EPA-600/3-75-008
October 1975
Ecological Research Series
SECOND ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON
BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF
METALS IN AOUATIC ENVIRONMENTS
[nvironmental Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Narragansett, Rhode Island 02882
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office and Research and Development,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, have been grouped into
five series. These five broad categories were established to
facilitate further development and application of environmental
technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and maximum interface in
related fields. The five series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
This report has been assigned to the ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH series.
This series describes research on the effects of pollution on
humans, plant and animal species, and materials. Problems are
assessed for their long- and short-term influences. Investi-
gation include formation, transport, and pathway studies to
determine the fate of pollutants and their effects. This work
provides the technical basis for setting standards to minimize
undesirable changes in living organisms in the aquatic, terres-
trial and atmospheric environments.
This document is available to the public through the National
Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/3-75-008
October 1975
SECOND ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS ON
METALS IN AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS
[No. 568-1292]
by
Ronald Eisler and Maryjane Wapner
Office and Health and Ecological Effects
Environmental Research Laboratory
Narragansett, Rhode Island 02882
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
NARRAGANSETT, RHODE ISLAND 02882
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Municipal Environmental
Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and ap-
proved for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents
necessarily reflect the views and policies of the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade names or commercial
products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
ii
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ABSTRACT
A total of 725 references are listed on the toxicological, physiologi-
cal, and metabolic influence of stable and radiolabelled chemical
species of metal cations to marine, estuarine, and freshwater fauna and
flora. References were annotated and subsequently indexed by metal, by
taxa, and by author, in cumulative indices which encompass this volume
and the initial volume in this series (Eisler, R. 1973. Annotated bib.
liography on biological effects of metals in aquatic environments (No.
1-567). U.S. Envir. Proto Agen. Rept. R3-73-007: 287 pp.).
iii
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Section
II
III
CONTENTS
Page
I
Introduction
1
References
2
Index
320
v
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This compilation was initiated with the active encouragement of Dr. Eric
D. Schneider and Dr. Donald K. Phelps, Director and Deputy Director,
respectively, of the Environmental Research Laboratory, formerly the
National Marine Water Quality Laboratory. Many individuals participated
in the project. We especially grateful to Mr. George D. Hartson and Mr.
John D. Reardon for their assistance and cooperation in proofing, filing,
indexing and cross-indexing. Ms. Rose Ann Gamache, Librarian at the ERL,
assisted in procuring the original articles for consultation through
interlibrary loan and other sources. We are obligated to Ms. Avis Hazard,
Ms. Lori Iacueli, Ms. Denise McNulty, and Ms. Shirley Wilkins for
preliminary typing, and to Mrs. Janice Steele for final typing.
vi
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SECTION I
INTRODUCTION
A growing body of Ii terature has become available in recent years on
biological effects of metals on marine, estuarine, and freshwater biota.
Huch of this information is of recent vintage as evidenced by the fact
that the majority of references listed herein have been published with-
in the past five years. We attribute this increase in published data to
technological advances and increasing utilization of atomic absorption
spectrophotometry, neutron activation, and other techniques used in
quantitative determination of metals in biological matrices.
As was true in the initial volume, published as EPA Report R3-73-007,
the present account lists journal articles and reports that emphasize
toxicological, physiological and metabolic effects of stable and radio-
active species of metal cations to aquatic life. Specifically: factors
affecting survival, growth, reproduction, behavior, and bioaccumulation;
influence of changes in exogenous salt content on response parameters
including internal changes in salt balance of body fluids and tissues;
baseline data on elemental composition; and finally, interaction effects
of metals and their salts in combination with other substances.
As more information becomes available, and future volumes in this series
are produced, it is hoped that levels for each metal can be established
administratively which do not jeopardize the stability of aquatic eco-
systems or present a potential health hazard to man through aquatic food
chains.
1
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SECTION II
REFERENCES
References are arranged alphabetically by author and then numbered.
Each reference is indexed by metal(s), by author(s) and by taxonomic
group(s) in the INDEX (Section III).
2
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568.
Abdelmalik, W.E.Y., R.M.K. El-Shinawy, M.M. Ishak, and K.A.
Mahmoud. 1973. Uptake of radionuclides by some aquatic
macrophytes of Ismailia Canal, Egypt. Hydrobiologia 42(1):
3-12.
The uptake and accumulation of Cs-134, Co-60, Sr-90, and P-32
were studied with four aquatic macrophytes: Elodea densa, Ceratophyllum
d~mersum, Po~amogeton pectinatu~, and ~hara sp. Tests were conducted
w1th plants 1n large aquaria containing canal water labelled with the
radionuclides. Authors concluded that uptake of the radionuclides in-
creased at increasing initial concentrations of the radionuclides in the
water; that maximum uptake was reached by most plants after different
periods of contamination, ranging from 1 to 4 days; that Ceratophyllum
was the most favorable biological indicator for strontium radioisotopes
in concentrations ranging from 0.5 to 10 microcuries/l and for contami-
nation periods up to 16 days; that Elodea was a good biological indi-
cator for either strontium or phosphorus radioisotopes for limited con-
tamination periods of 2 to 16 days for Sr and to 2 days for P isotopes;
and finally, that Potamogeton was also a good biological indicator for
limited contamination periods for strontium, phosphorus and cesium
radioisotopes: 0 to 2 days for Sr, 2 to 16 days for P, and 0 to 2 days
for Cs isotopes.
569.
Ackefors, H., G. L~froth, and C.G. Rosen. 1970. A survey of the
mercury pollution problem in Sweden with special reference to
fish. Oceanogr. Mar. BioI. Ann. Rev. 8:203-224.
The intentional and unintentional mercury pollution in Sweden
has given rise to a serious problem which embraces hazards for all types
of biological ecosystems. The recent finding that other types of mer-
cury compounds may end up as methyl-Hg by the action of microorganisms
occurring in natural waters forces us to look upon this problem as even
more serious. The fact that mercury contained in fish is 70-100% methyl-
Hg is alarming. In about 1% of the waters investigated in Sweden the
mean value of mercury concentration in fish exceeds 1000 ng/g; such fish
are definitely unfit for human consumption, and it is now forbidden to
market such fish in Sweden. In addition mercury residues have been re-
ported in many types of agriculturally produced food and in wildlife.
The mercury concentrations seem to be higher in kidneys and liver than
in skeletal muscles of terrestrial animals. There are, however, examples
of very high concentrations in the flesh of pheasants. In contaminated
water, fish have generally higher concentrations in muscle than in liver
and kidney.
The mercury problem may be more serious in Sweden than in some
other countries due to climatic and biological factors and to the wide-
spread use of mercury in industry and agriculture, but there is every
3
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reason to believe that the problem is of similar magnitude in other
countries, especially with regard to aquatic organisms; the main dif-
ference is that the problem has not been observed elsewhere, and this
is because until now very few investigations have been made outside of
Japan and Sweden. From the current point of view it is extremely im-
portant that all countries take an interest in this problem and as far
as possible begin to restrict the mercury contamination of soil, water,
and air in order to prevent the great hazards for mankind which in-
creased mercury concentrations in nature imply. The reported cytologi-
cal effects on man and other organisms are a disturbing aspect of this
pollution problem.
570.
Adam, F.S., H. Cole Jr., and L.B. Massie. 1973. Element consti-
tution of selected aquatic vascular plants from Pennsylvania:
submersed and floating leaved species and rooted emergent
species. Environ. Pollut. 5:117-147.
Thirty species of submersed and floating leaved aquatic vas-
cular plants (AVPs) and fifteen species of rooted emergent AVPs were
collected from forty-four and forty-two locations, respectively, in the
Delaware, Susquehanna and Allegheny river watersheds in Pennsylvania
(USA) and analyzed by emission spectrometry for element constitution of
eleven potentially-polluting ions including: phosphorus, potassium,
calcium, magnesium, manganese, iron, copper; boron, aluminum, zinc, and
sodium. These species were characterized according to intraspecific
variation in element constitution, significant statistical variation for
each ion within each species between locations and species potential for
monitoring nutrient pollution.
Macro and micro element constituent levels for twenty-one addi-
tional species of submersed and floating leaved AVPs and for eight addi-
tional species of rooted emergent AVPs, collected at one or two locations
each. were also determined. Elodea canadensis, Potamogeton crispus,
Myriophyllum exalbescens, Justicia americana, and the Sparganiums have
been selected for additional studies designed to investigate pathways of
nutrient assimilation and the effect of nutrient pollution upon produc-
tivity, morphology and reproduction.
571.
Albright, L.J., J.W. Wentworth, and E.M. Wilson. 1972. Technique
for measuring metallic salt effects upon the indigenous hetero-
trophic microflora of a natural water. Water Research 6(12):
1589-1596.
The effects of several concent~ations of the metallic salts
Ag2S04, NaAs03, BaC1202H20, CdC12°2.5 H20, CrC1206H20, CuC12' HgC12'
NaCl, NiC1206H20, PbC12 and ZnC12 upon the indigenous heterotrophic
4
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microflora of a natural water were studied. Effects of these salts upon
the heterotrophic activity of the microbes were assayed using the hetero-
trophic technique whereas lethal effects upon the heterotrophic bacteria
were determined using nutrient agar plate counts. The heterotrophic
activity method is based upon the uptake and mineralization of a radio-
actively labeled metabolite (in these experiments 14C-glucose) by the
indigenous aquatic microbes and data analysis is by Michaelis-Menten en-
zyme kinetics equations. Concentrations of metallic salts which resulted
in bacterial death also caused erratic uptake and mineralization rates
of 14C-glucose whereas sub-lethal concentrations, as determined by
nutrient agar plate counts, caused a non-competitive inhibition of maxi-
mum heterotrophic activity and markedly increased the turnover time of
the glucose substrate.
572.
Albright, L.J., and E.M. Wilson.
several metallic salt-organic
heterotrophic microflora of a
8:101-105.
1974. Sub-lethal effects of
compounds combinations upon the
natural water. Water Research
Effects of several sub-lethal combinations of the metallic
salts Ag2S04, CuC12, HgC12 and ZnC12 with the organic compounds L-
cysteine and albumin upon heterotrophic activity of the microflora of a
natural water are studied. This heterotrophic activity technique is
based upon uptake and mineralization of a labeled metabolite by indi-
genous microflora from a reflecting pool. Data analysis by Michaelis-
Menten enzyme kinetics equations allows the estimation of maximum rate
of heterotrophic activity as well as a determination of turnover time of
the nutrient in question. Addition of a sub-lethal combination of Cu and
Zn to a sample of pool water decreases heterotrophic activity to approx-
imately the same extent as the additive decrease caused by these two cat-
ions added separately to samples of this water. Cu and Zn treated water
samples do not recover the pre-metallic salt treatment activity follow-
ing a 3-day incubation. Both L-cysteine and albumin have no protective
effect upon heterotrophic activity inhibition caused by Hg and Ag respec-
tively at the concentrations used.
573.
Alderdice, D.F., and C.R. Forrester. 1971. Effects of salinity,
temperature, and dissolved oxygen on early development of the
Pacific cod (Gadus macrocephalus). Jour. Fish. Res. Bd.
Canada 28(6):883-902.
Effects of various combinations of levels of salinity, tem-
perature and dissolved oxygen on incubation of Pacific cod eggs were in-
vestigated in the laboratory. These eggs are judged to be euryhaline,
euryoxic, and stenothermal. As long as temperatures are within the
range of about 3-5°C, the developing egg is tolerant of a wide range of
salinities (optimum 150100), and of dissolved oxygen levels to a
5
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minimum of about 2 or 3 mg/l. Below 3°C developmental success decreases
precipitously; above 5°C it attenuates more slowly.
574.
Alderdice, D.F., and F.P.J. Velsen. 1971. Some effects of
salinity and temperature on early development of Pacific
herring (Clupea. pallasi). Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 28:
1545-1562.
Pacific herring eggs were incubated in the laboratory at 13
different salinity-temperature combinations (ranges: .5-45° /ooS, 4-l4°C).
Data were obtained on rate of development, larval length at hatching,
percent total hatch, and percent viable hatch. Maximum percent viable
hatch, larval size at hatching, and maximum survival to yolk sac absorp-
tion occurred at l6.4lo/00S, 6.85°C. Optimum conditions were calculated
by response surface analysis--maximum total hatch: l2.0lo/00S, 6.46°C;
maximum viable hatch: l6.980/00S, 8.33°C; maximum length of newly
hatched larvae: 20.000/00S, 5.54°C. Maximum percent viable hatch of
largest larvae in the shortest incubation period is estimated to occur
at or near l6.980/00S, 8.7°C. Pacific herring eggs are considered eury-
haline and stenothermal. A comparison of laboratory and field observa-
tions suggests that occurrence and abundance of herring is related to
the availability and extent of spawning salinities between 8 and 28%0.
Moreover, catch statistics suggest that population abundance in North
American waters is associated with spawning temperature of 5-9°C,
abundance is limited by temperatures of 9-l0°C, and the maximum tempera-
ture for spawning is about 10°C.
575.
AI-Hamed, M.l. 1971. Salinity tolerance of common carp:
(Cyprinus carpio, L.). Bull. Iraq Nat. Hist. Mus. (Univ.
Baghdad), 5(1) :1-7. In Selected Water Resources Abstracts,
5(21) :74.
~. carpio, ranging in length from 8.5 to 12.7 cm were exposed
directly and gradually to different salinity levels. In direct exposure
experiments, fish lived at salinities as high as 12%0 for 10 weeks
(the duration of the experiment). Higher salinities proved unfavorable.
In gradual acclimatization experiments during a period of 4 days fish
lived at salinities as high as 17%0, but higher levels were lethal.
Fertilized ova of carp hatched at salinities from 2%0 to 10%0, but
the favorable level was up to 6.6%0.
576.
Allen, K.O., and J.W. Avault, Jr. 1970. Effects of salinity on
growth and survival of channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus.
Proc. 23rd Ann. Conf. Southeast Assoc. Game and Fish Commrs.,
1969: 319- 331.
6
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Three-day old or older eggs tolerated up to 16%0 total
salinity. However, at time of hatching there was a sharp drop in toler-
ance to about 8%0. This level of tolerance was maintained during the
period of yolk absorption. Following yolk absorption, there was an in-
crease in tolerance to about 9 or 10%0. By five months of age toler-
ance had increased to 11%0 and to 120/00 by six months. The level of
tolerance was about the same at 11-14 months. Nine days acclimation to
5%0 increased growth and food conversion slightly but did not increase
sur~ival. Forty days of acclimation to 5%0 increased tolerance about
0.5 /00. Fish failed to maintain themselves at salinities greater than
12%0, even with extended acclimation to 10%0 salinity. In long-term
studies, starting at an age of 42 days and continuing through an age of
148 days, fingerlings in freshwater had the best indices for food con-
sumption, growth, food conversion, and survival. Fingerlings in 5%0
salinity did almost as well. Fingerlings in 10%0 salinity were a poor
third. In long-term studies with 11 through 14 month-old yearlings,
when fish were acclimated to 5%0, indices were similar at all test
salinities of 0 through 11%0. Fish acclimated to 10%0 gave similar
results at 0 through 12%0.
577.
Alley, W.P., H.R. Brown, and L.Y. Kawasaki. 1974. Lead concen-
trations in the wooly sculpin, Clinocottus analis, collected
from tidepools of California. California Fish and Game 60 (1) :
50-51.
Lead concentrations in muscle from Clinocottus analis was ex-
amined for 12 fishes collected in the tidepools of the Pt. Fermin area
of Los Angeles, 9 fishes taken from tidepools 11 miles north of San
Simeon, and 9 fishes removed from tidepools near the isthmus of Santa
Catalina Island. Average lead values at Pt. Fermin was 4.9 mg/kg while
the average lead level of sculpins collected at the isthmus of Santa
Catalina Island was 2.7 mg/kg. Mean values for sculpins removed north
of San Simeon was only 0.6 mg/kg. Lead values of tidepool fishes in
San Simeon were of a magnitude similar to levels reported for salmon
(1.3 mg/kg), tuna (0.9 mg/kg), sardines (1.1 mg/kg), anchovies (0.9
mg/kg), and swordfish (0.2 mg/kg) by other investigators. The lead
conc~ntration of the Pt. Fermin wooly sculpins were almost five times
greater than previously mentioned values while the Santa Catalina scul-
pins contained more than twice as much lead.
Geographical variations in lead levels in these tidepool
fishes undoubtedly reflects contamination of the intertidal zone by
atmospheric lead pollution; documentation exists to show that the inner
city of the Los Angeles Metropolitan Area contained almost 35 times
more atmospheric lead than remote mountainous areas of California and
almost 9 times more atmospheric lead than "composite rural areas."
7
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The San Simeon region easily qualifies as a rural area in that
it is removed from any major metropolitan area and that it has no major
highways passing through it; it is more than a coincidence that lead
levels in tidepool fishes from this area are about 8 times less than the
Los Angeles area. Santa Catalina Island is separated from the mainland
by the Santa Catalina Channel with the isthmus being about 19 miles
southwest of Pt. Fermin. Authors conclude that S.C. island lies close
enough to L.A. to receive some of its atmospheric pollution. This con-
clusion is supported by the fact that lead concentrations of tidepool
fishes of the isthmus area are about half as great as at Los Angeles but
more than four times greater than the San Simeon area.
This study represents a preliminary examination of the lead
concentration of one species of intertidal fish and suggests that levels
of lead in the intertidal environment may vary from metropolitan areas
to rural areas; however, it does not indicate how the lead enters the
food chain or the levels existing in the intertidal invertebrates and
other intertidal fishes. Perhaps this cornmon intertidal fish can be
used as an indicator organism to reflect the accumulation of lead in the
intertidal environment which is derived from air pollution.
578.
Amend, D.F. 1970. Retention of mercury by salmon.
Cult. 32(4):192-194.
Progr. Fish-
The juvenile sockeye salmon treated repeatedly with mercurials
accumulated and retained high levels of mercury in their tissues for
several months, but after 4 years at sea they contained normal levels of
mercury in all tissues examined. Adult chinook and coho salmon also
treated with mercurials as juveniles did not show abnormal levels of mer-
cury. However, adult salmon exposed to mercury upon returning from the
sea, or mercurial-treated juvenile fish, may contain abnormal levels of
mercury.
579.
Amiard-Triquet, C., and J.C. Amiard. 1974. Contamination de
chaines trophiques marines par Ie cobalt 60. Rev. Inter.
Oc6anogr. Medicale 33:49-59.
Passage of Co-60 from the annelid
upper trophic level constituted by the crab
Pleuronectes platessa, was studied.
Arenicola marina to the
Carcinus maenas or flounder
Co-60 absorption and excretion by fecal, urinary and branchial
routes were measured following administration of contaminated food dur-
ing periods from one to five months. Elimination of Co-60 by crab and
flounder was monitored during six and three months respectively. Assimi-
lation of radioactive and stable cobalt found as a carrier in the con-
8
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taminated food varied according to the species; assimilation rates were
high in ~. maenas and very low in £. platessa. Cobalt isotopes were
mainly retained in the hepatopancreas of crabs and in liver and kidney
of flounder.
The high concentrations of Co-60 in these organs could result
in very partial internal exposures but nevertheless, comparatively high;
these are long-term exposures because cobalt has a low exchange rate.
580.
Anas, R.E. 1971. Mercury in fur seals. In Buhler, D.R. (ed.),
"Mercury in the Western Environment" Workshop, Portland,
Oregon, Feb. 25-26, 1971: 91-96 (sponsored by Environ. Hlth.
Sci. Cent., Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis, Oregon).
Fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus) off the Pribilof Islands,
Alaska, were tested by flame less atomic absorption for mercury contami-
nation. Liver, muscle and brain tissues were sampled from pup, young
male and adult female seals. All of the samples contained mercury,
though levels were higher in liver than muscle or brain. Mercury con-
tent in livers of pups was 0.20 mg/kg, 10.8 mg/kg for young males and
67.2 mg/kg for the adult females. While increased mercury levels in
liver tissue were significantly correlated with age, muscle tissue
showed no such correlation. Brain tissues were analyzed by neutron
activation; mercury values were higher using this method than those
determined by atomic absorption. The sources of mercury contamination
off the Pribilof Islands have not yet been identified.
581.
An as , R.E. 1974. Heavy metals in northern fur seals, Callor-
hinus ursinus, and harbor seals, Phoca vitulina richardi.
U.S. Dept. Commerce Fish. Bull. 72(1) :133-137.
Samples of liver, muscle, and kidney from fur seal and liver
from harbor seal were analyzed for total mercury. Liver and kidney of
fur seals were analyzed for lead, cadmium, and arsenic. Fur seals were
from the Pribilof Islands, Alaska, and from off the Washington coast.
Harbor seals were from the waters of southern California, Oregon, Wash-
ingt~n, and the Bering Sea. All of the samples, including a fetus taken
3 months before birth, contained mercury, lead, and cadmium. Arsenic
was not detected. Mercury was highest in liver, followed by kidney,
then muscle. The maximum concentration of mercury in liver was about
700 mg/kg in a southern California harbor seal and 170 mg/kg in a fur
seal taken off the Washington coast. Concentrations of cadmium and
lead were highest in the kidney (maximums of 1.8 mg/kg lead and 15.6
mg/kg cadmium) of fur seals. Concentrations of mercury did not corre-
late with age in muscle or kidney (P > 0.05) but did correlate signifi-
cantly with age in liver (P < 0.01). Concentrations of cadmium and lead
9
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in liver and kidney did not correlate with age (P > 0.05). In samples
of liver collected from harbor seals, the highest concentrations of mer-
cury were from southern California seals.
582.
Ancellin, J.C.M., M. Avargues, and P. Bovard. 1972. Study of a
marine site with respect to discharges of radioactive efflu-
ents. In Ruivo, M. (ed.), Marine Pollution and Sea Life,
Fishing-rrading News (Books), Ltd., London: 180-186.
The discharge of radioactive effluents in the marine environ-
ment causes a potential risk of secondary irradiation of the populations
due to the contamination of marine products and of their utilization for
alimentary or other purposes. Definition of the limits of the dis-
charges has to be taken from the studies and research concerning the
transfers of radionuclides from their starting point until reaching man,
through the components of the marine environment: water, sediments,
living organisms. Research should also cover the eventual action of the
radioactive substances on the biological equilibrium of the environment.
Such studies have been undertaken by the Atomic Energy Commissariat, or
under its direction, on the occasion of the opening at La Hague of a
factory for treatment of irradiated combustibles. The authors describe
the fields explored and the principal results obtained. They stress
the importance of the physical and chemical state of the radionuclides
in their evolution and their transfer to the marine environment.
Specific examples are presented with isotopes of Ce, Cs, Ru, and Zr to
algae, molluscs, crustaceans and fishes.
583.
Ancellin, J., M. Avargues, P. Bovard, P. Guegueniat, and A. Vil-
quin. 1973. Aspects biologiques et physico-chimiques de la
contamination radioactive d'especes et de sediments marins.
In Radioactive Contamination of the Marine Environment, Int.
Atom. Ener. Agen., Vienna, Austria: 225-243.
Various aspects of the physico-chemical and biological fate
of radioactive pollutants in the marine environment are reviewed in the
light of the results of recent radioecological research. Specific ex-
amples are presented with isotopes of Zn, Cs, Ce, Ru, Co, Cu, Pb, Mn,
and Fe to fish, mollusca, algae, annelids and crustaceans. In studying
contamination of any kind, it is necessary to take into account the
relative importance of physico-chemical and biological processes that
take place simultaneously. In a certain number of cases the mechanisms
whereby elements present in small quantities in seawater are adsorbed
on to living organisms are similar to those that apply to inert bodies.
The contribution of the species to fixation of the element is passive,
and the physico-chemical properties of the contaminants and of the con-
taminated carrier can dominate its own biological properties, particularly
10
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the physiological barrier of regulation. Various types of equilibration
of the pollution of the organs, notably in fish, with the pollution of
the environment are examined, together with the differences in the capa-
bility of various competing sites for adsorption of a specific pollutant.
For example the capability of sediments on the one hand and the living
species in contact with the sediments on the other.
584.
Ancellin, J., and P. Bovard. 1971. Observations concernant les
contaminations experimentales et les contaminations "in situ"
d'esp~ces marines par le ruthenium 106. Rev. Int. Oceanogr.
Medicale 21:85-92.
Studies are briefly reviewed about uptake of Ru 106 by marine
organisms from a bay receiving nuclear wastes. Concentration factors
(ratio of the activity of the organism to that of an equal weight of
water) were: algae (100-1,000), sponges (1,000-10,000). ascidians
(1,000). The sample volume needed for water analysis was 40-80 liters.
Suitable bioindicators of Ru contamination were: coralline algae, other
algae, sponges, or the more rare ascidians. In laboratory studies in
which insoluble suspensions of Ru compounds present in nuclear wastes
were circulated in aquaria, concentration factors in agreement with the
above were found; however, when only dissolved compounds were present
in the water, the values were about an order of magnitude lower.
585.
Ancellin, J., and A. Vilquin. 1966. Contaminations experimentales
d'especes marines par Ie cerium-144 Ie ruthenium-l06 and Ie
zirconium-95. In Disposal of Radioactive Wastes into Seas,
Ocean and Surface Water, Int. Atom. Ener. Agen., Vienna: 583-
604.
Studies were conducted in aquaria of 40-to 70-1 capacity, con-
taining sea water and operating as a closed circuit, provided with sedi-
ment composed of sand or gravel, and equipped with a filtration-aeration
system. Each aquarium is contaminated with one of the three following
radioisotopes: cerium-l44, ruthenium-l06 and zirconium-95. The
specific activity of the water in the aquaria is of the order of 1 to 2
~Ci/l. A certain number of species were studied, either in isolation or
preferentially with respect to others, and grouped in the same aquarium
so as to reconstitute the biological environment observed along the
northwest coast of the Cotentin Peninsula (Department of Manche.)
Fairly high build-up factors are observed for cerium-l44,
particularly with respect to the alga Corallina officinalis (of the
order of 10,000 to 20,000). For ruthenium-l06 the build-up factors are
lower (e.g. about 100 to 200 for the algae investigated). These re-
sults may be compared with data already published on the same or similar
11
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species.
inversely
as two of
144Ce.
They confirm that the concentration capability often varies
to the degree of evolution of the organisms, at least as far
the fission products in question are concerned: l06Ru and
As regards the concentration of cerium-144 in algae in par-
ticular, our values are higher than those mentioned in the literature.
Differences have also been noted in the case of ruthenium-l06.
586.
Ancellin, J., and A. Vilquin. 1968. Nouvelles etudes de con-
taminations experimentales d'especes marines par Ie cesium
137, Ie ruthenium 106 et Ie cerium 144. Radioprotection 3(3):
185-213.
Concentration factors for Cs 137, Ce 144 and Ru 106 were
determined for various species of marine algae, coelenterates, molluscs,
crustaceans, and fishes under controlled conditions. For algae CF were
~ 40 for Cs, 100-200 for Ru and 2000-10,000 for Ce; for invertebrates,
these values were < 40 for Cs, 20-50 for Ru, and 500-2000 for Ce; with
fishes these were < 40 for Cs, 1 for Ru, and < 100 (1-5) for Ceo
587.
Anderson, G.E., J.B. Gentry, and M.H. Smith. 1973. Relationships
between levels of radiocesium in dominant plants and arthro-
pods in a contaminated streambed community. Gikos 24(2) :165-
170.
For several years Steel Creek (South Carolina) received re-
actor cooling water and disassembly basin effluents from two nuclear
production reactors located near the stream's headwaters. When the
stream no longer received reactor effluent in 1968, water flow was re-
duced and portions of the old streambed became exposed. Contaminated
vegetation then became available to animals as food. This account re-
ports on radiocesium levels and concentration ratios of a plant-
herbivore-predator food web. Mean cesium concentrations were signi-
ficantly higher on the islands than on floodplain areas. There were no
consistent trends for increasing or decreasing concentration across
trophic levels. However, the degree of linear correlation between
radiocesium concentrations in different types of plants and arthropods
was significant and makes possible a model to predict radiocesium levels
in other components of the .system. Predictability was highest between
the various arthropod groups and lowest among the different plant types.
Between the two possible producer-herbivore-predator associations
(broomsedge-grasshopper-spider, and broomsedge-leafhopper-spider) radio-
cesium concentrations ratios differed significantly.
12
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588.
Anderson, J.B., E.C. Tsivoglou, and S.D. Shearer. 1963. Effects
of uranium mill wastes on biological fauna of the Animas
River (Colorado-New Mexico). In Schultz, V., and A.W.
Klement, Jr. (eds.J, Radioecology. Reinhold Pub!. Corp.,
New York: 373-383.
Bottom fauna in the Animas River from the mill to the New
Mexico state line were much less abundant than above the mill and in
unpolluted tributary streams. Few or none of the insects important as
food for fishes were found in approximately 45 to 60 km of polluted
river below the mill. Fly larvae were the most resistant to pollution
and were found at nearly all stations.
The reduction of food supply and the direct toxic effects of
the mill wastes reduced numbers of fish below the mill. This was veri-
fied with fish collections obtained by rotenone application. Some
limited improvement was noted in late 1959 a few months after the insti-
tution of pollution abatement measures, but insufficient time had
elapsed for substantial stream recovery.
mill.
normal
amount
There was a prolific growth of algae extending 36 km below the
Algae were less abundant 42 km below the mill, and appeared in
quantity at 54 km. As the number of insects increased, the
of algae decreased.
Toxicity tests using rainbow trout with various mill wastes
were useful in determining the most harmful wastes. Median tolerance
limit values ranged from 0.09 percent to 0.22 percent for organic raf-
finate wastes. Other wastes were less toxic. Based upon the volumes
of wastes discharged to the river and their toxicity, it was estimated
that about 70 m3 per second were needed in 1958 to dilute wastes in the
river to protect fish life.
By the fall of 1959 a program of waste treatment and storage
of the most toxic waste in ponds had been effected. It was estimated
from the toxicity studies that river dilution requirements had been re-
duced to 16 m3jsec.
Data on radium-226 content of attached filamentous algae,
aquatic insects, and fish from the Animas River and other streams pro-
vide much information on the fate of this material in aquatic environ-
ments. The natural, or background, radium-226 concentrations of these
various forms have been shown, together with associated water and silt
concentrations, and for the lower forms the radium-226 concentrations
have been related to the gross alpha radioactivity.
The data have demonstrated similar radium-226 concentrations
at both polluted and clean locations for the algae and aquatic insects,
13
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whence it has been concluded that the former might better serve as an
indicator of the radium-226 pollution because of the relative ease of
collection.
A relation between the radium-226 content of the algae and the
associated dissolved radium-226 in water has been shown, and, while not
precise, appears to be adequate for estimating purposes. It appears
that algae samples are useful as indicators of radium-226 pollution.
Radium-226 concentration factors for algae, insects, and
skeletons and flesh of large suckers (teleosts) have heen derived and
appear to be consistent among themselves and among the types of biota.
Concentration factors for attached filamentous algae are in the range of
500 to 1,000; factors for aquatic insects are the same. Radium-226 con-
centration factors for sucker skeletons are about 100; for sucker flesh
a factor of only three was observed, demonstrating the bone-seeking
qualities of radium-226. Although only a small number of suckers were
involved in these latter determinations, the results were consistent.
589.
Andrushaitis, G., and Z. Kalnina. 1972. The cycling of radio-
active sediments (strontium-90) in the lakes of Latvian SSR.
Verhan. Internat. Verein. Limnologie 18(Part 2):995-1000.
Concentrations of strontium-90 in water and its uptake by
plankton, plants, fish, substrates, and the calcium content of the
water were measured in Latvian reservoirs of different trophic states
to determine the accumulation and migration of radioactive wastes.
Analyses of Sr-90 show that fish--Esox lucius, Perca fluviatilis,
Abramis brama--accumulate more Sr-90 in a dystrophic lake than the same
species in mesotrophic and eutrophic lakes. In considering different
lake types, there was a marked difference between the types, Sr-90 con-
centration factor in a dystrophic and that of either eutrophic or meso-
trophic lakes. Concentration factor for plankton, water plants, fish
and substrates in a dystrophic lake is higher than in mesotrophic and
eutrophic lakes, corresponding to their different ionic relationships.
Sr-90 concentration in water and its accumulation by hydrobionts and
lake substrates changes seasonally. In water it is highest during
autumn and winter, lowest during summer. Sr-90 increases during plant
vegetation period due to mineral increase. For fish it is higher in
spring than autumn. Its increasing or decreasing concentration factor
for plankton is connected with change in species and water pH, but for
substrates it depends on substrate structure and its displacement.
590.
Anon. 1970. Hazards of mercury. Special Report of Study Group
on Mercury Hazards to Secretary's Pesticide Advisory Com-
mittee. U.S. Dept. Health, Educ., Welfare, November 1970: 1-97
14
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The problem of mercury contamination in the United States is
potentially grave. This subject has been under intensive study for some
years in Sweden and Finland where patterns of usage of mercury are
similar to ours. The present situation stems from an extensive recent
increase in industrial and agricultural uses of mercury. Methylmercury
is concentrated several thousand times in fish and shellfish, partly
through contamination of their food and partly through its presence in
the water. The relative ease with which methylmercury passes the 'blood-
brain barrier' accounts for severe neurologic manifestations. The
sources of mercury contamination, which caused a recent poisoning dis-
aster in Minamata Bay and Niigata, Japan, were discharges from plants
using mercury catalysts in the manufacture of vinyl chloride and acetal-
dehyde. Methylmercury was preformed in the effluent of these factories.
The report concludes with specific recommendations aimed at better
understanding and solution of the mercury problem in the United States.
591.
Anon. 1972. The effects of waste disposal in the New York Bight.
Section 4. Finfish studies. Available from Nat. Tech. Inf.
Serv., Springfield, Va., as Ad739 534: 1-24.
A study of the New York Bight was undertaken to determine the
effects of sewage sludge on benthic fishes. Several sampling stations
were selected for comparability of depth to Station 70, the designated
sewage sludge disposal site. Groundfish were collected at frequent
intervals in and beyond the area immediately affected by the sludge
using two otter trawls which were towed for 15 minutes at 3 knots.
Captured fish were sorted to species, counted and a subs ample measured
for total length. Identifiable stomach contents were enumerated by
species whenever possible. Whole fish were frozen and sent to several
laboratories for analysis of heavy metals and pesticides. Fish actively
feed throughout the year in and around the area of sewage sludge dis-
posal as evidenced by the ingested carbon-rich aggregate particles,
'band-aids', hair, and cigarette filters. H~avy metal analysis of fish
collected in this area showed elevated levels of Ni, Cr, and Pb; in
several fish the levels exceeded the staRdards of the Federal Water
Pollution Control Administration (1968} designated as normals for marine
animals.
592.
Anon. 1972. Mercury in water - a bibliography. U.S. Office of
Water Resources Research, Washington, D.C. Water Res. Sci.
Infor. Cen.> WRSIC 72-214.
This is a compilation of 195 abstracts for selected reports,
journal articles, and various documents published mostly since 1967 on
mercury in water. The abstracts include full bibliographical citations
and a set of descriptors from the Water Resources Thesaurus.
15
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593.
Arnold, D.C. 1970. A tidal rhythm in the response of the bar-
nacle, Balanus balanoides to water of diminished salinity.
Jour. Mar. BioI. Assn. U.K. 50:1045-1055.
The response of adult barnacles to water of diminished
salinity has been investigated on the shore under various tidal con-
ditions. At each level studied some members of the population remained
active at salinities of 210/00, but none responded when salinities were
180/00 and lower. This responsiveness exhibits a rhythm closely re-
lated to the tidal cycle at the part of the shore investigated. This
rhythm is sufficiently precise to ensure onset of responsiveness a few
minutes prior to submersion under conditions where the time of expo-
sure at successive low tides may vary from 0 to 2 1/2 hours.
594.
Arnold, D.C.
branchs.
1972. Salinity tolerance of some cornmon proso-
Jour. Mar. BioI. Assn. U.K. 52:475-486.
The responses of various cornmon gastropods to waters of di-
minished salinities have been further investigated under experimental
conditions, while earlier work on Patella has been extended. Differ-
ences in tolerance between limpets taken at high- and low-tide levels
are not inherent in animals, but develop as they age, and are thus most
marked in the largest individuals. Small specimens show a broad toler-
ance to waters of diminished salinity, regardless of the tide levels
from which they have been obtained. Littorina spp. and Nucella also
show a wide tolerance to diminished salinity, but this is not modified
as the animals age and differences between high- and low-tide samples
are not clear. Investigation of Littorina spp. in eastern Canadian
waters has shown that there is some adaptation of different populations
to salinities prevailing in particular sea areas. Gibbula is more
demanding than other species studied, presenting a restricted tolerance
to diminished salinity comparable to that developed by Patella settled
at low-tide levels.
595.
Aronson, A.L. 1971. Biologic effects of lead in fish.
Acad. Sci. 61(2) :124-128.
Jour. Wash.
There is no evidence that lead constitutes a health problem
to fish in the United States. But there is very little evidence on
which to base any firm conclusion. Very few analytic data have been
reported on concentrations of lead in fish in natural or experimental
conditions. What data are available suggest that soluble lead is not
present in natural waters of the United States in concentrations likely
to be toxic to fish. There is no published evidence of any trend toward
increased concentrations of soluble lead in natural waters. Much of the
man-dispersed lead that is eventually washed into natural waters is
16
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probably precipitated owing to the presence of carbonates, hydroxides,
and organic ligands in the water and settles to the bottom. There is
no evidence that lead precipitated on the bottom of natural waterways
is harmful to fish.
596.
Arthur, J.W., and E.N. Leonard. 1970. Effects of copper on
Garnrnarus pseudolirnnaeus, Physa integra, and Campeloma decisum
in soft water. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 27(7):1277-1283.
Three invertebrate species were subj ected to acute (96-hr),
followed by long-term (6-week) copper exposures under continuous-flow
bioassay conditions. Survival, growth, reproduction, and feeding were
the responses used for measuring toxicant effects. The average 96-hr
median tolerance limits (TLm) values for Campeloma decisum, Physa
integra, and Garnrnarus pseudolirnnaeus were 1.7, 0.039, and 0.020 mg/liter
total copper, respectively. The total copper concentration having no
effect after 6 weeks exposure for all three species was between 8.0 and
14.8 ]lg/liter. The newly hatched amphipods obtained from the second
6-week study were exposed to copper for 9 additional weeks, a~d grew to
the adult stage only in copper concentrations < 4.6 ]lg/liter. After 5
weeks exposure to a water system, survival of newly hatched Garnrnarus
was markedly reduced when copper concentrations were between 12.9 and
6.2 ]lg/liter.
597.
Aubert, M., R. Bittel, F. Laumond, M. Romeo, B. Donnie~ and M.
Barelli. 1972. Utilisation d'une chaine trophodynamique de
type pelagique pour l'etude des transferts des pollutions
metalliques. Rev. Inter. Oceanogr. Medicale 28:27-52.
Factors affecting transfer of different metals at each level
of a food chain which included diatoms (Diogenes sp. and Asterionella
japonica), goldfish, and rats were measured. Factors evaluated in-
cluded chelating and other complexing agents i.e. EDTA, ABS, humic acid
and others. Five heavy metals: copper, zinc:-2hromium, lead and mer-
cury in an ionic or complex form, were studied; the results are pre-
sented in tables.
598.
Aubert, M., R. Bittel, F. Laumond, M. Romeo, B. Donnie~ and M.
Barelli. 1974. Utilisation d'une chaine trophodynamique de
type neritique a mollusque pour l'etude des transferts des
pollutants metalliques. Rev. Intern. Oceanogr. Medicale
33:7-29.
Authors report on laboratory studies on transfer of selected
metals within a neritic chain using molluscs. Five metals are con-
17
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sidered: copper, zinc, chromium, lead and mercury, in an ionic form or
associated with organic compounds, found in effluents and in oceanic
environments. The results are discussed to assess the hazards of pollu-
tion presented by activation and chemical products.
599.
Auerbach, 5.1., and J.S. Olson. 1963. Biological and environ-
mental behavior of ruthenium and rhodium. In Schultz, V., and
A.W. Klement, Jr. (eds.), Radioecology. Reinhold Publ. Corp.,
New York: 509-519.
Many analytical and physiological data have been taken to
imply a low biological availability of ruthenium and rhodium. Yet
ruthenium-l03 and Rul06 - Rhl06 must be considered among the more im-
portant environmental contaminants because of their relatively high
yield from fission and their moderately long half-lives.
Furthermore, because our knowledge of the biological and en-
vironmental behavior of the several complexes of ruthenium is meager, it
is possible that the environmental mobility and hazards have been under-
estimated. Most experiments have utilized the valence III and IV states
of ruthenium, whereas radioruthenium in waste effluents will be in more
complex forms, depending upon the chemical composition of the waste and
the environment.
Experiments involving waste effluents and nitrosyl compounds
of ruthenium, which are formed in the common types of radioactive waste,
have shown that these compounds may be taken up in greater quantities
or behave differently when released into environmental situ~tions.
These differences in behavior which may be attributable to the various
chemical forms of ruthenium impose a need for further investigations,
particularly of a comparative nature, which take these complex forms
into account. Examples are given using aquatic algae. higher plants,
fishes, molluscs, annelids, mammals, and mosquitos.
Near industrial sources, levels of ruthenium radioisotopes may
rise well above the levels contributed by atmospheric fallout, barring
outbreak of nuclear war. While fallout levels have been too low to per-
mit analyses of the chemical form of ruthenium present, increased levels
due to resumption of weapons testing may present an opportunity for ob-
taining such information.
In the event of nuclear war, ruthenium radioisotopes could be
one of the most significant contributors to gamma radiation from local
and world-wide fallout during the first year or so following the deto-
nation of nuclear weapons.
Regardless of origin, the instability of ruthenium 'compounds
18
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in changing environments will require the utmost care in interpretation
of biological and environmental behavior of ruthenium.
600.
Avargues, M., J. Ancellin, and A. Vilquin. 1968. Recherches ex-
perimentales sur l'accumulation des radionucleides par les
organismes marins. Rev. Intern. Oceanogr. Medicale 11:87-99.
Cs-137,
shrimp,
sent in
Results of laboratory and field studies on bioaccumulation of
Ce-144, and Ru-l06 by various marine species including pink
oyster, mussel, and clam are presented. These isotopes are pre-
radioactive wastes discharged from a plant located at the Hague.
601.
Azam, F., B.B. Hemmingsen, and B.E. Volcani. 1973. Germanium
incorporation into the silica of diatom cell walls. Archiv.
Mikrobiol. 92(1):11-20.
A non-photosynthetic diatom, Ni tzschia alba, two marine photo-
synthetic diatoms, Cylindrotheca fusiformis and-CYClotella nana, and
a freshwater photosynthetic diatom, Navicula pelliculosa, were-exposed
to various ratios of Ge-68-labeled Ge (OH)4/Si (OH)4 (0.01, 0.1, or 1.0)
in an attempt to trace the metabolic fate of Ge and to examine the possi-
bility that Ge might follow the same metabolic pathway as Si. Cell
counts, viability, Ge uptake and incorporation, isotope discrimination,
silicic acid uptake, and effects of Ge on metabolism were determined.
The diatoms took up labeled germanic acid from their growth media and
incorporated up to 80% of it into the silica of their cell walls. Sili-
cification appeared to be required for germanium incorporation. The
uptake and incorporation of germanic acid was dependent upon the rela-
tive concentrations of Ge and Si. At Ge/Si ratios of 0.01, no inhibi-
tion of growth or of silicic acid uptake by N. alba was observed. The
cell morphology was also normal and 60 to 80% of the Ge-68 taken up was
incorporated. At Ge/Si ratios of 0.1, silicic acid uptake and growth of
N. alba were inhibited by about 95%. Concomitantly, striking morpho-
logical aberrations occurred. Ten to 20% of the Ge-68 (OH)4 taken up
was incorporated. The possible use of labeled Ge (OH)4 for the study
of silicon metabolism is discussed.
602.
Bachmann, R.W. 1963. Zinc-65 in studies of the freshwater zinc
cycle. In Schultz, V., and A.W. Klement, Jr. (eds.), Radio-
ecology.--Reinhold Publ. Corp., New York: 485-496.
Author determined quantitatively some of the factors which
affect distribution of zinc between water and various solid materials
in lakes and also formulated a hypothetical model of the freshwater
zinc cycle. Zinc-65 was used to measure uptake of zinc by suspensions
19
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of Golenkinia paucispina, organic detritus, lake sediments, and natural
lake seston. It was also used to follow zinc uptake by Daphnia pulex
and Daphnia magna in relation to presence of suspended m~terials.
Artificial sediment-water systems were used to measure Zlnc uptake by
lake sediments and to determine influence of mayfly nymphs Ephemera
simulans on sediment penetration.
For all suspended materials tested, amount of zinc taken up
at equilibrium could be related to zinc in solution using the Freundlich
adsorption isotherm: x = mkcn, where x is the amount taken up, c is the
concentration in solution, m is the mass of adsorbent, and k and n are
constants. Author found that zinc uptake decreased as concentrations of
other cations in solution increased. The order of effectiveness of the
respective ions in reducing zinc uptake by Golenkinia cells was H+ >
Ca++ > Mg++ > Na+ > K+. It was concluded that these organisms were
accumulating zinc by means of an ion exchange type reaction. Daphnia
pulex takes up zinc primarily by grazing on particles to which zinc is
adsorbed rather than directly from solution; most of the zinc is lost
on transfer to a fresh medium. More detailed investigations with
Daphnia magna showed that a population of 100 animals per liter accumu-
lated less than one percent of the total zinc available.
Oxidized sediments were found to remove as much as 96 percent
of zinc added to the water above them, whereas reduced sediments would
take up only about one-fifth as much. About 90 percent of the zinc
taken up by such sediments did not penetrate deeper than 6 mm from the
sediment surface. When mayfly nymphs were present, the zinc was mixed
into the sediments and approached a uniform distribution. These nymphs
did not accumulate a significant fraction of the zinc available. By use
of the Freundlich equation, theoretical curves were derived to predict
the zinc distribution between liquid and solid phases in lakes as a
function of the total zinc content and the mass of suspended material
present. A theoretical outline of the freshwater zinc cycle was pre-
sented which was characterized by exchanges between dissolved zinc and
various organic and inorganic suspended materials as well as rooted
aquatic plants and bottom sediments. The transfer of zinc to the sedi-
ments by the sedimentation of adsorbents is considered to be an im-
portant mechanism for the removal of the ion from lake waters. A net
accumulation of zinc in the sediments should be the result. The forma-
tion of organic chelates and inorganic complexes are suggested as pos-
sible factors which may alter the scheme proposed.
603.
Bagenal, T.B., F.J.H. Mackereth, and J. Heron. 1973. The dis-
tinction between brown trout and sea trout by the strontium
content of their scales. Jour. Fish BioI. 5(4):555-557.
A method is described for distinguishing the scales of sea
20
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trout from brown trout by their strontium content. Scales of brown trout
contain less than 200 ~g of Sr/g and those of sea trout more than 300 ~g
of Sr/g.
604.
Ball, I.R. 1967. The relative susceptibilities of some species
of fresh-water fish to poisons-II. Zinc. Water Research
1:777-783.
The acute toxicity of zinc in a hard, well-aerated water to
rainbow trout, perch, roach, gudgeon, and bream was determined over a
period of 7 days. At all times trout were more sensitive than the
cyprinid fish, and at the end of the test perch, roach, and bream showed
similar sensitivities. The data confirmed that experiments of short
duration are not necessarily reliable for ranking the ultimate sensi
tivities of several species of fish to a given poison.
605.
Baptist, J.P., D.E. Hoss, and C.W. Lewis. 1970. Retention of
chromium-51, iron-59, cobalt-60, zinc-65, strontium-85,
niobium-95, indium-114m, and iodine-13l by the Atlantic
croaker (Micropogon undulatus). Health Physics 18:141-148.
Evaluation of the possible effects of radioactive effluents
on fisheries and, ultimately, the potential hazards to people requires
a knowledge of the retention of radionuclides by fish. We measured
retention of Cr-5l, Fe-59, Co-60, Zn-65, Sr-85, Nb-95, In-114m and 1-131
in croaker at ambient temperatures and salinities of local waters fol-
lowing single intraperitoneal injections. We also measured retention
of Sr-85 and 1-131 in various croaker tissues. Retention of all
nuclides, except Co-60 and 1-131, was expressed as two exponential rate
functions. Cobalt-60 retention was expressed as a single rate function,
and 1-131 as three rate functions. Biological half-lives of long-lived
components were as follows: Cr-5l--70 days, Fe-59--2l5, Co-60--3l,
Zn-65--l38, Sr-85--l38, Nb-95--465, In-114m--224 and 1-131--24 days.
Effective half-lives of the same components were as follows: Cr-5l--
20 days, Fe-59--37.2, Co-60--30.5, Zn-65--88.3, Sr-85--44.2, Nb-95--
32.6, In-114m--40.2 and 1-131--6 days. It was concluded that fish con-
taining large amounts of radionuclides with long effective half-lives,
such as Fe-55, Zn-65 and Sr-90, may be hazardous to public health.
606.
Barber, R.T., A. Vijayakumar, and F.A. Cross. 1972. Mercury con-
centrations in recent and ninety-year-old benthopelagic fish.
Science 178:636-639.
Several species of bottom-dwelling fish from 2500 m with
similar feeding habits had mercury concentrations that differed by an
order of magnitude. With one species there was a correlation between
21
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size and concentration, with the larger individuals having mercury con-
centrations as high as 0.8 mg/kg (wet weight). The mercury content of
the water in the deep-ocean habitat of these fish appears not to deter-
mine the mercury content of a particular fish; species-specific factors
and size do appear to determine this concentration. The species-specific
variation between the recent fish also existed between the same two
species in "specimens collected 90 years ago from a depth of 2000 m, and
a 90-year-old specimen fits closely the size-concentration regression
curve for nine recent individuals of the same species.
607.
Barnes, H., and M. Barnes. 1974. The responses during develop-
ment of the embryos of some common cirripedes to wide changes
in salinity. Jour. Experim. Mar. BioI. Ecol. 15:197-202.
The effect of hypo- and hypersaline media on the development
of barnacle embryos of Balanus balanoides, B. crenatus, B. balanus, B.
perforatus, Chthamalus stellatus, and Elminlus modestus has been ex--
amined. These species represent littoral and sublittoral, boreo-arctic
and warm-temperate, relatively steno- and eurhyaline, and steno- and
eurythermal forms. The range of salinity over which the embryos would
develop to give free-swimming stage I nauplius larvae, no matter at
what stage of development the cultures were started, was similar in all
species, namely 15-20 to 400/00. Low-sa.linity media cause cytolysis
while high salinity media give grossly abnormal embryos which may, how-
ever, develop further. There seems little direct relation between
salinity tolerance and that of the habitat in which the animals are
found; a capacity for a.cclimation may be more important. The causes
underlying the production of abnormalities are discussed.
608.
Barth, L.J., and L.G. Barth. 1974. Effect of the potassium ion
on induction of notochord from gastrula ectoderm of Rana
pipiens. BioI. Bull. 146(3) :313-325.
Small aggregates of cells prepared from explants of ventral
ectoderm of frog gastrula were treated for 3-4 hrs in 71 mM Li+ added
to standard solution. When cultured in standard solution containing
1.3 mM K+, the aggregates of ventral ectoderm cells differentiated into
nerve and pigment cells. As the K+ concentration in the culture medium
was raised through 2.3, 3.3 and 5.3 mM, the frequency of pigment cells
declined and networks of vacuolated cells were formed, which later
fused to form small notochordal masses. Raising the K+ to 7.3 and 9.3
mM gave nerve and pigment cells again, as in the lower potassium con-
centrations. The effect of high K+ on lithium-induced cells becomes
irreversible during the first 18 hrs. Cells may be returned to 1.3 mM
K+ after 18 hrs and notochord differentiation will occur.
22
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Induced notochord cells first appear as somewhat larger cells
which become filled with very small vacuoles by 7-8 days of culture.
These small vacuoles then coalesce to form larger and larger vacuoles
(9-12 days). The vacuolated cells aggregate into small clumps. Cul-
tures were fixed and stained at various intervals for photography.
Cultures of small explants of notochord in 5.3 mM K+ were
observed to undergo the same type of differentiation. In both cases the
notochord cells and vacuoles were smaller than in the whole embryo.
Larger explants of notochord from archenteron roof gave large masses of
notochord cells about the same size as in the whole embryo. When
lithium-treated aggregates of the ventral ectoderm were fused together
in 5.3 ~1 K+ to form a composite of 10-15 aggregates, the notochordal
masses were larger and the notochord cells were about the same size as
obtained in comparable size explants of notochord from the roof of the
archenteron.
These findings are discussed in relation to the effects of
high potassium on membrane depolarization, protein synthesis; DNA syn-
thesis, and increase in intracellular Ca2+.
609.
Bashamohideen, M., and V. Parvatheswararao. 1972. Adaptations
to osmotic stress in the fresh-water euryhaline teleost
Tilapia mossambica. IV. Changes in blood glucose, liver
glycogen and muscle glycogen levels. Marine Biology 16:68-74.
Osmoregulation energetics in Tilapia mossambica acclimated to
media of different salinities, were studied. In stress media (75 and
100% sea water), blood glucose increases significantly accompanied by a
corresponding increase in oxygen consumption and cytochrome-oxidase
activity, suggesting that oxidative degradation of blood glucose is the
predominant energy source for osmotic work in these stress media. It is
likely that variations in blood-glucose level as a function of acclima-
tion to the heterosmotic media are governed by the combined effects of
salinity of the medium and blood-medium osmotic gradient, rather than by
effect of anyone of them separately. Depletion of muscle glycogen at
significant levels is noticed only in stress media. Presumably, there
is an augmentation of oxidative metabolism with glycolysis to meet the
exacting energy demands for heavy osmotic work in high stress media.
Prior acclimation to 75% sea water (24.370/00) facilitates subsequent
acclimation to 100% sea water (32.500/00) with less energy cost--an
instance of "fadli tation acclimation." Smaller individuals of T.
mossambica osmoregulate with less energy expenditure than larger-ones.
Thus, smaller individuals are osmotically more efficient.
23
-------
610.
Batte, E.G., L.E. Swanson, and J.B. Murphy. 19S1. New mollusci-
cides for the control of fresh water snails. Amer. J. Vet.
Res. l2(43):lS8-l60.
A total of 33 compounds was tested for molluscicidal activity
against lymnaeid snails; however, only copper sulfate and dinitro-o-
cyclohexylphenol killed 100 percent of the test snails at a concentra-
tion of 1 mg/l in twenty-four hours. Other compounds in the dinitro
and chlorophenate series have shown promise and will be tested and com-
pared with copper sulfate.
611.
Beamish, F.W.H. 1970. Influence of temperature and salinity
acclimation on temperature preferenda of the euryhaline fish
Tilapia nilotica. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 27(7):1209-1214.
When Tilapia nilotica was acclimated to temperatures of lS-
35°C and salinities of 0-300/00 in a vertical gradient tank, maximum
temperature preferenda occurred at acclimation temperatures of 20 and
2SoC irrespective of salinity. Preferenda declined as acclimation tem-
perature was increased above 2SoC and, except at 0 and 7.So/00, declined
as acclimation temperature was decreased below 20°C. roe pattern of
relation between final temperature preferenda and salinity was similar
to that reported between oxygen consumption for a given sustained swim-
ming speed and salinity. The final preferendum was lowest at lS%o,
close to the isosomotic salinity of T. nilotica, and highest at the
extremes, 0 and 300/00. Final temperature preferenda are in general
agreement with optimum temperatures reported for growth, reproduction,
and swimming performance.
612.
Beasley, T.M. 1969. Lead-2l0 in selected marine organisms.
Ph.D. Dissertation, Oregon State Univ., Corvallis, Ore.: 1-82.
The results of the \resent research represent a first approxi-
mation to general levels of 2 °Pb which occur in some surface and ben-
thonic organisms of the oceanic environment. Reasonable correlations
exist between inputs of 210Pb by precipitation and concentrations of this
isotope in organisms residing in the upper 100 meters of the ocean. This
effect quickly subsides, however, in organisms living at greater depths.
Mechanisms for this decrease have been proposed, yet measurement of this
isotope in fishes living at intermediate depths would help clarify the
trend.
Polonium-2l0 appears to be the major contributor of radiation
dose to marine organisms from internal sources although other isotopes
not measured here (226Ra, 228,230Th, etc.) might also contribute sig-
nificantly to the dose of the biota. Variations which were observed in
24
-------
210Pb concentrations in marine organisms would undoubtedly be
by similar variations in 210po concentrations, but even so it
possible that the radiation dose rate from this isotope alone
ceed the dose rate from both cosmic ray radiation and 40K.
reflected
is quite
would ex-
The presence of 210pb and 210po in marine organisms that now
serve as food for humans and the contemplated use of marine concentrates
which might contain significant quantities of these isotopes should be
of interest to health physicists. Although levels of these isotopes are
far below those which would constitute a radiolo~ical hazard, continued
use of such products could well result in the 21 Pb_210po pair becoming
the major source of the skeletal radiation dose, which is not the case
today. Perhaps equally important are the quantities of stable lead and
other trace metals which might be present in various protein concentrates,
and whi ch would cause a departure from the "normal" dietary intakes
which the general population experiences today.
613.
Beasley, T.M. 1971. Mercury in selected fish protein concen-
trates. Environ. Sci. Technol. 5:634-635.
Levels of mercury in fish protein concentrates (PPC) have been
measured. Concentrates prepared from surface feeding fishes taken from
different locales contained 0.3 to 0.9 mg/kg mercury. These concentra-
tions appear consistent with the known enrichment factors which occur in
the chain: water-fish-concentrate.
614.
Beasley, T.M., and E.E. Held. 1971. Silver-108m in biota and
sediments at Bikini and Eniwetok Atolls. Nature 230(5294):
450-451.
Authors found 10smAg in biota and sediments collected at pre-
vious nuclear testing sites in the Pacific. The radionuclide was first
detected in a composite sample of hepatopancreases from spiny lobsters
collected at Bikini Atoll in 1969; subsequently authors measured its
concentrations in several samples from Bikini and Eniwetok Atolls. Con-
centrations of 10smAg in the hepatopancreas of spiny lobsters taken from
Bikini with Eniwetok shows that the Bikini specimens contain 2 to 3
times more lOsmAg. By contrast, the concentration of 10smAg in the com-
posite sample from Eniwetok is less than that in a lobster specimen from
Guadalupe. All values reported ranged between 0.20 and 1.1 d/m/g dry wt.
615.
Beasley, T.M., E.E. Held, and R.M. Conard. 1972. Iron-55 in
Rongelap people, fish and soils. Health Physics 22:245-250.
The 55Pe body burdens for 60 residents of Rongelap Atoll are
25
-------
reported. The measured burdens are approximately 3 times higher than
those of a similar number of residents from Tokai-mura, Japan. Pro-
minent in the Rongelap diet are the reef fishes: goat fish (Mulloid-
ichthys sp.), mullet (Neomyxus sp.) and surgeon fish (Acanthurus sp.).
Since previous measurements in 1966 revealed substantial 5~Pe body bur-
dens in Japanese residents, the current Rongelapese 55Pe body burdens
pose interesting questions.
616.
Beasley, T.M., T.A. Jokela, and R.J. Eagle. 1970. Radionuclides
and selected trace elements in marine protein concentrates.
Available from Nat. Tech. Infor. Ser., Springfield, Va., as
RLO-2225-T-14-2: 1-15.
Consumption of 10-30 g/day of concentrates prepared from sur-
face feeding fishes would substantially increase intake of Pb-2l0, Po-
210, and stable Pb, Co, and Ag. The stable Pb is attributed largely to
automotive exhaust pollution of surface waters. It is uncertain whether
Ag, Co, Cd, and Cu are derived solely from ecological concentration pro-
cesses since contamination may occur during processing. Sr-90 in the
concentrates was less than 0.05 d/m/g of dry weight.
617.
Beasley, T.M., and H.E. Palmer. 1966.
in biological samples from Alaska.
Lead-2l0 and polonium-2l0
Science 152:1062-1063.
The naturally occurring concentrations of lead-2l0 and polo-
nium-2l0 in certain biological samples from Alaska, including salmon,
butterfish, whitefish, seal muscle, seal liver, and polar bear meat,
are unusually high. The concentration processes are similar to those
observed for artificially produced radioactive fallout. Concentrations
of these nuclides are greater in Alaskan natives than they are in other
United States residents.
618.
Ben-Bassat, D., G. Shelef, N. Gruner, and H.I. Shuval. 1972.
Growth of Chlamydomonas in a medium containing mercury.
Nature 240(5375) :43-44:
A pure culture of Chlamydomonas reinhardi y (-1) was grown on
a sterile medium containing acetate, citrate, and minerals. Mercury at
various concent~a~ions was provided as HgC12 or Hg(203)C12' Both com-
pounds caused Slmllar effects; at mercury concentrations up to 1.0 mg/l,
an increasing lag period occurred, but cells were able to recover from
the growth lag. Growth in cultures containing 2 mg/l mercury was com-
pletely retarded. The mercury concentration in a control of medium with
no cells decreased by 5%. In the whole culture it decreased by 40% over
the same 8 day period. The cells contained 2-2.5% of the total culture
26
-------
radioactivity. The amount of mercury per cell decreased by 90% from the
2nd to the 8th day. In the same period the total mercury of the culture
decreased by 30%. Most of the loss of mercury is a direct outcome of
the presence of algae in the medium and the process was particularly
active during the lag period. This phenomenon may be due to a biologi-
cal process causing a change in the mercury to a form which is volatile
and less permeable or has less affinity to the cells.
619.
Besch, K.W., and P- Roberts-Pichette. 1970. Effects of mining
pollution on vascular plants in the northwest Miramichi River
System. Canadian Jour. Botany 48:1647-1656.
Effects of copper-zinc mining pollution on riparian and aquatic
vascular plants were studied in the Northwest Miramichi River system of
northern New Brunswick. After a period of 8 years, the riparian vas-
cular flora of the river system's gravel shores has been completely eli-
minated or seriously reduced. The most sensitive plants are the sub-
mersed aquatic species, followed by riparian dicotyledons. Monocoty-
ledons are less sensitive than dicotyledons and Equisetum arvense is the
least susceptible species. A rough index of pollution severity was de-
vised based on the absence of species or species groups which would
normally be present under unpolluted conditions. The absence of some
spring-flowering geophytes normally present at the high-water line is
believed to be caused by the large amounts of toxic metals accompanying
the high spring flows. It is possible to distinguish three different
degrees of severity of zinc-copper pollution in rivers and streams,
according to the effects on the higher vascular flora. With extremely
high pollution, trees and shrubs along the banks are killed; with medium
to high pollution only a few species are present. With low pollution
only submerged vascular plants are eliminated.
620.
Betzer, S.B., and M.E.Q. Pilson. 1974. The seasonal cycle of
copper concentration in Busycon canaliculatum L. BioI. Bull.
146(2):165-175.
Individual tissues of approximately 100 whelks (gastropods)
were analyzed for copper content. Tissue copper concentrations showed
a high degree of individual variation, but seasonal trends were evident.
In the digestive gland, the organ with the highest copper concentration,
the mean monthly concentrations were about 5 to 10 times higher in the
summer (400-900 ~g Cu/g fresh weight) than in the winter (65-120 ~g
Cu/g). Gut concentrations followed the same seasonal trend. The copper
concentration in the gonad increased in the early spring and then de-
creased in the late spring and summer to low fall and winter values.
The total copper in the gonad increased 6-fold during the spring and
summer, however, because of large increases in size as late summer
27
-------
spawning approached. The total copper in the gonad dropped off after the
spawning season. Monthly average blood copper and protein concentrations
followed the same seasonal pattern as the digestive gland and gut, with
copper ranging from a monthly average of 42 ~g/ml in February to 175 ~g/
ml in June. Nearly all the blood protein present was hemocyanin, and
there was no apparent seasonal change in the ratio of copper:protein.
The copper concentration of the kidney was similar to that of the blood
during most of the year, but in late summer and fall it increased to a
maximum (171 ~g/g in Oct.), while that of the blood and other tissues
was decreasing. Whelks in Narragansett Bay usually begin to feed in
late Mayor early June; the general early summer increases in the copper
concentration of most tissues correlated with this commencement of feed-
ing.
621.
Beyenbach, K.W. 1974. Magnesium excretion by the rainbow trout,
Salmo gairdneri. Ph.D. Dissertation, Washington State Univ.,
Pullman, Wash.
Magnesium is transported from blood to urine in marine tele-
osts. An inverse relationship has been noted between urinary magnesium
and sodium concentrations, which may be due to the coupling of Mg secre-
tion to Na reabsorption through a common tubular transport system, or
coupling may be indirect. This study was to find evidence for the tu-
bular exchange of Mg for Na in rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri. Renal
clearance studies were conducted in trout that were adapted to fresh
water (FW), half-strength sea water (1/2SW), and full-strength sea water
(SW), and ureteral Na-Mg relationships were examined over a wide range
of Mg excretory rates.
Results from control and Mg-infused fish do not support tubu-
lar Na/Mg exchange. Analyses of ureteral urine reveal that Mg and Na
concentrations are not inversely related in SW trout. In addition,
ureteral Mg and Na excretion rates are directly related, and rates of
Na reabsorption and Mg secretion in control and Mg-infused trout show
no clear, positive, stoichiometric relationship as might be expected
from an obligatory 2:1 or 1:1 exchange.
In contrast, when ureteral urine was allowed to remain in the
urinary bladder of SW-adapted trout, analyses of residual bladder urine
revealed inverse relationships between Na and ~Ig concentrations. In re-
sidual bladder urine, Na concentrations (9.88 mEq/liter) were approxi-
mately lOX lower than in ureteral urine (101.3 mEq/liter) whereas Mg
concentrations were consistently higher in bladder urine (bladder urine:
175.4 mEq/liter; ureteral urine: 138.2 mEq/liter). It was concluded
that bladder reabsorption of H~O with Na may concentrate Mg and in this
way generate the inverse relatlonship between Na and Mg concentrations.
Thus, Mg is secreted by the renal tubule, Na and H20 appear to be
28
-------
reabsorbed by the urinary bladder, and the coupling between Mg secretion
and Na reabsorption is indirect at proximal and distal sites.
Additional studies suggest that trout reabsorbs Mg in FW, but
secretes the ion in 1/2SW and SW. The infusion of Mg in SW-adapted fish
causes a diuresis which persists until plasma Mg concentrations return
to normal (2.6 mEq/liter); ureteral Mg excretory rates may reach 480
~Eq/kg-hr. In control and experimental trout changes in the rates of
ureteral Mg excretion are accompanied by parallel changes in Na excre-
tion. Rate of tubular urine flow may confer this parallelism between
Mg and Na excretion. Urine flow rate may in turn depend on the excretion
rate of the dominant tubular osmotic solute: in control SW fish ureteral
urine flow rate correlates to Na excretion rate, whereas in Mg-infused
fish, rates of Mg excretion and urine flow are directly related. Ure-
teral pH is slightly alkaline (7.15) in control, but acidic (6.59) in
Mg-infused SW trout.
622.
Beyerle, G.B., and J.E. Williams. 1967. Attempted control of
bluegill reproduction in lakes by the application of copper
sulfate crystals to spawning nests. Progr. Fish-Cult. 29(3):
150-155.
Application of copper sulfate did not kill measurably more
bluegills than would have died normally during this period. Certainly
it did not eliminate enough fish to cause any drastic change in bluegill
growth. Authors did not approach their goal of eliminating all the
young bluegills in the treated lakes. In fact, they collected more
bluegills in the treated lakes after treatment than in the preceding
year.
Attempts to control the size of an entire bluegill year class
in four lakes by applying copper sulfate to bluegill nests required con-
siderable effort continuously by four men for almost 3 months. Even if
the treatments had been effective, the effort involved would make this
control method of questionable value as a general management procedure
for lakes, especially since annual treatments probably would be neces-
sary to prevent a compensating high survival rate in subsequent genera-
tions of bluegills. It is possible that bluegill reproduction could be
controlled with copper sulfate in ponds and small lakes that have well-
defined, easily located spawning areas. However, great care must be
taken to locate and treat all nests semi-weekly during the spawning sea-
son. The number of young produced on a few untreated nests could over-
populate a small body of water.
623.
Bhatt, Y.M., V.N. Sastry, S.M. Shah, and T.M. Krishnamoorthy.
1968. Zinc, manganese and cobalt contents of some marine
29
-------
bivalves from Bombay. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci., India, pt. B,
BioI. Sec. 34(B,6):283-287.
Levels of zinc, manganese, and cobalt were determine~ in.t~e
soft parts of six species of marine bivalves to study their sUlta~lllty
as "indicator organisms" for the radioisotopes of these elements ln sea-
water. It is found that the oyster, Crassostrea gryphoides accumulates
zinc from sea-water by factors ranging from 5,500 to 13,000 and may.be
utilized as an indicator for radioisotopes of zinc in sea-water. Llke-
wise, the clam, Sunetta donacina, shows a high affinity for manganese
and may be used for a similar purpose in the study of contamination of
sea-water by radioisotopes of manganese. The concentration factors for
cobalt in these bivalves range from 30 to 1,730; and, among the species
studied, no suitable indicator for cobalt was noticed.
624.
Biebl, R., and C.P. McRoy. 1971. Plasmatic resistance and rate
of respiration and photosynthesis of Zostera marina at dif-
ferent salinities and temperatures. Marine Biology 8:48-56.
Zostera marina L. was studied at the Izembek Lagoon, Alaska
Peninsula. Two morphologically different forms, tidepool and subtidal,
can be distinguished. Both show a high tolerance to different salinities
and temperatures. The plasmatic resistance was found in a range of dis-
tilled H20 up to 3.0 sea water (24 h) and between -6° and 34°C (12 h).
Within these resistance limits, the photosynthesis, which has its maxi-
mum in normal (1.0) sea water, decreases nearly to zero not only in
distilled H20 but even in 2.0 sea water, and increases with the tem-
perature in the tidepool form up to 35°C, but in the subtidal form up
to 30°C only. At higher temperatures photosynthesis declines sharply
in both forms. Respiration has its minimum in distilled H20 and at
O°C and increases with increasing salinity and temperature.
625.
Biesinger, K.E., R.W. Andrew, and J.W. Arthur. 1974. Chronic
toxicity of NTA (nitrilotriacetate) and metal-NTA complexes
to Daphnia magna. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 31:486-490.
The chronic toxicity of NTA tested as the trisodium salt, to
Daphnia magna in eight natural waters varied tenfold. A strong nega-
tive correlation (r = 0.95) between water hardness and NTA toxicity
was found; NTA was most toxic at 438 mg/l hardness and least toxic at 22
mg/liter. The 2l-day LC50 in all cases closely approximated the cal-
culated molar equivalence point of total hardness and NTA. Bioassay
experiments of NTA, with copper and zinc added, confirmed earlier re-
ports that chelates of copper and zinc with NTA are relatively non-
toxic. The solutions were toxic only when the metals or NTA were pre-
sent in excess. The toxicity of iron (III) was not appreciably changed
by NTA chelation.
30
-------
626.
Biesinger, K.E., and G.M. Christensen. 1972. Effects of various
metals on survival, growth, reproduction, and metabolism of
Daphnia magna. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 29(12) :1691-1700.
The toxicities of various metals to Daphnia magna were evalu-
ated on the basis of a 48-hr 50% lethal concentration (LC50), a 3-week-
LC50, and a 16% decrease in the number of young born (reproductive im-
pairment). The 3-week 16% reproductive impairment concentrations (in
mg per liter) for the metal ions tested were: Na, 680; Ca, 116; Mg, 82;
K, 53; Sr, 42; Ba, 5.8; Fe, 4.38; Mn, 4.1; As5+, 0.520; Sn, 0.350; Cr3+,
0.330; AI, 0.320; Zn, 0.070; Au, 0.060; Ni, 0.030; Pb, 0.030; Cu, 0.022;
Pt, 0.014; Co, 0.010; Hg, 0.0034; and Cd, 0.00017. At metal concentra-
tions permitting survival but impairing reproduction, daphnids weighed
less than control animals. Amounts of total protein and glutamic oxal-
acetic transaminase activity varied with the different metals. The
negative logarithm of the solubility product constant of the metal sul-
fides, electronegativity, and the logarithm of the equilibrium constant
of the,metal-ATP complex were positively correlated with toxicity to
D. magna. Other physicochemical properties were considered, but no
additional correlations were found.
627.
Bilinski, E., and R.E.E. Jonas. 1973. Effects of cadmium and
copper on the oxidation of lactate by rainbow trout (Salmo
gairdneri) gills. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 30(10):1553-
1558.
At the highest Cd concentration (11.2 mg/l), fish died in 7
hr. At 1.12 mg Cd/I, mortality was 50%; of the fish surviving at 96 hr,
oxidative activity of gills was inhibited by 50%. All fish died in 24
hr when exposed to the highest level of copper (0.636 mg/l). At a
concentration of 0.064 mg Cull, 50% died; of those surviving, oxidative
activity was inhibited 53%. Comparatively high levels of cadmium (20
micrograms) or copper (50 micrograms) were needed to produce in vitro
inhibition of lactate oxidation by gill filament. Histological studies
suggest that impairment of oxidative activity might be due to disruption
of cellular organization or to inhibition of enzyme activity. The ,lac-
tate oxidation test appears to be useful only at high levels of Cd and
Cu, however, it could be useful in detecting gill damage with other
toxicants.
628.
Black, W.A.P., and R.L. Mitchell. 1952.
cornmon brown algae and in seawater.
U.K. 30(3):575-584.
Trace elements in the
Jour. Mar. BioI. Assn.
Some cornmon Scottish Law.inariaceae and Fucaceae have been
analyzed spectrographically, and Co, Zn, Fe, Ni, V. Rb, Mo, Ti, Li, Pb,
31
-------
Cr, Ba, Sn, Ag, Sr, Mn determined. The results show a seasonal varia-
tion, and also considerable diversity in elemental content in different
species taken from the same habitat. With the Laminariaceae the trace
elements are more concentrated in the perennial stipe than in the
attached frond, and are generally less than in the Fucaceae. Samples
of sea water taken off Plymouth and the West Coast of Scotland have
also been analyzed spectrographically and fourteen of the minor elements
determined. Concentration factors are given showing the extent to
which marine algae can accumulate the trace elements. Values of over
1000-fold concentration are reported. Fucus spiralis, for example,
contains 10,000 times more titanium than the surrounding sea water.
629.
Blaustein, M.P., and A.L. Hodgkin. 1969. The effect of cyanide
on the efflux of calcium from squid axons. Jour. Physiology,
London 200:497-527.
This account reports on effect of cyanide and external ions
on efflux of calcium from axons. Cyanide had little immediate effect
on calcium efflux, but after 1 1/2 h efflux rose from 5 to 15 times its
normal value. The effect was rapidly reversed when cyanide was removed.
The extra efflux in cyanide seemed to be largely an exchange for ex-
ternal calcium and sodium since it was abolished by replacing Ca with
Mg and Na with Li. Removal of Ca reduced the Ca efflux in cyanide to
1/3 and subsequent removal of Na reduced it to between 1/10 and 1/20.
A possible explanation of the cyanide effects is that calcium ions are
released from a store and can then exchange with Ca and Na in the ex-
ternal medium. Evidence for an increase in free calcium was that pre-
treatment with cyanide greatly increased the rate at which Ca-45 could
be dialysed from axoplasm. The experiments provide evidence for coupl-
ing between Na influx and Ca efflux and suggest that downhill movement
of Na may give some of the energy for extruding Ca. In the appendix
theoretical equations for diffusion and chemical reaction are used to
calculate the time course of Ca efflux following an axial injection.
630.
Bligh, E.G. 1972. Mercury in Canadian fish.
Science et Technol. Aliment. 5(1):A6-A14.
Jour. Inst. Can.
Japanese and Swedish experiences with Hg pollution are re-
viewed. Some highlights of the Canadian national survey on Hg con-
tamination are presented including type of fish, location and Hg con-
tent. Industrial sources that may be contaminating waters and the in-
corporation of Hg contaminated fish into 'animal feeds are considered.
631.
Boon, D.D. 1973. Iron, zinc, magnesium, and copper concentra-
tions in body meat of the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus.
32
-------
Chesapeake Science 14(2):143-144.
Average concentrations of selected metals, in mg/kg wet wt,
for body meat were: 21 for Fe; 46 for Zn; 466 for Mg; and 19 for Cu.
632.
Boothe, P.N., and G.A. Knauer. 1972. The possible importance of
fecal material in the biological amplification of trace and
heavy metals. Limnology and Oceanography 17(2):270-274.
The concentrations of As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, and
Zn in a brown alga, Macrocystis pyrifera, and in fecal material of the
crab Pugettia producta fed exclusively on M. pyrifera were measured by
atomic absorption spectroscopy. In this closed system of a primary
producer and a primary consumer, the concentration of these elements in
the resulting feces of the consumer was determined. Except for Cr and
Cd, whose concentrations in the fecal material were less than in the
kelp, all other elements showed levels in the feces 2.3-14 times those
in the algae. Fecal material thus may playa significant role in the
cycling of elements in the marine environment.
633.
Boroughs, H.
fishes.
1958. The metabolism of radiostrontium by marine
Proc. Ninth Pacific Sci. Congr. 16:146-151.
Strontium is rapidly absorbed from the gut and transported by
the plasma throughout the entire fish body. Within a day, only a few
percent of the dose remains within the body. Of the strontium remain-
ing, the bulk of it is associated with the bones, integument and gills,
which of course contain both bone and cartilage.
634.
Boulton, P., and L.J. Hetling. 1972. A statistical analysis of
the mercury content of fresh water fish in New York State.
N.:. State Dept. of Environ. Conservation, Tech. pape:r No.
19.1-16. ,
Because of the concern for mercury concentrations in the fish
in New York State, more than 3200 fish from 142 locations were analyzed
for mercury by atomic absorption. The average mercury level for all
fish was 0.44 mg/kg and the highest level found was 8.20 mg/kg in fish
from Onondaga Lake. Excluding the findings for Onondaga Lake, the maxi.
mum concentration found was 3.40 mg/kg.
635.
Braham, H.W. 1973.
californianus) .
Lead in the California sea lion (Zalophus
Environ. Pollut. 5:253-258.
33
-------
Lead in nineteen organs from California sea lions was deter-
mined by atomic absorption. Lead accumulated in significantly higher
concentrations in hard tissues, such as bone and teeth, than in soft
tissues, such as fat and muscle. Comparable results are found in man,
suggesting that exposure levels of lead may be similar for terrestrial
and coastal environmental communities.
636.
Branca, G., F. Breuer, A.A. Cigna, and R. Amavis. 1973. Appli-
cations of a derived formula for the discharge of radioactive
liquid wastes. Report EUR 4897e: 35 p. Available from Nat.
Tech. Infor. Ser., Springfield, Va., as EUR-4897e.
Discharge limits (in curies/year) to a typical aquatic receiv-
ing environment for radioisotopes from nuclear power stations are cal-
culated for exposure pathway via consumption of lake fish (Sr-90, 0.68;
Cs-137, 5; Ru-l06, 370; and Co-60, 128) and drinking water (Ru-l06, 90;
others higher than for fish consumption). Concentration factors for
radioisotope uptake by fish for these and other elements (tritium, Ce,
Pu, ~m, Fe, Co), and discharge limits for other aquatic receiving en-
vironments are tabulated.
637.
Brereton, A., H. Lord, I. Thornton, and J.S. Webb. 1973. Effect
of zinc on growth and development of larvae of the Pacific
oyster Crassostrea gigas. Marine Biology 19(2) :96-101.
Following the observation of periodic high concentrations of
zinc in estuarine waters used in the White Fish Authority's oyster
hatchery at Conway, North Wales, studies were conducted on effect of
zinc on larvae of Crassostrea gigas. Zinc, added to sea water both as
zinc sulfate and as a natural mine-adit water, was applied for a period
of 5 days, after which larvae were maintained for a further 5 days in
sea water alone. Increasing concentrations over the range 125 to 500
Vg/l of Zn resulted in decreasing growth and increasing incidence of
abnormality and larval mortality. A second trial with zinc sulfate
showed 50 Vg/l of Zn to have little effect on larval development, a pro-
gressive decrease in growth at 100 and 150 Vg/l, and no growth at 200
Vg/l. It is suggested that the deleterious effect of short-term ex-
posure to zinc may well have contributed to the intermittent failure of
larvae and irregular productivity recorded at the hatchery. It is also
possible that zinc contamination in estuaries may affect natural oyster
breeding, and may have to be considered in the future siting of hatch-
eries for seed production.
638.
Brooks, R.R., and ~1.G. Rumsby. 1965. The biogeochemistry of trace
element uptake by some New Zealand bivalves. Limnology and
Oceanography 10:521-527.
34
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Spectrographic determinations of Ag, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo,
Ni, Pb, Sb, V, and Zn were carried out on three species of New Zealand
bivalves. Analyses were performed on the sediment, on the whole ani-
mals excluding shells,' on the shells, and on the individual dissected
organs. All the elements concerned showed more enrichment in the shell-
fish than in the marine environment. Conclusions have been reached con-
cerning the geochemical and biochemical processes involved in trace
element uptake by the biosphere.
6E.
Brooks, R.R., and M.G. Rumsby. 1967. Studies on the uptake of
cadmium by the oyster, Ostrea sinuata (Lamarck). Austral.
Jour. Mar. Freshwat. Res. 15:53-61.
In order to study elution and displacement of adsorbed ions
into filtered sea water and their displacement by adsorbed Cd, analyses
for Cd, Ag, ~m, Pb, V, and Zn were carried out on freshly killed oys-
ters, specimens maintained for 100 hr in filtered sea water and on a
further number treated for the same period with filtered sea water con-
taining 50 mg/l of Cd. Although a high Cd concentration did not appear
to displace other ions, there was some evidence for loss of ions from
the visceral mass. Concentrations in oysters equilibrated with sea
water containing added Cd, indicated that this element was strongly
accumulated within gills, viscera, and heart. These find~nys were con-
firmed in radiometric experiments involving uptake of 115/1 5IDed from
sea water containing this radionuclide. These experiments were also
used to measure the rate of uptake of Cd which although relatively slow,
was appreciable in magnitude. Fractionation factors for the various
organs for varying Cd concentrations in sea water showed a very similar
pattern for all organs studied and indicated cessation of uptake at Cd
concentrations between 40 and 140 mg/kg. It was concluded that uptake
was due to unselective adsorption probably by coordination to organic
ligands. This theory was strengthened by radiometric experiments on
the oyster heart where proteinbound Cd probably did not exceed 25% of
the total.
640.
Brooks, R.R., and D. Rumsey. 1974.
Zealand commercial sea fishes.
wat. Res. 8(1):155-166.
Heavy metals in some New
New Zealand Jour. Mar. Fresh-
To establish a base line against which future pollution may
be measured, eight common commercial species of New Zealand sea fish
were analyzed for cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, manganese,
nickel, and zinc. One sample of edible muscle tissue was analyzed for
each of 70 samples of each species. The internal organs of up to five
specimens of each species were also analyzed.
35
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None of the edible parts of the fish appeared to have trace
element levels likely to be a public health problem: cadmium 0.002-0.02
mg/kg, chromium 0.01-0.04, copper 0.04-0.95, iron 0.9-13.5, lead 0.14-
0.95, manganese 0.04-2.00, nickel 0.01-0.08, zinc 2.0-36.0. However,
some organs, particularly the liver, had relatively high concentrations
of elements such as cadmium (up to 54 mg/kg). Only if some industry
were to seek to exploit internal organs of fish for human consumption
would such levels become important. There was some evidence for a
relationship between trace element concentrations and fish size for
copper in 2 species, iron in one species, manganese in another; and for
zinc in 2 species. Some element pairs such as copper and zinc, iron
and manganese, appeared to have concentrations which were TIlutually re-
lated. It was assumed that the elemental concentrations reported repre-
sent natural levels and are not the result of significant man-made
pollution because there are no major industries or large urban centers
adjacent to the fishing grounds.
641.
Brouse, D.O.
problem.
1966. Copper sulphate air spray cures lake algae
Water and Pollution Control 104(4):25-27.
Since 1960, Sudbury, Ontario, bordering Lake Ramsey, has
twice experienced severe taste and odor problems in its municipal water
supply. Lake Ramsey has a surface area of 2,023 acres, depths to 65
feet, and little outflow. In October 1965, the algae count peaked at
33,400 areal standard units, Aphanizomenon predominating, accompanied
by a threshold odor number 200. Aphanizomenon's ability to withstand
winter temperatures necessitated immediate action. On November 6-8,
cropdusting aircraft sprayed 20 tons of copper sulfate over the lake
surface resulting in copper content of 0.20 mg/l. The immediate area
of municipal water intake was avoided. By November 14th, the algae
count had been reduced to 2,500 and the odor number to 24. On Novem-
ber 22nd, the algae count had rebounded to 5,000 and odor number to
140, while the copper concentration remained 0.20 mg/l. In late Novem-
ber, a second treatment brought the maximum average copper concentra-
tion to 0.36 mg/l. One week later, after freezing over, the lake's
algae count was back down to 2,000 and the odor number to 17. By the
end of December, the water was satisfactory for municipal use with only
slight noticeable odor (Algae count: 1,300, odor number: 4).
642.
Brown, B.E., and R.C. Newell. 1972. The effect of copper and
zinc on the metabolism of the mussel Mytilus edulis. Marine
Biology 16:108-118.
The effects of copper and zinc on the metabolism of the mus-
sel Mytilus edulis (L.) and its component tissues were studied. 500
mg/l copper sodium citrate inhibited oxygen consumption of the whole
36
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animal and gill tissue, but no similar effect was observed on digestive
gland tissue. 500 mg!l zinc sodium citrate exerted no effect upon gill
or digestive gland respiration, and neither metal salt affected the
respiration of homogenates of gill, digestive gland, or gonad. Direct
observation of gill tissues during exposure to the metals revealed that
500 mg!l copper sodium citrate caused inhibition of ciliary activity;
exposure of tissues to 2 mg!l Cu for 24 h resulted in only partial in-
hibition of the cilia. It is suggested that metabolic suppression
noted in whole animals and gill tissues is due to the inhibition of an
energy-consuming process such as ciliary activity rather than inter-
ference with respiratory enzyme systems.
643.
Brown, V.M., and R.A. Dalton. 1970. The acute lethal toxicity
to rainbow trout of mixtures of copper, phenol, zinc and
nickel. Jour. Fish BioI. 2:211-216.
The acute lethal toxicities to rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri
Richardson, of mixtures of copper and phenol, of copper, zinc and
phenol, and of copper, zinc and nickel, over an exposure period of 48 h
were determined. The concentrations selected for testing were such that
each poison theoretically contributed equally to the toxicity of the
mixture. It was found that the toxicities of these mixtures could be
adequately predicted by summation of the fractional toxicities of the
particular poisons which were present.
644.
Brown, V.M., D.H.M. Jordan, and B.A. Tiller. 1969. The acute
toxicity to rainbow trout of fluctuating concentrations and
mixtures of ammonia, phenol and zinc. Jour. Fish BioI. 1:1-9.
Concentrations of ammonia, zinc, and ammonia plus zinc, which
were lethal to 50% of a batch of trout within 48 hours were similar,
whether fish were immersed in constant concentrations of poisons or in
concentrations fluctuating within 150% of the 48-hour LC50 at equal
intervals of time, as long as the periodicity of the fluctuations did
not exceed the resistance time for the particular poison involved.
Except when zinc predominated in a mixture, the fractional toxicities
of the three poisons tested could be summed to give the toxicity of the
mixture, the 95% confidence intervals effectively embracing the value
of 1.0. With zinc predominating (> 70%) in the mixture, however, some
antagonistic effect appears to be demonstrated.
645.
Brule, G., M. Falempin, and P. Guilbault. 1972. Les ions potas-
sium (K+), calcium (Ca++) et sodium (Na+) dans Ie developpe-
ment de la contracture potassique de la fibre striee phasique
de crabe. Sciences Naturelles 275(15):1649-1652.
37
-------
The action of the ions K+, Ca++, and Na+ on contraction of
striated muscular fibers of the crab Carcinus maenas was studied. The
role of the extracellular concentration of Na+ and K+ on the entry of
Ca++ was demonstrated, as was the existence of 2 antagonisms: Ca++-
Na+, and Ca++-K+.
646.
Brungs, W.A., E.N. Leonard, and J.M. McKim. 1973. Acute and
long-term accumulation of copper by the brown bullhead,
Ictalurus nebulosus. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 30(4) :583-
586.
Bullheads were exposed to constant concentrations of copper
ranging from 6.5 to 422 ~g/liter. Copper concentrations in gill,
opercle, liver, and kidney tissues of live fish did not differ from
those that died during the acute exposure. Exposure of fish to sub-
lethal concentrations for 20 days before exposure to lethal concentra-
tions resulted in higher tissue levels in the dead fish than in fish
not previously exposed. A distinct increase in liver and gill tissue
copper concentrations occurred at exposure levels of 27 ~g/liter and
above. Equilibrium tissue levels of copper in the liver and gill were
reached within 30 days. Copper levels in red blood cells and plasma
after 20-months exposure did not differ from the controls. Red blood
cells analyzed after 6-days and 30-days exposure to copper also showed
no increased copper residues.
647.
Bryan, G.W. 1968. Concentrations of zinc and copper in the
tissues of decapod crustaceans. Jour. Mar. BioI. Assn. U.K.
48: 303-321.
Concentrations of zinc and copper have been measured in 18
species of decapod crustaceans, ranging from freshwater to purely
marine species. Although the intake of zinc and copper probably varies
considerably, the majority of animals contain between 20 and 35 ~g/g
of both metals. This is probably because the concentrations in the
body fluids and tissues are regulated. Reasons for differences be-
tween the concentrations of zinc and copper in the individual tissues
of different species are discussed and the ways in which regulation
is achieved are compared.
648.
Bryan, G. W. 1971. The effects of heavy metals (other than mer-
cury) on marine and estuarine organisms. Proc. Roy. Soc.
London B. 177:389-410.
Heavy metals including copper, zinc and lead are normal con-
stituents of marine and estuarine environments. When additional
38
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quantities of metals are introduced from industrial wastes or sewage
they enter the biogeochemical cycle and, as a result of being potentially
toxic, may interfere with the ecology of a particular environment. In
different marine organisms, including crustaceans, algae, annelids,
bryazoans and fish, the behavior of Cu, Zn, Pb, Cd, Ni, Co, Ag, Cr, Sr,
Fe, Ca and Mg is described in terms of their absorption, storage, ex-
cretion and regulation when different concentrations are available in
the environnlent. At higher concentrations, the detrimental effects of
heavy metals become apparent and their different toxic effects and fac-
tors affecting them are also described. A bibliography of 77 references
is appended.
649.
Bryan, G.W. 1973. The occurrence and seasonal variation of trace
metals in the scallops Pecten maximus (L.) and Chlamys oper-
cularis (L.). Jour. Mar. BioI. Assn. U.K. 53:145-166.
Concentrations of 11 trace metals in the tissues of two species
of scallops collected from the same area of the English Channel were
determined. Although there was considerable variation between indi-
vidual animals, mean concentrations of Ag, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, and
Zn were higher in whole body of Chlamys than in Pecten but concentra-
tions of AI, Cd, and Fe were lower. In both species, seasonal changes
in concentrations of Co, Cu, Fe, ~~, Ni, Pb, and Zn were observed and,
in general, the highest values were found in autumn and winter months.
These changes may be related to food supply, since concentrations were
generally highest when phytoplankton productivity was low and tended to
fall in the spring as productivity increased rapidly to its annual peak.
Despite problems arising from individual and seasonal variation, kidneys
and digestive gland of scallops appear to have potential as biological
indicators of trace metals. Results obtained for Pecten and Chlamys
are compared with those in the literature for species from the family
Pectinidae.
650.
Bryan, G.W., and L.G. Hummerstone. 1971. Adaptation
chaete Nereis diversicolor to estuarine sediments
high concentrations of heavy metals. I. General
and adaptation to copper. Jour. Mar. BioI. Assn.
845-863.
of the poly-
containing
observations
U.K. 51:
The concentration of copper in Nereis diversicolor is roughly
related to the total concentration in the sediment, with particularly
high levels in Nereis from areas where mining pollution occurs. In
contrast, zinc concentrations in Nereis remain remarkably constant
despite wide variations in the environment and appear to be accurately
regulated. In worTIlS from different estuaries, concentrations of copper
have been related to those of the sediments. Sediment extracts and
39
-------
interstitial water at different stations, and the influence of salinity
and size of animal has also been considered. The relative importance
of copper absorption via gut or across the body surface is still un-
certain, but uptake over the body surface appears to be ~mportan~ in .
high-copper animals from polluted areas; most of the Cu :s deposlt7d l~
epidermis of body wall and in nephridia. High-copper anlmals surVlve ln
polluted areas because they have developed a tolerance to. the t?xic
effects of copper which is neither readily lost, nor readlly galned by
non-tolerant animals. The situation may be similar to that found on
old mine dumps where populations of metal tolerant land plants have
evolved.
651.
Bryan, G.W., and L.G. Hummerstone. 1973. Brown seaweed as an
indicator of heavy metals in estuaries in south-west England.
Jour. Mar. BioI. Assn. U.K. 53:705-720.
Concentrations of copper, zinc, lead, manganese, and iron in
the brown seaweed, Fucus vesiculosus have been measured in samples col-
lected over its range of distribution in four estuaries having differ-
ent degrees of metal contamination. Factors controlling the concentra-
tions in the weed have been studied and include the concentrations of
metals in the water, seasonal changes, the position of the weed in the
intertidal zone and the particular portion of the plant which is
analyzed. It is concluded that analysis of the weed gives a reasonable
indication of average conditions in the water at points along an estu-
ary and provides a method of making comparisons with the same estuary
in subsequent years or with other estuaries.
652.
Bryan, G.W., and L.G. Hummerstone. 1973. Adaptation of the
polychaete Nereis diversicolor to manganese in estuarine
sediments. Jour. Mar. BioI. Assn. U.K. 53:859-872.
Concentrations of manganese have been measured in Nereis
diversicolor, interstitial water and sediments from estuaries draining
the mineralized areas of South-West England. Results from the field
observations have been supported by experiments using Mn-54. Manganese
appears to occur in Nereis in two pools, one exchanging slowly and the
other more rapidly. The slowly exchanging pool amounts to roughly 10
~g/g on a dry-weight basis and upon this is superimposed the more
rapidly exchanging pool, the magnitude of which depends on several
factors. The two most important of these are the concentration of
manganese in the interstitial water and salinity. With decreasing
salinity the concentration factor for manganese increases, and there-
fore the highest concentrations of manganese are usually found in
animals from the least saline areas of an estuary.
40
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653.
Bryan, G.W., and L.G. Hummerstone. 1973. Adaptation of the poly-
chaete Nereis diversicolor to estuarine sediments containing
high concentrations of zinc and cadmium. Jour. Mar. BioI.
Assn. U.K. 53:839-857.
Concentrations of zinc and cadmium in Nereis have been com-
pared with those of sediments in estuaries of 26 rivers which drain the
old metalliferous mining areas of South-West England. Whereas in the
sediments concentrations of zinc varied by a factor of 30 from about
100 to 3000 ~g/g, concentrations in the worms, after correcting for size,
varied by only 2-7 from 130 to 350 ~g/g dry weight. Concentrations of
cadmium in the sediments varied by a factor of 46 from about 0-2 to 9-3
~g/g and concentrations in worms were roughly proportional to them and
varied by a factor of 45 from 0-08 to 3-6 ~g/g. These results suggest
that zinc is regulated by the worm whereas cadmium is not.
Experimental work has shown that with increasing concentrations
in solution the rate of absorption of cadmium by Nereis increases more
rapidly than that 6f zinc and is more nearly proportional to the exter-
nal concentration. This helps to explain why, in the field, concentra-
tions of zinc in the worms vary less than those of cadmium, but another
reason is that population~ from high-zinc sediments are better at regu-
lating zinc than normal populations. In toxicity experiments they are
more resistant to zinc than normal worms and this adaptation is explained
by a reduced permeability to zinc and probably to more effective excre-
tion. Factors which influence absorption of heavy metals are discussed
and adaptation of Nereis to high concentrations of metals is compared
with that in other organisms.
654.
Burrows, W.D., and P.A. Krenkel. 1973. Studies on uptake and
loss of methylmercury-203 by bluegills (Lepomis macrochirus
Raf.). Environ. Sci. Technol. 7(13):1127-1130.
The uptake of methylmercury-203 directly from water by blue-
gill sunfish was found to be nearly constant after five days at about
20% per gram of fish per liter of water. Transferred to mercury-free
water at 24°C, bluegills exhibited a rapid loss of about 40% of the
mercury, followed by a slow loss with a half-time of about five months.
Mercury levels in the liver and kidneys were two to seven times higher
than whole fish levels, but there was no discernible trend in this ratio
with time. The proportion of mercury present as methylmercury in the
whole fish remained at 73flO% throughout the course of the experiment.
The proportion of methylmercury in the liver and kidneys. however, fell
rapidly in the first few weeks after exposure, ultimately leveling off
at about 10%. This suggests that biochemical demethylation is taking
place in these organs.
41
-------
655.
Burton, D.T., E.L. Morgan, and J. Cairns, Jr.
curves of bluegills (Lepomis macrochirus,
taneously exposed to temperature and zinc
ArneI'. Fish. Soc. 101(3):435-441.
1972. Mortality
Rafinesque) simul-
stress. Trans.
Bluegills were exposed to a temperature-zinc interaction con-
sisting of five temperature regimes and four concentrations of zinc
which were 1.0, 5.6, 10.0 and 32.0 mg Zn++/l. All of the above concen-
trations of zinc and a control were tested on five groups of fish which
had been acclimated to (1) 20floC, (2) 30floC and fish which had been
acclimated to 20floC and were exposed to temperature increases at the
following rates: (3) 10C/24 hours, (4) 10C/1 hour, and (5) 1.5°C/1O
minutes until a maximum of 30°C was reached.
This study showed that a rise in temperature could reduce the
survival time of bluegills exposed to lethal and sublethal concentrations
of zinc. Reductions in survival time were a function of the rates at
which the temperature was increased. For example, bluegills acclimated
to 20° and 30°C then exposed to a lethal concentration of zinc (32 mg
Zn++/l) at each temperature died 2.6 times faster at 30°C than at 20°C.
Fish acclimated to 20°C and exposed to a temperature increase of 1.5°C/
10 minutes died 4.8 times faster than fish maintained at 20°C. A sub-
lethal zinc concentration (5.6 mg Zn++/l) produced no mortalities in
20°C acclimated bluegills in 96 hours but was toxic to fish when the
temperature was increased from 20° to 30°C at a rate of 1.5°C/lO minutes.
656.
Burton, D.T., A.H. Jones, and J. Cairns, Jr. 1972. Acute zinc
toxicity to rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri): confirmation of
the hypothesis that death is related to tissue hypoxia. Jour.
Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 29:1463-1466.
Acute heavy metal toxicity to fish has been attributed to the
coagulation or precipitation of mucus on the gills and/or to cytological
damage to the gills. The physiological mechanism of death by either of
the above causes is related to a breakdown in gas exchange at the gills.
This study of acute zinc toxicity to rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri)
supports an earlier hypothesis that modification of the gas exchange
process at the gi lls creates hypoxia at the tissue level. Tissue hypoxia
appears to be a major physiological change preceding death once the gas
exchange process at the gills is no longer sufficient to supply the oxy-
gen requirements of the fish.
657.
Button, D.K., and S.S. Dunker. 1971. Biological effects of copper
and arsenic pollution. Final Report to U.S. Environ. Proto
Agen., Contract 18050 DLW, Rept. R7l-8: Univ. Alaska, College,
Alaska: 1-59.
42
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Inhibitory effects of copper toward marine bacteria and
yeasts were studied. Phosphate was found to prevent copper inhibition.
These phosphate limited systems were found to be copper sensitive only
under conditions of manganese deficiency. The protective influence in
reagent grade phosphate was traced to contamination with trace amounts
of manganese. Death occurred at about 10-6 M of Cu.
Among a number of metabolic inhibitors found to inhibit phos-
phate transport was arsenate. Phosphate also competitively reduced
arsenate uptake. Reduced phosphate uptake rates occurred at 10-6 M
arsenate and high death rates in cultures otherwise sustaining normal
growth rates were induced with 10-7 to 10-8 M arsenate in phosphate
deficient systems. These levels are exceeded in environmental and
potable water systems.
Evidence is presented consistent with the view that both
arsenate and phosphate are accumulated by the same active transport
system. The system is peculiar in that velocities increase as the
hydrogen ion is increased, saturation of the system does not occur,
and the transport temperature coefficient is very large.
Evidence suggests that both arsenate and copper are important
at existing concentrations in the environment. ~fuen nutrients are di-
lute these antimetabolites prevent microbial metabolism thus affecting
the steady state chemistry which they control.
658.
Byrne, J.M., F.W.H. Beamish, and R.L. Saunders. 1972. Influence
of salinity, temperature, and exercise on plasma osmolality
and ionic concentration in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar).
Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 29(8):1217-1220.
In unexercised Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), plasma osmo-
lality and Na+ and Ca++ concentrations varied little at temperature-
salinity combinations of 3, 5, 10, and 14°C and 0, 15, and 30%0.
Plasma K+ tended to increase with increase in temperature. Cl- values
were similar at 5 and 14°C. At 1°C and 00/00, lower plasma osmolalities
indicated reduced ability to osmoregulate. At 1°C and 300/00, elevated
osmolalities and ionic values and mortalities indicated severe osmotic
stress. After exercise for 2 hr at 3-4 body lengths/sec at 5 and 14°C,
salmon in salinities of 9 and 15%0 had osmolalities and ionic values
the same as or little changed from unexercised values. There were
marked increases in the values following exercise in 30%0.
659.
Cain, T.O. 1973. The combined effects of temperature and
salinity on embryos and larvae of the clam Rangia cuneata.
Marine Biology 21:1-6.
43
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Adult clams were spawned in the laboratory, and combined
effects of temperature and salinity on survival of fertilized eggs and
on survival and growth of larvae studied. Embryos and larvae were
reared at temperature-salinity conditions within the ranges 8° to 32°C
and 0 to 200/00. Salinities near 00/00 were lethal in all cases.
Optimum conditions for embryos (85% survival) were 18° to 29°C and 6
to 100/00 S. Salinity had more effect than temperature on early
development. Optimum conditions for the larvae were broader, being
8° to 32°C and 2 to 200/00 S. Temperature and salinity interacted to
reduce survival at low salinity-high temperature, and high salinity-
low temperature combinations. Growth of larvae was best at high salini-
ties and high temperatures.
660.
Cairns, J., Jr., T.K. Bahns, D.T. Burton, K.L. Dickson, R.E.
Sparks, and W.T. Waller. 1972. The effects of pH, solu-
bility and temperature upon the toxicity of zinc to the blue-
gill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus Raf.). Trans. Kans. Acad.
Sci. 74(1):81-92.
Bluegills were exposed for 96 hr under static test conditions
to water soluble ZnS04"7H~O and water insoluble Zn3(P04)2" 4H20 at two
temperature ranges (21-24 C; 7-9°C) and two pH ranges (5.7-7.0; 7.3-
8.8). Control fish were maintained in zinc-free water. No bluegills
died in water containing insoluble zinc in amounts comparable to the
amounts of soluble zinc (13, 18, 24, and 32 mg Zn++/l) which produced
mortalities of 90 to 100%. Bluegill mortalities in concentrations of
soluble zinc ranging from 10 to 32 mg Zn++/l were 0 to 10% at the high
pH, while at the low pH mortalities were 100%. Bluegills at the low
temperatures died at a much slower rate, and the time-to-death of the
first fish was considerably delayed, in comparison to bluegills at the
warmer temperature. Continuous flow bioassay tests in which two types
of test containers were used showed differences in LC-50 (96 hr) values.
The particle replacement time in 19-1iter bioassay jars was consider-
ably longer than in 1.4 liter plexiglass containers, hence bluegills
survived longer in the jars. LC-50 (96 hr) concentrations for fish
exposed to a continuous flow of Zn++ in two types of test containers
were estimated in four ways: using statistically pooled measured and
calculated concentrations, and by pooling calculated and measured con-
centrations on the basis of the nominal concentrations alone. There
were negligible differences in the resulting LC-50 values.
661.
Cairns, J., Jr., N.H. Cromer, T.K. Bahns, and W.T. Waller. 1971.
A confirmation of Mount's autopsy technique for zinc-caused
fish mortality. Water Resources Bulletin, Jour. Amer. Water
Res. Assoc. 7(5):956-968.
44
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A total of 203 bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus) which
had been used in several acute zinc experiments carried out under
varied environmental conditions were autopsied according to ~1ount's
procedure for determining fish mortality due to zinc poisoning. Three
classes of fish were used: those exposed to but not killed by zinc;
those killed by zinc; and those not exposed to zinc. Two statistical
tests were used to analyze these data and both tests gave results indi-
cating significant differences between all three classes of fish. This
indicates that the Mount autopsy technique is very probably a valid
generalization. The possibilities of using Mount's technique as a pre-
dictive tool are discussed.
662.
Cairns, J., Jr., and K.L. Dickson. 1970. Reduction and restora-
tion of the number of fresh-water protozoan species following
acute exposure to copper and zinc. Trans. Kans. Acad. Sci.
73(1): 1-10.
Protozoan communities established in plastic troughs through
which Douglas Lake (Michigan) water was pumped were exposed for 24 hr
to either 24 mg/l of Zn++ or 24 mg/l of Cu++. The reduction in the
number of species and density changes are described and the residual
effects and recovery are discussed.
663.
Cairns, J., Jr., and J.J. Loos. 1967. Changed feeding rate of
Brachydanio rerio (Hamilton-Buchanan) resulting from exposure
to sublethal concentrations of zinc, potassium dichromate,
and alkyl benzene sulfonate detergent. Proc. Pennsyl. Acad.
Sci. 40: 47-52.
Zebra danios were exposed to 3.7 and 6.7 mg/l Zn2+, 56 and
75 mg/l K2Cr207, and 10 and 32 mg/l ABS mixture (54.8% active ingre-
dient) under controlled conditions. The time required for each fish
to consume ten out of twenty pieces of tubifex worms was determined at
0, 24, 48, 72, and 96 hours. Although the response of individuals
varied markedly, after 96 hours of exposure the majority of exposed
fish required more time to consume the allotted food than did the
majority of the control fish.
664.
Cairns, J., Jr., E.L. Morgan, and R.E. Sparks. 1972. Applica-
tion of biological monitoring systems to simulated indus-
trial waste discharge situation. Available from Nat. Tech.
Inf. Ser., Springfield, Va., as PB-2l3 468:1-25.
Temperature, calcium concentration, pH and dissolved oxygen
concentration have been shown to modify the toxicity of zinc, copper,
45
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and other heavy metals to fish. Since these factors interact, and be-
cause stream and industrial waste characteristics vary, it becomes
difficult to rapidly predict the toxicity of zinc and other materials
to aquatic organisms at an industrial or municipal facility from phy-
sical and chemical data alone; therefore, techniques were developed for
measuring breathing rates and movement activities of fish. Responses
were analyzed to determine if stress responses occur to complex environ-
mental changes. Calcium at 147 mg/l did not cause continued stress
detections. Bluegills did not become incapable of responding to a simu-
lated zinc spill (3 mg/l) after long term exposure (41 weeks) to what
is presumed a biologically safe concentration (0.075 mg/l). Calcium
(110 mg/l) acts antagonistically with zinc (3.7 mg/l), but copper (0.3
mg/l) does not appear to act synergistically with 1.4 mg/l zinc. A
daily change in temperature of 5°C produced a number of detections when
no toxicant was present. However, when the first temperature treat-
ment day is used to establish baseline breathing rates then no detec-
tions are obtained on the following treatment days. These biological
monitoring techniques should be applicable in field situations for
detecting not only heavy metals, but other toxicants as well.
665.
Cairns, J., Jr., and A. Scheier. 1968. A comparison of the
toxicity of some common industrial waste components tested
individually and combined. Progr. Fish-Culturist 30(1):3-8.
Toxicities of salts of Zn2+, Cu2+, and Cr6+ alone and in
combination with acetaldehyde, acetic acid, acetone, cyanide, and
napthenic acids, were determined for bluegill sunfish over a period of
96 hours. Concentrations fatal to O. 50. and 100% in 96 hours = LC-O.
LC-50, LC-lOO values were computed. For Zn2+, these values were 2.4,
4.2, and 5.9 mg/l, respectively. For Cu2+, LC-O, LC-50, and LC-lOO
values were 0.75, 1.25, and 2.10 mg/l. For Cr6+, values were 48.4,
l13.0,and 176.8 mg/l, respectively. Toxicity bioassays with Zn2+ + CN-
mixtures suggested a slight antagonistic interaction between these two
ions, probably because the zinc complexed with the cyanide and thereby
slightly reduced the toxicity of the cyanide. Mixtures of acetic acid,
acetaldehyde, and Cu2+ suggest no substantial interaction between the
components in toxicity assays.
666.
Cairns, J., Jr., and R.E. Sparks. 1971. The use of bluegills
to detect zinc. U.S. Environ. Protect. Agen. Rep. 18050
EDQ:1-45.
The presence of zinc at concentrations of 8.7,5.22,4.16,
and 2.55 mg/l in dechlorinated municipal tapwater was detected by an
increase in breathing rate or a change in breathing rate variance of
bluegills. None of the fish exposed to the three lower concentrations
46
-------
died during the experiments. The criterion for detection was an arbi-
trary number of responses occurring at the same time. When the cri
terion was changed from a single response to three responses occurring
at the same time, the number of false detections ("detections" occurring
before zinc addition) decreased, but the lag between zinc addition and
detection increased.
Zinc concentrations of .025 and .075 mg/l (approximately 1/100
and 1/34 of 2.55 mg/l, respectively) did not appear to affect the re-
production and growth of bluegills in the laboratory, but .250 mg/l
zinc (approximately 1/10 of 2.55 mg/l) inhibited spawning in ripe blue-
gills and killed newly-hatched fry.
667.
Cairns, J., Jr., R.E. Sparks, and W.T. Waller. 1973. The use of
fish as sensors in industrial waste lines to prevent fish
kills. Hydrobiologia 41(2):151-167.
The use of movements and breathing rates of bluegill sunfish
as in the detection of sublethal concentrations of zinc can be applied
to industrial waste lines.
668.
Cairns, J., Jr., and W.T. Waller.
ment patterns to monitor zinc.
Rep. 18050 EDP:1-55.
1971. The use of fish move-
U.S. Environ. Protect. Agen.
The feasibility of using fish movement patterns measured by
light beam interruption as a technique for continuous monitoring of the
response of fish to zinc was investigated. In conjunction with the
monitoring studies growth and reproductive success of bluegill sunfish
(Lepomis macrochirus) exposed to various fractions of the lowest con-
centration of zinc detected were studied.
The monitoring apparatus does not interfere with fish move-
ment within the test chamber and allows for maintenance of fish for
long time periods. Under the conditions described the system detects
aberrations in fish movement caused by zinc in sufficient time to per-
mit survival of test fish if stress conditions are reversed at time of
detection. The lowest concentration of zinc detected by the system
during a 96-hour exposure was between 3.64 and 2.94 mg/l Zn++.
Growth and reproductive success of bluegill was tested in
concentrations approximately equal to 1/10 and 1/100 the lowest con-
centration of zinc detected by the monitoring system and 1/100 of the
LC-SO (96 hr) determined under continuous flow conditions. The growth
and reproductive success in 1/100 the lowest detected zinc concentra-
tion and 1/100 the 96 hour LC-SO value did not differ appreciably from
47
-------
controls while a concentration of approximately 1/10 the lowest detected
zinc concentration in effect eliminated reproduction in the bluegill.
669.
Cairns, J., Jr., W.T. Waller, and J.C. Smrchek. 1969. Fish bio-
assays contrasting constant and fluctuating input of toxi-
cants. Revista Brasileria e Portuquesa de Biologia em Geral
7(1-2):75-91.
Bioassays of 96 hour duration were conducted with fish ex-
posed to LC-50 (96 hr) concentrations of zinc and 2 medium replacement
rates. In one study half the test solution was replaced every 24 hours
with test solution containing the same concentration of zinc. Results
of this study indicate that Zn is more toxic under these conditions
than tests in which the replacement solution had half this concentration
of zinc every other time. However, the apparent difference in response
was so slight that considerably more experimental work would be required
to establish statistically significant differences.
670.
Calabrese, A., R.S. Collier, D.A. Nelson, and J.R. MacInnes.
1973. The toxicity of 'heavy metals to embryos of the Ameri-
can oyster Crassostrea virginica. Marine Biology 18:162-166.
The acute toxicity of salts of 11 heavy metals to oyster
embryos was studied and the concentrations at which 50% of the embryos
failed to develop determined. The most toxic metals and their LC-50
(48 hr) values were mercury (0.0056 mg/l) , silver (0.0058 mg/l) ,
copper (0.103 mg/l), and zinc (0.31 mg/l). Those metals that were not
as toxic and their LC-50 (48 hr) values were nickel (1.18 mg/l), lead
(2.45 mg/l), and cadmium (3.80 mg/l). Those metals that were rela-
ti vely non-toxic and, their LC-50 (48 hr) values were arsenic (7.5 mg/l),
chromium (10.3 mg/l), and manganese (16.0 mg/l). Aluminum was non-
toxic at 7.5 mg/l, the highest concentration tested.
671.
Calabrese, A., and D.A. Nelson. 1974. Inhibition of embryonic
development of the hard clam, Mercenaria mercenaria, by
heavy metals. Bull. Environ. Contamin. Toxicol. 11(1):92-97.
The present study was undertaken to determine the effect of
salts of mercury, silver, zinc, nickel, and lead on the survival and
subsequent development of embryos of the hard clam at 26°C and 250/00
salinity, in synthetic seawater. LC-50 (48 hr) values, in mg/l element
added at start, were 0.0048 for Hg, 0.021 for Ag, 0.166 for Zn, 0.31
for nickel, and 0.78 for lead.
48
-------
672.
Calamari, D., and R. Marchetti. 1973. The toxicity of mixtures
of metals and surfactants to rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri)
(Rich.). Water Research 7: 1453-1464.
The toxicity to rainbow trout of copper and mercuT)' and two
anionic and one non-ionic detergents were determined with an exposure
period of 14 days. Each compound was tested separately and as a metal-
detergent pair. The results show that for the mixtures of anionic
detergents and metals a "more-than-addi ti ve" effect exists, while for
the mixture of non-ionic detergent and metal the toxic effect is pro-
bably"less-than-additive." These findings are compared with existing
data in the literature and the underlying reasons for these effects are
discussed.
673.
Campbell ,
lead:
1964.
Rept.
I.R., and E.G. Mergard. 1972. Biological aspects of
An annotated bibliography--literature from 1950 through
Parts I and II. U.S. Public Hlth. Servo Doc. ES 00159,
AP-I04 May, 1972. Contract CPA 22-69-48:1-935.
This bibliography has been compiled from several abstract
sources and represents the scientific periodical literature covered by
the principal abstracting and indexing services. Books and proceedings
of conferences and symposia devoted to lead and its compounds are also
included. The material is arranged in 10 sections covering such areas
as environmental surveys, plants and animals, man, occupational expo-
sure, pollution and effects, legal aspects, analytical methods, and
chemistry and technology.
674.
Cancio, D., J.A. Llauro, N.R. Ciallella, and D.J. Beninson. 1973.
Incorporacion de radioestroncio por organismos marinos. In
Radioactive Contamination of the Marine Environment, Int.--
Atom. Ener. Agen., Vienna, Austria:347-357.
