REPORT FOR CONSULTATION ON THE METROPOLITAN BIRMINGHAM INTRASTATE AIR QUALITY CONTROL REGION (ALABAMA) GH3SH3 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE Public Health Service Consumer Protection and Environmental Health Service ------- REPORT FOR CONSULTATION ON THE METROPOLITAN BIRMINGHAM INTRASTATE AIR QUALITY CONTROL REGION (ALABAMA) U. S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE CONSUMER PROTECTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH SERVICE NATIONAL AIR POLLUTION CONTROL ADMINISTRATION DECEMBER 1969 ------- i PREFACE The Secretary, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, is directed by the Clean Air Act, as amended, to designate "air quality control regions" as an initial step toward the adoption of regional air quality standards and the establishment of plans to implement those standards. In addition to listing the major factors to be considered in the development of region boundaries, the Act stipulates that the designation of a region shall be preceded by consultation with appropriate State and local authorities. The National Air Pollution Control Administration, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, has conducted a study of the metropolitan Birmingham area. The results of the study are presented in this document. * The Region boundaries recommended in this report reflect a consideration of available and pertinent data; however, the boundaries remain subject to revision suggested by consultation with State and local authorities. This report is intended to serve as a background document for the formal consultation. The Administration is appreciative of assistance received either directly during the course of this study, or during previous activities in the State of Alabama, from the Alabama * d" . "h . 1. d For the purpose of this report, the wor reglon, w en caplta lze , will refer to the proposed Metropolitan Birmingham Intrastate Air Quality Control Region (Alabama). When not capitalized, unless otherwise noted, it will refer to air quality control regions in general. ------- ii Department of Public Health, the Jefferson County Department of Health, the Alabama Development Office, the Alabama Department of Industrial Relations, the Alabama Chamber of Commerce, the Center for Business and Economic Research of the University of Alabama, the Birmingham Regional Planning Commission, and the Tuscaloosa Area Council of Local Governments. ------- TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EVALUATION OF ENGINEERING FACTORS............... EVALUATION OF URBAN FACTORS..................... THE PROPOSED REGION............................. DISCUSSION OF PROPOSAL. ..... .................... REFERENCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii iv 1 21 36 38 43 ------- iv INTRODUCTION "For the purpose of establishing ambient air quality standards pursuant to section 108, and for administrative and other purposes, the Secretary, after consultation with appropriate State and local authorities shall, to the extent feasible, within 18 months after the date of enactment of the Air Quality Act of 1967 designate air quality control regions based on jurisdictional boundaries, urban- industrial concentrations, and other factors including atmospheric areas necessary to provide adequate implementation of air quality standards. The Secretary may from time to time thereafter, as he determines necessary to protect the public health and welfare and after consultation with appropriate State and local authorities, revise the designation of such regions and designate additional air quality control regions. The Secretary shall immediately notify the Governor or Governors of the affected State or States of such designation." Section 107(a)(2). Clean Air Act, as amended. THE CLEAN AIR ACT Air pollution in most of the Nation's urban areas is a regional problem. This regional problem demands a regional solution, consisting of coordinated planning, data gathering, standard setting and enforcement. Yet, with few exceptions, such coordinated efforts are notably absent among the Nation's urban complexes. Beginning with the Section quoted above, in which the Secretary, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (DHEW), is required to designate air quality control regions, the Clean Air Act, as amended, presents an approach to air pollution control involving coordinated efforts by Federal, State, and local ------- v governments, as shown in Figure 1. After the Secretary has (1) designated regions, (2) published air quality criteria, and (3) published corresponding documents on control technology and associated costs, the Governor(s) of the State(s) must file with the Secretary within 90 days a letter of intent, indicating that the State(s) will adopt, within 180 days, ambient air quality standards for the pollutants covered by the published criteria and control technology documents, and establish within an additional 180 days, plans for the implementation, maintenance, and enforcement of those standards in the designated air quality control region. .The new Federal legislation provides for a regional attack on air pollution and, at the same time, allows latitude in the form which regional efforts may take. While the Secretary reserves approval authority, the States involved by a region designation assume the responsibility for developing standards and an implementation plan which includes administrative procedures for abatement and control. A document, entitled Guidelines for the 1 Development of Air Quality Standards and Implementation Plans, has been issued by the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare to furnish State governments guidance in adopting standards and plans for the implementation of the standards in areas which have been dE!signated as air quality control regions. ------- HEW DESIGNATES AI R QUALITY CONTROL REGIONS. HEW DEVELOPS AND PUBLISHES AIR QUALITY CRITERIA BASED ON. SC.IENTIFIC EVIDENCE OF AIR POLLUTION EFFECTS. HEW PREPARES AND PUBLISHES REPORTS ON AVAILABLE CONTROL TECHNIQUES STATES INDICATE THEIR INTENT TO SET STANDARDS. (PUBLIC HEARINGS) STATES SET AI R QUALITY STANDARDS FOR THE AIR QUALITY CONTROL REGIONS. STATES SUBMIT STANDARDS FOR HEW REVIEW. <: ..,. STATES ESTABLISH COMPREHENSIVE PLANS FOR IMPLEMENTING AI R QUALITY STANDARDS. STATES SUBMIT IMPLEMENTATION PLANS FOR HEW REVIEW. STATES ACT 1"0 CONTROL AIR POLLUTION IN ACCORDANCE WITH AIR QUALITY STANDARDS AND PLANS FOR IMPLEMENTATION. Figure 1 FLOW DIAGRAM FOR ACTION TO CONTROL AIR POLLUTION ON A REGIONAL BASIS, UNDER THE AIR QUALlTV ACT. ------- vii proposal for the air quality control region is made. As indicated in Figure 2, the proposal contained in this report is submitted as a basis for consultation with State and local officials. After reviewing the official transcript of the