EPA 560/4-76-008
SUMMARY CHARACTERIZATIONS
OF SELECTED CHEMICALS
OF NEAR-TERM INTEREST
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This Docurrent is available to the publie through the National Technical
Information SenTiee, P.O. Box 1553, Springfield, Virginia 22151
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EPA 560/4-76-008
SUMMARY CHARACI'ERIZATIONS OF SELECI'ED CHEMICAIS
OF NFAR-'IERM INI'EREST
Prepared by the
OFFICE OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES
u. S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROI'ECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
SEPTEMBER 1976
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Table of Contents
Preface
i
Bis (Chlorarethyl) Ether
1
Chloroform
4
Hexachlorobutadiene
7
'> lead and Its Compounds
Phthalic Acid Esters
10
13
Polychlorinated Biphenyls
16
Trichlorofluorarethane (F-ll) and
Dichlorodifluoranethane (F-12)
19
Vinyl Chloride
22
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Preface
This Report includes surmnary characterizations of 8 chemicals of
near-tenn interest to EPA. The characterizations are based on
infornation available as of September 1976. As additional information
and interpretations of data become available, an updating of the
characterizations may' be appropriate. 'Ib this end, the Office of 'Ibxic
Substances w::>uld welcome ccmnents on the technical aspects of the
Report.
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BIS (CHIDROMETHYL) ETHER
(BCME )
Why Should the Chemical Be of Concern at This Time?
BCME was first docUl"!EI1ted as a human carcinogen in 1972. Since
then, the results of animal testing studies have shown this substance to
be a potent carcinogen with a very short latent period. While no ITOnitoring
data are currently available to document an environrrental problem, there
has been SOIre unsubstantiated concern about the potential fornation of
BCME from environrrental contaminants (fornaldehyde and chloride ion).
What Are the Health and Ecological Effects, and Environrrental Behavior?
Several studies indicate that workers exposed to BCME as a contaminant
of chlororrethyl rrethyl ether (CMME) have a markedly increased risk of
developing respiratory tract cancer, generally oat cell carcin0ffi3.. Exposure
periods of two to fourteen years (average, ten) by inhalation of vapors at
undefined concentrations, and an average latent period of 15 years, have
been reported. In the IIDst detailed epidemiological study of workers, a
control population having similar SlIDking habits was identified. Comparing
nonSlIDker controls to nonSlIDker workers, and controls who SlIDked with workers
who SlIDked, cancer occurrence was detennined to be at least eight times
greater for the exposed workers in either instance.
Animal experiments indicate that BCME and CMME produce similar effects,
but that BCME is much ITOre toxic. A seven-hour inhalation exposure of
about eight parts per million Balli is 100% lethal to rats and hamsters
within 14 days. All animals exhibited significant increases in lung
weight/body weight ratios. At three ppn, BCME is a potent respiratory
irritant; 100 ppn incapacitates test animals and results in fatal lung
damage within one or two minutes. Rats exposed for six hours to inhalation
of 0.1 ppm developed respiratory cancers as early as seven ITOnths after
exposure (average latency, 13 nonths). In derma.l experiments, BCME was
shown to be a ITOderate initiator and a potent prorroter of cancer.
Available experimental data show that BCME has a half-life in water
of only 10-40 seconds due to rapid hydrolysis. BCME has a half-life in
air of about 25 hours, and its ability to spread in that rredilml may be
influenced by humidity.
What Are the Sources, Environrrental Levels, and Exposed Populations?
BCME is known to be a contaminant of CMME, at concentrations ranging
from one to seven percent. Because CMME is produced solely as an interrrediate
for chemical production, manufacturing data are not recorded. CMME is used
in the manufacture of ion exchange resins by several companies located in
different states. However, BCME has not been detected in the finished resins.
It has been hypothesized that inadvertent fonnation of BCME could
occur in the environrrent if high concentrations of fonnaldehyde and
chloride ion are present. Tests sponsored by NIOSH have tended to negate
this hypothesis.
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Analysis of air samples taken inside textile plants where formaldehyde
and chloride ion are present has found concentrations of approximately two
ppb BCME. Concentrations of 210-1500 ppb have occurred alx:>ve some lalx:>ratory
formalin slurries. EnviromYEl1tal mnitoring has not been performed.
Should BCME be released to the abrosphere fram an industrial plant, it
has been estimated that an exposure risk might exist for persons living
wi thin twenty miles of the site.
What Are the Technologic and Economic Aspects?
BCME has no ccmnercial use. Patent applications for minor uses in
cellulose crosslinking, in preparation of three-block styrene-butadiene-
stryene polymer's, and in treabnent of vulcanized rubber to improve epoxy
resin adhesion have been filed. Because of the well-known hazards presented
by BCME, it is unlikely that these uses will become of economic importance.
CMME containing BCME as a contaminant is used alITDst exclusively in the
production of ion exchange resins. No other use is reported. CMME
could theoretically be produced free of BCME contamination; however, it
would probably be neither technologically nor economically feasible. A mre
reasonable approach might be to develop control technology capitalizing on
the relative ease of hydrolysis of BCI'-1E and CMME.
What Steps have been Taken, and What Is Being DJne?
In 1972, the American Conference of Goverrurental Hygienists proposed
a threshold limit value of one part per billion for BCME in air, which was
adopted in 1974. In 1974, OSHA established stringent workplace standards for
BCME and CMME. The standards are stated in te:r:rns of engineering controls,
rather than as maximum ti1re-~ighted-average concentrations. The standard
further provides for extensive medical surveillance and. record keeping.
NIOSH has studied industrial facilities where formaldehyde and
chloride ion are used to determine if BCME is inadvertently fomed.
tests have provided negative results to date.
These
Because environmental rrodeling has predicted air concentrations below the
detection limit, and the potential for environmental contamination appears
extremely limit~, no ambient air standards are conterrplated.
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REFERENCES
Investigation of Selected Potential Environmental Contaminants: Halothers;
Final Report under BPA contract No. 68-01-2996 (available from NTIS-PB 246-356,
September 1975)
Review of the Envir()I'1lreJ1tal Fate of Selected Chemicals; Final Report under
EPA contract No. 68-01-2681 (available from NTIS-PB 238-908, January 1975).
Brown, S.M., and Selvins, S. (1973), "Lung Cancer in Chloranethyl
Methyl Ether ~'Jorkers", N. Engl. J. Med. 289: 693-4.
Drew, R.T.; laskin, S.; Kuschner, M.; and Nelson, N. (1975) "Inhalation
Carcinogenicity of Alpha Halo Ethers. I. Acute Inhalation '!bxicity of
Chlorarrethyl Methyl Ether and Bis (chlororrethyl) Ether", Arch. Environ. Health
30, 2, 61-9.