The paper reports on discrimination factors for strontium
and calcium and the corresponding strontium concentration factors. It
includes results of laboratory experiments using double tracer tech-
niques and of determinations based on systematic measurements of stable
strontium and calcium. The organisms studied are cornmon along the
Atlantic coastline of Argentina and include various species of fishes,
crustaceans, molluscs and marine algae.
From the laboratory experiments it is possible to determine
discrimination factors even before equilibrium conditions have been
established. All organisms studied discriminate against strontium, the
discrimination factor values fluctuating between 0.10 and 0.92 depend-
ing on the species. In fish, Micropogon opercularis, the Sr/Ca ratios
49
-------
were the same throughout the animal, as was also true with exoskeletons
and soft parts of crustaceans. In molluscs, different values were ob-
tained for shells and soft parts.
In general, discrimination factors obtained in the field on
the basis of strontium and calcium determinations agree reasonably well
with values obtained in the laboratory for fishes and molluscs, but are
lower for crustaceans and algae. Obtaining concentration factors from
discrimination parameters has the advantage of representing limiting
situations where the equilibrium state is ensured. In this way, experi-
mental results can be extrapolated to natural conditions with less un-
certainty. The resulting strontium concentration factors fluctuate be-
tween 2 and 10 for fish, 13 and 70 for crustaceans and molluscs, and
0.2 and 70 for algae.
675.
Carey, A.G., Jr. 1970. Zn65 in benthic invertebrates off the
Oregon Coast. Available from Nat. Tech. Inf. Ser., Spring-
field, Va., as RLO-1750-55:l-27.
More Zn-65 was found in detritus feeders as compared with
carnivores, and in surface as compared with sediment feeders. From
the 50-200 m shelf zone to 1400 m deep, the specific activity of
detritus feeders decreased from 54 to 6 nanoCi/gram stable Zn. From
100 to 800 m, the activity of asteroids decreased from 32 to 4 picoCi/
gram ash. The average Zn-65 in surface water may increase for a period
during the night from the upward migration of nektonic animals.
According to wind and current, pelagic animals may be higher in Zn-65
off central Oregon as compared with those in closer proximity to the
mouth of the Columbia River.
676.
Carey, A.G., Jr., and N.H. Cutshall. 1973. Zinc-65 specific
activities from Oregon and Washington continental shelf sedi-
ments and benthic invertebrate fauna. In Radioactive Con-
tamination of the Marine Environment, Int. Atom. Ener. Agen.,
Vienna, Austria:287-305.
Relationships between benthic fauna and sediments on the con-
tinental shelf of Oregon and Washington have been investigated by
determining specific activities of Zn-65. Zinc-65, induced by neutron
activation in Columbia River water used to cool plutonium production
reactors at Richland, Washington, was carried down the river and into
the marine environment. Sediment from the Columbia River moves north-
ward. Zinc-65 specific activities in sediment and benthic inverte-
brates decrease northward with distance from the river and westward
with both distance and depth. Many organisms to the south of the river
mouth and westward with depth have higher Zn-65 specific activities
50
-------
than the sediments in, or on, which they live. Other sources of Zn-65
via the food web are suspected as the cause for the difference in
specific activity between the sediment and benthic fauna. Long-term
declines in Zn-65 specific activities have been noted. Many species
from a range of trophic levels have been included in the study.
677.
Carlson, C.A., and M.H. Shealy, Jr.
mouth bass with radiostrontium.
29(4) :455-458.
1972. Marking larval large-
Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada
Largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) were marked by ex-
posing newly-hatched prolarvae to 6.4, 11.3, and 16.8 ~Ci85Sr/liter
pond water for 7 days. Embryos were collected by pipette from nests
in ponds and incubated to hatching in disposable aquaria in the labora-
tory. Radiostrontium accumulation from water continued throughout the
first week of postembryonic life but was most rapid after the fourth
day of exposure. In another study the techniques were found useful
for quantifying predation on larval bass by aquatic invertebrates.
678.
Carpenter, K.E. 1927. The lethal action of soluble metallic
salts on fishes. Jour. Exp. BioI. 4:378-390.
A study of pollution of Welsh rivers by lead-mine-effluents
showed that fishes were killed by the action of soluble salts of lead,
at concentrations as low as 0.3 mg/l Pb. Laboratory studies showed
that the speed of the toxic reaction is dependent upon the total
quantity of metallic ion present, as well as upon the actual concentra-
tions and varies in inverse relation to the size and weight of fishes
employed. The most marked symptom is formation of a film over gills
and skin, by interaction of the metallic ion with a mucus-constituent.
Death by suffocation is the final result. Where insufficient lead ion
is present, the film is sloughed, and complete recovery takes place.
The speed of the reaction varies in direct relation to the temperature.
Chemical analysis of residues shows that no trace of metallic ion pene-
trates into the body itself. The action is thus held to be purely ex-
ternal in process, chemical in type, and mechanical in effect; i.e.
it is not a "toxic" action in the ordinary sense of the term. The
action of soluble salts of zinc, iron, copper, cadmium and mercury is
shown to follow the same law as that of lead.
679.
Carter, J.W., and I.L. Cameron. 1973. Toxicity bioassay of
heavy metals in water using Tetrahymena pyriformi~. Water
Research 7:951-961.
The toxicities of 5 heavy metal compounds on survival of the
51
-------
ciliated protozoan Tetrahymena pyriformis were determined. Three-day
old cultured cells were exposed to 5 concentrations of each test com-
pound in one or more of three water series: distilled, soft, and hard
water. A culture of each sample was placed in a petri dish and covered
with mineral oil to prevent evaporation. The cells were counted ini-
tially, then again at 0.5, 1, and 2 hours, 1, 2, 3, and 4 days. On a
weight basis cadmium was most toxic, followed in decreasing toxicity
by mercury, cobalt, zinc, and lead. Compared to similar fish data,
all heavy metals were more toxic to T. pyriformis except lead. The
toxicity of lead in soft versus hard-water exemplified an antagonistic
effect with greater than seven times the amount of lead necessary in
hard water to produce comparable mortality as lead in soft water. On
the other hand, the toxicity of mercury is about twice as great in
hard water as in soft water (a synergistic effect). T. pyriformis
appears to be a more sensitive indicator than fish of-heavy metal con-
tamination of water. I. pyriformis bioassay should prove a good means
of determining the existence of many water pollutants.
680.
Castagna, M., and P- Chanley. 1973. Salinity tolerance of some
marine bivalves from inshore and estuarine environments in
Virginia waters on the western Mid-Atlantic Coast. Malaco-
logia 12(1):47-96.
Many species of estuarine bivalves have a distribution pattern
closely correlated with salinity, indicating the importance of salinity
in determining these patterns. The approximate salinity tolerance
range for 36 species of bivalves is described. Tolerance limits for
29 species were determined in laboratory experiments. Most of these
species display a remarkable degree of euryhalinity- All survived a
minimum salinity of at least 17.50/00 and 25 species survived at
12.50/00. Twenty s~ecies survived at various lower salinities.
Salinity tolerance for a given species is not constant but
varies with season, salinity experience, and temperature. Burrowing,
feeding and reproduction usually occur at nearly all salinities at
which survival is possible. Byssal formation requires a higher salinity
than is necessary for other activities.
In Virginia about two-thirds of the species of salt-water
bivalves discussed can be found over the entire salinity range they are
capable of tolerating in the laboratory. Eleven species do not occur
over their entire potential salinity range. Eight of the 11 species,
Yoldia limatula, Mytilus edulis, Venericardia tridentata, Lucina multi-
lineata, Dosinia discus, Abra aequalis, Mya arenaria, Martesia cunei-
formis, are near the geographic limit of their range; their distribu-
tion locally may be limited primarily by the factors that determine
their geographic range. The distribution of 5 species, Argopecten
52
-------
irradians, Congeria leucophaeta, Macoma mitchelli, Donax variabilis,
and Spisula solidissima, may be influenced by predation, competition,
or special environmental requirements. Four of the 11 species, Con-
geria leucophaeta, Macoma mitchelli, Dona~ variabilis, Rangia cuneata,
occur in specialized habitats with low species diversity.
681.
Cearley, J.E., and R.L. Coleman. 1973. Cadmium toxicity and
accumulation in southern naiad. Bull. Environ. Contamin.
Toxicol. 9(2):100-101.
The effects of three different levels of cadmium on uptake
and accumulation of this metal by the southern naiad, a waterweed,
were investigated. A static bioassay was conducted over a 2l-day per-
iod using duplicate exposure chambers for each exposure level. The
plants were acclimated for 2 weeks and the roots removed before place-
ment in the containers. Plants were exposed to different Cd levels
for zero, 11 and 21 days. After exposure, the plant tissues were
rinsed, dried for 24 hr at 100°C, ashed for 24 hr, and analyzed by
spectrophotometry. Exposed plants showed reductions of chlorophyll,
turgor, and stolon development not seen in controls. Toxic reactions
and Cd accumulation by the plants increased as the exposure levels in-
creased, which suggested that (a) Cd accumulation of about 1000-fold
was a direct function of the exposure level, and (b) the detoxifying
mechanism was over-taxed at a more rapid rate at higher levels result-
ing in an earlier impairment of physiological function. It is evident
that this common aquatic plant is capable of introducing potentially
toxic quantities of cadmium into the food chain of higher organisms.
682.
Chapman, G. 1973. Effect of heavy metals on fish. In Heavy
Metals in the Environment; Proc. Seminar at Oregon-State
Univ., Corvallis, Oregon, 1972: Avail. from Oregon State
Univ. Water Resources Res. Inst. Rep. SE~~ WR 016.73:141-162.
A review of literature with respect to the toxicity to fresh-
water fish of zinc, copper, and cadmium, showed a wide range of LC-50
(96 hr) values. For zinc this range was 90 to 40,900 ~g/l; for copper
46 to 10,000 ~g/l; and for cadmium 470 to 9,000 ~g/l. Two general con-
clusions are that toxicity varies inversely with hardness, and that
salmonids (trout and salmon) are more susceptible than most other com-
mon freshwater teleosts. Disregarding species and age, all other
generally recognized factors which influence toxicity of heavy metals
to fish do so by influencing rate of accumulation of metal and, pri-
marily, rate of uptake. Thus pH, hardness and alkalinity, temperature,
and dissolved oxygen content influence rate of uptake of the metal by
changing either the biological availability of the metal by altering
its form or by altering the rate and volume of ventilation of the fish.
53
-------
683.
Ch~u, Y.K., V.K. Chawla, H.F. Nicholson, and R.A. Vollenweider.
1970. Distribution of trace elements and chlorophyll-A in
Lake Ontario. Inter. Assoc. Great Lakes Research, Proc.
13th Conf. on Great Lakes Research, Part 2:659-672.
Attempts were made to correlate the subsurface content of
chlorophyll a with horizontal and vertical distribution of trace ele-
ments, Cd, Cr, Co, Cu, Fe, Pb, ~m, Mo, Ni, Sr, V, and Zn, in Lake
Ontario. Sampling was performed during May, July, and September of
1969; subsequent analyses showed correlation between concentration of
subsurface chlorophyll a and content of zinc alone an~ zinc in combi-
nation with copper and iron. In general, high values of chlorophyll a
coincided with high concentration of trace elements, but no correla-
tions were statistically significant. Bioassays with water from Lake
Ontario suggested that an addition of manganese stimulates photosyn-
thesis.
684.
Chau, Y.K., and J.P. Riley. 1965. The determination of selenium
in sea water, silicates and marine organisms. Anal. Chim.
Acta 33:36-49.
Spectrophotometric procedures are described for the determi-
nation of selenium in sea water, silicates (especially marine sedi-
ments) and marine organisms. For sea water, which contains ca. 0.4-
0.5 ~g Sell, a standard deviation of 0.03 ~g/l was obtained. A sili-
cate sediment and a seaweed contained ca. 1.5 ~g Se/g and 0.8 ~g Se/g
respectively.
685.
Chen, C.W., and R.I. Selleck. 1969. A kinetic model of fish
toxicity threshold. Jour. Water Pollution Control Fed. 41:
294-308.
A procedure is presented to determine threshold concentra-
tions of mixtures of toxicants and to evaluate proportional amounts of
toxicity of individual components, taking into account synergistic and
antagonistic effects. For experimental verification of the model, zinc
and cyanide were £elected as toxicants. The survival function describ-
ing the fish bioas5ay data was found to be exponential after an initial
induction period. The exponential rate coefficient is a function of
at least four other coefficients when toxicant concentration is con-
stant. The threshold concentrations of zinc and cyanide under the
specified experimental conditions are 0.33 and 0.236 mg/l, respectively.
686.
Childs, E.A., and J.N. Gaffke. 1973. Mercury content in Oregon
ground fish. U.S. Dept. Comm., Fish. Bull. 71(3) :713-717.
54
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The Hg content of rex sole, Glyptocephalus zachirus; Dover
sole, Microstomus pacificus; petrale sole, Eposetta jordani; English
sole, Parophrys vetulus; and sand sole, psettichthys melanosictus;
starry flounder, Platichthys stellatus; canary rockfish, Sebastes
pinniger; flag rockfish, S. rubrivinctus; yellowtail rockfish, S.
flavidus; rougheye rockfish, S. aleutianus; sablefish, Anoplopoma
fimbria; lingcod, Ophiodon enfOngattus; Pacific hake, Merluccius pro-
ductus; and arrowtooth flounder, Atheresthes stomias, was signifi-
cantly less than 0.50 mg/kg. However, all spiny dogfish, Squalus
acanthias, samples contained more than 0.50 mg Hg/kg wet wt.
687.
Childs, E.A., J.N. Gaffke, and D.L. Crawford. 1973. Exposure
of dogfish shark feti to mercury. Bull. Environ. Contamin.
Toxicol. 9(5):276-280.
Feti of the primitive anamniote S. suckleyi are not exposed
to the high concentrations of mercury found in maternal musculature
even though they have an equivalent content of other metals.
688.
Chipman, W., and J. Thommeret. 1970. Manganese content and the
occurrence of fallout 54Mn in some marine benthos of the
Mediterranean. Bull. de l'Institut Oceanographique 69(1402):
1-15.
Marine benthos of the Mediterranean were investigated for
Mn-54 accumulation. The ascidian Halocynthia papillosa, the lamelli-
branch mollusc, Pinna nobilis, and the annelid worm, Hermione hystrix
all showed high Mn-54 content. Detectable amounts of Mn-54 were found
in the ash of the tube worm, Spirographis spallanzani. In Pinna the
highest concentrations were in hepatopancreas. In polychaete worms,
concentrations were found in the external body structures. Although
high radioactivity from Mn-54 fallout was usually related to high
manganese content in the organism, the specific activity of ~ill-54
varied. Among fallout radionuclides, Promethium-147 seemed to be pre-
sent in those organisms that concentrate Mn-54.
6~.
Chittenden, M.E., Jr. 1971. Effects of handling and salinity
on oxygen requirements of the striped bass, Morone saxatilis.
Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 28(12):1823-1830.
Oxygen requirements of striped bass, Morone saxatilis, were
studied at 0 and 10% salinity using combinations of handling and con-
stantly decreasing oxygen concentrations. Effects of handling and
salinity on oxygen requirements were negligible or absent.
55
-------
690.
Chittenden, M.E., Jr. 1972. Salinity tolerance of young blue-
back herring, Alosa aestivalis. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 101
(1):123-125.
Experiments indicate that the blueback herring is high~y
salinity tolerant early in life. Euryhaline tolerance allows thlS
species to occupy both saltwater and freshwater nurseries.
691.
Chittenden, M.E., Jr. 1973. Salinity tolerance of young Ameri-
can shad, Alosa sapidissima. Chesapeake Science 14(3) :207-
210.
Shad were subjected to abrupt and gradual changes between
saltwater and freshwater media. No mortality occurred with salinity
increase, even abrupt change from freshwater or 50/00 salinity to
about 300/00 salinity. Complete mortality occurred with abrupt salin-
ity decrease from about 30 to 00/00 but not with gradual decrease from
about 5 to 00/00. Fish tolerate salinity change, especially salinity
increase. Instances of apparent intolerance of salinity change may be
primarily due to handling stress.
692.
Christensen, G.M. 1971. Effects of metal cations and other
chemicals upon the in vitro activity of two enzymes in the
blood plasma of the\;hite sucker, Catostomus commersoni
(Lac~pede). Chem.-Biol. Interactions 4(1971/72):351-361.
Relative changes in the activity of fish enzymes (glutamic
oxalacetic transaminase, L-aspartate-2-oxoglutarate aminotransferase,
and lactic dehydrogenase) was determined after incubation with 49 com-
pounds, principally inorganic chlorides, at concentrations of the ions
up to 2 mg/ml in the reaction mixture. A sequence of inhibitory effect
was arranged for each enzyme. Dose-response curves were qualitatively
similar for most of the chemicals. GOT was most sensitive to silver
and mercury and LDH to palladium and mercury. Both enzymes are highly
inhibited by metals which are highly toxic to aquatic animals. Corre-
lations were studied between the inhibitory effect and certain physico-
chemical properties of chemicals, the best being found between the in-
hibition of GOT and the equilibrium constants of metal sulfides.
693.
Christensen, G.M., J.M. McKim, W.A. Brungs, and E.P. Hunt. 1972.
Changes in the blood of the brown bullhead Ictalurus nebu-
losus ~esueur) following short and long term exposure ~
copper (II). Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 23(3):417-426.
Blood from brown bullheads exposed to Cu (II) from 3.4 to
56
-------
104 ~g/l for 6, 30, and 600 days was analyzed to identify and evaluate
changes in red blood cells, hematocrit, hemoglobin, plasma chloride,
plasma total protein, plasma glucose, plasma glutamic oxaloacetic trans-
aminase (PGOT, W-aspartate: 2-oxoglutarate aminotransferase) and plasma
lactic dehydrogenase (PLDH, L-lactate: NAD oxidoreductase). After 6
days, glucose and hematocrit increased significantly above the controls;
after 30 days, chloride and protein decreased, and hematocrit, hemo-
globin and glucose increased; after 600 days, the transaminase de-
creased. The maximum concentration of Cu (II) having no detectable
effect upon the brown bullhead was determined to be between 11 and 16
~g/l.
694.
Chu, S.P. 1942. The influence of the mineral composition of the
medium on the growth of planktonic algae. Part I. Methods
and culture media. Jour. Ecol. 30(2):284-325.
The experiment was one in which 14 planktonic algae were
maintained in culture media simulating the chemical compositions of
natural fresh waters. Algae were found to respond with considerable
difference to concentrations of calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium,
and silica. The calcium requirement was often lower in media with
higher magnesium concentrations, while excessive potassium increases
tolerances for higher concentrations of calcium and magnesium. Appre-
ciable quantities of silica were found to be necessary only for the
growth of diatoms; some algae, in fact, were inhibited by dissolved
silica.
695.
Clarke, G.L.
mussels.
1947. Poisoning and recovery in barnacles and
BioI. Bull. 92:73-91.
Direct tests were performed on the concentrations and ex-
posures of a variety of metallic salts necessary to kill barnacles.
The toxicities of mercury, cupric citrate, cupric tartrate, cupric
salicylate, and cupric aminobenzoate were found to be slightly less
than the toxicity of basic cupric carbonate. The toxicity of silver
is about equal to that of basic cupric carbonate, but the toxicity of
zinc is very much less. The rate of killing of barnacles by cupric
citrate is proportional to the concentration of the toxicant over the
range tested. An extremely high concentration of copper or of mercury
salts was necessary to prevent the metamorphosis of cyprids attached
to glass plates. The results show the difficulty of preventing the
initial attachment of cyprids, or their metamorphosis, by the use of
copper paints. Moderate concentrations of cupric citrate seriously
retard the development of the newly metamorphosed barnacles and pre-
vent the second step in attachment, namely, the formation of the
cemented calcareous base. Exposure of the newly metamorphosed
57
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barnacles to very low concentrations of cupric citrate accelerated
development beyond that of the normal animals. The soft tissues of
adult barnacles normally contain a much higher concentration of copper
than does sea water. When placed in solutions of cupric citrate,
barnacles absorbed more than 100 times the normal copper content of
the tissues. In no case were barnacles killed by the absorption of
less than 0.19 mg of copper per gram of dry weight--more than 10 times
the normal content. In some cases barnacles which had absorbed 0.5
mg to 1.09 mg/g from toxic solutions revived when replaced in fresh sea
water. It was demonstrated that when replaced in fresh sea water,
barnacles can eliminate from their tissues as much as ~wo-thirds of the
copper which has been absorbed from toxic solutions.
Mussels are more sensitive to poisoning by cupric citrate
than barnacles. When exposed to copper solutions, mussels take up
copper more rapidly than do barnacles, and when replaced in fresh sea
water, they eliminate it from their tissues more rapidly and extensive-
ly. In many cases in which a considerable portion of the copper was
eliminated, the mussels nevertheless succumbed subsequently.
696.
Clasen, J., and H. Bernhardt. 1974. The use of algal assays
for determining the effect of iron and phosphorus compounds
on the growth of various algal species. Water Research
8:31-44.
Algal assays were performed with unialgal cultures of Osci1-
1atoria rubescens, Asterione11a formosa, Synedra acus, Haematococcus
p1uvia1is and Scenedesmus quadricauda. The method used differs in some
important respects from methods described in the literature and these
differences are explained in detail.
The algal crop measured as'~g/l chlorophyll a was used to
determine productivity of water samples tested. The following were
tested: untreated water; water treated in a pilot plant for elimina-
tion of phosphorus and turbid materials; water samples from the pre-
reservoir effluent; and water samples taken near the dam.
Fertility decreased in the following order: untreated water
> pre-reservoir effluent> water from the reservoir> water treated in
the pilot plant. The productivity of water samples rich in turbid
materials and algae, was higher in heat sterilized samples than those
prepared by filtration. There is a clear correlation between produc-
tivity of unfiltered sterilized water samples and their iron and total
phosphorus content.
Using algal assays it was proved that the large decrease in
productivity resulting from treating the main reservoir inflow, is
58
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chiefly due to the removal of phosphorus compounds, but also to the re-
moval of iron and other unknown substances. There are indications that
the amount of iron required for growth, as compared to that of phos-
phorus, varies greatly depending on the individual algal species.
The significance of the algal assay and its results relating
to measures for limiting eutrophication using phosphorus removal plants
is discussed.
697.
Coleman, R.L., and J.E. Cearley. 1974. Silver toxicity and
accumulation in largemouth bass and bluegill. Bull. Environ.
Contamin. Toxicol. 12(1):53-61.
Exposure of juvenile largemouth bass and bluegill to silver
(0.3 to 70 ug/liter) resulted in accumulation of this metal. The
quantity of metal accumulated increased as exposure concentration in-
creased with a subsequent equilibrium developing between the water and
tissue concentrations. Metal accumulations in the bass tissues were
highest in the internal organs, followed by the gills and remainder of
the body. The greatest increase was exhibited in the gills. Zinc con-
centrations in the bass body remainder and the bluegill total body
appeared to vary in an approximately inverse relationship to the ini-
tial accumulation of silver within the tissues. The bass were more
sensitive to silver than the bluegill. Abnormal behaviour patterns
were observed in both species.
698.
Colmano, G. 1973. Molybdenum toxicity: Abnormal cellular
division of teratogenic appearance in Euglena gracilis.
Bull. Environ. Contamin. Toxicol. 9(6):361-364.
Abnormal Euglena cells, observed by chance and described in
the literature as freaks, have been considered the result of abnormal
cellular division of unknown cause. However, it was demonstrated that
molybdenum in the growth medium can alter cellular division and induce
clustered, dividing cells with three to nine cells attached to each
other at one end. Some appeared as the "rigid forms" described in
early literature. Some showed attached ends, swimming with seemingly
normally developed flagella, and some separated completely and swam
away as individuals.
699.
Connor, P.M. 1972.
marine larvae.
Acute toxicity of heavy metals to some
Marine Pollution Bull. 3(12):190-192.
The toxicity of copper, mercury and zinc to the larvae of
oysters, shrimp, crab and lobsters has been examined over periods of
59
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up to 64 hours. ~1ercury was more toxic than copper and zinc, which ~ad
similar levels of toxicity. Over the experimental period, the relatIon-
ship between toxicity and concentration was linear. Larvae were from
14 to 1,000 times more susceptible than adults of the same species.
The median lethal concentrations (LC-50) of each metal to the most sen-
sitive species of larvae, tested over a 48 hour period, exceeded the
concentrations found in natural sea water by a factor of 100. For
longer test periods, the LC-50 would be considerably less and this fac-
tor would then be reduced.
700.
Coombs, T.L. 1972. The distribution of zinc
Ostrea edulis and its relation to enzymic
other metals. ~1arine Biology 12:170-178.
in the oyster
activity and to
The role of zinc in oysters has been studied in its relation
to the zinc-dependent enzymes present and in relation to the copper;
calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium and phosphate contents. Only
carbonic anhydrase, alkaline phosphatase, carboxypeptidase A and malic
dehydrogenase zinc metalloenzyme activities could be detected. a-D-
mannosidase, a zinc-dependent enzyme hitherto not reported for the
oyster, was also detected. After tissue dissection into muscle, palps,
gills, mantle and digestive mass and subcellular fractionation of these
tissues, analysis indicated that no single tissue concentrates zinc or
the zinc-dependent enzymes. The total amount of zinc found is far in
excess of the amount of zinc contributed by zinc-dependent enzymes,
but amount of non-dialysable zinc is of the same order of magnitude.
This apparent excess of dialysable zinc is a consequence of the high
levels of calcium found in the tissues, demonstrating a competition
between calcium and zinc in their uptake, as is well documented in
many other phyla.
701.
Cooper, M.F., and R.Y. Morita. 1972. Interaction of salinity
and temperature on net protein synthesis and viability of
Vibrio marinus. Limnology and Oceanography 17(4) :556-565.
The relationship of temperature and salinity to protein syn-
thesis was determined for cells of Vibrio marinus. The critical tem-
perature of the lesion in protein synthesis increased with increasing
salinity of the growth medium. Protein synthesis was significantly
inhibited at 22°C at a salinity of 250/00, but not at a salinity of
350/00 until the cells were incubated for 20 min at 24°C. The thermal
lesion did not involve precursor accumulation mechanisms rather than
protein synthesis at salinities between 25 and 350/00. At 400/00, the
uptake of extracellular proline by whole cells was inhibited at 24°C
and preceded the inhibition of precursor into protein.
60
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Total RNA synthesis continued for 50 min at 22°C in growth
media at salinities between 15 and 350/00 but at 400/00 decreased after
20 min of cell incubation. At salinities between 15 and 300/00 total
RNA synthesis continued at 15 and 22°C, but cellular protein synthesis
was inhibited by either temperature or salinity effects. Loss of cell
viability at 22 and 25°C at salinities of 25 and 350/00 showed that
onset of cell death occurs simultaneously with thermal inhibition of
protein synthesis.
702.
Copeland, R.A., and J.C. Ayers. 1972. Trace element distribu-
tions in water, sediment, phytoplankton, zooplankton and
benthos of Lake Michigan: a baseline study with calcula-
tions of concentration factors and buildup of radioisotopes
in the food web. ERG Special Report No. 1:1-271.
Samples of phytoplankton, zooplankton, benthos, water and
sediment collected from Lake Michigan in 1969-70 prior to the opera-
tion of all nuclear plants except Big Rock Point, were analyzed for
major and trace elements. Results indicate Lake Michigan is typical of
other world environments in its chemical make-up although certain ele-
ments (selenium in zooplankton and chromium and zinc in water) show
significant variation in distribution within the area surveyed. Bio-
logical investigation of the data indicate that conditions in the
southern basin of Lake Michigan are rapidly changing. Major changes
in the species make-up of phytoplankton are being discovered and fur-
ther changes are expected in the near future. Calculations of con-
centration factors were made for the biota with respect to both water
and sediment; concentration factors calculated with respect to water
were most representative.
703.
Corcoran, E.F., and J.F. Kimball, Jr. 1963. The uptake, accumu-
lation and exchange of strontium-90 by open sea phytoplankton.
In Schultz, V., and A.W. Klement, Jr. (eds.), Radioecology.
Reinhold Publ. Corp., New York: 187-191.
Five cultures of oceanic phytoplankton were used to determine
their ability to concentrate strontium from sea water. The experiments
were short-termed and conducted during the active growth phases to eli-
minate the possibility of nutrient deficiencies and over-population,
to minimize bacterial interference and to emulate natural conditions
as closely as possible. Briefly, these results were as follows: 1)
All cells grown in media containing Sr90-Y90became radioactive. Uptake
of strontium was proportional to the concentration of strontium added.
2) Cells were able to concentrate radioactive strontium from 18 to 381
times the concentration in media. 3) Cell growth in media containing
up to ten times the normal concentration of strontium was not inhibited.
61
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4) High
ability
to play
concentrations of strontium in media
of cells to accumulate strontium-gO.
an important role in accumulation of
had little effect on
5) Absorption was found
strontium-gO.
~~ile these results are preliminary, it is noted that pri-
mary producers in the sea are capable of accumulating strontium-90
from sea water.
704.
Corner, E.D.S. 1959. The poisoning of Maia squinado (Herbst)
by certain compounds of mercury. Biochemioal Pharmacology
2:121-132.
When Maia, a spider crab, is poisoned by immersion in sea
water containing added HgC12' mercury concentrates at gills and other
sites. Eventually the concentration of mercury in blood rises above
that in external medium; the concentration in the antennary glands
above that in blood; and animals excrete small but increasing amounts
of poison in the urine. A high proportion (95%) of mercury present in
blood is attached to protein, and concentration of mercury in blood
remains fairly constant for several weeks after poisoned animals are
returned to the sea. A similar pattern of mercury distribution is
obtained when HgC12 is administered to the animals by injection, and
there is evidence that animals so treated excrete small amounts of the
poison through the gills. When poisoned with n-C5HllHgCl, mercury
again concentrates at the gills and in various internal organs; but
the amount detected in the blood is very small and none is found in
the urine.
Amino acids present in the blood of normal Maia include
alanine, a-aminobutyric acid, arginine, aspartic and glutamic acids,
glutamine, glycine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, proline, serine,
taurine, threonine and valine. With the exception of taurine, all
these amino acids are also present in the urine. In both these body
fluids glycine, alanine, glutamic acid, proline and arginine pre-
ponderate; the other amino acids are present only in trace amounts.
All fifteen amino acids, apparently in the same relative amounts, are
also present in the blood of animals poisoned either with HgC12 or
with n-CsHllHgCl; and, with the exception of taurine, in the urines of
these anlmals. However, when the animals are immersed for progres-
sively longer times in sea water containing HgC12' or are injected
with increasing amounts of this poison, the total quantity of amino-
N in the urine rises, although that in the blood does not signifi-
cantly change. There is, therefore, an increase in the urine:blood
ratio of amino-No This ratio also increases when the animals are im-
mersed in sea water containing n-C5HllHgCl, but in this case the level
of amino-N in the blood rises as well as that in the urine. Animals
poisoned with HgC12 and then returned to the sea still show an
62
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abnormally high urine:blood ratio of amino-N when examined several
weeks later.
The levels of total sulphate in urine and blood of Maia used
in this work were in the ratio 1'5:1. This ratio does not signifi-
cantly change when the animals are poisoned with HgC12 under conditions
that cause a marked increase in the excretion of amino-No
The possible interference of mercury with mechanisms con-
cerned with the metabolism of copper in Maia has been discussed, with
especial reference to the influence of mercury on the functioning of
the antennary glands.
705.
Cory, R.L., W.O. Forster, W.C. Renfro, and J.W. Nauman. 1970.
Radioactivity of three fresh-water molluscs of the tidal
Columbia River and their associated sediments. In Hydro-
biology, 'Bioresources of Shallow Water Environments.'
Proc. Symp. held in Miami Beach, Fla., June 24-27, 1970;
Amer. Water Res. Assoc., Urbana, Illinois, Proc. Ser. No.
8:162-173.
The levels of radioactivity in three species of freshwater
bivalves (Anodonta and Corbicula spp), the levels of activity of the
sediments in which they live, and relationships between sediment
characteristics and the species distribution were determined. The
principal source of the radionuclides is the Hanford reactors located
approximately 500 km upriver from Astoria, Oregon. The Columbia River
water, used to cool the reactors, is subjected to intense neutron flux
which induces radioactivity in many trace elements in the water. Al-
though there is a wide spectrum of radionuclides present, including
those from fallout, zinc-65 and chromium-51 are most common. Results
of this study indicate that Anodonta prefer sediment with a higher
mud content than that preferred by Corbicula.
706.
Cowell, B.C. 1965. The effects of sodium arsenite and silvex on
the plankton populations in farm ponds. Trans. Amer. Fish.
Soc. 94:371-377.
Neither sodium arsenite or silvex (weedicides) had any effect
on the phytoplankton, and silvex was neither toxic nor inhibitory to
zooplankton at concentrations of 2 mg/l. Applications of 4 mg/l
sodium arsenite produced drastic reductions in zooplankton. Differ-
ences of between one and two orders of magnitude were observed when
samples of rotifers from areas treated with sodium arsenite were com-
pared with those from control of silvex-treated areas of the same pond.
Similar comparisons of copepod-cladoceran samples showed differences
63
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which ranged from sevenfold to one order of magnitude. Such differ-
ences were not observed in any of the ponds where two control areas
(untreated) were compared or where a control area and a silvex-treated
area were compared.
707.
Cross, F.A., T.W. Duke, and J.N. Willis. 1970. Biogeochemistry
of trace elements in a coastal plain estuary: Distribution
of manganese, iron, and zinc in sediments, water, and poly-
chaetous worms. Chesapeake Sdence 11(4) :221-234.
The distribution of Mn, Fe, and Zn in sediments, water, and
in 6 species of polychaetes is described for the Newport River estuary
near Beaufort, North Carolina. Concentrations of these elements in
0.1 N HCl extracts of sediment samples collected monthly from three
stations for 2 years varied with element, location, time, and sediment
type. At each station, iron was the most abundant element present in
the 0.1 N HCl extracts and zinc was least abundant. The concentrations
of all three elements in sediments decreased in a seaward direction.
There were definite temporal fluctuations in concentration of these
metals in sediment, although no seasonal trend was evident; muddy sedi-
ments were higher in trace metals than sandy sediments.
Levels of manganese and iron in water also decreased in a
seaward direction, although concentrations of zinc remained relatively
constant. Except for zinc at one station, at least 30% of the total
amount of manganese, iron, and zinc in unfiltered water samples could
not be measured by standard spectrophotometric techniques without prior
treatment with acid. The relative order of enrichment of trace metals
in sediment when compared with water was zinc> iron> manganese.
Concentrations of these elements varied in six species of
polychaetous worms. Authors did not observe any intraspecific differ-
ences in concentrations of trace metals in 3 species of worms
that were collected from two stations which had substantially different
concentrations of trace metal in the sediment. This finding suggests
that either these organisms may be able to regulate their trace metal
content or that much of the metal associated with the sediment is in a
chemical form which is unacceptable to them. The order of enrichment
of trace metals in polychaetes relative to sediment and water was zinc
> iron> manganese.
708.
Cross, F.A., L.H. Hardy, N.Y. Jones, and R.T. Barber. 1973.
Relation between total body weight and concentrations of
manganese, iron, copper, zinc and mercury in white muscle
of bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix) and a bathyl-demersal fish
(Antimora rostrata). Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 30:1287-1291.
64
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Concentrations of mercury (Hg) increased significantly with
size (P < 0.001) in white muscle of bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix) and
a bathyl-demersal fish P~timora rostrata but concentrations of manga-
nese, iron, copper, and zinc either remained constant or decreased.
These results indicate that fish residing in two different ecosystems
in the Atlantic Ocean may be in a steady state with their environment
with respect to Mn, Fe, Cu, and Zn but not Hg. The observed variations
in accumulation patterns of trace metals in muscle of these two species
as a function of size are discussed.
709.
Cross, F.A., J.N. Willis, and J.P. Baptist. 1971. Distribution
of radioactive and stable zinc in an experimental marine
ecosystem. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 28(11):1783-1788.
The distribution of radioactive and stable zinc in an experi-
mental marine ecosystem is described. Authors added 1 mCi of Zn65 to
2000 liters of sea water and a mixed community of planktonic and benthic
algae in a fiberglass tank, after which the ecosystem was left undis-
turbed for 9 months. Zn65 specific activities was determined for (1)
particulate Zn (0.45 ~ filterable), (2) extractable Zn (from water
passed through a 0.45 -~ filter and then treated with dithizone), (3)
total dissolved Zn (from samples passed through a 0.45 -~ filter and
treated with acid prior to extraction with dithizone), and (4) dialyz-
able Zn. Zinc-65 specific activities were not significantly different
among the extractable, dialyzable, or acid-treated samples of the water.
Further, absolute concentrations of Zn65 and total Zn were no higher
in the acid-treated samples than in extracted or dialyzed samples, which
indicates that nearly all of soluble Zn in water was dithizone-extract-
able and dialyzable. Zinc-65 specific activities were significantly
less however, in particulate material than in water. This difference
indicates that equilibrium of Zn between particulate material and water
had not been reached after 9 months. Three months later Zn65 specific
activities were determined again for particulate material and total
dissolved Zn. The mean specific activity of Zn65 in particulate sam-
ples showed a small but significant increase, but it was still less
than in water. Concentration factors in particulate matter were 980
for Zn65 and 1400 for total Zn. Samples of benthic algae taken had a
mean specific activity of Zn65 similar to the mean Zn6 specific acti-
vity of water samples taken 3 months earlier.
710.
Cumming, K.B., and D.M. Hill. 1971. Stream faunal recovery
after manganese strip mine reclamation. U.S. Environ.
Protect. Agen. Report 18050 DOH:1-36.
Chemical, physical and biological monitoring and assessing
stream faunal population differences evaluated manganese strip mine
65
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reclamation effects on faunal recovery. Toxicity studies, to determine
whether silt and manganese levels were sufficiently high to limit fish
survival, rule out the possibility that incident levels of manganese
can be acutely toxic to the resident fish species. But turbidity and
siltation levels associated with this operation adversely affect growth
of trout, and species diversity of bottom taxa.
711.
Cumont, G., G. Viallex, H. Lelievre, and P. Bobenrieth. 1972.
Mercury contamination of fish of the sea. Rev. Internat.
Oceanogr. Medicale 28:95-127.
Mercury determination in the muscle of various species of
fish is researched. Results showed concentrations of this metal
generally to be below the norms admissable for today's standards. The
accumulation of mercury is always proportional to the weight of the
fish. Consequently, the larger individuals at the end of the food
chain are apt to have concentrations higher than these norms. Fish
from certain areas showed abnormally high levels indicating a higher
rate of mercury pollution in those specific areas.
712.
Cunningham, P.A., and M.R. Tripp. 1973. Accumulation and
depuration of mercury in the American oyster Crassostrea
virginica. Marine Biology 20:14-19.
Adult oysters were held in seawater containing 10 ~g mercury/
1 or 100 ~g mercury/I, added in the form of mercuric acetate, for 60
days. Mercury concentration in tissues was determined by analysis of
individually homogenized oyster meats, using wet digestion and flame-
less absorption spectrophotometry. After 45 days, average mercury
tissue concentration was 140,000 ~g mercury/kg tissue and 28,000 ~g
mercury/kg tissue in the 100 ~g/l and 10 ~g/l experimental groups,
respectively. After this time, concentrations dropped sharply, pro-
bably due to spawning. Clearance of mercury from tissue was studied
by exposing treated adults to estuarine water (with no additions) for
30 days (100 ~g/l group) and 160 days (10 ~g/l group). Tissue concen-
trations in the 100 ~g/l mercury environment group declined from
115,000 to 65,000 ~g/l, and those of the 10 ~g/l group declined from
18,000 to 15,000 ~g/l in 18 days; thereafter, no further decline
occurred in either group. Oysters accumulated 1,400 times and 2,800
times above the environmental concentrations of 100 and 10 ~g/l mer-
cury, respectively. Total self-purification was not achieved over a
6 month cleansing period.
713.
Cushing, C.E., and D.G. Watson. 1973. Cycling of zinc-65 in
a simple food web. Proc. 3rd Nat. Symp. Radioecology, U.S.
66
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Atom. Ener. Comm. Rept. BNWL-SA-3877, Conf. 71050-6: 318-
322.
Passage of zinc-65 was followed through the periphyton-carp
chain in four artificial streams spiked to 1 pCi/ml (two streams) or
10 pCi/ml (two streams). Light and current were uniform and water tem-
perature, followed that of the Columbia River (about 6 to 18°C from
January to June, the period of the experiments). Fish and periphyton
in the river served as controls. Equilibrium uptake of zinc-65 was
reached in about 28 days in periphyton (17 and 90 nCi/g), and in 43 days
in the fish (0.25 and 1.3 nCi/g). although with the fish the increase
in metabolic activity with increasing water temperature was a complicat-
ing effect. Data is also given in terms of specific activities (35 and
210 pCi/mg total zinc for periphyton, 3 and 15 pCi/mg total zinc for
carp).
714.
Cuthbert, A.W., and J. Maetz. 1972. Amiloride and sodium fluxes
across fish gills in fresh water and in sea water. Compar.
Biochem. Physiology 43(IA) :227-232.
In the goldfish Carassius auratus, addition of amiloride to
the external medium was without effect on the Na exchange fluxes across
the gill. In the seawater-adapted eel Anguilla anguilla, amiloride,
either injected or added to the external medium, was without effect on
Na influx but increased the Na leak efflux component 2 to 3-fold. In-
jection of amiloride also produced a 70% increase of total Na efflux
and a 100% increase of the Na/K exchange component, indicating augmen-
tation of the Na extrusion pump efficiency. This latter effect may be
secondary to an increased salt load, but the origin of this salt load
remains obs cure.
715.
Dall, W. 1970. Osmoregulation in the lobster Homarus americanus.
Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 27(6):1123-1130.
Lobsters took 72 hr to adapt to a salinity of 200/00, with
urine becoming markedly hypoosmotic to the blood during the first 24
hr, then increasing in concentration over the next 48 hr, though re-
maining significantly hypoosmotic to the blood. Adaptation to a
salinity of 370/00 took 24 hr: the urine became almost isosmotic to
the blood; the gastric and rectal fluids became hyperosmotic to the
blood. Blood freezing-point determinations showed that over the
salinity range 20-370/00 lobsters are able to osmoregulate to a
limited extent only towards the lower end of the range, being other-
wise an "osmo-conformer." Salt-loading experiments indicatecl that ex-
cess salts were rapidly excreted into the gut. It is concluded that
antennal glands are at least partly responsible for elimination of
67
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excess water, but that gut is the site of salt excretion, and that
there is rapid adjustment of salt imbalance.
716.
Oall, W. 1974. Osmotic and ionic regulation in the western
rock lobster, Panulirus longipes. Jour. Exper. Mar. BioI.
Ecol. 15:97-125.
The western rock lobster is poikilosmotic over its tolerated
salinity range of 25-45%0. Blood Na is accumulated while chloride
concentration is reduced. Na and chloride vary directly with the ex-
ternal salinity, although maintaining their differences in the same
proportions as at normal salinity (36.0%0). Ca is accumulated,
ranging from over 150% at salinity 20%0 to about 117% at salinity
45%0. K concentration is equivalent to the external at normal sali-
nity, but is increased with lowered and decreased with raised salinity.
Mg is reduced to about one-third that of the external concentration
over ~he salinity range 20-40%0, but regulation begins to break down
at 45 /00. Individual ions exhibit, therefore, a range of regulation
types, from poikilosmotic to homoiosmotic.
Equilibrium for Na, Cl, and Ca is attained in 10 h at sali
nities of 25, 30, 40, and 450/00, respectively. Rate constants for
this exchange are linearly related to salinity differential, and rapid
osmotic adjustment is by high permeability, equal in both directions,
probably mainly via the gills. Muscle appears to act as a salt pool
for Na, Cl, and K but not for Mg and Ca. Salt-loading causes a slight
salt diuresis, the salts being excreted, probably via the gills. Ex-
cept for Ca, there is no excretion of salt into the gut, but there is
evidence of an exchange of chloride with another anion. Magnesium ex-
cretion is slow, and in the absence of osmotic stress possibly occurs
via the antennal glands. All the ions examined appear to be regulated
independently.
717.
O'Amelio, V., G. Russo, and O. Ferraro. 1974. The effect of
heavy metal on protein synthesis in crustaceans and fish.
Rev. Intern. Oceanogr. Medicale 33:111-118.
A technique is described to obtain polyribosomal profiles
from the hepatopancreas of Eriphia spinifrons and their role in pro-
tein synthesis demonstrated. Ouring the acclimitization of crusta-
ceans in sea water containing lead, polyribosomes disappear from the
profile.
Studies were also conducted on blood cells from goldfish,
Carassius auratus, including lead-induced changes in cell density;
hemoglobin (Hb) synthesis; and aminolevilinic acid dehydrase (ALA
68
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dehydrase). Results indicate that owing to the large variability in
cell density, present also in the untreated animals, only data ob-
tained on statistical bases may show changes of cell density.
Hb synthesis is strongly inhibited by lead and ALA dehydrase
activity is also reduced during immersion in 0.2 mg Pb2+/l for 5 days.
718.
Davenport, J. 1972. Salinity tolerance and preference in the
porcelain crabs, Porcellana platycheles and Porcellana longi-
cornis. Marine Behav. Physiol. 1:123-138.
P. platycheles was found to be euryhaline while the related
P. longicornis proved to be stenohaline. Prior acclimation to 60% s.w.
improved survival in 40% S.W. in P. platycheles. Salinity preference
was demonstrated in ~. platycheles, which could avoid low salinities
and move along salinity gradients to do so; at high salinities the
Weber-Fechner" law" may operate for this crab as it could avoid high
salinities but could not differentiate between two high salinities,
separated by 3.40/00. P. platycheles differentiated between solutions
on the basis of their total osmolarities, and the ability to do so was
significantly impaired by removal of the antennules. P. longicornis
exhibited no ability to distinguish between salinity levels.
719.
Davenport, J. 1972. Effects of size upon salinity tolerance and
volume regulation in the hermit crab, Pagurus bernhardus.
Marine Biology 17:222-227.
Experiments were carried out to assess salinity tolerance and
ability to regulate body volume in a dilute medium, of small and large
hermit crabs. Large, offshore hermit crabs are significantly less tole-
rant of 60% sea water (100% = 340/00 S) than small, littoral specimens.
Small littoral crabs increase in weight by about 15% in the first hour
in 60% sea water, but increased urine output prevents swelling there-
after; indeed, there is considerable loss in weight, presumably caused
by solute loss. Large, offshore crabs increase in weight by about 15%
in the first hour, thus exhibiting a higher permeability to water than
small crabs, and continue to increase in weight, since urine output is
not sufficient to cope with the water load. The nephropores of large
hermit crabs are too small to allow a sufficiently high urine output
to remove a large water load, unless greater pressures are developed
inside the excretory systems of large hermit crabs than occur in those
of small littoral individuals. It is concluded that the stenohalinity
of large, offshore hermit crabs may exclude them from the littoral
zone, or may be the result of exclusion by other factors since there
will be no selective advantage for large hermit crabs in maintaining
the degree of euryhalinity possessed by the small littoral crabs, if
the large crabs are confined to the sublittoral zone.
69
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720.
Davey, E.W., M.J. Morgan, and 8.J. Erickson. 1973. A biological
measurement of the copper complexation capacity of seawater.
Limnology and Oceanography 18(6):993-997.
Copper titrations of known concentrations of chelators in
artificial seawater illustrated that the growth depression of the alga,
Thalassiosira pseudonana in response to copper could be used to quanti-
tate the chelator levels to within i5% at concentrations down to 10-7 M
EDTA. These results suggest that measured variations in T. pseudonana
--copper bioassays to samples from Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island, and
vicinity--could be due to organic chelators in seawater.
721.
Davies, A.G. 1970. Iron, chelation and the growth of marine
phytoplankton. I. Growth kinetics and chlorophyll produc-
tion in cultures of the euryhaline flagellate Dunalliela
tertiolecta under iron-limiting conditions. Jour. Mar. BioI.
Assn. U.K. 50:65-86.
By using an apparatus designed to permit the rotation of the
culture vessels, it was found possible to reduce the concentrations of
iron, as hydrous ferric oxide, in cultures to levels which restricted
growth of plant cells, as, under these conditions, much of the oxide
adhered to the vessel. At the lowest iron concentrations, growth rate
was eventually controlled by rate of detachment of oxide from the vessel
and cells then contained the minimal level of iron which would allow
growth to continue. This minimal level was found to decrease cells in
the iron-deficient stock cultures adapted to the medium. The concentra-
tions of residual iron, not removed from sea water in the culture
medium by filtration through a 0.1 ~m pore-size membrane filter, were
shown to be similar to those of the added iron in certain cases, and
had therefore to be included in the total iron available for growth.
Using a chelating agent to fractionate the iron associated with the
cells, it was possible to estimate the metabolically bound iron. The
rates of growth were found to be related to this metabolic iron by a
hyperbolic expression. Rate constants obtained using the expression
were in good agreement with those observed directly in cultures where
iron concentrations were sufficient to permit exponential growth.
Chlorophyll a production by cells was largely dependent upon that frac-
tion of the metabolic iron which was supplied by residual iron, the
added form being much less effective in this respect and suggests that
chlorophyll production in phytoplankton may require the presence of
organo-iron complexes.
722.
Davies, A.G. 1973. The kinetics of and a preliminary model for
the uptake of radio-zinc by Phaeodactylum tricornutum in cul-
ture. In Radioactive Contamination of the Marine Environment,
Int. Atom. Ener. Agen., Vienna, Austria: 403-420.
70
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Using Zn 65-labelling, measurements of the rate of uptake of
zinc ions by initially zinc-free cells, have been made. Treatment of
a suspension of cells, containing zinc with a chelating agent indicates
that a portion of the metal associated with the cells is loosely bound
and probably adsorbed on to the Gell surface. The remainder of the
metal in the cell is more firmly based; in the early stages of uptake,
it increases linearly with the square root of time and this has been
taken to indicate that the uptake of the metal is passive and diffu-
sion controlled. The metabolic zinc content of the cells later passes
through a maximum despite the availability of further zinc for uptake
and then gradually decreases. This has been interpreted as being due
to a reduction in the number of zinc-binding sites (probably protein)
within the cells, as they progress through their growth cycle. A
simplified model of these events, capable of computerization, has been
developed and tested against the experimental observations.
723.
Davies, P.H., and W.H. Everhart. 1973. Effects of chemical
variations in aquatic environments: Vol. III, Lead toxicity
to rainbow trout and testing application factor concept.
U.S. Environ. Protect. Agen. Rept., EPA-R3-73-0llc:1-80.
Four chronic bioassays were conducted to determine the toxi-
city of lead to rainbow trout. Results obtained from acute and chronic
bioassays in hard water (alkalinity 243.1 mg/l) and soft water (alka-
linity 26.4 mg/l) were used to test the application factor approach as
related to different water qualities. The toxicity of lead to rainbow
trout in hard water was determined on a total and dissolved lead basis.
The 96-hr LC-50 and MATC (Max. Accept. Toxicant Cone.) on a total lead
basis were 471 mg/l and 0.12 to 0.36 mg/l respectively, which yielded
an application factor of .0002 to .0008. Analysis of the free or dis-
solved lead gave a 96-hr LC-50 of 1.38 mg/l and a MATC of 0.018 to
0.032 mg/l, resulting in an application factor of .0130 to .0232.
Total and free lead were considered to be the same in soft water. The
LC-50 (18 d) and MATC obtained from soft water bioassays were 140 ~g/l
and 6.0 to 11.9 ~g/l lead respectively. Computations using the LC-50
and MATC values gave a soft water application factor of .0429 to .0850.
The MATC was determined in both hard and soft water bioassays on the
occurrence of abnormal black tails and caused by chronic lead exposure.
The application factor approach as related to different water qualities
was found to be very promising when lead analysis was limited to the
free or dissolved metal and failed when total hard water lead concen-
trations were used.
724.
Davis, T.R.A., A.W. Burg, K.M. Butters, and B.D. Wadler. 1971.
Water quality Criteria Data Book, Vol. 2: Inorganic chemical
pollution of freshwater. U.S. Environ. Protect. Agen. Rept.
18010 DPV: 1-280.
71
-------
A survey of the literature dealing with inorganic chemical
compounds was conducted to obtain and reference data relevant to the
establishment of water quality criteria. More than 5,000 publications
were reviewed. While nearly 300 inorganic chemical species may exist
in freshwater only 87 were identified in the literature. A wide dis-
tribution of concentrations in potable and polluted water was found.
Data on acute toxicity, chronic toxicity, carcinogenicity,
mutagenicity, and teratogenicity of inorganic chemicals to aquatic
organisms have been tabulated. Because of the design of most of these
toxicological determinations, it is difficult to extrapolate from this
data to human health. This inability is furthered in that the concen-
trations of many materials in freshwater are reported in terms of ele-
mental analysis alone without reference to the ionic or complex form
of the material. However, toxicity varies with the complex ion and
oxidation state.
Correlations have been made of minimum lethal oral dose
versus maximum concentrations reported in freshwater, and of minimum
chronic toxic dose versus maximum concentration reported in drinking
water. Examples of inorganic species which approach a safety limit
have been observed.
725.
Davis, P.W., and G.A. Wedemeyer. 1971. Na+, K+-activated-ATPase
inhibition of rainbow trout: a site for organochlorine-
pesticide toxicity. Compo Biochem. Physiol. 40(3B):823-827.
The Na+, K+-activated, Mg2+-dependent-ATPase enzyme system
in a heavy microsomal fraction of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) brain
was inhibited in vitro by chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides. Similar
inhibition by these pesticides occurred in kidney and gill ATPase
preparations. An unexpected finding was a failure of the classic in-
hibitor; ouabain, to block the Na+, K+-activated component of ATPase
activity in the gill. It is suggested that inhibition of ATPase acti-
vity may be a causal factor in the toxic effects of organochlorine
pesticides in fishes.
726.
Dean, J.M. 1974. The accumulation of 65Zn and other radio-
nuclides by tubificid worms. Hydrobiologia 45(1):33-38.
Tubificid worms did not accumulate radionuclides bound to
sediments, but did accumulate dissolved radionuclides. The level of
accumulation of dissolved 65Zn by the worms was dependent upon tem-
perature and concentration of the radionuclide.
72
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727.
Dean, R.B. 1972. The case against mercury. Available from Nat.
Tech. Inf. Serv., Springfield, Va., as PB-2l3-692:l-ll.
The toxicity of mercury is increased more than tenfold when
it is converted to methylmercury which destroys nerves in the brain and
advances senility. Bacteria convert mercury in aquatic sediments into
methylmercury which is concentrated by predatory fish. The historical
background of mercury pollution is presented, followed by a discussion
of the best methods for mercury detection, means by which mercury enters
the environment, standards, and Environmental Protection Agency enforce-
ment.
728.
Decleir, W., J. Lemaire, and A. Richard. 1970. Determination of
copper in embryos and very young specimens of Sepia offici-
nalis. Marine Biology 5:256-258.
The total amount of copper in embryos and newly hatched young
individuals of Sepia officinalis L. (a decapod mollusc) has been deter-
mined by microtechnique, using bathocuproine-sulfonate as complexing
reagent. During embryonic life, the total amount of copper does not
change; it remains at a level close to 3.8 ~g. The copper is found in
the yolk sac of very early embryos; it is subsequently transferred into
the embryo proper. After hatching, the copper content diminishes
quickly in starved individuals. Fed S. officinalis also usually lose
copper. The reason for this may be that the inner yolk sac of newly
hatched individuals contains a great deal of the total copper, which is
excreted with the yolk after the latter has become superfluous. Later
on, copper must be taken up from the food. The mobilization of protein
and copper from the yolk into the blood may account for the early
appearance of embryonic hemocyanin in the blood.
729.
DeCoursey, P.J., and W.B. Vernberg. 1972. Effect of mercury on
survival, metabolism and behavior of larval Dca pugilator
(Brachyura). Gikos 23:241-247. ---
Effects of three dilute mercuric chloride solutions on lar-
val stages (Zoea I, III, V) of the fiddler crab Dca pugilator were
determined. The influence of both acute and chronic exposures on vi-
ability, oxygen consumption, and swimming activity was measured. No
stage V and only a few stage I or III larvae were able to survive a
concentration of 9 x 10-7 M HgC12 (0.18 mg/l Hg) longer than 24 hr; an
exposure as short as 6 hr resulted in reduced metabolism and swimming
rate of all stages. Although concentrations of 9 x 10-9 M HgC12
(0.0018 mg/l) and 9 x 10-11 M HgClZ (0.000018 mg/l) were sublethal,
24-hr exposures did affect metabollsm and swimming. Some larvae
reared in the more dilute mercury solutions developed to the megalops
73
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stage, but survival was reduced in relation to the mercury concentra-
tion. Data from all tests suggest that toxicity of mercury increases
with larval age.
730.
De Goeij, J.J.M., and C. Zegers. 1971.
tinned fish. TNO-nieuws 26:400-401.
Mercury in fish--imported
Total mercury in canned fish purchased at a department store
of the six most commonly consumed species imported from several coun-
tries in Europe, the Americas and Asia was determined ~y neutron acti-
vation analysis; methyl mercury was determined by means of gas chroma-
tography. Mercury content ranged from 0.01 to 0.1 mg/kg in salmon,
mackerel, herring and sardines. Tuna showed a range of 0.032 to 1.0
mg/kg Hg; methyl mercury constituted 80% of total mercury. The country
of origin did not influence the mercury content and there was no accu-
mulation in any particular organ in excess of the contents in the meat
tissue.
731.
Dehlinger, P., W.F. Fitzgerald, S.Y. Feng, D.F. Paskausky, R.W.
Garvine, and W.F- Bohlen. 1973. Determination of budgets
of heavy metal wastes in Long Island Sound, Annual Report,
Parts I & II. Univ. Connecticut, Marine Sciences Institute,
Groton, Conn.
Investigations of heavy metal wastes in Long Island Sound
are reported for the first year of effort of a longer term program.
The study consists of five integrated projects on: the fates and con-
centrations of heavy metals in the water column; concentrations and
effects of these metals in oysters; water circulation patterns which
control water renewal times and flushing rates; structure and motion
of Connecticut River outflow into the Sound; and transport of sus-
pended materials in the Sound. Emphasis during this first year was
on the eastern Sound.
The following was determined during the first year.
1. The
by tidally driven
ciently mixed and
The eastern Sound
eastern region of the Sound is so effectively flushed
currents that any material entering will be effi-
removed by water circulation within a few days time.
is therefore not a sink for heavy metal wastes.
2. Circulation patterns appear to exist in the eastern
Sound which are highly variable. Whatever the patterns of the tidal
circulations in the eastern sound, we know that they are not simple
back and forth tidal motions as had been previously thought, but that
there is a considerable net drift for each cycle.
74
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3. The outflow of the Connecticut River is manifested as a
distinct plume having sharp boundaries or fronts and being only a few
meters in depth. During flood tide the plume usually extends westward
along the Connecticut coast; during ebb tide the plume usually extends
southeasterly, toward Plum Island and the passages in the eastern
Sound. Connecticut River water appears to be flushed within a few
days from the Sound.
4. Mercury and copper in the water column of the eastern
Sound are both organically and inorganically associated; lead also
appears to have large fractions of organic components.
of clays
the open
Sediment
5. Suspended materials in the eastern Sound consist primarily
and organic matter. Concentrations of suspended materials in
Sound are greater near the bottom than in surface waters.
transport fluctuates greatly in response to storms.
6. Oysters at control stations along the Connecticut coast
exhibited substantial uptake of Hg, Cu, Cd, ~m, Ni, and Zn. The uptake
for all metals except Hg was greatest in the vicinity of the Housatonic
River, along which metal fabrication plants are located. By contrast,
the Hg uptake was greatest in the vicinity of the Mystic River, a
development not yet explained. None of the metal concentrations ap-
peared to be dangerous for human consumption. No significant differ-
ences in metal uptake could be correlated with season, despite large
changes in oyster pumping rate with season. It is demonstrated that
oysters can be used as a biological monitor of heavy metals in the bays
and estuaries of Long Island Sound.
In this research a new laboratory technique was developed by
which chemical fractions of mercury in trace amounts of sea water could
be determined more accurately than was previously done. This made pos-
sible the detection or organically formed mercury in the water and thus
provided a way for distinguishing mercury of organic from inorganic
origin.
732.
Dempster, R.P., and W.H. Shipman. 1969. The use of copper sul-
fate as a medicament for aquarium fishes and as an algaecide
in marine mammal water systems. Occasion. Papers California
Acad. Sciences, No. 71:1-6.
This paper describes the use of copper sulfate to control
algae and fish ectoparasites in marine aquaria. The method introduced
in this paper prevents copper precipitation in alkaline water, thus
permitting copper ions to be maintained in solution. Copper compounds
must be utilized with considerable caution since they are toxic to all
forms of life. Therefore, a technique is given by which, once the
75
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concentration of copper in the water system is adjusted, sequestered
copper is added at a rate sufficient to maintain the concentration.
This procedure has been used for the last 15 years at the Steinhart
Aquarium and as a result there has been no outbreak of fish disease.
Copper concentrations up to 1 mg/1 have been used.
733.
D'Itri, F.M., C.S. Annett, and A.W. Fast. 1971. Comparison of
mercury levels in an oligotrophic and a eutrophic lake.
Marine Techno1. Soc. Jour. 5(6):10-14.
Mercury analyses established that 59 rainbow trout taken
from an oligotrophic Michigan lake contained an average total mercury
concentration of 0.17 mg/kg. On the other hand, 100 trout from a
eutrophic lake contained 0.07 mg/kg. The total mercury content of
soils in the vicinity of the lakes is similar. However, sediments of
Hemlock Lake contained significantly higher levels of mercury than
those from Section Four Lake. Water samples taken from both lakes at
various depths showed mercury levels of less than 0.1 ~g/l, the limit
of sensitivity for the analytical method that was used. The removal
of mercury by adsorption onto organic particulate matter probably is a
key factor in the different mercury levels of fish in the two lakes.
It is this adsorption mechanism that makes the mercury from pollution
less available for accumulation by the fish that feed in the water
column. Therefore, the persistence of mercury compounds in these two
isolated lakes appears to be related to the organic character of each
lake. Accordingly, mercury pollution appears to pose a greater environ-
mental hazard in oligotrophic than in eutrophic lakes.
734.
Do1ar, S.G., D.R. Keeny, and G. Chesters. 1971. Mercuryaccumu-
lation by Myriophyllum spicatum L. Environmental Letters
1(3):191-193.
An investigation of the magnitude and rate of Hg accumulation
by a rooted aquatic p1ant--Myriophy11um spicatum L. (watermi1foi1)--
from solution culture and from Hg-contaminated lake sediments was con-
ducted. As determined by solution culture experiments, Hg accumulation
was much greater with inorganic than organic Hg carriers. Mercury
accumulation from nutrient solution was rapid and approached maximum
values in 2 hours. Organomercury compounds were more available than
inorganic compounds from lake sediments likely because of precipitation
of inorganic Hg as sulfides. Mercury accumulates in rooted aquatic
plants by physical adsorption and by metabolic uptake and translocation,
the latter occurring mainly with organomercury compounds. Rooted
aquatic plants might prove to be an important link in the uptake and
cycling of Hg derived from contaminated sediments.
76
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735.
Domogalla, B. 1935. Eleven years of chemical treatment of the
Madison Lakes: Its effect on fish and fish foods. Trans.
Amer. Fish. Soc. 65:115-121.
After 11 years of scientific study and chemical treatment of
lakes about Madison, Wisconsin, especially Lake Monona, author concludes
that the spraying method of copper sulphate and other chemicals is most
effective and economical in keeping obnoxious algae and certain fungi
that parasitize fish under control; that spraying does not adversely
affect rooted water weeds or zooplankton. However, weed cutting
machines, steel cables, and arsenical compounds were necessary for re-
moval of rooted water weeds around beaches and boathouses.
736.
Domogalla, B. 1941. Scientific studies and chemical treatment
of the Madison Lakes. A symposium on Hydrobiology, Univ. of
Wisconsin Press, Madison: 303-309.
Studies of chemical treatments applied to the Madison Lakes
indicated: (1) Spraying with copper sulphate and other chemical treat-
ments was found to be the most effective and economical method of con-
trolling growths of obnoxious algae and weeds. (2) Chemical treatments
did not seriously injure the zooplankton. (3) Chemical treatments for
control of algae also controlled Saprolegnia. (4) Chemical spraying
also brought "Swimmer's Itch" and fungus infections under control. (5)
Studies over an l8-yr period indicate that nitrogen, phosphorus, and
bicarbonate compounds are among the factors that tend to promote the
excessive growth of algae and large aquatic plants. Chemical treat-
ment with copper sulphate reduc.ed the numbers of algae in the Madison
Lakes but did not eliminate them.
737.
Donaldson, L.R., P.R. Olson, S. Olsen, and Z.F. Short. 1971.
Fern Lake Studies. Available from Nat. Tech. Inf. Serv.,
Springfield, Va., as RLO-2225-T-7-6:l-78.
Over a l4-year period, determinations were made of transfer
coefficients of labeled P, K, and Ca in forest ecosystems and of con-
centration factors for radionuclide uptake by aquatic animals (I in
fish thyroids, 1200; Mo in gills and livers, 3000-5000; Mo in periphy-
ton, 9000-15000). The studies included mapping and characterization of
soils; description of plant communities; quantitative evaluation of the
vegetation; modelling of the nutrient status of plant associations; and
the physical, chemical, and biological effects of Ca enrichment of the
lake.
77
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738.
Downes, K.M. 1957. An investigation of manganese and zinc in
the oyster Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin). Ph.D. Disserta-
tion, Univ. Maryland, College Park, Md.: 1-54.
Oysters collected from 2 stations in Chesapeake Bay between
July and November 1955 were analyzed for manganese and zinc content.
Age determinations were made from the longitudinally sawed shells using
"annual rings" as the index. Manganese content in oysters ranged from
0.3 mg per oyster to 25.4 mg per oyster. Zinc content ranged from 0.9
mg to 100.3 mg per oyster. Author concludes that no direct association
of Zn or Mn was possible with either age or weight. Hpwever, zinc con-
tent showed closer association with both age and weight than manganese
content.
739.
Drummond, R.A., G.F. Olson, and A.R. Batterman. 1974. Cough
response and uptake of mercury by brook trout, Salvelinus
fontinalis, exposed to mercuric compounds at different
hydrogen-ion concentrations. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 103(2):
244-249.
The lowest concentration of methylmercuric chloride (MMC)
and mercuric chloride added to Lake Superior water that caused a sig-
nificant increase in cough frequency in brook trout was 3 ~g Hg/liter.
Cough frequency is a good short-term indicator of the long-term effects
of MMC. The response can be used to predict the safe concentration of
mercuric chloride since the long-term effects of this compound are not
known. Increases in cough frequency were proportional to the concen-
tration (from 3 to 12 ~g Hg/liter) of both compounds at pH 7.5. The
fish were more responsive to MMC when the pH of the test water was
lowered to 6.0; response to mercuric chloride was not changed by
lowered pH. Fish exposed to MMC at pH 6.0 contained more total mer-
cury in their gills and red blood cells than fish tested at pH 9.0.
The uptake of mercury by brook trout exposed to mercuric chloride did
not differ significantly at pH 6.0 and 9.0.
740.
Drummond, R.A., W.A. Spoor, and G.F. Olson. 1973. Some short-
term indicators of sublethal effects of copper on brook
trout, Salvelinus fontinalis. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada
30 (5) : 698-701.
Laboratory tests were conducted to evaluate changes in cough
frequency, locomotor activity, and feeding behavior as possible short-
term indicators of the long-term effects of copper on brook trout.
Tests were conducted in chambers that allowed free movement in con-
tinuously flowing water. The electrodes measured respiratory and other
movements, which were recorded on a polygraph. The effect of copper on
78
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coughing was measured by comparing cough frequency during a 24-hour ex-
posure to that during the preceding 24-hour period. The effect on loco-
motor activity was measured during the first 2 hours of exposure and
compared with activity the day before the test and with that of con-
trols. Feeding behavior was monitored at 2 and 24 hours after exposure
began and any departure from normal agressive feeding patterns was re-
corded. Changes occurred in all three activities at copper concentra-
tions near 0.5 micrograms/I. Each response thus showed promise as a
short-term indicator of the concentration range at which chronic ex-
posure might have no permanent effect. Cough frequency was the best
of the three for showing stress according to the copper concentration,
but the change developed more slowly than in locomotor activity.
741.
Duce, R.A., J.G. Quinn, C.E. Olney, S.R. Piotrowicz, B.J. Ray,
and T.L. Wade. 1972. Enrichment of heavy metals and organic
compounds in the surface microlayer of Narragansett Bay,
Rhode Island. Science 176(4031):161-163.
Concentrations of lead, iron, nickel, copper, fatty acids,
hydrocarbons, and chlorinated hydrocarbons are enriched from 1.5 to SO
times in the top 100-150 micrometers of Narragansett Bay (Rhode Island)
water relative to the bulk water 20 em below the surface. Trace metal
enrichment was observed in the particulate and organic fractions but
not in the inorganic fraction. If these substances are concentrated in
films only a few molecular layers thick on the water surface, the actual
enrichment factor in the films may be well over 10,000 resulting in
extremely high localized pollutant concentrations in the surface micro-
layer. Some implications of these findings are discussed, including
bioaccumulation by plankton.
742.
Dudnikov, V.F., and V.P. Mikheev. 1964. The effect of certain
metal ions on Dreissena. Translated from Trudy Instituta
Biologii Vnutrennikh Vod, No 7(10):
One method for the elimination of Dreissena (mollusca) over-
growth in pipelines is the use of electrolytically dissolved metal
ions. Silver, copper, mercury, zinc and lead were tested for their
molluscicidal effect. Copper is the most effective (100% mortality in
24 hours at 4 mg/l). Larger molluscs die sooner than small ones.
Dreissena perish sooner at water temperature optimal for their develop-
ment.
743.
Dunson, W.A., and G.W. Ehlert. 1971. Effects of temperature,
salinity, and surface water flow on distribution of the sea
snake Pelamis. Limnology and Oceanography 16(6):845-853.
79
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The pelagic yellow-bellied sea snake Pelamis platurus is a
surface feeder which apparently drifts passively with surface currents.
In areas of horizontally convergent surface water flows, hundreds or
even thousands of Pelamis are concentrated in slicks, apparently
characteristic members of a community of organisms associated with
slicks.
The distribution of Pelamis in the tropical Indian and
Pacific Oceans is correlated with surface temperatures; colonization
of the Atlantic Ocean has likely been prevented by low surface tem-
peratures off the tips of South Africa and South America. Breeding
populations apparently occur only in areas in which mean monthly tem-
peratures exceed 20°C. The upper lethal temperature of Pelamis is
about 33°C. Thermoregulatory diving may be a mechanism of avoiding
heat depth in tropical seas where surface water temperatures reach
31°C and insolation is intense. Pelamis can survive in freshwater for
periods longer than 6 months.
744.
Dushkina, L.A. 1973. Influence of salinity on eggs, sperm and
larvae of low-vertebral herring reproducing in the coastal
waters of the Soviet Union. Marine Biology 19:210-223.
Clupea harengus pallasi spawn in the coastal zone where
salinity is one of the more variable factors. Observations were
gathered in the field from seas of the European North and Far East,
and in laboratory experiments where salinities varied from 0 to 700/00,
on influence of salinity on development of herring eggs. Eggs from
numerous populations of Pacific herring are capable of fertilization
over a wide range of salinities, however some geographic races of
herring exhibit a marked population specificity. For example, eggs
from ~ harengus pallasi differ from those of ~. harengus harengus:
osmotic resistance of eggs to low salinities is considerably higher in
the first-mentioned subspecies. Under salinity stress, eggs reveal
individual differences which are not seen under optimum conditions of
salinity.
745.
Eaton, J.G. 1973. Chronic toxicity of a copper, cadmium and
zinc mixture to the fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas
Rafinesque). Water Research 7(11):1723-1736.
Fathead minnows were exposed to a series of concentrations of
a copper, cadmium and zinc mixture during a 12.5 month chronic test in
water of 200 mg/l total hardness. The metal concentrations in the mix-
ture were selected on the basis of results obtained during previous
chronic exposures to each of the metals individually in the same water.
Strict summation of the chronic toxicities of the metals was not
80
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indicated when they were tested in combination. Toxic effects of the
mixture attributable to copper appeared to be increased, but that
attributable to cadmium was reduced. The effects thought to be due
to zinc were similar in degree to those observed in the single chronic
exposure. Summation of effects resulting from a mixture containing
about the same proportions of copper, cadmium and zinc occurred at a
much higher, acutely lethal concentration. A lethal threshold was
attained in the mixture when each metal was present at a concentration
of 0.4 or less of its individual lethal threshold.
746.
Eaton, J.G. 1974. Chronic cadmium toxicity to the bluegill
(Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque). Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.
103(4): 729-735.
Nine out of 18 adult bluegills exposed for 11 months during
a chronic bioassay which included effects on reproduction, were killed
at 80 ~g/l of cadmium in water of 200 mg/l (as CaC03) hardness. Pro-
geny exposed for 30 days were killed at 90 ~g/l. Adult fish spawned at
239 ~g/l and at 2,140 ~g/l, but most larvae were severely crippled 6
days after hatching at these concentrations. No effects on survival,
development, or reproduction were attributable to cadmium at 31 ~g/l.
The highest tissue residues were found in liver, intestine and caecum,
and kidney. Cadmium concentrations increased with exposure concentra-
tion in gill, liver, and intestine and caecum, but not in kidney.
Until more information is available on cadmium toxicity in different
water types, chronically toxic and "just safe" continuous exposure con-
centrations probably can be estimated better by relatively short-term
exposures of embryos and larvae than by the use of application factors.
747.
Edgington, D.N., S.A. Gordon, M.M. Thommes, and L.R. Almodovar.
1970. The concentration of radium, thorium, and uranium by
tropical marine algae. Limnology and Oceanography 15(6):
945-955.
Twenty species of marine algae were collected between 1961
and 1968 from coastal waters of Puerto Rico and analyzed chemically
for total organic material, protein nitrogen, and calcium, and radio-
chemically for the naturally occurring alpha particle emitters 226Ra,
232Th, and 238U. Study of these data suggests that the concentration
of radium, thorium, and uranium by tropical marine algae is controlled
by two mechanisms: 1) ion-exchange or coprecipitation of the ion with
the calcium carbonate matrix, and 2) complex formation with either the
protein nitrogen or some other component of the organic fraction.
Radium (and possibly thorium) apparently is concentrated by both
mechanisms. For the Rhodophyta and the highly calcified Chlorophyta it
is 1) and for the Phaeophyta 2). Uranium is concentrated by the first
mechanism.
81
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748.
Eipper, A.W. 1959.
plants and fish.
Effects of five herbicides on farm pond
N.Y. Fish Game Jour. 6(1):46-56.
Data obtained from applications of five different herbicides
in central New York farm ponds over a 3-year period are summarized.
Delrad, Fermate, Phygon-XL, copper sulfate, and sodium arsenite were
the chemicals employed. Available information deals chiefly with
effects of these herbicides on algae, submersed aquatics, and various
sizes and species of fish in 30 farm ponds which received a total of
70 herbicide applications. Ranges in physical-chemical determinations
in 16 of these ponds were: pH, 7.6-8.8; total alkali~ity, 60-170 mg/l;
surface water temperature, l7-27°C; and bottom temperature, l5-26°C.
When applied as surface sprays to produce a pondwater concentration of
0.5 mg/l active ingredient by weight, Delrad, Fermate, and copper sul-
fate were all equally effective in controlling unbranched filamentous
green algae. With respect to treatment cost and safety of small fish,
copper sulfate had definite advantages over Delrad or Fermate. Tests
of Phygon in seven ponds were inconclusive, indicating only that 0.25
mg/l concentrations of this chemical killed neither fish nor plant
growths. Sodium arsenite at 4 mg/l controlled Hydrodictyon and Clado-
phora (branched algae little affected by the other chemicals tested),
as well as other algae and various submersed rooted aquatics in 10
ponds.
749.
Eisler, R. 1972. Pesticide-induced stress profiles. In Ruivo,
M. (ed.). Marine Pollution and Sea Life, Fishing Trading
News (books) Ltd., London: 229-233.
Results of acute toxicity bioassays with selected organo-
chlorine and organophosphorous insecticides and various species of
marine teleosts, crustaceans, and molluscs are summarized; physico-
chemical factors known to affect mortality patterns are listed. A
profile technique is developed to evaluate effects of sublethal levels
of pesticides to marine fauna, and is based on the hypothesis that
metabolic disturbances have a far greater probability of detection if
a number of parameters are simultaneously determined and plotted. Ex-
amples are presented of pesticide-induced stress in selected marine
species utilizing as parameters hemoglobin, serum proteins, esterases,
and other blood constituents, concentrations of Zn, Ca, Mg, Sr,
K and Na in selected tissues and whole animals. Visual patterns that
are produced by these profiles afford an index useful for identifica-
tion of unfavorable environmental conditions before obvious morphologi-
calor physiological changes occur. Ultimately, it could become
feasible to correlate specific profiles with individual toxic agents.
82
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750.
Eisler, R. 1973. Annotated bibliography on biological effects
of metals in aquatic environments. U.S. Environ. Protect.
Agen. Rept. EPA-R3-007:l-287.
A total of 567 references on biological effects of metals to
aquatic organisms were annotated and subsequently indexed by metal and
by taxa. Preference was given to articles on toxicity of heavy metals
to marine, estuarine, and anadromous species.
751.
Eisler, R. 1974. Radiocadmium exchange with seawater by Fundulus
heteroclitus (L.) (Pisces: Cyprinodontidae). Jour. Fish
BioI. 6:601-612.
Mummichogs, Fundulus heteroclitus, accumulated Cd 115m (N03)2
from synthetic seawater solutions during a period of 25 days, but the
rate of whole body accumulation decreased with increasing concentra-
tions of stable Cd2+ in the medium. Viscera were the major repository
of Cd 115m during uptake, especially gastrointestinal tract and to a
lesser extent liver. Loss in whole body radioactivity over a post-
treatment interval of 180 days in cadmium-free seawater was about 90%,
with gallbladder and especially liver most influential in the excretion
processes; this pattern was unchanged by the level of stable Cd2+ pres-
ent in the medium during uptake. Concentration factors for divalent
salts of several metals and mummichogs at 96 hours were determined. On
the basis of highest sublethal levels tested, values were 11.1 for Zn,
0.66 for Be, 0.17 for Cd, 0.09 for Co, 0.07 for Ni, and 0.00 for Cu.
The significance of these and other observations in terms of field
monitoring of cadmium utilizing teleosts as indicators is discussed.
752.
Eisler, R., and G.R. Gardner. 1973. Acute toxicology to an
estuarine teleost of mixtures of cadmium, copper and zinc
salts. Jour. Fish BioI. 5:131-142.
Effects of mixtures of chloride salts of cadmium, copper and
zinc on survival, whole body residues, and histopathology of mummichog,
Fundulus heteroclitus, were investigated in synthetic seawater at 200/00
salinity and 20uC. Mixtures of Cu2+ and Zn2+ as indicated by 96 h bio-
assay studies produced more deaths than expected on the basis of toxi-
cities of individual components. Concentrations of Cd2+ not ordinarily
lethal exerted a negative effect on survival of fish intoxicated by
salts of copper, zinc, or both.
Atomic absorption determinations of Cd, Cu, and Zn residues
in mummichogs which survived 96 h exposures to each of these toxicants
provided useful indices of total body burdens for these metals. Resi-
dues from survivors held in mixtures, especially Cd2+ and Zn2+ mixtures,
83
-------
did not conform to patterns observed for single elements. Whole body
aggregates of Cd, Cu, and Zn from dead mummichogs were of limited worth
owing to possible accumulation of these metals from the medium after
death.
Renal and lateral line canal lesions were noted in all fish
subjected to copper concentrations of 1 mg/l and higher. Renal lesions
observed in fish immersed in mixtures of Cu2+ and Cd2+ assumed a damage
pattern characteristic of Cd2+; with mixtures of Cu2+ and Zn2+, lesions
were typical of Cu2+ induced damage. Lesions induced in lateral line
epithelium by Cu2+ were not affected by either Cd2+ or Zn2+. Epithelia
lining the oral cavity were necrotized by the caustic action of high
levels of Zn2+ (60 mg/l) and Cu2+ (8 mg/l) .
Eisler, R., G.R. Gardner, R.J. Hennekey, G. LaRoche, D.F- Walsh,
and P.P. Yevich. 197Z. Acute toxicology of sodium nitrilo-
triacetic acid (NTA) and NTA-containing detergents to marine
organisms. Water Research 6:l009-l0Z7.
Static acute toxicity tests were conducted at ZO°C and ZO%o
salinity with (CHZCOONa)3 N'HZO (NTA) and two NTA-containing commercial
household synthetic detergents (syndets), using adults or juveniles
from eleven species of marine fishes and invertebrates. Concentrations
of NTA in the medium allowing 50% survival of individual test species
in 168 h, ~ LC-SO (168 h) values, ranged between 1800 mg/l for grass
shrimp, Palaemonetes vulgaris, and> 10,000 mg/1 for quahaug clam, Mer-
cenaria mercenaria. The two syndets tested were considerably more---
toxic than NTA to marine organisms under identical assay conditions.
Fishes were the least resistant group of organisms tested to syndets;
LC-SO (168 h) values for teleosts ranged between 4.6 and 36.0 mg/l
total packaged product.
753.
The effect of biomass, water temperature and salinity on
acute toxicity of NTA and syndets to the killifish Fundulus hetero-
clitus was investigated. Increasing the biomass between 0.5 and 10.0
g/l of test medium was associated with increasing survival at any
given concentration of syndet during a 48 h period; the reverse was
observed for NTA. Within the salinity range 5-350/00, mummichogs were
most sensitive to NTA at comparatively low salinities; but syndets
were most toxic at higher salinities. Water temperatures of 5° and
ZO°C had negligible influence on NTA- or syndet-induced mortality
patterns. Mixtures of NTA and salts of cadmium or mercury were evalu-
ated for toxicity to mummichog. An observed decrease in biocidal pro-
perties of Cd2+ was observed with increasing levels of NTA; concentra-
tions as low as 10 mg/l NTA effected a measurable depression in Cd2+
lethality. Results of studies with NTA-Hg2+ mixtures were inconclu-
sive. Tests with mixtures of syndet and Cd2+ or Hg2+ demonstrated
84
-------
that toxicity to mummichog of these mixtures could be expressed as a
simple summation of the toxicity of individual components.
It is concluded that NTA might be hazardous to marine fishes
and macroinvertebrates when used as a partial replacement for sodium
tripolyphosphate in household syndets.
754.
Eisler, R., and G. LaRoche. 1972. Elemental composition of the
estuarine teleost Fundulus heteroclitus (L.). Jour. Exp. Mar.
BioI. Ecol. 9(1):29-42.
Elements that were consistently present in whole ashed
Fundulus heteroclitus as determined by atomic absorption were Ca, Cu,
Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, Sr, and Zn; not measurable were Ag, AI, Au, Ba, Be,
Cd, Co, Cr, Cs, Li, Ni, Pb, Rb, and Tl. This pattern was not affected
by the age of the fish, its sexual condition, or the season of collec-
tion. Changes in whole body content of selected elements were observed
with increasing age: in the range between 46 and 118 mm total body
length, large fish contained more Ca and Sr and less K, Mg, Na, and Zn
than small fish; Fundulus intermediate in size exhibited intermediate
values for these elements. On an ash weight basis, heads were compara-
tively low in K, Fe, Mg, Zn, and Sr and carcasses comparatively high
in K and low in Cu, Fe, Sr, and Na. Viscera contained high concentra-
tions of most elements when compared with heads and carcasses, especially
Fe, Zn, Sr, and Cu. .
In a study of the effect on whole body elemental content of
two size ranges of Fundulus, at two water temperatures, two salinities,
and two acclimatization periods, authors found that Fundulus 84 mm in
length contained more Ca, and less Cu, K, Mg, Na, and Zn per unit
weight than those measuring 47 mm. Within each size group, fish kept
at 5 or 20°C at salinities of 90/00 or 270/00 exhibited essentially the
same elemental composition after 30 days; however, fish held for 30
days when compared with those held for only three days contained sig-
nificantly less Ca, Na, K, Mg, Zn, Cu, and ~fu.
In another study on effects of three seawater formulations,
two feeding frequencies, and two medium replacement rates on whole
body elemental composition, changes were least pronounced during a 30-
day period among fish that were fed daily as compared with weekly, that
were held in a seawater formulation developed by authors' laboratory
as compared with natural seawater or a commercial preparation, and among
groups with the medium replaced twice weekly compared with no replace-
ment.
Selected data on the elemental composition of other species
of teleosts and elasmobranchs are presented and discussed.
85
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755.
Eisler, R., G.E. Zaroogian, and R.J. Hennekey. 1972. Cadmium
uptake by marine organisms. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 29:
1367-1369.
Adults of killifish Fundulus heteroclitus, scallop Aquipecten
irradians, oyster Crassostrea virginica, and subadult lobsters Homarus
americanus were immersed for 21 days in flowing seawater containing 10
~g/liter of cadmium as CdC12'21hH20. Cadmium residues in whole animals
and selected tissues were consistently higher in exposed organisms than
controls; edible portions of treated lobster (muscle), scallop (adduc-
tor muscle), and oyster (whole animal) contained more .cadmium per unit
wet weight than controls by 25%, 19%, and 352%, respectively.
756.
England, R.H., and K.B. Cumming. 1971. Stream damage from
manganese strip-mining. In Proc. 25th Annual Conf. South-
eastern Assoc. Game and Fish Comm.: 399-418.
Abandoned manganese strip mines in Smyth County, Virginia
have for many years discharged effluents to streams draining them.
Manganese levels in all streams sampled were found to be below one
mg/l. A controlled experiment with Mn(N03)2 showed that the median
tolerance limit for rainbow trout fingerlIngs is about 16 mg/l of Mn,
which, together with stream sampling data, indicates that manganese is
not present in toxic concentrations in the study streams.
Killinger Creek, which drains a partially reclaimed area, was
found to support fewer species of fish and benthic fauna than Crigger
Creek, a comparable control stream. Siltation is probably'the main
contributing factor. Bedload was much greater in affected streams than
in control streams. Although volume of bedload was high in Blue Spring
Creek, which drains a .reclaimed area, particle size distribution of the
bedload indicates that much of the finest silt has been flushed from
the upper portion of this stream. Blue Spring Creek supports an abun-
dant population of aquatic insects and fish fauna, indicating that rec-
lamation has been effective on this watershed. It is also found that
rainbow trout are spawning successfully in this stream.
Abandoned strip mines within the Cripple Creek study area
have caused silt pollution in several streams. No evidence was found
to support the theory that manganese ions were in solution in toxic
concentrations to the endemic stream biota. Siltation was evident on
Cripple Creek and two tributaries. Siltation was evident in Blue
Spring Creek, which drained a fully reclaimed area, but there were no
signs of recovery; turbidity compared with control streams, and bedload
data indicated that much of the finer silt has washed out of the upper
portion of the stream. High production of benthic organisms and evi-
dence of trout spawning further indicate that reclamation has been very
effective.
86
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Killinger Creek, although it drained an area that was more
than half reclaimed, showed striking evidence of siltation. Benthic
production dropped sharply below the mined areas and game fish were
entirely absent, while turbidity and bedload increased sharply.
757.
Erickson, S.J. 1972. Toxicity of copper to Thalassiosira
seudonana in unenriched inshore seawater. Jour. Phycology
8 4 :318-323.
Toxicity of copper to T. pseudonana (formerly Cyclotella
nana, clone 13-1) was examined in inshore seawater using a 96-hour
bioassay method. Raw unenriched seawater was filtered through a 0.22-
micron membrane filter and then pasteurized for 30 min at 60°C.
Following this treatment, samples contained 0.68-1.14 ~g/l of Cu.
Copper was added as the chloride in 5 ~g increments over the range of
5 to 30 ~g/l (about 0.1-0.5 microM). Population densities, mean cell
volume, and C-14 bicarbonate uptake were measured. Population growth
and C-14 uptake by!. pseudonana displayed inhibition over the entire
range of added copper. Growth rate constant (k) to !. pseudonana de-
creased with increasing copper concentration and during the course of
growth at each concentration. Correspondingly, mean cell volumes in-
creased with copper concentration and time. Copper toxicity varied in
different water samples. The presence of decomposed natural plankton
and detritus decreased toxicity. In the absence of enrichment, bac-
teria had little effect on copper toxicity. Results were influenced
by glassware treatment, collection and storage of seawater, and ab-
sence of enrichment.
758.
Essig, T.H., G.W.R. Endres, J.K. Soldat, and J.F. Honstead.
1973. Concentrations of 65Zn in marine foodstuffs and
Pacific coastal residents. In Radioactive Contamination of
the ~1arine Environment, Int.-Xtom. Ener. Agen., Vienna,
Austria: 651-668.
One of the radionuclides formed by neutron activation in
Hanford production reactors and released to the Columbia River in the
effluent cooling water prior to February 1971 was Zn-65. Zn-65 has
a relatively long radioactive half-life (245 days) and is an isotope
of an element utilized in metabolic processes by most shellfish and
other aquatic life forms. Consequently, Zn-65 is found in fish and
shellfish in the Columbia River and in the Pacific Ocean near the
mouth of the river. The transfer of Zn-65 through various food chains
to man has been studied at Hanford for a number of years. In the
present study, consumption rates of four seafoods were obtained for
residents of two coastal communities. These consumption rates were
used, together with concentrations of Zn-65 in the foods of interest,
87
-------
to estimate body burdens of Zn-65. The estimated body burdens were
then compared with body burdens determined by whole-body counting
techniques.
759.
Evans, E.C. III, T.J. Peeling, A.E. Murchison, and Q.D. Stephen-
Hassard. 1972. A proximate biological survey of Pearl
Harbor, Oahu. Available from Nat. Tech. Inf. Ser., Spring-
field,- Va., as AD-744 233. Rep. NUC TP 290:1-65.
During May and June, 1971, a biological survey of Pearl
Harbor was conducted, in order to determine heavy metal (Cd, Cu, Hg,
Pb, and Zn) body burdens for endemic marine organisms. In addition,
the general aspect of piling communities in all major lochs is
described and schematically illustrated, constituting the only such
description for the region in nearly three decades. It was found that
the body burdens of Cd, Hg, and Pb in fishes and crabs from Pearl Har-
bor tend to be higher near known sources of industrial effluent. Hg
and Pb slightly exceed concentrations normally expected in marine
animals; the burdens in swimming crabs tend to be highest (0.395 mg/kg
wet weight for Hg and 1.8 mg/kg wet weight for Pb). For Cu and Zn,
burdens tend to be greatest near Ford Island. Cu content of some
swimming crabs exceeded that normally expected in marine animals
(highest burden found was 241 mg/kg wet weight). None of these bur-
dens, however, is considered cause for concern. The distinct differ-
ences observed in the structure of piling communities in the various
lochs suggest that many complex environmental factors are at work in
Pearl Harbor. While the detrimental effects of oil exposure are evi-
dent in the intertidal communities in all lochs, the major degrading
factor to the marine environment as a whole appears to be silt. Water
clarity and relative marine community health are greatest in those
parts of the harbor receiving more intensive utilization by the U.S.
Navy, and suggests that Navy projects have little measurable impact on
the health of Pearl Harbor ecosystems.
760.
Evans, R.J., J.D. Bails, and F.M. D'Itri. 1972.
in muscle tissues of preserved museum fish.
Technol. 6(10):901-905.
Mercury levels
Environ. Sci.
Flameless atomic absorption spectrophotometry was used to
establish the total mercury levels in 57 preserved fish specimens of
various species collected in the Lake St. Clair-Western Lake Erie re-
gion of the Great Lakes between the years of 1920-65. Only five fish
were found to contain mercury levels in excess of 0.5 mg/kg--three
large muskellunge collected in Lake St. Clair in 1939 (2.38, 1.57, and
1.58 mg/kg) and two adult sea lampreys collected in the Clinton River
tributary to Lake St. Clair in 1938 (0.90 and 1.29 mg/kg). A trend
88
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was established relating the mercury content of selected categories of
fishes with the year and location of collection for the fish specimens.
The 1970-71 mercury levels in fish from the two study areas were higher
than preserved museum specimens in the same categories taken from the
same area.
761.
Everhart, W.H., and R.A. Freeman. 1973. Effects of chemical
variations in aquatic environments: Volume II, Toxic effects
of aqueous aluminum to rainbow trout. U.8. Environ. Proto
Agen. Rept. EPA-R3-73-011B:1-41.
Fertilized eggs, fry and fingerlings were exposed to aqueous
aluminum complexes in neutral and basic media under constantly flowing,
controlled conditions of aluminum concentration, pH, and temperature.
Toxicities of various concentrations were highly pH dependent. Dis-
solved concentrations over 1.5 mg/l aluminum caused physiological and
behavioral aberrations as well as acute mortality. Toxic effects of
suspended aluminum, though greater at lower concentrations, do not in-
crease as much as the effects of dissolved aluminum with higher concen-
trations. Growth of trout exposed to high dosages of aluminum was re-
duced only as long as or slightly longer than the exposure continued.
Egg and fry bioassays were conducted with exposures in trays and simu-
lated natural nests. Fertilization was not affected by any concentra-
tions tested, and most mortalities occurred during hatching and in the
post-swim-up stage. Trends in toxicity were similar to those found
with fingerlings indicating dissolved aluminum to be more toxic than
equivalent suspended amounts.
762.
Eyman, L.D. 1972. Cesium-137 and stable cesium in a hyper-
eutrophic lake. Ph.D. Thesis: 1-113. Available from Univ.
Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Mich. 48106, as 73-5367.
The inputs of Cs-137 and stable Cs and their distribution
among the various components of an aquatic ecosystem were studied in
a lake exhibiting an advanced stage of eutrophy. Components sampled
and analyzed for these two isotopes of cesium included water, sediments,
macrophytes, filamentous algae, zooplankton, and several species of
fish. Most of the cesium pool (87% Cs-137; 98% Cs) was associated with
the sediments. A trend of increased Cs-137 concentration at higher
trophic levels was demonstrated for those fish that are free-ranging
limnetic feeders. No such trend was evident for stable Cs. Forms
closely associated with sediments had higher Cs-137 concentrations than
expected based on their feeding habits. On the dates samples were
collected, specific activity in limnetic fishes was constant but was
variable in other forms. The degree of association of biotic forms
with sediments was reflected in their specific activity.
89
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763.
Eyster, C., T.E. Brown, H.A. Tanner, and S.L. Hood. 1958.
Manganese requirement with respect to growth, Hill reaction
and photosynthesis. Plant Physiology 33(4):235-241.
Chlorella pyrenoidosa required a minimum of 10-7mg/l manga-
nese in the culture medium for heterotrophic growth and a 1000-fold
larger amount for autotrophic growth. Autotrophic growth, Hill reac-
tion, and photosynthesis responded equally when increments of manganese
were added to manganese-deficient cultures. Similar results were ob-
tained with Scenedesmus quadricauda, Nostoc muscorum, Porphyridium
cruentum, and Lemna minor. The chlorophyll content of one-day-old auto-
trophic cultures of Chlorella and Scenedesmus was not affected adversely
by manganese deficiency, but after being illuminated three days, manga-
nese deficient cultures of Chlorella had much less chlorophyll than
similarly treated non-deficient cultures. When manganese was added to
deficient cultures, their capacities for photosynthesis and Hill reac-
tion were quickly restored. Chlorella cultured in a medium containing
manganese just sufficient for full photosynthesis and Hill reaction had
a manganese-chlorophyll molar ratio of 1 to 600. The results indicate
that a very small amount of manganese suffices as an essential enzymatic
co-factor for heterotrophic growth, and that a much larger amount forms
an essential part of the photosynthetic oxygen-evolving apparatus as
previously suggested by others.
764.
Faber, R.A., and J.J. Hickey. 1973. Eggshell thinning, chlori-
nated hydrocarbons, and mercury in inland aquatic bird eggs,
1969 and 1970. Pesticides Monitor. Jour. 7(1):27-36.
In the Upper Great Lakes States, 9 out of 13 species of fish-
eating birds were found in 1969-70 to have sustained statistically sig-
nificant decreases in eggshell thickness since 1946. Maximum changes
in a thickness index occurred in great blue herons (-25%), redbreasted
mergansers (-23%), common mergansers (-15%) and doublecrested cormorants
(-15%). Heron eggs taken in Louisiana generally displayed a smaller
post-'46 change than herons in the Middle West. On a lipid basis, mean
PCB- and DOE-residue levels exceeded 100 ppm in 7 out of 13 species in
the Great Lakes States, and in 2 of 7 species in Louisiana, the aver-
age DDE:PCB ratios in the two regions being 1.25:1 and 3.9:1, respec-
tively. Individual dieldrin values tended to be higher in Louisiana
(31.6 and 13.95 ppm in heron species from two different locations).
although values reached 10.1 and 9.4 ppm in great blue and black-crowned
night herons in Wisconsin. BHC averaged 3.01 and 0.39 ppm in the Lake
States and Louisiana, respectively. Of eggs examined for mercury, 29%
had levels greater than 0.5 ppm and 9% greater than 1.0 ppm on a wet-
weight basis. Mercury levels in a small sample of eggs from Louisiana
were consistently low. The differences in mercury levels between the
two regions thus were similar to those found for the chlorinated
90
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hydrocarbons. While DOE was a prominent factor for most groups,
especially herons, in relation to the eggshell thinning observed,
dieldrin was also important to two groups even though DOE was present
in much higher amolmts. PCB's were also important to mergansers,
while mercury was positively correlated with thickness index in grebes
and negatively correlated in mergansers.
765.
Fagerstrom, T., and B. Asell. 1973. Methyl mercury accumulation
in an aquatic food chain. A model and some implications for
research planning. Ambio 2(5):164-171.
This paper utilizes a mathematical model to study the mech-
anisms of methyl mercury (~~) accumulation in aquatic food chains. The
three step food-chain model has pike (fish) feeding on roach (fish) and
roach feeding on chironomids (insects). Functions in the model include
environmental variables and equations describing some ecological and
ethological processes that determine energy flow. Discussion is limited
to 3 specific problems. (1) Can the model mimic, in a qualitative
sense, the static picture common in nature, i.e. MM concentrations in
fish increasing with age, and concentrations-rn-predatory species ex-
ceeding those in prey species by a factor of 2 to 5? (2) What is the
relative importance of the accuracy of the numerical values for the
calculated MM concentrations in the fish? (3) What are the dynamics
of the reaction of the system to perturbations in the same simulations
as were used for the sensitivity analysis?
766.
Fagerstrom, T., B. Asell, and A. Jernelov. 1974. Model for
accumulation of methyl mercury in northern pike, Esox lucius.
Gikos 25:14-20.
A compartmental model of mercury residue accumulation in in-
dividual fishes is presented. The model assumes a single residue pool
that acquires methyl mercury from respired water and with the diet.
Uptake and clearance of residue are treated as functions of metabolic
rate, which is itself size-dependent. The parameters for the model are
estimated from a release-recapture experiment and from literature data,
and the solutions produced by the model when using these estimates are
compared with real-world data where the latter set of data is independ-
ent of the set that was used for parameter estimation. The correspond-
ence between the calculated concentration of methyl mercury in lateral
muscle tissue and empirically observed values is acceptable though the
calculated values in the lower weight range are somewhat high. The
possibility that the model may apply to other substances is discussed.
91
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767.
Fagerstrom, T., and A. Jernelov. 1972. Some aspects of the
quantitative ecology of mercury. Water Research 6(10) :1193-
1202.
The principal ways of transformation of mercury in aquatic
ecosystems are discussed. The mercury transformations include: (1)
formation of HgS, (2) conversion of HgS, (3) formation and oxidation
of elementary Hg, (4) formation of complexes between divalent mercury
and organic substances and the release of Hg therefrom, (5) formation
of mercury-inorganic material complexes of the silica- and ferro-
manganese-type, (6) release of soluble mercury from complexes, and (7)
formation and degradation of methylmercury and dimethyl-mercury. The
quantitative influences on these processes of some physico-chemical
and biological factors are demonstrated from field investigations and
laboratory experiments. A dynamic model for the transport of methyl-
mercury in a simplified limnic food-chain (including fish, mollusca,
and crustacea) is outlined.
768.
Fang, S.C. 1973. Uptake and biotransformation of phenylmercuric
acetate by aquatic organisms. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol.
1(1):18-26.
Guppy, snail, elodea, and coontail, when exPosed to water
containing Hg-203-labeled phenylmercuric acetate (PMA), readily take
up PMA and the PMA uptake is related to the time of exposure and the
PMA concentration, the absorbed PMA being mainly converted to inorganic
mercury. Ethylmercuric chloride is a minor metabolic product. Mer-
cury-203 is not quickly eliminated from the guppy, elodea, and coontail
when they are placed in fresh water, the biological half-life of Hg-203
residues ranging between 43 to 58 days.
769.
Felton, B.H.D. 1972. The relationship between ions and ciliary
activity in the gill of Mytilus edulis. Ph.D. Thesis.
Available from University Microfilms, 300 N. Zeeb Rd., Ann
Arbor, Mich. 48106, as 73-1475.
The relationship between major ions in artificial sea water
(ASW) of normal balance and beating of lateral cilia and other types
of cilia in excised gill of mussel, Mytilus edulis, was investigated.
ASW was used to perfuse a ganglion-nerve gill preparation. Rate of
ciliary beating was determined by timing metachronal waves with a strob-
oscope. The effect of Na, K, Ca, Mg, and Cl, on basal beat frequency
and on cilioexcitatory effect of 5-hydroxytrptamine (5-HT). KCL, and
caffeine was determined. Li, Ba, ~fu were studied for the same effects.
By replacing ions in ASW of normal balance with substitutes, such as
other ions, choline, gluconate salts, or sorbitol, it was possible to
92
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detect the influence of major ions. Tetrodotoxin (TTX) 0.000016 M does
not inhibit ciliary activity of gill in ASW. In a 1:1 choline/Na ASW,
TTX 3 microM (1 microgram/ml) inhibits lateral cilia and blocks the
cilioexcitatory effect of KCL. Li at 42 ~1 is also inhibitory and
blocks excitation by 5-HT. Nerve stimulation with electrical current
is partially blocked by Li. The addition of 5-HT to gills in ASW
causes a rapid efflux of Ca from gill tissue followed by an influx of
Ca. When Mn was substituted for Ca in the presence of TTX in 1:1
choline/Na ASW, cilioexcitation by 5-HT and caffeine were not blocked.
When Ba or Mn is substituted for Ca in ASW, the basal beat frequency is
elevated. The effect of excess ions on basal beat frequency and on
cilioexcitatory effect of 5-HT was also studied. 5-HT, a known cilio-
excitatory agent and metabolic activator in Mytilus gill, has now been
shown to cause a change in the membrane permeability of gill tissue to
Ca. 5-HT causes a rapid efflux followed by an influx of Ca from in-
ternal stores of the ion in gill tissue. This indicates that the chain
of events initiated by 5-HT in gill tissue of Mytilus edulis involves
Ca release, increased glycolysis, and the formation of ATP which results
in cilioexcitation.
770.
Ferrell, R.E., T.E. Carville, and J.D. Martinez. 1973. Trace
metals in oyster shells. Environmental Letters 4(4):311-316.
Measurements using atomic absorption spectrometry established
the presence of Pb, Hg, Cd, Zn, Cu, and Cr in shells of oyster Cras-
sostrea virginica in amounts considerably higher than concentrations in
seawater. Preliminary comparisons of trace elements in shells from
widely separated areas do not suggest large differences. The relatively
high values obtained for Pb, Cu, and Cd suggest these analyses have a
good potential for assessment of man's contribution to global pollu-
tion. Comparison of these data with trace element content of ancient
shells may be useful in evaluating the importance of pollution induced
changes in coastal waters.
771.
Fimreite, N. 1970. Mercury uses in Canada and their possible
hazards as sources of mercury contamination. Environmental
Pollution 1(2):119-131.
During the past ten years mercury consumption has shown a
strong upward trend in Canada. The major proportion of this increase
can be accounted for by the chloralkali industry, from which nearly
100,000 kg of mercury are released into the environment each year. Most
of this mercury finds its way to watercourses exposing aquatic eco-
systems where mercury is known to accumulate. The use of mercury com-
pounds for slime control in the Canadian pulp industry is decreasing,
but in one case elevated mercury levels in fish were traced back to
93
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such a source. Also decreasing is the use of seed-dressings contain-
ing mercury, although this use of mercurials is still considerable, and
in view of findings in other countries elevated mercury levels in seed-
eating birds and their predators must be expected. Elevated levels of
mercury were found in pheasants and partridges collected in Southern
Alberta where mercury seed-dressings are extensively used.
77lA.
Fimreite, N. 1974. Mercury contamination of aquatic birds in
Northwestern Ontario. Jour. Wild. Manag. 38(1):120-131.
A total of 184 specimens of fish-eating and aquatic birds
were collected on or near five different lakes in northwestern Ontario
and analyzed for total mercury in liver. Mercury concentrations were
highest in specimens collected about 75 and 120 km downstream from
where a chlorine plant is believed to be the source of contamination.
The concentrations reached or approached 100 mg/kg in some scavengers
and fisheaters like turkey vulture (Cathartes aura), common merganser
(Mergus merganser), raven (Corvus corax), and ~on loon (Gavia immer),
while concentrations in typical surface feeding ducks, mallards (Anas
platyrhyncos) and pintails CA. acuta) were generally below 10 mg/~
The liver concentrations in specimens from three lakes receiving no
effluent from the plant averaged only 10% of those reported above, but
the same relationship between trophic feeding levels and mercury con-
centrations was shown. Additional analyses of breast muscle tissue of
97 specimens revealed an average concentration of 32% of that in liver
with no significant variation with contamination level of birds. Corre-
lation between concentrations in liver and breast muscle was generally
very good. The methyl mercury concentrations in 51 specimens of ducks
averaged 36% of total mercury in liver and 60% in breast muscle tissue.
No interspecific differences were found for muscle concentrations of
methyl mercury while in liver common merganser carried only 12% of the
mercury in this form versus 32, 38, and 52% for common goldeneye,
mallard, and pintail respectively. In the stomach contents of 12 speci-
mens representing four species, the methyl fraction comprised 58% of
total mercury with little interspecific variation. A survey of the
study area, in which the number of young in broods of aquatic birds
were counted, revealed that young of loons were completely absent in
both lakes including the reach linking these lakes. Two tern colonies
were compared with respect to reproductive success. The first one
apparently reproduced normally while the fledging success in the latter
was about 10% only. Average total mercury levels in egg samples were
1.00 and 3.65 mg/kg respectively and the corresponding values for
methyl mercury 0.82 and 2.40 mg/kg.
772.
Fimreite, N., W.N. Holsworth, J.A. Keith, P.A. Pearce, and I.M.
Gruchy. 1971. Mercury in fish and fish-eating birds near
94
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sites of industrial contamination in Canada.
Naturalist 85:211-220.
Canadian Field
Concentrations of mercury were determined in fish muscle,
livers and eggs of fish-eating birds, and bivalve molluscs. Most of
the material was collected near sites of industrial contamination: a
mercury mine, chloralkali plants and pulp mills known to use or have
used mercury. Most sites showed substantial mercury contamination,
especially downstream from the above sources. Mercury levels exceed-
ing 0.5 mg/kg were found in practically all samples of freshwater fish.
Individual walleye (Lake St. Clair), pumpkinseed (St. Clair River), and
lake trout (Pinchi Lake) contained concentrations up to 5.01, 7.09, and
10.50 mg/kg of mercury respectively. Lower levels were found in marine
fishes from coastal waters. A positive correlation was found between
body weight and mercury concentration in most fish samples, and also
between the trophic feeding level and mercury concentration in both
fish and fish-eating birds. The highest mercury level in the livers of
fish-eating birds was 17.40 mg/kg (Red-necked grebe). Four Common Tern
eggs averaged 0.58 mg/kg and two Red-breasted Merganser eggs averaged
0.81 mg/kg. The mercury concentrations are discussed in terms of pub-
lished data on hazard to human health and to reproduction in fish-eating
birds.
773.
Fimreite, N., and L.~1. Reynolds.
fish in Northwestern Ontario.
1973. Mercury contamination of
Jour. Wild. Manag. 37:62-68.
Mercury levels were determined in lateral musculature of fish
from Northwestern Ontario in specimens taken upstream and downstream
from a chlorine plant, and from a number of lakes not contaminated from
any known source. The maximum mercury levels in northern pike (Esox
lucius), burbot (Lota Iota), and walleye (Stizostedion vitreum) were
27.8, 24.8, and l~mg/kg respectively, measured in specimens taken
75-100 km downstream fro~ the plant. Levels decreased proportionally
to the distance from the plant but were clearly elevated even 300 km
downstream. The levels in specimens from suspected uncontaminated
lakes were generally below 1 mg/kg but frequently above the 0.2 mg/kg
often considered as the maximum background concentrations. The latter
finding may possibly be explained on the basis of the oligotrophic con-
ditions characteristic for these lakes.
774.
Finch, R. 1973. Effects of regulatory guidelines on the intake
of mercury from fish--the MECCA project. U.8. Dept. Comm.,
Fish. Bull. 71(3):615-626.
The MECCA (Model for the Estimation of the Consumption of
Contaminants from Aquatic Foods) program applies a survey of the fish
95
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consumption habits of a sample of over 4,500 individuals, representa-
tive of the U.S. population, to build a computer model which uses known
levels of microconstituents in 52 kinds of fish to predict the distri-
bution of the daily intakes of the microconstituents from fish among
the survey participants. The model was applied to Hg levels in fish
to estimate effects of guidelines (maximum permitted levels) for fish
in protecting the population against excessive intake. For the sample
population, intakes of Hg from fish would remain safe if the guideline
for Hg in fish were raised from the present level of 0.5 mg Hg/kg wet
to 1.5 mg Hg/kg wet. The effect of such an increase would be of bene-
fit to both the consumer and the fishing industry. This model can be
used to predict the distribution of consumer intakes from fish of any
constituent present in fish, whether nutritious or potentially hazard-
ous, for which levels in the edible portion of 52 kinds of fish used
in the model are known.
775.
Finkel, A.J., and W.C. Allee. 1970. The effect of traces of
tin on the rate of growth of goldfish. Amer. Jour. Physio1.
130:665-670.
Tin, as stannous ion, in concentrations of the order of
0.000005 M (0.295 mg/l), has been found to accelerate growth of gold-
fish, during brief assay periods, over that of untreated control fish.
This report extends, for the first time, the stimulating properties
of traces of tin to the growth of vertebrate organisms.
776.
Fitzgerald, B.W., and D.M. Skauen. 1963. Zinc-65 in oysters in
Fishers Island Sound and its estuaries. In Schultz, V., and
A.W. Klement, Jr. (eds.). Radioecology, Reinhold Publ. Corp.,
New York: 159-162.
Zinc and zinc-65 in American oysters from Fishers Island
Sound and its estuaries was determined. Zinc content of oysters from
a given locale varies considerably, also background levels of zinc-65
are not static. The year-long study showed a peak value from February
to May of 1961 and a sharp increase during the month of June and con-
tinuing. These results were observed during the same season the pre-
vious year. Rate and extent of zinc-65 uptake by oysters was observed
in the laboratory. A variety of zinc-65 salts was administered and
effect of the various anions noted. In one instance, zinc-65 was com-
plexed with a commercially available complexing agent. The addition
of zinc-65 labeled salts to oysters grown in sea water demonstrated
that much zinc-65 became associated with shells and that a limit to
the amount of zinc-65 taken up occurred in the first 24 hours. Com-
plexation of the radioactive ion had a considerable effect on the rate
and extent of zinc-65 uptake by the tissue. Of equal importance was
96
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the observation that complexation of the ion virtually eliminates all
association between the ion and shells.
777.
Fitzgerald, G.P. 1966. Use of potassium permanganate for con-
trol of problem algae. Jour. Amer. Water Works Assoc. 58(5):
609-614.
Author treated various species of algae with different con-
centrations of potassium permanganate and copper sulfate in order to
determine concentrations required to kill cells after 12 and 72 hours
treatment and to prevent growth of various species of cyanophytes,
chlorophytes and diatoms. Toxicity of copper sulfate was highly
variable; cyanophytes except Oscillatoria were killed at concentrations
of 0.1 mg/l; others were killed after 4 hours at 0.4 mg/l; growth of
these species was inhibited by 0.1-0.2 mg/l of Cu. With potassium per-
manganate, almost all species were killed by 1-5 mg/l. Author specu-
lates that variations in effectiveness of copper may result from vari-
ations in metabolic rates, metabolic processes, or rates of absorption
among the several species, and suggests that potassium permanganate
treatment of raw-water reservoirs may be utilized effective by an
algicide and subsequent elimination of tastes and odors resulting from
decomposed algae.
778.
Fitzgerald, G.P. 1967. The algistatic properties of silver.
Water, Sew. Wks. 114:185-189.
Growth inhibition of 4 species of freshwater algae in 10
days was effected by 7-24 mg/l of the silver products tested (as low
as 0.02 mg/l Ag2+); on an equal silver basis, inorganic salts were
more effective than organic salts. Increasing algal cell density by a
factor of 3 also affected the concentrations of test products neces-
sary to produce growth inhibition by about a factor of 3. Chlorella
can detoxify concentrations of silver 16 x more than those concentra-
tions required for algistatic activity. On the bases of these and
other data, author concludes that silver compounds can effectively
control algae in swimming pools provided that little or no bromine or
iodide are present.
779.
Fitzgerald, G.P., and M.E. Der Vartanian. 1965. Pseudomonas
aeruginosa for the evaluation of swimming pool chlorination
and algicides. Appl. Microbiol. 17(3):415-421.
Concentrations of ammonia and the chlorine stabilizer,
cyanuric acid, which could be expected in swimming pools decreased the
rate of kill by chlorine of the potential pathogen, Pseudomonas
97
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aeruginosa. The effect of cyanuric acid increased as the concentration
of chlorine decreased, a fact of significance from a public health
view. Quaternary ammonium algicides had little effect on the kill rate
of chlorine, but an organic mercury algicide had a synergistic effect
with chlorine when the chlorine activity was stressed by the addition
of ammonia or the use of 100 times the normal concentration of bacteria.
The effect of natural waters, rain, beaches, and swimming pools on the
kill rate by 0.5 mg of chlorine per liter indicated that a treatment
time of 1 hr or more was required to kill 99.9% of 106 Pseudomonas
cells per mI. The synergism of chlorine and the organic mercury algi-
cide was also demonstrated with these waters and with. sewage treatment
plant effluents.
780.
Fitzgerald, G.P., and S.L. Faust. 1965. Effect of bacteria on
the solubility of copper algicides. Water Sew. Wks., July,
1965; Univ. Wisconsin Eng. Exp. Sta. Rep. 796:5pp.
Experiments were conducted with different sources of copper
reported to be useful in preventing precipitation of copper from hard
waters. Data indicate that after one to five days the proportion of
copper soluble in solutions in medium-hard, and very-hard, waters de-
creased from levels of 53 to 96% soluble to less than 10% soluble.
This loss in solubility of copper was due to bacterial degradation of
chelating agents protecting solubility of copper, as shown by tests
with solutions of copper sources protected from the action of bacteria
by addition of algicide, Algimycin-200, or by autoclaving solutions and
maintaining them under sterile conditions.
781.
Fogg, G.E., and D.F. Westlake. 1953. The importance of extra-
cellular products of algae in freshwater. Verh. Int. Verein
Theor. Angew Limnol. 12:219-232.