consultation proceedings, which provides the viewpoints of State and local officials toward the proposal, the Secretary formally designates the region. Formal designation includes a notice in the Federal Register and a notification to the Governor(s) of the State(s) affected by the designation. THE SIZE OF A REGION Several objectives are important in determining the desired size of an air quality control region. Basically, these objectives can be divided into three separate categories. First, a region should be self-contained with respect to air pollution sources and receptors. In other words, a region should include most of the major sources in the area as well as most of the people and property affected by those sources. In this way. all the major elements of the regional problem will lie within one unified jurisdiction. Unfortunately, since air pollutants can travel long distances, it is impractical if not impossible to delineate regions which are completely self-contained. The air over a region will usually have at least trace amounts of pollutants from external sources. During episodic conditions, such contributions from external sources may even reach ------- ENGINEERING EVALUATION . EMISSIONS INVENTORY . TOPOG RAPHY . METEOROLOGY . AIR QUALITY ANALYSIS EXISTING AIR QUALITY DATA DIFFUSION MODEL OUTPUT , r PRELIMINARY CONSULTATION FORMAL - WITH STATE AND ... DELINEATION ... r' DESIGNATION BY OF REGIONS LOCAL OFFICIALS SECRETARY-HEW URBAN FACTORS EVALUATION A .. . JURISDICTIONAL BOUNDARIES . URBAN-INDUSTRIAL CONCENTRATIONS t (.'/\\ . COOPERATIVE REGIONAL ARRANGEMENTS . PATTERNS AND RATES OF GROWTH . EXISTING STATE AND LOCAL AIR POLLUTION CONTROL PROGRAMS & LEGISLATION <: 1-" 1-" 1-" Figure 2. FLOW DIAGRAM FOR THE DESIGNATION OF AIR QUALITY CONTROL REGIONS. ------- ix significant levels. Conversely, air pollution generated within a region and transported out of it can affect external receptors to some degree. It would be impractical and inefficient to make all air quality control regions large enough to encompass these low-level effects. Trace effects extend over a much larger area than that which should be the focus of air pollution control efforts. Thus, the first objective, that a region be self-contained, becomes a question of the relative magnitude and frequency of air pollution problems. The dividing line between Himportant influence" and "trace effect" will be a matter of judgment. The judgment should be based on estimates of the impact a source or a multiple- source area has upon a region, and the level of pollution to which receptors are subjected. In this respect, annual and seasonal data on pollutant emissions and ambient air concentrations are a better measure of relative influence than short-term data on episodic conditions. The second. general objective requires that region boundaries be designed to meet not only present but also future conditions. In other words, the region should include areas where residential and industrial expansion are likely to create air pollution problems in the foreseeable future. This objective requires careful consideration of existing metropolitan devBlopment plans, expected population growth, and projected industrial expansion. Such considerations should result in the designation of regions which will contain the bulk of existing and anticipated air ------- x pollution sources and receptors for a number of years to come. Of course, the region boundaries need not be permanently fixed, once designated. Boundaries should be reviewed periodically and altered when changing conditions warrant readjustment. The third objective is that region boundaries should be compatible with and even foster unified and cooperative govern- mental administration of the air resource throughout the region. Air pollution is a regional problem which extends across several municipal, county, and even State boundaries. Clearly, the collaboration of several governmental jurisidctions is prerequisite to the solution of the problem. Therefore, the region should be delineated in a way which encourages regional cooperation among the various governmental bodies involved in air pollution control. In this regard, the existing pattern of governmental cooperation on the whole range of urban problems may become an important consideration. Certainly, the pattern of cooperation among existing air pollution control programs is a relevant factor. Important too, is a consideration of existing cooperation between several jurisdictions for planning and related functions. In general, administrative considerations dictate that governmental jurisdictions should not be divided. Although it would be impractical to preserve State jurisdictions undivided, usually it is possible to preserve the unity of county governments by including or excluding them in their entirety. ------- xi Where any two of the three objectives discussed above lead to incompatible conclusions concerning region boundaries, the region selected must represent a reasonable compromise. A region should be determined to satisfy, in the best way possible, these three objectives. ------- 1 EVALUATION OF ENGINEERING FACTORS EMISSIONS INVENTORY The compilation of an air pollutant emissions inventory makes possible the correlation of pollutant emissions with specific geographic locations. This procedure generally results in the determination of the "core" of an air quality control region--that is, the area where the bulk of the pollutant emissions occur. In this study, the emissions inventory results are further utilized as input data to a meteorological diffusion model to predict the dispersion patterns of the pollutants emitted into the atmosphere. The emissions inventory was compiled by the Division of Abatement of the National Air Pollution Control Administration, and was based on a report prepared by the Jefferson County Air Pollution Control program.2 The survey area was Jefferson County. Emissions estimates were calculated from data representative of the year 1965. Table I provides a breakdown of sulfur dioxide,* total particulate and carbon monoxide emissions in the study area according to source type in four general categories. These categories are fuel combustion (stationary sources). industrial processes, solid-waste disposal and transportation. The information provided by Table I indicates that industrial processes account for approximately 68% of all sulfur dioxide *Emission estimates are based on all oxides of sulfur. emissions are composed chiefly of sulfur dioxide. These ------- TABLE I SUMMARY OF AIR POLLUTANT EMISSIONS FOR JEFFERSON COUNTY. 