REPORT FOR CONSULTATION ON THE
METROPOLITAN BIRMINGHAM
INTRASTATE AIR QUALITY CONTROL REGION
(ALABAMA)
GH3SH3
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Public Health Service
Consumer Protection and Environmental Health Service
-------
REPORT FOR CONSULTATION ON THE
METROPOLITAN BIRMINGHAM
INTRASTATE AIR QUALITY CONTROL REGION
(ALABAMA)
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE
CONSUMER PROTECTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH SERVICE
NATIONAL AIR POLLUTION CONTROL ADMINISTRATION
DECEMBER 1969
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i
PREFACE
The Secretary, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
is directed by the Clean Air Act, as amended, to designate "air
quality control regions" as an initial step toward the adoption
of regional air quality standards and the establishment of plans
to implement those standards.
In addition to listing the major
factors to be considered in the development of region boundaries,
the Act stipulates that the designation of a region shall be
preceded by consultation with appropriate State and local
authorities.
The National Air Pollution Control Administration, Department
of Health, Education, and Welfare, has conducted a study of the
metropolitan Birmingham area.
The results of the study are
presented in this document.
*
The Region
boundaries recommended
in this report reflect a consideration of available and pertinent
data; however, the boundaries remain subject to revision suggested
by consultation with State and local authorities.
This report
is intended to serve as a background document for the formal
consultation.
The Administration is appreciative of assistance received
either directly during the course of this study, or during
previous activities in the State of Alabama, from the Alabama
* d" . "h . 1. d
For the purpose of this report, the wor reglon, w en caplta lze ,
will refer to the proposed Metropolitan Birmingham Intrastate Air
Quality Control Region (Alabama). When not capitalized, unless
otherwise noted, it will refer to air quality control regions in
general.
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ii
Department of Public Health, the Jefferson County Department
of Health, the Alabama Development Office, the Alabama Department
of Industrial Relations, the Alabama Chamber of Commerce, the
Center for Business and Economic Research of the University of
Alabama, the Birmingham Regional Planning Commission, and the
Tuscaloosa Area Council of Local Governments.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
EVALUATION OF ENGINEERING FACTORS...............
EVALUATION OF URBAN FACTORS.....................
THE PROPOSED REGION.............................
DISCUSSION OF PROPOSAL. ..... ....................
REFERENCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
iii
iv
1
21
36
38
43
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iv
INTRODUCTION
"For the purpose of establishing ambient air
quality standards pursuant to section 108, and for
administrative and other purposes, the Secretary,
after consultation with appropriate State and local
authorities shall, to the extent feasible, within
18 months after the date of enactment of the Air
Quality Act of 1967 designate air quality control
regions based on jurisdictional boundaries, urban-
industrial concentrations, and other factors including
atmospheric areas necessary to provide adequate
implementation of air quality standards. The Secretary
may from time to time thereafter, as he determines
necessary to protect the public health and welfare
and after consultation with appropriate State and
local authorities, revise the designation of such
regions and designate additional air quality control
regions. The Secretary shall immediately notify the
Governor or Governors of the affected State or States
of such designation."
Section 107(a)(2). Clean Air Act, as amended.
THE CLEAN AIR ACT
Air pollution in most of the Nation's urban areas is a
regional problem.
This regional problem demands a regional
solution, consisting of coordinated planning, data gathering,
standard setting and enforcement.
Yet, with few exceptions,
such coordinated efforts are notably absent among the Nation's
urban complexes.
Beginning with the Section quoted above, in which the
Secretary, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (DHEW),
is required to designate air quality control regions, the Clean
Air Act, as amended, presents an approach to air pollution control
involving coordinated efforts by Federal, State, and local
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v
governments, as shown in Figure 1.
After the Secretary has
(1) designated regions, (2) published air quality criteria,
and (3) published corresponding documents on control technology
and associated costs, the Governor(s) of the State(s) must file
with the Secretary within 90 days a letter of intent, indicating
that the State(s) will adopt, within 180 days, ambient air quality
standards for the pollutants covered by the published criteria
and control technology documents, and establish within an
additional 180 days, plans for the implementation, maintenance,
and enforcement of those standards in the designated air quality
control region.
.The new Federal legislation provides for a regional attack
on air pollution and, at the same time, allows latitude in the
form which regional efforts may take.
While the Secretary reserves
approval authority, the States involved by a region designation
assume the responsibility for developing standards and an
implementation plan which includes administrative procedures for
abatement and control.
A document, entitled Guidelines for the
1
Development of Air Quality Standards and Implementation Plans,
has been issued by the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
to furnish State governments guidance in adopting standards and
plans for the implementation of the standards in areas which have
been dE!signated as air quality control regions.
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HEW DESIGNATES
AI R QUALITY
CONTROL REGIONS.
HEW DEVELOPS AND
PUBLISHES AIR
QUALITY CRITERIA
BASED ON. SC.IENTIFIC
EVIDENCE OF AIR
POLLUTION EFFECTS.
HEW PREPARES
AND PUBLISHES
REPORTS ON
AVAILABLE CONTROL
TECHNIQUES
STATES INDICATE
THEIR INTENT
TO SET STANDARDS. (PUBLIC
HEARINGS)
STATES SET
AI R QUALITY
STANDARDS
FOR THE AIR
QUALITY CONTROL
REGIONS.
STATES SUBMIT
STANDARDS FOR
HEW REVIEW.
<:
..,.
STATES ESTABLISH
COMPREHENSIVE PLANS
FOR IMPLEMENTING
AI R QUALITY
STANDARDS.
STATES SUBMIT
IMPLEMENTATION PLANS
FOR HEW REVIEW.
STATES ACT 1"0 CONTROL
AIR POLLUTION IN ACCORDANCE
WITH AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
AND PLANS FOR IMPLEMENTATION.
Figure 1 FLOW DIAGRAM FOR ACTION TO CONTROL AIR POLLUTION ON A REGIONAL
BASIS, UNDER THE AIR QUALlTV ACT.
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vii
proposal for the air quality control region is made.
As indicated
in Figure 2, the proposal contained in this report is submitted
as a basis for consultation with State and local officials.
After reviewing the official transcript of the consultation
proceedings, which provides the viewpoints of State and local
officials toward the proposal, the Secretary formally designates
the region.
Formal designation includes a notice in the Federal
Register and a notification to the Governor(s) of the State(s)
affected by the designation.
