v>EPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Environmental Research
Laboratory
Duluth MN 55804
EPA 600 3 78 096
October 1978
Research and Development
Environmental
Effects of Oil Shale
Mining and
Processing
Part I:
Fishes of Piceance
Creek, Colorado, Prior
to Oil Shale
Processing
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
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EPA-600/3-78-096
October 1978
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF OIL SHALE MINING AND PROCESSING
PART I - FISHES OF PICEANCE CREEK, COLORADO,
PRIOR TO OIL SHALE PROCESSING
by
John P. Goettl, Jr. and Jerry W. Edde
Colorado Division of Wildlife
Fisheries Research Center
Fort Collins, Colorado 80522
Grant No. R803950
Project Officer
Donald I. Mount
Environmental Research Laboratory
Duluth, Minnesota 55804
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
DULUTH, MINNESOTA 55804
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Research Laboratory-
Duluth, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publication.
Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and
policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor does mention of
trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation
for use.
i i
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FOREWORD
This report contains the data from a preoperational biological survey of
the fishes in Piceance Creek, Colorado where oil shale development is
anticipated. It is one of a series of reports all intended to better describe
energy development impacts on aquatic environments in the West. The value of
this report will increase in future years because it will become a reference
point in time by which changes in Piceance Creek will be judged.
Donald I. Mount, Ph.D.
Director
Environmental Research Laboratory-Duluth
i i i
r
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ABSTRACT
The fish populations of Piceance Creek, Colorado, were surveyed to
establish preoperational conditions prior to extensive oil shale processing
in the region. Data collected in this study have been compared to data
reported by earlier researchers.
The mountain sucker (Catostomus p~tyrhynchus) and the speckled dace
(Rhiniahthys osauZus) are the most abundant and widespread fishes found in
Piceance Creek. Numbers of all species were not great; the largest number
of fish captured per 100 meters of stream was 76 individuals, while the
range for all other stations was 3-23 fish/lOa m. Brook, brown, and rainbow
trout (SaZveZinus fontinaZis, SaZmo trutta, and SaZmo gairdneri, respectively)
were most common in the upper reaches of Piceance Creek and in its tribu-
taries, Black Sulphur Creek and Stewart Creek. Results of our survey
indicate that brook and brown trout are reproducing naturally in Piceance
Creek but rainbow trout are doing poorly. The introduction of species from
other drainages and the effects of agricultural diversions and riparian
alterations have produced recent changes in the fish fauna of Piceance
Creek. Possible impacts of oil shale processing on the fish populations of
Piceance Creek are suggested.
iv
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CONTENTS
Foreword.
. . . .
. . . .
.............
. . . .
. . . .
Abstract. . .
.........
. . . . .
. . . . . .
.......
Figures
. . . . .
. . . .
.......
..........
. . . .
Tab 1 es . .
. . . . .
. . . . . .
............
. . . . . .
Acknowledgments
. . . . . viii
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . . .
. . . .
I
Introduction
. . . .
. . . . . . .
........
. . . . . .
II Conclusions. .
. . . .
. . . . . . .
.............
III
Recommendations. .
. . . . .
. . . .
.............
I V Me thods
. . . .
. . . .
...................
V Re su 1 ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mountain whitefish. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Brook trout. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ra; nbow trout. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Brown trout. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Roundtail chub. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Black bullhead. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Red 5 hi ner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fathead mi nnow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Speckled dace. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wh i te s uc ker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flannelmouth sucker. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mounta ins ucker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mottled sculpin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VI
Discussion
. . . . . .
...........
. . . . . . . . .
References. . .
. . . . .
.....
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
v
Page
i i i
iv
vi
vii
1
2
3
4
6
6
10
10
11
11
11
11
11
12
12
12
12
13
14
16
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FI GURES
Number
1
Piceance Creek and major tributaries, Colorado, showing sampling
locations, and one oi1 shale lease site
(Tract C-b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vi
Page
5
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TABLES
Number
1
Number of fish captured per 100 m of stream at seven
stations on Piceance Creek, Colorado, and at one
station on each of two tributaries. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
2
Specific conductance and stream flows at seven stations
on Piceance Creek and at one station on each of two of
its tributaries during 1975-1976 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
Fish species reported by various investigators in
Piceance Creek, Colorado. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
vii
Page
7
8
9
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was funded in part by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Environmental Research Laboratory - Duluth, Research Grant No.
