REPORT FOR CONSULTATION
ON THE
HAWAIIAN ISLANDS
INTRASTATE AIR QUALITY CONTROL REGION
(HAWAII)
S0 DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE
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REPORT FOR CONSULTATION
ON THE
HAWAIIAN ISLANDS
INTRASTATE AIR QUALITY CONTROL REGION
(HAWAII)
U 0 S 0 DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE
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PREFACE
The Clean Air Act, as amended, directs the Secretary of
Health, Education, and Welfare to designate "air quality control
regions" to provide a basis for the adoption of regional ambient
air quality standards and the implementation of those standards.
The Act stipulates that the designation of a region shall be
preceded by consultation with appropriate State and local
authorities.
This report is intended to provide background
information for a formal consultation.
It proposes boundaries
for the Hawaiian Islands Intrastate Air Quality Control Region
and discusses the factors which are the basis of the boundary
proposal.
The Region* boundaries proposed in this report reflect con-
sideration of available and pertinent information.
However, the
proposed boundaries remain subject to revisions suggested during
the consultation with State and local authorities.
Formal desig-
nation of the Region will be made only after a careful review of
all opinions and suggestions submitted during tne consultation
process.
The National Air Pollution Control Administration appreciates.
assistance received from the several agencies of the State of Hawaii
including the Air Sanitation Branch of the State Department of
Health, and the State Department of Planning and Economic Development.
"k
For the purposes of this report, the word "region", when capitalized,
will refer to the proposed Hawaiian Islands Intrastate Air Quality
Control Region.
i
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION
THE REGIONAL APPROACH....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
DESIGNATION OF AIR QUALITY CONTROL REGIONS..........
3
EVALUATION OF ENGINEERING FACTORS
POLLUTANT EMISSIONS INVENTORY.......................
11
AIR QUALITY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
EVALUATION OF URBAN FACTORS
INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
POPULATION DISTRIBUTION.............................
26
MANUFACTURING AND GENERAL ECONOMIC ACTIVITY.........
30
EXISTING REGIONAL ARRANGEMENTS...................... 33
EXISTING AIR POLLUTION CONTROL PROGRAMS............. 34
FEDERAL INSTALLATIONS IN HAWAII..................... 36
THE PROPOSED REGION...................................... 39
DISCUS S ION OF PROPOSAL................................... 40
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1
INTRODUCTION
THE REGIONAL APPROACH
Air pollution in the urban areas of the United States is a
regional problem which frequently extends across State and local
governmental boundaries.
Since air pollution problens are rarely
confined to any single municipality or county, successful control
requires coordinated planning, standard setting, and enforcement
by the several political jurisdictions which share a cornmon
problem.
To date, State and local governments across the Nation
have only begun to develop a regional approach to air pollution
control.
The Clean Air Act, as amended, provides a regional approach
which depends upon coordination and cooperation among all levels
of government; municipal, county, State, and Federal.
To set in
motion the machinery for regional air pollution control, the
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare designates air quality
control regions, issues air quality criteria, and publishes reports
on control techniques.
The region designation identifies those
State and local jurisdicttons which will be involved in a regional
air pollution control effort.
The air quality criteria indicate
the extent to which various concentrations of air pollutants are
harmful to health and damaging to prdperty.
The reports on
control techniques provide informa,tion on the costs and effectiveness
of various techniques for controlling air pollutant emissions.
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2
After the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
completes these initial steps, State governments adopt ambient
air quality standards and develop plans for implementation of those
standards for areas within air quality control regions.
An air
quality standard defines the desired limit on the concentration
of a pollutant in the ambient air of a region.
It represents the
level of air quality which the regional control program will
attempt to achieve.
An implementation plan is a blueprint of the
steps which will be taken to insure achievement of the air quality
standards within a reasonable time.
The Governors have 90 days
either from the time that they are furnished the criteria and
control technology reports or from the time that a region is
designated by the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare---
whichever occurs last---to submit letters indicating their intent
to set standards.
They have an additional 180 days to set the
standards, and another 180 days to develop plans for implementing
those standards.,
The procedure for setting standards includes a
public hearing which allows residents of a region to express their
views concerning desired standards.
The Department of Health, Education, and Welfare reviews air
quality standards and implementation plans in order to ascertain
their consistency with the provisions of the Clean Air Act.
When air quality standards and implementation plans are
approved, States proceed to prevent and control air pollution in
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3
accordance with those standards and plans.
This system for
establishing a regional approach to air pollution control is
outlined in Figure 1.
DESIGNATION OF AIR QUALITY CONTROL REGIONS
Designation of an air quality control region is one of the
first steps in the regional approach to air pollution control.
Section l07(a) (2) of the Clean Air Act, as amended, directs
The Secretary, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare to
make such designations.
The portions of the section relevant
to this discussion state:
"...The Secretary, after consultation with appropriate
State and local authorities shall...designate air quality
control regions based on jurisdictional boundaries, urban
industrial concentrations, and other factors including
atmospheric areas necessary to provide adequate imple-
mentation of air quality standards. The Secretary may...
revise the designation of such regions...The Secretary
shall immediately notify the Governor or Governors of
the affected.Sfate or States of such designation. II
Procedure For Designation of Regions
Figure 2 illustrates the procedures used by the National Air Pollution
Control Administration (NAPCA) to designate air quality control
regions.
After evaluating relevant technical and urban factors, the
National Air Pollution Control Administration publi~hes a proposed
delineation of the region boundaries.
At the same time NAPCA sets
a time and place for a consultation meeting ~nd distributes to State
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HEW DESIGNATES
AI R QUALITY
CONTROL REGIONS.
HEW DEVELOPS AND
PUBLISHES AIR
QUALITY CRITERIA
BASED ON SCIENTIFIC
EVIDENCE OF AIR
POLLUTION EFFECTS.