THE SIZE OF A REGION
Several objectives are important in determining the desired
size of an air quality control region.
Basically, these
objectives can be divided into three separate categories.
First,
a region should be self-contained with respect to air pollution
sources and receptors.
In other words, a region should include
most of the major sources in the area as well as most of the
people and property affected by those sources.
In this way. all
the major elements of the regional problem will lie within one
unified jurisdiction.
Unfortunately, since air pollutants can
travel long distances, it is impractical if not impossible to
delineate regions which are completely self-contained.
The air
over a region will usually have at least trace amounts of
pollutants from external sources.
During episodic conditions,
such contributions from external sources may even reach
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ENGINEERING EVALUATION
. EMISSIONS INVENTORY
. TOPOG RAPHY
. METEOROLOGY
. AIR QUALITY ANALYSIS
EXISTING AIR QUALITY DATA
DIFFUSION MODEL OUTPUT
, r
PRELIMINARY CONSULTATION FORMAL
- WITH STATE AND ...
DELINEATION ... r' DESIGNATION BY
OF REGIONS LOCAL OFFICIALS SECRETARY-HEW
URBAN FACTORS EVALUATION
A ..
. JURISDICTIONAL BOUNDARIES
. URBAN-INDUSTRIAL CONCENTRATIONS
t (.'/\\
. COOPERATIVE REGIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
. PATTERNS AND RATES OF GROWTH
. EXISTING STATE AND LOCAL AIR POLLUTION
CONTROL PROGRAMS & LEGISLATION
<:
1-"
1-"
1-"
Figure 2. FLOW DIAGRAM FOR THE DESIGNATION OF AIR QUALITY CONTROL REGIONS.
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ix
significant levels.
Conversely, air pollution generated within
a region and transported out of it can affect external receptors
to some degree.
It would be impractical and inefficient to make
all air quality control regions large enough to encompass these
low-level effects.
Trace effects extend over a much larger area
than that which should be the focus of air pollution control
efforts.
Thus, the first objective, that a region be self-contained,
becomes a question of the relative magnitude and frequency of air
pollution problems.
The dividing line between Himportant influence"
and "trace effect" will be a matter of judgment.
The judgment
should be based on estimates of the impact a source or a multiple-
source area has upon a region, and the level of pollution to which
receptors are subjected.
In this respect, annual and seasonal data
on pollutant emissions and ambient air concentrations are a better
measure of relative influence than short-term data on episodic
conditions.
The second. general objective requires that region boundaries
be designed to meet not only present but also future conditions.
In other words, the region should include areas where residential
and industrial expansion are likely to create air pollution
problems in the foreseeable future.
This objective requires
careful consideration of existing metropolitan devBlopment plans,
expected population growth, and projected industrial expansion.
Such considerations should result in the designation of regions
which will contain the bulk of existing and anticipated air
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x
pollution sources and receptors for a number of years to come.
Of course, the region boundaries need not be permanently fixed,
once designated.
Boundaries should be reviewed periodically and
altered when changing conditions warrant readjustment.
The third objective is that region boundaries should be
compatible with and even foster unified and cooperative govern-
mental administration of the air resource throughout the region.
Air pollution is a regional problem which extends across several
municipal, county, and even State boundaries.
Clearly, the
collaboration of several governmental jurisidctions is prerequisite
to the solution of the problem.
Therefore, the region should be
delineated in a way which encourages regional cooperation among
the various governmental bodies involved in air pollution control.
In this regard, the existing pattern of governmental cooperation
on the whole range of urban problems may become an important
consideration.
Certainly, the pattern of cooperation among
existing air pollution control programs is a relevant factor.
Important too, is a consideration of existing cooperation between
several jurisdictions for planning and related functions.
In
general, administrative considerations dictate that governmental
jurisdictions should not be divided.
Although it would be
impractical to preserve State jurisdictions undivided, usually it
is possible to preserve the unity of county governments by including
or excluding them in their entirety.
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xi
Where any two of the three objectives discussed above
lead to incompatible conclusions concerning region boundaries,
the region selected must represent a reasonable compromise.
A
region should be determined to satisfy, in the best way possible,
these three objectives.
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EVALUATION OF ENGINEERING FACTORS
EMISSIONS INVENTORY
The compilation of an air pollutant emissions inventory
makes possible the correlation of pollutant emissions with
specific geographic locations.
This procedure generally results
in the determination of the "core" of an air quality control
region--that is, the area where the bulk of the pollutant
emissions occur.
In this study, the emissions inventory results
are further utilized as input data to a meteorological diffusion
model to predict the dispersion patterns of the pollutants
emitted into the atmosphere.
The emissions inventory was compiled by the Division of
Abatement of the National Air Pollution Control Administration,
and was based on a report prepared by the Jefferson County Air
Pollution Control program.2
The survey area was Jefferson County.
Emissions estimates were calculated from data representative of
the year 1965.
Table I provides a breakdown of sulfur dioxide,*
total particulate and carbon monoxide emissions in the study area
according to source type in four general categories.
These
categories are fuel combustion (stationary sources). industrial
processes, solid-waste disposal and transportation.
The information provided by Table I indicates that industrial
processes account for approximately 68% of all sulfur dioxide
*Emission estimates are based on all oxides of sulfur.
emissions are composed chiefly of sulfur dioxide.
These
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TABLE I
SUMMARY OF AIR POLLUTANT EMISSIONS FOR JEFFERSON COUNTY. 1965 (TONS/YEAR)
Source Cate~ory and Type
Fuel Combustion
Residential
Commercial
Industrial
(Stationary Sources)
Total
Industrial Processes
Point Sources
Area Sources
Total
Solid Waste Disposal
Municipal Incineration
Burning Dumps
On-Site Burning -
On-Site Burning -
On-Site Burning -
Industrial
Commercial
Residential
Total
Transportation
Gasoline Powered Motor Vehicles
Diesel Powered Motor Vehicles
Aircraft
Total
Grand Total
* Neg. ~ Negligible
** N.A. = Not Available
Sulfur
Dioxide
Total
Particulates
1,047
605
7,263
8,915
1,261
1,796
7 ,130
10,187
22,785
Neg.*
179,987
9,433
22,785
189,420
25
17
3
Neg.
4
156
664
143
13
55
49
1,031
721
1,068
Neg.