1965 (TONS/YEAR) Source Cate~ory and Type Fuel Combustion Residential Commercial Industrial (Stationary Sources) Total Industrial Processes Point Sources Area Sources Total Solid Waste Disposal Municipal Incineration Burning Dumps On-Site Burning - On-Site Burning - On-Site Burning - Industrial Commercial Residential Total Transportation Gasoline Powered Motor Vehicles Diesel Powered Motor Vehicles Aircraft Total Grand Total * Neg. ~ Negligible ** N.A. = Not Available Sulfur Dioxide Total Particulates 1,047 605 7,263 8,915 1,261 1,796 7 ,130 10,187 22,785 Neg.* 179,987 9,433 22,785 189,420 25 17 3 Neg. 4 156 664 143 13 55 49 1,031 721 1,068 Neg. 881 2,938 258 1,789 33,538 4,077 204,715 N Carbon Monoxide 1,357 961 191 2,509 1,000 Neg. 1,000 9 N.A.** 136 127 249 521 233,195 1,602 13,898 248,695 252,725 ------- 3 emissions and over 92% of the total particulate emissions in Jefferson County. Fuel combustion in industrial stationary sources also contributes significantly to the 802 and total particulate emissions in Jefferson County. Data provided in Table I also indicates that over 92% of the carbon monoxide emitted in the survey area is attributable to gasoline powered motor vehicles. Aircraft also contribute relatively high quantities of carbon monoxide to the county total. Area source emissions were originally calculated on a township or neighborhood basis and were subsequently apportioned into grid zones. Figure 3 shows the grid system superimposed over a map of Jefferson County. Grid zones 5 kilometers on a side were used in the areas of most dense population and industrial activity, while grid zones 10 kilometers on a side were used in areas of less dense urbanization. A total of 47 grid zones subdivide the county. Figures 4, 5, and 6 present emission densities for total particulates, 802, and CO, respectively, based on the grid system. The densities were computed on the basis of emissions from both point and area sources within each grid zone. In general, the greatest quantities of pollutants are emitted within the city of Birmingham or in areas peripheral to that city. The patterns of sulfur dioxide, total particulate and carbon monoxide emissions provide an indication of the type and variation in intensity of urbanization in Birmingham and Jefferson Counties. The emission density maps further serve as an indicator of the impact and location of point sources in the study area. Figure 7 shows the ------- 2 3 JEfF~R50N COUNTY 5 ~ 7 5 9 t9 24 Z5 28 /2 13il f3h FIGURE 3. EMISSIONS INVENTORY GRID SYSTEM. .j:'- 16 23 1 t.CHE;T£.RS -~-_..... I O' 5 /0 ------- JEFFERSON COUNTY Figure 4. TOTAL PARTICULATE EMISSION DENSITIES PARTICULATE EMISSIONS Tons/Km2-day . . WJ. D > 1.0 O. 10 - 1. 0 0.01 - 0.10 < 0.01 U1 ------- JEfFERSON COUNTY Figure 5. SULFUR DIOXIDE EMISSION DENSITIES 0'\ SULFUR DIOXIDE EMISSIONS Tons/KJ.n2-day . rlZl1 D >1.0 0.10 - 1. 0 0.01 - 0.10 < 0.01 ------- JEFFERSON COUNTY Figure 6. CARBON MONOXIDE EMISSION DENSITIES CARBON MONOXIDE EMISSIONS Tons/Km2-day >1.0 . 0.50 - 1.0 ~ 0.02 - 0.50 D <0.02 -..J ------- JEFFERSON COUNTY . 00 FIGURE 7. MAJOR AIR POLLUTANT POINT SOURCE LOCATIONS. ------- 9 geographic location of the major point sources. The majority of the point sources lie within the city of Birmingham. AIR QUALITY ANALYSIS Introduction The regional approach to air resource management requires that those jurisdictions containing the majority of the sources of pollution in an urban area be included within a single air quality control region. An air quality control region should also include jurisdictions containing the majority of the people and property adversely affected by air pollutant emissions from those same sources. The core area of a region can be roughly defined on the basis of pollutant point source locations and relative emission densities. However, an analysis of ambient air quality is necessary in order that peripheral pollutant receptor areas may be identified and included in the air quality control region. The selection of an essentially self-contained region will result and the region will include within its bounds virtually the entire source-receptor system for a particular area. By using this approach, the possibility of pollutant cross-boundary transport problems will be minimized. Two approaches have been used to provide an indication of air quality in the metropolitan Birmingham area. The first approach consists of a review of existing air quality data. The second approach involves the estimation of air quality through the use of a meteorological diffusion model. ------- 10 Topography, Meteorology, and Measured Air Quality Metropolitan Birmingham lies in an area of irregular topography consisting of several ridges with intervening valleys. The city itself lies in the Jones Valley between a series of low ridges which extend from the northeast to the west and the Red Mountain range which extends from the east to the southwest. The valley is approximately 8 miles long and 2 to 4 miles wide. The floor of the valley is approximately 600 feet obove sea level; the Red Mountain range approaches a height of 600 feet above the valley floor. The Shades Mountain range parallels the Red Mountain range several miles to the southwest and rises to approximately the same height. The terrain to the west and southwest of Birmingham is rolling. The hills in the Birmingham area are foothills of the Appalachian Mountains and the Cumberland Plateau. These hills extend to the northeast from metropolitan Birmingham.3 The mountain-valley topography results in wind channeling and increases the incidence of atmospheric temperature inversions in 4 the Jones Valley. The meteorological conditions created as a result of topographical influences are often favorable to the accumulation 5 of air pollutants. High air pollution potential advisorys were issued for between 50 and 60 days in the Birmingham area during a period from 1960 to 1969. The majority of the air sampling in the past has been conducted within Jefferson County. Generally, the sampling results have ------- 11 indicated that Jefferson County has an air pollution problem and that industrial activities are the major source of this 2 problem. Air sampling activity was undertaken during the 1956 steel strike to determine the effect of the steel industry on suspended particulate concentrations in the ambient air. Maximum and average suspended particulate levels were found to increase significantly after the strike had ended.6 A Public Health Service survey of air pollution in Birmingham was conducted in 1957.5 This survey, which consisted of a collection and review of existing data, indicated that meteorological conditions in the Jones Valley are conducive to high levels of air pollution. The survey concluded that the heavy metals industry, particularly the steel industry: was undoubtedly the major source of industrial air pollution. The survey further concluded that air pollution in Birmingham has a significant effect on visibility on those days when atmospheric dispersion of pollutants is restricted. Air pollutant sampling