HEW PREPARES
AND PUBLISHES
REPORTS ON
AVAILABLE CONTROL
TECHNIQUES
STATES INDICATE
THEIR INTENT
TO SET STANDARDS. (PUBLIC
HEARINGS)
STATES SET
AIR QUALITY
STANDARDS
FOR THE AIR
QUALITY CONTROL
REGIONS.
STATES SUBMIT
STANDARDS FOR
HEW REVIEW.
~
STATES ESTABLISH
COMPREHENSIVE PLANS
FOR IMPLEMENTING
AI R QUALITY
STANDARDS.
STATES SUBMIT
IMPLEMENTATION PLANS
FOR HEW REVIEW.
STATES ACT TO CONTROL
AIR POLLUTION.IN.ACCORDANCE
WITH AI R QUALITY STANDARDS
AND PLANS FOR IMPLEMENTATION.
Figure 1 FLOW DIAGRAM FOR ACTION TO CONTROL AIR POLLUTION ON A REGIONAL
BASIS, UNDER THE AIR QUALITY ACT.
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r c'" E~G1:~E,RI~G E~ALUATION
Q ..:..oIS"ION.... IN \/E,JTOR ,
.. TOPOGRAPHY
. METEOROLOGY
(II AIR QUALITY ANALYS:S
EXISTING AIR QUALITY DATA
DIFFUSION MODEL OUTPUT
PRELIMINARY
DELINEATION
OF REGIONS
CONSUL TATION
. WITH STATE AND
LOCAL OFFICIALS
URBAN FACTORS EVALUAT:CN
.4 ~
~ JURISDICTIONAL BOUNDARIES
~ URBAN-INDUSTRIAL CONCENTRATIONS
. COOPERATIVE REGIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
. PATTERNS AND RATES OF GROWTH
. EXISTING STATE AND LOCAL AIR POLLUTION
CONTROL PROGRAMS & LEGISLATION
Figure 2. FLOW DIAGRAM FOR THE DESIGNATION OF AIR QUALITY CONTROL REGIONS.
FORMAL
DESIGNATION BY
SECRETARY-HEW
------.
V1
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6
and local authorities a report of the evaluation study (such
as this "Report for Consultation") which includes the boundary
proposal.
At the consultation meeting State and local authorities
are encouraged to present fully their views and suggestions con-
cerning the proposed boundaries of the region.
Interested parties
who do not have official status may submit comments in written
form for the record.
After careful review of all suggestions and
opinions submitted for the record by interested parties, the
Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare makes a formal desig-
nation of the region boundaries and notifies the Governorts) of
the State(s) affected by the designation.
The Size of a Region
As stipulated in Section 107 (a) (2), the designation of air
quality control regions should be based on "jurisdictional
boundaries, urban-industrial concentrations, and other factors
including atmospheric areas necessary to provide adequate imple-
mentation of air quality standards."
This language suggests a
number of objectives which are important in determining how large
an air quality control region should be.
Basically, these ob-
jectives can be divided into three separate categories.
First, a region should be self-contained with respect to air
pollution sources and receptors.
In other words, a region should
include most of the important sources in the area as well as most
of the people and property affected by those sources.
I
In this
way, all the major elements of the regional problem will lie within
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7
one unified administrative jurisdiction.
Unfortunately, since
air
pollutants can travel long distances, it is impractical if
not impossible to delineate regions which are completely self-
contained.
The air over a region will usually have at least
trace amounts of pollutants from external sources.
During
episodic conditions, such contributions from external sources
may even reach significant levels.
Conversely, air pollution
generated within a region and transported out of it can affect
external receptors to some degree.
It would be impractical
and inefficient to make all air quality control regions large
enough to encompass these low-level trace effects.
The geographic
extent of trace effects overestimates the true problem area which
should be the focus of air pollution control efforts.
Thus, the
first objective,
that a region be self-contained, becomes a
question of relative magnitude and frequency.
The dividing line
between "important influence" and "trace effect" will be a matter
of judgment.
The judgment should be based on estimates of the
impact a source has upon a region, and the level of pollution
to which receptors are subjected.
In this respect, annual and
seasonal data on pollutant emi~sions and ambient air concentrations
are a better measure of relative influence than short term data on
episodic conditions.
The second general objective requires that region boundaries
be designed to meet not only present conditions but also future
conditions.
In other words, the region should include areas where
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industrial and residential expansion are likely to create air
pollution problems in the foreseeable future.
This objective
requires careful consideration of existing metropolitan develop-
ment plans, expected population growth, and projected industrial
expansion.
Such considerations should result in the designation
of regions which will contain the sources and receptors of
regional air pollution for a number of years to come.
Of course,
region boundaries need not be permanently fixed, once designated.
Boundaries should be reviewed periodically and altered when
changing conditions warrant readjustment.
The third objective is that region boundaries should be
compatible with and even foster unified and cooperative governmental
administration of the air resource throughout the region.
Air
pollution is a regional problem which often extends across several
municipal, county, and even State boundaries.
Clearly, the
collaboration of several governmental jurisdictions is prerequisite
to the solution of the problem.
Therefore, the region should be de-
lineated
in a way which encourages regional cooperation among
the various governmental bodies involved in air pollution control.
In this regard, the existing pattern of governmental cooperation
on the whole range of urban problems may become an important
consideration.
Certainly the pattern of cooperation among existing
air pollution control programs is a relevant factor.
In general,
administrative considerations dictate that governmental juris-
dictions should not be divided.
Although it would be impractical
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9
to preserve State jurisdictions undivided, usually it is possible
to preserve the unity of county governments by including or
excluding them in their entirety.
Occasionally, even this would
be impractical due to a county's large size, wide variation in
level of development, or striking topographical features.
To the extent that any two of the above three objectives lead
to incompatible con,~lusions concerning region boundaries, the
region must represent a reasonable compromise.
A region should
represent the best way of satisfying the three objectives
simultaneously.