881
2,938
258
1,789
33,538
4,077
204,715
N
Carbon
Monoxide
1,357
961
191
2,509
1,000
Neg.
1,000
9
N.A.**
136
127
249
521
233,195
1,602
13,898
248,695
252,725
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emissions and over 92% of the total particulate emissions in
Jefferson County.
Fuel combustion in industrial stationary
sources also contributes significantly to the 802 and total
particulate emissions in Jefferson County.
Data provided in
Table I also indicates that over 92% of the carbon monoxide
emitted in the survey area is attributable to gasoline powered
motor vehicles.
Aircraft also contribute relatively high
quantities of carbon monoxide to the county total.
Area source emissions were originally calculated on a township
or neighborhood basis and were subsequently apportioned into grid
zones.
Figure 3 shows the grid system superimposed over a map of
Jefferson County.
Grid zones 5 kilometers on a side were used in
the areas of most dense population and industrial activity, while
grid zones 10 kilometers on a side were used in areas of less
dense urbanization.
A total of 47 grid zones subdivide the county.
Figures 4, 5, and 6 present emission densities for total
particulates, 802, and CO, respectively, based on the grid system.
The densities were computed on the basis of emissions from both
point and area sources within each grid zone.
In general, the
greatest quantities of pollutants are emitted within the city of
Birmingham or in areas peripheral to that city.
The patterns of
sulfur dioxide, total particulate and carbon monoxide emissions
provide an indication of the type and variation in intensity of
urbanization in Birmingham and Jefferson Counties.
The emission
density maps further serve as an indicator of the impact and
location of point sources in the study area.
Figure 7 shows the
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2 3
JEfF~R50N COUNTY
5 ~ 7 5 9
t9
24
Z5
28
/2
13il
f3h
FIGURE 3.
EMISSIONS INVENTORY GRID SYSTEM.
.j:'-
16
23
1
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JEFFERSON COUNTY
Figure 4. TOTAL PARTICULATE EMISSION DENSITIES
PARTICULATE EMISSIONS
Tons/Km2-day
.
.
WJ.
D
> 1.0
O. 10 - 1. 0
0.01 - 0.10
< 0.01
U1
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JEfFERSON COUNTY
Figure 5.
SULFUR DIOXIDE EMISSION DENSITIES
0'\
SULFUR DIOXIDE EMISSIONS
Tons/KJ.n2-day
.
rlZl1
D
>1.0
0.10 - 1. 0
0.01 - 0.10
< 0.01
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JEFFERSON COUNTY
Figure 6. CARBON MONOXIDE EMISSION DENSITIES
CARBON MONOXIDE EMISSIONS
Tons/Km2-day
>1.0
. 0.50 - 1.0
~ 0.02 - 0.50
D <0.02
-..J
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JEFFERSON COUNTY
.
00
FIGURE 7.
MAJOR AIR POLLUTANT POINT SOURCE LOCATIONS.
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9
geographic location of the major point sources.
The majority of
the point sources lie within the city of Birmingham.
AIR QUALITY ANALYSIS
Introduction
The regional approach to air resource management requires
that those jurisdictions containing the majority of the sources
of pollution in an urban area be included within a single air
quality control region.
An air quality control region should also
include jurisdictions containing the majority of the people and
property adversely affected by air pollutant emissions from those
same sources.
The core area of a region can be roughly defined
on the basis of pollutant point source locations and relative
emission densities.
However, an analysis of ambient air quality
is necessary in order that peripheral pollutant receptor areas
may be identified and included in the air quality control region.
The selection of an essentially self-contained region will result
and the region will include within its bounds virtually the entire
source-receptor system for a particular area.
By using this
approach, the possibility of pollutant cross-boundary transport
problems will be minimized.
Two approaches have been used to provide an indication of air
quality in the metropolitan Birmingham area.
The first approach
consists of a review of existing air quality data.
The second
approach involves the estimation of air quality through the use
of a meteorological diffusion model.
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Topography, Meteorology, and Measured Air Quality
Metropolitan Birmingham lies in an area of irregular
topography consisting of several ridges with intervening valleys.
The city itself lies in the Jones Valley between a series of low
ridges which extend from the northeast to the west and the Red
Mountain range which extends from the east to the southwest.
The
valley is approximately 8 miles long and 2 to 4 miles wide.
The
floor of the valley is approximately 600 feet obove sea level; the
Red Mountain range approaches a height of 600 feet above the
valley floor.
The Shades Mountain range parallels the Red Mountain range
several miles to the southwest and rises to approximately the same
height.
The terrain to the west and southwest of Birmingham is
rolling.
The hills in the Birmingham area are foothills of the
Appalachian Mountains and the Cumberland Plateau.
These hills
extend to the northeast from metropolitan Birmingham.3
The mountain-valley topography results in wind channeling and
increases the incidence of atmospheric temperature inversions in
4
the Jones Valley.
The meteorological conditions created as a result
of topographical influences are often favorable to the accumulation
5
of air pollutants.
High air pollution potential advisorys were
issued for between 50 and 60 days in the Birmingham area during a
period from 1960 to 1969.
The majority of the air sampling in the past has been conducted
within Jefferson County.
Generally, the sampling results have
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indicated that Jefferson County has an air pollution problem
and that industrial activities are the major source of this
2
problem.
Air sampling activity was undertaken during the 1956
steel strike to determine the effect of the steel industry on
suspended particulate concentrations in the ambient air.
Maximum and average suspended particulate levels were found to
increase significantly after the strike had ended.6
A Public Health Service survey of air pollution in Birmingham
was conducted in 1957.5
This survey, which consisted of a
collection and review of existing data, indicated that meteorological
conditions in the Jones Valley are conducive to high levels of air
pollution.
The survey concluded that the heavy metals industry,
particularly the steel industry: was undoubtedly the major source
of industrial air pollution.
The survey further concluded that
air pollution in Birmingham has a significant effect on visibility
on those days when atmospheric dispersion of pollutants is
restricted.
Air pollutant sampling was conducted during the summer and fall
of 1961 by the city of Birmingham and Jefferson County. with Public
Health Service assistance.
A report which set forth the results
4
of this air sampling activity concludes that gaseous pollutant
concentrations were generally low.
Mean concentrations of sulfur
dioxide and carbon monoxide were .01 ppm and 1.8 ppm respectively,
while the maximum recorded values for S02 and CO were 1.8 ppm and
12.5 ppm, respectively.
