EPA-R3-73-007
FEBRUARY 1973 Ecological Research Series
Annotated Bibliography on
Biological Effects of Metals
in Aquatic Environments
National Environmental Research Center
Office of Research and Monitoring
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis, Oregon 97330
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and
Monitoring, Environmental Protection Agency, have
been grouped into five series. These five broad
categories were established to facilitate further
development and application of environmental
technology. Elimination of traditional grouping
was consciously planned to foster technology
transfer and a maximum interface in related
fields. The five series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
t». Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
This report has been assigned to the ECOLOGICAL
RESEARCH series. This series describes research
on the effects of pollution on humans, plant and
animal species, and materials. Problems are
assessed for their long- and short-term
influences. Investigations include formation,
transport, and pathway studies to determine the
fate of pollutants and their effects. This work
provides the technical basis for setting standards
to minimize undesirable changes in living
organisms in the aquatic, terrestrial and
atmospheric environments.
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EPA-R3-73-007
February 1973
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
OF METALS IN AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS (No. 1-567)
By
Ronald Eisler
National Marine Water Quality Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
West Kingston, Rhode Island 02892
Program Element lBl022
NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH CENTER
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND MONITORING
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CORVALLIS, OREGON 97330
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 30403
Price $3.20 domestic postpaid or $3.75 GPO Bookstore
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ABSTRACT
A total of 567 references on biological effects of metals to aquatic
organisms were annotated and subsequently indexed by metal and by
taxa. Preference was given to articles on toxicity of heavy metals
to marine, estuarine, and anadromous species.
iii
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CONTENTS
Section Page
I Introduction 1
II References 2
III Index 240
IV Acknowledgements 287
v
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SECTION I
INTRODUCTION
This initial volume is the result of a need for specific information
on physiological, toxicological and metabolic impact of metals in
the aquatic environment, primarily affecting marine and estuarine
biota. During the past several years these data were gathered from
a variety of sources, especially Water Pollution Abstracts, but also
Sport Fishery Abstracts, Oceanic Index, Water Resources Abstracts
and other sources. Whenever possible the original article was con-
sulted and annotated. It is hoped that additional volumes in this
subject area will be issued when more literature becomes available.
1
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SECTION II
REFERENCES
References are arranged alphabetically by author and then numbered.
Each reference is indexed by rnetal(s) and cross-indexed by taxon'Jrnic
group(s) in the INDEX.
2
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1.
Abegg, R. 1950. Some effects of inorganic salts on the blood
and tissue fluids of the bluegill, Lepomis macrochirus Raf.
Physiol. Zool. 23:124-134.
To explain some of the effects on fish of pollution by
industrial waste waters the author investigated the effect of some
inorganic salts on the internal water balance of the bluegill,
Lepomis macrochirus. He first determined the 24-hour median tol-
erance limit of the fish for each salt, that is, the concentration
of the salt in which half the test animals could survive for a
period of 24 hours. Fish were placed for 24 hours in test solutions
of concentrations at the 24-hour median tolerance limit, at a tem-
perature of 22 ~ 0.2 C. The effects of the following salts were
tested: sodium sulphate, chloride, orthophosphate, chromate, di-
chromate, and carbonate, and calcium and potassium chloride. A
falling drop densiometer was used for measuring changes in the
specific gravity of the blood of the fish, and the content of
moisture was determined in a strip of dorsal muscle removed from
one side of the fish. As controls, fish, under the same conditions
as those in the test solutions, were placed in reference water, i.e.
water containing all the major ions in concentrations and proportions
typical of an average surface water of the United States. Solutions
of sodium sulphate, chromate, and orthophosphate had no effect on
the water balance of the fish exposed for 24 hours; all the fish sur-
vived, possibly because the fish used in these tests were larger than
those used in the tests for determining the 24-hour median tolerance
limit. Solutions of potassium and calcium chloride caused the fish
to lose tissue fluids although the specific gravity of their blood
varied only slightly from that of the control fish. Fish in a so-
lution of sodium carbonate for 7 hours showed a gain in tissue fluid
of 1.24 per cent over the controls, but no significant change in
specific gravity of the blood was noted. The mean values for tissue
fluid and specific gravity of the blood of fish in the sodium di-
chromate solution indicated a significant general hydration of the
whole animal while sodium chloride had a dehydrating effect.
2.
Abou-Donia, M.B., and D.B. Menzel. 1967.
esterase--Its inhibition by carbamates
Compar. Biochem. Physiol. 21:99-108.
Fish brain cholin-
and automatic assay.
The normal brain acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity of a
marine fish, the shiner perch (Cymatogaster aggregata Gibbons), and
of its properties, is described as determined by a rapid automatic
AChE assay suitable for environmental monitoring or for the deter-
mination of in vivo and in vitro inhibition properties of fish AChE.
The acetylthiocholine-hydrolyzing activity of the shiner perch brain
was found to be mainly AChE; much less activity was attributed to
non-specific esterases and ChE. The AChE activity was activated by
some
3
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+ + 2+ 2+ . .. . . 2+ 2+ 2+
Na , K , Ca , and Mn lons and lnhlblted by Nl , Cu , Pb ,
and Fe3+ ions (Pb(N03)2 used at 26 mg/l caused 73% inhibition).
activation of the AChE activity was noted with l-butanol.
H 2+
g ,
Some
3.
Affleck, R.T. 1952. Zinc poisoning in a trout hatchery.
J. Mar. Freshw. Res. 3:142-169.
Aust.
At a trout hatchery in Victoria, Australia, severe losses of
fish have been experienced as a result of zinc being dissolved from
the galvanized iron pipes of the water system by the rather acid
water. In acid waters with a low concentration of mineral salts,
0.01 mg/l zinc is toxic to trout. Rainbow trout (Salmo garidnerii)
are more susceptible to zinc poisoning at all stages of development
than are brown trout (Salmo trutta). The concentration which is
lethal varies among ova, sevins, fry, and fingerlings, but in general
older fish are more susceptible to poisoning. Fish which survive ex-
posure to dissolved zinc are less susceptible when subsequently exposed
than are fish which have not previously been subjected to its effects.
Under some conditions trout fingerlings will die after being in a zinc
vessel for 15 minutes, but some effects of poisoning may be delayed;
fish removed from zinc-contaminated water to zinc-free water may ap-
pear normal but may die within 48 hours. A coating of aluminum paint
is not sufficient to protect galvanized iron from the action of acid
water. As trout in rivers in Victoria are often subjected to high
temperatures in summer, some studies were made to determine the lethal
temperature. The lethal temperatures for fingerlings of both rainbow
and brown trout were 290-30oC, for adult brown trout 27o-28oC, and
for adult rainbow trout 28o-290C; these are similar to the lethal
temperatures for trout reported from other parts of the world.
4.
Agnedal, P.O. 1966.
and accumulation
Stockholm. 34p.
Calcium and strontium in Swedish waters,
of Strontium-90. Aktie bolaget Atomenergi,
Studies have been carried out on the uptake of calcium and
strontium by fish in relation to the concentrations of these elements
in the water, with particular reference to the accumulation of stron-
tium-90; water from various Swedish lakes was used, with 3 species of
fish (pike, perch, and roach). There was evidence that the concen-
tration of strontium-90 in both water and fish had increased over
the period 1960-1966. It was calculated that in water containing
about 2 mg/l of calcium, a 10-fold increase in the existing con-
centration of strontium-90 would give strontium concentrations in
fish muscle tissues close to the maximal permissible levels, but in
lakes with higher concentrations of calcium (20-40 mg/l) the permis-
sible level for strontium-90 in drinking water would be exceeded
before hazardous concentrations accumulated in fish.
4
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5.
Agranat, V.Z. 1958. Certain data concerning cumulation of
polonium-2l0 by water-living organisms. Med. Radiol;
U.S.S.R. 3:65-69; Nuclear Sci. Abstr. 12:1122.
It was found that there was marked accumulation of polonium-
210 in the bodies of fish in reservoirs where the concentration of
polonium was much less than the maximum permissible concentration
of 5 x 10-11c. It is suggested that the maximum permissible con-
centration of polonium in water should be reduced.
6.
Agre, A.1. and M.M. Telitchenko. 1963. Concerning the accumu-
lation of radiostrontium by hydrophytes and detritus. Bull.
Soc. Nat. Moscou, Ser. BioI. 68:133-137.
Results are given of studies on the removal of radioactivity
from water by green and blue-green algae, diatoms, mosses, and some
higher plants, and by detritus, using strontium-90 added to settled
tap water as the experimental isotope. It was found that there was
a difference in the amount of strontium-90 accumulated by the dif-
ferent species, and that about 80 per cent of the isotope was removed
from the water by the detritus added to the water. The accumulation
of strontium-90 by both aquatic plants and detritus took place ba-
sically according to the laws of sorption.
7.
Ahuja, S.K. 1964. Salinity tolerance of Gambusia affinis.
Indian J. Exp. BioI. 2:9-11.
The maximal salinity tolerance of the freshwater mosquito-
fish (Gambusia affinis) was determined by exposing acclimated fish
to various concentrations (1.0-8.0 per cent total salinity) of salt
solutions containing sodium chloride, potassium chloride, calcium
chloride, magnesium sulphate, sodium sulphate and sodium bicarbonate.
It was found that, at 20o-230C, about 50 per cent of the fish were
able to withstand a salinity of 5 per cent. Mortality increased
with higher salinities; only about 5 per cent of the fish were able
to withstand salinities as high as 8 per cent for periods of 35-41
days. Increased mortality occurred at lower (6°-70C) and higher
(320-350C) temperatures. During the experiments it was also ob-
served that fish were able to survive in water with negligible
concentrations of dissolved oxygen (0.18-0.22 mg/l), and did not
appear to be adversely affected by high concentrations of carbon
dioxide (13-69 mg/l).
8.
Alabaster, J.S. 1967. The survival of saJmon (.c2~jl1o ~alar 1.)
and sea trout 12. trutta 1,) in fresh 30d S&;__,_[le Ivater at
high temperatures. Water Research, 1;7~7-730
5
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The survival of salmon and seatrout smolts, on sudden exposure
to increased temperature, has been measured under field and laboratory
conditions in both fresh and salt water. Smolts are more sensitive
than parr when tested in fresh water, particularly if no special care
is taken to acclimate the fish to the test conditions beforehand.
Salmon smolts are most sensitive to an increase in temperature when
exposed simultaneously to change from fresh to sea water, though the
effect is much less even after only 7 hours prior acclimation to sea
water; they are most resistant when tested in 30 per cent sea water.
The results indicate that, at the beginning of the period of smolt
migration, when the acclimation temperatures are about SOC, the rise
in temperature of cooling water used by power stations (6-90C) is
smaller than any change that could kill fish. At the height of the
smolt season, with acclimation temperatures of 10-12oC, only abnormal
increase in temperature such as might be the case with recirculating
back to the cooling water intake, if accompanied by a change from
fresh to sea water, without prior acclimation will be lethal.
a
./ 0
Aldrich, D.V. and W.B. Wilson. 1960.
growth of Gymnodinium breve Davis.
The effect of salinity on
BioI. Bull. 119:57-64.
In view of the sporadic nature of blooms of Gymnodinium
breve, attempts have been made to determine possible relations
between various environmental factors and these outbreaks. The
authors exposed bacteria-free cultures of Q. breve to media with
salinities ranging from 0.3 to 46.0 parts per thousand; the best
growth occurred with salinities between 27 and 37 parts per thou-
sand, indicating that this organism is relatively stenohaline.
Field observations by other workers have shown dense populations
associated with salinities a few parts per thousand below those
of the offshore waters of the Gulf of Mexico, but the present
results suggest that this distribution is not a direct result of
salinity as growth of the organism was not inhibited in cultures
with salt concentrations equivalent to those of the open Gulf.
Optimal growth did not occur in culture media with a salinity of
24 parts per thousand or less, and it is suggested that in estuaries
salinity may be a limiting factor in the natural distribution of
Gymnodinium.
10. Alexander, J.E. and E.Fo Corcoran. 1967. The distribution of
copper in tropical seawater. Limnol. Ocy. 12:236-242.
Ionic, particulate andcotal soluble Cu in waters off
Florida were detennined spectrophotouietrically.. Host of the Cu
was in the soluble organic complex. Nearshore waters has more
total copper (20 ug/l=20 ppb) th:m waters flowing thxough the
center of the Straits of :Clarida (about 10 ppb). Ionic copper TtJas
always less than 2 ppb and paL~tlC:ulate copper rarlc:ly exceeded 0.2 ppb.
b
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11.
Amend, D.F., W.T. Yasutake, and R. Mor3.3.n. 1969. Some factors
influencing susceptibility of rainbow trout to the acute
toxicity of an ethyl mercury phosphate formulation (Tims~n)
Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 98:419-425.
This study determined the influence of water temperature
(13-200C), dissolved oxygen (4-12 mg/l), water hardness as CaC03
(20-256 mg/l). and chloride ions (to 2 rnM) on the susceptibility
of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) to the acute toxicity of ethyl
mercury phosphate (EMP). The fish were exposed for one hour to
0.125 mg/l EMP, the active ingredient of Timsan, a commercial EMP
formulation. The death rate because of the exposure to EMP in-
creased with an increase in water temperature, a decrease in dis-
solved ozygen, and an increase in chloride ions; calcium appeared
to have no effect. The effect of water temperature and dissolved
oxygen was ascribed to changes in the respiration rate of fish,
and a chemical explanation is presented for the effect of chloride
ions.
12.
Anderson, B.G. 1946. The toxicity threshold of various
sodium salts determined by the use of Daphnia magna.
Sewage Ind. Wks. J. 18:82.
A study was made to determine the toxicity to Daphnia
magna of 38 sodium compounds which occur in trade waste waters.
In the present experiments, 80 to 100 per cent of the control
animals remained active for at least 48 hours. Observations on
the animals in Lake Erie water, to which a sodium compound had
been added, were therefore continued for 48 hours and the threshold
concentrations of the compound, that is the highest concentrations
which failed to immobilize the animals, were calculated for this
period. The threshold concentrations, expressed as molar concen-
trations, were about the same for the acetate, bromide, chloride,
formate, and nitrate of sodium, and these salts, as well as the
sulphate and bicarbonate, were probably toxic only when present
in sufficiently high concentrations to exert an unfavourable os-
motic pressure. All the other sodium compounds tested were toxic
in smaller concentrations than the salts already mentioned and
their toxicity was due to factors other than osmotic pressure.
Sodium bisulphate was toxic when it was present in sufficient
concentration to make the pH value of the water less than 6. The
toxicity of sodium bisulphite may also be due to its acidity,
although it was toxic in water with a pH value slightly greater
than 6. Sodium carbonate and sodium hydroxide appeared to be the
only compounds which were toxic because of their alkalinity. Over
a period of 48 hours sodium arsenite was slightly more toxic than
sodium arsenate on the basis of molar concentration of the concen-
tration arsenic; 40 times more arsenate than arsenite was required
7
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to immobilize Daphnia in one hour. Sodium nitrate w~s 200 time~ as
toxic as sodium nitrate and sodium sulphite was 12 tlmes as tOXlC
as sodium sulphate. The bromate, chlorate, iodate, bromide and.
chloride were relatively innocuous but the iodide was very tOXlC.
The bromate and chlorate were more toxic than the bromide and
chloride respectively. The monobasic phosphate was much less
toxic than the dibasic and tribasic phosphates.
13.
Anderson, B.G. 1948. The apparent thresholds of toxicity to
Daphnia magna for chlorides of various metals when added
to Lake Erie water. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 78:96-113.
In relation to the polluting effects on streams of indus-
trial waste waters, experiments have been made to determine the
toxicity of 25 metal salts to Daphnia magna. Daphnids, not more
than 8 hours old, were immersed for periods of 64 hours at 250e
in Lake Erie water containing solutions of the chlorides of sodium,
calcium, magnesium, potassium, ammonium, strontium, tin, manganese,
iron, lithium, antimony, barium, aluminium, cobalt, chromium, nickel,
lead, zinc, copper, mercury, and cadmium and of silver nitrate to
determine the concentrations which just failed to immobilize 50 per
cent of the animals (threshold concentrations). The 64-hour exposure
period was used to allow all of the animals to pass both first and
second moulting stages as it has been shown that the susceptibility
of daphnids to toxic substances increases during moulting. The
threshold concentration for each of the salts tested is shown in a
table, and graphs are given in which the period before immobilization
of the daphnids is related to the concentration of the salts. Results
are compared with those obtained by other workers for daphnids and
other animals, especially fish. Some of the salts produced precipi-
tates when added to Lake Erie water and some altered the pH values
of the water.
14.
Andrews, H.L., and Warren, S.
eastern clam and quahaug.
1969. Ion scavenging by the
Hlth. Phys. 17:807-810.
The uptake of iodine-13l, strontium-85, and iron-59 from
sea water by clams and quahaugs and the faecal excretion of these
isotopes was studied. The concentrations of the isotopes in the
faeces were considerably greater than those in the water, and it
is suggested that this may be an important factor in the transfer
of nuclides to bottom sediments.
15.
Angelovic, J.W., J.e. White, and E.M. Davis. 1967. Interactions
of ionizing radiation, salinity, and temperature on the
estuarine fish, Fundulus heteroclitus. Proc. 2nd Natn. Syrup.
Radioecol., Ann Arbor, 1969: 131-141.
8
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Studies were carried out to determine the synergistic or
antagonistic influences of salinity and temperature upon the response
of mummichogs (Fundulus heteroclitus) to ionizing radiation. In
studies on the LD50 value of cobalt-60 radiation the fish were ac-
climated for at least 3 weeks in tanks of flowing sea water at the
test combination of salinity (5, 15, or 25 per thousand) and tem-
perature (12, 17, 22 or 270C), and then exposed to doses of 0, 500,
1000, 1500 or 2000 rad from the cobalt-60 source. After irradiation
the fish were placed in aquaria containing water with the test com-
bination of salinity and temperature, deaths recorded daily, and the
LD50 values were estimated graphically. The mummichogs became more
sensitive to rddiation as the temperature or salinity increased; low
salinities had a protective influence but this appeared to be modified
by changes in temperature. A dose of 2000 rads killed almost all the
animals within 20 days at the upper limits of salinity and temperature.
To study the pattern of mortality of mummichogs, a factorial experiment
was designed for the derivation of equations from which the percentage
mortality could be predicted, for different periods after irradiation,
under varying conditions of temperature, salinity, and radiation dose
(above the LD50 value). At intervals of 10, 20, and 30 days after ir-
radiation, the mortality pattern depended respectively on temperature
only; radiation dose and salinity-temperature interaction; and salinity.
temperature interaction (this interaction became more significant as
the period after irradiation increased). To study the efflux of
sodium-22 from unirradiated mummichog and from the same fish after
irradiation with 5000 or 7500 rads, the fish were exposed to water
containing sodium-22 for 48 hours and then transferred to nonradio-
active sea water at the acclimation salinity, and the loss of radio-
activity was followed. Fish irradiated with the higher dose lost
sodium-22 more rapidly than the controls at all salinities; higher
salinities increased the rate of loss of sodium-22, particularly in
the control fish. The influence of salinity and of the salinity-
temperature interaction on the response of fish to irradiation are
discussed including the possible role of the failure of the osmo-
regulatory system. The results illustrate the stresses to which
estuarine biota may be exposed; and it is emphasized that the effects
of increases in salinity (due to increased use of fresh water which
causes salt intrusion), increases in temperature (due to use of water
for cooling purposes), and disposal of radioactive waste waters,
although individually harmless, may interact to produce deleterious
effects on many estuarine species.
16.
Anghileri, L.J. 1959. Study of the contamination of Prochilodus
platensis (Sabalo) with fission products. Com. naco Energ.
Atom., B. Aires, Argentina: 20 p.
The uptake of fission products by the fish Prochilodus
platensis immersed in contaminated water for 1, 2, 3, 10 and 30 days
9
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was studied. Contamination of the fish begins
mucous coating. Activity in stomach and guts,
creases as a result of adsorption from the mud
the fish feeds. Analyses of the scales showed
fixed on them.
by adsorption on the
liver and kidney in-
particles on which
that strontium is
17.
Angino, E.E., J.E. Simak, and J.A. Davis. 1965. Fixing of
fallout material by floating marine organisms, Sargassum
fluitans and S. natans. Publs. lnst. Mar. Sci. Univ.
, -
Texas 10:173-178.
Gamma-spectrometric studies on samples of free-floating
marine algae Sargassum fluitans and~. natans collected from the
Gulf of Mexico indicated presence of the following radioactive
isotopes (in decreasing order of fractional concentrations): cerium-
l44/promethium-144; ruthenium-106/rhodium-106; caesium-137 and
zirconium-95/niobium-95; ruthenium-103/rhodium-103; and manganese-
54, none of which could be attributed to natural radioactivity in
the marine environment but only to fallout of fission products. The
results complement those of others for the benthic alga Cystoseira
barbata from the Black sea.
18.
Anon.
1952.
Toxic qualities of metals.
Wat. Life 7:72.
The use of galvanized iron, aluminium, copper and brass in
the construction of fish aquaria is discussed with reference to the
toxic effect of the products of corrosion on fish. Zinc salts,
which dissolve from galvanized iron, are harmful to fish as they
precipitate proteins; concentrations of 1 mg/l may prove fatal to
roach in a few hours. The toxicity of aluminium is very low, and
little corrosion occurs in water owing to the formation of a pro-
tective film. Corrosion of copper and brass in water is rapid and
the products are very toxic to fish; 0.1 mg/l copper may be fatal.
19.
Anon. 1958. Hanford biology research. Annual report for
HW-53500. Office of Technical Services, U.S. Dept. of
merce, Washington, D.C.: 228 p.
1957.
Com-
Work carried out in the state of Washington, during 1957
on the effects of radioactive isotopes on plants, animals, humans
and fish, is reported. It has been found that aquatic organisms
accumulate caesium-137 in high concentrations, and this could con-
stitute a hazard for man eating fish from water contaminated with
caesium-137. Cereals were irrigated with effluent from the reactor
to stud~ t?e uptake,of isotopes by the plants. Little long-lived'
beta-emlttlng materlal was taken up by the plants, but zinc-65 and
10
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chromium-51 did accumulate in plants wptered with undiluted effluent.
Experiments were carried out on the temperature tolerance of eggs and
young whitefish from the Columbia river. Increased mortality occurr~d
at increased temperatures. The toxicity of trivalent and hexavalent
chromium to salmon was also investigated. Hexavalent chromium in a
concentration of 0.2 mg/l was definitely toxic, retarding rate of
growth and resulting in increased mortality, while trivalent chromium
in the same concentration had no observable effect.
20.
Anon. 1968. N.T.A. Spells hope for mine-polluted rivers.
Atlantic Salmon J. 4:31-32.
The sodium salt of nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) appears
to hold promise of effectiveness against heavy metal pollution, i.e.
zinc and copper escaping from the mining operations in northern
New Brunswick and Newfoundland rivers has been detrimental to
salmon smolt. It also seems to solve the problem of avoidance re-
actions. Further field trials will be needed before NTA can be
considered a feasible solution to mine wastes.