was conducted during the summer and fall of 1961 by the city of Birmingham and Jefferson County. with Public Health Service assistance. A report which set forth the results 4 of this air sampling activity concludes that gaseous pollutant concentrations were generally low. Mean concentrations of sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide were .01 ppm and 1.8 ppm respectively, while the maximum recorded values for S02 and CO were 1.8 ppm and 12.5 ppm, respectively. The report suggests, however, that the ------- 12 evident upward trend in motor vehicle usage and growth of other sources of gaseous pollutants will result in increased air pollution problems unless controlled. Particulate pollutant levels occasionally were found to be very high in Birmingham even during favorable pollutant dispersion conditions. Measured suspended particulate concen- trations ranged from 37 ~g/m3 to 279 ~g/m3 during the duration of the study. The mean concentrations for suspended particulates equalled 106 ~g/m3 during the summer sampling period and equalled 113 ~g/m3 during the fall sampling period. By comparison, National Air Surveillance Network (NASN) data for Birmingham indicates that the mean suspended particulate concentration for 3 the summer, 1957-1961, equalled 109 ~g/m and for the fall, 3 1957-1961, equalled 167 ~g/m . This same report concluded that Birmingham had suspended particulate concentrations greater than that of cities of equivalent size or larger, based on a comparison of 1958 NASN data. Dustfall measurements, which provide an indication of the quantity of settleable particulate matter in the atmosphere, indicated average values of 49.3 tons/mi.2-month during the summer, and 76 tons/mi.2-month during the fall. Maximum dustfall values . 2 recorded were 95.6 tons/m~. -month during the summer sampling period, and 121 tons/mi.2-month during the fall sampling period. Normal background levels of dustfall are between 5 and 15 tons/mi.2-month. ------- 13 The Alabama Respiratory Disease and Air Pollution Study was initiated in 1962 to provide information regarding air quality in a number of communities in the greater Birmingham area. Sampling of air quality was conducted during 1964 and 1965.3 The recorded mean (geometric) annual concentration of suspended particulates for the entire sampling network was equal 3 to 125 ~g/m . Suspended particulate levels were, on the average, highest during the fall months and lowest during the spring months. The network mean dustfall level equalled 22 tons/mi.2-month, though stations in north and central Birmingham and Tarrant City consist- ently reported higher levels. Generally, seasonal variations of suspended particulates and dustfall levels were low. The annual mean sulfur dioxide concentration over the sampling network equalled .002 ppm. Definite seasonal variation in S02 levels existed, with greatest concentration recorded in the winter, and lowest concentrations recorded during the summer months. Generally, S02 concentrations were found to be consistently low. At the conclusion of the Respiratory Disease and Air Pollution Study the Jefferson County Health Department began air sampling at various sites in and around Birmingham. Suspended particulate concentrations averaged 151 ~g/m3 over the entire network.2 Seasonal concentration variations were found to be small while the highest concentrations were recorded in North and Central Birmingham, Tarrant City, and Bessemer. Mean dustfall levels equalled 2 2 29 tons/mi. -month and varied from a low of 9.5 tons/mi. -month at ------- 14 Mountain Brook to a high of 87.8 tons/mi.2-month in North Birmingham. Sulfur dioxide levels and sulfation rates were found to be low. Limited air sampling was conducted in Tuscaloosa by the State Health Department from June 1968 to May 1969. Mean suspended particulate concentrations at individual sites ranged from 66 to 148 ~g/m3 for the sampling period. Diffusion Model Results A meteorological diffusion model was used to compute sulfur dioxide, suspended particulate, and carbon monoxide concen- trations in the ambient air at specified receptor points. The model predicted these concentrations from a mathematical treatment of air pollutant emissions and meteorological data. The diffusion model is based on the Gaussian diffusion equation described by Pasquil17,8 and modified for long-term averages9,lO for application to the multiple-source situation typical of an urban complex. In order to determine theoretical pollutant concentrations, it was necessary to evaluate certain meteorological input parameters These parameters are frequency of occurrence of wind direction, effective wind speeds for each direction, and mixing depths for various averaging times. Figure 8 shows the wind roses for the * summer, winter, and year ** Weather Bureau data. for the Birmingham area taken from u.S. They represent graphically the frequency *Averaging Winter: Summer: Annual: **Wind data times are as follows: December, January, and February June, July, and August All 12 months of the year recorded at Birmingham Municipal Airport ------- 15 WINTER SUMMER ANNUAL PER CENT FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE o 5 10 15 FIGURE 8. WIND DIRECTION PER CENT FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE FOR VARIOUS AVERAGING TIMES. ------- 16 of occurrence of the wind from the various compass directions. Table II presents average mixing depths for the seasons and for * the annual averaging period. These mixing depths define the volume of air above the surface through which pollutants are allowed to mix. The mixing depths are assumed to be constant over the receptor grid system. TABLE I I Average Mixing Depths for Birmingham by Season and Time of Day (Meters) Morning Afternoon Average Morning Season Average Average and Afternoon Winter 390 1015 700 Spring 380 1630 1005 Summer 425 1825 1125 Fall 280 1410 845 Annual 370 1470 920 (4 Seasons) The diffusion model was used to compute the ground level concentrations of pollutants at 225 receptor points. Their locations were defined by an orthogonal grid system with mesh points 15 kilometers apart. An effective source height of 75 meters was assumed for all air pollutant point sources, while topographical features were neglected for area-source emissions and for the receptor points. Since topography is an important factor influencing pollutant dispersion, the diffusion model results presented here should be viewed as a crude approximation of the geographic extent of the *Computed mixing depths documented by the Holzworthll,12 and by recent tabulations furnished to the Meteorological Program, NAPCA, by the National Weather Record Center, ESSA. ------- 17 air pollution problem in greater Birmingham. The diffusion model isopleths in Figure 9, la, and 11 have been drawn in as dotted lines