The report suggests, however, that the
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evident upward trend in motor vehicle usage and growth of other
sources of gaseous pollutants will result in increased air
pollution problems unless controlled.
Particulate pollutant levels occasionally were found to be
very high in Birmingham even during favorable pollutant
dispersion conditions.
Measured suspended particulate concen-
trations ranged from 37 ~g/m3 to 279 ~g/m3 during the duration
of the study.
The mean concentrations for suspended particulates
equalled 106 ~g/m3 during the summer sampling period and equalled
113 ~g/m3 during the fall sampling period. By comparison,
National Air Surveillance Network (NASN) data for Birmingham
indicates that the mean suspended particulate concentration for
3
the summer, 1957-1961, equalled 109 ~g/m
and for the fall,
3
1957-1961, equalled 167 ~g/m .
This same report concluded that
Birmingham had suspended particulate concentrations greater than
that of cities of equivalent size or larger, based on a comparison
of 1958 NASN data.
Dustfall measurements, which provide an indication of the
quantity of settleable particulate matter in the atmosphere,
indicated average values of 49.3 tons/mi.2-month during the summer,
and 76 tons/mi.2-month during the fall. Maximum dustfall values
. 2
recorded were 95.6 tons/m~. -month during the summer sampling period,
and 121 tons/mi.2-month during the fall sampling period.
Normal
background levels of dustfall are between 5 and 15 tons/mi.2-month.
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The Alabama Respiratory Disease and Air Pollution Study
was initiated in 1962 to provide information regarding air
quality in a number of communities in the greater Birmingham
area.
Sampling of air quality was conducted during 1964 and
1965.3
The recorded mean (geometric) annual concentration
of
suspended particulates for the entire sampling network was equal
3
to 125 ~g/m .
Suspended particulate levels were, on the average,
highest during the fall months and lowest during the spring months.
The network mean dustfall level equalled 22 tons/mi.2-month, though
stations in north and central Birmingham and Tarrant City consist-
ently reported higher levels.
Generally, seasonal variations of
suspended particulates and dustfall levels were low.
The annual mean sulfur dioxide concentration over the sampling
network equalled .002 ppm.
Definite seasonal variation in S02
levels existed, with greatest concentration recorded in the winter,
and lowest concentrations recorded during the summer months.
Generally, S02 concentrations were found to be consistently low.
At the conclusion of the Respiratory Disease and Air Pollution
Study the Jefferson County Health Department began air sampling
at various sites in and around Birmingham.
Suspended particulate
concentrations averaged 151 ~g/m3 over the entire network.2
Seasonal concentration variations were found to be small while the
highest concentrations were recorded in North and Central Birmingham,
Tarrant City, and Bessemer. Mean dustfall levels equalled
2 2
29 tons/mi. -month and varied from a low of 9.5 tons/mi. -month at
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14
Mountain Brook to a high of 87.8 tons/mi.2-month in North
Birmingham.
Sulfur dioxide levels and sulfation rates were
found to be low.
Limited air sampling was conducted in Tuscaloosa by the State
Health Department from June 1968 to May 1969.
Mean suspended
particulate concentrations at individual sites ranged from
66 to 148 ~g/m3 for the sampling period.
Diffusion Model Results
A meteorological diffusion model was used to compute sulfur
dioxide, suspended particulate, and carbon monoxide concen-
trations in the ambient air at specified receptor points.
The
model predicted these concentrations from a mathematical treatment
of air pollutant emissions and meteorological data.
The diffusion
model is based on the Gaussian diffusion equation described by
Pasquil17,8 and modified for long-term averages9,lO for application
to the multiple-source situation typical of an urban complex.
In order to determine theoretical pollutant concentrations,
it was necessary to evaluate certain meteorological input parameters
These parameters are frequency of occurrence of wind direction,
effective wind speeds for each direction, and mixing depths for
various averaging times.
Figure 8 shows the wind roses for the
*
summer, winter, and year
**
Weather Bureau data.
for the Birmingham area taken from u.S.
They represent graphically the frequency
*Averaging
Winter:
Summer:
Annual:
**Wind data
times are as follows:
December, January, and February
June, July, and August
All 12 months of the year
recorded at Birmingham Municipal
Airport
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15
WINTER
SUMMER
ANNUAL
PER CENT FREQUENCY
OF OCCURRENCE
o
5
10
15
FIGURE 8.
WIND DIRECTION PER CENT FREQUENCY OF
OCCURRENCE FOR VARIOUS AVERAGING TIMES.
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16
of occurrence of the wind from the various compass directions.
Table II presents average mixing depths for the seasons and for
*
the annual averaging period.
These mixing depths define the
volume of air above the surface through which pollutants are
allowed to mix.
The mixing depths are assumed to be constant
over the receptor grid system.
TABLE I I
Average Mixing Depths for Birmingham
by Season and Time of Day (Meters)
Morning Afternoon Average Morning
Season Average Average and Afternoon
Winter 390 1015 700
Spring 380 1630 1005
Summer 425 1825 1125
Fall 280 1410 845
Annual 370 1470 920
(4 Seasons)
The diffusion model was used to compute the ground level
concentrations of pollutants at 225 receptor points.
Their
locations were defined by an orthogonal grid system with mesh
points 15 kilometers apart.
An effective source height of 75
meters was assumed for all air pollutant point sources, while
topographical features were neglected for area-source emissions
and for the receptor points.
Since topography is an important factor influencing pollutant
dispersion, the diffusion model results presented here should be
viewed as a crude approximation of the geographic extent of the
*Computed mixing depths documented by the Holzworthll,12 and by
recent tabulations furnished to the Meteorological Program, NAPCA,
by the National Weather Record Center, ESSA.
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17
air pollution problem in greater Birmingham.
The diffusion
model isopleths in Figure 9, la, and 11 have been drawn in as
dotted lines to serve as a reminder of the approximate nature
of the model results.
Figure 9 presents winter average theoretical suspended
particulate concentrations.
Theoretical winter average SO
2
concentrations and theoretical summer average CO concentrations
are presented in Figures 10 and 11 respectively.
Generally, the
model results reflect the geographic pattern of pollutant source
locations.
The major particulate and 802 source locations are in
north and central Birmingham, and in the Tarrant City and Bessemer
areas.
Accordingly. these areas are predicted to have the greatest
suspended particulates and S02 concentrations.