Experiments with partially purified preparations of extra-
cellular polypeptide, produced during normal growth of the blue-green
alga, Anabaena cylindrica, show that this material forms complexes with
various ions including those of copper; zinc, ferric iron, phosphate
and certain organic substances. Complex ion formation may have bio-
logically important effects, and, as an example, authors suggest that
complex formation between extracellular polypeptide and cupric ion con-
siderably reduces toxitity of the latter toward Anabaena cylindrica.
This may explain the erratic results often obtained with copper sul-
phate used as an algicide. Algae representing other classes (Chloro-
phyceae, Xanthophycea~, Balcillariophyceae) also produce extracellular
peptides. That relatively substantial amounts of peptide-nitrogen
occur dissolved in lake waters has been confirmed for a number of Eng-
lish lakes and reservoirs. It is suggested that this peptide may
98
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originate partially from living algae and that by forming complexes
with other dissolved substances, it may exert important effects on
growth of aquatic organisms. Specific substances may not be neces-
sary, and in lakes, complex-forming substances derived from organic
decay or living algae, may effectively produce the requisite environ-
ment for cyanophytes.
782.
Folsom, T.R., and T.M. Beasley. 1973. Contributions from the
alpha emitter, polonium-2l0, to the natural radiation environ-
ment of the marine organisms. In Radioactive Contamination
of the Marine Environment, Int.-Xtom. Ener. Agen., Vienna,
Austria: 625-632.
There is evidence that many marine organisms accumulate
natural alpha emitters to levels that might be contributing substan-
tially to their burden from ionizing radiation. There are increasing
opportunities for alpha emitters to enter the ocean because of the in-
creasing use of plutonium-239. Distributions of polonium-2l0 are of
interest because this natural nuclide accumulates to relatively high
levels in some of the same marine ecosystems that accumulate plutonium
effectively. The progress of the natural nuclide is technically much
easier to follow, yet its distributions might serve to give some warn-
ing as to the probable fate of plutonium. Concentrations of poloniurn-
210 in a variety of marine organisms, especially crustaceans, are com-
pared and also the radioactive burdens that may be inferred from bulk
tissue samples. Some difficulties of interpretations are discussed and
the need for more detailed measurements in specific organs and tissues.
Some inferences about polonium-2l0 from lead-2l0 measurements are also
presented.
783.
Folsom, T.R., R. Grismore, and D.R. Young. 1970. Long-lived
y-ray emitting nuclide silv~r-l08m found in Pacific marine
organisms and used for dating. Nature 227:941-943.
Tissues from several species
squid, tuna, and lobster, collected in
regions of the North Pacific contained
made nuclide with a half-life reported
of marine organisms, including
1964 from widely separated
lOsmAg, a y-ray emitting man-
to be greater than 100 yr.
An initial 110mAg/losmAg activity ratio of 162 was assumed
in the dating computations, this being the value reported immediately
after activation of natural silver in a reactor experiment. The
salient feature of lOsmAg is that it is an artificial y-ray emitter
with an exceptionally long life, longer than any other man-made y-ray
emitter reported anywhere in the biosphere. Both these nuclides seem
to be activated together when ordinary silver is exposed in reactors
and in the detonation of certain weapons.
99
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An idea of the use of 110mAg/I08mAg dating can be gained by
considering how the animals could have come into contact with the ob-
served silver nuclides. This requires reference to reported dates
when specific large weapons were tested; to the reported character of
the global fallouts that followed; and to the motion and stratification
of upper layers in the Pacific. The testing of very large nuclear
weapons was renewed abruptly on October 23, 1961; other tests were made
in 1962, especially in the autumn. The observed silver nuclide ratios
indicate the absence of large amounts originating in 1958 and earlier.
Thus the observed silver nuclides most likely originated within the
1961 and 1962 testing periods.
After the 1961-62 weapons tests, there were intense global
fallouts during the spring of 1962, 1963, 19646 especially intense at
latitude 400-500 N. Presumably the observed 1 8mAg could have entered
the sea any time after October 23, 1961, but the largest fraction of
silver of 1961 origin should have entered in the spring of 1962.
Lesser amounts that had been stored in the stratospheric reservoir
should then have followed late in 1962, and also in 1963 and 1964.
But, after the summer of 1962, and especially after October 1963, all
the 1961 fallout must have been mixed with some that originated in
1962. This mixture would be expected to have entered the ocean most
rapidly in the spring of 1963, yet some with slightly different silver
nuclide mixtures should have fallen later, especially in the spring of
1964.
Finding mixtures of silver nuclide ratios in organisms corre-
sponding closely to late origin therefore indicates that either very
little radioactive silver was formed in 1961 compared with 1962, or the
species with the late origins lived in regions where silver was dis-
persed or depleted rapidly, and they adjusted rapidly to changes in
silver in their environment. The first alternative is unlikely because
of findings in the case of the albacore.
All but one of the species inspected had large fractions of
1962 fallout as indicated by the radiosilver ratios. One squid con-
tained a nuclide ratio that might have come from the autumn of 1962
when the final large tests of this post-moratorium series took place.
This squid was feeding at the surface when captured. It seems there-
fore that its feeding region was being rapidly depleted of silver (and
perhaps of other trace metals), and also that the biological half-life
of the species was short--of the order of a few weeks or months.
Another squid, some tropical tuna, and some lobsters from a
small island also contained silver nuclide ratios that suggest associa-
tions with water masses which were constantly depleted of silver, again
suggesting rapid turnover of silver traces in the organisms or in their
food. The lobsters of Guadalupe usually live in shallow layers, and
100
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presumably, from the silver nuclide ratio found, they depend on food
with similar environment. Yellowfin tuna are caught at the surface;
the silver ratios they contain suggest that their food comes from re-
gions where there is a rapid turnover of silver. Mussels collected
from tide pools in a calcareous apron of Okinawa where rain containing
relatively high concentrations of fallout struck the organisms directly
during periods of low tide, could have resulted in accumulation and
retention in their fixed substrate and in other sessile organisms liv-
ing nearby. In addition to recent fallout, therefore, early fallout
rich in 1961 silver nuclides could well have remained available to the
mussels until 1964 when they were collected. Their nuclide ratio of
intermediate value suggests this possibility.
A mechanism can be suggested to explain how a trace element
might be isolated and kept pure quite effectively for several years in
thin subsurface layers while moving thousands of miles, and thus how
albacore could have encountered essentially pure 1961 radioactive
silver.
No evidence of hazard to humans should be inferred from the
finding of long-lived l08mAg in commercially collected tuna. The
activities measured were at or near naturally occurring levels of
radioactivity in tissues.
784.
Folsom, T.R., and D.R. Young. 1965.
in oceanic and coastal organisms.
Silver-110m and cobalt-60
Nature 206(4986):803-806.
Another nuclide, one scarcely mentioned as a weapon detritus,
was found to be spread widely in the ocean and often concentrated more
highly than Co-60 in digestive tissues of molluscs and crustaceans.
This is Ag-llOm, having a half-life of 253 days. Little is known of
concentration levels or chemical forms taken by either of these nuclides
in sea-water of the open ocean; nevertheless, their presence is made
known through examination of remarkable accumulations built up by liv-
ing organisms.
Early inspections indicated that Co-60 frequently accumulates
most effectively in liver or analogous digestive gland tissues of lower
animals. It has not been convenient to dissect this tissue routinely
in mussels and barnacles, but this has been done on larger squid and
fish. In oceanic squid, Stenoteuthis bartrami, for example, about 90%
of the Co-60 activity was found in digestive gland, which contributes
less than 5% to the total body weight.
The distribution of Ag-l10m is not identical with that of
Co-60. Highest concentrations of both nuclides were found in livers
of squid from the northeast Pacific; the same species of squid from
101
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Hokkaido containing Ag-llOm exhibited no significant Co-60, and this
discrepancy also was observed in other squid from California, Hawaii
and the Grand Banks.
A contrast can be seen in concentrations of Co-60 (and also
Ag-llOm) in two Pacific albacore populations. These fish are ex-
ploited by large commercial fisheries and some of their habits are
known. The southern fish apparently live much of their life in low
latitudes, where fallout rate is relatively low. The northern popula-
tion is believed to traverse the northern Pacific annually along higher
latitudes where highest fallout accumulations have been reported. Many
individuals have been observed to pass through the areas where highest
concentrations of Co-60 and Ag-llOm were observed in squid in 1964.
Albacore are known to eat large amounts of squid, and it is not sur-
prising therefore that higher Co-60 concentrations were observed in the
northern population than the southern. Of course, albacore may obtain
Co-60 from small fish and crustaceans also, but these, too, are in-
fluenced by local fallout.
785.
Folsom, T.R., D.R. Young, J.N. Johnson, and K.C. Pillai. 1963.
Manganese-54 and zinc-65 in coastal organisms of California.
Nature 200(4904):327-329.
It is estimated that 8-55 curies of zinc-65 enter the Pacific
each day at the mouth of the Columbia River along with other nuclides
arising from activation of cooling water constituents at Hanford.
However, zinc-65 in water from the open coast at La Jolla
some 2500km south of the Columbia River is now so dilute that some
samples have failed to produce reliable measurements of this nuclide.
Local coastal organisms representing several phyla have been able to
concentrate zinc-65 so effectively that its presence is easy to measure
with little or no chemical treatment. From gamma-spectra made during
these studies, it became apparent that another nuclide, manganese-54,
was accumulating in many marine organisms and in concentrations some-
what higher than zinc-65.
Organisms analyzed were all from open coastal waters beyond
obvious influence of harbors or rivers. Deep-living scavengers repre-
sented by the local hagfish and also an amphipod were taken in traps
set at 200-400 m. Barnacles and mussels and fish have been collected
for comparison from widely scattered coastal points, but only those
taken near southern California are listed. Some sessile algae are
listed, and these show the wide divergence that is common in compari-
sons of like species.
It appears that certain dinoflagellates, and other organisms
from the same coastal waters, can concentrate manganese-54 several
102
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thousand fold. Mussels and barnacles appear to concentrate manganese-
54 more than zinc-65, whereas fish do the opposite. Surface fish con-
tain distinctly more of both metals than do the deep-living hagfish;
the second scavenger is an amphipod and ratio and concentrations are
again different.
The concentration for zinc-65 in the environmental water was
not established; nevertheless, it was suggested that the concentration
of zinc-65 must be no more than about 10% of what was observed in sea-
water for manganese-54. From this, and measurements in the organisms,
authors conclude that some surface fish can concentrate zinc-65 by
three orders of magnitude. It is of interest to compare the average
concentration (33 ~~c./l) of zinc-65 in Mytilus from La Jolla with
that found in specimens from the Oregon coast about 150 kms from the
mouth of the Columbia River; the latter was 6,750 ~~c./wet kg.
786.
Forrester, C.R., K.S. Ketchen, and C.C. Wong. 1972. Mercury
content of spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias) in the Strait
of Georgia, British Columbia. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada
29:1487-1490.
Total mercury content of Squalus acanthias sampled in the
Strait of Georgia reached levels of 0.5 mg/kgat fish lengths of 72 and
77 cm for male and female fish, respectively. For any given length
above 65 cm the mercury content was higher among males than females
and higher in samples taken off the Fraser River Estuary than in other
areas of the Strait. Levels of mercury reached 1.7 mg/kg in males (to
95 cm in total length) and almost 2.0 mg/kg in females (to 120 cm in
total length).
787.
Forstner, D., and G. MUller. 1973. Heavy metal accumulation in
river sediments: A response to environmental pollution.
Geoforum 14:53-61.
Eight heavy metals from the clay fraction of sediments from
major rivers within the Federal Republic of Germany were determined by
atomic absorption. Heavy metals especially known for their high toxi-
city are enriched most: mercury, lead and zinc by a factor of 10;
cadmium by a factor of 50, as compared with the natural background of
these elements. A mobilization of heavy metals from the suspended load
and from the sediments, as to be observed in rivers approaching the
marine environment, could endanger marine organisms, thus negatively
influencing the aquatic food chain. With a further increase of heavy
metal pollution, a threat to the drinking water supplied by rivers and
lakes cannot be excluded.
103
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788.
Foster; R.F- 1963. Environmental behavior of chromium and nep-
tunium. In Schultz, V., and A.W. Klement, Jr. (eds). Radio-
ecology. Reinhold Publ. Corp., New York: 569-576.
The most abundant source of chromium is chromite ore with the
largest known domestic reserves situated in Montana. Chromium has been
detected in living organisms in only trace quantities and seemingly
plays no essential role in the physiology of plants or animals. The
principal means through which chromium enters the biosphere is the
liquid and gaseous effluents of industrial plants which use this ele-
ment. Chromium is a toxic material and if present in high concentra-
tion can damage plants, animals, and humans. Aquatic organisms appear
to be especially vulnerable. The hexavalent state is more readily
assimilated than the trivalent state and is generally considered to be
at least a hundred times more toxic than the trivalent state. The red
blood cells have a strong affinity for hexavalent chromium which has
led to the popular use of radiochromium (chromium-51) in clinical
studies of hematologic disorders. Ultimately, chromium is concentrated
in the reticuloendothelial system, and in humans it is eliminated
principally in the urine. Chromium-51 is the only radioisotope which
has environmental importance at the present time, and this isotope is
present in the effluent from the Hanford reactors which enters the
Columbia River. Retention by Columbia River solids is measurable but
not of great significance. Chromium-51 accumulates in algae of the
river, but its concentration diminishes rapidly in higher trophic
levels. The exposed parts of crops which have been in direct contact
with irrigation water which contains chromium-51 may have detectable
quantities of this isotope, but root crops and fruits contain insig-
nificant amounts. It has not been found in milk or other products of
animals grazed on irrigated pasture. Chromium-51 has little radio-
logical significance since its decay to stable vanadium releases very
little ionizing radiation.
The artificial element neptunium has two radioisotopes of
some interest to ecologists. Neptunium-239 is created by the capture
of a slow neutron by uranium-238 and decays with a half-life of 2.3
days to become fissionable plutonium-239. Substantial quantities of
neptunium-239 are created in plutonium-producing reactors and in con-
ventional atomic bombs, and thus it has been measured in the environ-
ment. The alpha-emitting isotope, neptunium-237, has not entered the
bios~here in appreciable quantity. It has a very long half-life (2.2
x 10 years) and thus a very low specific activity. The element,
which resembles the rare earths in several aspects, is not easily
incorporated into ecosystems, and it has not been reported in terres-
trial biota or beyond the second trophic level in aquatic forms. The
radiological importance of neptunium has primarily been associated
with the presence of neptunium-239 in drinking water and the potential
dose imparted to gastrointestinal tract.
104
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789.
Fowler, S.W., and G. Benayoun. 1974. Experimental studies on
cadmium flux through marine biota. In Comparative Studies
of Food and Environmental Contamination, Inter. Atom. Ener.
Agen., Vienna, Austria: 159-178.
The role of mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) and benthic
shrimp (Lysmata seticaudata) in the cycling of cadmium in the marine
environment was examined. Results from Cd-l09 uptake experiments in-
dicated that steady state between water and the organisms was not
reached after 2 months. Concentration factors computed at this time
were 130 and 600 in whole mussels and shrimp, respectively. Concen-
tration factors based on stable cadmium concentrations were several
times higher, indicating imcomplete equilibration between Cd-l09 and
stable cadmium in the organisms. Mussels had the highest Cd-l09 con-
centrations in viscera with lesser amounts in muscle, mantle, gills,
and shell, respectively. The highest Cd-l09 concentration in shrimp
was also found in viscera, followed by exoskeleton, muscle and eyes.
Relative differences between stable and radiocadmium content of cer-
tain tissues are discussed. Increased cadmium uptake at higher tem-
peratures was noted in shrimp, whereas uptake by mussels was unaffected
by temperature. The uptake of cadmium was directly proportional to
cadmium content in seawater; however, accumulation was unaffected by
varying the zinc concentration. Shrimp tended to lose cadmium faster
at higher temperatures; however, differences were not significant over
the 2 months loss period. Shrimp maintained in a flowing seawater
system retained an average 55% of their original Cd-l09 body burden
after 8 months. The biological half-life, computed over a 7 month
period, was 378 days. The relatively slow loss of Cd-l09 from mussels
was not affected by either the levels of zinc in their tissues or zinc
concentration in the surrounding seawater. Mussels maintained at a
field station lost significantly less Cd-l09 than a similar group held
in the laboratory flowing seawater system during the first 3 months.
After this time field animals fluxed cadmium 4 times faster (Tbl/2 =
307 d) than the laboratory group (Tbl/2 = 1254 d). The observed dis-
crepancy between flux rates is thought to be related to differences in
organisms' food supply. It is concluded that cadmium flux is a rela-
tively slow process in mussels and shrimp. Animals coming into contact
with cadmium polluted waters will retain a significant fraction of the
accumulated metal for a relatively long period of time.
790.
Fowler, S.W., M. Heyraud, L.F. Small, and G. Benayoun. 1973.
Flux of 141 Ce through a euphausiid crustacean. Marine
Biology 21:317-325.
The role of the Mediterranean euphausiid Meganyctiphanes
norvegica in the cycling of radiocerium (Ce-14l) was examined. When
uptake of Ce-14l occurs directly from the water> a "dynamic" population
105
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equilibrium is reached at a concentration factor of about 250. Molting
was responsible for up to 99% loss of total body burden at first molt,
and about 45% of the remaining activity at second molt, thus denying
true long-term equilibrium to individual animals. Fecal pellets did
not contain measurable Ce-14l activity when the euphausiids accumulated
the isotope from water, thus proving that surface adsorption was the
key accumulating process from water. When radiocerium was taken in
through ingestion of labelled Artemia, about 99% of the body burden was
voided as fecal pellets. Excretion by this route was accelerated when
euphausiids were fed non-radioactive Artemia during loss phase. Radio-
active counts of pellets confirmed that all ingested Ce-14l was lost
through defecation. When Ce-14l was ingested as labelled phytoplankton,
a substantial fraction of total body burden occurred in the molts, which
indicated that phytoplankton lost Ce-14l to water and the radioactivity
was subsequently adsorbed to outer surfaces of the euphausiids. Molts,
fecal pellets, and freshly-killed euphausiids lost Ce-14l to water ex-
ponentially, rates being similar to the exponential portions of loss
curves for live, non-molting individuals. It is suggested that M.
norvegica, and probably other pelagic zooplankters, can greatly accele-
rate radiocerium transport to the ocean floor by packaging the isotope
as fecal pellets. In coastal areas subject to low-level radioactive
waste disposal, Ce-14l might be ionic (or at least soluble) to a great
extent, in which case euphausiids could take up the isotope rapidly and
accelerate its vertical transport via molting.
791.
Fowler, S.W., L.F. Small, and J.M. Dean. 1971. Experimental
studies on elimination of zinc-65, cesium-137 and cerium-144
by euphausiids. Marine Biology 8:224-231.
The elimination of 3 radionuclides from Euphausia pacifica
was measured over a 5 month period. The biological half-lives for
Zn-65, Cs-137, and Ce-144, calculated after the euphausiids had in-
gested radioactive Arternia nauplii, were found to be 140 days, 6 days,
and 7.5 h, respectively. the percentages of body burdens lost in molts
were greatest for the fission products, Ce-144 (21%) and Cs-137 (7%),
and least for Zn-65 (1%). Elimination of the isotopes in the feces
could not be followed because of the difficulty in collecting fecal
material for analysis; however, 1 sample collected 2 months after the
beginning of the elimination experiment had no measurable radioactivity-
Loss of Zn-65 from molts and time to disintegration of the molts were
found to be temperature dependent over a 5° to 15°C range, and the
sinking rate of molts was both temperature and salinity dependent.
Calculations showed that, in areas in the North Pacific outside the
influence of upwelling, percentage of Zn-65 loss from sinking molts
(before disintegration of the molts) was likely to be the same through-
out the year, since the molts would be exposed to about the same mean
temperature in the water column in all seasons. Even though temperature
106
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structure in the upper layers changes with season, mean temperatures
change very little when calculated over the sinking distance of intact
molts. Intact molts would sink to slightly over 400 m in the absence
of turbulence, and would lose 87% of their Zn-65 by the time they
reached this depth. Sinking molts thus might contribute substantially
to the vertical transport of Zn-65 in the sea. If loss of Zn-65 in
fecal pellets is assumed to be small under our experimental conditions,
and molting loss is only 1% of Zn-65 body burden, the major mechanism
of Zn-65 loss from euphausiids feeding on non-radioactive food must be
isotopic exchange with the water. Approximately 96% of the initial
body burden was eliminated over a period of 5 months.
792.
Foy, C.D., and G.C. Gerloff. 1972. Response of Chlorella
pyrenoidosa to aluminum and low pH. Jour. Phycology 8(3):
268-271.
Chlorella pyrenoidosa, a green alga which has no measurable
Ca requirement, tolerated much higher Al concentrations in solution
than higher plants which require considerable Ca. This alga also gave
significant positive yield responses to Al concentrations between 1.5
and 12 mg/l (added at pH 4.6). The positive Al response was not attri-
butable to V, Cr, Ni, Co, W, or Ti contaminants in the Al salt. A
strain of ~. pyrenoidosa having even greater Al tolerance was isolated
by subjecting the original Strain I (Fitzgerald) culture to increasing
Al stress. This strain, I-AI, grew in stagnant cultures containing 48
mg/l Al at an initial pH of 4.2. Its yield also was not significantly
decreased by 48 mg/l Al in aerated cultures when both inoculum and
solution pH were 4.6. Under the same conditions the original Strain I
organism was injured by 3 and 6 mg/l Al and was killed by 12 mg/l.
Algal strains which differ in Al tolerance may be useful (1) in studies
on the mechanism of Al toxicity and mineral nutrition in general; and
(2) in raising the pH, precipitating AI, and thereby detoxifying Al-
containing acid mine drainage water and commercial wastes.
793.
Fraizier, A., and A. Vilquin. 1971. An experimental study of
137Cs elimination in the mullet Mugil chelo and the blenny
Blennius pholis. Marine Biology 10:154-156.
Study
nated by Cs-137
the other slow.
determined: for
species; for the
blenny.
of the decontamination of two marine fishes contami-
reveals two distinct elimination stages: one fast,
The corresponding biological half-lives have been
the fast stage it ranges from 20 to 30 days for both
slow stage it is 154 days for mullet and 203 days for
107
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794.
Freeman, H.C., D.A. Horne, B. McTague, and M. McMenemy. 1974.
Mercury in some Canadian Atlantic coast fish and shellfish.
Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 31:369-372.
All species of North Atlantic fishes studied, with the excep-
tion of two groups of offshore lobsters, had total mercury levels less
than the 0.5 mg/kg limit allowed for fish of commerce in Canada and the
United States. There appeared to be no relationship between mercury
levels and sex or weight of fish of anyone species.
795.
Freeman, R.A.
poisoning.
1973. Recovery of rainbow trout from aluminum
Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 102(1):152-154.
As a sequel to a recent series of constant-flow bioassay
studies to determine toxicity of aluminum to rainbow trout, Salmo
gairdneri, trout which had previously been exposed to various concen-
trations of aluminum were maintained for several additional months in
absence of aluminum addition for detection of persistent effects. The
bioassays had been designed to expose trout to aluminum concentrations
and pH levels wherein soluble and precipitated forms of aluminum were
present singly and in various combinations. Under some conditions of
exposure, fish exhibited severe gill hyperplasia and darkening of
coloration, did not feed, and suffered heavy mortality. Significant
reductions in growth rates were also evident in conjunction with these
symptoms.
796.
Freeman, R.A., and W.H. Everhart. 1971. Toxicity of aluminum
hydroxide complexes in neutral and basic media to rainbow
trout. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 100(4) :644-658.
Toxic effects of aqueous aluminum complexes in neutral and
basic media to rainbow trout fingerlings were investigated under con-
stantly flowing, controlled conditions of concentration, pH, and tem-
perature. Toxicities of various concentrations were highly pH depend-
ent. Dissolved concentrations over 1.5 mg/l aluminum caused drastic
physiological and behavioral aberrations as well as acute mortality.
Toxic effects of suspended aluminum, while they are more noticeable,
at lower concentrations, are not as concentration dependent as those
of dissolved forms. The safe concentration of either dissolved or sus-
pended aluminum is well below 0.5 mg/l. Mortalities among test animals
ceased almost immediately after aluminum exposures were concluded.
Recovery times for fish exposed to the various tests were proportional
to the severity of the test conditions and to length of exposure.
Normal growth resumed almost immediately in fish from the less severe
tests, and after a period of a few weeks in fish from the more severe
tests. After up to four months recovery the average weight of fish
108
-------
surviving both chronically and acutely toxic aluminum concentrations
is markedly below the control average.
797.
French, N.R. 1963. Review and discussion of barium.
V., and A.W. Klement, Jr. (eds.). Radioecology.
Publ. Corp., New York: 557-560.
In Schultz,
Reinhold
Isotopes of barium account for a sizable fraction of the
activity in fresh fission products. They are readily assimilated by
aquatic vertebrates and by invertebrates. They are concentrated by
some insects, and perhaps by certain soil invertebrates. Mammals
accumulate radiobarium in all tissues, and it is fixed in the bones.
Radioactive barium may provide considerable radiation doses on a short-
term basis to certain facets of the ecosystem.
798.
Freyre, L. 1973. Pollution of the 'El Carpincho' Pond (Pampasic
Region, Argentina) and its effects on plankton and fish com-
munities. Environmental Pollution 4(1):37-40.
A pond in the Southern Pampasic region of Argentina, with
highly developed fishing and other recreational activities, has been
impacted since 1969 by effluents from 3 industrial plants (milk pro-
cessing plant, plastic bag factory, and an establishment for washing
cattle trucks). The effects of this on the plankton and fish communi-
ties were investigated. Chemical analyses showed an increase in Na and
sulfite, nitrates and phosphates. Lead and iron were detected in the
water for the first time, and there was a high BOD and chloride demand,
with an objectionable odor in wastes from the milk industry. Changes
in the Mg/Ca ratio caused a reduction in density of zooplankton, and in
numbers of the freshwater argentine silverside fish (Basilichthys
bonariensis). On the other hand, an explosive increase in catfish
(Parapimelodus valenciennesi) was observed: The diversity index for
the relative composition of the fish fauna rose from 0.3093 in 1966 to
1.9384 in 1970.
799.
Fromm, P.O., and R.H. Schiffman. 1958.
valent chromium on largemouth bass.
40-44.
Toxic action of hexa-
Jour. Wild. Manag. 22(1):
LC-50 concentrations of hexavalent chromium to largemouth bass
was 195 mg chromium/l under the conditions described. Exposure to 94
mg Cr/l caused initially a slight increase in oxygen consumption after
exposure for 68 h. Exposure to chromium caused severe pathological
changes in the intestine immediately posterior to the pyloric caeca that
in all probability completely destroyed its digestive function. The
109
-------
normal respiratory rhythm of bass was not observably altered following
exposure to chromium; however, coughing movements which occurred at
fairly regular intervals were observed. No significant change in the
histology of the gills of fish exposed to chromium was noted. In con-
centrations that are not acutely lethal, chromium apparently does not
kill fish by interference with the respiratory function of the gill.
800.
Fry, F.E.J., D. Cucin, J.C. Kennedy, and A. Papson. 1960. The
use of lead versenate to place a time mark on fish scales.
Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 89:149-153.
Satisfactory deposits of Pb in scales for time marks were
produced without adverse effects in whitefish and lake trout by in-
jection of 5%-7% Pb di-Na versenate at doses of 50 mg/kg wt.
801.
Fukui, S., K. Tanaka, S. Kanno, and T. Ukita. 1972. Improve-
ments in the determination method of methyl mercury in fish
tissues and the ratio of methyl mercury to total mercury in
fish tissues. Advances in Water Pollution Research, Sixth
Int. Conf., Jerusalem, Israel, June 8-23, 1972:819-827.
New methodology was established for determination of the
ratio of methyl mercury to total mercury in fish tissues. Using this
technique, the ratio of methyl mercury to total mercury in one sample
of spearfish was 80.3% and in albacore tuna, 66.6%.
802.
Funk, W.H., F.W. Rabe, R. Filby, J.I. Parker; and J.E. Winner.
1973. Biological impact of combined metallic and organic
pollution in the Coeur d'Alene-Spokane River drainage system.
Available from Nat. Tech. Inf. Ser. as PB-222 946:1-187.
High metal concentrations (1000-7000 mg/kg Zn) in the bottom
sediments of the middle and northern portions of the lake did not
appear to substantially affect distribution of benthic chironomids or
oligochaetes. Lake sediment cores taken across the delta region of the
Coeur d'Alene River penetrated through the regions of high metallic
concentration and allowed an average sediment deposition rate to be
calculated. Algal toxicity tests showed the amount of Zn normally pre-
sent in the Coeur d'Alene Lake and River and the Spokane River to be
inhibitory to the algal test organism Selanastrum capricornutum. The
water quality of the Spokane River was of good to excellent quality in
all parameters tested except for high metallic content, especially Zn.
Activation and atomic absorption analysis of the metallic content in
tissues of the organisms in the Spokane River indicated that algae were
the prime concentrators of Zn, Cd, Pb, Hg, Fe, and Mn. Algae and
110
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detritus consumers reflected high metallic concentrations. Analysis of
fish tissues showed a considerably lower concentration of metals than
the aquatic plants, insects, or algae. The fish, when collected, did
not appear to be under stress leading to the belief that most of the
metals--although present in relatively high concentrations in the tis-
sues of the organisms tested--must be in a relatively innocuous state.
803.
Gale, N.L., M.G. Hardie, J.C. Jennett, and A. Aleti. 1973.
Transport of trace pollutants in lead mining wastewaters.
Trace Substances in Environmental Health 6:95-106.
The New Lead Belt region of southeastern Missouri, located in
a rural heavily wooded region of the Ozarks, became the world's largest
lead mining district in 1970. Prior to the full development of the
mines, the heavy metals content of area streams was insignificant, with
background values for lead, copper; and zinc in the range of 1 to 20
~g/l. Because of natural conditions present there is little problem
with dissolved heavy metals in regional streams. However, considerable
quantities of finely ground mineral particles may escape flotation and
tailings reservoirs and be transported through the aquatic environment,
especially during periods of turbulence. In addition, mine and parti-
cularly mill effluents sometimes contain nutrients which encourage the
development of complex algal and microconsumer communities. These
aquatic forms have been found to trap and assimilate lead in signifi-
cant quantities. In streams receiving mine and mill effluent, there is
an inverse relationship between the content of lead in the organisms
of the first trophic level and distance downstream from the sources of
contamination.
804.
Gale, N.L., B.G. Wixson, M.G. Hardie, J.C. Jennett. 1973.
Aquatic organisms and heavy metals in Missouri's New Lead
Belt. Water Resources Bull. 19(4) :673-688.
Since industrial development began, there have been a number
of nuisance biological blooms in several small streams receiving ef-
fluent from mines and mills. The major constituents of the problem
algal growths include a variety of stalked and nonstalked diatoms.
Secondary blooms of Sphaerotilus reach problem proportions in some
streams, particularly in the autumn. Finely ground rock flour and
mineral particles escaping from tailings dams are trapped by the
stream vegetation. Concentrations of lead, zinc, copper and manganese
in the algal and bacterial mats are inversely related to distance down-
stream from the tailings dams. Consumer organisms, including crayfish,
snails, aquatic insects, tadpoles, minnows and larger sunfish, were
analyzed to determine the extent of dissemination and concentration of
heavy metals through food chains. Insignificant concentrations of
III
-------
heavy metals were found in the consumer organisms studied, though in
at least one problem stream the normal consumer organisms were markedly
reduced in numbers.
80S.
Gallegos, A.F., and F.W. \fuicker. 1972. Radiocesium retention
by rainbow trout as affected by temperature and weight.
Available from Nat. Tech. Inf. Ser., Springfield, Va., as
COO-115642:l-25.
A laboratory aquarium system was developed to test effect of
water temperature on Cs-137 accumulation pattern for trout stocked in
a Colorado montane lake within the range of temperatures expected in
the lake during the growing season. Weight was selected as the second
correlate. Cs-134 retention was observed in fish at 5.0, 8.3, 12.7 and
l8.3°C. Ten fish ranging in live weight from 30 to 200 grams were
maintained as active feeders at all temperatures. Some fish resided in
the aquarium for more than 200 days without showing signs of ill health.
Weight of each fish was recorded after most radiocesium body burden
determinations. Typical radiocesium retention patterns observed for a
given temperature are presented. Waters heated from sub-optimum to
optimum temperatures by thermal pollution can be expected to increase
fish feeding rates and also their retention of radionuclides incorpo-
rated into growing tissues. These experiments imply that maximum
cesium intake and retention by fish would be achieved at water temper-
atures which were optimal for food consumption and growth.
806.
Gammon, J.R. 1970. The effect of inorganic sediment on stream
biota. U.S. Environ. Protect. Agen., Rept. 18050 DWC:1-14l.
Fish and macroinvertebrate populations fluctuated over a four
year period in response to varying quantities of sediment produced by
a crushed limestone (Ca + Mg) quarry. Light inputs which increased the
suspended solids loads less than 40 mg/l resulted in a 25% reduction in
macroinvertebrate density below the quarry. Heavy inputs caused in-
creases of more than 120 mg/l including some deposition of sediment and
resulted in a 60% reduction in population density of macroinvertebrates.
Population diversity indices were unaffected by changes in density
because most taxa responded to the same degree. Experimental intro-
ductions of sediment caused immediate increases in the rate of inver-
tebrate drift proportional to the concentration of additional suspended
solids.
The standing crop of fish decreased drastically when heavy
sediment input occurred in the spring, but fish remained in pools dur-
ing the summer when the input was very heavy and vacated the pools only
after deposits of sediment accumulated.
112
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After winter floods removed sediment deposits, fish returned
to the pools during spring months and achieved levels of 50% normal
standing crop by early June. Slight additional gains were noted dur-
ing the summer even with light sediment input. Only spotted bass
(Micropterus punctulatus) was resistant to sediment, but its growth
rate was lower below the quarry than above. Most fish were much re-
duced in standing crop below the quarry.
807.
Gardner, G.R., and G. LaRoche. 1973. Copper induced lesions in
estuarine teleosts. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 30:363-368.
Cellular changes attributable to copper were observed in
mechanoreceptors of lateral line canals in the head of adult mummichog
(Fundulus heteroclitus) and Atlantic silverside (Menidia menidia);
epithelium of these canals was altered in mummichog. In both species,
lesions were observed in olfactory organs, which included chemoreceptive
sites. These manifestations of copper poisoning were evident at all
studied concentrations: 0.5, 1.0, and 5.0 mg/l of Cu2+. In silverside,
dilation of blood vessels was apparent, and in five cases hemorrhage
had occurred in brain and in periorbital connective tissues.
Renal lesions in mummichog exposed to 1.0 and 5.0 mg/l of
copper were apparent; these changes could not be identified in silver-
side. Hepatic damage was not detectable by microscopy in either
species following external exposures to copper. However, high levels
of copper administered intraperitoneally to mummichog induced liver
damage.
Fry of mummichog were more sensitive to copper than adults or
zygotes. Emergence of larvae, time required for emergence, and post-
hatch survival was impaired by copper; there were no lesions in de-
veloping sensory areas of the lateral line or the olfactory systems in
these immature stages.
808.
Gardner, G.R., and P.P. Yevich. 1969. Toxicological effects of
cadmium on Fundulus heteroclitus under various oxygen, pH,
salinity and temperature regimes. Amer. 2001. 9(4) :1096.
Histopathological responses of the killifish (Fundulus hetero-
clitus) to acute cadmium poisoning include changes in intestinal tract,
kidney and blood as indicated by a rise in the percentage of eosino-
phils from 3% to 43%. Under conditions of 300/00 salinity, pH 7.8,
dissolved 02 of 7 mg/l, 20°C, and a monitored cadmium concentration of
50 mg/l, lesions occurred in intestine after one hour of exposure and
in kidney after eight hours. Eosinophilia was observed in the peri-
pheral blood after eight hours of exposure. Similar findings were
113
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obtained in specimens exposed to the relatively high cadmium concentra-
tion while a single environmental parameter was modified and others
maintained constant. In one experiment the salinity was decreased to
150/00, in a second the pH was maintained at 4, in a third the tempera-
ture was raised to 30°C (oxygen maintained at saturation 4.5 mg/liter)
and in a fourth experiment the oxygen content was reduced to 2 mg/liter
while all other parameters remained constant. Although the same lesions
were produced, the rate and order of incidence were altered. Kidney
lesions occurred in nearly all animals, except in those exposed under
low pH conditions where only 10% showed the lesions. Intestinal lesions
were present in all animals exposed under low oxygen- levels, and in
approximately 50% of those exposed under the temperature and salinity
modifications. The incidence of intestinal lesions (19%) were least at
low pH. All specimens exposed showed severe eosinophilia (over 43%
rise in eosinophil counts) except at 30°C in which an average rise of
30% in eosinophils was observed.
809.
Gaskin, D.E., R. Frank, M. Holdrinet, K. Ishida, C.J. Walton, and
M. Smith. 1973. Mercury, DOT, and PCB in harbour seals
(Phoca vitulina) from the Bay of Fundy and Gulf of Maine.
Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 30(3):471-475.
Samples of blubber, longissimus muscle, liver and cerebrum
from 12 harbor seals were analyzed for DOT, dieldrin, PCBs, and total
mercury content. The results were compared with those obtained pre-
viously for harbor porpoises (Phocoena phocoena). DOT and PCB levels
appear to be of the same magnitude in the fat of seals from both
southern New Brunswick and southern Maine, being lowest in a lactating
female. Virtually no o,p-DDT and relatively little dieldrin were found
in seal fat, in contrast-to porpoises, which contained significant
amounts of both in fat. Mercury levels were generally similar to
those found for porpoises, but total liver Hg was considerably greater
in adults from the New Brunswick islands than in those from the southern
Maine ledges.
810.
Gaskin, D.E., K. Ishida, and R. Frank. 1972. Mercury in harbour
porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) from the Bay of Fundy Region.
Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 29(11):1644-1646.
During 1969-71, 41 muscle and 20 liver samples were collected
from harbor porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) in the Bay of Fundy region.
These tissues were analyzed for total mercury content. Total Hg levels
ranged from 0.21 to 1.92 mg/kg (average 0.75) in muscle tissue of males
and from 0.26 to 2.58 mg/kg (average 1.02) in muscle tissues of females;
from 0.89 to 18.3 mg/kg in liver tissue of males and from 0.55 to 91.3
mg/kg in liver tissue of females. Averages of the two latter series
114
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would be meaningless. A limited number (four muscle and six liver
samples) of determinations of the methylated fraction were also made.
In the muscle Hg was virtually 100% methylated; in the liver the methy-
lated fraction varied from 7.4 to 41% being lowest in livers with
highest total Hg.
8l0A.
Gaskin, D.E., G.J.D. Smith, P.W. Arnold, M.V. Louisy, R. Frank,
M. Holdrinet, and J.W. McWade. 1974. Mercury, DOT, dieldrin,
and PCB in two species of Odontoceti (Cetacea) from St.
Lucia, Lesser Antilles. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 31:1235-
1239.
Sample of blubber, muscle, liver, and kidney of short-finned
pilot whale Globicephala macrorhyncha and long-snouted dolphin Stenella
sp. from waters adjacent to St. Lucia, Lesser Antilles, were analyzed
for Hg, DOT, dieldrin, and PCB. Total Hg levels were high, ranging
from 1.33 to 5.36 mg/kg in muscle (methylated fraction 42-100%), 2.28
to 14.00 mg/kg in kidney (methylated fraction about 14%), and 13.00 to
157.00 mg/kg in liver (methylated fraction 2-17%). DOT in blubber
ranged from 1.25 to 7.38 mg/kg, dieldrin in blubber from 0.007 to 0.04
mg/kg, and PCB in blubber from 0.69 to 5.00 mg/kg. The presence of the
high Hg levels is attributed largely to natural sources, as the Lesser
Antilles Island Arc is a site of intense cyclic tectonic activity.
There may be some contribution from atmospheric sources. Both DOT and
PCB could be largely the result of atmospheric transportation from
higher latitudes, although local DOT spraying programs may have contri-
buted. The circulation pattern in the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean
appears to rule out water-borne transport from the river systems of
the Gulf States of the United States.
811.
Ghiretti, F., B. Salvato, S. Carlucci, and R. DePieri. 1972.
Manganese in Pinna nobilis. Experientia 28(2):232-233.
Manganese in the bivalve mollusk P. nobilis collected from
the Adriatic Sea was determined by chemical-and X-ray fluorescence.
Consistent amounts of Mn were found in kidney, and some Mn was found
in the byssus. Manganese found in the kidney is almost entirely con-
fined to nephrolith bodies.
812.
Gibbs, P.E., and G.W. Bryan. 1972. A study of strontium, mag-
nesium, and calcium in the environment and exoskeleton of
decapod crustaceans, with special reference to Uca burgersi
on Barbuda, West Indies. Jour. Exper. Mar. Bio~Ecol.
9(1):97-110.
115
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Analyses of samples from Barbuda, Leeward Islands, show that
the Sr-Ca atom ratio of the exoskeleton of the fiddler crab (U. bur-
gersi) is proportional to that of the environment, while the Mg-Ca atom
ratio is fairly constant regardless of the environmental ratio. Labora-
tory experiments on Carcinus maenas demonstrate that the Sr-Ca atom
ratio of the exoskeleton is, to a large extent, determined by the ratio
in the environment at the time of new skeleton deposition. Most brach-
yuran crabs have similar distribution coefficie~ts, and major varia-
tions in the Sr-Ca atom ratio can be related to differences in the en-
vironmental ratio.
813.
Giblin, F.J., and E.J. Massaro. 1973. Pharmacodynamics of
methylmercury in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri): Tissue
uptake, distribution, and excretion. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol
24(1):81-91.
The tissue distribution, rate of uptake and concentration of
203 Hg-labeled methylmercury was investigated in 20 different tissues
and organs over a period of 100 days following single intragastric dose
of 0.5 mg Hg/kg body weight. After 1 hr, mercury concentration factors
> 0.1 were detected in the blood, heart, liver, spleen and kidney; a
concentration factor (CF) of 1.0 equals mercury concentration in dose.
Highest mercury concentrations (CF > 7.0) were observed in the blood at
7 days and spleen at 14 days. After 100 days, the CF of the blood was
> 2.0 and the CF values of the spleen, kidney and liver were> 1.0.
Maximum CF values were reached in the skeletal muscle, brain and lens
after 34, 56 and> 90 days, respectively. Maximum values were reached
in most other tissues and organs at approximately 7 days. Skeletal
muscle appeared to function as a reservoir for methylmercury and accumu-
lated 50% of the dose from 34 to 100 days post administration. Methyl-
mercury accumulation in the brain was limited to 0.1% of the dose. The
rate of mercury excretion appeared to be biphasic as a result of a slow
elimination from the skeletal muscle relative to the other tissues and
organs. Employing both the slow and fast rate, the half-retention time
for methylmercury in rainbow trout was estimated to be > 200 days.
814.
Gibson, C.E., 1972. The algicidal effect of copper on a green
and a blue-green alga and some ecological implications.
Jour. Appl. Ecol. 9(2):513-518.
An algicidal dose of copper sulphate was applied to Cefni
Reservoir, North Wales, to remove Anabaena flos-aquae, the dominant
species. It was quickly replaced by Scenedesmus quadricauda,
previously a minor plankton constituent. To explain this phenomenon
and to elucidate copper effect on the two algae, laboratory studies
were undertaken. Anabaena and Scenedesmus were exposed to several
116
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different concentrations of copper sulphate. ~. flos-aquae was more
sensitive to copper than S. quadricauda and accumulated more copper.
Lethal concentration of accumulated copper was similar for both species.
Sensitivity of~. flos-aquae to copper varied with the stage of its
growth, becoming less sensitive as the culture aged. Although copper
sulphate is more effective as an algicide when used against A. flos-
aquae, other conditions being equal, a greater amount of the-copper
applied will be trapped in its cells and settle to the bottom. Build-
up of copper on the bottom sediment, not studied in detail, may be of
the order of four or five times faster from dead A. flos-aquae than
from S. quadricauda, making more acute the danger-of adversely affect-
ing the bottom fauna and probably the whole food web.
815.
Gilderhus, P.A. 1966. Some effects of sublethal concentrations
of sodium arsenite on bluegills and the aquatic environment.
Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 95:289-296.
Bluegills were exposed to sodium arsenite at various concen-
trations and treatment frequencies in outdoor pools. The effects of
the treatments on the fish and invertebrates in the pools were assessed.
Applications totaling 4.0 mg/l or more of NaAs0Z during the experiment
were reflected in reduced survival and growth of the fish, with im-
mature fish being affected to a greater degree than adults. Some
pathological changes were observed in adults. Arsenic residues were
found in water, bottom soil, and throughout organs and flesh of blue-
gills at termination of the experiment. Bottom fauna and plankton
populations were reduced or inhibited in several pools exposed to the
highest concentrations of the herbicide.
816.
Gillespie, D.C. 1972. Mobilization of mercury from sediments
into guppies (Poecilia reticulata). Jour. Fish. Res. Bd.
Canada 29(7):1035-1041.
Guppies were exposed in aquaria to aerobic and anaerobic
sediments to which various forms of mercury were added and to sediments
from two sites of industrial pollution. Whole body levels of total
mercury in these fish were used as a measure of mobilization of mercury
from sediments. Spot checks for methylmercury were carried out at
intervals during the tests. Under aerobic conditions there was little
mobilization of mercury from sediments to which mercuric chloride or
sulphide had been added but total mercury concentrations rose rapidly
in fish exposed to sediments containing metallic mercury.
The proportion of methylmercury in fish reached maxima of 30%
for metallic mercury, 40% for mercuric chloride, and 45% for mercuric
sUlphide. In anaerobic sediments, total mobilization was low and only
117
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mercuric chloride was significantly methylated (40% of the total in the
fish).
Both mobilization and methylation were proportionately greater
in industrial sediments with a low mercury content than in sediments with
a higher mercury content. Enrichment of sediments with lignosulphonate
showed no real effects aerobically, possibly because of the chelation
properties of the preparation used. Anaerobically, lignosulphonate
stimulated methylation of mercury.
The levels of mercury and methylmercury found in fish are con-
sistent with data from nature.
817.
Gillespie, D.C., and D.P. Scott. 1971. Mobilization of mercuric
sulfide from sediment into fish under aerobic conditions.
Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 28(11):1807-1808.
A system for studying the aerobic mobilization of
from aquatic sediments into fish was described. Using this
was shown that mercuric sulfide in sediment was very slowly
and picked up by fish.
mercury
method, it
mobilized
818.
Gloyna, E.F., Y.A. Yousef, and T.J. Padden. 1971. Radioactivity
transport in water. Continuous release of radionuclides in
a small scale ecosystem. U.S. Atom. Ener. Comm. Contract
AT(11-1)-490, Tech. Rept. 21, CRWR-75, EHE-7l-l, ORO-2l:l-66.
Radionuclide uptake by rooted aquatic plants, suspended
phytoplankton, and bottom sediment was studied in a model river system
for which radionuclide concentrations in water were below the guide-
lines. Rooted plants reached a quasi-equilibrium activity in 36 hours
as compared to 30 days for bottom sediments. Suspended phytoplankton
concentrations averaging about 20 mg/liter increased the transfer rate
to bed sediments about 25%. The ratio of the radioactivity per g (dry
weight) to that per ml water at quasi-equilibrium for rooted plants
averaged 600 for Sr-85 and 400 for Cs-134. The ratio for phytoplankton
was 200-700 for Sr-85 and 4,000-13,000 for Cs-134. Uptake of Cs-134
(but not of Sr-85) by phytoplankton was linearly related to the rate of
photosynthetic oxygen production. The ratio of radioactivity per sq cm
of sediment to that per ml of water was 70-90 for Sr-85 and 250-300 for
Cs-134.
819.
Gonye, E.R., Jr. 1972. The abnormal morphogenesis of Arthro-
bacter marinus under heavy metal stress. Ph.D. Thesis: 1-173.
118
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Avail. from Univ. Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Mich. 48106.
Order No. 73-4358.
Arthrobacter marinus exhibits alteration of its normal coccoid-
rod morphogenesis in the presence of heavy metal ions. Ni caused the
most dramatic alterations of cellular morphology at a concentration of
0.0002 to 0.0004 M NiC12 in a basal medium. Under Ni stress the cell
enlarged in diameter from a normal 1-2 to over 25 millimicrons. In
comparison to bacterial cultures of a non-marine origin related to the
genus Arthrobacter, A. marinus demonstrated tolerance to the highest
concentrations of Ni-(0.0005 M) in nutrient agar. Only A. marinus
formed megalomorphic cells in the presence of NiC12 concentrations
approaching toxicity. In the Ni-stressed condition a loss of cell
envelope amino acids including alanine, glutamic acid and diaminopimelic
acid was observed. Ferrichrome, putrescine, and spermidine were inef-
fective in sparing megalomorphic formation of A. marinus under Ni
stress. Scanning electron microscopy by the freeze-etching technique
indicated multivacuolation characterized by vacuole membranes, polybeta-
hydroxybutyric acid granules, and a loss of cell envelope protein
granules under Ni stress. An ecological survey of three seawater en-
vironments, open ocean, coastal, and estuarine, indicated the open ocean
heterotrophic microbial population as the most Ni tolerant.
820.
Gordon, C.M., R.A. Carr, and R.E. Larson. 1970. The influence
of environmental factors on the sodium and manganese content
of barnacle shells. Limnology and Oceanography 15(3):461-466.
Sodium and manganese in barnacle shells, collected from habi-
tats with salinities varying from 1-260/00, have been measured by
neutron activation analysis. Sodium content varies from 1,600 to 5,000
mg/kg and is proportional to environmental salinity. ~1anganese values
range from 80 to 3,800 mg/kg and are related to the concentration of
manganese in the local water.
821.
Graham, D.L. 1972. Trace metal levels in intertidal mollusks of
California. Veliger 14(4):365-372.
Silver, cadmium, chromium, copper, manganese, lead and zinc
levels in 7 species of mollusca (of the genera Acmaea, Tegula, Thais,
Mytilus, Protothaca and Tapes) were determined for eleven regions along
the California coast from San Francisco Bay to Los Angeles. Separate
analyses were performed on shells and soft portions of whole bodies.
Over 900 mg/kg lead were found in the bodies of ~. digitalis: 570
mg/kg copper and 1700 mg/kg zinc were found in the bodies of Thais
emarginata.
119
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822.
Gramenitskii, E.M. 1958. Effect of lead nitrate on the supravital
staining of cells of poikilotherms. Bull. Exp. BioI. Med.
USSR, 45:97-100.
Effect of Pb nitrate was studied on various cells of liver,
kidneys, and nerves of frogs using a technique of supravital staining
in situ with neutral red. Threshold paranecrotic doses of Pb nitrate
were: liver cells, 3 mg/g body weight; kidney tubule cells, 7 mg/g
body weight; and sympathetic nerve cells, 10 mg/g body weight. Para-
necrotic changes were not revealed in the sensory nerve cells of the
spinal ganglia, although reflex activity of the laboratory animals was
depressed. A supravital staining technique, consisting of injection
into the body cavity of 1% aqueous neutral red solution at dose levels
of 0.3-0.5 mg dye/g body weight and removal and examination of organs
within 1 hr after injection, is recommended for use in toxicology.
823.
Gray, J.S., and R.J. Ventilla. 1973. Growth rates of sediment-
living marine protozoan as a toxicity indicator for heavy
metals. Ambio 2(4):118-121.
The classical method for measuring toxicity of a chemical to
a marine organism is by the LC-50 test. In this test the concentration
which kills 50% of the test organisms in 48 or 96 hours is determined
and is frequently used to set upper limits for concentrations in
effluent discharge. The test can be criticized on a number of points:
a) the duration of the test is too short, when effluent discharge will
be continuous; b) should the organism survive the test, it may not
grow and reproduce at the tested concentration and in nature the organ-
ism may avoid that concentration of chemical important to migratory
fish and shellfish; c) on the assumption that toxicity increases with
temperature, summer temperatures are used in the test, whereas stress
conditions may be greater at lower temperatures; d) the organisms used
are frequently at high trophic levels and are adults, whereas lower
trophic levels and larvae are known to be more susceptible; e) chemi-
cals are tested singly, whereas in nature mixtures of chemicals occur.
In an attempt to allay such criticisms we have used an organism of low
trophic level, a bacterivorous ciliate, and have measured changes in
growth rate rather than mortality as criteria of pollution.
Using factorial designs and response surface analysis, experi-
mental conditions were optimized with respect to salinity-temperature
combinations. With near optimum conditions the effects of mercuric
ions (HgC12)' lead ions (Pb(N03)2) and zinc ions (ZnS04) were tested
each at three concentrations in a factorial design. HgC12 at an added
concentration of 0.0025 mg/l reduced growth rate by 9.7%, Pb(N03)2 at
0.15 mg/l by 8.5% and ZnS04 at 0.125 mg/l by 8.3%. On mixing the
chemicals, significant supplemental synergistic effects were found at
120
-------
all two factor and three factor combinations. Models of the effects
and graphical response surface contours are given. Since many chemi-
cals are likely to interact, both supplementally or antagonistically,
the method used seems of widespread relevance to toxicity testing.
824.
Greichus, Y.A., A. Greichus, and R.J. Emerick. 1973. Insecti-
cides, polychlorinated biphenyls and mercury in wild cor-
morants, pelicans, their eggs, food and environment. Bull.
Environ. Contamin. Toxicol. 9(6):321-328.
Mercury residues were not detected in water, bottom sediments
or fish except carp which also had the highest levels of insecticides
and PCB residues. Concentrations of total mercury in lake trout were
found to increase with the age of the fish and ranged from 0.19 to 0.66
mg/kg.
Insecticide and PCB levels in cormorant eggs appeared to re-
flect body levels but in pelican eggs they did not.
Mercury was highest in liver of cormorants and pelicans.
Concentration factors of 14- and 6-fold over fish were found in bodies
of cormorants and pelicans respectively. This may reflect greater
mercury contamination in the food of cormorants in the wintering areas
as the concentration in nestling cormorants was only 1.3 times that of
fish. Cormorant eggs had higher levels of insecticides, PCB's and
mercury than pelican eggs.
825.
Greve, P.A., and S.L. Wit. 1971. Mercury in fish-total content
in freshwater and marine fishes. TNO-nieuws 26:395-399.
Several species of marine and freshwater fishes were analyzed
for mercury. In freshwater fish, Hg content was dependent on place of
origin, with Usselmeer eel having more mercury than eels from other
sources, averaging 0.5 mg/kg Hg. The biological accumulation factor
for eel was about 1000; in other words, a 0.1 ~g/kg Hg concentration in
water would produce 0.1 mg/kg Hg in an eel. Similar factors have been
found by Swedish researchers for pike and bass. Swedish standards for
mercury content in fish tissue (1.0 mg/kg Hg) versus American standards
(0.5 mg/kg Hg) are discussed.
826.
Griffiths, R.P., and R.Y. Morita. 1973. Salinity effects on
glucose uptake and catabolism in the obligately psychrophilic
marine bacterium Vibrio marinus. Marine Biology 23:177-182.
121
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Studies on effects of various salinities on uptake and cata-
bolism of glucose in Vibrio marin us MP-l revealed several significant
shifts in total uptake and respiration as the cells were subjected to
increasingly greater concentrations of NaCl. As the salinity increased
from 0.30 to 1.0 M NaCl, there was a decrease in the C6/Cl(C02) ratio.
Resulting patterns suggest that the relative participation of the
hexose monophosphate pathway in glucose catabolism was altered. This
pathway is apparently shut down in the region of the minimum-growth
salinity, and may be related to growth limitation at lower salinities.
The shift in C6/Cl ratio was not affected by changing incubation tem-
perature, nor was it dependent specifically on presence of Na+ or Cl-.
As salinity increased from 0.15 to 0.30 M NaCl, there was a shift in
total uptake patterns which suggests the formation and loss of metabolic
by-products derived from the first, second, sixth, and presumably fifth
carbons of glucose.
827.
Guinn, V.P., and R. Kishore. 1972. Results from multi-trace
element neutron activation analyses of marine biological
specimens. Available from Nat. Tech. Inf. Ser., Springfield,
Va., as CONF-72l0l0-l0:l-5.
In Pacific Ocean mammals and large fish, much higher levels
of Se and Zn were found in liver than in muscle tissue. With mammals
the same was the case for Hg; however, with fish the level of Hg was
about the same in both liver and muscle tissue. There was appreci-
able variation between different specimens of the same species and
size, and even within a given tissue of a single specimen--such that
it is important that large numbers of samples are analyzed. Levels as
low as 0.01 mg/kg Hg, 0.02 mg/kg Se, and 0.2 mg/kg Zn could be detected
using Ge (Li) gamma spectrometry.
828.
Haga, Y., H. Haga, T. Hagino, and T. Kariya. 1970. Studies on
the post-mortem identification of the pollutant in the fish
killed by water pollution. XII. Acute poisoning with mer-
cury (1). Bull. Japan. Soc. Sci. Fish. 36(3) :225-231.
Toxicity and residues of mercury in goldfish killed by in-
organic mercury in solution (HgC12) was determined. The 48 hour LC-50
was between 0.5 and 1.0 mg/l. Five mg/l of Hg was fatal in about 10
hours.
829.
Hagerman, L. 1973. Ionic regulation in relation to the moult
cycle of Crangon vulgaris (Fabr.) (Crustacea, Natantia) from
brackish water. Ophelia 12:141-149.
122
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Ionic regulation of haemolymph during the moult cycle of
shrimp was investigated at 100/00 salinity. Sodium showed a minimum
immediately after ecdysis and a maximum in the intermoult stages, while
potassium, which also is held at a level higher than the medium, showed
a minimum in the intermoult stages and an increase prior to and after
ecdysis. Calcium showed, contrary to species from fully marine areas,
a minimum after ecdysis and then a rapid increase in calcium ion con-
centration and a slow decrease in the later intermoult phase and in the
premoult stages. Magnesium, generally held at a very low concentration,
showed an increase at ecdysis. Chloride varied in the same way as so-
dium. The changes in ion concentrations during the moult cycle can
mostly be explained by an increased permeability and an increased water
intake before the ecdysis and a swelling of the animal after ecdysis
before the new exoskeleton has hardened.
830.
Hagerman, L. 1973. Ionic regulation in Crangon vulgaris (Fabr.)
(Crustacea, Natantia) from brackish water. Ophelia 12:151-
157.
The hyper-hypoosmotic (isosmotic at 230/00) shrimp was found
to maintain Ca2+ and K+ more concentrated than the medium in 5-250/00,
Na+ and Cl- more concentrated in the range 5-30(23)0/00 and less con-
centrated in higher salinities. Mg2+ was held at a very low level
throughout the salinity range. The importance of various mechanisms
(low permeability, active ion transport and hypo-osmotic urine) in
assisting this efficient ion regulation is discussed.
831.
Hakonson, T.E., A.F. Gallegos, and F.W. Whicker. 1972. Use of
Cs-133 and activation analysis for measurement of Cs kine-
tics in a montane lake. Available from Nat. Tech. In£. Ser.,
Springfield, Va., as COO-1156-4l:l-17.
Uptake of Cs-133 by amphipods and zooplankton was measured by
neutron activation. The concentration factor for both groups was about
340. Retention of Cs-134 by fish was determined by whole-body counting
after injection by gavage. The temperature for maximum retention was
that which was optimum for growth.
832.
Haley, G.F., and M.A. Gibson. 1971. Calcium storage in the soft
tissues of freshwater gastropods. The influence of environ-
mental calcium concentrations. Canadian Jour. 2001. 49:1001-
1004.
Effect of environmental calcium concentration gradients on
storage of calcium spherules in lIelisoma duryi eudiscus was investigated,
123
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Primary sites of calcium storage in adult snails are the subepithelial
connective tissues of the mantle edge, pulmonary region and foot.
Snails were hatched and raised for 6 weeks in one of seven solutions
of different calcium concentrations. These calcium chloride solutions
contained the following concentrations of calcium: 10, 20, 40, 80,
160, 320, and 640 mg!l of demineralized water. A significantly higher
number of calcium spherules are stored at both extremes of this concen-
tration range, that is, in the 10, 320, and 640 mg!l solutions. The
effects of the intermediate concentrations on calcium storage are not
significantly different with respect to each other. No mention is made
of the potential effects of demineralized water on snails.
833.
Hannan, P.J., and C. Patouillet. 1972. Effect of mercury on
algal growth rates. Biotechnology and Bioengineering 14:93-
101.
Comparisons of the effects of 0.1 mg!l of mercury and other
metallic ions (silver, cadmium, lead, copper) on the growth rates of
one freshwater (Chlorella pyrenoidosa) and three marine algae (Phaeo-
dactylum tricornutum, Cyclotella nana, Chaetoceros galvestonensis)
have been made under controlled laboratory conditions. Growth, deter-
mined by an increase in fluorescence, was monitored using a fluro
microphotometer. Fluorescence was measured initially and once each day
for three days. Mercury was more toxic than the other metals tested;
mercury as mercuric chloride was more toxic than dimethyl mercury. The
toxicity of mercury was found to be comparatively irreversible and to
vary inversely with the concentration of nutrients present in the growth
media. Just how much mercury algae can absorb without growth inhibition
is yet to be determined.
834.
Hannan, P.J.o N.P. Thompson, C. Patouillet, and P.E. Wilkniss.
1973. 2 3Hg as tracer in pigments of Phaeodactylum tri-
cornutum. Inter. Jour. Appl. Radiation Isotopes 24:665-670.
Cells of Phaeodactylum tricornutum were exposed to 0.12 mg!1
Hg (containing Hg-203 as a tracer) in a 3.5% NaCl solution and in
dilute culture medium of the same salinity. Radioactivity measure-
ments indicated that mercury uptake by the algal cells was comparable
in both solutions, and that less than 2% of the sorbed mercury was in
the pigments, as determined by methanol extraction. The fluorescence
of the cells, however; was decreased by either the presence of mercury
or the absence of nutrients.
835.
Hannan, P.J., P.E. Wilkniss, C. Patouillet, and R.A. Carr. 1973.
Measurements of mercury sorption by algae. U.S. Naval Res.
Lab., Wash. D.C., Rept. 7628:1-26.
124
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Results of laboratory experiments concerning mercury sorption
by two marine algae, Phaeodactylum tricornutum and Chaetoceros galves-
tonensis are described. Mercury uptake was determined using carrier-
free Hg-197, and Hg-203 incorporated in mg mercury/liter concentrations.
Significant mercury concentrations were found in cells grown in media
prepared from chemically pure reagents; concentrations of 14 to 116
mg/kg were present in cells harvested from 10% and 100% concentrations
of culture medium. Phaeodactylum cells grown in a 10% culture medium
in the presence of 0.05 mg Hg/l contained 2400 mg Hg/kg but growth was
inhibited only 55% in a 4-day period. Chaetoceros cells had a greater
affinity for mercury and contained over 7400 mg Hg/kg when cultured for
the same time period in a 25% culture medium containing 0.10 mg Hg/l.
They had not grown, as determined by fluorescence analysis.
Mercury sorption to Millipore filters was greater in the
presence of dilute culture medium than in 3.5% NaCl solution. To cir-
cumvent the problems associated with this phenomenon, a procedure was
devised whereby the activity of isotopically tagged cells could be
determined without collecting them on a filter. Less than 2% of the
mercury sorbed to Phaeodactylum cells was in the pigments.
836.
Hanson, W.C., and A.C. Case. 1963. A method for measuring water-
fowl dispersion utilizing phosphorus-32 and zinc-65. In
Schultz, V., and A.W. Klement, Jr. (eds.). Radioecology,
Reinhold Publ. Corp., New York: 451-453.
Waterfowl which inhabit the Columbia River wi thin and down-
stream from the Hanford Reservation accumulate small amounts of radio-
nuclides from reactor effluent released to the river. A method is
described for identifying these birds in the hunter harvest. Water-
fowl heads were rapidly scanned for total gamma radiation, due princi-
pally to zinc-65, and those with above-background counting rates sub-
sequently were associated with the Hanford section of the Columbia
River by analyses for phosphorus-32.
The phosphorus-32 tag was detected in 41% of 601 waterfowl
harvested within a 50 mile radius of the Hanford Reservation during
the 1960-1961 hunting season. Initial results showed seasonal fluc-
tuations in the tagged portion of the population with three major
arrival periods of unmarked immigrants.
837.
Hardisty, M.W., S. Kartar, and M. Sainsbury. 1974. Dietary
habits and heavy metal concentrations in fish from the
Severn Estuary and Bristol Channel. Marine Poll. Bull. 5(4):
61-63.
125
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Comparisons of growth rates, feeding habits, and heavy metal
levels of flounders from Barnstaple and Oldbury-on-Severn have shown
that at all ages the fish from Barnstaple are larger than those from
the middle Severn estuary and that there are marked differences in diet.
These differences in diet may contribute to the much higher zinc levels
of the Barnstaple flounder samples. In the six other fish species ex-
amined, there is a distinct correlation between cadmium concentrations
of the tissues and the proportion of crustaceans in the diet. Lead
concentrations appear to follow a similar trend, but no relationship
could be detected between diet and tissue zinc levels.
838.
Harrison, F.L. 1973. Accumulation and loss of cobalt and cae-
sium by the marine clam, Mya arenaria, under laboratory and
field conditions. In Radioactive Contamination of the Marine
Environment, Int. Atom. Ener. Agen., Vienna, Austria: 453-478.
The accumulation of Co-60 and Cs-137 by clams was followed in
the laboratory in aquarium systems in which the levels of radioactive
and stable caesium and cobalt were held constant. At 3- to 21-day
intervals during the 6-month accumulation period, groups of 8 animals
were removed from the water and their soft tissues were dissected into
7 different organs and tissues. The concentrations of both Co-60 and
Cs-137 in the edible tissues increased rapidly and then levelled off at
concentrations of Co-60 that were about 200 times that of water and of
Cs-137 that were about 5 times that of water. Variations in concentra-
tion among body parts were larger for Co-60 than for Cs-137. The
effect of stable element concentration in water on accumulation rates
was assessed in groups maintained in seawater containing 0.5, 2.5, and
12.5 ~g/l each of stable cobalt and caesium. Little regulation of
caesium accumulation was observed at these concentrations; the rates
of accumulation increased with the concentration in water. Some regu-
lation of cobalt occurred at the higher concentrations. The accumula-
tion of Co-60 and Cs-137 was followed also in clams introduced into a
discharge canal receiving radioactive waste from a boiling-water
reactor. Groups of 6 animals were sampled at 3-week intervals and con-
centrations were measured in the pooled, total soft tissues. Loss of
Co-60 by whole clam was monophasic, that of Cs-137 was biphasic.
Kinetics of accumulation and loss were described by exponential equa-
tions. The rate constants of accumulation and loss and the steady-
state concentration factors are being used in models to predict the
dose to man from the consumption of animals exposed to radioactive
releases.
839.
Harriss, R.C., D.B. White, and R.B. MacFarlane.
compounds reduce photosynthesis by plankton.
736-737.
1970. Mercury
Science 170(3959):
126
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Concentrations of organomercurial fungicides as low as 0.1
~g/l in water reduced photosynthesis and growth in laboratory cultures
of one species of marine diatom and several natural phytoplankton com-
munities from Florida lakes. The acute toxicity of mercury compounds
to phytoplankton is dependent on the chemical nature of the mercury
compound and on cell concentrations.
840.
Harvey, R.S. 1967. Effects of temperature on the sorption of
radionuclides by a blue-green alga. Symposium on Radio-
ecology, Proc. 2nd Natl. Symp., Ann Arbor, Mich.: 266-269.
Temperature differential effects (15°C) on sorption of
cesium-137, strontium-85, zinc-65, iron-59. cobalt-57, and manganese-
54, by the filamentous Cyanophyte, Plectonema boryanum, are reported.
The alga was collected from reactor effluent streams. Unialgal cul-
tures were grown concurrently at four water temperatures and samples
weighed and radioassayed after exposures of increasing times. This
species grew best between 30 and 40°C. Growth was not affected by low
concentrations of radionuclides in the medium. Radionuclide concen-
trations at the various water temperatures were compared; for a given
water temperature, sorption levels differed for the radionuclides
studied because of variances in specific activity and biological demand
for various elements. The essential elements of manganese-54, zinc-65,
cobalt-57, and iron-59, were sorbed to higher levels than strontium-85
and cesium-137, perhaps due in part to their physical state; only
cesium-137 and strontium-85 were present, mainly in ionic form. Since
sorption levels for the various radionuclides were raised or lowered by
factors less than 2.5 by the temperature differential, the conclusion
was drawn that nonlethal variations in water temperature have no major
influence on the sorption by ~. boryanum of the radionuclides tested.
841.
Hasler, A.D. 1949. Antibiotic aspects of copper treatment of
lakes. Trans. Wisconsin Acad. of Sci., Arts, Letters 39:97-
103.
Lakes, in a comparatively short time, move toward a eutrophic
stage in which massive algal developments may be anticipated. Such
algal growths inhibit many of the recreational and other human uses
made of the lakes and of their waters. The spray application of copper
sulfate solution has been found effective in inhibiting development of
algal blooms. However, addition of copper through sprays may introduce
a toxic condition. Results of short exposures of fish to copper salt
toxicity do not reflect the impact of toxic effects over longer periods
Algae, fish, invertebrates, and amphibians are all subject to inhibi-
or destruction by the absorption of copper salts. The author suggests
that studies be undertaken to substitute other control substances for
127
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a permanent poison that has been employed to combat a temporary nuisance
Harvesting of crops of algae and large aquatic plants might be a con-
trol mechanism, as might zoning of lakes for certain specific uses, and
various kinds of watershed controls.
842.
Hata, Y. 1960. Influence of heavy metals upon the growth and
activity of marine sulfate-reducing bacteria. Norinsho
Suisan Koskusho Kenkyu Hokoku 9:363-375.
Marine sulfate-reducing bacteria strain SM1 was used through-
out this work. Heavy metals originally contained in peptone and lactic
acid employed were removed by use of the 8-quino1ino1 treatment. When
salts of Bi, Co, Cr, Mn, Pb, and Sb were present in culture media, sul-
fides were accumulated in higher concentration than in absence of these
metal salts, although initial growth of bacteria was considerably re-
tarded when compared with the latter case. Results suggest that the
above metals acted as inhibitors of bacterial growth, and also as pre-
cipitators of free H2S produced. Removal of free H2S by precipitation
from the media has a favorable effect upon the sulfate-reducing activity
of these bacteria.
843.
Havre, G.N., B. Underda1, and C. Christiansen. 1972. The con-
tent of lead and some other heavy elements in different fish
species from a fjord in western Norway. Proc. Inter. Symp.
Environ. Health Aspects of Lead, Amsterdam, Oct. 2-6, 1972:
99-111.
The investigation deals with uptake and accumulation of heavy
elements, especially lead and cadmium, by animals living in a polluted
fjord on the western coast of Norway. The source of pollution in this
connection is a zinc factory at the inner end of the fjord. The con-
tent of lead, cadmium, zinc and mercury are determined in a number of
fish, caught at different localities along the fjord. The zinc content
is of interest because it seems to have influence upon the uptake of
other heavy elements. The figures for lead, cadmium and zinc are dis-
cussed in correlation to each other, and in correlation to fish species.
It was concluded that zinc uptake in fish from a polluted area like
this is not seriously affected, while uptake of lead is raised more
than ten times when zinc and lead outlets in the sea are about the same.
When the outlet of lead in the sea is more than 100 times higher than
the outlet of cadmium, the content in fish liver is about the same for
the two elements, in fact slightly higher for cadmium, while content
in fish muscles is about ten times higher for lead than for cadmium.
128
-------
844.
Havre, G.N., B. Underdal, and C. Christiansen. 1973. Cadmium
concentrations in some fish species from a coastal area in
southern Norway. Oikos 24:155-157.
Cadmium concentrations in some fish species have been deter-
mined using atomic absorption. Concentrations were low, varying from
0.003 to 0.012 ~g/g wet weight in cod, and from 0.002 to 0.029 ~g/g,
and 0.003 to 0.033 ~g/g in whiting and herring, respectively. Results
could indicate a slightly greater accumulation of cadmium in fat fish
as compared to lean fish. No correlation seems to exist between the
cadmium concentration and the total weight of the fish.
845.
Hayashi, A. 1960.
Lead content.
Biochemical studies on Ostrea gigas.
Seikagaku 32:871-873.
IX.
Seasonal changes of the Pb content in Ostrea gigas were
determined. Except for September when the Pb content was 5.9 mg/kg
of fresh tissue, rather constant values, ranging from 0.1-0.4 mg/kg
were obtained. Different culture methods did not influence the Pb
content. Distribution of Pb was highest in the mantle (in mg/kg of
ashed sample) .
846.
Hayward, J. 1970. Studies on the growth of Phaeodactylum tri-
cornutum. VI. The relationship to sodium, potassium, cal-
cium and magnesium. Jour. Mar. BioI. Assn. U.K. 50:293-299.
Experiments were conducted to determine cellular concentra-
tions of Na, K, Mg, and Ca in Phaeodactylum. Evidence is presented
showing that the ionic concentrations vary during different phases in
batch culture and that algal cells become relatively richer in divalent
cations towards the end of the growth period. Variation in external
concentration has little effect on internal concentration of the cat-
ions studied and a hypothesis is suggested to account for the faster
rate of growth in more dilute medium.
847.
Hearnden, E.H.
22 (10) : 3-6.
1970.
Mercury pollution.
Fisheries of Canada
In November, 1969, a report made by the Saskatchewan govern-
ment disclosed that abnormal levels of mercury had been detected in
fish from the Saskatchewan River. The fish from the river were imme-
diately taken into custody and those lots with over 0.5 mg/kg of mer-
cury were destroyed. About 500,000 kg were incinerated. The mercury
was traced to a chlor-alkali plant. With 14 of these plants operating
across Canada an intensive monitoring program was undertaken. Some
129
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additional areas were closed to fishing because of mercury pollution.
Steps have been taken to control and eliminate the mercury pollution
problem in Canada.
848.
Hecky, R.E., and P. Kilham. 1973. Diatoms in alkaline, saline
lakes: ecology and geochemical implications. Limnology and
Oceanography 18(1):53-71.
Six species of diatoms achieved dominance in 26 alkaline,
saline lakes in East Africa. There is a pronounced tendency for these
species to replace each other as alkalinity increases, Cyclotella
meneghiniana is usually dominant in less concentrated lakes and Nitzschia
frustulum is favored as the alkalinity exceeds 80 meq/liter. Coscino-
discus rudolfi and Navicula elkab are occasionally dominant at inter-
mediate alkalinities. Navicula elkab is usually subdominant when N.
frustulum is dominant. Most of these species when dominant are con-
sidered functionally planktonic in these waters. The presence of the
cyanophyte Oscillatoria (Arthrospira) platensis in bloom seems to be a
prerequisite for N. elkab and N. frustulum to enter the plankton. There
is some evidence that the anionic composition of these lakes may be
selective for some of the benthonic species. Geochemical data indicate
that the production and preservation of diatom frustules appear to con-
trol silica concentrations in the waters. Relatively poor correlations
were observed between sodium and silica and between pH and silica.
These data have important implications for theoretical models of geo-
chemical evolution in closed basins. Little or no dissolution of
fossil diatom frustules was observed in the sediments of these highly
alkaline, high pH waters.
849.
Heft, R.E., W.A.
Radionuclide
en vi ronmen t .
Environment,
614.
Phillips, H.R. Ralston, and W.A. Steele. 1973.
transport studies in the Humboldt Bay marine
In Radioactive Contamination of the Marine
Int. Atom. Ener. Agen., Vienna, Austria: 595-
Operation of the Pacific Gas and Electric Company nuclear
power reactor (65 MW(e) boiling water) at Humboldt Bay, Eureka, Cali-
fornia, produces as a by-product in low concentration in aqueous solu-
tion a number of radionuclides (fission products, Zn-65, Co-60, Mn-54,
H-3, etc.). At irregular intervals the accumulated radioactive liquid
waste is released into the Bay in accordance with limits prescribed by
the Atomic Energy Commission and the State of California North Coastal
Regional Water Control Board. The Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, in
cooperation with the Pacific Gas and Electric Company has undertaken a
program to study the transport of the released radionuclides through
the Humboldt Bay marine environment. The Bay is considered to be
divided into five aqueous pools. Within each pool, the radionuclides
130
-------
are partitioned among some or all of the following compartments--aqueous
solution, bottom sediment, suspended sediment, benthic algae, eelgrass,
phytoplankton. The experimental program consists of three main parts:
assay of each release for gamma-emitting radionuclides; monthly analyses
for radionuclide and stable element concentration in each of the listed
compartments; and intercornpartment exchange rate studies. Radionuclide
release data accumulated since April 1971 is compared with monthly
measurements of radionuclide concentration in the Bay. It is found
that the amounts released have little effect on field concentrations.
Exchange study programs now being carried out in the discharge canal
and the laboratory are discussed. The nature and status of a proposed
transport model for the Bay is described.
850.
Held, E.E.
Atoll.
1960. Land crabs and fission products at Eniwetok
Pacific Science 14(1) :18-27.
Periodic determinations of radioactivity in land crabs from
Belle Island, Eniwetok Atoll, were made over a period of nearly two
years following the 1954 atomic testing program. Radioactivity in
exoskeleton was found to be due almost entirely to radiostrontium and
the Y-90 daughter of Sr-90 and remained at a nearly constant level,
excepting physical decay. An estimate of contributions of radio-
strontium from previous tests to a crab skeleton at Belle Island is
given. Long-lived fission products in muscle tissue consisted of 84%
Cs-137, 10% Sr-90 + Y-90, and 1% Ce-144 + Pr-144. A possible associa-
tion between the availability of cesium and rainfall is suggested.
During the first 150 days following a nuclear detonation the rate of
decline of radioactivity in organisms on an atoll island may be con-
sidered to approximate the rate of decay of mixed fission products.
In so far as the long-lived fission products strontium, cesium, and
cerium are concerned there appears to be a strontium-cesium food cycle
in the lagoon.
851.
Held, E.E. 1963. Qualitative distribution of radionuclides at
Rongelap Atoll. In Schultz, V., and A.W. Klement, Jr. (eds.).
Radioecology. Reinhold Publ. Corp., New York: 167-169.
The qualitative distribution of radionuclides at Rongelap
Atoll as determined approximately five years after contamination by
fallout from a thermonuclear device indicates distinct differences be-
tween the terrestrial and marine environments. The levels of radio-
activity are low, the concentrations being less than the maximum per-
missible concentration for radionuclides in food or drinking water of
man. Of the wide spectrum of radionuclides concentrated in the surface
layers of the soil, strontium-90, antimony-125, and cesium-137 are the
principal nuclides entering into the soil solution. The principal
131
-------
nuclides in the land plants and plant-eating animals such as coconut
crabs and the indigenous rats are cesium-137 and, to a lesser degree,
strontium-90. Bottom sediments contain mainly strontium-90 and eur-
opium-155. The radionuclides in the lagoon water have not been de-
tected but are probably present in minute amounts. Planktonic organ-
isms contain traces of manganese-54, cobalt-57, 60, zinc-65, zirconium-
95, ruthenium-l06 and cerium-144. The principal nuclide found in the
marine algae is cerium-144. In the marine invertebrates cobalt-60
and zinc-65 occur most commonly. Corals and coralline algae contain
some strontium-90, while the fish and sea birds are found to contain
mostly zinc-65. The presence of zinc-65, cesium-137, and strontium-
90 in the body of the natives reflects a diet of both marine and
terrestrial origin.
852.
Held, E.E. 1963. Some aspects of the biology of zirconium-95.
In Schultz, V., and A.W. Klement, Jr. (eds.). Radioecology.
Reinhold Publ. Corp., New York: 577-579.
The biological half-life of zirconium-95 is much longer than
its 65-day physical half-life. Uptake from environmental contamination
is mainly by the oral route in animals and probably by foliar contami-
nation in plants, and the fraction absorbed is very small. Surface
contamination of plants is probably the main source to mammals. In
aquatic systems adsorption and the ingestion of particulate matter are
of major importance. Due to its availability, half-life, and ability
to form complexes and colloids, zirconium-95 should be particularly
useful as a tracer in biological studies of aquatic systems.
853.
Held, E.E. 1971. Fallout radionuclides in Pacific ocean tuna.
Available from Nat. Tech. Inf. Ser., Springfield, Va. 22151
as Rept. NVO-269-13:1-l6.
Fe-55 is the most abundant fallout radionuclide in many
marine organisms. Tuna obtained in 1968-9 from a Japanese fishery and
from the vicinity of Bikini Atoll were analyzed for Fe-55, stable Fe,
Cs-137, and Co-60. Fe-55 in the dark muscle and in the liver of a
single fish was about the same and was about 10-fold greater than in
light muscle. The results for the dark muscle showed a wide range
(Fe-55, 3.3-1600 pCi/g dry weight; stable Fe, 49-500 mg/kg; specific
activity, 0.02-8.6 nCi Fe-55/mg Fe). There was no correlation of Fe-
55 with species, fish size, or date of catch. The Fe-55 of most fish
caught at all locations was in the low range; however, the average was
higher in fish north of the equator. Cs-137 averaged nearly the same
in light and dark muscle (0.15 pCi/g dry weight). Co-60 was found
only in the dark muscle and liver tissues of fish caught off Bikini
Atoll (0.08-5.0 pCi/g dry weight).
132
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854.
Hendrick, R.D., and T.R. Everett. 1965. Toxicity to the
Louisiana red crawfish of some pesticides used in rice
culture. Jour. Econ. Entomol. 58:958-961.
Juveniles of Procambarus clarkii, a lobster-like crustacean,
weighing 0.1-2.5 g were exposed to dilutions of aldrin, methyl mercury
dicyandiamide, and methyl parathion in laboratory tests to determine
their response to these pesticides. The 5-day median tolerance limit
(TLm) for aldrin, methyl mercury dicyandiamide, and methyl parathion
was 38 ~g/l, 83 ~g/l, and < 0.010 ~g/l respectively. Adult crawfish
were found to have a 5-day TLm of 600 ~g/l for aldrin. Adult crawfish
tested in field cages were not measurably affected by aldrin seed
treatments at the rates of 22 and 45 g/kg toxicant of rice seed alone
or in combination with 8 ml of a 2.2% solution of methyl mercury
decyandiamide kg seed.
855.
Hernandorena, A. 1974. Effects of salinity on nutritional re-
quirements of Artemia salina. BioI. Bull. 146:238-248.
At 240/00 salinity the energy requirement of Artemia is met
by starch or lecithin. With increasing salinity, the energetic nutrient
requirement decreases and the albumin requirement increases; morpho-
genic changes become evident. The possible significance of salinity
induced modifications in energetic nutrient and albumin requirements
is discussed.
856.
Hill, C.W., and P.O. Fromm. 1968. Response of the interrenal
gland of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) to stress. Gen.
Compar. Endocrinology 11(1):69-77.
Exposure of trout to environmental hexavalent chromium (0.02
and 0.2 mg/liter of water) for one week caused a significant elevation
of plasma cortisol. Fish exposed to these concentrations for 2 and 3
weeks had plasma levels similar to those of controls.
857.
Hill, J.M., and
waters near
with oyster
G.R. Helz. 1973. Copper and zinc in estuarine
a coal-fired electric power plant-correlation
greening. Environmental Letters 5(3) :165-174.
Oysters in waters around the Chalk Point Power Plant, Mary-
land, accumulate Cu, especially in the summer; however, it appears that
the power plant itself is not the primary Cu source. A series of water
samples collected in the summer 1972 and analyzed for Cu and Zn reveal
that the concentration of both metals increased during the summer, that
this increase was greatest in bottom waters, and that waters near the
133
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power plant contained more Cu than those elsewhere. Horizontal distri-
bution of Cu in the water agrees with the previously observed horizontal
distribution of Cu accumulation in oysters. The maximum Cu concentra-
tion observed in the water was 31.5 ~g/l; maximum Zn was 50.4 ~g/l.
858.
Hill, L.G., and D.R. Carlson. 1970. Resistance of the plains
killifish Fundulus kansae (Cyprinodontidae) to combined
stresses of temperature and salinity. Proc. Oklahoma Acad.
Sci. 50:75-78.
Transference experiments were used to evaluate the resistance
of F. kansae to the combined stresses of temperature and salinity-
Salinities ranging from 0.5% to 1.5% provided maximum protection
against death from heat shock. Higher salinities presumably minimize
survival when exposed to heat shock. As temperatures decreased, opti-
mum salinities for survival decreased. Young-of-year fish manifested
greater resistance to test factors than did adults. The habitat pre-
ference of a particular life history-form appeared to correlate with
its relative resistance to stresses of temperature and salinity.
859.
Hiller, J.M., and A. Perlmutter. 1971. Effect of zinc on viral-
host interactions in a rainbow trout cell line, RTG-2. Water
Research 5(9):703-710.
A study was undertaken to determine effects of zinc, in
virus-host interactions, in the rainbow trout cell line, RTG-2. Titers
of infectious pancreatic necrosis virus showed a significant enhance-
ment, when cultured in the presence of 10 mg/l zinc. Average enhance-
ment equalled an increase in titer of 70%. At a concentration of 7.5
mg/l zinc, no effect was observed. Treatment of cell monolayers with
10 mg/l zinc prior to inoculation with virus was sufficient to evoke
the enhancement response. A mechanism of action is suggested in which
zinc reduces the net negative charge on, either or both, the cellular
or viral surfaces. This, in turn, reduces the electrostatic barrier
between virus and cell and so enhances the adsorption of virus to the
cell surface. It is proposed that since metallic cations can increase
infectivity of disease-causing organisms such as viruses, the studies
to determine biologically safe concentrations of these cations should
include experiments on their interactions with virus-host systems.
860.
Hiyama, Y., and R. Ichikawa. 1953. The influence of various
types of tags and lead injection rate upon the mortality
rate of fish. Bull. Japan. Soc. Sci. Fish. 19:376-381.
By injection of Pb acetate a passage of time can be recorded
upon the layer of scales and other hard tissues of fishes. In aquarium
134
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experiments Pb acetate injection (0.1 cc 0.1% Pb acetate/IO g) had no
influence on the mortality rate of goby (Acanthogobius flavimanus).
861.
Hiyama, Y., and J. M. Khan. 1964. On the concentration factors
of radioactive I, Co, Fe and Ru in marine organisms. Records
of Oceanographic Works in Japan 7(2):79-106.
Studies on uptake and retention of iodine, cobalt, iron and
ruthenium using radioactive tracers were conducted. Factors which in-
fluenced uptake were demonstrated including temperature, seasonal
variation, size and/or age of organisms, light, amount of co-existing
stable elements and physicochemical state. Distribution of nuclides in
fish organs were compared and ascertained by ingestion and injection
methods. 1-131 and Co-60 data showed similarity in those two methods
of administration but Fe-50 and Ru-l06 were not comparable.
862.
Hiyama, Y., and M. Shimizu. 1964. On the concentration factors
of radioactive Cs, Sr, Cd, Zn, and Ce in marine organisms.
Records of Oceanographic Works in Japan 7(2):43-77.
Concentrations of Cs-134, Sr-89, Cd-115m, Zn-65 and Ce-144
from seawater are reported for selected species of marine teleosts,
echinoderms, crustaceans, molluscs and algae. With Cs, all species
reached equilibrium within 10-20 days, except that fish muscle con-
tinued to accumulate after 20 days. Concentration factors for Cs
and time in days to reach 50% equilibrium were lowest for algae (CF
1.2-2.0; 1 day) and highest for crustacean soft tissue (CF 15; 4 days).
Factors affecting accumulation of Cs-134 include concentration of
stable Cs, presence of chelating agents, water temperature, and stage
of growth of organism.
Concentration factors for Sr and time to reach 50% equili-
brium were highest for algae (5.3-6.7; 1 day) and crustacean exoskele-
ton (15 and 4 days) and lowest for echinoderm «0.9; 1 day). Hard
tissues of fish such as scales have retained Sr for comparatively
lengthy periods. With Cd, green algae reached equilibrium after 15
days, and suggests that Cd turnover in algae is slower than Cs and Sr.
Concentration factors were highest in viscera of fish (6-10), echino-
derm (110), crustacean (>250), mollusc (52) and lowest in muscle and
bony tissues. Stable Cd2+ added to the medium produced lower CF values.
CF values for Zn were comparatively high: 290 for algae, 68 for
mollusc viscera, >500 for crustacean viscera, >200 for echinoderm
digestive tract, and up to 22 for fish (viscera highest, muscle lowest);
time to reach 50% equilibrium ranged between 1 and 7 days. Addition of
stable Zn reduced Zn-65 accumulation with Ce, CF values were >100 for
algae, >40 in mollusc viscera and 5 for mollusc adductor muscle, 200
135
-------
for crustacean viscera (25 for muscle, 2 for exoskeleton), >250 in
echinoderm digestive tract (2.5 in gonad) and >70 in fish gill (0.3 in
fish muscle); chelating agents reduced CF values of Ce in every in-
stance.
863.
Hobden. D.J. 1967. Iron metabolism in Mytilus edulis. I.
Variation in total content and distribution. Jour. Mar. BioI.
Assn. U.K. 47:597-606.
The iron content of fresh mussels from Southampton is usually
20-40 ~g/g wet weight after animals have eliminated their gut contents.
In the spring some animals have much higher iron contents, sometimes in
excess of 100 ~g/g. Prolonged starvation in sea water of low iron
content will not reduce the mean iron content of the animals below 20-
25 ~g/g. This represents a permanent store. Higher values are pro-
duced by a temporary store that is lost rapidly on starvation. The
highest iron concentrations are usually in the digestive gland, which
contains the major part of the temporary store, much of which can be
regarded as particles being subjected to the digestive processes. Only
iron in the temporary store could be demonstrated by histochemical
techniques.
864.
Hobden, D.J.
mussel.
1969. Aspects of iron metabolism in a freshwater
Canad. Jour. 2001. 48:83-86.
Estimations of total iron content of tissues of Elliptio
confirm that this animal concentrates iron. During starvation, tissue
mass decreases more than total iron and an apparent increase in iron
content results. Most iron is contained in the viscera and mantle,
while muscular tissue contains least.
Fe-59 injected into visceral mass was rapidly translocated
to gills and mantle where much of it accumulated in tissue that acted
as a 'kidney of accumulation'. The Fe-59 did not become fully incor-
porated into the physiological iron pool in 10 days, nor was it rapidly
excreted. "There is little metabolic turnover of elemental iron. This
iron store is much greater than needed in known enzyme systems. It may
indicate hyperactivity of an uptake mechanism or the lack of an ade-
quate excretory mechanism.
865.
Hodge, V.F., T.R. Folsom, and D.R. Young. 1973. Retention of
fall-out constituents in upper layers of the Pacific Ocean
as estimated from studies of a tuna population. In Radio-
active Contamination of the Marine Environment, Int. Atom.
Ener. Agen., Vienna, Austria: 263-276.
136
-------
Repeated measurements of cobalt-60, zinc-65, manganese-54,
caesium-137, silver-110m, silver-108m, and plutonium-239 in several
organs of albacore tuna suggest that the upper layers of the north
Pacific Ocean can retain large fractions of several species of trace
elements for periods of a decade or more. For example, caesium-137
concentrations in t~le livers and muscle tissues of North Pacific
albacore caught from 1965-1971 decreased to half in about 10 years.
In comparison, the reported rate of input from fall-out during this
period decreased more rapidly, closer to half in one year. This sug-
gests a strong retention of caesium-137 in the upper water masses which
are accessible to the fish. It is of interest to note that long en-
vironmental persistences in the upper oceanic layers are also indicated
for some other nuclides that are much more highly accumulated by organ-
isms than is caesium. For example, cobalt-60 and silver-108m concen-
trations in albacore liver tissues fell to half during this period in
2.6 and 7.1 years respectively. Plutonium-239 concentrations in the
livers decreased to half in about 3.5 years. The attenuation rate of
zinc-65 was discontinuous between 1965 and 1968. This fact, along with
observation of comparatively high ratios of zinc-65 to cobalt-60 in
tunas of the southern hemisphere following 1968, suggests that new
large weapons were tested that gave off relatively large amounts of
zinc-65.
866.
Hoffman, F.L., V.F. Hodge, and T.R. Folsom. 1974. Polonium
radioactivity in certain mid-water fish of the eastern tem-
poral Pacific. Health Physics 26:65-70.
Natural radioactive Po-2l0 activities of nine food organisms
of tunas were determined. These measurements included individual
organ analysis in many instances for making comparisons with recently
reported concentrations in the visceral organs of albacore. Of these
samples, the highest Po-2l0 activity (61 pCi/g wet) was found on the
viscera of a surface-living saury (fish). However, the average concen-
tration in the nine food organisw.s (2.1 pCi/g wet) was significantly
the same as the whole body values (1.5 pCi/g wet) observed in albacore.
867.
Hoggins, F.E., and R.R. Brooks. 1973. Natural dispersion of
mercury from Puhipuhi, Northland, New Zealand. New Zealand
Jour. Marine Freshwat. Res. 7(1&2):125-132.
Mercury content of sediments and water in the Wairua River,
Northland, and of molluscs from the river's estuary was determined to
establish the extent of natural dispersion of mercury from deposits at
the river's source at Puhipuhi. Mercury content per gram wet weight
of cockles, Chione stutchburyi (0.032 mg/kg); rock oysters, Crassost-
~ glomerata (0.081 mg/kg); pip~ Paphies australe (0.019 mg/kg); and
137
-------
green-lipped mussels, Perna canaliculus (0.017 mg/kg) was compared with
that of specimens of the same species from other areas where presum-
ably only background concentrations exist. Mercury could be detected
in sediments at least 35 km from the deposits, but in water only up to
about 8 km. Normal background levels were established for the soft
parts and individual organs of the 4 species of molluscs investigated.
Of the molluscs found in the estuary, only C. glomerata had anomalous
amounts of mercury, but the significance of-this is unknown. Mercury
levels of all molluscs were well below the generally accepted safety
level of 0.5 mg/kg for fish for human consumption.
868.
Hoque, E., and L. Oglesby. 1972. Further observations on salt
balance in the sipunculid worm Themiste dyscritum. Compo
Biochem. Physiol. 42 (4A) :915-926.
Osmotic and ionic
fluids of T. dyscritum were
range from-41 to 101% of
osmotic conformer over this
with respect to Na+.
concentrations of centrifuged coelomic
measured in worms adapted to a salinity
normal seawater. T. dyscritum is an
entire salinity range, and is iso-ionic
There is an apparently greater concentration of K+ in coelomic
fluid than in medium; this may result from release of intracellular
fluids after cellular-damage during sampling. Worms freshly collected
are iso-ionic with respect to Cl-, but coelomic fluids of worms main-
tained in high salinities became hypo-ionic to the medium after a few
days in the laboratory. Worms in low salinities in the laboratory are
also hypo-ionic with respect to Cl-. All sipunculids so far studied
are probably osmoconformers with limited powers of ion regulation at
any salinity.
869.
Hori, R., and T. Kohno. 1974. On the content of sodium and
potassium of the unfertilized egg of the Medaka, Oryzias
latipes and its changes accompanying fertilization. Proto-
plasma 80:149-153.
The content of Na and K of medaka eggs was estimated by
flame-photometry and activation analysis. In the unfertilized fish
egg, the concentration of Na is lower than that of K, being approxi-
mately 70% of K. When the egg is fertilized, the amount of Na in-
creases, while the amount of K decreases. The ratio K/Na is changed
from 1.4 to 0.6 upon fertilization.
870.
Hori, R., and T. Yoshida. 1973. On the magnesium content in sea
urchin eggs and its changes accompanying fertilization.
Protoplasma 77:137-140.
138
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The content of total and bound magnesium of the eggs of
Pseudocentrotus depressus. and Hemicentrotus pulcherrimus was estimated
by atomic absorption. Total magnesium was almost equal (0.128 ~g/~g
P04) in both species and did not change upon fertilization. Bound
magnesium decreased in 15 min after fertilization and recovered to the
original value in another 15 min.
871.
Horne, A.J., and C.R. Goldman. 1974. Suppression of nitrogen
fixation by blue-green algae in a eutrophic lake with trace
additions of copper. Science 183:409-411.
Nitrogen fixation by blue-green algae in highly eutrophic
Clear Lake, California, was severely inhibited by trace amounts of
copper. The chelation capacity of the lake is probably saturated by
indigenous copper. Additions were only 1/200 of those normally used
in algal control. Since nitrogen fixation provides half of the lake's
annual nitrogen budget, economical eutrophication control appears pos-
sible.
872.
Hsiao, S.C. 1963. The radioecology of calcium.
and A.W. Klement, Jr. (eds.). Radioecology.
Corp., New York: 525-532.
In Schultz, V.,
Reinhold Pub 1.
The use of calcium-45 in sea urchin has shown that there is
an interchange of Ca between unfertilized eggs and the environment,
that fertilized eggs accumulate Ca as they develop into plutei, and
that sources of Ca seem to be the ambient seawater while Ca in food is
not as important. In the process of calcium uptake the cortical region
of the unfertilized egg, zygote, or blastomeres is the first station
for accumulation. With increasing development calcium is transported
by the processes of gastrulation and primary mesenchyme formation to
the interior of the embryos where later mesenchyme cells transmit cal-
cium to spicules. Temperature exerts a definite influence on uptake
of calcium by sea urchin embryos: the optimum temperature for ionic
uptake among subtropic sea urchins in the Mid-Pacific is about 30°C.
At 10°C, uptake of calcium is blocked. Sea urchin embryos in this
region can recover their normal rate of calcium uptake if interference
due to lowering of ambient temperature does not exceed two days.
Embryos of sea urchins can withstand an acute x-ray dose of up to 1,200
roentgens without any significant difference in calcium uptake from
controls. An acute dose of about 19,000 r reduces uptake of calcium to
one-half of control values.
873.
Huckabee, J.W., and B.G. Blaylock. 1972. Transfer of mercury
and cadmium from terrestrial to aquatic ecosystems. In
139
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Metal Ions in Biological Systems, S.K. Dhar (ed.), Plenum
Publishing Corp., New York: 125-160.
Plants from the Great Smoky Mountains National Park (GSMNP),
a putative low background area (i.e., little or no mercury pollution)
showed no concentrations exceeding 0.2 mg/kg (air dried weight) with
mosses generally having higher concentrations than vascular plants.
Cadmium concentrations were as high as 0.4 mg/kg (oven dried weight)
in moss, with vascular plants always having lower concentrations.
Once the background levels of mercury in environmental sam-
ples for a region are known, the amount of mercury input via pollution
can be deduced. Perhaps no source of regional mercury pollution is
more important than the burning of mercury-containing coal. Coal fly
ash collected as it settled in the environment at Oak Ridge National
Laboratory (ORNL) contained"0.98 mg/kg mercury. Samples of this fly
ash were tagged with radioactive mercury and employed in cycling ex-
periments in laboratory microcosms and natural field plots. Mercury
from fly ash was shown to be leached from the particles and rendered
available for biological uptake. Although the Hg-203 tagged fly ash
was applied to the terrestrial portion of the microcosms, Hg-203
slowly accumulated in sediments, snails, and fish.
The transfer rate of mercury and cadmium from terrestrial to
aquatic ecosystems is dependent upon residence time in terrestrial com-
partments. Terrestrial cycling of inorganic mercury and cadmium was
investigated by tagging field plots with soluble Hg-203 and Cd-l09.
Four months after application, vegetation contained four times more
cadmium than mercury (based on percent of total input). Most (64%) of
the remaining mercury was found in soil, while most (59%) of the re-
maining cadmium was found in litter. This data indicates that inorganic
mercury is lost more readily from vegetation than cadmium.
The Great Smoky Mountains provide an opportunity to determine
the background levels of trace metals in aquatic organisms, since several
large watersheds are maintained in an undeveloped state in the higher
elevations of the GSMNP. Geological and meterological considerations
indicated that biota from these remote areas of the park would contain
low concentrations of mercury. Fish of five species were collected
from three of the larger streams and were found to contain a mean of
0.04 mg/kg mercury. There was no significant difference in mercury
content in or among species from all three streams, nor was there any
relationship of mercury concentration with fish weight. No differences
in mercury concentrations were noted with fish analyzed whole, with
gastrointestinal tract removed, and axial musculature.
The transport of mercury in oligotrophic streams such as those
in GSMNP was studied at ORNL by tagging experiments with CH3203HgCl and
140
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197Hg(N03)2. Mercury-203 from methylmercury was shown to be cycled more
slowly than 197Hg from 197Hg(N03)2. The elimination rate of 203Hg from
merhylmercury was twice as long as that of 197Hg from 197Hg(N03)2 in
periphyton, and five to six times as long in snails and fish. However,
both mercurials were retained in the sediments for comparable lengths
of time. About 80% of the total activity from methylmercury was re-
tained in the first 100 m of the stream, while about 75% of the activity
from mercuric nitrate was retained in the first 100 m. Twenty-five
percent of the 197Hg from 197Hg(N03) detected in the stream water was
bound on suspended particles, while ~% of the 203Hg from methylmercury
was bound on the suspended particles.
Fish concentrated 203Hg from methylmercury higher than any of
the other biota, but they concentrated 197Hg from 197Hg(N03)2 less than
did the other biota.
A similar stream tag experiment with cadmium revealed that
109Cd from 109CdC13 is less mobile in the stream than mercury, since
95% of the total 1 9Cd added was retained in the first 100 m. Twenty
percent of the 109Cd in the water was found on the suspended particles.
As was the case with mercury, cadmium concentration in sediments was
highly variable, due to stream turbulence and sediment distribution
patterns.
The cadmium elimination rate of periphyton followed an ex-
ponential function, but snails and fish showed a net uptake in cadmium
for about one week post-tag after which they showed net elimination.
After 40 days, the fish had a higher concentration of cadmium than the
other biota and remained higher for the duration of the experiment (85
days). Cadmium is thus shown to bioaccumulate in fish, with the liver-
kidneys-intestines containing the highest percent of the body burden.
Cadmium appears to be generally less mobile in the environment than
mercury, although concentration factors of cadmium by aquatic animals
are much lower than for methylmercury.
In aquatic environments, organisms acquire body burdens of
heavy metals directly from the water via the gills and the food chain.
The relative importance of these two routes of uptake has not been ade-
quately assessed. The food chain green algae - detritus ~ blood worm ~
mosquito fish ~ largemouth bass is being studied using 203Hg tracer.
Preliminary results indicate that 203Hg from methylmercury acquired via
gills or food has a very long biological half-life in largemouth bass
(> 1000 days) compared to mosquito fish (55 days). The efficiency of
transfer of inorganic mercury from mosquito fish to largemouth bass
was higher (40%) than for blood worm to mosquito fish (12%). The blood
worm assimilated 60% of the inorganic mercury contained in the algae-
detritus, it appears that food chain uptake can account for a signifi-
cant percent of the mercury body burden in fish.
141
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874.
Huckabee, J.W., B.G. Blaylock, and N.A. Griffith. 1972. Mercury:
Behavior of methyl amd nitrate forms in natural stream eco-
systems. Oak Ridge National Lab. Environ. Sci. Div., Pre-
publ. Copy: 1-9.
Studies on 100 m sections of two small streams with radio-
active mercury compounds and fluorescein dye showed that the rate of
transport of methylmercuric chloride and mercuric nitrate in oligo-
trophic streams is similar. Water, fish, snails, watercress, periphy-
ton and sediments were collected. Biotic uptake of the two forms of
mercury differs following an acute input. The decreasJng order for
uptake of methylmercury was as follows: fish> snails> periphyton >
macrophytes> sediments. The uptake of mercuric nitrate was snails>
periphyton, macrophytes, sediments> fish.
875.
Huggett, R.J., M.E. Bender, and H.D. Slone. 1973. Utilizing
metal concentration relationships in the eastern oyster
(Crassostrea virginica) to detect heavy metal pollution.
Water Research 7:451-460.
The distribution of whole oyster Cu, Cd, and Zn with respect
to salinity regimes in Chesapeake Bay, Md., allows prediction of areas
that would be most affected by unnatural additions of these metals. A
source in the low salinity areas would be potentially more dangerous to
oysters and to those that consume them than one in high salinity. It
was not possible to establish a single concentration suitable for an
action level for Cd, Cu, or Zn in oysters which will definitely indi-
cate pollution sources. A working model is presented for the Chesapeake
Bay region.
876.
Hunn, J.B. 1972. Blood chemistry values for some fishes of the
upper Mississippi River. Jour. Minnesota Acad. Sci. 38(1):
19-21.
Plasma concentrations of Na, K, Ca, Mg, chloride, inorganic
phosphate, glucose, lactic acid and total C02 and whole blood pH and
hematocrit were determined for nine species of fish from the upper
Mississippi River area. Most values fell within the ranges published
for other species of freshwater fishes, except that plasma concentra-
tions of K and chloride in sexually mature walleye pike were low. The
chloride was compensated for by a high plasma total C02'
877.
Hussain, M., and E.L. Bleiler. 1973. Mercury in Australian
oysters. ~1arine Pollution Bull. 4(3) :44.
142
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Oysters (Crassostrea commercialis) destined for human con-
sumption in Sydney are alleged to be contaminated with Hg. Analyses
performed by the New South Wales Department of Health show that they
contain no more Hg than oysters far from sources of pollution. Mer-
cury concentration in oysters from nonindustrial areas was in the range
of 0.003-0.017 mg Hg/kg wet wt whereas oysters from industrial areas
indicated a range of 0.006-0.016 mg Hg/kg wet.
878.
Ikeda, Y., H. Ozaki, and K. Uematsu. 1972. Serum iron level and
total iron binding capacity in culture fish. Jour. Tokyo
Uni v. Fish. 59 (1) : 43-53. (In Japanese.)
Serum iron levels, total iron binding capacities and iron
saturation rates were determined in three species of artifically
propagated fish: yellowtail (Seriola quinqueradiata) , rainbow trout
(Salmo irideus) and carp (Cyprinus carpio). In yellowtail, the serum
iron level decreased when the fish meal contained 0 or 27.3 mg % dry
weight of iron as iron succinate, but increased when diet contained
57.3 mg % of iron. In rainbow trout, serum iron level was the same in
freshwater or in seawater. In carp, the level was lowest of the three
~pecies, being half that of yellowtail. Serum iron levels seemed to
be related to the species, activity, diet, and water temperature. The
total iron binding capacities were about the same for all three species.
In yellowtail, iron saturation rate was the highest, but dropped with
increased total iron binding capacity when fed iron-deficient diets.
Between rainbow trout in freshwater and in seawater, slight differences
were observed in total iron binding capacity and iron saturation rate.
Carp fed an iron-deficient diet produced a rise in total iron binding
capacity and a decline in iron saturation rate. These analyses are
useful in diagnosis of nutritional deficiencies and some disease states.
The increase in total iron binding capacity was attributed to a rise in
transferrin present in the third fraction of serum protein in yellow-
tail fed the iron-deficient diet.
879.
Ikeda, Y., H. Ozaki, and K. Uematsu. 1973.
diet with iron in culture of yellowtail.
Fish. 59 (2) : 91-99. (In Japanese.)
Effect of enriched
Jour. Tokyo Univ.
Anemia in yellowtail (Seriola quinqueradiata) offerred diets
of raw fish, a compound diet with 7.3 mg% of iron added, and a com-
pound diet with 57.3 mg% of iron added were studied. The decreasing
orders of body weight, erythrocyte count, hemoglobin level, color index
and serum protein level after feeding of about 4 months, were: raw
fish group> diet with 57.3 mg% of iron> diet with 7.3 mg% of iron.
Decreasing weights of liver, kidney, spleen and heart were: 7.3 mg%>
57.3 mg% > raw fish group; however, effect of iron enrichment was not
143
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observed on digestive organs. Serum iron level was highest in the
57.3 mg% diet, and lowest in the 7.3 mg% of iron diet. Absorption of
Fe-59 was highest in the 7.3 mg% iron diet and lowest in the 57.3 mg%
group. Authors conclude that iron should be added to the compound
diet in yellowtail culture at minimal levels of 57.3 mg%.
880.
Imbarnba, S.K. 1972. Mineral element content of some benthic
marine algae of the Kenya coast. Botanica Marina 15(2):113-
115.
Fourteen algal species (VIva lactuca, U. rigida, U. reticu-
lata, Chaetomorpha spp., ~. crassa:-Halimeda macroloba, Sargassum
duplicatum, Turbinaria ornata, Padina commersonii, Stypopodium zonale,
Galazaura subverticillata, Halymenia venusta, Laurencia papillosa,
Gracilaria crassa) and one marine angiosperm (Cymodocea ciliata) col-
lected from the Kenya coast were analyzed for N, P, K, Ca, and Mg.
All the benthic marine algae analyzed exhibited considerable variation
in the mineral element composition. They were also found to accumulate
N, P, Ca, and Mg in greater concentrations than those found in the sur-
rounding water. Accumulation ratios were highest in H. macroloba, P.
commersonii, and G. subverticillata, all of which precipitate calcium
carbonate as part-of their cell wall.
881.
Imlay, M.J. 1973. Effects of potassium on survival and distri-
bution of freshwater mussels. Malacologia 12(1):97-113.
Potassium ions were lethal to 4 species of freshwater mussels:
11 mg/l of K+ killed 90% of Actinonaias carinata, Lampsilis radiata
siliquoidea and Fusconaia flava in 36-52 days of exposure; 7 mg/l of
K+ killed 100% of the latter 2 species in about 8 months. Amlema
plicata was almost as sensitive as the other species. Similar K+ con-
centrations occur naturally in many North American rivers. On the
basis of the National Water Quality Network data on potassium concen-
trations and concentrations lethal to mussels in the laboratory. it was
predicted that certain rivers would not have mussels and others would.
Known distribution of mussels was generally correlated with the pre-
dicted locations. In one study the 6 rivers with more than 7 mg/l K+
were devoid of mussels. Mussels were reported from 28 of 39 rivers
with less than 4 mg/l K+ but from only 2 out of 10 rivers with 4-7
mg/l K+. The predicted maximum safe level for the continued existence
of most freshwater mussels is 4-10 mg/l potassium. It is recommended
that the concentration of potassium not be allowed to increase in
mussel producing rivers if the concentration is above 4 mg/l.
144
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88lA.
Ireland, M.P. 1974. Variations in the zinc, copper, manganese
and lead content of Balanus balanoides in Cardigan Bay, Wales.
Environmental Pollution 7:65-75.
A study was made of the concentration of zinc, copper, manga-
nese and lead in barnacles taken at different times of the year but at
two environmentally similar sites. Zinc occurred in the highest con-
centrations at all times of the year and at both sites. The highest
concentration of all four metals was found at the southerly site. The
lowest levels of zinc and copper at the northerly site were found in
the summer months, and those of zinc, manganese and lead at the
southerly site in March 1973. The distribution of metals at the two
sites is discussed in relation to river flow rates and tidal flow, to-
gether with phytoplankton productivity. A possible effect on growth
and fecundity is discussed.
882.
Irukayama, K., M. Fujiki, F. Kai, and T. Kondo. 1962. Studies
on the origin of the causative agent of Minamata disease. II.
Comparison of the mercury compound in the shellfish from
Minamata Bay with mercury compounds experimentally accumu-
lated in the control shellfish. Kumamoto Medical Jour. 15
(1):1-12.
The mercury content in shellfish from Minamata Bay was about
100 mg/kg at the end of 1959. Afterwards it decreased gradually to 30
mg/kg in August, 1960, but in January of 1961 it showed a transitory
increase to 50 mg/kg. In December; 1961 it was about 10 mg/kg. Mer-
cury content in organs of control shellfish cultured in sea water con-
taining inorganic mercury compounds was higher in gills than in other
organs. Shellfish from Minamata Bay had a higher concentration in the
nerve nodules. Animals fed fish and shellfish of Minamata Bay had a
relatively higher mercury content in brain than in other organs. These
results indicate that the mercury compound in shellfish from Minamata
Bay might be the same as that accumulated in organs in cases of Minamata
disease and that inorganic mercury compounds do not change to organic
mercury compounds in the shellfish. From the results of digestion and
steam distillation of the control shellfish cultured in the sea water
containing various inorganic and organic mercury compounds, the organic
mercury in the shellfish from Minamata Bay was considered to be an
ethyl- or methylmercury compound.
883.
Irukayama, K., T. Kondo, F. Kai, and M. Fujiki. 1961. Studies
on the origin of the causative agent of Minarnata disease. I.
Organic mercury compound in the fish and shellfish from
Minamata Bay. Kumamoto Medical Jour. 14(4):158-169.
145
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Organic mercury in shellfish from Minamata Bay combines with
protein, and no mercury could be extracted with water and organic sol-
vents from the denatured protein. From alkali- and acid-hydrolysates
of the shellfish, mercury was extracted with organic solvents. Animal
experiments showed that the extracted mercury seems to be in an organic
form. One-third of the mercury in the shellfish was in the filtrate
from a digest which had been treated with 0.04% pepsin solution, pH
1.6, at 37°C for 24 hours. When the extracted protein and the fish
from Minamata Bay were digested by the same method, most of the mercury
in them was transferred into the digested fluid. From these results
and animal experiments with the mercury extracted from the distillate
with chloroform, the mercury compound is considered to be an organic
mercury, having a boiling point over 100°C. The mercury compound in
organs of human and animal cases appears to remain in an organic form.
884.
Isaacs, J.D. 1972. Unstructured marine food webs and pollutant
analogues. U.S. Dept. Comm., Fish. Bull. 70(3):1053-1059.
Cesium levels in several species of fish living in the Gulf
of California differ substantially from levels of the s.ame species
living in the Salton Sea. Simplified trophic models of the two en-
vironments are developed by applying known information about the food
chain in the Salton Sea to the more uncertain food web in the Gulf of
California. Data on an unstructured food web matrix and equations are
presented.
885.
Ishibashi, M., T. Yamamoto, and T. Fujita. 1964. Cobalt content
in seaweeds. Records of Oceanographic Works in Japan 7(2):
17-24.
The average cobalt content in 77 dried samples of seaweed
composed of 38 species was 0.78 mg/kg, with values ranging from 0.11
(Eisenea bicyclis) to 4.54 (Sargassum thunbergii). There were con-
siderable differences among species but no remarkable difference by
seasons and by habitats.
In general, green seaweeds are high in cobalt and red sea-
weeds are low. Some brown seaweeds such as Sargassum thunbergii,
Padina arborescens, and Sargassum hemiphyllum are high in cobalt; in
contrast, the majority of brown seaweeds have lower cobalt values.
Cobalt and iron content in limnetic weeds are higher than those in most
seaweeds. Generally, seaweeds which have high iron also have high co-
balt, and those which are low in iron are low in cobalt. The amount
of cobalt appears not related to total ash content.
146
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886.
Ishikawa6 M., M. Sumiya, and M. Saiki. 1973. Chemical behaviour
of 1 6Ru in seawater and uptake by marine organisms. In
Radioactive Contamination of the Marine Environment, Int.
Atom. Ener. Agen., Vienna, Austria: 359-367.
The physico-chemical behavior of prepared Ru-l06 chloro- and
nitrosyl chloro-complex species were investigated by filter paper elec-
trophoresis using O.l~ NaCl04 as a supporting electrolyte. Ru-l06
chloro-complexes (III,IV) in a seawater system were fractionated
physico-chemically into at least four "anionic", one "neutral" and one
"cationic" species. The electrophoretic mobilities of fractionated
Ru-l06 species in seawater were found to be constant for the nitrosyl
chloro-complexes (III) during the aging period from 2 to 240 h, but
remarkable changes were observed on the electrophoretic patterns of
Ru-l06 chloro-complexes throughout the experimental periods. It
appears, in both cases, that significant physicochemical changes take
place within the initial stage after addition of Ru-l06 complexes.