R803950, and in part by the Colorado Division of Wildlife, Fort Collins,
Colorado.
viii
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SECTION I
INTRODUCTION
The Green River Oil Shale Formation in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming is
estimated to contain 80 billion barrels of recoverable oil, an amount
capable of sustaining domestic U.S. consumption for 20 years (Yen 1976).
The development of this energy resource will require the disposal of 732,000
tons/day of spent shale by the year 1987. This would provide a possible
source of 1eachates to local water courses including Piceance Creek and
its tributaries. Among the materials that could be leached from spent oil
shale are mutagenic polycyclic aromatic compounds and salts (Schmidt-
Co11esus et a1. 1976). In addition, Moussavi and Yen (1976) have suggested
that sa1tINater springs may enter disrupted aquifers in the mining area.
Oil shale mining and processing has, therefore, the potential to alter the
water quality of Piceance Creek and thereby adversely affect its fish popula-
tions. The following study was undertaken to gather information on the
fish populations of Piceance Creek prior to the start of oil shale mining
and processing.
Fish populations have been systematically sampled in Piceance Creek,
Colorado, during various investigations since 1969 when Everhart and May
(1973) surveyed the biota of this stream. Their report included a list of
fishes collected during their survey. but collection sites and numbers of
specimens captured were not included. In 1974 the consulting firm of
Woodward-Envicon began a series of reports to the U.S. Geological Survey
Area Oil Shale Supervisor in Grand Junction, Colorado, concerning their
findings related to the Environmental and Exploration Program in Oil Shale
Tract C-b for the lessees of this tract. These reports include accounts of
sampling locations and the numbers and sizes of fishes collected in Piceance
Creek but their effort was concentrated at stations near or above Black
Sulphur Creek, a tributary to Piceance Creek.
The major objectives of the present study were to determine what
species of fishes currently inhabit Piceance Creek and to find out where
they occur. In addition, an attempt was made to summarize previous work
on the distribution of fishes in the Piceance Creek basin. Stations were
chosen so that they overlapped the stations sampled by previous investigators.
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SECTION II
CONCLUSIONS
(1)
Comparison of our data to those of earlier workers presents evidence
indicating that the fish species composition is changing in Piceance
Creek and that some species are extending their distributional ranges.
Distributional and compositional changes in the fishes of Piceance
Creek probably result from both the introduction of non-native fish
species and degradation of the habitat caused by agriculturally related
alterations of the streambanks and associated vegetation.
(2)
(3)
There is evidence that the lower reaches of Piceance Creek are used as
spawning areas for fishes from the White River, although the relative
importance of Piceance Creek to the populations of fishes in the White
River has not been determined.
(4)
Trout are not common in Piceance Creek below Black Sulphur Creek,
possibly due to the high turbidity, salinity, and summer water tempera-
tures encountered in this area. Upwelling from the lower aquifer
through a fault at Black Sulphur Creek accounts for the sharp decrease
in water quality at this point.
(5)
Reductions in flow in Piceance Creek may first impact on the salmonid
species, and increases in salinity may first impact on the non-salmonid
species.
2
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SECTION I II
RECOMMENDATIONS
(1)
Disruptions of aquifers caused by either aboveground
shale processing which result in reduced water flow,
or other detrimental physical or chemical changes in
should be avoided.
(2)
or in situ oil
increased salinity,
Piceance Creek
A field investigation similar to this study should be conducted
after oil shale processing at the Colorado C-b site has reached
more advanced stage so that possible future changes in Piceance
may be s tudi ed.
(3)
a
Creek
Laboratory and conjunctive field studies on the toxic effects to fishes
of saline waters of different ionic composition should be conducted.
3
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SECTION IV
METHODS
Fishes were collected during the fall of 1975 at five stations on
Piceance Creek and at one station on each of its tributaries, Stewart Creek
and Black Sulphur Creek. In addition, six stations on Piceance Creek
proper and two new stations near the White River were sampled during
summer 1976 (Figure 1). Stations PC-1 through PC-4 were sampled both in
1975 and 1976, and all other stations were sampled either in 1975 or 1976.
Two of our stations were near to those sampled by Woodward-Envicon from
September 1974 to August 1976. Our stations were chosen to represent
nearly all of the Piceance basin.
Fish were sampled in the first year using a Coffelt Model BP-3
backpack shocker. One or two passes with the shocker over approximately
100 m of streambed constituted a sample. Data collected the first year
were not used for population estimates. In 1976, a 100-m stream section
was also sampled at each station above PC-4; however, for these samples,
three passes of the shocker were completed at each station. Fish popula-
tion estimates were calculated using the method of Leslie and Davis (1939).