Figueroa, W.G.; Raszokowski, R.; and Weiss W. (1973), "Lung Cancer in
Chloranethyl Methyl Ethyl Workers", N. Engl. J. Med. 288, 21, 1096-7.
IARC (1974) M::mographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals
to Man, Bis (chloranethyl)ether, Vol. 4, 231-238.
Kallos, G.J., and Solaron, R.A. (1973), "Formation of Bis (chlorarrethyl)
Ether in Simulated Hydrogen Chloride-Formaldehyde AbIDspheric Environments",
Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assn. J., 34, 11, 469-73.
Kuschner, M.; laskin, S.; Drew, R.T.; Cappiello, V.P.; and Nelson, N. (1975),
. "Inhalation Carcinogenicity of Alpha Halo Ethers. III. Lifetlire and Limited
Period Inhalation Studies with Bis (chlorarrethyl) ether at 0.1 ppn", Arch.
Environ. Health, 30, 2, 73-7.
laskin, S.; Kuschner, M.; Drew, R.T.; Cappiello, v.P.; and Nelson, N. (1971),
"Tulrors of the Respiratory Tract Induced by Inhalation of Bis (chloranethyl)
Ether", Arch. Environ. Health, 23, 2, 135.6.
laskin, S.; Drew, R.T., Cappiello, V.; Kuschner, M., and Nelson, N. (1975),
"Inhalation Carcinogenicity of Alpha Halo Ethers. II. Chronic In.halation
Studies with ChloroITethyl Methyl Ether", Arch. Environ. Health, 30, 2, 70-2.
Sakabe, H. (1973), "Lung Cancer Due to Exposure to Bis (chloranethyl) Ether",
Ind. Health., 11, 3, 145-8.
'!bu, J .C., and Kallos, G.J. (1974), "Aqueous Hydrochloric Acid and Forrnaldehyde
Mixtures for Formation of Bis (chlororrethyl) Ether", Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assn., J.
35, 7, 419-22.
38 FR 10929.
"Emergency Tenporary Standard on Certain Carcinogens" (1973)
39 FR 23559.
"Rules and Regulations:
Bis (chlororrethyl) Ether" (1974)
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CHLOROFORM
Why Should the Chemical Be of Concern at This Time?
The National Cancer Institute has reported that oral administration of
chlorofonn causes liver turrors in mice, and kidney and thyroid t\.m:)rs in rats.
The National Organics Reconnaissance Survey (April 1975) reported that chloro-
fonn was found in all chlorinated drinking water samples examined in the
study.
What Are the Health and Ecological Effects and Environrrental Behavior?
Chlorofonn is a central nervous system depressant once used as an inhaled
anesthetic for surgical procedures. At typical anesthetic exposure levels,
chlorofm:m has caused liver and kidney damage and fatal cardiac arrhythmias.
Occupational exposure to airl:::orne chlorofonn has been found to result
in central nervous system depression and has been implicated in liver damage.
The adverse central nervous system, liver, and kidney effects of inhaled
chlorofonn have been dem:mstrated in lal:::oratory animal studies. Male rats
developed dose-related malignant kidney turrors and female rats developed IOC>stly
benign thyroid turrors. Ibse-related malignant liver tUIOC>rs were observed
in both male and female mice.
What Are the Sources, Environrrental Levels, and Exposed Populations?
The annual corrmercial prcx1uction of chlorofonn has generally ranged
between 230 and 302 million pounds for the pericx1 1970 through 1975. Chloroform
is used in manufacturing other ccmpounds, particularly refrigerants, aerosol
propellants, and plastics. Chlorofonn is also a comron industrial solvent and
extractant. Significant past uses, now being discontinued as a result of the
NCI study, included its incorporation into S<:Jrre cough syrups, throat lozenges,
toothpastes, IOC>uth washes, and liniments. Chlorofonn has also been used as a
grain fumigant; this use is currently being challenged.
With the phasing out of chlorofonn use in cosrretics, medicaments, and
as a fumigant, the primary loci of human exposure are w:)rkplace environments,
ambient air, and drinking water. The current OSHA standard limits airl:::orne
concentrations of chlorofonn to a time-weighted average of 10 ppn. Ambient
air concentrations of chlorofonn of 1-15 ppb in the vicinity of industrial
sources have been identified.
In the National Organics Reconnaissance Survey and a similar study
conducted by EPA Region V, chloroform was found in virtually all chlorinated
drinking water samples at concentrations of from less than 1 ~g/l to 360 ~g/l.
Although chloroform may corre from industrial effluents or the breakdown of
other chlorinated contaminants, chlorofonn was seldom detected in untreated
water. A series of polybranochloromethanes such as chlorofonn, brorroform, and
brcm:xlichlororrethane are prcx1uced by the "haloform reaction" when chlorine is
used to disinfect water which contains natural humic substances which have
methyl ketone functional groups.
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What Are the Technological and Econanic Aspects?
The reduction or elimination of chlorofonn fran drinking water would
require rrodification of current chlorine disinfection practices or the
institution of alternative disinfection technology. Such changes could
result in poorer microbiological quality of the finished water and/or the
production of other potentially toxic by-products. Increased capital and
operational costs, econanic dislocations, personnel training, and improved
analytical instrumentation may be involved. Disinfection accounts for
about 10% of current chlorine production.
What Steps Have Been Taken and What is Being Done?
OSHA is raN in the process of reviewing the 1974 chlorofonn standard.
Indications are that the exposure level will be lONered considerably.
In June 1976, the Food and Drug Administration issued a regulation which,
effective July 29, 1976, prohibits the use of chlorofonn as an ingredient
in drugs and cosmetics. FDA also has proposed a regulation to prohibit use
of chlorofonn in human food, but this regulation has not yet been finalized.
In April 1976, EPA issued a notice of presumption against the continued
registration of chlorofonn for use as a pesticide. Rebuttals to this
presumption are raN being reviewed.
EPA issued an advance notice of proposed rulernaking on control options for
organic chemicals in drinking water in July 1974. These include establishment
of a maximum contaminant level for general organic indicators, and establishment
of designated treatment techniques to control chlorofonn and/or total organics.
Interim Drinking Water Standards which becarre effective in June 1976, may be
amended, or chIorofonn may be incorporated into the Revised Drinking Water
Standards scheduled to become effective in March 1979. As mandated by the
Safe Drinking Water Act, the National Acad€fl1Y of Sciences is conducting a major
study for EPA of the health effects related to contaminant levels of many
toxicants in drinking water, including chlorofonn. EPA is also conducting
research to identify sources, distribution, treatment techniques, and
health effects of a variety of organic contaminants in drinking water.