In addition the
dispersion of these pollutants from the Birmingham core is predicted
to significantly affect much of the remainder of Jefferson County.
The model results indicate that Walker and Shelby Counties, and
smaller portions of Saint Clair, Tuscaloosa, and Bibb Counties,
are affected by particulate emissions from Jefferson County.
Carbon monoxide concentrations are predicted to be greatest in and
near Birmingham where vehicular traffic intensities are greatest.
The dispersion pattern presented in Figure 11 indicates that
Jefferson County CO emissions are likely to affect all or most of
the surrounding counties to varying degrees.
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18
Scale
10
In
20
M;les
30
40
Iod
"
II;
V)I/«
- CX3
V) «
V) -.I
~ «
CuI/man
Fayette
Pickens
Bibb
Chilton
FIGURE 9.
THEORETICAL SUSPENDED PARTICULATE CONCENTRATIONS IN UG/M3, WINTER AVERAGE
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19
o
~
Scale
10
In
20
M~les
30
40
,
Fayette
Cullman
Pickens
"
~/1
V)
V)I/<{
- co
V) <{
V) -J
- <{
~
Bibb
Chilton.
Hale
FIGURE 10. THEORETICAL SULFUR DIOXIDE CONCENTRATIONS IN PPM, WINTER AVERAGE
. (ASSUMED 3 HOUR HALF-LIFE).
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20
o
Scale
10
In
20
M;les
30
40
'p<:j
Fayette
Cullman
We I k e r
Pickens
,
I
I
I
I
I
I
.05 I
\
\
\,
...
...
...
"
~/~
~ ~
V)
v)/1~
- CXI
V) ~
V) -.J
- '«
~
Bibb
Chilton
FIGURE 11.. THEORETICAL CARBON MONOXIDE CONCENTRATIONS IN PPM, SUMMER AVERAGE.
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21
EVALUATION OF URBAN FACTORS
INTRODUCTION
The Clean Air Act, as amended, calls for the designation of
air quality control regions based on "jurisdictional boundaries,
urban-industrial concentrations, and other factors" to provide an
inter-governmental system for the prevention and control of air
pollution.
The designation of air quality control regions must
also be based on a consideration of existing cooperative regional
arrangements, population concentrations, location of industry, and
patterns and rates of urban growth.
The following discussion of
urban factors will present these considerations as they apply to
metropolitan Birmingham.
POPULATION DISTRIBUTION
Human activity in its many forms is the basic cause of air
pollution.
Thus, existing and potential air pollution problems
may be related to geographic areas by studying present and
projected population statistics for those areas.
Table III presents estimated 1969 population statistics for
several counties in the Birmingham area.
These statistics indi-
cate that Jefferson County, with an estimated 1969 population
of 650,000, is by far the most populated county in the study area.
The city of Birmingham, which is located in Jefferson County, has
an estimated 1969 population of 325,000 persons -- or approxi-
mately 50% of the County total.
Following Jefferson County in
size is Tuscaloosa County, with an estimated 1969 population of
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TABLE III.
PRESENT AND PROJECTED POPULATION DATA AND
MANUFACTURING EMPLOYMENT BY JURISDICTION
1969 1980 ESTIMATED 1968
LAND 1969 POPULATION 1980 POPULATION ADDITIONAL ADDITIONAL PERCENT 1968 MANUFACTURING
(~) ESTIMATED DENSITY PROJECTED DENSITY RES IDENTS RESIDENTS/MI. 2 GROOTH MANUFACTURING EMPLOYMENT
COUNTY POPULATION (persons/Mi.2) POPULATION2 {Persons/Mi. 2) 1969-1980 1969-1980 1969-1980 EMPLOYMENi3 DENSITY
Bibb 625 16,200 26 18,000 29 1,800 3 11 1,490 2
Blount 640 26,900 42 37,600 59 10,700 17 40 1,420 2
Chilton 699 26,100 37 33,700 48 7,600 11 29 1,020 1
Cu11man 743 53,700 72 64,400 87 10,700 15 20 4,390 6
Fayette 627 17,800 28 20,170 32 2,370 4 13 2,080 3
Greene 640 13,900 22 12,500 20 - 1,400 2 - 10 220 1
Hale 662 19,400 29 21,330 32 1,930 3 10 810 1
Jefferson 1,115 650,000 583 914,620 820 264,620 237 41 67,700* 61***
Pickens 887 21,100 24 22,500 25 1,400 1 7 2,140 2
Saint Clair 640 27,500 43 32,500 51 5,000 8 18 1,200 2
Shelby 798 36,000 45 44,900 56 8,900 11 25 1,908** 2
Ta11adaga 750 68,900 92 96,700 129 27,800 37 40 11,040 15
Tuscaloosa 1,338 125,000 94 162,200 120 37,200 26 30 9,990 7
Walker 808 59,000 73 67,700 84 8,700 11 15 1,887** 2
1. Commercial Atlas & Marketing Guide, 1969 Edition, Rand McNally & Company.
2. Alabama Social Sciences Advisory Committee.
3. Figures for September 1968 obtained from the Research and Statistics Division, Alabama Department of Industrial Relations.
* Includes manufacturing employment for Shelby and Walker Counties.
** 1963 data obtained from Commercial Atlas & Marketing Guide, 1969 Edition, Rand McNally & Company.
*** Jefferson County area used.
'"
'"
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23
125,000 persons.
The city of Tuscaloosa at present contains
about 75,000 persons, or 60% of the population of Tuscaloosa
County.
Of the remaining five counties which directly border
Jefferson County, Walker, Shelby, Saint Clair, Blount, and Bibb
Counties follow, in that order, in size of population.
Figure 12
indicates that Jefferson County is by far the most densely popu-
1ated county in the study area.
Tuscaloosa and Ta11adega Counties
possess approximately equal population densities as do Walker and
Cu11man Counties.
Blount, Saint Clair, and Shelby Counties
possess lesser, though nearly equal, population densities.
Table III and Figure 13 present 1980 projected populations
and population densities for the counties in the study area.
Figure 14 presents the population growth statistics between 1969
and 1980 in terms of total additional residents and additional
residents per square mile.
Jefferson County is expected to undergo
the greatest absolute growth to 1980 with about 265,000 additional
residents, followed by Tuscaloosa County with approximately 37,000
additional residents and Ta11adega County with nearly 28,000
added residents.