Biological uptake experiments in clams, Meretrix lamarcki, were carried
out with electrochromatographically fractionated ionic species of Ru-l06
nitrosyl chloro-complexes. The gill and mid-gut gland (liver) showed
high concentrations for all the fractionated species. Considerable
differences of concentration factors (concentration ratio) of Ru by
clams were observed in the anionic, cationic and neutral species, i.e.,
the concentration factor of the cationic fraction was 10 times higher
than that of the other fractions. The order of the concentration factor
was as follows: "cationic" > "neutral" > "anionic" species.
887.
Jackim, E. 1973. Influence of lead and other metals on fish
delta-aminolevulinate dehydrase activity. Jour. Fish. Res.
Bd. Canada 30(4) :560-562.
Killifish, Fundulus heteroclitus, exposed to an initial con-
centration of 10 mg/l of PbL+ as nitrate for 2 weeks in seawater showed
no apparent ill effects or abnormal behavioral changes. Aminolevulinate
dehydrase (ALA-D) acti vi ty of the lead nitrate treated fish decreased by
22% after exposure for 96 hand 18% at the end of 2 weeks. Fundulus
exposed to 50 mg/l of Pb2+ and 0.02 mg/l of Hg2+ (initial concentrations)
for 28 d manifested a marked inhibition of ALA-D in the early stages
(both metals) and subsequent partial recovery of the H~-treated fish.
Fundulus were exposed to sublethal concentration of Cu + (1 mg/l), Cd2+
(10 mg/l), Pb2+ (10 mg/l), Zn2+ (10 mg/l) and Ag2+ (0.02 mg/l) for 4
and 14 d to determine the specificity of liver ALA-D inhibition. Pb
produces the greatest decrease in activity while Cd, Zn and Ag were
associated with increases. Lead produced an average 66% decrease in
ALA-D activity in liver of winter flounder (Pseudo leuronectes ameri-
canus) when fish were exposed for 7 d to a 10 mg 1 Pb + initial concen-
tration. Kidney tissues from the same animals exhibited a 58% decrease
in ALA-D activity over controls.
147
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888.
Janicki, R.H., and W.B. Kinter. 1971. DDT: Disrupted osmo-
regulatory events in the intestine of the eel Anguilla
rostrata adapted to seawater. Science 173:1146-1148.
The drinking of seawater and absorption of water along with
sodium across the intestinal epithelium are well-known osmoregulatory
events in marine teleosts. The insecticide DDT impairs fluid absorp-
tion in intestinal sacs from eels adapted to seawater. Furthermore,
this functional impairment has an enzymatic basis; DDT also inhibits
the (Na+ and K+) activated, Mg2+-dependent adenosine triphosphatase in
homogenates of the intestinal mucosa. Thus, the extreme sensitivity
of teleosts to organochlorine pollutants may involve the disruption of
osmoregulatory transport mechanisms.
Janicki, R.H., and W.B. Kinter. 1971. DDT inhibits Na+, K+,
Mg2+-ATpase in the intestinal mucosae and gills of marine
teleosts. Nature New Biology 233(39):148-149.
Between 1 and 50 mg/l of DDT inhibited Na+, K+, Mg2+-ATpase
activity in the intestinal mucosae of the winter flounder (pseudo-
pleuronectes americanus) and the king O'Norway (Hemitripterus ameri-
canus). In both species, measurable inhibition was recorded at 1 mg/l
and inhibition was linear through to 50 mg/l. The Mg2+-ATpase was
unaffected by DDT, which inhibited Na+, K+, Mg2+-ATpase in the intes-
tinal mucosae of two other species. At a final DDT concentration of
50 mg/l, inhibition was 37% in the yellowtail flounder (Limanda
ferruginea) and 35% in the longhorned sculpin (Myoxocephalus octo-
decimspinosus). In this study, the mackerel (Scomber scombrus) was
the only species in which the intestinal mucosal Na+, K+, Mg2+-ATpase
activity was resistant to 50 mg/l of DDT. The effect of DDT on ATPase
activity in the gill of P. americanus also was examined. Basal Na+,
K+, Mg2+-ATpase activity-in the gills of three fish treated with DMF
(N, N-dimethylformamide) alone was 0.95 I 0.09 ~mol Pi/mg protein x
h; but in the gills of three fish treated with DMF and 50 mg/l DDT
(1.4 x 10-4 M) it was 0.44 I 0.01 ~mol Pi/mg protein x h. The inhi-
bition was 54% (P < 0.01). At 50 mg/l DDT also inhibited 25% of the
Mg2+-ATpase.
889.
890.
Jefferies, D.F., and C.J. Hewett. 1971. The accumulation and
excretion of radioactive caesium by the plaice (Pleuronectes
platessa) and the thornback ray (Raia clavata). Jour. Mar.
BioI. Assn. U.K. 51:411-422. ----
The patterns of accumulation of caesium-134 by the organs and
tissues of the plaice Pleuronectes platessa L., a marine teleost, and
the thornback ray Raia clavata L., a marine elasmobranch, are described.
148
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Estimates of the biological half-time and steady state concentrations in
relation to sea water are derived, using a simple exponential model.
The rate processes are examined again in an experiment to measure the
rate of loss of caesium-134 from fish after a period of accumulation.
The biological half-time, at 10°C, for caesium-134 in the muscle of
plaice of 30 g weight is estimated to be 120-140 days, and in rays of
80 g weight 180-190 days. In all other tissues and organs examined the
rate processes in the plaice are faster than in the ray. Estimates are
made of the amount of caesium obtained from water and from food. It is
concluded that the plaice obtains at least 50% of its caesium body bur-
den from food and the ray probably more than 80%. Caesium is absorbed
from water via the gut in both species, but whereas in the plaice this
accounts for up to 50% of the intake from water, in the ray this is
probably a much smaller pathway. Excretion in both species appears to
be 90% extrarenal.
891.
Jensen, A., B. Rystad, and S. Melson. 1974. Heavy metal toler-
ance of marine phytoplankton. I. The tolerance of three
algal species to zinc in coastal seawater. Jour. Exper. Mar.
BioI. Ecol. 15:145-157.
Tolerance levels to zinc ions of Skeletonema costatum,
Thalasiosira pseudonana and Phaeodactylum tricornutum grown in dialysis
culture in the local fjord water were studied. Declining relative
growth rates were observed by addition of 50, 250 and 25,000 ~g/l of
zinc ions, respectively, for the three species of algae. Reduced final
cell concentrations were found at lower zinc levels. At least for one
species a significant increase in zinc uptake by the cells took place
at zinc levels which did not seem to influence the growth and develop-
ment of the alga. Two clones of Skeletonema costatum studied showed
significant intraspecific differences regarding the tolerance to zinc
pollution. Dialysis bioassay was found suitable for monitoring heavy
metal pollution of aquatic recipients.
892.
Jerneloev, A. 1972. Mercury--a case study of marine pollution.
In The Changing Chemistry of the Oceans; Proc. 20th Nobel
Symp., Aug. 16-20, 1971, Goteborg, Sweden: Wiley Interscience
Div. John Wiley Sons, Inc.: 161-169.
Mercury in water exists almost entirely bound to suspended
particles. Conversion of inorganic mercury to methyl mercury occurs in
the surface layer of the sediment or on suspended organic particles in
the water. A normal conversion rate in a Swedish lake is 0.1% per year
of the total mercury present. In an oligotrophic system most energy
and matter on one trophic level is transferred to the next. In a
eutrophic system a larger proportion of the energy and matter on one
149
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trophic level goes to decomposition and a smaller proportion is trans-
ferred to the next trophic level. This means that a smaller proportion
of the methyl mercury which accumulates in organisms will reach the top
predators with the critical concentrations. If there is a high nutrient
level in the aquatic system, the sedimentation rate will be high and
thus tend to cover the mercury-rich sediment. Tidal areas and estuaries
are favorable for high methylation rates, which could mean that the
organisms there naturally contain high concentrations of mercury, but
also that they are especially sensitive to further contamination. Due
to the extreme oligotrophic characteristics of the high sea and lack of
buffering sediment, marine top predators can increase.their mercury
levels as an effect of changes in the ecosystem other than an increase
in the total mercury cQncentration.
893.
Jerneloev, A., R. Hartung, P.B. Trost, and R.E. Bisque. 1972.
Environmental dynamics of mercury. In Environmental Mercury
Contamination, Hartung, R., and B.D.Dinman (eds.), Ann Arbor
Science Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, Mich.: 167-201.
Most surface waters contain about 0.1 ~g/l Hg, but this may
be increased greatly by ultrafine particles in suspension. So far it
has not been possible to differentiate clearly between inorganic and
organic mercury in water samples from lakes and rivers. Hg solubility
is decreased by the presence of sulfides and is increased by chloride
and by humic acid. The methylation rate in sediments is generally well
correlated with the microbiological activity. In one study, uptake by
fish was found to depend on the presence of bacteria in the slime on
the fish. Uptake by terrestrial plants appears to be relatively unim-
portant in terrestrial food chains, but the role of aquatic plants re-
quires further study.
894.
Jerneloev, A., and H. Lann. 1971.
chains" Gikos 22 (3) : 403-406.
Mercury accumulation in food
The relation between methyl mercury concentrations in the
liver and in muscle of fish indicates the relation between accumulation
and excretion rates of methyl mercury. The total mercury content of
benthic animals is of little interest when one calculates the rate of
mercury transport from benthic animals to fish that feed on them. This
is because the percentage of methyl mercury in the total mercury content
of the benthos is generally low (much lower than the percentage in fish)
and the total mercury content is very variable. The methyl mercury
transportation from benthic fauna to bottom feeding fish is evidently
small. By comparing the total mercury content of the three ecological
subgroups of benthic animals, it seems possible to separate situations
where release of mercury prevails from situations where it has ceased.
150
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895.
Johnels, A.G., T. Westermark, W. Berg, P.I. Persson, and B.
Sjostrand. 1967. Pike (Esox lucius L.) and some other
aquatic organisms in Sweden as indicators of mercury con-
tamination in the environment. Gikos 18:323-333.
Activation analysis of Hg content in axial musculature of pike
(Esox lucius) has been used to estimate the level of Hg present in the
water environment. The concentration factor from water to pike is of
the order 3000 or more. The relation between Hg content and weight and
age of fish specimens is discussed. By a graphical method, values for
Hg content for specimens representing 1 kilogram of weight have been
calculated for a number of localities and used for geographical compari-
son of Hg content of samples of pike from above and below localities,
where emission of waste water containing Hg takes place. There are
strong indications that Hg appears also as an airborne pollutant affect-
ing the water environment. A number of sources of Hg contamination are
discussed. It is concluded that in many areas human activities have
raised mercury content of the environment far above the natural levels.
896.
Jones, A.M., Y. Jones, and W.O.P. Stewart. 1972. Mercury in
marine organisms of the Tay region. Nature 238(5360):164-165.
High levels of Hg were found in marine macroalgae and mollusks
from the littoral zone at Broughty Ferry in the Firth of Tay (Scotland),
but there was no detectable Hg in any samples north of Arbroath. Mean
total Hg concentrations in algae and mollusks from the Tay region, dis-
tribution of Hg in Fucus vesiculosus and Mytilus edulis, and total Hg
levels in eider ducks and grey seals are tabulated.
897.
Jones, J.R.E. 1939. Antagonism between salts of the heavy and
alkaline-earth metals in their toxic action on the tadpole of
the toad, Bufo bufo bufo (L.). Jour. Exp. BioI. 16:313-333.
Survival curves are described for nitrate salts of Ni, Cu, Cd,
Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba for toad tadpoles. Survival curves for tadpoles in
mixtures of equally toxic solutions of nickel nitrate and strontium
nitrate indicate marked antagonisti~ a.ction between these salts, the
effect increasing with dilution. The survival curve for mixtures of the
equally toxic solutions 0.03 copper nitrate and 0.40 N strontium nitrate
apparently indicate antagonism over a part of the concentration range
and synergism over the remainder. This is because a 0.03 N solution of
copper nitrate increases in toxicity upon dilution, its toxicity reaching
a maximum at approximately 0.0015 N. If the normality of the copper
solution is below this critical value its mixture with an equally toxic
151
-------
strontium solution gives a normal antagonism curve. It is shown that
salts of Ca, Mg and Ba also reduce toxicity of Cu solutions. The Sr
concentration--Cu concentration--survival surfaces for Cu and Ca, Cu
and Mg, and Cu and Ba are of similar type.
898.
Jones, J.R.E. 1939. The relation between the electrolyticsolu-
tion pressures of the metals and their toxicity to the stickle-
back (Gasterosteus aculeatus L.). Jour. Exp. BioI. 16:425-437.
Lethal concentration limits have been determined for H+ and
ions of 18 metals using the three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus
aculeatus L.) According to their lethal concentration limits on a mg/l
basis their order of increasing toxicity is:
Sr Ca Na Sa Mg K Mn Co Cr Ni Au Zn Cd Pb Al Cu H Hg Ag.
On a molar concentration basis this is:
Na Ca Sr Mg Sa K Mn Co Cr Ni H Zn Al Au Cd Pb Cu Hg Ag.
All these ions, with the exception of the first six (the metals of the
alkalis and alkaline earths), bring about the death of fish by precipi-
tating the gill secretions, thus causing asphyxiation. Alkali and
alkaline earth metals appear to enter the body and act as true internal
poisons. The position of iron is uncertain. The toxicity of solutions
of iron salts appears to be due, mainly if not entirely, to their acid-
ity. On a mg/l or molar concentration basis there is a marked relation-
ship between the toxicity of the metals and their solution pressures.
The metals of very low solution pressure (Ag, Cu, etc.), i.e., those
whose ions are most ready to part with their charges and enter into com-
bination with other ions or compounds, are the most toxic as they pre-
cipitate the gill secretions and bring about asphyxiation with extreme
rapidity. Metals of somewhat higher solution pressure (Zn, Pb, Cd) act
in the same way but more slowly. Manganese, which of all the heavy
metals has the highest solution pressure, takes effect very slowly and
the ions of the alkali and alkaline earth metals, which have a high
affinity for their charges, do not precipitate the gill secretions at
all.
With ions other than alkali and alkaline earth metals, the
reactions responsible for death of the fish are extrinsic; thus, their
speed of action does not depend on penetrating power and the permea-
bility factor does not enter. This is probably responsible for the
good agreement observed between toxicity and affinity for electrical
charges.
152
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899.
Jones, J.R.E. 1947.
toxic solutions.
The reactions of pygosteus pungitius L. to
Jour. Exp. BioI. 24:110-122.
An apparatus is described in which small fish (Pygosteus
pungitius L.) are confined in a horizontal glass tube, half of which is
filled with flowing tap water and half with flowing solution. Solution
and water are very sharply differentiated, so that the concentration
difference the fish encounter is known. The directions of flow can be
rapidly reversed in order to check the result. The movements of the
fish are recorded for 7-120 min., according to the degree of toxicity
of the substance tested. A negative reaction is shown towards 1% ethyl
alcohol, 1/10,000-1/5000 chloroform and 0.1-0.4% formalin (% HCHO).
High concentrations of these substances may stupefy the fish so rapidly
that a pseudo-positive reaction appears.
A sharp negative reaction is displayed towards 0.003-0.001 N
mercuric chloride; at 0.0003the reaction is delayed, at 0.0001 is in-
definite, and at 0.00004N solution, though of comparatively high toxi-
city, does not appear to be detected. Zinc sulphate appears to be
detected and avoided at concentrations at least as low as 0.0003 N.
This concentration is of comparatively low toxicity and may be exceeded
in streams polluted from zinc mines. Copper sulphate is only detected
and avoided at extremely high concentrations (O.lN). At 0.04 N the
reaction is vague, and at 0.01-0.001 N the fish swim into the solution
where they become stupefied and lie motionless, so that the reaction
appears positive. Copper salts appear to impair or destroy the stickle-
back's ability to distinguish other toxic substances.
899A.
Jones, M.B. 1973. Influence of salinity and temperature on
the toxicity of mercury to marine and brackish water isopods
(Crustacea). Estuarine and Coastal Marine Science 1:425-431.
Under optimum conditions of salinity (100% S.W.=340/oo) and
temperature (10°C) marine (Idotea emarginata and Idotea neglecta) and
estuarine (Faera nordmanni and Faera albifrons sensu stricto) species
of isopods can tolerate concentrations of one mg/l and 0.1 mg/l mercury
(mercuric chloride) for 5 days without achieving 50% mortality. A de-
crease in salinity and an increase in temperature caused a dramatic in-
crease in toxicity of mercury as evidenced by lower LC-50 values. These
results indicate that species adapted to a fluctuating estuarine en-
vironment are more influenced by the extra stresses of heavy metal
pollution than marine forms for which environmental variables are rela-
tively more stable.
153
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900.
Kahler, H.H. 1970. On the influence of adaptation, temperature
and salinity on heat and cold resistance of Enchytraeus
albidus (Oligochaeta). Marine Biology 5:315-324.
This paper investigates the combined effects of temperature
and salinity on resistance-adaptation to temperature in the oligo-
chaete Enchytraeus albidus. This worm shows reasonable resistance-
adaptation to both cold (_o13.2°C) and heat (3S.8°C). Acclimation to
high salinity increases the degree of resistance to temperature ex-
tremes. The effect of salinity on heat-resistance, and especially on
cold-resistance, decreases with rising adaptation-temperature. While
a general effect of cations (Na, K, Ca, Mg) on temperature resistance
does not exist, the influence of special ions depends upon ion concen-
tration and adaptation-temperature; addition of Na, K, Ca, and Mg
reduces cold-resistance in cold-acclimated (5°C) individuals, while,
in warm-acclimated (23°C) specimens, cold tolerance increases after
addition of K and Ca. Heat-resistance decreases in warm-acclimated
worms after addition of Mg and Ca. Higher proportions of cations re-
duce thermal resistance in all cases. Over the salinity range which
allows homeo-osmotic conditions (2 to 150/00), E. albidus does not
exhibit a constant resistance level (at least not to heat). The cryo-
protective agent dimethylsulphoxide is highly effective both in cold and
warm acclimated worms.
901.
Kalnina, Z., and G. Polikarpov. 1969. Strontium-90 concentra-
tion factors of lake plankton, macrophytes, and substrates.
Science 164(3887):1517-1519.
The ratio of concentration of strontium-90 in living and inert
lake components to that in lake water (concentration factors) was deter-
mined for plankton, macrophytes, and substrates in eutrophic, meso-
trophic-eutrophic, and dystrophic lakes. Concentration factors of
strontium-90 in aquatic organisms and substrates are higher in a dys-
trophic lake than in the other types.
902.
Kamps, L.R., R. Carr, and H. Miller. 1972. Total mercury-
monomethylmercury content of several species of fish. Bull.
Environ. Contamin. Toxicol. 8(5):273-279.
Data are presented on total mercury and monomethylmercury con-
tent in edible portions of five species of fish. Total mercury content
ranged from 0.04 to 2.60 mg/kg. The proportion of methylmercury to total
mercury ranged from 67 to 125%. Comparative data from the 36 samples
analyzed show that mercury in edible portions of swordfish, tuna, north-
ern pike, white bass, and perch is essentially all monomethylmercury.
154
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903.
Kaplan, H.M., and L. Yoh. 1961.
Herpeto1ogica 20:131-135.
Toxicity of copper for frogs.
Frogs exposed continuously, over a range of environmental tem-
peratures, to aqueous solutions of copper sulfate exceeding 10 mg/l are
not apt to survive. The duration of life decreases with increasing con-
centration of the copper sulfate.
The small concentration of copper ordinarily existing in tap
water has no measurable effect upon Rana pipiens.
904.
Karbe, L. 1972. Marine hydroids as test organisms for assessing
the toxicity of water pollutants, the effects of heavy metals
on colonies of Eirene viridula. Marine Biology 12:316-328.
The colonial hydroid Eirene viridu1a (Thecata, Campanulidae)
was cultured in natural sea water; and fed twice a week with larvae of
Artemia salina. Upon changing the culture water 1 h after feeding,
various dosages of zinc, lead, cadmium, copper or mercury were applied
in order to assess the response of the polyps to pollutants. Test peri-
ods were restricted to 2 or 3 weeks during standard experiments, to 3
months during long-term experiments. Doses of 3 mg/l copper or 0.3 mg/1
mercury led to tissue disintegration within a few hours. Low doses of
heavy metals (3 to 10 mg/l Zn, 1 to 10 mg/l Pb. 0.3 to 10 mg/1 Cd, 0.06
to 1 mg/l Cu, 0.003 to 0.1 mg/l Hg) caused morphological changes and
tissue reorganization of hydranths. In addition to morphological ef-
fects, colony growth and reduction of hydranth number provide information
on the severity of damage. Most processes were reversible after trans-
fer into uncontaminated sea water. Irreversible damage resulted from
experiments with mercury at doses as low as 0.02 mg/l Hg. In experiments
with 3 mg/l Zn and 0.3 to 0.1 mg/l Cu, compensation (proliferation of new
hydranths) were observed within the second week. In all cases, cadmium
and mercury caused cumulative effects; 0.3 mg/l Cd or 0.01 to 0.003 mg/l
Hg led to morphological changes only after at least 2 or 3 weeks. Thresh-
old concentrations for acute effects of zinc, lead, cadmium, copper, and
mercury are: 1.5 to 3 mg/l Zn, 1 to 3 mg/l Pb, 0.1 to 0.3 mg/1 Cd, 0.03
to 0.06 mg/1 Cu, and 0.001 to 0.003 mg/l Hg. In comparison to other
marine organisms E. viridula represents a highly sensitive test organism.
Because it can be-cultivated rather easily, author recommends that this
species be utilized in marine bioassays.
905.
Karppanen, E., K. Henriksson. 1970. Mercury content of game
birds in Finland. Nordisk Medicin 84(35):1097-1098.
The mercury content was studied of some gallinaceous and
aquatic birds which are the objects of hunting. Birds which feed on
155
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aquatic animals have a markedly increased content of mercury as compared
with terrestrial birds. This has become obvious after the prohibition of
the use of alkyl mercury compounds for seed dressing. Although the
limited use of these game birds as food does not imply that the elevated
mercury content is an imminent threat to man, a continued survey of the
situation is important.
906.
Kazantzis, G. 1971. The poison chain for mercury in the environ-
ment. Inter. Jour. Environ. Studies 1:301-306.
The toxic effects of mercury in specific population groups
have long been known, but mercury as a general environmental hazard has
followed comparatively recent technological development. Contamination
with both inorganic mercury and organic mercury compounds has resulted
from industrial waste and from the use of the latter compounds as fungi-
cides. Deposited eventually in rivers and lakes, this has led to raised
levels of mercury in fish. Under appropriate conditions, methylation of
mercury may occur in the natural environment, converting less toxic in-
organic and aryl mercury compounds into the more toxic alkyl mercury form.
In certain predominantly fish-eating populations this had led to an in-
crease in the body burden for organic mercury, resulting in localized
outbreaks of methyl mercury poisoning. Raised levels of mercury in eggs
and bird tissues have resulted from feeding on mercury contaminated fish
and on organomercury treated seed. In addition to the direct toxic
action of mercury, limited evidence suggests that methyl mercury com-
pounds may possibly exert mutagenic and teratogenic effects, at levels
below those usually associated with poisoning.
907.
Keckes, S., S.W. Fowler, and L.F. Small. 1972.
forms of l06Ru through a marine zooplankter.
13:94-99.
Flux of different
Marine Biology
The dynamics of accumulation and loss of different physico-
chemical forms of Ru-l06 were measured in the euphausiid Megancytiphanes
norvegica. The accumulation of Ru-106 was directly related to the con-
centration of the radioisotope in solution, as evidenced by similar con-
centration factors for euphausiids in the" low" and "high" acti vi ty
Ru-l06 chloride solutions. The chemical form of the radioisotope in
solution had a pronounced effect on the uptake, with Ru-106 chloride
fractions being accumulated at a faster rate than Ru-l06 nitrosy1-
nitrato complexes. Euphausiids lost Ru-l06, previously accumulated from
Ru-l06 nitrosyl-nitrato forms. Also, in the case of the Ru-l06 chloride
complexes, the loss rate was inversely proportional to the time allowed
for isotope accumultion. The process of molting greatly accelerated the
loss of Ru-l06 from euphausiids, with first molts shed during the loss
phase accounting for 70 to 80% of the total Ru-106 body burden. When
156
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euphausiids accumulated Ru-l06 from the food chain, the initial-loss rate
was rapid due to large amounts of the radioisotope associated with fecal
pellets; however, no relationship was found between loss rate and the
number of food rations received. Molts from these individuals did not
contain Ru-l06, thus, loss from euphausiids obtaining this radioisotope
through the food chain is mainly due to fecal pellet deposition and other
excretion or exchange processes.
908.
Keckes, S., and J.J. Miettinen. 1972. Mercury as a marine pollu-
tant. In Ruivo, M. (ed.). Marine Pollution and Sea Life.
Fishing'frading News (books) Ltd., London: 276-289.
Until recently man's activity did not contribute considerably
to changes in the marine environment, but with the fast technological
development in the last decades the direct or indirect disposal of
various potentially harmful products and by-products into the seas and
oceans became reality. Mercury and its compounds belong in this category
and it is estimated that at present half of the annual input of mercury
into seas and oceans (about 5,000 t) is the result of uncontrolled re-
lease from the industrial and agricultural use of mercury compounds.
Locally, in Japan, the input of mercury into sea water and thereupon into
edible organisms raised the content to a level which caused the death of
more than 40 people. In Scandinavian countries strict regulations had to
be applied to avoid similar tragedies.
The mercury concentration in sea water is very low, 0.03 to
0.27 ~g/l, but due to mercury's high chemical reactivity and biological
toxicity its increase has a strong deleterious effect on organisms. The
biological transformation of relatively less toxic forms of mercury into
those with very high toxicity and its bioaccumulation directly from sea
water or through the food chains returns the mercury to man in a concen-
trated form, which apart from direct toxic effects can also have a
genetic effect.
These aspects of mercury as a marine pollutant are reviewed and
the present status of our knowledge concerning the biogeocycle of mercury
and the impact on marine organisms, especially fish, are discussed.
909.
Keckes, S., B. Ozretic, and M. Krajnovic.
the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis.
1968. Loss of Zn-65 in
Malacologia 7(1) :1-6.
Loss of Zn-65 from soft tissues and shells of mussels was in-
vestigated under laboratory conditions. The rate of relative biological
loss was higher in shell than in soft tissue and depended on the time
exposed to sea water containing Zn-65, loss rate being higher after a
short contact time. The presence of EDTA (50 mg/l) increased the loss
157
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of Zn-65. Rate of relative biological loss was not constant but initially
more rapid, indicating multicompartmental zinc metabolism in Mytilus.
910.
Keckes, S., B. Ozretic, and M. Krajnovic. 1969. Metabolism of
Zn-65 in mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis Lam.). Uptake
of Zn-65. Rapp. Comm. into Mer Medit. 19(5):949-952.
The uptake of radiozinc in mussels is rapid but equilibrium is
reached only after a long period. The uptake is about ten times higher
for soft tissues than for shells; 0.01 to 50 mg EDTA p~r liter signifi-
cantly depresses uptake of radiozinc with effect of EDTA dependent on
concentration.
911.
Keckes, S., Z. Pucar, and L. Marazovic. 1967. Accumulation of
electrodialytically separated physico-chemical forms of l06Ru
by mussels. Int. J. Oceanol. and Limnol 1(4) :246-253.
Ru-l06 nitrosyl-nitrato and chloro complexes were separated in
sea water by electrodialysis through ion-exchange membranes, and biologi-
cal uptake and loss experiments in mussels were made with separated frac-
tions.
The metabolism of Ru-106 was found highly dependent not only
on its chemical form but also on its physico-chemical form. The uptake
of Ru-l06 chloride fractions is faster than that of Ru-l06 nitrosyl-
nitrato fractions. Furthermore the uptake is higher in the soft tissues
than in the shells of mussels. It seems that the binding of Ru-l06 in
the shells is not as firm as in the soft tissues.
912.
Keff1er, L.R. 1972. A study of the influence of calcium on the
effects of DDT on fishes. Ph.D. Thesis: 1-131. Available
from University Microfilms, 300 No. Zeeb Rd., Ann Arbor, Mich.
48106, as 73-1275.
The relationship between calcium deficiency and DDT poisoning
in goldfish, Carassius auratus, and golden shiners, Notemigonus cryso-
1eucas, were tested using 16 different combinations of calcium and DDT
concentrations; three different salts were used as sources of Ca2+.
Fishes poisoned with DDT in the laboratory exhibited symptoms of calcium
deficiency. Increasing the concentration of calcium ions in the water
from 0 to 200 mg/1 seemed to alleviate the DDT poisoning symptoms of
fishes and decrease the death rate, provided that the DDT concentration
did not exceed 20 ~g/l. Goldfish were more responsive to treatment than
golden shiners. Of the calcium salts used, calcium chloride was more
effective than either calcium carbonate or calcium gluconate. Two
158
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possible conclusions to be drawn are that DOT is not simply a neuro-
toxin, and that the calcium differences, between hard and soft water may
be sufficient to give a survival advantage to fish in the hard water
regions of the country.
913.
Kelso, J.R.M., and R. Frank. 1974. Organochlorine residues,
mercury, copper and cadmium in yellow perch, white bass and
smallmouth bass, Long Point Bay, Lake Erie. Trans. Amer.
Fish. Soc. 103(3):577-581.
Three collections of yellow perch, white bass and smallmouth
bass were made in May, July and late October for analyses of DOT, PCB,
mercury, copper and cadmium. Fat content varied seasonally among collec-
tions, lowest in spring and highest in fall. DOT ranged from 0.09 to
0.27 ~g/g and exhibited no seasonal changes. No difference among species
existed for DOT in spite of differing fat content, but concentrations
within a species increased with increasing fat and subsequently age.
PCB's were up to 6.5 times greater than DOT levels. PCB residues, low-
est in yellow perch and highest in white bass, did not vary with season
but increased with increasing fat. Dieldrin was low and no trends re-
lating to season or fat were apparent.
Only two specimens contained
Mercury was apparently related to size
slightly higher in yellow perch, means
but copper and cadmium were low in all
mercury residues above 0.5 ~g/g.
and subsequently age. Copper was
ranged from 1.29 to 1.56 ~g/g,
species.
914.
Kendall, M.W. 1972. Acute effects of administration of methyl
mercuric chloride on tissues and enzyme activity in channel
catfish (Ictalurus punctatus). Ph.D. Thesis: 1-101. Avail-
able from Office Water Res. Research as OWRR-A-038-KY (2).
In Kentucky and neighboring southeastern states, channel cat-
fish are extensively cultured as a food crop. Acute exposure to methyl
mercuric chloride causes enzyme and tissue alterations. The principal
reaction of absorbed mercury is to bind thiols, forming mercury mercap-
tide. The ultimate effect of mercury and its compounds is based upon
its ability to inhibit enzymes. In the channel catfish, a single intra-
peritoneal injection of 15 mg/kg methyl mercuric chloride caused deposi-
tion of mercury in liver, kidney, skeletal muscle, and gill. Marked
pathology was evidenced by necrosis in the liver, necrosis of pancreatic
tissue within portal venous walls, necrosis of renal tubular cells and
marked thickening of renal glomerular basement membrane. The principal
effects on enzymes were facilitation of acid phosphatase, alkaline phos-
phatase, and leucine aminopeptidase and inhibition of succinic dehydro-
genase and oxygen consumption. A lower dosage of 1.5 mg/kg methyl
159
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mercuric chloride produced no structural alterations but did produce
changes in enzyme activity. These alterations in tissues and enzyme
activity are indicative of acute methyl mercuric chloride intoxication in
the channel catfish.
915.
Kevern, N.R., and S.A. Spigarelli. 1971. Effects of selected
limnological factors on the accumulation of cesium-137 fallout
by largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides). Proc. Third Nat.
Symp. Radioecology, U.S.A.E.C. Conf. 710501, 1:354-360.
Variation between Cs-137 concentrations in natural populations
of largemouth bass in six southern Michigan lakes was studied. The lakes
were selected to provide a wide range of limnological types ranging from
very low to high specific conductance.
Mean Cs-137 concentrations of three-year-old bass collected
from each lake during June 1969 were compared, and a multiple regression
analysis was performed to determine the correlation between water chem-
istry parameters viz Na, K, Cs-137, total Cs, and specific conductance,
and the accumulatIOn of Cs-137 by bass. Simple correlation coefficients
indicated inverse relationships between total Cs, Na, and specific con-
ductance of lake water and Cs-137 activity of bass, with specific con-
ductance providing the best linear fit.
Multiple regression analysis altered the relative
each water parameter and resulted in the deletion of Na and
ductance from the model due to lack of significant addition
pIe correlation coefficient.
importance of
specific con-
to the multi-
916.
Kihlstrom, J.E., and L. Hulth. 1972. The effect of phenylmercuric
acetate upon the frequency of hatching of eggs from the zebra-
fish. Bull. Environ. Contamin. Toxicol. 7(2/3) :111-114.
The effect of phenylmercuric acetate on frequency of hatching,
and time required for development of eggs was investigated. Frequency
of hatching was significantly higher in water containing 10 ~g/l of
phenylmercuric acetate than in the controls. At a concentration of 20
~g/l, the frequency of hatching was the same as in controls. All eggs
failed to hatch at 50 ~g/l. Most control eggs hatched about three days
after fertilization. However, the frequency of eggs hatching up to and
including the third day after fertilization is significantly higher in
water containing 10 and 20 ~g/l phenylmercuric acetate than in controls.
917.
Kihlstrom, J.E., C. Lundberg, and L. Hulth. 1971. Number of eggs
and young produced by zebrafishes (Brachydanio rerio, Ham.-
160
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Buch.) spawning in water containing small amounts of phenyl-
mercuric acetate. Environmental Research 4(4):355-359.
The number of eggs deposited and frequency of hatching have
been studied in zebrafish before and after the addition of phenyl-
mercuric acetate to water. The number of eggs deposited decreased in
water containing 1 ~g/l and higher of phenylmercuric acetate with a
median effective dose (ED50) of 2.2 ~g/l. The frequency of hatching
was diminished in eggs spawned in water containing 0.2 and 1 ~g/l of
phenylmercuric acetate.
918.
Kilham, P. 1971. A hypothesis concerning silica and the fresh-
water planktonic diatoms. Limnology and Oceanography 16(1):
10-18.
The literature was examined to relate ambient silica concentra-
tions to numerical dominance of specific freshwater planktonic diatoms.
Mean silica concentrations (mg/liter) during dominance are Stephano-
discus astraea, 0.6; Tabellaria flocculosa asterionelloides, 0.9;
Asterionella formosa, 1.7; Melosira granulata, 13.4. The concentration
at time of dominance and patterns of diatom periodicity observed in many
eutrophic lakes led to the hypothesis that declining ambient silica con-
centrations may influence the sequence of seasonal succession. When
silica becomes depleted diatoms become scarce. It is suggested that
some measure of "silica demand" could be used as an index of increasing
eutrophication.
919.
Kimura, K., and R. Ichikawa. 1969. Accumulation and retention
of ingested ruthenium-l06 by genuine goby. Bull. Japan. Soc.
Sci. Fish. 35(5):434-440.
Accumulation and retention of Ru-l06 by the marine fish,
Acanthogobius flavimanus, was determined by feeding studles. The
average uptake of Ru-l06' following single oral administration was about
5% of the administered dose in either RuiN or Ru/Cl form. Equilibrium
was reached about 12 days later, with the body burden equal to about
20% of the average daily dose.
The concentration factor for goby over annelid worm was about
0.002, and hence, the transfer of Ru-l06 through this kind of food chain
was relatively small in comparison with direct uptake or exchange from
the surrounding sea water.
920.
Kinter, W.B., L.S. Merkens, R.H. Janicki, and A.M. Guarino. 1972.
Studies on the mechanism of toxicity of DDT and polychlorinated
161
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biphenyls (PCBs): Disruption of osmoregulation in marine fish.
Environmental Health Perspectives, April, 1972:169-173.
Data on eels provides circumstantial evidence that disruption
of osmoregulation is a primary toxic effect of DOT, i.e., the DOT levels
in gut and gill of fatally-dosed fish were high enough to have affected
osmoregulatory Na transport under in vitro conditions. The data also
indicates that Mg-ATPase is less sensitive to DOT than Na, K-ATPase. It
is also recognized that DOT may exert a primary toxic effect on the cen-
tral nervous system; by 6 hr fatally-dosed eels were hyperactive and
easily stimulated to convulsions by touch. Such symptoms, however, could
be secondary to alterations to osmolarity of plasma and cerebrospinal
fluid. Studies were conducted with PCB's and killifish using responses
parameters of toxicity and osmoregulation. Toxicity data show that
Aroclor 1221 was less toxic than DOT by a factor of about 100.
The osmolarity and Na concentration of serum consistently in-
creased (toward sea water values) in fish exposed to lethal levels of
either Aroclor 1221 or DOT. Aroclor and DOT levels selected for these
serum-composition studies were potentially lethal to most fish, but low
enough to have killed only some at the time (6 or 24 hr) samples were
taken from survivors. With higher levels tested, most increases in
serum osmolarity and Na were statistically significant. Serum osmolar-
ity and K were elevated in all ethanol-treated controls; this elevation
may have been due to the ethanol or to confinement of fish in experi-
mental containers. Data show that in extreme cases, when blood was
sampled before the fish died but after they had completely lost their
righting ability and remained sideways, serum osmolarity and electrolyte
concentrations were all increased above normal; osmolarity changes can-
not always be accounted for by changes in measured electrolytes.
921.
Kirchner, W.B., and S. Grabowski. 1972. Manganese in lacustrine
ecosystems: A review. Water Resources Bulletin 8(6):1259-
1264.
The literature of manganese in fresh water is reviewed. The
major aspects of manganese occurrence discussed are: (1) sources, (2)
geochemistry, (3) manganese-iron relationships, (4) effects on the fauna
and flora, and (5) detection. There are three major ways that Mn enters
natural waters. The basin's rocks may release Mn into solution by
weathering. Industrial dumping is another pathway. Drainage from
litter and soil is a lesser source. The chemical behavior of Mn is
strongly affected both by oxidation-reduction potential and by pH.
Solubility can also be influenced by biological activity- Dissolved
Mn occurs at a somewhat higher level in the oxygen gradient than Fe.
Consequently Mn ions are at too high redox potentials to permit the pre-
sence of detectable ferrous ions. As a result the manganous ion travels
farther from the sediment than does the ferrous ion. Ferro-manganese
162
-------
complexes and formations are coprecipitated on the bottom of streams and
lakes. Manganese oxides in bottom sediments occur in two forms: crusts
or coatings and as nodules. Manganese is a vital trace element essen-
tial to bacteria, yeast, fungi, plants and animals. Manganese can have
an indirect role on nutrient availability in fresh water. The detection
of manganese is easily performed and sensitivity is extremely good.
922.
Kleerekoper, H. 1973. Effects of copper on the locomotor orien-
tation of fish. U.S. Environ. Protect. Agen. Rept EPA-R3-73-
045:1-97.
Effects of copper ions at subacute concentrations on locomotor
orientation of goldfish (Carassius auratus), channel catfish (Ictalurus
punctatus), largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), white sucker (Cato-
stomus commersoni commersoni) and green sunfish (Lepomis cyannelus) were
investigated in detail. In regions of water containing 11-17 ~g/l Cu++
(as CUCl?) in a shallow gradient, goldfish oriented toward the copper
source (attraction'). This response is reduced in a somewhat steeper
gradient. In steep gradients significant but no absolute avoidance be-
havior occurred. Whether the response will be 'avoidance' or 'attrac-
tion' seems to depend on the slope of the gradient to which the fish is
exposed. Even in steep gradients, the 'avoidance' behavior is reversed
to 'attraction' when the copper ions interact with a temperature slightly
higher (0.4°C) than that of the surrounding copper-free water. The
interaction creates a new stimulus configuration which is different
from those formed by the two variables separately. The orientation of
the largemouth bass is not affected by copper ions at the concentrations
tested. Channel catfish are weakly attracted by the copper-containing
water and green sunfish significantly increase time spent there. Suckers
significantly but not absolutely 'avoid' such water through changes in
turning behavior.
923.
Kleerekoper, H., G.F. Westlake, J.H. Matis, and D.J. Gensler. 1972.
Orientation of goldfish (Carassius auratus) in response to a
shallow gradient of a sublethal concentration of copper in an
open field. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 29(1):45-54.
In slowly flowing water, goldfish changed their locomotor
behavior upon entering a mass of water containing shallow gradients of
copper chloride. The concentration was 11 to 17 ~g/l Cu++ in most of
this mass, with small isolated pockets containing maximally 50 ~g/l.
The amount of time spent by the fish, the average size of turn, and the
variance of the size of turn increased in the "polluted" region. The
orientation of the fish in this region deviated consistently in the
upstream direction resulting in the increase in time spent in the area
of highest concentration. Comparison of the locomotor behavior of the
163
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fish in sodium chloride of the same concentration
water established that the changes mentioned were
copper rather than the chloride ion.
and the laboratory
in response to the
924.
Kleinert, S.J., and P.E. Degurse. 1972. Mercury levels in Wis-
consin fish and wildlife. Dept. Natur. Res., Madison, Wisc.,
Tech. Bull. 52:1-22.
Mercury determinations were made on 1,824 fish fillet samples
representing 139 locations covering 52 of Wisconsin's 72 counties and
boundary waters of Lake Michigan, Green Bay, Lake Superior, and the
Mississippi River. All Wisconsin fish analyzed contained some mercury.
Mercury levels in fish from waters removed from any known source of mer-
cury use averaged 0.19 mg/l and ranged between 0.01 and 0.60 mg/l mer-
cury. The highest mercury levels, averaging about 1 mg/l and ranging
between 0.10 and 4.89 mg/l occurred in fish taken from sections of the
Chippewa, Flambeau, and Wisconsin Rivers, all located below paper mills
and below a mercury cell, chlorine-caustic soda plant. Different species
vary in mercury content, and the larger fish often contain higher con-
centrations of mercury than do smaller fish of the same species taken
from the same water.
Fish samples taken from the following areas contained mercury
levels averaging above the 0.5 mg/l guideline established by the Food
and Drug Administration for banning fish from interstate markets: the
350-mile stretch of the Wisconsin River below Rhinelander; 40 miles of
the Flambeau River between Cedar Rapids and the junction with the
Chippewa River; and 50 miles of the Chippewa River from the junction
with the Flambeau River to Eau Claire.
Sportsmen were warned to limit consumption of fish from these
waters to one meal per week, which would not constitute a health hazard.
Mercury determinations were made on 234 muscle and 220 wild-
life liver samples. The common game species were sampled including
deer, rabbits, squirrels, ruffed grouse, pheasants, puddle ducks, diving
ducks and geese. Swans, pied-bill grebes, and blue herons, were also
sampled. Mercury levels in muscle and liver tissue of most Wisconsin
wildlife was well below 0.5 mg/l. Water birds, including waterfowl, con-
tained more mercury than mammals or upland game birds. Livers of diving
ducks, herons, and grebes approached or exceeded 0.5 mg/l. No geo-
graphic locations were noted where mercury seemed to be more concentrated
in wildlife.
925.
Klemmer, H., S.N. Luoma, and L.S. Lau. 1973. Mercury levels in
marine biota. Government Repts. Announce. 73(10):76.
164
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Benthic animals from Sturgeon Bank contained larger amounts
of Hg and other metals than animals from similar environments on the
coast of British Columbia. These high levels of metals are believed to
be associated with the Vancouver City sewer outfall.
926.
Kloth, T.C., and D.E. Wohlschlag. 1972. Size-related metabolic
responses of the pinfish, Lagodon rhomboides, to salinity
variations and sublethal petrochemical pollution. Contrib.
Marine Science 16:125-137.
The effects of salinity variations on the respiratory meta-
bolism of large and small L. rhomboides, in unpolluted water and water
slightly polluted with a 0~5% petrochemical effluent, were investigated
at near saturation DO levels and a near-optimum temperature of 10°C. A
salinity range of 20-450/00 did not significantly affect the metabolism
of large or small fish in unpolluted water. However, sustained swimming
velocities were affected by salinity. The highest sustained swimming
velocities were found at 200/00, for both large and small fish; velo-
cities decreased as salinity increased. Sustained swimming velocities
of large pinfish decreased more than those of small pinfish. Sublethal
pollution uniformly depressed small fish metabolism at all salinities.
With large fish, pollution depressed metabolism at 20 and 320/00, but
elevated metabolism at 450/00. Salinity had a statistically significant
effect on respiration only with large fish in polluted water.
927.
Knauer, G.A., and J.H. Martin. 1972. Mercury in a marine pelagic
food chain. Limnology and Oceanography 17(6):868-876.
Phytoplankton, zooplankton, and anchovies collected in
Monterey Bay, California, over a la-month period were analyzed for total
mercury. In general, mercury levels were low and no evidence of food
chain amplification was observed. Temporal variations of Hg concentra-
tions in phytoplankton were greater than those for zooplankton; however,
no seasonal trends were observed for either group. Plankton samples
were also collected on a transect between the Hawaiian Islands and
Monterey. Mercury levels were approximately equal in inshore and off-
shore zooplankton. The highest average mercury concentration was found
in phytoplankton-net samples from the open ocean that contained radio-
larians and other small zooplankton forms as well as diatoms.
928.
Kneip, T.J., G.P. Howells, and M.E. Wrenn. 1972. Trace elements,
radionuclides and pesticide residues in the Hudson River. In
Ruivo, M. (ed.), Marine Pollution and Sea Life, Fishing Tra~
ing News (books) Ltd., London: 169-173.
165
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Studies of trace contaminants in the Hudson River and their
bio-concentration in selected biota have been in progress since 1964.
The relative distribution of radionuclides in the water, sediments and
biota is similar to that reported in other areas for radionuclides and
their associated stable elements. The natural radionuclides potassium-
40 and radium-226 and -228 account for 80 to 90% of the activity in the
river; the greater part of this is attributable to potassium-40. Except
for tritium, man-made radioactivity in the river water is less than
1/100,000 of the AEC regulatory limits. Bioaccumulation of several man-
made radionuclides have been studied. Of the nuclides selected (man-
ganese-54, cobalt-60, iron-55, cerium-144, strontium-90) only manganese-
54 and cobalt were found to be reconcentrated in measurable amounts.
Accumulated activity does not increase with trophic level in the food
web, but is governed by other factors.
Pesticide residues of the chlorinated hydrocarbon type have
been shown to follow a pattern of increasing concentration with trophic
level in many aquatic systems. This has been found to be true in the
biota of the Hudson River with predatory fish and birds at the climax
of the food web showing the highest concentrations, with some residues
reaching concentrations of 1 to 3 ~g/g sample. This implies a biologi-
cal magnification of over 100,000 from the maximum concentrations ob-
served of a few nannograms/liter in the water. While no data have been
obtained which would indicate biological effects on the species or
population observed, there is less than a factor of 10 between the ob-
served levels, and those reported elsewhere to be lethal to some
species. For at least two species of fish sampled, pesticide residues
exceed the current Food and Drug Administration guideline concentrations
for edible portions of fish.
929.
Knight, L.A., Jr., and J. Herring. 1972. Total mercury in large-
mouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) in Ross Barnett Reservoir,
Mississippi--1970 and 1971. Pesticides Monitor. Jour. 6(2):
103-106.
Total mercury in flesh of 73 bass collected between November
1970 and October 1971 was determined at intervals representing winter,
spring, summer; and fall. Specimens ranged in weight from 0.10 to 3.15
kg. Mercury content ranged from less than 0.05 to 0.74 mg/kg total
mercury; levels generally increased with weight of the fish.
9~.
Knoll, J., and P.O. Fromm. 1960. Accumulation and elimination
of hexavalent chromium in rainbow trout. Physiological
Zoology 33(1):1-8.
Rainbow trout exposed to 2.5 mg/l of Cr6+ in tap water accumu-
lated chromium in concentrations exceeding the environment in the spleen,
166
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posterior gut, pyloric caeca, stomach, and kidney. With the exception
of spleen, these organs are all capable of excretion; thus it is hypo-
thesized that accumulation in these tissues may be correlated with ex-
cretion. The major route of hexavalent chromium into trout is probably
the gills. Fish with esophageal occlusions had accumulations of chro-
mium similar to those of normal fish in chromated water. Hexavalent
chromium given via stomach tube was not accumulated to any degree by
tissues other than those of the gastrointestinal tract in 24 hours.
Hexavalent chromium probably crosses the gill membranes as a result of
simple diffusion. Certainly a diffusion gradient existed between the
environment and blood in these experiments to allow this diffusion to
take place.
Either the chromium taken up by fish combines into a complex
when it enters the blood, or nucleated fish erythrocytes behave differ-
ently than do mammalian red blood cells. A very low rate of increase
in concentration was noted in blood. If erythrocytic binding were tak-
ing place, a high rate of increase in activity would have been observed.
Fresh-water elimination studies showed a rapid loss of chro-
mium from the blood, liver, stomach, pyloric caeca, and posterior gut.
A retention of chromium in the spleen and kidney was found to occur.
Trout exposed to concentrations of 2.5 mg/l of Cr6+ accumu-
lated insignificant amounts of chromium in muscle tissue. Hence human
consumption of the muscle portion of fish taken from waters contaminated
with this or lower levels of chromium would probably represent no serious
health hazard.
931.
Knutson, D.W., and R.W. Buddemeier. 1973. Distributions of
radionuclides in reef corals: opportunity for data retrieval
and study of effects. In Radioactive Contamination of the
Marine Environment, Int~Atom. Ener. Agen., Vienna, Austria:
735-746.
Autoradiography of sectioned massive corals from Eniwetok has
revealed the presence of discrete bands of radioactivity identifiable
with specific nuclear test series. X-radiographs of these and other
corals show structural density variations which in comparison with the
autoradiography demonstrates to be seasonal in nature. The coral struc-
ture thus contains a reasonably reliable internal calendar. Residual
Sr-90 activities have been determined for the Eniwetok corals; and a
Fanning Island coral has been used to reconstruct the uptake of excess
C-14 at that location. In addition to permitting retrieval of past
radionuclide concentrations as sampled by the corals, the method per-
mits retrospective study of the organism's structural response to in-
corporation of the radioactivity. Results to date indicate that the
167
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macroscopic growth-rates and patterns of these corals are relatively
unaffected by uptake of the observed amounts of radioactivity, and that
reef corals can provide a valuable record of past variations in the
marine concentrations and distributions of various radionuclides.
932.
Koelling, J.J. 1~7l. Relationship of trace elements to algae
growth. Wash. State Univ., Ph.D. Thesis: 1-131. Available
from Univ. Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Mich., 48106.
Research directed toward finding correlations between algal
populations and trace elements in a natural aquatic environment,
Williams Lake (Washington), basically involved the identification and
quantification of algal species as well as the measurement of 14 trace
elements present in the lake water. Samples of water with algae were
collected over a l3-month period to observe seasonal fluctuations in
both algal species and trace elements. Collection was made from three
different depths at one location where the lake was the deepest. Algae
cell identification and quantitative estimates were determined by a
microscopic count. Several physical and chemical measurements were
also made including light transmission, alkalinity, acidity, pH, dis-
solved oxygen, temperature, phosphates, and nitrates. Results indicate
that: (1) uranium, thorium, and cesium may be present in excess of
growth requirements or may possibly have no affect on the growth rate
of any of the algal forms studied; (2) mercury, although toxic in large
quantities, may be utilized by diatoms in small quantities; (3) chromium,
gold, cobalt, and antimony appear to be taken up by diatoms; (4) zinc
and iron appear to be utilized by blue-green algae; (5) uptake of
scandium, rubidium, and bromine by algae is not apparent, but may be
possible.
933.
Koeman, J.H., W.H.M. Peeters, C.H.M. Koudstaal-Hol, P.S. Tijoe,
and J.J. M. de Goeij. 1973. Mercury-selenium correlations
in marine mammals. Nature 245:385-386.
High levels of mercury may occur in the tissues of seals,
dolphins and porpoises. In the Netherlands from 225 to 765 mg/kg (wet
weight) in liver and from 9.9 to 31 mg/kg in brain have been detected
in adult specimens of the common seal (Phoca vitulina) which were found
dead. Brain concentrations were of the same order as those in the
brain tissue of animals of various species poisoned experimentally by
methylmercury compounds. As most of the mercury in marine fish is
present as methylmercury, the high levels in seal brain suggest that
these animals are affected by the toxic action of methylmercury com-
pounds. Analyses of the methylmercury levels in the livers of six
seals shot in the German part of the Wadden Sea and two adults found
dead showed that only 2 to 14% of the total mercury was methylmercury.
168
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The range for cadmium was 0.05 to 0.30 mg/kg, for arsenic
0.20 to 1.7 mg/kg and for zinc 25 to 34 mg/kg; on the other hand the
concentration of antimony was found to be lower than the detection limit
of 0.01 mg/kg. Further analyses were made of juvenile seals found dead,
a number of adult seals shot, three porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) found
dead along the Dutch coast, three bottle-nosed dolphins (Tursiops trun-
catus) which died in a dolphinarium, three dolphins (two Delphinus----
delphis and one Lagenorhynchus obscurus) collected near New Zealand and
two dolphins (Sotaliaguianensi~ captured in Surinam. The concentration
of mercury in the livers of marine mammals seems to be strongly corre-
lated with the concentration of selenium, but not with any of the other
elements determined.
Authors' results suggest that the correlation found reflects a
causal relationship between mercury and selenium in marine mammals. As
selenium has a protective effect against the toxic action of mercury com-
pounds in experiments with rats and Japanese quail, it may have a similar
effect in marine mammals. It has been suggested that mercury and selen-
ium occur together in animal tissues and are associated to proteins by
means of sulphur. The observation that most of the mercury in seal
liver and brain was tightly bound and could not be recovered in the
form of methylmercury may support this suggestion.
934.
Koeman, J.H., and H. VanGenderen. 1972. Tissue levels in
animals and effects caused by chlorinated hydrocarbon insecti-
cides, biphenyls and mercury in the marine environment along
the Netherlands coast. In Ruivo, M. (ed.), Marine Pollution
and Sea Life, Fishing Trading News (books) Ltd., London:
428-435.
Since 1965 a toxicological surveillance has been made along
the Netherlands coast. Molluscs, fish and sea birds were sampled and
analyzed to follow the topographic distribution of the contamination,
to note its effect on the food chain and to correlate tissue residues
with effects which might be due to the intake of the contaminants.
Among the sea birds a large colony of sandwich terns (Sterna sandvi-
censis) in the Wadden Sea was found suffering from serious mortality
in 1965. The cause could be attributed to pollution with chlorinated
hydrocarbon insecticides. In the same area the eiderduck (Somateria
mollissima) seems to be endangered by the influence of pollution,
particularly the female eider due to its peculiar breeding habits.
With neutron activation and gas chromatographic methods,
total mercury and methylmercury levels were determined. High residues
have been found in some eiderducks. It is not yet possible to evalu-
ate the residue levels in terms of risk to the ecosystem.
169
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935.
Kopfler, F.C. 1974. The accumulation of organic and inorganic
mercury compounds by the eastern oyster (Crassostrea vir-
ginica). Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 11(3) :275-280.
Accumulation of mercury compounds by oysters was determined
in two experiments, each utilizing three groups of 100 adult oysters.
In the first experiment, conducted between 0 and 10°C, mercury levels
were maintained at 50 ~g/l with flow rate adjusted to one l/oyster/hr.
In the second experiment, mercury levels were reduced to 1 ~g/l, the
water temperature varied between 25 and 35°C, and flow rates maintained
at two l/oyster/hr because of the increased temperature. Controls were
maintained for each study.
In the first experiment, the administration of organic mer-
cury compounds was terminated after 19 days because many of the oysters
in the groups receiving either methylmercury or phenylmercury were dead
or moribund. Oysters classified as moribund exhibited slow, incomplete
valve closure when disturbed. When oysters which survived 19 days of
exposure to methylmercury and phenylmercury were placed in flowing sea-
water, about half in each group died within a week with all oysters in
both groups dead within 14 days. Oysters exposed to inorganic mercuric
chloride exhibited no apparent ill effects over a 42-day period of ex-
posure to 50 ~g/l of Hg.
Oysters concentrated mercury so rapidly that detection of
differences in accumulation rates between experimentals was not pos-
sible; mean mercury levels in experimentals after one week was >lOOOX
over controls. Mercury values in experimental oysters at 7 days, in
mg Hg/kg wet weight, ranged between 15 and 25; for controls this was
<0.02.
Copper and zinc levels were depressed in flesh from all three
groups of oysters after one week exposure to mercury; in the two groups
exposed to organomercury, Cu and Zn declined over the 19-day exposure.
Copper and zinc levels in the oysters exposed to mercuric chloride be-
gan to increase during the third week and continued to do so until they
were essentially the same as control values.
In the second experiment methyl- and phenylmercury were con-
centrated to essentially the same degree, while inorganic mercury was
concentrated about 4 times less over a 74-day exposure. For organo-
mercury compounds, values in mg Hg/kg wet weight were about 10 at 20
days and 30 at 60 days (a final concentration factor of about 30,000).
For inorganic mercuric chloride, values were about 2 at 20 days and
about 10 at 60 days.
Author concludes that continuous exposure of the eastern
oyster to even one ~g/l mercury in any of the three mercury compounds
1m
-------
studied, caused oysters to rapidly concentrate mercury in their tissues
far in excess of the 0.5 mg/kg wet weight "action guideline" established
by the Food and Drug Administration.
936.
Kosta, L., A.R. Byrne, P. Stegnar, and V. Ze1enko. 1972. Uptake
of mercury by plants and its distribution in living organisms
in an environment with increased concentration of this ele-
ment. In Radiotracer Studies of Chemical Residues in Food
and Agriculture, Int. Atom. Ener. Agen., Vienna: 47-59.
Studies of the area around a mercury mine at Idrija were ex-
tended to include analysis for methyl Hg. The ratio of methyl Hg/tota1
Hg in fish increased with increasing distance downstream from the mine,
approaching 1 at a distance of 35 km. Hg and other elements were
measured in vegetation, and Hg uptake by rabbits from vegetation. In
rabbits, Hg was checked regularly in blood, urine, and feces. The
analytical technique was based on reaction of methyl Hg cyanide vapor
with either cysteine or glutathione extraction into benzene, and gas
chromatography. The sensitivity was 1 ~g/l using 0.1-1.0 g samples.
937.
Krenke1, P.A. 1973. Mercury: environmental considerations,
part I. Critical Reviews in Environmental Control 3(3) :303-
373.
The mercury problem is defined in relation to its sources, en-
vironmental distribution, biological transformations, decontamination
potential and physiological effects. Included are additional sections
on total mercury analysis and methylmercury analysis in which are re-
viewed sample preparation and methods of analysis.
938.
Krishnamoorthy, R.V., and A. Venkatramiah. 1971. Kinetic changes
in flexor myosin ATPase of Scylla serrata adapted to different
salinities. Marine Biology 8:30-34.
Kinetic properties and the activation energy of flexor muscle
myosin ATPase were investigated in the estuarine crab Scylla serrata.
These properties varied at different salinities, but the extractability
of the enzyme remained unaltered. The qualitative changes upon salin-
ity adaptation are discussed with reference to estuarine conditions.
939.
KrUger, F. 1971. Mathematical analysis of combined temperature
and salinity effect on the metabolism of Ti1apia mossambica.
(Te1eostei). Marine Biology 8:147-153.
171
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Others have presented experimental results on the influence
of temperature and salinity on rate of oxygen consumption in Tilapia
mossambica, with evaluation on the basis of the allometric function.
The present paper analyzes data of a new temperature function. Using
this formula, the author shows that in 50 and 100% sea wate~ curves
for logarithmic values for given body weights are parallel to each
other; only the slope is different for the two salinities. In fresh
water, the logarithmic temperature curves diverge. Results from the
literature clearly demonstrate that it is not possible to explain dif-
ferences in respiratory metabolism of Tilapia on the grounds of energy
expenditure for osmoregulation. Author concludes that differences in
rate of respiration are caused by differences in ionic composition of
the internal milieu in different salinities.
940.
Kucherova, F.N. 1972. Cation composition of the sperm cells and
seminal fluid of Vimba vimba (L.). Jour. Ichthyol. 12(4):
666-670.
The following elements were detected in an ash residue of the
sperm cells of the teleost Vimba vimba (L.) by microanalytical tech-
niques based on crystal optics and the use of the spot test method: K,
Na, Mg, Li, Cs, Sr, AI, Cr, Be, Ti, Nb, La, Mn, Zn,' Fe, Co, Ni, In, Ag,
V, Hg, Pb, Tl, Cu, Cd, Bi, Pd, Sb, Sn, Mo, Se, Te, Pt, Ir, and Re. The
elements detected in an ash residue of the seminal fluid were K, Na,
Mg, Li, Rb, Cs, Ca, Sr; Ba, AI, Cr, Be, Ti, Zr, Th, La, Ta, Mn, Zn,
Fe, Co, Ni, Ag, Hg, Pb, Cu, Cd, Bi, Ru, Pd, As, Sb, Sn, Mo, Te, Pt, Ir,
and Re. Consideration is given to the role of the cations of the seminal
fluid in neutralization of the acid products of the ovulated ovum at
the time of insemination and in the intensification of some of the meta-
bolic reactions occurring before the spermatozoa are already at its sur-
face.
941.
Kumar, H.D., and G. Prakash. 1971. Toxicity of selenium to the
blue-green algae, Anacystis nidulans and Anabaena variabilis.
Annals of Botany 35: 69 7-705.
Comparison was made of toxic effects of selenate, selenite,
selenomethionine, and selenopurine on different growth phases of Ana-
cystis nidulans and Anabaena variabilis. These compounds were le~
toxic in culture medium containing sulfate than in sulfur-free medium.
Growth-inhibitory effects of selenate and selenite were studied on
algae grown on agar medium and in liquid mineral medium. Seleno-
methionine and selenopurine were studied only in liquid culture.
Growth was estimated by measuring optical density of culture tubes and
percent survival scored by colony counting. Dose-response curves of
both algae suggest comparatively greater killing by selenite than by
172
-------
selenate. Anacystis nidulans is three times more tolerant to selenite
and selenate killing than Anabaena variabilis. Selenite is more toxic
in agar plate cultures and less toxic in liquid cultures than selenate.
Cells grown in the highest growth-permitting concentration of selenite
in liquid medium form a variable number of red granules. No such granu-
lation occurs in cells treated with other seleno-compounds, indicating
that the mode of selenite action in blue-green algae differs from that
of other selenium compounds.
942.
Kutty, M. N ., G. Murugapoopathy, and T. S. Krishnan. 1971. In-
fluence of salini ty and temperature on the oxygen consumption
in young juveniles of the Indian prawn Penaeus indicus.
Marine Biology 11:125-131.
Routine oxygen consumption of very young juveniles (0.1 g) of
Penaeus indicus was significantly influenced by ambient temperature and
weight of the animal, but not by ambient salinity, when tested at
salinities (7, 21, and 350/00) to which they had been long-term (over
10 days) acclimated. Standard oxygen consumption of young juvenile
prawns (1 to 3 g), subjected to step-wise changes in ambient salinity,
from sea water to low salinity waters (2 to 60/00), and measured after
short-term (24 h) salinity acclimation at each step, was lowest at
salinities where prawns such as those tested occur naturally (10 to
150/00). The metabolic rates do not appear to have a direct relation
to the osmotic gradient, even when the influence of "interfering" acti-
vity is eliminated. It appears that factors other than osmotic gra-
dient will have to be sought in order to explain the metabolic patterns
of P. indicus in relation to salinity.
943.
Langley, D.G. 1973. Mercury methylation in an aquatic environ-
ment. Jour. Water Poll. Contr. Fed. 45(1):44-51.
Fish were used to compare mercury methylation of sediment
samples from a contaminated river under controlled laboratory condi-
tions. The fish concentrated methylmercury in their bodies, as mea-
sured by gas-liquid chromatography. Different locations varied in
methylating capacity by a factor of nearly 40. Methylation did not
relate directly to mercury concentration in sediments. Deposition of
various layers of fluorspar tailings on sediments showed that a 2- to
3-cm layer decreased methylation by about 80%. The rate of methylation
from sediments was extremely slow, indicating that mercury-containing
sediments would require many decades to purge themselves naturally to
background levels.
173
-------
944.
Lappenbusch, W.L., D.G. Watson, and W.L. Templeton. 1971. In
situ measurement of radiation dose in the Columbia River:-
Health Physics 21:247-251.
By the use of lithium floride thermoluminescent dosimeters,
comparative environmental dose measurements were made in the Columbia
River upstream from an atomic reactor effluent discharge site, near the
point of discharge and at a location downstream from the effluent out-
fall. These dose estimates were related to water depth, periphyton
biomass, and concentration of radionuclides in periphyton. Periphyton
growth upstream from the reactors and near the discha~ge site was
greatest near the surface and decreased down to 6 m. This decline was
attributed mainly to reduced light penetration with increasing depth.
The rise in biomass concentration at the river bottom (6 m) was perhaps
due to greater deposition of sediments on the artificial substrates.
In the area of incomplete effluent mixing near the outfall, greater
turbidity, higher temperatures and the relatively high concentrations
of chemical pollutants, such as chromium, may have contributed to the
reduced periphyton growth. Chromium, present in the effluent through
the addition of sodium dichromate to the reactor cooling water to in-
hibit corrosion, is toxic to fish, particularly in the hexavalent form.
The average dose rate near the effluent discharge site was >20x that of
the downstream location, but the mean concentration of radionuclides
measured in the periphyton at the outfall was only about 4x greater.
945.
Laroze, A. 1955. Effect of poisons on fish.
Porto 15:77-111.
Anais fac. farm.
The time required to kill ~. cephalus of 7-8 cm total length,
was a function of initial concentration, and was nearly constant for
ferric lactate (1.6-9.8 x 10-3N), Al chloride (0.03-2.8 x 10-3N) and Cu
sulfate (0.15-6.2 x 10-3N) while for Hg chloride up to 10-3N there was
a rapid increase. Temperature studies showed that for Ag nitrate, Ba
chloride, Pb acetate, uranyl acetate, Cu sulfate, NaF, and LiCl the
time required to kill was nearly constant up to 15° after which it in-
creased rapidly. For Hg chloride and ferric lactate, a minimum velo-
city of mortality was found around 15°C.
946.
Larsen, I.L. 1971. Determination of Zn65 specific activity in
various tissues of the California sea mussel, M. californi-
anus. M.S. Thesis, Oregon State Univ. Avail~le from Nat.
Tech. Inf. Ser., Springfield, Va., as RLO-1750-78:l-66.
As the distance from the mouth of the Columbia River increased
from 0 to 300 km, Zn-65 specific activity of the soft tissue of mussel
decreased from about 700 to 100 nanoCi/gram of stable Zn. Analysis of
l~
-------
stable Zn was more efficient and accurate by atomic absorption spectro-
scopy as compared with neutron activation. The specific activity of
the food and water of the mussels was calculated using a simple model;
the result agreed with measurements made on zooplankton sampled from
within the Columbia River plume.
947.
Lask, D.J., C.E. McKone, R.G. Young, and C.A. Bache. 1971.
Rapid uptake of mercuric ion by goldfish. Environ. Science
Technol. 5(11) :1138-1139.
Mercuric ion is rapidly absorbed from the water by goldfish.
The extent of absorption is dependent on mercury concentration and time
of exposure. Other factors known to influence the toxicity of heavy
metals to fish may also affect this uptake, including water hardness,
temperature, pH, volume, the associated heavy metal anion, and the pre-
sence of other heavy metal ions. Mercuric ion in water is rapidly ab-
sorbed into the mucus externally secreted by fish, and its presence
appeared to stimulate this secretion. Therefore, it was of interest to
determine the proportion of 'absorbed' mercury which may have been pre-
sent in the accumulated mucus. Of the total mercury, it was found that
79.3% was in the mucus. Others have reported that bacterial methylation
of mercury occurs when mercuric ion is incubated with dead fish but only
if the mucus is present which may make these findings significant.
948.
Lasker, R., R.H. Tenaza, and L.L. Chamberlain. 1972. The re-
sponse of Salton Sea fish eggs and larvae to salinity stress.
California Fish and Game 58(1):58-66.
In laboratory experiments, Salton Sea water at salinities of
400/00 and higher adversely affected developing embryos and larvae of
croaker, Bairdiella icistia, and the sargo, Anisotremus davidsoni.
Embryos developed abnormally, hatching success diminished, and mortal-
ity of larvae was greater than in normal Salton Sea water at 37.60/00.
949.
Laumond, F., M. Neuburger, B. Donnier, A. Fourcy, R. Bittel, and
M. Aubert. 1973. Experimental investigations, at laboratory,
on the transfer of mercury in marine trophic chains. In 6th
Int. Symp. Medicale Ocean., Portoroz, Yugoslavia, Sept~26-30,
1973:47-53.
Transfer of mercury in a pelagic chain (plankton, fish) and
in a neritic chain with molluscs (plankton, mussel) was studied. The
first trophic level was contaminated with water and the second at one
and the same time with water and food (1st trophic level), as in natural
conditions. Mercury at subtoxic concentrations was introduced into
175
-------
water either as Hg2+ ions or associated with natural and
organic compounds present in oceanic environments and in
Under these conditions, transfer factors of mercury from
fish and molluscs were ca. 50 and 3,000, respectively.
artificial
effluents.
sea-water to
950.
Lawrence, J.M. 1968. Dynamics of chemical and physical charac-
teristics of water, bottom muds, and aquatic life in a large
impoundment on a river. Zoology-Entomology Dept., Ser. Fish.
6, Agric. Exper. Sta., Auburn Univ., Alabama, OWRR Final Pro-
ject B-005-ALA:1-2l6.
Chemical and physical characteristics of waters at various
depths and locations in a multi-purpose, 45,000 acre reservoir Lake
Eufula on the Chattahoochee River, its headwaters and tailwaters, were
determined at regular intervals over a 3-year period. Determinations
included pH, temperature, turbidity, light penetration, conductance,
dissolved oxygen, alkalinity, Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cu, Zn, orthophosphate,
ammonia nitrogen, carbon, Fe, and Mn. Dried, cored bottom-soil samples
and hydrosol samples were extracted with ammonium acetate and the follow-
ing elements determined: Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn, Cd, Cr, Ni, Co,
Mo, Pb, and P. Samples of several species of rooted aquatic plants and
several species of fish were collected, preserved by freeze-drying,
ashed, ash dissolved in acid, and quantities of same elements listed
above determined. Chemical and physical characteristics of reservoir
waters were in a constant state of change. Generally, the total carbon
content of water decreased during this period while the ammonia nitro-
gen and orthophosphates contents remained fairly constant. Chemical
composition of soils and aquatic life also remained fairly constant.
Zn, Cu, Pb, Cd and Cr content in aquatic life in the reservoir was
greater than in tributary ponds.
951.
Leatherland, T.M., and J.D. Burton. 1974. The occurrence of some
trace metals in coastal organisms with particular reference to
The Solent region. Jour. Mar. BioI. Assn. U.K. 54:457-468.
Measurements were made, by neutron activation analysis, of
arsenic, cadmium, antimony, mercury and zinc 'in organisms and bottom
muds, mainly from Southampton Water and the Solent. The values are on
a dry weight basis and refer to whole organism soft tissues unless
otherwise stated. Concentrations of mercury in algae ranged from 0.07
to 0.22 mg/kg and those in animal tissues from 0.06 to 1.9 mg/kg. The
distribution of the element in various tissues of clam, Mercenaria
mercenaria, was rather uniform, except that concentration in gills was
about 2.5 times that of whole animal. Variations among organisms from
different parts of the Solent area and comparisons with other regions
suggested some possible influences of local waste discharge, but there
176
-------
was no evidence of major effects. Anoxic muds contained higher concen-
trations of mercury than occurred in unreduced surface layers, suggest-
ing mobility in interstitial waters of the uppermost zone and fixation
under reducing conditions. The average levels of cadmium in algae and
fish from substantially unpolluted waters were 0.3 and 0.03 mg/kg, re-
spectively, while the range for marine gastropod and lamellibranch mol-
luscs was from 0.3 to 21 mg/kg. Increased concentrations, by about
two orders of magnitude, were found in Fucus serratus and Littorina
littoralis from the Severn Estuary. Bottom muds from areas of low pol-
lution contained, on average, 0.6 mg/kg. Concentrations of arsenic in
molluscs were usually in the range from 3 to 24 mg/kg, while fish muscle
contained on average 5 mg/kg. Sepia officinalis (cuttlefish, mollusca)
contained 73 mg/kg in mantle tissue; in both Sepia and Mercenaria con-
centrations of As were higher in gills than mantle. Relatively high
concentrations of As occurred in Tealia (72 mg/kg) and in most of the
algae examined (11-54 mg/kg). Antimony occurred usually in the range
from 0.01 to 0.1 mg/kg, with low values in fish muscle; concentrations
averaging 0.2 mg/kg were found in two ascidian species. The average
concentrations of arsenic and antimony in bottom muds from Southampton
Water were 14 and 1.0 mg/kg respectively.
952.
Leatherland, T.M., J.D. Burton, F. Culkin, M.J. McCartney, and
R.J. Morris. 1973. Concentrations of some trace metals in
pelagic organisms and of mercury in Northeast Atlantic Ocean
water. Deep Sea Research 20:679-685.
Several trace metals (Zn, As, Cd, Sb, and Hg) have been
determined, by neutron activation analysis, in pelagic organisms,
mainly crustaceans and fishes, collected mostly off northwest Africa
and in the Azores region. Concentrations of mercury (0.06 to 0.38
mg/kg dry weight) showed no clear trend with trophic level. Organo-
mercury analysis on two species showed that the element was present
largely in the methyl mercuric form. Concentrations of cadmium which
reached 13 mg/kg dry weight in Systellaspis deblis and Oplophorus sp.,
and of arsenic, which averaged 25 mg/kg dry weight in the crustaceans,
tended to decrease in the tissues of fishes. Values for antimony which
were all below 0.1 mg/kg dry weight, showed some indication of a similar
trend. Concentrations of mercury in sea water from an adjacent area
ranged from 17 to 142 ng/l, the highest concentration occurring in deep
water.
953.
Leduc, G. 1972. Changes of blood chloride and osmolarity in two
stocks of salmon parr (Salmo salar) during short-term exposure
to seawater. Canad. Jour. Zool. 50(7):1019-1021.
177
-------
Two stocks of hatchery-reared salmon were tested for changes
in blood chloride and plasma osmotic concentrations following transfer
from freshwater to diluted seawater for periods up to 256 h. One group
of fish originated from an anadromous population (Atlantic salmon) while
the others were from a freshwater stock (ouananiche). The results
suggest that young salmon from both groups have very similar osmoregu-
lation.
954.
Lee, S.W., and L.B. Trott. 1973. Marine succession of fouling
organisms in Hong Kong with a comparison of woody substrates
and common, locally-available, antifouling paints. Marine
Biology 20:101-108.
Successional stages of macrofaunal fouling organisms on test
blocks were exposed in the subtropical waters of Hong Kong. A compari-
son cf 5 types of wood commonly used to build boats, and 5 types of
locally available antifouling paints were made. Rafts holding the test
blocks were exposed at 1 m depth from 24 March, 1970, to 23 October,
1970. The initial macrofoulers on the control (Chinese fir) were Balanus
and Bujula, and the final dominance was a Styela-Mytilus community. On
painted surfaces, the Balanus-Elasmopus community was dominant. Tem-
perature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, and turbidity were recorded weekly
during the test. A preliminary chemical analysis of percentage pigment
and cuprous oxide content in the antifouling paints is presented.
955.
LeGall, P., and J. Ancellin. 1971. Concentration factors for
Cs 137; Ce 144, and Ru 106 in several species of edible
marine mollusks and crustaceans. Available from Nat. Tech.
Inf. Ser., Springfield, Va., as CEA-N-1488:l-l7.
Concentration factors for edible parts of mollusks and crus-
taceans ranged from 100 to 300 for Ce-144 and from 4 to 10 for Cs-137.
Uptake of Ru-l06 by edible parts was negligible. Concentration factors
for uptake of Ru-l06 ranged from 4 to 11 for gill, 2 to 10 for hepato-
pancreas, and 3 to 28 for shell.
956.
Leteux, F., and F.P. Meyer. 1972. Mixtures of malachite green
and formalin for controlling Ichthyophthirius and other
protozoan parasites of fish. Progr. Fish-Cult. 34(1):21-26.
Fish infected with protozoan parasites were treated with mix-
tures of malachite green copper-containing compound, and formalin.
Laboratory tests suggested that mixtures of 0.05 mg/kg malachite green
plus 15 mg/kg, 25 mg/kg or 50 mg/kg formalin were safe and effective
in treating external protozoans andichthyophthirii on channel catfish
178
-------
(Ictalurus punctatus) and that levels up to 0.2 mg/kg malachite green
plus 33 mg/kg formalin could be used on goldfish. In field trials, in
tanks and ponds, a treatment of 0.01 mg/kg malachite green with 24 mg/kg
formalin provided excellent control of Costia, Trichodina, Chilodonella,
Scyphidia, and Trichophrya in all cases after one application. With two
exceptions, Ichthyophthirius was controlled by three applications on
alternate days. Cleidodiscus was not affected by the treatments. In
nearly all cases, Ichthyophthirius-infected fish showed marked improve-
ment within 12 hr after the first application. Other external proto-
zoans were greatly reduced and usually eradicated by the first treatment.
Eradication of Ichthyophthirius was usually achieved after the second
application. Under field conditions three treatments were used as a
precaution to ensure successful control. The malachite green and for-
malin mixture proved effective against Costia in a single application.
957.
Levitan, H., and J.L. Barker. 1972. Membrane permeability:
cation selectivity reversibly altered by salicylate. Science
178(4056) :63-64.
Intracellular recording techniques were used to investigate
the effect of salicylate on the relative cation permeability of a mem-
brane in large molluscan (Navanax inermis) neurons. Salicylate caused
a reversible, dose-dependent decrease in the permeability of Rb, Cs, Na
and Li ions relative to that of K ions. Changes in cation selectivity
result from adsorption of salicylate anions to the membrane with subse-
quent increase in the density and field strength of anionic sites in the
membrane.
957A.
Lewin, J. 1966. Silicon metabolism in diatoms. V. Germanium
dioxide, a specific inhibitor of diatom growth. Phycologia
6(1):1-12.
In enriched sea-water cultures inoculated with a mixture of
algae and other organisms, concentrations of GeOZ above 1.5 mg/l
specifically suppressed the growth of diatoms. In experiments with 14
pure cultures of diatoms (10 species), 1 mg Ge02/l sufficed to reduce
the growth rates significantly; 10 mg GeOZ/l was even more inhibitory
to growth, and in a few cases killed the cells. Phaeodactylum tri-
cornutum, the most weakly silicified diatom, was the least sensitive to
GeOZ inhibition. In experiments with four selected marine species, an
appropriate increase in the Si02 concentration of the medium reversed
the inhibitory action of GeOZ on growth. A similar effect of Si02 was
observed in growth experiments with the fresh-water diatom Navicula
pelliculosa. (A non-silicified green flagellate responded quite dif-
ferently, its growth being unaffected by relatively high concentrations
of GeOZ') At these low concentrations, GeOZ presumably had no effect
179
-------
on respiratory metabolism, since, even in concentrations of Ge02 as
high as 400 mg/l, oxygen uptake of ~. pelliculosa was unimpaired. All
of these experimental results are consistent with the hypothesis that
Ge02 is a specific inhibitor of silicate utilization.
958.
Lewin, J., and C. Chen. 1971. Available iron: A limiting fac-
tor for marine phytoplankton. Limnology and Oceanography 16
(4):670-675.
Experiments on availability of iron in culture media were
conducted with seawater from Hood Canal, Washington. When all nutrients
(except Fe-EDTA) were added and the culture medium autoclaved, iron pre-
sent in seawater was unavailable for growth of most of the six phyto-
plankton species studied. EDTA was effective in making such iron avail-
able for algal growth in culture media made with freshly collected sea-
water but not when the water had been stored some days. Both in stored
seawater and in autoclaved culture medium, part of the soluble iron was
converted into a particulate form.
959.
Lewin, J.C., 1954. Silicon metabolism in diatoms. I. Evidence
for the role of reduced sulfur compounds in silicon utiliza-
tion. Jour. Gen. Physiol. 37:589-599.
Cells of the fresh water diatom Navicula pelliculosa may be
grown in a mineral medium containing a low concentration of silicon.
When transferred to a fresh silicate solution and incubated under non-
growing conditions such deficient cells rapidly take up silicon from
the medium. Utilization of silicon is an aerobic process. When defi-
cient cells are washed with distilled water or saline, their ability
to utilize silicon is impaired whereas respiration is unaffected. The
ability of washed cells to take up silicon can be partially restored
with sulfate or ascorbic acid, and is completely restored by Na2S,
Na2S203, glutathione, I-cysteine, dl-methionine, or ascorbic acid plus
sulfate. The sulfhydryl reagent, CdC12 inhibits silicon utilization of
unwashed cells at concentrations which do not affect respiration. This
inhibition similarly is reversed by glutathione or cysteine. However,
sodium iodoacetate or sodium arsenite inhibits respiration and silicon
utilization at the same concentrations. The silicon taken up by defi-
cient cells is deposited at the cell surface as a thickening of the
existing silica frustules. Sulfhydryl groups in the cell membrane may
be involved in silicon uptake by diatoms.
960.
Lewin, J.C. 1955. Silicon metabolism in diatoms.
of silicon for growth of Navicula pelliculosa.
30:129-134.
II. Sources
Plant Physiol.
180
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N. pe11icu1osa has an obligate requirement for silicon.
Growth is proportional to soluble silicon at low concentrations, and
is most dense in media containing about 35 mg Sill. Since the addition
of 1.0% agar supplies 1.5 mg soluble Sill to the nutrient medium, such
media can support some diatom growth in the absence of any other source
of silicon. The ash of agar, employed at a concentration equivalent to
0.1% agar, supplies 24 mg soluble Sill and thus supports good diatom
growth. By treatment with HF this silicon can be removed from agar ash,
which thereby loses its essential growth factor. When 0.1% agar is
added in the presence of adequate amounts of silicon, there is some
acceleration of growth, possibly attributable to its action as a dis-
persing agent.
Orthosilicates, which react with ammonium molybdate, serve as
suitable sources of silicon for growth of N. pe11icu1osa. Colloidal
silica (Ludox) neither reacts with ammonium molybdate nor supports dia-
tom growth unless it has first been depo1ymerized with alkali.
961.
Lewis, A.G., P.H. Whitfield, and A. Ramnarine. 1972. Some parti-
culate and soluble agents affecting the relationship between
metal toxicity and organism survival in the ca1anoid copepod
Euchaeta japonica. Marine Biology 17:215-221.
Particulate and water soluble agents were tested to determine
their ability to affect the relationship between copper toxicity and the
survival of Euchaeta japonica (Copepoda, Ca1anoida). Clay minerals and
diatoms were two types of particles capable of affecting this relation-
ship. Ascorbic acid, sewage effluent, and water extracts of humic acid
and two types of soils exhibited the same capability. The ability of
the water-soluble agents was compared with that of a known che1ating
agent in an attempt to quantify the activity of the agents.
962.
Lewis, A.G., P. Whitfield, and A. Ramnarine. 1973. The reduction
of copper toxicity in a marine copepod by sediment extract.
Limnology and Oceanography 18(2):324-326.
Seawater extracts of marine sediments from two areas were
added to copper-enriched seawater in which the prefeeding stages (egg,
2 naup1ioid stages) of Euchaeta japonica (Copepoda; Ca1anoida) were main-
tained. Survival with the sediment extracts were greater than without,
indicating an ability of some part of the extracted material to reduce
the toxicity of the copper. The effect of the extracts was compared with
that of a synthetic che1ating agent to provide an "equivalent" value.
181
-------
963.
Li, M.F., and G.S. Traxler. 1972. Tissue culture bioassay method
for water pollution with special reference to mercuric
chloride. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 29(5):501-505.
The effect of HgC12 on multiplication and respiration of mouse
L-cells cultivated in suspension was studied. The nutritional history,
growth phase, initial density of the cells, as well as the concentration
of serum supplement used in test medium had significant effects on sensi-
tivity of the bioassay system. It was concluded that cells used should
be in the stationary phase at an initial cell density of approximately
2 x 105 per ml, and the test medium should be free of calf serum. Under
the experimental conditions mercuric chloride at a concentration of 10
~g/l or less inhibited the cellular multiplication significantly; the
results indicated that this assay procedure could be adequate for moni-
toring water quality. The cellular respiration method, however, was less
sensitive, but simple and rapid with results being made available within
a few hours, and therefore useful for screening or preliminary testing
of heavily polluted samples.
964.
Lipschuetz, ~1., and A.L. Cooper. 1955. Comparative toxicities
of potassium cyanide and potassium cuprocyanide to the western
black-nosed dace (Rhinichthys atratulus meleagris). New York
Fish. Game Jour. 2:194-204.
Toxicities of potassium cyanide, and of potassium cuprocyanide
having cyanide-to-copper mol-ratios of 4.0, 3.75, and 3.0, were measured
by a flow through procedure. The toxicity decreased as the ratio of
copper to cyanide increased. The 24-hour median tolerance limits for
KCN and for the 4.0, 3.75, and 3.0 mol-ratios were 0.22,0.38,0.47,
and 0.71 mg/l CN,respectively; the 4-hour median tolerance limits were
0.26, 0.53, 0.69, and 1.10 mg/l, respectively. These values were for
one species of minnow, the western black-nosed dace, and for given con-
ditions of temperature, pH, and dissolved oxygen. In spite of the de-
crease in toxicity due to the presence of copper, cuprocyanide solutions
are sufficiently potent to constitute a pollutional hazard when present
in industrial wastes.
965.
Livingston, H.D., and G. Thompson.
trations in some modern corals.
16(5):786-795.
1971. Trace element concen-
Limnology and Oceanography
Thirty-four species of scleractinian corals, including herma-
typic and ahermatypic varieties, were analyzed for trace elements. Acid
leaching has been used to infer the distribution of elements between the
coral skeleton (acid-soluble fraction) and detrital phases (acid-
insoluble).
182
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Sr, U, Ba, Cu, B, Li, and Zn are generally present in the
coral skeleton. Sr and U concentration, relative to Ca and to Ca in
seawater, show only little discrimination but small variations do exist
between species from the same environment, indicating species specific
controls. Larger differences are found between hermatypic and aherma-
typic corals. The concentrations of Sr and U are independent of tem-
perature and may be a function of the coral metabolism and rate of
skeletogenesis. Ba is not discriminated against, but there is marked
discrimination against B and Li. Zn is generally discriminated against
but some ahermatypic species show high Zn concentrations. Si, Ti, and
Cr are mostly present in the detrital phase associated with the corals;
the nature of the detritus often reflects the local environment. Fe,
~Im, Co, Ni, Pb, and Sc are distributed variously between the detrital
and nondetrital phases. High concentrations are found in ferromanganese-
stained pelagic corals and in nearshore corals containing much detritus.
The concentrations of these elements in clean, fresh corals indicate
that they are discriminated against with respect to Ca uptake from sea-
water.
966.
Lockhart, W.L., J.F.
Methylmercury in
elimination, and
taminated fish.
Uthe, A.R. Kenney, and P.M. Mehrle. 1972.
northern pike (Esox lucius): Distribution,
some biochemical characteristics of con-
Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 29(11) :1519-1523.
Northern pike heavily contaminated with methylmercury were
captured from Clay Lake, Ontario, and released in Heming Lake, Manitoba,
an area relatively free of mercury. Mercury levels in muscle biopsy
samples at the time of transfer and at subsequent recaptures indicated
that only 30% was eliminated in one year. Distribution among various
body tissues was essentially unchanged, those organs most heavily con-
taminated being lens, kidney, and liver in decreasing order. Biochemi-
cal profiles of blood serum constituents showed several differences
between samples from the two lakes, especially in levels of inorganic
phosphate, total protein, alkaline phosphatase, and cortisol. Serum
values for transplanted fish tended toward those in the clean lake and
we have concluded that biochemical profiles were sensitive to the en-
vironmental change.
967.
Lofroth, G. 1970. Methylmercury, a review of health hazards and
side effects associated with the emission of mercury compounds
into natural systems. Natural Science Res. Coun., Ecol. Res.
Comm., Stockholm, Sweden, Bull. 4:1-56.
Health hazards and side effects associated with the discharge
of mercury compounds into natural systems are reviewed. Accidental
poisoning in man by consumption of methylmercury dressed seeds has
183
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occurred. Water and airborne pollution by any mercury compound presents
problems of large magnitude as mercury can be methylated biologically in
several ecosystems. The most important effects of methylmercury to be
screened for are the selective destruction of certain brain cells and
the C-mitotic action on dividing cells. The data presently available
indicate that the human fetus might be visibly affected at a methylmer-
cury intake by the mother-to-be several times less than the intake which
would affect nonpregnant adults. Methylmercury seems to have a bio-
logical half-life on the order of 70-200 days in man. The official
Swedish legal limit in fish is 1 mg Hglkg tissue, with a recommendation
to limit the consumption of fish to one meal a week.
968.
Lough, R.G., and J.J. Gonor. 1971. Early embryonic stages of
Adula californiensis (Pelecypoda: Mytilidae) and the effect
of temperature and salinity on developmental rate. Marine
Biology 8:118-125.
Developmental rate increases linearly with temperature.
Lowered salinity retards developmental rate, and development is abnor-
mal below 26.30/00. Larvae do not congregate at salinity interfaces,
but avoid low salinities in gradient experiments.
969.
Lough, R.G., and J.J. Gonor. 1973. A response-surface approach
to the combined effects of temperature and salinity on the
larval development of Adula californiensis (Pelecypoda:
Mytilidae). I. Survival and growth of three and fifteen-day
old larvae. Marine Biology 22:241-250. .
Three-day old cultured larvae were more sensitive to reduced
salinity than IS-day old larvae. However, the IS-day larvae showed a
narrower temperature tolerance than the 3-day larvae. A. californiensis
larvae survived over a wider range of temperatures near-optimum salini-
ties than at salinities near their lower tolerance limit, and conversely.
Temperature and salinity ranges for maximum survival (10° to 15°C, 31
to 330/00) were narrower than the ranges which occur within the estuary
where the adult populations exist. Larval size did not increase
markedly during the IS-day rearing period, and was not greatly affected
by temperature or salinity. No statistically significant temperature-
salinity interaction was found for either survival or growth.
970.
Lough, R.G., and J.J. Gonor. 1973. A response-surface approach
to the combined effects of temperature and salinity on the
larval development of Adula californiensis (Pelecypoda:
Mytilidae). II. Long-term larval survival and growth in
relation to respiration. Marine Biology 22:295-305.
184
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Mussel larvae were reared for 3 days, from fertilization to
veliger stage, at optimum conditions (15°C, 32.20/00 S), then trans-
ferred to experimental temperatures and salinities for 22 more days to
determine effects of these factors on survival and growth. For larvae
surviving to 25 days, maximum survival was at temperatures below 10°C
and at salinities above 250/00. There was a progressive shift in tem-
perature and salinity tolerance with age of larvae. The older larvae
became more tolerant to reduced salinity, but less tolerant to high
temperatures. Growth of larvae over 25 days of culture was slight, and
relatively independent of environmental temperatures and salinities.
Oxygen consumption of 3-day old veliger larvae measured at various T-S
combinations generally increased from 7° to 18°C, and then sharply de-
creased from 18° to 21°C. A plateau of oxygen consumption from 9° to
15°C at 32.90/00 indicated that larvae are adapted to oceanic rather
than estuarine conditions. A comparison of 25-day larval survival,
mean length, and growth, with oxygen consumption of 3-day old veliger
larvae indicated that high temperatures (15°C, and above) coupled with
reduced salinities (26.10/00, and below) were unfavorable for prolonged
larval life.
971.
Loveless, J.E., and H.A. Painter. 1968. The influence of metal
ion concentrations and pH value on the growth of a Nitroso-
monas strain isolated from activated sludge. Jour. Gener.
Microbiol. 52 (Part 1):1-14.
A strain of Nitrosomonas europaea was isolated from activated
sludge effluent by a dilution method which readily demonstrated the
presence of contaminating heterotrophs and yielded a high proportion of
tubes containing pure cultures of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria. Copper,
sodium, calcium and magnesium stimulated growth of pure cultures, and
effects of deficiencies of these metals were demonstrated. EOTA im-
proved growth in the basal medium, and abolished the toxic effect of
added copper; it was, however, inhibitory at low calcium concentrations.
The effect of pH value on the growth of~. europaea appeared to be de-
pendent on the metal ion content of the medium although the optimum pH
value was always between 7.5 and 8.
972.
Lovett, R.J., W.H. Gutenmann, I.S. Pakkala, W.O. Youngs, O.J. Lisk,
G.E. Burdick, and E.J. Harris. 1972. A survey of the total
cadmium content of 406 fish from 49 New York State fresh
waters. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 29(9) :1283-1290.
Fish from New York State fresh waters were surveyed for total
cadmium. The majority of samples contained 20 ~g/kg or below. The re-
mainder showed concentrations up to 100 ~g/kg with only a few above this
concentration. Fishes from central New York waters rarely
185
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contained cadmium greater than 20 ~g/kg. Fish from Adirondack waters
contained cadmium above 20 ~g/kg most consistently. These higher con-
centrations may be related to generally higher background cadmium levels
in this Adirondack area where many metallic ore deposits are located
with which cadmium is typically associated. Cadmium accumulation only
occasionally appeared species-dependent. No relation was obvious be-
tween total residues of the metal and size or sex of fish or age of lake
trout. The cadmium concentrations observed are comparable to those com-
monly present in many other foods.
973.
Lowman, F.G. 1963. Radionuclides in plankton and tuna from the
Central Pacific. In Schultz, V., and A.W. Klement, Jr. (eds.)
Radioecology. Reinhold Publ. Corp., New York: 145-149.
Three factors appeared to control the selective uptake of
radionuclides from sea water by the plankton, omnivorous fish, and car-
nivorous fish studied. These were isotope dilution by the correspond-
ing stable element or chemically similar element in the sea water, the
tendency of divalent cations to complex strongly with biological sub-
strates, and the biological requirements for certain elements in meta-
bolic processes.
During the first 48 hours following fallout, plankton in the
contaminated area accumulated radionuclides in approximately the same
ratio as they occurred in sea water. After one week radioisotopes of
cobalt, iron, and zinc were actively taken up by plankton in comparison
to other radionuclides which were associated with plankton at percent-
ages similar to those in sea water. Omnivorous fish which feed on
plankton, almost completely excluded fission products, and on a compara-
tive basis, concentrated zinc-65 and iron-55, 59, but discriminated
against cobalt-57, 58, 60. Carnivorous tunas, which feed primarily on
omnivorous fishes, discriminated in favor of zinc and manganese and
against iron and cobalt in comparison to the relative percentages of
these radionuclides in their food supply.
974.
Lowman, F.G. 1963. Iron and cobalt in ecology.
and A.W. Klement, Jr. (eds.). Radioecology.
Corp., New York: 561-567.
In Schultz, V.,
Reinhold Pub!.
The roles of iron and cobalt in ecology are dependent upon
their physical and chemical characteristics in the environment and upon
the biological demand for these elements. Iron and, to a lesser degree,
cobalt are important elements in the physiology of plants and animals.
The introduction of radioisotopes of iron and cobalt may be used to
determine the roles of these elements in the metabolic patterns and mass
transfers within a given ecosystem. Most investigations of this type
186
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have been done in marine environments near nuclear weapons test sites.
Plankton, collected from an area of sea water which had been contami-
nated with radioactivity for a period of six weeks, exhibited average
concentration factors for radioactive iron and cobalt of 90,000 and
100,000 respectively, and contained the stable counterparts of these
elements in about the same ratio as they were present in the water.
The roles of iron and cobalt in two food chains have been
investigated in the marine environment of the Central Pacific. These
incl ude:
Water ~ plankton ~ omnivorous fish ~ carnivorous fish
and
Water ~ plankton ~ omnivorous
l
fish ~ birds
)
In the first food chain, discrimination against cobalt-57, 58,
60 was progressive throughout the trophic levels. Iron-55, 59 was
actively concentrated in the omnivorous fish, and it accounted for a
reduced percentage of the total radioactivity in the carnivorous fish
due to the presence of large amounts of zinc-65.
In the second food chain the birds, which feed primarily upon
omnivorous fish and secondarily upon squid, did not retain significant
amounts of the radioisotopes of cobalt or iron but retained a major part
of the ingested zinc-65.
975.
Lowman, F.G., and R.Y. Ting. 1973. The state of cobalt in sea-
water and its uptake by marine organisms and sediments. In
Radioactive Contamination of the Marine Environment, Int.--
Atom. Ener. Agen., Vienna, Austria: 369-384.
Two methods, the critical pathway and the specific activity
approach, have been used to predict hazards to man and other animals
from the introduction of radionuclides into the marine environment.
Valid application of the specific activity method is dependent upon the
similarity of the physical-chemical forms of the introduced radionuclides
and the corresponding natural element in the marine environment. The
present work is concerned with the development of methods for investi-
gating the chemical-physical forms of naturally occurring cobalt in sea-
water, the application of the methods to seawater in tropical areas and
the uptake of the different forms of the element by marine organisms.
Carrier-free inorganic Co-58 and Co-60 and high specific activity cyano-
cobalamin Co-57 were used as tracers for ionic and complexed cobalt.
Stable cobalt in seawater, tagged with ionic and complexed radio-
nuclides, were preconcentrated by standard methods and analyzed for
187
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stable and radionuc1ide content. The chemical yields for each form of
radionuclide and the amounts of different forms which were found in sea-
water are reported. Uptake of ionic and comp1exed cobalt by suspended
and bottom sediments and by phytoplankton, zooplankton, brine shrimp,
marine clams, pelagic crustacea and the spiny lobster were measured.
The results show that significant errors may occur if concentration
factors for marine organisms, based on comparisons of the stable ele-
ment in seawater and in the living organisms, are calculated without
consideration of the chemical-physical forms of the radionuc1ide and
the natural element.
976.
Lowthion, D. 1974. The combined effects of high salinity and
temperature on the survival of young Limanda 1imanda.
Marine Biology 25:169-175.
Young specimens of the most common inshore flatfish, the dab
Limanda 1imanda, in the area of a proposed concentrated brine discharge,
off the Yorkshire coast (England), were subjected to high salinities
over temperatures corresponding to an annual temperature range. The
effect of temperature slowly declines with increased immersion time,
and salinity becomes increasingly the more dominant effect. A sig-
nificant salinity-temperature interaction was observed, which reached
its peak effect at 3 h immersion. A 3-dimensiona1 response-surface
model of the mortality contours for salinity, temperature, and immersion
time, was produced which may be used to set upper limits to the design
of the effluent disposal system. It is concluded that, provided
salinity does not rise above 550/00, it is unlikely that significant
changes in L. 1imanda populations will occur.
977.
Lucas, H.F., Jr., D.N. Edgington, and P.J. Colby. 1970.
centrations of trace elements in Great Lakes fishes.
Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 27(4) :677-684.
Con-
Jour.
The concentration of 15 trace elements was determined by
activation analysis of samples of whole fish and fish livers from three
of the Great Lakes: Michigan, Superior, and Erie. The average concen-
trations of 7 elements in 19 whole fish from 3 species were as follows:
uranium, 3 ~g/kg; thorium, 6 ~g/kg; cobalt, 28 ~g/kg; cadmium, 94 ~g/kg;
arsenic, 16 ~g/kg; chromium, 1000 ~g/kg; and copper, 1,300 ~g/kg. Trace
element concentrations varied with species and lake. Uranium and
thorium varied with species, but not for the same species from differ-
ent lakes. The levels of copper, cobalt, zinc, and bromine varied
little between species and lakes. The concentration of cadmium, arse-
nic, and chromium varied with species and lake.
188
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978.
Ludlam, S.D., K.S. Hutchison, and G.E. Henderson. 1973. The
limnology of Stockbridge Bowl, Stockbridge, Massachusetts.
Mass. Water Resources Res. Cen. Compo Rept. OWRR A-044:1-63.
Available from Nat. Tech. In£. Ser., Springfield, Va., as
PB-221.
Stockbridge Bowl is a eutrophic hard-water lake. Mean annual
gross primary productivity was ca. 4.9 g C per m2/day. Microcoleus
lyngbyaceus dominated the phytoplankton through much of the year and
formed a productive metalimnetic plate during summer stratification.
Silica never became limiting to diatom growth, despite a spring diatom
pulse. Silica, calcium and magnesium all showed inverse clinograde
distributions during periods of stratification and values in the hypo-
limnion began to rise before anoxia. Fall in Ca-Mg hardness and delayed
rise in Si values in the summer epilimnion were caused by precipitation
of marl and uptake of Si in the littoral zone. Surficial sediments
were laminated and the laminae were approximately annual. Analysis of
diatom communities in the sediment revealed rapid increase in produc-
tivity over the past quarter century associated with development of
the watershed.
979.
Lunde, G. 1973. Analysis of trace elements, phosphorous and sul-
phur, in the lipid and the non-lipid phase of halibut (~~-
glossus hippoglossus) and tunny ~hunnus thynnus). Jour. Sci.
Fd. Agric. 24:1029-1038.
The following elements have been found in the lipid and non-
lipid phases of samples of halibut and tunny: arsenic, selenium, lead,
copper, cadmium, mercury, zinc, iron, and sulphur. A surprisingly high
content of sulphur was observed in the lipid phase suggesting a new
group of lipids. The results indicate, furthermore, a rather constant
selenium to sulphur ratio in defatted meal while the corresponding ratio
in the lipid phase is more variable. No accumulation of cadmium com-
pared with zinc seems to take place.
980.
Lutz, P.L. 1972. Ionic and body compartment responses to in-
creasing salinity in the perch Perca fluviatilis. Compo
Biochem. Physiol. 42A:71l-717.
The effect of osmotic and ionic stress on perch plasma,
tissue, and whole body electrolyte composition was studied. Perch
survived indefinitely in media up to 1/3 sea water (S.W.) in strength,
with only K, Mg, and Cl showing moderate significant rises in plasma,
and in muscle only K and Ca being higher than normal values in fresh
water. As muscle water, chloride and sodium spaces and total body
water are also maintained, a considerable degree of adaptive ionic
189
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regulation is indicated. All attempts to acclimate perch to 1/2 S.W.
failed due to a breakdown of the ionic controlling mechanisms with all
ions increasing greatly. Sodium and chloride invaded the muscle cells
in large amounts and both muscle and whole body lost significant amounts
of water. Liver tissue maintained its normal degree of hydration and
the liver cells appeared relatively resistant to entrance by Cl. . Mean
increases point to the whole body being almost three times as permeable
to Cl as Na in 1/2 S.W.
981.
Lutz, P.L. 1972. Ionic patterns in the teleost.,
Physiol. 42A:7l9-733.
Compo Biochem.
The inter-relationships of ions in and between the major body
compartments of Perca fluviatilis were studied. Na and Mg were the most
tightly regulated of all ions and showed a highly significant inverse
relationship in both plasma and cell. In tissue, hydration water uptake
was mainly by the cell with changes in the extracellular space playing
a minor role. It is suggested that ionic levels in the body fluids are
in a dynamic relationship with each other and function as precise con-
trollers of specific and general metabolic processes.
982.
MacInnes, J.R., and F.P. Thurberg. 1973. Effects of metals on
the behavior and oxygen consumption of the mud snail. Marine
Pollution Bull. 4(12):185-186.
Behavior and oxygen consumption rates of adult mud snails ex-
posed to five metals individually (arsenic, cadmium, copper, silver and
zinc) and to one combination of two metals (cadmium and copper), were
examined. Oxygen uptake of distressed and retracted snails was lower
than that of controls after exposure to all individual metals except
cadmium, which resulted in an elevation of oxygen consumption. The
combination of copper and cadmium resulted in a lower rate than either
metal alone.
983.
Mackenthun, K.M., and W.M. Ingram. 1966. Algal growth aqueous
factors other than nitrogen and phosphorus. Publ. WP-24,
Fed. Water Poll. Cont. Admin., USDI, Wash. D.C.:1-41.
This selected bibliography of 399 entries, compiled for
engineers and scientists confronted with applied control investigations
related to pollutants, focuses attention on such factors and their
effects of algae. The report is organized into sections, as follows,
with numbers of citations indicated: general references, 15; anti-
biotics, 31; autoinhibitors, 11; environmental factors, 25; extracellular
products, 31; hormones and auxins, 13; inhibiting metabolites, 24;
190
-------
predation and grazing, 24; general references on trace metals and com-
pounds, 29; boron, 14; calcium, 2; chlorine, 5; cobalt, 7; copper, 5;
gallium, 1; iron, 2; manganese, 5; molybdenum, 12; silicon, 7; sodium,
8; vanadium, 3; zinc, 17; mixed elements, 15; viruses and parasites, 11;
vitamin assay methods, 22; vitamin occurrence, 22; organismic require-
ments for vitamins, 27; syntheses of vitamins, 11. Citations are dated
from 1903 to 1966 of which 69 citations are from 1960-1966.
984.
Mackereth, F.J., and W.J.P. Smyly. 1951. Toxicity of copper in
solution to the stone-1oach. Nature 168:1130.
In June, 1951, stone-loach (Nemacheilus barbatulus L.), a
teleost which had been kept alive in an aquarium since March, 1951, died
when it became necessary to replace the water supply, which came from
a nearby reservoir with lake-water from Windermere. Chemical analysis
showed that the original water contained 0.15 mg/l copper (Cu++) whereas
the lake-water had 0.28 mg/l copper, presumably derived from the inflow
pipes. Stone-loach, when placed in water containing copper in solution
from 0.00 in steps of 0.05 to 0.30 mg/l copper, lived in concentrations
less than 0.20 mg/l copper, but all except one fish died within 24 hours
at concentrations of 0.20 mg/l and above. It is concluded that the fish
died of copper poisoning.
985.
MacLeod, J.C., and E. Pessah. 1973. Temperature effects on mer-
cury accumulation, toxicity> and metabolic rate in rainbow
trout (Salmo gairdneri). Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 30(4):
485-492.
Mercury toxicity in rainbow trout fingerlings were related to
water temperature and to chemical formulation of the mercury. At 10°C,
the LC-50 (24 h) concentration for mercuric chloride was approximately
30 times that for phenylmercuric acetate (PMA). LC-.50 (96 h) values
for mercuric chloride at 5, 10, and 20°C were 0.40, 0.28, and 0.22 mg
Hg/1iter. The velocity of mortality (V = reciprocal of time to death
in hours), was linearly related to temperature. For a mercuric chloride
concentration of 0.5 mg Hg/liter, V = .002 + .0023t, where t = tempera-
ture in °c. Temperature also affected accumulation rate of mercury in
the fish muscle. At 5, 10, and 20°C, a mercuric chloride concentration
of 0.1 mg Hg/liter in the water produced biological magnification fac-
tors of 4, 10 and 22X, respectively. PMA produced higher magnification
factors of 80 to 100 at 10°C. Active metabolic rate, though increased
by higher temperatures, was depressed by mercuric chloride, and higher
temperatures augmented the depressant effect.
191
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986.
Maetz, J. 1971. Fish gills:
fresh wa.ter and sea water.
262(842):209-249.
Mechanisms of salt transfer in
Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London
The teleostean gill is a multi-purpose organ, specialized for
respiratory gas exchanges, clearance of waste products of nitrogenous
metabolism and maintenance of acid-base and mineral balances. Struc-
tural studies reveal a complex epithelium. The chloride-cells are
almost certainly the site of ion exchange in relation to salt balance.
Functional studies show that the gill is responsible for the net absorp-
tion of Na+ and Cl- occurring in fresh water and extrusion of these ions
in seawater. In fresh water, a coupling between endogenous NH4+ or H+
and HC03- excretion and Na+ and Cl- absorption is observed. In sea
water active Na+ excretion is linked with K+ absorption from the ex-
ternal medium. In parallel, active Cl- excretion occurs. The gill is
also the site of Na+/Na+ and Cl-/Cl- exchanges which involve 25 to 75%
of the internal NaCl per hour. The relative importance of simple dif-
fusion and exchange-diffusion in these exchanges is assessed. Bio-
chemical studies reveal two enzymes playing important roles in the
ionic pumps: carbonic anhydrase and Na-K activated ATPase. Studies
involving transfer of euryhaline fishes from low to high salinity, show
that the switch from freshwater to seawater types of gill function is
far from instantaneous. Synthesis or destruction of function sites and
renewal of specialized cells are involved. The role of external or in-
ternal NaCl concentration changes as stimuli for these 'inductive pro-
cesses' and the endocrine control of these functional changes are
briefly discussed.
987.
Maetz, J. 1972. Branchial sodium exchange and ammonia excretion
in the goldfish Carassius auratus. Effects of ammonia-
loading and temperature changes. Jour. Exp. BioI. 56:601-620.
Sodium influx and efflux and ammonia excretion by the gill
have been studied as a function of external sodium chloride concentra-
tion in Carassius auratus before and after loading the fish with ammonia.
No correlation between net sodium uptake and ammonia excretion is ob-
served, either when the net uptake changes with an external sodium
change or when net uptake increases with ammonia-loading. Branchial
handling of chloride ions cannot explain this absence of correlation.
Comparison of the concentrations of free base ammonia and of ammonium
ions (NH4+) in both blood (dorsal aorta) and external medium at the end
of the closed-circuit experiments on control or ammonia-loaded fish
demonstrates that the gill is permeable to the ionized form of ammonia.
An abrupt temperature decrease (16 + 6°C) affects the sodium influx much
more than the sodium efflux. Sodium balance becomes negative unless the
fish is ammonia-loaded. The observed effects of temperature are re-
versible when the fish is returned to 16°C. Branchial ammonia excretion
192
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is highly temperature-sensitive in control fish when metabolic produc-
tion limits ammonia excretion. After ammonia-loading, when most of the
ammonia cleared by the gill is exogenous, the effect of temperature on
branchial permeability to ammonia suggests a passive transfer of
ammonium ions. The contributions of the kidney and the gill in sodium
loss and ammonia excretion are compared in intact and ammonia-loaded
fish.
988.
Maetz, J., and D.H. Evans. 1972. Effects of temperature on
branchial sodium-exchange and extrusion mechanisms in the
seawater-adapted flounder Platichthys flesus L. Jour. Exp.
BioI. 56:565-585.
The effects of short-term and long-term temperature changes
on the branchial components of sodium balance have been studied in the
seawater-adapted flounder Platichthys flesus. When fish adapted to 6°C
are compared with fish adapted to 16°C a disturbance of sodium balance
is observed; while the plasma level of sodium remains constant, an in-
creased internal sodium space can be demonstrated isotopically. In-
crease of the muscle sodium content accounts for only a small part of
the extra sodium content of the fish. The increased sodium load is the
result of an impairment of the sodium-extrusion mechanism in the gills,
and is demonstrated by the disappearance of the Na/K exchange activity
of the gills. The passive sodium fluxes (by simple diffusion or
exchange-diffusion) decrease only twofold. Abrupt temperature changes
in the 6-21oC temperature range are followed by instantaneous and
reversible changes of the total sodium efflux, of the sodium lead ob-
served after transfer into fresh water of the Na/Na exchange. The Na/K
exchange, which corresponds presumably to the active sodium extrusion
mechanism, shows in contrast a much greater temperature dependence.
Abrupt transfer to higher temperatures (23-26°C) produces irreversible
damage to the transport system.
No compensatory acclimatization of the flux rates is observed
during adaptation in the 6°C environment.
physical
emphasis
The biological, physiological, ecological as well as bio-
implications of these findings are discussed. Particular
is given to the problem of gill haemo-dynamics.
989.
Majori, L., and F. Petronio. 1973. Marine pollution by metals
and their accumulation by biological indicators (accumulation
factor). In 6th Int. Symp. Medicale Ocean., Portoroz, Yugo-
slavia, Sept. 26- 30, 1973: 55-90.
Laboratory studies using soluble Cd++, Cu++, Pb++, and Hg++
confirm their accumulation by the mussel and specify the hygienic
193
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dangers for mussel and man, as well as characteristics of the mussel as
an indicator of marine pollution. A simplified model of correlation
between pollution and accumulation is presented.
990.
Malanchuk, J.L., and G.K. Gruendling. 1973. Toxicity of lead
nitrate to algae. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 2(2) :181-190
Fixation of radioactive carbon technique was used to measure
toxicity of Pb(N03)2 to five species of freshwater algae. Portions of
unialgal cultures inoculated into low salt medium were used to test all
species at 10, 20, and 30 mg/l Pb. This medium approximated the salt
concentrations of natural aquatic environments. Three different cell
weights were used for each concentration of Pb and for the control to
determine a relationship between cell weight and toxicity. The con-
centration of Pb causing a 50% reduction of C-14-labelled C02 fixation
as compared to the control = ED-50 (median effective dose). ED-50
values for three of the genera tested (Anabaena, Chlamydomonas and
Navicula) ranged from 15 to 18 mg/l Pb. A desmid, Cosmarium, had an
ED-50 of 5 mg/l. This species had a higher surface to volume ratio
than other species tested and could account for the increased sensi-
tivity. The ED-50 for Ochromonas was not obtained. Throughout this
experiment the fixation of C-14-labelled C02 increased with increasing
Pb concentrations and is not readily explained.
991.
Martin, J.H. 1970. The possible transport of trace metals via
moulted copepod exoskeletons. Limnology and Oceanography
15(5):756-761.
Concentrations of Ca, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sr; and
Zn in 10 surface-zooplankton samples were compared with the values
determined for 12 samples collected at 100 or more meters. Average
values for Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sr, and Zn were higher in the deep
samples. It was postulated that more of these elements had become
adsorbed to copepod exoskeletons at greater depths because food-
dependent molting rates were lower; thus more time was available for
elemental adsorption to take place. If this hypothesis is correct,
molted copepod exoskeletons may be important in biogeochemical cycles.
Copepods are the most abundant multicellular animals in the world, and
there are 11 cast exoskeletons for every adult; these slow-sinking
exuvia may well be capable of taking up elements by adsorption-exchange
long after leaving the living animals. Thus, a large total surface-
area is provided on which important chemical reactions may take place.
992.
Martin, J.H., and G.A. Knauer. 1973. The elemental composition
of plankton. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 37:1639-1653.
194
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Phytoplankton samples, collected in ~1onterey Bay, California,
were analyzed for their Pb, Hg, Cd, Co, Ag, Cr, Ti, V, Mn, Ni, Cu, Fe,
Zn, AI, Mo, Ba, Sr, K, Ca, Mg, Na and Si02 content. The results of
these analyses were categorized on a chemical basis and the sample data
were placed in three groups: Group I, Ti not detected; Group II, Ti
detected; and Group III, Sr concentrators present. Levels of most ele-
ments were higher in Groups II and III for a variety of reasons that
are discussed in the text. The siliceous frustules, remaining after
organic-matter digestion, were also analyzed for the elements listed
above. Significant amounts of AI, Ti, Fe, M~, Cu, and Zn were found.
Zooplankton and microplankton samples, collected in Monterey
Bay, California; off the coast of Oregon; and on a transect between
Hawaii and Monterey, were also analyzed for the elements listed above
(except Si). In general, element levels in the inshore and offshore
zooplankton were similar; however, the microplankton samples, in which
strontium was highly concentrated, were almost always higher in Pb, Hg,
Cu, Fe and Zn.
993.
Martin, J.L.M. 1972. Study of the uptake, concentratipn and
metabolism of strontium 85 by the decapod crustacean Car-
cinus maenas. Marine Biology 12:154-158.
Strontium is absorbed and retained by Carcinus maenas. The
variations of the specific activity rates due to the retention of Sr-85
have been studied for the whole animal as a function of its size and
activity of contaminating water. The same study has been carried out
as a function of stages of intermoult cycles for both whole animal and
organs and tissues likely to affect uptake, storing, or further meta-
bolism of strontium in hepatopancreas, hypoderm, blood, gills, muscle
and exoskeleton.
