models.
These
models will simulate the atmospheric phenomena that result in the dis-
persion of pollutants from their source points.
Techniques would be used to estimate air pollution emissions and
concentrations for different:
.
Arrangements of land uses
Population and employment distributions
.
.
Spatial arrangements of buildings and streets
Design and construction methods of stationary and
transportation facilities
.
.
Sta tionary and traffic operational improvements.
One of the inputs to the model will be the pollutant emissions for
line, area, and point sources for stationary and mobile polluters. Another
input into the models will consist of meteorological and physical informa-
tion which affects the dispersion of the pollutants.
In addition, conditions
which create secondary pollutants through atmospheric chemical reactions
will be programmed into the models.
Given this information, the models
can be used to predict air pollution concentrations in different parts of
the metropolitan area.
These models will be required at the metropolitan
and submetropolitan scale for evaluating short-term and long-term con-
centrations of different air pollutants.
The urban and transportation planner should be able to utilize
these techniques in his attempts to influence ambient air pollution levels
through urban and transportation planning actions.
Some of these actions
will result in the reduction of emissions; some will result in the reduction
4-10
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of the exposure of populated areas to air pollution; and some will result
in changes in the dispersion characteristics of an urban area.
An example of a change in emissions is the reduction of motor
vehicle pollution through increased transit usage. Change in exposure
could involve the relocation of industrial plants away from population
centers to areas where meteorological conditions would not cause the
contamination of populated areas.
Changes in dispersion characteristics
could result from planning streets and buildings in a way that will
facilitate beneficial wind movements.
The effects of such changes can be measured by inputting these
changes or new developments into the air pollution models. Therefore.
the planner should be familiar with the utilization of such models and
techniques.
The adaptation of basic air pollution research to urban
planning and transportation will thus be one of the aims of the program.
Guidelines - - The program will result in numerous guidelines, on
how planning policies can affect ambient air pollution levels.
These
guidelines will be developed after the air pollution impact of various
planning actions have been measured through the use of the techniques
described above. These principles will assist the planner in analyzing
the relationships, quantitative and qualitative, that exist between planning
and air pollution.
They will also provide him with planning options for
solving particular air quality problems.
Information from the results
of case studies, simulation studies, and demonstration projects will
help in creating guidelines for future action by the planner. As con-
trasted with techniques. they will deal with substantive information, not
methodology. Guidelines will be prepared for professionals who are at
different stages of decision-making and who work in urban areas of differing
size and character.
4-11
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Guidelines would consist of principles related to:
.
Arrangement of land development patterns - residential,
industrial, commercial, and open space
Limits on population and employment density
.
.
Spatial relationship of site activities and buildings
Planning transportation systems and land development
.
.
Design and construction of stationary sources and trans-
portation facilities
Operation of stationary sources and transportation facilities
.
Inducements -- One of the major products of the program will be a
set of procedures designed to induce governmental organizations at
different levels to adopt air pollution considerations as part of their
These inducements ,will consist of legislative,
on-going programs.
administrative, and funding tools that could be used to enforce plans
that include air pollution control measures.
The purpose of these induce-
ments would be to encourage decision-makers at different levels of
government to attack air pollution more strongly in terms of urban
planning and transportation.
Inducements would consist of:
.
Legislative
- Requirements for environmental planning and programming
at the state and local level
- Model codes
.
Administrative
- Federal planning requirements for states
- State planning requirements for local agencies
.
- Mechanisms for fostering coordination among Federal
and state agencies
Funding
- Study grants for planning
- Demonstration grants
4-12
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Basic Information and Training - - Other products of the program
will be a comprehensive system of information dissemination and the
training of personnel. Information access and dissemination are im-
portant aspects of this program because of the perceived lack of know-
ledge and information that confronts professionals at every level of the
planning process. Since these professionals require different kinds of
information. the necessity for a well-organized information system that
would transmit the available knowledge and data wherever it is needed.
is self- evident.
Typical information services might consist of:
.
Library search routines
Federal. state. local distribution lists
.
.
Periodic literature surveys and reviews
Computer search and record keeping
.
.
Up-to-date mailing lists
The same is true of a comprehensive training system.
The field
of air pollution control is a new one which will generate a host of new
methods and will require as many new skills. Furthermore. the skills
that will have to be developed should be available at the right place in
the decision-making structure.
for meeting personnel needs.
This will require a flexible framework
WORK ITEMS
From an understanding of the program needs and the desired
products. six basic work items were formulated:
I.
II.
III.
Adaptation of basic air pollution research to the planning
process
Case studies on the impacts of transportation and land use
on air pollution
Simulation studies on the impact of transportation and land
us e on air pollution
4-13
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',-
IV.
V.
Demonstration proj ects aimed at showing air pollution
changes through transportation and land us e planning
Legislative and administrative studies to implement urban
and transportation plans and programs critical to reducing
air pollution
VI.
Dissemination of information and support activities
The basic flow diagram describing the linkages between the different
work items and their relationships to the expected products is shown in
Figure 4. 1.
Work Item I is geared to adapting basic research needed to under-
take the case studies, simulation studies, and demonstration projects.
It will consist of adapting the models and other techniques developed for
general air pollution control purposes to the transportation and urban
planning field. These techniques will deal with such items as collecting
emissions data, collecting meteorological and topographical information,
using air quality models, and evaluating air pollution impacts of alter-
native planning actions. In addition basic research needed specifically
for the work program will also be developed.
Work Items II, III, and IV will assist in the development of guidelines
for planners and engineers. These items are designed to clarify the
relationships between air quality and the different planning actions and to
recommend ways to tackle specific air pollution problems through urban
and transportation planning.
Each of these three phases will use a
different approach to the development of guidelines.
Work Item Vwill deal with legislative and administrative studies
needed to determine the legal, administrative and funding procedures
necessary for enforcing air pollution control through urban and trans-
portation planning. These procedures and support activities will be aimed
at facilitating the implementation of planning actions"that will reduce air
pollution. The product of this work item will be a series of governmental
inducements that will encourage planning agencies and local governmental
units to take a more active part in the fight against air pollution through
urban planning and transportation.
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WORK ITEMS
PRODUCTS
II
- CASE BASIC
... STUDIES .. INFORMATION
,
IV
ADAPT
BASIC AIR DEMONSTRATION ~
POLLUTION PROJECTS " GUIDELINES
RESEARCH
~
III
- SIMULATION ~
... STUDIES .. TECHNIOUES
V
LEGISLA TlVE
AND GOVERNMENTAL
ADMINISTRATIVE ... INDUCEMENTS
STUDIES
VI
DISSEMINATE INFORMATION,
TRAINING, SUPPORT ACTIVITIES
Figure 4.1 Interrelationship of Work Items
4-15
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Work Item VI will serve two purposes.
It will set up a clearinghouse
for the gathering and dissemination of the information obtained in the
different air pollution control programs throughout the country. and it
will. organize and manage the training of professionals to work at different
levels of decision-making and implementation.
The work items are now described in more detail.
It should be
noted that. because of the comprehensive nature of urban and transporta-
tion planning and the totality of planning decisions on the urban environ-
ment. the air pollution aspect cannot be considered in isolation.
However.
since this program is designed to inc9rporate air quality considerations
into ongoing comprehensive planning activities it is necessary to focus
on this aspect. The program development will require that the work
items be incorporated into other phases of the urban and transportation
planning process.
Adaptation of Basic Research
The program will depend on research and information from other
Federal and state sponsored programs. Although the scope of the
program is limited strictly to urban planning and transportation. it is
obvious that the basic research carried out in the air pollution field will
be of interest to the urban and transportation planner by providing him
with tools for his own work. This phase will collect such information
and adapt it for the planner's use.
One of the inputs to this program is the setting of air quality
standards; thus. the research activity that leads to the establishment of
these standards should be understood by planners.
They should also be
aware of the reasoning behind the standards in order to compare the
total costs of the planning actions necessary to reduce air pollution to
specified levels with the total costs of high levels of pollution.
Such
4-16
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comparisons are essential to decision-making at the local level.
There-
fore. one function of Work Item 1 will be to identify the standards of use
to planners and engineers.
A second type of information that will be needed and that will be
developed outside this program is information related to the emission
characteristics of pollutant sources.
The urban planner will need
information on emissions by mobile and stationary sources in his area
of concern.
For stationary sources this includes the nature and amount
of pollutants emitted by various industrial and civic activities. For
mobile sources. it will mean the emissions from the different types of
vehicles under various speed and operating characteristics.
Relation -
ships such as that between automotive emissions for carbon monoxide
versus mode of operation and average network speed need to be qualified.
In addition. automotive pollutants such as oxides of nitrogen and lead
salts need to be further investigated.
Research external to this program should provide information on
future developments that could change the emission characteristics of
polluting activities. Research of this nature will center around tech-
nological innovations. standard-setting procedures. and enforcement
policies.
The results of emissions research as they affect this program
will be gathered and the techniques of applying this information to urban
and transportation planning will be developed.
A third kind of information that would be us eful to planners and
engineers relates to the meteorological and topographical variables that
affect air pollution levels. The planner and the decision-maker are
generally more interested in the concentrations of pollutants in different
parts of the city than in the emission rates at the sources. Therefore.
the emission data need to be converted into concentration information.
This conversion requires an awareness of the variables that act on the
pollutants and disperse them throughout the urban area.
4-17
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',-
The last type of information and technique that would be useful to
urban and transportation planners and would be developed is the
construction of metropolitan and submetropolitan air quality models.
The development of these different air quality simulation models will be
of invaluable help in measuring the air pollution impact of his alternative
actions.
Therefore. one of the most critical functions of Work Item 1
will be the development of techniques and procedures. In summary.
Work Item 1 will introduce the results of basic air pollution research to
the urban and transportation planner and make them aware of the tech-
niques available for treating air pollution as an integral part of urban
planning.
Case Studies
Case studies. together with simulation models and demonstration
projects. have as their objective the determination of the interfaces
between land use and transportation systems and air pollution.
The impact of these systems on air pollution can be used in con-
junction with the models to be developed outside this program.
For
example. planning actions can generally alter the air quality character-
istics of a metropolitan area. creating new inputs to the models in order
to predict new concentrations. Also. planning actions can alter the dis-
persion characteristics which can then be incorporated. together with
the meteorological and topographical variables used in the models. to
convert emission data into information on concentrations.
In addition to
its more or less quantitative use in conjunction with air quality models.
work to be performed in these three work items will provide insight about
the directions to be taken in urban and transportation planning to improve
the quality of the environment.
4-18
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Case studies are useful in obtaining the greatest amount of informa-
tion from existing situations and, therefore, involve relatively low risks.
A case study usually consists of measuring significant variables related
to certain properties of the transportation and land use systems in a
particular area, and comparing and correlating these measurements
under different conditions. For example, measurements of air pollution
levels can be taken around highways of different cross-sections and
compared, or measurements around the same facility can be compared
under different weather conditions or at different times of the day or
year. These provide valuable information with relatively low investment
since they do not involve any construction or any significant structural
changes.
"A Guide. for Reducing Automotive Air Pollution" has been prepared
for the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as part of this study.
Based on a review of case studies the "probable effectiveness" of various
transportation techniques and policies for improving traffic flow and the
air pollution effects of these transportation policies was formulated, as
shown in Table 4. 1.
While it is impossible to place a precise measure of effectiveness
on each of the techniques or policies, there is sufficient knowledge to
assign an approximate value. The table ranks the "probable effectiveness, "
using a scale of 1 (least effective) through 5 (most effective). The effective-
ness of most techniques in reducing air pollution will vary from city-to-
city due to variations in the extent to which the technique is already in use,
the adequacy of the area's transportation system, or the micro-climate
of the area.