to serve as a reminder of the approximate nature of the model results. Figure 9 presents winter average theoretical suspended particulate concentrations. Theoretical winter average SO 2 concentrations and theoretical summer average CO concentrations are presented in Figures 10 and 11 respectively. Generally, the model results reflect the geographic pattern of pollutant source locations. The major particulate and 802 source locations are in north and central Birmingham, and in the Tarrant City and Bessemer areas. Accordingly. these areas are predicted to have the greatest suspended particulates and S02 concentrations. In addition the dispersion of these pollutants from the Birmingham core is predicted to significantly affect much of the remainder of Jefferson County. The model results indicate that Walker and Shelby Counties, and smaller portions of Saint Clair, Tuscaloosa, and Bibb Counties, are affected by particulate emissions from Jefferson County. Carbon monoxide concentrations are predicted to be greatest in and near Birmingham where vehicular traffic intensities are greatest. The dispersion pattern presented in Figure 11 indicates that Jefferson County CO emissions are likely to affect all or most of the surrounding counties to varying degrees. ------- 18 Scale 10 In 20 M;les 30 40 Iod " II; V)I/« - CX3 V) « V) -.I ~ « CuI/man Fayette Pickens Bibb Chilton FIGURE 9. THEORETICAL SUSPENDED PARTICULATE CONCENTRATIONS IN UG/M3, WINTER AVERAGE ------- 19 o ~ Scale 10 In 20 M~les 30 40 , Fayette Cullman Pickens " ~/1 V) V)I/<{ - co V) <{ V) -J - <{ ~ Bibb Chilton. Hale FIGURE 10. THEORETICAL SULFUR DIOXIDE CONCENTRATIONS IN PPM, WINTER AVERAGE . (ASSUMED 3 HOUR HALF-LIFE). ------- 20 o Scale 10 In 20 M;les 30 40 'p<:j Fayette Cullman We I k e r Pickens , I I I I I I .05 I \ \ \, ... ... ... " ~/~ ~ ~ V) v)/1~ - CXI V) ~ V) -.J - '« ~ Bibb Chilton FIGURE 11.. THEORETICAL CARBON MONOXIDE CONCENTRATIONS IN PPM, SUMMER AVERAGE. ------- 21 EVALUATION OF URBAN FACTORS INTRODUCTION The Clean Air Act, as amended, calls for the designation of air quality control regions based on "jurisdictional boundaries, urban-industrial concentrations, and other factors" to provide an inter-governmental system for the prevention and control of air pollution. The designation of air quality control regions must also be based on a consideration of existing cooperative regional arrangements, population concentrations, location of industry, and patterns and rates of urban growth. The following discussion of urban factors will present these considerations as they apply to metropolitan Birmingham. POPULATION DISTRIBUTION Human activity in its many forms is the basic cause of air pollution. Thus, existing and potential air pollution problems may be related to geographic areas by studying present and projected population statistics for those areas. Table III presents estimated 1969 population statistics for several counties in the Birmingham area. These statistics indi- cate that Jefferson County, with an estimated 1969 population of 650,000, is by far the most populated county in the study area. The city of Birmingham, which is located in Jefferson County, has an estimated 1969 population of 325,000 persons -- or approxi- mately 50% of the County total. Following Jefferson County in size is Tuscaloosa County, with an estimated 1969 population of ------- TABLE III. PRESENT AND PROJECTED POPULATION DATA AND MANUFACTURING EMPLOYMENT BY JURISDICTION 1969 1980 ESTIMATED 1968 LAND 1969 POPULATION 1980 POPULATION ADDITIONAL ADDITIONAL PERCENT 1968 MANUFACTURING (~) ESTIMATED DENSITY PROJECTED DENSITY RES IDENTS RESIDENTS/MI. 2 GROOTH MANUFACTURING EMPLOYMENT COUNTY POPULATION (persons/Mi.2) POPULATION2 {Persons/Mi. 2) 1969-1980 1969-1980 1969-1980 EMPLOYMENi3 DENSITY Bibb 625 16,200 26 18,000 29 1,800 3 11 1,490 2 Blount 640 26,900 42 37,600 59 10,700 17 40 1,420 2 Chilton 699 26,100 37 33,700 48 7,600 11 29 1,020 1 Cu11man 743 53,700 72 64,400 87 10,700 15 20 4,390 6 Fayette 627 17,800 28 20,170 32 2,370 4 13 2,080 3 Greene 640 13,900 22 12,500 20 - 1,400 2 - 10 220 1 Hale 662 19,400 29 21,330 32 1,930 3 10 810 1 Jefferson 1,115 650,000 583 914,620 820 264,620 237 41 67,700* 61*** Pickens 887 21,100 24 22,500 25 1,400 1 7 2,140 2 Saint Clair 640 27,500 43 32,500 51 5,000 8 18 1,200 2 Shelby 798 36,000 45 44,900 56 8,900 11 25 1,908** 2 Ta11adaga 750 68,900 92 96,700 129 27,800 37 40 11,040 15 Tuscaloosa 1,338 125,000 94 162,200 120 37,200 26 30 9,990 7 Walker 808 59,000 73 67,700 84 8,700 11 15 1,887** 2 1. Commercial Atlas & Marketing Guide, 1969 Edition, Rand McNally & Company. 2. Alabama Social Sciences Advisory Committee. 3. Figures for September 1968 obtained from the Research and Statistics Division, Alabama Department of Industrial Relations. * Includes manufacturing employment for Shelby and Walker Counties. ** 1963 data obtained from Commercial Atlas & Marketing Guide, 1969 Edition, Rand McNally & Company. *** Jefferson County area used. '" '" ------- 23 125,000 persons. The city of Tuscaloosa at present contains about 75,000 persons, or 60% of the population of Tuscaloosa County. Of the remaining five counties which directly border Jefferson County, Walker, Shelby, Saint Clair, Blount, and Bibb Counties follow, in that order, in size of population. Figure 12 indicates that Jefferson County is by far the most densely popu- 1ated county in the study area. Tuscaloosa and Ta11adega Counties possess approximately equal population densities as do Walker and Cu11man Counties. Blount, Saint Clair, and Shelby Counties possess lesser, though nearly equal, population densities. Table III and Figure 13 present 1980 projected populations and population densities for the counties in the study area. Figure 14 presents the population growth statistics between 1969 and 1980 in terms of total additional residents and additional residents per square mile. Jefferson County is expected to undergo the greatest absolute growth to 1980 with about 265,000 additional residents, followed by Tuscaloosa County with approximately 37,000 additional residents and Ta11adega County with nearly 28,000 added residents. Percentage rates of growth to 1980 for the various counties in the study area are presented in Table III. The counties of Etowah and Calhoun are located to the north- east and east of Saint Clair County. The present populations of these counties are 92,500 and 100,500 persons respectively, while the population densities are, respectively, 166 and 165 persons per square mile. The major cities in Etowah and Calhoun counties ------- 24 o Scale in M;les 10 20 30 40 ! Pickens I 0::1 21,100/24 Q.. « ;;; ~ VI II « - cc VI « VI ..... i « Fayette 36,000/45 Shelby 16,200/26 Bibb POPULATION DENSITY IN PERSONS/SQUARE MILE . >100 . 75-100 rzn 50-75 D <50 FIGURE 12. 