994.
Mathis, B.J., and T.F. Cummings. 1973. Selected metals in sedi-
ments, water, and biota in the Illinois River. Jour. Water
Poll. Contr. Fed. 45(7):1573-1583.
This study was designed to assess the degree of metal contami-
nation in a large midwestern river. The river is utilized both by in-
dustries for manufacturing and waste disposal purposes and by cities as
a source of potable water and a means of wastewater disposal. Analyses
were made for copper, nickel, lead, chromium, lithium, zinc, cobalt,
and cadmium in bottom sediments, water, tubificid annelids, clams and
fishes. Metal concentrations were higher in sediments than in water
and organisms. Clams and worms that inhabit the mud or mud-water inter-
face exhibited the highest metal concentrations of any of the organisms.
Fishes that are primarily carnivorous in nature exhibited lower mean
195
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muscle concentrations of copper, nickel, lead, chromium~ zinc, and
cadmium than did omnivorous fishes.
995.
Mathis, B.J., and N.R. Kevern. 1973. Distribution of mercury,
cadmium, lead and thallium in a eutrophic lake. Inst. Water
Res., Mich. State Univ., East Lansing: 1-25. Available from
Nat. Tech. Inf. Ser.. Springfield, Va., as PB-221 993.
Concentrations were studied of mercury, cadmium, lead, and
thallium in various components of a eutrophic lake. Five species of
fishes, two species of aquatic macrophytes, zoop1ankto~ feces from
migratory geese, water and sediments were analyzed for the four metals.
The study revealed that the bottom sediments act as a "sink" for all
four metals. With the exception of mercury, highest concentrations
were found in bottom sediments. Mercury was detected in fishes and
sediments. Largemouth bass, one of the top carnivores of the lake, ex-
hibited a positive correlation between length and weight versus mercury
concentrations in axial musculature. The feces of migratory waterfowl
had high concentrations of cadmium and lead. In view of the large
numbers of waterfowl using the lake each year; and the large quantity
of feces deposited within the drainage basin, it is suggested that this
avenue may be one of the major sources of contamination for these two
metals and that fallout from airborne particulate matter is secondary.
Residual concentrations of the four metals in soil of the drainage
basin were not determined. The primary source of mercury and thallium
for the lake is presumed to be from fallout of airborne particulate
matter.
996.
Matida, Y., H. Kumada, S. Kimura, Y. Saiga, T. Nose, M. Yokote,
and H. Kawatsu. 1972. Toxicity of mercury compounds to
aquatic organisms and accumulation of the compounds by the
organisms. Bull. Freshwater Fish. Res. Lab. 21(2) :197-227.
This study confirmed that fish feeding on mercury-contaminated
organisms from Minamata Bay, Japan, suffer from mercury poisoning.
Results of studies of chronic toxicity to fish of toxic shellfish con-
taining some methylmercury compounds and of various mercury compounds
are discussed. In addition, results of studies on biological magnifi-
cation of mercury compounds through the food chain from phytoplankton
to fish, and on biosynthesis of organic mercury from inorganic mercury
are considered.
997.
Matson, R.S., G.E. Mustoe, and S.B. Chang. 1972. Mercury inhi-
bition on lipid biosynthesis in freshwater algae. Environ.
Sci. Techno1. 6(2):158-160.
196
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Whole cells of specimens of unicellular algae, Ankistrodesmus
braunii and Euglena gracilis, were exposed to various concentrations of
inorganic mercuric and methyl mercuric chloride to determine if inhibi-
tion of lipid biosynthesis was one of the toxic effects of mercury com-
pounds. At a mercuric chloride concentration of 3.5 mg/l, chlorophyll
synthesis was 98% inhibited and galactolipid synthesis was 50% inhibited
in ~. braunii. However; significant inhibition of both synthesis pro-
cesses was detected at mercuric chloride levels less than 1.0 mg/l. For
methyl mercuric chloride, a 2.0 mg/l level inhibited 98% of chlorophyll
synthesis and 85% of galactolipid synthesis. These mercury compounds
were also shown to specifically inhibit the galactosyl transferase
activity in Euglena chloroplasts. These results could logically be
extended to other photosynthetic organisms, including phytoplankton
and other species of unicellular algae.
998.
Matthiessen, P., and A.E. Brafield. 1973. The effects of dis-
solved zinc on the gills of the stickleback Gasterosteus
aculeatus (L.). Jour. Fish BioI. 5(5):607-613.
Concentrations of 0.5-1.0 mg Zn2+/l distilled water killed
sticklebacks after 1-3 days, producing detachment and sloughing of
epithelial cells, and coalescing of adjacent secondary lamellar epi-
thelia. Cytoplasmic abnormalities included extensive vacuolation fol-
lowed by swelling of nuclei and mitochondria leading to cellular dis-
integration. Many acutely poisoned fish recovered in zinc-free hard
water, regeneration of epithelia being accompanied by a temporary
appearance of chloride cells on the secondary lamellae. Concentrations.
of 2.0-6.0 mg Zn2+/l hard water were not toxic over periods of up to
700 h. Extensive cytoplasmic abnormalities appeared, however, includ-
ing the formation of membrane bounded vesicles and dense accumulations
of metabolites. The most pronounced effect was the appearance of active
chloride cells on the secondary lamellae. The possible involvement of
chloride cells in the excretion of ions other than chloride is briefly
discussed.
999.
McColl, R.H.S. 1972. Chemistry and trophic status of seven New
Zealand lakes. New Zealand Jour. Marine Fresh. Res. 6(4):
399-447.
The chemistry of surface and bottom waters of seven Rotorua
lakes was examined monthly between April 1970 and April 1971 in rela-
tion to lake biology. Twenty-four parameters were measured, including
dissolved oxygen, major ions, silica, phosphorus, nitrogen, algal pig-
ments, and some trace elements. All lakes were warm monomictic, second-
class lakes. The waters were soft and variations between lakes in com-
position of major cations and anions appeared to be related to catchment
197
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differences. The major cations and Cl ion varied little with season.
Sulfate varied seasonally in the hypolimnia of the most productive lakes.
Silica was abundant in all lakes, except one where diatoms were poorly
represented. Depletion of silica by diatom populations was only observed
in the two most productive lakes. All lakes except one showed anomalous
silica distribution with lower concentrations in the bottom waters at
all times. Copper and zinc varied little between lakes and depths, but
showed marked peaks during winter circulation. Data acquired from the
analyses were used to classify the lakes by trophic level. Algal growth
was most vigorous during winter circulation and in some lakes a related
phosphate 'depletion phase' occurred. Nitrate concent~ations were low
by world standards, except in the most productive lakes during winter
circulation. Nitrite occurred irregularly in the surface waters of some
lakes and in trace amounts in the hypolimnia of all lakes in late summer.
1000.
McEnery, ~1., and J.J. Lee. 1970. Tracer studies on calcium and
strontium mineralization and mineral cycling in two species
of Foraminifera, Rosalina leei and Spiroloculina hyalina.
Limnology and Oceanography 15(2):173-182.
Mineral cycling in two species of calcareous foraminifera was
traced with Ca-45 and Sr-90. Incorporation of these radionuclides as
well as S-35 and P-32 was proportional to growth when they were intro-
duced into the system in the range of 1 x 104_1 x 105 dpm/ml of medium
(Sr-90 specific activity ~ 109 ~Ci/g; Ca-45 specific activity ~ 160
~Ci/g; S-35 specific activity ~ 95 ~Ci/g; P-32 specific activity ~ 2.03
mCi/g). Although C-14 was a good indicator of growth during the first
3 weeks, its usefulness declined as the cultures aged. Some Ca-45 and
Sr-90 was adsorbed to dead tests. Both foraminifera were decalcified
by treatment with 0.01% Na2-EDTA in seawater at pH 8.1. Recalcification
and growth took place when individuals were returned to control media.
Ten to 0.1 ~M 2-acetylamino-l,3,4-thiadiazole-5-sulfonamide (Diarnox)
inhibited Ca but not Sr incorporation into the test. Calcium and
strontium were tightly bound to foraminiferan shells and under condi-
tions of alkaline pH and low hydrostatic pressure these did not exchange
with environmental ions.
1001.
McIntyre, J.D.
trout sperm.
1973. Toxicity of methyl mercury for steelhead
Bull. Environ. Contamin. Toxicol. 9(2) :98-99.
Sperm obtained from five fish were combined; 0.1 ml aliquots
were removed and inoculated into test tubes containing mercury concen-
trations ranging between 1 and 10 mg/l. The sperm was left in solution
for 30 minutes at 11°C, then combined with 100 steelhead eggs from a
single female. Percentage of fertilization was determined on the 17th
day. Reduced fertilization of eggs indicated that concentrations of
198
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mercury greater than or equal to 1 mg/l reduced sperm viability.
centrations greater than 1 mg/l the reductions increased sharply.
At con-
1002.
McIntyre, J.D. 1973. Effects of metals on fertilization and
development in fish. In Heavy Metals in the Environment;
Proc. Seminar conducte~by Oregon State Univ., Corvallis,
1972: Oregon State Univ. Water Resources Res. Inst. Rept.
SEMN WR 016.73:163-168.
A literature review shows that successful fertilization of
fish may be prevented by toxic metals through effects on behavior. In
long term studies of the effects of metals on various life history
stages of the brook trout, males in exposure levels of 3.4 mg/kg cad-
mium were seized by severe muscle spasms as females began to move gravel
in redd (nest) preparation. These males were generally unsuccessful in
fertilizing the eggs and eventually died. Direct effects of metals on
gamete survival may prevent successful fertilization. Results of an
acute test in which samples of steelhead trout sperm were held in various
concentrations of methylmercuric chloride for 30 minutes before they were
combined with eggs indicated that at concentrations greater than 1 mg/l,
sperm viability was markedly reduced. The sexual development of fathead
minnows in methylmercury is arrested at 0.25 ~g/l. Zebrafish that were
permitted to spawn in several concentrations of phenylmercuric acetate
produced fewer eggs at concentrations of 1 ~g/l or more as compared to
lower concentrations.
1003.
McKim, J.M., and D.A. Benoit. 1971. Effects of long-term expo-
sures to copper on survival, growth, and reproduction of
brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis). Jour. Fish. Res. Bd.
Canada 28:655-662.
During a 22-month period, all developmental stages of the
brook trout were exposed to copper (Cu) concentrations ranging from
32.5 to 1.9 ~g/l. The highest concentration decreased survival and
growth in adult fish and reduced both number of viable eggs produced and
hatchability. Survival, growth, and reproductive success of adults in
copper concentrations from 17.4 to 3.4 ~g/l did not differ from the
control (1.9 ~g/l). Concentrations of 32.5 and 17.4 ~g/l had marked
adverse effects on survival and growth of alevins and juvenile fish.
Effects of copper on alevins-juveniles from unexposed parents apparently
are no different than the effects on alevins-juveniles from parents ex-
posed to copper. The maximum acceptable toxicant concentration (MATC)
for brook trout exposed to copper in water with a hardness of 45 mg/l
(as CaCO~ and a pH of 7.5 fell between 17.4 and 9.5 ~g/l copper. The
mean 96-hr LC-50 for l4-month-old brook trout exposed to copper was 100
~g/l, and the application factor, MATC/96-hr LC-50. lies between 0.17
and 0.10.
199
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1004.
McKim, J.M.,and D.A. Benoit. 1974. Duration of toxicity
for establishing "no effect" concentrations for copper
brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis). Jour. Fish. Res.
Canada 31:449-452.
tests
with
Bd.
Exposure of brook trout to sublethal concentrations of copper
from yearlings through spawning to 3-month juveniles was found suffi-
cient to establish a "no effect" concentration. No adverse effects
were found on survival, growth, or reproductive capacity of trout ex-
posed in a second generation from egg through spawning to copper con-
centrations (about 9.4, 6.1 and 4.5 ~g/l) which had caused no adverse
effects on their parents when exposed to similar concentrations from
yearlings to spawning. Nor were any adverse effects found on survival
or growth of their offspring when exposed to the same concentrations
from hatching to age 90 days. Tissue residue analyses indicated no
accumulation in gill, liver, kidney, or muscle of either first- or
second-generation trout exposed to the various copper concentrations,
and residues in unfertilized eggs from exposed females were similar to
those in females not exposed to added copper.
1005.
McKim, J.M., G.M. Christensen, and E.P. Hunt. 1970. Changes in
the blood of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) after short-
term and long-term exposure to copper. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd.
Canada 27:1883-1889.
Seven blood characteristics--red blood cell count (RBC), hema-
tocrit (He), hemoglobin (Hb), plasma chloride (Cl), plasma glutamic
oxalacetic transaminase (PGOT, L-aspartate:2-oxoglutarate amino trans-
ferase), osmolarity (Os), and total protein (TP)--were measured in
brook trout exposed to three concentrations (67.5-69.2, 38.2-39.0, and
22.8-24.0 ~g/l) of Cu for 6 and 21 days. Concentrations of 67.5-69.2
and 38.2-39.0 ~g/l caused statistically significant increases in RBC,
Hc (6-day only), Hb, PGOT, and TP (6-day only), whereas Cl and Os de-
creased during both exposure periods. Five blood characteristics (RBC,
Hb, He, Cl, and PGOT) were also measured in brook trout, which were ex-
posed for 337 days to Cu concentrations of 32.5, 17.4,9.5,5.7, and
3.4 ~g/l. After this long-term exposure, no changes were observed in
the blood except for a measurable decrease in PGOT values at 32.5 and
17.4 ~g/l. The disappearance of initial blood changes, after extended
exposure, suggests the transient nature of these early responses.
Application of this study to the evaluation of the physical condition
of fish and the possible long-range forecasting of reproductive success
and survival of a species is discussed.
1006.
McKone, C.E., R.G. Young, C..A. Bache, and D.J. Lisk. 1971.
Rapid uptake of mercuric ion by goldfish. Environ. Science
Technol. 5(11):1138-1139.
200
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Mercuric ion has been shown to be rapidly absorbed from water
by goldfish. The extent of absorption is dependent on mercury concen-
tration and time of exposure. As has been previously shown with other
metals, mercury was found to concentrate initially in the external mucus
secreted by the fish. The presence of mercury in water appeared to
stimulate this secretion.
1007.
McLusky, O.S. 1970. Salinity preference in Corophium volutator.
Jour. Mar. BioI. Assn. U.K. 50:747-752.
A salinity preference range of 10-300/00 has been found in the
euryhaline amphipod Corophium volutator, by means of simple choice ex-
periments. This preferendum has been shown to be stable, despite accli-
mation to either low or high salinities. The results are discussed in
relation to previous ecological and physiological studies of C. volutator
1008.
McLusky, O.S., and V.E.J. Heard. 1971. Some effects of salinity
on the mysid Praunus flexuosus. Jour. Mar. BioI. Assn. U.K.
51:709-715.
The population dynamics of the mysid crustaceanPraunus flex-
uosus have been studied at Ardmaddy Bay, Loch Etive. A salinity toler-
ance range of 2-330/00 has been demonstrated, over which the body tissues
experience the range 11-280/00. Comparison is made between the osmo-
regulatory capacity of Praunus flexuosus and the closely related Neo-
mysis integer.
1009.
McNabb, R.A., and G.E. Pickford. 1970. Thyroid function in male
killifish, Fundulus heteroclitus, adapted to high and low
temperatures and to fresh water-and sea water. Compo Biochem.
Physiol. 33:783-792.
Adult males were acclimated for 5 weeks to fresh water or sea
water at 20° and at 28°C. Estimates of thyroid activity were made from
thyroid cell height, colloid staining properties, the rate of loss of
thyroidal 1-131 and serum concentrations of 1-131. Results indicate
that the levels of radioactivity follow the sequence: FW20
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The uptake and retention of phenyl mercuric nitrate (PMN) and
mercuric chloride (HgC12) were studied in Mugil cephalus, the common
saltwater mullet. Fish were exposed to calculated doses of 10, 50, 100
and 500 micrograms/l mercury of each toxicant in seawater for three hours.
Thereafter, they were held in tanks with flowing seawater for 216 h.
Fish were sacrificed at 72-h intervals during the holding period to
determine levels of mercury in gill, liver and muscle tissues. Higher
mercury levels were found in mullet exposed to PMN than in those ex-
posed to equivalent concentrations of HgC12' No deaths occurred among
mullet dosed with HgC12 whereas 58% of those exposed to the highest
level of PMN died within 21 h of exposure. Mercury levels detected in
tissues appeared to be related to the toxicant used, dose levels, and
time of sampling after exposure.
1011.
Miettinen, J.K. 1972. Some remarks on mercury as an aquatic
pollutant and its implications. In Radiotracer Studies of
Chemical Residues in Food and Agriculture. Int. Atom. Ener.
Agen., Vienna: 61-68.
This review of 1970-71 literature includes occurrence of mer-
cury in water, sediments, and marine fish; safe levels for fish in the
diet; metabolism of methyl Hg; microbial methylation of Hg in sediments;
and evaluation of the risk to populations. Dimethyl Hg (14% of the
total Hg) volatilized when dredged sediment was exposed to air. Micro-
bial methylation of Hg in sediments is possibly a detoxification mech-
anism of the organism, is slow, and requires oxygen. Freshwater fish
contain 5-10 mg/kg in several areas of the USA, 1-5 mg/kg in 50 other
areas. Swordfish exceed the 0.5 mg/kg limit.
1012.
Miettinen, J.K., M. Heyraud, and S. Keckes. 1972. Mercury as
a hydrospheric pollutant II. Biological half-time of methyl
mercury in four Mediterranean species: a fish, a crab, and
two molluscs. In Ruivo, M. (ed.). Marine Pollution and Sea
Life. Fishing Trading News (books) Ltd., London: 295-298.
Analysis of the excretion rates of methyl mercury introduced
by different ways into four marine organisms (Serranus scriba, a fish;
Carcinus maenas, a crab; ~apes decussatus, a clam; and Mytilus gallo-
provincialis, a mussel) s owed that a large fraction of the administered
compound has a slow loss rate with a biological half-time from 267 (fish)
till more than 1,000 days (mussel). These results were compared with
those obtained from some other freshwater, brackish and marine crabs,
molluscs, fish and a mammal. It was concluded that phylogenetically
related species follow a similar pattern of methyl mercury excretion,
with the biological half-time depending on temperature and on the way
of methyl mercury's entry into the organisms, being longer after intra-
muscular injection than after peroral administration.
202
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1013.
Miettinen, J.K., M. Tillander, K. Rissanen, V. Miettinen, and
Y. Ohmomo. 1969. Distribution and excretion rate of phenyl-
and methylmercury nitrate in fish muscles, molluscs and
crayfish. Proc. 9th Japan. Conf. Radioisotopes, Tokyo:
474-478.
Differences in toxicity, excretion rate, and distribution
pattern of radioactive methylmercury were determined when administered
orally, either as the ionic form CH3 Hg+, or bound to protein. Organ
activity was determined after various time lapses by whole body count-
ing of live animals. No significant differences were noted between
fish in brackish water and in fresh water. Ten to 50% of the admini-
stered activity was excreted within one or two days. The remainder was
excreted more slowly with phenylmercury nitrate having a shorter biologi
cal half-time than methylmercury nitrate. After about three weeks the
highest concentrations of mercury were found in flesh, stomach, liver,
ovary and kidneys. Results show that there is no essential difference
in toxicity, distribution or excretion rate between ionic and protein-
bound forms of methylmercury. From experiments with molluscs, mussels
and crayfish it is evident that when mercury compounds are bound to the
muscle protein (mercury compound injected) they have a slower excretion
rate than when bound to the digestive organs (administered orally).
1014.
Miettinen, V., E. Blankenstein, K. Rissanen, M. Tillander, J.K.
Miettinen,and M. Valtonen. 1972. Preliminary study on the
distribution and effects of two chemical forms of methyl
mercury in pike and rainbow trout. In Ruivo, M. (ed.).
Marine Pollution and Sea Life. Fishing Trading News (books)
Ltd., London: 298- 303.
This experiment was performed in order to establish: differ-
ences between "free" ionic form of methylmercury and protein-bound form
of methylmercury in toxicity to pike; distribution of radioactivity
after administration of these two methylmercury compounds labelled by
Hg-203; and pathological and histopathological changes in organs of
pike after oral administration of two methylmercury compounds. The
"free" ionic form was applied as a water solution of CHi03HgN03 with
carrier (0.5 ~Ci/mg Hg). The protein-bound form was made b~ adding
fresh cow's liver homogenate to the water solution of CH320 HgN03 with
carrier and incubating the mixture for 24 h at room temperature (22°C).
Administration was done orally in three to four small doses
at intervals of 2 to 3 days. Five pike (mean weight 300 g) were given
ionic MeHg to a final mean total dose of 12.1 mg Hg/kg (retained) and
to five pike (mean weight 340 g) a final mean total dose of 24.7 mg
Hg/kg protein bound MeHg, respectively. In addition, six control pike
with no activity given were kept in the same aquarium. The mean life
203
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span for pike given ionic MeHg was 33 days; for those given protein-
bound MeHg it was 18 days.
The approximate LC-50 (30 day) value for both of
these compounds was 1St 3 mg Hg/kg fro wt. The histopathological symp-
toms of these methylmercury compounds were similar. Kidneys and pseudo-
branchiae were the most damaged organs. No noticeable difference was
observed in distribution pattern between these two methylmercury com-
pounds.
\~en ionic methylmercury was orally administered as a single
dose to seven rainbow trout (220 g) giving a mean body burden of 11.9
mg Hg/kg, all died within 1.5 to 2 h. When the same amount of ionic or
protein-bound methylmercury was administered in two portions with an
interval of 1 to 2 days, only three fish out of 12 died after 47 to 71
days. The others remained seemingly healthy for at least 94 days. The
temperature in these experiments was 18°C.
1015.
Miller, S.F., and C.R. Wilke. 1972. Utilization of algae for
water purification and protein production. M.S. thesis: 1-100.
Available from Nat. Tech. Inf. Ser., Springfield, Va.
The use of algae, specifically Pandorina morum, as ion ex-
change beads for removal of strontium from low level radioactive waste
streams was investigated and an economic analysis of a plant for this
treatment made. The algae process was more costly than conventional
ion exchange processes due primarily to the expense of separating algae
from dilute suspensions. Phototaxis, utilizing Pandorina's tendency to
swim towards light, as a separation mechanism at a reduced cost was also
investigated. Application of algae as ion exchange beads demonstrated
that the kinetics of absorption is sufficiently fast so that equilibrium
is obtained in < 2 min.; another experiment indicated that the mechanism
for cation uptake is probably ion exchange. Plant design was compared
for treating 4000 1 of low level radioactive waste every 2 min.; the
process employing algae as ion exchange beads costs 3x more than conven-
tional ion exchange. Cheap means of separation would not only increase
the feasibility of the algal process but would also lower the cost of
producing algae as food. An analysis of Pandorina morum showed that
28-40% of the dry weight can be removed as amino acids. Further investi-
gation of Pandorina as a food source is warranted.
1016.
Minckley, W.L., J.E. Craddock, and L.W. Krumholz. 1963. Natural
radioactivity in the food web of the banded sculpin Cottus
carolinae (Gill). In Schultz, V., and A.W. Klement, Jr. (eds.).
Radioecology. Reinhold Publ. Corp., New York: 229-236.
204
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Consideration of life history and radioecology of the teleost
Cottus carolinae, reveals that most radioactivity results from natural
decay and some from fallout. Biota of the ecosystem accumulate measur-
able amounts, mostly uranium-238 and thorium-232 as determined by detec-
tion of bismuth-2l4 and actinium-228 on a gamma spectrometer, but also
Sr-90 and Cs-137 to a lesser extent as determined radiochemically. In
the food web of Cottus carolinae, radioactivity concentrates at the pro-
ducer level, with decreased amounts at higher trophic levels involving
animals. Animals, fed mostly on diatoms and blue-green algae, generally
contained the most radioactivity.
Fishes and larger invertebrates including crabs and insects
contained radioactivity with levels varying according to size of indi-
vidual animal. Smaller animals contained more radioactive materials per
unit weight than larger ones. Actual metabolic changes seem to be as
important in determining amount of retention and accumulation of radio-
materials as are amounts of the radiomaterials ingested. Similarly,
cumulative amounts of radioactivity taken in as food, compared with
ever-increasing body burden, allow calculation of percentage of ingested
radioactivity retained in the body. Percentages are relatively high
during early life of sculpins, decreasing just before maturity, and in-
creasing slowly throughout remainder of life. Lack of major variations
in this level of retention indicate a certain metabolic need, or some-
what constant metabolic accumulation, which comprises approximately 2%
of total radiomaterials ingested.
1017.
Mitchum, D.L., and T.D. Moore. 1966. Study of water pollution
problems which affect fish and other aquatic forms. Available
from Game & Fish Lab., Univ. Wyoming, P.O. Box 3312, Laramie,
Wyoming, Rept. FW-3-R-13:l-32.
The extent and effect of uranium mine effluent on fish and
other aquatic organisms in the Medicine Bow River and contributing
streams was studied. Samples of water, bottom mud, plankton, benthic
organisms and aquatic plants were collected. Fish samples were col-
lected only in July. The naturally occurring levels of uranium, in
streams included in this study were determined to be about 5 ~g/l.
Uranium concentrations at the various stations affected by the mine
effluent ranged between 2,000 and 60 ~g/l. Data indicated that these
relatively high uranium levels may be toxic to trout. The mine effluent
did not appear to have any apparent adverse affect on plankton, peri-
phyton, bottom fauna organisms, and fish species other than trout.
Accumulated radiation could not be detected in bones of the fish speci-
mens collected from the various stations. Findings show that uranium
mine pollution exists in the Medicine Bow River drainage area and a
potentially serious pollution problem exists downstream from the study
area.
205
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1018.
Moore, W.S., and S. Krishnaswami. 1972. Coral growth rates
using 228Ra and 210pb. Earth and Planetary Science Letters
15(2):187-190.
Two radiometric methods were used to measure the growth rates
of coral heads (Stephanocoenia sp. and Solenastrea hyades). The first
method, based on decay of unsupported Ra-228 introduced into coastal
waters mainly by diffusion from underlying sediments, follows the theo-
retical model and is applicable to growth measurements of the last 30
yr. The second method, based on decay of Pb-2l0 incorporated into the
living skeleton, may be used to document major changes in growth during
the past 100 yr.
1019.
Moore, W.S., S. Krishnaswami, and S.G. Bhat. 1973. Radiometric
determinations of coral growth rates. Bull. Marine Sci. 23:
157-176.
Radiometric methods based on Ra-228, Sr-90, and Pb-2l0 are
used to measure the rate of coral growth. The Ra-228 and Sr-90 methods
give consistent results. The Pb-2l0 method is not ideal, but may be
used in some cases to document major changes in growth rates. By quan-
tifying the time parameter in modern coral samples, chemical changes in
the reef environment may be studied for the past 30 years.
1020.
Morgan, W.S.G., and P.C. KUhn. 1974. A method to monitor the
effects of toxicants upon breathing rate of largemouth bass,
Micropterus sa1moides Lacepede. Water Research 8:67-77.
An apparatus was designed to measure continuously the effects
of nominal concentrations of copper, cadmium, phenol, ammonia and cyanide
upon breathing rates in largemouth bass. Acute and sublethal toxic
effects were indicated in a majority of cases by increased breathing
rate. The use of this reaction and the monitoring apparatus to monitor
a wide range of industrial pollutants was shown to be practicable. Con-
sideration is also given to its possible application in local situa-
tions.
1021.
Morgon, R.P. II, R.F. Fleming, V.J. Rasin, Jr., and D. Heinle.
1973. Sublethal effects of Baltimore Harbor water on the
white perch, Morone americana, and the hogchoker, Trinectes
maculatus. Chesapeake Science 14(1):17-27.
Possible sublethal effects of Baltimore Harbor water, which
receives various industrial and domestic wastes, were investigated in
bioassays with white perch and hogchokers. The tests were conducted in
206
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l70-liter polyethylene tanks containing full-strength Harbor water,
half-strength Harbor water and water from the Patuxent River. Expo-
sures were for 14 to 30 days for white perch and 7 to 28 days for hog-
chokers. After exposure, blood samples were collected for differen-
tial staining and bodies were dissected for enzyme, histology, heavy
metal, and pesticide analyses. There were no significant variations
in Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, and Zn in the three tests. Dieldrin was the
only pesticide found and variations were slight among the tests. How-
ever, physiological effects of Baltimore Harbor water included changes
in thrombocyte, neutrophil, and basophil levels in white perch. Bio-
chemical effects included increased LDH activity in the serum of white
perch and hogchokers when exposed to Baltimore Harbor water, decreased
acetylcholinesterase activity in white perch and hogchoker brains, and
decreased catalase levels of the liver of both white perch and hog-
chokers. Sublethal effects were noted at the longer (28 and 30 day)
exposures to the Baltimore Harbor water.
1022.
Morisawa, M., and H. Mohri. 1972. Heavy metals and spermatozoan
motility. 1. Distribution of iron, zinc, and copper in sea
urchin spermatozoa. Contrib. Tamano Marine Lab., No. 187:1-6.
Sea urchin (pseudocentrotus depressus, Hemicentrotus pulcher-
rimus and Anthocidari~ crassispina) spermatozoa were fractionated into
heads, midpieces, and tails as completely as possible, and the contents
of Fe, Zn, and Cu in these parts determined by spectrophotometry and
atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The concentration of Fe was the
highest in the midpiece fraction, while Zn was concentrated in the tails
as well as in the midpieces. Copper was found only in the midpiece frac-
tion. Microtubules isolated from the tails also contained considerable
amounts of Fe and Zn.
1023.
Horrill, J. B. 1963. Morphological effects of cobal tous chloride
on the development of Limnaea stagnalis and Limnaea palustris.
BioI. Bull. 125(3):508-522.
The effect of cobaltous chloride (CoC12) on various develop-
mental stages of the freshwater snails Limnaea stagnalis and ~. palus-
tris was studied. Eggs and embryos were treated for 24 hours with
various concentrations of CoCl~. Effective concentrations of CoC12
ranged from 1 X 10-5to 1 X 10- M for L. stagnalis (about 1.3 to 13
~g/l of CoC12) and from 2 X 10-6-to 8 X 10-~ ~ for ~. palustris (about
0.26 to 10.4 ~g/l of CoC12)' Variations in resistance to CoC12 were
observed between species at the same stage of development, between eggs
treated at different stages of development and between eggs from the
same egg masses treated at the same stage of development. Treatment
with CoC12 resulted in (a) separation of blastomeres, (b) vesicular and
207
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dumbbell-shaped exogastrulae, (c) arrested gastrulae, (d) veligers with
a reduced larval liver, shell and foot, and with a fluid-filled body
cavity containing few mesenchyme cells, (e) shell-less snails with a re-
duced larval liver and shell, and, (f) helmet-shelled snails with ab-
normally wide shell apertures.
Manganese, cadmium and nickel produced malformations similar
to those caused by cobalt. The sequence of effective concentrations was
~fu < Co < Cd < Ni.
Sections of normal and cobalt-treated embryos showed an inhi-
bition of the differentiation and proliferation of mesenchyme cells of
the body and foot and an inhibition of proliferation and enlargement of
the endoderm cells of the larval liver.
Exogastrulae and hydropic exogastrulae and veliger larvae
appear to be caused by an impairment in the development of the mesomeres
plus a concomitant uptake of water by the blastocoel or body cavity.
Arrested veliger larvae and the differences in their development are
explained on the basis of variation in the functional capacity of their
larval livers. The morphological evidence indicates that several
characteristic malformations result from an inhibition of the cobalt-
sensitive fourth quartette of micromeres and their derivatives, the
mesomeres and larval liver cells. Author concludes that metal ion-
reactive groups in the vegetal region of the Limnaea egg may be pro-
gressively segregated into the fourth quartette of micromeres.
1024.
Morris, a.p., and G. Russell. 1973. Effect of chelation on
toxicity of copper. Marine Pollution Bull. 4(10) :159-160.
The effect of chelation on copper toxicity to the alga
Ectocarpus siliculosus in culture is very marked. In the marine environ-
ment, much of the copper present will be rendered non-toxic by complex
formation with organic material. Chelation will, therefore, tend to de-
crease the selection pressure and represents a major factor limiting
evolution and establishment of copper tolerance in marine algae. This
is particularly true of muddy environments such as are found in most
docks and estuaries, and is important in the selection of algal geno-
types in polluted marine ecosystems.
1025.
Moshe, M., N. Betzer, and Y. Knott. 1972. Effect of industrial
wastes on oxidation pond performance. Water Research 6(10):
1165-1171.
Cadmium, copper, nickel, zinc, and hexavalent chromium ions
were tested in a bench-bioassay experiment for toxicity limits and
208
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possible application to experimental oxidation ponds. Domestic sewage
was placed into test tubes where predetermined concentrations of metal
ions were added together with known initial concentrations of the alga
Chlorella sorokiniana. The test tubes were incubated under controlled
illumination (1500 Ix) at 29°C. Experimental containers of 50-70 1
were fed with diluted domestic sewage (BOD equal 200 mg/l). Predeter-
mined quantities of metal salts had been previously added to give the
desired concentration of metal ions in the inflowing sewage. At the
final stage of the study, an aquarium of 80 1 capacity was operated as an
experimental pond. To this pond a mixture of metal ions (Cr, Cd, Cu,
Ni, and Zn) was introduced beginning with 3 mg/l and increasing to 12
mg/l of each ion. Samples taken from the ponds were subjected to the
following test: pH, dissolved oxygen, BOD, MPN, algal count and deter-
mination of metal ion concentration. The samples were taken from the
influent, effluent and bottom sludge. It was found that the metal ions
are toxic, inhibiting Chlorella growth. However, when added at concen-
trations of 0.5-1.5 mg/l to influent of oxidation ponds, the ponds con-
tinued to operate normally. Higher concentrations of 3 and 6 mg/l did
not adversely affect pond performance--not even a concentration of 6
mg/l of each ion (a total metal ion concentration of 30 mg/l). A mix-
ture of 60 mg/l metal ions brought about a decrease in algal numbers
and caused a sharp drop in dissolved oxygen concentration. It is
believed that since high pH causes metal ions to precipitate, oxidation
ponds operating normally above pH 8.0 will tolerate metal ions in sewage
containing industrial wastes for a long time before sludge accumulation
will affect pond performance.
1026.
Motais, R., and J. Isaia. 1972. Temperature-dependence of per-
meability to water and to sodium of the gill epithelium of the
eel Anguilla anguilla. Jour. Exp. BioI. 56(3):587-600.
The temperature dependence of diffusional permeability to
water was studied in freshwater-adapted and seawater-adapted eels. The
ratio of water permeability to sodium permeability is approximately 3
at 25°C, but falls to 1 at 5°C. This drop is mainly due to a diminution
of water permeability, the temperature coefficients being much higher
for water than for sodium. The relatively independent variations of
water and sodium permeabilities in seawater-adapted fish probably indin
cate a certain dissociation between water movements and salt movements.
In the freshwater-adapted eel the osmotic permeability is considerably
higher than diffusional permeability, which supports the previously
advanced hypothesis concerning the presence of water-filled channels in
the branchial epithelium. In the seawater-adapted eel the osmotic per-
meability is lower than the diffusional permeability, this difference
being greater the lower the temperature. This surprising result must
signify either that the osmotic pressure difference between blood and
sea water does not represent the true osmotic gradient across the
209
-------
membrane, or that a reabsorption of water linked with a movement of
solutes occurs in a specialized region of the gill.
1027.
Motais, R., and J. Isaia. 1972. Evidence for an effect of
ouabain on the branchial sodium-excreting pump of marine
osts: interaction between the inhibitor and external Na
Jour. Exp. BioI. 57(2):367-373.
tele-
and K.
In all marine fish, both stenohaline and euryhaline, the net
sodium excretion by the gill, compensating for intesti~al absorption,
is the result of a Naint Kext exchange. In a euryhaline fish, such
as the eel, in which a sodium exchange diffusion (linkage of sodium in-
flux and outflux) also occurs, the two kinds of exchange (Na-Na and Na-K)
can be regarded as alternative modes of behavior of the same transport
system. In normal seawater both exchanges take place at the same time;
in K-free seawater the system exchanges Na for Na exclusively and in
Na-free solution containing K the system exchanges Na for K exclusively.
The transport system is located on the external membrane since it is
inhibited by ouabain added in the external medium. The Na-K process is
ouabain-sensitive but K can antagonize the inhibitory action of the
glycoside. The Na-Na process on the other hand is not ouabain-sensitive.
1028.
Mount, D.I. 1966. The effect of total hardness and pH on acute
toxicity of zinc to fish. Air and Water Pollut. Int. Jour.
10: 49-56.
Four-day tests of the toxicity of zinc sulfate to minnows were
made at 3 pH levels (6, 7 and 8) and 3 total hardness levels (50; 100
and 200 mg/l as CaC03)' Continuous-flow tests were used, and zinc con-
centrations were measured for each test. Zinc was most toxic at pH of
8 and hardness of 50 mg/l and least toxic at pH 6 and hardness of 200
mg/l. At any given hardness, zinc was always more toxic at a high pH
than at a low pH. The results are in disagreement with most published
work possibly because the flow-through test system, unlike static test
systems, keeps precipitated zinc in suspension.
1029.
Nakamura, R., Y. Suzuki, E. Kawachi, and T. Veda. 1972. The
loss of radionuclides in marine organisms during thermal de-
composition. Jour. Radiation Res. 13(3):149-155.
Losses of Cs-137, Ru-l06-Rh-l06, Zn-65, Co-60, Fe-59, Zr-95-
Nb-95, and Ce-144 from bivalve and green algae tissues during dry ash-
ing at temperatures of 450, 550, and 800°C and with ignition times of
12, 24, and 48 hr were studied. Bivalve ignition was not complete in
24 hr, and algal ignition was not complete in 12 hr. The most desirable
210
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bivalve ashing conditions were 450°C and 48 hr for Cs-137 and 550°C and
12 hr for other radionuclides; optimum conditions for green algae were
450°C and 24 hr for Cs-137, Ru-l06-Rh-l06, and Zn-65 and 550°C and 12
hr for other radionuclides.
1030.
Nakatani, R.E., and R.F. Foster. 1963. Effect of chronic feed-
ing of Sr90_y90 on rainbow trout. In Schultz, V., and A.W.
Klement, Jr. (eds.). Radioecology.--Reinhold Publ. Corp.,
New York: 359-362.
The approximate quantity of orally administered Sr-90-Y-90
required to produce radiation damage and the syndrome involved in year-
ling rainbow trout was determined. Growth depressions and significant
mortalities were observed when trout were fed 0.5 microcuries Sr-90-
Y-90 per gram of fish daily for 21 weeks, but two other groups of lower
treatment levels of 0.05 microcuries and 0.005 microcuries Sr-90-Y-90
per gram of fish did not differ from the control. A pronounced leuko-
penia was observed for the high level treatment group at the end of the
test. The growth in weight of all groups with the exception of the high
group was described as exponential growth during the 21 weeks.
About 25% of the administered dose was retained in all treat-
ment groups. The total body burden of a 309 gram trout in the high
group was in the order of 2,200 microcuries. At the end of the test no
obvious damage was observed in low and medium groups; however, six months
post-treatment leukopenia was indicated in the medium group. Clinically
observed effects for the high group were anorexia, weight loss, list-
lessness, and a diminished response to external stimuli.
Narbonne, J.F., J.C. Murat, and A. Serfaty. 1973. Intoxication
par Ie nitrate de plomb chez la Carpe (Cyprinus carpio L.):
donnees sur les modifications des metabolismes nucleoproteique
et glucidique. Comptes rendus des seances de la Societe de
Biologie 167(3-4) :572-575.
Carp exposed for six weeks to 3.5 mg/l of Pb2+ (as lead
nitrate) in the water at 20°C survived apparently unaffected. However,
lead-exposed fish exhibited significantly higher glycogen levels in
plasma, liver, and heart.
1031.
1032.
Neely, W.C., R.C. Smith, R.M. Cody, J.R. McDuffie, and J.A.
Lansden. 1973. Biological and photobiological action of
pollutants on aquatic microorganisms. Alabama Water Resources
Res. Inst., Auburn Bull. 9, OWRR A-017-AlA(2):1-122. Available
from Nat. Tech. Inf. Ser., Springfield, Va., as Pb-220 167.
211
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Various aspects of biological and photobiological action of
pollutants on aquatic microorganisms have been explored in a series of
studies covering a wide range of chemical species and two classes of
aquatic microorganisms, paramecia and bacteria. Certain metal ions,
insecticides, pOlycyclic amines and mycotoxins are capable of drastic
alteration of the life processes in test strains of either bacteria or
paramecia or both. In some cases concurrent exposure to light and the
pollutant was necessary and in others the toxic and/or mutagenic reac-
tions were independent of light exposure. In particular the uranyl ion,
beta naphthyl amine, and aflatoxin Bl were phototoxic while the insecti-
cide, phygon, was strongly dark toxic. All agents affected Paramecium
caudatum and all but aflatoxin Bl affected Escherichia coli. In addi-
tion, the uranyl ion caused morphological mutations in ~oli. The
public health hazard connected with such alterations in-life-cycles
resulting from water-borne pollutants is difficult to assess from
laboratory data.
1033.
Nelson, D.J. 1963. The strontium and calcium relationships in
Clinch and Tennessee River mollusks. In Schultz, V. and A.W.
Klement, Jr. (eds.). Radioecology. Reinhold Publ. Corp.,
New York: 203-211.
Shells of a number of species of clams from the Clinch and
Tennessee Rivers were analyzed for Ca, Sr, and Sr-90 to determine con-
tent of each as a function of species and location in the river, and
whether Ca and Sr could be used as biological indicators of Sr-90 in
the water. Calcium content of shells was relatively constant (40% of
shell ash weight) as would be expected with calcium carbonate. Average
Sr content of shells from different species of clams ranged from 156
to 382 mg/kg. Differences in Sr content are due to inherent differences
between species rather than the Sr/Ca in the environment.
Two factors appear to affect Sr deposition in clam shells
are growth rate and surface to volume relationships. The Sr content of
shells increases with growth rate and with a reduced surface to volume
ratio. These factors do not explain the Sr content of all species, and
the inherent species differences may be related to the non-homogeneous
distribution of Sr within the clam shells.
Probable reasons for the lower Sr/Ca ratios obtained in this
study compared to ratios reported by others are differences in species
and populations analyzed, environmental ratios, and errors in strontium
determination. However, this is not an unequivocal explanation.
Low-level releases of Sr-90 were used as a tracer to determine
the behavior of Sr-90 released to the Tennessee River system. There
was a very good agreement between the Sr-90/Sr atom ratios observed and
212
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expected in clam shells on the basis of dilution of Clinch River water
by Tennessee River water. This agreement suggests that clams may be
used as samplers of Sr-90 and that Sr-90 released to the Clinch River
is in equilibrium with the living and nonliving components of the river
system. Concentrations of Sr-90 in the Tennessee River will be directly
related to dilution of the contaminated water by noncontaminated water.
1034.
Nelson, D.J. 1964. Interpretation of radionuclide uptake from
aquatic environments. Nuclear Safety 5(2) :196-199.
Equilibrium levels of radionuclides between aquatic organisms
and environment are expected only for elements with a short biological
half-life in tissue. The method of specific activities is based on the
assumption that if the distribution of a stable element is known between
an organism and its environment, it may be used to predict radionuclide
concentrations in water organisms receiving constant radionuclide re-
leases. The relation of strontium and strontium-90 in fish may be used
to calculate expected body burdens. Specific activity relation might
be a criterion for limiting radioactive waste disposal in oceans. \fuile
specific activity of a chemical element in environment of human food
organisms is below the permissible limit for that element in a human
body, man cannot obtain more than his permissible body burden from the
seas. Direct application of the specific activity concept applies only
to those radionuclides for which absorption is not critical, specific
activities may be related to irradiation of the gastrointestinal tract
by its contents.
1035.
Nelson, D.M., G.P. Romberg, and W. Prepejchal. 1971. Radio-
nuclides in Lake Michigan fish. In Report ANL-7860 (Pt. 3),
Radiological Physics Div. Ann. Report: 141-150.
In order to provide baseline data needed to evaluate any
additional radioactive releases, fish samples were collected from Lake
Michigan during 1970-1971 and analyzed for gamma emitting radionuclides.
The Cs-137 content of bass, trout, and other fish species near the Big
Rock Nuclear Reactor (a 70-~n~ boiling water reactor completed in 1962)
was about double that near the Point Beach Nuclear Reactor (a 480-MW
pressurized water reactor completed in 1970). The Cs-137/Cs-137 ratio
was not high enough to support a recent station contribution of greater
than 20% to the total Cs-137 concentration, except in a small number of
bass and trout samples; however Zn-65 was detected, which is more
straightforwardly attributable to the Big Rock station. A diet of 100
grams/day of fish with the highest radioactivity of those caught would
contribute 0.3% of the maximum recommended daily intake.
213
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1036.
Nelson, J.D., W. Blair, F.E. Brinckman, R.R. Colwell, and W.p.
Iverson. 1973. Biodegradation of phenylmercuric acetate by
mercury-resistant bacteria. Appl. Microbiol. 26(3) :321-326.
Selected cultur~~ of mercury-resistant bacteria degrade the
fungicide-s limi ci de phenylmercuric acetate. By me.ans of a closed system
incorporating a flameless atomic absorption spectrophotometer and a
vapor phase chromatograph, it was demonstrated that elemental mercury
vapor and benzene were products of phenylmercuric acetate degradation.
1037.
Nelson, V.A. 1972. Effects of strontium-90+yttrium-90, zinc-65
and chromium-51 on the larvae of the Pacific oyster Crass-
ostrea gigas. In Pruter, A.T., and D.L. Alverson (eds.).
The Columbia River Estuary and Adjacent Ocean Waters, Bio-
environmental Studies. Univ. Washington Press, Seattle,
Washington: 819-832.
Studies were undertaken to determine what concentration of
radionuclides would affect oysters in the Willapa Bay, Wash. fishery.
The production of abnormal larvae was selected as a measure of effects
since this criterion has been equated with mortality in a study of
effects of sulfite waste liquor. The radionuclide concentrations that
increased abnormalities in oyster larvae (100 ~Curies/l of Zn-65, 1000
~Curies/l of Sr-90, Y-90 and Cr-5l) are one-million-fold greater than
present in the environment~
1038.
Nelson, V.A.. and A.H. Seymour. 1974. Amchitka radiobiological
program progress report. Univ. Washington Lab. Radiation
Ecol., Seattle, Wash.: 1-98.
The Amchitka, Alaska, radiobiological program, to collect
biological and environmental samples for radiometric analyses, began
in 1970 and is continuing. Recent results of analyses have been appended
to previously prepared tables and include analyses for: (1) gamma emmit-
ting radionuclides of K, Co, Zr, Ru, Sb, Cs, Be, Eu, Mn, Nb, Ce and Zn
in air filters, seawater, freshwater, birds, lichens, terrestrial vege-
tation, marine algae, marine invertebrates, (crustaceans, molluscs,
echinoderms, sponges) marine fish, sea otter, aufwuchs, and freshwater
moss and plants; (2) strontium-90 in rats and birds; and (3) tritium in
seawater and freshwater.
The conclusions from the results of the recent analyses are
a reiteration of previous results stated; namely, (1) no new radio-
nuclides are present; (2) the most abundant radionuclides are naturally
occurring beryllium-7 and potassium-40; (3) the trace quantities of
fission products, induced radionuclides, and H-3 present are from world
214
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fallout; and (4) a trace of H-3 contamination remains in some Long Shot
ponds, as previously reported. It is concluded from the results of
analyses of samples collected between September 1968, and December 1973,
as reported in this and the three previous progress reports, that there
were no radionuclides of Milrow or Cannikin origin in the water, plants.
or animals of Amchitka Island.
1039.
Nicholls, G.D., H. Curl, Jr., andV.T. Bowen. 1959. Spectro-
graphic analyses of marine plankton. Limnology and Oceano-
graphy 4:472-476.
The results of spectrographic analyses of ten species of zoo-
plankton are presented. The methods used are described in detail. The
elements determined quantitatively were boron, molybdenum, vanadium,
nickel, cobalt, titanium, chromium, lead, tin, and copper. Manganese,
cesium, rubidium, barium, strontium, and silver were detected in some or
all of the specimens. Antimony, germanium, gallium, gold, and arsenic
were sought for but not found. Cadmium was just detectable in only one
species, the squid Ommastrephes (Illex) illecebrosa. The analytical
results support the view that boron is actively concentrated or excluded
by some marine animals. There is evidence that sedimentation of ptero-
pod shells could be a major pathway for the removal of vanadium and lead
from sea water. Lead was greatly enriched in Centrophages. Nickel and
cobalt showed random variations with respect to one another.
1040.
Nielsen, E.S., and L.Kamp-Nielsen. 1970. Influence of dele-
terious concentrations of copper on the growth of Chlorella
pyrenoidosa. Physiologia Plantarum 23:828-840.
The effect of deleterious concentrations of ionic Cu on growth
of Chlorella pyrenoidosa has been studied. An earlier paper showed a
distinct effect of the same concentrations on photosynthesis. Several
substances, e.g. Fe and citric acid, counteract the effect of Cu. In
media ordinarily used for growing unicellular algae the influence of Cu
is relatively slight due to the extraordinarily large concentrations of
Fe. At a concentration of 6 ~g/l Fe--near to that in nature--even one
~g/l Cu significantly decreases growth during the first 24 hours. Cu
is adsorbed to the negative charges on micelles of Fe (OH)3 created in
the alkaline medium. Citric acid is readily assimilated by Chlorella
and thus counteracts the influence of Cu for only relatively short per-
iods.
Cell concentration is of decisive importance for the dele-
terious influence of Cu on growth. The effect of a certain Cu concen-
tration stops at a certain concentration of algae regardless of whether
the experiment is started at this cell concentration or this level
215
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is attained during the experiment. This is due to the binding of Cu
by the organic matter of cell walls and slime envelopes.
H+ ions compete with Cu both when combining with organic
matter in cell walls and when occupying active sites of cell membranes.
The latter explains the fact that influence of Cu is only slight at pH
5 compared with that at pH 8. At a Cu-concentration where no growth of
algae takes place, the algae are by no means killed. After being trans-
ferred to an ordinary medium algae start to grow again. The influence
of Cu depends on the division stage of the algae. If the initial steps
of cell division have taken place, the cell continues to divide.
1041.
Nielsen, E.S., L. Kamp-Nielsen, and S. Wium-Andersen. 1969.
The effect of deleterious concentrations of copper on the
photosynthesis of Chlorella pyrenoidosa. Physiologia
Plantarum 22(6):1121-1133.
This study, conducted under illuminated conditions, revealed
that the maximum influence of copper sulfate on Chlorella pyrenoido~~
is exerted during the first 24 hours of the plant's contact with the
chemical. A significant depression of photosynthesis was observed at
copper concentration as low as about 1 microgram/liter. A decrease of
the medium reaction from pH 8 to pH 5 required a 10 times increase in
copper concentration to obtain the same deleterious effect. Addition
of potassium decreased the effectiveness of the herbicide and indicated
that the eradicating effect of copper is not due to penetration of this
ion into the plasma, but to a binding to the cytoplasmic membrane and
arrested division of cells. Other cations tend also to displace copper
from the active sites of the membranes.
1042.
Nielsen, E.S., and S. Wium-Andersen. 1970. Copper ions as
poison in the sea and in freshwater. Marine Biology 6(2):
93-97.
Copper in ionic form is found to be very toxic to photosyn-
thesis and growth of unicellular algae at concentrations usually found
in natural waters, indicating that copper is not ordinarily present in
ionic form but is complexed by organic matter such as polypeptides. The
affinity of copper to diethyl-dithiocarbaminate is very much higher than
to the organic matter which completes copper in nature, thus it is not
possible to distinguish the two forms of copper during analysis. Com-
plexed copper is not poisonous to algae. It has recently been shown
that ocean water in the centers of upwelling becomes suitable for plank-
ton growth only after the addition of a chelator, suggesting that a
large part of the copper found in subsurface waters of oceans is present
in ionic form. Some manufacturers of Carbon-14 ampules have used
216
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ordinary distilled water which often has a content of about 250 micro-
grams copper per liter; thus, it is probable that some productivity
measurements have been influenced.
1043.
North, W.J., G.C. Stephans, and B.B. North. 1972. Marine algae
and their relations to pollution problems. In Ruivo, M. (ed.).
Marine Pollution and Sea Life. Fishing Trading News (books)
Ltd., London: 330-340.
Known toxicants and depressants for marine algae include
heavy metals (Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, Zn), simple organics (benzene, cresol,
hexane, phenol, toluene), various inorganics (Cl, CN, H2S), and complex
wastes (industrial sewage, sulfite waste liquor, petroleum compounds,
detergents). Toxicity determinations using freshwater algae suggest
that many additional substances could influence marine algae. Stimu-
latory substances occurring significantly in certain wastes include
phosphate, nitrogen as ammonia, nitrate, and organic nitrogen, and
silica. PIN ratios and concentrations of various forms of P and N may
affect species composition as well as productivity. Comparisons of
organic nitrogen (as amino acids) uptake rates by "pollution" algae
(VIva, Enteromorpha) vs. other forms (18 macrophytes, 12 microphytes)
offer an experimental basis to explain success of certain algae in
organic-rich environments. Conversely some algae secrete organics
copiously which might stimulate growth in certain animals.
1044.
Noshkin, V.E. 1972. Ecological aspects of plutonium dissemina-
tion in aquatic environments. Health Physics 22:537-549.
Increased utilization of transuranics in the nuclear industry
J
creates a need to understand their biogeochemical behavior in the
aquatic environment. This review considers some documented sources
which contribute transuranics to the aquatic environment and particularly
the ecological aspects of plutonium. Most plutonium-239 present in the
environment has originated from both underwater and atmospheric nuclear
tests. Quantities of transuranics were deposited in discrete marine en-
vironments near "surface and underwater burst" test sites; they are
detected in the vicinity of fuel reprocessing facilities, are introduced
to aquatic environments from accidents involving nuclear devices, and
from laboratories involved in nuclear production or fabrication. Plu-
tonium is highly concentrated by a number of marine species. To evalu-
ate uptake and retention of plutonium in sediments, their lithological
and chemical differences, type and organic content, and biological acti-
vity must be considered. Bone and liver are major repositories for
plutonium in marine vertebrates while muscle tissue of both marine
vertebrates and invertebrates contain relatively lower concentrations.
When the relative biological effectiveness of alpha vs. gamma or beta
217
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radiation is considered, fallout plutonium-239 contributes
fallout strontium-90 or cesium-137 to artificial radiation
many marine species.
more than
exposure of
1045.
Nuorteva, p" and E. Hasanen. 1971. Observations on the
content of Myoxocephalus quadricornis (L.) (Teleostei,
Cottidae) in Finland. Ann. 2001. Fennici 8:331-335.
mercury
Mercury content was determined in the fourhorn sculpin, a
glacial relict occurring in the Baltic and in some lakes. In an un-
polluted area of the Baltic, mercury content varied between 0.06-0.36
mg/kg, being positively correlated with size. In stunted specimens of
Lake Ladoga, Hg content was the same as in the largest specimens in the
Baltic--probably because their ages were identical and hence also the
possibility for bioaccumulation. In the mercury-polluted Lake Paijanne,
mercury content of ~. quadricornis was elevated, values up to 1.9 mg/kg
being found. In another lake, Nasijarvi, with the same degree of mer-
cury pollution, however, mercury contamination of M. quadricornis was
very low (0.02-0.28 mg/kg) , possibly because the oxygen content of its
deeps is so low that mercury is not microbially transformed to the bio-
accumulating methylmercury.
1046.
Nuorteva, P., and E. Hasanen. 1972. Transfer of mercury from
fishes to sarcosaprophagous flies. Ann. 2001. Fennici 9:23-27.
Sarcosaprophagous flies were reared from eggs to adults on
fish containing 0.14, 0.17, 0.47 and 1.90 mg/kg of mercury. The trans-
fer of mercury from the food to the larvae was followed by activation
analysis. When fed on fish of the two lowest ( "natural" ) levels of
mercury, fly larvae had the same mercury content as their food. With
a mercury content of 0.47 mg/kg in fish, the full-grown fly larvae had
0.62 mg/kg. But with a mercury level of 1.90 mg/kg in fish, full-grown
larvae contained 6.90 mg/kg, which is a clear indication of bioaccumu-
lation. It is suggested that fly larvae are capable of inhibiting bio-
accumulation of mercury only if it is present in the food in "normal"
concentrations. When, for a short period the larvae were given mercury-
contaminated (9.07-10.62 mg/kg) adult flies as food their mercury con-
tent rose from low level to 11.40 mg/kg. Because of the weight loss
caused by evaporation and respiration during the pupal stage, the mer-
cury content of the adult flies was about 1 1/2 times as high as that
of the full-grown larvae. Free-living fly populations in general had
low mercury contents (0.02-0.06 mg/kg), except for one sample (0.50
mg/kg) collected on the shore of a mercury-polluted lake at a place
where fish are regularly cleaned.
218
-------
1047.
Nuzzi, R. 1972. Toxicity of mercury to phytoplankton.
237(5349):38-40.
Nature
Mercury, as phenylmercuric acetate (PMA), was found to be
inhibitory to three phytoplankton species at concentrations as low as
0.06 )1g/1.
1048.
Ogata, E., and W. Schramm. 1971. Some observations on the in-
fluence of salinity on growth and photosynthesis in Porphyra
umbilicalis. Marine Biology 10:70-76.
Rate of growth and 02 output of the intertidal red alga
Porphyra umbilicalis from Helgoland, North Sea, were measured during a
3 week culture in 3 different salinities (1/2, 1- and 2-concentrated
artificial seawater). Under hypertonic conditions (2 concentrated sea-
water) growth rate and phytosynthesis rate were depressed, compared to
values obtained in normal concentrated seawater. Under hypotonic con-
ditions (1/2-concentrated seawater), growth expressed in mg was the
same as in normal concentrated seawater, or higher when expressed in
cm2. Rate of 02 output was almost unaltered in one of the two experi-
ments, lowered in the other. Cell size increased at higher salinity,
while swelling of cell walls and intercellular substances as well as
the intensity of coloring decreased with salinity. The discrepancies
between growth and phytosynthesis under hypotonic conditions cannot be
completely explained by the observed influences of salinity on morpho-
logical structures (cell size, swelling of cell substances).
1049.
O'Hara, J. 1971. Alterations in oxygen consumption by blue-
gills exposed to sublethal treatment with copper. Water
Research 5:321-327.
Oxygen consumption rates were determined for juvenile blue-
gill sunfish subjected to various concentrations of copper. Respira-
tory responses were strongly correlated with copper concentrations up
to the LC-50 (96 h) value of 2.4 mg/l of copper. Higher concentrations
produced greater responses although the results were more erratic. The
concentration that caused no alteration in the rate of oxygen consump-
tion was found to be 0.1 mg/l of copper. It is suggested that this
measure provides a fast and sensitive tool to help establish water
quality criteria.
1050.
O'Hara, J. 1973. Cadmium uptake by fiddler crabs exposed to
temperature and salinity stress. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada
30 (6): 846-848.
219
-------
Fiddler crabs (Uca pugilator) were collected from an unpol-
luted estuary near Georgetown, South Carolina, and, after acclimation,
subjected to 1 microcurie of Cd-l09 and 10 ~g/l Cd2+ as cadmium chloride
in 3, 10, and 25°C vs. 10 and 300/00 salinity. After 24, 48, and 72
hours, samples were sacrificed and gill and hepatopancreas analyzed for
Cd. At each temperature crabs accumulated more Cd in low salinity water
than in high salinity water. This effect is probably due to osmotic
stress caused by the different salt concentrations. Maximum accumula-
tions occurred at high temperature and low salinity with totals for gill
and hepatopancreas of 65 and 74 mg/kg at 24 hr, 98 and 198 mg/kg at 48
hr and 92 and 200 mg/kg, respectively, at 72 hr.
1051.
O'Hara, J. 1973. The influence of temperature and ~al~nit~ on
the toxicity of cadmium to the fiddler crab, Uca pugilator.
u.S. Dept. Comm., Fish. Bull. 71(1):149-153.
The concentrations of cadmium lethal to fiddler crab were
determined for various environmental regimes of temperature and salin-
ity. Mortality was greatest in high temperatures and low salinities
when tested for 240 hr. The LC-50 (240 hr) value at 30°C and 100/00
salinity--the most pronounced thermosaline regime tested--was 2.9 mg/l
of Cd2+. Concentrations of cadmium were greatest in green gland fol-
lowed by gill, hepatopancreas and muscle.
1052.
Olson, K.R., H.L. Bergman, and P.O. Fromm. 1973. Uptake of
methyl mercuric chloride and mercuric chloride by trout: a
study of uptake pathways into the whole animal and uptake by
erythrocytes in vitro. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 30:1293-
1299.
Uptake rate of either 203HgC12 or CH3203HgCl by rainbow trout
(Salmo gairdneri) was not affected by esophageal ligation during a 24
hr period. Uptake of these two mercurials in nonfeeding trout appears
to be via the gills. Methylmercury enters fish at a faster rate than
the inorganic form and anomalous tissue distribution of these two mer-
curials suggests that inorganic mercury does not require methylation
prior to entry into the fish. In vitro experiments using radioactive
mercurials demonstrated high affinity of methylmercury for red cells
(up to 90% was bound to red cells in 40 min). Only 9% of inorganic
mercury was taken up by red cells, but, this percentage was increased
up to 65% of the cells were washed and suspended in Ringer solution
prior to incubation with mercury.
220
-------
1053.
Olson, K.R., and P.O. Fromm. 1973. Mercury uptake and ion
distribution in gills of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri):
tissue scans with an electron microprobe. Jour. Fish. Res.
Bd. Canada 30(10):1575-1578.
Rainbow trout were exposed to 0.25 mg/l of HgC12 and 0.05
mg/l methylmercury for 23 hr and the gills removed and examined by
electron microprobe for the purpose of identifying pathway of Hg uptake.
Mercury was found in gills of rainbow trout which had been exposed to
inorganic mercury but not in those exposed to methylmercury. No
specific site for mercury uptake was identified and it is suggested
that inorganic mercury enters the gill across the general lamellar sur-
face. High concentrations were found associated wi th the gill carti-
lage. Since little ion diffusion occurs during tissue preparation,
localization and/or identification of tissues can be accomplished by
scans for various elements: sodium (Na), potassium (K), chlorine (Cl),
and sulfur (5). The technique is not suitable for identification of
highly volatile compounds such as methylmercury due to the necessity of
subjecting tissues to high vacuum conditions, however; electron probe
analyses should be useful in studies of active ion transport systems in
gill tissue and in investigations of the effects of heavy metal pollu-
tants on fishes.
1054.
Olson, P.R. 1971. Accumulation of calcium-45 in developing coho
salmon eggs and fry reared in varying concentrations of stable
calcium. From Sel. Water Resources Abstracts, 1972. 5(15):66.
Coho salmon eggs were fertilized and reared in tap water with
calcium concentrations of 6 to 76 mg/l, labelled with Ca-45, to study
the effect of this cation on embryo development and hatching. Fertility
of eggs was improved in calcium concentrations above 6 mg/l. Eggs in
calcium concentrations of 76 mg/l hatched two days earlier than those in
solutions containing 6 mg/I. The stable calcium concentration in all
lots was similar, regardless of calcium concentrations in the solutions.
A significant amount of calcium-45 entered the eggs during the water-
hardening period, but only a slight amount was taken up during the 57
days to hatching. During the two week period after hatching, a tenfold
increase in the uptake of calcium-45 was noted, which was associated
with ossification. Discussion is also included on the concentration of
stable calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium in the fry of different
species of fish.
1055.
Ophel, I.L. 1963. The fate of radiostrontium in a freshwater
community. In Schultz, N., and A.W. Klement, Jr. (eds.).
Radioecology:- Reinhold Publ. Corp., New York: 213-216.
221
-------
Strontium-90 has been followed through a stream-fed ecosystem
containing dissolved radionuclides from seeps in a liquid disposal area
of the Canadian Atomic Energy Establishment. Amounts entering Perch
Lake during five years and leaving by an outlet stream were measured.
Strontium-90 content in the bones of adult perch (fish) increased
gradually over a four-year period, reaching equilibrium the fifth year.
Most of accumulated radiostrontium is retained in the skeleton and a
considerable fraction in adult fish bone is non-exchangeable. When the
concentration factor for perch flesh is only five, that for bone is 3,000.
Transmission of radiostrontium and radiocesium can be compared thus:
for water containing the (then) maximum permissible cQncentration of
cesium-137, maximum permissible body burden of Cs-137 for man would be
contained in 20 grams of fish flesh, while maximum permissible body
burden of Sr-90 would be contained in 100 kilograms of perch flesh. It
would seem, therefore, that the major pathway of radiostrontium--in con-
trast to radiocesium--to man from a contaminated body of water would be
from direct use of water for drinking, rather than by way of food webs
originating in the aquatic environment.
1056.
Ophel, I.L. 1973. The environmental capacity of freshwaters
for waste radionuclides. In Environmental Behavior of Radio-
nuclides Released in the Industry. Int. Atom. Ener. Agen.,
Vienna, Austria: 613-624.
The maximum permissible human body burden of many radio-
nuclides can be expressed as a specific activity, i.e. the amount of a
radioisotope per unit weight of its stable counterpart. A similar con-
cept can be applied to a large body of water that is providing water and
food for man. It can be thought of as a pool or reservoir of stable
elements that could dilute waste radionuclides down to specific activi-
ties less than those corresponding to the body burden. It is the size
and the dynamics of this stable element pool that determine the environ-
mental capacity of an aquatic ecosystem for a radionuclide.
Results from a continuing study of strontium in an experi-
mental lake (Perch Lake, Ontario) illustrate some of the factors that
must be considered. Using elevated levels of Sr-90, which have been
present in the lake since 1955, it has been possible to investigate the
dimensions and the dynamics of the various compartments that make up
the stable strontium pool. Several of these compartments, such as lake
water and some biota, have a fast turnover time (i.e. they rapidly
attain a uniform specific activity); but they make up only a small
fraction of the stable element pool. Other compartments of interest
are the marginal vegetation and the semi-aquatic animals, which cause
a carry-over of Sr-90 into terrestrial food-chains and result in fur-
ther dilution of the radionuclide. Bottom sediment is important, al-
though a considerable fraction of the stable strontium in the sediment
222
-------
of Perch Lake has such a slow exchange with the lake water that it
limits the effective size of this compartment. However, it is the
trapping action of the sediment and the consequent removal of some
radionuclides from the ecosystem that provide the continuing capacity
of a lake to accept such radionuclides.
1057.
Ophel, I.L., and C.D. Fraser. 1971. The fate of cobalt-60 in
a natural freshwater ecosystem. In Radionuclides in Eco-
systems (Proc. Third Nat. Symp. Radioecol., May, 1971):323-
327.
Perch Lake is a small dystrophic-eutrophic lake on the pro-
perty of Atomic Energy of Canada Limited at Chalk River, Ontario. For
seven years it has been receiving at a relatively constant rate small
amounts of Co-60 via its inlet stream, resulting in low, but measurable
concentrations of this radionuclide in the lake water. Concentration
factors were determined for the dominant species of aquatic plants,
fish, and other biota. Large differences in accumulation were found
between species of plants due to morphology of the plants and their
location in the lake. Differences between fish species are correlated
with their feeding habits. The vertical and horizontal distribution of
radiocobalt in the bottom sediments was investigated. Most of the
nuclide is confined to the upper few centimeters of the organic-rich
deposits. Calculations indicate that the lake sediment is an important
storehouse of cobalt and that approximately 30% of the Co-60 that has
entered the lake is now resident on the bottom.
1058.
Ophel, I.L., C.D. Fraser, and J.M. Judd. 1971. Strontium con-
centration factors in biota and bottom sediments of a fresh-
water lake. In Proc. Int. Symp. Radioecology App. Proto Man
and his Environ., Rome, 7-10 Sept. 1971:510-530.
Over a period of years concentration factors were determined
of both stable and radioactive strontium in bottom sediments and biota
of a lake chronically contaminated with low levels of Sr-90 from radio-
active wastes. Concentration factors (on a fresh weight basis) in six
species .of fish range from 450 to 1250; in 22 species of aquatic plants
from 30 to 1300. Each species exhibits a characteristic concentration
of the element. The strontium content of bottom sediments is strongly
correlated with the amount of organic matter they contain. The specific
activity of the strontium (dpm Sr-90/~g Sr) appears to be uniform
throughout the water and the lake biota, i.e. biological availability
of the stable isotope and radioisotope is the same. In the upper 10 cm
of bottom sediments however, specific activity of the exchangeable
strontium and of total strontium is only half that in biota and water
223
-------
indicating incomplete exchange of radionuclide and stable element in
this layer even after fifteen years of exposure.
1059.
Oseid, D., and L.L. Smith, Jr. 1972. Swimming endurance and
resistance to copper and malathion of blue gills treated by
long-term exposure to sublethal levels of hydrogen sulfide.
Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 101(4):620-625.
After 126 or 148 days of exposure to H2S concentrations rang-
ing from 0.0004 to 0.0146 mg/l, young-of-the-year bluegills were tested
for swimming endurance and resistance to copper or malathion. Swimming
tests at low speeds indicated increased endurance for fish exposed to
0.0004 mg/l H2S but fish exposed to higher concentrations had progres-
sively less endurance than the controls. In the tests conducted at
higher speeds, fish in all test concentrations showed less endurance
than the controls. Resistance to copper was increased by exposure to
H2S, but resistance to malathion was not affected except in the lowest
test concentration. The chronic exposure to H2S also reduced growth in
the highest concentration, and gill irrigation rate increased progres-
sively with increased concentrations.
1060.
Osterberg, C., J. Pattullo, and W. Pearcy. 1964. Zinc 65 in
euphausiids as related to Columbia River water off the Oregon
coast. Limnology and Oceanography 9(2):249-257.
Most of the zinc-65 in the northeast Pacific Ocean originates
in the Columbia River as a result of the Hanford, Washington, nuclear
reactor operation. The Columbia River is also the principal source of
freshwater in the region. At certain seasons the plume of the river is
detectable far at sea because of its low salinity. In an effort to
determine the fate of the river water at sea, euphausiids from the
ocean off Oregon were used as biological monitors. Zn-65 content of
euphausiids was measured and relationships between Zn-65 content and
salinity distributions over the area examined. Zn-65 levels remained
fairly high off Oregon even when Columbia River water was not evident
as a low-salinity plume. This indicates that water from the Columbia
River, which accumulates as a plume off Oregon in the summer, influ-
ences Zn-65 content in animals in the area throughout the year. The
long half-life of Zn-65 in the mixed layer, diurnal migrations of
euphausiids, and seasonal reversal of currents all may contribute to
the maintenance of this reservoir of Zn-65 in the ocean off the Oregon
coast.
1061.
Paasche, E.
diatoms.
1973. Silicon and the ecology of marine plankton
I. Thalassiosira pseudonana (Cyclotella nana)
224
-------
grown in a chemostat with silicate as limiting nutrient.
Marine Biology 19(2):117-126.
Silica content of diatom shells varied with growth rate. As
growth rate approached zero, there were still measurable quantities of
residual reactive silicate in the medium. In one of the two chemostats
used, silicate assimilation by cells was inefficient due to some unknown
internal or external factor. In the other chemostat, statistically cal-
culated half-saturation constants of growth rate were in the range of
0.5 to 0.8 microgram at. Sill. Half-saturation constants of steady-state
mean silicate uptake per cell and hour, calculated in a similar fashion,
were in the range of 1.4 to 2.6 microgram at. Sill. Results indicate
that silicate concentrations causing a reduced silicate uptake by this
species in nature do not necessarily result in a corresponding reduced
growth rate. Growth in coastal waters is likely to become seriously
limited by a shortage of silicate only when most of the silicate orig-
inally present has been removed in the course of a diatom bloom.
1062.
Paasche, E.
diatoms.
species.
1973. Silicon and the ecology of marine plankton
II. Silicate-uptake kinetics in five diatom
Marine Biology 19:262-269.
Variations in rate of silicate uptake with varying silicate
concentration in the medium was investigated in short-term experiments
with the following marine diatom species: Skeletonema costatum,
Thalassiosira pseudonana, !. decipiens, Ditylum brightwellii and
Licmophora sp. The uptake conformed to Michaelis-Menten kinetics only
after a correction had been made for reactive silicate that apparently
could not be utilized by diatoms. The magnitude of this correction was
in the range of 0.3 to 1.3 ~g at. Sill. Mean values of the half-satura-
tion constant of silicate uptake were calculated for the different
species. The lowest value found in S. costatum (0.80 ~g at. Sill) and
the highest in!. decipiens (3.37 ~g-at. Sill). Growth limitation by
low silicate concentrations could be a cause of species succession in
marine plankton-diatom blooms.
1063.
Paffenhoefer, G.A. 1972. The effects of suspended "red mud"
on mortality, body weight, and growth of the marine plank-
tonic copepod, Calanus helgolandicus. Water, Air, and Soil
Pollution 1(3):314-321.
"Red mud" is the residual substance after the extraction of
aluminum from bauxite; it is a waste product associated with aluminum
production. The effects of red mud on growth, body weight and mortality
of the copepod Calanus helgolandicus were investigated. Laboratory
tests were conducted using copepods which ingested large quantities of
225
-------
red mud and control groups. Growth of the experimental copepods was
delayed in comparison to controls; the red mud group also had a higher
mortality rate than controls. The small amount of phytoplankton pre-
sent in red mud weakens the animals; although they ingest large quan-
tities of mud, they were unable to attain a sufficient amount of nutri-
tive material. Adult copepods in the red mud group exhibited sluggish
swimming movements and slow reactions which would make them easy prey
for predators. The study concludes that the proposed dumping of red
muds into the North Sea will create a serious problem in the nutrition,
survival, and reproduction of planktonic copepods.
1064.
Pagenkopf, G.K., R.C. Russo, and R.V. Thurston. 1974. Effect
of complexation on toxicity of copper to fishes. Jour. Fish.
Res. Bd. Canada 31:462-465.
Copper is highly complexed by carbonate and hydroxide ions
in natural waters and this complexation determines the concentration
of copper species in solution. Results of detailed equilibrium cal-
culations on data from bioassays where alkalinity, pH, hardness and
total copper concentration are different indicate that copper (II) is
the chemical species that is toxic to fishes and that alkalinity is the
factor controlling copper (II) concentration.
1065.
Pakkala, I.S., W.H. Gutenmann, D.J. Lisk, G.E. Burdick, and E.J.
Harris. 1972. A survey of the selenium content of fish from
49 New York State waters. Pesticides Monitoring Jour. 6(2):
107-114.
A survey was made of the selenium content of 438 fish of
various species collected in 1969 from 49 New York' State waters and a
group of lake trout sampled in 1970 from Cayuga Lake only- Concentra-
tions of selenium in decapitated, eviscerated fish on a freshweight
basis were usually below 1 mg/kg. There was little apparent correla-
tion between selenium concentrations and species or sampling locations
except that sturgeon from the Hudson River, lake trout from Lakes George
and West Canada, whitefish from Raquette Lake, and several species from
Lake Pleasant had consistently higher levels of selenium than other
samples; all fish from Lakes Butterfield and Champlain and the Chenango
and Salmon Rivers had consistently lower levels. No correlation was
apparent between selenium levels and size or sex of fish. Selenium did
not appear to be cumulative in lake trout of known age up to 12 years
from Cayuga Lake.
1066.
Pakkala, I.S., M.N. White, G.E. Burdick, E.J. Harris, and D.J.
Lisk. 1972. Residues in fish, wildlife, and estuaries. A
226
-------
survey of lead content of fish from 49 New York State Waters.
Pesticides Monitoring Jour. 5(4):348-355.
A survey was made of 419 fish in 49 New York State waters for
total lead content and compared to data presented on a series of lake
trout sampled in 1970 from Cayuga Lake in order to determine if lead
was cumulative in these fish. Results showed that lead concentrations
usually ranged from 0.3 to 1.5 mg/kg, and a few samples up to 3.0 mg/kg.
Variations were found in lead content of fish taken from different lakes,
but no correlation was observed between lead concentration and size,
species, or sex. Lead did not appear to be cumulative in lake trout up
to 12 years of age taken from Cayuga Lake.
1067.
Pakkala, I.S., M.N. White, D.J. Lisk, G.E. Burdick, and E.J.
Harris. 1972. Arsenic content of fish from New York State
waters. N.Y. Fish Game Jour. 19(1):13-31.
A survey of 471 fish sampled in 1969 from 49 New York State
waters for total arsenic content is presented. Arsenic levels ranged
up to about 0.5 mg/kg with fish from Lake Ontario, Canandaigua Lake and
the Hudson, St. Lawrence and Salmon Rivers being relatively higher.
Larger fish generally contained higher arsenic concentrations. Arsenic
did not appear to be cumulative with increasing age in lake trout rang-
ing from 2 to 11 years old.
1068.
Palmer, D.S., and L.J. Albright. 1970. Salinity effects on the
maximum hydrostatic pressure for growth of the marine psy-
chrophilic bacterium, Vibrio marinus. Limnology and Oceano-
graphy 15(3):343-347.
In nondefined basal medium containing 350/00 synthetic sea-
water salts, Vibrio marinus reproduces at hydrostatic pressures of 422
and 280 atm at 9 and 4uC respectively; in defined basal medium contain-
ing 35%0 NaCl, these maximums are 422 and 327 atm at 9 and 4°C. De-
creasing the NaCl concentration results in a corresponding decrease in
the maximum hydrostatic pressure at which these cells divide: at 80/00
NaCl, cell division is inhibited above 88 and 61 atm at 9 and 4°C. The
relative order of effectiveness for the substitution of the Na+ require-
ment in a defined basal medium containing 8%0 NaCl is Na+ > K+ > NH4 + .
The relative order of effectiveness for the substitution of the Cl-
requirement, in the same basal medium, is 5042-, P043-, Cl- > Br- > N03 .
The relative ranking of these ions depends on the NaCl content of the
basal medium.
227
-------
1069.
Pappas, C.J., O.W. Tiemeier, and C.W. Deyoe. 1973. Chromic
sesquioxide as an indicator in digestion studies on channel
catfish. progr. Fish-Cult. 35(2):97-98.
Chromic sesquioxide was used in feed to indicate digestion and
absorption of protein, fat, and nitrogen-free extract (NFE) by channel
catfish, Ictalurus punctatus. Results indicated that absorption of
protein, fat, and NFE starts in the stomach within 2 hours; by 4 hours
nearly 50% of the available nutrients had been absorbed. By 6 hours
most of the feed had passed into the intestine where further digestion
and absorption took place. Absorption values in the intestine reached
80% after 8 hours. The results from this preliminary study indicate
that Cr203 and the indicator did not appear to affect digestion.
1070.
Parchevskii, V.P-, L.G. Kulebakina, I.A. Sokolova, and A.A.
Bachurin. 1970. Sr90 in aquatic organisms of the Black Sea.
Available from Nat. Tech. Inf. Ser., Springfield, Va., as
part of AEC-tr-7299. Translation of Morskaya Radioekologiya
(Marine Radioecology):196-22l.
Studies in 1965-1966 showed low variability in Sr-90 uptake
within the same species. Of total Sr-90 in plant communities and in
surrounding water, the percentage absorbed by plants varied according
to species (Cystoseira brown alga, 30%; Carallia red alga, 23%; Padera
brown alga, 17%; Zostera flowering plant, 11%; other algae, 1%;
Cystoseira biocoenosis that includes animals and other plants, 40%).
For Cystoseira samples in Sept. 1964 and Dec. 1965, Sr-90 concentration
was about twice as high in the stem as in the branches; but in July
1965 there was no difference (a seasonal effect). Sr/Ca atomic ratios
were nearly the same in organisms from related taxonomic groups and
agreed with values obtained by others. Isotopic exchange between Sr-90
and Sr was nearly complete.
1071.
parchevskii, V.P., I.A. Sokolova, G.G. Polikarpov. and A.A.
Bachurin. 1970. Radiobiological research in oceans and
generalizations in marine radioecology. Available from Nat.
Tech. Inf. Ser., Springfield, Va., as part of AEC-tr-7299.
Translation of Morskaya Radioekologiya (Marine Radioecology):
292-324.
When isotopic or non-isotopic carriers remain constant, radio-
nuclide uptake by aquatic organisms is given by concentration factors
(ratio of radioactivity of organism to that of an equal weight of water)
which are independent of the radionuclide concentration in the water in
the range 1-100 micromoles/liter. Sr-90 uptake by related organisms is
about 2-fold higher in the Black Sea than in most other oceans or seas
228
-------
which have lower Ca content. Uptake of Cs-137, Sr-90, and S-35 is about
an order of magnitude higher in fresh water than in sea water, corre-
sponding to the higher carrier content of sea water. Data obtained
during 1961-1966 on Sr-90 in marine organisms (in units of picoCuries/
kg) is reviewed. Values for various species of fish ranged from 1 to
10. Pollution by nuclear wastes caused higher values for brown algae
in the Irish Sea (10-600) than in most other seas and oceans (1-3).
1072 .
Parry, G.D.R., and J. Hayward. 1973. The uptake of 65Zn by
Dunaliella tertiolecta Butcher. Jour. Mar. BioI. Assn. U.K.
53:915-922.
Laboratory experiments were conducted to examine uptake of
Zn-65 by the alga Dunaliella tertiolecta, specifically to investigate
processes involved, and factors affecting uptake and its relationship
to metabolism. The uptake of Zn-65 was temperature and pH dependent
and appears to be indirectly linked with metabolism. The Zn-65 is
firmly bound to living cells and it is suggested that the binding sites
are proteinaceous compounds.
1073.
Parslow, J.L.F. 1973. Mercury in waders from the Wash.
Environ. Pollut. 5:295-304.
Concentrations of total mercury were determined in livers of
seventy-three waders (Linacolae) collected during August-March on the
Wash, eastern England, in order to obtain baseline data on levels of
this element in birds living in a non-industrial and presumably lightly
polluted estuarine area. In the knot (Calidris canutus), mercury
levels were relatively low, about 1 mg/kg dry weight, in early autumn
but increased through the winter until, by February-March, they were
about 10-20 times higher. On more limited or scattered data, the
dunlin (C. alpina) and redshank (Tringa totanus) also showed much
higher mercury levels in late winter compared with autumn. The results
imply that mercury accumulated in liver during the winter months (when
the birds are exclusively estuarine, mainly in temperate latitudes) is
eliminated in summer (on mainly inland arctic and subarctic breeding
grounds). The results are discussed in relation to the molt, movements
and food of the main species. The biological significance of the con-
centrations found in the Wash waders is uncertain, but it is suggested
that in industrial estuaries mercury levels in the same species may be
very much higher and, by analogy with other species, could be having
detrimental physiological effects.
1074.
Parslow, J.L.F., D.J. Jefferies, and H.M. Hanson. 1973. Gannet
mortality incidents in 1972. Marine Pollution Bull. 4(3):
41-43.
229
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Investigations of 2 incidents in 1972 on the east and west
coasts of Britain involving the death of unusually large numbers of
gannets (Sula bassana) indicated that they were not related. Concen-
trations of polychlorinated biphenyls were much higher in livers of
birds from the west coast and may possibly have contributed to their
death. One of these birds also contained an exceptionally high level
of 1i ver Hg.
1075.
Parsons, T.R., C.A. Bawden, and W.A. Heath. 1973. Preliminary
survey of mercury and other metals contained in animals from
the Fraser River mudflats. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 30(7):
1014-1016.
Additional research has been directed toward answering the
question of the source of mercury contamination in the Fraser River
estuary. The Fraser River mudflat community was divided into two areas
from which crabs were collected for Hg analysis. Crabs and other marine
organisms were also collected from other areas for comparative analyses.
Samples of soft tissue were analyzed by atomic absorption spectro-
photometry for Ag, Cd, Co, Cu, ~~, Ni, and Zn. However, Pb analysis
was done colorimetrically and Hg was analyzed by flame less atomic ab-
sorption. Benthic animals from Sturgeon Bank contained larger amounts
of mercury and other metals than animals from similar environments on
the coast of British Columbia. These high levels of metals are believed
to be associated with the Vancouver City sewer outfall.
1076.
Patel, B., P.M.A. Bhattathiri, and G.R. Doshi. 1966. Uptake of
manganese-54 by ark-shell mollusc, Anadara granosa (Linn).
Jour. Anim. Morphol. Physiol. 13:158-168.
Studies were conducted on uptake, loss and retention of Mn-54
by the ark-shell mollusc Anadara granosa under laboratory conditions.
Soft tissues reached apparent equilibrium in 3-4 days of exposure.
Gills and mantle folds showed maximum concentration of Mn-54 followed
by shell and other soft tissues.
The rate of uptake of Mn-54 was a function of body weight,
with lower values for smaller animals. On return to isotope-free
medium, gills lost activity rather rapidly. Shell retained the most
and the gills the least amount of Mn-54 after 15 days. Concentrations
of stable ~~, Zn, K, and gross beta activity were also weight dependent.
The mantle folds and the gills showed maximum concentration of zinc and
manganese.
Chronic concentration factors for Mn and Zn in ~. granosa
were significantly higher than acute concentration factors obtained
using isotopes under laboratory conditions.
230
-------
1077 .
Patel, B., and A.K. Ganguly. 1973. Occurrence of Se 75 and Sn
113 in oysters. Health Physics 24:559-562.
The specificity of various species of molluscs in the vicinity
of the Tarapur nuclear powerplant for various radionuclides suggested
their use as biological monitors. Gastropods (Aplysia benedicti,
Cellana radiata, and Onchidium verruculatum) concentrated Co radio-
isotopes; oysters (Crassostrea cucullata and~. gryphoides) concentrated
Sn-113 and Se-75, which were identified by the energy of gamma spectrum
lines and half-lives; but not Co. The Sn-113 probably results from
neutron activation of Sn-112 (isotopic abundance 0.95%) in fuel clad-
ding and structural alloys; the Se-75, from neutron activation of Se-74
of unknown origin or as a fission product. Concentrations that have
been reported in marine organisms are: Sn, 0.2 to 20 mg/kg; Se, 0.5 to
8.6 mg/kg.
1078.
Patel, B., P.G. Valanju, C.D. Mulay, M.C. Balani, and S. Patel.
1973. Radioecology of certain molluscs in Indian coastal
waters. In Radioactive Contamination of the Marine Environ-
ment. Int:"" Atom. Ener. Agen., Vienna, Austria: 307-330.
Distribution of a few major and trace elements of metabolic
significance in the sea-hare Aplysia benedicti (mollusc). which moves
shorewards in coastal waters during colder months, are presented. The
population was found to accumulate trace elements belonging to iron
family (atomic Nos. 23-28). Of the various tissues analyzed, the
hepatopancreas and intestine including the gut-content showed higher
concentrations of Co, Fe and Ni, whereas Fe was deposited in buccal mass.
The bio-accumulation of Zn, Cu, Sr and Ca in whole animal and various
tissues is also discussed in relation to environment. The Aplysia
benedicti population from Tarapur waters which receive radioactive
wastes (1-131, Cs-137o Cr-5l, Co-58,60, Mn-54, etc.) from a boiling-
water reactor, was found to accumulate Co-58 and Co-60 in the 50ft
tissues. Hepatopancreas and gut-content contained the highest concen-
tration of radiocobalt. Iodine-13l, on the other hand, was concentrated
in horny internal shell, possibly as a means for disposal. The spawn
chords of this species were also found to accumulate 1-131 from the
environment. This species could therefore be used as an indicator of
radionuclides of cobalt, although its occurrence in nearshore waters
is strictly seasonal.
1079.
Paterson, R.A., and D.F. Farr. 1973. Aquatic fungi of the
lotic environment and their role in stream purification.
Virginia Water Res. Research Cen., Blacksbury, Completion
Report, OWRR A-043-Va(1):1-40. Available from the Nat. Tech.
Inf. Ser. as PB-220 012.
231
-------
Samples were collected from three rivers and streams of vary-
ing physical and chemical characteristics and subsequently examined for
aquatic Phycomycetes. Three species of fungi were found in all samples
collected. The filamentous forms such as Achlya, Saprolegnia, and
Pythium were abundant in all three rivers. However, the unicellular
forms such as Rhizophydium and Phl~cto~hytrium were infrequ~ntly en-.
countered or absent in the eutrophIc rIver but very common In the OlIgO-
trophic situations. Samples collected immediately below the introduc-
tion of the effluent from an army ammunition plant showed a greatly re-
duced flora of aquatic Phycomycetes. Achlya flagellata, a Rhizidium
sp. and a Phlyctochytrium sp. were isolated from natural collections
and their responses in terms of growth and reproduction to zinc, manni-
tol, cyanide, and surfactants were observed. These studies showed the
filamentous form, Achlya flagellata, to be more tolerant to the toxic
effects of these chemicals than were the unicellular Phlyctochytrium
and Rhizidium.
1080.
Peakall, D.B., and R.J. Lovett.
and effects in the ecosystem.
1972. Mercury: its occurrence
BioScience 22(1) :20-25.
Preliminary reports indicate that levels in marine fish have
not increased in recent years. The levels found in tuna and swordfish
are likely natural levels caused by their predatory nature and longev-
ity. This conclusion is in line with the fact that the amount released
annually by man is about 104 tons compared to 108 tons present in the
ocean. Thus, without some subtle concentration mechanisms, man's
activities cannot appreciably alter the levels in the total ocean. The
direct human health hazard of environmental mercury appears to be
limited to those persons for whom fish is a dominant part of their diet.
The concentration of mercury in the aquatic food-chain combined with
transformation into methylmercury are the causative factors in this
problem. The finding of increased chromosome breakage associated with
elevated levels of blood in persons eating fish regularly (levels in
fish were probably 1-17 mg/kg) and concentration across the placenta
suggests that the currently accepted level of 0.5 mg/kg does not have
an appreciable margin of safety for pregnant women. For wildlife the
hazard appears to be appreciable to two groups. The first are the seed-
eaters feeding directly on seeds pretreated with mercurials. The second
are birds at the top of the fresh-water food chain. Although the
genetic risks remain to be fully elucidated, there is sufficient evi-
dence to indicate that it exists. It should be possible to reduce
greatly the fraction of man's usage that is allowed to escape into the
freshwater or land environment and this should be undertaken immediately.
The problem of the addition via the combustion of fossil fuel will be
more difficult to tackle.
232
-------
1081.
Pearce, J.B. 1972. The effects of solid waste disposal on
benthic communities in the New York Bight. In Ruivo, M. (ed.)
Marine Pollution and Sea Life. Fishing Trading News (books)
Ltd., Jc~don: 404-411.
The New York Bight is polluted by about 4 billion liters of
raw sewage which it receives daily from the Hudson River and smaller
water ways. In addition, over 5 million m3 of sewer sludge and 6 mil-
lion m3 of contaminated dredge spoils are dumped 25 and 22 km respec-
tively from the mouth of the Hudson River. These disposal practices
have resulted in a biologically impoverished area of about 30 km2. Much
of this is devoid of any benthic micro or macrofauna and communities
surrounding the impoverished areas have very low diversity and biomass.
Many of the taxa which are found in these marginal communities are known
to be tolerant of low oxygen and high hydrogen sulphide values. Author
found that benthic gammarid amphipods were good indicators of environ-
mental deterioration; both amphipod diversity and numbers were inversely
correlated with levels of contamination. Larger crustaceans including
the crabs, Cancer irroratus, and C. borealis, and the lobster, Homarus
arnericanus, were found to become debilitated and diseased when they
migrated into the two waste disposal areas. Author was able to dupli-
cate these pathological developments in controlled environment aquaria.
The disease appears to be initiated wi th fouling of the gills and the
branchial cavities. This is followed by the development of severe
lesions on the outer exoskeleton and the thin cuticles covering the
gills. In most instances the underlying cellular hypodermis is also
involved.
Sediments in the biologically impoverished zones are charac-
terized by very high levels of heavy metals, including copper, chro-
mium, and lead, as well as by petrochemicals and organics. Some sedi-
ments contained over 30% organic matter. Preliminary information indi-
cates that at least some polychaete worms take up heavy metals. Bac-
terial decomposition of the organic matter acts to reduce the levels
of dissolved oxygen; during the summer months of 1969 and 1970, oxygen
was reduced to less than 2 mg/l. It is concluded that the dumping of
solid wastes during the past 40 years has seriously affected the eco-
logy of a significant part of the New York Bight.
1082.
Pearcy, W.G., and R.R. Claeys. 1971. Zn 65 and DDT residues
in albacore tuna off Oregon in 1969. Available from Nat.
Tech. Inf. Ser., Springfield, Va., as RLO-2227-T-12-l:l-26.
During their sojourn in Oregon waters in 1969, no signifi-
cant increase in DDT was found in tuna even though Zn-65 increased
drastically as a result of their association with the Columbia River
plume. Since rapid uptake of DDT by fish is possible, the hypothesis
233
-------
that the Columbia River is a major source of DOT in the ocean off Oregon
is rejected.
1083.
Pearcy, W.G., and H.A. Vanderploeg. 1973. Radioecology of
benthic fishes off Oregon. In Radioactive Contamination of
the Marine Environment. Int:-Atom. Ener. Agen., Vienna,
Austria: 245-261.
Gamma-emitting radionuclides were found in benthic fishes
from depths of 50-2800 m off the Oregon coast from 1964-1971; Zn-65,
Co-60, ~fu-54, Ce-144, Cs-137, and K-40 were present. Zinc-65, origi-
nating mainly from the nuclear reactors on the Columbia River, was the
predominant artificially induced radionuclide. Levels of Zn-65 per gram
and specific activities of Zn-65 decreased markedly in several species
of fishes between 1965 and 1971 because of the shutdown of reactors.
This decrease was greater for small than for large Lyopsetta exilis dur-
ing 1970-1971. Specific activities decreased with increasing depth,
both for individual species inhabiting broad depth ranges and for dif-
ferent species inhabiting different depths. Specific activities of
Zn-65 were inversely related to body size for L. exilis and Sebasto-
lobus. Other variations of Zn-65 were related-to trophic position.
Fishes that preyed on low trophic level pelagic animals had higher
specific activities than fishes that preyed on benthic invertebrates.
Such pelagic feeders may play an important role in accelerating the
transport of some radionuclides or elements to the sea floor.
1084.
Peden, J.D., J.H. Crothers, C.E. Waterfall, and J. Beasley-
1973. Heavy metals in Somerset marine organisms. Marine
Pollution Bull. 4(1):7-10.
Investigations reveal a considerable Cd load in shore crabs
(Carcinus maenas) and limpets (Patella vulgata), but it is very un-
likely that occasional consumption of small amounts would be harmful.
1085.
Pentreath, R.J.
accumulation
branch fish.
Environment.
4~.
1973. The roles of food and water in the
of radionuclides by marine teleost and elasmo-
In Radioactive Contamination of the Marine
Int. Atom. Ener. Agen., Vienna, Austria: 421-
A theoretical estimation of the input of many radionuclides
into fish and the relevant roles of food and water, is formulated on
the basis of known concentration factors. The importance and methods
of estimation of biological half-times in such calculations is also
discussed. The accumulation of many fission product nuclides is low
234
-------
due to poor absorption across the gut wall, with the exception of solu-
ble elements such as caesium-137 where both food and water play an equal
part. For many neutron activation products, however, the contribution
from water alone may be considered to be very small. Experimental evi-
dence is given on the accumulation of certain neutron activation pro-
ducts from water by both teleost and elasmobranch marine fish in rela-
tion to their large stable element pools, water fluxes and drinking
rates. Calculations on the required dietary input are equated with
known feeding rates, and the required retention of such elements is com-
pared with results obtained both from labelled pellets introduced into
the gut and from labelled food species. The results imply that, unlike
caesium-137, which is increased along the food chain, many neutron acti-
vation products (heavy metals) are decreased in concentration at such
higher trophic levels. The implication of such work for metal toxicity
studies is also discussed.
1086.
Pentreath, R.J. 1973. The accumulation from water of 65Zn,
54Mn, 58Co and 59Fe by the mussel, Mytilus edulis. Jour.
Mar. BioI. Assn. U.K., 53:127-143.
The accumulation from sea water of Zn-65, Mn-54, Fe-59 and
Co-58 by the mussel has been studied in relation to the stable element
levels of these isotopes both in the sea water and in individual tis-
sues. For all four radionuclides the greatest accumulation occurred in
stomach and digestive gland samples and further localization of Zn-65
and Fe-59 was demonstrated by autoradiography. As the animals were
starved during the accumulation period the loss of stable elements by
individual tissues was also followed. Again the most notable effect
occurred in the digestive gland tissues with the exception of a large
loss of iron by the foot. Autoradiography showed that after two weeks
accumulation Fe-59 occurs in large clusters in the foot, notably in the
byssus gland area. These clusters disappear after a further two week
period and may thus be secreted into new byssus threads.
The accumulation of nuclides was examined using a single ex-
ponential model and values obtained for flux rates, biological half
times and asymptotic values were compared with the stable element con-
centration factors. An analysis of parameters of exchange of nuclides
in individual tissues with the water was further examined which demon-
strated that the highest exchange occurs in the order of stomach and
digestive gland> gill> foot> mantle> gonad> adductor. This order
obtains for all four nuclides studied, despite the fact that in the
aquaria used, zinc and cobalt were largely soluble; that manganese was
partly in the particulate form wi th the radionuclide used; and that
iron was largely particulate in both stable and active forms. There is
an indication that, as well as accumulating nuclides via particulate
matter in suspension, the mucus itself is capable of sequestering them,
235
-------
even though they are in the soluble form, and may even preferentially
accumulate soluble forms. The actual role of water in accumulation of
the nuclides studied appears to be relatively minor compared with that
of food accumulation as estimated by difference from the calculated
stable element values.
1087.
pentreath, R.J. 1973. The accumulation and retention of 65Zn
and 54Mn by the plaice, Pleuronectes platessa L. Jour. Exp.
Mar. BioI. Ecol. 12:1-18.
Studies of the uptake and loss of Zn-65 and Mn-54 by flatfish
show that direct accumulation from wateT plays only a minor role rela-
tive to food in the metabolism of these metals. Accumulation of both
isotopes from water was followed at tissue level and their levels of
accumulation were related to stable element concentrations. Biological
half-times were also calculated for accumulation and loss to water, for
loss of activity following an intraperitoneal injection and, using cal-
culations of feeding rate and assimilation of the isotopes, from food.
Some comparative studies were carried out with fed and starved fish.
In view of the relatively minor role of direct accumulation from water
it was considered that concentrations of these metals would decrease at
this level of the marine food chain. The relevance of such observations
to toxicity testing is also discussed.
1088.
Pentreath, R.J., and D.F. Jefferies. 1971.
nuclides by I-group plaice (Pleuronectes
Cumberland Coast, Irish Sea. Jour. Mar.
51(4) :963-976.
The uptake of radio-
platessa) off the
BioI. Assn. U.K.
1~e accumulation of radionuclides by one-year-old plaice in
the vicinity of the pipe-line of the UKAEA plant at Windscale, Irish
Sea, was studied over a 7-month period. The principal isotope found in
flesh was Cs-137, although Ce-144, Ru-l06 and Zr-95/Nb-95 were also pre-
sent in gut contents. The Cs-137 flesh levels were examined in conjunc-
tion with fluctuations of this nuclide in sea water, sediment and the
gut contents. Of the three major dietary components found throughout
the sampling period the calculated intake of Cs-137 from food appeared
to fluctuate most closely with the Nephtys fraction of the diet,
despite its relatively low Cs-137 content.
1089.
Pequegnat, J.E., S.W. Fowler, and L.F. Small. 1969. Estimates
of the zinc requirements of marine organisms. Jour. Fish. Res.
Bd. Canada 26(1):145-150.
The amount of enzyme-bound zinc is calculated from estimates
of total enzyme concentrations and the number of zinc atoms per mole of
236
-------
these enzymes. This estimate is shown to be smaller than measured con-
centrations in marine organisms, indicating that zinc is accumulated in
excess of the organisms' immediate needs. A minimum "potential fertil-
i ty" for zinc is calculated; the results indicate that zine is not
limiting in the marine environment.
1090.
Perkins, E.J., E. Gribbon, and R.B. Murray. 1969. Some aspects
of biology of Carcinus maenas (L.). II. Survival at low
salinity. Trans. Dumfriesshire and Galloway Nat. Hist.
Antiq. Soc., 3rd ser. 46:27-28.
Green shore crabs, Carcinus maenas, were subjected to a range
of salinities from 1.0 to 8.4%, at 8.4°C. Salinities slightly less
than 2% were rapidly lethal. Between 2-3% survival was dramatically
improved for 1-34 days. Size was important in survival up to 6%, but
at 5% salinity, large and small animals survived equally well.
1091.
Peterson, C.L., W.L. Klawe, and G.D. Sharp. 1973. Mercury in
tunas: A review. U.S. Dept. Comm., Fish. Bull. 71(3) :603-
613.
Mercury in the aquatic environment comes from both natural
processes and industrial activities. The latter probably have not sig-
nificantly altered the Hg content of the high seas where most tunas are
captured. Mercury compounds enter aquatic organisms through the food
web or by direct extraction from solution. The relative importance of
these pathways in tunas is unknown. Mercury occurs in tuna principally
in the form of methylmercury. Generally. tunas appear to have higher
Hg levels than those fish species which occupy a lower level in the food
chain. Mercury content of tunas varies according to fish size. However;
other factors such as area of capture, differential growth rates, vary-
ing analytical techniques, and different sampling methods may account
for some of the observed variation. The Food & Drug Administration has
established an inhouse standard of 0.5 mg of Hg per kg wet wt for
fishery products sold in the U.S. Other countries have established
limits as high as 1.0 mg/kg.
1092.
Pickering, Q.H.
head minnow.
1974. Chronic toxicity of nickel to the fat-
Jour. Water Pollut. Contr. Fed. 46(4):760-765.
Chronic bioassays are the best laboratory method for estimat-
ing "safe" concentrations of a toxic substance for fish. The data re-
ported herein indicate that nickel concentrations of 0.38 mg/l and lower
do not adversely affect survival, growth, and reproduction of the fat-
head minnow. However, a nickel concentration of 0.73 mg/l caused a
237
-------
significant reduction on both number of eggs per spawning and hatch-
ability of these eggs. The application factor for a toxicant is cal-
culated by dividing the Maximum Acceptable Toxicant Concentration (MATC)
of the chronic test by the LC-50 (96 h) value. This application factor
is the decimal fraction used to multiply the LC-50 value to estimate
safe concentrations for other species or water quality conditions. The
application factor for nickel is between 0.027 and 0.014, based on a
MATC value between 0.73 and 0.38 mg Ni/l and the mean of the two con-
tinuous-flow 96-hr LC-50 values of 27 mg Ni/l. This application factor
is proposed as a first approximation to be used for estimating the MATC
value for other species or water quality conditions.
In addition to this study with nickel, chronic toxicity bio-
assays, using fathead minnows in a similar dilution water, have been
conducted with copper, zinc, and cadmium. Of these four heavy metals,
copper is the most toxic (96-hr LC-50 and MATC values lowest) and nickel
the least toxic. The MATC for copper and zinc was dependent on the
effect on reproduction; cadmium was lethal to the developing embryos;
and nickel had an effect on both egg production and hatchability. The
application factor for these metals ranged from 0.03 to 0.07 for copper
and from 0.005 to 0.008 for cadmium. The application factor developed
for cadmium is tentative, however, because of the cumulative nature of
mortality in the acute tests. At present, the use of application factors
developed from chronic toxicity studies is the best tool for estimating
the upper limit of the safe concentration of heavy metals in the fish
community.
1093.
Pickering, Q.H., and M.H. Gast. 1972. Acute and chronic toxic-
ity of cadmium to the fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas).
Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 29(8):1099-1106.
Two continuous-flow bioassays on the chronic toxicity of
cadmium to the fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas Rafinesque) indi-
cated that the maximum acceptable toxicant concentration (MATC) for
this species is between 57 and 37 ~g Cd/I. The experimental concentra-
tion of 57 ~g Cd/l decreased survival of the developing embryos, the
embryos being the most sensitive life stage. At lower concentrations
of 37 to 4.5 ~g Cd/I, no adverse effect on survival, growth, or repro-
duction was found. Application factors based on the acute bioassays
are discussed in relation to the great variation in toxicity values.
1094.
Pickford, G.E., P.K.T. Pang, E. Weinstein, J. Torretti, E.
Hendler, and F.H. Epstein. 1970. The response of the hypo-
physectomized cyprinodont, Fundulus heteroclitus, to replace-
ment therapy with cortisol: Effects on blood serum and
sodium-potassium activated adenosine triphosphatase in the
238
-------
gills, kidney, and intestinal mucosa.
14:524-534.
Gen. Compo Endocrinol.
Regulation of the inorganic constituents of the serum is
nearly perfect in hypophysectomized Fundulus heteroclitus maintained in
salt water, although serum Cl is lower. Chronic treatment with corti-
sol had no effect on serum Na or serum Ca; serum K and serum Cl de-
creased, serum inorganic P04 and serum Mg increased. Na+K-ATPase
activity increased in cortisol-treated fish in three organs that parti-
cipate in osmoregulation: the gills, the kidneys (males only), and the
intestinal mucosa. The increase in the gills can be correlated with a
restoration of total Na exchange. The increased activity in the intes-
tine is presumably associated with the increased rate of Na turnover.
Increased activity in the kidneys may reflect an increase in the glomer-
ular filtration rate and/or a restoration of renal Na retention. Other
effects of cortisol are: a decrease in body weight, an increase in the
abundance of circulating erythrocytes, leukocytosis after a single in-
jection or short treatment that is regulated after longer treatment,
and an increase in the relative weight of the liver that may be asso-
ciated with gluconeogenesis. Cortisol had no effect on the relative
size of the regressed gonads in either sex.
1095.
Pillai, K.C., R.C. Smith, and T.R. Folsom. 1964. Plutonium in
the marine environment. Nature 203(4945):568-571.
The authors summarize preliminary findings concerning the
plutonium content in sea water, and the concentration factors for this
element in certain selected marine organisms. The sea water sample
with the lowest activity had more than three times background activity.
A sample of plankton obtained in 1950 prior to extensive nuclear test-
ing was measured for plutonium-239 and this also provided background
information. The background measured in this way was found to be 0.019
dpm (zero within the accuracy of the measurement).
Marine plants have large concentration factors whereas the
negligible concentration by the fish sample indicates that discrimina-
tion against plutonium can take place at higher trophic levels. How-
ever, these concentration factors should be considered as only a
relatively coarse measure of the extent to which plutonium is concen-
trated in marine organisms from sea water.
An intense bloom 'red tide' , which occurred recently in
local waters, was used to obtain a sample of phytoplankton large enough
for analyses of minute amounts of fallout activity. The organisms
caught were largely dinoflagellates, but no determination was made of
what sort of organisms escaped or how much of the cell content was lost
from the organisms that were caught. The zooplankton samples largely
2E
-------
consisted of small copepods and euphausiids and were the only samples
preserved in formalin. Concentration factors were between 660 and 1570
for plants, 2590 for plankton, about 260 for mussels and only 3 for
bonito (fish).
1096.
Pillay, K.K.S., C.C. Thomas, Jr., J.A. Sondel, and C.M. Hyche.
1972. Mercury Pollution of Lake Erie ecosphere. Environ-
mental Research 5(2):172-181.
This distribution of mercury in the ecosphere of Lake Erie
was monitored using neutron activation. A variety of samples from the
fauna and flora of the lake as well as those from its immediate environ-
ment were analyzed for their mercury content. The results of this sur-
vey indicate a widespread distribution of mercury in air particulates;
coal samples of the region; sediments, plankton/algae and fish samples
from the lake; and in the brain tissues of long-time residents of the
Lake Erie Basin.
1097.
Pilson, M.E.Q. 1974.
lopora verrucosa.
Arsenate uptake and reduction by Pocil-
Limnology and Oceanography 19(2):339-341.
A scleractinian coral removed arsenate from solution and con-
verted some of it to arsenite, which reappeared in the ambient seawater.
This suggests that organisms other than bacteria may be responsible for
maintaining some of the arsenic in seawater in a reduced form. Re-
duction of arsenate may be a mechanism to allow the loss from the living
cell of arsenate transported in along with phosphate.
1098.
Pippy, J.H., and G.M. Hare. 1969. Relationship of river pollu-
tion to bacterial infection in salmon (Salmo salar) and
suckers (Catostomus commersoni). Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.
98(4):685-690.
During the summers of 1967 and 1968, the Pseudomonad bac-
terium, Aeromonas liquefaciens, was involved in disease of Atlantic
salmon (Salmo salar) and suckers (Catostomus) in the Mi rami chi River,
New Brunswick. The symptoms of this disease were ulcers and degenerated
caudal, pelvic, and dorsel fins. A surge of copper and zinc pollution
in late June 1967, and high river temperatures, 22.5°C, enhanced pro-
duction of an epizootic. The epizootic recurred during the summer of
1968.
1099.
Platts, W.S. 1972. The effects of heavy metals on anadromous
runs of salmon and steelhead in the Panther Creek drainage,
240
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Idaho. Proc. 52nd Ann. Conf. Western Assn. State Game Fish
Comm.: 582-597.
Panther Creek, a tributary of the Salmon River, once supported
anadromous runs of salmon and steelhead trout plus resident game fish.
Due to mine and mill pollution, the drainage caused loss of these anad-
romous runs and much of its esthetic value. Heavy metals (copper and
iron), in combination with decreased pH and increased sediment, persist
in toxic or degrading levels at all times. The mine-mill area with
copper content in tributary waters as high as 1200 mg/l increased the
copper content in Panther Creek over 30 times natural conditions. The
high iron and sulphur input resulted in waters with low pH causing iron
to precipitate on the stream channel and also provide energy source for
iron bacteria following their domination of some stream sections.
1100.
Polikarpov, G.G., Y.P. Zaitsev, V.P. parchevskii, A.A. Bachurin,
and I.A. Sokolova. 1970. Radioecology of Central American
seas. In Marine Radioecology, Translation of Morskaya Radio-
ekologiya: 256-288. Available from Nat. Tech. Inf. Ser.,
Springfield, Va., as part of AEC-tr-7299.
Plankton and benthic algae (collected from the Caribbean dur-
ing April through August 1965) were analyzed by gamma spectroscopy-
The principal radionuclides present in the macrophyte Sargassum natans
were: Ce-144 (93%), Mn-54 (3.6%), Ru-l06 (3.1%), and Sr-90 (0.3%); in
the benthic brown alga Padina vickevsiae, Ce-144 (Ru-l06 and Mn-54 were
absent). A significant part of the radioactivity in the water and
organisms of the upper layers of the Sargasso Sea as in Sargassum
macrophytes (70% of the Ce-144, 40% of the Ru-l06, 7% of the Sr-90, 3%
of the Cs-137). In experiments in aquaria, concentration factors were
determined for several species of algae (Ce-144, 200-1700; Ru-l06, 140-
520; Sr-90, 0.5-41; Cs-137, 7-15); for individual organs of macrophytes;
for zooplankton; and for other marine organisms. Rates of radionuclide
uptake were measured.
1101.
Pomelee, C.S. 1953.
25:1424-1428.
Toxicity of beryllium.
Sewage Ind. Wastes,
Aquaria containing 2 goldfish, 8 minnows and 3 snails in 12
liters of freshwater received daily additions of a complex solution con-
taining 5.3 mg/l Be2+, 56 mg/l S042- and 123 mg/l tartrate. After 10
days, Be2+ level measured in water was 28.5 mg/! with no evidence of a
toxic effect in test aquaria.
241
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1102.
Porcella, D.B., C.E. Rixford, and J.V. Slater. 1967.
influencing radiostrontium accumulation in Daphnia.
Physics, 13:391-399.
Factors
Health
Authors studied factors affecting strontium accumulation in
Daphnid populations (fed algae and bacteria) by analysis for calcium
ion and radiochemical determination of radiostrontium (strontium-85).
Percent Ca and Sr in Daphnia relates to organism's size and Ca concen-
tration in water. Equilibrium concentrations (EC) are expressed as the
discrimination factor, K, a ratio of concentration factors (strontium:
calcium). Despite dependence of Daphnid size and growth on feeding, EC
of two elements are little affected by food chain, evidenced by K=0.64.
0.51, 0.49. 0.51, 0.53 for five EC (range, 3.2-86.9 mg Call). These
values approximate K=0.58, determined by others for Chlorella, next
lower step in food chain. Strontium-85 uptake and release follow first
order kinetics. Small Daphnia apparently equilibrate before large ones,
probably because these ions accumulate primarily in Daphnid carapaces,
whereupon uptake depends upon population molting rate. The following
model, treating K as constant, approximates observed data: D/W=K (O/C)
(l-exp (-KT) ), where D=strontium-85 in counts per minute (CPM/milli-
liter) in water; O=calcium (micrograms/Daphnia); C=calcium (micrograms/
milliliter) in water; K=reaction rate (dependent upon Daphnid size).
Authors suggest that rate of strontium-85 uptake estimates Daphnid
population's growth rate.
1103.
Potts, W.T.W., and P.P. Rudy. 1972.
ionic regulation in the sturgeon.
703-715.
Aspects of osmotic and
Jour. Exp. BioI. 56(3):
Analyses of blood and urine of the euryhaline sturgeon
Acipenser medirostris for rates of turnover of sodium and water in fish
held in both seawater and freshwater were conducted. The blood concen-
tration is rather lower in freshwater than in seawater and the concen-
tration of magnesium ions declines markedly. The rate of turnover of
sodium ions is high in seawater and similar to that of marine teleosts.
The rate of turnover of sodium is much lower in freshwater but adapta-
tion to freshwater is slow and the animals are more permeable to sodium
than are teleosts. The rate of turnover of tritiated water is more
rapid in freshwater than in seawater but in each medium it is similar
to that of teleosts of a similar size.
1104.
Preston, A. 1973.
242(5393):95-97.
Heavy metals in British Waters.
Nature
The program of research and development on heavy metals in
the marine environment, conducted by the Ministry of Agriculture,
242
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Fisheries and Food, has two chief obj ecti ves: (1) the establishment
and continued monitoring of concentrations in fish and shellfish of
commercial importance in Britain to provide a basis for estimates of
human intake of heavy metals and (2) to provide data to assist an
understanding of the behavior of heavy metals when they are introduced
into the marine environment--the factors determining their geographical
distribution, or biological fate, including their effect, if any, on
marine resources and the kinetics of their metabolism in representative
marine organisms. The results of seawater sampling on a pilot scale
around the British Isles show that contamination is restricted to a few
areas, chiefly, but not exclusively, linked to industrial development,
and that even in these areas contamination does not spread very far
offshore. Monitoring of commercial fish species shows that, except for
sedentary shellfish, variations in inshore seawater metal concentrations
are not reflected to any great extent in the edible portions of these
species. Concentrations in inshore fish are sometimes higher than those
in offshore fish, especially in the case of Cd, Hg, and Pb. This
strongly indicates that metal pollution problems are essentially nation-
al or regional problems.
1105.
Preston, E.M. 1971. The importance of ingestion in chromium-51
accumulation by Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin). Jour. Exp.
Mar. BioI. Ecol. 6:47-54.
The relative importance of heterotrophic nutrition and direct
absorption in Cr-sl accumulation by oyster, was studied. The accumula-
tion and elimination of Cr-sl in oysters exposed to SO ~c/l Na251Cr04
dissolved in artificial seawater is compared with that in oysters ex-
posed to the same concentration of Cr-sl associated with the cells of
a Chlamydomonas suspension.