The EPA Office of Water Supply is exploring the control of chlorofonn
production by either rerroving the humic substances before chlorination or
substi tuting ozonation for chlorination to reduce total organic carbon in
water systems and for disinfection.
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REFERENCES
Data fran National Organics Recormaissance Smvey, Water Supply Research
La]:x)ratory, EPA (April 15, 1975).
Environmental Protection Agency, Science Advisory Board, "A Report
Assessment of Health Risk fran Organics in Drinking Water by an Ad Hoc
Study Group to the Hazardous r.1aterials Advisory Carmittee", Apri13O;-
1975.
Envirarental Protection Agency, "Preliminary Assessment of SusPected
Carcinogens in Drinking Water," Report to Congress, December 1975.
rARe M:>nograph on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to
Man, 1:. International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France (1972).
Report on Carcinogenesis Bioassay of Chloroform, National Institutes of
Health, National Cancer Institute (1976).
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, "Criteria for a
Reconmended Standard: Occupational Exposure to Chloroform," HEW Publication
No. (NIOSH) 75-114 (1974).
Roe, F.J .C. et a1., (1968) "Tests of Chloroform and 8-Hydroxquinoline for
Carcinogenicityusing Mice, "Brit. EInp. Cancer Campaign, 46: 13
Rudali, G., UIce M:>nograph 7...:
138-143 (1967).
41 FR 14588. "Notice of Presumption Against Continued Registration of Pesticide
Product-Chloroform (Trichlorarethane)" (April 6, 1976)
41 FR 15026. "Chlorofonn as an Ingredient of Human Drug and Cosrretic Products:
Proposed Revision of Labelling Requirarents" (April 6, 1976)
41 FR 15029. "Chloroform in Contact with Food:
Regulation" (April 6, 1976)
Proposal to Amend Food Additive
41 FR 26842. "Chloroform as an Ingredient of Human Drug and Cosrretic Products
(Final Regulations)" (June 29, 1976)
41 FR 28991. "Advance Notice of Proposed Rulemaking on Control Options for
Organic Chanical Contaminants in Drinking Water" (July 14, 1976)
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HEXACHlDROBUTADIENE
Why Should the Chemical Be of Concern at This Time?
Recently, the Ibw Chemical Carpany released data from a lifetime study
showing that hexachlorobutadiene is carcinogenic in rats. Although
hexachlorobutadiene (HCBD) is not an article of substantial ccmrercia1
importance, 7-12 million pounds are produced annually as a by-product of
chlorination processes. In 1974, the FDA reported finding HCBD residues
as high as 4.5 Pfm in fish samples. In 1975, rronitoring data developed
by EPA revealed the presence of HCBD in air, water, and soil near production
and disposal sites.
What Are the Health and Ecological Effects and Environrrenta1 Behavior?
Research conducted by the Ibw Chemical Canpany shows that HCBD is
carcinogenic in rats, producing adenoma and adenocarcinomas of the
kidney. This chemical also produces alterations in the kidney, brain,
heart, and liver of exposed animals.
Hexachlorobutadiene effectively destroys narrow leafed plants, insects
and nematodes. Kidney and liver damage have been noted in bass exposed
to 32 ppb HCBD for 10 days. The growth rate of Daphnia is adversely
affected at concentrations as low as 15 ppb. The hepatoPancreas in
crayfish is adversely affected after 10 days in water containing 3.7 ppb
HCBD.
Although detected at concentrations as high as 240 ppb in industrial
impoundrrents, the level of hexach1orobutadiene detected in the aquatic
environrrent is generally below 5 ppb. Organisms accumulate 7-7000 times
the concentration found in the water co1t.nm. Further accumulation up
through the food chain is minima.1.
Hexachlorobutadiene nay enter the at:m:>sphere from contaminated soil
and water. HCBD is a persistent chemical remaining in soil for at least
3 years.
What Are the Sources, Environrrenta1 lEvels and Exposed Population?
Hexachlorobutadiene can be used as an insecticide, herbicide,
algicide, accelerator for vulcanizing rubber, dielectric in transforrrers,
organic solvent, chanica1 interrrediate, and co-polymer. However, HCBD has
not been deliberately nanufactured in the united States since 1970. In
1974, O. 2-0.5 million pounds of HCBD were imported to the U. S. from
Germany for unspecified use. In addition 7-12 million pounds of HCBD are
produced per year as a by-product of nanufacturing perchloroethy1ene,
trichloroethylene, carbon tetrachloride, and chlorine.
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HCBD is being released into the envirorment near I?roduction
and disposal sites. Levels ranging from 0.05-460 ~g/m in air,
0.04-230 ~g/l in water, 0.04-33.0 ~g/g in sediment and 0.001-
980 jJg/g in soil have been reported. FDA, surveying residue levels
of HCBD in focxi within a 25 mile radius of perchloroethylene or
trichloroethylene plants, found that 34% of the fish (0.01-1.20 ppm)
and 1 of 20 milk saI!l?les (1. 32 ppm) contained residues. Individuals
living within the imoodiate vicinity of 83 locations suspected of
producing HCBD and related sites used for the disposal of industrial
sludges, or consuming focxi originating from these areas are thought
to be exposed to this chemical.
What Are the Technologic and Economic Considerations?
The major routes of envirormental release for hexachlorobutadiene
are linked to the production, storage, transport, and disposal of
industrial wastes. land disposal is being used and can be improved
without a substantial increase in cost. Unfortunately, burial does
not ensure the total contairment of this persistent chemical; landfill
rronitoring indicates that volatilization results in at least a fractional
release. High tenperature incineration, the ultimate disposal nethod,
is being used by selected companies despite high initial capitalization
costs. Effluent discharges can be reduced at minimal cost by controlling
suspended solids.
What Steps Have Been Taken and What is Being Ibne?
No regulatory actions have been CXJIT1Pleted to date. EPA is
planning to develop a water quality criteria docurrent and subsequent
effluent guideline for hexachlorobutadiene in accordance with the
recent consent decree.
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REFERENCES
An Ecological Study of Hexachlorobutadiene (HCBD).
Substances Report No. 560/6-76-010, April 1976.
EPA, Office of '1bxic
Kociba, R. J ., et ale Results of a Two-year Chronic '1bxici ty Study with
Hexachlorobutadiene (HCBD) in Rats. August 9, 1976. Report of the
'1bxicology Research LaOOratory, Dew Chemical Corrpany, Midland, Michigan.