1969 ESTIMATED POPULATIONS AND POPULATION DENSITIES ------- 25 o Scale in Mdes 10 20 30 40 ! Pickens I E/~2, 500/25 v; ~ V) II <( - cc V) <( V) ..... - <{ ~ 18,000/29 Bibb 33,700/48 Chilton POPULATION DENSITY IN PERSONS/SQUARE MILE . > 100 WJj Ill] D <50 75-100 50-75 FIGURE 13. 1980 PROJECTED POPULATIONS AND POPULATION DENSITIES (SEE TABLE III FOR SOURCE REFERENCE) ------- 26 o Scale in M;les 10 20 30 40 j ! Pickens n 1.,400/1 Ef-c( ;;; ~ V) II -c( - cc V)1-c( V) ...... i -c( Fayette ADDITIONAL RESIDENTS/MILE2 . >25 . 15-25 r.z2J 10-15 D <10 FIGURE 14. PROJECTED TOTAL ADDITIONAL RESIDENTS, 1969-1980 ------- 27 Gadsden and Anniston with current populations of 53,000 and 34,000 persons, respectively. Those two major cities and the city of Talladega (pop. 19,500), located in Talladega County, are separated from the Birmingham cOLe by rural and undeveloped areas which includes a zone of counties peripheral to Jefferson. MANUFACTURING ACTIVITY The location of manufacturing activity is helpful in deter- mining the size of an air quality control region since industrial sources are major contributors of air pollutant emissions. Manufacturing employment statistics are used as an indicator of the geographic distribution of industrial activity. Estimated 1968 average manufacturing employment data by county is presented in Table III and Figure 15. These statistics indicate that Jefferson County includes, by far, the greatest number of workers engaged in manufacturing activities, with over 60,000 employees. Tuscaloosa, Talladega, Etowah, and Calhoun Counties each contain about 10,000 manufacturing employees. All other counties in the study area have substantially fewer employees engaged in manufacturing activities. The chief industrial activity in Jefferson County is concerned with primary metal manufacturing--chiefly iron and steel--due to the proximity of iron ore, coal, and limestone. Other major industrial activity is concerned with the production of cast iron pipe, fabricated metal products, transportation equipment, stone, clay, and glass products, and lumber and wood products. ------- 28 o PI Scale in M;les 10 20 30 40 1,490/2 Bibb MANUFACTURING EMPLOYMENT . W£1 EZJ D FIGURE 15. SEPTEMBER 1968 MANUFACTURING EMPLOYMENT BY COUNTY > 10,000 2,500 - 10,000 1,500 - 2,500 < 1,500 ------- 29 EXISTING REGIONAL ARRANGEMENTS The geographic extent of regional planning commissions, councils of local governments, State-defined planning and economic development districts, and region-wide statistical data-gathering bases is an important consideration affecting the selection of air quality control region boundaries. The designation of a region compatible with these existing regional arrangements is desirable since the implementation of a regional air pollution control effort is dependent upon cooperation at the various levels of government. Further, region-wide planning programs may be capable of providing assistance in the development of air quality standards and a plan to implement those standards. Figure 16 shows the boundaries of the Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas (SMSA's) in the study area. The concept of SMSA's has been developed to meet the need for the presentation of general-purpose statistics by agencies of the Federal 13 Government, and by State and local governments. Each SMSA includes at least one city of 50,000 inhabitants, the county in which that city lies, and adjacent counties which are found to be metropolitan in character and economically and socially integrated with the county of the central city. Objective criteria of a quantitative character have been established to determine the existence of such multi-jurisdictional interdependency. The Birmingham SMSA consists of Jefferson, Shelby. and The Tuscaloosa and Gadsden SMSA's respectively Walker Counties. include Tuscaloosa and Etowah Counties. Shelby and Walker Counties were added to the definition of the Birmingham SMSA in March 1967, ------- 30 o JI'1 Scale in 10 20 Mdes 30 40 ! Pickens I ~/« Vi ~ en II « - co en « en -' i « (ullman Fayette Bibb Figure 16. STANDARD METROPOLITAN STATISTICAL AREA (SMSA) BOUNDARIES ------- 31 while Tuscaloosa became the central city of a new SMSA in August 1960. The existence of a multi-county SMSA for metropolitan Birmingham provides an indication of the strong economic and social relationship which exists between Jefferson County and the contiguous counties of Walker and Shelby. * In the latter part of 1968, a Task Force was appointed to study the problem of sub-State districting for planning and development purposes. The Task Force concluded14 that sub-State districting in Alabama should be undertaken promptly. The Task Force made recommendations that the seven areas defined by the Bureau of Business Research of the University of Alabama for economic analysis and planning be used as a district framework for further discussion with State agencies and local government. Such an area around Birmingham includes Blount, Chilton, Jefferson, Shelby, Saint Clair, Walker and Winston Counties. The Task Force further recommended that consideration should be given to the multi-Jurisdictional planning organizations that have been established in Alabama. The Task Force also recommended that each district should have a viable organizational structure (commission) to serve the district-wide planning. and development needs of local government. * Task Force on Sub-State Districting of the Alabama Program Development Committee ------- 32 Senate Bill No. 378 was enacted by the 1969 Alabama Legislature to "provide for the delineation and designation of State planning and development districts and to authorize the governing bodies of counties and municipalities to establish regional planning and development commissions compatible with such State districts." In creating this Act, several of the recommendations of the Task Force were adopted by the Legislature. The Act provides that the Governor shall, within twelve months of the effective date of the Act, define and designate by Executive Order, State planning and development districts which embrace all of the cerritory within the State of Alabama. In defining districts the Governor is directed to consult with the governmental units concerned and to consider factors such as community of .interest, geographic features and natural boundaries, patterns of communication and urban development, population, social and economic similarity, and boundaries of existing regional planning commissions and councils of government. At the present time, no state planning and development districts have been designated by the Governor. Senate Bill 378 further provides for the formation of regional planning and development commissions pursuant to the designation of State planning and development districts. Governmental units within a district may adopt a written agreement for