Conductivities at stations downstream from Station PC-4 were sufficiently
high to preclude the use of even the high-wattage generator used during
the 1976 sampling; thus, a seine was used to capture fish at these stations.
Species composition was the only information derived at stations which were
seined.
4
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IN
J
Fi gure 1.
o
5
I
Kilomerers
"
Colorado
10
I
Piceance Creek and major tributaries, Colorado, showing
sampling locations, and one oil shale lease site (Tract C-b).
'"
u
co
o
QJ
U
ii
'"
o
W
'"
"
"tJ
~
Stewart Gulch
5
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SECTION V
RESULTS
Eight of the 13 species of fishes reported to occur in Piceance Creek
were recovered in our sampling. Table 1 lists the species and numbers of
each species per station for the 1975 and 1976 sampling periods. Salmonids
were most numerous at the three upper stations on Piceance Creek. In
addition, brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) were found in both tributary
streams. The dominant and most widespread fish of Piceance Creek was the
mountain sucker (Catostomus platyrhynchus) Population estimates of this
species were 61 and 36 per 100 m of stream at Stations PC-2 and PC-3,
respectively, during 1976. The speckled dace (Rhinichthys osculus) and
mottled sculpin (Cottus bairdi) are common inhabitants of many small
streams in western Colorado, but only the speckled dace was common in
Piceance Creek.
Measurements of flow and specific conductance taken at various stations
on the same dates fish were sampled are shown in Table 2. Flow measurements
taken at the upper four stations during 1975 and 1976 showed that the 1975
flow averaged 1.9 times that which occurred during 1976. An unexpected
short-term change in conductivity occurred at Station PC-8, where 2,200
~mhos measured on August 11, 1976 increased to 3,400 ~mhos the following
day with no apparent change in flow. Increased conductivities usually
accompany decreased flows; however, localized thunderstorms occurred in the
area about this time, and the resulting runoff may have drained an exception-
ally salt-laden local area of the watershed.
While our stations did not coincide entirely with those of previous
investigators, we found nearly the same fish species as other workers at
the two common stations (PC-2 and PC-4). Previous reports differ with
respect to the salmonids' distribution but this is probably attributable to
differences in collection dates and the salmonids' migratory patterns.
Table 3 lists all species of fishes reported to occur in Piceance
Creek. Only the mountain sucker, speckled dace, and rainbow trout are
represented in the reports of all investigators. The following is an
account of each species of fish reported from Piceance Creek.
Mountain whitefish
Mountain whitefish are found primarily in large, clear, cold rivers
and prefer the deep, fast moving waters (Baxter and Simon 1970). Our
observations show that during the fall months both adult and immature
6
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TABLE 1. NUMBER OF FISH CAPTURED PER 100 M OF STREAM AT SEVEN STATIONS ON
PICEANCE CREEK, COLORADO, AND AT ONE STATION ON EACH OF TWO TRIBUTARIES
Species Station
Date PC-1 PC-2 PC-3 PC-4 PC-7 PC-8 PC-9 SG BSC
Rainbow trout
11/75 0 0 0 0 0 a 0 0
8/76 0 2 0 0 0 0
Brown trout
11/75 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
8/76 0 2 0 0 1 0
Brook trout
11/75 0 0 2 0 0 4 5
8/76 0 0 0 0 0 0
Speckled dace
11/75 1 0 0 3 3 2 0
8/76 0 17 1 0 2 5
Red shiner
11/75 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
8/76 0 0 0 0 0 1
Mountain sucker
11/75 19 0 4 8 0 0 3
8/76 3 55 11 3 1 0
Flannelmouth sucker
11/75 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
8/76 0 0 0 0 0 6
Mottled sculpin
11/75 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
8/76 0 0 0 0 1 3
aDenotes no sampling.