21.
Anon. 1970. Mercury contamination in the natural environment.
A cooperative bibliography. U.S. Dept. of the Interior,
Office of Library Services, Washington, D.C.: 32 p.
Environmental contamination by mercury is a current concern
of many bureaus and offices of the U.S. Department of the Interior.
The purpose of this bibliography is to provide access to the lit-
erature related to this subject for those people who are now beginning
to work on the problem. Publications providing background and current
information on the aspects of greatest concern to the Department have
been selected from the large body of literature on mercury. English
language material relating to fish, wildlife and water pollution has
been given full coverage from the sources consulted. So large a body
of literature exists on other phases of the problem, such as methods
of analysis, agricultural uses, industrial health, and clinical med-
icine, that it could not all be included. The criteria for selection
in these areas were close relationship to environmental contamination,
recommendations of scientists, or the presence of literature reviews
or substantial bibliographies. The literature was searched from
1960 to present. Some particularly relevant pre-1960 titles have
been included.
22.
Anwand, K. 1966. The enrichment of 45Ca
Esox lucius L. and Anguilla anguilla
Verein. theor. angew. Limnol., 1965.
and 9ly in fry of
(L.). Verh. into
16:1124-1129.
11
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After discussing the practical value of such investi~ations,
the author reports studies on the uptake of calcium-45 (supplled as
calcium carbonate) or yttrium-9l (supplied as yttrium chloride) by
the fry of pike or eel exposed in aquarium water containing 10, 100,
"t f
or 200 wc/l of these isotopes. Results show that the actlVl y 0
calcium-45 in the fry increased continuously with the period of ex-
posure to a level depending on the concentration in the water. After
exposure for 2-3 days in water containing 100-200 wc/l, the level of
activity reached in the fry was suitable for tagging purposes. There
were unexplained differences between the behaviour of the 2 species
of fish fry, and pike fry are more suitable for tagging than eel fr~.
The uptake of yttrium-9l was more complicated: in general, a relatlvely
high level of activity in the fry after exposure for only 1 hour was
followed by a decrease in activity and then by fluctuations, reaching
a stable level of activity after 2 days. For calcium-45, the changes
in the accumulation factor with time, which were independent of the
degree of activity in the water, indicated that the uptake of this
isotope was more rapid in pike fry than in eel fry. A similar tend-
ency was noted with yttrium-9l after exposure for 1-2 days. Calcium-
45 is considered preferable to yttrium-9l for tagging purposes.
23.
Armitage, K.B. and L.J. Olund. 1962. Salt tolerance of the
brook stickleback. American Midland Natur. 68:274-277.
Experiments are reported which demonstrate the physiological
inability of the brook stickleback, Eucalia inconstans, to live in
water of increased salinity. In survival experiments, the fish ap-
peared normal in water containing 10 and 20 per cent of sea water,
but activity decreased progressively at higher concentrations of
sea water until all the fish died in 60 per cent sea water. On the
basis of oxygen consumption, 10 per cent sea water was readily tol-
erated by the fish; 20 per cent sea water produced a marked stress,
with marked increase in oxygen consumption; and higher concentrations
of sea water caused decreases in oxygen consumption corresponding to
the decreases in activity.
24.
Arnold, E.L., and W.F. Royce. 1950. Observations of the
effect of acid-iron waste disposal at sea on animal
populations. Spec. Sci. Rep. U.S. Fish Wildlife Serv.,
Fisheries 11:12 pp.
Investigations are described on effects on bottom fauna
and fish of the disposal at sea of about 275,000 kg per day of a
solution of sulphuric acid and ferrous sulphate. Preliminary
study showed that the waste water mixed with the upper 16 m of
sea water and was Luffered by the slightly alkaline sea water. It
was possible, however, that some of the acid might reach the bottom.
12
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The acid solution was discharged over an area of 6.4 km2, and a
similar area of the same size was used as a control. Photographs
of the bottom were taken to determine the numbers of larger animals
living on the surface of the bottom, and samples of the small bur-
rowing animals were obtained by dredging. Surveys of both areas
were made in the spring before discharge of the waste waters was
begun and in November after acid had been dumped daily for a period
of about 6 months. In both areaS there was a decrease in the number
of animals visible on the bottom and an increase in the number caught
by the dredge over this period. These fluctuations may have been due
to seasonal changes or to sampling errors. Fish in the disposal area
were also present in considerable variety and numbers. More extensive
studies are still required to determine what changes, if any, are
caused by the disposal of acid-iron solution at sea. The survey has
shown, however, that bottom animals were not completely destroyed by
the discharge of waste waters, even immediately below the point of
discharge.
25.
Arthur, J.W., and E.N. Leonard. 1970. Effects of copper on
Gammarus pseudolimnaeus, Physa integra, and Campeloma
decisum in soft water. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 27:
1277-1283.
Three invertebrate species were subjected to acute (96-
hr), followed by long-term (6-week) copper exposures under conti-
nuous-flow bioassay conditions. Survival, growth, reproduction,
and feeding were the responses used for measuring toxicant effects.
The average 96-hr median tolerance limits (TLm) values for Campeloma
decisum, Physa integra, and Gammarus pseudolimnaeus were 1.7, 0.039,
and 0.020 mg/l total copper, respectively. The total copper concen-
tration having no effect after 6 weeks exposure for all three species
was between 8.0 and 14.8 ~g/l. The newly hatched amphipods obtained
from the second 6-week study were exposed to copper for 9 additional
weeks, and grew to the adult stage only in copper concentrations less
than 4.6 ~g/l. After 5 weeks exposure to a water system, survival
of newly hatched Gammarus was markedly reduced when copper concen-
trations were between 12.9 and 6.2 ~g/l.
26.
Ashley, L.M. 1970. Action of iron salts in solution on gold-
fish. Prog. Fish-Cult. 32:109.
Goldfish (Carassius auratus) weighing 13 to 28 grams were
exposed to ferrous or ferric chlorides or sulfates dissolved in
distilled water. Salt content in this special environment ranged
from low levels (5 and 10 mg/l) to high (50 and 100 mg/l), and
ferric or ferrous cations were the only ones there except the few
the fish excreted during confinement.
13
-------
J. Amorim Machado Cruz, reporting on this study in his
"Iron Salts in Ichthyopathology, a Histological and Histochemical
Experimental Contribution" (Publications of Institute of Zoology,
University of Porto Portugal, 1969), wrote that the fish showed
acute toxicity response to repeated low-level baths lasting 6,
24. or 96 hours and to single exposures at high levels for 5, 30
or 60 minutes, or 3 hours. Gills of affected fish had epithelial
edema, hypersecretion of mucus, inflammation, capillary congestion,
destruction of respiratory epithelium, blockage of gill filaments
and lamellae by a mucoferruginous precipitate, a very rare occur-
rence of intracellular iron in epithelial cells. Gill destruction
was greatly aggravated by lowering the pH of the "bath" to less
than 5.0.
Iron salts were most harmful immediately after they got
into solution. Gill blocakge was most severe at this time, but
was reversible. Dissolved iron salts in this special environment
were rapidly ingested, absorbed by the digestive tract, and ac-
cumulated in the liver parenchyma. Some fish had iron precipi-
tated in epithelial cells and in lumens of renal tubules. Fish
responded similarly to exposure to the four iron salts tested.
27.
Aten, A.H.W., J.W. Dalenberg, and W.C.M. Bakkum. 1961. Con-
centration of uranium in sea fish. Health Physics 5:225-
226.
The concentration of uranium in fish obtained commercially
in Amsterdam was determined by ultraviolet fluorescence in ash with
sodium fluoride and 2 per cent lithium fluoride. The average con-
centration was found to be 2.1 x 10-5 mg per g. If the concentration
of uranium in surface sea water is taken to be 1.1 x 10-6 mg per ml,
as determined, this gives a concentration factor of 20 for fish.
28.
Avargues, M., Ancellin, J., and Vilquin, A. 1968. Experimental
investigations on the accumulation of radionuclides by marine
organisms. Proceedings of the third international colloquim
on medical oceanography. Fifth and sixth sessions: 87-100.
The hazards to man arising from discharge to the sea of
radioactive waste waters were considered, and laboratory experiments
to determine the accumulation of caesium-137, cerium-144 and ruthenium-
106 in algae, crustaceans, molluscs, and fish were described. The
results were tabulated and compared with those obtained by others
from in situ studies in the region of the Windscale effluent outfall
and from studies on concentration of stable caesium by aquatic or-
ganisms.
14
-------
29.
Avio, C.M. and L. Lenzerini. 1963. The uptake of cesium-137
by Chlorella vulgaris. Pubbl. Staz. Zool. Napoli 33:69-
82.
The uptake of cesium-137 by Chlorella vulgaris was found
to be directly related to the number of cells and the concentration
of cesium up to saturation limits. Cesium concentrations greater
than 100 Wg per ml inhibited the growth of Chlorella.
30.
Baker, J.T.P. 1969. Histological and electron microscopical
observations on copper poisoning in the winter flounder
(Pseudopleuronectes americanus). J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can.
26:2785-2793.
The effects of various concentrations of copper on the
morphology of winter flounder were investigated using histological
techniques and electron microscope analyses. High and medium levels
of copper caused fatty deposits in the liver and necrosis in the
kidney and destroyed haemopoetic tissue and cells in the gill
lamellae. No copper-induced morphological changes were found in
seven other organs examined. Light microscope studies showed that
low levels of copper caused the epithelial cells to be vacuolated
and the basilamellar region to be reduced in thickness; chloride
cells took the place of lamellar mucus cells. Electron microscope
observations showed that low levels of copper similarly caused
mucus cells to be replaced by chloride cells and the epithelial
cells to be vacuolated. Vesicles bound by a double membrane and
myelin-like bodies were found in the cells and increased amounts
of particulate matter adhered to the outer cell membrane.
31.
Baker, P.F. and M.P. Blaustein. 1968. Sodium-dependent uptake
of calcium by crab nerve. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 150:167-
170.
Crab nerves gain calcium when immersed in sodium-free sea
waters formulated ~rith lithium, choline or dextrose. This net gain
results from a large increase in calcium influx. The rate at which
calcium is taken up depends on the sodium content of the cells, being
highest in sodium-loaded cells. These experiments suggest that small
changes in internal sodium might exert powerful effects on metabolism
through changes in calcium influx and the concentration of free cal-
cium within the cell.
32.
Baker, P.F., M.P. Blaustein, A.L. Hodgkin, and R.A. Steinhardt.
1967. The effect of sodium concentration on calcium move-
ments in giant axons of Loligo forbesi. J. Physiol., London
192:43-44.
15
-------
In view of the evidence that there is a calcium-dependent
component of the sodium efflux, experiments were performed to see
whether there is a calcium influx associated with the sodium efflux.
The influx of 45Ca was increased in sodium-free media, especially
sea waters based on lithium, and for any given external solution
was increased by raising the internal sodium concentration in the
axon. These experiments show that the properties of the calcium
influx parallel those of the calcium-dependent sodium efflux; but
it is not clear whether the two fluxes are tightly coupled. In
sodium-free media the calcium efflux was reduced.
33.
Baker, P.F., M.P. Blaustein, J. Manil, and R.A. Steinhardt.
1967. A ouabain-insensitive, calcium-sensitive sodium
efflux from giant axons of Loligo. J. Physiol., London
191:100-102.
It has long been known that much of the sodium efflux from
squid axons is coupled to the uptake of potassium ions. This process
is largely unaffected by the concentration of calcium in the bathing
medium; but is inhibited by low concentrations of the cardiac gly-
coside, ouabain. Evidence is presented for a second component of
the sodium efflux the properties of which suggest that it represents
a system entirely separate from that which effects sodium-potassium
exchange. This new component of the sodium efflux is completely
dependent on the presence of external calcium and is unaffected
by very high concentrations of ouabain. An interesting feature
of this calcium-dependent sodium efflux is that it increases ap-
proximately as the square of the internal sodium concentration
whereas sodium-potassium exchange increases linearly with internal
sodium. Although calcium-dependent sodium efflux is most marked
in sodium-free media, especially sea waters based on lithium, some
calcium-dependent flux is still detectable in sea water.
34.
Baker, P.F. and J. Manil. 1968. The
and ouabain on the sodium pump in
Biophys. Acta 150:328-330.
rates of action of K+
squid axons. Biochim.
Removal of external potassium stops the operation of the
sodium pump within a few seconds. This rate does not differ from
the rate at which sodium-free sea waters block electrical activity
in the same preparation. These results show that during sodium-
potassium exchange the sodium pump is absolutely dependent on
external potassium.
The rate of inhibition of the sodium
glycoside ouabain was also investigated. The
was concentration-dependent, but at any given
pump by the cardiac
rate of inhibition
ouabain concentration
16
-------
depended both on the metabolic state of the axon and also on the
ionic composition of the external medium. The experiments suggest
that, for ouabain to interact with the pump sites, some form of
energy must be available within the axon.
35.
Ball, I.R. 1967. The toxicity of cadmium to rainbow trout
(Salmo gairdnerii Richardson). Water Research 1:805-806.
In view of considerable variation in reports on the
toxicity of cadmium to different species of fish in static water,
experiments were conducted in flowing water using rainbow trout as
the test species. In hard water results showed a linear relation
between median period of survival and concentration in the presence
of 1-64 mg/l of cadmium, but there was little change in survival
period at concentrations between 0.01 and 1.0 mg/l. Very low 7-
day TLm values (0.008-0.01 mg/l) were indicated although the initial
response of the fish was slow, even at high concentrations. Similar
results have been obtained in preliminary tests in soft water.
36.
Ballard, J.A. and W.D. Oliff. 1969. A rapid method for meas-
uring the acute toxicity of dissolved materials to marine
fishes. Wat. Res. 3:313-333.
The toxicities of mercuric chloride and phenol to the
marine fish Ambassis safgha were determined by a rapid residual
oxygen method. The fish were kept in sealed containers in the
presence of graded concentrations of the chemicals, and the oxygen
Cbncentrations at the time of death was measured either by an oxygen
probe or by titration using the azide modification of the Winkler
method. The toxicity threshold of phenol was much lower at l50C
than at 250C, but that of mercuric chloride was unaffected by tem-
perature. Results were compared with those using the standard
method, and the median lethal concentrations found were of the
same magnitude as the threshold values using the residual oxygen
method.
37.
Bandt, B.J. 1946. Increased damage to fish, especially by
increase in toxicity caused by combinations of poisons.
Beitr. Wass. Abwass. Fischereichem:15-23.
Increase in temperature of the water of a stream increases
depletion of oxygen, accelerates respiratiQn and other bodily ac-
tivities of fish, and accelerates biological and chemical decomposition.
Any infection such as attack by parasites, will decrease the resistance
of fish to any toxic substance, and repeated additions to water of a
toxic substance in amounts below the toxic limit may finally kill fish
17
-------
because of the weakening effect of previous doses. Acid and alkaline
waters can kill fish by a "corroding" action of the body surfaces,
especially of the gills, and the reaction of the water also affects
the action of other substances; reduction in pH value has been found
to reduce the harmful effect of dissolved iron, and to increase the
effect of insecticides containing arsenic and of oxygen deficiency.
Excessive growth of algae may cause the water to become supersaturated
with oxygen and also, by assimilation of carbon dioxide, can increase
the pH value; the combination of these effects may be disastrous to
fish. The toxicity of potassium and ammonium salts is reduced by
the presence of sodium and to a less degree, of calcium salts. In
experiments by the author on the toxicity of combinations of various
metal sulphates, it was found that some combinations of two metals
had toxicities very much greater than the sum of the toxicities of
the separate salts. It appears that there is a relation between the
position of an element in the periodic system and its biological
activity and that the greatly increased toxicity of combinations of
elements of two different groups is due to their simultaneous affect
on different organs or parts of the body. The same appears to apply
to cornmon salts; for example the waste waters from the manufacture
of Paris Green, a copper-arsenic compound, are much more toxic than
those from the manufacture of calcium arsenite.
38.
Banerjea, S., and E. Mitra. 1954. Preliminary observations on
the use of copper sulphate to control submerged aquatic weeds
in alkaline waters. Ind. J. Fish. 1, 1/2: 204-216 (Biol.
Abstr. 31:2500).
It was found that even concentrations of 10 mg/l copper
sulphate were ineffective for destroying water weeds in alkaline
waters, because of the formation of copper hydroxide. A temporary
phase of withering was observed after the first few days of the ap-
plication but the vegetation revived again after about 3 weeks.
When 10 mg/l copper sulphate was added after the pH value of the
water had been lowered to 6.0, visible signs of withering appeared
in 3-4 days and all the vegetation had decayed and settled to the
bottom in about 25 days.
39.
Baptist, J.
fishes.
1966. Uptake of mixed fission products by marine
Trans. Arner. Fish. Soc. 95:145-152.
Studies on uptake of fission-product mixtures by marine
organisms were carried out over a 2-year period to determine their
uptake by marine fish. Spot (Leiostomus xanthurus) and Atlantic
croaker (Micropogon undu1atus) were used to study uptake from sea
water, and croaker and bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix) were used to
study the effects of single and repeated oral doses. Croaker and
18
-------
spot were kept in separate tanks each containing 50 litres of radio-
active sea water, under continuous aeration; the fission-product con-
centration was 1000 beta disintegrations per second per gram, the
temperature 22oC-260C, the pH value 7.7-8.0, and the salinity 32-
35 parts per thousand. Single doses of 0.5 ~c (beta) o~ a 450-day-
old mixture, and gelatine capsules containing a 2.6-day-old mixture,
were inserted into the stomachs of croaker and bluefish, respectively.
Doses of 0.017 ~c (beta) and 0.007 ~c (gamma) of a l-year-old mixture
were given to bluefish in shrimp meat on alternate days for a total
of 28 feedings: a fish sample taken after 10 days showed that little
radioactivity had been accumulated and, therefore, the quantity of
fission products in each dose was increased five times. The results
are given in tables and graphs. Low levels of radioactive material
were absorbed from sea water mainly because much of the activity was
sorbed by the surfaces of the tanks. Croaker assimilated 14 per cent
in 4 hours, after a single oral dose, and 94 per cent in 4 days. The
low proportion of assimilation suggests that much of the fission-
product material was particulate. Bluefish assimilated only 3 per
cent of the repeated doses. The largest concentrations assimilated
by croaker and bluefish from oral doses were found in the internal
organs. It is suggested that assimilation by fish of fission products
is mainly through the food chain, since only small amounts are ac-
cumulated directly from sea water.
40.
Baptist, J.P. and C.W. Lewis. 1969.
through an estuarine food chain.
Radioecology. U.S. A.E.C. Conf.
Transfer of 65Zn and 51Cr
Proc. 2nd Nat. Symp. on
670503:420-430.
The transfer of assimilated and unassimilated 65Zn and 51Cr
was followed through an experimental food chain which included phyto-
plankton, ~rine shrimp, post-larval fish, and mummichog. Both radio-
nuclides were successively transferred through each level to the
fourth trophic level, and the concentrations generally declines up
the food chain. Assimilated concentrations of 65Zn were higher than
those of 51Cr in all trophic levels. Experimental data were used to
calculate theoretical maximum concentrations. Comparison of the
results from the food chain with results of experiments on uptake
from seawater indicated that the food chain was generally the more
efficient pathway for uptake of 65Zn and 51Cr by all trophic levels
except the second.
41.
Baptist, J.P- and T.J. Price. 1962.
of cesium-137 by marine fishes.
Bull. 206:177-187.
Accumulation and retention
U.S. Fish Wild. Servo Fish.
Results are given of laboratory experiments on the accumulation
and retention of cesium-137 by various marine fish. The fish used were
19
-------
post-larval summer flounder (Paralichthys denatatus), Atlantic
croaker (Micropogon undulatus), bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix),
and little tuna (Euthynnus alleteratus), and comparison was made
between accumulation direct from the water and from ingested
doses; it was found that all the fish accumulated cesium readily
through both pathways. The concentration of cesium-137 per unit
weight in flounder was found to vary inversely with changes in
the rate of weight increase, as the rate of accumulation was un-
related to rate of growth. Accumulation of cesium-137 in various
tissues was similar for croaker, bluefish and little tuna; cesium
was found, in decreasing concentration, in heart, liver, spleen,
kidney, gills, gonad, muscle, skin and scales, blood, and bone.
Retention was analysed by a method which determined the number of
exponential functions involved, the rate of removal per unit time
by each function, and the amount of substance at zero time re-
presented by each rate function. Whole-body retention of cesium
by flounder was expressed as two rate functions with biological
half-lives of 5.3 and 36.9 days. Retention by certain tissues of
croaker was expressed as multiple rate functions. These were,
skin, three rate functions with half-lives of 6.2, 26.2 and 290
days; muscle, two rate functions with half-lives of 34.8 and 94.7
days; liver, four rate functions with half-lives of 0.7, 4.2, 24.1
and approaching infinite days; and gonad, two rate functions with
half-lives of 13.4 and 911 days.
42.
Bartoch, A. 1954. Practical methods for 2ontrol of algae
and water weeds. Publ. Hlth. Rep. 69:749-757.
Algae and water weeds are necessary for supporting aquatic
fauna and for self-purification of water, but when they are unsightly
and odorous, or when they interfere with important uses of water,
control is necessary. In the control of algae, growth can be limited
by the exclusion of light by inducing turbidity or by adding activated
carbon to produce a carbon "black-out", by maintaining a high water
level, and by depriving the algae of nutrients such as nitrogen and
phosphorus by treating the incoming water. Increased use of phosphorus-
bearing detergents emphasizes the need for wider consideration of phos-
phorus removal. Chemical control of algae was achieved by the addition
of algicides, especially copper sulphate. Of the various methods for
applying algicides, spraying from boats satisfactorily met the need
for rapid and uniform distribution. A diagram is given of suitable
apparatus for applying solutions of copper sulphate and a chart is
included showing the amount required under varying conditions. The
weak points in the use of copper sulphate, such as its toxic effect
on fish, its accumulation as a precipitate of copper carbonate es-
pecially in. highly alkaline ~aters, and it~ corrosive effect on equip-
ment emphaslze the need for ltS use by tralned technicians only. In
the search for other algicides, 2,3-dichloronaphthoquinone shows
20
-------
promise as a selective algicide for blue green algae, the commonest
cause of blooms in lakes. Water weeds can be controlled mechanically
by pulling and cutting, and two new machines are mentioned which sub-
sequently remove the plant growth, thereby eliminating odors of
decay, killing of fish by oxygen depletion, and accumulation of
rotting weeds. Non-mechanical means of control include the ad-
dition of a black dye, nigrosine, and the exclusion of light by
the introduction of algal blooms. Sodium arsenite remains the
cheapest and most efficient means of chemical control, other sub-
stances mentioned being expensive and toxic to fish. The amounts
of arsenite required to treat different types of natural waters
are given.
43.