At the given exposure concentration, Cr-sl accumulation in
oysters occurs more readily by direct absorption than by ingestion. In
a natural environment, however, the radioactivity is likely to be
greater in the food supply than in the water since most organisms tend
to concentrate radionuclides. As a result, the food supply might be
the primary source of radioactivity even though accumulation occurs
more readily by direct absorption. In these experiments, accumulation
by direct absorption alone cannot account for the large concentration
factors implied from field assays of Cr-sl in Columbia River organisms.
1106.
Price, R.J., and J.S. Lee. 1972. Effect of cations on the
interaction between paralytic shellfish poison and butter
clam Saxidomus giganteus melanin. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd.
Canada 29(11):1659-1661.
243
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The interaction between paralytic shellfish poison (PSP) and
butter clam (Saxidomus giganteus) melanin was strongly influenced by the
presence of cations. The amount of PSP bound by the melanin decreased
by 68% in the presence of Al+++, 62 and 57%, respectively, with Ca++
and Ba++, and 17 and 15% with Na+ and K+. Salt solutions containing
O.Ol-m Al+++, Mg++, Ca++, Ba++, Na+, or K+ induced the desorption of
PSP bound to melanin by 54, 34, 28, 19. 11, and 4% respectively. These
results confirm an earlier conclusion that the PSP-melanin interaction
is reversible and electrostatic in nature.
1107.
Pyle, T.E., and T.T. Tieh. 1970. Strontium, vanadium, and
zinc in the shells of pteropods. Limnology and Oceanography
15(1):153-154.
X-ray fluorescence analyses of pteropod (mollusca) tests from
the Gulf of Mexico provide the first detection of Zn in these shells
and the first determination of Sr, V, and Zn concentrations of Diacria
trispinosa shells. The results suggest further study of the contribu-
tion or acceptance of trace elements by pteropods on burial in sedi-
ments.
1108.
Qasim, S.Z., P.M.A. Bhattathiri, and V.P. Devassy. 1972. The
influence of salinity on the rate of photosynthesis and
abundance of some tropical phytoplankton. Marine Biology
12:200-206.
Several species of phytoplankton were grown in unialgal, but
not bacteria-free, cultures. These clones when exposed to varying
salinities, from 5 to 350/00, showed a marked increase in photosyn-
thesis rates at low salinities. The optimum requirement of salinity,
however, varied in different species. Observations on the relative
abundance of phytoplankton in an estuary, where salinity changes were
fairly large, confirmed that waters with low salinities support a
greater abundance of phytoplankton in nature. The wide adaptability of
phytoplankton to changes in salinity corresponds to conditions brought
about by the monsoon system along the southwest coast of India, where
large dilutions are associated with the enrichment of water with
nutrients.
1109.
Rabe, F.W., and C.W. Sappington. 1970. Biological productivity
of the Coeur d'Alene River as related to water quality (the
acute toxicity of zinc to cutthroat trout-Salmo clarki).
Idaho Water Res. Research Inst., Completion Rept., Dec. 1970.
Available from Nat. Tech. Inf. Ser., Springfield, Va., as
PB-197-736:l-l6.
244
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Acute toxicity of zinc to trout fingerlings was determined
using two bioassay systems. In a static bioassay, 24, 48 and 96 hr
LC-50 values of 0.62, 0.27 and 0.09 mg/l of zinc respectively, were
obtained. Results of a recirculating, flowing-water bioassay showed
an LC-50 (24 h) value of 0.42 mg/l zinc; 48 and 96 hr values were not
determined.
1110.
Rabe, F.W., R.C. Wissmar, and R.F. Minter. 1973. Plankton
populations and some effects of mine drainage on primary pro-
ductivity of the Coeur d'Alene River; Delta; and Lake. Water
Res. Research Inst., Univ. of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho, Tech.
Compo Rept. OWRR Proj. No. A-030-IDA: 1-20.
Variations in primary production and physiochemical measure-
ments in the Coeur d'Alene River and Lake contaminated by mine and in-
dustrial wastes were examined from May, 1969, to November; 1970. Pri-
mary production ranged from 17.6 to 1337.9 mg C/m2/day in the Coeur
d'Alene River and 69.3 to 1714.5 mg C/m2/day in the Coeur d'Alene Lake.
Concentrations of zinc (0.1 to 11.2 mg Zn/l) and copper (0.0 to 0.6
mg Cull) in the Coeur d'Alene River indicated that heavy metals could
be toxic to algae. Diatoms dominated phytoplankton in the Coeur
d'Alene River, Lake, and St. Joe River.
Nannoplankton from Coeur d'Alene Lake were exposed to known
concentrations of Cu2+, Cd2+, Zn2+ and dilutions of Coeur d'Alene River
water under controlled light and temperature. Inhibitory effects of
separate and interacting metals on carbon-14 uptake by algae were
assessed. Copper, cadmium, and zinc were acutely and synergistically
toxic to carbon uptake by phytoplankton. Concentrations ranged from
0.05 to 0.75 mg Cull, 0.1 to 0.3 mg Cd/I, and 0.1 to 1.5 mg Zn/l.
Copper caused an overriding effect on two- and three-way interactions
of Cu2+, Cd2+, and Zn2+. Dilutions of Coeur d'Alene River water de-
creased Cu and Zn toxicity. Variable algal community structure, major
cations, softwater «60 mg/l as CaC03)' and other factors affect metal
toxici ty.
1111.
Rachor, E. 1972. On the influence of industrial waste contain-
ing H2S04 and FeS04 on the bottom faWla off Helgoland (German
Bight). In Ruivo, M. (ed.). Marine Pollution and Sea Life.
Fishing Trading News (books) Ltd., London: 390-392.
Since May 1969 a daily quantity of about 1600 tons of waste
acid (containing 10% H2S04 and 14% FeS04 + minerals) have been dis-
charged by special tankers into an area 20 km northwest of Helgoland.
The area is part of a medium sand region occupied by a community of low
biomass. Since April 1969 regular monthly investigations have been
245
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carried out by taking samples in the polluted area as well as in com-
parison areas. Results after one year of research show little altera-
tion in the ecosystem.
1112.
Rahimian, H. 1972. The effect of calcium on growth and morpho-
genesis of Chlorella, Golenkinia, and Scenedesmus. Ph.D.
Thesis, Wash. State Univ. Available from University Micro-
films, 300 No. Zeeb Rd., Ann Arbor, Mich., 48106, Order No.
73- 73 .
Morphogenetic effects of calcium on Chlorella pyrenoidosa,
Scenedesmus obliquus, and Golenkinia minutissima were studied, as were
effects of strontium, barium, and ethyleneglycol bisaminoethylether
tetraacetic acid (EGTA) on Scenedesmus. Inoculated cells were starved
in a calcium-free medium for one week before the time of inoculation.
Organisms were grown under controlled conditions at the temperature of
about 20°C and illuminated with an intensity of 350 ft-c from cool-white
fluorescent lamps regulated to provide 16 hours of light and 8 hours of
darkness. Cultures were aerated with a mixture of 3% C02 in air.
Growth was measured in terms of increase in the cell population and in-
crease in amount of fresh and dry matter. The results were as follows:
(1) Calcium was necessary for maximum production of cell number in each
species. (2) With Ca, cultures yielded a greater biomass on a wet and
dry wt basis. (3) Starch content of cells was greater wi th Ca. (4)
The K/Na ratio was greater in the presence of Ca. (5) Number of cells
produced was significantly decreased when Sr or Ba was substituted.
(6) Calcium played a role in cell morphology. (7) Calcium was shown
to be necessary for colony formation in Scenedesmus. (8) Cell size
was found to be inversely proportional to the number of cell production.
(9) Seta formation in Golenkinia was shown to require Ca. (10) In the
presence of higher than 0.6 roM of EDTA, a specific chelating agent for
Ca, the algal cells died. (11) It is hypothesized that Ca is required
for activating enzymes involved in wall formation and cell division as
well as for maintaining membrane integrity. This has already been
established for uridine diphosphoglucose pyrophosphorylase and uridine
diphosphoglucose fructose transglycosylase which function in wall for-
mation.
1113.
Rao, G.M.M. 1971. Influence of activity and salinity on the
weight-dependent oxygen consumption of the rainbow trout Salmo
gairdneri. Marine Biology 8:205-212.
Standard and active rates of oxygen consumption of rainbow
trout (Salmo gairdneri) acclimated and tested at 5° and 15°C in various
salinities (freshwater to 300/00S) were determined. The fish used in
experiments ranged in weight from 23 to 196 g. Lowest rates of oxygen
246
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consumption were obtained in 7.5%0 at both temperatures and at all
levels of activity; maximum rates were obtained in 30%0 with the ex-
ception of smaller fish at 15°C. Reduction in osmotic load/cost of
osmoregulation is suggested as the probable cause for the lowest rate
of oxygen consumption in 7.5%0, a salinity isosmotic with fish plasma.
Increase in temperature results in increase of metabolic rate. How-
ever, this has no effect on the slope of the weight-metabolism regres-
sion line. In 30%0 at 15°C, the response at higher levels of acti-
vity seems to be size-dependent. The slope of the regression line
(weight versus oxygen consumption) increases with increasing activity
at 15°C; this is more pronounced in 300/00. However, at 5°C no signi-
ficant statistical difference was observed between the slopes. The
scoge for activity was calculated. It was found to be lowest in
7.5 /00, and the scopes in freshwater and 15%0 were not different.
The scope in 30%0 was high at 5°C, a reduced scope was found for
smaller fish; this is a reflection of the earlier observation that
small fish were unable to survive in a high salinity/high temperature
combination.
1114.
Rao, T.R. 1974. Influence of salinity of the eggs and larvae
of the California killifish, Fundulus parvipinnis. Marine
Biology 24:155-162.
Effects of salinity on embryonic development and survival
were determined for eggs and larvae of ~. parvipinnis. Incubation
salinities over the range of 5 to 140/00 produced the shortest incuba-
tion period, maximum yolk-conversion efficiency, largest larval size
at hatching, and maximum viable hatch. Various morphometric measure-
ments of the newly-hatched larvae were influenced significantly by in-
cubation salinity. Fertilization salinity also affected certain
development criteria; in general, lower fertilization salinities re-
sulted in shorter incubation periods and larger larvae at hatching. A
salinity range of 5 to 140/00 is suggested as a physiological optimum,
and the known freshwater affinity of the species suggests that an
eventual freshwater colonization by the California killifish is pos-
sible.
1115.
Ratkowsky, D.A., S.J. Thrower, I.J. Eustace, and J. Olley. 1974.
A numerical study of the concentration of some heavy metals
in Tasmanian oysters. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 31:1165-
1171.
Zn, Cd, and Cu concentration was determined in 473 oysters
grown at a variety of places around the Tasmanian coastline. A close
association was obtained between proximity to heavily urbanized areas
and concentration of metals found, oysters growing nearest urban areas
247
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having the highest concentrations of one or more of the metals. It
appears that areas for commercial oyster growing should be sought in
regions far from centers of urbanization and industrialization. Exami-
nation of samples of native oysters could be useful in providing an
index or measure of environmental pollution.
1116.
Ravera, O. 1971. Sr-85 and Cs-134 uptake by freshwater seston.
Rev. Int. Oceanograph. M6d. 21:109-124.
Strontium-85 and cesium-134 concentrations in different
granulometric fractions of seston collected in Lake Monate, Italy, are
determined. These data indicate that cladocerans concentrate Sr-85 to
the highest degree and with phytoplankton it was Cs-134. It is assumed
that abso,~tion radionuclides predominate over adsorption. Schemati-
zation of the vertical distribution of radiostrontium and radiocesium
present in different granulometric fractions is attempted from the data
on the distribution of the biomass of seston at different depths and
the concentration of two radioisotopes computed in different granulo-
metric fractions of seston.
1117.
Raymont, J.E.G. 1972. Some aspects of pollution in Southampton
water. Proc. Royal Soc. London, Ser. B 180(1061):451-468.
The following topics, as related to pollution, were discussed:
(1) trace metals, (2) nutrients, (3) dissolved and particulate organic
matter, and (4) thermal effects. From previous works it has been shown
that the concentration of particulate iron depended significantly upon
the total particulate matter of the area. Zn, Cu, and Ni variations
appear to be correlated with local industrial pollution. Fe, Zn, Cu,
and Hg were magnified by the bivalves Mercenaria mercenaria, Cardium
edule and Mytilus edulis. A relationship between turbulence and metal
concentration appears extant, since higher concentrations of metals
were present in mussels from turbulent areas than from clear waters.
Such a factor will be important on studies of pollution of estuaries,
since it suggests that trace elements in sediments may be stirred into
suspension. Nutrient levels in this Southampton area have risen such
that further increases might have deleterious effects. Thermal changes
appear to have no harmful effects other than propagating growth of
certain species in lieu of others (Elminius modestus). The degree of
variability between particulate and dissolved organics was associated
with turbulence and effluent concentrations, and varied according to
the degree of industrialization and urbanization along the water-way.
1118.
Reay, P.F. 1972. The accumulation of arsenic from arsenic-rich
natural waters by aquatic plants. Jour. Appl. Ecol. 9(2):
557-565.
248
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Several aquatic plants were found to accumulate As from the
Waikato River (New Zealand) to levels well above those associated with
toxicity. The species examined differed in the concentrations to which
the accumulated As and the average values ranged from 30-650 mg/kg of
the dry weight. Accumulation was influenced by the amount of As in the
water but not by the amount in the river and lake bottoms. The with-
drawal of As from the river water by aquatic plants does not seem to
markedly affect the discharge of As into the sea.
1119.
Reeves, W.C., and J.F. Germann. 1972. Effects of increased
water hardness, source of fry and age at stocking on survival
of striped bass fry in earthen ponds. Proc. 25th Ann. Conf.
Southeastern Assoc. Game Fish Comm., Oct. 17-20, 1971:542-548.
-"
Investigations were conducted to-~ne the effect of
water hardness, source of fry and immediate versus delayed stocking on
the survival of striped bass fry. Twelve O.lO-acre earthen ponds were
used, of which 6 were treated with calcium sulfate to raise the hardness
to 150 mg/l. The hardness of the remaining ponds was approximately 20
mg/l. Fry from two sources (Cooper River, South Carolina, and Savannah
River, Georgia) were stocked immediately after receiving them from the
hatchery or after they began feeding. Stocking rates varied from 60,000/A
to 210,000/A. There was no difference in survival between sources of
fry. Delayed stocking increased the survival rate of striped bass; how-
ever, many fry from each source died in holding prior to stocking. In-
creasing the water hardness did not increase the survival of striped
bass. On the contrary, survival of striped bass in soft water ponds
was higher than the survival in hard water ponds.
1120.
Rehwoldt, R., G. Bida, and B. Nerrie. 1971. Acute toxicity of
copper, nickel and zinc ions to some Hudson River fish species.
Bull. Environ. Contamin. Toxicol. 6(5):445-448.
The effect of some common industrial inputs upon the life
expectancy of Hudson River fishes was investigated by means of bio-
assays. Copper was the most toxic to all species. The range 6f con-
centration for 24 hours was 1.5 mg/l for the banded killifish to 11.6
mg/l for the white perch. Nickel was the least toxic metal for all
species except the American eel. Zinc is more toxic than nickel and
for the striped bass the toxicity is almost the same as that for nickel.
1121.
Rehwoldt, R., L. Lasko, and C. Shaw. 1973. The acute toxicity
of some heavy metal ions .toward benthic organisms. Bull.
Environ. Contamin. Toxicol. 50(5):291-294.
249
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A study was conducted to determine the toxicity of some heavy
metal ions toward benthic fauna in a freshwater region of the Hudson
River. Metal ions evaluated were copper, zinc, nickel, cadmium, mer-
cury, and chromium. Water quality during the experiment was maintained
at 17°C, 50 mg/l hardness, 7.6 pH, and 6.2 mg/l dissolved oxygen. Mer-
cury was the most toxic ion toward the test organisms ~ristle worms,
scud, caddisflies, damselflies, midges, and snails) and was more toxic
toward these organisms than toward fish studied earlier in the same
area. However, with the exception of the scud and midge, benthic organ-
isms tend to be more able to withstand heavy metal inputs than fish.
1122.
Rehwoldt, R., L.W. Menapace, B. Nerrie, and D. Alessandrello.
1972. The effect of increased temperature upon the acute
toxicity of some heavy metal ions. Bull. Environ. Contamin.
Toxicol. 8(2):91-96.
Several species of fish, including banded killifish, striped
bass, pumpkinseed, white perch, American eel, and carp, were exposed at
28°C to Cu, Zn, Ni, Cd, Hg, and Cr ions to determine the mean toxicity
limit for 50% survival. The 28°C temperature was chosen because it
represents the ambient temperature of the thermal plume of the Danskam-
mer Point power station in the town of Newburgh, New York. Water tem-
perature in test tanks was maintained by standard aquarium heaters.
Toxicity data are tabulated for 24, 48, and 96 hours in terms of metal
ion concentration and also relative to existing ambient background con-
centrations in the river during the course of the investigation. The
latter data show the magnitude of change that would have to occur in
the receiving water to produce a fish kill. Comparison of toxicity
values at 28°C with data from tests at 15°C shows that toxicities at
the two temperatures are not significantly different except with mer-
curous ions. For carp-like fish it was concluded that mercurous ion
toxicity was about three-fold for a 10°C increase in temperature.
1123.
Renfro, W.C. 1970. Radioecology of Zn-65 in Alder Slough, an
arm of the Columbia River Estuary. Contract No. AEC AT
(45-1)-1750:1-43. Available from Nat. Tech. Inf. Ser.,
Springfield, Va., as RLO-1750-46.
The transfer of Zn-65 through a small estuarine ecosystem
was investigated by determining seasonal changes in concentrations of
Zn-65; total Zn; Zn-65 activities in water, sediments, plants, and
animals; and rate of Zn-65 turnover by various organisms. The area
for study was Alder Slough, a small body of water about 0.6 km upriver
from the mouth of the Columbia River. Samples of water, sediments,
emergent plants, algae, fish, shrimp, and amphipods were collected for
analysis. Zn-65 in water samples was co-precipitated for analysis.
250
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Emergent plants and algae were dried, and fish, shrimp, and amphipods
were preserved in formalin prior to radioanalysis with an NaI well
crystal coupled through a photomultiplier to a multichannel analyzer.
Total zinc in plants and animals was determined by atomic absorption.
The concentrations and fluctuations of Zn-65 are discussed.
1124.
Renfro, W.C. 1973.
polychaete worms.
Transfer of 65Zn from sediments by marine
Marine Biology 21:305-316.
Silty marine sediments spiked with Zn-65 lose only small
fractions of their radioactivity when exposed to slowly flowing sea-
water for several weeks. However, polychaete worms (Nereis diversi-
color), burrowing through the sediment, cause Zn-65 losses to 3 to 7
times higher than in sediment without worms. Long-term experiments on
the uptake and loss of Zn-65 by the polychaete Hermione hystrix indi-
cate that 60 or more days exposure are required for this worm to
approach steady state with Zn-65 in the sediment. Biological half-life
estimates for Zn-65 accumulated from sediment by H. hystrix are ex-
tremely variable (52 to 197 days), depending on the loss-time interval
chosen for the calculation. Following 5 days exposure to 16 cm3 of
radioactive sediment, N. diversicolor individuals contained an average
of 0.2% of the total Zn-65 in the sediment. When these worms were
transferred to non-radioactive sediment, estimates of biological half-
life for Zn-65 averaged 14 to 17 days during the loss period Day 3 to
Day 15. Based on these experimental results, it is estimated that a
population of N. diversicolor could cause an annual loss of 3% or more
of the Zn-65 in the upper 2 cm of the sediment of a hypothetical radio-
active estuary.
1125.
Renzoni, A., E. Bacci, and L. Falciai. 1973. Mercury concentra-
tion in the water, sediments and fauna of an area of the
Tyrrhenian Coast. In 6th Int. Symp. Medicale Ocean.,
Portoroz, Yugoslavi~ Sept. 26-30, 1973:17-45.
Preliminary results are reported of a first year of study of
mercury concentrations in water; sediments and in representative fauna
of a wide strip along the Tuscan coast where the effluent from a large
chloralkali factory discharges its wastes. Among the most interesting:
the presence of high concentrations of mercury in the water of a larger
area than had been thought, reaching values as high as 204 ng/l in the
most polluted station; evidence of a relationship between the mercury
concentration and the size of the sediment granules; great differences
in mercury content between animals of different phyla, and, within the
same phylum, between groups and species; great variations in mercury
concentration in different tissues of the same specimen, with consist-
ently higher values in the visceral organs than in the muscles in all
251
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specimens of all studied species; an evident mercury accumulation in
the white muscle of the small-scaled sea-scorpion; no evident mercury
accumulation in the foot muscle of the limpet.
1126.
Reynolds, W.W., and D.A. Thomson. 1974. Temperature and
salinity tolerances of young Gulf of California grunion,
Leuresthes sardina (Atheriniformes:Atherinidae). Jour.
Marine Res. 32(1) :37-45.
Newly hatched prolarvae were more eurythermal
fish. Salinity tolerance also decreased with age, from
hatching to 5-57.50/00 at 30 days post-hatching.
than older
4-67.50/00 at
1127.
Reynolds, W.W., and D.A. Thomson. 1974. Ontogenetic change in
the response of the Gulf of California grunion, Leuresthes
sardina (Jenkins & Evermann), to a salinity gradient. Jour.
Exper. Mar. BioI. Ecol. 14:211-216.
Newly hatched prolarvae selected salinities in the range 15-
240/00, while late postlarvae and juveniles preferred salinities in the
range 45-540/00. Early postlarvae exhibited a bimodal preference, indi-
cating that the behavioral change was in progress at that age.
1128.
Rice, T.R. 1963. The role of phytoplankton in the cycling of
radionuclides in the marine environment. In Schultz, V., and
H.W. Klement, Jr. (eds.). Radioecology. Reinhold Publ.
Corp., New York: 179-185.
The importance of phytoplankton in passing radionuclides up
the food web depends upon the number and amount of radionuclides accumu-
lated, the length of time these radionuclides are retained by the phyto-
plankton, the size of the phytoplankton cells and the number of cells
present in the water, and the efficiency of digestion of the cells by
filter-feeding animals.
It has been shown both in the laboratory and under field con-
ditions that phytoplankton accumulate a large number of elements from
sea water and are, therefore, very important in the removal of radio-
nuclides. The availability of a radionuclide is dependent to a large
extent upon its physical state in sea water. Radionuclides in the
colloidal and particulate states are accumulated as well as radionuclides
in the ionic state. Actually cerium-144 in the particulate state was
accumulated more rapidly than cerium-144 in the ionic state. The accu-
mulation of a radionuclide by phytoplankton depends both upon the total
amount of the element present in sea water and the quantities of other
252
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metabolically similar elements. All species of phytoplankton will not
be equally important in the cycling of all radionuclides in the oceans,
based on their capacity to concentrate radionuclides. For phytoplank-
ton to be of importance in the passage of radionuclides up the food web
it is not only necessary that the cells accumulate the radioactivity,
but also that it be retained for considerable periods of time. Division
of radioactive phytoplankton in nonactive water results in a 50% reduc-
tion of activity per cell with each division. This has been referred
to as "biological dilution." The amount of phosphorus-32 exchanged by
Nitzschia cells varies with the concentration of phosphorus in the
medium in which the cells were grown, the physiological condition of
the cells, and the length of time the cells were grown in medium con-
taining phosphorus-32. Even though phytoplankton remove large amounts
of radionuclides from sea water; the amount that can be passed up the
food web will vary with cell size and total numbers of cells in the
water since these are among the more important factors affecting the
efficiency of the filtering mechanism of filter-feeding animals. Dif-
ferent species of phytoplankton that accumulate a radionuclide to the
same level and are removed from the water with the same efficiency by a
filter-feeding animal may not result in these animals becoming equally
radioactive. This is due to all species of phytoplankton not being
digested with the same efficiency. Radioactive cobalt was concentrated
to higher levels in Artemia when these animals fed upon radioactive
Carteria cells than when the activity came from the water. It was con-
cluded that phytoplankton are important in the cycling of radionuclides
in the oceans.
1129.
Rice, T.R. 1963. Review of zinc in ecology. In Schultz, V., and
A.W. Klement, Jr. (eds.). Radioecology. Reinhold Publ. Corp.,
New York: 619-631.
Zinc has been shown to be an almost universal constituent of
living matter and is considered essential for the growth and normal
development of most microorganisms, plants, and animals. It is now
necessary that the role of zinc in the terrestrial, freshwater, and
marine environments be delineated since zinc-65 has been shown to be
present in all three. Zinc-65 occurs in these environments as an induced
radionuclide, produced at the time of nuclear detonations or in water
used as a coolant for nuclear reactors. It has a half-life of 245 days
and has been used widely for biological studies. Difficulties encoun-
tered in the analytical determination of zinc at levels existing in
plants and animals and equal difficulties of freeing water and reagents
from contamination with zinc have been deterrents to zinc research.
Some soils naturally contain insufficient total or available
zinc to meet the requirements of plant growth. On these soils the use
of zinc-containing sprays and fertilizers has become standard agricultural
253
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practice. Direct foliate absorption through the leaves of sprinkler-
irrigated crops has been shown to be an important pathway in the uptake
of zinc-65. Zinc-deficiency symptoms in plants have resulted from ex-
cessive liming of the soil and on soils containing a high phosphate con-
tent. Plants apparently vary greatly in their zinc requirements and
also in their ability to obtain zinc from a given soil. Zinc-65 taken
up by bean plants was found to be present in greatest quantities in the
roots. High concentrations of phosphate prevent zinc from being uni-
formly distributed throughout the plant. It is not commonly retrans-
located from older leaves to younger leaves as the plant grows. Zinc-65
has been found in all farm produce sampled from an irrigation project
about 30 miles downstream from the Hanford reactors. The distribution
of zinc-65 in a beef animal from this project was determined. Hair,
bone, and liver were found to concentrate it to a greater extent than
the other tissues.
Zinc-65 can exist in the following three phases in the aquatic
environment: water; sediment, and biota. At any given time, factors
are in operation in this environment tending to dilute and disperse
radioactive materials while simultaneously other conditions are concen-
trating the radionuclide. The quantity of zinc that occurs in fresh
water varies considerably from one location to another. Zinc-65 has a
marked tendency to be fixed in or on planktonic organisms and suspended
silt. Zinc-65 is readily transferred through the food web and occurs
in relatively large concentrations in most all Columbia River organisms
sampled. Many radionuclides in fish in the Columbia River decreased
greatly during the winter but concentrations of zinc-65 remained rela-
tively constant throughout the year. Zinc-65 occurred in all tissues
of fish examined, with concentrations in the eye three or more times
greater than in any other tissue.
In the last few years considerable emphasis has been placed
on the advantages of the sea as a disposal site for radioactive wastes.
Zinc-65 is among those radionuclides which could be more dangerous to
man when occurring in the oceans. Analyses of marine plants and animals
have shown that the concentration of zinc in them exceeds the concentra-
tion in sea water by 1,000 times or more. The amounts of zinc occur-
ring in natural sea water are far in excess of the needs of a culture
of phytoplankton. Above the first trophic level the rate of accumula-
tion of zinc-65 may be influenced by whether the uptake of the nuclide
is occurring from only the water or the food of the animal. Artemia
obtaining zinc-65 from food contained more zinc-65 throughout an entire
experiment than other Artemia obtaining zinc-65 from water. The physio-
logical condition of the animal and the temperature of the water are
among the factors influencing the rate of loss of zinc-65 from marine
animals. Loss of zinc-65 from marine animals placed in sea water con-
taining no zinc-65 occurs at a slower rate than the rate of accumulation.
This phenomenon is very important in instances of acute pollution since
254
-------
animals will retain zinc-65 for a longer period than the zinc-65 will
be maintained at any appreciable level in the water. This will result
in observed concentration factors being higher than they would have
been if the availability of the zinc-65 had been maintained in the
water.
1130.
Riley, J.P., and I. Roth. 1971. The distribution of trace
elements in some species of phytoplankton growth in culture.
Jour. Mar. BioI. Assn. U.K. 51:63-72.
Fifteen species of phytoplankton, representative of several
marine classes, have been grown in the same artificial medium under
similar conditions. The organisms were harvested after 20-30 days,
ashed in atomic oxygen, and analyzed spectrographically for Mn, Zn, Cu,
Ag, Pb, Sn, Ni, Be, V, AI, Ti, Bi, Ba, Cr, Sr, Co, Fe, Ga, and In. It
was found that the organisms could accumulate most of the elements
sought, and that there were no differences in their distribution
patterns which could be correlated with the classification of the
organisms. In another series of experiments a study was made of the
uptake of trace elements by four species of phytoplankton growing in
media having various levels of chelated trace metals.
1131.
Riley, J.P., and D.A. Segar. 1970. The distribution of the ma-
jor and some minor elements in marine animals. I. Echino-
derms and coelenterates. Jour. Mar. BioI. Assn. U.K. 50:721-
730.
A scheme employing atomic absorption spectrophotometry, flame
photometry and colorimetry has been developed for the determination of
Ag, AI, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, P, Pb, Sn, Sr, and
Zn in marine animals. The distribution of these elements in 7 echino-
derms and 2 coelenterates has been studied. Figures are presented for
their concentrations in the dissected parts of Echinus esculentus,
Spatangus purpureus and Asterias rubens. Trace metals are most strongly
concentrated in the digestive parts of the organisms, less so in the
gonads, and least in the skeletal tissues. Of these metals zinc
attains the highest concentration, in some instances copper, nickel, and
cadmium are also quite strongly concentrated.
1132.
Rissanen, K., J. Erkama, and J.K. Miettinen. 1972. Experiments
on microbiological methylation of mercury (2+) ion by the mud
and sludge under aerobic and anerobic conditions. In Ruivo,
M. (ed.). Marine Pollution and Sea Life. Fishing Trading
News (books) Ltd., London: 289-292.
255
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The tragic mass poisonings by methylmercury in fish of the
local fish-consuming populations in Minamata and Niigata, Japan, between
1953-65 and the alarmingly high mercury contents of fish in many waters
in Scandinavia, have drawn wide attention to mercury as a pollutant of
fresh and coastal waters. A major problem in the mercury pollution of
fish is the transformation of inorganic mercury to methylmercury: in
Scandinavia nearly 100% of the mercury in fish is in the form of methyl-
mercury, even in waters where all pollution has been in the form of
inorganic or phenylmercury
In this study investigations were conducted on formation of
methylmercury from inorganic mercury ion by four preparations (garden
soil, bottom mud of a eutrophic lake, activated sludge, and incubating
sludge, both from a sewage treatment plant) in anaerobic conditions
using the tracer Hg-203. No methylmercury was formed during 34 days in
these experiments. Methylation of 0.1% of the mercury added could have
been detected.
1133.
Rivers, J.B., J.E. Pearson, and C.D. Schultz. 1972. Total and
organic mercury in marine fish. Bull. Environ. Contamin.
Toxicol. 8(5):257-266.
Total and organic mercury levels are given for the muscle
tissue of certain pelagic and inshore fish of Hawaii which are used
for human consumption.
1134.
Robertson, D.E. 1971. Influence of the physiochemical forms of
radionuclides and stable trace elements in sea water in rela-
tion to uptake by the marine biosphere. Available from Nat.
Tech. Inf. Ser., Springfield, Va., as BNWL-SA-4048:l-60.
This review presents examples of dissimilar biological uptake
between important artificial radionuclides (Fe-55, Zn-65, and Ru-l06)
and their stable isotopes in the marine environment. Although defini-
tive work is needed, there is evidence that Zn, Fe, and Cu are present
as soluble metal chelates. Ru, Fe, and Mn hydrolyze to form polymeric
species. But, Pu is in particulate form. The relatively high uptake
of Pu by seaweeds and certain crustaceans appears to be a surface
absorption process. The maximum permissible concentration of Pu in sea-
water is about 6 x 0.01 rnicroCi/ml, based upon a single intake of 200
gms of fish per individual.
1135.
Romeril, M.G. 1971. The uptake and distribution of 65Zn in
oysters. Marine Biology 9:347-354.
256
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Over a period of 6 weeks in aquaria, Portugese oysters Crass-
ostrea angulata, accumulate Zn-65 to a greater extent than do native
Ostrea edulis, although intake rates for any particular organ in either
species are quite similar. The general distribution pattern of radio-
activity in the tissues is similar to that observed for stable zinc and
Zn-65 in other oyster species, concentration occurring to the greatest
extent in gills and mantle, and least in muscle. The observed equilib-
rium concentrations and biological half-lives are considerably less than
those measured in the natural environment, and the significance of this
and its bearing on the mechanism of uptake is discussed. Cobalt and
iron depress the rate of Zn-65 uptake by both oyster soft tissues and
the shell. The limiting effect in soft tissues is probably due to com-
petition for sites at the actual point of uptake. The distribution of
Zn-65 in tissue subcellular fractions separated by centrifugation shows
the greatest concentration of the radioisotope in the insoluble tissue
components of gills, mantle and heart. Appreciable amounts of Zn-65
are associated with tissue proteins.
1136.
Romeril, M.G. 1974. Trace metals in sediments and bivalve
mollusca in Southampton Water and the Solent. Revue Int.
Oceanogr. Medicale 33:31-47.
Two species of bivalve mollusca, the hard shell clam and the
common cockle, collected every other month for one year at a number of
sites in Southampton Water and the Solent, England, have been analyzed
to determine the concentration of zinc, copper and iron in their soft
tissues. Sediment samples from the estuary have also been analyzed.
Significant variations in tissue metal content occurred with locality,
season and age of organism. These variations are discussed in relation
to conditions in the estuary an~ in particular, to metal concentrations
in the sediments.
1137.
Roosenburg, W.H. 1969. Greening and copper accumulation
American oyster, Crassostrea virginica in the vicinity
steam electric generating station. Chesapeake Science
241-252.
in the
of a
10(3):
Oyster meats near the outfall of a steam electric generating
station in the Patuxent River, Maryland, started to display green color
shortly after initiation of plant operation. In time, the affliction
increased in intensity and spread to oyster stations farther removed
from the outfall. The greening of Patuxent oysters was probably caused
by copper uptake, since green color and copper concentration (mg of
copper per g dried meat weight) were closely correlated. Copper con-
tent of oysters decreased with distance from the outfall. There was an
inverse relationship between oyster condition and copper concentration.
257
-------
This was most evident at stations near the outfall where oysters had
high copper content. Amounts of copper per oyster, based on mg of
copper per liter shell cavity volume, did not display great seasonal
fluctuation. Oysters at special stations, established to investigate
a possible copper source upstream from the plant, showed a reduction in
mg of copper per g dried meat, while oysters at stations inside and near
the outfall increased sharply in mg of copper per g dried meat. Indi-
cations in the Patuxent point to a relationship between oyster copper
uptake and power plant operation.
1138.
Rowe, D.W., and E.J. Massaro. 1974. Cadmium uptake and time
dependent alterations in tissue levels in the white catfish
Ictalurus catus (Pisces: Ictaluridae). Bull. Environ. Con-
tamin. Toxicol. 11(3):244-249.
Fish receiving a single intragastric dose of 0.2 mg/l of Cd
as cadmium chloride were found to regurgitate from 39% to 56% of the
dose solution within one hour. After one hour, 75% of the Cd body load
was contained within the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, with 62, 10 and
3% in the stomach, esophagus, and first 1/3 of the intestine, respec-
tively. Gill filaments contained 23% of the total body activity. With-
in 24 h, there was a marked change in distribution; relative concentra-
tions in stomach, esophagus, gill filaments and skin decreased to 31%,
2%, 1.0% and background,. respectively, while the first and second por-
tions of the intestine increased to 47% and 16%, at the same time the
kidney concentration increased to 2%. The intestinal portions attained
maximum levels at widely divergent times. Thus, the first, second and
third portions of the intestine maximized at 78%, 16% and 27%, respec-
tively, after 8, 1 and 4 days, respectively. Outside the GI tract,
liver and kidney contained the highest percentages of the body load:
5% and 34%, respectively, at 21 days (termination of experiment).
Examination of liver and kidney data suggests that these organs may
not have reached their relative maximum concentrations at this time.
Other tissues and organs contained less than a maximum of 0.8% of the
body load. There appears to be a trend toward accumulation in blood,
spleen, swim bladder and ovaries. On the other hand, there appears to
be no trend toward accumulation in the muscle, bile, bone, brain and
lens. The presence of Cd in the gill filaments is probably an arti-
fact of regurgitation. This hypothesis is supported by the observation
that levels in gill filaments and the esophagus decrease from 23% and
10% of the body load, respectively, to 1% and 2%, respectively, in 24
hours. Furthermore, within this time period the blood was not observed
to contain a significant percentage (0.04%) of the body load.
1139.
Rozhanskaya, L.I. 1970. Mn, Cu and Zn in water and organisms
of the sea of Azov. Available from Nat. Tech. Inf. Ser.,
258
-------
Springfield, Va., as Part of AEC-tr-7299; Translation of
Morskaya Radioekologiya (Marine Radioecology): 222-225.
Mn in near-bottom water varied with season and location and
was inversely related to the oxygen content. The average Cu/Zn ratio
was 0.39. Phytoplankton, zooplankton, and benthic organisms had
generally higher concentration factors for trace elements (Mn, 200-
10,000; Cu, 250-3,000; Zn, 500-7,000) than fish (Mn, 30-400; Cu, 150-
700; Zn, 700-1,800). Migration of Sr-90 in coastal zones is affected
by absorption into the macrophyte biomass.
1140.
Ruf, H., and H. Rohde. 1973. Determination of mercury con-
tents in diverse samples of fish and other biological
materials by neutron activation analysis. Zeit. Analyt.
Chern. 263(2):116-120.
Mercury content in diverse samples of fish and other biologi-
cal materials were determined by neutron activation measuring the ac-
tivity of Hg-197. Abnormally high content of mercury was found in some
samples of Japanese canned tuna and in whitefish from the Rhine River.
1141.
Sabodash, V.M. 1970. Dynamics of zinc concentration in the
early developmental stages of carp. Hydrobiol. Jour. 6(3):
59-65.
Zinc content of carp roe from adults of different ages
varies, being highest in roe from 3-year-old carp (47 mg/IOO g of dry
substance on the average), and lowest (29 mg) in roe of 6- to 7-year-
old fish; intermediate values were established for fish of intermediate
age. Zinc in zygotes from young adults decreased sharply between fer-
tilization and gastrulation to 20 to 23 mg/IOO g of dry substance,
after which it tended to accumulate slightly in larvae. This stage-by-
stage variability in zinc content of zygotes and larvae from middle-
aged fish was similar to that of the youngest fish, but the tendency
for zinc to accumulate in larvae was manifested somewhat sooner and to
a greater degree. Unlike offspring of young and middle-aged fish, zinc
content of zygotes from oldest fish did not drop, but rose from 16 to
21 mg/IOO g of dry substance, remained constant until hatching, then
increased, plateaued, and decreased slightly. Thus, the original
amount of zinc inherited by mature oocytes from parents influenced
dynamics of elimination and accumulation of this element in carp in
embryonic and early postembryonic periods of development. This feature
of stage-by-stage variability in zinc content of carp embryos and
larvae was confirmed by laboratory experiments using ZnS04 (5 rng/l)
on carp roe and larvae.
259
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1142.
Sabodash, V.M. 1971. Localization of zinc in carp spawn,
embryos, and larvae. Hydrobiol. Jour. 7(1):36-41.
A histochemical technique was used to detect zinc in ovulated
carp spawn and larvae during different stages of development. Zinc
concentrated in ovulated spawn and in yolk granules of hatched larvae
with a yolk sac. After resorption of the yolk sac, zinc was found in
future bony tissues at the onset of their mineralization. Dithizone
apparently reveals only ionic zinc or zinc loosely bound in organo-
metallic compounds.
1143.
Sage, M. 1973. The relationship between the pituitary content
of prolactin and blood sodium levels in mullet (Mugil
cephalus) transferred from sea water to fresh water. Contrib.
Marine Sci. 17:163-167.
Blood sodium levels in mullet adapting to a transfer from
seawater to freshwater stabilized within 24 hours. There was no change
in the mean prolactin concentration on the pituitaries at any time from
30 min to 6 weeks following transfer of fish from seawater to freshwater.
Significant changes in the correlation of pituitary prolactin content
with blood sodium and body weight were determined. Seawater fish have
a pituitary prolactin content which shows no correlation with either
body weight or blood sodium, whereas, in fish adapting to freshwater
there is a negative correlation between prolactin and blood sodium as
well as with body weight. In fish adapted to freshwater for one day
or more there was a negative correlation of prolactin with blood sodium
but no relationship to body weight. It is concluded that prolactin is
involved both in the initial stages and the long term adaptation of
mullet to freshwater.
1144.
Saha, J.G. 1972. Significance of mercury in the environment:
Suggestions for further research. In Radiotracer Studies of
Chemical Residues in Food and Agriculture, Int. Atom. Ener.
Agen., Vienna, Austria: 81-86.
Problems include more extensive measurements and more reliable
analytical techniques; extent of contribution of burning fossil fuels
to Hg received by earth's surface in rainfall; environmental factors
affecting formation of highly toxic methyl Hg from other forms; sources
of Hg pollution of water and their relative importance; and biochemistry
of methyl Hg poisoning and its treatment. The dangerous Hg level in
human blood is about 2000 ng/g; the level in about 80% of people with-
out occupational exposure, less than 5 ng/g. Instances of local en-
vironmental poisoning include consumption of fish (which may show 300
times the concentration of the surrounding water), and of seed grain
treated with mercurials.
260
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1145.
Saila, S.B. 1971. Mercury and marine fi~heries.
Health 3(3):129-132.
Community
The information available suggests that natural levels of
mercury in large predatory fishes are expected to be higher than in
fishes with a shorter food chain. The health hazards from eating tuna
or swordfish in normal amounts have probably been over-emphasized and
the global problem may have been exaggerated. Although there are some
who would strongly recommend a global monitoring system for mercury in
the marine environment, it seems that the monitoring should be restrict-
ed to the vicinity of points of discharge of mercury-containing wastes.
Mercury contamination of the marine environment and marine fishes is
not considered to be a scientific problem at this time. The techno-
logical knowledge is already available to significantly reduce the
quantity of mercury effluents released by industry and to replace the
use of mercury compounds in agriculture with less toxic compounds.
1146.
Salzinger, K., S.P. Fairhurst, S.J. Freimark, and F.D. Wolkoff.
1973. Behavior of the goldfish as an early warning system
for the presence of pollutants in water. Jour. Environ.
Systems 3(1):27-40.
Literature on effects of pollutants on fish, particularly
goldfish, in terms of lethal dosage and behavioral changes are reviewed.
Results are presented of an experiment showing effects of two very low
concentrations of mercury on behavior of goldfish. Twelve goldfish
were conditioned to form different behavior patterns to obtain food
(three fish to each pattern). After stabilization of these patterns,
one fish from each pattern was placed in mercury polluted water at a
concentration of 10 ~g/l, one at 6 ~g/l, and a third in mercury-free
water. All fish in 10 ~g/l showed the largest drop in response rate.
All but one of the fish in 6 ~g/l showed greater decrease in response
than those in 10 ~g/l.
1147.
Samilkin, N.S., and V.I. Vorob'ev. 1972. The influence of
certain micro-elements on the development of white amur spawn.
Rybnoe Khozyaistvo 8:29-31.
In experiments with incubating white amur (teleost) spawn,
cobalt at less than 0.00025 mg/l or manganese at 0.0098-0.015 mg/l had
no effect. Copper at 0.05 mg/l increased mortality of the larvae.
Copper sulfate caused weakening and premature rupture of the egg mem-
brane. Zinc sulfate yielded positive results at 0.05 and 0.1 mg/l;
concentrations above 0.1 mg/l markedly inhibited normal swelling of the
egg membrane. The number of normally developing embryos in comparison
with controls increased by 16-18% on the average, with zinc sulfate
261
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doses of 0.05 and 0.01 mg/l administered in the first 40 minutes of
incubation.
1148.
Samuels, E.R., M. Cawthorne, B.H. Lauer; and B.E. Baker. 1970.
Strontium-90 and cesium-137 levels in tissues of fin whale
(Balaenoptera physalus) and harp seal (Pagophilus groen-
landicus). Canadian Jour. 2001. 48(2):267-269.
Strontium-90 and cesium-137, in eleven different tissues from
fin whale and two tissues from harp seal were identif~ed. The highest
concentration of strontium-90 was found in whale blubber. Muscle tis-
sue seemed to contain more cesium-137 than other tissues examined. The
average concentration of cesium-137 in whale muscle was 4.5 pCi/g ash
and in adult seal muscle this was 2.5 pCi/g ash.
1149.
Sandholm, M., H.E. Oksanen, and L. Pesonen. 1973. Uptake of
selenium by aquatic organisms. Limnology and Oceanography
18(3):496-499.
Fish muscle, plankton, aquatic plants, and meat meals were
analyzed for selenium. The method was used in which 2,3-diaminonaph-
thaline is used as a fluorescing reagent and the recovery of Se is
measured using Se-75 as a tracer. Cultured algae Scenedesmus dimorphus
were used to study transfer of Se from water to phytoplankton. In
some cases metabolic inhibitors (iodoacetamide, I-methionine, KCN,
l-ethionine, 2,4-dinitrophenol) were used. The transfer of Se from
selenite and selenomethionine to fishes was studied in aquaria. Phyto-
plankton which had taken up Se-75 were fed to zooplankton and finally
the fish Puntius aquaria. The Se content was lowest in aquatic plants.
varying from 0.02 to 0.14 mg/l (dry wt), plankton samples contained
from 1.1-2.4 mg/l, fishes cultured in ponds 0.5 to 0.9 mg/l, and fishes
from natural environments 1.0 to 2.9 mg/l. The phytoplankter, Scene-
desmus dimorphus, actively concentrated Se-selenomethionine but
neither actively nor passively concentrated inorganic selenite. The
zooplankton, consisting mostly of Daphnia pulex, absorbed Se from
selenite. In aquariums fish concentrated only a small amount of
organic or inorganic Se directly from water, but did concentrate Se
from food.
1150.
Sandifer, P.A. 1973. Effects of temperature and salinity on
larval development of grass shrimp, Palaemonetes vulgaris
(Decapoda, Caridea). U.S. Dept. Comm., Fish. Bull. 71(1):
115-123.
Larvae of Palaemonetes vulgaris were reared in the laboratory
in a factorial experiment employing three temperatures (20°C, 25°C, and
262
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30°C) and six salinities (5, 10. 15,20, 25. and 300/00). Temperature
and salinity exerted significant effects on survival of larvae through
metamorphosis. The temperature-salinity interaction was also signifi-
cant. Lowest survival occurred in 50/00 at all temperatures. In higher
salinities, survival at 20° and 25°C was similar (>60%) but was less
at 30°C in most salinities. Temperature and salinity also influenced
rate of larval development. Development at 20°C required nearly twice
the time as that at 25° and 30°C, but a retarding influence of salinity
was slight and evident only at low salinities (5 and 100/00). Salinity
and temperature-salinity interaction had no detectable influence on
number of instars, but the effect of temperature alone was significant.
Larvae reared at 25°C passed through fewer molts prior to metamorphosis
than did those reared at 20° and 30°C. Comparing survival, rate of
development and number of instars, optimal conditions for larval develop-
ment occurred at a moderate temperature of about 25°C over a wide range
of salinity (10 to 300/00).
1151.
Sangalang, G.B., and M.J. O'Halloran. 1972. Cadmium-induced
testicular injury and alterations of androgen synthesis in
brook trout. Nature 240(5382):470-471.
In fish exposed to 25 ~g/l cadmium for 24 hours, testes were
abnormally vascularized and discolored. The LC-50 for brook trout ex-
posed to 10 mg/l Cd in a freshwater continuous flow system was found to
be 21 days. In neither group was there damage to the primordial germ
cells. In damaged testes, a reduction of lipid material indicated that
androgen production might have been disturbed. Tissue from the damaged
testes produced less II-hydroxy testosterone and testosterone when incu-
bated with radio-labelled pregnenolone than did control fish tissue.
Biosynthesized labelled 11 ketotestosterone was detectable in control
but not in the Cd-damaged tissue incubate. Analysis of normal testic-
ular tissue incubated with varying amounts of cadmium showed that Cd-
inhibited the conversion of exogenous pregnenolone to free steroids.
Cadmium inhibited the biosynthesis of 11 DT from pregnenolone. Tissues
incubated in high Cd levels exhibited a general reduction in product
yields of 11 KT, 11 OHT and T.
1152.
Saraswathy, M., and N.B. Nair. 1974. The influence of salinity
on a tropical estuarine shipworm, Nausitora hedleyi Schepman
(Bivalvia-Teredinidae). Hydrobiologia 44(4):397-411.
Species belonging to the genus Nausitora are generally con-
fined to brackish waters. In the Cochin backwaters, a tidal estuary on
the southwest coast of India, this genus is represented by N. hedleyi.
Fresh settlement of the species in that area is noticed only during the
period of low salinity. Tests conducted to ascertain effect of salinity
263
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changes on activity of the borer showed that though it can endure a
wide range, the optimum salinity range for early development was from
11.Z4-l4.540/00.
1153.
Sawyer, P.J. 1970. The effects of copper sulfate on certain
algae and zooplankters in Winnisquam Lake, New Hampshire.
Available from Nat. Tech. Inf. Ser., Springfield, Va., as
PB-196 48l:l-Z8.
In a relatively unbuffered lake such as Winnisquam, control
of cyanophycean blooms can be accomplished with relatively small amounts
of copper sulfate--4 lbsjacre. Data on Z7 algal species present before,
during, and after addition of copper sulfate indicate that a rapid shift
in species relationships occurred. Carbon fixation rate was found to
be a more sensitive measure of bloom potential than cell counts. Sus-
ceptible species decreased in numbers; other forms increased in popu-
lation; some appeared unaffected by treatment. The latter group may
have been protected by natural resistance or by their position in the
water column. Zooplankton reacted to copper treatment in various ways.
The effects on microcrustaceans such as copepods and daphnids seemed
to follow a predictable pattern. Copepods and Bosmina longirostris
were more resistant than Daphnia. Bosmina multiplied to a concentra-
tion of l54/liter in the top meter of the water column. The rise and
fall of numbers of species of plants and animals and their rapid re-
sponse to conditions after copper sulfate treatment illustrate their
complex relationships. The crude treatment with copper sulfate did
produce control of an obnoxious blue-green alga, Anabaena circinalis.
1154.
Schell, W.R., T. Jokela, and R. Eagle. 1973. Natural 210Pb
and 210po in a marine environment. In Radioactive Contami-
nation of the Marine Environment, In~ Atom. Ener. Agen.,
Vienna, Austria: 70l-7Z4.
A regional sampling program has been initiated to determine
existing levels of Pb-ZIO and Po-ZIO in sediment, organisms and water
from different depths in a salt-water sound and a fresh-water lake.
The collections have been made with plankton nets, midwater trawls,
sediment corers, and a large volume water sampler consisting of 0.3 ~m
Millipore filters and AlZ03 sorption beds (ZOO to ZOOO liters). The
efficiency of collecting lead from fresh and salt water by the AlZ03
beds has been determined. The sample analysis was made using Po-Z08
tracer for yield determination and low background alpha spectroscopy
which separates energies of Po-Z08 from Po-ZlO; ingrowth and decay of
Po-ZIO were used to determine Pb-2l0. Computer programs have been
completed for data analysis, sorting, and retrieval. One interpreta-
tion of the early results of sample analysis from the fresh-water and
264
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salt-water environments is that the processes of erosion and leaching
can contribute significantly to the concentration of Pb-2l0 and Po-2l0
in the aquatic environment. Regional differences are found which depend
on the geological strata. Both the erosion process and the atmospheric
fallout process must be considered as sources of these radionuclides in
the aquatic environment. An unusually large concentration of Po-2l0 has
been found in liver of a sablefish, Anoplopoma fimbria; the zooplankton
in the same region also had a high Po-2l0 concentration. The nektonic
crustacea have the highest Po-2l0/Pb-2l0 ratio (~100) of the organisms
collected.
1155.
Schelske, C.L. 1973. Fallout 54Mn accumulated by bay scallops
Argopecten irradians (Lamarck) near Beaufort, North Carolina.
In Radioactive Contamination of the Marine Environment. Int.
Atom. Ener. Agen., Vienna, Austria: 331-346.
Scallops were collected in estuarine waters near Beaufort
between Jan. 1963 and June 1966, and subsequently analyzed for gamma
radioactivity originating from fallout. Most of the gamma radioactivity
was Mn-54, with scallops containing 30 times more Mn-54 than other
lamellibranch molluscs collected at the same time. Concentrations of
Mn-54 were largest in Dec. 1963 and Oct. 1964 and declined after Oct.
1964, with a half-life of approximately 240 d. Concentrations of Mn-54
in the 75 samples collected were a function of collection sites in the
estuary, size of the scallops, and tissue type. Amounts of Mn-54 were
determined in seven different tissues. Kidneys contained the greatest
concentrations, about 100 times more than adductor muscle, gills,
mantle, gonad, visceral mass, and liquid. Maximum concentrations in
kidneys were 100 pCi/g wet weight. Kidneys are a small fraction of the
total weight, so concentrations in the combined soft parts are about a
factor of 100 lower than the kidney. Stable element content of scallop
tissues was determined also, and kidneys again contained at least 100
times more stable manganese than any of the other tissues. Variations
in specific activities (pCi~m-54/~gMn) among the different tissues were
greater than could be explained by physical decay and possible turnover
rates in the organism. Mechanisms of Mn-54 and stable manganese accumu-
lation are postulated from data on specific activity of different tis-
sues, mode of scallop feeding, and results of laboratory experiments in
which scallops were fed phytoplankton labelled with Mn-54. These data
are important because kidneys of bay scallops concentrate Mn-54 more
than any other biological system at present known. Public health impli-
cations are minimized because only the adductor muscle is sold as sea-
food.
1156.
Schelske, C.L., D.A. Wolfe, and D.E. Hoss. 1973. Ecological
implications of fallout radioactivity accumulated by estuarine
265
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fishes and mollusks. Presented at 3rd Nat. Symp. Radio-
ecology, U.S. Atom. Ener. Comm. Rept. COO-2003-9:l-37.
Gamma-emitting radionuclides in estuarine organisms from near
Beaufort, North Carolina, were measured. Fish samples taken from com-
mercial catches were retained 2 years before measuring. Relatively
high concentrations were: Cs-137 in nektonic feeding fish; Mn-54 in
benthic feeding fish; Zn-65 in oysters; Mn-54 in bay scallops; and Ce-
144 and Ru-106 in clams, mussels, and oysters. Of the 18 fish species
studied, 5 were not measured since their radionuclide concentrations
were relatively low. The differences in uptake betwe~n the different
species are accounted for by differences in chemical composition, meta-
bolism, and life cycle. These data show that knowledge of the physico-
chemical form of a radionuclide is required to predict its uptake.
1157.
Schneider, J. 1972. Lower fungi as test organisms of pollu-
tants in sea and brackish water. The effects of heavy metal
compounds and phenol on Thraustochytrium striatum. Marine
Biology 16:214-225.
Three test-series were applied, which differed in regard to
the basal medium (natural or artificial sea water, salinity level,
addition of detergent); the culture conditions (primary cultures, sub-
cultures, back-innoculations into basal medium without toxic metals);
the criterion employed (zoospore activity, sporangia development, or
dry weight of T. striatum). The temperature applied was 18° to 20°C.
The sea water-pollen-method (MWP) proved to be the most suitable: it
is simple and more sensitive than the other tests; subcultures and
back-inoculations are possible without much additional work; conditions
stimulate nature; first results are available after 3 to 4 days. The
SMS-method (enriched natural sea water of different salinities) pro-
vides additional information on salinity effects. Nine substances have
been tested: (CH3COO) 2Hg, HgC12, CdC12" H20, ZnS04" 7H20, NiS04" 7H20,
CUS04"5H20, CoC1206H20, MnC12°4H20, and phenol. In regard to their
toxicity these substances can be divided into 2 groups: Hg- and Cd-
salts inhibit development down to greater dilutions than the remainder;
Zn and Ni seem to yield intermediate effects. Salinity modifies the
toxic effects of the test substances. In higher salinities, comparable
concentrations of test substances reveal stronger inhibitory effects
than in lower salinities. Detergents mal augment the toxic effects, at
least of CuS04' The marine lower fungus T. striatum is a useful
organism for testing biological consequences of water pollutants.
1158.
Schulz-Baldes, M. 1972. Toxicity and accumulation of lead in
the common mussel Mytilus edulis in laboratory experiment.
Marine Biology 16:226-229.
266
-------
In studies conducted over 130 days, three batches of a total
of 100 common mussels, Mytilus edulis, were maintained in media contain-
ing different lead concentrations. Two vessels served as controls.
There was no acute injury to the mussels; but, over an extended period
of time, a marked increase in mortality occurred which was related to
lead concentration in the medium. The median lethal time (LT-50) was
computed to be 218 days for the control, 150 days with 0.5 mg Pb/l in
the medium, 129 days with 1 mg/l, and 105 days with 5 mg/l. Quantita-
tive analyses of the soft parts of M. edulis by flameless atomic-
absorption spectrophotometry revealed a distinct accumulation of lead.
From a natural lead content of 8.4 ~g Pb/g dry weight, the lead concen-
tration increased to 12,840 ~g/g at 0.5 mg/l, to 20,770 ~g/g at 1 mg/l
and to 39,830 ~g/g at 5 mg/l. The ratio of the concentration of lead
of the soft parts of M. edulis to the concentration in the medium re-
mained in the same order of magnitude both under laboratory conditions
using high lead concentrations and under in situ lead levels. Over a
period of 130 days, lead uptake expressed-a5 percentage of lead offered
was 10.9% at 0.5 mg/l, 9.5% at 1 mg/l, and 3.4% at 5 mg/l, respectively.
1159.
Schulz-Baldes, M. 1973. Die Miesmuschel, Mytilus edulis als
Indikator fuer die Bleikonzentration im Weseraestuar und in
der Deutschen Bucht. Marine Biology 21(2):98-102.
At 13 stations of the German Bight and Weser Estuary (in the
Federal Republic of Germany) mussels were collected in 3 size cate-
gories: 14-16 mm, 21-23 mm, and 35-40 mm shell length. Equal numbers
of the 3 groups from each station were analyzed separately for Pb concen-
tration by flameless atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The Pb concen-
tration of soft parts decreased from 6.4 ~g/g dry wt at stations 15 km
NW of Bremerhaven to 1.9 ~g/g at Helgoland. At the same station, the
concentration in small mussels is significantly higher than in larger
mussels. The Pb concentration is high in kidney, intestine, and adduc-
tor muscle and low in foot, gills, and mantle with gonads. Mussels
directly reflect the actual Pb concentration of their environment. The
observed gradient in M. edulis in the Weser Estuary can be explained by
the dilution of the Pbpolluted river water by the seawater of the
German Bight. Author suggests that M. edulis is highly suitable as an
indicator organism for Pb and possibly other heavy metal pollutants.
1160.
Schulz-Baldes, M. 1974. Lead uptake from sea water and food,
and lead loss in the common mussel Mytilus edulis. Marine
Biology 25:177-193.
Mussels were maintained for 6 weeks in sea water containing
different concentrations of lead (0.005 to 5 mg/l). Lead concentration
in soft parts was analyzed at different times during the experiment. A
267
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constant rate of lead uptake, linearly dependent on lead concentration
of the medium, was observed. Rate of lead loss, measured after trans-
ferring mussels into natural sea water, is linearly dependent on the
original lead concentration in the soft parts. Rates of uptake and loss
in large mussels (shell length 45 to 55 mm, average dry weight 750 mg)
are less than those in small mussels (shell length 19 to 21 mm, average
dry weight 30 mg). During a more extended experimental period, adjust-
ment to a steady state is expected to occur; rates of lead uptake and
loss are then non-linear. Lead uptake by individual organs (kidney,
gills, adductor muscle, digestive gland, foot, mantle with gonads) of
large M. edulis was analyzed in 2 test series. In one series (medium)
mussels were kept in a sea water medium containing 0.01 mg of Pb/l. In
another series (food), the mussels were kept in natural sea water but
fed with the green algae Dunaliella marina containing lead (approxi-
mately 600 ~g/g dry weight). The lead quantity given per mussel per
day was about 2 ~g in both test series. Within 35 days, mussels from
test series "medium" took up 29% of the total amount of lead given,
those of test series "food" took up 23.5%. In all organs, lead concen-
tration increased, but rates of uptake differed; kidney displayed by
far the highest rate of uptake. A biologic calibration curve depicting
the relationship between lead concentration in the soft parts at equi-
librium with lead concentration in sea water, is presented.
1161.
Scott, D.P., and F.A.J. Armstrong. 1972. Mercury concentration
in relation to size in several species of freshwater fishes
from Manitoba and northwestern Ontario. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd.
Canada 29:1685-1690.
Statistical analysis of 53 samples of 11 species of fishes
from a number of areas of Manitoba and northwestern Ontario indicated
that in general there was a positive correlation between mercury con-
centration and length. There also appeared to be a more variable
positive relation between mercury concentration and fish condition (fat-
ness). It was possible to predict, for 31 of the 53 samples, the range
of lengths wi thin which there was a 95% probability of all fish contain-
ing less than 0.5 mg/kg mercury. However; within species the relation
between mercury concentration and length was not consistent. The re-
sults show that, for certain of the populations closed to commercial
fishing because of mercury contamination, selection (by fishing tech-
nique or otherwise) of certain sizes should provide fish of acceptably
low mercury concentrations.
1162.
Segar, D.A., J.D. Collins, and J.P. Riley. 1971. The distribution of
the major and some minor elements in marine animals. Part II.
Molluscs. Jour. Mar. BioI. Assn. U.K. 51:131-136.
268
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A study has been made of the distribution of Fe, Mn, Co, Ni,
Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn, Ag, Cr, AI, Na, K, Ca, Mg, and Sr in the shells and
entire soft parts of 11 species of mollusca from the Irish Sea and in
those of one freshwater species. Values are also presented for the
occurrence of these elements in the various organs of Pecten maximus
and Modiolus modiolus. All the trace metals are considerably more en-
riched in the soft parts of the organisms than in the marine environment.
The highest concentrations of these elements are found in the digestive
organs and gills, and the lowest concentrations are found in the shells.
1163.
Sergeant, D.E., and F.A.J. Armstrong. 1973. Mercury in seals
from eastern Canada. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 30(6) :843-
846.
Mercury concentrations were measured in four species of seals
having different migratory patterns and feeding ecology in order to
clarify to some extent the distribution of mercury in the ocean and
concentrations through the food chain. Mercury concentrations were
highest in liver (usually 1-100 mg/kg but up to 387 mg/kg) and lowest
in blubber (usually 0.1 mg/kg). Levels in muscle ranged from less than
0.16 to 2.35 mg/kg. Values similar to those in muscle were found in the
few specimens of heart, intestine, and lungs analyzed and higher values
in kidney and hair. Ratios of mercury in liver to that in muscle for
adult seals were much greater than those found in two species of fresh-
water fish and three species of domestic animals exposed to wide ranges
of mercury concentrations in their food. Mercury in seals increased
with age and appeared to vary with the position in the marine food web
of the organisms which they eat. Harp seals (Pagophilus groenlandicus),
which feed on small pelagic fish and crustaceans, accumulated an order
of magnitude less mercury than grey (Halichoerus grypus) and harbor
(Phoca vitulina) seals, which live on large pelagic and benthic fish and
cephalopods. However, grey and harbor seals are resident in eastern
Canadian waters, which presumably contain higher mercury levels than
arctic waters, where harp seals spend about half the year. Yet hood
seals (Cystophora cristata), which spend more than half the year in
arctic waters but feed on large fish and cephalopods, had mercury levels
as high as grey and harbor seals.
1164.
Seymour, A.H. 1963. Radioactivity of marine organisms from
Guam, Palau and the Gulf of Siam, 1958-1959. In Schultz, V.,
and A.W. Klement, Jr. (eds.). Radioecology. Reinhold Pub 1.
Corp., New York: 151-157.
Following the Hardtack weapons test series at Bikini and
Eniwetok in 1958, samples of fish, crabs, lobsters, snails, clams,
algae, and plankton were collected at Guam, Palau, and in the Gulf of
269
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Siam for radiological analyses. The collecting
and 6400 kms, respectively, west of the test
activity was determined for all samples and the
were identified in selected samples.
areas were 1800, 2900,
site. The gross beta
gamma-emitting nuclides
The rate of westward transport of local fallout from the
Hardtack series by the North Equatorial Current was estimated at 12
kms per day between the test site and Guam and Palau. The criterion
for arrival of fallout at collecting area was a significant increase in
gross beta count of certain biological samples. Levels of radioactivity
were considerably different for samples from the three. collecting areas:
the counts of samples from Guam were notably higher than those from
Palau, which in turn were very much higher than those from the Gulf of
Siam, which were essentially at background level for all collections.
The gross beta counts of fish muscle from all areas from all collections
were constant and less than seven ~~Ci/g wet wt. Samples with the high-
est gross beta counts were clam kidney and spider snail liver, with
maximums of 204 and 356 ~~Ci/g, respectively. Gross beta counts of some
Guam and Palau samples prior to the arrival of the Hardtack fallout
indicate the presence of radionuclides from prior test series. Gamma-
emitting nuclides other than naturally occurring potassium-40 included,
in order of abundance, cobalt-57, cobalt-60, manganese-54, cerium-144,
zinc-65, and silver-110m. The greatest value was 2,300 ~~Ci/g wet wt
for clam kidney (Tridacna). The occurrence of silver-110m in the liver
of the spiny lobster was of special interest because it is a previously
unreported fallout nuclide and so far has been detected only in spiny
lobster "liver." Additional information on radionuclides to be expected
in marine organisms from the western Pacific can be found in the report
of the Hanford Laboratories in Richland, Wash. on the radionuclide
analyses of samples collected after the 1956 Redwing test series.
1165.
Seymour; A. (ed.) 1971. Radioactivity in the marine environ-
ment. Nat. Res. Counc., Nat. Acad. Sci., 2101 Constitution
Ave., Wash. D.C.:1-272.
This volume summarizes much of what is useful regarding
physical, chemical, geological, biological and ecological aspects of
radioactivity in marine waters, sediments and biota. A list of about
1200 references is appended.
1166.
Seymour, A.L. 1971. Columbia River studies annual progress
(1970-1971). Available from Nat. Tech. Inf. Ser., Spring-
field, Va., as RLO 2225-T-1-8:l-l2.
Hanford-produced radionuclides were monitored in the field,
and effects of radiation and temperature stresses upon oyster larvae
270
-------
and phytoplankton were evaluated in the laboratory- Several projects
are reported, some of which are described in greater detail in separate
reports: (Biological half-life for Zn and Hg in oysters, RLO-2225-T-l-
5, May 1970, 20p; Rate of loss of mercury by Pacific oysters, RLO-2225-
Tl-6, Feb. 1971, lOp; Radiological aspects of nuclear power and the
aquatic environment, RLO-2225-Tl-l, 1969, l5p). Author lists estimates
of concentration factors for diatoms and Sc-46 (2000), Zn-65 (510),
Zr-95 + Nb-95 (1300). A concentration factor for razor clam and Zn-65
is 3300. The radiation dose from sediments results from naturally
occurring radionuclides for the most part.
1167.
Seymour, A.H., and V.A. Nelson. 1973. Decline of 65Zn in
marine mussels following the shutdown of Hanford reactors.
In Radioactive Contamination of the Marine Environment, Int.
Atom. Ener. Agen., Vienna, Austria: 277-286.
The shutdown of the last of eight original plutonium produc-
tion reactors at the Hanford Atomic Plant in February 1971, eliminated
the source of practically all radionuclides in the Columbia River and
in the plume of Columbia River water in the Pacific Ocean. Zinc-65,
perhaps the most biologically important of the Hanford-produced radio-
nuclides in the marine environment, continues to be present in both
biota and water 15 months after shutdown. The amounts of Zn-65 in mus-
sels at the mouth of the Columbia River and along the Washington Coast
have been monitored since 1961, and data from these observations have
been used as reference values to measure the loss of Zn-65 related to
shutdown of reactors. The amount of Zn-65 in soft tissues of Mytilus
edulis from the North Jetty at the mouth of the Columbia River declined
from 40 pCi/g of dry tissue in February 1971, to 6 pCi/g, dry, in May
1972. The effective half-life for Zn-65 was calculated to be 130 d and
the loss of Zn-65 by processes other than physical decay, in terms of
half-life, was calculated to be 277 d. The latter value is called eco-
logical half-life rather than biological half-life, since there is some
uptake of recycled Zn-65 but at a rate less than the rate of loss of
Zn-65 by biological processes. At North Head,S km north of the
Columbia River, the amount of Zn-65 and Zn in M. californianus and the
rate of decline was less than comparable values for North Jetty mussels,
although the specific activity values, ~Ci Zn-65/g Zn, for mussels from
both locations, collected on the same day, were similar. The Zn-65
effective half-life value for North Head mussels was 149 d. The amount
of Zn-65 in mussels from seven locations on the Washington Coast and in
the Strait of Juan de Fuca, to a distance of 340 km from the Columbia
River, declined in a regular manner in respect both to distance from
the Columbia River and to time after reactor shutdown.
271
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1168.
Shannon, L.V., and R.D. Cherry. 1967.
plankton. Nature 216:352-353.
Polonium-2l0 in marihe
Little work appears to have been done on polonium-2l0 or 1ead-
210 in the marine environment. The present account established general
levels of polonium-2l0 in marine plankton samples obtained from the seas
around the Cape of Good Hope during 1965 and 1966. An in vivo (wet
plankton) concentration of about 200 pCi/kg was determined. The un-
supported polonium-2l0 activity in plankton samples is thus more than
an order of magnitude greater than the total polonium-2l0 reported in
human soft tissues. There is a tendency for offshore samples to con-
tain higher unsupported polonium-210 activity than samples collected
nearer shore. A possible explanation could lie in the fact that much
of the inshore surface wat~r off the west coast of the Cape of Good
Hope is upwelled water of Atlantic central water origin. Such water
has, in general, less time in contact with the atmosphere than the sub-
tropical surface water found further offshore; because the po1onium-210
is presumably derived chiefly from atmospheric fallout a lower po1onium-
210 content in the inshore waters seems reasonable.
1169.
Sharp, R.W. 1971. Road salt as a polluting element. In Street
salting. Urban Water Quality Workshop Proc., State Univ.
ColI. of Forestry at Syracuse Univ., May 6, 1971: Syracuse,
N.Y., State College of Forestry: 70-73.
The use of salt for snow and ice control on northern streets
and highways has grown rapidly since the 1940's. In the winter of 1964-
65, the City of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, used 33,000 tons of sodium
chloride and 200 tons of calcium chloride. In the same winter, the
Wisconsin Highway Department used 160,000 tons of sodium chloride, or
15.8 tons per mile of highway. The chlorides, being highly soluble,
are carried by runoff water to lakes and streams. The question arises
as to possible damage to the aquatic and terrestrial environment. En-
vironmental effects appear to be localized near large urban centers and
along heavily used freeway routes. Diamond Lake, in Hennepin County,
Wisconsin, which receives the discharge of a major storm sewer, now has
a chloride content of 2,270 mg/l, equivalent of 3,780 mg/l sodium
chloride. To place these values in the perspective of fish tolerance,
bluegills will tolerate 10,000 mg/l sodium chloride. Rainbow trout
sustained 20% mortality at 12,000 mg/l. A build-up of sodium chloride
can cause complete soil sterility. Studies show a substantial build-
up in chloride content of domestic wells located adjacent to main high-
way systems. Chloride levels exceeding the potable water supply standard
of 250 mg/l have been found in many states during recent years as a re-
sult of road salt application.
272
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1170.
Shaw, T.L., and V.M. Brown. 1971.
ization of rainbow trout eggs.
Heavy metals and the fertil-
Nature 230(5291):251.
Results of preliminary tests on effects of copper and nickel
on fertilization of rainbow trout eggs show that neither element is
likely to be responsible for any impairment of fertilization among
trout at existing natural levels. This does not imply that successful
development would occur under conditions of continuous exposure to these
poisons.
1171.
Shaw, W.H.R., and B. Grushkin. 1957. The toxicity of metal ions
to aquatic organisms. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 67(2):447-452.
Experimental results (guppies, toad tadpoles) and data col-
lected from the literature (protozoa, cladocera, fish) on toxicity of
cations (Mn, Co, Ni, Zn, Pb, Cd, Cu, Ag, Hg) to aquatic organisms are
presented. The findings are analyzed in terms of a model based on the
Michaelis-Menten mechanism and on the assumption that the cations con-
sidered are toxic because they combine with an essential sulfhydral
group attached to a key enzyme.
1172.
Shealy, M.H., Jr., and C.A. Carlson. 1971. Accumulation and
retention of strontium-85 marks by young largemouth bass.
In Radionuclides in Ecosystems, Proc. Third Nat. Symp. Radio-
ecol.: 307-317.
First-year mortality in largemouth bass, ~licropterus salmoides,
is often higher than 90%. To better understand the role of predation
by aquatic invertebrates in this high death rate, young bass were marked
at four different ages with Sr-85 for subsequent use in predation
studies. Resulting radiostrontium accumulation and retention curves
indicate that this radionuclide is suitable for quantitative marking of
prolarval, post larval, and juvenile bass, but not embryos. Bass embryos
were exposed to one, and prolarval and older stages to three Sr-85 con-
centrations at 20 to 23°C. Exposure energies ranged from 0.0 (controls)
to 89.1 ~Ci/l of pond water. Twelve-hour radioaccumulation and reten-
tion rates were obtained for embryos (2 days old). Authors monitored
radioaccumulation in prolarvae «1 day old) at l2-hr intervals from 12
to 168 hr, in postlarvae (15 days old) at 24-hr intervals from 24 to
144 hr, and in juveniles (40 days old) at 24-hr intervals from 24 to
120 hr. Bass from all accumulation experiments were transferred, after
various periods of exposure, to pond water to which no Sr-85 was added,
and mark retentions.were evaluated for periods of up to 106 days.
273
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1173.
Sheets, W.O. 1957. Toxicity studies of metal-finishing wastes.
Sewage Ind. Wastes 29:1380-1384.
Concentrations of various compounds required to affect bac-
terial biological oxygen demand values by 50% in buffered synthetic
sewage media were: Cr03' 4 mg/l; K2Cr04' >50; Cr~13' 0.23; H2Si F6'
>50; NiSO '6H20, 16; Al (S04)3' 18; CuS04> 0.4; and AgN03, 0.3 mg/l.
Tests con~ucted in unbutfered media produced values that were 1/2 to
1/25 those conducted in buffered media. Mixtures of Cr-Cu, Cu-Ni, and
Cr-Cu-Ni reacted antagonistically, but Cr-Ni mixtures had a definite
synergistic trend.
1174.
Shimizu, M., T. Kajihara, and Y. Hiyama. 1970. Uptake of 60Co
by marine animals. Records of Oceanographic Works in Japan
10(2):137-145.
Tracer experiments using Co-60 were conducted to determine
uptake and concentration factors of Co by marine animals. Organisms
used were: Styela plicata (sea squirt), Mytilus edulis (mussel),
Leander pacificus (shrimp) and Clibanarius virescens (hermit crab).
Concentration factors over a 15-30 day period were: ~. plicata,
viscera 850, test 400; ~. edulis, soft body 140, shell 190; ~. pacifi-
~, flesh 5, carapace 18; and C. virescens, whole body 520.
1175.
Shimizu, M., T. Kajihara, I. Suyama, and Y. Hiyama. 1971.
Uptake of 58Co by mussel, Mytilus edulis. Jour. Radiation
Res. 12(1):17-28.
Uptake of Co-58 was determined by tracer experiments using
mussel, Mytilus edulis, which has a world-wide distribution and is con-
sidered to be a sufficiently reliable indicator organism of radioactive
contamination of the marine environment. For soft tissues, accumulation
was high in alimentary tract, and low in mantle and adductor muscle.
High concentration factors in byssus (1,500) and shell (190) were
noticeable. By means of immersion experiments with shell pieces and
cut off pieces of byssus in Co-58 containing seawater, it was concluded
that high accumulation of Co-58 by byssus and shell was due to surface
adsorption. Discussions are given on the utility of mussel as an indi-
cator organism and on the role of structural protein of shellfish in
the adsorption of radionuclides.
1176.
Short, Z.F., P.R. Olson, R.F. Palumbo, J.R. Donaldson~ and F.G.
Lowman. 1971. Uptake of molybdenum, marked with 9 Mo, by the
biota of Fern Lake, Washington, in a laboratory and a field
experiment. In Radionuclides in Ecosystems, Proc. Third Nat.
Symp. RadioecOl. 1:474-485.
274
-------
The bioaccumulation of molybdenum, marked with Mo-99, was
followed in month-long studies in an aquarium, where water, not food,
was the major source of the nuclides, and in Fern Lake, where assimila-
tion by organisms isolated in live-boxes was compared with assimilation
by those with access to their usual sources of food. In the aquarium
containing 3.3 mg/l of the metal, the alga Nitella flexilis accumulated
up to 130 mg/kg molybdenum, a "luxury" amount. In Fern Lake, with 0.014
~g/l, the maximum concentration in the N. flexilis was 8.8 ~g/kg. Up-
take in the lake was irregular because of local chemical conditions in
the water. The concentration in periphyton from the lake shoreline
reached 50 ~g/kg.
All tissues dissected from clams, crayfish, and trout in the
aquarium contained some molydbenum. In trout the least amounts were in
the gastrointestinal tract. In the lake, small amounts were in a few
trout held without food in the live-boxes, but concentrations were up
to 16 ~g/kg in the gastrointestinal tract and liver of fish which were
free to feed. The concentrations in the liver of fingerlings exceeded
that in the yearlings by a factor of 4.
1177.
Silver, M., and A.E. Torma. 1974. Oxidation of metal sulfides
by Thiobacillus ferrooxidans grown on different substrates.
Canad. Jour. Microbiol. 20(2):141-147.
Thiobacillus ferrooxidans, grown on either ferrous sulfate,
lead sulfide concentrate, or chalcopyrite concentrate demonstrated
oxygen uptake and C02 fixation in the presence of ferrous sulfate,
chalcopyrite ore, pyrite ore, and red antimony trisulfide. Lead
sulfide-grown cells could oxidize lead sulfide ore and galena, using
the energy obtained for C02 fixation. All three cell types could
oxidize nickel sulfide, but could not fix C02 in the presence of this
substrate. Solubilization of metals from substrates and crystallo-
graphic changes in insoluble residues are reported.
1178.
Silvey, W.D., and G.A. Irwin. 1969. Relation of water quality
to striped-bass mortalities in the Carquinez Strait of
California. U.S. Geol. Surv., Open-File Rep., Mar. 20,1969:
1-12.
No direct quantitative relations were found to indicate the
cause of striped-bass mortalities in the Carquinez Strait area, Cali-
fornia. Several possible causes of the mortalities were considered but
could not be proven. Industrial effluents were considered as a possible
cause of mortalities, but evidence was not found to show this possibil-
ity. Heavy metals (zinc, lead, and chromium) were analyzed but not
found in large concentrations. Copper was found throughout the entire
275
-------
estuary in concentrations of about 0.10 mg/l. If copper was the re-
sponsible agent, the mortalities would have been widespread throughout
the estuary, but they were not. Mortalities did not occur as a result
of spawning. The lack of osmoregulatory adaptation to the sharp salin-
ity gradient in Carquinez Strait is not a major cause of the mortalities.
One major probable cause of the mortalities was natural hydrogen sulfide
production. Large concentrations of biologically produced hydrogen sul-
fide were found on and in mudflats in Carquinez Strait at the time of
the mortalities peak. Although this alone does not prove a direct cause
and effect relation, biologically produced hydrogen sulfide, a natural
phenomenon, is the most likely cause of striped-bass mortalities in
Carquinez Strait.
1179.
Sinha, E. 1972. Metals as pollutants in air and water.
Engin. Infor. Ser. 6:1-85.
Ocean
This bibliography contains 583 abstracts of the worldwide
literature providing substantial scientific and technological information
on: detection, analysis and measurement of metals as pollutants in air
and water; domestic, industrial, urban and other sources; the biogeo-
chemical and meteorological processes involved in the distribution of the
pollutants; effects on human health, experimental and test animals, and
various other life forms; and standards and controls. In addition to a
bibliography of bibliographies, a key term index supplements a detailed
subject outline. It is intended as an interdisciplinary guide to studies
of metals as pollutants.
1180.
Skerfving, S. 1972. Mercury in fish: Some toxicological con-
siderations. Food Cosmet. Toxicol. 10(4):545-556.
A literature review including animal experiments, metabolism
of methylmercury and toxicity levels in man, and actions by various
governments is presented.
1181.
Skidmore, J.F., and P.W.A. Tovell. 1972.
sulfate on the gills of rainbow trout.
217-230.
Toxic effects of zinc
Water Research 6(3):
Initial changes that occur in gill tissue of rainbow trout
exposed to 40 mg/l of Zn2+ are typical of an acute inflammatory reaction.
Epithelium covering the secondary lamellae lifts away in a continuous
sheet from the pillar cell system, increasing the diffusion distance
from water to blood. Blood flow patterns through the lamellae change,
granulocytes appear in large numbers within the lamellar blood spaces
and beneath the raised epithelium. Finally the lamellar blood circulation
276
-------
stagnates, terminating in respiratory collapse and death of the animal.
The dynamics of blood flow during the progressive stages of gill damage
are discussed.
1182.
Slonim, A.R., and F.C. Damm. 1972. Beryllium uptake by the
common guppy using radioisotope Be-7. II. Beryllium concen-
tration in fish. Report AMRL-TR-72-95:1-25. Available from
Nat. Tech. Inf. Ser., Springfield Va., as AD-758 815.
Two bioassays were conducted in which radioactive beryllium,
Be-7, was added as a tracer to beryllium sulfate solutions in order to
obtain some insight into beryllium toxicity in fish. Bioassays indi-
cated that amount of beryllium concentrated within the guppies (and fry)
was influenced by beryllium concentration in solution and by fish size
(inversely), and to a lesser extent by exposure period. Factors not
affecting uptake were age of fish and water hardness. Generally, Be
uptake varied substantially among fish exposed to the same environmental
conditions. Examination of individual tissues and organs of 6 guppies
showed that most Be concentrated in viscera and that uptake was highest
(per total organ) in gastrointestine and kidney of the 9 organs analyzed
provisionally. These studies suggest that lethality of beryllium in
fish is not dependent upon amount concentrated within the fish, but more
likely on effect of beryllium on a particular target organ, cellular or
subcellular component.
1183.
Slonim, C.B., and A.R. Slonim. 1973. Effect of water hardness
on the tolerance of the guppy to beryllium sulfate. Bull.
Environ. Contamin. Toxicol. 10(5):295-301.
Acute toxicity bioassays were conducted with BeS04 and guppies.
Four static tests were conducted simultaneously with four levels of
hardness (22, 150, 275, 400 mg/l) and Be concentrations ranging from 0.1
to 60 mg/l. In addition, two subsequent bioassays were conducted to
assess the hypothetical relationship between the LC-50 and water hard-
ness. LC-50 (96 h) values were 20.0 mg Be/l at 400 mg/l hardness, 13.7
mg Be/l at 275 mg/l hardness, 6.1 mg Be/l at 150 mg/l hardness, and
0.16 mg Bell at 22 mg/l hardness. Curves resulting from plots of per-
cent survivors vs. Be concentrations show downturns as water hardness
is lowered. In hard water, LC-50 values did not change significantly
after 24-hr exposures, but in soft water they were significantly lower
from 24- to 96-hr exposures. Equations are included which can be used
to estimate toxicity of BeS04 to guppies at any given water hardness.
1184.
Small, L.F., S.W. Fowler, and S. Keckes.
through a macroplanktonic crustacean.
1973. Flux of zinc
In Radioactive
277
-------
Contamination of the Marine Environment.
Agen., Vienna, Austria: 437-452.
Int. Atom. Ener.
A simple, linear model has been employed for an heuristic
examination of the flux of zinc through the euphausiid Meganyctiphanes
norvegica in the Mediterranean Sea. The model is generated from the
basic equation ke=~e+Ae' where ke is the rate of ingestion of particulate
zinc by the euphausiid, ~e is retention of the element in newly elab-
orated body tissue, and Ae is the rate of elimination of the element.
For a first approximation, the ke term is assumed to apply only to in-
gestion of particulate zinc, though the model can also be made to incor-
porate direct uptake of zinc from solution. The ke term breaks down
into ke=(Qipi), where Qi = zinc concentration in ingested food and Pi =
ingestion rate. The ~e term is equivalent to (QgPg), where Qg = zinc
concentration in new tissue added in growth, and p = growth-rate. The
Ae term, which really sets the flux of zinc througK M. norvegica, can be
fractionated as Ae=(Qfpf)+(Qmpm)+(Qcpc)+(Qxpx)+Pe, where Qf, Qm, Qc, and
Qx are zinc concentrations in faeces, moults, dead carcasses, and non-
viable eggs, respectively, and pf pm pc and px are the respective
rates of product. The Pe term acbounts for excretion of dissolved meta-
bolic productions. Over the life span of M. norvegica some of the terms
are discontinuous (px' for example), and all are non-linear. Therefore,
authors have selected "ecologically significant" segments of the life
span (segments representing most of the impact on zinc flux, from bio-
mass estimates), and have summed linear approximations of these selected
segments. Using adult animals feeding and defecating for 12 h each day,
maximum Ae estimates (126.61 ~gZn lost/g dry weight/day) plus maximum ~e
estimates (4.38 ~gZn retained/g dry weight/day) yielded a maximum esti-
mate for ke (130.99 ~gZn ingested/g dry weight/day). Similarly, near-
minimum estimates of A and ~e gave a near-minimum estimate of ke
(51.22 ~gZn/g dry weigfit/day). The Zn concentration in the food of M.
norvegica was calculated to be approximately 400-450 ~gZn/g dry weight
to satisfy the elimination and growth terms. Measured Zn concentration
in "natural" foods of the euphausiid averaged 570 ~gZn/g dry, an esti-
mate reasonably close to the calculated concentration. The Zn budget in
M. norvegica is thus adequately described, and indicates that faecal
pellet deposition (QfPf) is the most significant term (representing over
90% of the Zn flux). Applicability of the above approach, and the most
sensitive parameters, are discussed relative to other elements and other
organisms.
1185.
Smith, F.A., R.P. Sharma, R.I. Lynn, and J.B. Low. 1974. Mercury
and selected pesticide levels in fish and wildlife of Utah:
II. Levels of mercury, DOT, DOE, dieldrin and PCB in chukars,
pheasants and waterfowl. Bull. Environ. Contamin. Toxicol.
12 (2) : 153-157.
278
-------
Levels of mercury and selected pesticides were determined in
muscle tissue of chukars, pheasants and waterfowl collected from various
regions within the state of Utah. None of the chukar tissue 6% of the
,
pheasant tissue and 4% of the waterfowl tissue analyzed contained mer-
cury concentrations greater than the FDA limit of 0.5 mg/kg. None of
the chukars or pheasants and only 2% of the waterfowl inspected contained
dieldrin concentrations above the FDA tolerance level of 0.3 mg/kg.
None of the chukars or pheasants contained levels of DDT + DDE above 5.0
mg/kg FDA tolerance level. The majority of the waterfowl tissue con-
tained levels of PCB's higher than selected pesticide levels. No
definite relationship between the levels of mercury and pesticides or
PCB's was noted.
1186.
Smith, E.J., J.L. Sykora, and M.A. Shapiro. 1973. Effect of
lime neutralized iron hydroxide suspensions on survival,
growth, and reproduction of the fathead minnow (Pimephales
promelas). Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 30:1147-1153.
The long-term effect of lime-neutralized suspended iron on
fathead minnow survival, growth, and reproduction was assessed in a
flow-through environment with a modified proportional diluter. Results
of 12 months of testing reveal lower survival and declining growth of
fathead minnows with an increase in lime-neutralized suspended iron con-
centration. Hatchability and growth of fathead minnows were appreciably
reduced in the lowest insoluble iron concentration tested of 1.5 mg
Fe/I. Reduced hatchability was attributed to the higher percentage of
smaller particles in low lime-neutralized iron concentrations. A com-
parison of data on survival, growth, and hatchability indicates that the
safe level of suspended iron for fathead minnows presumably lies between
the control and 1.5 mg Fe/I.
1187.
Smi th, W. G. 1970. Spartina "die-back" in Louisiana Marshlands.
Coastal Studies Bull. 5:89-96.
Condi tions causing degeneration and death, or "die-back," of
large areas of marsh grass, Spartina alterniflora, in Louisiana and
elsewhere in the United States are compared to those affecting Spartina
townsendii marshes in England. Specific causative factors in the
Louisiana die-back include: periods of excess salinity, waterlogging
in poorly drained sites, parasitism, lack of available iron, hydrogen
sulfide toxicity, oxygen deficit in roots, change of tidal regime, and
pollution effects.
1188.
Snekvik, E., and M. Grande.
water fishing in Norway.
1970. Pollution problems in fresh
Nor Vet Tidsskr. 82(4):180-182.
279
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Pollutants affecting Norwegian fresh waters include paper mill
and wood-working industrial wastes, containing sulfite and other chemi-
cals, and wood fibers. Mercury from paper mills and pulp mills has led
to high Hg concentrations in fish. Pyrite mine wastes, containing acid
solutions of Cu and Zn were also found. The softness of Norwegian fresh
water, 4-15 mg CaO/l, increases the lethal effect of heavy metals on
fish. Pesticides, agricultural wastes, and synthetic detergents are also
contributors.
1189.
Somayajulu, B.L.K., and Rama. 1972. Mercury in sea-food from the
coast off Bombay. Current Science 41(6):207-208.
Specimens of common seafood, including lobster, pomfret, Bom-
bay duck and prawns were collected off the coast of Bombay, India, and
analyzed for mercury content. Neutron activation and beta-gamma coinci-
dence counting were used to measure mercury levels. Results of the
testing indicate a mercury concentration of about 100 ~g/kg for all
analyzed organisms, except salmon, which evidenced higher levels. The
upper limit of mercury allowed by U.S. Food and Drug Administration is
500 ~g/kg; the samples all fell considerably below that limit.
1190.
Spangler, W.J., J.L. Spigarelli, J.M. Rose, and H.M. Miller.
Methylmercury: Bacterial degradation in lake sediments.
Science 180(4082):192-193.
1973.
During the first 50 days of a long-term period of incubation
of lake sediments with inorganic mercury (Hg2+), low concentrations of
methylmercury were observed to build up. Upon continued incubation
there was a rapid decrease in amount of methylmercury in the system and
a concomitant evolution of volatile inorganic mercury (HgO). Transfer
of the mixed culture to growth media containing methylmercury resulted
in the degradation of methylmercury and the volatilization of HgO. Four
bacterial isolates were obtained from the mixed culture which, in pure
culture, rapidly degraded methylmercury to methane and HgO. The pres-
ence of methane in head space gases was confirmed by flame-ionization
gas chromatography, and the presence of HgO in head space gases was con-
firmed by mass spectrometry.
1191.
Sparks, R.E., J. Cairns, Jr., and A.G. Heath. 1972. The use of
bluegill breathing rates to detect zinc. Water Research 6:
895-911.
The presence of zinc at concentrations of 8.7,5.22,4.16 and
2.55 mg/l in dechlorinated municipal tapwater was detected by an in-
crease in breathing rate or a change in breathing rate variance of
280
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bluegills. None of the fish exposed to the three lower concentrations
died during the experiments. The criterion for detection was an arbi-
trary number of responses occurring at the same time. When the cri-
terion was changed from a single response to three responses occurring
at the same time, the number of false detections ("detections" occurring
before zinc addition) decreased, but the lag between zinc addition and
detection increased. Zinc concentrations of 0.035 and 0.076 mg/l
(approximately 1/75 and 1/34 of 2.55 mg/l, respectively) did not appear
to affect reproduction and growth of bluegills in the laboratory, but
0.235 mg/l zinc (approximately 1/10 of 2.55 mg/l) inhibited spawning in
ripe bluegills and killed newly-hatched fry.
1192.
Sparks, R.E., J. Cairns, Jr., R.A. McNabb, and G. Suter II. 1972.
Monitoring zinc concentrations in water using the respiratory
response of bluegills (Lepomis macrochirus, Rafinesque).
Hydrobiologia 40(3):361-369.
Measuring the cough frequency of bluegills by means of a
cannula inserted through the snout into the buccal cavity is a good
monitoring technique for zinc (and probably other heavy metals) because
the response is quick, proportional to the toxicant concentration, and
occurs at sublethal concentrations.
1193.
Sparks, R.E., W.T. Waller, and J. Cairns, Jr. 1972. Effect of
shelters on the resistance of dominant and submissive blue-
gills (Lepomis macrochirus) to a lethal concentration of zinc.
Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 29:1356-1358.
When pairs of bluegills were kept in bare, 40-1 compartments
for 5 days, dominant-submissive relations developed, and the dominant
fish survived a subsequent exposure to 32 mg/l zinc longer than sub-
missive fish. A flowerpot shelter in each compartment reduced the num-
ber of aggressive encounters between fish and removed the response dif-
ference. These results indicate that dominant-submissive relations may
be a source of variability in the results of bioassays that use fish.
1194.
Spigarelli, S.A. 1971. Ecological factors affecting the accumu-
lation of cesium-137 fallout by a natural population of large-
mouth bass (Micropterus salmoides). In Radionuc1ides in Eco-
systems. Proc. Third Nat.Symp. Radioecol. 1:328-333.
Individual fish characteristics (sex and weight), monthly
precipitation, and time of year were statistically analyzed for their
influence on Cs-137 activities of largemouth bass collected from Winter-
green Lake, Kalamazoo County, Michigan. Monthly collections of bass
281
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were analyzed for Cs-137 activity. No significant difference in Cs-137
activity was detected between male and female bass of equal size. How-
ever, body weight was a significant factor; larger bass accumulated more
Cs-137 and total Cs per unit weight than small bass. The plots of Cs-137
vs. weight and total Cs vs. weight were very similar and supported the
specific activity concept. The relationship between weight and Cs-137
in bass was estimated to be curvilinear with positive slope up to approx-
imately 1000 g and negative slope above 1100 g.
Mean Cs-137 activities of bass collected monthly from May to
October 1969 were significantly different. The maximum activities
occurred during May, the minimum in August. No correlation was demon-
strated between monthly precipitation levels and Cs-137 activities of
bass.
1195.
Sprague, J.B. 1968. Promising anti-pollutants: Chelating agent
NTA protects fish from copper and zinc. Nature 220(5174):
1345 -1346.
Copper and zinc are widespread pollutants both in industrial
areas and wilderness areas. A chelating agent, nitrilotriacetic acid
(NTA) appears to be a promising short-term anti-pollutant. Bioassays
involving copper and zinc, alone, in mixtures, and in combination with
NTA were carried out on brook trout over periods of ten days, the fish
being maintained under conditions otherwise considered optimum for the
species. Individual times of death were recorded and lethal thresholds
(in milligrams/liter) were obtained for copper (0.05) and zinc (0.75).
Thresholds were given a 'toxic unit value' of 1.0. Addition of NTA
caused a decrease in toxicity (longer survival of fish) at most concen-
trations of metals (up to 330 toxic units). NTA chelates, at ratios of
1 molecule NTA: 1 ion metal, selectively chelates copper before acting
upon zinc. NTA is apparently as effective as EDTA and costs less.
Tabular material gives selected results of mixed copper-zinc toxicity
trials, with and without NTA.
1196.
Spronk, N., F.G. Brinkman, R.J. Van Hoek, and D.L. Knook. 1971.
Copper in Lymnaea stagnalis L. II. Effect on the kidney and
body fluids. Compo Biochem. Physiol. 38A:309-3l6.
Snails were exposed to 0.00005 M CuS04 solutions (about 3.2
mg Cull). This caused losses of about 30% Na and Cl in their kidneys,
with a parallel increase in copper content of about 40%. The concentra-
tion of bromine also increased. Kidney tissue was analyzed using neu-
tron activation techniques. Increased water content of kidneys after
the CuS04 treatment is explained by increased water influx from body
fluids and less effective Na exchange.
282
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1197.
Srivastava, A.K., and G.E. Pickford.
sectomy on ~he blood serum of male
clitus, in salt water. Gen. Compo
1972. Effects of hypophy-
killifish, Fundulus hetero-
Endocrinol. 19:290-303.
Determinations were made of serum osmolality, major serum
electrolytes and selected organic constituents in microliter samples
of blood of parallel groups of hypophysectomized and mock-operated male
killifish, maintained in salt water for 14-15 wk under standard condi-
tions (ca. 20°C, 8 hr/day light, and daily feeding). Stress was mini-
mized by "training" before autopsy. Al though hypophysectomized killi-
fish appeared to regulate the total serum osmolality, there was a marked
decline in serum Na+ (-7.9%), serum Cl- (-18.2%), and, among minor elec-
trolytes serum inorganic P04L- (-45.3%). These decreases were offset,
in part, by increases in serum Ca2+ (9.7%), serum Mg2+ (19.8%) and serum
HC03- (71.9%). Serum K+ was variable, and the trend to increase was not
significant.
Hypophysectomy caused a significant decrease in serum glucose
(-31.9%). Serum urea was more than doubled (129.2%), but the osmotic
contribution remained small. Serum total protein levels rose signifi-
cantly (46.4%), although only low mobility fractions were affected. In
spite of the decrease in serum inorganic P042-, serum organic phosphate
increased greatly (104%), and there was a parallel, but even greater in-
crease in serum total cholesterol (155.2%). The estimated serum choles-
terol : phospholipid ratio remained essentially the same as in the mock-
operated controls (0.362 as compared with 0.352, respectively).
1198.
Stanley, J.G. 1969. Seasonal changes in the electrolyte meta-
bolism in the alewife, Alosa pseud6harengus, in Lake Michigan.
Internat. Assoc. Great Lakes Res., Proc. 12th Conf. Great Lakes
Res. 1969: 91-97.
Adult alewives (fishes) from Lake Michigan were collected
during the summer of 1968. Sodium, potassium and calcium levels were
determined in serum and tissue samples. Transient hyponatremia was
observed in June and July, together with increased sodium content of
tissues; suggesting a temporary shift in water or sodium between body
fluid compartments. There were no significant changes in potassium
levels. Changes in calcium levels during the breeding season suggest
deposition of calcium in bone but not in scales. Hypercalcemia was
not found in females during the breeding season. The shifts between
body fluid compartments may be a contributing factor in the mass mor-
talities observed in the alewife.
1199.
Stanley, J.G., and P.J. Colby. 1971. Effects of temperature on
electrolyte balance and osmoregulation in the alewife (Alosa
283
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pseudoharengus) in fresh and sea water.
Soc. 100(4):624-638.
Trans. Amer. Fish.
A study of the effects of temperature and salinity on iono-
regulation in the herring-like alewife revealed that concentrations of
Na, K and Ca in plasma and muscle were similar in fish adapted to fresh
water and those adapted to sea water. The non-stressed alewife is
apparently an excellent ionoregulator in both environments. Acute ex-
posure to cold caused a shift in plasma concentrations of sodium and
calcium toward environmental concentrations, i.e. these ions decreased
in fresh water and increased in sea water. An ionoregulatory failure
due to cold is suggested. High temperatures had little effect on plasma
electrolyte levels in fresh water whereas in sea water the concentra-
tions of Na, K, and Ca were elevated. Mortalities of alewife in the
Great Lakes may be caused by osmoregulatory failure induced by acute
exposure to cold, but are probably not induced by exposure to elevated
temperatures. Fish thermally acclimated in the laboratory or in Lake
Michigan had essentially normal concentrations of blood electrolytes.
In muscle, Na was reduced during exposure to acute cold in both fresh
water and sea water. The effect of warm water on ion levels in muscle
was, in general, opposite that of cold. These data suggested shifts of
ions or water between cellular and extracellular fluids of muscle. Such
shifts might affect the function of excitable tissue. Muscle tremors and
loss of equilibrium observed in dying alewives during summer mortalities
might be brought about when a sudden temperature drop (e.g., as a re-
sult of upwellings which are common occurrences in the Great Lakes)
induces disturbances in cellular or extracellular concentrations of
ions. In the laboratory, alewife mortalities caused by increasing or
decreasing temperatures were about equal in fresh water and sea water.
These findings suggest that salinity does not modify the capacity of
alewives to tolerate acute temperature stress.
1200.
Stickney. R.R., and B.A. Simco. 1971. Salinity tolerance of
catfish hybrids. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 100(4):790-792.
Determination of salinity tolerance in freshwater catfish is
of interest since commercial production of these fish in brackish water
may be attempted in the future. The salinity tolerance of several
hybrid catfishes was examined at the Fish Farming Experimental Station
during the summer of 1969. Fingerlings of the 1969 year class were used
and included 3/4 blue: 1/4 channel, 3/4 channel: 1/4 blue, and 1/2
channel: 1/2 blue catfish hybrids. The medium used in these experiments
was artificial seawater. Hybrids investigated in this study were able
to tolerate salinities between 14 and 150/00 for periods of 96 hours.
They showed a similar salinity tolerance to that demonstrated by non-
hybrid channel catfish fingerlings. It is suggested that these findings
be verified under natural seawater conditions.
284
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1201.
Stoddart, D.R., G.W. Bryan, and P.E. Gibbs. 1973. Inland man-
groves and water chemistry, Barbuda, West Indies. Jour. Nat.
Hist. 7: 33-46.
Mangrove vegetation, comprising not only Laguncularia and
Conocarpus, but also a closed woodland of Rhizophora, is found in in-
land situations in Barbuda, West Indies, having no connection with the
sea and associated with geological and geomorphic features of either
late Pleistocene or possibly earlier Holocene age. These mangroves are
associated with brackish water. Analyses show lowered concentrations
of sodium, potassium and magnesium and higher concentrations of calcium
and strontium compared with sea water having the same chloride content,
the higher calcium and strontium concentrations probably resulting from
diagenetic changes in the limestone. The inland mangroves are either
relict from the period of the lithified beach ridges, or they have more
recently colonized the platin area. More data are required on their
geological setting before this can be resolved.
1202.
Strohal, P., and T. Pinter. 1973. Thorium in water and algae
from the Adriatic Sea. Limnology and Oceanography 18(2):
250-253.
Thorium concentrations were determined in filtered and un-
filtered seawater as well as in marine algae. In filtered seawater,
values were 8 x 10-13 g Th/l and lower; for unfiltered seawater samples.
values about 1000x higher were obtained. Thorium concentrations in
marine algae are in the range 10-6 to 10-8g Th/g ash wt.
1203.
Surber, E.W., and O.L. Meehean. 1931. Lethal concentrations of
arsenic for certain aquatic organisms. Trans. Arner. Fish.
Soc. 61:225-239.
Fish culturists who might wish to use this chemical in the
control of bothersome submerged vegetation in fish ponds may receive
some encouragement from the fact that a treatment of 2.0 mg/l of
arsenious oxide equivalent in sodium arsenite "Weed Killer" solution
will not cause important fish food organisms to die on exposure to the
chemical. Chironomid larvae, mayfly nymphs and fresh-water shrimp,
Hyalella, appeared to be most sensitive to the treatments with relatively
high mortality rates following exposure to 2.5 - 4.0 mg/l of AS203'
Damselfly and dragonfly nymphs, Asellus, and water mites survived con-
centrations of 10.5 - 21 mg/l of AS203' The protozoa, Colpidium, Para-
mecium, and Stylonichia survived and multiplied when exposed to 3.5
mg/l AsZ03' The green alga Spirogyra was affected by a treatment of
1.75 mg/l AS203' but was not killed by it. The quantity of arsenic is
reduced rapidly in aquaria when samples are taken at some distance from
285
-------
the bottom. The amount of reduction is about 75% in five days with con-
centrations of 3.0 - 7.9 mg/l, but is more rapid when smaller concentra-
tions are used. Stirring water in the aquaria before taking a sample
increased the amounts of arsenic in samples indicating that the arsenic
is percipitated out by elements present in the water.
1204.
Swinehart, J.H., W.R. Biggs, D.J. Halko, and N.C. Schroeder.
1974. The vanadium and selected metal contents of some
ascidians. BioI. Bull. 146:302-312.
Vanadium and other selected metal contents of primarily Cali-
fornia ascidians have been determined. The species Ascidia ceratodes
and Perophora annectens have large vanadium contents as has been pre-
dicted for members of the families Ascidiidae and Perophoridae from the
order Phlebobranchia. Several species in the order Aplousobranchia have
large vanadium contents: the vanadium being present as vanadium (IV)
whereas it is vanadium (III) that is found in the order Phlebobranchia
Molgula manhattensis, a species from the order Stolidobranchia, shows a
large iron content: the metal being localized in the fluid from the heart
Three dominant fractions were chromatographed from the cells
contained in the fluid of Ascidia ceratodes. The roles of the compounds
present in these fractions are discussed. The spectra of these frac-
tions are correlated with the spectrum of the cells.
1205.
Sykora, J.L., E.J. Smith, and M. Synak. 1972. Effect of lime
neutralized iron hydroxide suspensions on juvenile brook trout
(Salvelinus fontinalis, Mitchill). Water Research 6(8):935-
950.
The experimental dosing apparatus was a modified proportional
diluter equipped with a neutralization device and with a series of
detention and oxygenation tanks. Ferric hydroxide was obtained by
neutralization of ferrous sulfate using calcium hydroxide. After
neutralization, oxygenation, and detention, suspended iron was released
automatically at regular intervals into the test aquaria. Four con-
centrations of iron were maintained, each containing 10 young brook
trout (3 months old). The data on length of brook trout revealed a
definite trend toward smaller size with increasing concentration of
suspended ferric hydroxide, with the largest trout in 6 mg Fe/l and in
the control. The average weight of brook trout was much lower in high
iron concentrations than in the control and 6 mg Fe/I. The final mean
weight of fish in 50 mg Fe/l represented only 16% of the control, with
gradually increasing percentage proportions occurring in lower iron
concentrations. The final mean weights of the fish in 6 mg Fe/l and in
the control were almost identical. The average growth rate computed
286
-------
for five different size groups of fish revealed a sudden decline in
growth of brook trout exposed to 12, 25, and 50 mg Fe/I. The growth
rate of brook trout in 6 mg Fe/l and in the control shows only a level-
ing trend as of the thirty-fifth week. It is assumed that impaired
visibility due to high turbidity prevented the fish from feeding which
in turn resulted in slow growth in high iron concentrations--12, 25 and
50 mg Fe/I.
1206.
Takevchi, T. 1972. Distribution of mercury in the environment
of Minamata Bay and the inland Ariake Sea. In Hartung, R.
and B.D. Dinman (eds.). Environmental Mercury Contamination.
Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc.: 79-81.
In 1959 extremely large concentrations of Hg were contained in
the sediment of Minamata Bay, Japan. Near the drainage channel that
leads into the bay from several chemical plants, a maximum concentration
of 2,010 mg/kg (wet weight) Hg was found in sediment. Concentrations of
Hg in the sediment dropped sharply as a function of the distance from
the effluence point of the factory drainage channel into Minamata Bay.
As the distance from the channel entrance increased, the Hg concentra-
tions in the sediments continued to decrease rapidly until the sediment
directly outside Minamata Bay contained only 0.4 to 3.4 mg/kg Hg. The
concentration of Hg in shellfish, fish, and other seafoods was also
found to be a function of distance from the point of effluence.
1207.
Telitchenko, M.M.> G.V. Tsytsarin, and Y.L. Shirokova. 1970.
Trace elements and algal "bloom." Hydrobiological Jour.
6(6):1-6.
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae and Microcystis aeruginosa (Cyano-
phyceae) concentrate 18 trace elements from water> one of which is
copper. When copper stocks are exhausted the "bloom" of Cyanophyceae
in the body of water ceases. Repeated "blooms" are noted only when the
water is enriched with copper by the death of the previous generation of
algae. It is therefore concluded that the "bloom" should not be com-
batted by treatment with copper sulfate.
1208.
Telitchenko, M.M., G.V. Tsytsarin, and Y.L. Shirokova. 1970.
Trace elements and water bloom. Hydrobiological Jour. 6(6):
7-12.
By emission spectral analysis of material and phytoplankton
of the Mozhaisk reservoir the following 24 trace elements were deter-
mined: Ta, Nb, Au, Hg, W, Sb, Zn, Zr, Ag, Co, Sn, V, Be, Bi, As, Mn,
Ti, Ba, Cu, Sr, Mo, Pb, Cr, and Ni. Of these, Ta, Nb. Au, Hg, W, and
287
-------
Sb were found neither in algae, nor in water. Zn and Zr are accumulated
in microgram amounts by drying the algae. Traces (0.001 mg/kg) of
Ag, Co, Sn, V, Be, Bi, and As are observed in algae during bloom. The
other elements were found in both water and algae. Aphanizomenon flos-
aquae and Microcystis aeruginosa when blooming in the reservoir; leave
traces of Sr, Cr, and Ni. The repeated blooms of Cyano~hyta in the
reservoirs are observed only when water is enriched wit Cu of the pre-
vious dying algae generation.
1209.
Templeton, W.L. 1970. Disposal of liquid wastes into coastal
waters. Chemical Engin. Prog. 66(2):45-50.
The danger to man from disposal of radioactive wastes is now
probably better understood than any other industrial risk. Aside from
dose limits set by the International Commission on Radiological Protec-
tion, the permissible discharge rates depend on the concept of critical
populations, as well as degree of dilution, dispersion, and reconcentra-
tion of radionuclides. The external and internal exposure of both physi-
cal and biological nature are additional factors delineating the disposal
of radioactive wastes. The situation is illustrated as it now exists
at the discharge points of English coastal waters. Examples include
ruthenium-l06, strontium-90, zinc-65, cobalt-60, and critical material,
such as Porphyra umbilicalis, an edible seaweed, fish, oysteTs, and
either the total body of man or his lower large intestine. The approach
of the United Kingdom toward disposal of radioactive wastes is considered
with reference to disposal of other pollutant materials. A similarity
of chlorinated hydrocarbons with radionuclides is pointed out.
1210.
Templeton, W.L., J.M. Dean, D.G. Watson, and L.A. Rancitelli.
1969. Freshwater ecological studies in Panama and Colombia.
BioScience 19(9):804-808.
Studies were made to acquire data for evaluation and prediction
of potential radiation dose to indigenous populations in the region of
proposed nuclear excavations. Collections were made at 19 stations in
Panama and 15 stations in Colombia; chemical and activation analyses
were made of water, suspended solids, and tissues of fish and inverte-
brates. Low concentrations of elements suggest high capacity for reten-
tion and cycling in terrestrial-soil ecosystem. Interflow predominates
over sheet run-off. Water samples show relatively high concentrations
of sodium, magnesium, cobalt, chromium, and cesium and low concentrations
of potassium, iron, and antimony compared with mean values for all rivers,
Concentration factors of stable elements vary with tissue analyzed, be-
ing highest for phosphorus, mercury, potassium, and copper. Contribu-
tions of direct fallout to freshwater ecosystems are likely to be small
owing to the vegetation canopy. Occurrence of peak concentrations will
288
-------
depend on rate of movement through terrestrial and groundwater systems;
these should dampen the peaking effect.
1211.
Tennant, D.A., and W.D. Forster. 1969. Seasonal variation and
distribution of 6S-Zn, S4-~m, and Sl-Cr in tissues of the crab
Cancer magister Dana. Health Physics 18:649-659.
Crabs from the Columbia River estuary were analyzed for stable
and radioactive Cr, Zn, and~. Chromium-51 and zinc-6S accounted for
nearly all the gamma radioactivity in the tissues, the Zn-6S being
mainly concentrated in soft tissues and the Cr-Sl in the hard tissues.
Manganese-54 concentrations were highest in the setae and calcareous
exoskeleton, presumably because of surface adsorbed ~-S402' Specific
activities and radioactivities fluctuated throughout the year in much
the same manner, with maximum radioactivities seemingly related to river
discharge and peak specific activities due to metabolic changes in the
crab. Specific activities suggest that surface adsorbed radionuclides
are turned over faster than internally adsorbed radionuclides.
1212.
Thorp, V.J., and P.S. Lake. 1974. Toxicity bioassays of cadmium
on selected freshwater invertebrates and the interaction of
cadmium and zinc on the freshwater shrimp Paratya tasmaniensis
Riek. Austral. Jour. Mar. Freshwat. Res. 25:97-104.
In acute toxicity bioassays with cadmium sulphate at 15°C in
soft water (total hardness 10 mg/l as calcium carbonate), the concentra-
tions fatal to 50% of the test animals were determined for five fresh-
water invertebrate species. The 96 hr median lethal concentration (LC-
50) of cadmium was 0.04 mg/l for the amphipod Austrochiltonia subtenuis
Sayce, 0.06 mg/l for the shrimp Paratya tasmaniensis Riek, 0.84 mg/l
for the ephemeropteran nymph Atalophlebia australis Walker, 250 mg/l
for the zygopteran nymph Ischnura heterosticta (Burmeister) and well
over 2000 mg/l for a trichopteran larva of the Leptoceridae. The bio-
assays on Paratya indicated that there may be seasonal differences in
sensitivity to cadmium. The 96 hr LC-SO for zinc for Paratya was 1.21
mg/l. Zinc and cadmium appeared to interact less than additively at
concentrations below 1 toxic unit. Above this concentration, their
interaction was strictly additive.
1213.
Thurberg, F.P., M.A. Dawson, and R.S. Collier. 1973. Effects of
copper and cadmium on osmoregulation and oxygen consumption in
two species of estuarine crabs. Marine Biology 23:171-175.
Green crabs (Carcinus maenas) and rock crabs (Cancer irroratus)
were exposed to various concentrations of copper as cupric chloride
289
-------
(CuC12° 2H20) and cadmium as cadmium chloride (CdC1202 1/2 H20) for 48 h.
The exposures were conducted at 5 different salinities. At the end of
each exposure period, tests of blood-serum osmolality and gill-tissue
oxygen consumption were performed. Copper-exposed crabs exhibited loss
of osmoregulatory function with increasing copper concentration until
normally hyperosmotic serum became isosmotic with the surrounding medium.
Cadmium elevated green-crab serum above its normal hyperosmotic state.
Copper had no effect on gill-tissue oxygen consumption; however; cadmium
reduced the rate of oxygen consumption in both species tested.
1214.
Tillander, M., J.K. Miettinen, and I. Koivisto. 1972. Excretion
rate of methyl mercury in the seal (Pusa hispida). In Ruivo,
M. (ed.). Marine Pollution and Sea Life. Fishing Trading
News (books) Ltd., London: 303-305.
The excretion rate of methylmercury in the ringed seal (Pusa
hispida saimensis Nordg.) was determined using Hg-203 labelled methyl-
mercury as a protein bound preparation with peroral administration, and
the whole body counting technique. During the first month methylmercury
was translocated from stomach into fatty tissue on the surface of the
animal. Between 100 to 153 days, however, a straight line was obtained
on a semi-logarithmic plot giving for the "slow" component of excretion
a half-time of 500 days. About 45% of the dose given follows this
excretion rate. Between 30 and 100 days a "fast component" is evident,
having a half-time of the order of 20 days; this value is approximate
only because of the masking effect of the geometry change. This investi-
gation was conducted because toxic levels of mercury were recently
measured in the small relic population of ringed seal in Lake Saimaa, a
species which is on an endangered list.
1215.
Timms, A.M., and H. Kleerekoper. 1972. Locomotor response of
goldfish, channel catfish, and largemouth bass to a 'copper-
polluted' mass of water in an open field. Water Res. Research
8(6): 1574-1580.
The locomotor response of goldfish, largemouth bass, and
channel catfish to 'copper-polluted' water at a maximum concentration
of 50 ~g/l Cu++ in an open field, free choice situation was monitored.