7
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TABLE 2. SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE AND STREAM FLOWS AT SEVEN STATIONS
ON PICEANCE CREEK AND AT ONE STATION ON EACH OF TWO OF ITS
TRIBUTARIES DURING 1975-1976
Station Date Conduct; v; ty Flow
(llmhos) (m3fsec)
PC-1 11-22-75 1150 0.089
8-11-76 1400 0.109
PC-2 11-22-75 1625 0.702
8-11-76 1650 0.409
PC-3 11-23-75 1800 0.951
8-12-76 2000 0.421
PC-4 11-23-75 1850 0.943
8-11-76 2200 0.337
PC-5 11-23-75 2050 1.310
PC-7 11-22-75 2400 2.06
PC-8 8-12-76 3400 1.15
SG 11-24-75 2000 0.057
BSC 11-24-75 2200 0.351
8
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TABLE 3. FISH SPECIES REPORTED BY VARIOUS INVESTIGATORS IN PICEANCE CREEK, COLORADO
Present Everhart Ashland Oil
Scientific name Common name report and May and Shell Oil Pettus
Tract C-b (1974)
1975-1976 (1973) (1975)
Prosopium ~iZZiamsoni Mountain whitefish X
SaZmo gairdneri Rainbow trout X X X X
SaZmo trutta Brown trout X X
SaZveZinus fontinaZis Brook trout X X X
~ GiZa robusta Roundtail chub X
IctaZurus meZas Bl ack bull head X
Notropis Zutrensis Red shiner X X
PimephaZes promeZas Fathead minnow X
Rhinichthys oscuZus Speckled dace X X X X
Catostomus commersoni White sucker X
Catostomus Zatipinnis Flannelmouth sucker X X X
Catostomus pZatyrhynchus Mounta in sucker X X X X
Cottus bairdi Mottled sculpin X X
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whitefish move into the lower reaches of Trout Creek, a stream similar in
size and elevation to Piceance Creek (Goettl and Edde, in prep.). Similarly,
Brown (1952) reported that some mountain whitefish migrate upstream into
small tributaries during the fall spawning season. We did not find mountain
whitefish during our sampling but they were reportedly collected by Everhart
and May (1973). The location where Everhart and May took this species in
1969 was not reported, but it was likely near the White River since whitefish
are known to occur there in great numbers. With the possible exception of
spawning runs, the impact of oil shale exploitation on this species would
be limited to the White River.
Brook trout
There is a 3-m waterfall in Piceance Creek located approximately 3-4
km below the point where Stewart Gulch joins Piceance Creek, and immediately
upstream from Station PC-3. This waterfall may block upstream movement of
brook trout at that point. Because of this barrier, there are probably at
least two populations of brook trout in Piceance Creek and its tributaries.
Adequate spawning areas for brook trout are available both downstream from
the waterfall, in Black Sulphur Creek, and above the waterfall in Lower
Stewart Lake, a spring-fed pond located near the mouth of Stewart Gulch.
Spawning may also occur in Piceance Creek itself. In addition, optimal
temperatures for growth of brook trout (McCormick et al. 1972) have been
reported at stations along Piceance Creek upstream-rrom Black Sulphur Creek
during the months June to September (Everhart and May 1973). Even at the
mouth of Piceance Creek lethal temperatures for brook trout were exceeded
only during these months.
Our collections included small numbers of brook trout, some of which
exceeded 38 cm total length. Woodling (1974) suggested that the small
brook trout population characterized by a few abnormally large individuals
probably indicates II. . . a degraded system. II However, whether Piceance
Creek is degraded, and if it is, the nature of this degradation is not
clear. The brook trout populations in the Piceance Creek watershed do not
show the patterns of over-population and stunting described by Baxter and
Simon (1970). Fishing probably has little influence on the brook trout
populations in Piceance Creek because fishing pressure is low (Pettus 1974).;
consequently, the reason for the seemingly poor status of brook trout in
Piceance Creek is not known. Dewatering during oil shale mining would
probably have the greatest impact on this species and other headwater
species in Piceance Creek.
Rainbow trout
Only two rainbow trout were taken, both at Station PC-2 in 1976. ~o
immature individuals were recovered, indicating little or no natural repro-
duction. Collections by earlier researchers also indicated that rainbow
trout were scarce in Piceance Creek. Because of their scarcity, rainbow
trout are currently not important in Piceance Creek.
10
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Brown trout
Brown trout were the most widely distributed salmonid in Piceance
Creek and were the only salmonid recovered at Station PC-B. The recovery
of an immature brown trout at Station PC-B indicates that brown trout may
reproduce naturally in Piceance Creek. Brown trout are generally more
tolerant of higher salinities (Gordon 1959), toxic metals (Grande 1967),
and perhaps high temperatures (Vincent and Miller 1969), than other salmo-
nids. Salinity and temperature increase progressively downstream in Piceance
Creek; thus brown trout may be the only salmonid able to inhabit the lower
reaches if a salinity problem were to develop.