Battani, M., M.D. Chambost, and M. Leandri. 1968. Study of
the contamination by iodine-13l and iron-59 of Ciona
intestinalis Linn. Proceedings of the Third International
Colloquium on Medical Oceanography. Fifth and Sixth
Sessions:7l-86.
The absorption by Ciona intestina1is of radioactive iodine
and iron from contaminated sea water was studied in the laboratory
and the results were summarized. Maximal concentrations of iodine
and iron occurred in the animals after 6-7 days and 2-3 days, res-
pectively, and biological equilibrium was attained after about 8-
10 days. Young animals accumulated relatively more of both isotopes
than adults, and accumulation was greatest in the tunic.
44.
Batte, E.G., andL.E. Swanson. 1951. Control of fresh water
snails (Intermediate hosts ot liver flukes) in Florida.
J. Amer. Vet. Med. Ass. 118:139-141.
The occurrence in Florida of two species of fresh-water
snails which serve as intermediate hosts of liver flukes has been
studied in relation to ecological factors and to the control of
flukes. Right-handed snails seemed to prefer water with about
60 mg/l chlorides and 21 mg/1 calcium and were in greatest abundance
in water with a pH value of 7.5 to 8.5. Control of snails may be
achieved by proper drainage by application of copper sulphate, or
by filling in low areas. Complete drainage is difficult to attain
in Florida and the cost of filling land is prohibitive. Copper sul-
phate applied at the rate of 9 kg per 1,300,000 liters to ponds or
wet areas will effectively control the snails and various methods
of applying it are briefly described.
45.
Baughman, J.L. 1948.
water pollution.
Appendix of papers on marine and fresh-
An annotated bibliography of oysters:6l3-667.
21
-------
Brief
and salt waters
tic biology.
abstracts are given of papers on pollution of fresh
which are of interest in the study of marine or aqua-
46.
Beasley, R.M. and E.E. Held.
terrestrial biota, soil,
1163.
1969. Nickel-63 in marine and
and sediment. Science 164:1161-
A previously unreported radionuclide, nickel-63 (half-life,
92 years), produced in the testing of nuclear devices, was measured
in biological and environmental samples from areas of the Pacific
Ocean and the eastern seaboard of the United States. The concen-
trations of nickel-63 are low (maximum of 163 disintegrations per
minute per gram of dry weight), but this radionuclide may be a useful
tracer of oceanic processes because of its long-half-life and long
residence time in the ocean.
47.
Bedrosian, P.H. 1962. Relationship of certain macroscopic
marine algae to zinc-65. Dissertation Abstracts 22:3146.
Experiments were conducted on uptake of radioactive zinc-
65 from sea water by 3 macroscopic algae--Gracilaria foliifera,
Enteromorpha prolifera, and Sphaceleria sp.--under various controlled
conditions of light and temperature, with temperatures ranging from
50 to 250C and light intensities ranging from 1 to 500 foot-candles.
Maximum uptake occurred at about 500 foot-candles of light with tem-
peratures of l80-250C; the more significant factors affecting uptake
appeared to be the ratio of surface area to weight and the number of
photosynthetic pigments in the algae. With both Gracilaria and
Enteromorpha, uptake appeared to be mainly by absorption rather than
adsorption. Approximate maximum concentration factors for these
algae ranged from 1200 to 13,000 and were fairly independent of the
concentration of zinc-65 in the water.
48.
Benoit, R.J., J. Cairns, Jr., and C.W. Reimer. 1967. A limno-
logical reconnaissance of an impoundment receiving heavy
metals, with emphasis on diatoms and fish. In: Reservoir
Fishery Resources Symposium. Publ. by Southern Div. Amer.
Fish. Soc:69-79.
The purpose of this investigation is to determine the cause
of the fishkills which were occurring sporadically in the Upper Sacra~
mento River below Keswick Reservoir. An attempt was made in 1955 and
1956 to locate and identify materials in the water that might be
causing the kills. The study was divided into four phases: (1)
general reconnaissance and biological survey. (2) diatometer (a device
22
-------
for suspending glass slides below the water surface to furnish a
substrate for diatom growth) survey, (3) chemical survey, and (4)
toxicity bioassays of certain waters and muds using salmon finger-
lings as test organisms. A reconnaissance was made of the area
from the Sacramento River just south of Redding, California, up-
stream to Lake Shasta, including Lakes Redding and Keswick. Twenty-
one sampling stations were set up: three below Keswick Dam in Lake
Redding and in the Sacramento River below Redding, eleven in Keswick
~eservoir, and seven on tributaries flowing into Keswick Reservoir.
The results of the biological survey indicated that the upper trib-
utaries of Keswick Lake had a typical variety of flora and fauna but
that one of the low tributaries, Spring Creek and its two branches,
Slickrock and Boulder Creeks, were severely degraded by acid mine
drainage. The degrading influence of Spring Creek could be detected
at the low Keswick stations as well as at those in upper Lake Redding.
The lower Lake Redding stations and the Sacramento River station down-
stream had normal biotas. The diatometer survey confirmed these
results and added some important details. Diatometer studies during
a freshet showed a pulse of increased damage to the diatom flora in
lower Keswick Lake and the upper portion of Lake Redding. The chemical
survey revealed conditions consistent with the results of the biolog-
ical and diatometer studies. The waters of Spring Creek were found
to have a very low pH and to contain high concentrations of iron,
copper, and zinc. The delta muds of Spring Creek in Keswick Lake also
contained quantities of these metals, and large quantities of hydrous
iron oxides were sedimented in Keswick Lake below the entrance of
Spring Creek. The results of the bioassays showed that both Spring
Creek water and delta sediments were toxic. Analysis of various flow
conditions indicated that at certain times toxic conditions could
develop in lower Keswick Lake and upper Lake Redding because of the
acid waters and heavy metals discharged from Spring Creek.
49.
Berglund, F. and M. Berlin. 1969. Human risk evaluation for
various populations in Sweden due to methylmercury in fish.
In: Miller, M.W. and G.G. Berg (eds). Chemical Fallout,
current research on persistent pesticides. Chas. C. Thomas
publisher, Springfield, 111:423-432.
Two estimates of "allowable daily intake" (ADI) of methyl-
mercury are presented. One ADI, equivalent to 0.7 Hg/week, was cal-
culated from the linear relationship between intake and erythrocyte
levels of mercury among fish-eating individuals in Sweden. The
second ADI, equivalent to 0.42 mg Hg/week, equals the estimated equi-
librium dose in a subject with a body burden of 60 mg Hg due to methyl-
mercury. It is estimated that such a body burden would be associated
with a toxic or near-toxic mercury level in the brain. These ADI's
would result in approximate mercury levels in the erythrocytes of
120 and 70 mg/g, respectively, i.e. twelve and seven times as high
23
-------
as in a Swedish control population. Effects on the fetus or on the
mitotic apparatus cannot be excluded at present. Only a small per-
centage of the Swedish population consumes enough freshwater fish
to reach even the lower of the two ADI's proposed.
50.
Bernard, F.J. and C.E. Lane. 1961. Absorption and excretion
of copper ion during settlement and metamorphosis of the
barnacle, Balanus amphitrite nireus. BioI. Bull. 121:438-
448.
Concentration of copper in the gulf stream (normal sea H20)
is 0.005 mg/kg. Excess Cu in sea H20 during the cyprid-form develop-
mental stages interferes with normal respiratory exchange. The
barnacle absorbs Cu from the medium through permeable surfaces and
eliminates excess Cu by excretion through the epithelia of the hind-
gut. Reservoirs of Cu storage have been identified. A metabolic
role is suggested for Cu in normal physiology of barnacle settling
stages.
51.
Bernard, F.J. and C.E. Lane. 1963. Effects of copper ion in
oxygen uptake to planktonic cyprids of the barnacle,
Balanus amphitrite nireus. Proc. Soc. Exp. BioI. and
Med. 113:418-420.
Toxicity of Cu was due to interrelated metabolic responses
some of which were stimulated, while others were depressed. Cyprids
adapted to each Cu concentration by adjusting their metabolism to a
level such that no more Cu could be taken in than excreted. The in-
creased 02 uptake in sublethal Cu concentrations probably reflects
increased motor activity.
52.
Bernhard, M. 1965. Studies on the radioactive contamination
of the sea. Annual Report, 1964. Laboratorio per 10
Studio della Contaminazione Radioattiva del Mare: 36 p.
Nuclear Science Abstracts, 1966. 20, No. 16725.
Factors influencing the uptake, accumulation and loss of
radioisotopes, including lead, by marine organisms were studied.
53.
Bernhard, M. 1968. Research on the metabolism of some radio-
active elements in the marine environment. Proceedings of
the third International Colloquim on medical oceanography.
Fifth and Sixth Sessions:11-59.
In a review of studies on ionic regulation in marine fish,
invertebrates, and algae, with a bibliography of 73 references, par-
24
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ticular attention was paid to the accumulation of cesium, strontium,
zinc, and ruthenium, which have radio-isotopes harmful to man. The
concentrations of these elements and the physical forms in which
they occur in sea water were considered in relation to their uptake
and release by marine organisms.
54.
Bernhard, M. and A. Zattera. 1969. A comparison between the
uptake of radioactive and stable zinc by a marine unicel-
lular alga. Proc. 2nd Nat. Symp. on Radioecology. Ann
Arbor, Mich. 1967:389-398.
The uptake of 65Zn and stable zinc by a marine unicellular
alga (Phaeodactylum triconutum) and by a chelating resin (Chelex-100)
was studied during a certain time interval in batch cultures.
In all experiments the distribution pattern of 65Zn and
stable zinc between the particulate matter (algae or chelating resin)
and the natural and artificial seawater medium was different.
When the 65Zn was added as ionic zinc, proportionately
much more radioactive zinc was taken up than stable zinc. Adding
the 65Zn as Zn-EDTA-complex, however, to a batch containing sea-
water and Chelex the stable zinc was initially taken up at a higher
rate than was 65Zn. These preliminary results do not explain the
difference in the distribution of radioactive and stable zinc, but
the data do show that the uptake rate of the stable isotope does not
necessarily follow the uptake rate of the radioactive isotope if the
two are present in different physical-chemical states.
This possibility must be taken into account in tracer
studies and in predictions of the distribution of radioisotopes
in the environment based on the specific isotope content approach.
55.
Bidstrup, P.L. 1964. Toxicity of mercury and its compounds.
Elsevier Publishing Company. New York:112 p.
Following absorption by humans. mercury mercaptide is
formed; variation in distribution and effect are dependent on this
reaction. It is postulated the ultimate effect of mercury and its
coupounds is due to enzyme inhibition. Enzymes affected or the
extent of involvement is not known. Thiols are present in blood
(to form Hg mercaptide) and mercury is thus transported rapidly in the
blood stream. Mercury exists transiently (metallic form) in blood
lipoids and is transported in this form to sensitive tissues, ~
brain. Localization in particular tissues does not necessarily give
rise to pathological changes.
25
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56.
Bijan, H., and R. Deschiens. 1956. Effect of barium salts on
the mollusc vectors of schistosomiasis. Bull. Soc. Pat.
Exot. 49:455-458; Biol. Abstr. 31:3518.
Aquaria tests showed that barium chloride in a concentration
of 14.2 mg/l killed the snail Bulinus contortus; concentrations of
11.1 mg/l were fatal to the snail Planorbis glabratus, 200 mg/l killed
goldfish, and 10 mg/l killed the aquGtic plant Elodea canadensis.
Both species of snails were killed by 20 mg/l barium nitrate with
200 mg/l fatal to goldfish, and 10 mg/l lethal to Elodea.
57.
Binet, L. and P. Nicolle. 1940. Influence of the salinity of
the ambient medium on the toxicity of mercuric chloride for
the stickleback. C.R. Soc. BioI. Paris 134:562.
The influence of salt in the surrounding medium on the
toxicity of mercuric chloride to the stickleback was studied. Fish
survived for an average time of 106 min. at l80C in water containing
10 mg/l mercuric chloride. When 0.1 per cent sodium chloride was
added, the period of survival dropped to a minimum of 54 min. but
rose to 105 min. when the content of salt was increased to 0.7 per
cent; with a concentration of 1.5 per cent, the period of survival
reached 190 min. but with higher concentrations it again decreased,
being 131 min. with 2.5 per cent, and 84 min. with 3 per cent sodium
chloride.
58.
Bioko, Z.F. 1965. Changes of the functional state of isolated
nerve caused by lead 1. Izvestiia Akademii Nauk SSSR;
Seriia Biologicheskaia (Moscow) 3(6):96-102.
When a neuromuscular preparation of isolated frog sciatic
nerve was reacted with a 1% solution of lead (Pb) nitrate, a typical
parabiosis with 3-phase changes of excitability developed. During
parabiosis, chronaxia and accomodation were first decreased and then
elevated while lability was first increased and then decreased. Treat-
ment with a solution containing potassium chloride and acetylcholine
resulted in some functional restoration.
59.
Bishai, H.M. 1961. The effect of salinity on the survival and
distribution of larval and young fish. J. du Conseil 26:
166-179.
Newly hatched herring larvae (Clupea harengus) can
salinities as low as 2.50 0/00. They live better and longer
linities from 10-15 0/00 than in higher or lower salinities.
live at
in sa-
26
-------
Lump-sucker larvae (Cyclopterus lumpus) can live for at
least 14 days at 9 0/00 but less than 5 0/00 is fatal in 24 hours.
Acclimation to low salinities although causing an increase in re-
sistance time, does not seem to affect the lower lethal limit of
salinity (i. e. 6 0/00).
Young plaice (Pleuronectes p1atessa) 38-50 mm in length
can live at 5 0/00 for at least 10 days. Lower salinities can be
tolerated for a few days. Even fresh water has no ill-effects on
the fish for about 20 hours.
Sa1monid a1evins can live for at least 10 weeks at 25 0/00.
At 30 0/00, salmon (Sa1mo sa1ar) are more tolerant than brown (~. tru!t~)
and sea trout (~. trutta fario) and brown is more tolerant than sea
trout. At 40 0/00 salmon live for 18 days, brown trout 11 days, and
trout for 9 days. At 50 0/00 a1evins of the three live for about a
week.
The resistance of the salmonoids to salinity changes seems
not to change while the yolk-sac is not completely absorbed.
60.
B1aska, J. 1941. The influence of copper, zinc, and iron on
the survival of small organisms in water. Zvero1ik. Obz.
34:243. Bio1. Abstr. 22:506.
In an investigation of the effect on small aquatic animals
of water containing copper, zinc, or iron compounds it was shown
that Daphnia magna and .Q. pulex were most sensitive and that Cyclops
strenuus, C. insignis, and Chironomus p1umosus were more resistant.
61.
Blaustein, M.P. and A.L. Hodgkin. 1969. The effect of cyanide
on the efflux of calcium from squid axons. J. Physio1. Lond.
200:497-527.
The paper deals with the effect of cyanide and external ions
on the efflux of calcium from axons. Cyanide had little immediate
effect on calcium efflux, but after 1~ h the efflux rose from 5 to
15 times its normal value. The effect was rapidly reversed when
cyanide was removed. The extra efflux in cyanide seemed to be largely
an exchange for external calcium and sodium since it was abolished
by replacing Ca with Mg and Na with Li. Removal of Ca reduced the
Ca efflux in cyanide to 1/3 and subsequent removal of Na reduc~d it
to between 1/10 and 1/20.
A possible explanation of the cyanide e[fe~t is that calcium
ions are released from a store and can then ex\:hccnge ,lith Ca and Na
in the external medium. Evidence of an increase in free::alcium ',Jas
27
-------
that pretreatment with cyanide greatly increased the rate at which
45Ca could be dialysed from axoplasm.
The experiments provide evidence for
influx and Ca efflux and suggest that downhill
give some of the energy for extruding Ca.
coupling between Na
movement of Na may
62.
Bodansky, M. 1920. Biochemical studies on marine organisms.
II. The occurence of zinc. J. Biolog. Chern. 44:399-407.
Zinc was found and quantitatively determined in 20 species
of marine animals. The constancy of occurence indicated it is a
normal constituent of the tissues of these forms. In the oyster zinc
is distributed uniformly in digestive organ, mantle and gills. Muscle
contained less Zn that other tissues. In 14 species of fish Zn varied
between 2.5 mg/kg in mullet and 149.1 mg/kg in catfish.
63.
Boetius, J. 1960. Lethal action of mercuric
phenylmercuric acetate on fishes. Medd.
Kb h. 3 (N. S .) (4): 93-115.
chloride and
Komm. Havundersog.,
In Denmark various mercury preparations are used as fungi-
cides for the treatment of grain and beet seeds, and indiscriminate
use of these preparations has caused some instances of fish mortality.
Experiments have therefore been carried out on the effect of mercuric
chloride and phenylmercuric acetate on fish, using as test organisms
Tilapia, Eupomotis, Ambloplites, Lebistee. Salmo and Gasterosteus.
From the relation between concentration of the poison and period of
survival it appears that mercuric chloride is theoretically infinitely
toxic. Its toxicity is related to both the temperature and the weight
of the fish. Similar effects were obtained with phenylmercuric acetate.
In sea water the toxicity of mercuric chloride gradually decreases
while the toxicity of phenylmercuric acetate increases. Of the species
examined Salmo and Gasterosteus seemed to be most sensitive to mercuric
chloride and Salmo was most sensitive to phenylmercuric acetate.
64.
Bombowna, M. and S. Wrobel. 1968. The chemical composition of
the Wislow in the region of Krosno and its pollution with
heavy metals (Cu, Cr, Ni). Acta Hydrobiologia. 10:439-
452.
The report describes the pollution of the water in the
Polish river Wislow in the region of Krosno with heavy metals (Cu,
Cr, Ni) and cyanides in relation to the chemical composition of the
water.
28
-------
Results of hydrochemical and hydrobiological investigations
showed that high concentrations of heavy metals and cyanides trans~
formed the river into desert, and low concentrations affected most
unfavorably the communities involved in self-purification.
65.
Borght, a.v. 1963. Accumulation of radium-226 by the fresh-
water gastropod Lymnaea stagnalis L. Nature 197:612-613.
The author summarizes results of investigations on the
possible use of the snail, Lymnaea stagnalis, as an indicator of
radioactive contamination of the environment. When the animals were
exposed for 24 hours to solutions containing 0.04 ~c radium-226 per
ml of tap water, 70~8 percent of the radium was removed from solution.
After 7 days when some of the animals were killed and their radium
cQntent determined, they contained more than 90 percent of the radium
originally in solution; the radium, like calcium and strontium, was
found to accumulate mainly in the shell border. The concentratiofl
of radium-226 in the samples was determined by measuring the concen-
tration of bismuth-2l4. which is equivalent to the concentration of
radium produced after an equilibration period of 3 weeks in hermet-
ically-sealed flasks; the bismuth-2l4 was determined using a well
crystal with a single channel pulse-he~ght analyser on the crpeak of
609 keV. Additional tests confirmed that the absorbed radium-226
was firmly fixed; this fact and the high concentration factor in the
shells make the snail a good potential indicator for contamination
by radium-226. Similar results were obtained for accumulation of
calcium-45 and strontium-85 in L. stagnalis.
66.
Borght, a.V.D., and S.V. Puynbroeck. 1967. Ionic regulation
and radio contamination: "active transport" of alkaline
earth ions in fresh water gastropods (Mollusca). Proc.
Int. Symp. Radioecol. Concent. Process, 1966, Stockholm:
925-930.
The importance of ionic regulation in the contamination of
aquatic organisms by radioactivity is stressed; and studies are re-
ported, with graphic and diagrammatical results, on the exchange of
alkaline earth ions between water and the freshwater snail Lymnaea
stagnalis, which is used as a biological indicator of radioactive
contamination. The snails were kept in tap water containing 20-40
mg/l calcium. Based on measurements of the calcium remaining in the
solution, the rates of absorption of calcium by the animals, between
the 5th and 10th hour of exposure, were 28, 24, and 19 ~g of calcium
per hour per animal, for calcium concentrations of about 70, 35, and
17 mg/l, respectively. The distribution of calcium-45 in the snails
after exposure for 66 hours is shown diagrammatically; most of the
calcium was in the border of the shell. In the blood the concentration
29
-------
of calcium reached 150-200 mg/l; absorption of calcium ions occurs
against an electrochemical gradient but measurements made to determine
the role of the potential difference between the animal and the water
(across the epithelium) showed that this would maintain an internal
concentration of only about 30 mg/l. At all test temperatures (30°,
150, and 6oe), calcium-45 and strontium-85 were absorbed by the animals
but the rate of absorption was slower for strontium. The absorption
of calcium was increased 1.4 times per looe increase in temperature
between 60 and 160 e and 3 times per 100e increase in temperature be-
tween 160 and 300e, suggesting the more accentuated role of the metab-
olism in the absorption of calcium at higher temperatures.
67.
Boroughs, H., S.J. Townsley, and R.W. Hiatt. 1956. The metabolism
of radionuclides by marine organisms. I. The uptake, ac-
cumulation, and loss of strontium-89 by fishes. BioI. Bull.
111:336-351.
The authors describe experiments which were made to measure
the uptake, accumulation, and loss of radio-strontium by the various
tissues and organs of selected species of fish when the isotope is
given orally, by intramuscular injection, and by the immersion of the
fish in sea water enriched with strontium-89. Three types of fish
were used; large pelagic fast-swimming carnivores, such as the tuna,
Neothunnusmacropterus; small carnivores common along reef and shore
in the Hawaiian islands, such as Kuhlia sandvicensis; and Tilapia
mossambica, a small sluggish herbivore. In the first experiment
capsules containing strontium-89 were given orally to the pelagic
fish, which were then kept for times varying from 1 hour to 27 days
before being killed, and the various tissues and organs separated,
cooked, dried and tested for radioactivity. It was found that excre-
tion of most of the isotope occurs in a few hours. The small per-
centage remaining after one day persisted for the 27 days of the
experiment. The retained strontium-89 was found mostly in the skel-
eton, and in descending order, in the gills, integument, muscle and
viscera. Dark muscle, which has a better blood supply than light
muscle, retains less strontium-89, and similarly bone retains less
than the cartilaginous gill arches. In a second experiment capsules
containing strontium-89 were fed to Tilapia, and in this case the
rate of excretion was much slower, 50 per cent of the strontium still
being retained after one day, and a relatively higher constant level
being reached after about 4 days. Most of the radioactivity was
found to be retained in the structural tissues. Similar experiments
were carried out on Kuhlia sandvicensis, giving much the same results
as for Tilapia. Experiments were then carried out in which the tuna
fish and Tilapia were given an intramuscular injection of strontium-
89. About three times as much strontium was found in the muscles of
injected tuna as compared with fish which received the isotope orally,
and the gills of injected tuna had only half the activity found in
30
-------
orally-fed tuna. From 60-70 per cent of the dose injected into
Tilapia muscle was retained by the fish for 14 days. In a final
experiment numbers of Tilapia were put into sea water enriched with
1744 ~c of strontium-89 per 20/1. After three weeks the fish had
concentrated strontium from the water so that the ratio of strontium-
89 in the fish to the strontium-89 in equal weight of sea water was
0.3. Relatively more radioactivity was found in the visceral organs,
the remaining rank order of retention of radioactivity in the various
tissues (skeleton, integument, gills and muscle) being the same as
was observed after oral administration of strontium-89.