Percentage rates of growth to 1980 for the
various counties in the study area are presented in Table III.
The counties of Etowah and Calhoun are located to the north-
east and east of Saint Clair County.
The present populations of
these counties are 92,500 and 100,500 persons respectively, while
the population densities are, respectively, 166 and 165 persons
per square mile.
The major cities in Etowah and Calhoun counties
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24
o
Scale in M;les
10 20 30
40
! Pickens
I
0::1 21,100/24
Q.. «
;;; ~
VI II «
- cc
VI «
VI .....
i «
Fayette
36,000/45
Shelby
16,200/26
Bibb
POPULATION DENSITY IN
PERSONS/SQUARE MILE
. >100
. 75-100
rzn 50-75
D <50
FIGURE 12. 1969 ESTIMATED POPULATIONS
AND POPULATION DENSITIES
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25
o
Scale in Mdes
10 20 30
40
! Pickens
I
E/~2, 500/25
v; ~
V) II <(
- cc
V) <(
V) .....
- <{
~
18,000/29
Bibb
33,700/48
Chilton
POPULATION DENSITY IN
PERSONS/SQUARE MILE
. > 100
WJj
Ill]
D <50
75-100
50-75
FIGURE 13. 1980 PROJECTED POPULATIONS AND POPULATION
DENSITIES (SEE TABLE III FOR SOURCE
REFERENCE)
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26
o
Scale in M;les
10 20 30
40
j
! Pickens
n 1.,400/1
Ef-c(
;;; ~
V) II -c(
- cc
V)1-c(
V) ......
i -c(
Fayette
ADDITIONAL RESIDENTS/MILE2
. >25
. 15-25
r.z2J 10-15
D <10
FIGURE 14. PROJECTED TOTAL ADDITIONAL
RESIDENTS, 1969-1980
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27
Gadsden and Anniston with current populations of 53,000 and 34,000
persons, respectively.
Those two major cities and the city of
Talladega (pop. 19,500), located in Talladega County, are
separated from the Birmingham cOLe by rural and undeveloped areas
which includes a zone of counties peripheral to Jefferson.
MANUFACTURING ACTIVITY
The location of manufacturing activity is helpful in deter-
mining the size of an air quality control region since industrial
sources are major contributors of air pollutant emissions.
Manufacturing employment statistics are used as an indicator of
the geographic distribution of industrial activity.
Estimated
1968 average manufacturing employment data by county is presented
in Table III and Figure 15.
These statistics indicate that Jefferson County includes, by
far, the greatest number of workers engaged in manufacturing
activities, with over 60,000 employees.
Tuscaloosa, Talladega,
Etowah, and Calhoun Counties each contain about 10,000 manufacturing
employees.
All other counties in the study area have substantially
fewer employees engaged in manufacturing activities.
The chief industrial activity in Jefferson County is concerned
with primary metal manufacturing--chiefly iron and steel--due to
the proximity of iron ore, coal, and limestone.
Other major
industrial activity is concerned with the production of cast iron
pipe, fabricated metal products, transportation equipment, stone,
clay, and glass products, and lumber and wood products.
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o
PI
Scale in M;les
10 20 30
40
1,490/2
Bibb
MANUFACTURING EMPLOYMENT
.
W£1
EZJ
D
FIGURE 15. SEPTEMBER 1968 MANUFACTURING
EMPLOYMENT BY COUNTY
> 10,000
2,500 - 10,000
1,500 - 2,500
< 1,500
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EXISTING REGIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
The geographic extent of regional planning commissions,
councils of local governments, State-defined planning and economic
development districts, and region-wide statistical data-gathering
bases is an important consideration affecting the selection of
air quality control region boundaries.
The designation of a
region compatible with these existing regional arrangements is
desirable since the implementation of a regional air pollution
control effort is dependent upon cooperation at the various
levels of government.
Further, region-wide planning programs
may be capable of providing assistance in the development of
air quality standards and a plan to implement those standards.
Figure 16 shows the boundaries of the Standard Metropolitan
Statistical Areas (SMSA's) in the study area.
The concept of
SMSA's has been developed to meet the need for the presentation
of general-purpose statistics by agencies of the Federal
13
Government, and by State and local governments. Each SMSA
includes at least one city of 50,000 inhabitants, the county in
which that city lies, and adjacent counties which are found to
be metropolitan in character and economically and socially
integrated with the county of the central city.
Objective criteria
of a quantitative character have been established to determine
the existence of such multi-jurisdictional interdependency.
The Birmingham SMSA consists of Jefferson, Shelby. and
The Tuscaloosa and Gadsden SMSA's respectively
Walker Counties.
include Tuscaloosa and Etowah Counties.
Shelby and Walker Counties
were added to the definition of the Birmingham SMSA in March 1967,
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30
o
JI'1
Scale in
10 20
Mdes
30
40
! Pickens
I
~/«
Vi ~
en II «
- co
en «
en -'
i «
(ullman
Fayette
Bibb
Figure 16.
STANDARD METROPOLITAN STATISTICAL AREA (SMSA) BOUNDARIES
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31
while Tuscaloosa became the central city of a new SMSA in
August 1960.
The existence of a multi-county SMSA for
metropolitan Birmingham provides an indication of the strong
economic and social relationship which exists between
Jefferson County and the contiguous counties of Walker and
Shelby.
*
In the latter part of 1968, a Task Force
was appointed
to study the problem of sub-State districting for planning and
development purposes.
The Task Force concluded14 that sub-State
districting in Alabama should be undertaken promptly.
The Task
Force made recommendations that the seven areas defined by the
Bureau of Business Research of the University of Alabama for
economic analysis and planning be used as a district framework
for further discussion with State agencies and local government.
Such an area around Birmingham includes Blount, Chilton,
Jefferson, Shelby, Saint Clair, Walker and Winston Counties.
The Task Force further recommended that consideration should be
given to the multi-Jurisdictional planning organizations that
have been established in Alabama.
The Task Force also recommended
that each district should have a viable organizational structure
(commission) to serve the district-wide planning. and development
needs of local government.
*
Task Force on Sub-State Districting of the Alabama Program
Development Committee
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Senate Bill No. 378 was enacted by the 1969 Alabama
Legislature to "provide for the delineation and designation of
State planning and development districts and to authorize the
governing bodies of counties and municipalities to establish
regional planning and development commissions compatible with
such State districts."