The largemouth bass were unaffected, but goldfish and channel catfish
tended to orient toward the source of the ion. The degree of this
orientation was less, however, than that found in shallower gradients
of the same copper concentration. When goldfish were exposed to the
copper ion in a uniform field so that neither avoidance of nor attrac-
tion to the polluted mass was possible, no change in orientation was
observed. It is concluded that the slope of the copper gradient between
'clean' and 'polluted' water rather than the eventual highest concentration
290
-------
of the ion (50 ~g/l) affected orientation and locomotor behavior of the
catfjsh and the goldfish.
1216.
Timoshchuk, V.I. 1970. Sr in water of the Caspian and Azov Seas.
In Marine Radioecology: 185-196. Available from Nat. Tech.
mf. Ser., Springfield, Va., as Part of AEC-tr-7299.
Leaching of shoreline rocks gives high Sr concentrations (21-
25 mg/l) in certain regions of the Caspian Sea relative to regions
diluted by river discharges (0.5-2.5 mg/l). Sr in the Sea of Azov
(3.1-6.1 mg/l) is affected by exchange with the Sivash Bay where evap-
oration gives high Sr concentrations (26 mg/l). Concentration factors
for Sr-90 measured in 1966 were higher for semimigratory fish (roach,
40; carp, 33) than for migratory fish (kutum, 2.5).
1217.
Ting, R.Y. 1971. Distribution of Zn, Fe, Mn, and Sr in marine
fishes of different feeding habits. In Radionuclides in Eco-
systems, Proc. Third Nat. Symp. Radioecol. 2:709-720.
The levels of Zn, Fe, Mn, and Sr, concentrations in muscle,
viscera, skin, scales, and bone of seven species of fish composed of
four different feeding habits were determined by atomic absorption
spectrophotometry. Samples were taken from the Gulf of Panama and
Puerto Rican waters and included herbivores and carnivores of three
distinctly different feeding habits including: the herbivorous mullet
(Mugil curema); planktonic-feeding Pacific thread herring (Opisthonema
libertate) and Atlantic thread herring (Opisthonema oglinurn); benthic
carnivorous sea trout (Cynoscion reticulatus) and sand perch (Oiplec-
~ euryplectrurn); and the pelagic carnivorous yellowfin tuna (Thunnus
albacares) and skipjack tuna (Euthynnus pelamis). There were no sig-
nificant differences in levels of Zn, Fe, Mn, and Sr concentrations in
muscle, viscera, skin, scales, and bone in the seven species of fish
composed of four different feeding habits, except that levels of Fe in
viscera were significantly different. Viscera of mullets contained a
significantly higher amount of Fe than the carnivores. This probably
was due to the sediments ingested with diatoms, detritus and algal matter
when mullets are feeding from the bottom. The levels of the elemental
concentrations in all body parts often varied to significant degrees
between species within the same feeding habits.
1218.
Tong, S.C., W.H. Gutenmann, O.J. Lisk, G.E. Burdick, and E.J.
Harris. 1972. Trace metals in New York State fish. N.Y.
Fish Game Jour. 19(2):123-131.
An analytical survey was conducted of the concentrations of
eight metals in fish from 11 New York State waters. Analysis of barium,
291
-------
cadmiu~ cobalt, nickel, silver, tin, vanadium and zinc in fish was per-
formed by spark source mass spectrometry following dry ashing in samples.
Barium, cadmium and silver were present in the range of 0.1 mg/kg. Tin
and zinc were usually found at relatively higher levels of 0.5 to several
mg/kg. Cobalt, nickel and vanadium were intermediate in concentration
being most often less than 1 mg/kg.
1219.
Tong, S.S.C., W.D. Youngs, W.H. Gutenmann, and D.J. Lisk. 1974.
Trace metals in Lake Cayuga lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush)
in relation to age. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 31:238-239.
Chromium concentration increased, and molybdenum and tin con-
centrations decreased in Lake Cayuga lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush)
from age 1 to 12 yr. The concentration of the rare element rhodium
ranged from about 100 to 200 ~g/l. The concentrations of 33 other trace
metals in the fish are reported.
1220.
Torma, A.E., and F. Habashi. 1972. Oxidation of copper (II)
selenide by Thiobacillus ferrooxidans. Canad. Jour. Microbio.
18(11):1780-1781.
Thiobacillus ferrooxidans is an organism which tolerates high
metal ion concentrations and can oxidize metallic sulfides, low valency
inorganic sulfur compounds, ferrous ion and some other compounds. The
action of T. ferrooxidans upon copper selenide was investigated. The
organism had a catalytic effect on the oxidation process. During leach-
ing for sulfide, acid had to be added to maintain the optimum pH of 2.3.
In spite of the high toxicity of selenium, the bacteria grew and multi-
plied. In this process copper goes into solution and elemental selenium
is deposited.
1221.
Townsley, S.J. 1963. The effect of environmental ions on the
concentration of radiocalcium and radiostrontium by euryhaline
teleosts. In Schultz, V., and A.W. Klement, Jr. (eds.).
RadioecologY: Reinhold Publ. Corp., New York: 193-199.
Euryhaline fish (Tilapia mossambica) exposed for two weeks to
fresh water, fresh water plus added calcium, and sea water containing
equal concentrations of strontium-89 show concentrations of the nuclide
in their tissues in inverse order to the calcium plus strontium, but not
directly related to absolute amounts of the ions. Although 50 times more
stable calcium is present in salt water, the amount of strontium-89
retained in tissues was not 50 times greater in salt-water fish. It is
assumed that the Sr++ in the environments cannot account for the differ-
ences. Exposure of T. mossambica to fresh waters and sea waters with
292
-------
varying concentrations of Ca++ and Sr++, and ratios of these ions to one
another, shows that radiocalcium and radiostrontium accumulation and
retention are controlled by several factors including the total divalent
ions present, as well as other salts in the environment.
The effects of increased concentrations of Sr++ in the environ-
ment have little effect upon the total radioactive calcium plus strontium
absorbed, nor upon their ratio. It would appear, therefore, that for
decontamination of aquatic environments, addition of calcium salts and
other divalent ions could be more effective against absorption of radio-
calcium and radiostrontium than addition of Sr++ alone. It does not
appear that release of radiocalcium or radiostrontium into marine or
brackish environments would result in as much absorption and retention
of radioactive strontium or calcium as in fresh water environments. This
is particularly important to the species which show migratory or osmotic
regulation habits. Thus under differing environmental conditions, the
same species of fish may show varying degrees of accumulation and reten-
tion of radiocalcium and radiostrontium.
1222.
Triquet, C. 1973. Study of the contamination of Arenicola
marina L. by cobalt-60. Comptes Rend. de l'Acad. Sci. 276
(Series D, No.4) :645-648.
Populations of the marine polychaete Arenicola marina were
contaminated with cobalt-60 from wastes of the nuclear power industry.
These vectors were suggested: water, substrate, sediments, and organic
material in the sediments (Arenicola is a suspension feeder). Such
organisms concentrate cobalt-60 to a high degree in their blood. The
method of contamination was studied experimentally in water contaminated
with chloride of cobalt-60. Results of the contaminant concentration
studies indicated water passing over the sediments as the vector. The
concentration of radioactivity at the digestive tube levels in the worms
indicated that contaminants are concentrated in organic material in
sediments and then ingested.
1223.
Tsuchiya, K. 1969. Epidemic of mercury poisoning in the Agano
River area: An introductory review. Keio Jour. Medicine
18(4):213-227.
Fish were contaminated by inorganic mercury and by methyl-
mercury, but it was not clear how and when the river was polluted. The
source of mercury was either industrial or pesticidal.
1224.
Turekian, K.K., A. Katz, and L. Chan. 1973. Trace element trap-
ping in pteropod tests. Limnology and Oceanography 18(2):240-
249.
293
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Pteropod tests from the Gulf of Aqaba and the South Atlantic
Ocean and "bulk" (soft tissue) plankton samples from Long Island Sound
were analyzed by instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) for 11
trace metals (Fe, Ce, La, Sm, Eu, Th, Sc, Cr, Co, Sb, Se) to study the
trapping and transport mechanisms for these metals in the oceans and the
capability of pteropods to modify the composition of seawater during this
process. The internal correlations among these metals strongly suggest
that a finely particulate «0.2 ~) authigenic iron-rich phase (hydrated
oxide or phosphate) is trapped by both the soft and hard tissues of
plankton and that this phase is the major carrier of several of the
trace metals. Assuming that the iron-rich floc-trapping mechanism is
applicable to all pelagic calcareous tests, then the downward flux of
iron and associated trace elements carried by these tests can be assessed.
This assumption leads to the conclusion that the iron and the associated
trace elements have residence times in the deep water of the same order
of magnitude as that of the deep water itself.
1225.
Turner, J.L., and T.C. Farley. 1971. Effects of temperature,
salinity, and dissolved oxygen on the survival of striped bass
eggs and larvae. California Fish and Game 57(4):268-273.
Laboratory experiments were conducted on effects of salinity,
temperature, and dissolved oxygen on survival of artificially spawned
striped bass (Morone saxatilis) eggs and larvae. Egg survival in
salinities greater than about 1,000 mg/l total dissolved solids,
especially at higher temperatures, are greatly reduced if eggs are not
water hardened in fresh water. Moderate reductions in dissolved oxygen
(to 4 or 5 mg/l) adversely affect the percent hatch of eggs and have a
detrimental effect on larval survival.
1226.
Uchida, M., K. Hirakawa, and T. Inoue. 1961. Biochemical studies
on Minamata disease III. Relationships between the causal
agent of the disease and the mercury compound in the shellfish
with reference to their chemical behaviors. Kumamoto Medical
Jour. 14(4):171-179.
The mercury compound in the contaminated shellfish, Hormomya
mutabilis was consistently recovered in those fractions in which the
causal agent of Minamata disease was present.
1227.
Ui, J. 1972. A few coastal pollution problems in Japan. In
The Changing Chemistry of the Oceans. Proc. 20th Nobel --
Symp., Stockholm, Sweden. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., Wiley
Interscience Div., New York: 171-176.
294
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Tokyo Bay receives about 200 kg Hgjday from various sources.
The distribution of Hg among biomass and sediment is complicated by the
existence of heavy organic pollution in the bay- Recently a few species
of pelagic fish such as tuna, swordfish, and certain sharks, were found
to have high Hg levels. However, it is not clear whether the coastal
pollution by Hg in Japan has any relation to this phenomenon. A pos-
sible explanation is given for the wide difference between accumulation
of Hg in fish and quantity of Hg in the same district of the sea. The
accumulation of Cd and PCBs in coastal fish of Japan is also discussed.
1228.
Umminger, B.L. 1969. Physiological
fish (Fundulus heteroclitus). I.
tuents in relation to osmotic and
temperatures. Jour. Exper. 2001.
studies on supercooled killi-
Serum inorganic consti-
ionic regulation at subzero
172(3):283-302.
Physiochemical properties (serum osmolality and blood pH),
serum inorganic ions (sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride,
phosphate and bicarbonate) and tissue water were studied in parallel
groups of adult male killifish acclimated to various temperatures (30°C,
20°C, 10°C, 4°C, 2°C, -1°C and -1.5°C) in salt water under otherwise
constant laboratory conditions. When the acclimation temperature was
lowered from 20° to -1.5°C, serum osmolality increased by 20%. This
increase was not indicative of osmoregulatory failure, however, since
the proportion of total serum osmolality accounted for by inorganic
electrolytes dropped from 98% at 20°C to 93% at -1.5°C. Serum electro-
lytes such as sodium, chloride, calcium, magnesium and bicarbonate in-
creased in the subzero cold by 12%, 17%, 30%, 33% and 11% respectively
whereas serum potassium and inorganic phosphate levels were unchanged.
Blood pH was significantly higher at 10°C than at any other temperature.
The water content of liver, testes and muscle decreased by 8% in the
subzero cold. These changes in serum electrolytes and tissue water did
not indicate osmoregulatory failure; the new levels once established
were maintained as long as the fish were alive. Although osmotic and
ionic regulation were not as effective in the cold, they were by no
means so poor as to cause death by osmotic imbalance.
1229.
Umminger, B.L. 1971. Osmoregulatory overcompensation in the
goldfish, Carassius auratus, at temperatures near freezing.
Copeia 1971(4) :686-691.
The serum chemistry of goldfish was examined at 20°, 10°,
and 0.15°C. Acclimation to temperatures near freezing was characterized
by a decrease in serum electrolytes (sodium, chloride and potassium),
an increase in serum osmolality, and an increase in serum glucose. An
increase in the serum osmolality of a freshwater fish in the cold
despite reductions in the concentrations of serum electrolytes has been
295
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termed osmoregulatory "overcompensation." The goldfish is the first
fish in which this pattern of osmoregulation has been reported. The
increase in serum osmolality in the cold was not the result of an in-
crease in serum glucose (which was osmotically insignificant), but
rather to a buildup of yet unidentified, probably organic, constitu-
ents of the serum.
1230.
Umminger, B.L. 1973. Death induced by injection stress in
cold-acclimated goldfish, Carassius auratus. Compo Biochem.
Physiol. 45:883-887.
Goldfish responded to injections of either saline or prolac-
tin with a hyperglycemia and a decline in serum sodium and chloride con-
centrations. These stress-induced responses were most pronounced in
fish acclimated to 1°C and less apparent in fish acclimated to 20°C.
No deaths were observed in uninjected fish at 20° or 1°C or in injected
fish at 20°C. At 1°C, however, eight of eighteen injected fish died
within 10 days and the survivors were in poor physiological condition.
The stressful effects of injection procedures become progressively more
pronounced in goldfish as the acclimation temperature is lowered and,
at temperatures near freezing, injection stress is so severe as to cause
death.
1231.
Umminger, B.L., and J.B. Mahoney. 1972. Seasonal changes in the
serum chemistry of the winter flounder, Pseudopleuronectes
americanus. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 101(4):746-748.
The winter flounder shows seasonal cycles in the osmotic
pressure of its serum. The serum freezing point varied from an average
of -1.15°C during winter to -0.63°C in summer. The increased osmotic
pressure may function in protecting fish against freezing in cold,
shallow waters. Recent studies on laboratory-acclimated winter flounder
showed that temperatures ranging from l5°C to -1°C had no effect on
serum osmolality. Therefore, seasonal change in the serum osmolality of
winter flounder in the natural environment is probably not temperature
controlled.
1232.
VnlU, M.Y., M. Heyraud, and S. Keckes. 1972. Mercury as a hydro-
~pheric pollutant. I. Accumulation and excretion of 203HgCl2
In Tapes decussatus L. In Ruivo, M. (ed.). Marine Pollution
and Sea Life. Fishing Trading News (books) Ltd., London: 292-
295.
Some aspects of mercury's metabolism in the clam, Tapes decus-
satus L., related to the potential hazard from mercury pollution of
296
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marine environment are described. Mercury as Hg-203 was used in chloride
form. Mercury is rapidly accumulated by Tapes from sea water and within
1 day the animals contain 10 times more mercury per unit weight than
their environment. During longer exposure the accumulation of mercury
is considerably slowed down. The visceral organs contain more than half
of the mercury accumulated during 14 days, while the muscles contain less
than 2% of the total accumulated mercury-
The loss rate of the accumulated mercury does not depend on
the duration of the animal's exposure to it, but is strongly dependent
on the method of its entry. The retention of the accumulated mercury is
highest after it was introduced into Tapes by injection into foot muscle;
only about 25% of the injected mercury is lost within 2 months, mostly
in the first 6 days. The retention of mercury accumulated from sea
water or through the food chain is not too strong and has an overall
biological half-time of about 10 and 5 days respectively.
1233.
Uthe, J.F., F.M. Atton, and L.M. Royer. 1973. Uptake of mercury
by caged rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) in the South
Saskatchewan River. Jour. Fish. Res. Ed. Canada 30(5):643-650.
Trout were held in cages in the South Saskatchewan River to
assess mercury uptake following curtailment of mercury discharges to the
river. Six fish were randomly taken from the cages at 2-week intervals
and pooled homogenate samples prepared of livers, kidneys, and headless,
dressed carcasses. The total mercury content of samples was determined
by flameless atomic absorption spectroscopy. There was a rapid uptake
of mercury by the fish during the first warm summer period (1970) with
much less uptake during the rest of the year. A second summer experiment
(1971) produced no significantly different results suggesting that a
long-term contamination exists within this river system. Analyses showed
that the bulk of mercury present in the fish carcasses was present as
methylmercury. It was concluded that caged fish are good monitors of
mercury pollution. The studies also showed that the cessation of mer-
cury discharge into a river does not lead to elimination of mercury
uptake in fish.
1234.
Van As, D., H.O. Fourie, and C.M. Vleggaar. 1973. Accumulation
of certain trace elements in the marine organisms from the sea
around the Cape of Good Hope. In -Radioactive Contamination of
the Marine Environment. Int. Atom. Ener. Agen., Vienna,
Austria: 615-624.
An investigation of the recipient capacity of the sea for
radioactive effluent from a site on the west coast of South Africa, 2S
km north of Cape Town, necessitated the determination of concentration
297
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factors for those nuclides which would probably be present in the effluent
of the proposed nuclear installations. Stable element analyses were done
for these corrosion elements which are known to have high accumulation
factors and which have induced radioactive isotopes of long half-lives,
e.g. Cr, Fe, Zn, Co, Mn and Sb, as well as for the stable counterparts
of the fission products Sr-90 and Cs-137. Various methods of sample
preparation, e.g. freeze drying, dry and wet ashing, and of sample
analyses, e.g. atomic absorption and neutron activation, were used in
parallel and the results compared. The marine organisms which are
either regularly consumed or which may have future economic importance
were investigated. These species included algae (Poryphyra capensis,
Ecklonia maxima, DIva spp., Suhria vitatte), molluscs (Haliotis midae,
Donax serra, Myti~meridonalis) and crustacea (Jasus lalandii), as
well as various line and pelagic fishes of commercial importance. Anal-
yses were normally performed on the edible parts of the species only.
With regard to coastal and off-shore waters, measurements of the soluble
and particulate fractions of these elements were made and different tech-
niques of sample storage and sample preparation, e.g. deep freezing and
freeze-drying, were compared.
1235.
Van Coillie, R., and A. Rousseau. 1974. Composition rninerale
des ecailles du Catostomus commersoni issu de deux milieux
differents: etude par microscopie electronique analytique.
Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 31:63-66.
The elemental content of scales from the teleost Catostomus
commersoni was studied. Fish were collected from a healthy environ-
ment (the Manicouagan River) and an environment polluted by several
substances, including various heavy metals (Riviere des Prairies, near
Montreal). X-ray microspectrometry was combined with electron micro-
probe scanning techniques, with subsequent microdensitometric scanning.
Scales contained, in addition to the highly predominant calcium, the
following: Na, Mg, AI, K, Fe, Cu, Zn, and Ba, as well as some Cr, Mn,
Co, Ni, Sr, Ag, Cd, Cs, Hg, and Pb. All metals were between the circuli
in the osteoid structures. The latter category of metals, widely known
for their toxicity, were more abundant in scales of samples from pol-
luted waters, whereas the reverse was true for the other metals, with
the exception of Al and Ba, which were found in equal quantities in
both samples. If differences in metal content of scales taken from
fish of the two different environments is related to abundance of toxic
metals in polluted waters and that the possibility exists that excess
metal from the water can replace calcium in the scales, then it is in-
ferred that mineral content of scales is related at least in part to
that of the surrounding aquatic environment.
1236.
Van Weers, A.W. 1973. Uptake and loss of 65Zn and 60Co by the
mussel Mytilus edulis L. In Radioactive Contamination of the
298
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Marine Environment.
853-401.
Int. Atom. Ener. Agen., Vienna, Austria:
The uptake of Zn-65 and Co-60 directly from seawater by mus-
sels and subsequent loss of radionuc1ides in non-radioactive seawater
were studied with animals kept unfed during the experiments. Concen-
tration factors measured for radionuc1ides during periods up to 60 days
are much lower than values for stable elements, which range from 3,000
to 11,000 for zinc and from 1,200 to 4,500 for cobalt in soft parts.
The pattern of loss is described by loss from two relatively short-
lived components and one long-lived component, the relative importance
of the latter increasing with the length of the preceding uptake period.
The biological half-life of the long-lived component ranges from 48-60
days for Zn-65 and from 57-72 days for Co-60. As shown by autoradio-
graphy, Zn-65 is accumulated to a high extent in the kidney and Co-60
in both kidney and digestive gland. Author concludes that, as far as
uptake of Zn-65 and Co-60 directly from seawater is concerned, both
the relatively slow accumulation and subsequent loss will reduce risk
of contamination of mussels following incidental releases of these radio.
nuclides in coastal waters.
1237.
Van Winkle, W., Jr. 1970.
byssa1 thread formation.
Effect of environmental factors on
Marine Biology 7:143-148.
The effects of various factors on byssal thread formation
were examined in the laboratory using the mussels Modiolus demissus and
Mytilus edulis. With M. demissus thread formation (threads/musselfh)
and proportion of mussels forming threads decreased with increasing
size; prior exposure to air enhanced subsequent thread formation;
mechanical agitation reduced thread formation. In addition, low
salinity-acclimated mussels adapted more rapidly to 320/00 than high
salinity-acclimated mussels did to 160/00; threads were not formed in
the absence of calcium and/or magnesium; and there was no reduction in
thread formation at temperatures as high as 27° to 28°C. M. edulis
died and thread formation approached zero at temperatures exceeding
26°C.
1238.
Vaskovsky, V.E., O.D. Korotchenko, L.P. Kosheleva,and V.S. Levin.
1972. Arsenic in the lipid extracts of marine invertebrates.
Compo Biochem. Physiol. 41B(4):777-784.
The quantitative contents of arsenic in lipid extracts of 27
species of marine invertebrates, related to various systematic groups,
were determined. Arsenic was found in lipids of representatives from
all phyla. Annelids, molluscs and asteroids (Echinodermata) had the
highest arsenic contents whereas Spongia (Porifera) had the lowest.
299
-------
Lipids of animals of the same species with different habitats were found
to have different arsenic contents. Thin-layer chromatography was used
to compare arsenic-containing substances obtained from various organisms.
Animals from different groups were shown to have different arsenic-con-
taining compounds. The main portions of arsenic-containing substances
saponify.
1239.
Vaughan, B.E., and J.A. Strand.
of a marine release of Sr-90.
1970. Biological implications
Health Physics 18:25-41.
For a situation represented by instantaneous release of
strontium-90-oxide in the ocean, a model of biotic radiocontamination
has been devised based more realistically on known characteristics of
coastal marine organisms. In this contamination model, radioactivity
concentration in soft tissues of migratory fish has been determined
using a modified diffusion model, incorporating uptake and concentration
kinetics, and migratory interception as a function of sample size.
Reasonably good validation was provided by information available from
field studies. Differences in field data and a hypothetical release of
strontium-90-oxide were examined. For 750 curies of strontium-90-oxide
released, probably contamination of economically important pelagic fish
would be accordingly less than consequent on a water concentration main-
tained at 1 million parts/cubic centimeters. Limitations to this model
are discussed. Problems arising chiefly concern behavior of sedentary
organisms, and biological uptake during very protracted release condi-
tions. In these two cases present state-of-the-art does not permit
adequate assessment of radiocontamination. The localized release con-
sidered here cannot constitute a potential hazard to man if normal
radiation protective actions are implemented.
1240.
Vermeer, K. 1972. The crayfish, Orconectes virilis, as an
indicator of mercury contamination. Canad. Field-Natur.
86(2):123-125.
Crayfish (Crustacea) are good indicators of mercury contami-
nation in different water bodies. Crayfish muscle contains three times
as much mercury as the remaining body. Mercury levels do not differ
significantly in samples collected from various parts of the shore of
a highly contaminated lake.
1241.
Vermeer, K., and F.A.J. Armstrong. 1972. Correlation between
mercury in wings and breast muscles in ducks. Jour. Wild.
Manag. 36(4):1270-1273.
Significant positive correlations were found between levels of
mercury in wing muscles and breast muscles in each of five species of
300
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ducks. Average ratios of mercury levels in wing muscle to those in
breast muscle ranged from 0.70:1.00 to 0.75:1.00 in those species.
1242.
Vermeer, K., F.A.J. Armstrong, and D.R.M. Hatch. 1973. Mercury
in aquatic birds at Clay Lake, Western Ontario. Jour. Wild.
Manag. 37(1):58-61.
Total mercury levels ranging from 2 to 16 mg/kg in eggs did
not appear to affect hatching and fledging of herring gulls (Larus
argentatus). Mercury levels in breast muscles of 5 American widgeons
(Mareca americana), 16 mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), 17 blue-winged
teals (Anas discors), 21 common goldeneyes (Bucephala clangula), 17
common mergansers (Mergus merganser), and 7 hooded mergansers (Lopho-
dytes cucullatus) averaged 0.5, 6.1, 6.5, 7.8, 6.8, and 12.3 mg/kg
respectively at Clay Lake 4-6 weeks prior to the hunting season in
1971. Methylmercury in five ducks ranged from 69% to 99% of total
mercury. Crayfish (Orconectes virilis) muscle contained the highest
mercury levels of food items found in esophagi and stomachs of ducks;
the high values in breast muscles of hooded mergansers are likely re-
lated to their feeding on crayfish.
1243.
Vernberg, W.B., and J. O'Hara. 1972. Temperature-salinity
stress and mercury.uptake in the fiddler crab, Uca pugilator.
Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 29:1491-1494.
Uptake of Hg-203 was determined in gill and hepatopancreas
tissue from fiddler crabs maintained under 6 temperature-salinity
regimes. Although total mercury was relatively constant under all
experimental conditions, mercury levels in each of the tissues examined
was markedly different. At higher temperatures the crabs seem able to
transport mercury from gill tissue to the hepatopancreas more effec-
tively than at lower temperatures. This could be a factor in the toxi-
city of mercury to fiddler crabs at low temperatures.
1244.
Vernberg, W.B., and J. Vernberg. 1972. The synergistic effects
of temperature, salinity, and mercury on survival and meta-
bolism of the adult fiddler crab, Uca pugilator. U.S. Dept.
Comm., Fish. Bull. 70(2):415-420. ---
Gill tissues of fiddler crab were the major site of mercury
concentration; lesser amounts accumulated in the hepatopancreas and
green gland. Very small amounts were found in the carapace and muscle
tissue. No significant differences in the amount of mercury in tissues
of males and females were found. A concentration of mercury sublethal
to fiddler crabs under optimum conditions of temperature and salinity
~l
-------
greatly reduced survival times when crabs were placed under conditions
of temperature and salinity stress. Males were more susceptible to the
synergistic effects of mercury in combination with environmental stress
than females. Metabolic rates of male and female fiddler crabs were
affected by prolonged exposure to mercury both under optimum environ-
mental conditions and under temperature and salinity stress. Metabolic
rates of males were more adversely affected than those of females.
1245.
von Hentig, R. 1971. Influence of salinity and temperature on
the development, growth, reproduction and en~rgy budget of
Artemia salina. Marine Biology 9:145-182.
The influence of salinity and temperature on various life pro-
cesses of Artemia salina (L.) from Great Salt Lake, Utah, was measured
at all combinations of 4 temperature levels (10°, 15°, 20°, 30°C) and 4
salinity levels, (5, 15, 32, 700/00). Optimal temperature-salinity com-
binations differ for different life cycle stages and parameters. The
hatching rate rises with increased temperature and sinks with increased
salinity. Hatching success is optimal at 20°C and 320/00. Larval growth
is best at 30°C and 15%0; however, maximum growth is attained at 20°C
and 320/00. Maturation rate, onset of reproduction, interval between
clutches as well as the total number of offspring are primarily influ-
enced by temperature, whereas the clutch size is a function of salinity.
As the temperature is lowered, the capacity to survive low salinities is
decreased. At low temperature, reproduction is only possible at high
salinity. The energy consumption of the hatching embryo is primarily
determined by the salinity level of the medium and is directly propor-
tional to it.
1246.
Vosjan, J.H. 1969. Effect of chelation on the uptake and loss
of yttrium-9l by Porphyra. Netherlands Jour. Sea Res. 4(3):
310-316.
Porphyra umbilicalis accumulates the fission product yttrium-
91 in six hours to a concentration factor of about 288. This accumulated
yttrium may be easily removed to a large extent by washing with sea
water to which EDTA has been added. This proves that yttrium is only
present in outer layers of the thallus, where it has accumulated by
adsorption or (and) ion exchange. When stable yttrium is added, the
concentration factor decreases in concentrations over 0.008 mg/l, be-
cause of Y unavailability- From sea water containing 10-5 M EDTA,
Porphyra extracts little yttrium because the yttrium is chelated.
1247.
Vosjan, J.H., and G.J. Van der Hoek. 1972. A continuous cul-
ture of Desulfovibrio on a medium containing mercury and
copper ions. Netherlands Jour. Sea Res. 5(4) :440-444.
302
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It was determined that once a continuous culture of Desulfo-
vibrio is in progress the toxic effects of Hg and Cu are nullified and
do not affect the growth of the organisms. Atomic absorption analyses
showed that the elements had been removed from the liquid. Similar
experiments carried out on batch cultures of Desulfovibrio caused the
cessation of all growth. It appears that microbiological processes of
the sort that occur in continuous cultures, could be used to render
toxic metals innocuous, to remove them from polluted waters, and to fix
them as sulphides.
1248.
Vucetic, T., W.B. Vernberg, and G. Anderson. 1974. Long-term
annual fluctuations of mercury in the zooplankton of the
east central Adriatic. Rev. Intern. Oceanogr. Medicale
33: 75-81.
The mercury content was determined in zooplankton (dry weight)
collected from two stations in the coastal area from 1964-1969 and from
one station in the deep Adriatic between 1967-1969. In the coastal area
the highest values from 3 to 16 mg/kg Hg were found in 1964-1965
samples, decreasing to approximately 2.0 mg/kg for the other years.
Zooplankton from the deep Adriatic from 1967-1969 averaged 2.86 mg/kg
Hg.
1249.
Wagner, S.L. 1973. Arsenic and cadmium in the environment.
In Heavy Metals in the Environment. Proc. Sem. Oregon State
Univ., Corvallis, Fall Quarter 1972: Oregon State Univ.
Water Resources Res. Inst. Rept. SEMN WR 016.73:45-57.
Arsenic is ubiquitous in our environment and can be found in
air, soil, or water. Most concentrations in water and air are in the
range of a few parts per billion, whereas soil concentrations are often
a few parts per million. The element does not appear to accumulate in
the food chain, and most foods do not contain high concentrations of
arsenic with the single exception of seafoods. For example, whereas an
arsenic tolerance in foods has been established as about 3 mg/l, sea-
foods normally contain concentrations of arsenic ranging from 2 to 30
mg/l. Cadmium occurs naturally in only trace amounts with the exception
of a relatively high concentration found in association with zinc and
lead. Most exposure has been from occupational exposure in workers
involved in battery manufacture, electroplating, the making of alloys.
welding and solders, ceramics, and vapor lamps. Cadmium is believed to
inhibit the synthesis of iron into hemoglobin, and therefore may pro-
duce a secondary type of iron deficiency anemia. As with arsenic, the
compound generally exhibits toxicity via the gastrointestinal route,
but, again, the inhalation of cadmium fumes is much more toxic than the
ingestion of the cadmium salts.
303
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1250.
Walker, J.B. 1953. Inorganic micronutrient requirements of
Chlorella. I. Requirements for calcium (or strontium),
copper, and molybdenum. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 46:1-11.
Procedures have been described for demonstrating requirements
of the green alga, Chlorella pyrenoidosa, for calcium (or strontium) ,
copper, and molybdenum, in addition to the previously established re-
quirements for iron, manganese, and zinc. Although other micronutrient
requirements are specific for the metal in question, the calcium re-
quirement can be satisfied by strontium, on an approximately equimolar
basis.
1251.
Waller, W.T., and J. Cairns, Jr. 1972. The use of fish movement
patterns to monitor zinc in water. Water Research 6:257-269.
The feasibility of using fish movement patterns measured by
light beam interruption as a technique for continuous monitoring of the
response of fish to zinc was investigated. The apparatus does not in
any way interfere with fish movement within the test chamber and allows
for the maintenance of fish for long time periods. Under the conditions
described the system detects aberrations in fish movement caused by zinc.
The detection of stress occurs in sufficient time to permit survival of
the test fish if stress conditions are reversed at time of detection.
The lowest concentration of zinc detected by the system during a 96-h
exposure was between 3.64 and 2.94 mg/Zn2+/l. The system's range of
effective measurement as related to turbidity is discussed. The method-
ology should detect other toxicity equally well.
1252.
Waller, W.T., M.L. Dahlberg, R.E. Sparks, and J. Cairns, Jr.
1971. A computer simulation of the effects of superimposed
mortality due to pollutants on populations of fathead minnows
(Pimephales promelas). Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 28:1107-
1112.
This computer simulation study tested the effects of 99 levels
of proportional mortality on fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) popu-
lations assuming a fixed parent-progeny relationship. Limited data from
two studies on three lakes were available to fit the model and obtain
estimates of parameters for fathead minnow populations. Based on these
estimates, 25 replications of a SO-generation cycle were simulated under
two levels of environmental variability. Arbitrary extinction levels of
5, lOa, and 500 females had little effect on the results. Increasing
environmental variation lowered the percentage mortality at which popu-
lation extinctions occurred. In general, the results are compatible
with the recommendation of the U.S. Committee on Water Quality Criteria,
that the maximum concentration of zinc to which fish could be continuously
~4
-------
exposed should not exceed O.Olx the LC-50 (96 h) value--a concentration
that caused a 50% reduction in mean number of eggs laid per female by
fathead minnows in a laboratory study.
1253.
Walter, C.M., F.C. June, and H.G. Brown. 1973. Mercury in fish,
sediments, and water in Lake Oahe, South Dakota. Jour. Water
Poll. Contr. Fed. 45(10):2203-2210.
Analyses for total mercury content were made of fish, sediment,
and water samples collected in several locations in Lake Oahe, South
Dakota, and its tailwaters. Mercury concentrations equal to or exceed-
ing 0.5 mg/kg occurred in 30 of 225 fish samples tested (13%). Higher
concentrations were found most frequently in predatory game fishes, pri-
marily northern pike and walleye, from the Cheyenne River arm. Sediment
samples with mercury concentrations above 0.5 mg/kg were found only in
the Cheyenne River arm, but water samples contained only negligible
amounts of mercury.
1254.
Wang, H. 1959. Analyses of a toxic factor, lethal to Paramecium
present in non-glass-distilled water. Proc. Soc. Exp. BioI.
Med. 101:682-685.
The toxic effects of chloride, sulfate and nitrate of Cu and
acetate of Pb and Zn on Paramecia aurelia were tested. The threshold
concentration, i.e. the concentration causing death of all or nearly
all paramecia in 20-30 min, of Pb acetate was 25-4 M.
1255.
Ward, J.V. 1973. Molybdenum concentrations in tissues of rain-
bow trout (Salmo gairdneri) and kokanee salmon (Oncorhynchus
nerka) from waters differing widely in molybdenum content.
Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 30:841-842.
Concentrations of molybdenum in tissues of trout from three
waters increased only slightly with increase in molybdenum concentration
of the water. Fish from high (300 ~g/l) molybdenum water had mean con-
centrations of 13-332 ~g/l on a wet-weight basis; those from low (6 ~g/l)
molybdenum water, 10-146 ~g/l; and those from trace molybdenum water,
5-118 ~g/l. Trout exhibited generally higher molybdenum concentrations
than salmon in high molybdenum water. A possible plateau mechanism con-
cerning molybdenum accumulation by salmonids is discussed.
1256.
Watson, D.G., J.J. Davis, and W.C. Hanson. 1961. Zinc-65 in
marine organisms along the Oregon and Washington coasts.
Science 133:1826-1828.
305
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The concentration of zinc-65 in marine animals and plants near
the mouth of the Columbia River is presented. Amounts of radiozinc
found in biota diminished rapidly with distance from river mouth. High-
est levels were found in plankton, algae, and mollusks. Of the human
foods, oysters exhibited the highest levels.
1257.
Weir, P.A., and C.H. Hine. 1970. Effects of various metals on
behavior of conditioned goldfish. Arch. Environ. Health 20(1):
45 - 51.
A conditional avoidance technique was utilized to assess dele-
terious effects of salts of As, Pb, Hg and Se on fish. All test ions,
arsenic, lead, mercury, and selenium impaired performance at 1/100 of
the lethal concentration. Mercury was the most potent, producing measur-
able effects at 0.003 mg/l. Behavioral toxicity techniques are suggested
as useful in setting water quality standards.
1258.
Weisbart, M. 1973. The distribution and tissue retention of
mercury-203 in the goldfish (Carassius auratus). Canad. Jour.
2001. 51(2):143-150.
Goldfish injected intraperitoneally with Hg-203(N03)2 lost
mercury at an apparent constant rate resulting in a biological half-life
of 568h. Correlated with this loss was a linear increase in the amount
of mercury in the water. The mercury-203 content in the tissues dis-
played four different responses: (1) gall bladder, gonad, and spleen
tissues showed no significant regressions; (2) eye, kidney, and intestinal
tissues manifested significant losses of mercury, but the rate of loss
was not significantly different from that of the body as a whole; (3)
gill, heart, skin, and swim bladder tissues lost mercury at rates faster
than the body as a whole; and (4) brain, liver, muscle, and head kidney
tissues showed no significant losses of mercury.
1259.
Weiss, H.V., and W.H. Shipman. 1957. Biological concentration
by killer clams of cobalt-60 from radioactive fallout.
Science 125:695.
After the March 1954 nuclear detonation in the Pacific Ocean,
a number of northern Marshall Islands were contaminated with radioactive
fallout. Among the specimens collected at two years postdetonation were
two "killer" clams (Tridacna gigas), that were recovered from the shores
of Rongelap Island. High levels of Co-60 were detected in soft tissues.
The appearance of readily measurable quantities of Co-60 in
the killer clam is noteworthy from two aspects. First, Co-60 is not a
306
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component of fission products. It is therefore assumed that this
nuclide was induced from an environmental precursor by the neutron flux
accompanying the nuclear detonation. A possible precursor is natural
Co-59, which, when bombarded by neutrons, undergoes the typical (n, y)
reaction to form Co-60. More importantly, this radioelement was not
detected in the numerous fallout-exposed materials analyzed at one year
postdetonation. The accumulation of Co-60 from an environment which
for all intents and purposes was infinitely dilute points to the enormous
concentrating capacity of the killer clam.
1260.
Westoo, G. 1966. Determination of methylmercury compounds in
foodstuffs. I. Methylmercury compounds in fish, identifica-
tion and determination. Acta Chemica Scandinavica 20:2131-
2137.
A combined gas chromatographic and thin-layer chromatographic
method for the identification and determination of methylmercury com-
pounds in fish is presented. For the identification five derivatives
of the supposed methylmercury compound from three samples of fish were
studied. In thirty samples of fish from the Baltic, Swedish lakes and
rivers two or three derivatives were analyzed using both chromatographic
methods. The samples contained 0.07-4.45 mg Hg/kg as methylmercury com-
pounds. Also in marine fish methylmercury compounds were found, but
only in small amounts. Any methylmercury attached to a sulphur atom of
nonvolatile compounds will not be determined with this method.
1261.
Westoo, G. 1973. Methylmercury as precentage of total mercury
in flesh and viscera of salmon and sea trout of various ages.
Science 181:567-568.
The proportion of methylmercury to total mercury in the flesh
of salmon 1 to 7 years old and sea trout (Salmo ocla) 1 and 2 years old
was found to average 93% with a range of 81 to 98%, and to be independent
of age of fish. In salmon and sea trout 1 and 2 years old, methylmercury
constituted 26 to 67% of the total visceral mercury, without age
dependence.
1262.
Weswig, P.H. 1973. Selenium in the environment. In Heavy
Metals in the Environment; Proc. Sem. Oregon State Univ.,
Corvallis, Ore., Sept. 1972: Oregon State Water Resources
Res. Inst. Rept. SEMN WR 016.73:183-203.
Selenium is a relatively scarce element, its mean content in
the earth's crust is about 0.09 mg/kg, and it is 66th in order of abund-
ance. Selenium occurs especially in association with sulfur deposits
307
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and may also be found in combination with elements such as iron, lead,
copper, and arsenic. In most soils not derived from sedimentary rocks,
Se concentration is about 0.05 mg/kg. In sea-bottom sediments and sedi-
mentary rocks, selenium values may be as high as 1.2 mg/kg. However,
there are certain seleniferous regions in the world with much greater
concentrations of selenium. In addition to South Dakota and Wyoming,
seleniferous areas have been reported in Canada, Mexico, Ireland,
Australia, Israel, and China. The safe upper limit for selenium in
drinking water is 10 ~g/l according to the U.S. Department of Health.
The presence of selenium in surface waters is a function of both pH
and drainage slope with the highest concentrations coming generally from
specific spring waters. Plants which grow on soils rich in selenium may
concentrate the selenium and cause death to the animal consuming them.
In Wyoming and North Dakota, there are more than 24 species which may be
classified as accumulators. Chronic selenium poisoning is caused by
consuming plants containing from 10-30 mg/kg selenium.
1263.
Whitton, B.A. 1970. Toxicity of zinc, copper and lead to
Chlorophyta from flowing waters. Archiv fur Mikrobiologie
72:353-360.
The biological and economic interest of heavy metals in the
relation to freshwater algae led to a survey of toxicity of zinc, copper,
and lead to Chlorophyta in flowing waters. Twenty populations each of
Stigeoclonium tenue and Cladophora glomerata were tested for variations
in metal resistance. The only indication found was a slight increase in
resistance to zinc of one Stigeoclonium population from a metal-polluted
stream. Thirty-five other algal populations, representing about 25
species, were also tested. Comparison of these populations showed that
Cladophora glomerata was almost always the most sensitive to all three
metals; this species was absent from streams known to be polluted by
lead or lead and zinc. The Ulotrichales and most of the Zygnemales were
relatively resistant to zinc, while all the Oedogonium species taken
from the field were sensitive to zinc. However, an Oedogoniu~ popula-
tion highly zinc resistant was obtained from a zinc enriched laboratory
tank. Because the medium used in the present experiments is relatively
rich in nutrients, such as phosphates, it may well mask effects that would
show in a less favorable environment.
1264.
~fuitton, B.A. 1970.
algae: A review.
Toxicity of heavy metals to freshwater
Phykos 9:116-125.
A brief review of the literature on toxicity of heavy metals
(Pb, Zn, Fe, Cu, Cr, Ag, ~fu and Hg) to freshwater algae is presented.
Subtopics include: exposure over long periods; laboratory studies; and
possibility of adaptation. A bibliography of 38 references is appended.
W8
-------
1265.
Wiesepape, L.M., D.V. Aldrich, and K. Strawn. 1972. Effects of
temperature and salinity on thermal death in post larval brown
shrimp, Penaeus aztecus. Physiol. Zool. 45(1):22-33.
Interest has been expressed in the possibilities of commercial
mariculture of brown shrimp which naturally occur in bays in the North-
west Gulf of Mexico. The lethal temperature for shrimp acclimated at
the same salinity and different temperatures was determined. Thermal
resistance of postlarvae transferred to a higher temperature with two
salinities was measured at timed intervals to determine differences in
acclimation. To determine effects of changes in temperature and salinity
at the same time, a large number of postlarval shrimp acclimated at
various temperature-salinity combinations were subjected to various
other temperature-salinity conditions. The level of thermal resistance
does not seem to be affected by reduced salinity. It now seems possible
to raise brown shrimp from the egg to the postlarval stage under hatch-
ery conditions. The effects of heated effluents on postlarval brown
shrimp depend primarily on the temperature of the effluent and the tem-
perature at which the shrimp are acclimated. Secondary considerations
are salinity and acclimation salinity.
1266.
Williams, L.G., and D.I. Mount. 1965. Influence of zinc on
periphytic communities. Amer. Jour. Bot. 52(1):26-34.
The glass-slide technique was used in a l4-week study to show
effects of 4 concentrations of zinc on periphytic communities in 4 out-
door canals supplied with running pond water containing its natural
biota. No species was found that could be considered an indicator of
zinc. The effect of adding 1 mg/l or more of zinc was to reduce the
number of dominant species. A geometric regression of the average
number of dominant algal species was found beginning with the control,
with no added zinc, and proceeding from that to the largest concentra-
tion of zinc. A relatively large concentration of zinc resulted in com-
paratively low biotic diversity. Fungi and slime-forming bacteria pro-
duced a large standing crop in the largest zinc concentration, apparently
by digesting the killed incoming phytoplankters that were used as their
food.
1267.
Williams, P.M., and H.V. Weiss. 1973. Mercury in the marine
environment: Concentration in sea water and in a pelagic food
chain. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 30(2):293-295.
Mercury in seawater; in a pelagic food chain, and in bottom
sediment was determined at a single station 430 km southeast of San Diego,
California. The concentration of mercury in zooplankton slightly in-
creased with depth of collection. The mercury content in almost all of
309
-------
the higher trophic levels of organisms collected at greater depths was
indistinguishable from the concentration of mercury in zooplankton at
these depths. Mercury concentration in the seawater column was essen-
tially constant below 100 m and significantly higher at the surface.
This vertical profile of mercury content is not ascribable to biologi-
cal activity.
1268.
Wilson, R.C.H.
ing waters.
1972. Prediction of copper toxicity in receiv-
Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 29(10):1500-1502.
The 96-hr LC-50 of copper to Atlantic salmon parr in water
taken from the Exploits River, Newfoundland, is about 125 vg/l at a total
hardness of 8-10 mg/l CaC03 and a total alkalinity of 4 mg/l. However,
the addition of spent sulphite liquor from a pulp mill allowed fish to
survive more than 180 Vg/l Cu. Considering the variety of organic com-
pounds which have now been shown to chelate dissolved copper, it is
likely that a simple model for the prediction of copper toxicity in
waters receiving mine effluent will prove impossible.
1269.
Windom, H., R. Stickney, R. Smith, D. White, and F. Taylor. 1973.
Arsenic, cadmium, copper; mercury, and zinc in some species of
North Atlantic finfish. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 30(2):
275-279.
Arsenic, cadmium, copper, mercury, and zinc analyses of 91
individuals representing 35 species of North Atlantic finfish (Chon-
drichthys and Osteichthys) indicate that these metals occur at similar
levels in both inshore and offshore species. Chondrichthys and Oste-
ichthys have similar concentrations of all the metals, excepting arsenic
which is higher in Chondrichthys. Analyses of various tissues in Chon-
drichthys reveal higher metal concentrations in the liver except for
mercury which was higher in muscles.
1270.
Windom, H., F. Taylor, and R. Stickney. 1973. Mercury in North
Atlantic plankton. Jour. Cons. Int. Explor. Mer. 35(1):18-21.
Concentrations of mercury in North Atlantic plankton (on a dry
weight basis) vary from less than 0.2 to about 0.4 mg/kg in unpolluted
areas to as high as 5.3 mg/kg in polluted areas near shore. No corre-
lation in mercury content with species composition of the plankton
samples was observed. Variations in concentration appear to be a func-
tion of distance from coastal pollution sources.
~10
-------
1271.
Windom, H.L. 1973. Mercury distribution in estuarine-nearshore
environment. Jour. Amer. Soc. Civil Engin.; Waterways,
Harbors and Coastal Engin. Div. 99(WW2):257-264.
The transfer of Hg through an estuarine system of the south-
eastern Atlantic coast to the open ocean is controlled by mixing of
estuarine waters with offshore waters, loss in plant detritus due to
rafting offshore, and migration of estuarine organisms to offshore areas.
An additional loss of Hg from the estuarine system is due to sedimenta-
tion. A Hg budget for estuaries along the Georgia coast indicated that
the dominant salt marsh plant, Spartina alterniflora, exerts a strong
control on the migration of the metal. Mercury enters the estuary pri-
marily in solution, delivering approximately 1.5 mg annually to each
square meter of salt marsh. The annual uptake of Hg by the plant is
approximately 0.7 mg/m2 of salt marsh.
1272.
Windom, H.L., and R.G. Smith. 1972. Distribution of iron,
magnesium, copper, zinc, and silver in oysters along the
Georgia coast. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 29:450-452.
The shells and soft tissues of approximately 50 oysters
(Crassostrea virginica) collected along the Georgia coast were analyzed
for Fe, Mg, Cu, Zn, and Ag. Magnesium was the only metal found to be
more concentrated in the shells. Correlations between metals in the
soft tissues suggest that iron and magnesium, and copper, zinc and
silver form two separate groups of metals which are concentrated simi-
larly by the oyster. Geochemical characteristics of a given metal are
an important control in their input by oysters.
1273.
Winner, J.E. 1972. Macrobenthic communities in the Coeur
d'Alene lake system. M.S. Thesis. Available from Nat. Tech.
Inf. Ser., Springfield, Va., as OWRR B-015-IDA(2):1-4l.
The extent of contamination by mine and smelter wastes in the
Coeur d'Alene lakes, Idaho was studied by measuring concentrations of
five heavy metals in the sediments and studying their possible effects
on benthic communities. Zinc concentrations were 627-7320 mg/l in Lake
Coeur d'Alene and 10-105 mg/l-in Chat co let and Round Lakes. Benthic
macroinvertebrates were collected and identified from four depths in
four areas of Lake Coeur d'Alene in July and September 1971 and in March
1972 to determine distribution and relative numbers. Chironomid larvae
and oligochaetes made up 90% of the 62 taxa of macroinvertebrates
identified. The most commonly collected organisms were chironomids in
Lake Coeur d'Alene and oligochaetes in Round and Chatcolet Lakes. Macro-
invertebrates were most abundant in shallow water where aquatic macro-
phytes were common. Sixty percent of the organisms were found in samples
311
-------
from 2 m, but wide variation was observed. Distribution of benthic
chironomids or oligochaetes did not seem to be substantially affected
by 1000-7000 mg/l zinc and other metals in the sediments. Southern
portions of the lake system contained many macroinvertebrates associated
wi th nutrient-rich waters while the northern portions contained many
organisms associated with oligotrophic waters.
1274.
Winter, J.E. 1972. Long-term laboratory experiments on the
influence of ferric hydroxide flakes on the filter-feeding
behavior, growth, iron content and mortality in Mytilus edulis
L. In Rui vo, M. (ed.). Marine Pollution and Sea Life. Fish-
ing Trading News (books) Ltd., London: 392-396.
During a 5 month study adult mussels were subjected to various
concentrations (0.4-4.0 mg Fe/I) of ferric hydroxide flakes together
with their algal food. At low iron applications of 0.4 mg Fe/l and in
controls, no production of pseudofaeces took place. All flakes and food
were transported into the stomach. At higher applications, pseudofaeces
production was abundant. At the highest application of 4.0 mg Fe/I,
almost all ferric hydroxide flakes and algal cells were disposed of as
pseudofaeces. Growth of soft tissues decreased with increasing appli-
cations of ferric hydroxide flakes; iron content increased with increas-
ing concentrations. At the highest application (4.0 mg Fe/I), iron con-
tent/unit dry wt of soft parts increased 9x within 3 months, but since
there was a 38% weight loss associated with this treatment, the in-
crease of iron content per animal was only 3x over initial values. High
and medium amounts of ferric hydroxide flakes caused a mortality of 75%
within 3 months. Low applications killed 40% within 5 months; controls
experienced 20% mortality during this period. The low rate of mortality
during the first month at high application of 4.0 mg/l is noteworthy.
Apparently, very high applications can be tolerated for a short time
because almost the total amount is refused and returned as pseudofaeces
while only a small amount of iron enters the digestive tract.
1275.
Wixson, B.G. and E. Bolter. 1972. Evaluations of stream pollu-
tion and trace substances in the New Lead Belt of Missouri.
Trace Substance in Environmental Health 5:143-152.
Studies of lead-zinc mine effluents entering streams have
indicated that mining waste-waters contain carbon dioxide and sufficient
phosphorus to combine with nitrogen present in the stream water and
cause undesirable benthic growths in bacterial-algal mats. Background
concentrations of lead, zinc and copper rarely exceeded 20 ~g/l in
streams; however, concentrations up to 1,000 ~g/l have been determined
in settling ponds. Recommendations are presented for the effective
control of trace substances associated with wastewater from the lead-zinc
industry in southeast Missouri.
312
-------
1276.
Wolfe, D.A. 1970. Levels of stable Zn and 65Zn in Crassostrea
virginica from North Carolina. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada
27(1) :47-57.
The concentration of zinc in oysters was highly variable--
samples from relatively unpolluted estuaries of North Carolina contained,
on the average, 85-245 mg/kg zinc, based on wet weight. Internal tis-
sues, like adductor muscle and pericardial sac, had zinc levels less
than half those of external tissues but zinc was nonetheless distributed
uniformly throughout animal tissues. During 1964-66, North Carolina
oysters contained 2-20 pCi Zn-65 from fallout per 100 g wet weight.
Specific activity of Zn-65 in these oysters during 1965-66 was in the
range 90-300 pCi/g Zn, and was declining with an apparent half-life of
276 days.
1277.
Wolfe, D .A. 1971. Fallout cesium-137 in clams (Rangia cuneata)
from the Neuse River Estuary, North Carolina. Limnology and
Oceanography 16:797-805.
The concentration of Cs-137 from fallout was determined for
the soft tissues of clams from the Trent-Neuse estuary during 1965-1967.
The concentration of Cs-137 in clams varied inversely as a logarithmic
function of salinity in the estuary, but with a lesser salinity depend-
ence than reported previously for Cs-137 concentration factors in Rangia.
An increasing concentration gradient of Cs-137 with increasing salinity
in the estuary was hypothesized and confirmed by analysis of Cs-137 in
estuarine water of varying salinity. Transport of Cs-137 on sediments
into estuaries, coupled with ion-exchange displacement of Cs-137 from
sediments at elevated salinities, is proposed to account for concentra-
tion gradients of Cs-137 in the estuary.
1278.
Wolfe, D.A., and C.B. Coburn, Jr. 1970. Influence of salinity
and temperature on the accumulation of cesium-137 by an
estuarine clam under laboratory conditions. Health Physics
18:499-505.
Accumulation of Cs-137 by the clam Rangia cuneata was described
by asymptotic expotential regressions at 20 salinity-temperature combi-
nations (1-200/00, 5-25°C). Regression constants from the individual
experiments were subjected to regression analysis and were expressed as
functions of salinity and temperature. Concentration factors decreased
with increasing salinity, but increased with temperature. The proportion
of Cs-137 associated with the shell decreased as salinity or temperature
was increased.
313
-------
Wolfe, D.A., F.A. Cross, and C.D. Jennings. 1973. The flux of
Mn, Fe and Zn in an estuarine ecosystem. In Radioactive Con-
tamination of the Marine Environment, Int. Atom. Ener. Agen.,
Vienna, Austria: 159-175.
Trace metal (Mn, Fe, Zn) fluxes are modelied for the Newport
River estuary, a North Carolina embayment of about 31 square km which
receives runoff from a 340 square km watershed. The estimate is rele-
vant for prediction of radionuclide distributions (with respect to up-
take by commercial fish and shellfish) for the case of chronic input.
(Further information as to critical pathways and turnover rates would
be required for discontinuous inputs.) The greatest export is sedimen-
tation. Major inputs are dissolved and suspended material in river
water, and possibly the sea when the river flow is low. A lesser input
is uptake from interstitial water and deep sediments by the dominant
vegetation, Spartina alterniflora.
1279.
1280.
Wong, K.M. 1971. Radiochemical determination of plutonium in
sea water, sediments and marine organisms. Anal. Chim. Acta
56: 355- 364.
A radiochemical procedure is described for the determination
of plutonium in large samples of sea water, sediments, liver and bone
of shark, and whole blue mussel. Factors influencing the recovery, con-
tamination and blank activity are discussed. Pu-239 activity in liver,
bone, and whole mussel were, in dim/kg wet wt, about 0.25, 0.03, and
0.33, respectively.
1281.
Wong, K.M., V.F. Hodge, and T.R. Folsom. 1972. Plutonium and
polonium inside giant brown algae. Nature 237(5356) :460-462.
The giant brown alga, Pelagophycus porra, was sampled to
determine plutonium and polonium levels in sea water. The samples were
analyzed by alpha spectrometry for Pu-239 and Po-2l0 content. Polonium
concentrations in outermost thin layers of the algae were 1,000 times
greater than those from inner layers; highest concentrations of plutonium
were also found in outer layers. These differences in sensitivity within
a single species suggest that, when comparing two different environ-
ments, identical sample tissue from a certain species should be compared.
Sampling thin parts of brown algae, or thin outer layers should provide
great sensitivity for detecting early changes in extremely small traces
of plutonium which are expected to accumulate in oceans due to reactor
effluents, nuclear fuel processing and fallout.
314
-------
1282.
Wood, J.M. 1973. Metabolic cycles for toxic elements in aqueous
systems. In 6th Int. Symp. Medicale Ocean., Portoroz, Yugo-
slavia, Sept. 26-30, 1973:7-16.
When elements are introduced into environments rich in micro-
bial activity, each valence state is made available for metabolic inter-
conversions. The author summarizes the mercury and arsenic cycles show-
ing interconversion of inorganic complexes to organometallic complexes.
These are considered important because the latter are readily transported
and accumulated into tissues of high lipid content. This interconversion
is accomplished with methylating agents which are available for methyl
transfer reactions in biological systems.
1283.
Wooldridge, C.R., and D.P. Wooldridge. 1969. Internal damage in
an aquatic beetle exposed to sublethal concentrations of in-
organic ions. Annals Entomolog. Soc. America 62(4):921-922.
The effects are reported of metal ions (Co, Mn, Cr, Mg, Zn,
Cd, Cu, Ni, Ca, AI, Mo, Fe) in sublethal concentrations upon the gross
internal anatomy of adult aquatic beetles (Tropistermus lateralis
nimbatus). All test solutions were .003 M. The fat body was the first
and most severely affected tissue, its color changing from lemon yellow
to white through shades of very dark orange. Other, less universal,
changes are also described. Variations in gonadal condition would be
the most useful criterion for determining inorganic contamination of the
aquatic habitat of this organism.
1284.
Wooldridge, D.P., and C.R. Wooldridge. 1967.
inorganic pollution on an aquatic beetle.
Branch Entomol. Soc. Arner. 22:160-161.
Some effects of
Proc. North Central
Concentrations of 10-2 M of Cd, Co, Mn, Cr, Ni and
killed Tropistermus lateralis nimbatus in less than 10 days.
no measurable effects on survival and behavior in 14 days at
centrations of salts of AI, Fe, Mg, Mo and Zn.
Cu salts
There were
10-2 M con-
1285.
Wright, T.D., D.G. Leddy, D.J. Brandt, and T.T. Virnig. 1973.
Water quality alteration of Torch Lake, Michigan by copper
leach liquor. Proc. 16th Conf. Great Lakes Res.: 329-344.
In the summer of 1972, Torch Lake was found to have very high
levels of copper, carbonate alkalinity, pH and ammonia nitrogen in com-
parison to previous years. In addition, unusual oxygen depletion in the
hypolimnion was noted. Bioassays with adult amphipods indicated that
portions of the lake were toxic. Behavior of the chlorides in the lake
315
-------
showed that observed conditions were not caused by accumulation in the
basin, but probably resulted from spills of cupric ammonium carbonate
known to have occurred in late fall 1971 and early summer 1972. Volu-
metric calculations indicate that the spill could have resulted in
copper values much greater than those observed and could have (through
conversion of ammonia nitrogen to nitrate nitrogen) been significantly
involved in oxygen depletion. There is also evidence of change in the
phytoplankton community, but the causal mechanism is not clear. Theo-
retical calculations indicate that Torch Lake, which has one of the
highest copper concentrations in the United States, should not support
aquatic life. That it does illustrates a hiatus in the role of various
ionic species of copper and aquatic life.
1286.
Young, D.R., and T.R. Folsom. 1973. Mussels and barnacles as
indicators of the variation of 54Mn, 60Co and 65Zn in the
marine environment. In Radioactive Contamination of the
Marine Environment. Int. Atom. Ener. Agen., Vienna, Austria:
633-650.
The intertidal byssal mussel Mytilus californianus and the
oceanic gooseneck barnacle Lepas anatifera are efficient indicators of
the marine environment. Lepas specimens collected from the northeastern
Pacific during the first half of 1964 demonstrated oceanic-to-coastal
ratios of Mn-54, Co-60, and Zn-65 fallout from the 1961-62 thermonuclear
tests of approximately 3:1, 4:1, and 2:1, respectively. Cesium-137 in
the surface layers of the two sectors (whose centers lie about 1500 and
300 km west of San Diego) also showed a 3:1 oceanic-to-coastal enhance-
ment of fallout from this source. Mytilus specimens collected during
1963-64 along the northeastern Pacific Coast showed a fairly uniform
distribution of Mn-54 and Co-60 between latitudes 46 and 290 north, but
dramatically reflected the point source of Hanford-produced Zn-65
emanating from the mouth of the Columbia River. Relatively high Zn-65
concentration, possibly related to this source, were detected in Mytilus
from northern Baja California, Mexico--1900 km to the south. Except for
a late 1963 peak in Mn-54 concentrations in southern California Mytilus,
the ecological half-times of the three nuclides observed in the inverte-
brates between rnid-1963 and late 1964 at specific intertidal, coastal,
and oceanic platforms were consistent with radioactive decay rates.
This suggests an approximate equilibrium between input and removal of
these radiometals in mixed layer. Mussel and barnacle tissue-to-seawater
enrichment factors for the three nuclides exceed 1000. In Mytilus 4 to
6 cm in length, size variations had no significant effect on nuclide con-
centration, but 70% of the Co-60 and Zn-65 soft-tissue radioactivity was
located in kidneys and digestive glands of this organism. Bay mussels
(M. edulis) taken from the coastal surf zone showed concentrations similar
to those in~. californianus, but ~. edulis in two nearby bays had lower
values. Intertidal coastal mussels and gooseneck barnacles recently
316
-------
collected from 14 California stations indicate average 1971 "baseline
concentrations" of Mn-54, Co-60, and Zn-65 of 0-5, 0-4, and 0-11 pCi/wet
kg, respectively.
1287.
Young, L.G., and L. Nelson. 1974. The effects of heavy metal
ions on the motility of sea urchin spermatozoa. BioI. Bull.
147:236-246.
Optimum motility of sea urchin spermatozoa for a period ade-
quate to initiate the process of fertilization requires an apparently
critical level of certain heavy metal ions. Increa~e of some of the
divalent cations above the "normal" seawater content accelerates or
depresses the swimming speed in dose- or time-dependent fashion (or
both). The different patterns of Arbacia sperm swimming speed response
to the individual cation supplements (Cu, Zn, Mn, Hg) may reflect dif-
ferences in rate of penetration into the cell, binding of active groups
or selective inhibition of as yet unspecified enzymes at or below the
cell surface which directly or indirectly contribute to regulation of
flagellar contractility. The concentrations tested ranged from 500 nM
up to 10 rnM. The "optimum" concentrations fell between 1 to 10 micro-
molar Cu, Zn and Hg on initial exposure, while Mn was moderately inhibi-
tory at these levels. EDTA, up to 10-lmolar, exerts no adverse effect
on sperm propulsion, while 8 X 10-4 M almost completely blocks the
motility. Within this short concentration span, the EDTA appears not
only to bind essential seawater cations, but may also deplete those
intracellular regulatory cations which otherwise may exist in a state of
dynamic equilibrium with the seawater.
1288.
Young, R.G., and D.J. Lisk. 1972. Effect of copper and silver
ions on algae. Jour. Water Poll. Contr. Fed. 44(8):1643-1647.
A concentration of 0.3 mg/l copper or copper-silver mixture
was lethal to all blue-green algae tested: Anacystis nidulons, Anabaena
variabilis, Anabaena flos-aqua. Green algae (Eudorina californica,
Pediastrum biradiaturn, Chlorella vulgaris) were more resistant than the
blue-green algae. The copper-silver combination was usually slightly
more effective than copper alone under the conditions used, but will be
of questionable utility in the field when the increased risk to desir-
able fish and the economic factor of the greater cost of silver salts
are considered.
1289.
Zeitoun, M.A., E.F. Mandelli, W.F. McIlhenny, and R.O. Reid.
1969. Disposal of the effluents from desalination plants:
The effects of copper content, heat and salinity. Office of
Saline Water, Res. Devel., Prog. Rept. 437(OWS-14-0l-000l-
1161):1-192.
317
-------
Criteria for outfall designs were established based on copper
concentrations in effluents from a desalting plant, its concentration
after dispersion in the environment and the ecological effects of heat,
salinity and copper on the planktonic organisms in the water column.
The copper introduced into the brine from existing distillation plants
averaged from 0.34 to 0.65 mg/l. Copper was found to be more soluble
in seawater concentrates than in seawater, with a minimum solubility at
pH 7.5. The removal of copper from brine blowdown by plating on alumi-
num was found to be technically unfeasible due to side reactions involv-
ing evolution of hydrogen. The use of diffusers to mix the effluent
with seawater to reach safe copper concentration by d~lution is believed
to be a more practical solution than chemical removal or inactivation.
Copper concentrations of the order of 0.05 mg/l at 20°C on
continuous supply were found to be toxic to the two most important pri-
mary producers in the marine environment: diatoms and dinoflagellates.
Increasing temperatures were found to have a synergistic action on the
toxicity of Cu++ to marine phytoplankton. Increasing salinities were
found to have an antagonistic action on the toxicity of Cu++ to marine
phytoplankton, however, the concomitant thermal stress will minimize
this effect. Copper was found to be concentrated by marine phytoplankton
in the ratio of 5000:1 to 10~000:1. Considerable amount of copper can
therefore be transferred to other trophic levels of the various food
chains.
1290.
Zimmermann, U., and E. Steudle. 1971. Effects of potassium con-
centration and osmotic pressure of sea water on the cell-
turgor pressure of Chaetomorpha linum. Marine Biology 11:
132-137.
The unicellular littoral alga Chaetomorpha linum is capable
of maintaining constant cell-turgor through regulation of internal
osmotic pressure, when subjected to various salinity gradients. The
decrease or increase of external potassium concentration is an impor-
tant factor. This has been shown by experiments in artificial seawater
with reduced osmolality and variable potassium concentration (1 to 50
rnMol/l).
1291.
Zitko, P., W.V. Carson, and W.G. Carson. 1973. Prediction of
incipient lethal levels of copper to juvenile Atlantic salmon
in the presence of humic acid by cupric electrode. Bull.
Environ. Contamin. Toxicol. 10(5):265-271.
The toxicity of copper to juvenile Atlantic salmon in the
presence of humic acid, and predictions of incumbent lethal levels of
copper from potential of a cupric ion selective electrode, are
318
-------
presented. The ILL of Cu is 12 ~g/l; this increases with increasing
concentrations of humic acid.
1292.
Zitko, V., B.J. Finlayson, D.J. Wildish, J.M. Anderson, and A.C.
Kohler. 1971. Methylmercury in freshwater and marine fishes
in New Brunswick, in the Bay of Fundy, and on the Nova Scotia
Banks. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 28(9):1285-1291.
American eel (Anguilla rostrata), chain pickerel (Esox niger),
white perch (Morone americana), yellow perch (Perea flavescens), brook
trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) and Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) contained
0.07-2.08,0.27-1.58,0.75-1.07,0.20-1.05,0.08-0.13, and 0.09 mg/kg of
methylmercury, expressed as mercury on wet weight basis, respectively.
With only two exceptions, levels of methylmercury in marine fish were
below 0.13 mg/kg. Some of the freshwater sampling locations could be
directly associated with an industrial activity in the area. The con-
centration of methylmercury in eels from a lake in New Brunswick did
not change over a period of 46 years, indicating that elevated levels
of mercury may in some instances reflect the natural situation.
319
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SECTION III
INDEX
Three indices are presented: INDEX-~1ETALS, INDEX-TAXA, and INDEX-
AUTHORS. Each index encompasses this volume and the initial volume in
this series, namely, Eisler, R. 1973. Annotated bibliography on bio-
logical effects of metals in aquatic environments (no. 1-567). U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Report R3-73-007: pp. 1-287.
320
-------
INDEX - METALS
ACTINIUM
Algae: 1016
Crustacea: 1016
Fish: 1016
Insecta: 1016
ALUHINUM
Algae: 535,792,992,1130,1289
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535, 1173
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535, 1131
Crustacea: 409, 428, 506, 535, 546, 626, 992, 1063, 1289
Echinodermata: 535, 1131
Fish (Te1eostei): 18, 142, 156,409,428,452,506,535,
795, 796, 898, 940, 945, 1235
Higher Plants: 535, 570
Insecta: 1283, 1284
Miscellaneous: 505
Mollusca: 216, 428, 506, 535, 649, 670, 1106, 1162
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535
754, 761,
ANTIMONY
Algae: 483, 535, 541, 851, 932, 951, 1038, 1208, 1234
Aves: 541, 851, 1038
Bacteria: 535, 842, 1177
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Bryophyta: 1038
Coelenterata: 535, 851
Crustacea: 13,535,541,851,952,1038,1039,1210,1234
Echinodermata: 535, 1038
Fish: 274, 334, 535, 541, 851, 940, 951, 952, 1038, 1210, 1234
Higher Plants: 535, 541, 1038
Mammalia: 541, 851, 933, 1038
Mollusca: 466, 535, 541, 638, 951, 1038, 1039. 1224, 1234
Phoronidea: 535
Plankton: 466
321
-------
Pori fera:
Protozoa:
Sediments:
Soils: 541
Tunicata: 535
535, 1038
535
466, 951
ARSENIC
Algae: 37, 42, 338, 535, 632, 706, 735, 748, 815, 951, 959. 1203,
1208
Annelida: 535, 1238
Bacteria: 535, 571, 657, 1282
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535, 1097
Crustacea: 12, 92, 342, 520, 535, 626, 632, 706, 735, 952, 1039.
1203, 1249
Diatoms: 420
Echinoderms: 535, 1238
Fish: 37,42,70,142,166,205,245,274,334,342,520,531,535,
735, 748, 815, 951, 952, 977, 979, 1067, 1203, 1257, 1269
Fungi: 735
Higher Plants: 531, 535, 748, 1118, 1203
Insecta: 1203
Mammalia: 581, 933
Mollusca: 338, 456, 534, 535, 670, 951, 982, 1039, 1238
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535, 1238
Protozoa: 535, 1203
Rotifera: 706
Sediments: 951
Tunicata: 535
BARIUM
Algae: 56, 228, 628, 992, 1112, 1130, 1208
Amphibia: 897
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535, 571
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535, 965
Crustacea: 13,360,535.626,992,1039
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 56, 142, 156, 245, 273, 360, 450, 535, 754, 797, 898, 940,
945, 1218, 1235
Higher Plants: 535
Insecta: 797
322
-------
Mammalia: 202, 797
Miscellaneous: 392
Mollus ca: 535, 557,
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535
769, 1039, 1106
BERYLLIUM
Algae: 535, 1038, 1130, 1208
Amphibia: 138
Annelida: 535
Aves: 1038
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Bryophyta: 1038
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 535, 1038
Echinodermata: 535, 1038
Fish: 156, 271, 512, 535, 751, 754, 940, 1038, 1101, 1182, 1183
Higher Plants: 535, 1038
Mammalia: 1038
Mollusca: 535, 1038, 1101
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535, 1038
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535
BISMUTH
Algae: 535,541,1016,1130,1208
Annelida: 535
Aves: 541
Bacteria: 535, 842
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 535, 541, 1016
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 535, 541, 940, 1016
Higher Plants: 535, 541
Insecta: 1016
Mammalia: 541
Mollusca: 65, 535, 541
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
323
-------
Protozoa: 535
Soils: 541
Tunicata: 535
BORON
Algae: 983
Coelenterata: 965
Crustacea: 1039
Higher Plants: 570
Mollusca: 1039
CADMIUM
Algae: 242,269,486,535,632,648,683,802,833,862,873,951,
959, 992, 1025, 1110
Amphibia: 897, 1171
Annelida: 155, 468, 535, 648, 653, 873, 994. 1121
Aves: 995
Bacteria: 535, 571
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535, 648
Bryophyta: 873
Coelenterata: 535, 904, 1131
Crustacea: 13, 92, 155, 468, 535, 626, 632, 648, 755, 759, 789,
837,862,952,991,992,995, 1039, 1050, 1051, 1075,
1084, 1104, 1171, 1212, 1213, 1249
Echinodermata: 155, 535, 862, 1131
E1asmobranchii: 1227
Fish: 35,106,142,155,156,191,242,271,334,363,407,441,
468, 507, 535, 616, 627, 640, 648, 678, 682, 745, 746, 751,
752, 753, 754, 755, 759, 802, 808, 837, 843, 844, 862, 873,
887, 898, 913, 940, 950, 951, 952, 972, 977, 979, 994, 995,
1002, 1020, 1021, 1092, 1093, 1104, 1121, 1122, 1138, 1151,
1171, 1218, 1227, 1235, 1269
Fungi: 1157
Higher Plants: 535, 681, 802, 873, 950, 995
Insecta: 468, 537, 802, 1121, 1212, 1283, 1284
Mammalia: 202, 279, 581, 933
Miscellaneous: 392
Mollusca: 155, 221, 242,
649, 670, 731,
982, 989, 994,
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535, 679, 1171
Sediments: 478, 731, 787, 873, 950. 951, 995
Tunicata: 535
426, 475, 477, 535, 559, 560, 638, 639,
755, 770, 789, 821, 862, 873, 875, 951,
1023, 1039, 1084, 1104, 1115, 1121, 1162
324
-------
CALCIUM
Algae: 37, 193, 269, 298, 381, 503, 535, 549, 602, 648, 674, 694,
737, 792, 846, 880, 978, 983, 992, 1070, 1071, 1102, 1110,
1112, 1250
Amphibia: 184, 317,
Annelida: 115, 535,
Bacteria: 204, 535,
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535, 648
Coelenterata: 535, 965, 1131
Crustacea: 13, 31, 115, 299, 301, 381, 461, 467, 535, 602, 626,
645, 648, 674, 716, 737, 739. 749, 798, 806, 812, 829,
830, 991, 992, 1102
Echinodermata: 530, 535, 872, 1131
E1asmobranchii: 153
Fish: 1, 2, 4, 7, 11, 22, 37, 69, 80, 95, 115, 128, 142, 156, 157,
184, 251, 262, 282, 301, 309, 356, 371, 380, 381, 443, 444,
445, 449, 459, 525, 528, 535, 648, 658, 664. 674, 737, 749,
754, 798, 806, 876, 898, 912, 940, 950, 980, 1054, 1071,
1094, 1119, 1197, 1198, 1199. 1221, 1228, 1235
Higher Plants: 535, 570, 737, 880. 950, 1070, 1201
Insecta: 115, 602, 1283
Mammalia: 202
Miscellaneous: 392
Mollusca: 32, 33, 61, 65, 66, 115, 158, 184, 204, 530, 535, 629,
674, 700, 749, 769, 806, 832, 1033, 1078, 1106, 1162,
1237
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535, 1000
Sediments: 184, 950
Tunicata: 535
608, 897
648, 900
971, 1102
CERIUM
Algae: 17, 28, 215, 323, 333, 383, 413, 415, 439, 440, 483, 535,
539, 541, 555, 582, 583, 585, 586, 602, 851, 862, 1029, 1038,
1100, 1128, 1164
Annelida: 535, 583, 1088
Aves: 541, 851, 928, 1038
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Bryophyta: 1038
Coelenterata: 535, 586, 851
Crustacea: 28, Ill, 124,265,299,413,439,471,535,539,541,
582,583,586,600,790,791,850.851,862,955,1038,
1100, 1128, 1164
325
-------
Detritus: 110,111,393,415
Echinodermata: 535, 862, 1038
E1asmobranchii: 353
Fish: 28, 106, 207, 270, 323, 383, 439, 449, 471, 531, 535, 541,
582, 583, 586, 636, 851, 862, 928, 1038, 1083, 1088, 1156,
1164
Higher Plants: 413, 535, 541, 555, 1038
Mammalia: 541, 851, 1038
Mollusca: 28, 190, 224, 383, 425, 439, 457, 466, 535, 539, 541,
582, 583, 586, 600, 862, 955, 1029, 1038, 1156, 1164,
1224
Phoronidea: 535
Plankton: 466
Porifera: 333, 535, 1038
Protozoa: 413, 535
Soils: 541
Sediments: 466
Tunicata: 535
CESIUM
Algae: 28, 29, 53; 211, 222, 223, 242, 261, 300, 310, 383, 399,
413, 415, 532, 535, 541, 548, 555, 582, 583, 586, 762, 818,
840, 851, 862, 932, 1016, 1029, 1038, 1071, 1116, 1234
Amphibia: 19, 184, 399
Annelida: 83, 535, 583, 1088
Aves: 541, 851, 1038
Bacteria: 532, 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Bryophyta: 1038
Coelenterata: 83, 535, 586, 851
Crustacea: 28, 52, 82, 83, 84, 86, 261, 264, 265, 300, 306, 314,
361, 413, 498, 532, 535, 541, 582, 583, 586, 600, 762,
791, 831, 850, 851, 862, 955, 1016, 1038, 1039, 1116,
1210, 1234
Detritus: 393, 413, 415
Echinodermata: 83, 261, 535, 862, 1038
E1asmobranchii: 353, 890, 1085
Fish: 19,28,41,52,79,156,169,
226,227,242,261,264,270,
315, 324, 361, 371, 372, 373,
450, 535, 540, 541, 582, 583,
831, 851, 853, 862, 865, 884,
1038, 1055, 1071, 1083, 1085.
1235
Higher Plants:
170. 176, 184. 208, 222, 225,
273, 300, 305, 306, 310, 314,
374, 383, 386, 399,400,449.
586, 636, 754. 762, 793, 80S,
890,915,940,1016,1035,
1088, 1156, 1194, 1210, 1234,
19, 306, 310, 399.400,413,535,541,555,568,
587, 818, 1038
326
-------
Insecta: 587, 1016
Mammalia: 310,541,851,1038,1148
Miscellaneous: 358
Mollusca: 28, 52, 79, 83, 84, 184, 190, 194, 224, 242,
383, 413, 425, 535, 541, 557, 582, 583, 586,
862.955,957, 1029.1038, 1039, 1078, 1156,
1278
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535, 1038
Protozoa: 83, 415, 535
Sediments: 79,184,399.762,818,1277
Soils: 541
Tunicata: 83, 535
261, 361,
600, 838,
1234, 1277,
CHROMIUM
Algae: 40, 383, 394, 526, 535, 539, 597, 632,
792, 932, 992, 1025, 1043, 1105. 1130.
Annelida: 114, 434, 502, 535. 648, 994. 1081,
Ascidia: 526
Bacteria: 535, 571, 842, 1173
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535, 648
Coelenterata: 535, 965, 1131
Crustacea: 13, 40, 91, 124, 319, 409, 434, 453, 506, 526, 535, 539,
597,626,632,648, 702,992, 1039, 1081, 1210, 1211,
1234
Echinodermata: 535, 1131
Fish: 1, 19, 93, 94, 95, 98, 106, 142, 156, 185, 205, 241, 245,
273, 303, 334, 383, 394, 403, 407, 409. 460, 506, 529, 535,
538, 539. 591, 597, 605, 640, 648, 663, 665, 754, 799, 856,
898, 930, 940, 944, 950, 977, 994, 1021, 1069. 1121, 1122,
1178, 1210, 1219, 1234, 1235
Higher Plants: 535,788,950
Insecta: 502,537,1121,1283,1284
Mammalia: 597, 788
Miscellaneous: 64
Mollusca: 93, 224, 383, 394, 426, 475, 506, 535, 539, 598, 638,
649, 670, 705, 770, 821, 944, 994, 1037, 1039. 1105,
1121, 1162, 1224, 1234
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Sediments: 950
Tunicata: 526, 535
648, 683, 702, 788,
1208, 1234, 1264
1121
327
-------
COBALT
Algae: 193,223,
628, 632,
975, 983,
1234
Amphibia: 79, 184, 260, 1171
Annelida: 468, 535, 579, 583, 648, 994, 1222
Aves: 541, 851, 928, 974, 1038
Bacteria: 535, 842
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 232, 535, 648
Bryophyta: 1038
Chaetognatha: 312, 313
Coelenterata: 312, 535, 851, 965, 1131
Crustacea: 13,91,261,312,313,468,471,507,535,541,554,561,
579, 583, 626, 632, 648, 784, 851, 973, 974, 975, 991,
992, 1038, 1039, 1075, 1128, 1164, 1171, 1174, 1210,
1234, 1286
Echinodermata: 261, 535, 1038, 1131
Fish: 79, 106, 142, 156, 184, 242, 261, 273, 334, 376, 383, 386,
468, 471, 472, 473, 507, 521, 535, 541, 579, 583, 605, 616,
636,648,751,754,784.851,853,861,865,898,928,940,
950, 973, 974, 977, 994, 1038, 1057, 1083, 1147, 1164, 1171,
1209, 1210, 1218, 1234, 1235
Fungi: 1157
Higher Plants: 535, 541, 568, 849, 885, 950, 1038, 1057
Insecta: 468, 537, 1283, 1284
Mammalia: 278,279,541,851,1038,1209
Miscellaneous: 392
Mollusca: 79, 184, 194, 224, 242, 261, 312, 383, 426, 535, 541, 561,
583,623,649,784,838,974,975,994, 1023, 1029, 1038,
1039, 1077, 1078, 1086, 1135, 1162, 1164, 1174, 1175,
1209, 1224, 1234, 1236, 1259, 1286
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 333, 535, 1038
Protozoa: 535, 679, 1171
Sa1ps: 312, 313
Sediments: 79, 184, 849, 950
Soils: 541
Tunicata: 535, 1174
224, 242, 261, 269, 333, 383, 471, 472, 541, 583,
648, 683, 792, 840, 849, 851, 885, 932, 973, 974,
992, 1029, 1038, 1128, 1130, 1164, 1208, 1209,
COPPER
Algae:
42, 48, 122, 132, 134, 173, 175, 228, 256, 269, 332, 338,
339,345,346, 394,420,446,486,521,535,583,597,632,
641,648,651,683, 720, 732, 735, 736, 741, 748, 757, 777,
781, 803, 804, 814, 833, 841, 871,961,983,992,999, 1024,
328
-------
1025, 1040, 1041, 1042, 1043, 1110, 1130, 1134, 1139, 1153,
1207, 1208, 1247, 1250, 1263, 1264, 1275, 1285, 1288, 1289
Amphibia: 138,175,804,841,897,903,1171
Annelida: 405,434,502,535,553,583,648,650,994,1081,1121
Bacteria: 290,497,535,571,572,657,757,780,804,971,1098,
1099, 1173, 1220
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 232, 357. 535, 553, 648
Coelenterata: 535, 904, 965, 1131
Crustacea: 13, 25, 50, 51, 60, 85, 91, 119, 122, 171, 254, 255,
256, 343, 344, 378, 409, 412, 421, 429, 434, 499, 507,
509, 535, 546, 553, 583, 596, 597, 625, 626, 631, 632,
647,648,695,699,732, 735, 736, 741, 759,804,841,
881A, 954, 961, 962, 991, 992, 1039, 1075, 1081, 1117,
1134, 1139, 1153, 1171,1210, 1213,1285, 1289
Echinodermata: 71, 485, 487, 535, 1022, 1131, 1287
Fish: 2, 18, 20, 30, 42, 48, 76, 77, 93, 106, 108, 128, 134, 142,
143, 156, 175, 203, 231, 236, 245, 271, 282, 325, 328, 329,
330, 334, 340, 343, 344, 345, 363, 365, 375, 378, 394, 407,
409, 410, 411, 454, 484, 488, 489, 492, 493, 494, 495, 504,
509, 521, 527, 535, 536, 544, 564, 583, 597, 616, 622, 627,
640, 643, 646, 648, 664, 665, 672, 678, 682, 693, 708, 732,
735, 740, 745, 748, 751, 752, 754, 759.804,807,841,887,
898, 899,913,922,923,940,945,950,956,964,977,979,
984, 994, 1003, 1004, 1005, 1020, 1021, 1049, 1059, 1064,
1092, 1098, 1099, 1120, 1121, 1122, 1134, 1139, 1147, 1170,
1171, 1178, 1188, 1195, 1210, 1215,1235,1268,1269, 1291
Fungi: 735,736,1157
Higher Plants: 38, 175,535,570.619,650, 748,950, 1134
Insecta: 171, 175, 410, 492, 493, 502, 537, 804, 1121, 1283, 1284,
Mammalia: 202, 278, 597
Miscellaneous: 10, 64, 89, 289
Mollusca: 44, 72, 108, 133, 175, 187, 197, 220, 221, 240, 244, 338,
377, 394, 396,405,421,426,475,477,504,509.535,
552, 553, 558, 559, 583, 598, 610, 620, 638, 642, 649,
670,695,699,700,728,731,742,770,804,821,857,
875,935,954,982,989,994,1039.1078,1115,1117,
1121,1136,1137,1139,1162,1196,1272
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535, 662, 956, 1171, 1254
Sediments: 48, 339, 477, 731, 950
Tunicata: 535
EUROP IUH
Algae:
Aves:
851, 1038
851, 1038
329
-------
Bryophyta: 1038
Coelenterata: 851
Crustacea: 466, 851, 1038
Echinodermata: 1038
Fish: 273, 851, 1038
Higher Plants: 1038
Mammalia: 851, 1038
Mollusca: 466, 1038, 1224
Plankton: 466
Porifera: 1038
Sediments: 466
GALLIUM
Algae: 535, 983, 1130
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 535,1039
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 535
Higher Plants: 535
Mollusca: 535, 1039
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535
GERMAN-IUM
Algae: 535, 601, 957A
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 535, 1039
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 535
Higher Plants: 535
Mollusca: 535, 1039
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535
330
-------
GOLD
Algae: 535, 932, 1208
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 146, 535, 626, 1039
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 146, 156, 334, 535, 754, 898
Higher Plants: 535
Mammalia: 202
Mollusca: 146, 425, 535, 1039
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Sediments: 146
Tunicata: 535
INDIUM
Algae:
Fish:
1130
605, 940
IRIDIUM
Fish:
940
IRON
Algae: 48, 130, 132, 193, 223, 242, 261, 269, 420, 471, 513, 521,
535, 541, 550, 583, 628, 632, 648, 651, 683, 696, 721, 741,
781,802, 840,885,932,958,973,974,983,992,1029,1040,
1130, 1134, 1234, 1264
Annelida: 115, 404, 405, 535, 583, 648, 707
Aves: 541, 928, 974
Bacteria: 535, 921, 1099, 1177, 1220
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535, 648
Chaetognatha: 313
Coelenterata: 535, 965, 1131
Crustacea: 13, 60, 91, 115, 161, 261, 313, 390, 409, 453, 471, 506,
535, 541, 546, 583, 625, 626, 631, 632, 648, 741, 798,
921, 973, 974, 991, 992, 1117, 1134, 1210, 1234, 1249
Echinodermata: 261, 535, 1022, 1131
E1asmobranchii:. 153
331
-------
Fish: 3, 18, 24, 26, 48, 90, 106, 115, 129, 142, 156, 161, 168,
213, 242, 261, 272, 273, 386, 390, 409, 411, 433, 452, 471,
500, 506, 521, 535, 538, 541, 551, 583, 605, 615, 636, 640,
648,678,708,754,798,802,853,861,878,879,921,928,
940,945,950,973,974,979, 1021, 1099. 1134, 1186, 1205,
1210,1217,1234,1235,1279
Fungi: 921
Higher Plants: 535, 541, 570, 802, 885, 921, 950, 1134, 1187, 1279
Insecta: 115, 537, 802, 1283, 1284
Mammalia: 541, 615
Miscellaneous: 24
Mollusca: 14, 115, 158, 242, 243, 261, 313, 321, 390, 404, 405,
426, 506, 535, 541, 583, 638, 649, 863, 864, 921, 974,
1029, 1078, 1086, 1111, 1117, 1135. 1136, 1162, 1224,
1234, 1272, 1274, 1279
Phoronidea: 535
Plank ton: 131
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Sa1ps: 43, 313
Sediments: 48, 707, 950
Soils: 541
Tunicata: 535, 1204
LANTHANUM
Algae: 535
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 360, 535
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 334, 360, 535, 940
Higher Plants: 535
Mollusca: 535, 557, 1224
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535
LEAD
Algae: 228,269,420,583,597,628,632,648,651,683,741,
803, 804, 833, 990, 992, 1043, 1130, 1160, 1168, 1208,
1264, 1275
Amphibia: 58, 138, 260, 293, 804, 822, 1171
802,
1263,
332
-------
Annelida: 545, 583, 648, 994, 1081
Aves: 118, 259, 995
Bacteria: 290, 571, 804, 842, 1177
Bibliography: 673
Bryazoa: 232, 648
Coelenterata: 904, 965, 1018, 1019, 1131
Crustacea: 13,92, 161, 343, 344, 378,409,546,583,597,612,
626, 632, 648, 717, 741, 759, 782, 798, 804, 837, 881A,
991, 992, 995, 1039, 1075, 1081, 1104, 1154, 1168, 1171,
1249
Echinodermata: 1131
Fish: 2, 104, 105, 123, 139, 142, 156, 161, 209, 212, 248, 271, 282,
286, 295, 328, 330, 343, 344, 378, 403, 407, 409, 501, 517,
542, 577, 583, 591, 595, 597, 612, 616, 617, 640, 648, 678,
717,723,754,759.798,800,802,804,837,843,860,887,
898,940,945,950,979.994,995, 1031,1066,1104,1154,
1171, 1178, 1235, 1257
Fungi: 567
Higher Plants: 802, 950, 995
Insecta: 537, 802, 804
Mammalia: 202,248,278,279,581,597,617,635,1168
Miscellaneous: 52,89,104,392
Mollusca: 137,248,426,583,598,612,638,639,649,670,671,
742, 770, 804, 821, 845,989.994, 1039, 1104, 1158,
1159, 1160, 1162
679, 823, 1171, 1254
74
787, 950, 995, 1154
Protozoa:
Reptilia:
Sediments:
LITHIUM
Algae: 535, 628
Amphibia: 608
Annelida: 535, 994
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535, 965
Crustacea: 13, 31, 535
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 142, 156, 535, 754, 940; 945, 994
Higher Plants: 535
Mollusca: 32,61,535,629, 769,957,994
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535
333
-------
MAGNESIUM
Algae: 269, 602, 648, 694, 846, 880, 978, 992
Amphibia: 184, 897
Annelida: 115, 648,900
Bacteria: 971
Bryazoa: 648
Coelenterata: 1131
Crustacea: 13,115,461,602,626,631,648,716,749,798,806,
812, 829, 830, 991, 992, 1210
Echinodermata: 870, 1131
E1asmobranchii: 153, 263
Fish: 7,80,115,128,142,152,156,157,184,213,258,356,380,
621,648,725,749,754,798,806,870,876,888,889,898,
920, 940, 950, 980, 981, 1054, 1094, 1103, 1197, 1210, 1228,
1235
Higher Plants: 570, 880, 950, 1201
Insecta: ~15, 602, 1283, 1284
Miscellaneous: 392
Mollusca: 61, 115, 158, 184, 558, 629, 700, 749, 769, 806, 1106,
1162, 1237, 1272
Sediments: 184, 950
MANGANESE
Algae: 17, 223, 224, 228, 261, 333, 383, 471, 483, 683, 539, 541,
550, 555, 583, 628, 632, 651, 763, 777, 785, 802, 804, 840,
849,851,973,983,992,1038,1100,1130,1134,1139,1164,
1208, 1234, 1264
Amphibia: 804, 1171
Annelida: 468, 583, 652, 688, 707
Aves: 541, 851, 928, 1038
Bacteria: 657, 804, 842, 921
Bryazoa: 232
Bryophyta: 1038
Coelenterata: 851, 965, 1131
Crustacea: 13,88,91, 161,261,314,337,466,468,471,539,541,
561, 583, 626, 632, 785, 804, 820, 851, 881A, 921, 973,
991, 992, 1038, 1039, 1075, 1100, 1134, 1139, 1164, 1171,
1211, 1234, 1286
Echinodermata: 261, 1038, U31, 1287
Fish: 2,106,142,156,161,207,209,261,273,314,315,337,383,
398,403,457,468,471,521,538,539,541,583,636,640,
708,710,754,756,785,802,804,851,865,898,921,928,
940,950,973, 1038, 1083, 1087, 1134, 1139, 1147, 1156, 1164,
11 71, 121 7, 12 34, 12 35, 1279
Fungi: 921, 1157
Higher Plants: 541,555,570,802,849,921,950,1038, 1134, 1279
334
-------
Insecta: 337, 468, 756, 802, 804, 1283, 1284
Mammalia: 202,278,279,541,851,1038
Miscellaneous: 392
Mollusca: 100, 189, 219, 223, 261, 355,
541, 557, 561, 583, 623, 638,
738, 769, 785, 804, 811, 821,
10 78, 10 86, 1139, 1155, 1156,
466
333, 1038
1171
466, 707, 731, 849, 950
383, 426, 466, 539,
639, 649, 670, 688, 731,
921, 1023, 1038, 1039, 1076,
1162, 1164, 1234, 1279, 1286
Plankton:
Porifera:
Protozoa:
Sediments:
Soils: 541
Tunicata: 688
MERCURY
Algae: 269, 535, 597, 768, 802, 833, 834, 835, 839, 873, 874, 896,
927, 932, 949, 951, 992, 996, 997, 1043, 1047, 1096, 1166,
1208, 1247, 1264
Amphibia: 1171
Annelida: 535, 553, 873, 1121
Aves: 276, 543, 569, 764, 771, 771A, 772, 824, 896, 905, 906, 924,
934,995,1073, 1074, 1080, 1185, 1189, 1241, 1242
Bacteria: 447,535,571,572,618,727,779,892,893,1011,1036,
1132, 1190, 1282
Bibliography: 21, 592, 724, 750, 937, 1165, 1179
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535, 553
Bryophyta: 873
Coelenterata: 535, 904
Crustacea: 13,92,119,120, 121,218,342,421,429,468,507,509,
535,553,597,626,695,699,704,729,759,767,794,
854, 874, 899A, 927, 949, 952, 992, 995, 1012, 1013, 1075,
1096, 1104, 1117; 1125, 1163, 1171, 1189, 1210, 1240,
1242, 1243, 1244, 1248, 1267, 1270
Echinodermata: 485, 535, 1287
E1asmobranchii: 686, 687, 786, 1227
Fish: 2, 11, 21, 36, 49, 57, 63, 116, 142, 160, 180, 218, 230, 241,
249,266,267,268,271,273,275,276,277,283,316,342,
352, 375, 442, 447, 448, 468, 507, 509, 535, 543, 556, 569,
578, 590, 597, 606, 613, 630, 634, 654, 672, 678, 686, 692,
708, 711, 727, 730, 733,739,753,759,760,765,766,767,
768,771,772,773,774,794,801,802,813,816,817,824,
825, 827, 828, 843, 847, 873, 874, 887, 892, 893, 894, 895,
898,899,902,906,908,913,914,916,917,924,927,929,
934,936,940,943,945,947,949,951,952,966,967,979,
985,995,996,1001,1002,1006,1010,1011,1012,1013,1014,
1021, 1045, 1046, 1052, 1053, 1080, 1091, 1096, 1104, 1121,
335
-------
1122,
1163,
1235 ,
1157
Plants:
1125, 1132, 1133, 1139, 1140, 1144, 1145, 1146, 1161,
1171, 1180, 1188, 1189, 1206, 1210, 1223, 1227, 1233,
1253, 1257, 1258, 1260, 1261, 1267, 1269. 1292
Fungi:
Higher
218, 535, 543, 734, 768, 771, 802, 854, 873, 874,
89 3, 9 36, 995, 12 71
Insecta: 192, 468, 537, 765, 802, 1046, 1121
Mammalia: 202,266,278,279, 302, 316,569,580,581,590,597,
809, 810, 81OA, 827, 896, 908, 924, 933, 936, 963, 967,
1011, 1012, 1080, 1096, 1144, 1163, 1180, 1214
Miscellaneous: 392
Mollusca: 266, 267, 302, 316, 352, 421, 509, 535, 553, 590, 598,
670, 671, 695, 699, 712, 731, 742, 767, 768, 770, 772,
867, 873, 874, 877, 882, 883, 894, 896, 908, 925, 934,
935, 949, 951, 989, 996, 1012, 1013, 1104, 1117, 1121,
1125, 1163, 1166, 1206, 1226, 1232
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535, 679, 823, 1171
Sediments: 218, 230, 267, 731, 787. 873, 892, 943, 951, 995, 1011,
1096, 1190, 1253
Tunicata: 535
MOLYBDENUM
Algae: 535, 628, 683, 737, 983, 992, 1176, 1208, 1250
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 535, 737, 992, 1039, 1176
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 535, 737, 940, 950, 1176, 1219, 1255
Higher Plants: 535, 737, 950
Insecta: 1283, 1284
Mollusca: 535, 638, 1039, 1176
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535, 698
Sediments: 950
Tunicata: 535
NEODYMIUM
Algae: 535
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535
336
-------
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 535
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 535
Higher Plants: 535
Mollusca: 535
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Ttmicata: 535
NEPTUNIUM
Algae: 788
Higher Plants:
Mammalia: 788
.
788
NICKEL
Algae: 228, 269, 486, 535, 628, 648, 683, 741, 792, 992, 1025,
1043, 1130, 1208
Amphibia: 260,897,1171
Annelida: 468, 535, 648, 994, 1121
Bacteria: 535, 571, 819, 1173, 1177
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 232, 535, 648
Coelenterata: 535. 965, 1131
Crustacea: 12,91,161,343,344,378,409,428,468,507,535,
626,648,741,991,992,1039,1075,1117,1171
Echinodermata: 535, 1131
Fish: 2, 77, 106, 128, 141, 143, 156, 161, 343, 344, 375, 378,
407,409,468,507,521,535,591,640,643,648,751,754,
898,940,950,994,1092, 1120, 1121, 1122, 1170, 1171, 1218,
1235
Ftmgi: 1157
Higher Plants: 535, 950
Insecta: 468,537,1121,1283,1284
Mollusca: 46, 421, 426, 535, 638, 649, 670, 671, 731, 994, 1023,
1039, 1078, 1117, 1121, 1162
Miscellaneous: 64, 392
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535, 11 71
Sediments: 731, 950
Soil: 46
Ttmi cata: 535
337
-------
NIOBIUM
Algae: 102, 178,214,333,383,483,535,539.555, 1029.1038,
1166, 1208
Annelida: 535, 1088
Aves: 1038
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Bryophyta: 1038
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 102, 111, 466, 535, 539, 1038
Detri tus: 110, 111
Echinodermata: 535, 1038
E1asmobranchii: 353
Fish: 383, 535, 539. 605, 940; 1038, 1088
Higher Plants: 535, 555. 1038
Mammalia: 1038
Mollusca: 190,383,466,535,539,557,1029.1038,1166
Phoronidea: 535
Plankton: 466
Porifera: 333, 535, 1038
Protozoa: 535
Sediments: 466
Tunicata: 535
PAL LAD IUM
Fish:
692, 940
PLATINUM
Crustacea:
Fish: 940
626
P LUTON I UM
Algae: 150, 516, 541, 1095, 1134, 1281
Annelida: 676
Crustacea: 541, 782, 1044, 1095, 1134
E1asmobranchii: 1280
Fish: 150, 516, 541, 636, 865, 1044, 1095, 1134
Higher Plants: 541, 1095, 1134
Mammalia: 541, 1044
Mollusca: 541, 676, 1044, 1095, 1280
Sediments: 150
Soils: 541
338
-------
POLONIUM
Algae: 1168, 1281
Crustacea: 612, 782, 1154, 1168
Fish: 5, 209, 248, 612, 616, 617,
Mammalia: 248, 617, 1168
Mollusca: 248, 612
Sediments: 1154
866, 1154
POTASSIUM
Algae: 333,535,547,548,549,602,694, 737,846,880,992,1038,
1041, 1164, 1290
Amphibia: 184, 317, 608
Annelida: 83, 115, 535, 868, 900
Aves: 928, 1038
Bacteria: 535, 1068, 1173
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Bryophyta: 1038
Coelenterata: 83, 535, 1131
Crustacea: 13, 82, 83, 84, 86, 115, 167, 306, 314, 461, 466, 535,
561,602,626,645, 716, 737, 749. 829, 830.992, 1038,
1164, 1210
Echinodermata: 83, 535, 1038, 1131
E1asmobranchii: 153, 263, 296
Fish: 1,2, 7, 70, 80, 115,142, 152, 156, 157,184, 199,200,207,
213,227,245,251,258,273,306,314,315,341,356,370,
372,450,460,528,535,540,547,658,714,725. 737, 749,
754,869, 876, 888, 889, 898,915,928,940,950,964,980,
986,988,1027, 1038,1053, 1054, 1083, 1094, 1164, 1197,
1198, 1199, 1210, 1228, 1229, 1235
Higher Plants: 306, 535, 570, 737, 880, 950, 1038, 1201
Insecta: 115, 602
Mammalia: 1038
Miscellaneous: 289
Mollusca: 33, 34, 83, 84, 115, 158, 184, 318, 466, 535, 561, 700,
749, 769. 881, 957, 1038, 1076, 1106, 1162, 1164
Phoronidea: 535
Plankton: 466
Porifera: 333, 535, 1038
Protozoa: 83, 535
Sediments: 466, 950
Tunicata: 83, 535
PRASEODYMIUM
Algae:
333, 439, 535
339
-------
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 439, 466, 535, 850
Detri tus: 110
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 439, 535
Higher Plants: 535
Mollusca: 439, 466, 535
Phoronidea: 535
Plankton: 466
Porifera: 333, 535
Protozoa: 535
Sediments: 466
Tunicata: 535
PROMETHIUM
Algae: 17, 555
Annelida: 688
Crustacea: 466
Higher Plants: 555
Mollusca: 466, 688
Plankton: 466
Sediments: 466
Tunicata: 688
RAD IUM
Algae: 151, 350, 401, 476,
Aves: 928
Coelenterata: 1018, 1019
Crustacea: 350, 466
Fish: 248, 273, 326, 350,
Higher Plants: 391,401
Insecta: 391, 588
Mammalia: 248, 401
Mollus ca: 65, 248, 466
Plankton: 466
Sediments: 350, 391, 466
588, 747
391, 401, 588, 928
RHENIUM
Algae: 555
Fish: 334, 940
Higher Plants:
555
340
-------
RHODIUH
Algae: 17, 333, 599, 1029
Annelida: 599
Detri tus: 110
Fish: 599. 1219
Higher Plants: 599
Insecta: 599
Mammalia: 599
Mollusca: 599, 1029
Porifera: 333
RUBIDIUM
Algae: 193, 310, 535, 628, 932
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 535, 1039
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 156, 334, 535, 754, 940
Higher Plants: 535
Mollusca: 535, 957, 1039
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535
RUTHENIUM
Algae: 17, 28, 53, 150, 214, 281, 483, 539, 541, 547, 551, 555, 582,
583, 584, 585, 586, 599. 851, 1029. 1038, 1100, 1134, 1209
Annelida: 583, 599, 919. 1088
Aves: 541, 851, 1038
Bryophyta: 1038
Coelenterata: 586, 851
Crustacea: 28, 53, Ill, 265, 539, 541, 582, 583, 586, 600, 851, 907,
955, 1038, 1100, 1134
Detritus: 1l0, 111, 393
Echinodermata: 1038
E1asmobranchii: 353
Fish: 28, 53, 150, 281, 310, 539, 541, £47, 582, 583, 586, 599,
636,851,861,919.940,1038, IOU, 1134, 1156,1209
Higher Plants: 310, 541, 555, 599, 1038, 1134
Insecta: 599
Mammalia: 310, 541, 599, 851, 1038, 1209
341
-------
Porifera:
Sediments:
Soils: 541
Tunicata: 584
28, 53, 190, 281, 457, 539, 541, 557, 565,
599, 600, 886, 911, 955, 1029. 1038, 1156,
333, 584, 1038
73, 150, 281, 551
582,583,586,
1209
Mollusca:
SALINITY
Algae: 462, 624, 848, 1048, 1108, 1289. 1290
Annelida: 652, 900
Bacteria: 297, 701, 826, 1068
Crustacea: 148, 461, 506, 511, 523, 593, 607, 625, 715, 716, 718,
719, 791, 830, 855, 899A, 938, 942, 1007, 1008, 1090,
1150, 1245, 1265, 1289
Dinoflagellates: 9
Echinodermata: 578
Fish: 7,8, 15,23,57,59,103, 112, 117, 144, 177,199,200,201,
237, 246, 247, 251, 252, 253, 307, 341, 356, 388, 389, 422,
462, 470, 507, 510, 518, 573, 574, 575, 576, 609, 611, 621,
658, 689, 690, 691, 744, 753, 858, 926, 939, 948, 953, 976,
980, 986, 1009, 1103, 1113, 1114, 1126, 1127, 1143, 1169,
1178, 1200, 1225, 1231
Fungi: 1157
Higher Plants: 1187
Miscellaneous: 289
Mollusca: 148, 367, 518, 594, 659, 680, 968, 969, 970, 1152, 1237,
1277, 1278
Reptilia: 743
Sediments: 1277
SAMARIUM
Algae: 535
Annelida: 404, 405, 535
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 535
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 535
Higher Plants: 535
Mollusca: 404, 405, 535, 1224
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535
342
-------
SCANDIUH
Algae: 932, 1166
Annelida: 404, 405
Coelenterata: 965
Crustacea: 124
Fish: 273
Mollusca: 404, 405, 1166, 1224
SELENIUM
Algae: 684, 702, 941, 1149
Bacteria: 1220
Crustacea: 702, 1149
Fish: 334, 827, 940, 979.
Higher Plants: 1262
Mammalia: 827, 933, 1262
Mollusca: 1077, 1224
Sediments: 1262
1065, 1149. 1257
SILICON
Algae: 535, 601, 694, 848,
1043, 1061, 1062
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535, 1173
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535, 965
Crustacea: 535, 992
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 309. 535
Higher Plants: 535
Mollusca: 535
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535
918, 957A, 959. 960, 978, 983, 992, 999.
SILVER
Algae: 228, 269, 535, 628, 648, 778, 833, 992, 1130, 1164, 1208,
1264, 1288
Amphibia: 1171
Annelida: 535, 648
Bacteria: 535, 571, 572, 1173
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535, 648
343
-------
Coelenterata: 535, 1131
Crustacea: 535, 614, 648, 695, 783, 784, 992, 1039. 1075, 1164, 1171
Echinodermata: 485, 535, 1131
Fish: 142, 143, 156, 241, 271, 273, 386, 535, 616, 648, 692, 697,
754,783,784,865,887,898,940,945,1164,1171,1218,1235
Higher Plants: 535
Mammalia: 202, 783
Miscellaneous: 392, 563
Mollusca: 221, 535, 638, 639, 649, 670, 671, 695, 742, 783, 784, 821,
982, 1039, 1162, 1164, 1272
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535, 1171
Tunicata: 535
SODIUM
Algae: 535, 602, 694, 846, 848, 983, 992
Amphibia: 184, 317
Annelida: 115,535,868,900
Bacteria: 535, 971, 1068
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535, 1131
Crustacea: 12, 13, 31, 84, 113, 115, 264, 336, 423, 461, 535, 602,
626, 645, 716, 749. 798, 820, 829, 830, 992, 1210
Echinodermata: 535, 1131
E1asmobranchii: 153, 263
Fish: 1, 2, 7, 15, 80, 99, 108, 113, 115, 123, 128, 142, 152, 156,
157, 162, 163, 164, 165, 184, 199, 200, 213, 225, 239. 245,
251, 258, 264, 273, 307, 341, 356, 452. 528, 535, 621, 658,
714, 725, 749, 754, 798, 869. 876, 888, 889, 898, 915, 920,
940, 950, 980, 981, 986, 987, 988, 1026, 1027, 1053, 1054,
1094, 1103, 1143, 1169, 1197, 1198, 1199, 1210, 1228, 1229,
12 30, 12 35
Higher Plants: 535, 570, 950, 1201
Insecta: 115, 602
Mollusca: 32, 33, 34, 61, 84, 108, 115, 158, 184, 367, 535, 629,
700, 749, 769, 957. 1106, 1162, 1196
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Reptilia: 149
Sediments: 184, 950
Tunicata: 535
344
-------
STRONTIUM
Algae: 6, 53, 150, 188, 215, 222, 223, 224, 242, 261, 298, 310,
347, 380, 381, 387, 413, 414, 415, 417, 439, 522, 532, 535,
541, 547, 566, 628, 648, 674, 683, 703, 818, 840, 851, 862,
901, 992, 1015, 1016, 1038, 1070, 1071, 1100, 1102, 1112,
1116, 1130, 1139, 1208, 1209, 1234, 1250
Amphibia: 79, 184, 335, 897
Annelida: 370,535,648
Aves: 347, 541, 851, 928, 1038
Bacteria: 322, 532, 535, 1102
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 232, 535, 648
Bryophyta: 6, 310, 414, 1038 .
Coelenterata: 413, 414, 535, 851, 931, 965, 1019, 1131
Crustacea: 13, 53, 107, 188, 261, 264, 291, 299, 348, 358, 360, 380,
381, 413, 414, 439, 466, 467, 532, 535, 541, 589, 626,
648, 674, 749, 812, 850, 851, 862, 991, 992, 993, 1016,
1038, 1039, 1100, 1102, 1116, 1139, 1234
Detritus: 6,393,413,415
Echinodermata: 188,261,535,862,1038,1131
E1asmobranchii: 353
Fish: 4,16,53,67,68,69,75,79,80,142,150,156,169,170,
184, 188, 222, 242, 261, 262, 264, 310, 349, 359, 360, 368,
371, 379, 380, 381, 403, 435, 439, 443, 444, 445, 449, 450,
455, 458, 459, 474, 514, 524, 525, 535, 541, 547, 589, 603,
605,616,633,636,648,674,677,749,754,851,862,898,
928, 940, 1016, 1030, 1034, 1038, 1055, 1056, 1058, 1071,
1139,1172,1209,1216,1217,1221,1234,1235,1239
Higher Plants: 347, 522, 535, 541, 568, 589, 818, 901, 1038, 1056,
1058, 1070, 1201
Insecta: 370, 1016
Mammalia: 202,310,347,541,851,1038,1056,1148,1209
Miscellaneous: 358
Mollusca: 14, 53, 65, 66, 79, 184, 188, 190, 196, 224,
347, 370, 385, 387, 413, 414, 417, 439, 466,
674, 749, 862, 1033, 1037, 1038, 1039, 1078,
1162, 1209, 1234, 1239
Phoronidea: 535
Phytoplankton: 322
Plankton: 466
Porifera: 535,
Protozoa: 413,
Sedimen ts : 73,
Soils: 541
Tunicata: 535
1038
414, 466, 535, 1000
79, 150, 184, 466, 818, 901
345
242, 261,
535, 541,
1107, 1139,
-------
T ANT ALUM
Algae: 1208
Fish: 940
TECHNETIUM
Sediments:
73
TELLURIUM
Crustacea:
Fish: 940
265
THALLIUM
Algae: 535
Amphibia: 138
Annelida: 535
Aves: 995
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 369, 535, 995
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 156,273,369,535,
Higher Plants: 535, 995
Mollusca: 535
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Sediments: 995
Tunicata: 535
754, 940, 995
THORIUM
Algae: 151, 747; 932, 1016, 1202
Amphibia: 138
Crustacea: 1016
Fish: 334, 401, 940, 977, 1016
Higher Plants: 401
Insecta: 1016
Mammalia: 401
Mollusca: 1224
346
-------
TIN
Algae: 535, 628, 1130, 1208
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 232, 535
Coelenterata: 535, 1131
Crustacea: 13, 92, 409, 506, 535, 626, 1039
Echinodermata: 535, 1131
Fish: 106, 142, 294, 403, 409, 535, 775, 940,
Higher Plants: 535
Mollusca: 535, 1039, 1077
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535
TITANIUM
Algae: 535,628,792,992,1130,1208
Annelida: 535
Bacteri a: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535, 965
Crustacea: 535, 992, 1039
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 403, 535, 940
Higher Plants: 535
Mollusca: 535, 1039
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535
TRITIUM
Fish: 478
Sediments:
73
TUNGSTEN
Algae: 535, 792, 1208
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
347
1218, 1219
-------
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 535
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 535
Higher Plants: 535
Mollusca: 535
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535
URANIUM
Algae: 151, 308, 588, 747, 788, 932, 1016
Bacteria: 206, 427, 1032
Coelenterata: 965
Crustacea: 1016, 1017
Fish: 27, 308, 334,512,588,945,977, 1016, 1017
Higher Plants: 788, 1017
Insecta: 588, 1016
Mammalia: 788
Miscellaneous: 392
Mollusca: 1017
Protozoa: 1032
VANADIUM
Algae: 535,628,683,788,792,983,992, 1130, 1208
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 232, 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 535, 992, 1039
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 106, 403, 535, 940, 1218
Higher Plants: 535, 788
Mammalia: 788
Mollusca: 535,638,639.1039,1107
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535, 1204
YTTRIUM
Algae: 215, 387, 439, 535, 703, 1246
Amphibia: 335
348
-------
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 322, 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 299, 439, 466, 535
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 22, 68, 75, 273, 368, 439, 474,
Higher Plants: 535
Insecta: 192
Mollusca: 387, 439, 466, 535, 1037
Phoronidea: 535
Phytoplankton: 322
Plankton: 466
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Sediments: 466
Tunicata: 535
514, 525, 535, 1030
ZINC
Algae: 40,47,48,53,54,87,102,127, 193,210,211,222,224,
242, 269, 345, 354, 383, 394, 419, 420, 436, 471, 486, 521,
532,535,539.550,583,597,602,628,632,648,651,683,
702, 709, 713, 722, 781, 785, 802, 803, 804, 840, 849, 851,
862, 891,932,951,973,983,992,999,1025, 1038,1043,
1072, 1110, 1123, 1129, 1130, 1134, 1139, 1164, 1166, 1208,
1209, 1234, 1256, 1263, 1264, 1266, 1275
Amphibia: 79, 138, 184, 804, 1171
Annelida: 217, 284, 404, 405, 535, 545, 553, 583, 648, 650, 653,
676, 707, 726, 994. 1121, 1124, 1273
Aves: 836, 851, 1038
Bacteria: 419, 532, 535, 571, 572, 804, 1098, 1266
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 232, 535, 553, 648
Bryophyta: 284, 1038
Chaetognatha: 313
Coelenterata: 526, 535, 851, 904, 965, 1131
Crustacea: 13,40,53,60,80,92, 102, 124, 125, 145, 147, 148,
181, 182, 183, 284, 313, 314, 343, 344, 360, 378, 382,
397,409.421,471,506,507,508,532,535,539,546,
553, 561, 583, 597, 602, 625, 626, 631, 632, 647, 648,
675,695,699, 702, 713, 749, 759, 785, 789, 791, 804,
837,851,862, 881A, 946,952,973,991,992,1038,1060,
1075, 1089, 1117, 1123, 1129, 1134, 1139. 1164, 1171,
1184, 1211, 1212, 1234, 1249, 1256, 1273, 1286
Oetri tus: 286
Echinodermata:
101, 291, 384, 485, 533, 535, 675, 862, 1022, 1038,
1131, 1287
349
-------
E1asmobranchii: 153
Fish: 3, 18, 19, 20, 40, 48, 53, 62, 76, 77, 78, 79, 81, 93, 94.