68.
Boroughs, H., S.J. Townsley, and R.W. Hiatt. 1956. The metabolism
of radionuclides by marine organisms. II. The uptake, ac-
cumulation, and loss of yttrium-91 by marine fish, and the
importance of short lived radionuclides in the sea. Biol.
Bull. 111:352-357.
The authors describe experiments made to measure the up-
take, accumulation, and loss of yttrium-9l by the tissues and organs
of Tilapia mossambica. Capsules containing 5.5 wc of yttrium-9l
were extruded into the fish's stomach, and similar experimental
procedure was carried out as in previous experiments (see preceding
abstract). It was found that the rate of loss of yttrium-91 was
very high, only 2 per cent of the dose being retained after 2 days.
Of this amount about 40 per cent was retained in the visceral organs,
the remainder in the muscles, skeleton, integument and gills in des-
cending order. The authors point out that yttrium-9l may have little
direct effect on man compared with the possible effects of strontium-
90, but the retention of this and other short-lived fission products
in marine organisms having a brief life span may possibly affect the
biota, and thus affect man indirectly.
69.
Boroughs, H., S.J. Townsley, and R.W. Hiatt. 1957. The metabolism
of radionuclides by marine organisms. III. The uptake of
calcium-45 in solution by marine fish. Limnol. Oceanogr.
2:28-32.
To determine whether marine fish require calcium in their
diet, or whether they can take up an adequate amount from sea water
non-feeding fish, (Tilapia mossambica) were put in artificial sea
water containing calcium-45. The uptake was rapid at first, and
then continued at a slow rate for the duration of the experiment (21
days). During this period the fish as a whole took up about 60 per
cent of the calcium-45 in the water. Most of the radioactivity was
recovered in the skeleton and integument, but the values obtained
did not correspond to the elemental analysis of various fish for
calcium. Apparently only a few per cent of the body calcium is
31
-------
readily exchangeable. It is concluded that marine fish can take up
calcium directly from sea water, and do not need a dietary source of
this element. In comparison with a similar experiment using radio-
active strontium it is concluded that marine fish discriminate against
strontium in favour of calcium, either by excreting it faster or by
absorbing it less.
70.
Boschetti, M.M., and T.E. McLoughlin. 1957. Toxicity of sodium
arsenite to minnows. Sanitalk 5 (4) :14-18.
The authors describe experiments to determine the median
tolerance limits of the minnow, Notropis hudsonius, to sodium ar-
senite. Median tolerance limits, under laboratory conditions, were
45 mg/l arsenic for 24 hours, 29 mg/l for 48 hours and 27 mg/l for
72 hours. Fish not killed after 72 hours in concentrations of 30-
35 mg/l arsenic showed damage to fins and scales, diarrhea, heavy
breathing and haemorrhage around the fin areas. Lower concentrations
of arsenic had a corrosive effect on fin and tail tissues after 96
hours, but in some cases regeneration of the tissues occurred when
the fish were transferred to arsenic-free water. No mortality oc-
curred in concentrations of 15 ppm arsenic, which is the highest
concentration used for control of water weeds.
71.
Bougis, P. 1965. Effect of copper on growth
the sea urchin (Paracentrotus lividus).
Acad. Sci., Paris 260:2929-2931.
of the pluteus of
C. r. heb d . S eanc .
Experiments on the effect of adding copper to sea water
have shown that a concentration of 10-20 Wg/l retards the body growth
of the pluteal larvae of the sea urchin. At these low doses, however,
the growth of the arms is not affected and their regression is even
retarded, prolonging the endotrophic phase. A concentration of 30 Wg/l
of copper affects the growth of the arms, and a concentration of 50 Wg/l
is lethal.
72.
Boyce, R. and W.A. Herdman.
oysters associated with
cytes. Proc. Roy. Soc.
1897- On a green leucocytosis in
the presence of copper in the leuco-
London 62:30-38.
The disease was marked by presence of green granules in the
amoebocytes. There were patches and streaks of green on the mantle
and other parts of the integument, engagement of blood vessels, and
masses of green colored leucocytes in the heart.
73.
Brown, D.J.
1967.
Migration characteristics of radionuclides
32
-------
through sediments underlying the Hanford reservation. Int.
Atom. Ener. Ag., Proc. Ser., Pap. No. SM-93/l6, STI/OUB/
156:215-228.
For more than 20 years large volumes of intermediate- and
low-level radioactive waste waters have been discharged to the ground
at Hanford, Wash. Author discusses the migration characteristics and
spatial distribution of radionuclides in the underlying sediments,
both in the zone above the water table and in the unconfined ground-
water zone. All radionuclides with half-lives of less than 1 year,
decay to below detection limits before they reach the water table,
with the exception of ruthenium-l03 and strontium-89 which can be
detected for a maximal distance of about 1 krn after entering the
ground water. Nearly all the longer-lived isotopes are sorbed on
sediments and retained in the first 10 m of the 60-m column of
partially-saturated sediment, where they are fixed with relatively
permanency; the trace amounts which are leached from the sediDents
are re-adsorbed in the saturated zone below the water table and,
with the exception of tritium, technetium-99 and ruthenium-l06
(which have poor sorption properties), all nuclides have reached
concentrations below the limits of detection within 1 km of the dis-
posal site. Tritium, technetium-99 and ruthenium-l06 enter the ground
water at about the same concentrations as those in the original waste
waters and move at about the same rate as the ground water, being
detected for distances of up to 24 krn; however, at distances of 4 krn
from the disposal site, the concentrations of all 3 isotopes are
below the established limits for drinking water, and there is no
subsequent hazard to the Columbia river water.
74.
Brown, J.H., and M.E. Bowles. 1965. Effect of enzymatic func-
tional group inhibitors of the esterases of Crotalus atrox
venom. U.S. Army Medical Research Laboratory, Fort Knox,
Ky. Repo~L No. 627:11 p.
The effects of several enzymatic inhibitors have been
measured on the phosphodiesterase, phosphormonoesterase and esterase
activities of Crotalus atrox venom (rattlesnake). Divalent lead
ions (Pb acetate at 1000 and 2000 mg/l) activated phosphodiesterase
had but little effect on phosphomonoesterase and esterase.
75.
Brown, V.M. 1962. The accumulation of strontium-90 and yttrium-
90 from a continuously flowing natural water by eggs and
alevins of the Atlantic salmon and the sea trout. U.K.
Atom. Ener. PC-Rep. 288:16 p.
Experiments were carried out on the uptake of strontium-90
and yttrium-90 from water by eggs and young of salmon and trout. At
33
-------
equilibrium, the eggs were 4 times more radioactive than the water,
most of the activity being associated with the protective egg mem-
branes. Newly-hatched fish were about twice as radioactive as the
water, but rapidly accumulated the two isotopes with growth. The
presence of the isotopes in the water did not cause any significant
increase in egg mortality.
76.
Brown, V.M. 1968. The calculation of the acute toxicity of
mixtures of poisons to rainbow trout. Water Research 2:
723-733.
Concentrations of Zn2+ and Cu2+ fatal
48 hours were 0.62 and 0.12 mg/l, respectively.
fects 48 h LC-50 of Zn (about 7 mg/l at 35 0/00
0.2 0/00).
to 50% of trout in
Water hardness af-
salinity vs 0.3 at
48 h LC-50 values obtained for zinc, and other substances
on a stock of rainbow trout over a period of 9 months, varied by a
factor of 2.5. The causes of this variation have not yet been iden-
tified.
77.
Brown, V.M., and R.A. Dalton. 1970. The acute lethal toxicity
to rainbow trout of mixtures of copper, phenol, zinc and
nickel. J. Fish. BioI. 2:211-216.
The acute lethal toxicities to rainbow trout, Salmo gaird-
neri Richardson, of mixtures of copper and phenol, of copper, zinc
and phenol, and of copper, zinc and nickel, over an exposure period
of 48 h were determined. The concentrations selected for testing
were such that each poison theoretically contributed equally to the
toxicity of the mixture. It was found that the toxicities of these
mixtures could be adequately predicted by summation of the fractional
toxicities of the particular poisons which were present.
78.
Brown, V.M., V.V. Mitrovic, and G.T.C. Stark. 1968. Effects
of chronic exposure to zinc on toxicity of a mixture of
detergent and zinc. Water Research 2:255-263.
The acute toxicity of soft alkylbenzenesulphonate to rainbow
trout chronically exposed for 100 days to a "background" level of zinc
of 0.8 mg/l was compared with its toxicity to control fish. It was
found that fish acclimated to zinc did not acquire resistance to zinc
poisoning when in the presence of detergent but responded to both
poisons in the mixture, the poisons being additive in their toxicity.
The zinc-exposed fish were more sensitive to the mixed poisons than
the control fish but were not more sensitive than the controls when
34
-------
exposed to detergent alone. Greater histological damage was caused
to gill tissue by the mixture of zinc and detergent than by the same
concentration of detergent alone and separate effects were observed
for the two poisons at low concentrations. At high concentrations
the damage caused by the detergents masked the effects of zinc.
79.
Brungs, W.A. 1963. The relative distribution of multiple
radio-nuclides in a freshwater pond. Thesis. Ohio State
University. Columbus, Ohio:97 p.
Results are given of experiments on the distribution of
radioactive isotopes in a plastic-lined pond filled with spring
water and sand. The organisms introduced into the pond were carp
(Cyprinus carpio), bluegills (Lepomis macrochirus), snails (Vivipara
mal1eatus), bullfrog tadpoles (Rana catesbiana), and two species of
clams, the thin-shelled Anodonta grandis and the thick-shelled Lamp-
si1is radiata siloquoidea. Several weeks after the organisms were
introduced, 4 mc each of coba1t-60, zinc-65, strontium-S5, and caesium-
137 were added to the water, and samples were collected for analysis
over a period of SO days. There was an initial rapid loss of cobalt-
60, zinc-65 and caesium-137 from solution, the cobalt and zinc becom-
ming associated with the suspended solids and the caesium being ad-
sorbed on to the bottom sediments. Strontium-S5 was removed gradually
from solution. After 4 days, the water contained S per cent of the
added coba1t-60, 4 per cent of the zinc-65, 5 per cent of the caesium-
137, and 64 per cent of the strontium-S5. More zinc-65 was found in
biological samples than any of the other nuclides, except in some
hard parts such as shell and bone where more strontium-S5 was found.
The primary consumers, carp, snails, tadpoles and clams, accumulated
more of each nuclide than did the predatory bluegill. In general,
soft parts rapidly accumulated more activity than did the hard parts,
but gradually lost it as the concentrations of nuclides in the water
decreased. Clam and snail shells and fish bone generally accumulated
zinc-65 and strontium-S5 for almost the whole duration of the experi-
ment; young snails and clams accumulated more of these isotopes than
did adults. After the final sampling from the pond, the remaining
carp, snails and clams were placed in continuously renewed, uncon-
taminated water for 3 weeks, but no detectable loss of radioactive
nuclides was observed. However, during the period the temperature
of the water was low, about 150C less than during the experiment, and
the metabolic activity of the organisms was greatly reduced, so that
any loss of radionuclides would be inhibited.
so.
Brungs, W.A. 1965. Experimental uptake of strontium-S5 by
freshwater organisms. Health Physics 11:41-46.
Factorial experiments were conducted to determine the effects
35
-------
of various concentrations of calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potas-
sium on the uptake of strontium-85 by small bluegills (1epomis macro-
chirus). Within the experimental range, only calcium was found to
have any significant effect. After 80 days only 25 per cent of the
strontium-85 remained in solution. The total calculated amount of
activity in the experimental animals never exceeded 0-5 per cent of
the amount added, and the remainder of the activity was associated
with the bottom deposits. The results also indicated that the ac-
cumulation of strontium-85 by the test organisms was related to
their age.
81.
Brungs, W.A. 1969. Chronic toxicity of zinc
minnow, Pimephales promelas Rafinesque.
Fish. Soc. 98:272-279.
to the fathead
Trans. Amer.
A continuous-flow bioassay was conducted for 10 months to
determine the chronic effect of zinc on fathead minnows (Pimephales
prome1as Rafinesque). Fish production, as based on survival, growth,
and reproduction, was investigated. Reproduction by the test fish
was almost totally inhibited at zinc concentrations that had no ef-
fect on survival, growth, or maturation of these same fish. At these
same concentrations there was also no effect on survival of control
eggs and fry. The number of eggs per female in the low zinc concen-
tration (0.18 mg/l) was only 17 percent of the eggs produced in the
control (0.03 mg/l of zinc). Application factors based on these
data and the 96-hour median tolerance limit (9.2 mg/l) are discussed.
82.
Bryan, G.W.
crabs.
1961. The accumulation of radioactive caesium in
J. Mar. Biol. Assn. U.K. 41:551-575.
The uptake of radioactive caesium-134 and potassium-40
from artificial sea water by different species of crabs was investi-
gated. In all cases caesium was taken up more slowly than potassium,
but at equilibrium a high concentration factor was attained for caesium.
In Carcinus maenas the uptake of radioactive caesium was not affected
by feeding on inactive food over a period of 1000 hours. The ratio
between the rates of uptake of the two isotopes was not the same in
the different species, and it is therefore concluded that it is not
possible to predict accurately the rates of uptake of caesium-134
in other species of crabs from the results of short experiments with
potassium-42. 10ss of both isotopes from whole Carcinus was a slower
process than uptake. Accumulation of isotopes took place through the
body surface of unfed animals, but uptake of radioactive caesium from
food is very rapid and complete.
83.
Bryan, G.W. 1963. The accumulation of radioactive caesium by
marine invertebrates. J. Mar. Biol. Assn. U.K. 43:519-539.
36
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Studies were conducted on the accumulation of caesium-
137 from sea water by species from the principal marine inverte-
brate phyla (viz protozoa, coelenterata, annelida, mollusca,
arthropoda (crustacea). echinodermata, tunicata). Uptake of caesium-
137 was compared with uptake of potassium-42 and with the distribution
of inactive potassium. Caesium-137 is always absorbed more slowly
than potassium-42 from sea water, but at equilibrium concentration
factors for caesium-137 usually exceeded those for potassium-42 or
inactive potassium. Caesium-137 is rapidly taken up by body fluids,
but more slowly by tissues. In the case of potassium-42 and inactive
potassium the difference is not so marked. The author suggests that
there is a relationship between the final distribution in the body
of caesium-137 and of inactive potassium.
84.
Bryan, G.W. 1963. The accumulation of l37Cs by brackish water
invertebrates and its relation to the regulation of potas-
sium and sodium. J. Mar. BioI. Assn. U.K. 43:541-565.
Studies were conducted of the relation between the ability
of brackish-water invertebrates to regulate sodium and potassium and
the accumulation of caesium-137. Sphaeroma hookeri, an isopod crus-
tacean, and Potamopyrgus jenkinsi, a gastropod mollusc, were acclimated
to a range of sea-water dilutions. In both species sodium and potas-
sium fell with increasing dilution to a lower level which was still
higher than that of the medium. In dilute sea water both conserve
potassium rather than sodium; caesium-137 behaves more like potassium
than sodium. Uptake of potassium-42 and caesium-137 was investigated
in a range of sea-water dilutions. Potassium-42 is exchanged for
inactive potassium more rapidly in higher sea-water concentrations;
the author suggests that this may be due to an exchange diffusion
component which increases with the salinity of the medium. Caesium-
137 is accumulated to concentration factors approximately double
those of inactive potassium over a sea-water concentration range of
2.5-100 per cent. Brackish-water species are, therefore, potentially
a greater hazard than marine species since they accumulate caesium-
137 to high levels in dilute media.
85.
Bryan, G.W. 1964. Zinc regulation in the lobster Homarus ameri-
canus. I. Tissue zinc and copper concentrations. J. Mar.
BioI. Assn. U.K. 44:549-563.
Concentrations of Zn have been determined in the tissues
of normal lobsters from sea water containing about 5 ~g/l of Zn.
Theblood usually contains about 6 ~g/g of Zn, mostly in the serum,
while the soft tissues contain between 10 and 50 ~g/g. Long exposure
to sea water containing 100 ~g/l of Zn fails to alter the Zn concen-
trations of the blood, muscle and gonads, but increases the levels
37
-------
in the urine, excretory organs, hepatopancreas and gills. This result
suggests that extra Zn is absorbed from high Zn sea water, possibly
via the gills, and that two methods by which this is removed from
circulation are by urinary excretion and absorption by the hepato-
pancreas.
Changes in the blood Zn concentration produced
are rectified quite rapidly in the same way. Injections
change the Zn concentrations of muscle and gonads.
by injection
failed to
Further experiments showed that Zn can be absorbed rapidly
from the stomach and reaches the blood partly at least via the hepato-
pancreas. Again, this extra Zn is removed from the blood by urinary
excretion and by absorption in the hepatopancreas. Eventual removal
of Zn in the hepatopancreas probably takes place via the blood and
excretory organs rather than via the gut. The role of the gills and
gut in the regulation of the body Zn content has not yet been studied.
86.
Bryan, G.W. 1965. Ionic regulation in the squat lobster Galathea
squamifera with special reference to the relationship between
potassium metabolism and the accumulation of radioactive
caesium. J. Mar. BioI. Assn. U.K. 45:97-113.
Studies on the ability of decapod crustacea to accumulate
radioactive caesium were conducted with the squat lobster Galathea
squamifera. This animal was shown to regulate the concentration of
potassium in its plasma when in dilute sea water and in artificial
sea water with reduced potassium content. In the presence of potas-
sium-42 a rapid exchange takes place with inactive potassium in the
plasma. Absorption of radioactive caesium is slower, but a higher
concentration factor is eventually attained for the whole animal.
Similar tissue/plasma ratios for radioactive caesium and potassium
were found in the case of muscles, but for all other tissues the
ratio for ceasium was much higher. The concentration in the tissues
is the limiting factor for the uptake of bvth isotopes. Accumulation
of radioactive caesium is unaffected by the concentration of inactive
caesium in the sea water, but a low potassium content increases the
concentration factor for both caesium and potassium. Absorption and
loss of potassium and caesium take place mainly across the body surface;
urinary excretion of both isotopes was found to be negligible.
87.
Bryan, G.W. 1969. The absorption of zinc and other metals by
the brown seaweed Laminaria digitata. J. Mar. BioI. Assn.
U.K. 49:225-243.
The absorption of zinc and zinc-65 from filtered sea water
by Laminaria digitata was studied in the laboratory. and it was found
38
-------
that there was a linear relation between the amount of zinc absorbed
and the zinc concentration in the water, although relatively more
zinc-65 was absorbed from low than from high concentrations. Rapidly
growing portions of the seaweed absorbed about lYz times more zinc-65
per unit area than slow-growing portions, although higher zinc-65
concentrations were achieved by the slow-growing parts because of
their lower superficial weight. Added manganese, cadmium, and copper
reduced or stopped the uptake of zinc-65; except for copper added at
high concentrations, which partially killed the tissues, the effect
was largely reversible. Analyses of trace metal concentrations in
the seaweed and in sea water from coastal areas of Cornwall and Devon
are given.
88.
Bryan, G.W. and E. Ward. 1965. The absorption and loss of
radioactive and non-radioactive manganese by the lobster,
Homarus vulgaris. J. Mar. BioI. Assn. U.K. 45:65-95.
A study of the uptake and release of manganese by lobsters
has shown that 500-g animals absorb about 0.4 wg of manganese per day
from sea water containing the normal concentration of 2 Wg per liter.
Losses of manganese from such lobsters are estimated to be about 25 Wg
per day, the balance being obtained by absorption from food. The
average concentration of manganese in the muscles is less than 1 Wg
per g, and this figure was not altered appreciably when starved lob-
sters were held in sea water containing 100 and 1000 Wg of manganese
per liter. The injection of 10 wg of manganese into the stomach re-
sulted in a small, temporary increase in the muscle concentration.
Experiments using radioactive manganese confirmed that the rate of
absorption by the muscles is very low and is not affected by loading
with inactive manganese.
89.
Bugelski, Y.Y. 1957. Some peculiarities in the movement of
zinc, lead, and copper in the ground waters of the poly-
metallic deposits of Central Kazakhtan. Geochemistry,
Moscow 1957:84-90.
Samples of ground water from the neighbourhood of five main
deposits of metals were analysed. Zinc was found to travel furthest
in the water, copper the next, and lead the least distance. The
movement of these metals in the rain-poor district depends on the
structure of rocks and the pH value of the water.
90.
Burdick, G.E., and M. Lipschuetz. 1948. Toxicity of ferro- and
ferricyanide solutions to fish, and determination of the
cause of mortality. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 78:192-202.
39
-------
Fish were killed in 20 km stretch of a stream into which
were discharged trade waste waters containing ferro- and ferricyanide
at concentrations considerably less than those generally accepted as
non-lethal. An investigation was made to determine the cause of
mortality and to establish the lethal concentration of these compounds
in natural waters. When solutions of potassium ferro- and ferricyanide
are exposed to light, particularly in the presence of oxygen, the com-
plex molecules decompose with formation of cyanide or hydrocyanic acid.
In laboratory experiments various concentrations of ferro- and ferri-
cyanide in tap water were exposed to sunlight, diffuse light, and
darkness, and the solutions were tested periodically to determine the
maximum content of residual cyanide which occurred. Results indicated
that when equivalent concentrations of the two compounds were exposed
simultaneously to sunlight, the maximum concentration of residual
cyanide developed in approximately the same period for the two compounds.
In solutions of equal concentration exposed to similar light conditions
a slightly higher residual content of cyanide occurred at lower tem-
peratures. A higher residual content of cyanide developed in solutions
containing 2.3 mg/l ferrocyanide than developed in 2.3 mg/l ferricyanide
solutions but in solutions containing 1 mg/l a higher residual concen-
tration was attained with ferricyanide solution. Low concentrations
of potassium ferrocyanide did not decompose in the dark or in diffuse
light at a rate sufficiently high to produce concentrations of cyanide
that would be toxic to fish. Solutions, containing 4,000 mg/l ferro-
cyanide, on exposure to diffuse light, gave a cyanide content of 0.3
mg/l and were toxic to fish within 24 hours. Factors, other than light,
which may have affected the results are discussed, including the effects
of the type of vessel used and type of water (distilled water, tap water,
water in which fish had been reared, and water buffered with bicarbonate).