As noted above, the evaluation of relevant technical factors
and urban factors forms the basis of the boundary proposals
published by NAPCA.
The evaluation of technical factors is designed
to indicate, where possible, the location of pollution sources and
the geographic extent of serious pollutant concentrations in the
ambient air.
The quantity, locations, and nature of air pollutant
emissions are determined by conducting an inventory of the various
pollutant generators in an area.
The transport and distribution
of pollutants in the ambient air are analyzed on the basis of
measured air quality data, the location of emissions, meteorological
data, and topographic information.
A mathematical diffusion model,
which predicts ambient pollution concentrations from information.
on emissions and meteorology, can be used in areas where irregular
topographical features would not invalidate the theoretical model.
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10
As a whole, the technical study indicates how large the air. quality
control region must be in order to encompass most pollution sources
and most people and property affected by those sources.
The study of urban factors encompasses a different set of
considerations.
It reviews existing governmental jurisdictions,
the location of urban and industrial concentrations, ~xpected
patterns of urban growth, cooperative .regional arrangements,
existing State and local air pollution control programs, and
other associated factors.
The study of urban factors is designed
to indicate how large a region must be in order to encompass
expected regional growth and to encourage cooperation among
political units in controlling air pollution.
The body of this report contains a proposal for the
boundaries of the Hawaiian Islands Intrastate Air Quality Control
Region and outlines the evaluation of technical and urban factors
which was the basis of the proposal.
The report is intended to
serve as the background document for the formal consultation with
appropriate State and local authorities. .
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11
EVALUATION OF ENGINEERING FACTORS
POLLUTANT EMIS S IONS INVENTORY
The compilation of an air pollutant emissions inventory makes
possible the correlation of pollutant emissions by type and quantity
with specific geographic locations.
This procedure is basic to a
study of the nature of the air pollution problem in any area.
An emissions inventory of the State of Hawaii was conducted by the
National Air Pollution Control Administration in cooperation with the
Hawaii State Department of Health. 1 The Public Health Service rapid
survey technique was used for the estimation of pollutant emissions.
These emissions were calculated from data representative of the year 1968.
Hawaii consists of four counties* which include the eight major
islands within the State (shown in Figure 3).
Table I provides a
county breakdown of sulfur oxide, total particulate, carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxide emissions by source category and type.
As indicated in Table I, the majority of the pollutant emissions are
attributable to sources located on the Island of Oahu.
For this
reason the emissions survey was conducted in a more detailed manner
for Oahu.
Table I indicates, however, that in most cases the remaining
1.
State of Hawaii Air Pollutant Emission Inventory. U.S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare; Public Health Service; National Air
Pollution Control Administration: Durham, N.C., January, 1970.
*
Kalawao County is part of the Island of Maui and is under the direct
jurisdiction of the State government for most administrative purposes.
It is considered as a distinct county only by the State Judicial
Administration. Kalawao County is officially considered to, be part
of Maui County for statistical purposes. For these reasons air
pollutant emissions from Kalawao County are included in the Maui
County totals.
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TABLE 1. SUMMARY OF AIR POLLUTANT EMISSIONS IN THE STATE OF HAWAII, 1968 (TONS/YEAR)
Transportation Fuel Combustion in Stationary Sources SoUd Waste Disposal
Residential Steam- Industrial ,....
N
Motor Commercial Electric Open- Incin- Process Evaporative Agricu1- County
COUNTY Vehicles Aircraft Vessels Institutional Industry Utility Burning eration Losses Losses ture Total 1
Hawaii 100 N 170 180 13 3,200 60 N N N 1,200 4,900
'" CD Honolulu 760 N 1,760 2,300 5,100 30,500 570 180 6,400 N 1,300 48,900
.a ~ Kauai 50 N 70 70 9 5 20 N N N 580 800
....... Maui 70 N 110 140 14 2,400 50 N N N 2,600 5,400
a ~ Total 980 N 2,110 2,690 5,140 36,100 700 180 6,400 N 5,680 60,000
~ CD Hawaii 170 90 25 40 6 80 940 N N N 16,200 17,600
:. 2: Honolulu 1,100 600 220 220 440 1,010 9,000 660 4,400 N 9,600 27,200
.... ~ Kauai 70 13 7 17 4 2 390 N N N 12,100 12,600
:1 g Maui 110 100 17 23 7 70 760 N N N 12 , 000 13, 100
0'" Total 1,450 800 270 300 460 1,160 11,090 660 4,400 N 49,900 70,500
.......
Hawaii 22,700 3,100 42 3 1 N 5,200 N N N 26,000 57,000
~ Honolulu 184,000 9,800 280 19 26 4 47,800 1,300 40 N 19,000 262,300
g ~ Kauai 10,500 36 9 N 1 N 2,000 N N N 25,000 37,500
~ g Maui 15,900 1,800 21 1 1 N 4,000 N N N 21,000 42,700
3 ~ Total 233,100 14,740 350 20 30 N 59,000 1,300 40 N 91,000 399,500
Hawaii 2,900 660 23 2 1 40 1,800 N N 1,400 810 7,600
CD Honolulu 23,800 2,200 190 18 94 320 16,900 70 1,100 13,200 610 5R,500
b g Kaud 1,350 39 6 N 1 1 720 N N 580 800 3,500
~ ~ Maui 2,100 380 15 1 1 20 1,400 N N 1,020 730 5,700
»'" Total 30,150 3,280 230 20 100 380 20,820 70 1,100 16,200 2,950 75,300
Ie <)
Hawaii 1,300 210 60 230 40 780 660 N N N 1,100 4,400
t:: Honolulu 10,000 870 560 950 2,500 10,500 6,200 190 1,200 N 970 33,900
OJ
g': Kauai 580 18 20 90 23 16 260 N N N 920 1,900
1:::::! Maui 880 150 40 120 35 650 520 N N N 1,800 4,200
;~ Total 12,760 1,250 680 1,390 2,600 11,950 7,640 190 1,200 N 4,790 44,400
NOTE: Ka1awao County Emissions Included in Maui County Totals.