S ling and Anal sis of Selected '1bxic Substances, Task IB: Hexachloro-
butadiene. EPA, Office of 'Ibxic Substances Report !'b. 560 6-76-015, June 1976.
Survey of Industrial Processing Data, Task I: Hexachlorobenzene and
Hexachlorobutadiene Pollution fran Chlorocarbon Processes. EPA, Office of
'1bxic Substances Report !'b. 560/3-75-003, June 1975.
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LEAD AND ITS ratory anilrals; there is an absence of adequate human data. The
potential for lead poisoning in sensitive populations is a major concern,
particularly in children, pregnant rothers, and occupationally-exposed
workers in urban environrrents where elevated levels of lead in air,
dustfall, and soil represent a significant additional source of lead
intake. A single episode of lead poisoning in a child may result in brain
damage ranging fran a subtle learning disability to an extensive mental
handicap.
What Are the Health and Ecological Effects and Environmental Behavior?
Clinical effects of lead poisoning include acute and chronic central
nervous system damage, Peripheral nerve paralysis, kidney damage, and
damage to blood fonnation processes which may lead to anemia. The risk
of clear-cut clinical effects is greatest when blood lead levels increase
alx:>ve 80 llg/lOOg whole blood, and at lower blood levels when anemia
prevails. Mild poisoning may be reversible if exposure to lead is
discontinued. Maternal over-exposure may have greater toxic effects on
the fetus than on the rother.
CormDn sources of livestock lead poisoning include lead-based
paints, storage batteries, used rotor oil and airoorne lead contamina-
tion of hay and pasture vegetation from srrelting and other lead indus-
tries. A daily lead intake of 6-7 Il¥j/kg OOdy weight has been suggested
as the minimum level giving rise to poisoning in cattle. 'Th.D to three
percent of our waterfowl population die annually from lead poisoning
prilrarily due to SPent lead shot.
What Are the Sources, Environmental Levels, and Exposed Populations?
u.S. consumption of lead was 1.6 million short tons in 1974. Major
uses included storage batteries (53 percent), gasoline additives (16
percent), pigments (seven percent), anmunitions (five percent), solder
(four percent), and cable covering (three percent). The elevated
abrospheric levels of lead in our larger cities are primarily attribut-
able to rotor vehicle CX>Illbustion of leaded fuel additives. About 180,000
tons of lead are Emitted to air annually from rotor vehicle combustion
of fuel addi ti ves. Other sources of lead pollution include coal and
fuel oil CX>Illbustion, lead srrelting, incineration of solid wastes, and
lead paints.
Ambient air lead levels average 1-3 llg/m 3 in urban areas, 0.1-0. 5
llg/m 3 in suburban areas, and less than 0.05 llg/m 3 in rural areas, except
in the vicinity of point sources and heavy traffic. The levels of lead
in natural waters and finished drinking water rarely exceed 0.05 rrg/l
except in areas of lead ore deposits and point source discharges.
The average daily oral intake of lead is estimated at 300 llg for
adults, and 130 llg for children. Childhood and infant pica has resulted
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in numerous cases of lead poisoning from the ingestion of peeling lead paint
and other lead-containing substances, and the inhalation of street dust.
Illicitly distilled whiskey and consistent consumption of game animals
previously wounded by lead bullets or shot are potentially hazardous
dietary sources.
Occupational health supervision has limited the magnitude of indus-
trial exposures. Hov..'ever, incidents of lead poisoning still occur where
medical surveillance and exposure controls are inadequate, as recently
seen in an auto battery plant in Visalia, California, and a pigments
plant in Beltsville, ~~land.
What Are the Technologic and Econcrnic Aspects?
Substitutes are readily available for lead chromate pigments in
highway paints and for lead shot. The economic impact of banning lead
chranate paint for highway markings would fall primarily on the producers
of lead chranate. T:.'1e economic inpact of actions to prorrote recycle of
lead batteries should be minimal, if any, since the rate of recycle is
currently high, and the industry is willing to receive all used lead
batteries it can get. EPl..... has specified standard :rrethods for analysis
of total lead in water, and is currently considering methods for air and
other media.
What Steps Have Been Taken and What Is Being Ibne?
FDA has limited lead in paints to less than 0.5 percent by weight
for use on residential sUrfaces accessible to children, has proposed a
tolerance level (0.3 ppn) for lead in evaporated milk and an action
level (7 l1g/ml) for leachable lead in pottery and enamelware, and is
considering limitations below 0.5 ppn for lead in other canned foods.
OSHA has proposed an action level of 50 l1g/m3 and a permissible exposure
limit of 100 l1g/rn3 during an average eight hour work period for lead and
its canpounds. CPSC is currently undertaking a review of the "safe"
level of lead in paints.
Under the FWPCA, EPA has established effluent limitation guidelines
on lead discharges from several industrial point source categories.
Fifteen lead canpounds have been designated as hazardous substances
under Section 311 (b) of the FWPCA. Under Title I of the MPRSA special
care is required in ocean dumping or other disfX)sal of lead and its
canpounds. Interim Primary Drinking Water Standards under the SDWA set
a maximum contaminant level for lead of 0.05 rng/l.
Pursuant to Section 111 of the Clean Air Act, EPA has established
standards of performance for primary and secondary lead smelters. lEad
has been added to the list of air pollutants under Section 108 (a) of the
Clean Air 1I.ct, and the issuarlce of a national ambient air quality
standard for lead is plarmed.
Final regulations pranulgated on December 6, 1973, controlling the
arrount of lead addi ti ves in gasoline have been reinstated. lEad levels
in gasoline must :rreet the 1.4 g/gal limitation beginning October 1, 1976.
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REFERENCES
Kornreich, M. R., A Preliminary Assessment of the Problem of Carcinogens
in the Atrrosphere, The Mitre Corporation, ~Lean, Virginia, April 1975,
MI'R - 6874.
Lead: Airoorne Lead in Perspective, National Academy of Sciences,
Washington, D.C., 1972.
r Ne\v Lead Limits for Canned Foods Being Considered by FDA, Food Chemica~
~News, May 31, 1976, p. 14-15. ::-J
'Ibxico1ogy of Metals - Vo1urre I, Health Effects Research Lal:x>ratory, Office
of Research and Deve1opnent, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research
Triangle Park, North Cr~olina, March 1976, EPA, 600/1-76-018.
Weinstein, H., "A BatteD.! Plant and Lead Poisoning", New York Times, June 6,
1976, p. 1.