The difficulty of implementing specific techniques will depend
on such factors as: the existence of necessary legislation, the willingness
of state legislatures to pass new legislation, the ability of the appropriate
government agencies to administer transportation controls within the
existing institutional framework, the existence of alternative transportation
4-19
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TABLE 4. 1
TECHNIQUES FOR IMPROVING TRAFFIC FLOW. FOR REDUCING
POLLUTION CONCENTRATION. AND FOR REDUCIK; AUTO TRAFFIC
Techniques for Improving TrafClc Flow
Probable Effectivenessa
A.
Freeways
1. Reverse-lane operations
2. Driver advisory displays
3. Ramp control
4. Interchange design
B.
Arterlsla
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
8.
7.
Alinement
Widening intersections
Parking restrictions
Signal progression
Reversible lanes
Reversible one-way streets
Helicopter reports
C.
Downtown Distribution
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Traffic responsive control
One-way street operations
Loadillg regulations
Pe~estrlsn control
Traffic Operations Program to Increase
Capacity and Safety (TOPICS)
Techniques for ReducinR; Pollution Concentration
A.
Staggered Work Hours
B.
Roadway Concentrations
C.
Cross-sections
D.
Elevated. At-grade, Depressed Roadways
Techniques for Reducing Auto Traffic
A.
Transit Operations
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Bus lanes on city streets
Bus lanes on freeways
One-way streets with two-way buses
Park-ride, kiss":ride
Service improvements and cost reductions
B.
Regulation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Parking bans
Auto-free zones
Gasoline rationing
Idling restrictions
Four~day. forty-hour week
C.
Pric ing Policy
1.
2.
3.
4.
Parking policy
Road-user tax
Gasoline tax
Car pool incentives
D.
Planned Unit Development
a
3
1
2
2
1
3
2
2
3
3
2
5
3
3
1
5
3
2
2
2
1
1
1 .
3
2
4
4
5
2
2
2
5
5
2
2
Based on traffic volume affected, pollution reduction, population exposure, and any adverse
pollution impact (e. g., more or lo~er trips likely to be induced, or likely to cause traCCic
congestion). Higher numbers indicate greater levels of erfectiveness.
4-20
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modes, the costs of implementation, and the strong support of the public.
Some measures such as engine-size taxes or fuel taxes must be applied
on a statewide or even national scale, while other techniques may be
most appropriately applied during severe pollution episodes.
In addition to the Automotive Guide the "Guide for Reducing Air
Pollution through Urban Planning" is another product of this study.
Table 4. 2 illustrates a matrix of strategies and techniques in urban
planning that could be pursued in the amelioration of the air pollution
problem.
These possible actions must be explored in further depth as
part of the program to be of use in the creation of guidelines.
Thus, the final task is the preparation of comprehensive guidelines
based on the experiences gained in all the case studies. These will pro-
vide planners, engineers, and other decision-makers with the knowledge
derived from situations that have actually been experienced and that,
therefore, have a relatively high degree of reliability.
Simulation Studies
Simulation studies provide the decision-maker and the planner
with the opportunity of experimenting with alternatives that have not been
tried before and that would be very costly or impossible to construct.
In addition, they provide the planner with the opportunity of looking at
a whole region simultaneously and evaluating the total impact of policy
decisions.
On the other hand, simulation studies necessarily involve a high
degree of simplification of actual conditions. Most aspects of a metro-
politan area are reduced to a few simple patterns and several combina-
tions of these patterns are tested. Thus, the results of simulation studies
are by nature fairly theoretical and provide the professional with know-
ledge of the general impact of courses of action of broad magnitude, rather
than supplying him with quantitative information on specific changes.
4-21
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Table 4,2 Urban Planning Strategies and Techniques for
Reducing Air Pollution
A, REGIONAL B. LOCATION & DESIGN
DEVELOPMENT B
fi ..
;, 'tJ
LEGEND .. 0 ..
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~ ;, c:
III 1 :: > 0 .. ~
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PRIMARY II ! .. c:
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TECHNIQUES ~ ';; 0 I :: I! 0 81 u 0
'c 'ii " ';; ~ j I
': 0 ::> c:
. 0 ~ ! CI.I .' ';; III 0 '" ~
SECONDARY '2' :: .. 'tJ ti 0iij..
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TECHNIQUES !!:! a: E > 8. ': CI.I ~ III 2: 0i .. CI.I
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-------
The simulation studies in this program will consist of constructing
a number of abstract urban patterns, combining these abstract patterns
with alternative land use configurations and transportation networks
through the use of existing models and programs, and determine the air
pollution impact of each alternative. The urban patterns should simulate
metropolitan and submetropolitan areas of differing sizes. They should
also illustrate the different kinds of possible urban development such as
sprawl, corridorization, and satellite cities and should benefit from the
state-of-the-art described in Chapter 3. Land use arrangements should
exhibit the different mixes that are currently used or that can develop
in the future, while transportation systems should consist of different
networks, different modes, and combinations of modes.
The stationary source air pollution characteristics of the different
land use arrangements and transportation systems should also be fed into
the simulation models.
These will be used by the models to aggregate the
total air pollution effects due to a specific arrangement of land use patterns
and transportation networks.
In the course of the simulation study, the different combinations of
compatible urban patterns, land use arrangements, and transportation
systems will be tried and evaluated from the standpoint of their air pollution
consequences. After the different combinations have been tested, the
specific arrangements that are most conducive to meeting air pollution
goals will be analyzed in more detail, and recommendations will be made
about which kinds of planning policies have potential application.
Demonstration Proj ects
Demonstration projects represent the most involved and committed
level of research and development activity. They usually involve a sizable
investment and a significant commitment on the part of the public. There-
fore. they can only be undertaken when a fairly reasonable chance of
4-23
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success or positive result can be. expected, and when all previous stages
of research such as case studies and simulation studies have produced
convincing evidence that the planning action is a correct one. Demonstra-
tion projects are used to convince the public, by a full-scale experiment,
of the usefulness of a certain type of action as a last testing ground before
applying the concept in an overall manner.
Demonstration projects should be used to show the air pollution
impacts of some of the major directions in which public decision-making
can proceed. Occasionally, some of these actions have mutually re-
inforcing effects and should be used in conjunction with each other. For
example, a demonstration project can be used to show the impact of
urban renewal both on air pollution and housing conditions. The evaluation
of demonstration proj ect results becomes more difficult as the scale of
the project gets larger, and consequently, evaluation guidelines should
be carefully established at the beginning of a project.
Some of the demonstration proj ects will show air pollution reductions
by substituting mass transportation facilities for individual transportation
wherever possible. There are two scales of operation in this respect:
one consists of encouraging mass transit on a metropolitan scale, and
the other of establishing small distribution systems in high activity
areas.
Design and operational aspects of transportation systems should
receive careful study in this work item.
Such approaches as reversible
lane operations, synchronization of traffic signals, and control of street
intersections seem to be promising in reducing ambient air pollution
levels.
In relation to the operational aspects of highway systems, studies
will investigate the air pollution consequences of monitoring expressways
and synchronizing traffic signals in arterials and other streets. The
purpose of these actions is to maintain a steady flow of traffic and a void
4-24
-------
congestion. A steady flow is known to reduce air pollution because
emissions from motor vehicles increase during acceleration, deceleration,
and idling.
More quantitative data is needed in this respect, however,
and these studies will attempt to provide it.
Some demonstration projects will concentrate on changes in the
behavioral patterns of the residential population. One example of this
is staggering work hours to reduce peak loads on transportation facilities
currently being tested in New York City. As demonstration projects
are completed in the course of the program, their impact should be fully
analyzed, and any modifications that might be necessary should be carried
out before the full-scale application of the concept.
Succeeding work items in the program will be concerned with
support activities such as implementation of the air pollution control
measures, information dissemination, and training program.
Legal and Administrative Studies
In order to fight air pollution through a comprehensive approach of
source control and planning, plans and programs geared to ameliorate
air pollution must be implemented. In many cases, the technical methods
necessary for reductions might be available, but the institutional means
of effectuating the plans might not be clearly known.
It seems essential,
therefore, to define adequately the responsibilities of governmental agencies
operating at different levels and to provide them with the necessary induce-
ments to carry out their responsibilities.
The first stage will be identification and listing of present and
potential means by which air pollution can better be incorporated into
urban and transportation planning. An important input to this will be a
review of implementation tools presently used or proposed for other
aspects of urban planning, such as zoning, code enforcement, and
4-25
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subdivision regulations. These will be examined to determine their use-
fulness in solving air pollution problems, and new methods that have
specifically been proposed for air quality control will be investigated.
Approaches such as establishing allowable emission densities according
to land use will be studied. This comprehensive study should result in
an awareness of the merit of each approach in combating air pollution.
Once these mechanisms are identified, the legal, institutional,
cultural, and organizational problems that might prevent them from being
properly and fully employed will be analyzed. A study of this nature is
currently being undertaken by the Institute of Public Administration for
the six metropolitan areas considered to be most critical from the stand-
point of air pollution. In some instances, it will probably be found that
plans to implement air quality goals are in conflict with other important
matters of public concern. For example, the curtailment of some types
of industrial activities might create regional employment problems,. or
certain means of overcoming air pollution might result in water pollution.
These will be noted, and included in the list of problems.
The next task in this phase will be an effort to overcome these prob-
lems. Guidelines will be prepared to resolve conflicts and iron out existing
differences. Where problems are created by a lack of public acceptance,
ways of publicizing the consequences of air pollution will be determined.
Where they are created by specific interest groups, means of promoting
the public interest will be investigated.
The next step in this work item will consist of assignment of responsi-
bilities to the different levels of government and to specific agencies or
types of agencies at each level. This will require an analysis of the capa-
bilities of such agencies and their goals. Where these capabilities are
insufficient, ways of strengthening them will be investigated. The outcome
of this plan will be a series of guidelines and inducements geared toward
encouraging governmental agencies to tackle air pollution problems and
explaining to them how to approach their responsibilities.
4-26
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Information Dissemination and Training
The program will generate large amounts of information both
during the program period and after its completion. The only way in
which program findings can be applied effectively is through their dissemi-
nation to professionals during the planning and decision-making stages.
Very often, large sums are invested in research and development
efforts, which turn out to be fruitless, because the people who are in a
position to act and those who are conducting the research have no clear
channels of communication. The purpose of this phase is to create a
scheme for achieving communication and incorporating the findings of
the research efforts into the application of plans without unnecessary
delay.
Together with the need for an information dissemination system
goes the need for a rigorous training program to supply the necessary
skills at all levels of decision-making. This will ensure the proper
understanding of the air pollution problem and of the means of overcoming
it. Part of this work item's effort will go into designing a suitable
training system.
The design of both the information and the training systems will be
accomplished by reviewing the responsibilities of each level of decision-
making as developed in the preceding work item, and identifying their
information and skill needs. The systematic evaluation of these needs
will result in an organized structure of information delivery and training.
Another purpose of this work item is the dissemination to the
public of the information that leads to the setting of standards. This
activity has a twofold purpose. First, by publicizing the costs associated
with air pollution and the levels at which it must be held to achieve a
safe and pleasant environment, and by emphasizing the consequences of
the problems, it is hoped that a higher level of public awareness and
4-27
-------
'-
commitment will be created than now exists, and therefore, a step
toward the achievement of a cleaner atmosphere will have been taken.
Second, by making the facts about air pollution easily available to every-
one, and by emphasizing the fact that this is a social problem and not
an individual one, it is hoped that the disparity between actual costs and
perceived costs will be reduced and that a common understanding of the
problem will be created.
The first requirements for the training program will be to conduct
a skills inventory of current staff, to determine the most effective
utilization of this staff for initiating a training and/ or retraining program,
and to identify the need for additional employment.
The need for utiliza-
tion, training and retraining, and employment can be visualized on
several skill and knowledge levels:
.
Research findings
Instruction
.
.
Practice
Guidelines
.
.
Administration and management
These would be required at each level of govermnent - Federal,
state, regional, local.
General training and retraining goals should be narrowed to meet
identified overall needs as well as the specific needs of each agency.