1. Rounded Totals
N = Negligible
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KAOAI
. LlHUE
o
I I I
. 25
I I I
50
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75
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Miles
State af Hawaii.
MOLOKAI
~
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KAHOOLAWE
100
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14
counties contribute significant quantities of the various pollutants
to the State total.
Following is a brief discussion of the results
of the Hawaiian Islands emissions survey.
Honolulu County, which is coterminous with the Island of Oahu,
and which contains the capital City ot Honolulu, contains 80% of the
population and about 72% of the manufacturing employment in the State.
Approximately 82% of the SOx' 38% of the particulate matter, 66% of the
CO, 78% of the hydrocarbons and 76% of the NOx emissions in the State
are from sources in Honolulu County.
The primary source of SOx in
Oahu are the three power plants which burn residual fuel oil.
These
power plant locations are shown in Figure 4 along with other major point
source locations on Oahu.
The power plants are also responsible for a
significant share of the NOx emitted on the Island.
Motor vehicles are
responsible for the majority of the CO emissions and a major portion
of the total NOx and hydrocarbon emissions.
The open-burning of solid
wastes is responsible for a substantial share of the total particulate,
carbon monoxide, hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxide emissions.
In addition,
cane field burning and bagasse incineration create large quantities of
particulate emissions.
Industrial processes are substantial sources of SOx
and total particulates.
Source locations within the Island of Oahu were accurately determined
by use of the grid coordinate system shown in Figure 5.
Figures 6, 7, and
8 present emission densities for SOx' total particulates, and CO, based
on the Oahu grid system.
SOx emissions are greatest in the grid zones
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a : AGRICULTURE
a
o 1 2 3 4 S
. I . I I .
Miles
o S
I I . . . .
r
K ilomelers
I
i :
INDUSTRY
g : GOVERNMENT & INSTITUTION
POWER PlANT
s :
r : OPEN DUMP & INCINERATOR
FIGURE
4.
LOCATION OF POINT SOURCES ON THE ISLAND OF OAHU
10'
.
I-'
VI
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t-'
'"
60
71
68
69
61
64
65
66
52 53 54 55 56 57 58 0 1 2 3 4 5
. . . I
Miles
0 5 10
I I I . . I ~
44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 Kilometers
WAHIA A
35 36 37 38 39 40 41
25 26 27 28 29 30 31 2370000
580000
20
21
11
12
13
2360000
600000
610000
620000
630000
2350000
640000
FIGURE
,-
:J.
GRID COORDINATE SYSTEM FOR THE ISLAND OF OAHU
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o < 0.01
0 0.01 - 0.05
Q 0.05 - 0.1
rID 0.1 - 1.0
.:.:
fI) :> 1.0
o 2 3 4 5
. . . .
Mil..
0 5 10
I I I I I I
... ... Kilometers
SULFUR OXIDE EMISSIONS,
ton sl m i 2-.doy
Figure 6.
Sulfur. 9xides emission density map of the Island of Oahu. 1968.
~
-..J
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o
2
3
Mil..
o
I I I .
5
I I
Kilomefer.
ARTICULATE MA TTER EMISSIONS,
ton s/m i 2.day
o < 0.02
o 0.02 - 0.1
o 0.1 - 0.3
fill 0.3 - 0.6
II > 0.6
Figure 7.
Particulate matter emission density map of the Island of Oahu, 1968.
I-'
CX)
4
I
5
I
10
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II > 8.0
o 2 3 4 5
. . . .
Miles
0 5 10
. I I . I I
Kilometers
CARBON MONOXIDE EMISSIONS,
tons/m;2-doy
o < 0.1
o 0.1 - 0.5
o 0.5 - 2.0
I!J 2.0 - 8.0
Figure 8.
Carbon monoxide emission density map of the Island of Oahu, 1968.
I-'
\D
I
I
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20
containing the power plants and a petroleum refinery.
Particulate
emissions similarly are greatest in the locations of major point
sources and at the location of sugar mill and cane field-burning
activities.
Carbon monoxide densities are highly related to the
urban patterns on Oahu.
Thus, CO emissions are, as expected, greatest
in the core of the City of Honolulu.
The County of Hawaii ranked second to Oahu in quantity of
pollutants emitted (91,500 tons/year).
The major contributors to
pollutant emissions on the Island of Hawaii are power plants (SOx),
motor vehicles (CO, NOx' and hydrocarbons) and agricultural activities
(particulate matter, CO and NOx). . The precise contributions of each
pollutant from the various sources may be found in Table I.
Maui County, which consists of four islands, was responsible for a
total of 71,100 tons of pollutants in 1968.
The major sources of SOx
in these islands are stationary fuel combustion sources and agricultural
activities.
Agricultural activities also contribute 92% of the total
particulate emissions.
Motor vehicles and agriculture contribute 86%
of the CO emitted, while NOx and hydrocarbon emissions are distributed
among the various sources.
The primary sources of all the five air pollutants inventoried in
Kauai County, which is comprised of two islands, are agricultural
operations and motor vehicles.
All other source types are negligible in
comparison.
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21
AIR QUALITY
Introduction
The regional approach to air ~esource management requires
that those jurisdictions containing the majority of the sources
of pollution in a metropolitan area be included within a single
air quality control region.
A region should also include juris-
dictions containing the majority of the people and property
adversely affected by air pollutant emissions from those same
sources. The core area of a region can be roughly defined on the
basis of pollutant point source locations and relative emission
densities.
Howevert information on present levels of pollution
in the ambient air is helpful in order that outlying pollutant
receptor areas can be identified. The selection of an essentially
self-contained region will result - a region which will include
within its bounds virtually the entire source-receptor system for
a particular area.