38 FR 28610, 10/15/73 (Ocean Dumping).
39 FR 42740, 12/6/74 (Poisonous or Deleterious Substances in Peanuts, Evaporate(
Milk, Fish and Shellfish: Proposed Rules) .
40 FR 45934, 10/3/75 (Lead:
Occupational Exposure; Proposed Standard) .
40 FR 53421, 11/18/75 (Secondary Lead Smelters).
40 FR 59566, 12/24/75 (National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations) .
40 FR 59960, 12/30/75 (Hazardous Substances).
41 FR 2332, 1/15/76 (Standards of Performance:
Srne1 ters) .
pr.irnary Copper, Zinc, and Lead
41 FR 14921, 4/6/76 (Addition of Lead to List of Air Pollutants).
41 FR 28352, 7/9/76 (Lifting of Suspension of Enforcement of Regulations for
Control of Lead Additives in Gasoline).
40 CFR 80, Revised as of July 1, 1975 (Regulation of Fuels and Fuel Additives) .
40 CFR 413.10; 40 CFR 415.60; 40 CFR 415.340; 40 CFR 415.440; 40 CFR 420.110;
40 CFR 421.40; 40 CFR 421.70; 40 CFR 426.110; 40 CFR 426.130, Revised as of
July 1, 1975. (Effluent Limitations Guidelines - various industrial categories)
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PHl'HALIC ACID ESTERS (PAE' s)
Why Should the Chemical Be of Concern at This Time?
Recently, widespread attention has been focused on the possibility
that phthalic acid esters (PAE' s) may be used by capacitor manufacturers as
a substitute for PCB's. Phthalic acid esters appear to be persistent in air,
water and soils; however, they can be degraded by microbial action. PAE' s
are now widely found in the envirorment, and appear to bioacCUITnllate in the
food chain.
What Are the Health and Ecological Effects, and Envirormental Behavior?
Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), a cam'Dnly used plasticizer in PVC,
has been found in the ltID:J, liver, spleen, and blood of patients transfused
with blood stored in PVC bags. Shock lung syndrane was observed in sane
patients who had been transfused with large arrounts of blood. DEHP has also
been shown to contaminate milk collected using PVC pipe. Beating chick
embryo heart cells ceased functioning on exposure to 4 ~g/ml DEHP in culture
medium. Within 24 hours, virtually all the cells were dead and disintegrating.
Other PAE plasticizers reduce the rate of beating, but do not result in cell
death, at this level. Interperitoneal administration of DEHP to rats
(am::>unt and/or concentration unspecified) resulted in peritonitis-like
irritation of the viscera, and a finding that 25% of the dose remained in
the body after 13 days.
DEHP added to diets (fat-free and 4% fat) at 0.1% resulted in increased
DEHP concentrations in hearts and epididymal fat pads of male weanling rats
after 44 days. Teratogenicity studies using eight different PAE's related the
frequency of skeletal abnormalities directly to water-solubilities of the
carpounds, and assigned gross malformations to the rrost and least water
soluble. Dimethoxyethel phthalate was distinctly the rrost teratogenic; it and
DEHP most frequently caused gross defm:mities. Absence of tails, anophthalmia,
and twisted hind legs were the IIDst ccmron gross malformations; elongated and
fused ribs and abnormal skull bones were the rrost ccmron skeletal anomalies.
DEHP was found to be the rrost mutagenic of the eight canpounds in dominant-
lethal tests.
DEHP accumulates in various fish and aquatic insect species (250 to 3900
times ambient within 7 days), and inhibits reproduction in rrost. Radiological
bioassays indicate a half life of 3 days in Daphnia magna. Sane bioacCUITnllation
in the food chain has been observed, but not thoroughly documented.
A survey of 147 Russian workers exposed to PAE vapors at concentrations
ranging fran 1. 7 to 66 In9"/m3 reported high incidence of numbness and weakness
in the extremities, autonomic-sensory polyneuritis, elevated threshold of pain,
depression of deep tendon reflexes, and hypertension, particularly am::>ng those
who had worked with PAE' s for six or rrore years.
The foregoing information relates to ortho-phthalate only. Health and toxicology
data are not clearly related to the specific isaner or its metabolites; mechanisms
are not known. para-phthalates are believed to cause effects similar to those
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described aOOve, but this has not been derronstrated.
phthalates is 1.ll1documented.
Behavior of the meta-
What Are the Sources, Enviromnental levels, and Populations Exposed?
In 1972, aOOut 1.15 billion po1.ll1ds of PAE's were produced as plasticizers
by 23 canpanies at 26 U. S. locations. 'The basic production method for PAE' s is to
react phthalic acid or anhydride with an alcohol or phenolic corrpound. PAE's
were first produced in the 1920's, and carre into widespread use in the 1930's.
About 80% of the plasticizer production has been used in the production of
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastics for use in building and construction products,
automJbile and lxxre furnishings, clothing, food coverings, and Iredical products.
About twenty percent is used in production of other plastics. Other uses include
carrier or dispersion rredia for pesticides, cosmetics, and dyes, and aCC01.ll1t for
a small aIID1.ll1t of total PAE production.
PAE' s have been f01.ll1d in the Gulf of Mexico (0.6 ppn) and near the rrouths of
the Merrimack and Charles Rivers (0.88 to 1. 9 ppb). Upstream in the Charles,
concentrations as high as 11. 27 ppb have been noted. Sarrples taken fran a bay
of Lake Superior, in a rural-industrial area, were f01.ll1d to contain O. 3 ppn.
Air sarrples taken near an incinerator at Hamilton, Ontario, have shown the presence
of three PAE' s at concentrations ranging from 300 ]lg/rn 3 to 750 ]lg/rn 3 .
No:rma.lly stable PAE' s are liberated fran vinyl upholstery fabrics and other
thin-vinyl products, particularly at terrperatures over 25 degrees C. The air
inside new cars has been f01.ll1d to contain PAE' s in the mg/l range.
What Are the Technologic and Economic Aspects?
The State of Michigan found that nearly all of the PAE' s being released into
waste streams could be rerroved by improverrents in industrial housekeeping involving
little capital expenditure by the companies. Whether emissions to the atrrosphere
could be eliminated by control technology is not known. The question of \\Drker
exposure is, similarly, not yet answerable.
What Steps Have Been Taken, and What is Being Ibne?
Until recently, the level of concern with phthalic acid esters and their
isaners in the enviromnent has not been such that EPA control appeared needed.
The State of Michigan has used State laws and authorities delegated 1.ll1der Federal
law to request that manufacturers rrodify their processes to eliminate the discharge
of phthalic acid esters with waste effluents. The plant managers of the affected
industries have viewed the approach as helpful and easily ccmplied with.