the formation of a regional planning commission and may ------- 33 petition the Governor to certify such a commission for a region located entirely within a State planning and development district. Regional planning commissions, except in the case of interstate planning commissions, are required t~ consist of at least three contiguous counties and a population of at least 100,000. In addition, existing planning commissions and councils of governments organized prior to the Act may be certified by the Governor as meeting the requirements of the Act for regional planning and development commissions for no more than two years after the effective date of the Act. The Act empowers and authorizes regional planning and development commissions to carryon continuous comprehensive planning, prepare regional plans, provide planning and technical assistance to governmental units and planning and development agencies within the regions, to coordinate regional planning activities with those of the State and neighboring regions, and review and comment on applications by governmental units for State and Federal financial assistance. Figure 17 shows the boundaries of the various planning commissions and councils of local governments which presently exist in the Birmingham study area. The Tuscaloosa Area Council of Local Governments consists of Pickens and Tuscaloosa Counties. Cullm~n County, to the north of Jefferson County, is included in the North Central Alabama Regional Planning and Development Commission, along with Morgan and Lawrence Counties. The Coosa Valley Planning Agency includes Talladega, Calhoun, Etowah, Cherokee, and Cleburne Counties. ------- 34 o 1"1 Scale in M;les 10 20 30 .40 NORTH CENTRAL ALABAMA REGIONAL ING AND DEVELOPMENT COMMISS ION Fayette Bibb Figure 17. PLANNING CCMMISSION AND COUNCIL OF GOVERNMENT BOUNDARIES ------- 35 The Birmingham Regional Planning Commission (BRPC) includes within its jurisdiction, five counties: Blount, Jefferson, Shelby, Saint Clair, and Walker. The Birmingham- Jefferson County Regional Planning Commission (BJCRPC) formerly had planning and development responsibility within Jefferson County alone. The five-county joint planning agency was formally created on April 24, 1969, following extended consultation and subsequent agreement among representatives of Jefferson and surrounding counties, municipal officials, and the BJCRPC. It was at this time that the BJCRPC was disbanded. The Birmingham Regional Planning Commission has been certified under Section 9 of Senate Bill 378 as meeting the requirements of the Bill for regional planning and development commissions. In addition, the Commission has been certified as the five-county area-wide review agency for Federal assistance under Section 204 of the Demonstration Cities and Metropolitan Development Act of 1966, and in accordance with procedures formulated by Bureau of the Budget Circular No. A-95. ------- 36 THE PROPOSED REGION Subject to the scheduled consultation, the Secretary, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare proposes to designate an air quality control region for the Birmingham, Alabama intrastate urban area. The proposed Region consists of the following jurisdictions in the State of Alabama: Blount County Jefferson County Saint Clair County Shelby County Walker County As so proposed, the Metropolitan Birmingham Intrastate Air Quality Control Region would. consist of the territorial area encompassed by the outermost boundaries of the above jurisdictions and the territorial area of all municipalities located therein and as defined in Section 302(f) of the Clean Air Act, as amended (42 D.S.C. l857h(f»~ The boundaries of the proposed Region are shown in Figure 18. ------- 37 o Scale 10 In 20 M;les 30 40 Fayette Cullman Pickens Bibb Hale Figure 18. THE PROPOSED METROPOLITAN BIRMINGHAM INTRASTATE AIR QUALITY CONTROL REGION ------- 38 DISCUSSION OF PROPOSAL To implement a successful air resource management program, an air quality control region should be large enough to encompass most pollution sources as well as most people and property affected by those sources. The boundaries should also include those locations where present development creates, or where projected urbanization and industrialization will create, significant air pollution problems. Finally, the proposed region should be compatible with or hepefully even foster unified and cooperative governmental administration of the air resource. The proposed Metropolitan Birmingham Intrastate Air Quality Control Region was designed to satisfy these requirements to the greatest degree possible~ The evaluation of the technical aspects of the Birmingham air pollution problem consisted of a review of air pollutant emissions and air quality data and the application of a meteorological diffusion model. The emissions survey revealed that sources lying within Birmingham, and within the cities on the fringe of Birmingham, are responsible for the bulk of the pollutants emitted within Jefferson County. Survey data also indicates that there are significant sources .and source areas located sufficiently close to the borders of Jefferson County (both within and without Jefferson County) so that inter-county air pollution problems may exist. ------- 39 The major portion of all air sampling in the study area has taken place within Jefferson County. The sampling results have indicated, very generally, that Jefferson County has an air pollution problem due chiefly to industrial activities. The greatest concentrations of pollutants in Jefferson County are found in the industrialized portions of Birmingham. Relatively high concentrations are also found in several cities peripheral to Birmingham. Generally, the single pollutant causing the most severe pollution problems in Birmingham is particulate matter. Levelp of both susp~nded and settleable particulate matter have been inordinately pigh for a city of the population size of Birmingham. The only additional air sampling data in the study area has been collected in the City of Tuscaloosa. Measurements at several sampling sites have revealed the existence of relatively high concentrations of suspended particulates. Neither the overall extent of the problem in Tuscaloosa nor its relationship to the Birmingham air pollution problem are known, however. The diffusion model was utilized to determine theoretical dispersion characteristics of air pollution arising from sources within Jefferson County. Because of topographical considerations, the equal-concentration contours produced by the model were viewed as a rough approximation of long-term air pollution conditions in greater Birmingham. The greatest concentratiqns predicted by the model occur over those locations responsible for the greatest contributions of air pollutant emissions--the ------- 40 industrial