In creating this Act, several of the
recommendations of the Task Force were adopted by the
Legislature.
The Act provides that the Governor shall, within twelve
months of the effective date of the Act, define and designate
by Executive Order, State planning and development districts
which embrace all of the cerritory within the State of Alabama.
In defining districts the Governor is directed to consult with
the governmental units concerned and to consider factors such
as community of .interest, geographic features and natural boundaries,
patterns of communication and urban development, population, social
and economic similarity, and boundaries of existing regional
planning commissions and councils of government.
At the present
time, no state planning and development districts have been
designated by the Governor.
Senate Bill 378 further provides for the formation of
regional planning and development commissions pursuant to the
designation of State planning and development districts.
Governmental units within a district may adopt a written agreement
for the formation of a regional planning commission and may
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33
petition the Governor to certify such a commission for a
region located entirely within a State planning and development
district.
Regional planning commissions, except in the case of
interstate planning commissions, are required t~ consist of at
least three contiguous counties and a population of at least
100,000.
In addition, existing planning commissions and
councils of governments organized prior to the Act may be
certified by the Governor as meeting the requirements of the
Act for regional planning and development commissions for no
more than two years after the effective date of the Act.
The Act empowers and authorizes regional planning and
development commissions to carryon continuous comprehensive
planning, prepare regional plans, provide planning and technical
assistance to governmental units and planning and development
agencies within the regions, to coordinate regional planning
activities with those of the State and neighboring regions, and
review and comment on applications by governmental units for
State and Federal financial assistance.
Figure 17 shows the boundaries of the various planning
commissions and councils of local governments which presently
exist in the Birmingham study area.
The Tuscaloosa Area Council
of Local Governments consists of Pickens and Tuscaloosa Counties.
Cullm~n County, to the north of Jefferson County, is included in
the North Central Alabama Regional Planning and Development
Commission, along with Morgan and Lawrence Counties.
The Coosa
Valley Planning Agency includes Talladega, Calhoun, Etowah,
Cherokee, and Cleburne Counties.
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o
1"1
Scale in M;les
10 20 30
.40
NORTH CENTRAL ALABAMA REGIONAL
ING AND DEVELOPMENT COMMISS ION
Fayette
Bibb
Figure 17.
PLANNING CCMMISSION AND COUNCIL OF GOVERNMENT BOUNDARIES
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35
The Birmingham Regional Planning Commission (BRPC)
includes within its jurisdiction, five counties:
Blount,
Jefferson, Shelby, Saint Clair, and Walker.
The Birmingham-
Jefferson County Regional Planning Commission (BJCRPC) formerly
had planning and development responsibility within Jefferson
County alone.
The five-county joint planning agency was
formally created on April 24, 1969, following extended
consultation and subsequent agreement among representatives
of Jefferson and surrounding counties, municipal officials,
and the BJCRPC.
It was at this time that the BJCRPC was
disbanded.
The Birmingham Regional Planning Commission has been
certified under Section 9 of Senate Bill 378 as meeting the
requirements of the Bill for regional planning and development
commissions.
In addition, the Commission has been certified
as the five-county area-wide review agency for Federal assistance
under Section 204 of the Demonstration Cities and Metropolitan
Development Act of 1966, and in accordance with procedures
formulated by Bureau of the Budget Circular No. A-95.
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36
THE PROPOSED REGION
Subject to the scheduled consultation, the Secretary,
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare proposes to
designate an air quality control region for the Birmingham,
Alabama intrastate urban area.
The proposed Region consists of
the following jurisdictions in the State of Alabama:
Blount County
Jefferson County
Saint Clair County
Shelby County
Walker County
As so proposed, the Metropolitan Birmingham Intrastate Air
Quality Control Region would. consist of the territorial area
encompassed by the outermost boundaries of the above jurisdictions
and the territorial area of all municipalities located therein
and as defined in Section 302(f) of the Clean Air Act, as amended
(42 D.S.C. l857h(f»~
The boundaries of the proposed Region are
shown in Figure 18.
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37
o
Scale
10
In
20
M;les
30
40
Fayette
Cullman
Pickens
Bibb
Hale
Figure 18.
THE PROPOSED METROPOLITAN BIRMINGHAM INTRASTATE
AIR QUALITY CONTROL REGION
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38
DISCUSSION OF PROPOSAL
To implement a successful air resource management program,
an air quality control region should be large enough to encompass
most pollution sources as well as most people and property
affected by those sources.
The boundaries should also include those
locations where present development creates, or where projected
urbanization and industrialization will create, significant air
pollution problems.
Finally, the proposed region should be
compatible with or hepefully even foster unified and cooperative
governmental administration of the air resource.
The proposed
Metropolitan Birmingham Intrastate Air Quality Control Region
was designed to satisfy these requirements to the greatest degree
possible~
The evaluation of the technical aspects of the Birmingham
air pollution problem consisted of a review of air pollutant
emissions and air quality data and the application of a
meteorological diffusion model.
The emissions survey revealed that sources lying within
Birmingham, and within the cities on the fringe of Birmingham,
are responsible for the bulk of the pollutants emitted within
Jefferson County.
Survey data also indicates that there are
significant sources .and source areas located sufficiently close
to the borders of Jefferson County (both within and without
Jefferson County) so that inter-county air pollution problems
may exist.
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39
The major portion of all air sampling in the study area
has taken place within Jefferson County.
The sampling results
have indicated, very generally, that Jefferson County has an
air pollution problem due chiefly to industrial activities.
The greatest concentrations of pollutants in Jefferson County
are found in the industrialized portions of Birmingham.
Relatively high concentrations are also found in several cities
peripheral to Birmingham.
Generally, the single pollutant
causing the most severe pollution problems in Birmingham is
particulate matter.
Levelp of both susp~nded and settleable
particulate matter have been inordinately pigh for a city of
the population size of Birmingham.
The only additional air sampling data in the study area
has been collected in the City of Tuscaloosa.
Measurements at
several sampling sites have revealed the existence of relatively
high concentrations of suspended particulates.
Neither the
overall extent of the problem in Tuscaloosa nor its relationship
to the Birmingham air pollution problem are known, however.
The diffusion model was utilized to determine theoretical
dispersion characteristics of air pollution arising from sources
within Jefferson County.