The manufacturers of blood bags and DEHP-plasticized PVC transfusion equipnent
have vol1.ll1tarily shifted to use of other materials.
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REFERENCES
Corcoran, Eugene F., "Gas-Chrc:matographic Detection of Phthalic Acid
Esters," Environrrental Health PerSPeCtives, No. 3:13-5, 1973.
Graham, P.R., "Phthalate Ester Plasticizers: Why and How They Are Used,"
Environrrental Health Perspectives, No. 3:3-12, 1973.
Hites, Roland A., "Phthalates in the Charles and the Merrlirack Rivers,"
Environmental Health PerSPeCtives, No. 3:17-21, 1973.
Mayer, Foster L., Jr., and Sanders, Hennan 0., "Toxicology of Phthalic
Acid Esters in Aquatic Organisms," Environrrental Health Perspectives,
No. 3:153-158, 1973.
Metcalf, R.L., et al., "Uptake and Fate of Di-2-ethyl Ketyl Phthalate in
Aquatic Organisms and in a M:x1el Ecosystem," Environmental Health
Perspectives, No. 4:27-34, 1973.
Milkov, L.E., et al., "Health Status of Workers Exposed to Phthalate
Plasticizers in the Manufacture of Articficial Leather and Films Based
on PVC Resins, "Environmental Health Perspectives, No. 3:175-179, 1973.
Stalling, David L., Hogan, Jarres W., and Jarres W., and Johnson, James L.,
"Phthalate Ester Residues - Their Meatbolism and Analysis,"
Environmental Health Perspectives, No.3: 159-173, 1973.
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POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYIS (PCB's)
Why Should the Chemical Be of Concern at this Tirre?
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB's) are persistent in the
environment and bioconcentrate in the food chain. The PCB concentrations
in sport and COITIrerical fish in mmy of our fresh \rVater areas exceed the
FDA's temporary tolerance level. The existing environrrental levels in
Sate of our waters are high enough to have an effect on the reproduction
of some fish SPecies. Ih the laboratory, PCB's have caused turrors in
rats, mice anu dogs, and at law levels they have been shown to cause
reproduction failures in prirnates. PCB's have been detected in over 90
percent of the samples of human adipose tissue and human milk.
What Are the Health and Ecological Effects, and Environrrent Behavior?
In 1968, rrore than 1000 cases of PCB poisoning were diagnosed in
Japanese families that used rice oil contaminated with PCB's. The
disease was characterized by swelling of the upper eyelids, visual
impairment, acne-like fonnations, and heightened pigmentation of the
skin. In addition, PCB's have been shown to adversely affect the
reproduction of several anirnal species. In 1972, the Federal
Interdepartmental Task Force on PCB's concluded that these chemicals
pose a serious threat to human health because of their highly
persistent nature and their tendency to bioaccumulate in the food
chain.
What Are the Sources, Envirorurenta1 levels, and Exposed Populations?
Since 1971, M::msanto Corporation, the sole producer of PCB's in
the United States, has voluntarily restricted the sale of PCB's to
manufacturers of "closed" electrical equiprrent. In 1975, approxirnately 21
million pounds were used in capacitor mmufacturing, and 11 million
pounds were used by transforrrer mmufacturers. Another 500,000 pounds
are iIrported each year, primarily for use in the investm2nt casting industry.
U. S. PCB production has declined from a high of 85 million pounds in 1970
to a ION of 40 million pounds in 1974.
Although the water levels are generally low, high concentrations
of PCB's have been found in fish and sediments. Sediments appear to be
the primary environmental sink, and they can be slowly released into the
surrounding water over a period of mmy years.
The National Human M:mi toring Program for pesticides found
that the proportion of human adipose tissue showing traces of PCB's
increased fran 50.7 percent in 1970 to 90.9 percent in 1974. A
study in Michigan has shown that persons who eat sport fish show a
higher blood level of PCB's than those who do not consurre fish.
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EPA is \\'Orking toward the development of better analytical methods
for air measurements.
What Are the Technical and Economic Aspects?
Sixty percent of the approximately 1. 25 billion pounds of PCB's
used in the United States since 1930 are in service today, rrainly in
transformers and capacitors. It is estimated that 290 million pounds
are in landfills or dumps, and 150 million pounds are free in the
environment. Only an estiroated 55 million pounds have been destroyed
by incineration or degradation.
PCB substitutes rray cost IIDre and rray not have the flame resist-
ance of PCB's. 'TIlis could influence the development of electrical
equiprrent and change the national fire codes.
What Steps Have Been Taken, and What Is Being wne?
'TIle Toxic Substances Control Act gives the EPA Administrator the
authority to regulate the manufacturing, processing, distribution,
and use of PCB's. It also requires that the Agen0J prescribe methods of
disposal and rrarking for PL""'B I S and articles cont..aining PCB's. 'TIle law
mandates that all manufacturing and processing will be stopped by
January 1, 1979.
In July, 1976, EPA published the proposed effluent regulation for
PCB's. EPA has proposed regulations for PCB I s under Section 311, hazardous
materials spills, and is preparing a regulation for PCBs pretreatment
under Section 307 (b) of FWPCA.
'TIle Fcx:Xl and Drug Administration has announced that they are
considering lCMering the tolerance level for PCB i S in certain foods. 'TIle
present tolerance levels were finalized in July, 1973, and included 5.0 ppn
for the edible portion of fish and shellfish and 0.2 ppm for baby food.
NIOSH has prepared a draft criteria document which recommends
lowering the \\'Orkplace exposure standard for PCB's. 'Ihis document
should be released to OSHA this year.
On April 1,. 1976, EPA published guidelines for the disposal of PCB's under
Section 209 of the 1965 Solid Waste Disposal Act.
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REFERENCES
Emllronmental Health Perspectives, Experimental Issue Number One, April,
1972. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences.
Kornreich, M., et aI, Environmental Impact of Polychlorinated Biphenyls,
May 1976, Ivhtre-:--
National Conference on Polychlorinated Biphenyls. November 1975, Chicago,
Illinois, Sponsored by Environmental Protection Agency, March 1976.
PCB's and The Environment, Interdepartmental Task Force on PCBs, ITF-PCB-
72-1, March 20, 1972.
PCB's in The United States Industrial Use and Environmental Distribution,
Task I. EPA, Office of 'Ibxic Substances, Report No. 560/6-76-005, February
25, 1976.
Selikoff, Irving J., Ed. Environmental P.esearch: An International Journal
of Environmental MediCIne and the Environmental Sciences, Volume 5, Number 3,
September 1972.