These training needs may be distilled from analyses of projected job
requirements compared with existing skills derived from the inventory.
To benefit from all elements of the program, the training should be
conducted in the actual job environment as much as possible. A written
training program should be developed to assist other agencies in similar
programs.
4-28
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PROGRAM ADMINISTRA TION
A suitable method for administering the program will be necessary
as an adjunct to the program implementation. Because of the diversity
of participants - EPA. HUD. DOT. HEW. and other agencies at Federal.
state and local levels - administration can best be accomplished by
establishment of a Policy Board composed of individual and high level
representatives from each agency involved in the program. In order to be
effective, the board members should have equal authority and responsibility
for the program and should function jointly as a team.
Other characteristics required for the board include:
.
All members should have equal information about the
program
The leader should be chosen by the board members and
should be highly skilled in his role
The board should meet frequently enough to become well-
established and develop related working relationships.
.
.
The interaction. problem-solving. and decision-making
activities of the group should occur in a supportive
atmospher e
It will be necessary to implement the program with a strong sense
of participation among the board members which will increase agency
and staff motivation and productivity. The feedback from staff and field
.
agencies should be sought and utilized to review and evaluate the program
in process. One of the goals of this procedure should be to reduce and
eliminate interagency conflicts and competition and assign individual
responsibility. The program will require close coordination at the
national level.
Similar administrative and review boards may be
established at state and local levels.
The general manpower and administrative principles outlined above
are not new to Federal practice; they are suggested here as a guide to
program implementation.
4-29
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OVER VIEW
CHAPTER 5
PROJECTS
This chapter develops the funding levels for each of the work items
described in Chapter 4 and a program structure for implementation during
the five-year period. Based on the potential of the possible approaches to
reduce air pollution and the necessary support required to achieve these
reductions, the following percentages of the total program budget are
allocated to the six work items:
.
Adaptation of research
Case studies
10%
20%
20%
20%
10%
20%
100%
.
.
Simulation studies
.
Demonstration projects
Legal and administrative studies
.
.
Information dissemination and training
Total
The proportion allocated to the first four work items is further sub-
divided according to the following five action areas, identified in Chapter 3.
.
Land development patterns and density.
Spatial arrangement of buildings and site activities.
.
.
Planning of transportation systems.
Design of facilities
.
.
Operation of facilities.
The final cost percentage breakdown is shown in Table 5. 1.
The total amount to be expended in this five-year program is based
on consultant judgment and evaluation of investments in similar programs
and their payoffs. The base parameters for the five-year program are
derived from expenditures in the research program related to the internal
5-1
-------
combustion engine presently being conducted by the OAP and the anticipated
payoffs from that program. From these evaluations it is estimated that the
total sum to be expended in the five-year research program for air quality
considerations in urban and transportation planning will range from $35
million to $45 million. For estimating purposes, a total of $37.5 million
is used; the allocation of these funds would mean the following expenditures
on each of the work items:
.
Legal and administrative studies
Information dissemination and training
$ 3,750,000
7,500,000
7,500,000
7,500,000
3,750,000
7,500,000
$37,500,000
.
Adaptation of research
Case studies
.
.
Simulation studies
Demonstration projects
.
.
Table 5.2 shows how this amount is distributed based on the propor-
tions shown in Table 5. 1.
The distribution of the work items over the five-year period was
derived from priorities established by their sequence in the overall program
structure described in Chapter 4.
The program spans five fiscal years.
Table 5.3 shows the percentage of the funds allocated to each work item to
be spent in each one of the five years.
Table 5. 4 shows the actual dollar
amounts that correspond to these percentages.
Tables 5.5 through 5.10 indicate how the money allocated to each of
the work items is divided among the different action areas.
The allocation
formula for the five-year program is based on the follow ing assumptions:
.
Annual allocation of the total funds to be spread evenly over the
five years to provide adequate funding and manpower.
.
A sequencing of projects so that a sufficient data base can be
developed during the early years to be input to the simulation
studies.
5-2
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TABLE 5.1
COST PERCENTAGE BREAKDOWN FOR FIVE-YEAR PROGRAM
Work Items
Legal and
Action Adaptation Case Simulation Demonstration Administrative Information
Area of Research Studies Studies Projects Subtotal Studies and Training
("/0) ("/0) ("/0) ("/0) ("/0) ("/0) (%)
Land development
patterns and density 2 4 4 -- 10.0
Spatial arrangement
of 'buildings and
site activities 1 2 2 6 11.0
Planning of
transportation
systems 1.5 3 3 -- 7.5 10 20
Design of
facilities 2 4 4 7 17.0
Opel'ation of
facilities 3.5 7 7 7 24.5
- - - - - -
Total 10 20 20 20 70.0 10 20
TABLE 5.2
COST BREAKDOWN FOR FIVE-YEAR PROGRAM
(in thousands of dollars)
Work Items
Legal and
Action Adaptation Case Simulation Demonstration Administrati ve Information
Area of Research Studies Studies Projects Subtotal Studies and Training
($) ($) ($) ($) ($) ($) ($)
Land development
patterns and density 750 1.500 1.500 -- 3,750
Spatial arrangement
of buildings and
site activities 375 750 750 2,250 4.125
Planning of
transportation
systems 560 1,125 1,125 -- 2.810 3,750 7.500
Design of facilities 750 1.500 1,500 2,625 6,375
Operation of facilities 1,315 2,625 2,625 2,625 9,190
Total 3,750 7,500 7,500 7,500 26,250 3,750 7,500
5-3
-------
TABLE 5.3
PERCENTAGE OF FUNDS TO BE SPENT
EACH YEAR, BY WORK ITEM
Fiscal Year
Work 1 5 Total
Item ("/o) (0/0) ("/0)
Adaptation
of Research 60 40 100
Case Studies 40 30 30 100
Simulation
Studies 10 20 30 40 100
Demonstration
Projects 10 15 20 30 25 100
Legal and
Administrati ve
Studies 10 10 10 20 '50 100
Information
I!-I1d Training 5 10 15 20 50 100
Weighted 20
Average 20 20 20 20 100
TABLE 5.4
DISTRIBUTION OF FUNDS BY FISCAL YEAR
AND WORK ITEM (thousands of dollars)
Work 1 5 Total
Item ($) ($) ($)
Adaptation
of Research 2,250 1,500 3,750
Case Studies 3,000 2,250 2,250 7,500
Simulation
Studies 750 1,500 2,250 3,000 7,500
Demonstration
Projects 750 1,125 1,500 2,250 1,875 7,500
Legal and
Administrati ve
Studies 375 375 375 750 1,875 3,750
Information
and Training 375 750 1,125 1,500 3,750 7,500
Total 7,500 7,500 7,500 7,500 7,500. 37,500
5-4
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.
A combination of similar types of projects, such as highways,
transit, etc., to provide a cost-effective exchange of informa-
tion for case studies, simulation studies, and demonstration
.
projects.
The need for implementation and inducement procedures to be
concentrated in the latter years of the program so that the
findings may be effectively utilized as follow-up to the research
program.
This is one set of several possible alternatives and may be considered
a base from which to make modifications.
Table 5. 11 is a summary of
work item allocations by action area over the five-year period.
The remainder of this chapter is concerned with the individual pro-
jects that constitute the five-year program.
The projects pertaining to
each action area are listed separately, their costs are estimated, and these
costs are distributed over the duration of the projects.
This gives a total
picture of each action area in terms of its constituent projects.
5-5
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TABLE 5.5
ALLOCATION OF FUNDS TO ACTIO~ AREAS
IN WORK ITEM I: ADAPTATION OF RESEARCH
(thousands of dollars)
Fiscal Year
Action 1 I (:) I 3 I 4 I 5 Total
Area ($) ($) ($) ($) ($)
Land Development
Patterns and Density 360 390 -- -- -- 750
Spatial Arrangement
of Buildings and
Site Activities 200 175 -- -- -- 375
Planning of
Transportation
Systems 450 110 -- -- -- 560
Dt:oi~i.1 uf
Facilities 400 350 -- -- -- 750
Operation of
Facilities 840 475 -- -- -- 1,315
- - - - -
Total 2,250 1,500 -- -- -- 3,750
TABLE 5.6
ALLOCATION OF FUNDS TO ACTION AREAS
IN WORK ITEM II: CASE STUDIES
(thousands of dollars)
Fiscal Year
Action 1 I 2 I 3 I 4 I 5 Total
Area ($) ($) ($) ($) ($) ($)
Land Development
Patterns and Density 175 400 925 -- -- 1,500
Spatial Arrangement
of Buildings and
Site Activities 450 300 -- -- -- 750
Planning of
Transportation
Systems 775 250 100 -- -- 1,125
Dc~i;r: ~f
Facilities 500 700 300 -- -- 1,500
Operation of
Facilities 1,100 600 925 -- -- 2,625
- - - - -
Total 3,000 2,250 2,250 - - -- 7,500
5-6
-------
TABLE 5.7
ALLOCATION OF FUNDS TO ACTION AREAS
IN WORK ITEI\-! Ill: SD1ULATION STUDIES
(thousands of dollars)
Fiscal Year
Action 1 I (:) I 3 I 4 I 5 Total
Area ($) ($) ($) ($) ($)
Land Development
Patterns and Density -- 200 400 900 -- 1,500
Spatial Arrangement
of Buildings and
Site Activities -- 150 375 225 -- 750
Planning of
Transportation
Systems 200 300 500 125 -- 1,125
Dcsig.. :}f
Facilities 250 375 475 450 -- 1,500
Operation of
Facilities 350 475 500 1,300 -- 2,625
- - - - - -
Total 750 1,500 2,250 3,000 - - 7,500
TABLE 5.8
ALLOCATION OF FUNDS TO ACTION AREAS
IN WORK ITEI\IIV: DEMONSTHATION PROJECTS
(thousands of dollars)
Fiscal Year
Action 1 I 2 I 3 I 4 I 5 Total
Area ($) ($) ($) ($) ($) ($)
Land Development
Patterns and Density -- -- -- -- -- --
Spatial Arrangement
of Buildings and
Site Activities -- --- 500 1.000 750 2,250
Planning of
Transportation . ~. .
Systems -- -- -- -- -- --
Design of
Facilities -- 250 500 750 1.125 2,625
Operation of
Facilities 750 875 500 500 -- 2.625
- - - -
Total 750 1,125 1,500 2.250 1,875 7,500
5-7
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TABLE 5.9
ALLOCATION OF FUNDS TO ACTION AREAS
IN WORK ITEM V: LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE STUDIES
. (thousands of dollars)
Fiscal Year
1 2 3 4 5 Total
($) ($) ($) ($) ($) ($)
Total -- All Areas 375 375 375 750 1,825 3, 750
TABLE 5.10
ALLOCATION OF FUNDS TO ACTION AREAS
IN WORK ITEM VI: INFORMA TION AND TRAINING
(thousands of dollars)
Fiscal Year
1 2 3 4 5 Total
($) ($) ($) ($) ($) ($)
Total -- All Areas 375 750 1, 125 1, 500 3, 750 7,500
5-8
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TABLE 5.11
FIVE-YEAR PROGRAM SUMMARY
FUND ALLOCATION BY ACTION AREA
(thousands of dollars)
Fiscal Year
Work Action 1 2 3 4 5 Total
Item Area a ($) ($) ($) ($) ($) ($)
I. Adaptation A 360 390 750
of Research B 200 175 375
C 450 110 560
D 400 350 750
E 840 475 1,315
Total 2,250 1,500 3,750
II. Case Studies A 175 400 925 1,500
B 450 300 750
C 775 250 100 1,125
D 500 700 300 1,500
E 1, 100 600 925 2,625
Total 3,000 2,250 2,250 7,500
III. Simulation A 200 400 900 1,500
Studies B 150 375 225 750
C 200 300 500 125 1, 125
D 200 375 475 450 1,500
E 350 475 500 1, 300 2,625
Total 750 1, 500 2,250 3,000 7,500
IV. Demonstration B 500 1,000 750 2,250
Projects D 250 500 750 1,125 2,625
E 750 875 500 500 2,625
Total 750 1, 125 1,500 2,250 1,875 7,500
V. Legal and
Administrative 375 375 375 750 1,875 3,750
VI. Information
and Training 375 750 1,125 1,500 3,750 7,500
TOTAL 7,500 7,500 7,500 7,500 7,500 37,500
a A - Land Development Patterns and Density
B - Spatial Arrangement of Buildings and Site Activities
C - Planning of Transportation Systems
D - Design of Facilities
E - Operation of Facilities .