It has been shown that the presence of 0.19 mg/l cyanide is toxic to
Rhinichthys atratulus and Semotilus atromaculatus, killing all the fish
within 76 hours. Although 1 mg/l either ferro- or ferricyanide produces
a content of cyanide greater than 0.19 mg/l it is thought that under
natural conditions some cyanide would be released into the atmosphere
and some would recombine in the dark or be lost through secondary
action. The presence of approximately 0.3 mg/l cyanide causes 50%
mortality to these species in 5~-7~ hours. As an exposure period
of this length could occur during daylight on any day, the occurrence
of 0.3 mg/l cyanide was chosen as the toxic concentration of ferro-
and ferricyanides. On this basis, it appeared that toxic concentrations
of cyanide would occur when 1.45 mg/l ferrocyanide or 1.34 mg/l ferri-
cyanide was present.
91.
Cabejszek, I. and M. Stasiak. 1960. Investigations on the in-
fluenc~ of some metals on aquatic life, using the Daphnia
magna lndex. Roczn. Zakl. Big., Warsz. 11:303-312.
Experiments are described on the toxicity of metal com-
pounds frequently present in industrial waste water, using Daphnia
magna as the test organisms. Metals tested included chromium, manganese,
40
-------
iron, cobalt, nickel, and copper. The order of the metals according
to toxicity was found to be: copper, chromium, cobalt, nickel, man-
ganese. The toxic action was slow and increased with time; a definite
increase was evident after 48 hours. The sulphates of the metals were
less toxic than the chlorides. Iron reduces the pH value of the medium.
92.
Cabejszek, I. and M. Stasiak. 1960. Investigations on the
toxicity of some metals in water using Daphnia magna as
indicator. Roczn. Zakl. Hig., Warsz. 11:533-540.
Using Daphnia magna as an index, the toxic action of various
metals in water was investigated. The order of toxicity was mercury,
cadmium, arsenic, zinc, lead, tin. Toxic action increased slowly with
time. A definite increase of toxicity was found with lead chloride,
sodium arsenite, and arsenates. With chlorides and sulphates of the
same metal, the sulphate was more toxic than the chloride.
93.
Cairns, J. 1957.
Wastes 2:1-5.
Environment and time in fish toxicity.
Indust.
The author discusses the toxicity of industrial waste waters
to fish. Experiments have shown that the idea that fish avoid toxic
materials in the water is a false one. Factors to be taken into
consideration when planning bioassay tests include variations in
natural conditions which affect the toxicity of certain compounds.
Variations in temperature, hardness of the water, pH value, and dis-
solved oxygen content were all found to affect the toxicity of such
substances as potassium dichromate or naphthenic acid. Synergism
and antagonism of waste substances in water must also be studied.
Experiments showed that whereas minnows could stand a concentration
of 8.0 mg/l zinc or 0.2 mg/l copper alone for 8 hours, if the two
were mixed together the minnows succumbed in a solution containing
only 1.0 mg/l zinc and 0.025 mg/l copper. Alternatively the antagonism
of substances may produce a biologically safe waste water. Other
factors to be considered are the variability of the natural population,
and the time taken to make accurate bioassay tests. Therefore each
test should be carried out having full regard to all the variable
factors involved.
94.
Cairns, J. and A. Scheier. 1957. The effects of periodic low
oxygen upon the toxicity of various chemicals to aquatic
organsisms. Proc. 12th Industr. Waste Conf., Purdue Univ.
Engng. Extn. Sec. No. 94:165-176.
Experiments were carried out to determine the effect of
periodic low concentrations of oxygen on the tolerance to various
41
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chemicals of the bluegill sunfish, Lepomis macrochirus, and a pul-
monate snail, Physa heterostropha. It was thought useful to include
a pulmonate snail, as many of these animals rarely or never come to
the surface for air. The chemicals tested were potassium dichromate,
zinc chloride, naphthenic acid, and potassium cyanide, only the latter
two chemicals being tested on the snail. It was found that periodic
low concentrations of dissolved oxygen, such as may occur in streams
during the night, decreased the tolerance of bluegill to zinc chloride,
naphthenic acid, and potassium cyanide, but had no effect on the
toxicity of potassium dichromate. The tolerance of snails to naph-
thenic acid and potassium cyanide was also lowered, except in tests
using a race of snails from deep ponds with a low concentration of
dissolved oxygen. In addition to reduced tolerance, the effect of
periodic low concentrations of oxygen was to reduce considerably the
range between the highest concentration allowing survival and the
lowest concentration causing death.
95.
Cairns, J. and A. Scheier. 1958. The relationship of bluegill
sunfish body size to tolerance for some common chemicals.
Proc. 13th Industr. Waste Conf., Purdue Univ. Engng. Extn.
Ser. No. 96:243-252.
Experiments were made to determine the tolerance of 3 dif-
ferent sizes of bluegills to some common chemicals including calcium
chloride, potassium cyanide, sodium nitrate, cresol, sodium carbonate,
sodium bicarbonate, sodium sulphate, zinc chloride, ammonium chloride,
potassium dichromate, potassium chromate, phenol, sodium hydroxide and
hydrochloric acid. The results are given in a table and discussed
briefly. For most chemicals there was little difference in the 96-
hour median tolerance limits for the three sizes of fish. The most
marked differences occurred with calcium chloride and phenol. The
pH value also had a marked effect, small and medium size fish being
more tolerant to high pH values and large fish more tolerant to lower
pH values. The size of the fish did not affect the way in which the
fish reacted to toxic concentrations nor the period of exposure before
response occurred.
96.
Cairns, J. and A. Scheier. 1958. The effects of temperature
and hardness of water upon the toxicity of potassium di-
chromate to the common bluegill sunfish. Trans. Northeast
Wildl. Conf. 1:86-98.
. Experiments were carried out on the toxicity of potassium
dlchromate to the bluegill sunfish in both soft and hard water at
l8°C and 300C during exposure for periods of up to 96 hours. The
toxicity of dichromate was affected more by the degree of hardness
of the water than by the temperature. The experimental concentrations
42
-------
of dichromate that resulted in 50 per cent death of sunfish in
96 hours were 320 mg/l in soft water at both l8°C and 300C, 382
mg/l in hard water at l80C, and 369 in hard water at 300C.
97.
Cairns, J.J. and A. Scheier. 1964. The effects of sublethal
levels of zinc and of high temperature upon the toxicity
of a detergent to the sunfish Lepomis gibbosus (Linn.)
Notulae Naturae 367:1-4.
Since alkylbenzenesulphonate, zinc and increased temperature
all affect the respiratory system of fish and might well occur to-
gether in a polluted water, it was decided to investigate the resis-
tance of fish to zinc and high temperatures after exposure to ABS.
Sunfish (Lepomis gibbosus) were exposed for 30 days to ABS in con-
centrations sufficient to cause marked damage to the gills, and were
then exposed either to sublethal concentrations of zinc chloride or
to high temperatures. The results indicated that prior exposure to
ABS did not cause any marked changes in tolerance to either zinc or
increased temperature.
98.
Cairns, J., A. Scheier, and J.J. Loos. 1965. A comparison of
the sensitivity to certain chemicals of adult zebra danios,
Brachydanio rerio (Hamilton-Buchman) and zebra danio eggs
with that of adult bluegill sunfish, Lepomis macrochirus.
Raf. Notulae Naturae 381:1-9.
Experiments on the effect of zinc chloride, potassium cya-
nide, naphthenic acids, potassium dichromate, and a synthetic detergent
on different species of fish have shown that it should not be assumed
that different species or even different stages in the life cycle of
a single species will have the same relative response to different
toxic materials. Any measurements defining the toxic nature of a
material must take into account species differences and changes in
sensitivity during the life cycle of the species.
99.
Cairns, J. Jr. and A. Scheier. 1957. The effects of temperature
and hardness of water upon the toxicity of zinc to the common
bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus Raf.). Notulae Naturae 299:
1-12.
Results indicate little difference in toxicity of Zn ion in
dilution water of some quality with temperature varying" from 180to 30oC.
More Zn is required in hard water, than in soft water, to kill fish.
Variation of physical and chemical environment was kept to a minimum
during test period. Concentrations fatal to 50% in ninety-six hours
in soft water ranged between 2.86 and 3.63 mg/l in a temperature
43
-------
range of 180 to 300C. In hard water over same temperature range
the concentration was 10.13 to 12.30 mg/l (180 to 300C).
100.
Calapaj, G.G. 1966. Manganese-54 contamination of the sea.
Acta Isotop. 6:253-259.
Based on practical experience, the author concludes that
among marine organisms the bivalve Pinna nobilis is the most ef-
fective accumulator of manganese-54, because of its ability to ac-
cumulate stable manganese; Chlamis varia and~. sinuosa show similar
characteristics, but to a lesser extent. It is suggested, therefore,
that Pinna nobilis should be used as the test organism in areas where
manganese-54 is the critical isotope discharged.
101.
Carey, A.G., Jr. 1969. Zinc-65 in echinoderms and sediments
in the marine environment off Oregon. Proc. 2nd Nat. Symp.
on Radioecology. U.S. A.E.C. Conf. 670503:380-388.
Artificial radionuclides, induced in water used as a coolant
in the Hanford reactors, are discharged into the Pacific Ocean by the
Columbia River. Gamma-ray spectrometric measurements show that levels
of 65Zn decrease in both sediments and benthic animals with distance
from the mouth of the river and with depth of water. Although 65Zn
decreases rapidly in animals below 400 meters, it was detected to
2900 meter depths in animals but not in the sediments. Levels of 65Zn
in benthic animals appear to be associated with depth, distance from
the point source, position of the Columbia River plume in the surface
waters, and ecology of the organisms. The bottom fauna is thought to
be important in determining the distribution of induced radionuclides
on the ocean bottom.
102.
Carey. A.G., W.G. Pearcy, and C.L. Osterberg.
radionuclides in marine organisms, in the
Ocean off Oregon. Proc. Symp. Int. Atom.
319.
1966. Artificial
northeast Pacific
Ener. Agency, 303-
A 4-year study of radioactivity in marine organisms (Pacific
Ocean off Oregon) showed the presence of induced nuclides, such as
zinc-65. These originated from cooling water of the Hanford reactors.
Induced nuclides and fission products were found in organisms up to
490 krn from the coast and at depths down to 2860 m. The concentrations
of zinc-65 in marine organisms showed seasonal maxima, associated with
seasonal movements in the position of the Columbia river plume. Before
the end of atmospheric testing of nuclear devices, zirconium-95-niobium-
95 were found in the fauna at all depths, and the amounts of these short-
lived isotopes in the benthic fauna from the deepest stations were
greater than expected.
44
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103.
Carpelan, L.H. 1961. Salinity tolerances of some fishes of
a southern California coastal lagoon. Copeia 1961:32-39.
A coastal lagoon in California, which was open to the ocean
during the first 6 months of a period of study, was closed off during
the next 8 months. After the bay was closed, the salinity of the
water increased from 35 parts per thousand to over 60 parts per thou-
sand, and the summer temperatures were 4-SoC higher than when the
lagoon was open. Of 10 species of fishes trapped in the lagoon when
it was closed, most tolerated the changing conditions until the salinity
reached 50-55 parts per thousand, and no upper limit of tolerance was
observed for Fundulus parvipinnis, Girella nigricans, or Antherinops
affinis littoralis, some of which were still thriving at a salinity of
63 parts per thousand when observations ceased.
104.
Carpenter; K.E. 1924. A study of the fauna of rivers polluted
by lead mining in the Aberystwyth District of Cardiganshire.
Annals Appl. BioI. 11:1-23.
Flora and fauna were affected by discharges of galena par-
ticles and by lead salts in diffusible form through chemical inter-
action with the natural water. Clogging of fish gills with resultant
death was ascribed to the galena-grit. Following cessation of lead
mining an increase in flora and fauna was rapid.
105.
Carpenter, K.E. 1925. On the biological factors involved in
the destruction of river fisheries or pollution due to
lead mining. Annals Appl. BioI. 12:1-13.
Toxicity of mine wastes to aquatic life was attributed to
soluble lead salts. Flood waters tended to mix lead which had settled
with a resultant increase of Pb in solution. The fatal effect of lead
was dependent on quantity in solution, and this can be constantly re-
newed in fast moving streams.
106.
Castell, C.H., B. Smith, and W. Neal. 1970. Effects of tran-
sition metal ions on the extractable protein of fish muscles.
J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 27:701-714.
The addition of 10-50 mg/l of several transition metal ions
rapidly decreased the extractable protein content of blended fish
muscle. The most active metals were Cu++ and Cr++ followed by Sn++
and Cd++. Other ions tested, Ce++, Zn++, Ni++, Co++, Fe++, Fe+++,
V++, and Mn++, brought about relatively little or no change in ex-
tractable protein nitrogen (EPN) values. Effects of the metals dif-
fered with muscle from different species. Lean fish were more
45
-------
susceptible than either fatty fish or shellfish. Of all the species
tested the metals had the least effect on scallops. A limited number
of tests indicated that fish that were badly emaciated through star-
vation were more susceptible to the metal-i~duced change than normal
individuals of the species.
Addition of certain amino acids, notably cysteine, histidine,
glutamic acid, and tryptophane, protected the muscle against metal-
induced reduction of EPN. With lean fish, the amino acids that pro-
tected the muscle against metal-induced change in the protein also
protected it against metal-induced oxidation of the lipids; with
fatty fish, protection against rancidity was somewhat less; the in-
vertebrates seemed to be normally protected against both without the
addition of amino acids. This natural immunity of marine inverte-
brate muscle to changes induced by the addition of heavy metal ions
may be in part attributed to their normally high content of free
amino acids.
107.
Chakravarti, D. and R. Eisler. 1961. Strontium-90 and gross
beta activity in the fat and nonfat fractions of the liver
of the coconut crab (Birgus latro) collected at Rongelap
Atoll during March 1958. Pacific Science 15:155-159.
The values for strontium-90 and gross beta activity in the
fat and nonfat fractions from the livers of 12 coconut crabs (Birgus
latro) collected at Rongelap Atoll during March, 1958, are presented.
Although fat constituted an average of 47 per cent by weight
on a wet weight basis (74 per cent on a dry weight basis), gross beta
activity of the fat fraction amounted to less than 0.5 per cent of
the total activity on a wet weight basis. Fat content on a wet weight
basis had a range of 31 to 65 per cent. There is a linear relationship
between strontium-90 activity and gross beta activity. Since the fat
content of coconut crab liver is variable and the fat fraction contains
practically no radioactivity, it is suggested that the radioactivity
(and mineral content) of liver samples be compared on the basis of the
nonfat soljds.
108.
Chang. P.S. 1965. Effects of pollution on oysters and fish in
Taiwan In Biological Problems in Water Pollution Third
Seminar August 13-17, 1962. U.S. Public Health Service
999-WP-25:368-369.
Owing to rapid industrial development, the coastal waters
of the Taiwan archipelago have become polluted by trade waste waters,
containing large amounts of copper, sulphur, zinc, and harmful organic
substances. The resultant adverse effects on oysters and fish are
46
-------
discussed with examples from Kaohsiung bay, where the osyters have
become green and poisonous owing to accumulation of copper salts
(the concentration of copper reaching 1180 mg per kg compared with
5.6 mg in normal oysters).
109.
Chen, C.W. 1968. A kinetic model of fish toxicity
Thesis , University of California: 144 p. (Diss.
29, 13:3342.)
threshold.
Abstracts
To facilitate the determination of the threshold level of
a pollutant that will produce acute fish toxicity, a kinetic model
of fish poisoning has been developed, with which bioassay data can
be used to estimate the rates of toxication and detoxication; the
threshold value is then deduced theoretically on the basis that
mortality will not occur as long as the rate of detoxication keeps
pace with the rate of toxication. The model was verified to a limited
extent by experiments with zinc and cyanide, alone and together, using
common guppies as the test animals. For the mixture of poisons tested,
the variations in the overall threshold were found to be linearly
related to the concentration of one toxicant while the other was
kept constant.
1l0.
Chesselet, R. and C. Lalou. 1965. Role of "detritus" in the
fixation of radionuclides in the marine environment. C.r.
hebd. seanc. Acad. Sci. Paris 260:1225-1227.
In studies on uptake of radionuclides by marine plankton,
the authors found that plankton samples contained large amounts of
detritus composed of fragile transparent particles which appeared
to originate from the decomposition of marine vegetable matter. This
detritus was found to adsorb considerable amounts of cerium-14l and
-144, praseodymium-144, ruthenium-103 and -106, rhodium-106, zirconium-
95 and niobium-95. Since such detritus serves as a food source for
zooplankton and benthic fauna, it probably plays an important role
in the transfer of radioactivity in the food chain.
llI.
Chesselet, R., C. Lalou, M. Aubert, and J.P. Gambarotta. Recent
studies on the radioactivity of plankton and of organic
refuse. Cah. Cent. Etud. Rech. Biol. Oceanogr. Med. 17:
67-97. Nuclear Science Abstracts 1966 20:5016.
A detailed study of the coastal waters of the Mediterranean
near Nice in 1963, showed the importance of plankton and organic debris
in concentrating radioactive fallout isotopes as zirconium-95, ruthenium-
103 and -106, and cerium-14l and -144. From observations on the effects
of rate of fallout on the activity of the water and the activity of the
47
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plankton it is concluded that, at least for the isotopes studies,
the contamination of zooplankton is related mainly to the injection
conditions of the particles rather than to the specific activity of
the sea water.
112.
Chipman, R.K. 1959. Studies of tolerance of certain fresh-
water fishes to brine water from oil wells. Ecology 40:
299-302.
The salt water separated from crude oil at oil wells in
the vicinity of New Orleans, La., is pumped back underground, but
occasionally backs up into an earthen impoundment built for the
purpose. Seepage water from the impoundment drains into a pond,
increasing the salinity of the water. The effects on the fish were
investigated by periodic collection of all the dead fish during a
period of increasing salinity. Further laboratory experiments were
carried out to determine the lethal limits for some of the species
of fish under experimental conditions. Ten species of fish, all of
freshwater origin, were killed during a period of high salinity in
the pond. Another 10 species showing a high tolerance to the brine
water remained in the pond and were identified after killing with
rotenone. The highest salinity at which each species was collected
is given, and where possible field data are compared with the lethal
limits determined in the laboratory. The results suggest that the
fishes more closely related to marine species and those that are at
present expanding into the marine environment are more tolerant of
the periods of high salinity than fishes of freshwater origin.
113.
Chipman, W.A. 1944. The role of pH in determining the toxicity
of ammonium compounds. Thesis (Ph.D.) University of Mis-
souri, i934; Microfilm Abstr. 5 (2):2-3.
Experiments made to determine the effect of pH value on
the toxicity of ammonium salts to aquatic animals are described. In
solution ammonium salts dissociate chiefly into ammonium ions and
acid ions, but small amounts of the free acid and of ammonium hy-
droxide are also formed; the hydroxide dissociates further forming
water and ammonia gas. The pharmacological action of solutions of
ammonium salts is due both to ammonium ions and to free ammonia.
Experiments showed that alkaline ammonium salts were much more toxic
to goldfish than were the acid salts; for example, a 0.005 N solution
of ammonium carbonate in distilled water killed goldfish in 3.58
hours on an average, although a 0.1 N solution of ammonium chloride
did not kill the fish within 12 hours. The toxicity of solutions of
ammonium chloride was much greater when prepared with tap water than
when prepared with distilled water. A 0.05 N solution of ammonium
chloride prepared with distilled water was not toxic to goldfish, but
48
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it became toxic when sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, or disodium
hydrogen phosphate were added; the increase in toxicity was proportional
to the decrease in free hydrogen ions. Addition of sodium dihydrogen
phosphate which increased the acidity of the solution did not make it
toxic. A direct relation between pH value and toxicity of solutions
of ammonium chloride to fish, amphipods, and cladocerans was demon-
strated. This variation in toxicity was apparently directly associated
with the dissociation of the ammonium salt, as the results were the
same whatever salt was used to regulate the pH value. The author con-
cludes that the toxicity of ammonium salts is directly related to the
amount of undissociated ammonia in the solution; this is determined
by the concentration of free hydrogen ions present.
114.
Chipman, W.A. 1967. Some aspects of the accumulation of chromium-
51 by marine organisms. Proc. Int. Syrup. Radioecol. Concent.
Process, 1966, Stockholm; 931-941.
The uptake and accumulation of chromium-51 by marine organisms
is discussed in relation to experiments on the chemical and physical
forms of chromium present in sea water and the rate of turnover within
the organisms, using the marine polychaete "bristle" worm, Hermione
hystrix, as the test animal. The addition to sea water of chromium-51
in the form of trivalent chromic chloride solution resulted in an im-
mediate change and a loss of radioactivity from the water owing to
formation of colloidal chromic hydroxide and filterable radioactive
particles, and to adsorption on surfaces; the number of filterable
particles increased with time and after 96 hours 82 per cent of the
radioactivity remaining in the water was in this form. There was,
however, no change in form when chromium-51 was added to sea water
in the form of hexavalent sodium chromate; an ionic solut,ion was ob-
tained with virtually no formation of filterable particles and no
loss of radioactivity by adsorption on surfaces. Since it was there-
fore not feasible to follow the uptake of trivalent chromium by animals
if it was added to the water, experiments were made with the chromium-
51 associated with the bottom silt in which the animals were living
(the nuclide, in the form of chromic chloride solution, was stirred
with a seawater suspension of bottom silt, the silt was allowed to
settle, when virtually all the chromium was found to be with the silt,
sea water was allowed to flow over the silt, and worms were added).
Chromium-51 was determined in both worms and silt at intervals over
a period of 22 days and it is concluded that the trivalent chromium-
51 taken into the digestive tract of Hermione was not transferred to
the body and accumulated. When the worms were exposed to hexavalent
chromium, added to the sea water in the form of sodium chromate, the
hexavalent chromium entered the worms readily. and the initial uptake
was rapid (the concentration in the worms exceeded that in the sea
water in less than a day); but subsequent accumulation was slow. the
rate of accumulation did not diminish during the 19-day period of
49
-------
observation, and at the end of this period the radioactivity of the
worms was nearly 12 times that of the water.
115.
Clemens, H.P. and W.H. Jones. 1954. Toxicity of brine water
from oil wells. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 84:97-109.
In the southwest U.S.A., brine from oil wells is a major
source of pollution. These brines contain a mixture of calcium,
sodium, magnesium and potassium chlorides, and little is known of
the tolerance of fish and invertebrates to them. Experiments were
therefore made to determine the tolerance levels of certain species
of freshwater fish and invertebrates to waste brines. The results
were expressed as median toxicity threshold (M.T.T.), or concentration
giving the median survival in 96 hours. The brines used contained
119,000 mg/l chloride, 59,700 mg/l sodium, 11,100 mg/l calcium, 2,070
mg/l magnesium, 1,140 mg/l potassium and 7.0 mg/l iron, and had a
hardness of 36,200 mg/l (as calcium carbonate) and a pH value of 5.0.
The M.T.T. for 10 species of fish in brine diluted with tap water ranged
from 11. 2 per cent by volume for plains killifish to 4.2 per cent for
fathead minnows. The toxicity thresholds for the other fish tested
were gambusia 7.4, white crappie 6.1, green sunfish and bluegill 5.5,
channel catfish 5.4, red shiners 5.1, black bullheads 5.0, and large-
mouth bass 4.6 per cent. The M.T.T. for a given species of fish was
found to vary with variations in the chemical composition of the brine.