The following sections discuss briefly the factors likely to
affect air pollution potential in the State of Hawaii.
These factors
are topography and meteorology.
In additiont a brief discussion
of existing air quality is presented.
The meteorological diffusion
model was not applied to Hawaii since the extreme topographical
irregularities and the geographic relation of the Islands to one
another would not provide useful or reliable estimates of air quality.
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Meteorology, Topography and Measured Air Quality
Atmospheric circulation is Hawaii is usually dominated by the
large North Pacific high pressure'system located to the east and
north of the Islands.
This system throughout the year produces a
rather persistent flow of air from the northeast known as the
Northeast Trades.
The Trades show a marked seasonal variation in
frequency and speed.
They occur about 94% of the time in July but
only 50% in January.
The yearly average frequency of occurrence is
about 74%.
The stronger Trade winds*--those most effective in
dispersing air pollution--however, occur only about 86% of the time
in July and 33% of the time in January.
In addition, the'Trades may
be absent weeks at a time, especially between October and April, so
that pollutants will not be readily dispersed.
Wind speeds at Honolulu Airport greater than 7 mph, regardless
of direction, occur about 87% of the time in July, but only 57% in
January.
Calms occur about 5-10% of the time between evening and
morning during July, but occur up to 30% of the time during the night
and early morning in January.
Thus, winds at Honolulu Airport are
not effective in significantly influencing pollutant mixing and
transport for a great portion of many days throughout the year.
During the absence of the Trades, Kana storms may create strong
southetly winds which sweep pollutants to the inland areas of Oahu.
Kana weather, .on the other hand, is characterized by long periods of
light winds, a stable and cool lower atmosppere, and shallow inversion
* Wind speeds greater than 7 mph
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23
levels.
In the Honolulu area particularly, these conditions create
the inland flow of pollutants by the sea breezes which occur during
the day.
Also, fumigation conditions are created during the mornings
as nocturnal inversions are disrupted by the sun's warming .of the
earth.
TIlese conditions are sometimes evident during periods of
light Trade winds.
The remarkable heights of all the Hawaiian Islands are a chief
determinant of the climate.
The Island of Kauai is composed of a
central mountain mass rising to about 5,000 feet above sea level.
The Island of Maui consists of a relatively broad central valley
bordered by mountains to the west and southeast whose elevations rise
to a maximum of about 10,000 feet.
Molokai and Lanai have mountainous
terrain rising to nearly 5,000 feet.
The center of the Island of
Hawaii is a mountain mass, rising to 13,000 feet and surrounded by
gradually sloping coastal plains.
Oahu consists of a valley bordered
by mountain systems along its western and northeastern coasts.
This
irregular topography in turn has a complex and varied effect upon air
pollution potential in Hawaii.
All the Islands contain areas partially or entirely shielded
from the Trades by the mountains.
In other areas topography significantly
alters the direction, speed and turbulence of the wind.
The western
coast of Oahu, the southern sides of Hawaii and east Maui for example,
are areas sheltered from all but the strongest Trade Winds.
In these
areas the prevailing winds are light and not turbulent and pollutant
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24
dispersion is likely to be poor.
Topography also tends to channel
winds in valley areas creating fumigation conditions, as is the case
.in Maui's central valley.
In certain areas, such as Hilo, topography
creates a condition whereby pollutants are blown out to sea during
evenings and mid-morning and are blown back on shore during the day.
Existing air quality data for the State of Hawaii is very
limited.
Most of the data has been collected at the Department
of
Health Building in Honolulu.
Suspended particulate pollution has been
monitored at this site since 1957 when Hawaii first became part of the
National Air Surveillance Network.
From 1957 through 1961 the
geometric mean concentration of suspended particulates equalled
48.8 pg/m.3.From 1962 through 1966 the geometric mean concentration
dropped significantly to 38.7 rg/m.3, thus indicating a long term
downward trend during those years.
In 1967 and 1968 the annual
geometric mean concentrations were 36 and 42 rg/m.3, respectively.
The geometric mean suspended particulate concentration between 1957
and 1968 equalled 43 rg/m.3.
Greatest concentrations were usually
recorded during the winter months while lowest particulate con-
centrations were recorded during the summer.
The maximum concentration
during a 24 hour period in 1968 equalled 83 ~g/m.3.
1
Sulfur dioxide, notrogen dioxide and total oxidant measurements
[or various averaging times at the Health Department Building are
presented in Table II.
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25
TABLE II. AIR QUALITY DATA - HONOLULU, HAWAII
1967-1969 1969
Maximum Maximum Annual Annual
Hour Day Average Average
Sulfur Dioxide 120 pg/m.3 65 pg/m.3 16 pg/m. 3 16 pg/m.3
(.045 ppm) (.025 ppm) (.006 ppm) (.006 ppm)
Nitrogen Dioxide 145 pg/m.3 62 pg/m.3 23 pg/m. 3 21 pg/m. 3
( .077 ppm) (.033 ppm) (.012 ppm) (.011 ppm)
Total Oxidants 80 pg/m. 3 25 pg/m. 3 3 pg/m.3
(.040 ppm) ( . 013 ppm) (.001 ppm)
Although some air quality data is available for other sites in
the State, it is either out of date or too limited in time to be
representative of actual conditions.
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26
EVALUATION OF URBAN FACTORS
INTRODUCTION
The Clean Air Act calls for the designation of air quality
control regions based on "jurisdictional boundaries, urban-
industrial concentrations, and other factors" to provide an
intergovernmental system for the prevention and control of
air pollution.
The designation of air quality control regions
mlS t also be based ana consideration of existing cooperative
regional arrangements, population concentrations, location of
industry, and patterns and rates of urban growth.
The following
discussion will present these considerations as they apply to
the State of Hawaii.
POPULATION DISTRIBUTION
Human activity in its many forms is the basic cause of air
pollution.
Thus, existing and potential air pollution problems
may be related to geographic areas by studying present and
projected population statistics for those areas.