5-9
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I
ADAPTA TION OF RESEARCH
A
Land De velopment Patterns and Density
1.
Modify methods for estimating emissions from stationary
sources for applica tion to regional analysis (30%).
Modify diffusion models related to stationary sources for
regional analysis (30%).
2.
3.
Modify meteorological inputs for stationary sources for
application to regional analysis (30%).
Identify criteria related to air quality that should be met in
planning for land development and density patterns (10%).
4.
EXPENDITURES
Project Fiscal Year
I-A I I I" I I
1 2 3 4 5 Total
1 $150.000 j 75.000 -- -- -- j225,OOO
2 75.000 150.. 00.0 -- -- -- 225,000
3 100.000 125.000 -- -- -- 225,000
4 35 ,000 40,000 - - . -- -- 75,000
TOT A L $360.000 $390.000 -- -- -- $750.000
5-10
-------
I
ADAPTA TION OF RESEARCH
B
Spatial Arrangement of Buildings and Site Activities
1.
Modify methods for estima ting emissions from stationary
sources for application to micro analysis (25%).
Modify diffusion models related to stationary sources for
micro analysis (25%).
2.
3.
Modify meteorological inputs for stationary sources for
application to micro analysis (30%).
Identify criteria related to air quality tha t should be met in
planning spatial arrangement of buildings and site activities (20%).
4.
EXPENDITURES
Project Fiscal Year
I-B I I I I I
1 2 3 4 5 Total
1 $ 78,750 $ 15,000 -- -- -- $ 93,750
2 53,750 40,000 -- -- -- 93,750
3 47,500 65,000 -- -- -- 112, 500
4 20,000 55,000 -- -- -- 75,000
TOT A L $200,000 $175,000 -- -- -- $375,000
5-11
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I
ADAPTATION OF RESEARCH
C
Planning Transportation Systems
1. Modify methods for estimating emissions from moving sources
for application to regional analysis (25%).
3.
Modify diffusion models related to moving sources for regional
analysis, to complement I-A -2 (30%).
Modify meteorological inputs for moving sources for application
to regional analysis, to complement I -A -3 (30%).
2.
4.
Identify criteria related to air quality that should be met in
planning trans porta tion systems (15%).
EXPENDITURES
Project Fiscal Year
I-C I I I I I
1 2 3 4 5 Total
1 $140,000 -- -- -- -- _$140,000
2 140 , 000 $ 28,000 -- -- -- 168,000
3 140,000 28,000 -- -- -- 168,000
4 30,000 54,000 -- -- -- 84,000
TOTA L $450,000 $110,000 -- -- - - $560,000
5-12
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I
ADAPTA TION OF RESEARCH
D
Design of Facilities
1.
Modify methods for estimating emissions from stationary
sources for applica tion to corridor analysis (30%).
Modify diffusion models related to stationary sources for
corridor analysis (30%).
Modify meteorological inputs for stationary sources for
application to corridor analysis (30%).
2.
3.
4.
Identify criteria related to air quality that should be met in
design of facilities (10%).
EXPENDITURES
Project Fiscal Year
I-D I I I I I
1 2 3 4 5 Total
1 $150,000 JP 75,000 -- -- -- $225,000
2 125,000 100,000 -- -- -- 225.000
3 100,000 125,000 -- -- -- 225,000
4 25,000 50,000 -- -- -- 75,000
TOTAL $400,000 $350,000 -- -- -- $750,000
5-13
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I
ADAPTATION OF RESEARCH
E
Operation of Facilities
1.
Modify methods for estimating emissions from moving and
stationary sources for micro and corridor analysis (30%).
Modify diffusion models related to moving and stationary sources
for micro and corridor analysis, to complement I-B-2 and
I-D-2 (30%).
2.
3.
Modify meteorological inputs for moving and stationary
sources for micro and corridor analysis, to complement
I-B-3 and I-D-3 (30%).
4.
Identify criteria related to air quality that should be met in
operation of facilities (10%).
EXPENDITURES
Project Fiscal Year
I-E I I I I I
1 2 3 4 5 Total
1 $394.500 -- -- -- -- $ 394 500
2 200,000 $194,500 -- -- -- 394, 500
3 194,500 200,000 -- -- -- 394,200
4 51,500 80,000 - - -- -- 131, 500
TOTAL $840.000 $474.500 -- -- -- $1,315,000
5-14
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II
CASE STUDIES
A
Land Development Patterns and Density
1. Determine the impact that different development densities
ha ve on air quality (20%).
3.
Determine the impact that the location of various critical
industries, inside and outside the central city, has on air
quality (25%).
Determine the impact that the arrangement of open space in
a communi ty has on air quality (20%).
2.
5.
Determine the impact that different land development patterns
have on air quality (25%).
Determine the extent to which total air resources (air shed)
of representative metropolitan areas are lost to pollution (10%).
4.
EXPENDITURES
Project Fiscal Year
II-A I I r I I
1 2 3 4 5 Total
1 $175,000 $125.000 -- -- -- ..$ 300,000
2 -- 100,000 $275,000 -- -- 375,000
3 -- 100,000 200,000 -- -- 300,000
4 -- 75,000 300,000 -- -- 375,000
5 -- -- 150,000 -- -- 150,000
TOTA L $175,000 $400,000 $925,000 -- -- $1,500,000
5-15
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II
CA SE STUDIES
B
Spatial Arrangement of Buildings and Site Activities
1. Determine the impact that the size, shape, and spatial
ar rangement of buildings and s truc tures have on air poIlu tion
levels in subarea development (20%).
3.
Determine the impact that topographical factors have on air
pollution levels in subarea development (20%).
Determine the impact that meteorological factors have on air
pollution levels in subarea development (20%).
2.
5.
Determine the impact that surrounding transportation facilities
have on air pollution levels in subarea development (20%).
Determine the impact that stationary sources have on air
pollution levels in subarea development (20%).
4.
EXPENDITURES
Project Fiscal Year
II-B I I I I T
1 2 3 4 5 To ta 1
1 -- $150,000 -- -- -- $150,000
2 $150,000 -- -- -- -- 150,000
3 150,000 -- -- -- -- 150,000
4 150,000 -- -- -- -- 150,000
5 -- 150,000 -- -- -- 150,000
TOTA L $450,000 _$300,000 -- -- -- _$750.000
--
5-16
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II
CA SE STUDIES
C
Planning Transportation Systems
1. Determine the relationship of air pollution to various freeway
systems (300/0).
2.
Determine levels of emission associated with various street
systems (20%).
Determine the air pollution impact of various transit systems
(200/0) .
3.
4.
Determine the air pollution factors that should be considered in
the site selection and planning of new airports, and the
expansion of exis ting ones (20%).
Develop criteria related to air quality that should be met in
planning transportation systems (10%).
5.
EXPENDITURES
Project Fiscal Year
II-C I I I I I
1 2 3 4 5 Total
1 $337,500 -- -- -- -- $ 337,500
2 225,000 -- -- -- -- 225,000
3 -- $125,000 $100,000 -- -- 225,000
4 100,000 125,000 -- -- -- 225,000
5 112,500 -- -- -- -- 112,500
TOTA L $775,000 $250,000 $100,000 -- -- $1,125,000
5-17
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II
CA SE STUDIES
D
Design of Facilities
1.
Determine the impact that highway alternatives and roadway
alinement have on air quality (28%).
Determine the air pollution factors that should be considered
in the design of airports {20%}.
2.
3.
Determine the impact that alternative designs of rapid transit
lines have on air quality (20%>-
Determine the impact that design alternatives of industrial
plants have on air quality (16%).
4.
5.
Determine the impact that design alternatives of heating and
power plants have on air quality (16%).
EXPENDITURES
Project Fiscal Year
II-D I I I I I
1 2 3 4 5 Total
1 $200,000 $280,000 -- -- -- $ 420,000
2 200,000 100,000 -- -- -- 300,000
3 100,000 200,000 -- -- -- 300,000
4 -- 90,000 $150,000 -- -- 240,000
5 -- 90,000 150,000 -- -- 240,000
TOT A L $500, 000 $700,000 $300,000 -- -- $1,500,000
5-18
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II
CASE STUDIES
E
Operation of Facilities
1.
Determine the relationships between air pollution and emissions
and traffic flow characteristics (such as speed, amount of
congestion, etc.) of freeways, arterial streets, and local
streets (25%).
2.
Determine the impact that various bus and rapid rail transit
operational conditions have on air quality (15%).
Determine the impact that operation of an airport has on air
pollution levels (10%).
3.
4.
Determine the impact that operational practices and types of
fuels used by sta tionary sources (power plants, municipal
incinerators, industrial plants) have on air quality (25%).
Determine the impact tha t operational characteristics of fuels
and manufacturing processes used by industrial plants have on
air quality (25%).
5.
EXPENDITURES
Project Fiscal Year
II-E I I I I I
1 2 3 4 5 Total
1 $ 450,000 $200,000 -- -- -- $ 650,000
2 390,000 -- -- -- -- 390,000
3 260,000 -- -- -- -- 260,000
4 -- 200,000 $462,500 -- -- 662,500
5 -- 200,000 462,500 -- -- 662,500
TOT A L $1,100,000 $600,000 $925,000 -- -- $2,625,000
5-19
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III
SIMULA TION STUDIES
A
Land Development Patterns and Density
1.
Simulate various density patterns to determine their impact
on air quality (10%).
Simulate various land use development patterns to evaluate
their impact on air quality (300/0).
2.
3.
Simulate various metropolitan land use patterns with different
meteorological conditions to evalua te their impact on air
quality (25%).
Simulate various metropolitan land use patterns with different
topographical conditions to evaluate their impact on air
quality (25%).
4.
5.
Identify criteria that would guide the development of appropriate
density and development patterns from an air quality point of
view (10%).
EXPENDITURES
Project Fiscal Year
III-A I I I I I
1 2 3 4 5 Total
1 -- $ 75,000 $ 75,000 -- -- $ 150,000
2 -- 125,000 125,000 $200,000 -- 450,000
3 -- -- 100,000 275,000 -- 375,000
4 -- -- 100,000 275,000 -- 375,000
5 -- -- -- 150,000 -- 150,000
TOTAL -- $200,000 $400,000 $900,000 -- $1,500,000
5-20
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III
SIMULATION STUDIES
B
Spatial Arrangement of Buildings and Site Activities
1. Simulate various topographical conditions to determine their
impact on air pollution levels in subarea development (20%).
3.
Simulate various meteorological conditions to determine their
impact on air pollution levels in subarea development (20%).
Simula te surrounding transportation facilities to determine
their impact on air pollution levels in subarea development (20%).
2.
5.
Simulate various stationary sources to determine their impact
on air pollution levels in subarea development (20%).
Simulate various sizes, shapes, and spatial arrangement of
buildings and structures to determine their impact on air
pollution levels in subarea development (20%).
4.