Roundtail chub
Two roundtail chubs were collected at the sampling site near the mouth
of Piceance Creek in 1969 by Everhart and May but no subsequent collections
have been reported for this species. In Wyoming, Baxter and Simon (1970)
describe the roundtail chub occurrence as ". . . mostly in larger rivers,
but occasionally in smaller streams;" thus the 1969 fish were likely strays
from the White River. Roundtail chub are not likely to become established
in Piceance Creek since their preferred habitat does not occur there.
Black bullhead
The black bullhead has not been reported in Piceance Creek since
Everhart and May collected it in 1969. Since this species is not common
in the White River, its occurrence in Piceance Creek was most likely through
artificial introduction. Since black bullhead failed to become established,
it is likely that the habitat is poor for the species in Piceance Creek.
Red shiner
Red shiner were infrequently collected from Piceance Creek. The
Middle Colorado and Lower Green Rivers seem to be favorable habitat for
this species, which was probably introduced near Grand Junction, Colorado,
in the late 1950's (Holden and Stalnaker 1975). However, the rapidity with
which red shiners exploit favorable habitat and their rarity in Piceance
Creek suggests that Piceance Creek does not provide good habitat for this
species.
Fathead minnow
This species, which was introduced from the eastern slope of the
Continental Divide, has been reported at only one station in the lower part
of Piceance Creek. Andrews (1970) reported that, although the fathead
minnow was quite tolerant of a wide range of chemical and physical condi-
tions in Colorado streams, it is intolerant of stream velocities exceeding
3 cm/sec. The mean value of 14 surface velocities from five sampling
stations throughout Piceance Creek taken in 1976 was 63.5 cm/sec; Piceance
Creek is therefore poor fathead minnow habitat.
11
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Speckled dace
The speckled dace was recovered at all stations on Piceance Creek,
with only the mountain sucker found in greater numbers. In contrast to the
fathead minnow, the speckled dace is highly adapted to fast-flowing water.
Moyle (1976) reported that this species is more numerous in channelized
sections of streams characterized by rapidly flowing riffle areas with
scant cover. Dewatering of favorable habitat, reduced stream flows, and
changes in salinity due to disruption of groundwater supplies by oil shale
mining could seriously affect this species.
White sucker
Pettus (1974) collected 13 specimens of white sucker at Station PC-7
in 1973, but no other records of this species in Piceance Creek are known.
White suckers are omnivorous and tolerant of a wide range of temperatures.
They are somewhat more sensitive to turbidity and current than other
suckers, although we have collected specimens elsewhere from waters fully
as swift and turbid as those of Piceance Creek. The restricted range and
small populations of white suckers in Piceance Creek may result from com-
petition with the highly adapted and endemic mountain sucker.
F1anne1mouth sucker
We found this species only in the mouth of Piceance Creek, but Ashland
Oil, Inc., and Shell Oil Co. (1975) reported one specimen approximately 17
km upstream from the mouth. This was collected in March and may have been
a migrant spawner, as this species ascends streams in the spring (Baxter
and Simon 1970). F1anne1mouth suckers are rare and currently not important
in Piceance Creek.
Mountain sucker
Mountain suckers were found at the highest density of any species in
Piceance Creek. This species and the speckled dace were the only species
collected that are native to this creek; however, the mountain sucker
appears somewhat more successful, judging by its greater numbers and larger
range. Sixty-one mountain suckers per 100 m of stream were estimated at
Station PC-2 in 1976. Smith (1966). in his monograph on the subgenus
Pantosteus, states "It is usually encountered in small mountain streams
10 to 40 feet wide." Holden and Stalnaker (1975) did not encounter the
mountain sucker in their recent extensive survey of the fishes of the
middle and upper Colorado River basins, but they sampled only rivers. The
majority of small tributaries to these rivers would have probably yielded
mountain suckers. This species faced competition from introduced white
suckers in Trout Creek (Goettl and Edde, in prep.), a stream similar in
size to Piceance Creek. It is therefore conceivable that increasing
human populations resulting from oil shale development could increase the
chances that an undesirable baitfish capable of out-competing mountain
suckers would be introduced into Piceance Creek.
12
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Mottled sculpin
Mottled sculpin were collected using a kick net at Station PC-8 and
by seining at PC-9. These were the only stations where sculpins were found
in Piceance Creek; however, the habitat appears to be excellent for sculpins
throughout the creek. Factors which have been shown to limit sculpin pro-
duction elsewhere include salinity (Foster 1969) and silt and turbidity
(Petrosky and Waters 1975), but these factors appeared to occur in Piceance
Creek well within tolerance limits for sculpins. The re~son for the limited
occurrence of mottled sculpins in Piceance Creek is therefore not known.