Population data
for the State of Hawaii is presented in Table III.
For the past five decades the population growth of the State
of Hawaii has centered on the city of Honolulu, located on the
Island of Oahu.
Largely due to the rapid growth in Honolulu
City, the population of Honolulu County (Oahu) increased 147%
between 1930 and 1960.
During the same period, however, the
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TABLE III. POPULATION AND EMPLOYMENr DATA
BY JURISDICTION
1969 1980 1969 Pop. 1980 Projected Additional Per Cent Estimated 1963
Land Area 1960 1 Estimated Projected Density Pop. Densit~ Residents Growth Manufacturing
County (Hi.2) Population Popu1ation2 Popu1ation3 (Persons/Hi. 2) (Persons/Hi.) 1969-1980 1969-1980 Employment
Hawaii 4,037 61,332 67,229 69,486 17 17 2,257 3.2 2,367
Honolulu 596 500,409 645,319 930,000 1,082 1,560 284,681 44.0 18,045
Kauai 619 28,176 31,666 32,242 51 52 574 1.9 1,176
Maui 1,173 42,855 49,533 54,798 42 47 5,265 10.5 2,956
State Total 6,425 632,772 793;747 1,086,526 124 169 292,779 36.9 25,144
1.
u. S. Census of Population
2.
Hawaii State Department of Health and Department of Planning and Economic Development
3.
General !!!!l Revision Proaram, !!!£'.!y; State Department of Planning and Economic Development
4.
Commercial Atlas !!!!!. Marketina ~; .!Q2£h Edition; Rand McNally & Co., 1969
N
...,
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23
aggregate population of the counties of Kauai, Maui, and Hawaii
decreased by 20%.
Between 1960 and 1969 the population of Oahu increased 29%,
while that of the Neighbor Islands increased about 12%.
Numerically,
Oahu increased from 500,409 to 645,319 persons; the Neighbor Islands
increased from 132,363 to 148,428 persons.
These figures indicate
that at the present the Island of Oahu contains over four-fifths
of the entire population of the State.
Since Oahu comprises less
than 10% of the States' total land area, it is by far the most
densely populated Island.
Of those persons living on Oahu 335,000,
or about 52%, reside in the city of Honolulu.
Thus, the population
density in Honolulu City is far greater than that indicated in
Table III for the entire Island.
Due in large part to the great
concentration of residents in Honolulu, over 75% of the population
in Hawaii is classified as
"urban."
The concentration of population on Oahu has been largely
due to the sharp decline in plantation employment in the neighbor-
ing counties because of mechanization, and to the complex inter-
action of major growth factors (including military growth) in
and around Honolulu.
The information provided by Table III indicates
that Honolulu City and County will continue to grow at a rate
which is disproportionate to the growth rate of the State as a
whole.
1980 population estimates for Honolulu indicate that
480,000 persons will reside in that City.
At that time Oahu. is
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29
expected to have a population of 930,000 persons.
Thus, Honolulu
City will continue to serve as the metropolitan core for the
rural areas of Oahu and for the State as a whole.
The present populations of Hawaii, Maui and Kauai Counties
are approximately 61,000, 50,000 and 31,500 persons, respectively.
These counties are expected to continue to grow at a relatively
modest rate.
The increasing number of jobs relating to the growing
touris t industry hc1s been a factor in revers ing the trend toward
a population decline in these three Counties.
Part of the reasons'
for the recent population increases in Maui County has been an
increase in small industries in addition to the impact of tourist
activity.
The rise in population in Hawaii County has been
stimulated not only by tourism but also by new industrial and
agricultural enterprises and the exploitation of markets for
several of its agricultural products.
Kauai County's growth
in recent years has been due to increased tourism and the ex-
pans ion of military and space facilities.
All these factors will
continue to result in population increases as reflected by the
population projection data in Table III.
The city of Hilo, with a population of 26,000, ranks second
in size to Honolulu in the State.
Hilo is located on the Island
of Hawaii.
The largest towffion the Island of Kauai are Lihu and
Kapaa, with respective populations of 4,300 and 3,500.
The majority
o[ the people in Maui County are located on the Island of Maui.
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The twin towns of Wailuku and Kahului contain populations of
7,500 and 5,000, and are the business centers of the County.
Most of the County's growth is expected to be in these two
areas.
The Islands of Molokai and Lauai contain about 5,000
and 2,000 persons respectively, most of whom are rural.
MANUFACTURING AND GENERAL ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
The location of manufacturing and other economic activity
is helpful in determining the size of an air quality control
region.
Industrial, agricultural, and other product and income
generating activities are often substantial contributors of air
pollutant emissions.
Following is a discussion of these factors
as they apply to the State of Hawaii.
The dominating factor in the economy of Hawaii is the
military and other Federal defense activities.
The Hawaiian
Islands, principally Oahu, serve as a center for supplies and
personnel supporting Pacific military operations.
Military ex-
pans ion on the Island of Oahu has been one of the stimulants to
the rising population concentration in and around Honolulu City.
Although cut-backs are expected to decrease Hawaii's military
activity by 1980, the Federal Government will remain a major
factor in the economy of Oahu.
Federal Government civilian
employment and expenditures by State and local governments will
continue to be major factors in the economy of the State, and
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31
particularly Honolulu City and County.
The most important element in the private sector of the
economy of Hawaii is agriculture.
The sugar industry is still
Hawaii's largest and most important single industry.
The County
of Hawaii produces by far the greatest quantity of sugar,
followed by Maui and Kauai Counties, which produce about equal
amounts.
Ten sugar mills are located on Hawaii, while Kauai, Maui
and Honolulu Counties contain eight, three and four mills,
respectively.
The burning of cane fields, and the incineration
of bagasse at the mills are the most important source of agricul-
tural air pollutants in the State.
Pineapple production follows sugar production as the most
important agricultural activity in the State.