EXPENDITURES
Project Fiscal Year
III - B I I I I I
1 2 3 4 5 Total
1 -- $ 75,000 $ 75,000 -- -- $150,000
2 -- 75,000 75,000 -- -- 150,000
3 -- -- 75,000 $ 75,000 -- 150,000
4 -- -- 75,000 75,000 -- 150,000
5 -- -- 75,000 75,000 --- 150,000
TOT A L -- $150.000 .1$375,000 .1$225,000 - - $750,000
-- $150,000 $375,000 $225,000 -- $750,000
5-21
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III
SIMULA TION STUDIES
C
Planning Transportation Systems
1. Simulate alternative freeway configurations
impact on air quality (10%).
to determine their
3.
Simulate various alternative street patterns to determine their
impact on air quality (20%).
Simulate various alternative transit systems to determine
their impact on air quality (25%).
2.
4.
Simulate various concepts of airports to determine their
impact on air quality (20%).
5.
Simulate transportation systems of metropolitan areas of
varying size, meteorological and topographical conditions to
determine the impact that size and meteorology and topography
have on air quality (25%).
EXPENDITURES
Project Fiscal Year
III-C I I I I I
1 2 3 4 5 T ota 1
1 $112,500 -- -- -- -- $ 112,500
2 87,500 $137,500 -- -- -- 225,000
3 -- 163,000 $119,000 -- -- 282,000
4 -- -- 100,000 $125,000 -- 225,000
.
5 -- -- 281,000 -- -- 281,000
TOTAL $200,000 $300,000 $500,000 $125,000 -- $1,125,000
5-22
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III
D
SIMULA TION STUDIES
Design of Facilities
1.
Simulate air pollution levels related to different highway cross
sections under various wind and clima tic conditions, traffic
volumes, and speed conditions (40%).
Simulate air pollution levels related to different arrangements
of structures around typical highway designs under various
wind and climatic conditions, traffic volumes, and speed
condi tions (20%).
2.
3.
Simulate air pollution levels related to a typical airport under
various air traffic, ground operations, and wind and climatic
conditions (10%).
Simulate air pollution levels related to residential areas with
typical floor plans under various weather and control techno-
logical conditions (10%).
4.
5.
Simulate air pollution levels related to power plant facilities
and solid waste incinerators under various meteorological,
fuel technological, and surrounding land use conditions (20%).
EXPENDITURES
Project Fiscal Year
III - D I I I I I
1 2 3 4 5 Total
1 $200,000 _$200,000 $200,000 -- -- $ 600.000
2 -- 100.000 100.000 $100 ,000 -- 300,000
3 -- 75,000 75,000 -- -- 150,000
4 -- -- -- 150,000 -- 150,000
5 -- -- 100,000 200,000 -- 300,000
TOT A L $200.000 $375.000 $475.000 $450.000 -- $1.500.000
5-23
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III
E
SIMULA TION STUDIES
Operation of Facilities
1.
Simulate air pollution levels related to different types of
arterial traffic operations (25%).
Simulate air pollution levels related to different types of
freeway operations (including freeway metering) in urban
areas (20%).
2.
3.
Simulate the impact that staggering work hours has on peak
hour traffic and air quality (10%).
Simulate air pollution levels related to various enforcement
procedures for stationary and moving sources (10%).
4.
5.
Simulate the impact that various pricing policies for trans-
portation systems have on air quality (20%).
Simulate the impact that changes and improvements in transit
operation procedures have on ridership and air quality (15%).
6.
EXPENDITURES
Project Fiscal Year
III - E I I I I I
1 2 3 4 5 Total
1 $350,000 $306,200 -- -- -- $ 656,200
2 -- 168,800 $200,000 $ 156,200 -- 525,000
3 -- -- -- 262,500 -- 262,000
4 -- -- 100,000 162,500 -- 262,500
5 -- -- 100,000 425,000 -- 525,000
6 -- -- 100,000 293,800 -- 393,800
TOTAL $350,000 $475,000 $500,000 $1,300,000 -- $2,625,000
5-24
-------
IV
DEMONSTRA TION PROJECTS
B
Spatial Arrangement of Buildings and Site Activities
1. Demonstrate the impact that air pollution related
to new towns and satellite cities has on stationary
and non-stationary sources (200/0).
2.
Demonstrate the impact that the separation of
res idential communities from through -traffic
arterials has on air quality (150/0).
Demonstrate the impact that total energy systems
in a neighborhood or subdivis ion have on air
quality (150/0).
3.
4.
Demonstrate the impact that centralized heating,
incinerating, and other utilities within building
groups have on air quality (15%).
Demonstrate the impact that high acti.vity centers
have on air quality (20%).
5.
6.
Demonstrate the feasi.bility of reducing air pollution
through urban renewal projects (15%).
EXPENDITURES
Project Fiscal Year
IV-B I 1 I I T
1 2 3 4 5 To ta 1
1 -- -- $150, 000 $150,000 $150,000 $450,000
2 -- -- -- 337,500 -- 337,500
3 -- -- 200, 000 137,500 -- 337,500
4 -- -- 150,000 187,500 -- 337,500
5 -- -- -- -- 450,000 450,000
6 -- -- -- 187,500 150,000 337,500
TOT A L -- -- $500,000 $1,000,000 $750,000 $2,250,000
5-25
-------
IV
D
DEMONSTRA TION PROJECTS
Demonstration and Design of Facilities
1.
Demonstrate the impact that different types of
public transit vehicles have on air quality (20%>.
Demonstrate the impact that a people-mover system
in a high activity center has on a ir quality (20%)
2.
3.
Demonstrate the impact that the separation of
vehicular traffic from pedestrian movement has on
air quality (20%>.
Demonstrate the impact that the use of green space
has on air quality (20%>.
4.
5.
Demonstrate the feas ibility of underground conduits
to carry industrial gaseous wastes and their impact
on air quality (20%).
EXPENDITURES
Project Fiscal Year
IV-D I I I' I I
1 2 3 4 5 Total
1 -- $250.000 $275.000 $ -- $ -- $525,000
2 -- -- 225.000 300,000 -- 525,000
3 -- -- -- 250,000 275,000 525,000
,4 -- -- -- 200,000 325,000 525,000
5 -- -- -- -- 525. 000 525,000
TOTA L -- $250,000 $500,000 $750,000 $1,125,000 $2,625,000
5-26
-------
IV
DEMONSTRA TION PROJECTS
E
Demonstration and Operation of Facilities
1.
Demonstrate the impact that freeway operations
(including freeway metering) have on air quality (25%).
Demonstrate the impact that improved traffic
operation measures have on air quality (25%>.
2.
3.
Demonstrate the impact that different parking
regulations within and without central cities have
on air quality (15%).
Demonstrate the impact that fuel switching in
industrial and power plants according to atmospheric
conditions has on air quality (15%).
4.
5.
Demonstrate the impact that various operational
practices related to municipal incinerators has on
air quality (200/0).
EXPENDITURES
Project Fiscal Year
IV-E I I I' I
1 2 3 4 5 Total
1 $375.000 $281.200 -- -- -- $656,200
2 375,000 281.200 -- -- -- 656,200
3 -- 312,600 81,200 -- -- 393,800
4 -- -- 218,800 175,000 -- 393,800
5 -- -- 200,000 325,000 -- 525,000
TOTAL $750.000 $875.000 $500, 000 $500,000 -- $2,625,000
5-27
-------
v
LEGIS LA TIVE AND ADMINISTRA TIVE STUDIES
1.
Determine institutional mechanisms by which air
quality can better be incorporated into urban and
transportation planning (10%).
Identify and study ways to overcome institutional
and legal problems of implementing land use controls
and traffic regulations aimed at improving air quality (10%).
Set up guidelines and inducements for the national
government to implement air pollution plans related
to urban and transportation planning by working with
appropriate Federal agencies (10%).
2.
3.
4.
Set up guidelines and inducements for state govern-
ments to implement air pollution plans related to
urban and transportation planning (10%).
Set up guidelines and inducements for individual
communities and planning agencies to implement
air pollution plans related to urban and transportation
planning (10%).
5.
6.
Set up and administer the dissemination and monitoring
of grants aimed at improving air quality related to city
and transportation planning (50%>.
EXPENDITURES
Project Fiscal Year
V I I J I T
1 2 3 4 5 Total
1 $375.000 $ -- $ -- $ -- $ -- $375,000
2 -- $375.000 -- -- -- 375,000
3 -- -- $375,000 -- -- 375,000
4 -- -- -- $375,000 -- 375,000
5 -- -- -- -- 375,000 375,000
6 -- -- -- 375,000 1,500, 000 1, 875, 000
TOTAL $375,000 $375,000 $375,000 $750,000 $1.875,000 $3,750,000
5-28
-------
VI
INFORMATION DEUVERY AND TRAINING PROGRAM
1.
Identify the air pollution information needed for
proper action at the Federal, state and local levels (3%).
Identify the air pollution training needs for carrying
out the programs at the Federal, state, and local
levels (3%).
2.
3.
Set up and carry out a clearinghouse to gather all
air pollution related information and to relay it for
research (20%).
Set up and- carry out an information dissemination
system to provide the needed air pollution information
at the Federal, state, and local levels (20%).
4.
5.
Set up and carry out a training program to meet the
air pollution skill needs at the Federal, state, and
local levels (34%).
6.
Set up and carry out information and education
programs for citizen groups (20.00%>.
EXPENDITURES
Project Fiscal Year
VI I I I" I I
1 2 3 4 5 Total
1 $225,000 $ -- $ -- $ -- $ -- ~2 25,000
2 -- 225. 000 -- -- -- 225, 000
3 150,000 22'5, 000 250,000 250,000 625,000 1,500,000
4 -- -- 500,000 500,000 500,000 1,500,000
5 -- 300,000 250,000 500,000 1,500,000 2,550,000
6 -- -- 125,000 250,000 1,125,000 1,500,000
TOTAL $375,000 $ 750, 000 $1, 125,000 $1,500,000 $3,750,000 $ 7,500, 000
5-29
-------
10.
11.
12.
A PPENDIX A
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A-19
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APPENDIX B
STUDY ORGANIZATION
The study was organized in a series of phases shown in Figure B. 1.
Each phase was designed to achieve specific objectives.
Phase I involved a series of meetings with officials of the Office
of Air Programs (OAP) of the Environmental Protection Agency and other
Federal Agencies concerned with air quality control. Following these
meetings the study design was prepared. ()~Note)
In Phase II areas of concern were identified through the assembly
of information on state and local practices related to air pollution planning.
Federal air pollution planning practices were reviewed in order to estab-
lish the needs for carrying out research and development projects, demon-
stration projects, and for producing guidelines and criteria, education
information, and support activities. Potential air pollution reductions
that would be achieved by different planning programs were also examined
in Phase II.
These were grouped into a number of categories according
to their scope.
Objectives of the various Federal agencies concerned with inter-
relationships between urban and transportation planning and air pollution
were gathered from public documents such as laws, messages to Congress,
>,'
-------
FIGURE 2
WORK FLOW DIAGRAM
PHASE I
.
.
.
.
PHA 5 E II
.
.
.
CD'
PH A Sf III
PHASE IV
.
.
.
@:
PHASE V
I
.
I
I
I
b:I
I
r\J
. ' . . I
. .
I . ' I I
! DE YE tOPMENT OF . I
. IDENTIfY OBJECTIVES IDENTIFICATION ~ DEVelOPMENT OF RANKING CRITERIA .
I '. libr..y R_en r--i OF GOALS SElECTION CRITERIA ~ I
I . Disansiom witt! Policy....", . GUIDELINES . I
' . . .
I I
. . ' . I
I 1 . l ' 1 . I
(0 I 0 0. @ ' @' @ @ I
. . ' . .
I RFVIEW OF LOCAL DETERMINATION OF NEEDS . PROGRAM EVALUATION . .
PRACTICES . Anarch and D8Welopment . . . Lind Dwelopmenl Patterns . REVIEW OF RECOMMENDED .
PROJECT ORIENTATION . . Metropolitan Pt.-.ning 8 D~r.lion PrOjects ~ . .nd Density ~ PROGRAM
. NAPCA . . Sub-Mwopolitan Ptanning FINALIZE PROGRAM PReliMINARY REPORT ON ---t .0" .