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TRICHLOROFLlOROMETHANE (F-ll) AND DICHLORODIFLUOROMETHANE (F-12)
Why Should the Chemical Be of Concern at This Tiroe?
The continued release of F-ll and F-12 may at some time in the future
result in a significant depletion of stratospheric ozone. Stratospheric ozone
absorbs incx:rning high energy ultraviolet radiation frern the sun, particularly
in that region of the spectrum associated with adverse health effects, notably
skin cancer. The absorption of ultraviolet radiation by stratospheric ozone
also establishes the temperature distribution of the stratosphere which may be
an essential factor in weather and climate patterns. The preponderance of
investigations since 1974, including a National Academy of Sciences study PLl_0Hshee
in Septenber 1976, have supfOrted the ozone depletion predictions and recog-nized
the eventual need for some form of limitations on the continued release of F-ll
and F-12.
What Are the Health and Ecological Effects, and Environmental Behavior?
F-ll and F-12 are chemically stable, volatile, and quite insoluble in
water. When released, they accumulate in the trofOsphere, the lCMer
portion of the a1::lrosphere, where they do not appear to undergo any significant
destruction. Minor sinks, such as dissolution in ocean surface waters, ion-
lIDlecule interactions, and photodissociation may exist for the fluorocarbons,
but existing data indicate that the current a1::lrospheric burden of F-ll and F-12
roughly accounts for the total amount of these canpounds released to date (i. e.,
since about 1930). It has rI.ON been shewn that F-ll and F-12 diffuse upNard
into the stratosphere. There, intense solar radiation can rerrove serne or all
of the chlorine atans frern these canpotmds. Chlorine atcms catalyze
decarposition of ozone lIDlecules by initiating free radical chain reactions.
The National Academy of Sciences has predicted that continued release of
F-ll and F-12 at current rates will, within a century or so, result in ozone
depletion of 2-20%, with a rredi.an estimate of 7% depletion.
The health and ecological effects of such an ozone depletion have not been
fully defined. Qualitatively, the effects of ozone depletion are seen as
fOssible increases in human skin cancer; adverse impacts on the grCMth and
yield of econanically important crops; adverse effects on plants, insects, and
animals; disruption of local ecosystems, and weather and climate changes due
to increased ultraviolet radiation and/or perturbation of the stratospheric
temperature structure.
What Are the Sources, Environmental Levels, and Exposed Popula tion~..?
In 1974, U.S. production of F-ll and F-12 was 341 million pounds and 487
million fOunds, respectively. United States production accounts for about half
of the total world production of these corrpounds. Virtually all of the F-ll and
F-12 produced has been, or at serne future time will be, released to the atmosphere.
With aerosol propellants (about 80% of F-ll consumption and about 60% of F~12
consumption) the release occurs within a year or so after production. Refrigerant
- 19 -
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use (about 5% of F-ll consumption and about 30% of F-12 consumption) involves
a delay of about a decade or so from the time of production to abrospheric
release. The remaining consumption of these conpounds as foam blowing agents
also results in ultinBte release to the atITosphere.
No natural sources of these compounds are known to exist. Ambient air
levels of F-ll and F-12 are about 80 parts per trillion by volurre (ppt v/v)
and 120 ppt v/v, respectively. Concentrations are higher over areas of high
population and industrial activity, and are also higher in the northern
hemisphere than in the southern hemisphere. Calculations of the total
abrospheric burden indicate that alrrost all of the F-ll and F-12 produced to
date resides in the troposphere, with the only significant rerroval rrechanism
being diffusion into the stratosphere.
Because ozone depletion is a global effect, it could impact on the total
world population. The particular effects may be different for certain groups.
Wi th respect to skin cancer: light-skirmed people are at greater risk than
dark-skinned PeOple; the effects of increased ultraviolet on agriculural crops
may be more significant at certain latitudes than others; and effects of clinBte
changes may be !TOre significant. in sorre areas thc..iIl others.
What Are the Technologic and Economic Aspects?
Suitable alternative delivery systems are available for fluorocarbon-
propelled aerosol products. Although some economic dislocations could be expected
from a shift to these alternatives, the overall economic effects would probably
be negligible. For refrigerant use, where F-12 is the principal compound of
concern, there does not apPear to be a suitable and feasible way to replace the
refrigerant already in use with a substitute substance, nor is there, at this
time, a process for capturing and disposing of spent refrigerant. However,
modification of condensers to use refrigerants other than F-ll and F-12 in
devices manufactured in the future is possible. Scme foam blowing agent uses of
F-ll and F-12 can be replaced by other materials; those foam blowing uses where
F-ll and F-12 are retained in the foam to impart desired thermal properties to
the final product may be difficult to replace.
What Steps Have Been Taken, and What Is Being Done?
The National Academy of Sciences has now completed its evaluation of the
fluorocarbon/ozone ciuestion. Both government- and industry-sponsored research
into the ozone depletion theory and the. possible effects of ozone depletion
on man and the envirorunent are continuing. EPA has now begun the rulemak.ing
procedures for future fluorocarbon regulatory action under the Toxic Substances
Control Act.
'The u. S. Food and Drug Administration has announced procedures for
removing F-ll and F-12 from drugs and cosmetic products, and the Consumer
Product Safety Ccmnission plans to regulate use of these compounds as
propellants in oousehold products.
~" 20 ~
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REFERENCES
Chemical Technology and Economics in Environrrental Perspectives: Technical
Alternatives to Selected Chlorofluorocarbon Uses, prepared by Midwest Research
Institute for Office of 'lbxic Substances, EPA. (Available through NTIS,
PB 251 146, February 1976).
Environrrental Hazard Assessment RePort: Major One- and 'TWo-Carbon Saturated
Fluorocarbons. Review of Data, Office of 'lbxic Substances, EPA. (Available
through NTTS, PB 257 371, August 1976).
Fluorocarbons and the Environrrent, Report of Federal Task Force on Inadvertent
Modification of the Stratosphere (IMOS), NSF 75-403, June 1975.
Fluorocarbons-Impact on Health and Environrrent, Hearings before the Subcam1ittee
on Public Health and Environrrent of the Carmittee on Interstate and Foreign
ConIrerce, House of Representatives, 93rd Congress, Second Session, Dec. 11
and 12, 1974, Serial No. 93-110.
Halocarbons: Effects on Stratospheric Ozone,
Conrnittee on Impacts of Stratospheric Change,
Physical Sciences, National Research Council;
Sept611ber 1976.