Most of the .pineapple
production occurs on Oahu and in Maui County.
Kauai produces a
mode&amount of pineapple, while none is grown on the Island of
Hawaii.
In summary, plantation agriculture in sugar and pineapple
and their processing are the leading industrial activities in
Kauai and Maui Counties, while sugar is the dominant industry in
Hawaii County.
Other important agricultural products in the State
are milk, cattle, fruits and vegetables, coffee and poultry.
Agricultural activities including pineapple and coffee production
are related to localized air pollution problems (including odor
problems) and are responsible for pollution from fuel combustion.
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Employment in agriculture is expected to decrease in the
years ahead, though it will remain an important sector of the
economy.
Much of this trend toward fewer employees has been
caused by the mechanization of agriculture.
Honolulu is the
only County in Hawaii in which agricultural production is and
will continue to be overshadowed by other activities.
The
agricultural activity in the other islands, however, gives balance
and vital support to Oahu, and creates a continuous mutual inter-
dependence among the Islands.
The bulk of the manufacturing activity in Hawaii is located
on the Island, of Oahu, as indicated by the employment information
provided in Table III.
The tendency toward concentration of
industry in the Honolulu area has resulted because the County
comprises the bulk of the local market for manufactured products.
The Island of Oahu, does not, however, contain much heavy industry.
Industry is principally in the light and medium categories.
The
~xception to this are a petroleum refinery and a steel rolling
mill.
The petroleum refinery and the mineral products industry are
the most significant industrial ~ocess sources of air pollutants.
Other industrial activities on Oahu include sand and gravel
operations, cement plants, metal foundary operations and asphalt
batching, sugar and pineapple processing, fruit and food processing,
lime and fertilizer production, garments and printing and
publishing.
Oahu's industry is chiefly located in and around
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33
Honolulu City and at the southwest corner of the Island.
Manufacturing in the neighboring islands, in contrast, is
chiefly related to agritultur~.
There are, however, small
manufacturing activities being introduced in these areas.
EXISTING REGIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
The geographic ext~nt of regional planning commissions,
councils of local governments, State-defined planning and
econo~ic development districts., and region-wide statistical
data-gathering bases is an important consideration affecting
the selection of air quality control region boundaries.
The
designation of a region compatible with these regional arrange-
ments, where existing, is desirable since the implementation of
a regional air pollution control plan is dependent upon cooper-
ation at the various levels of government.
The concept of Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas (SMSA's)
has been developed to meet the need for the presentation of general-
purpose statistics by agencies of the Federal Government, and by
State and local governments.
Each SMSA includes at least one city
of 50,000 inhabitants, the county in which that city lies, and
adjacent counties which are found to be metropolitan in character
and economically and socially integrated with the county of the
central city.
Objective criteria of a quantitative character have
been established to determine the existence of such multi-
jurisdictional interdependency.
On these bases, Honolulu County
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34
has been designated as an SMSA.
Planning in Hawaii is conducted at the State level by the
Department of Planning and Economic Development.
The Department
has been authorized by law to prepare a general plan of the State
by working in close cooperation with county officials.
The
Department is further authorized to furnish planning assistance
to the several counties to facilitate planned development in
urban and rural areas.
The individual counties do their own
subplanning,
although close cooperation is maintained between
the State and the several county planning programs.
In summary,
the planning activities in the State of Hawaii are characterized
by close intercounty cooperation and closely coordinated plans.
EXISTING AIR POLLUTION CONTROL PROGRAMS AND LEGISLATION
In the process of defining the boundaries of an air quality
control region it is important to consider the role of existing
State and local air pollution control programs.
It is also
important to review pertinent legislation which grants enforcement
powers to these agencies and which allows for the promulgation of
control regulations.
Such consideration is desirable since the
ultimate responsibility for implementing region-wide air quality
standards rests with State and local governments.
Responsibility for the control of air pollution in Hawaii is
vested with the Air Sanitation Branch of the State Depart ment of
Health.
In accordance with the State Air Pollution Control Law
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35
The Department of Health is directed to establish rules and
regulations prohibiting air pollution throughout the State
after public hearing.
Such rules and regulations have been
established for Honolulu and Maui Counties.
The Health Depart-
ment is further authorized to require all persons engaged in
operations which may result in air pollution to secure a permit.
The Department has the authority to make inspections to determine
compliance with regulations.
The State Law also gives the
Department authority to establish air quality standards for the
State as a whole or for any part of the State.
The Law further
provides for hearings regarding complaints, for the issuance of
orders to correct violations, for relief in the courts and for
penalties and appeals to those in violation of rules and regula-
tions.
The State Department of Health may, according to the Law,
organize county advisory air pollution control associations to
study air pollution problems in their respective jurisdictions and
to advise the Department.
These associations also may review
Department rules or regulations of strictly local application
before adoption.
The counties may adopt regulations and ordinances
controlling air pollution and establishing county control agencies
if they are not inconcistent with the State Law.
Counties may
also contract with each other and with the State for the sharing
of services and for technical assistance and training.
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36
FEDERAL INSTALLATIONS IN t~WAII
One of the natural advantages of Hawaii is its strategic
location from a defense standpoint.
Because of this, Federal
military expenditures will no doubt continue to be the largest
single source of income in the local economy as it has been
for over a decade.
The bulk of the Federal installations are
located on the Island of Oahu, with small detachments and
special units on the Neighbor Islands.
Of the estimated 1969
military population of 56,729 for the State, all but 250 were.
stationed on Oahu.
Generally, military installations range from forested
infantry training areas to the Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard.
Included are air bases, recreational facilities, housing devel-
opments, nuclear and electronic installations, a submarine base,
and a variety of testing and repair facilities.
Specifically,
other major military facilities on Oahu include the Kaneohe
Marine Corps Air Station, Hickam Air Force Base, and the Army's
Schofield Barracks and Forts Shafter and Armstrong.