I-- . Methods Development 8 Spati81 AnanQ8ment of RECDMMEt\;OED PROGRAM
. 0thIr Fed. Ag8ncia I . Tr8RS. Design . Guidllines 8r Crimi. . STRUCTURE i Buildings 8nd 5it8 Aclrvlhft . HUD I
. Bo8rd af Comult8'lts . I
. . Trans. Oper.lion . Education Inform.ltion . . Ptllnn,ng of TrltlSpOfl.tlon 8 DOT
. . Struc:tureDesign . Support Activities . . SyS1tmt. I I
. Struc:tum lOQtion .
. . . Dn9'lOI FIe.ht," . I
1 . . ' @ . OperlllOn 01 Fa:,ht." . 1 @: @
o . CD . I .
I REVIEW OF FEDERAL . ' . RECOMMENDED PROGRAM I
. I
PREPARE FINAL STUDY I PRACTICES ' : I .. o. ~ FINAL
. . HEW . a~ ~ =~ ~rJl REPORT
I . HUD HOE RAl AND lOCAL . z. ~: ~~ ..- I
. Or)Iniution . DOT . . CONSTRAINTS I ~: ~~ ~~5 ~Z~
. Buclglrl " - ;g ~.~ jis I
. ENVIRONMENTAL . , :' .. "\11
. Scudy Design I . ~~ 3~ ~i~ I
OOUNCll . . ~3 '= .01
I '. ZZ I
. ;; -.
. . ' . Und~"'n- I
. CD . @ . . lIftdo....ly I
. . I @. 508'''''''''''''''''''1011 I
. POTENTIAL REDUCTION IN . ' . ".Ido,...IIftdSII.Ano.,;rift I
. AIR POLLUTION . ' . 1"Ianno", of Tr8/'ICIOfUMn .
.~ilMPt.nning ! . S""I-
! . Sub-Metropolitan Ptanning . POTENTIAL PROJECT DETE RMINA T ION OF I .
. Tr_. Design r- . DESCRIPTIONS PROJECT COSTS o...,oIFIoI;>IoI" .
I . Tr_. Oper.lton . ' . I
. . StrucIuFIOe$ign . ' I ar...roon 01 F8C.1011ft .
I . Struc:tu,n lOClltion . ' I I
o
o
.
.
.
.
.
PHASE VI
OEVElOPMENT OF
ST\JDY DESIGN
I
.
I
.
I
REVIEW .& ANALYSIS
.
.
.
.
.
DEVElOPMENT OF
PROGRA,. STRUCTURE
PROGRAM EVALUATION
I
.
.
.
.
PRooRA,. REVIEW
.
.
I
I
I
FINAL
REPORT
-------
agency policies, administrative directives, and through discussions with
policymakers.
The review of state and local air pollution planning
practices included city, county, and metropolitan agencies, and appropriate
pri va te organizations and ind i viduals.
The review of Federal practices
concentrated on identifying the activities of each agency and where
opportunities exist for cooperation among agencies.
In Phase III the program needed to reduce air pollution through urban
and transportation planning processes was,formulated.
A list of the pro-
jects that would be useful in achieving air pollution reductions was prepared
and descriptions for each project were detailed.
Phase IV evaluated the program structure developed in Phase III.
The Federal and local constraints that would affect program implementation
were established.
The rigidity of these constraints were identified and
their effects on the program determined.
for the various projects.
Cost estimates were prepared
In Phase V review and final adoption of the program were accomplished.
A preliminary report was developed and reviewed to obtain feedback on the
recommended program, together with costs and responsibilities for carrying
out the programs.
Phase VI consisted of preparing the final report- -this document.
addition to this report two planning guides specifically oriented toward
In
professionals such as planners and traffic and transportation engineers
were prepared.
These are:
1.
A Guide for Reducing Air Pollution Impacts through Urban
Planning.
A Guide for Reducing Automotive Air Pollution.
2.
B-3
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APPENDIX C
INTRODUCTION TO AIR POLLUTION
To effectively incorporate air pollution considerations into urban
and transportation planning, the planner must become familiar with air
pollution terminology and characteristics. The purpose of this appendix
is to provide this information.
TYPES OF POLLUTANTS AND THEIR SOURCES
Classification of Pollutants
Air pollutants are commonly classified as either gaseous or particulate.
Gaseous pollutants behave much like the air itself; they do not settle out.
Particulate pollutants may be either solid or liquid. and their performance
in the atmosphere varies according to chemical composition and size:
heavier particles settle close to the point of emission; and smaller. less-
dense particles travel great distances. Urban aerosols, formed by the
grinding or atomization of solids and liquids, are particulate matter ranging
in size from approximately 6 x 10-7 to 1 micron; they include mist, smoke,
dust. fumes, and spray.
Air pollutants also can be categorized as either primary or secondary.
A primary pollutant is emitted directly into the atmosphere and initially
retains its form as emitted. A secondary pollutant is formed in the
atmosphere from reactions that may be chemical. photochemical. or
biological.
A third way of classifying pollutants is by chemical composition --
either organic or inorganic.
Many of the most common pollutants - - the
oxides of carbon. nitrogen, and sulfur -- are inorganic; organic pollutants
include hydrocarbons, aldehy:des, and ketones.
C-1
-------
To classify an air pollutant properly, all three classifications should
be used; for example, carbon monoxide is a primary, inorganic, gaseous
pollutant.
Units of A ir Pollution Measurement
Air pollutants can be quantified in several ways: on the basis of
emissions from sources, according to concentrations in the ambient air,
or according to rates of exposure.
The source strength of air pollutants can be quantified in units of
mass or weight per unit volume; for example, grams per cubic meter of
air or pounds per cubic foot. Emissions may also be stated in terms of
weight per unit time, weight per unit weight of product, weight per BTU,
weight per unit area for area sources, or mass per unit distance for vehicles.
Concentrations of pollutants in the ambient air are normally reported
as mass or weight per unit volume of air, such as micro~rams per cubic
meter. The unit parts per million (ppm), although used, is being discontinued.
Settleable particulate matter sometimes is expressed in terms of tons per
square mile per month or the currently recommended grams per square
meter per month; and suspended particulate is measured in micrograms
per cubic meter or Coh's (Coefficient of Haze). a unit of measurement of
visibility interference.
Also of concern in the expression of concentrations of air pollutants
is the quantity and duration of exposure experienced by plants, animals, or
humans.
Called the dosage or rate of exposure, units indicate both concentra-
tion and time involvement, with levels stated in terms of micrograms per
cubic meter either per hour, 8-hour period, day, or year. In many cases,
the average concentration over a given period of time is of concern; in
other cases, the maximum concentration is more important.
C-2
-------
When reviewing regulations or statements concerning concentrations
of air pollutants, it is important to understand the units used; that is,
whether they relate to the ambient air concentrations, to emissions, or to
exposure dosages.
A ir Pollutants and Their Sources
Pollutants emitted to the air in greatest abundance are carbon
monoxide (CO), particulate matter, oxides of sulfur (80 ), oxides of
x
and hydrocarbons (HC). Emission inventories of these five
nitrogen (NO),
x
pollutants are commonly divided into five source categories:
fuel combustion in stationary sources, industrial processes,
transportation,
solid waste
disposal, and miscellaneous.
Nationwide emissions by category for 1969,
presented in Table C. 1, indicate that carbon monoxide is the major pollutant
by weight, and that transportation activities are the major carbon monoxide
contributor. [120] A different study [199] indicates that emissions of urban origin
from stationary combustion and transportation activities account for greater
than 75 percent of the total emissions in these five pollutant categories.
The motor vehicle (gasoline and diesel) is a major contributor to air
pollution. It contributes approximately 60 percent of the total carbon
monoxide from all sources, about 50 percent of the hydrocarbons, and
35 percent of the nitrogen oxides.
Oxides of sulfur are chiefly products of fossil fuel combustion.
About 80 percent of the sulfur in coal and nearly all that in liquid and gas
fuels appears in flue gases as sulfur dioxide (S02). Almost all fuels,
except wood, contain sulfur; however, they differ widely in their sulfur
content. Bituminous coal has a high sulfur content; in some locales as
high as 6 percent.
Most crude oil contains less than 1 percent. Gasoline
seldom contains more than 0.25 percent. For the relative sulfur content
of various fuels, see Table C.2. Natural gas is virtually free of sulfur.
C-3
-------
TABLE C. 1. ESTIMATED EMISSIONS OF AIR POLLUTANTS
BY WEIGHT,a NATIONWIDE, 1969 [120]
Source CO Particulates SO HC NO
x x
Transportation 111.5 O. 8 1.1 19.8 11. 2
Fuel combustion in
stationary sources 1.8 7.2 24.4 0.9 10.0
Industrial processes 12.0 14.4 7.5 5.5 0.2
Solid waste disposal 7.9 1.4 O. 2 2.0 0.4
Miscellaneous 18.2 11. 4 0.2 9.2 2.0
Total 151.4 35.2 33.4 37.4 23.8
ain millions of tons per year.
TABLE C. 2. SULFUR CONTENT OF FUELS[199]
Type of Fuel Percent by Weight
Bituminous 0.3 - 6.0
Anthracite O. 6 - 1. 0
Coke 1. 0 maximum
Wood Negligible
Crude Oil 0.2 - 1. 7
Fuel Oil 1. 0 maximum
Diesel Oil O. 5 maximum
Gasoline O. 1 - 1. 0
C-4
-------
Another common source of S02 in the atmosphere is metallurgical
operations. Many ores, such as copper, lead, and zinc are primarily
sulfides.
During the smelting of these ores, sulfur is oxidized and is
evolved as sulfur dioxide.
The more important sources of particulate matter are industrial
process operations, domestic heating plants, industrial power plants,
refuse incinerators, open fires, construction activities, diesel engines,
and automobiles (see Table C. 3). The amount of particulate matter
released from each of these sources varies considerably. The most
common emissions are carbon or soot particles, metallic oxides and salts,
oily and tarry droplets, acid droplets, silicates and other inorganic dusts,
and metallic fumes.
Ozone is the principal constituent of the atmospheric substances
called photochemical oxidants. They are secondary pollutants, formed by
the action of sunlight in a series of complex reactions between hydrocarbons
and oxides of nitrogen, which are both emitted primarily from transpor-
tation sources.
VARIATIONS IN AIR POLLUTION CONCENTRATIONS
Variations in air pollutant concentration at or near ground level are a
function of both meteorological parameters and emissions, both of which
vary in time and space. Both fluctuate from place to place according to
daily and annual patterns; the latter also exhibit weekly variations. Thus,
pollutant concentrations are a function of location, time of day, day of the
week, and season of the year.
Variations According to Location
Variations according to location are the natural produce of non-
uniform distribution of pollution sourc:es (freeway versus center city
C-5
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Combustion
Fuel burning
Incineration
Open fires
Burning dumps
Forest fires
TABLE C. 3.
SOURCES OF ATMOSPHERIC
PARTICULATE MATTER
Materials Handling
and Processing
Loading and unloading
(sand, gravel, ores,
coal, lime, bulk
chemicals)
Mixing and packaging
(fertilizers,
chemicals, feed)
C rushing and grinding
(ores, gravel,
chemicals, cement)
.Food processing
(milling, e. g., flour,
cornstarch; drying;
handling gra in)
Earth
Moving
Construction
(roads, dams,
buildings,
site clearance)
Mining
(blasting,
sorting, refuse
disposal)
Agriculture
(land prepara-
tion, soil
tilling)
Miscellaneous
House cleaning
Sand blasting
Crop spraying
Poultry feeding
Rubber-tire
abrasion
Engine exhaust
traffic) and the random movements of air and weather patterns (rain and
fog). Figure C. 1 illustrates significant variations in pollutant concentration
(in this case, carbon monoxide) as recorded at three different sites in the
Detroit area.