Panel on AtIrospheric Chemistry,
Assembly of Mathematical and
National Academy of Science,
Halocarbons: Enviromnental Effects of Chlorofluoromethane Release, Committee
on Impacts of Stratospheric Change, Assembly of Mathematical anc. Physical
Sciences, National Research Council; National Academy of Sciences, September
1976.
Preliminary Econanic Irrpact Assessment of Possible Regulatory Action to Control
AtIrDspheric Emissions of Selected Halocarbons, prepared by Arthur D. Little,
Inc. for Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, EPA. (Available
through NTIS, PB 247 115, September 1975).
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VINYL CHIDRIDE (VCM)
Why Should the Chemical Be of Concern at this Time?
Reports of hepatoangiosarcoma, a very rare liver cancer, in workers
exposed to VCM resulted in the initial awareness of a potential environmental
problem. A stringent workplace standard was subsequently adopted by OSHA;
havever, VCM has been detected in the environment beyond the fences of plants
manufacturing or using VCM and fabricating products from polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) .
What Are the Health and Ecological Effects, and Environmental Behavior?
Vinyl chloride inhalation has been shavn to cause cancer in both sexes
of three species of rodent. Angiosarcoma of the liver has been induced
in rats, hamsters and mice. In rats and mice, this induction was at
exposure levels as lav as 50 ppm, the lavest level at which studies have
thus far been conducted. In one experiment, mice exposed to 50 ppm VCM
for four hours per day, five days per week, for a twelve m:mth period,
developed nephroblastanas and liver angiosarcanas after 135 weeks. A second
experiment produced angiosarcomas after 26 weeks of exposure to 50 ppm, seven
hours per day, five days per week (1atency period not specified). Multiple
cancer risk was shavn, with involvement of the brain, lungs, kidneys, and
InaITUTIa.ry glands.
No definitive dose-response data have been developed; thus, there are
uncertainties as to the adverse effects on man at these concentrations. The
latency period between exposure to lav levels of vinyl chloride and the diagnosis
of cancer appears to be about 20 years.
As of June 1975, NCI had confirmed 27 cases of hepatoangiosarcana among
occupationally exposed workers (15 in the United States, and 12 in Europe
and Canada). An additional 11 cases have been reported, but not confirmed.
The physical characteristics of VCM have precluded serious environmental
problems. The volatility and reactivity of VCM have prevented its accumulation
in the biosphere, including aquatic systems.
What Are the Sources, Environmental Levels, and Exposed Populations?
Vinyl chloride is produced at eleven plants in the United States.
Total production capacity is 6.8 billion pounds per year. Virtually all of
the VCM is polymerized into polyvinyl chloride (PVC) at approximately forty
plants, and more than 8,000 plants fabricate products from PVC. The principal
uses of PVC are in building materials (39%), home furnishings (10%), electrical
insulation (7%), packaging materials (7%), recreational equiprent (6%),
apparel (5%), and transportation equipment (5%). About five percent of
production is exported, and 16 percent is applied to miscellaneous uses.
Manufacture of VCM and PVC and fabrication of PVC products result in the
emission of about 220 million pounds of VCM to the atmosphere each year.
It has been estimated that 4.6 million people live within five miles
of plants producing VCM and PVC. Monitoring results indicate that persons
- 22 -
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living in the llm1ediate vicinity of these plar.ts may be exposed to average
daily concentrations of less than one part per million. Sane 24-hour
concentrations have ranged fran one to three pp:n, with occasional peak
exposures as high as 33 pp:n.
What Are the Technical and Economic .Aspects?
EPA has estimated that the cost for existing plants to install the
equir:m:mt needed to meet the air emission standard will total $198 million,
of which $183 is for PVC plants. An additional $70 million per year will be
required to maintain and operate the equirm=nt. The air standard also
established an effluent standard. It is estimated that this will require
$83 million in equipment costs, and $17 million per year for operation and
maintenance.
It was estimated that imposition of the air standard would result in a
7. 3 percent increase in the price of PVC resins, and this would prompt a 3.5
percent increase in the price of consumer goods containing PVC.
What Steps Have Been Taken, and YNhat Is Being Done?
Stringent workplace standards were prcmu.lgated by OSHA in December 1974,
and revised in March 1975.
Limitations on air ffi'issions of vinyl chloride were proposed under Section
112 of the Clean Air Act. These standards are applicable to manufacturers
of vinyl chloride and ethylene dichloride by the oxychlorination process,
and to polyrrerizers of PVC.
The Office of Water Supply is conducting studies to determine if VCM
should be regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act.
Vinyl chloride is one of the sixty-five chemicals presently under
study for control under the provisions of the Federal Water Pollution Control
Act.
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REFERENCES
Dynamic Behavior of Vinyl Chloride in Aquatic Ecosystems. EPA, Office of
Research and Developrent Report No. 600/3-76-001, January 1976.
idemiology Studies, Task III: vin 1 Chloride. EPA, Office of Toxic
Substances Report ~b. 560 6-75-002, November 1975.
Scientific and Technical AssesSlreIlt Report on Vinyl Chloride and Pol inyl
Chloride. EPA, Office of Research and Developrent Report No. 600 6-75-004,
June 1975.
Standard Support and Environrrental Iripact Statement: Emission Standard
for Vinyl Chloride. Volurre 1. EPA, Office of Air Quality Planning and
Standards Report No. 450/2-75-009, October 1975.
Toxicity of Vinyl Chloride - Polyvinyl Chloride.
of the New York Academy of Sciences, Volurre 246.
January 1975.
Annals
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1. REPORT NO.
EPA 560/4-76-008
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Insuuctions on the reverse before completing)
l2. 3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSIOI'+NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Summary Characterizations of Selected Chemicals of
Near-Term Interest
5. REPORT DATE
SepteT1ber 1976
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
Office of Toxic Substances
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Toxic Substances
401 "M" Street, SW
Washington, DC 20460
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Toxic Substances
r40], "M" Street, SW
Washington, DC 20460
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
This report includes summary characterizations of 8 chEmicals of near-term
concern to EPA. The report summarizes (a) health and ecological effects and
environmental behavior, (b) sources, environmental levels and exposed populations
(c) technologic and econanic aspects and (d) steps that have been taken and are'
being taken.
a.
DESCRIPTORS
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
C. COSA TI Field/Group
17.
Bis (Chloromethyl) Ether, Chloroform,
Hexachlorobutadiene, Lead and Its
Compounds, Phthalic Acid Esters,
Polychlorinated Biphenyls,
Trichlorofluoromethane (F-ll) and
Dichlorodifluoranethane (F-12), Vinyl
C'hlorinp
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release Unlimited
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
Unclassified
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
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