13
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SECTION VI
DISCUSSION
Piceance Creek presents a somewhat atypical environment for a stream
of its size and elevation. It is properly classified as a mountain stream,
but its conductivity frequently achieves values in excess of 3,000 ~mhos/cm
SEC in its lower reaches. Surface velocities average about 60 cm/sec
during summer months. It has a shaly substrate with a considerable amount
of fine, sandy material rather than the more typical cobble bottom type.
Although the creek is quite small (range of measured flows 0.091-2.06
m3/sec), the upper reaches of Piceance Creek continue to flow throughout
the year due to a considerable input of spring water. The headwaters are
presumably blocked to upstream migration of fishes by a 3-m waterfall
located between Stations PC-2 and PC-3, although mountain suckers, speckled
dace, and three species of introduced trout are found above this barrier.
Only mountain suckers and speckled dace are permanent native residents;
they inhabit all reaches of Piceance Creek. Introduced fishes include:
black bullhead, red shiner, fathead minnow, white sucker, rainbow trout,
brook trout, and brown trout. Of these introduced fishes, only brook trout
and brown trout appear to be successfully established. Occasionally migratory
native species, including flannelmouth sucker, roundtail chub, and mountain
whitefish, are found in Piceance Creek. Presumably these are spawning
fishes from the White River. In addition, mottled sculpin occur in the
lower reaches but it is not known if they are migrants or residents.
Potential impacts due to oil shale mining include dewatering of head-
water spring supplies and changes in salinity due to leaching from oil
shale spoils (Skogerboe et ~., in prep.).
The impacts of reductions in flow on fish populations have been
reviewed by Fraser (1972). Kraft (1968) has shown that a 70-percent
reduction in brook trout numbers became apparent only in the third year
of a stream study where the flow had been reduced 90 percent. Apparently,
brook trout population adjustments to low flows take place over an extended
time period. Species such as the mountain sucker, which are more dependent
on autochthonous food sources, would probably be more immediately affected
by low flows.
Tolerance of different fish species to salinity varies greatly and
appears to depend on the life history of a species, its taxonomic position
with regard to its marine-freshwater origin, its state of maturity, and the
specific composition of the dissolved salts. Three species which occur in
Piceance Creek, SaLmo trutta, S. gairdneri, and PimephaLes promeLas, plus a
14
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congener of another Piceance Creek fish, Cottus morio. will be used to
illustrate these relationships.
Fish which are sometimes anadromous such as Salmo trutta~ S. gairdneri~
and some populations of Salvelinus fontinalis are equipped to deal with
changes in salinity in their environment. According to Gordon (1959) brown
trout can survive direct transfers from freshwater to seawater provided the
temperature is 10°C or less. Parry (1960) has reported that rainbow trout
are even better suited than brown trout in their ability to survive salinity
changes. Chipman (1959) showed that strictly freshwater species which are
recently evolved from marine ancestors are more tolerant of high salinity
conditions than those species with more remote marine ancestry. A typical
example is the sculpin, Cottus morio. This freshwater fish is of recent
marine origin, and can tolerate as much as 75 percent seawater indefinitely.
according to Foster (1969).
The ability of fishes, including anadromous types, to tolerate high
salinity conditions is related to stage of development. Yearling rainbow
trout may tolerate salinities as great as 17 percent, while under-yearlings
are quickly killed by only 6 percent (McKim et al. 1973). Similarly, Burnham
and Peterka (1975) found that adult fathead minnows (a freshwater fish) could
survive saline conditions as high as 16,000 ~mhos/cm SEC, but reproduction
was inhibited at 8,000 ~mhos or more, due to death of eggs and sac fry.
Salinity itself may have a toxic effect on fishes by influencing the
ability of fishes to maintain internal ionic stability. Moreover, the
nature of the cations and anions which contribute to salinity, and their
possible antagonistic and synergistic effects, are also of importance in
determining toxicity. In addition to the markedly different toxicities of
certain cations, significant differences in the toxicities of anions have
also been reported. Peterka (1972), for example, has reported that fathead
minnows can survive total dissolved solids (TDS) concentrations exceeding
15,000 ppm in sulfate waters but were unable to survive TDS levels exceeding
2000 ppm in bicarbonate waters.