The many meteorological observations accumulated over decades
permit a fairly reliable estimate of the air pollution potential in various
sections of the United States. Regions with a clean sweep of winds within
the major storm tracks are least likely to develop high pollution conditions;
regions dominated by stagnant air masses and light winds are most likely
to experience high pollution conditions.
C-6
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Variations by Time Periods
Space heating and solar radiation are the two major factors influencing
seasonal variations in air pollution levels. Secondary pollutants, such as
photochemical oxidants, generally are worst in the late summer or autumn
when optimal combinations of solar radiation, temperature, and atmospheric
stagnations coincide.
Weekly variations in carbon monoxide are a function of the different
transportation and activity patterns associated with weekdays, weekends,
and holidays. A study [35] revealed a distinct 20 percent decrease in the
average carbon monoxide concentrations during the weekend compared to
the higher weekday levels. In urban communities where there are many
weekend travelers, the reduction is considerably less.
In general, meteorological conditions at night encourage the accumu-
lation of pollutants; those in the day encourage their rapid dispersion
Diurnal variations in carbon monoxide concentrations are illustrated in
Figure C. 1.
Figure C. 2 shows diurnal variation in concentrations of
hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and oxidants.
In these examples, carbon
monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides exhibit two daily peaks.
Considerable work[21) has been directed toward correlating these peaks
14
------
LODGE-FORD FREEWAY INTERCHANGE
GRAND CIRCUS PARK
GM TECHNICAL PARK, WARREN
12
----.
E
R 10
w'
C
x 8
o
z
0
::E 6
z
o
a:I
a:
c( 4
u
2
,'\ " "\
" \ I \
, \ I \
, \ I \
, \ I,
, \ I,
, \ I ,
, \ I ,
, , I ,
I ,,' ""
, I ',.................'" ........,
" / '
, ,
, I
'---....., ~~
"..' .--..... --
---,----/. "'---'/'--'--
.
AM
. .II(
PM
..
o
M
2
4
6
8
10
N
2
4
6
8
10
M
TIME OF DAY
Figure C.1 Hourly Carbon Monoxide Concentrations on Weekdays in Detroit Area [35]
C-7
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with traffic flow and meteorological factors. The studies have indicated
that concentrations of these three pollutants generally exhibit a higher
correlation with traffic volume than with meteorological conditions. Only
one peak has been observed for photochemical oxidants. It generally
occurs near midday. in spite of more atmospheric mixing at that time.
due to favorable reaction conditions of solar radiation and temperature.
A delay between the hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxide peaks and the oxidant
peak is normal because the oxidants are produced by chemical reactions
involving hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides.
Figure C.3 illustrates the daily variation in ground-level pollutant
concentrations that can be expected some distance downwind from a tall
stack on a clear day with light winds. In this example, the pollutant is
eInitted from the stack at a constant rate; therefore, the changes shown
in ground-level concentration result entirely from meteorological
influences. The morning maximum is due to a stable atmosphere and
prevention of upward dispersion of the pollutant by an inversion layer, a
meteorological condition described in the following section. The rapid
decrease in concentration is due to the heating of a progressively deeper
layer of air above the ground and mixing of the pollutant throughout this
layer. After the period of maximum heating, increased stability near the
surface causes concentrations to increase in the late afternoon.
METEOROLOGY
Meteorological and topographical conditions in some areas favor the
accumulation of pollutants. Lighter particles and gases diffuse only as
rapidly as meteorological conditions permit. During this diffusion, the
nature of the pollutants may be changed by natural, physical, or chemical
processes, such as solar radiation, rain. fog, and interaction with the
normal constituents of the atmosphere. Typical examples are the
oxidation of nitric oxide to nitrogen dioxide and the photochemical action
that forms oxidants.
C-8
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SEPTEMBER 9, 1963 20
0.20
E
~ ~ a
0.15 15 ~
< '
e~ f" i=
)(- <
O~ It
0.10 10 I-
'It , Z
NI- w
Oz ' ~
Zw -+~
'U 0
~~ 0.05 5 u
.......
u , ~
0.00 0
12 2 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12
M N M
IAMI HOUR OF DAY, EST (PMI
Figure C.2 Concentrations of Nitric Oxide, Nitrogen Dioxide,
Hydrocarbon, and Oxidant During a Smoggy Day in Cincinnati, Ohio [181 ]
z
o
i=
<
It
I-
Z
w
U
Z
o
u
i
00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
TIME --+
Figure C.3 Diurnal Variation of Ground Level Concentrations
From Elevated Urban Sources [39]
C-9
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In a dry atmosphere, the adiabatic lapse rate (rate of temperature
decrease with increase in elevation) is 10C per 1000 meters (5.40F per
1,000 feet). When the actual lapse rate is greater than this theoretical
rate, a parcel of air that begins to rise continues to do so, and the
atmospheric condition is called "unstable." If, however, the actual lapse
rate is less than the adiabatic rate, the surface air remains near the
surface and the atmospheric condition is called" stable. "
An increase of temperature with altitude (an inversion) can occur at
any time, but is most common during the night and early morning. An
inversion acts as a lid; it separates layers of air and prevents polluted
air from rising. If an inversion is accompanied by low winds, a layer of
highly polluted air may build up over a broad area.
Three major forces -- wind, heating, and cooling -- cause shifts
from stable to unstable conditions and back again. Wind, in addition to
horizonatal motion, usually has vertical eddies and, since rapid vertical
air motions tend to be adiabatic, helps to establish an adiabatic lapse rate.
The sun, which heats the surface more than the air, increases the lapse
rate, and, thus, contributes to instability. Conversely, at night the ground
loses more heat by radiation than the air does, tending to make the surface
cooler than the air layers above; this cooling contributes to stability.
Usually there is a daily cycle from stability to instability and back again.
When the cycle is broken and the atmosphere remains stable for a prolonged
period, a serious accumulation of pollutants is possible.
High pollution potentials are generally favored by light winds and
clear skies which promote the formation of temperature inversions. A
buildup of high pollution concentrations in the central core of the cities
then occurs as the result of this inversion "lid" coupled with a near- surface
air movement toward the center city. This air flow is the result of the
heat island effect in which the asphalt and concrete city heats up and acts
like a chimney, drawing in cooler air from the surrounding areas.
C-IO
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High pollution potential is defined as a stagnating anticyclonic
condition which, coupled with the continued operation of several sources,
is conducive to the occurrence of high concentrations of pollution. As
defined, the high pollution potential refers to developing meteorological
conditions only. The National Meteorological Center in Suitland, Maryland,
prepares daily 36-hour alerts. This information, called Air Stagnation
Advisories (ASA), is available through U. S. Weather Bureau Stations.
Being an objective system, the method has its shortcomings, the greatest
of which is the lack of individual appraisal and forecasting for each city,
based on its local meteorology and areal distribution of pollution sources.
The local air pollution control office can provide the necessary in-depth
knowledge of a specific urban community.
Within the space of a few miles, microclimatic conditions may con-
siderably influence the effects of pollution. A detailed survey of the
meteorological terrain is needed to assess variations in local conditions;
this is particularly advisable when planning future communities and
industrial areas.
For example, it used to be a rule of thumb to locate
industrial areas downwind of a settlement with respect to the prevailing
wind direction.
Unfortunately, in many instances the wind at times of
stagnation or near- stagnation conditions may be quite different from the
most frequent wind. In some cases, the slight draft under those conditions
may be entirely opposite to the prevailing wind, thereby causing a mo're
severe pollution condition than would have been anticipated.
SITE CONDITIONS AFFECTING DISPERSION
The city in a general sense may be considered a collection of micro-
climates. The pattern and profile of the air motion in the total atmosphere
over an urban area are modified, sometimes considerably, in each of these
microclimates by the spatial arrangement and character of buildings and
other structures, by surrounding vegetation, and by roadway configurations.
C-ll
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Superimposed on this is the air movement resulting from traffic flow. In
addition, the relative influence of each of these factors depends on the
magnitude of the background air movement and solar heating conditions.
Factors found to be dominant at higher wind speeds may decline in
significance at the lower wind speeds which present the greater potential
for severe pollution episodes.
Urban Heat Island Effect
The combined effects of topography and urbanization decidedly
influence the radiation, moisture, and temperature conditions of a city.
These, in turn, modify the wind flow patterns. In an urbanized region,
vegetation is replaced by a vast man-made environment, resulting in
changes in moisture conditions which, in turn, alter the heat distribution.
The air is heated by multiple sources including industries, automobiles,
space heating, and solar radiation.
It has been estimated that the automobile is an important artifical
heat source in the street canyons of a city. Very heavy traffic in parts of
London, for example, add an estimated aOF to the air temperature. Bach[12]
calculated that for the built-up area of Sheffield, England, the annu~l
artificial heat generation is about one-fifth of the direct solar radiation
received.
The ratio is one-third for Berlin.
Particulate matter, a by-
product of most artificial heat generation, may be 5 to 25 times greater
in the urban area than in the rural area.
Temperatures in the urban heat island have been found to be on the
order of 5-aoC greater at night than in the surrounding rural areas.
Sidewalks, roads, and concrete buildings have relatively high heat
capacities and conductivities. The daytime heat storage is greater than
for grass-covered fields or forests. The lack of evaporational cooling
from the dry building surfaces increases the stored solar energy. After
sunset, the stored daytime heat is released from buildings and pavements
C-12
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resulting in air temperatures and winds in the city higher than those
occurring in the surrounding country. Munn [124] notes that the heat storage
ability of a city is believed to be the major factor of the heat island
formation. He adds that the city is a collection of microclimates, each
dependent upon the character of a built-up area within the entire city.
The heat island effect is found to be maximum in late summer and
early autumn when the skies are clear and winds are light. Figures C. 4
and C.5 illustrate the morning and evening air culation and dispersion
models in a city and in the surrounding country under anticyclonic conditions.
Building Configuration Effects
The orientation of a building with respect to the winds produces
significant distortions in the local wind pattern. The significance of the
flow distortions becomes clear when vehicular emissions exist within an
area surrounded by buildings. Air currents can trap pollution, confining
it close to the buildings.
Pollutants emitted from building roof vents may
also become trapped. Hence, roadway vehicular emissions and emissions
from rooftops can be conveyed into windows, doorways, and air intake
systems.
As background wind speeds decrease, the effect of the vertical
temperature profile (lapse rate) increases and becomes a major controlling
factor in the atmospheric dispersion of vehicular emissions in the urban
street canyon.
During periods of light winds and clear skies, air flow around
buildings is, to a great degree, the result of convective updrafts coupled
with winds flowing into the center of the urban heat island. The updrafts
remove pollutants from the area of the building more effectively than
strong horizontal winds if no inversion exists.
The upward dispersion of vehicular emissions is often restricted in
the early morning hours by the presence of a stable layer existing from the
C-13
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~ 300
..
~ 200
w'
o
::J
to- 100
i=
-J
c(
0
WIND~
S~O~~. /"riJf~.
. .:::.~N:ff(:2»
....:'t.:.:.:.:.;.:-:.:.:.:.;.;.:;-;;.......~ ):.:.:.:.;.. :':';':':';':':':':':':':,;':'1':'::~
'::::::jjj~~~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~~g? H EA T IS~~~:~~~:~~~~~;~:: ;;;;;~~~~;:: ~~ ~ ~ ~ j ~i~8~
CITY
GEOSTROPHIC
COUNTRY
Figure C.4 Urban Circulation and Dispersion After Sunrise (12)
~ -
..
.. WEAK ..
~
!Ai 200
0
::J
to- 100
i=
-J
c(
0
Figure C.5 Urban Circulation and Dispersion After Sunset [12]
C-14
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ground to roof level. The pollutants are trapped in or below this layer.
This phenomenon is most pronounced in the walled street canyons of
urban centers.