It was found that plains killifish could be acclimatized to the presence
of high concentrations of chloride, but red shiners kept in brine for
over 4 months showed little if any acclimatization. The toxicity thres-
hold for red shiner was the same at temperatures of 80, 230, and 26°C,
but the rate of death increased with increase in temperature. Similar
results were obtained with red shiner and fathead minnow in sodium
chloride solution, but the median toxicity threshold for gambusia in
sodium chloride was higher at 280C than at 230C. Of the 10 inverte-
brates tested, the most susceptible organism was Daphnia pulex, with
a toxicity threshold of 1.8 per cent by volume, and the most resistant
was crayfish (Cambarus) with a threshold of 8.7 per cent. The thres-
holds for the other invertebrates were Diaptomus clavipes 3.1, Physa
3.2, free-ranging mayfly 16, Hyalella azteca 3.8, tubifex worms 4.9,
Hexagenia 5.1, and damselflies and drangonflies 7.2 per cent. Experi-
ments were also made to determine the median toxicity thresholds for
certain fish and invertebrates in solutions of sodium chloride in tap
water, for comparison with the threshold values in waste brines. The
thresholds for plains killifish, gambusia, and black bullhead, expressed
as mg/l of the hypothetical combination of sodium chloride in the
brine, were higher in brine than in sodium chloride. For these fish
the ions in the brine may have acted antagonistically to each other.
For green sunfish, red shiner, and fathead minnow, the toxicity thres-
holds were lower in the brine than in sodium chloride. In these cases,
the ions in the brine may have acted synergistically, or the brine may
50
-------
have contained toxic soluble oil products. In all cases, however,
the toxicity thresholds in the brine fell within the fiducial limits
of the thresholds in sodium chloride. Better agreement between the
results was obtained when the thresholds in brine and in sodium
chloride were expressed for each solution as both mg/l chloride and
mg/l sodium. For plains killifish, gambusia, and bullheads the thres-
holds were closer when expressed as mg/l sodium than as mg/l chloride,
but for green sunfish, red shiner, and fathead minnow the results were
in closer agreement when expressed as mg/l chloride. These results
suggest that some ions are more toxic to certain fish than to others.
A comparison of the chloride ion tolerance of 3 species of fish and
3 kinds of invertebrates under laboratory conditions and in the field
indicated that the degree of tolerance was similar under both conditions
for all the forms studied. It is stressed that further studies on the
toxicity of waste brines should include investigations on ~he antag-
onistic effects of cadmium, magnesium, sodium and potassium in the
presence of chloride.
116.
Clemens, H.P., and K.E. Sneed. 1958. Effect of temperature
and physiological condition on tolerance of channel cat-
fish to pyridylmercuric acetate (PMA). Progr. Fish -Cult.
20:147-150.
The authors report on work carried out to investigate the
possible toxicity of pyridylmercuric acetate, used for controlling
diseases and parasites of channel catfish. It was found that tol-
erance of fingerling channel catfish to PMA increased as the water
temperature decreased and results suggest that a dose of 2 mg/l
for 1-2 hours should be relatively safe for use on fingerlings.
There appears to be some difference in the toxicity threshold values
for fish of different ages. One-week-old fry were more susceptible
to PMA than either yolk-sac-fry or fingerlings when exposed for 24
hours, but the difference was minimized at longer exposure periods.
The tolerance of fingerling channel catfish to PMA acetate also
varies with the physiological condition of the fish; this was dem-
onstrated in a series of experiments which suggest that the chemical
is effective for controlling diseases and parasites commonly contracted
in troughs and the greater the frequency of the treatment the greater
is the tolerance of the fish. A series of tests were carried out to
investigate delayed mortality. Three-week-old channel catfish, suf-
fering from an epidemic of Amphileptus, were exposed to the chemical
for 1 hour but no delayed mortality was exhibited at any concentration
of the chemical; a 4-5 hour exposure, however, at the higher concen-
trations of PMA caused a delayed mortality that was apparent within
24 hours.
117.
Coche, A.G.
1967.
Osmotic regulation in juvenile Oncorhynchus
51
-------
kisutch (Walbaum). 1. The salinity tolerance of 50-day
old fry. Hydrobiologia 29:426-440.
The experiments carried out suggest a tolerance to 18 0/00
salinity for salmon fry 44 days old; Coho salmon of age 59 days sur-
vived in 22 0/00. Another experiment tested the effect of acclimatizing
fry 59 days old for 9 days to 21 0/00 salinity; these survived the next
7 days at 28 0/00 salinity. The direct transfer of 59 day old fry from
24 0/00 salinity to fresh water could be entirely successful.
118.
Cook, R.S. and D.O. Trainer.
soning of Canada seese.
1966. Experimental lead poi-
J. Wildlife Manag. 30:1-8.
Canada geese (Branta canadensis) were fed No.4 lead (Pb)
pellets; 4 pairs received 5, 10, 25 and 100 Pb pellets, respectively,
and 2 single geese 2 and 50 pellets. Gross signs of poisoning ap-
peared 5 to 7 days following ingestion. The length of time until
signs of disease or death occurred was related to the amount of Pb
ingested: 25 or more pellets caused death within 10 days while 10
or fewer pellets permitted survival up to 72 days. Ingestion of
large numbers of pellets resulted in a rapid increase of Pb levels
in the blood and acute poisoning with early death. Ingestion of
fewer pellets caused a slower increase of blood Pb and chronic poi-
soning with more typical signs. The pellets seemed to erode at a
constant rate regardless of the number in the gizzard, with 66% of
the Pb pellet volume being eroded within the first 3 days after ex-
posure and the remaining volume in 45 days. Normal blood Pb levels
for Canada geese were 0.018 to 0.037 mg per 100 g while in the blood
of Pb-poisoned geese the Pb concentration ranged from 0.320 to 1.680
mg per 100 g, with a peak being reached between the 3rd and 10th day.
Lead-poisoned geese lost weight progressively. Necropsy findings
included impaction of the proventriculus, roughened and stained giz-
zard lining, enteritis, distended gall bladder, and discolored liver.
Histopathological findings on examination of liver, kidney. heart,
lung, gizzard and pancreas are described. Periodic blood smears
showed no evidence of stippled erythrocytes. The great susceptibility
of Canada geese to Pb poisoning and the possibility of an increased
vulnerability during the breeding season were discussed.
119.
Corner, E.D.S. and B.W. Sparrow. 1956. The modes of action
of toxic agents. 1. Observations on the poisoning of
certain crustaceans by copper and mercury. J. Mar. Biol.
Ass. U.K. 35:531-548.
Experiments were made to determine the toxicity of copper,
as copper sodium citrate, and mercury, as mercuric chloride, mercuric
iodide and ethylmercuric chloride, to the three crustaceans, Artemia
salina, Elminius modestus, and Acartia clausi. Elminius and Acartia
were much more sensitive than Artemia to all the poisons tested. The
52
-------
toxicities of the 3 mercuric compounds to Elminius and Acartia were
similar, but mercuric iodide and ethylmercuric chloride were much
more toxic to Artemia than was mercuric chloride. Mixtures of the
copper compound and one of the mercuric compounds were found to ex-
hibit more than additive toxic effects towards Artemia. These ef-
fects were much more marked with mixtures of copper and mercuric
chloride than with mixtures of copper and either mercuric iodide or
ethylmercuric chloride. Preliminary exposure of Artemia to a sub-
lethal dose of copper rendered it much more sensitive to subsequent
poisoning by mercuric chloride and, to a lesser extent, to poisoning
by the other mercuric compounds, but did not render it more suscep-
tible to copper poisoning. Similarly, treatment with a sublethal dose
of one of the mercury compounds rendered Artemia more sensitive to
copper poisoning, but not to mercury poisoning. These "sensitizing"
effects were found to be partly eliminated by washing the treated
animals with a solution of either cysteine or reduced glutathione.
Further experiments with Artemia showed that copper depresses their
respiration without significantly affecting their mobility. Mercury
does not appear to have this effect. The results obtained in these
experiments are discussed in relation to current theories of the
mechanism of the action of heavy metal poisons.
120.
Corner, E.D.S. and B.W. Sparrow. 1957. The modes
of toxic agents. II. Factors influencing the
of mercury compounds to certain crustacea. J.
Ass. U.K. 36:459-472.
of action
toxicities
Mar. BioI.
In previous experiments, the toxicities of ethylmercuric
chloride and mercuric chloride to two species of crustacea were
compared. The results of these experiments suggested that the
toxicity of mercury compounds is affected by their rate of penetration
and further studies on this aspect have now been made. The relative
toxicities to Artemia and Elminius of a number of organomercury com-
pounds were measured and a study was made of the extent to which these
values are related to the lipoid solubilities of the compounds and
their abilities to interact with proteins. With both species it was
found that all the mercury compounds tested were more toxic than mer-
curic chloride, that primary alkylmercuric chlorides were more toxic
than the corresponding secondary compounds, and that toxicities in-
creased as the homologous series of primary compounds is ascended.
It was also found that Elminius was more sensitive to each mercury
compound than was Artemia, and that differences between the toxicities
of the poisons to Elminius were much smaller than the corresponding
differences observed with Artemia. No relation was observed between
the toxicities of the compounds and their abilities to combine with
proteins, as estimated by inhibition of urease. In general, compounds
with high lipoid solubilities were found to be more toxic. The results
of the experiments are consistent with the view that organomercury com-
pounds act by penetrating the test animals.
53
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121.
Corner, E.D.S. and F.H. Rigler. 1958. The modes of action
of toxic agents. III. Mercuric chloride and n-amyl-
mercuric chloride on crustaceans. J. Mar. Biol. Ass.
U.K. 37:85-96.
Experiments were made on the mode of action of n-amyl-
mercuric chloride and mercuric chloride on Artemia salina and Elminius
modestus. Differences between the susceptibilities of Artemia and
Elminius to the poisons are not related to differences in the amounts
of these compounds which the animal can tolerate in their tissues,
but are directly related to the rates at which the poisons are ac-
cumulated. Experiments with reduced glutathione have given results
consistent with the view that most of the mercury taken up by either
species penetrates into the tissues and does not act simply by be-
coming attached to their surfaces. Direct evidence of the penetration
of mercury compounds into a crustacean was obtained in experiments with
the prawn, Leander serratus, in which considerable amounts of mercury
were detected in the antennary glands.
122.
Crance, J.H. 1963. The effects of copper sulphate on Micro-
cystis and zooplankton in ponds. Progressive Fish-Culturist
25:198-202.
Results of investigations to determine whether copper sul-
phate can be used in low concentrations to control Microcystis in
ponds and whether these concentrations of copper sulphates influenced
the abundance of zooplankton in the ponds are summarized. An ap-
preciable decrease in the number of colonies of Microcystis generally
occurred in the ponds after an application of 0.05-0.08 mg/l copper
sulphate and there appeared to be an inverse relationship between
the abundance of Microcystis and the numbers of zooplankton present.
The numbers of zooplankton usually increased within a few days after
an application of copper sulphate, copepods being the dominant species
present in all except one of the ponds, in which cladocerans and copepods
were about equal in abundance. The maximum period that Microcystis re-
mained at what was considered to be a controlled status after application
of copper sulphate was approximately 25 days, the characteristic odor
being evident for 2-3 days after application. It is possible that Micro-
cystis becomes more resistant to copper sulphate as the season progresses
and/or after repeated application of copper sulphate. There was no
indication that reduction of this alga after applications of 0.05-
0.08 mg/l caused fish to suffer or die from oxygen deficiency.
123.
Crandall, C.A. and C.J. Goodnight. 1962. Effects of sublethal
concentrations of several toxicants on growth of the common
guppy. Lebistes reticulatu~. Limnol. Oceanog. 7:233-239.
54
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Studies were conducted to determine the effect on growth
of guppies following exposure to sublethal concentrations of toxic
substances. Lead, zinc, and sodium pentachlorophenate were used at
concentrations of 2.2 mg/l for lead nitrate (1.25 mg/l as lead); 5
mg/l for hydrated zinc sulphate (1.15 mg/l as zinc), and 0.5 mg/l
for sodium pentachlorophenate. In addition some fish were tested
in 5 mg/l lead nitrate (2.48 mg/l as lead) and hydrated zinc sul-
phate (2.30 mg/l as zinc). Newborn fish were added to the test and
control solutions; after 30 days they were weighed individually. and
re-weighed at IS-day intervals until the 90th day. Daily observations
were made for the presence of sexually mature fish and any dead fish.
It was found that all three substances retarded growth, increased
mortality and delayed sexual maturity; and suggests that conditions
that permit prolonged survival may still be adverse to fish popu-
lations.
124.
Cross, F.A., J.M. Dean and C.L. Osterberg. 1969. The effect
of temperature, sediment,and feeding on the behavior of
four radionuclides in a marine benthic amphipod. Proc.
2nd Nat. Symp. on Radioecology USAEC Conf. 670503:450--
461.
Laboratory studies were conducted to determine the effects
of temperature, feeding, and presence of sediments on the behavior
of 6SZn in a new species of gammarid amphipod (Anonyx sp.). This
benthic amphipod was captured in 80 meters of water off the Oregon
coast. In the feeding experiments, l44Ce, 46Sc, and 5lCr were used
in addition to 65Zn. Accumulation and elimination rates of 65Zn were
temperature dependent, although the effect appeared to be minimal
within this organism's normal temperature range. Elimination rates
of 65Zn were increased in the presence of sediment and were signif-
icantly greater in feeding than in non-feeding amphipods. Anonrx
which fed on adult Artemia labeled simultaneously with 65Zn, 14 Ce,
46Sc, and 5lCr retained 55% of the 65Zn and less than 10% of the
l44Ce and 46Sc. Transfer of 5lCr was not measurable. Zinc-65 loss
during molting depended upon whether the zinc had been accumulated
from food or from water. When uptake was from water, approximately
20% of the 6SZn body burden was lost with the cast exoskeleton, whereas
only 2.0% was lost when 6SZn was accumulated from food. The potential
role of Anonyx in the cycling of radioactivity in the marine environ-
ment is discussed.
125.
Cross, F.A., S.W. Fowler, J.M. Dean, L.F. Small and C.L. Osterberg.
1968. Distribution of zinc-65 in tissues of two marine crus-
taceans determined by autoradiography. J. Fish. Res. Bd.
Can. 25:2461-2466.
55
-------
The distribution of radioactive zinc in the benthic amphi-
pod Anonyx sp. and the euphausiid Euphausia pacifica, after storage
for eight days in filtered sea water containing zinc-65 (25 ~c per
liteT) and stable zinc (20 wg per liter), was determined from auto-
radiographs prepared from tissues. Zinc-65 was found to be predominantly
localized in the exoskeleton and interstitial spaces of the myofibrils
of each animal, and was present also in the gut and hepatopancreas of
Anonyx and in the eye of !. pacifica. The ecological implications of
these results are discussed.
126.
Csanady, M. 1967. Spread of
cyanides in ground water.
Osztal. Kozl. 18:481-493.
7848.
pollution by heavy metals and
Magy. tudom. Akad. orv. Tudom.
Chemical Abstracts 1968, 68:
Analyses of ground water and water from wells near a small
plating plant without waste treatment facilities showed the presence
of high concentrations of hexavalent chromium and cyanide. This pol-
lution was very marked in wells 19 and 37 m away in the direction of
the natural ground-water flow; in the opposite directions light con-
tamination was noted for a distance of 40-60 m. Measures to prevent
a recurrence of such pollution are discussed.
127.
Cushing, C.E. and N.S. Porter. 1969. Radionuclide cycling by
periphyton: an apparatus for continuous in situ measure-
ments and initial data on zinc-65 cycling. 1969. Proc.
2nd Nat. Symp. on Radioecology. Ann Arbor, Mich. 285-290.
A system is described which permits the continuous measure-
ment of uptake and cycling of radionuclides between stream periphyton
and a controlled aqueous environment. The system was designed to
avoid inherent difficulties in aquaria studies, i.e., the necessity
of destroying or sub-sampling the community for sequential analyses,
the lack of a continuous flow of water over the algae to simulate
stream conditions, and the inability to maintain a fixed ambient
radionuclide concentration because of immediate uptake and recycling
by the organisms. The apparatus permits evaluation of the effects of
individual physical and chemical environmental factors in either an
open one-pass system or in a closed recirculating system.
Preliminary results of six uptake and two retention experi-
ments using 65Zn in the closed system are presented.
128.
Cusick, J. 1967. Mucous cell response of the guppy to heavy
metals and water quality. Thesis. Univ. of Cincinnati,
Cincinnati, Ohio, 143 p. Dissertation Abstracts 1967,
28, B, 2664.
56
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Investigations on the possibility of using the responsp
of lingual mucous cells of the common guppy as an indicator of the
presence of heavy metals (copper, nickel, and zinc) showed that a
reduction in the numbers of mucous cells and a thinner epithelium
occurred in fish exposed to zinc in diluted water at pH 6. Since
zinc-induced mortality is associated with a depletion of mucous
cells while copper-induced mortality is not, it is concluded that
these metals have different sites of toxic activity and this ac-
counts for the synergistic effect of copper-zinc mixtures. Zinc
damage to the epithelium was found to be more likely to occur when
the water lacked sodium, calcium, or magnesium; it is suggested
that these cations have a protective action by competing with zinc
for adsorption-desorption sites at the epithelial barrier membrane
surfaces.
129.
Dahl, J. 1963.
in soil, and
Trans. Amer.
Transformation of iron
its relation to Danish
Fish. Soc. 92:260-264.
and sulphur compounds
Inland Fisheries.
Lignite mining and land drainage have caused oxidation of
the pyrite content of the soil in Denmark with consequent destruction
of fisheries when the polluted water reaches the rivers. The bottom
of the river Tim in western Jutland is covered with ferric hydroxide
deposits and all fishing grounds are destroyed owing to discharges
from an old lignite mine and drainage from surrounding fields. The
Soby lake has also had its entire fish stock destroyed by drainage
from a lignite mine. Treatment of lignite mine discharge water with
lime to neutralize sulphuric acid and precipitate iron compounds be-
fore they reach their receiving stream is successful and widely prac-
ticed, but it is impracticable to neutralize drainage from peat bogs.
130.
Davies, A.G. 1967. Studies on the accumulation of radio-iron
by a marine diatom. Proc. InL Symp. Radioecol. ConcenL
Process, 1966, Stockholm:983-991.
Iron is present in sea water in particulate form, probably
as hydrous ferric oxide, which can scavenge radionuclides of other
elements. Investigations were conducted on the adhesion of the
particulate oxide to surfaces of phytoplankton, for use in assessing
the part played by phytoplankton in the dispersion of radioactive
discharges. Experimental details are given of the method used, which
involved reproducible liquid mOV6nent produced by rotation of a
straight uniform glass rod coaxialll 3us~,eIlded inside ,"j fixed glass
cylinder. Freshly-precipitated iron rhloride labelled with iron-59
was put in the cylinder, sea wcu:eJ- >-Tas add"',], the cyllclder \Jas
placed ,round the already rotating rod, and at least 12 hours were
allowed for equilibrium to be reacheJ,4n eqll,al voluTne of sl'Oa vJater
57
-------
was used in a similar manner to remove the iron from the walls of
the cylinder. The distribution coefficient, defined as the ratio
of the number of counts per minute in the wall washings and in an
equal volume of the original sea water was independent of the con-
centration of iron and can therefore be used to calculate the con-
centration of iron in the suspension. Assuming that the same dis-
tribution applies in the presence of diatoms, it is possible, by
measuring the iron on the vessel walls, to separate the total iron
in suspension into the quantity associated with the diatoms and the
remainder in free suspension. For measurements on diatoms, a known
population of cells (Phaeodactylum tricornutum) was added to the
sea water before addition of ferric chloride. The results are cor-
rected for adherence of diatoms to the walls of the cylinder. For
a wide range of concentrations of total iron and cell populations,
data are tabulated on the quantities of iron found associated with
the diatoms and in free suspension. With iron concentrations higher
than 27 g per lite~ severe clumping of the diatom cells occurred.
When aged suspensions of hydrous ferric oxide were added to the sea
water or diatom suspension, the particles would not adhere to the
cylinder and the suspension was therefore rotated in a round-bottomed
flask. In all cases, the iron adsorbed by the diatoms could be re-
moved completely by sea water adjusted to pH 10 and there was no evi-
dence that any measurable quantity of iron had been metabolized. The
practical implications of these results are discussed including cal-
culation of the fraction of the introduced radioactivity which is
accumulated by the cell population owing to surface adhesion.
131.
Davies, A.G. 1969. Iron, chelation and the growth of marine
phytoplankton. I. Growth kinetics and chlorophyll pro-
duction in cultures of the euryhaline flagellate Dunalliela
tertiolecta under iron-limiting conditions. J. Mar. BioI.
Assn. U.K. 50:65-86.
By using an apparatus designed to permit the rotation of
the culture vessels, it was possible to reduce the concentrations of
iron, as hydrous ferric oxide to levels which restricted the growth
of the plant cells, as, under these conditions, much of the oxide
adhered to the vessel. At the lowest iron concentrations used the
,
growth rate was eventually controlled by the rate of detachment of
the oxide from the vessel and the cells then contained the minimal
level of iron which would allow growth to continue. This minimal
level was found to decrease as the cells in the iron-deficient stock
cultures adapted to the medium. The concentrations of residual iron
,
not removed from the sea water in the culture medium bv filtration
through a 0,1 wm pore-size membrane filter, were shown- to be similar
to those of the added iron in certain cases, and had therefore to be
included in the total iron available for growth. Using a chelating
agent to fractionate the iron associated with the cells, it was possible
58
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to estimate the metabolically bound iron. The rates of growth vlere
found to be related to this metabolic iron by a hyperbolic expres-
sion. Rate constants obtained using the expression were in good
agreement with those observed directly in cultures where the iron
concentrations were sufficient to permit exponential growth. Chloro-
phyll ~ production by the cells was largely dependent upon that frac-
tion of the metabolic iron which was supplied by the residual iron,
the added form being much less effective in this respect. This had
suggested that chlorophyll production in phytoplankton may require
the presence of organo-iron complexes.
132.
Davis, C.C. 1948. Studies of the effects of industrial pol-
lution in the lower Patapsco river area. II. The effect
of copper as pollution on plankton. Publ. Chesapeake Bay
Lab. 72:1-12.
A study was made of the relation between the concentration
of iron in mud, resulting from pollution by copper, and the number
of plankton organisms present in the Patapsco river, Md. Methods of
sampling and counting plankton in mud and plankton samples are des-
cribed and their limitations are discussed. In interpreting the
results only diatoms were considered as they were present in large
numbers and were easily detected. Results indicated, though no
direct correlation was obtained, that the precipitating particles
of ferric hydroxide tend to carry down plankton into the bottom mud,
but that the number of organisms at a particular point is not related
to the extent of pollution at that point.
133.