The extent
to which land on Oahu is utilized by Federal military insta11a-
tions is shown by the shaded portions of Figure 9.
Plans are being or have been prepared for the introduction
of pollution control measures at many of Hawaii's defense in-
sta11ations, including the Army's He1emana Radio Station, the
Schofield Barracks, and the Trip1er Army Hospital.
Air Force
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tJ .
~
1 0 2 4
. . . . .
~.AL£ ,J.l t
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38
pollution control projects are being conducted at Bellows Air
Force Station, Hickam Air Force Base,' and ~eeler Air Force
Base, among others.
Projects are underway at the Pearl Harbor
Naval Shipyard, the Kaneohe Marine Corps Air Station, the
Naval Communications Station, and at other locations.
Many
of these pollution control measures have been designed to reduce
pollution from incinerators, from fuel storage facilities, and
to replace open-burning of waste materials with sanitary landfill
operations.
\ The efforts to control air pollution from Federal facilities
in Hawaii are directed toward compliance with the Presidential
Executive Order 11507, which deals with the prevention, control,
and abatement of air and water pollution at Federal facilities.
This Order, issued on February 4, 1970, is intended to provide
Federal leadership in the protection and enhancement of the air
resource by requiring that by December 31, 1972 all Federal
facilities be operated and maintained in conformance with air
quality standards established pursuant to the Clean Air Act,
as amended.
The Order also established a nontransferable fund
for achieving its objectives, and requires that all new Fed~ral
installations be designed to meet the requirements of the Order
concerning air quality standards.
In summary, the Executive
Order is intended to establish the Federal Government as an
effective leader in efforts to preserve the quality of the
environment.
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39
THE PROPOSED REGION
Subject to the scheduled consultation, the Secretary,
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, proposes to
designate an air quality control region consisting of the
entire State of Hawaii.
As so proposed, the Region would
consist of the territorial area encompassed by the outer-
most boundaries of the State of Hawaii including the terri-
torial area of all municipalities located therein as defined
in Section 320(f) of the Clean Air Act, as amended
(42 D.S.C. 1857h(f).
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40
DISCUSSION OF PROPOSAL
To implement a successful air resource management program,
an air quality control region should be large enough to en-
compass most air pollution sources as well as most people and
property affected by those sources.
The boundaries should also
include those locations where present development creates, or
where projected urbanization and industrialization will create,
significant air pollution problems.
Finally, the region should
be compatible with or hopefully even foster unified and coop-
erative governmental administration of the air resource.
The
proposed Hawaiian Islands Intrastate Air Quality Control Region
was designed to satisfy, in the best way, these requirements.
The air pollutant emissions inventory for the State of
Hawaii indicated that the greatest quantities of all the
pollutants surveyed were emitted in Honolulu County.
This was
expected since air pollution is highly related to population,
and the bulk of Hawaii's population resides on Oahu.
Air
pollutant emissions from other activities - especially agriculture -
are significant
not only on Oahu, however, but also on the
Neighbor Islands.
Other source types, including motor vehicles,
aircraft, stationary fuel combustion sources, and open-burning
operations also contribute significant quantities of emissions
within all four of Hawaii's counties.
Thus, it would be desirable
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41
to include the entire State in the Region.
In this way all
the existing and potential air pollutant sources would be
subject to contrbl provisions developed as part of the plan
to implement air quality standards within the Region.
Air quality data was not sufficiently comprehensive to
allow a determination of relative degrees of air purity among
Oahu and the Neighbor Islands.
On the basis of comparison
with other metropolitan areas of similar size, Honolulu is
at present one of the less polluted areas in the Nation.
This is not to say that the potential for Honolulu City-
County to become more seriously polluted is nonexistent, or
that existing pollution levels are too low to warrant serious
concern.
In accordance with the provisions of the Clean Air
Act, as amended, which call for the protection and enhancement
of the air resources, it is logical to conclude that the entire
State of Hawaii, including the relatively lightly populated
Neighbor Islands, would benefit by designation as a region.
Without the benefit of a region-wide control effort the projected
expansion of population and pollutant producing activities,
including power generation and manufacturing, will be more
likely to lead to seriously affected air quality.
This fact
is more evident since study indicates that topographical and
meteorological conditions in Hawaii are likely to lead to
restricted pollutant dispersion potential much of the time
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42
throughout the year.
Thus, although Hawaii is free of serious
pollution caused by transport from nearby areas, it is not
free of the conditions leading to localized air pollution
\.
problems.
Projected population statistics indicate that Honolulu will
.
continue to serve as the metropolitan area for the rural areas
of Oahu and for the remaining three Counties in Hawaii.
At
present Oahu contains over 80% of the State's population
on" less than 10% of its total land area.
The Neighbor Islands
are expected to continue to gain in population at a modest
rate due to the influence of tourism and new agricultural and
industrial enterprises.
These development trends are expected
to perpetuate and strengthen the continuous mutual economic
and social interdependence between Oahu and the Neighbor
Islands.
Planning at the State level in Hawaii is dependent upon
the close cooperation of planning programs at the County level.
In addition, close cooperation between Counties exists in
recognition of the fact that planning decisions affecting one
part of the State are likely to affect, in some way, another
part of the State.
In this same way, it would be most logical
to include the entire State in the Region for the purposes of
air pollution control planning.
This would make possible the
.
utilization of existing cooperative ties among State and County
..
governments and would allow the entire State to share in the
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43
costs and benefits of a region-wide air pollution control effort.
In summary, the proposed Region is considered to be the
most cohesive and inclusive area within which an effective
""'
regional air pollution control effort can be instituted.
~
Official designation of the Region will follow the formal
Consultation with appropriate State and local officials and
I
I.
i
after due consideration of comments presented for the record
at the Consultation or of those written comments received by
the Commissioner of the National Air Pollution Control Adminis-
tration.
)
~
I
(8
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