Various building configurations and orientations alter the air flow
pattern considerably. Rows of tall buildings lining urban streets modify
the microclimate by changing the topography and general aerodynamic
boundaries. In these street canyons the dispersion of the pollutants is
determined by the turbulent wake of the traffic, by the differential heating
of building tops and streets, and by the general background air movement.
Wind speeds at street level may be only 40 percent of the wind speed above
the roofs of the buildings.
More open roadway planning with the buildings set back will alleviate
this canyon effect. While traffic volume along a roadway section has the
most direct relationship to emissions, the higher midafternoon wind speeds
are the most effective factor in reducing the urban street canyon air
pollution concentrations. This effect is gradually lost later in the afternoon
as the overall wind speeds start to decrease and traffic volume once again
peaks.
Roughness Effects
The background wind is also modified by the texture and height of
surrounding features: buildings, trees, grass, brush, and streets.
For
example, as wind passes from a~ orchard to an open field, the wake effect
is similar in many ways to that behind a building. Within approximately
one-quarter mile, the original near-surface wind speed is re-established.
There is an updraft in the air movement as it encounters a rougher
surface, such as a row of trees.
Thus, a wide tree-covered green bel t along both sides of a major
traffic artery provides more rapid dispersion of vehicular emissions. In
C-15
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an urban area, similar transitions can be arranged - - between roadway
and green belt, park and buildings, parking lots and streets, and low-
and high-rise buildings. The resulting turbulence can lead to more
dispersion and dilution.
URBAN AIR POLLUTION MODELS
Many mathematical models describing the diffusion process have
been developed to relate pollutant emis sions to ambient pollutant levels.
These models vary from one equation of plume dispersion from a single
source to complex programs capable of considering all sources in a
major metropolitan area and providing the resulting ground-level con-
cemtrations at all locations in the area. The great number of calculations
in all but the most simple models requires the use of a computer.
A mathematical model, with appropriate input data and the proper
interpretation of results, can be a valuable tool for the planner. It can
be used to determine: (a) consequences of a new pollution source on
pollutant levels and patterns; (b) effects of alternative solutions in urban
planning on pollution levels; (c) evolving pollution patterns in an expanding
city; (d) effectiveness of various control strategies to reduce pollution
levels in an area; and (e) emergency curtailment measures to be taken
during episodes of high pollution levels.
A model should be selected to match the amount of data available,
types of sources being considered, and time span of importance (e. g. ,
long-term pollutant average for planning purposes and one-hour maximum
for emergency episode prevention). The data required fall into three
categories: (1) source information, including location, emission rates,
and stack exit parameters; (2) meteorology, particularly wind speed, wind
direction, and mixing depth; and (3) measured pollutant levels to verify or
calibrate the model output.
C-16
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Some caution should be exercised in using modeling results. The
accuracy of output values is limited by the accuracy and adequacy of the
input data. Also, the models are derived by assuming normal dispersion
patterns and, therefore, are generally not capable of predicting pollutant
levels near localized obstructions or in the vicinity of highly irregular
topography.
C-17
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APPENDIX D
FEDERAL, STATE AND LOCAL PRACTICES
FEDERAL PRACTICES
The review of government practices in the field of air pollution
programs was completed during the summer and fall of 1970.
This
period preceded significant legislative and administrative changes.
Most importantly, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was estab-
lished as an independent agency in December, 1970 and the Clean Air Act
Amendments were passed by Congress also in December, 1970. Therefore,
many of the Federal agencies whose functions were reviewed prior to
December, 1970 either no longer exist or are not directly concerned with
air quality programs; in other instances new agencies have been formed
and others have been restructured.
The functions of the following agencies were reviewed for this study:
Executive Office of the President
Council on Environmental Quality
Environmental Quality Council
Citizens Advisory Committee on Environmental Quality
Council of Economic Advisors
Department of Agriculture
Agricultural Research Service
Department of Commerce
Business and Defense Services Administration
Environmental Science Services Administration
Department of Health, Education and Welfare
Public Health Service
National Air Pollution Control Administration
Bureau of Criteria and Standards
Bureau of Engineering and Physical Sciences
Bureau of Abatement and Control
Department of Housing and Urban Development
Renewal Assistance Administration
D-1
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Department of Justice
Land and Natural Resources Division
Department of State
International Scientific and Technological
Affairs Bureau
Department of Transportation
Assistant Secretary for Research and Development
Assistant Secretary for Environment and Urban Systems
Federal Aviation Administration
Federal Highway Administration
Urban Mass Transportation Administration
Independent Agencies
Atomic Energy Commission
Federal Power Commission
Legislative Branch
Library of Congress
Environmental Policy Division,
Service.
Legislative Reference
Selected Boards
Federal Radiation Council
The 1970 Clean Air Act Amendments require the Administrator of the
Environmental Protection Agency to establish primary (relating to health)
and secondary (relating to welfare) ambient air quality standards as well
as performance standards for new stationary sources of pollution and
emission standards for new motor vehicles.
The act requires states to
prepare implementation plans for achieving and maintaining primary air
quality standards by 1975.
If states do not prepare such plans the act
authorizes the Administrator to do so and gives him powers of enforce-
ment.
The EPA is responsible for research, monitoring, standard-setting
and enforcement activities related to air pollution abatement and control.
EPA also coordinates and supports research and antipollution activities
carried out by state and local governments and other groups.
EPA is
also active in reinforcing interagency actions among Federal agencies.
D-2
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Within EPA the Office of Air Programs is responsible for conduct
The Office of Research
of air pollution prevention and control programs.
and Monitoring in OAP provides basic research services as well as evalua-
tion of existing and proposed control technology. Enforcement measures
are handled by the Office of Enforcement of EPA.
Although EPA received the bulk of the ongoing air programs, some
remain within the jurisdiction of other Federal departments of independent
agencies.
Functions of these agencies may be advisory, such as the
National Industrial Pollution Control Council; research, such as the quasi-
federal National Academy of Science; or enforcement, such as the Federal
Aviation Administration in the Department of Transportation.
The Department of Health, Education and Welfare and the Depart-
ment of Housing and Urban Development still maintain an active interest
in programs to reduce environmental impacts on the urban population.
In effect, all governmental agencies are required to consider the
impact of their actions on environmental quality.
The National Environ-
mental Policy Act of 1969 provides that for any proposed action significantly
affecting the environment, a detailed statement must be submitted analyzing
the following points:
" (i) the environmental impact of the proposed action,
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
any adverse environmental effects which cannot be
avoided should the proposal be implemented,
alternatives to the proposed action,
the relationship between local short-term uses of
man I s environment and the maintenance of long-
term productivity, and
any irreversible and irretrievable commitments of
resources which would be involved in the proposed
action should it be implemented. "
The Office of Management and Budget in the Executive Office of the
President has established a framework for communicating environmental
information among Federal, state, and local agencies. In this framework,
selected state, regional, and local planning agencies are designated as
"I "h "b "f" d b
c eanng ous('s to e noh le y any state or local agency intending to
D-3
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submit an application for Federal financial assistance.
The agency requesting
Federal aid then obtains comments from interested persons and groups on
the environmental impact of the project, and these comments are included
in the request to the Federal agency. If, after reviewing the comments,
the Federal agency determines there will be a significant impact on the
environment, it must submit an impact statement to the CEQ.
STATE AND LOCAL PRACTICES
The review of state and local practices was conducted prior to enactment
of the 1970 Clean Air Act Amendments and is therefore obsolete in the
current context. (The original review information may be found in the draft
report dated May 1971, "A Five-Year Program to Incorporate Air Pollution
Considerations in Urban and Transportation Planning. ") The following
are some general comments:
Sta te Pro grams
Air pollution control has traditionally been under state jurisdiction.
The role of the Federal government in this area has emerged fairly recently,
and even though this role has gradually been increas ing, the power of the
state governments remains the most important tool in reducing air pollution.
The 1970 Clean A ir Act Amendments require states to establish air quality
standards based on the criteria published by the Environmental Protection
Agency. In addition, states are required to develop comprehensive plans
for carrying out the necessary work to achieve these standards.
The attitude of the states toward air pollution control has been signifi-
cantly varied.
Where some states, notably California, have made impressive
efforts in curbing air pollution, certain others have kept their efforts to a
minimum.
This variation in the attitude of the states is one of the reasons
for the increased involvement of the Federal government in this area.
D-4
-------
National efforts have first been oriented toward solving interstate pollution
problems, and setting uniform standards for motor vehicle emissions.
But
these measures were found to be inadequate, and the 1970 Clean A ir Act
Amendments allow the Federal government to set certain national standards
for emissions from stationary sources as well, while allowing the states to
adopt more stringent standards if they find it necessary.
The act also
requires that the comprehens ive plans to be prepared by the states achieve
.
the air quality levels established in the standards in a period of three years.
Local Programs
Regional, county and municipal programs vary considerably depending
both on the amount of local jurisdiction granted to the local agency and
on the degree to which local agencies have taken the initiative in setting goals
and formulating air quality programs.
Notable achievements have been
made, for example, by Cook County, Illinois in developing zoning ordinances
which set performance standards for stationary sources.
Personal Interviews
During the course of this study interviews were carried out with repre-
sentatives of local agencies that would presumably be involved with air
pollution problems, with the purpose of identifying the ir needs in dealing
with air pollution through urban and transportation planning.
The agencies
that were interviewed can conveniently be classified in five groups:
1.
Planning Agencies:
Pasadena Planning Department
St. Louis City Planning Commiss ian
St. Louis County Planning Department
Southwestern Illinois Metropolitan Area Planning Commission
East-West Gateway Coordinating Council
Alliance for Regional and Community Health, Inc.
D-5
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Middlesex County Planning Board
Washington Council of Governments
Denver Regional Council of Governments
2.
Transportation Agencies:
Los Angeles Department of Traffic
City of Los Angeles, Bureau of Engineering
Missouri State Highway Department
St. Louis County Department of Highways and Traffic
Illinois Division of Highways, East St. Louis District
Bi-State Transit (St. Louis)
City of St. Louis. Board of Public Service
Tri-State Transportation Commission
3.
Regulatory Agencies:
Pasadena Public Works Department
Pasadena Building Department
Pasadena Fire Department
St. Louis County Department of Public Works
4.
Utilities:
Pasadena Water and Power Department
Southern California Gas Company
5.
Public Relations Firms:
Begley and Cunningham (Clayton, Missouri)
Fleishman. Hillard, Wilson, and Ferguson. Inc.
(St. Louis. Missouri)
The result of these interviews indicated that these agencies did not
directly and systematically consider air pollution in their day-to-day
D-6
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operation.
.
pollution in the ir operations but found it difficult for a number of reasons:
Very often these agencies expressed a des ire to incorporate air
.
.
.
Lack of standards to determine what levels of pollution should
be considered hazardous to health or objectionable for other
reasons.
Lack of information on the poss ible courses of action that
would be instrumental in reducing ambient levels of air
pollution.
Budgetary restrictions and lack of funding to carry out the
necessary actions.
Lack of trained personnel to undertake the job of dealing wi.th
air pollution on a day-to-day basis.
D-7
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CREDITS
Alan M. Voorhees & Associates, Inc.
Mr. Alan M. Voorhees
Project Director
Dr. Salvatore J. Bellomo
Project Manager & Coordinator
Mr. Robert L. Morris
Vice President
Mr. Davit Fresco
Engineer
Mr. David McBrayer
Transportation Planner
Miss Sally Liff
Transportation Planner
Mr. Merritt Edson
Designer
A MV Support Staff
PRC Publications
Ryckman, Edgerley, Tomlinson
& Associates
Dr. D. W. Ryckman
Consultant
Dr. Edward Edgerley, Jr.
Project Manager
Dr. George M. Barsom
Environmental Planner
Dr. F. A. Brunner
Environmental Engineer
Dr. Rolf T. Skrinde
RETA Consultant
Vice President
Reynolds, Thomas,
Hills
Smith &
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