DeCalventi, I.B. 1965. Copper poisoning in the snail Helix
pomatia and its effect on mucous secretion. In Symposium
on Mucus in Invertebrates. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 118:1015-
1020.
Snails exposed to CuS04 solutions of 0.01 to 0.1 mg/l of
Cu showed severe signs of toxicity. There was an increase in mucous
secretion and no response to tactile stimuli. Cu was precipitated
from solution by mucous. There were no significant changes following
1 hour exposure to 0.01 mg/l Cu in histology of mucous secreting cells
of foot and mantle. Histochemical characteristics of the acid muco-
polysaccharides were not altered upon exposure to the Cu concentration
studied. Mucopolysaccharides from foot and mantle were histochemically
different. Mucous secreting cells of mantle contained sulfated groups.
134.
Dempster, R.P. 1955. The use of copper sulphate as a cure for
fish diseases caused by parasitic dinoflagellates of the
genus Oodinium. Zoologica 40:133-137.
59
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At the Steinhart Aquarium, San Francisco, Calif., copper
sulphate in concentrations ranging from 0.4 mg/l to 0.8 mg/l were
found to be relatively non-toxic to tropical marine fish, but ef-
fective in eradicating the gill and skin infections caused by the
dinoflagellate Oodinium. Because of the toxicity of higher concen-
trations of copper, it is essential to control the concentration in
the aquarium water closely. A colorimetric method for the deter-
mination of copper, using sodium diethyldithiocarbamate as indicator,
is described. Velvet disease, which is caused by the freshwater
flagellate Oodinium limneticum, also appear to be cured by treatment
with copper sulphate.
135.
Deschiens, R. and V. Molinari. 1957. The toxic effect on
molluscs of granulated zinc. Bull. Soc. Pat. Exot. 50:
62-65.
Aquarium experiments showed that snails died within 24
hours in the presence of zinc in granular form. Further investi-
gations are required on the effect in natural conditions.
136.
Deschiens, R., V. Molinari, and D. Bartrand. 1957. The action
of "zinc-water" as a toxic agent on molluscs. Bull. Soc.
Pat. Exot. 50:59-61.
Aquarium experiments were made to test the action of dif-
ferent zinc compounds on snails (Planorbis glabratus and Bulinus
contortus), which serve as intermediate hosts for schistosomes. The
results show an oligodynic effect of zinc, which was probably strongly
ionized, even in concentration of 1 mg/l. Also the snails concentrated
zinc and copper ions in their bodies to toxic amounts. This capacity
is a natural physio-pathological property of certain types of snail.
It is possible in certain cases to determine the toxic effect of a
chemical substance on molluscs by the amount of active ions which
are formed in the tissues of the snail.
137.
DeSouza, C.P. and E. Paulini. 1966. Laboratory tests with
triphenyl-lead molluscicide. Revista Brasileira de
Malariologia e Doencas Tropicais 18:247-251.
The molluscicidal activity of triphenyl-lead acetate was
tested on mature snails (Biomphalaria glabrata) and on their 0-1
and 4-5-day-old eggs. Freshly-laid eggs showed the highest suscep-
tibility; the LC50 at 24 hr exposure was 0.13 mg/l (in a water emulsion)
for O-l-day-old eggs. This decreased to 0.23 mg/l for 3-4-day-old eggs
and to 0.48 mg/l for the mature snails. The corresponding figures for
sodium pentachlorophenol were 0.15, 0.25, and 0.15 mg/l.
60
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138.
Dilling, W.S. and C.W. Healy. 1926. Influence of lead and
the metallic ions of copper, zinc, thorium, beryllium
and thallium on the germination of frogs spawn and on
the growth of tadpoles. Annals Appl. BioI. 13:177-188.
Lead is more toxic to ova than to spermatozoa. Lead salts
partly or wholly inhibit development of frog eggs with inhibition
most pronounced by the 10th day. Lead retards growth of tadpoles
by 50% in one month. Colloidal lead preparations have comparable
action. Thorium salts also acted as an inhibitor to ovum develop-
ment. Zinc salts did not retard ovum development but were fatal
to tadpoles or delayed growth. Copper salts were fatal to tad-
pole on emergence, as was thallium. Beryllium had little effect.
Solutions of metals were of similar strength.
139.
Dilling, W.S., C.W. Healy. and W.C. Smith. 1926. Experi-
ments on the effects of lead on the growth of plaice
(Pleuronectes platessa). Annals Appl. BioI. 13:168-176.
No evidence has been obtained to show that trace levels
of ionic lead in sea water can retard metamorphosis of plaice
embryos. Lead in colloidal form apparently does not kill young
plaice, but retards growth while fish are in the lead medium.
Acute lead poisoning precipitates protein on the gill filaments.
140.
Dorfman, D. and W.R. Whitworth. 1969. Effects of fluctuations
of lead, temperature, and dissolved oxygen on the growth of
brook trout. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can., 26:2493-2501.
Brook trout were exposed to daily doses of lead under condi-
tions of fluctuating dissolved oxygen and temperature, and were weighed
at intervals. A dosage of 25 mg/l reduced growth, but little or no
effect on growth resulted from lower concentrations. Interpolated
96-hour TLm values were greater than the highest concentrations tested.
In a separate experiment, trout exposed to constant levels of lead
for 4 days had a 96-hour TLm value of 3.12 mg/l of lead.
141.
Doudoroff, p. and M. Katz. 1950. Critical review of literature
on the toxicity of industrial wastes and their components
to fish. I. Alkalies, acids, and inorganic acids. Sewage
& Industr. Wastes (Sewage Wks. J.) 22:1432-1458.
The authors review literature on the toxicity to fish of
certain substances occurring in trade waste waters including strong
alkalies, ffiIDnonia, acids, carbon dioxide, chlorine and cyanogen chlo-
ride, hydrogen sulphide, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, and high
61
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concentrations of oxygen. It appears that fish can tolerate pH
values of 5.0-9.0. Strong alkalies are not toxic if the concen-
tration is such that the pH value is not greater than 9.0; at pH
values below 9.0, solutions of ammonia and ammonium salts may be
toxic. At pH values of 5.0 or less, strong mineral acids, such
as sulphuric acid, and some weaker organic acids, such as citric
and exalic acids, may be toxic, other weak and inorganic and organic
acids such as hvpochlorous, hydrocyanic, boric, and chromic acids
, ~
are toxic at slightly higher pH values. Sensitivity of fish to
carbon dioxide varies considerably. Low concentrations of hydrogen
sulphide, free chlorine, cyanogen chloride, carbon monoxide, ozone,
phosphine, and sulphur dioxide are very toxic.
lL~2 .
Doudoroff, P. and M. Katz. 1953. Critical review of litera-
ture on the toxicity of industrial wastes and their com-
ponents to fish. II. The metals, as salts. Sewage
Industr. Wastes 25:802-839.
The authors review literature on the toxicity to fish of
simple inorganic salts of metals, including studies on the relative
toxicity of various metals, antagonism and synergism of metallic
cations and hydrolysis and precipitation of metal compounds in
natural waters, mode of action of metal salts and the role played
by anions, and the effects in toxicity tests of temperature, volume
of test solution, and acclimatization of fish. Metals which are
dealt with individually include aluminium, arsenic, barium, cad-
mium, calcium, chromium, cobalt, copper, iron, lead, lithium, mag-
nesium, manganese, mercury. nickel, potassium, silver, sodium,
strontium, tin, and zinc. It is concluded that in dilute physiologi-
cally unbalanced solutions of single metal salts all metals are toxic
to fish, but in mixed salt solutions the metals are often less toxi-
because of the antagonism between different metals. However, some
highly toxic metals, such as zinc and copper, are strongly syner-
gistic and a mixture of salts of these metals can be much more toxic
to fish than are the individual solutions. The toxicity of many metals
is markedly affected in temperature, concentration of dissolved oxygen,
and volume of the experimental solution. The least toxic metals are
sodium, calcium, strontium, magnesium, potassium, lithium, barium,
and manganous and cobaltous ions, while highly toxic metals include
silver, mercury, copper, lead, cadmium, aluminium, zinc, nickel, and
trivalent chromium. Hexavalent chromium, in solution as chromates
and dichromates, is less toxic than trivalent chromium in simple
solutions of chromic salts. Solut.ions of penl1anganat.es are much more
toxic t.han are solutions of manganous salts cont.aining an equivalent
concentration of manganese. The toxic concentrations of iron have
not been established accurately. and further work on this is required.
62
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143.
Doudoroff, P., G. Leduc, and C.R. Schneider. 1966. Acute
toxicity to fish of solutions containing complex metal
cyanides, in relation to concentrations of molecular
hydrocyanic acid. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 95:6-22.
Published indirect evidence indicating that the toxicity
of solutions of complex metal cyanides to fish is a function of
the concentration of molecular (not ionized) HCN is reviewed. The
influence of pH on toxicity of the nickelocyanide complex could be
explained only by assuming that HCN is the toxic factor. Recent
re-evaluation of the dissociation constant of the tetracyanonickelate
(II) ion has confirmed the above interpretation of toxicity test re-
sults.
By means of a recently published method for determination
of molecular HCN by gas-liquid chromatography, it was possible to
demonstrate conclusively that this factor virtually alone determined
the acute toxicity to bluegills of the various solutions of simple
and complex cyanides. Median immobilization times for bluegills in
the solutions varied independently of total cyanide concentrations
but were clearly related to molecular HCN levels. Two of three
tested solutions containing the silver-cyanide complex proved except-
ional; their toxicity produced symptoms strongly suggestive of heavy-
metal poisoning and was deemed referable to toxicity of the complex
anions or of silver cations. Changes in C02 content and pH of the
medium occurring at gill surfaces had no appreciable influence on
the toxicity of the nickelocyanide complex, presumably because dis-
sociation is not very rapid.
Bluegills dying in complex metal cyanide solutions containing
no silver showed typical symptoms of cyanide poisoning only, whereas
most of those that died in solutions containing cyanide and silver
showed before death also pronounced superficial coagulation of mucus
suggestive of heavy-metal poisoning. Bluegills that died in about
400 minutes or sooner in a fresh test solution containing the Ag
(CN)2 complex at pH 6.0 probably died largely or entirely of cyanide
poisoning. The slower death of the fish in solutions with higher pH
and determined molecular HCN concentrations near and below 0.12 mg/l
evidently was due primarily to a lethal agent other than HCN. The
molecular HCN concentration in the least toxic test solution con-
taining silver (with pH 7.5) was barely measurable indicating very
slight dissociation of the complex, yet the fish placed in this
solution lived little longer than did those exposed to a similar
solution (with pH 6.5) having a molecular HCN concentration near 0.12
mg/l. This result was a first indication that the Ag(CN)2-ion itself,
unlike the Ni(CN)4=ion, has considerably toxicity to fish, and that
the toxicity of the slightly alkaline dilution was attributable mostly
or entirely to this lethal factor. Silver ion, which derives from dis-
sociation of the complex anion and is exceedingly toxic, may have caused
63
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or contributed to the toxicity of one or both of the slowly lethal
solutions (pH 6.5 and 7.5). The concentration of silver ion in the
two acid solutions (pH 6.0 and 6.5), at least, is believed to have
been limited by the low solubility of silver chloride and the
moderately high concentrations of chloride ion (about 75 mg/1 or
less) resulting from the use of HC1 for acidification of the water.
Withdrawal of silver ion from the solutions through the formation
of minute amounts of insoluble (colloidal) silver chloride, which was
not detected, probably resulted in liberation of cyanide from the com-
plex and formation of more HCN than would have been present in the
absence of chloride ion. Authors suggest that cuprocyanide ions may
have toxicity great enough to be of practical importance when very
little free cyanide is present.
144.
Drabkina, B.M. 1962. Effect of water of different salinities
on the survival of sperm, eggs and larvae of sturgeons.
Vopr. Eko1. Vys. Shko1. Moscow. 8:54-55.
Experiments have shown that sturgeon sperm is most active
in water with a salinity of 2 parts per thousand; salinities of 6-
8 parts per thousand have an inhibiting effect. Sturgeon eggs
could be fertilized in waters with salinities of 1.2 and 4 parts
per thousand.
145.
Duke, T.W. 1967. Possible routes of zinc-65 from an experi-
mental estuarine environment to man. J. Water Po11ut.
Contr. Feder. 39:536-542.
Results are given on distribution of zinc-65 introduced
into an experimental pond connected to an adjoining estuary in
North Carolina to determine routes and rates by which zinc-65
could be returned to man from an estuarine environment and to
determine the organisms that could be used as indicators of
presence of zinc-65 in estuaries. It was found that shellfish ac-
cumulated zinc-65 rapidly and to higher levels than did other
organisms, and the zinc-65 accumulated in the edible portions of
these animals could easily have been transferred to humans. If
man were to use the organisms from the pond periodically as a
source of food, the clams, which had the highest specific activity,
would be the greatest potential source of zinc-65; if, however,
seafood from the pond was eaten only once, more radioactivity would
be received from the oysters since the meat of these animals con-
tained the largest amount of radioactivity. Under the conditions
in the experimental pond, scallops were found to be good indicators
of the presence of zinc-65 if samples were collected one day after
the isotope was added to the water; ~yster, however, retained zinc-
65 longer than did the scallops and after 100 days contained more of
64
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the isotope on a whole-animal basis. It is pointed out that the
results of these experiments cannot be applied directly to other
estuaries with different conditions of pH value, temperature,
salinity, and rates of water exchange, since all these factors
affect the movement of zinc-65 in the environment.
146.
Duke, T.W., J.P. Baptist, and D.E. Hoss. 1966. Bio-accumulation
of radioactive gold used as a sediment tracer in the estuarine
environment. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Fish. Bull. 65:427-436.
Laboratory and field studies have been carried out to inves-
tigate the possibility of the uptake by marine organisms of radioactive
gold used to trace the movement of sediment. When an aqueous solution
of radioactive gold was placed directly in the gut of blue crabs (Cal-
linectes sapidus), toadfish (Opsanus tau), and croakers (Leiostomus
xanthurus) there was little transfer of the isotope to variovs body
tissues. Toadfish which were fed radioactive gold in aqueous solu-
tion retained more of the activity than did fish fed the same amount
of radioactivity sorbed on clay particles. When organisms and bento-
nite clay were kept for 25 days in sea water containing radioactive
gold, crabs accumulated the most activity, followed, in descending
order, by clams, clay. and fish. In field experiments in which sedi-
ment-sorbed radioactive gold was introduced into Cape Fear river, N.C.,
the maximal amount of activity in caged organisms (oysters, crabs, and
fish) was detected in oysters 17 hours after the isotope was released,
and amounted to 70.9 m ~c per g wet weight; indigenous free-swimming
organisms collected 41 hours after the radioactivity was released
contained no detectable radioactive gold.
147.
Duke, T.W., J.N. Willis, and T.J. Price. 1966. Cycling of
trace elements in the estuarine environment. I. Movement
and distribution of zinc-65 and stable zinc in experimental
ponds. Chesapeake Science 7:1-10.
Observations have been made on the movement and distribution
of zinc-65 and the distribution of stable zinc in water, sediments,
and biota of two estuarine ponds, one of which was essentially a
closed system and the other was connected to an adjoining estuary.
In the closed pond zinc-65 was taken up rapidly by the sediments and
biota, and after one day only 66 percent of the zinc-65 remained in
the water. In the other pond about 82 percent of the zinc-65 was
flushed out by tidal action in the first day, and of the remainder
36% was in the bottom deposits, 59 percent in the water and suspended
solids, and 5 percent in the biota. After 100 days, in both ponds,
most of the zinc-65 was associated with the bottom deposits.
65
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148.
Duke, T., J. Willis, T. Price, and K. Fischler. 1969. Influence
of environmental factors on the concentrations of zinc-65 by
an experimental community. Proc. 2nd Natn. Symp. Radioecol.,
Ann Arbor, 1967:355-362.
In laboratory experiments on the effects of salinity. tem-
perature, pH value, and total concentration of zinc on the accumulation
of zinc-65 from sea water by benthic estuarine organisms (oysters, clams,
scallops and mud crabs) and their sediment substrates; each factor was
studied at two levels and a polyfactorial approach was used to indicate
the interaction between the environmental factors. Tabulated and dia-
grammatical results show that each of the four factors affected the ac-
cumulation of zinc-65 in animals and sediments, but there was no sig-
nificant effect attributable to interaction between the factors and no
one factor affected all the components of the community. Concentration
factors for zinc-65 varied inversely with salinity and total zinc con-
centration and directly with temperature and pH value. The implications
of these results are considered. As shown graphically, there were sig-
nificant temporal variations in the concentration factors for control
animals and sediments, possibly owing to the different biochemical
composition of the animals and the physico-chemical composition of
the sediments at different times of the year; and it is therefore em-
phasized that the exact conditions of the experiment must be specified
when reporting concentration factors for estuarine organisms.
149.
Dunson, W.A. 1969. Concentration of sodium by freshwater
turtles. Proc. 2nd Natn. Symp. Radioecol., Ann Arbor,
1967:191-197.
Evidence has accumulated that freshwater turtles (Pseudemys)
are physiologically adapted to the aquatic habitat, and the rate of
ionic exchange of turtles must therefore be taken into account when
studying the cycling of ions in the freshwater ecosystem. In-vivo
and in-vitro studies were made to obtain further data on some aspects
of sodium exchange. The influx of sodium was localized in the mem-
branes of the oral and cloacal regions and was inhibited by zinc.
In fresh water with a sodium concentration of 575 mg/l the turtle
~ould have a concentration factor of 300 for sodium and when turtles
are coming out of hibernation the influx of ions may be increased
considerably. Further studies are recommended to determine the im-
portance of turtles in the concentration of dissolved radionuclides.
150.
Dunster, B.J. 1958. The
into coastal waters.
Atom. Energ., A/Conf.
disposal of radioactive liquid wastes
2nd U.N. Int. Conf. Peaceful Uses
l5/p/297:22 p.
An account is given of the sampling of fish, seaweed, sea-bed
66
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material, and shore sand in environments affected by the discharge
of radioactive waste waters from the Windscale Works of the U.K.
Atomic Energy Authority, Sellafield, Cumbo and the results ob-
tained up to the end of 1957 are tabulated. In addition to deter-
minations of the total S-activity, individual estimations were made
of plutonium, strontium, and ruthenium in fish and seaweed, since
these are both used as food. Sampling was carried out at distances
up to 50 km from the outlet; at this distance the activities deter-
mined did not differ significantly from background levels. The
maximum permissible levels for radioactivity in marine materials
are discussed; the values adopted at Windscale are tabulated and
were used in conjunction with the results of sampling to determine
the maximum permissible rate of discharge from the plant. The maximum
permissible discharge is limited by the amount of radioactivity accu-
mulated in the seaweed, most of which grows within 20 km of the outlet
and is used almost directly as food. From the results obtained, it is
concluded that the rate of disposal of radioactivity in these coastal
waters is adequate to permit the safe release of some 20,000 curies
of total S-activity per month at a point about three km off this part
of the Cumberland coast. Specific limitations are necessary for stron-
tium-90, ruthenium-106, and plutonium. The applicability of these
results in assessing the problem of disposal of radioactive waste
waters in other coastal waters is discussed, and preliminary surveys
near the Dounreay reactor, Scotland, and the Winfrith Health Establish-
ment, near Weymouth are summarized.
151.
Edgington, D.N., S.A. Gordon, M.M. Thommus, and L.R. Almodovar.
1970. The concentration of radium, thorium, and uranium by
tropical marine algae. Limnol. Ocean. 15:945-955.
Twenty species of marine algae were collected between 1961
and 1968 from coastal waters of Puerto Rico and analyzed chemically
for total organic material, protein nitrogen, and calcium, and radio-
chemically for the naturally occurring alpha particle emitters 226Ra,
232Th, and 238U. Study of these data suggests that the concentration
of radium,thorium, and uranium by tropical marine algae is controlled
by two mechanisms: (1) ion-exchange or coprecipitation of the ion
with the calcium carbonate matrix, and (2) complex formation with
either the protein nitrogen or some other compound of the organic
fraction. Radium (and possibly thorium) apparently is concentrated
by both mechanisms, the dominant one depending on the phylum. For
the Rhodophyta and the highly calcified Chlorophyta it is the former
and for the Phaeophyta the latter. Uranium is concentrated by the
first mechanism.
152.
Eisler, R. 1967. Tissue changes in puffers exposed to methoxy-
chlor and methyl parathion. U.S. Bur. Sport Fish. Wild. Tech,
Paper 17:1-15.
67
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Adult northern puffers Sphaeroides maculatus (Pisces: Tetra-
odontidae) were exposed for periods up to 45 days to either .030 mg/l
of the organochloride insecticide methoxychlor, 20.2 mg/l of the organo-
phosphorous insecticide methyl parathion, or to a combination of .015
mg/l of methoxychlor and 10.1 mg/l of methyl parathion. These concen-
trations will produce approximately 5 per cent mortality in 96 hours
under the conditions of the experiment. Periodically, fish from each
group were analyzed for whole blood and serum constituents and for
content of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, zinc and iron in
selected tissues.
Puffers subjected to .03 mg/l of methoxychlor remained as
active as the controls, ate readily when offered shucked clams, and
experienced no significant mortality. No statistically significant
differences at the 0.01 level were observed between methoxychlor-ex-
posed puffers and controls for any of the parameters investigated.
Groups exposed to methyl parathion alone, or to methyl para-
thion in combination with methoxychlor, refused to eat during the study,
were sluggish, and, after exposure for 96 hours, exhibited a rapid in-
crease in the rate of death. Survivors, when compared to controls, had
less hemoglobin, erythrocytes, a lower hematocrit, complete inhibition
of serum esterase enzymes, less magnesium in liver, and less zinc in
liver and in gill filament; these differences were significant at the
0.01 level.
Profiles were constructed based on the effects of each in-
secticide on blood and tissue components. The visual patterns pro-
vided by these profiles suggest a means of identifying unfavorable
environmental conditions before the appearance of obvious morphological
or physiological changes.
153.
Eisler, R. 1967. Variations in mineral content of sandbar
shark vertebrae (Carcharhinus milberti). Naturaliste
Canadien 94:321-326.
Cervical vertebrae from three length-frequency groups of
Carcharhinus milberti were ashed and assayed for Ca, Fe, Mg, Zn, Na
and K. These six metals constituted 28.4% of the total ash weight
in samples from the smallest (mean total body length 64 cm) size
groups of sharks, but only about 10% from both medium (129 cm) and
from large (209 cm) sharks. Small sharks contained about three times
more Ca per sample than either medium or large sharks and this would
account for differences in mineral content among groups. The con-
centrations of both Na and K were similar in all size groups. Those
of Zn and Fe on the other hand, were highest in small sharks and lowest
in large sharks, while the reverse was true for Mg. Studies of the
elementary chemical composition of vertebrae may be useful in eval-
uating the rates and processes of elasmobranch aging.
68
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154.
Eisler, R. 1967. Acute toxicity of zinc to the killifish,
Fundulus heteroclitus. Chesapeake Science 8:262-264.