95,97,98, 106, 108, 109, 123, 128, 142, 152, 154, 156,
157, 179, 184, 198, 203, 205, 207, 209, 217, 222, 229, 233,
234, 238, 241, 242, 250. 273, 282, 284, 287, 288, 292, 314,
315, 327. 328, 329, 330, 334, 343, 344, 345, 360, 362, 378,
383, 394, 398, 406, 407, 408, 409, 411, 412, 430, 431, 432,
436, 437, 438, 454, 463, 464, 471, 479, 480, 481, 482, 487,
488,489,490,491,492,493,494,495,496,504,507,521,
535, 539, 540, 564, 583, 597, 604, 605, 640, 643, 644, 648,
655, 656, 660, 661, 663, 664, 665, 666, 667, 668, 669, 675,
678,682,685,697,708,713, 745, 749, 751, 752, 754, 758,
759,785,802,804,827,837,843,851,859.862,865,887,
898,899,940,950,951,952,973,977,979,994,998,1021,
1028,1035, 1038,1082,1083,1087,1092, 1098, 1109, 1120,
1121, 1122, 1123, 1129. 1134, 1139. 1141, 1142, 1147, 1156,
1164, 1171, 1178, 1181, 1188, 1191, 1192, 1193, 1195, 1209,
12 1 7, 12 18 , 12 34, 12 35, 125 1, 125 2, 1269, 12 79
Fungi: 1079, 1157, 1266
Higher Plants: 19,284,418,419,437,535,570,
849, 950, r"038, 1123, 1129, 1134,
Insecta: 217, 284, 286, 410, 493, 537, 602, 802,
1273, 1283, 1284
Mammalia: 202,597,758,827,851,933, 1038, 1129, 1209
Miscellaneous: 89, 127, 392
Mollusca: 53,62,79,93,108,135,136,145,146,147,148,158,
172, 174, 184, 194, 217, 219, 220, 223, 224, 242, 284,
313, 354, 383, 394, 395, 404, 405, 421, 424, 425, 426,
451,457; 475, 477, 504, 506, 524, 533, 535, 539,553,
557,559,560.561,562,583,598,623,637,638,639,
642,649,670,671,675,676,695,699, 700. 705. 731,
738,742,749,758, 770, 776, 785, 789, 804, 821, 857,
862,875,909,910,935,946,951,982,994,1037,1038,
1076,1086,1107,1115,1117.1121,1129,1135,1136,
1139, 1156, 1162, 1164, 1166, 1167, 1209, 1234. 1236,
1256,1272,1276,1279,1286
Phoronidea: 535
Platyhelminthes: 284
Porifera: 535, 1038
Protozoa: 535,622,679,823, 1171, 1254
Sa1ps: 313
Sediments:
619, 650, 802,
12 73, 1279
804, 1121, 1212,
Tunicata:
48, 79,101, 147, 184, 217, 418, 419, 437, 477,707, 731,
787, 849, 950, 951
382, 535
ZIRCONIUM
Algae:
102, 178, 193, 214, 310, 333, 483, 539, 555, 582, 585, 851,
852, 1029. 1038,1166, 1208
350
-------
Annelida: 1088
Aves: 851, 1038
Bryophyta: 1038
Coelenterata: 851
Crustacea: 102, 111, 360, 466, 539, 582, 851, 1038
Detri tus: 110, 111
Echinodermata: 1038
E1asmobranchii: 353
Fish: 310,360,383,539.582,851,940,1038,1088
Higher Plants: 310, 555, 852, 1038
Mammalia: 310,851,852,1038
Mollusca: 190, 194,383,466,539.557,582,1029,1038,1166
Plankton: 466
Porifera: 333, 1038
Sediments: 466
351
-------
INDEX - TAXA
ALGAE
Actinium:
Aluminum:
Antimony:
Arsenic:
1016
535, 792, 992, 1130, 1289
483,535,541,851,932,951,1038,1208,1234
42, 338,420,535,632, 706, 735, 748, 815,951,959,
1203, 1208
Barium: 56,228,535,628,992,1112,1130,1208
Beryllium: 535,1038,1130,1208
Bismuth: 535,541,1016,1130,1208
Boron: 983
Cadmium: 242, 262, 486,
951, 959, 992,
Calcium: 193, 269, 298,
792,846,880,
1112, 1250
Cerium: 17, 28, 214, 215, 323, 333, 383, 413, 414, 415, 439, 440,
471,483,535,539,541,555,582,583,585,586, 851,
862, 1029, 1038, 1100, 1128, 1164
Cesium: 28, 29, 53, 211, 222, 223, 224, 242, 261, 300, 310, 383,
399, 413, 414, 415, 532, 535, 541, 548, 549, 555, 582, 583,
586, 762, 818, 840, 851, 862, 932, 1016, 1029, 1038, 1071,
1116, 1234
Chromium: 40, 383, 394, 526, 539, 597, 632, 648, 683, 702, 788,
792, 932, 992, 1025, 1043, 1105, 1130, 1208, 1234, 1264
Cobalt: 193, 223, 224, 242, 261, 269, 333, 383, 446, 471, 472, 535,
541,583,632,648,683,792,840,849.851,885,932,973,974,
975,983,992,1029, 1038, 1128, 1130, 1164,1208, 1209.
1234
Copper: 42, 48, 122, 132, 134, 173, 175, 228, 256, 269, 332, 338,
339. 345, 346, 351, 394, 420, 486, 521, 535, 583, 597, 628,
632, 641, 648, 651, 683, 720, 732, 735, 736, 741, 748, 757,
77 7, 781, 80 3, 804, 814, 8 33, 841, 8 71, 961, 9 83, 99 1, 99 2 ,
999, 1024, 1025, 1040, 1041, 1042, 1043, 1110, 1130, 1134,
1139. 1153, 1207, 1208, 1247, 1250, 1263, 1264, 1275, 1285,
1288, 1289
Europium: 851, 1038
Gallium: 535, 983, 1130
Germanium: 535, 601, 957A
Gold: 535,932,1208
Indi urn: 1130
Iron: 30, 48, 132, 193, 223, 224, 242, 261, 262, 471, 513, 521,
535, 541, 550, 551, 583, 628, 632, 648, 651, 683, 696, 707,
721, 741, 781, 802, 840, 885, 932, 958, 973, 974, 983, 992,
1029. 1040. 1130, 1134, 1234, 1264
535, 632, 648,
1025, 1110
380, 381, 503,
978, 983, 992,
683, 802, 833, 862, 873,
602, 648, 674, 694, 737,
1070. 1071, 1102, 1110,
352
-------
Lanthanum: 535
Lead: 228, 269, 420, 583, 597, 628, 632, 648, 651, 683, 741, 802,
803, 804, 833, 990, 992, 1043, 1130. 1160, 1168, 1208, 1263,
1264, 1275
Lithium: 535, 628
Magnesium: 269, 602, 648, 694, 846, 880, 978, 992
Manganese: 17, 223, 224, 228, 261, 333, 383, 471, 483, 539, 541,
550, 555, 583, 628, 632, 651, 683, 707, 763, 777, 785,
802,804,840,849,851,973,983,992,1038,1100,
1130,1134,1139,1164,1208,1234,1264
Mercury: 269,535,597,768,802,833,834,835,839,873,874,
896, 927, 932, 949, 951, 992, 996, 997, 1043, 1047, 1096
1166, 1208, 1247, 1264
Molybdenum: 535, 628, 683, 737, 983, 992, 1176, 1208, 1250
Neodymium: 535
Neptunium: 788
Nickel: 228, 269, 486, 535, 628, 648, 683, 741, 792, 992, 1025,
1043, 1130, 1208
Niobium: 102, 178, 214, 215, 333, 483, 535, 539, 555, 1029, 1038,
1166, 1208
Plutonium: 150, 516, 541, 1095, 1134, 1281
Polonium: 1168, 1281
Potassium: 333,535,547,548,549,602,694,737,846,880.992,
1038, 1041, 1164, 1290
Praseodymium: 333, 439, 535
Promethium: 17, 555
Radium: 151,350,401,476,588,747
Rhenium: 555
Rhodium: 17, 333, 599, 1029
Rubidium: 193, 535, 628, 932
Ruthenium: 17,28,53,150,214,281,310,333,483,539,541,547,
551,555,582,583,584,585,586,599.851,1029,1038,
1100, 1134, 1209
9,462,624,848,1048,1108,1289, 1290
535
932, 1166
684, 702, 941, 1149
535, 601, 694, 848, 918, 957A, 959, 960, 978, 983, 992,
999, 1043, 1061, 1062
Silver: 228, 269, 535, 628, 648, 778, 833, 992, 1130. 1164. 1208,
1264, 1288
Sodium: 535, 602, 694, 846, 848, 983, 992
Strontium: 6,53,150,188,214,222,223,224,242,261,298,310,
380, 381, 387, 413, 414, 415, 417, 439, 522, 532, 535,
541,547,566,628,648,674,683,703,818,840,851,
862, 901, 992, 1015, 1016, 1038, 1070, 1071, 1100, 1102,
1112, 1116, 1130, 1139, 1208, 1209, 1234, 1250
Tantalum: 1208
Salini ty:
Samarium:
Scandi urn:
Selenium:
Silicon:
353
-------
Thallium: 535
Thorium: 151, 401, 747, 932, 1016, 1202
Tin: 535,628,778,1130,1208
Titanium: 535, 628, 792, 992, 1130, 1208
Tungsten: 535, 792, 1208
Uranium: 151, 308, 588, 747, 788, 932, 1016
Vanadium: 535,628,683,788,792,983,992,1130,1208
Yttrium: 215, 387, 439, 535, 703, 1246
Zinc: 47,53,54,87, 102, 127,210,211,222,223,224,242,269,
345,354,383,394,419,436,471,486,521,532,535,539,
550, 583, 597. 602, 628, 632, 648, 651, 683,- 702, 707, 709,
713,722,781,785,802,803,804,840,849,851,862,891,
932, 951, 973, 983, 992, 999, 1025, 1038, 1043, 1072, 1110,
1123, 1129, 1130, 1134, 1139, 1164, 1166, 1208, 1209, 1234,
1256,1263,1264,1266,1275
Zirconium: 102,193,214,215,310,333,383,483,539,555,582,
585, 851, 852, 1029, 1038, 1166, 1208
AMPHIBIA
Barium: 897
Beryllium: 138
Cadmium: 897, 1171
Calcium: 317, 608, 897
Cesium: 79, 399
Cobalt: 79, 260, 1171
Copper: 138, 175, 804, 841, 897, 903, 1171
Lead: 58, 138, 260, 293, 804, 822, 1171
Lithium: 608
Magnesium: 897
Manganese: 804, 11 71
Mercury: 1171
Nickel: 260, 897, 1171
Potassium: 317, 608
Silver: 1171
Sodium: 317
Strontium: 79, 335, 897
Thallium: 138
Thorium: 138
Yttrium: 335
Zinc: 79, 138, 804, 1171
ANNELIDA
Aluminum:
Antimony:
Arsenic:
Barium:
535
535
535, 1238
535
354
-------
Beryllium: 535
Bismuth: 535
Cadmium: 155,468,535,648,653,873,994,1121
Calcium: 115, 535, 648, 900
Cerium: 535, 583, 1088
Cesium: 84, 535, 583, 1088
Chromium: 114,434,502,535,648,994,1081,1121
Cobalt: 468, 535, 579, 583, 648, 994, 1222
Copper: 405, 434, 502, 535, 553, 583, 648, 650, 994, 1081, 1121
Gallium: 535
Germanium: 535
Gold: 535
Iron: 115,404,405,535,583,648,707
Lanthanum: 535
Lead: 545, 583, 648, 994, 1081
Lithium: 535, 994
Magnesium: 115, 648, 900
Manganese: 468, 583, 652, 688, 707
Mercury: 468,535,553,873,1121
Molybdenum: 535
Neodymium: 535
Nickel: 468, 535, 648, 994, 1121
Niobium: 535, 1088
Plutonium: 676
Potassium: 84, 115, 535, 868, 900
Praseodymium: 535
Promethium: 688
Rhodium: 599
Rubidium: 535
Ruthenium: 583, 599, 919, 1088
Salinity: 652, 900
Samarium: 404, 405, 535
Scandium: 404, 405
Silicon: 535
Silver: 535, 648
S odi urn: 115, 535, 868, 900
Strontium: 370, 535, 648
Thallium: 535
Tin: 535
Titanium: 535
Tungsten: 535
Vanadium: 535
Yttrium: 535
Zinc: 283,404,405,535,545,553,583,648,650,653,676,707,
726, 994, 1121, 1124, 1273
Zirconium: 1088
355
-------
AVES
Antimony: 541, 851, 1038
Beryllium: 1038
Bismuth: 541
Cadmium: 995
Cerium: 541, 851, 928, 1038
Cesium: 541, 851, 1038
Cobalt: 541, 851, 928, 974, 1038
Europium: 851, 1038
Iron: 54 1, 9 2 8, 9 74
Lead: 118, 259, 995
Manganese: 541, 851, 928, 1038
Mercury: 276, 543, 569, 764, 771, 771A, 772, 824, 896, 905, 906,
924, 934, 995, 1073, 1074, 1080, 1185, 1189, 1241, 1242
Niobium: 1038
Plutonium: 541
Potassium: 928, 1038
Radium: 928
Ruthenium: 541, 851, 1038
Strontium: 541, 851, 928, 1038
Thallium: 995
Zinc: 836, 851, 1038
Zirconium: 851, 1038
BACTERIA AND YEASTS
Aluminum: 535, 1173
Antimony: 535, 842, 1177
Arsenic: 535, 571, 657, 1282
Barium: 535, 571
Beryllium: 535
Bismuth: 535, 842
Cadmium: 535, 571
Calcium: 204, 535, 971, 1102
Cerium: 535
Cesium: 532, 535
Chromium: 535, 571, 842, 1173
Cobalt: 535, 842
Copper: 290, 497, 535, 571, 572, 657, 757, 780, 804, 971, 1098,
1099, 1173, 1220
Gallium: 535
Germanium: 535
Gold: 535
Iron: 535, 921, 1099. 1177, 1220
Lanthanum: 535
Lead: 290, 571, 804, 842, 1177
Lithium: 535
356
-------
Magnesium: 971
Manganese: 657, 804, 842, 921
Mercury: 447,535,571,572,618,727,779,892,893,1011,1036,
1132, 1190, 1282
Molybdenum: 535
Neodymium: 535
Nickel: 535,571,819.1173,1177
Niobium: 535
Potassium: 535, 1068, 1173
Praseodymium: 535
Rubidium: 535
Salinity: 297,701,826,1068
Samarium: 535
Selenium: 1220
S i li con: 5 35, 11 73
Silver: 535, 571, 572, 1173
Sodium: 535, 971, 1068
Strontium: 322, 532, 535, 1102
Thallium: 535
Tin: 535
Titanium: 535
Tungsten: 535
Uranium: 206, 427, 1032
Vanadium: 535
Yttrium: 322, 535
Zinc: 419, 532, 535, 571, 572, 804, 1098, 1266
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Lead: 673
Mercury: 592,
Miscellaneous:
Mollusca: 45,
937
366, 724, 750, 1165, 1179
56
BRACHIOPODA
Aluminum: 535
Antimony: 535
Arsenic: 535
Barium: 535
Beryllium: 535
Bismuth: 535
Cadmium: 535
Calcium: 535
Cerium: 535
Cesium: 535
Chromium: 535
Cobalt: 535
357
-------
Copper: 535
Gallium: 535
Germanium: 535
Gold: 535
Iron: 535
Lanthanum: 535
Lithium: 535
Mercury: 535
Molybdenum: 535
Neodymium: 535
Nickel: 535
Niobium: 535
Potassium: 535
Praseodymium: 535
Rubidium: 535
Samarium: 535
Si licon: 535
Silver: 535
Sodium: 535
Strontium: 535
Thallium: 535
Tin: 535
Titanium: 535
Tungsten: 535
Vanadium: 535
Yttrium: 535
Zinc: 535
BRYAZOA
Aluminum: 535
Antimony: 535
Arsenic: 535
Barium: 535
Beryllium: 535
Bismuth: 535
Cadmium: 535, 648
Calcium: 535, 648
Cerium: 535
Cesium: 535
Chromium: 535, 648
Cobalt: 232, 535, 648
Copper: 232,357,535,
Gallium: 535
Germanium: 535
Gold: 535
Iron: 535,648
Lanthanum: 535
553, 648
358
-------
Lead: 232, 648
Lithium: 535
Magnesium: 648
Manganese: 232
Mercury: 535, 553
Molybdenum: 535
Neodymium: 535
Nickel: 535, 648
Niobium: 535
Potassium: 535
Praseodymium: 535
Rubidium: 535
Samarium: 535
Silicon: 535
Silver: 535, 648
Sodium: 535
Strontium: 232, 535, 648
Thallium: 535
Tin: 232, 535
Titanium: 535
Tungsten: 535
Vanadium: 232, 535
Yttrium: 535
Zinc: 232, 535, 553, 648
BRYOPHYTA
Antimony: 1038
Beryllium: 1038
Cadmium: 873
Cerium: 1038
Cesium: 1038
Coba1 t: 1038
Europium: 1038
Manganese: 1038
Mercury: 873
Niobium: 1038
Potassium: 1038
Ruthenium: 1038
Strontium: 6, 310,
Zinc: 284, 1038
Zirconium: 1038
414, 1038
CHAETOGNATHA
Cobalt: 312, 313
Iron: 313
Zinc: 313
359
-------
COELENTERATA
Aluminum: 535, 1131
Antimony: 535, 851
Arsenic: 535, 1097
Barium: 535, 965
Beryllium: 535
Bismuth: 535
Boron: 965
Cadmium: 535, 904, 1131
Calcium: 535, 965, 1131
Cerium: 535, 586, 851
Cesium: 83, 535, 586, 851
Chromium: 535, 965, 1131
Cobalt: 312,535,851,965, 1131
Copper: 535, 904, 965, 1131
Europium: 851
Gallium: 535
Germanium: 535
Gold: 535
Iron: 535, 965, 1131
Lanthanum: 535
Lead: 904, 965, 1018, 1019, 1131
Lithium: 535, 965
Magnesium: 1131
Manganese: 851, 965, 1131
Mercury: 535, 904
Molybdenum: 535
Neodymium: 535
Nickel: 535, 965, 1131
Niobium: 535
Potassium: 535, 1131
Praseodymium: 535
Radium: 1018, 1019
Rubidium: 535
Ruthenium: 586, 851
Samarium: 535
Scandium: 965
Silicon: 535, 965
Silver: 535, 1131
Sodium: 535, 1131
Strontium: 413, 414, 535, 851, 931, 965, 1019, 1131
Thallium: 535
Tin: 535, 1131
Titanium: 535, 965
Tungsten: 535
Uranium: 965
Vanadium: 535
360
-------
Yttrium: 535
Zinc: 535, 851, 904, 965, 1131
Zirconium: 851
CRUSTACEA
1016
409, 428, 506, 535, 546, 626, 992, 1063, 1289
13, 535, 541, 851, 952, 1038, 1039, 1210, 1234
12, 92, 342, 520, 535, 626, 632, 706, 735, 952, 1039,
1203, 1249
Barium: 13,360,535,626,992,1039
Beryllium: 535, 1038
Bismuth: 535, 541, 1016
Boron: 1039
Cadmium: 13, 92, 155, 468, 535, 626, 632, 648, 755, 759, 789, 837,
862,952,991,992,995,1039,1050,1051,1075,1084.
1104, 1171, 1212, 1213, 1249
Calcium: 13, 31, 115, 299, 301, 381, 461, 467, 535, 602, 626, 645,
648, 674, 716, 737, 749. 798, 806, 812, 829, 830, 991,
992, 1102
Cerium: 28, Ill, 124, 265, 299, 413, 471, 535, 539, 541, 582, 583,
586, 600, 790, 791, 850, 851, 862, 955, 1038, 1100, 1128,
1164
Cesium: 28,52,82,83,84,86,261,264,265,300,306,314,361,
413, 498, 532, 535, 541, 582, 583, 586, 600, 762, 791, 831,
850, 851, 862, 955, 1016, 1038, 1039, 1116, 1210, 1234
Chromium: 13,40,91,124,319,409,434,453,506,526,535,539,
597, 626, 632, 648, 702, 992, 1039, 1081, 1210; 1211,
1234
Cobalt: 13, 91, 261, 312, 313, 468, 471, 507, 535, 541, 554, 561,
579, 583, 626, 632, 648, 784, 851, 973, 974, 975,991,992,
10 38 , 10 39. 10 75, 112 8, 1164, 11 71, 11 74, 1210, 12 34, 12 86
Copper: 13, 25, 50, 51, 60, 85, 91, 119, 122, 171, 254, 255, 256,
343, 344, 378, 409, 412, 421, 429. 434, 499. 507, 509, 535,
546, 553, 583, 596, 597, 625, 626, 631, 632, 647, 648, 695,
699, 704, 732, 735, 736, 741, 759, 804, 841, 881A, 954,
961, 962, 991, 992, 1039, 1075, 1081, 1117, 1134, 1139,
1153, 1171, 1210, 1213, 1285, 1289
Europium: 466, 851, 1038
Gallium: 535, 1039
Germanium: 535, 1039
Gold: 146, 535, 626, 1039
Iron: 13, 60, 91, 115, 161, 261, 313, 390, 409, 453, 471, 506, 535,
541, 546, 583, 625, 626, 631, 632, 648, 741, 798, 921, 973,
974,991,992, 1117, 1134,1210, 1234, 1249
Lanthanum: 360, 535
Actinium:
Aluminum:
Antimony:
Arsenic:
361
-------
Lead: 13, 92, 161, 343, 344, 378, 409, 546, 583, 597, 612, 626,
632, 648, 717, 741, 759, 782, 798, 804, 837, 881A, 991, 992,
995, 1039, 1075, 1081, 1104, 1154, 1168, 1171, 1249
Lithium: 13, 31, 535
Magnesium: 13,115,461,602,626,631,648,716, 749, 798, 806,
812, 829, 839, 991, 992, 1210
Manganese: 13, 88, 91, 161, 261, 314, 337, 466, 468, 471, 539,
541, 561, 583, 626, 632, 785, 804, 820, 851, 881A, 921,
973, 991, 992, 1038, 1039, 1075. 1100, 1134, 1139.
1164, 1171, 1211, 1234, 1286
Mercury: 13, 92, 119, 120, 121, 218, 342, 421, 429., 468, 507, 509,
535, 553, 597, 626, 695, 699, 704, 729, 759, 767, 794,
854, 874, 899A, 927, 949, 952, 992, 995, 1012, 1013, 1075,
1096, 1104, 1117, 1125, 1163, 1171, 1189, 1210, 1240,
1242, 1243, 1244, 1248, 1267, 1270
Molybdenum: 535,737,992,1039,1176
Neodymium: 535
Nickel: 12,91,161,343,344,378,409,428,468,507,535,626,
648, 741, 991, 992, 1039, 1075, 1117, 1171
102, 111, 466, 535, 539, 1038
626
541, 782, 1044, 1095, 1134
612, 782, 1154, 1168
13, 82, 83, 84, 86, 115, 167, 306, 314, 461, 466, 535,
561, 602, 626, 645, 716, 737. 749. 829, 830, 992, 1038,
1164, 1210
Praseodymium: 439, 466, 535. 850
Promethium: 466
Radium: 350, 466
Rubidium: 535, 1039
Ruthenium: 28, 53, 111, 265, 539, 541, 582, 583, 586, 600, 851,
907~ 955, 1038, 1100, 1134
Salinity: 148, 461, 506, 511, 523, 593, 607, 625, 715, 716, 718,
719, 791, 830, 855, 899A, 938, 942, 1007, 1008, 1090,
1150. 1245, 1265, 1289
535
124
702, 1149
535, 992
535, 614, 648, 694, 783, 784, 992, 1039, 1075, 1164, 1171
12, 13, 31, 84, 113, 115, 264, 336, 423, 461, 535, 602,
626, 645, 716, 749, 798, 820, 829, 830, 992, 1210
Strontium: 13, 53, 107, 188, 261, 264, 291, 299, 348, 358, 360,
380,381,413,414,439,466,467,532,535,541,589.
626, 648, 674, 749, 812, 850, 851, 862, 991, 992, 993,
1016, 1038, 1039, 1100, 1102, 1116, 1139. 1234
Tellurium: 265
Thallium: 369, 535, 995
Niobium:
Platinum:
Plutonium:
Polonium:
Potassium:
Samarium:
Scandium:
Selenium:
Silicon:
Si 1 ver:
Sodium:
362
-------
Thorium: 1016
Tin: 13, 92, 409, 506, 535, 626, 1039
Titanium: 535, 992, 1039
Tungsten: 535
Uranium: 1016, 1017
Vanadium: 535, 992, 1039
Yttrium: 299, 439, 466, 535
Zinc: 13, 40, 53, 60, 80, 92, 102, 124, 125, 145, 147, 148, 181,
182, 183,284, 313, 314, 343, 344. 360, 378, 382, 397,409.
421, 471, 506, 507, 508, 532, 535, 539, 546, 553, 561, 583,
597,602,625,626,631,632,647,648,675,694,699,702,
713, 749. 759. 785, 789, 791, 804, 837, 851, 862, 881A, 946,
952, 973, 991, 992, 1038, 1060, 1075, 1089, 1117, 1123,
1129. 1134, 1139. 1164, 1171, 1184, 1211, 1212, 1234, 1249.
1256, 1273, 1286
Zirconium: 102, 111, 360, 466, 539, 582, 851, 1038
DETRITUS
Cerium: 110, 111, 393, 415
Cesium: 393, 413, 415
Niobium: 110, 111
Praseodymium: 535
Rhodium: 110
Ruthenium: 110, 111, 393
Strontium: 6, 393, 413, 415
Zinc: 286
Zirconium: 110, 111
ECHINODERMATA
Aluminum: 535, 1131
Antimony: 535, 1038
Arsenic: 535, 1238
Barium: 535
Beryllium: 535, 1038
Bismuth: 535
Cadmium: 155, 535, 862, 1131
Calcium: 530, 535, 872, 1131
Cerium: 535, 862, 1038
Cesium: 83,261,535,862,1038
Chromium: 535, 1131
Cobalt: 261, 535, 1038, 1131
Copper: 71, 485, 487, 535, 1022,
Europium: 1038
Gallium: 535
Germanium: 535
Gold: 535
1131, 1287
363
-------
Iron: 261, 535, 1022, 1131
Lanthanum: 535
Lead: 1131
Lithium: 535
Magnesium: 870, 1131
Manganese: 261, 1038, 1131, 1287
Mercury: 485, 535, 1287
Molybdenum: 535
Neodymium: 535
Nickel: 535, 1131
Niobium: 535, 1038
Potassium: 83, 535, 1038, 1131
Praseodymium: 535
Rubidium: 535
Ruthenium: 1038
Salinity: 518
Samarium: 535
Silicon: .535
Silver: 485, 535, 1131
Sodium: 535, 1131
Strontium: 188, 261, 535, 862, 1038, 1131
Thallium: 535
Tin: 535, 1131
Ti tanium: 535
Tungsten: 535
Vanadium: 535
Yttrium: 535
Zinc: 101, 291, 384, 485, 533, 535, 675, 862, 1022, 1038, 1131,
1287
Zirconium: 1038
ELASMOBRANCHII
Cadmium: 1227
Calcium: 153
Cerium: 353
Cesium: 353, 890, 1085
Iron: 153
Magnesium: 153, 263
Mercury: 686, 687, 786, 1227
Niobium: 353
Plutonium: 1280
Potassium: 153, 263, 296
Ruthenium: 353
Sodium: 153, 263
Strontium: 353
Zinc: 153
Zirconium: 353
364
-------
FISH
Actinium: 1016
Aluminum: 18, 142, 156, 409, 428, 452, 506, 535, 754, 761, 795,
796,898,940,945,1235
Antimony: 274, 334, 535, 541, 851, 940, 951, 952, 1038, 1210, 1234
Arsenic: 37,42, 70, 142, 166, 205,245,274,334,342,520.531,
535,735,748,815,951,952,977,979,1067,1203,1257,
1269
Barium: 56, 142, 156, 245, 273, 360, 450, 535, 754, 797, 898, 940,
945, 1218, 1235
Beryllium: 156, 271, 512, 535, 751, 754, 940, 1038, 1101, 1182,
1183
Bismuth: 535, 541, 940, 1016
Cadmium: 35, 106, 142, 155, 156, 191, 242, 271, 334, 363, 407, 441,
468, 507. 535, 616, 627, 640, 648, 678, 682, 745, 746,
751, 752, 753, 754, 755, 759, 802, 808, 837, 843, 844,
862, 873, 887, 898, 913, 940, 950, 951, 952, 972, 977,
979, 994, 995, 1002, 1020, 1021, 1092, 1093, 1104, 1121,
1122, 1138 , 1151, 11 71, 12 1 8, 122 7, 12 35, 1269
Calcium: 1, 2, 4, 7, 11, 22, 37, 69, 80, 95, 115, 128, 142, 156,
157, 184, 251, 262, 282, 301, 309. 356, 371, 380, 381,
443, 444, 445, 449, 459. 525, 528, 535, 648, 658, 664,
674, 737, 749, 754, 798, 806, 876, 898, 912, 940, 950,
980,1054,1071, 1094, 1119, 1197, 1198, 1199, 1221,
1228, 1235
Cerium: 28, 106, 207, 270, 323, 383, 439, 449, 471, 535, 539, 541,
582, 583, 586, 636, 851, 862, 928, 1038, 1083, 1088, 1156,
1164
Cesium: 19, 28, 41, 52, 79, 156, 169,
226, 227, 242, 261, 264, 270,
315, 324, 361, 371, 372, 373,
450. 535, 540, 541, 582, 583,
831,851,853,862,865, P84,
1038, 1055, 1071, 1083, 1085,
1235
Chromium: 1, 19, 93, 94, 95, 98, 106, 142, 156, 185, 205, 241, 245,
273, 303, 334, 383, 394, 403, 407, 409, 460, 506, 529,
535, 538, 539, 591, 597, 605. 640, 648, 663, 665, 754,
799, 856, 898, 930, 940, 944, 950, 977, 994, 1021, 1069,
1121,1122, 1178, 1210, 1219, 1234, 1235
Cobalt: 79, 106, 142, 156, 184, 242, 261, 273, 334, 376, 383, 386,
468, 471, 472, 473, 507, 521, 535, 541, 579, 583, 605, 616,
636,648,751,754,784,851,853,861,865,898,928,940,
950, 973, 974, 977, 994, 1038, 1057, 1083, 1147, 1164.
1171, 1209, 1210, 1218, 1234, 1235
Copper: 2,18,20.30.42,48, 76, 77,93, 106, 108, 128, 134, 142,
143,156,175.203,231,236,245,271,282,325,328,329,
170, 176, 184, 208, 222, 225,
273, 300, 305, 306, 310, 314,
374, 383, 386, 399, 400, 449,
586, 636, 754, 762, 793, 80S,
890, 915, 940, 1016, 1035,
1088, 1156, 1194, 1210, 1234,
365
-------
330, 334, 340, 343, 344, 345,
407, 409, 410, 411, 454, 484,
495, 504, 509, 521, 527, 535,
616, 622, 627, 640, 643, 646,
682, 693, 708, 732, 735, 740,
759,804,807.841,887,898,
945, 950, 956, 964, 977. 979,
1006, 1020. 1021, 1049, 1059,
1120. 1121, 1122, 1134, 1139,
1188, 1195, 1210, 1215, 1235,
Europium: 273, 851, 1038
Gallium: 535
Germanium: 535
Gold: 146, 156, 334, 535, 754, 898
Indium: 605, 940
Iridium: 940
Iron: 3, 18, 24, 26, 48,90, 106, 115, 129, 142, 156, 161, 168,
213, 242, 261, 272, 273, 386, 390, 409, 411, 433, 452, 471,
500, 506, 521, 535, 538, 541, 551, 583, 605, 615, 636, 640,
648,678,708,754,798,802,853,861,878,879,921,928,
940, 945, 950, 973, 974, 979, 1021, 1099, 1134, 1186, 1205,
1210, 1217, 1234, 1235, 1279
Lanthanum: 334, 360, 535, 940
Lead: 2, 104, 105, 123, 139, 140, 142, 156, 161, 209, 212, 248, 271,
282, 286, 295, 328, 330, 343, 344, 378, 403, 407, 409, 501,
517, 542, 577, 583, 591, 595, 597, 612, 616, 617, 640, 648,
678,717,723,754,759, 798,800,802,804,837,843,860,
887, 898, 940, 945, 950, 979. 994, 995, 1031, 1066, 1104,
1154, 1171, 1178, 1235, 1257
Lithium: 142, 156, 535, 754, 940, 945, 994
Magnesium: 7,80,115, 128,142,152,156,157,184,213,258,
356, ...380,621,648,725,749,754,798,806,876,888,
889, 898, 920, 940, 950, 980, 981, 1054, 1094, 1103,
119 7, 1210, 122 8, 12 35
Manganese: 2, 106, 142, 156, 161, 207, 209, 261, 273, 314, 315,
337,383,398,403,457,468,471,521,538,539,541,
583, 636, 640, 708, 710. 754, 756, 785, 802, 804, 851,
865, 898, 921, 928, 940, 950, 973, 1038, 1083, 1087,
1134, 1139. 1147, 1156, 1164, 1171, 1217, 1234, 1235,
1279
Mercury: 2, 11, 21, 36,
266, 267, 271,
448, 507, 509,
630, 634, 654,
733 , 739, 75 3 ,
773, 774, 794,
828, 843, 847,
899, 902, 906,
363, 365, 375, 378, 394,
488, 489, 492, 493, 494,
536, 544, 564, 583, 597,
648, 664, 665, 672, 678,
745, 748, 751, 752, 754,
899. 913, 92 2, 9 2 3, 940,
984, 994, 1003, 1004, 1005,
1064,1092,1098,1099,
1147, 1170, 1171, 1178,
1268, 1269. 1291
49,57,63,142,160,180,218,230,241,
273,275.276,283,316,352,442,447,
535,543,569,578,590,597,606,613,
672, 678, 686, 692, 708, 711, 727, 730,
759, 760. 765, 766, 767, 768, 771, 772,
801, 802, 813, 816, 817, 824, 825, 827,
873,874,887,892,893,894,895.898,
908,913,914,916,917,924,927,929.
366
-------
Samarium:
Scandium:
Selenium:
Silicon:
Silver:
934, 936, 940, 943, 945, 947, 949, 951, 952, 966, 967,
979, 985, 995, 996, 1001, 1002, 1006, 1010, 1011, 1012,
1013, 1014, 1021, 1045, 1046, 1052, 1053, 1080, 1091,
1096, 1104, 1121, 1122, 1125, 1132, 1133, 1140, 1144,
1145, 1146, 1161, 1163, 1171, 1180, 1188, 1189, 1206,
1210, 1223, 1227, 1233, 1235, 1253, 1257, 1258, 1260,
1261, 1267, 1269, 1292
Molybdenum: 535, 737, 940, 950, 1176, 1219, 1255
Nickel: 2, 77, 106, 128, 141, 143, 156, 161, 343, 344, 375, 378,
407, 409, 468, 507, 521, 535, 591, 640, 643, 648, 751,
754, 898, 940, 950, 994, 1092, 1120, 1121, 1122, 1170,
11 71, 1218, 1235
Niobium: 383, 535, 539, 605, 940, 1038, 1088
Palladium: 692, 940
Platinum: 940
Plutonium: 150, 516, 541, 636, 865, 1044, 1095, 1134
Polonium: 5, 209, 248, 612, 616, 617, 866, 1154
Potassium: 1,2,7,70,80,115,142,152,156,157,184,199,
200, 207, 213, 227, 245, 251, 258, 273, 306, 314, 315,
341, 356, 370, 372, 450, 460, 528, 535, 540, 547, 658,
714,725,737,749,754,869,876,888,889,898,915,
928, 940, 950, 964, 980, 986, 988, 1027, 1038, 1053,
1054, 1083, 1094, 1164, 1197, 1198, 1199, 1210, 1228,
1229, 1235
Praseodymium: 439, 535
Radium: 248, 273, 326, 350, 391, 401, 588, 928
Rhenium: 334, 940
Rhodium: 599, 1219
Rubidium: 156, 334, 535, 754, 940
Ruthenium: 28,53,150,281,310,539,541,547,582,583,586,
599,636,851,861,919,940,1038,1088,1134,1156,
1209
Salinity: 7,8,15,23,57,59,103,112,117,144,177,199,200,
201, 237, 246, 247, 251, 252, 253, 307; 341, 356, 388,
389,422,462,470,507,510,518,573,574,575,576,
609,611,621,658,689,690,691,744,753,858,926,
939,948,953,976,980,986,1009,1103,1113,1114,
1126, 1127, 1143, 1169, 1178, 1200, 1225, 1231
535
273
334,827,940,979,1065,1149,1257
309, 535
142, 143, 156, 241, 271, 273, 386, 535', 616, 648, 692,
697,754,783,784,865,887,898,940,945,1164,1171,
1218, 1235
Sodium: 1,2,7,15,80,99,108,113,115,123,128,142,152,
156,157,162,163,164,165,184,199,200,213,225.
239,245,251,258,264,273,307,341,356,452,528,
367
-------
535,621,658,714,725,749,754,798,869,876,888,
889,898,915,920,940,950,980,981,986,987,988,
1026, 1027, 1053, 1054, 1094, 1103, 1143, 1169, 1197,
1198, 1199, 1210, 1228, 1229, 1230, 1235
Strontium: 4, 16, 53, 67. 68, 69, 75, 79, 80, 142, 150, 156, 169,
170, 184, 188,222,242,261,262,264,310,349,359,
360, 368, 371, 379, 380, 381, 403, 435, 439, 443, 444,
445, 449, 450, 455, 458, 459, 474, 514, 524, 525, 535,
541, 547, 589, 603, 605, 616, 633, 636, 648, 674, 677,
749,754,851,862,898,928,940,1016,1030,1034,
1038, 1055, 1056, 1058, 1071, 1139, 1172, 1209, 1216,
1217, 1221, 1234, 1235, 1239
Tantalum: 940
Tellurium: 940
Thallium: 156, 273, 369, 535, 754, 940, 995
Thorium: 334, 401, 940, 977, 1016
Tin: 106,142,294,403,409,535,775,940.1218, 1219
Ti t ani urn: 40 3, 535, 940
Tritium: 478
Tungsten: 535
Uranium: 27,308,334,512,588,945,977,1016,1017
Vanadium: 106, 403, 535, 940, 1218
Yttrium: 22,68,75,273,368,439,474,514,525,535,1030
Zinc: 3,18,19,20,40,48,53,62,76,77,78,79,81,93,94,
95, 97, 98, 106, 108, 109, 123, 128, 142, 152, 154, 156, 157,
179,184,198,203,205,207,209,217,222,229,233,234,
238, 241, 242, 250, 273, 282, 284, 287, 288, 292, 314, 315,
327,328,329.330,334,343,344,345,360,362,378,383,
394,398,406,407,408,409.411,412,430,431,432,436,
437, 438, 454, 463, 464, 471, 479: 480, 481, 482, 487, 488,
489, 490, 491, 492, 493, 494, 495, 496, 504, 507, 521, 535,
539, 540, 564, 583, 597, 604, 605, 640, 643, 644, 648, 655,
656, 660, 661, 663, 664, 665, 666, 667, 668, 669, 675, 678,
682,685,697,708,713,745,749,751,752,754,758,759.
785,802,804,827,837,843,851,859,862,865,887,898,
899, 940, 950, 951, 952, 973, 977, 979, 994, 998, 1021, 1028,
1035,1038,1082,1083,1087,1092,1098,1109,1120,1121,
1122, 1123, 1129, 1134, 1139, 1141, 1142, 1147, 1156, 1164,
1171, 1178, 1181, 1188, 1191, 1192, 1193, 1195, 1209: 1217,
1218, 1234, 1235, 1251, 1252, 1269, 1279
Zirconium: 310,360,383,539,582,851,940.1038,1088
FUNGI
Arsenic:
Cadmium:
Cob alt :
Copper:
735
1157
1157
735, 736, 1157
368
-------
Iron: 921
Manganese: 921, 1157
Mercury: 1157
Nickel: 1157
Sa1ini ty: 1157
Zinc: 1079, 1157, 1266
HIGHER PLANTS
Aluminum: 535, 570
Antimony: 535, 541, 1038
Arsenic: 531, 535, 748, 1118, 1203
Barium: 535
Beryllium: 535, 1038
Bismuth: 535, 541
Boron: 570
Cadmium: 535, 681, 802, 873, 950, 995
Calcium: 535, 570, 737, 880, 950, 1070, 1201
Cerium: 413,535,541,555,1038
Cesium: 19, 306, 310, 399, 400, 413, 535, 541, 555, 568, 587, 818,
1038
Chromium: 535, 788, 950
Cobalt: 535,541,568,849,885,950,1038,1057
Copper: 38, 175,535,570,619,650,748,950,1134
Europium: 1038
Gallium: 535
Germanium: 535
Gold: 535
Iron: 535,541,570,802,885,921,950,1134,1187,1279
Lanthanum: 535
Lead: 802, 950, 995
Lithium: 535
Magnesium: 570, 880, 950, 1201
Manganese: 541,555,570,802,849,921,950,1038, 1134,1279
Mercury: 218,535,543,734,768,771,802,854,873,874,893,
936, 995, 1271
Molybdenum: 535, 737, 950
Neodymium: 535
Neptunium: 788
Nickel: 535, 950
Niobi urn: 535, 555, 1038
Plutonium: 541, 1095, 1134
Potassium: 306,535,570, 737,880,950,1038,1201
Praseodymium: 535
Promethium: 555
Radium: 391, 401
Rhenium: 555
Rhodium: 599
369
-------
Rubidium: 535
Ruthenium: 310, 541, 555, 599, 1038, 1134
Salinity: 1187
Samarium: 535
Selenium: 1262
Silicon: 535
Silver: 535
Sodium: 535, 570, 950, 1201
Strontium: 347, 522, 535, 541, 568, 589, 818, 901, 1038, 1056,
1058, 1070, 1201
535, 995
401
Thallium:
Thorium:
Tin: 535
Titanium: 535
Tungsten: 535
Uranium: 788, 1017
Vanadium: 535, 788
Yttrium: 535
Zinc: 19, 284, 418, 419, 437, 535, 570, 619,
1038,1123,1129,1134,1273,1279
Zirconium: 310, 555, 852, 1038
650, 802, 849, 950,
INSECTA
Actinium: 1016
Aluminum: 1283, 1284
Arsenic: 1203
Barium: 797
Bismuth: 1016
Cadmium: 468, 537, 802, 1121, 1212, 1283, 1284
Calcium: 115, 602, 1283
Cesium: 587, 1016
Chromium: 502, 537, 1121, 1283, 1284
Cobalt: 468, 537, 1283, 1284
Copper: 171, 175, 410, 492, 493, 502, 537, 804, 1121, 1283, 1284
Iron: 115, 537, 802, 1283, 1284
Lead: 537, 802, 804
Magnesium: 115, 602, 1283, 1284
Manganese: 337, 468, 756, 802, 804, 1283, 1284
Mercury: 192, 468, 537, 765, 802, 1046, 1121
Molybdenum: 1283, 1284
. Nickel: 468, 537, 1121, 1283, 1284
Potassium: 115, 602
Radium: 391, 588
Rhodium: 599
Ruthenium: 599
Sodium: 115, 602
Strontium: 370, 1016
370
-------
Thorium: 1016
Uranium: 588, 1016
Yttrium: 192
Zinc: 217, 284, 286, 410,
1273, 1283, 1284
493, 537, 602, 802, 804, 1121, 1212,
MAMMALIA
Antimony: 541, 851, 933, 1038
Arsenic: 581, 933
Barium: 202, 797
Beryllium: 1038
Bismuth: 541
Cadmium: 202, 279, 581, 933
Calcium: 202
Cerium: 541, 851, 1038
Cesium: 310, 541, 851, 1038, 1148
Chromium: 597, 788
Cobalt: 278, 279, 541, 851, 1038, 1209
Copper: 202, 278, 597
Europium: 851, 1038
Gold: 202
Iron: 541, 615
Lead: 202,248,278,279,581,597,617,635,1168
Manganese: 202, 278, 279, 541, 851, 1038
Mercury: 202,266,278,279,302,316,569,580,581,590,597,809,
810, 810A, 827, 896,908,924,933,936,963,967,1011,
1012, 1080, 1096, 1144, 1163, 1180, 1214
Neptmium: 788
Niobium: 1038
Plutonium: 541, 1044
Polonium: 248, 617; 1168
Potassium: 1038
Radium: 248, 401
Rhodium: 599
Ruthenium: 310, 541, 599, 851, 1038, 1209
Selenium: 827, 933, 1262
Silver: 202, 783
Strontium: 202, 310, 347, 541, 851, 1038, 1056, 1148, 1209
Thorium: 401
Uranium: 788
Vanadium: 788
Zinc: 202, 597, 758, 827, 851, 933, 1038, 1129, 1209
Zirconium: 310, 851, 852, 1038
371
-------
MISCELLANEOUS
Aluminum: 505
Barium: 392
Bibliography: 366, 750
Cadmium: 392
Calcium: 392
Cesium: 358
Chromium: 64
Cobalt: 392
Copper: 10, 64, 89, 290
Iron: 24
Lead: 52, 89, 104, 392
Magnesium: 392
Manganese: 392
Me rcury : 392
Nickel: 64, 392
Potassium: 289
Salini ty: 289
Silver: 392, 563
Strontium: 358
Zinc: 89. 127, 392
MOLLUSCA
Aluminum: 216, 428, 506, 535, 649, 670, 1106, 1162
Antimony: 466, 535, 541, 638, 951, 1038, 1039, 1224, 1234
Arsenic: 338,456,534,535,670,951,982,1039,1238
Barium: 535, 557, 769, 1039, 1106
Beryllium: 535, 1038, 1101
Bibliography: 45, 56
Bismuth: 65, 535, 541
Boron: 1039
Cadmium: 155, 221, 242, 426, 475, 477, 535, 559, 560, 638, 639,
649, 670, 731, 755, 770, 789, 821, 862, 873, 875, 951,
982, 989, 994, 1023, 1039, 1084, 1104, 1115, 1121, 1162
Calcium: 32, 33, 61, 65, 66, 115, 158, 184, 204, 530, 535, 629,
674,700,749,769,806,832,1033,1078,1106,1162,
1237
Cerium: 28, 190, 224, 383, 425, 439, 457, 466, 535, 539, 541, 582,
583, 586, 600, 862, 955, 1029, 1038, 1156, 1164, 1224
Cesium: 28, 52, 79, 83, 84, 184, 190, 194, 224, 242, 261, 361,
383, 413, 425, 535, 541, 557, 582, 583, 586, 600, 838,
862, 955, 957, 1029, 1038, 1039, 1078, 1156, 1234, 1277,
1278
Chromium: 93, 224, 383, 394, 426, 475, 506, 535, 539, 598, 638,
649, 670, 705, 770, 821, 944, 994, 1037, 1039. 1105,
1121, 1162, 1224, 1234
372
-------
Cobalt: 79, 184, ~94, 224, 242,.261, 312, 383, 426, 535, 541, 561,
583, 623, 649, 784, 838, 974, 975, 994, 1023, 1029, 1038,
1039, 1077, 1078, 1086, 1135, 1162, 1164, 1174, 1175, 1209,
1224, 1234, 1236, 1259, 1286
Copper: 44, 72, 108, 133, 175, 187, 197, 220, 221, 240, 244, 338,
377, 394, 396, 405, 421, 426, 475, 477, 504, 509, 535, 552,
553, 558, 559, 583, 598, 610, 620, 638, 642, 649, 670, 695,
699, 700, 728, 731, 742, 770, 804, 821, 857. 875, 935, 954,
982, 989, 994, 1039, 1078, 1115, 1117, 1121, 1136, 1137,
1139, 1162, 1196, 1272
Europium: 466, 1038, 1224
Gallium: 535, 1039
Germanium: 535, 1039
Gold: 146, 425, 535, 1039
Iron: 14, 115, 158, 242, 243, 261, 313, 321, 390, 404, 405, 426,
506, 535, 541, 583, 638, 649, 863, 864, 921, 974, 1029, 1078,
1086,1111,1117,1135,1136,1162,1224,1234,1272,1274,
1279
Lanthanum:
Lead: 137,
770,
1162
Lithium: 32, 61, 535, 629, 769, 957, 994
Magnesium: 61, 115, 158, 184, 558, 629, 700, 749, 769, 806, 1106,
1162, 1237, 1272
Manganese: 100, 189, 219, 223, 261, 355,
557, 561, 583, 623, 638, 639,
769, 785, 804, 811, 821, 921,
1078,1086,1139.1155,1156,
1286
Mercury: 266, 267, 302, 316, 352, 421, 509, 535, 553, 590, 598,
670,671,695,699,712,731,742,767,768,770,772,
867, 873, 874, 877, 882, 883, 894, 896, 908, 925, 934,
935, 949, 951, 989, 996, 1012, 1013, 1104, 1117, 1121,
1125, 1163, 1166, 1206, 1226, 1232
Molybdenum: 535, 638, 1039, 1176
Neodymium: 535
Nickel: 46, 421, 426, 535, 638, 649, 670, 671, 731, 994, 1023,
1039, 1078, 1117, 1121, 1162
Niobium: 190, 383, 466, 535, 539, 557, 1029, 1038, 1166
Plutonium: 541, 676, 1044, 1095, 1280
Polonium: 248, 612
Potassium: 33, 34, 83, 84, 115, 158, 184, 318, 466, 535, 561, 700,
749, 769, 881, 957, 1038, 1076, 1106, 1162, 1164
Praseodymium: 439, 466, 535
Promethium: 466, 688
Radium: 65, 248, 466
Rhodium: 599, 1029
5 35, 55 7, 122 4
248, 426, 583, 598, 612, 638, 639, 649, 670, 671, 742,
804, 821, 845, 989, 994, 1039, 1104, 1158, 1159, 1160,
383, 426, 466, 539, 541,
649, 670, 688, 731, 738,
1023, 1038, 1039. 1076
1162, 1164, 1234, 1279,
373
-------
Rubidium: 535, 957, 1039
Ruthenium: 28, 53, 190, 281, 457, 539, 541, 557, 565, 582, 583,
586, 599, 600, 886, 911, 955, 1029, 1038, 1156, 1209
Salinity: 148, 367, 578, 594, 659, 680, 968, 969, 970, 1152, 1237,
1277, 1278
404, 405, 535, 1224
404, 405, 1166, 1224
1077, 1224
535
221, 535, 638, 639, 649, 670, 671, 695, 742, 783, 784, 821,
982, 1039, 1162, 1164, 1272
Sodium: 32,33,34,61,84,108,115,158,184,367,535,629,700,
749, 769, 957, 1106, 1162, 1196
Strontium: 14, 53, 65, 66, 79, 184, 188, 190, 196, 224,
347, 370, 385, 387, 413, 414, 417, 439, 466,
674, 749, 862, 1033, 1037. 1038, 1039, 1078,
1162, 1209, 1234, 1239
Thallium: 535
Thorium: 1224
Tin: 535, 1039, 1077
Titanium: 535, 1039
Tungsten: 535
Uranium: 1017
Vanadium: 535,638,639,1039,1107
Yttrium: 387, 439, 466, 535, 1037
Zinc: 53,62,79,93,108,135,136,145,146,147,148,158,172,
174, 184, 194, 217, 219, 220, 223, 224, 242, 284, 313, 354,
383, 394, 395, 404, 405, 421, 424, 425, 426, 451, 457, 475,
477, 504, 506, 524, 533, 535, 539, 553, 557, 559, 560, 561,
562, 583, 598, 623, 637, 638, 639, 642, 649, 670, 671, 675,
676, 695, 699, 700, 705, 731, 738, 742, 749, 758, 770. 776,
785, 789, 804, 821, 857, 862, 875, 909, 910, 935, 946, 951,
982, 994, 1037, 1038, 1076, 1086, 1107, 1115, 1117, 1121,
1129, 1135, 1136, 1139, 1156, 1162, 1164, 1166, 1167, 1209,
1234, 1236, 1256, 1272, 1276, 1279, 1286
Zirconium: 190. 194, 383, 466, 539, 557, 582, 1029, 1038, 1166
S amari urn:
Scandium:
Selenium:
Silicon:
Silver:
242, 261,
535, 541,
1107, 1139,
PHORONIDEA
Aluminum: 535
Antimony: 535
Arsenic: 535
Barium: 535
Beryllium: 535
Bis muth : 535
Cadmium: 535
Calcium: 535
Cerium: 535
374
-------
Cesium: 535
Chromium: 535
Cobalt: 535
Copper: 535
Gallium: 535
Germanium: 535
Gold: 535
Iron: 535
Lanthanum: 535
Lithium: 535
Mercury: 535
Molybdenum: 535
Neodymium: 535
Nickel: 535
Niobium: 535
Potassium: 535
Praseodymium: 535
Rubidium: 535
Samarium: 535
Silicon: 535
Silver: 535
Sodium: 535
Strontium: 535
Thallium: 535
Tin: 535
Titanium: 535
Tungsten: 535
Vanadium: 535
Yttrium: 535
Zinc: 535
PLANKTON
Cerium: 466
Iron: 131
Praseodymium: 466
Zirconium: 466
PORIFERA
Aluminum: 535
Antimony: 535, 1038
Arsenic: 535, 1238
Barium: 535
Beryllium: 535, 1038
Bismuth: 535
Cadmium: 535
Calcium: 535
375
-------
Cerium: 333, 535, 1038
Cesium: 535, 1038
Chromium: 535
Cobalt: 333, 535, 1038
Copper: 535
Europium: 1038
Gallium: 535
Germanium: 535
Gold: 535
Iron: 535
Lanthanum: 535
Li thi um: 535
Manganese: 333, 1038
Mercury: 535
Molybdenum: 535
Neodymium: 535
Nickel: 535
Niobium: .333, 535, 1038
Potassium: 333, 535, 1038
Praseodymium: 333, 535
Rubidium: 535
Ruthenium: 584, 1038
Samarium: 535
Silicon: 535
Silver: 535
Sodium: 535
Strontium: 535, 1038
Thallium: 535
Tin: 535
Titanium: 535
Tungsten: 535
Vanadium: 535
Yttrium: 535
Zinc: 535, 1038
Zirconium: 333, 1038
PROTOZOA
Aluminum: 535
Antimony: 535
Arsenic: 535, 1203
Barium: 535
. Beryllium: 535
Bismuth: 535
Cadmium: 535, 679, 1171
Calcium: 535, 1000
Cesium: 413, 535
Cerium: 83, 415, 535
376
-------
Chromium: 535
Cob a1 t : 535, 679, 11 71
Copper: 535, 662, 956, 1171, 1254
Gallium: 535
Germanium: 535
Gold: 535
Iron: 535
Lanthanum: 535
Lead: 679,823,1171,1254
Lithium: 535
Manganese: 11 71
Mercury: 535, 679, 823, 1171
Molybdenum: 535, 698
Neodymium: 535
Nickel: 535, 1171
Niobium: 535
Potassium: 83, 535
Praseodymium: 535
Rubidium: 535
Samarium: 535
Silicon: 535
Silver: 535, 1171
Sodium: 535
Strontium: 413, 414, 466, 535, 1000
Thallium: 535
Tin: 535
Titanium: 535
Tungs ten: 535
Uranium: 1032
Vanadium: 535
Yttrium: 535
Zinc: 535, 662, 679, 823, 1171, 1254
REPTI LIA
Lead: 74
Salinity: 743
Sodium: 149
ROTIFERA
Arsenic:
706
SEDIMENTS
Antimony:
Arsenic:
Cadmium:
466, 951
951
478, 731, 787, 873, 950, 951, 995
377
-------
Calcium: 184, 950
Cerium: 466
Cesium: 79,184,399,762,818,1277
Chromium: 950
Cobalt: 79, 184, 849. 950
Copper: 48, 339, 477, 731, 950
Europium: 466
Gold: 146
Iron: 48, 707, 950
Lead: 787, 950, 995, 1154
Magnesium: 184, 950
Manganese: 466, 707, 731, 849, 950
Mercury: 218, 230, 267, 731, 787, 873, 892, 943, 951, 995, 1011,
1096, 1190, 1253
Molybdenum: 950
Nickel: 731, 950
Niobium: 466
Plutonium: 150
Polonium: 1154
Potassium: 184, 466, 950
Praseodymium: 466
Promethium: 466
Radium: 350, 391, 466
Ruthenium: 73, 150, 281, 551
Salini ty: 1277
Selenium: 1262
Sodium: 184, 950
Strontium: 73,79,150,184,466,818,901
Technetium: 73
Thallium: 995
Tri tium: 73
Yttrium: 466
Zinc: 48,79,101,147,184,217,418,419,437,477, 707, 731, 787,
849, 950, 951
Zirconium: 466
SOILS
Antimony: 541
Cerium: 541
Cesium: 541
Cobalt: 541
Iron: 541
Manganese: 541
Nickel: 46
Plutonium:
Ruthenium:
Strontium:
541
541
541
378
-------
TUNICATA
Aluminum: 535
Antimony: 535
Arsenic: 535
Barium: 535
Beryllium: 535
Bismuth: 535
Cadmi um: 535
Calcium: 535
Cerium: 535
Cesium: 83, 535
Chromium: 526, 535
Cobalt: 312,313,535,1174
Copper: 535
Gallium: 535
Germanium: 535
Gold: 535
Iron: 43 , 313, 5 35, 1204
Lanthanum: 535
Li thium: 535
Manganese: 688
Mercury: 535
Molybdenum: 535
Neodymium: 535
Nickel: 535
Niobium: 535
Potassium: 83, 535
Praseodymium: 535
Promethium: 688
Rubidium: 535
Ruthenium: 584
Samarium: 535
Silicon: 535
Silver: 535
Sodium: 535
Strontium: 535
Thallium: 535
Tin: 535
Titanium: 535
Tungsten: 535
Vanadium: 535, 1204
Yttrium: 535
Zinc: 313, 382, 535
379
-------
INDEX - AUTHORS
568
2
151, 747
589
15
16
17
733
19, 20, 21, 590, 591,
Abde1ma1ik, W.E.Y.
Abegg, R. 1
Abou-Donia, M.B.
Ackefors, H. 569
Adam, F.S. 570
Adema,D.M. 256
Affleck, R.T. 3
Agnede1, P.O. 4
Agranat, V.Z. 5
Agre, A.L. 6
Ahuja, S.K. 7
Alabaster, J. S. 8
A1asia, A.M. 534
Albright, L.J. 571,572,1068
Alderdice, D.F. 573, 574
Aldrich, D.V. 9. 220, 221, 1265
A1essandre110, D. 1122
A1eti, A. 803
Alexander, J. E. 10
AI-Hamed, M.I. 575
Allee, W.C. 775
Allen, K.O. 576
Alley, W.P. 577
Almodovar, L.R.
Amavis, R. 636
Amend, D.F. 11, 448, 578
Amiard, J.C. 579
Amiard-Triquet, C. 579
Anas, R.E. 580, 581
Ance11in, J. 28, 583, 584, 585,
586, 600, 955
Ance11in, J,C.M. 582
Anderson, B. G. 12, 13
Anderson, G. 1248
Anderson, G.E. 587
Anderson, J.B. 588
Anderson, J.M. 1292
Andrew, R.W. 625
Andrews, H.L. 14
Andrushaitis, G.
Ange1ovic, J.W.
Anghi 1eri, L.J.
Angino, E.E.
Annett, C.S.
Anon. 18,
592
Anwand, K. 22
Armi t age, K . B .
Armstrong, F.A.J.
23
1161, 1163,
1241, 1242
Arnholt, T.J. 293
Arnold, D.C. 593, 594
Arnold, E.L. 24
Arnold, P. W. 810A
Aronson, A.L. 595
Arthur, J.W. 25, 596, 625
Ase11, B. 765, 766
Ashley, L .M. 26
Aten, A.H.W. 27
Atherton, D.R. 401
Atton, F.M. 556, 1233
Aubert, M. 111, 597, 598, 949
Auerb ach, S. L 599
Avargues, M. 28, 582, 583, 600
Avau1t, J.W.,Jr. 576
Avio, C.M. 29
Ayers, J. C. 297, 702
Azam, F. 601
Bacci, E.
Bache, C.A.
Bachmann, R.W.
Bachurin, A.A.
Bagena1, T.B.
B ahns, T. K.
Bails, J.D.
Baker, B.E.
Baker, J.T.P.
Baker, P. F.
Bakkum, W.C.M.
Ba1ani, M.C.
Ball, LR.
Ballard, J .A.
Bandt, H.J.
Banerjea, S.
Baptist, J.
Baptist, J.P.
Barber, R. T.
Bare11i, M.
Barinov; G.V.
380
1125
947, 1006
602
1070, 1071, 1100
603
660, 661
760
1148
30
31, 32, 33, 34
27
1078
35, 604
36
37
38
39
40,41,146,439.
605, 709
606, 708
597, 598
417
-------
Barker, J.L. 957
Barnes, H. 607
Barnes, M. 607
Barth, L.G. 608
Barth, L.J. 608
Bartrand, D. 136
Bashamohideen, M.
Batte, E.G. 610
Batterman, A.R. 739
Bawden, C.A. 1075
Beamish, F.W.H. 611, 658
Beasley, J. 1084
Beasley, R.M. 46
Beasley, T.M. 386,
614,
617,
Bedrosian, P.H. 47
Beeton, A.M. 348
Bell, H. L. 537
Benayoun, G. 789, 790
Ben-Bassat, D. 618
Bender, M.E. 875
Beninson, D.J. 674
Benoit, D.A. 1003, 1004
Benoit, E.J. 529
Benoit, R.J. 48
Berg, W. 277, 895
Berglund, F. 49
Bergman, H.L. 1052
Berlin, M. 49
Bernard, F.J. 50, 51
Bernhard, M. 52, 53, 54
Bernhardt, H. 696
Bes ch, K. W. 619
Besch, W. 461
Betzer, N. 1025
Betzer, 8. B. 620
Beyenbach, K.W. 621
Beyerle, G.B. 622
Bhatt, 8. G. 1019
Bhatt, Y.M. 623
Bhattathiri, P.M.A.
Bida, G. 1120
Bidstrup, P. L.
Biebl, R. 624
Biesinger, K.E. 625, 626
Biggs, W.R. 1204
Bijan, H. 56
609
612, 613,
615, 616,
782
1076, 1108
55
Bilinski, E.
Binet, L. 57
Bioko, Z.F. 58
Bishai, H. M. 59
Bisque, R.E. 893
Bittel, R. 597, 598, 949
Black, W.A.P. 628
Blair, W. 1036
Blankenstein, E.
Blaska, J. 60
Blaustein, M.P.
627
1014
31, 32, 33, 61,
629
246, 247
873, 874
877
553
630
711
62
63
731
1275
64
631
632
65, 66
67, 68, 69. 633
70
Blaxter, J.H.8.
Blaylock, B.G.
Bleiler, E.L.
Blick, R. A. P .
Bligh, E.G.
Bobenrieth, P.
Bodansky, M.
Boetius, J.
Bohlen, W.F.
Bolter, E.
Bombowna, M.
Boon, D.D.
Boothe, P.N.
Borght, O. V.
Boroughs, H.
Boschetti, M.M.
Bougis, P. 71
Boulton, P. 634
Bovard, P. 582, 583, 584
Bowen, V. T. 10 39
Bowles, M.E. 74
Boyce, R. 72, 240
Brafield, A.E. 998
Braham, H.W. 635
Branca, G. 636
Brandt, D.J. 1285
Brar, 8.8. 209
Brereton, A. 637
Breuer, F. 636
Brinckman, F.E.
Brinkman, F.G.
Brooks, R.R.
Brouse, D.D.
Brown, B. E .
Brown, D.J.
381
1036
1196
6 38, 6 39. 640,
867
641
642
73
-------
1253
577
74
763
75, 76, 77, 78,
643, 644, 1170
645
79, 80, 81, 646,
693
82, 83, 84, 85, 86,
87, 88, 647, 648,
649, 650, 651, 652,
653, 812, 1201
Buddemeier, R.W. 931
Buge1ski, Y.Y. 89
Burdick, G.E. 90,972,1065,
1066, 1067, 1218
724
654
655, 656, 660
951, 952
724
657
936
658
Brown, H.G.
Brown, H.R.
Brown, J.H.
Brown, T.E.
Brown, V.M.
Brule, G.
Brungs, W.A.
Bryan, G. W.
Burg, A.W.
Burrows, W.D.
Burton, D.T.
Burton, J.D.
Butters, K.M.
Button, D.K.
Byrne, A. R.
Byrne, J.M.
Cabejszek, I.
Cain, T.D.
Cairns, J.
Cairns, J.J.
Cairns, J., Jr.
91, 92
659
93, 94, 95,
97
96, 98
48, 99, 394,
655, 656, 660,
661, 662, 663,
664, 665, 666,
667, 668, 669,
1191, 1192,
1193, 1251,
1252
670, 671
672
100
679
673
Calabrese, A.
Calamari, D.
Ca1apaj, G.G.
Cameron, 1. L.
Campbell, 1. R.
Cancio, D. 674
Carey, A.G., Jr.
Carey, A.G. 102
Carlson, C. A. 677, 1172
Carlson, D.A. 505
101, 675, 676
858
811
103
104,
Carlson, D.R.
Carlucci, S.
Carpe1an, L.H.
Carpenter, K.E.
Carr; R. 902
Carr, R.A. 820, 835
Carson, W.G. 1291
Carson, W.V. 1291
Carter, J.W. 679
Carville, T.E. 770
Case, A.C. 83.6
Castagna, M. 680
Castell, C.H. 106
Cawthorne, B.H. 1148
Cearley, J.E. 681, 697
Chakravarti, D. 107
Chamberlain, L.L. 948
Chamberlain, N.V. 401
Chan, 1. 1224
Chandler, D.C.
Ch ang, P. S .
Chang, S.B.
Chanley, P-
Chapman, G.
Charre1, J.
Chau, Y. K.
Chawla, V. K.
Chen, C. 958
Chen, C.W. 109, 685
Cherry, R. D. 1168
Chesse1et, R. 110, 111
Chesters, G. 734
Chi, L.W. 552
Childs, E.A. 686, 687
Chipman, R.K. 112
Chipman, W. 688
Chipman, W.A. 113,
Chittenden, M.E., Jr.
105, 678
348
108
997
680
682
320, 321
683, 684
683
Christiansen, C.
Christensen, G.M.
114
689, 690,
691
843, 844
626, 692,
693, 1005
505
Christman, R. F.
Chu, S.P. 694
Cia11e11a, N. R.
Cigna, A.A. 636
Claeys, R.R. 1082
Clarke, G.L. 695
674
382
-------
Clarkson, T.W.
Clasen, J. 696
Clemens, H.P. 115, 116
Coburn, C.B., Jr. 1278
Coche, A.G. 117
Cody, R.M. 1032
Colby, P. J . 334, 977, 1199
Cole, H., Jr. 570
Coleman, R.L. 681, 697
Collier, R.S. 670, 1213
Collins, J.D. 1162
Co1mano, G. 698
Colwell, R.R. 1036
Conard, R.M. 615
Connor, P.M. 699
Cook, R. S. 118
Cooley, H. L. 339
Coombs, T.L. 700
Cooper; A.L. 964
Cooper, M.F. 701
Copeland, R. A. 702
Corcoran, E. F. 10, 703
Corner, E.D.S. 119, 120, 121,
704
175
392
Corrol1er, Y.L.
Cory; R. L. 705
Coutant, C.C. 538
Cowel1, B.C. 706
Craddock, J.E. 1016
Crance, J.H. 122
Crandall, C. A. 123
Crawford, D.L. 687
Cromer, N.H. 661
Cross, F.A. 124, 125, 606,
707, 708, 709,
1279
1084
Crothers, J.H.
Csanady, M. 126
Cucin, D. 800
Culkin, F. 952
Cumming, K. B. 710, 756
Cummings, T.F. 994
Cumon t, G. 711
Cunningham, P. A.
Curl, H., Jr.
Curl, H.J.
Cushing, C.E.
Cus i ck, J.
712
1039
383
127, 538, 713
128
Dabrowski, Z.
Dahl, J. 129
Da1enberg, J.W. 27
Dahlberg, M.L. 1252
Da11, W. 715, 716
Dalton, R.A. 77, 643
D'Ame1io, V. 717
Damm, F. C. 1182
Davenport, J. 718, 719
Davey, E.W. 720
David, A. 433
Davies, A.G. 130, 131, 721,
722
723
132
15
17
539, 1256
725
724
1213
182
124, 125, 183, 726,
791, 1210
Dean, R. B. 727
DeCa1venti, I.B.
Decleir, W. 728
DeCoursey, P.J.
De Goeij, J.J.M.
Degurse, P.E.
Deh linger, P.
Dehne1, P.A.
Dempster, R.P.
DePieri, R.
Der Vartanian,
Deschiens, R.
Cuthbert, A.W.
Cutshall, N.H.
Davies, P.H.
Davis, C.C.
Davis, E.M.
Davis, J .A.
Davis, J.J.
Davis, P.W.
Davis, T.R.A.
Dawson, M.A.
De an, J. F .
Dean, J .M.
DeSouza, C.P.
Devassy, V. P.
Deyoe, C.W.
Dickson, K. L.
Dilling, W.S.
D' Itri, F .M.
Dixon, B.
Dodgen, C.L.
383
714
676
278
133
729
730, 933
924
731
523
134, 732
811
M. E. 779
56, 135. 136,
175
137
1108
1069
660, 662
138, 139
733 760
,
483
165
-------
Do 1 ar, S. G . 734
Domoga11a, B. 735, 736
Donaldson, J.R. 1176
Donaldson, L.R. 737
Donnier, B. 597, 598, 949
Dorfman, D. 140
Doshi, G.R. 1076
Doudoroff, P. 141, 142, 143
Downes, K.M. 738
Drabkina, B.M. 144
Drummond, R.A. 739, 740
Drury, D.E. 491
Duce, R.A. 741
Dudnikov. V.F.
Duke, T. 148
Duke, T.W. 145, 146, 147, 707
Dunker, S.S. 657
Dunlop, R.H. 556
Dunson, W.A. 149, 743
Dunster, H.J. 150
Dushkina, L.A. 744
742
Eagle, R. 1154
Eagle, R.J. 616
Eaton, J.G. 745, 746
Edgington, D.N. 151,
977
157
Edmunds, P.H.
Ego, W.T. 526
Ehlert, G.W. 743
Eipper, A.W. 748
Eisler; R.107. 152,
155, 156,
288, 749,
752, 753,
Eldridge, W.E. 245
Ellis, M.M. 159, 160
E1-Shinawy, R.M.K. 568
Elson, P.F. 492, 493
Emerick, R.J. 824
Endres, G.W.R. 758
England, R. H. 756
Epstein, F.H. 1094
Ericksen, L. V. 161
Erickson, S.J. 720, 757
Erkama, J. 1132
Escalera, R.M. 333
Essig, T .H. 758
334, 747,
153, 154,
157. 158,
750,751,
754, 755
Eto, S. 294
Eustace, I.J.
Evans, D.H.
1115
162, 163, 164,
988
III
446
760
854
723, 761, 796
762
763
165
Evans. E. e.
Evans, J.E.
Evans, R.J.
Everett, T.R.
Everhart, W. H.
Eyman, L.D.
Eyster, e.
Ezell, H.
759
Faber, R.A. 764
Fagerstrom, T. 765, 766, 767
Fairhurst, S. P. 1146
Fa1ciai, L. 1125
Fa1empin, M. 645
Fang, S.C. 768
Farley, J. 166
Farley, T.e. 1225
Faro, S.N. 316
Farr, D.F. 1079
Fast, A.W. 733
Faust, S.L. 173, 780
Federov, A.F. 167
Fedii, S.P. 168
Feldt, W. 169, 170
Felton, B.H.D. 769
Feng, S.Y. 731
Ferraro, D. 717
Ferrell, R.E. 770
Fesenko, N.G. 564
Filby, R. 802
Fimreite, N. 771, 771A, 772,
773
774
775
1292
Finch, R.
Finkel, A.J.
Finlayson, B.J.
Fisher, A. 171
Fischler, K. 148
Fitzgerald, B.W.
Fitzgerald, G.P.
172,
173,
779,
731
195
1021
175
174, 776
777, 778,
780
Fitzgerald, W.F.
Fleishman, D.G.
Fleming, R. F.
Floch, H.R.
384
-------
781
176, 561, 562,
782, 783, 784,
785, 865, 866,
1095, 1281, 1286
177
178
5 73, 786
1211
705
787
422
1 79, 180, 36 8 ,
788, 1030
949
1234
125,
183,
791,
1184
792
793
809, 810, 810A, 913
1057, 1058
794
761, 795, 796
1146
797
798
442
184
185, 460, 799,
856,930,1052,
1053
Fry, F. E. J . 800
Fujihara, M.P. 186
Fujiki, M. 882, 883
Fujita, T. 885
Fujiya, M. 187
Fukai, R. 188
Fukui, S. 801
Fumjiki, F. 267
Funk, W.H. 802
Fogg, G.E.
Folsom, T.R.
Fontaine, M.
Foreman, E.E.
Forrester, C.R.
Forster, W.O.
Forster, W.O.
Forstner, U.
Foster, M.A.
Foster, R.F.
Fourcy, A.
Fourie, H.O.
Fowler, S. W.
Foy, C.D.
Fraizier, A.
Frank, R.
Fraser, C.D.
Freeman, H.C.
Freeman, R.A.
Freimark, S.J.
French, N. R.
Freyre, L.
Friddle, S.B.
Friend, A.G.
Fromm, P.O.
181, 182,
789, 790,
907, 1089,
Gaffke, J.N. 686, 687
Gaglione, P- 189
Gale, N.L. 803, 804
Gallegos, A. F. 805, 831
Gammon, J.R. 806
Garnbarotta, J. P.
Ganguly> A. K.
Garder, K.
Gardner, G.R.
111
1077
190
191,752,753,
807, 808
731
809, 810; 810A
1093
923
587
792
1119
192
811
812, 1201
813
814
832
815
193
816, 817
Garvine, R.W.
Gaskin, D.E.
Gast, M.H.
Gensler, D.J.
Gentry, J.B.
Gerloff, G.C.
Germann, J. F .
Getsova, A.B.
Ghiretti, F.
Gibbs, P.E.
Giblin, F.J.
Gibson, C.E.
Gibson, M.A.
Gilderhus, P .A.
Gileva, E. A.
Gillespie, D.C.
Glaser, R. 194
G1azunov, V.V. 195
G1oyna, E.F. 818
Gohar, H.A.F. 196
Goldberg, E.D. 349
Goldman, C.R. 871
Gonca1 ves, N. B. 197
Gonor, J.J. 968, 969. 970
Gonye, E.R., Sr. 819
Goodman, J. 198
Goodnight, C.J. 123
Gordon, C.M. 820
Gordon, M. S. 199, 200, 201
Gordon, S.A. 151, 747
Gorman, J. 547
Govskaj a, Ts. I. 290
Grabowski, S. 921
Grabske, K. 202
Graham, D.L. 821
Gramenitskii, E.M. 822
Grande, M. 203, 1188
Gray, J.S. 823
Greenfield, L.J.
Greichus, A. 824
Greichus, Y.A. 824
Greve, P.A. 825
385
204
-------
Gribbon, E.
Griffi th, N. A.
Griffiths, R.P.
Grismore, R. 783
Grindley, J. 205
Gruchy, I.M. 772
Gruend1ing, G.K. 990
Gruia, E. 343, 344
Gruner, N. 618
Grushkin, B. 11 71
Gua1di, G. 534
Guarino, A.M. 920
Guegueniat, P. 583
Guffein, L.N. 206
Guilb au1 t, P. 645
Guinn, V.P. 827
Guskova, V.N. 206
Gustafson, P.F. 207,208,209
Gutenmann, W.H. 972, 1065,
1218, 1219
210, 211
Gutknecht, J.
1090
874
826
Habashi, F. 1220
Haesaenen, E. 305, 306
Haga, H. 295, 828
Haga, Y. 295, 828
Hagerman, L. 829, 830
Hagino, T. 828
Haider, G. 212
Hakonson, T .E.
Haley, G.F.
Halko, D . J .
Ha1sband, E.
Ha1sband, I.
Hamlin, J. M.
Hampson, B. L.
Hampson, M.A.
Hanks, R. W.
Hannan, P.J.
Hannerz, L.
Hanson, H.M.
Hanson, W. C.
Hardie, M.G.
Hardisty, M.W.
Hardy, L.H.
Hare, G.M.
Harris, E.J.
831
832
1204
213
213
271
214
215
216
833, 834, 835
217, 218
1074
400,539,836,
1256
80 3 , 804
837
708
1098
972, 1065, 1066,
1067, 1218
Harrison, F.L.
Harriss, R.C.
Harry, H.W.
219, 838
839
220,221,559,
560
893
222,223,224,
840
225, 226, 227,
1045, 1046
Has further, W.A. 303
Hashimoto, T. 296
Hashish, S.E.E. 196
Hasler, A.D. 841
Hassa11, K.A. 228
Hassan, A. 196
Hasse1rot, T.B.
Hata, Y. 842
Hatch, D.R.M.
Havre, G.N.
H axo, F. T .
Hayashi, A.
Hayes, D.
Hayward, J.
Hazel, C.R.
Hazen, B.H.
Healy, C. W.
Heard, V.E.J.
Hearnden, E.H.
Heath, A.G.
Heath, W.A.
Heather, C.J.
Hecky, R.E.
Heft, R. E.
Heinle, D.
Held, E.E.
Hartung, R.
Harvey, R.S.
Hasanen, E.
229, 230
1242
843, 844
519
845
483
846, 1072
231
442
138, 139
1008
847
1191
1075
232
848
849
1021
46, 614, 615, 850,
851, 852, 853
Helm, W.T. 350
He h, G. R. 857
Hemmingsen, B.B. 601
Henderson, C. 407, 512
Henderson, G.E. 978
Hendler, E. 1094
Hendrick, R.D. 854
Hennekey, R.J. 753, 755
Henriksson, K. 905
Herbert, D.W.H. 233, 234, 235,
236, 237, 238
Herde, K.E.
239
386
-------
Hobden, D.J.
Hodge, V.F.
Hodgkin, A.L.
Hoffman, D.O.
Hoffman, F. L.
Hoggins, F.E.
Ho1drinet, M.
Holland, G.A.
Holliday, F.G.T.
Holsworth, W.N.
Holtzman, R. B.
Honda, H. 376
Honstead, J.F.
Hood, D.W. 483
Hood, S.L. 763
Hoque, E. 868
Hori, R. 869, 870
Horn, W.M.V. 249
Horne, A.J. 871
Horne, D.A. 794
Hoss, D.E. 146, 250, 605,
1156
Houston, A.H. 251, 252, 253
Howells, G.P. 422, 928
Hsiao, S. C. 872
Hubschman, J .H.
Huckabee, J. W.
Herdman, W.A.
Hernandorena, A.
Herring, J. 929
Heron, J. 603
Hetling, L.J.
Hewett, C.J.
Heyraud, M.
Hiatt, R.W.
Hibiya, T.
Hickey, J.J.
Hi 11, C. W .
Hill, D.M.
Hi 11, J. M.
Hill, L. G .
Hiller, J .M.
Hinde, E.J.
Hine, C.H.
Hirakawa, K.
Hissong, D.E.
Hiyama, Y.
72, 240
855
634
890
790, 1012, 1232
67, 68, 69
241
764
856
710
857
858
859
547
1257
1226
426
242, 292, 860, 861,
862,1174,1175
24 3 , 86 3 , 864
865, 866, 1281
32, 61, 629
244
866
867
809. 810A
245
246, 247
772
248
179. 758
254, 255
873, 874
Hueck, H.J. 256
Huggett, R.J. 875
Hulth, L. 916, 917
Hummerstone, L.G. 650, 651,
652, 653
Hunn, J.B. 257, 258, 876
Hunt, E.P. 693, 1005
Hunter, B.F. 259
Hussain, M. 877
Hutchinson, K.S.
Hutter, O.F. 260
Hyche, C.M. 1096
978
Ichikawa, R.
261,
919
Idler, D.R. 263
Ikeda, Y. 878, 879
I1 'in, D. I . 264
Imbamba, S. K. 880
Imlay, M.J. 881
Ingram, W.M. 983
Inoue, T. 1226
Iobchenko, E. E.
Iorgu1escu, A.
Ireland, M.P.
Irizarry, N.
Irukayama, K.
262, 860,
564
265
881A
405
266, 267, 882,
883
1178
332
884
1026, 1027
568
885
809, 810
886
268
269
Irwin, G.A.
Isaac, P.C.G.
Isaacs, J. D.
Isaia, J.
Ishak, M.M.
Ishibashi, M.
Ishida, K.
Ishikawa, M.
Ishikura, S.
Ishizaka, O.
Ito, Y. 269
Ivanov, V.N.
Iverson, W.P.
270
1036
Jenkins, C.E.
Jennett, J.C.
271, 887
888, 889, 920
890, 1074,
1088
273
80 3 , 804
J ackim, E.
Janicki, .R.H.
Jefferies, D.F.
387
-------
Jennings, C.D.
Jensen, A. 891
Jernejcic, F. 274
Jerne1oev, A. 892, 893
Jerne1ov, A. 275, 766, 767,
894
Jitaru, P. 469
Johannes, R.E.
Johne1s, A.G.
Johnson, J.N.
Jokela, T.
Jokela, T.A.
Jonas, R.E.E.
Jonderko, G.
Jones, A.H.
Jones, A.M.
Jones, J.R.
Jones, J.R.E.
272, 1279
418, 419, 525
276, 277, 895
785
1154
616
627
278, 279
656
896
285
280, 282, 283,
284, 286, 897,
898, 899
Jones, M.B. 899A
Jones, M.E. 497
Jones, N.Y. 708
Jones, R. F. 281
Jones, W.H. 115
Jones, Y. 896
Jordan, D.H.M. 644
Joyner, T. 287, 288
Judd, J.M. 379, 380, 381,
1058
1253
June, F.C.
Kaeding, J.
Kaemmerer, K.
Kahler, H.H.-
Kai, F. 267,
Kaj ihara, T.
Ka1abina, M.M.
Ka1nina, Z.
Ka1ninya, Z.K.
Kameda, K. 292
Kamp-Nie1sen, L.
Kamps, L.R. 902
Kanno, S. 801
Kaplan, H.M. 293, 903
Karbe, L. 904
Kardashev, A.V. 360
Kariya, T. 294, 295, 828
289
161
900
882, 883
1174, 1175
290
589, 901
291
1040, 1041
Karppanen, E. 905
Kartar, S. 837
Katsuki, Y. 296
Katz, A. 1224
Katz, E. L. 426
Katz, M. 141, 142, 249
Kawachi, E. 1029
Kawai, H. 376
Kawasaki, L. Y.
Kawatsu, H.
Kazantzis, G.
Keckes, S.
577
996
906
907, 908, 909, 910,
911, 1012, 1184,
1232
Keeny, D.R. 734
Keff1er, L.R. 912
Keith, J.A. 772
Kelso, J.R.M. 913
Kendall, M.W. 914
Kennedy, J.C. 800
Kenney, A.R. 966
Ketchen, K. S. 786
Ketchum, B.H. 297
Kevern, N.R. 298, 915, 995
Khan, J.M. 861
Khme1eva, N.N. 299
Kih1strom, J.E. 916, 917
Ki 1h am , P - 848, 9 18
Kimball, J.F., Jr. 703
Kimura, K. 295, 376, 919
Kimura, S. 996
King, S.F. 300
Kinter, W.B. 888, 889, 920
Kirchner, W.B. 921
Kirpicnikov, V.S. 301
Kishore, R. 827
Kiyoura, R. 302
K 1 as s en, C. W . 303
K1awe, W.L. 1091'
K1eerekoper, H. 922, 923, 1215
Kleinert, S.J. 924
Klement, A.W. 304
Klemmer, H. 925
Kloth, T.C. 926
Knauer, G.A. 632, 927, 992
Kneip, T.J. 928
Kneiss1, I. 461
Knight, L.A., Jr.
929
388
-------
Knoll, J. 930
Knook, D. L. 1196
Knott, Y. 1025
Knutson, D.W. 931
Koelling, J.J. 932
Koeman, J .H. 933, 934
Koga, T. 376
Kohler, A. C.
Kohno, T.
Koivisto, T.
Ko1ehmainen, S.
1292
869
1214
225, 226,
305, 306
Kondo, T. 267, 882, 883
Kopfler, F.C. 935
Koro1eva, N.V. 307
Korotchenko, O.D. 1238
Koshe1eva, L.P. 1238
Kosta, L. 936
Koudstaa1-Ho1, C.H.M.
Kovalsky, V.V. 308
Kozn, Y. 309
Krajnovic, M.
Krenke1, P.A.
Krishnamoorthy,
Krishnamoorthy;
Krishnan, T. S.
Krishnaswami, S.
Kruger, F. 939
Krumholz, L.A. 310, 311, 1016
Kucherova, F.N. 940
Kuenz1er, E.J. 312, 313
KUhn, P.C. 1020
Kujala, N.F. 314, 315
Ku1ebakina, L.G. 1070
Ku1ikov, N.V. 522
Kumada, H. 352, 996
Kumar, H.D. 941
Kurland, T. 316
Kushmerick, M.J.
Kutty, M.N. 942
933
384,
654,
R.V.
T.M.
942
1018, 1019
909, 910
937
938
623
317
Labat, R.
Lackey, J. B.
Lake, P.S.
La1ou, C.
Lane, C.E.
Lange, J. Z.
Langley, D.G.
470
318
1212
110, 111
50, 51
170
943
Lann, H. 894
Lansden, J .A. 1032
Lansford, L.M. 351
Lappenbusch, W. L. 944
LaRoche, G. 156, 753, 754, 807
Laroze, A. 945
Larsen, 1. L. 315, 946
Larson, R.E. 820
Lasater, J.E. 245
Lask, D.J. 947
Lasker, R. 948
Lasko, L. 1121
Lau, L.S. 925
Lauer, B.H. 1148
Laumond, F. 597, 598, 949
Laurent, P.J. 319
Lawrence, J.M. 950
Leandri, M. 320, 321
Lear, D.W. 322, 519
Leather1and, T.M. 951, 952
Lebedeva, G.D. 323, 324, 347
Leddy, D. G. 1285
Leduc, G. 143, 953
Lee, J.J. 1000
Lee, J.S. 1106
Lee, S.W. 954
Leet, W.L. 451
LeGa11, P. 955
Lekarev; V. S. 308
Lelievre, H. 711
Lemaire, J. 728
Lenzerini, L. 29
Leonard, E.N. 25, 596, 646
Leteux, F. 956
Levin, V.S. 1238
Levi tan, H. 957
Lewin, J. 957A, 958
Lewin, J.C. 959, 960
Lewis, A.G. 961,962
Lewis, C.W. 40, 605
Lewis, W.M. 501
Li, M.F. 963
Liepo1t, R. 325
Linn, D.W. 326
Lipschuetz, M. 90, 964
Lisachenko, E.P. 498
Lisk, D.J. 972, 1006, 1065,
1066, 1067, 1218,
1219, 1288
389
-------
Livingston, H.D.
Llauro, J.A. 674
Lloyd, R. 327. 328,
331
401
966
965
329, 330,
Lloyd, R.D.
Lockhart, W. L.
Lodge, M. 332
Lofroth, G. 569, 967
Loos, J.J. 98, 663
Lord, H. 637
Lough, R.G. 968, 969. 970
Louisy, M.V. 8l0A
Loveless, J.E. 971
Lovett, R.J. 972, 1080
Low, J. B. 1185
Lowman, F.G. 333, 973, 974,
975, 1176
Lowthion, D. 976
Lucas, H.F. 334
Lucas, H. F., Jr.
Lucas, J.W. 335
Luciano, D. 405
Lucu, C. 336
Ludemann, D.
Ludlam, S.D.
Lundberg, C.
Lunde, G.
Luoma, S.N.
Lutz, P.L.
Lynn, R. I.
977
337
978
917
979
925
980, 981
1185
MacFarlane, R.B. 839
MacInnes, J.R. 670, 982
Mackenthum, K.M. 338, 339, 983
Mackereth, F.J. 340, 603, 984
MacLeod, J.C. 985
Maetz, J. 341, 714, 986, 987,
988
Mahmoud, K.A. 568
Mahoney, J.B. 1231
Majori, L. 989
Ma1acea, I. 342, 343, 344
Malanchuk, J. L. 990
Maloney, T.E. 345
Mande11i, E. F. 346, 1289
Mani1, J. 33, 34
Mann, H.T. 237
Marazovic, L. 911
Marchetti, R.
Marei, A.N.
Marshall, J. S.
Martin, D. 349
Martin, J.H. 927, 991, 992
Martin, J.L.M. 993
Martin, S.C. 350
Martinez, J.D. 770
Marvin, K.J. 351
Mas s aro, E. J . 813, 1138
Massie, L.B. 570
Mathis, B.J. 994, 995
Matida, Y. 352, 996
Matis, J.H. 923
Matson, R.S. 997
Matthiessen, P. 998
Mauch1ine, J. 353
Mays, C.W. 401
McCartney, M.J. 952
McColl, R.H.S. 999
McDuffie, J.R. 1032
McEnery. M. 1000
McIlhenny, W. F. 1289
McIntyre, J.D. 1001, 1002
McKee, J.E. 366
McKim, J.M. 646, 693, 1003,
1004, 1005
McKone, C.E. 947. 1006
McLoughlin, T.E. 70
McLusky, D.S. 1007, 1008
McMenemy, M. 794
McNabb, R.A. 1009, 1192
McRoy, C.P. 624
McTague, B. 794
McWade, J.W. 810A
Meehean, D.L. 1203
Mehran, A.R. 354
Mehr1e, P.M. 966
Me i th, S. J . 2 31
Melson, S. 891
Menapace, L. W .
Menzel, D.B.
Mergard, E.G.
Merkens, L.S.
Merlini, M.
Merton, N.R.
Meyer, F.P.
Middaugh, D.P.
390
672
347
348
1122
2
673
920
355
259
956
1010
-------
Miettinen, J.J.
Miettinen, J.K.
908
225, 226, 227,
305, 306, 1011,
1012, 1013,
1014,1132,
1214
1013, 1014
742
356
902
1190
357
1015
1016
1110
628
1017
Miettinen, V.
Mikheev, V.P.
Miles, H.M.
Miller, H.
Miller, H.M.
Miller, M.A.
Miller, S. F.
Minck1ey, W. L.
Minter, R.F.
Mi tche11, R. L.
Mitchum, D. L.
Mitra, E. 38
Mi trovic, V. V.
Miyake, Y. 358
Mohri, H. 1022
Moiseev, P.A. 359. 360
Molinari, V. 135, 136
Moore, T.D. 1017
Moore, W.S. 1018, 1019
Morgan, E.L. 664
Morgan, F. 361
Morgan, M.J. 720
Morgan, R. 11
Morgan, W.S.G. 1020
Morgon, R.P. II 1021
Morisawa, M. 1022
Morishima, H. 376
Morita, R. Y. 701, 826
Morrill, J.B. 1023
Morris, O. P. 1024
Morris, R.J. 952
Moshe, M. 1025
Moska1ev, Yu.I. 264
Motais, R. 1026, 1027
Mott, J.C. 429
Mou1okhia, K. 196
Mount, D.l. 362,363,364,
365, 1028, 1266
426
1078
787
462
78
Mu1awka, S.T.
Mu1ay, C.D.
M'tiller, G.
MUller, K.
Muniak, S.E. 209
Murat, J .C. 1031
Murchison, A.E. 759
Murdock, M.B. 550
Murer, E. 325
Murphy, J.B. 610
Murray, R.B. 1090
Murugapoopathy, G.
Mustoe, G.E. 997
Nagabushanam,
Nair, N.B.
Nakamura, R.
Nakatani, R. E.
Nan'niti, T.
Narbonne, J. F.
Nauman, J .W.
Neal, W. 106
Neely, W.C. 1032
Nehring, D. 369
Nelson, D.A. 670, 671
Nelson, D.J. 370, 371, 372,
435, 554, 1033,
1034
209, 1035
1036
1287
1037, 1038, 1167
373
1120, 1122
949
245
374
516
642
1039
683
942
367
R.
1152
1029
368,
358
1031
705
395, 1030
Nelson, D.M.
Nelson, J.D.
Nelson, L.
Nelson, V.A.
Nelson, W.C.
Nerrie, B.
Neuburger, M.
Neumann, E.D.
Neustroev, G.V.
Newcombe, C.L.
Newell, R. C.
Nicholls, G. D.
Nicholson, H.F.
Nicolle, P. 57
Nielsen, E.S. 1040, 1041, 1042
Nielsen, J.M. 402
Nielson, N.O. 556
Nishikawa, K. 375, 509
Nishiwaki, Y. 376
Nolan, M.O. 377
North, B.B. 1043
North, W.J. 1043
Nose, T. 996
Noshkin, V.E.
391
1044
-------
Nuorteva, P.
Nuzzi, R.
1045, 1046
1047
O'Brien, R.T. 186
Odum, E.P. 418, 419, 513
Ogata, E. 1048
Oglesby, L. 868
Oglesby, R.T. 505
Oguri, M. 241, 262
O'Ha11oran, M.J. 1151
O'Hara, J. 1049, 1050, 1051,
1243
1013
1149
378
36
1115
456
741
737
739, 740
599
1052, 1053
180
737, 1054, 1176
23
320, 321
265
Ohmomo, Y.
Oksanen, H.E.
Okun, O. A.
Oliff, W.O.
Olley, J.
011iver, H.
Olney: C.E.
Olsen, S.
o Is on, G. F.
Olson, J.S.
Olson, K.R.
Olson, P.A.
Olson, P.R.
Olund, L.J.
Omes, O. .
Oncescu, O.
Ono, R. 376
Ophe1, 1.L.
Ozaki, H.
Ozretic, B.
379, 380, 381,
1055, 1056, 1057,
1058
C.H.
1058
C. 383, 438, 1060
C.L. 102, 124, 315,
397, 398
878 , 879
384, 909, 910
Oppenheimer;
Oseid, O.
Osterberg,
Osterberg,
322
Paashe, E. 1061, 1062
Padden, T.J. 818
Paffenhoefer, G.A.
Pagenkopf, G.K.
P ah 1, G. 385
Painter, H.A.
Pakka1a, 1. S.
1063
1064
971
972, 1065,
1066, 1067
Palmer, C .M.
Palmer; O.S.
Palmer, H.E.
Palumbo, R. F.
Pang, P.K.T.
Pappas, C.J.
Papson, A.
Parchevskii,
345
1068
386, 617
1176
1094
1069
800
V.P.
195, 387,
417, 1070,
1071, 1100
Parker, J. 1. 802
Parry, G. 388, 389
Parry. G.O.R. 1072
Parslow, J.L.F. 1073,1074
Parsons, J.O. 390
Parsons, T.R. 1075
Parsont, M.A. 391
Parvatheswararao, V.
Paskausky, O.F. 731
Passow, H. 392
Patel, B. 1076,1077,1078
Patel, S. 1078
Paterson, R.A.
Patin,S.A.
Patoui11et, C.
Patrick, R.
Pattu110, J.
Pauley, G.B.
Paulini, E.
Payne, J.E.
Peaka11, O.B.
Pearce, J.B.
Pearce, P.A.
Pearcy, W.
Pearcy, W.G.
Pearson, J.E.
Pechkurenkov,
Peden, J.O.
Peeling, T.J.
Peeters, W.H.M.
Pellegrino, J.
Pendleton, R. C.
Pentreath, R.J.
Pequegnat, J. E.
Perkins, E.J.
Perkins, H.
392
609
1079
393
833, 834, 835
394
1060
395
137, 396
293
1080
1081
772
1060
102, 383, 397,
398, 1082, 1083
1133
V.L.
1084
759
933
396
399, 400, 401
1085, 1086,
1087, 1088
1089
1090
547
474
-------
Perkins, R.W.
Perlmutter, A.
402
430, 431, 432,
859
Persson, P.I. 277,895
Pesonen, L. 1149
Pessah, E. 985
Peterson, C.L.
petkevich, T.A.
Petronio, F.
Petrova, A. I.
Phelps, D.K.
Phillips, W.A.
Pickering, D.C.
Pickering, Q. H.
1091
403
989
264
404, 405
849
335
406, 407, 408,
1092, 1093
1009, 1094,
1197
Pi11ai, K.C. 785, 1095
Pi11ay, K.K.S. 1096
Pilson, M.E.Q. 620, 1097
Pinter, T. 1202
Piotrowicz, S.R.
Pippy, J.H. 1098
Platts, W.S. 1099
Podolsky, R.J. 317
Podubsky, V. 409, 410, 411,
412
Podymakhin, V. N.
Polikarpov, G.G.
Pickford, G.E.
741
374
291,
413,
415,
417,
901,
1100
1101
418, 419
420
393
1102
127
421
422, 1103
265
941
423
W.
387,
414,
416,
565,
1071,
Pome1ee, C.S.
Pomeroy, L.R.
Pooth, I.S.
Popov, N. I.
Porcella, D. B.
Porter, N.S.
Portmann, J. E.
Potts, W.T.W.
porumb, R.
Prakash, G.
Prasad, G.
Prepej cha1,
Preston, A.
Preston, E.M.
1035
424, 1104
1105
Price, R.J.
Price, T.
Price, T.J.
Pringle, B.H.
Pshenin, L.P.
Pucar, 2. 911
Pulley, T.E. 428
Puynbroeck, S.V. 66
Pyefinch, K. A. 429
Pyle, T.E. 1107
Rabe, F. W. 802, 1109, 1110
Raboynova, I.L. 567
Rachlin, J. 432
Rachlin, J.W. 430, 431
Rachor, E. 1111
Rahimian, H. 1112
Ra j, R. S . 496
Ralston, H.R. 849
Rama 1189
Ramnarine, A. 961, 962
Ramsey, B.A. 494
Rancite1li, L.A.
Rankin, J.S., Jr.
Rao, G.M.M. 1113
Rao, T.R. 1114
Rasin, V.J., Jr.
Ratkowsky, D.A.
Ravera, O. 189,
Ray, B.J. 741
Ray, P. 433
Raymont, J.E.G.
Razumov, A.S.
Re ay, P. F.
Reed, J.R.
Reeves, W.C.
Regnier, J.E.
Rehwo1dt, R.
Reid, D.F.
Reid, R.O.
Reimer> C. W .
Renfro, W.C.
Qasim, S.2.
Quicke, J.
Quinn, J.G.
Renzoni, A.
393
1106
148
41,147,425,439
426, 475
427
1108
456
741
1210
174
1021
1115
1116
434, 1117
290
1118
435
1119
436
1120, 1121, 1122
526
1289
48
437, 438, 705,
1123, 1124
1125
-------
Reynolds, L.M. 773
Reynolds, W.W. 1126, 1127
Rice, T.R. 439, 440, 1128,
1129
728
540
121
6 84, 1130, 1131,
1162
Rissanen, K. 1013, 1014, 1132
Rivers, J.B. 1133
Rixford, C.E. 1102
Roberts, H. 441
Roberts-Pichette, P.
Robertson, D.E. 1134
Rodgers, E.O. 442
Roffman, B. 418, 419
Rohde, N. 1140
Romberg, G.P. 1035
Romeo, M. 597, 598
Romeril, M.G. 1135, 1136
Roosenburg, W.H. 1137
Ros e, C. L. 10 10
Rose, J.M. 1190
Rosen, e.G. 569
Rosenthal, H. L.
Roth, 1. 1130
Rothstein, A. 392
Rounsefe11, G.A. 446
Rousseau, A. 1235
Rowe, D.W. 1138
Royce, W.F. 24
Royer, L.M. 1233
Rozhanskaya, L. r. 1139
Rucker, R.R. 447, 448
Rudakov, N.r. 449
Rudy, P.P. 422, 1103
Ruf, H. 1140
Ruf, M. 450
Rums by , M. G.
Rumsey, D.
Russell, G.
Russo, G.
Russo, R.C.
Rystad, B.
Richard, A.
Richard, W. H.
Rigler, F.H.
Riley. J.P.
619
443, 444, 445
638, 639
640
1024
717
1064
891
Sabodash, V.M.
Sage, M. 1143
1141, 1142
Saha, J .G.
Saiga, Y.
Saiki, M.
Sail a, S. B.
Sainsbury, M.
Sa10, E.O.
Salvato, B.
Sa1zinger, K.
Samilkin, N.S.
Samuels, E.R.
Sanborn, N.H.
Sanderson, W. W.
Sandho1m, M.
Sandifer, P. A.
Sanga1ang, G. B.
Santiago, R.J.
Sappington, C.W.
Saraswathy, M.
Sastry, V.N.
Sather, B. T.
Saunders, R. L.
Saurov. M.M.
Sautet, J.
Sawyer, P.J.
Schaefer, R. W.
Scheider, C. R.
Scheier, A.
Schell, W.R.
Sche1ske, C.L.
Schiffman, R.H.
1144
996
532, 886
1145
837
451
811
1146
1147
1148
452
531
1149
1150
1151
405
1109
1152
623
453, 525
454, 492, 49 3 ,
495, 658
347, 455
456
1153
531
143
94, 95, 96, 97, 98,
99, 394, 665
1154
457, 557, 1155,
1156
458, 459, 460,
799
461, 462
1157
463
Schmitz, W.
Schneider, J.
Schofield, C. L.
Schott, W. 464
Schramm, W. 1048
Schreiber, B. 465, 466
Schroeder, N.C. 1204
Schultz, C.D. 1133
Schu1z-Ba1des, M. 1158,
1160
Schurr, J .M.
Schweiger, G.
Scott, D.P.
Segar, D.A.
394
1159,
467
468
817, 1161
1131, 1162
-------
Seymour, A. L.
Shabalina, A. A.
Shah, S.M. 623
Shannon, L. V. 1168
Shapiro, M. A. 1186
Sharma, R. P. 1185
Sharp, G.D. 1091
Sharp, R.W. 1169
Shaw, C. 1121
Sh aw, T. L . 11 70
Shaw, W.H.R. 1171
Shealy, M.H., Jr.
Shearer, S.D. 588
Sheets, W.D. 1173
Shekhanova, I. A. 474
She1ef, G. 618
Shibuya, C. 268
Shields, J. 434
Shimizu, M. 292, 862, 1174,
1175
Shipman, W.H. 732, 1259
Shipp1e, W.J. 447
Shirokova, Y.L. 1207, 1208
Short, Z.F. 737, 1176
Shurben, D.S. 233, 234, 235
Shuster, C.N., Jr. 475
Shuva1, H.I. 618
Sied1er, H. 316
Sigler, W. F. 350, 476
Silver, M. 1177
Silvey, W.D. 1178
Simak, J. E. 17
Simco, B. A. 1200
Simeon, C. 517
Sinha, E. 1179
SjBstrand, B. 277, 895
Skauen, D.M. 174, 477, 478,
776
1180
479, 480, 481,
482, 1181
Selleck, R.I.
Serbanescu, O.
Serfaty, A.
Sergeant, D.E.
Seymour, A.
Seymour, A.H.
Skerfving, S.
Skidmore, J. F.
685
265, 469
470, 1031
1163
1165
471, 1038, 1164,
1167
1166
472, 473
677, 1172
Sku1berg, O.
Slater, J. V. .
Slone, H.D.
Slonim, A.R.
Slonim, C.B.
Slowey, J.F.
Small, L.F-
190
1102
875
1182, 1183
1183
483
181, 182, 183, 790,
791, 907, 1089,
1184
106
1186, 1205
1185
810A
1059
Smith, B.
Smith, E.J.
Smith, F.A.
Smith, G.J.D.
Smith, L.L., Jr.
Smi th, M. 809
Smith, M. H. 587
Smith, M.W. 484
Smith, R. 1269
Smith, R.C. 1032, 1095
Smith, R.G. 1272
Smith, W.C. 139
Smith, W.G. 1187
Smrchek, J.C. 669
Smyly, W.J.P. 340, 984
Sneed, K.E. 116
Sneiszko, S.F. 442
Snekvik, E. 1188
Soares, R.D.R.L.
Soko1ova, 1. A.
197
1070,
1100
Soldat, J.K. 758
Somayaju1u, B.L.K.
Sonde1, J.A. 1096
Sonis, S. 271
Soyer, J. 485
Spangler, W.J.
Sparks, R. E.
1071 ,
1189
1190
660, 664, 666,
667, 1191, 1192,
1193, 1252
486
119, 120
1190
915, 1194
Sparling, A.B.
Sp arrow, B. W .
Spigare11i, J.L.
Spigare11i, S.A.
Spoor, W.A. 740
Sprague, J.B. 454,
489,
492,
495,
487, 488,
490, 491,
49 3, 494,
1195
395
-------
Spronk, N. 1196
Sreekumaran, C.
Sreenivasan, A.
Srivastava, A. K.
Stanley, J. G.
St ark, G. T . C.
Stamper, M.N.
Starr, T.J.
Stasiak, M.
Stedronsky, E.
176
496
1197
1198, 1199
78
467
497
91, 92
409, 410, 411,
412
Steele, W.A. 849
Stegnar, P. 936
Steinhardt, R.A. 32, 33
Stephan, C. E. 364, 365
Stephans, G.C. 1043
Stephen-Hassard, Q.D.
Steud1e, E. 1290
Stevenson, R.A. 333
Stewart, W.D.P. 896
Stickney, R. 1269, 1270
Stickney, R. R. 1200
Stoddart, D. R. 1201
Stokes, R.M. 185
Strand, J .A. 1239
Strawn, K. 1265
Strogonov, A.A. 498
Stroha1, P. 1202
Stubbings, H.G. 499
Stund1, K. 500
Sugiura, Y. 358
Su1ya, L. L. 165
Sumiya, M. 886
Summerfe1t, T.C. 501
Surber, E.W, 502, 1203
Suter, G. II 1192
Suyama, I. 1175
Suzuki, H. 188
Suzuki, K. 294
Suzuki, Y. 1029
Svetovidov. A.N.
Swanson, H.D.
Swanson, L. E.
Swift, E. 503
Swinehart, J.
Syazuki, K.
Sykora, J. L.
Sylvester, R.O.
759
301
549
610
1204
504
1186, 1205
505
375, 506, 507, 508,
509
510, 511
1206
262
801
763
512
353
1269, 1270
503, 513
M.M. 6, 514,
1207, 1208
178, 515, 538,
944, 1209.
1210
Tenaza, R.H. 948
Tennant, D.A. 1211
Teresi, J.D. 516
Teu1on, F- 517
Thomas, A.J. 544
Thomas, C.C. 1096
Thomas, W.H. 519
Thommeret, J. 688
Thommes, M.M. 747
Thommus, M.M. 151
Thompson, D.A. 1126, 1127
Thompson, G. 965
Thompson, N.P- 834
Thornton, T. 637
Thorp, V.J. 1212
Threadgo1d, L.T. 253
Thrower, S.J. 1115
Thumann, M.E. 520
Thurberg, F.P- 982, 1213
Thurston, R.V. 1064
Tieh, T. T. 1107
Tiemeier; O.W. 1069
Tijoe, P.S. 933
Ti11ander, M. 1013, 1014,
1214
Tiller, B.A. 644
Timms, A.M. 1215
Timoshchuk, V. I.
Synak, M. 1205
Szep1aki, B.J.
Tabata, K.
Tagatz, M.E.
Takevchi, T.
Takoda, N.
Tanaka, K.
Tanner, H. A.
Tarzwe11, C .M.
Taylor, A.M.
Taylor, F.
Taylor, W.R.
Telitchenko,
Templeton, W.L.
396
263
1216
-------
Ting, R.Y.
Tiniofeeva,
Todd, M.E.
Tomiyama, T.
Tong, S.C.
Tong, S.S.C.
Torma, A.E.
Torretti, J.
Tove11, P.W.A.
Townsley, S.J.
521, 975, 1217
N.A. 522
523
309
1218
1219
1177, 1220
1094
1181
67, 68, 69,
524, 525, 526,
1221
Trainer, D.O. 118
Trama, F.B. 527, 528, 529
Traxler, G.S. 963
Tremblay, J. L. 354
Tripp, M.R. 712
Triquet, C. 1222
Trosin, T.S. 301
Trost, P.B. 893
Trott, L.B. 954
Tsivog1ou, E.C.
Tsuchiya, K.
Tsytsarin, G.V.
Turekian, K. K.
Turner, J.L.
Turner; R.L.
Uchida, M.
Ueda, T.
Uematsu, K.
Ufret, S.L.
Ui, J. 1227
Uki ta, T. 801
Ullman, W.W. 531
Ume z, T. 532
Umminger, B.L.
Underda1, B.
tin1U, M.Y.
Uthe, J.F.
588
1223
1207, 1208
1224
1225
530
1226
1029
878 , 879
333
1228, 1229,
1230, 1231
843, 844
1232
966, 1233
Vaccaro, R.F. 297
Va1ee, B.L. 533
Va1anju, P.G. 1078
Valtonen, M. 1014
Van As, D. 1234
Van Coillie, R.
1235
Van der Hoek, G.J.
Vanderploeg, H.A.
Vandyke, J.M. 236
Van Genderen, H. 934
Van Hoek, R.J. 1196
Van Weers, A.W. 1236
Van Winkle, W., Jr. 1237
Vaskovsky, V.E. 1238
Vaugh an, B. E . 1239
Vecchio, P.V. 534
de Vega, R. 521
Ve1sen, F.P.J. 574
Venkatramiah, A. 938
Venti11a, R.J. 823
Vermeer, K. 1240, 1241, 1242
Vernberg, J. 1244
Vernberg, W.B. 729, 1243, 1244,
1248
711
177
408
A. 606
28, 583, 585, 586,
600, 793
Vinogradov, A.P. 535
Virnig, T. T. 1285
Viss, K.A.M. 290
V1eggaar, C.M. 1234
Vogel, F.S. 536
Volcani, B.E. 601
Vo1kova, G.A. 192
Vollenweider, R.A. 683
Von Hentig, R. 1245
Vorob'ev, V.l. 1147
Vorotnitskaya, I.E. 308
Vosjan, J.H. 1246, 1247
Vucetic, T. 1248
1247
1083
Viallex, G.
Vibert, R.
Vigor, W.N.
Vij ayakumar,
Vilquin, A.
Wade, T.L.
Wad1er, B.D.
Wagner, S.L.
Wakeford, A. C.
Walker, J.B.
Wallen, I. E .
Wall.T, W.T.
741
724
1249
238
1250
304
660, 661, 667,
668, 669, 1193,
1251, 1252
753
Wabh, D.F.
397
-------
Walter, C.M. 1253
Walton, C.J. 809
Wang, H. 1254
Ward, E. 88
Ward, J.V. 1255
Warner, A.E. 260
Warnick, S.L. 537
Warren, S. 14
Watanake, K. 188
Waterfall, C.E. 1084
Watson, D.G. 538, 539, 540,
713, 944, 1210,
1256
Webb, J.S. 637
Wedemeyer, G.A.
Weinstein, E.
Weinstein, M.P.
Weir, P.A. 1257
Weisbart, M. 1258
Weiss, H.V. 1259, 1267
We1ander, A.D. 541
Wentworth, J.W. 571
Westermark, T. 276, 277, 895
Westfall, B.A. 542
Westlake, D.F. 781
Westlake, G.F. 923
Westoo, G. 543, 1260, 1261
Weswig, P.H. 1262
Wheeler, R.S. 351
Whicker, F.W. 373, 805, 831
White, D. 1269
White, D.B. 839
White, G.F. 544
White, J.C. 15
White, M.N. 1066, 1067
White, W.R. 331
Whitfield, P.H.
Whitley, L.S.
Whitton, B.A.
Whitworth, W.R.
Wiesepape, L.M.
Wilder, D.G.
Wildish, D.J.
Wilke, C.R.
Wilkniss, P.E.
Williams, B. R.
Williams, J. E.
Williams, L. G.
725
1094
158
961, 962
545
1263, 1264
140
1265
546
1292
1015
834, 835
547
622
548, 549. 1266
Williams, P.M.
Williams, R.B.
Willis, J. 148
Willis, J.N. 147, 707, 709
Willis, V.M. 440
Wilson, E .M. 571, 572
Wilson, P.D. 551
Wilson, R.C.H. 1268
Wilson, W.B. 9
Windom, H. 1269, 1270
Windom, H.L. 1271, 1272
Winkler, L.R. 552
Winner, J.E. 802, 1273
Winter, J.E. 1274
Wisely, B. 553
Wiser, C.W. 554
Wissmar, R.C. 1110
Wit, S.L. 825
Wium-Andersen, S. 1041, 1042
Wixson, B.G. 804,1275
W1odek, S. 555
Wobeser, G. 556
Woh1sch1ag, D.E.
Wolf, H.W. 366
Wolfe, D.A. 557, 1156, 1276,
1277, 1278, 1279
1146
786
1280, 1281
1282
558
C.R.
D.P.
928
1285
64
1267
550
926
Wolkoff, F.D.
Wong, C.C.
Wong, K.M.
Wood, J.M.
Wood, R.A.
Wooldridge,
Wooldridge,
Wrenn, M.E.
Wright, T.D.
Wrobel, S.
1283, 1284
1283, 1284
559, 560
294
269
885
11
191, 753, 808
Yager, C.M.
Yamaguchi, N.
Yamamoto, S.
Yamamoto, T.
Yasutake, W. T.
Yevich, P.P.
Yoh, L. 903
Yokote, M. 996
Yoshida, T. 870
Young, D.R. 561, 562, 783, 784,
785, 865, 1286
398
-------
Young, L.G.
Young, M. K.
Young, a,.R.
Young, R.G.
Youngs, W.D.
Yousef, Y. A.
Yudkin, J.
1287
303
176
947, 1006, 1288
972, 1219
818
563
Zabarunova, I.S. 387
Zaitsev, Y.P. 417, 1100
Zakhary, R. 244
Zaroogian, G.E.
Zattera, A. 54
Zavodnov, S.S.
Zegers, C. 730
Zeitoun, M.A. 1289
Ze1enko, V. 936
Zesenko, A.Y. 565
Zimmermann, U. 1290
Zitko, P. 1291
Zitko, V. 1292
Zlobin, U.S. 566
Zlochevskaya, I.V.
755
546
567
399
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read InUnictions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO. 12. 3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION-NO.
EPA-600j3-75-008
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5. REPORT DATE
SECOND ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON BIOLOGICAL October 1975 (I n::J 1- ".\
EFFECTS 6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
OF METALS IN AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS
7. AUTHOR(S) 8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
Ronald Eisler and Maryjane Wapner
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS 10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
Environmental Research Laboratory 1BA022;ROAPjTask No. 16 MT/31
Office of Research and Development 11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Narragansett, Rhode Island 02882
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS 13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
In-house
Same as above 14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA-ORD
15. SU~PLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
A total of 725 references are listed on the toxlcological, physiological,
and metabolic influence of stable and radio labelled chemical species of metal
cations to marine, estuarine, and freshwater fauna and flora. References were
annotated and subsequently indexed by metal, by taxa, and by author, in cumu-
lative indices which encompass this volume and the initial volume in this
series (Eisler, R. 1973. Annotated bibliography on biological effects of
metals in aquatic environments [No. 1-567]. U.S. Envir. Proto Agen. Rept.
R3-73-007: 287 pp.).
17. KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANAL YSIS
a. DESCRIPTORS b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS c. COSATI Field/Group
Fishes, Cations, Salinity, Metals, Aquatic invertebrates, 6F
Aquatic animals, Water pollution, Aquatic vertebrates, 8A
Toxici ty, Metabolism, Bibliographies, Heavy metals, Trace 8H
Radioactive isotopes metals, Elemental com- 13B
position
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT 19. SECURITY CLASS (This RepQrt) 21. NO. OF PAGES
RELEASE TO PUBLIC UNCLASSIFIED 406
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page) 22. PRICE
UNCLASSIFIED
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
400
*USGPO: 1975 - 657-695/5323 Region 5-11
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