TDS levels in the bicarbonate waters of Piceance Creek have reportedly
exceeded 2000 ppm, primarily due to a fault in the aquifer near Black
Sulphur Creek. This kind of change in water quality is similar to that
which would be expected to occur in Piceance Creek or elsewhere as a result
of oil shale mining and processing without proper safeguards to prevent
leach waters from escaping into nearby receiving streams. This evidence
suggests that oil shale mining leachates have the potential to affect ad-
versely fishes having low bicarbonate-salinity tolerances.
15
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REFERENCES
Andrews, A. K. 1970. The distribution and life history of the fathead
minnow (PimephaZes promeLas Rafinesque) in Colorado. Ph.D. Thesis,
Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins. 131 p.
Ashland Oil, Inc., and Shell Oil Co. 1975. Aquatic studies, p. 131-141.
In Oil Shale Tract C-b, Environmental and Exploration Program.
Summary Rep. No.3, through May 31, 1975 (Report to U.S. Geological
Survey. Grand Junction, Colorado). 164 p.
Baxter, G. T., and J. R. Simon. 1970. Wyoming fishes. Bull. No.4,
Wyoming Game and Fish Dep., Cheyenne. 168 p.
Brown, C. J. D. 1952. Spawning habits and early development of the
mountain whitefish Prosopium wiZZiamsoni in Montana. Copeia 1952:
109-113.
Burnham, B. L., and J. J. Peterka. 1975. Effects of saline water from
North Dakota lakes on the survival of fathead minnows (PimephaZes
ppomeZas) embryos and sac fry. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 32: 809-812.
Chipman, R. K. 1959. Studies of tolerance of certain freshwater fishes
to brine water from oil wells. Ecology 40: 229-302.
Everhart, W. H., and B. E. May. 1973. Effects of chemical variations in
aquatic environments. Vol. I. Biota and chemistry of Piceance Creek.
Ecol. Res. Ser. No. EPA-R3-73-011a, Environmental Protection Agency.
Washington, D.C. 117 p.
Foster, M. A. 1969. Ionic and osmotic regulation in three species of
Cottus (Cottidae, teleost). Compo Biochem. Physiol. 30: 751-759.
Frazer, J. C. 1972. Regulated stream discharge for fish and other aquatic
resources; an annotated bibliography. Food and Agric. Organ. of the
United Nations Fisheries Technical Paper No. 112, FIRI/Tl12, 103 p.
(F.A.O., Rome 1972).
Goettl, J. P., and J. W. Edde. Environmental effects of western coal
surface mining. Part I - The fishes of Trout Creek, Colorado. Ecol.
Res. Ser., Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. Duluth, Minn. (In Prep.)
Gordon, M. S. 1959. Ionic regulation in the brown trout (SaZmo tPUtta
L.). J. Exp. Biol. 36: 227-252.
16
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Grande, M. 1967. Effect of copper and zinc on sa1monid fishes.
Int. Conf. Water Po11ut. Res., Munich, 1966. 1: 96-111.
Proc. 3rd
Holden, P. B., and C. B. Stalnaker. 1975. Distribution and abundance of
mainstream fishes of the middle and upper Colorado River basins,
1967-1973. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 104(2): 217-231.
Kraft, M. E. 1968. The effects of controlled dewatering on a trout
stream. M. S. Thesis, Montana State Univ., Bozeman. 31 p.
Leslie, P. H., and D. H. S. Davis. 1939. An attempt to determine the
absolute number of rats on a given area. J. Anim. Eco1. 8: 94-113.
McCormick, J. H., K. E. F. Hokanson, and B. R. Jones. 1972. Effects of
temperature on growth and survival of young brook trout, SaZveZinus
fontinaZis. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 29(8): 1107-1112.
McKim, J. M., G. M. Christensen, J. H. Tucker, and M. J. Lewis. 1973.
Effects of pollution on freshwater fish. J. Water Po11ut. Control Fed.
45(6): 1370-1407.
Moussavi, M., and T. F. Yen. 1976. Environmental improvements by oil
shale leaching, p. 205-220. In T. F. Yen (ed.) Science and technology
of oil shale. Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Moyle, P. B. 1976. Some effects of channelization on the fishes and
invertebrates of Rush Creek, Modoc County, California. California
Fish and Game 62(3): 179-186.
Parry, G. 1960. The development of salinity tolerance in the salmon,
SaZmo saZar (L.) and some related species. J. Exp. Bio1. 37: 425-434.