centers of north and central Birmingham. Also, predicted concentrations are relatively high over the remainder of Birmingham and larger portions of Jefferson County. The model results also indicate that the potential exists for peripheral counties to be significantly affected by Jefferson County air pollutant emissions. In summary. the engineering evaluation indicates that Jefferson is of necessity the core county for future regional air pollution control efforts. The nature and severity of inter- county air pollution problems caused by Birmingham sources or by sources located at or near the Jefferson County border is not known precisely. However, this lack of quantitative data should not preclude inclusion of surrounding counties in the R~gion based on additional nonengineering criteria. Statistics indicate that Jefferson is and will remain the most populated county in the study area. The city of Birmingham accounts for about one-half of the population of Jefferson County and for the majority of the industry in the county. Tuscaloosa is the most populated county peripheral to Jefferson. The city of Tuscaloosa, which forms an urban center distinct from Birmingham, contains the majority of the population and industry in Tuscaloosa County. The remaining five counties which border Jefferson are less densely populated than is Tuscaloosa County. The highly populat~d cities of Gadsden, Anniston, and Talladega, which are located to the east and northeast of Birmingham, are separated from Birmingham by a county-wide corridor. ------- 41 Birmingham is the central city for a Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area (SMSA) which includes Jefferson, Walker, and Shelby Counties. Tuscaloosa is the central city of a separate SMSA which is Tuscaloosa County. Similarly, Gadsden is the central city of a one-county SMSA, which is Etowah County. On the basis of the interdependency of Jefferson, Shelby, and Walker Counties indicated by the designation of an SMSA, it appears logical to conclude that the Region should encompass at least those three counties. Senate Bill 378 was enacted by the 1969 Alabama Legislature to "provide for the delineation and designation of state planning and development districts and to authorize the governing bodies of counties and municipalities to establish regional planning and development commissions compatible with such state districts." The Bill provides that planning and development districts should be as large as practical consistent with designated criteria, but should include at least three contiguous counties and a minimum population of 100,000. To date no State planning and development districts have been designated by the Governor of Alabama. The Birmingham Regional Planning Commission (BRPC) has been certified by the Governor under section 9 of Senate Bill 378 as meeting its requirements for regional planning and development commissions. The BRPC includes within its jurisdiction the countie~ of Jefferson, Blount, Saint Clair, Shelby, and Walker. Because of the acknowledged interdependence of these five counties, indicated by the formation of the BRPC, these same five ------- 42 counties have been recommended for inclusion in the proposed Birmingham Air Quality Control Region. The designation of this five-county region should serve to encourage the most effective use of State and local resources toward the solution of the problem of air pollution. Because of the nature of the problem of air pollution, there is always the possibility that pollutant transport into or out of an established region may exist. An air quality control region can never be completely self-contained with respect to sources and receptors of air pollution. The five-county Region proposed by the Federal Government is considered to be the most cohesive and yet inclusive area within which an effective regional effort can be mounted to prevent and control air pollution. Official designation of the Region will follow the formal Consultation with appropriate State and local officials, and after due consideration of comments presented for the record at the Consultation or of those written comments received by the Commissioner of the National Air Pollution Control Administration. ------- 43 REFERENCES 1. Guidelines for the Development of Air Quality Standards and Implementation Plans. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, Washington, D.C., May 1969. 2. Robison, C. B., et al. Defining the Problem of Air Pollution in Metropolitan Birmingham. Jefferson County Department of Health, Air Pollution Control Program, Birmingham, Alabama, June 1967. 3. Robison, C. B., et al. Alabama Respiratory Disease and Air Pollution Study, II. Air Pollution Patterns in the Greater Birmingham Area. Archieves of Environ- mental Health, 15:703-727. 4. A Pilot Study of Air Pollution in Birmingham, Alabama. A joint study by the City of Birmingham, Jefferson County Department of Health, and the Public Health Service. Technical Report No. A62-22, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Cincinnati, Ohio, May 1962. 5. Keagy, D. M., Scheuneman, J.J. Air Pollution in the Birmingham, Alabama Area. Technical Report No. A58-8, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1958. 6. Tabor, E. C. Effects of the 1956 Steel Strike on Air Pollution Levels in Seve;;:J:'C;~unities. Presented at the Annual Meeting, APCA, Philadelphia, Pa., May 1958. 7. Pasquill, F. "The Estimation of the Dispersion of Windborne Material," Meteorology Magazine, 90, 33-40, 1961 8. Pasquill, F. Atmospheric Diffusion, Van Nostrand Co., New York, New York, 190 pp., 1962. 9. Public Health Service. Workbook of Atmospheric Dispersion Estimates. Publication No. 999-AP-26, Environmental Health Series, U.S. DHEW, National Center for Air Pollution Control, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1967. ------- 44 10. Martin, D. 0., Takvart, J.A. "A General Atmospheric Diffusion Model for Estimating the Effects OTh Air Quality of One or More Sources," Paper No. 68-148, 61st Annual Meeting, APCA, St. Paul, Minnesota, June 1968. 11. Holzworth, G.C. "Mixing Depths, Wind Speeds and Air Pollution Potential for Selected Locations in the United States," J. Appl. Meteor., No. .6, pp. 1039-1044, December 19670 12. Holzworth, G. C. "Estimates of Mean Maximum Mixing Depths in the Contiguous United States," Mon. Weather Rev. 92, No.5, pp. 235-242, May 1964. 13. Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas. Executive Office of the President, Bureau of the Budget, 1967. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1967-0-257-095. 14. Report on Sub-State Districting for Planning and Development for Alabama. Alabama Program Development Office, Task Force on Sub-State Districting. February 1969. u u.s. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1970-395-672/5043 ------- |