Because of topographical considerations,
the equal-concentration contours produced by the model were
viewed as a rough approximation of long-term air pollution
conditions in greater Birmingham.
The greatest concentratiqns
predicted by the model occur over those locations responsible
for the greatest contributions of air pollutant emissions--the
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40
industrial centers of north and central Birmingham.
Also,
predicted concentrations are relatively high over the remainder
of Birmingham and larger portions of Jefferson County.
The
model results also indicate that the potential exists for
peripheral counties to be significantly affected by Jefferson
County air pollutant emissions.
In summary. the engineering evaluation indicates that
Jefferson is of necessity the core county for future regional
air pollution control efforts.
The nature and severity of inter-
county air pollution problems caused by Birmingham sources or by
sources located at or near the Jefferson County border is not
known precisely.
However, this lack of quantitative data should
not preclude inclusion of surrounding counties in the R~gion
based on additional nonengineering criteria.
Statistics indicate that Jefferson is and will remain the
most populated county in the study area.
The city of Birmingham
accounts for about one-half of the population of Jefferson County
and for the majority of the industry in the county.
Tuscaloosa
is the most populated county peripheral to Jefferson.
The city
of Tuscaloosa, which forms an urban center distinct from
Birmingham, contains the majority of the population and industry
in Tuscaloosa County.
The remaining five counties which border
Jefferson are less densely populated than is Tuscaloosa County.
The highly populat~d cities of Gadsden, Anniston, and Talladega,
which are located to the east and northeast of Birmingham, are
separated from Birmingham by a county-wide corridor.
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41
Birmingham is the central city for a Standard Metropolitan
Statistical Area (SMSA) which includes Jefferson, Walker, and
Shelby Counties.
Tuscaloosa is the central city of a separate
SMSA which is Tuscaloosa County.
Similarly, Gadsden is the
central city of a one-county SMSA, which is Etowah County.
On
the basis of the interdependency of Jefferson, Shelby, and
Walker Counties indicated by the designation of an SMSA, it
appears logical to conclude that the Region should encompass
at least those three counties.
Senate Bill 378 was enacted by the 1969 Alabama Legislature
to "provide for the delineation and designation of state planning
and development districts and to authorize the governing bodies
of counties and municipalities to establish regional planning and
development commissions compatible with such state districts."
The Bill provides that planning and development districts should
be as large as practical consistent with designated criteria, but
should include at least three contiguous counties and a minimum
population of 100,000.
To date no State planning and development
districts have been designated by the Governor of Alabama.
The Birmingham Regional Planning Commission (BRPC) has been
certified by the Governor under section 9 of Senate Bill 378 as
meeting its requirements for regional planning and development
commissions.
The BRPC includes within its jurisdiction the
countie~ of Jefferson, Blount, Saint Clair, Shelby, and Walker.
Because of the acknowledged interdependence of these five
counties, indicated by the formation of the BRPC, these same five
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42
counties have been recommended for inclusion in the proposed
Birmingham Air Quality Control Region.
The designation of
this five-county region should serve to encourage the most
effective use of State and local resources toward the solution
of the problem of air pollution.
Because of the nature of the problem of air pollution, there
is always the possibility that pollutant transport into or out
of an established region may exist.
An air quality control
region can never be completely self-contained with respect to sources
and receptors of air pollution.
The five-county Region proposed
by the Federal Government is considered to be the most cohesive
and yet inclusive area within which an effective regional effort
can be mounted to prevent and control air pollution.
Official designation of the Region will follow the formal
Consultation with appropriate State and local officials, and after
due consideration of comments presented for the record at the
Consultation or of those written comments received by the
Commissioner of the National Air Pollution Control Administration.
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43
REFERENCES
1.
Guidelines for the Development of Air Quality Standards
and Implementation Plans. U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control
Administration, Washington, D.C., May 1969.
2.
Robison, C. B., et al. Defining the Problem of Air
Pollution in Metropolitan Birmingham. Jefferson County
Department of Health, Air Pollution Control Program,
Birmingham, Alabama, June 1967.
3.
Robison, C. B., et al. Alabama Respiratory Disease
and Air Pollution Study, II. Air Pollution Patterns
in the Greater Birmingham Area. Archieves of Environ-
mental Health, 15:703-727.
4.
A Pilot Study of Air Pollution in Birmingham, Alabama.
A joint study by the City of Birmingham, Jefferson
County Department of Health, and the Public Health
Service. Technical Report No. A62-22, U.S. Department
of Health, Education, and Welfare, Cincinnati, Ohio,
May 1962.
5.
Keagy, D. M., Scheuneman, J.J. Air Pollution in the
Birmingham, Alabama Area. Technical Report No.
A58-8, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, Public Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1958.
6.
Tabor, E. C. Effects of the 1956 Steel Strike on Air
Pollution Levels in Seve;;:J:'C;~unities. Presented at
the Annual Meeting, APCA, Philadelphia, Pa., May 1958.
7.
Pasquill, F. "The Estimation of the Dispersion of
Windborne Material," Meteorology Magazine, 90, 33-40,
1961
8.
Pasquill, F. Atmospheric Diffusion, Van Nostrand Co.,
New York, New York, 190 pp., 1962.
9.
Public Health Service. Workbook of Atmospheric Dispersion
Estimates. Publication No. 999-AP-26, Environmental
Health Series, U.S. DHEW, National Center for Air Pollution
Control, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1967.
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44
10.
Martin, D. 0., Takvart, J.A. "A General Atmospheric
Diffusion Model for Estimating the Effects OTh Air
Quality of One or More Sources," Paper No. 68-148,
61st Annual Meeting, APCA, St. Paul, Minnesota,
June 1968.
11.
Holzworth, G.C. "Mixing Depths, Wind Speeds and
Air Pollution Potential for Selected Locations in
the United States," J. Appl. Meteor., No. .6,
pp. 1039-1044, December 19670
12.
Holzworth, G. C. "Estimates of Mean Maximum Mixing
Depths in the Contiguous United States," Mon.
Weather Rev. 92, No.5, pp. 235-242, May 1964.
13.
Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas. Executive
Office of the President, Bureau of the Budget, 1967.
U.S. Government Printing Office, 1967-0-257-095.
14.
Report on Sub-State Districting for Planning and
Development for Alabama. Alabama Program Development
Office, Task Force on Sub-State Districting. February
1969.
u u.s. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1970-395-672/5043
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