Peterka, J. J. 1972. Effects of saline waters upon survival of fish eggs
and larvae and upon the ecology of the fathead minnow in North Dakota.
PB-223 017, Nat1. Tech. Inf. Serv., Springfield, Virginia 22161.
Petrosky, C. E., and T. F. Waters. 1975. Annual production by the slimy
sculpin population in a small Minnesota trout stream. Trans. Am.
Fish. Soc. 104(2): 237-244.
Pettus, D. 1974. Inventory and impact analysis of fishes: Piceance Creek
basin, Rio Blanco and Garfield Counties, Colorado. Report to Thorne
Ecological Institute, Boulder, Colorado. 13 p.
Schmidt-Co11esus, J. J., F. Bonomo, K. Gala, and L. Leffler. 1976.
Po1ycondensed aromatic compounds (PCA) and carcinogens in the shale
ash of carbonaceous spent shale from retorting of oil shale, p. 115-
156. In T. F. Yen (ed.) Science and technology of oil shale. Ann
Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
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Skogerboe, R. K., C. S. Lavallee, M. M. Miller, and D. L. Dick. Environ-
mental effects of oil shale mining and processing. Part III - The
water quality of Piceance Creek, Colorado, prior to oil shale process-
ing. Ecol. Res. Ser., Office of Research and Development, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Duluth, Minn. (In prep.)
Smith, G. R. 1966. Distribution and evolution of the North American
Catostomid fishes of the subgenus Pantosteus, genus Catostomus.
Misc. Pub. Mus. Zool., Univ. Mich. No. 129, Ann Arbor. 133 p.
Vincent, R. E., and W. H. Miller. 1969. Altitudinal distribution of brown
trout and other fishes in a headwater tributary of the South Platte
River, Colorado. Ecology 50(3): 464-466.
Woodling, J. D. 1974. Investigations of the aquatic ecosystems of Piceance
and Yellow Creeks, northwestern Colorado. September and October 1974.
Unpublished report from Colorado Dep. Health, Water Qual. Control Div.
13 p. + figs. + 5 tables.
Yen, T. F. 1976. Oil shales of United States--a review, p. 1-17. In T.
F. Yen (ed.) Science and technology of oil shale. Ann Arbor Science,
Ann Arbor, Michigan.
18
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before compleiing)
1. REPORT NO. 12. 3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
EPA-600/3-78-096
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF OIL SHALE 5. REPORT DATE
MINING AND PROCESSING. PART I - FISHES OF PICEANCE October 1978 issuing date
CREEK, CDlORADO, PRIOR TO OIL SHALE PROCESSING 6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S) 8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
John P. Goettl, Jr. and Jerry W. Edde
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS 10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
Colorado Division of Wildlife
Fisheries Research Center 11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
Fort Collins, Colorado 80522 R803950
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS 13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Environmental Research laboratory - Duluth, MN Finnl
Office of Research and Development 14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency EPA/600/03
Duluth, Minnesota 55804
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
The fish populations of Piceance Creek, Colorado, were surveyed to establish
preoperational conditions prior to extensive oil shale processing in the region.
Data collected in this study have been compared to data reported by earlier researcher
The mountain sucker (Catostomus pZatyrhynchus) and the speckled dace (Rhinichthys
oscuZus) are the most abundant and widespread fishes found in Piceance Creek. Numbers
of all species were not great; the largest number of fish captured per 100 meters of
stream was 76 individuals, while the range for all other stations was 3-23 fish/IOO
m. Brook, brown, and rainbow trout (SaZveZinus fontinaZis, SaZmo trutta, and SaZmo
gairdneri, respectively) were most common in the upper reaches of Piceance Creek and
in its tributaries, Black Sulphur Creek and Stewart Creek. Results of our survey
indicate that brook and brown trout are reproducing naturally in Piceance Creek but
rainbow trout are doing poorly. The introduction of species from other drainages and
the effects of agricultural diversions and riparian alterations have produced recent
changes in the fish fauna of Piceance Creek. Possible impacts of oil shale process-
ing on the fish populations of Piceance Creek are suggested.
17. . KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANAL YSIS
a. DESCRIPTORS b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS C. COSATI Field/Group
Oi 1 shale Fish population 06/F
Water pollution Environmental effects 13/B
Fishes Envi ronmenta 1 biology
Energy development
Fish distribution
Fish survey
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT 19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report) 21. NO. OF PAGES
RELEASE TO PUBLIC (INri ASSIFIED 27
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PREVIOUS EDITION IS OBSOLETE
19
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