Adult murnmichogs, F. heteroclitus, were subjected to dif-
ferent concentrations of zin~ as ZnC12 at 24 0/00 salinity, pH 8.0
and 200C. At 192 hours all subjected to 43 mg/l of Zn and lower were
alive and indistinguishable from controls. Among survivors there
were no appreciable differences at 192 hours in zinc content of
various tissues as determined by atomic absorption, regardless of
initial amount of zinc in solution. All murnmichogs subjected to
157 mg/l or 180 mg/l of zinc died between 24 and 48 hours. Dead
murnmichogs contained about seven and eight times more zinc in whole
fish and in gill arch, respectively than controls.
155.
Eisler, R. 1971. Cadmium poisoning in Fundulus heteroclitus
(Pisces: Cyprinodontidae) and other marine organisms. J.
Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 28:1225-1234.
In acute toxicity bioassays with CdC12'2~H20 at 200C and
20 0/00 salinity, the concentrations fatal to 50% of the organisms
of various marine species in 96 hours ranged between 0.32 and 55.0
mg/l Cd2+. The order of sensitivity was sand shrimp, Crangon septem-
spinosa (0.32); hermit crab, Pagurus longicarpus (0.32); grass shrimp,
Palaemonetes vulgaris (0.42); starfish, Asterias forbesi (0.82); soft
shell clam, Mya arenaria (2.2); green crab, Carcinus maenus (4.1);
oyster drill, Urosalpinx cinerea (6.6); mud snail, Nassarius obsoletus
(10.5); sand worm, Nereis virens (11.0); striped killifish, Fundulus
majalis (21.0); bay mussel, Mytilus edulis (25.0); sheep shead minnow,
Cyprinodon variegatus (50.0); and mummichog, Fundulus heteroclitus
(55.0). Murnmichogs were more susceptible to cadmium exposures at 20
than at 50C and at 5 0/00 than at 15, 25, or 35 0/00. Additional
studies with murnmichogs clearly demonstrated that 96 hours was not
sufficient to adequately evaluate cadmium toxicity to this species.
Murnmichog whole body cadmium residues determined by atomic absorption
provided a useful index of cadmium body burden among fish surviving
exposure. However, cadmium residue data from dead mummichogs were
of limited worth owing to accumulation after death.
156.
Eisler, R. and G. LaRoche. 1972. Elemental
estuarine teleost, Fundulus heteroclitus
Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 8:121-134.
composition of the
(L . ) . J .
Elements not detectable in whole ashed Fundulus regardless
of age, sexual condition, or season were Ag, Al, Au, Ba, Be, Cd, Co,
Cr, Cs, Li, Ni, Pb, Rb, and Tl. Elements that were consistently
measurable were Ca, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, Sr, and Zn. Studies with
6 length-frequency size groupings showed that graded increases in total
69
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body length (TL) were associated with progressive increases in
whole body concentration of Ca and Sr and decreases in K, Mg, Na,
and Zn. On an ash weight basis, heads were comparatively low in
K, Fe, Mg, Zn, and Sr and carcasses comparatively high in K and
low in Cu, Fe, Sr, and Na. Viscera contained high concentrations
of most elements when compared to heads and carcasses, especially
Fe, Zn, Sr, and Cu.
In a combined study on effect of TL, water temperature
and salinity, and acclimatization period on whole body elemental
content, it was determined that large fish of 84 mm TL contained
more Ca, and less Cu, K, Mg, Na, and Zn per unit weight than small
fish of 47 mm TL. Within each size group, fish kept at 50 or 200C
at salinities of 9 0/00 or 27 0/00 exhibited essentially the same
elemental composition after 30 days. However, fish held for 30
days when compared to those held only 3 days contained significantly
less Ca, Na, K, Mg, Zn, Cu, and Mn.
In another study on effects of seawater formulation,
feeding frequency, and medium replacement rate on whole body ele-
mental composition, changes were least pronounced during a 30-day
period among fish that were fed daily (vs weekly), that were held
in a seawater formulation developed by our laboratory (vs "natural"
sea water, or a commercial preparation), and among groups with the
medium replaced twice weekly (vs no replacement).
Selected data on elemental composition available for other
species of teleosts and elasmobranchs are presented and discussed.
157.
Eisler, R. and P.H. Edmunds. 1966. Effects of endrin on
blood and tissue chemistry of a marine fish. Trans.
Amer. Fish. Soc. 95:153-159.
Adult northern puffers, Sphaeroides maculatus, were ex-
posed to graded concentrations of endrin, a chlorinated hydrocarbon
insecticide, at 200C, 24 0/00 salinity, and pH 8.0. All animals sub-
jected to 0.01 mg/l of endrin died within 24 hours. At concentrations
of 0.001 mg/l of endrin, or lower, no mortality occurred within 96
hours.
Blood and tissue samples from fish surviving the 96-hour
exposure were analyzed by photoelectric colorimetry and atomic ab-
sorption spectroscopy. Mean hemoglobin content and relative liver
size of puffers exposed to endrin concentrations of .001, .0005, .0001,
or .00005 mg/l were not significantly different from those of controls.
Authors found no meaningful changes in levels of serum chloride, gamma-
globulin, and uric acid, but did find that the concentrations of sodium
,
potassium, calcium, and cholesterol in serum were consistently higher
70
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in experimental animals than in controls. Moreover, concentrations
of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and zinc in the livers of
test animals were consistently lower than in those of the controls.
Concentrations of the same cations in gill tissue fluctuated widely.
Exposure
liver function, as
the hepatic tissue
to sublethal concentrations of endrin impaired
evidenced by the transfer of major cations from
into the serum and by elevated serum cholesterol.
158.
Eisler, R. and M.P. Weinstein. 1967. Changes in metal com-
position of the quahaug clam, Mercenaria mercenaria, after
exposure to insecticides. Chesapeake Science 8:253-258.
Adult quahaug clams (Mercenaria mercenaria) in sea water
with a salinity of 24 parts per thousand, a pH value of 8.0, and a
temperature of 20oC, were subjected to ranges of concentrations of
malathion and methoxychlor; all survived exposure for 96 hours, in-
cluding those subjected to the highest concentrations of 37 mg/l
malathion and 1.0 mg/l methoxychlor. Atomic absorption analysis of
shelled clams and tissues showed, in comparison with control clams,
consistent changes in levels of sodium, potassium, magnesium, iron,
and especially calcium and zinc. Profile patterns of the metal con-
tents of tissues of insecticide-exposed and control clams are shown.
159.
Ellis, M.M. 1937. Detection and measurement of stream pol-
lution. u.S. Government Printing Office, Washington. u.S.
Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of Fisheries, Bull. No. 22 (from
Bull. u.S. Bur. Fish 48:365).
A collection of information, from the literature and from
the experimental and field work of various agencies, on the conditions
necessary if fish are to thrive and on the specific effects of various
types and components of polluting effluents. The first part, on the
physical and chemical characteristics of water suitable for fresh-
water fish, deals with methods of sampling water, mud, plankton, mus-
sels and fish, the equipment used for field studies, the determination
and effects on the fauna of the concentration of dissolved oyxgen, pH
value, ionisable salts (carbon dioxide, iron and ammonia), suspensoids,
depth, and temperature, and the effect of stream pollution on bottom
conditions. The section on the action of polluting materials on fish
deals with injuries to gills and external structures and with substances
which enter the body and exert true toxic action. The section on the
lethal action of specific substances discusses the use of goldfish and
Daphnia magna as test animals and gives tables of the results of inves-
tigations of the effects of osmotic pressure, sodium chloride, acids,
metallic compounds, sulphur and selenium compounds, and various other
compounds found in industrial wastes. Data are given of the limits of
toxicity of 114 substances found in polluting effluents.
71
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160.
Ellis, M.M. 1947. Toxicity of phenyl-mercuric lactate for
fish. U.S. Fish. Wild. Servo Spec. Sci. Rep. 42.
Tests were made to determine the toxicity to goldfish
(Carassius auratus) of phenyl-mercuric lactate which may be dis-
charged to streams in the waste waters from the processing of pulp.
Results showed that water at a pH value of 7.7 to 7.8 containing 0.5
mg/l or more phenyl-mercuric lactate, killed all of the fish in 16
hours or less. In concentrations of 0.05 mg/l or less the fish made
erratic movements but all survived. The lowest concentrations caused
death was about 0.10 mg/l. Phenyl-mercuric lactate coagulates the
gill tissues and the mucus film on the gill filaments and breathing
is affected. In poorly oxygenated water, fish succomb more rapidly
than in well-aerated water. Alteration in the pH value within the
limits pH 6.3 and 9.0 within which the fish are not affected by al-
kalinity or acidity, did not affect the toxic properties of phenyl-
mercuric lactate. In terms of the content of mercury, phenyl-mercuric
lactate is more than twice as toxic as mercuric chloride. The minimum
concentration of phenyl-mercuric lactate which is lethal to fish depends
partly on the species. Trout, minnows, and the gizzard shad have low
respiratory tolerance and will succumb at greater dilutions than gold-
fish which have a high respiratory tolerance.
161.
Ericksen, L.V. and K. Kaemmerer. 1960. The effect of mine
waste waters containing metal salts on the biological con-
ditions in a river system. Gas-u. Wasserfach 91:16-18.
As a result of damage to fish caused by water pumped from
workings where iron ore was mined, examinations were made at 11 points
over a 70-km stretch of the channel to which the waste water was pumped,
the stream into which the channel discharged, and the larger stream into
which the first stream flowed. The damaging effects had been ascribed
to lead but examination of the mine waters showed lead was present only
in traces. Nickel, iron, and manganese were found in mine water at
quantities of about 50 mg/l; the water was turbid and yellow. The
subsidiary stream above the channel carrying the mine waters and the
main stream above its confluence with the subsidiary stream were bio-
logically normal but after the addition of the mine waters there was
an almost complete absence of life for a stretch of some 50 km. Chemical
investigations and tests of toxicity showed that there was no direct
poisoning by the iron, manganese, or nickel salts and damage to fish
is ascribed to the presence of finely divided iron hydroxide which was
deposited on the skins and in the gills of the fish and on plankton.
Lower down the main stream, another tributary, carrying waste waters
from brown coal mines entered. Almost immediately the biological con-
dition of the water improved and normal water life rapidly returned.
It appeared that the finely divided iron hydroxide was absorbed on
suspended particles of brown coal.
72
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162.
Evans, D.H. 1967. Sodium, chloride and water balance of the
intertidal teleost, Xiphister atropurpureus. I. Regula-
tion of plasma concentration and body water content. J.
Exp. BioI. 47:513-517.
Studies were undertaken to determine the degree of regula-
tion of sodium, chloride and water displayed by the intertidal teleost,
Xiphister atropurpureus, over a range of salinities. The plasma con-
centrations of sodium and chloride declined by approximately 15% in
10% sea water (1100 mg-Na/kg) and the intracellular species increased
by approximately 6% in 10% sea water.
163.
Evans, D.H. 1967. Sodium, chloride and water balance of the
intertidal teleost, Xiphister atropurpureus. II. The role
of the kidney and the gut. J. Exp. BioI. 47:519-534.
The rate of loss of sodium, chloride and water via the urine
and the rate of intake of sodium, chloride and water by ingestion of
the medium was determined for the euryhaline teleost, Xiphister atro-
purpureus. The urinary losses of sodium and chloride were approximately
100 mg/kg fish/day in both 100% sea water (11,000 mg-Na/kg) and 10% sea
water. The ingestion of sodium and chloride by drinking the medium
amounted to approximately 90 mg/kg fish/day in 100% sea water and ap-
proximately 2 mg/kg fish/day in 10% sea water. The low rate of urine
flow in 10% sea water and the low drinking rate in 100% sea water
indicate a relative impermeability to sea water in both salinities.
164.
Evans, D.H. 1967. Sodium, chloride and water balance of the
intertidal teleost, Xiphister atropurpureus. III. The
roles of simple diffusion, exchange diffusion, osmosis and
active transport. J. Exp. BioI. 47:525-534.
The effluxes of 22Na, 36Cl and tritiated water from the eury-
haline teleost, Xiphister atropurpureus were determined in 100% sea
water (11,000 mg Na/kg) and 10% sea water. Only the flux of sodium
in 100% sea water contained an exchange diffusion component. The
relative impermeability of Xiphister is shown by its low fluxes of
sodium, chloride and water in both salinities. In 10% sea water the
permeability to sodium declines while the permeability to chloride
and water remained at sea water levels. In both salinities diffusion
and active transport are the major components of the sodium and chloride
balance of Xiphister.
165.
Ezell, H., L.L. Sulya, and C.L. Dodgen.
fragility of some fish erythrocytes
Compo Biochem. Physiol. 28:409-415.
1969. The osmotic
in hypotonic saline.
73
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Osmotic fragility curves of erythrocytes from eleven
species of marine teleosts from the Gulf of Mexico are of the normal
sigmoid type. The mean corpuscular fragility value is generally con-
sistent within a species but varies widely among the different species.
Two species of gars, Lepidosteus osseus and~. productus, have erythro-
cytes which are resistant to hemolysis in hypotonic sodium chloride
solutions.
166.
Farley, J. 1955.
plant growths.
Use of sodium arsenite for controlling aquatic
Publ. Wks. N.Y. 86 (7):73.
The Fish and Wildlife Service of the U.S. Department of the
Interior has found sodium arsenite effective in controlling submerged
aquatic plants. Its use is restricted to control of aquatic weeds but
discouraged in the larger isolated water areas which produce essential
plant food for wild fowl. Results obtained by application in powder
or liquid forms are discussed. Toxic effects of sodium arsenite make
careful handling essential where humans and cattle are concerned; fish
are less susceptible to the poison.
167.
Federov, A.F. 1963. Biological indicators of weak radioactive
contaminations in northern seas. Nauch. Dokl. Vyss. Shko1.,
Bio1. Nauk. 1:92-95.
The author describes a method for estimating the radioactivity
of sea water by means of crayfish. The beta activity of the crayfish
due to potassium-40 is determined, and from this the activity of the
sea water is estimated, using a corrective coefficient that characterized
the ability of the crayfish to concentrate the various radioactive iso-
topes found in the water.
168.
Fedii, S.P. 1959. Effect on fishery of drainage water from metal-
lurgical plants. Ryb. Khoz. 11:18-20. BioI. Abstracts 1967,
48:10820.
A study was made of the effect of metal works waste waters
on two reservoirs in U.S.S.R. When the reservoir was full, the con-
centration of iron in the water at a point 300 m from the outfall was
5 mg/I, and at a distance of 1 km it was 1 mg/1. When the water level
was low, the waste waters spread further into the reservoir and caused
death of fish, especially in winter.
169.
Feldt, W. 1966. Radiation protection aspects in the supervision
of fish in their radioactive contamination. Proc. Instint.
Congr. Radiat. Prot:395-400.
74
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The ecological role of strontium and caesium is reviewed
and experimental data are reported on the concentrations of strontium-
90 and caesium-137 in various species of marine and freshwater fish.
The use of the discrimination factor in calculations on contamination,
and the effect of the salt content on the concentration factor are
also considered. On the basis of these observations the planning of
a suitable superivsion program for fish is discussed, taking into ac-
count the possible transfer of radioactive isotopes from fish to man.
170.
Feldt, W. and J.Z. Lange. 1962. Contents of strontium-90 and
caesium-137 in bream from territorial waters of North Ger-
many. Lebensmittelunters u.-Forsch. 117:103-113.
Concentrations of strontium-90 and caesium-137 in bream
from flowing and still waters in north Germany were determined. Fish
from still waters contained higher concentrations of the nuclides,
and particularly of caesium-137 than fish from the river Elbe. Stron-
tium-90 was accumulated preferentially in tissues rich in calcium (bones),
but caesium-137 was accumulated mainly in tissues rich in potassium
(muscle).
171.
Fisher, A. 1956. The effect of copper sulphate on some micro-
organisms in fish ponds. Bamidgeh 8(3):39-43; Biol. Abstr.
33:708.
The effect of different concentrations of copper sulphate
on Daphnia, Cyclops, and chironomids in distilled, tap and pond water,
was studied. Daphnia was found to be most sensitive and Cyclops least
so. Toxicity increased with increase in concentration and increase in
temperature, and decreased with increase in pH value. With equal con-
centrations, the chemical was most toxic in distilled water and least
so in pond water. The addition of soil to pond water lowered the pH
value and thus increased the toxicity. Most of the copper remains in
the water and only a very small amount is retained by the soil.
172.
Fitzgerald, B.W. 1962. Zinc and zinc-65 in shellfish of Fishers
Island Sound and its estuaries. Dissertation Abstracts 23:
1522.
Oysters from Fishers Island Sound were placed in sea water
to which was added various zinc salts labelled with zinc-65, and
the effect of the different anions on the uptake of zinc was observed.
The results obtained indicated that the levels of zinc-65 in oysters
in this area are low compared with those obtained from the Pacific
coast of U.S.A. Complexing of the zinc considerably reduces the rate
and extent of uptake.
75
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173.
Fitzgerald, G.P. and S.L. Faust. 1963. Factors affecting
the algicidal and algistatic properties of copper. Appl.
Microbiol. 11:345-351.
Laboratory studies have indicated that 5 different sources
of copper (copper sulphate, a mixture of 1 part copper sulphate and
2 parts citric acid, and the commercial preparations Algeeclear,
Cuprose (Texas) and Cuprose (Nalco) are all equally effective as
toxic agents for algae, but the constituents of the medium in which
the tests are carried out have a marked effect on the results, the
source of iron used in the media being particularly important. Studies
carried out in bacteria-free media indicated that copper was just as
toxic when in a precipitated form as when in solution. A sub-culturing
technique is described for determining whether a certain concentration
of a chemical is algicidal, algistatic or non-toxic in action against
a specific alga.
174.
Fitzgerald,
Zinc-65
Science
B.W., J.S. Rankin, Jr. and D.M. Skauen. 1962.
levels in oysters in the Thames River (Connecticut).
135 (3507):926.
Results are given of studies, over a 12-month period, on
uptake of zinc-65 by oysters from three selected sites in the Thames
River, Conn. The highest levels of radioactivity were found in March
1961 oysters from a bed situated opposite the u.S. submarine base;
these contained 1632 ~~c per kg of moist tissue. Subsequently the
activity decreased. None of the samples assayed contained sufficient
activity to represent a hazard to health.
175.
Floch, H., R. Deschiens and Y.L. Corroller. 1963. The mollus-
cicidal properties of Chevreul's cupro-sulphite in the pro-
phylaxis of schistosomiasis. Bull. Soc. Path. exot. 56:
182-189.
Chevreul's copper sulphite is a selective molluscicide which
is recommended for the control of snail vectors of schistosomiasis in
rivers and fishponds. All Australorbis glabratus and Bulinus contortus
snails are killed in 3 days or less after exposure to 1 mg/l and in 5
days after exposure to 0.25 mg/l, while eggs of the snail Lymnaea
stagnalis are killed in 2 days at 10 mg/l but not in 1 day at 10 mg/l.
Copper sulphite also kills goldfish, guppies and sticklebacks in 1 day
at 90 mg/l; toad and frog tadpoles in 1 day at 15 mg/l, in 2 days at
10 mg/l, and in 3 days at 5 mg/l; dragonfly larvae in 1 day at 40 mg/l
or 3 days at 20 mg/l; Daphnia longispina in 1 day at 2 mg/l; the water
weed Lemnia media in 10 days at 10 mg/l; and green algae in 10 days at
10 mg/l. The residual activity of 1 mg/l of the chemical lasts for a
year at room temperature.
76
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176.
Folsom, T.R., O.R. Young, and C. Sreekumaran. 1969. An esti-
mate of the response rate of albacore to caesium. Proc.
2nd Natn. Symp. Radioecol., Ann Arbor 1967: 337-345.
To assist in ecological studies on the concentration of
caesium by fast-moving marine animals, such as the albacore (tuna).
a general form of mathematical framework has been adopted for con-
necting the dynamic response rate with the ultimate equilibrium in
the fish. From tabulated data on the concentrations of natural and
radioactive caesium in surface sea water and albacore samples from
the north-east Pacific in 1965-1966, it appears that albacore con-
centrate caesium to relatively high levels. The concept of accumu-
lation coefficient is explained and illustrated schematically as a
function of the change in concentration with time after the environ-
mental concentration has been increased by a known amount. The
response of fish to environmental concentrations which increase (or
decrease) uniformly is also considered, with a diagram showing the
hypothetical response of tissue in an idealized fish travelling at
uniform rate through an ocean which has a constant concentration
gradient. Analysis of data from the north-east Pacific Ocean gave
values of 106 ~ 4 for the accumulation coefficient and 19 ~ 6 days
for the biological half-life of radioactive caesium in albacore.
The data suggest that by 1966 the pattern of fallout derived from
the nuclear tests of 1961-62 had become distorted by the major cur-
rents in the area. Late in 1965, the surface concentration tended
to persist downwards to a depth of at least 200 m but in 1967, at
several points, intense concentrations (sometimes 2-3 times the sur-
face value) persisted at depths near 100 m which are reached by tuna-
food organisms and frequently by tuna themselves; this stratification
is being studied.
177.
Fontaine, M., and R. Vibert. 1952. Anadromous migration of
the salmon, Salmo salar L., and salinity gradient. Ann.
Sta. Cent. Hydrobiol. Appl. 4:339-345.
To determine whether salmon, in migrating upstream to the
breeding grounds, were guided by decrease in the concentration of
salts, measurements were made of the electrical conductivity of the
water in the river Adour and its tributary system and points on the
course followed by the majority of fish. Results showed that al-
though the general tendency was for the electrical conductivity to
decrease from the lower reaches, unaffected by tidal water, to the
upper reaches there was one reach where the gradient was reversed
owing to the high concentration of salts in water of the tributary.
Salmon apparently migrated against this increasing concentration of
salts and it was concluded that salt concentration was not a guiding
factor for the particular species (Salmo salar) investigated.
77
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178.
Foreman, E.E., and W.L. Templeton. 1958.
conium-95 and niobium-95 by Porphyra
Energy Authority, R&DB(W) TN-187: 16
The uptake of zir-
sp. U.S. Atomic
pp.
Experilnents were carried out at Windscale, Cumb., to
determine the rate and extent of uptake of the radioactive iso-
topes zirconium-95 and niobium-95 by the edible seaweed, Porphyra
umbilicalis. The half-lives and the maximum permissible concentra-
tions of the radio-isotopes in water supplies are given. The con-
centration factors of both isotopes in Porphyra after 34 and 73 days
in sea water of constant activity, were determined. Studies were
also made on the release of zirconium and niobium from the radioactive
seaweed; the loss in radioactivity after 6 and 65 days was 50 per cent
and 96 per cent respectively.
179.
Foster, R.F. and .I.F. Honstead. 1967. Accumulation of zinc-
65 from prolonged consumption of Columbia river fish.
Health Physics 13:39-43.
Fish caught in the Columbia river, Washington, downstream
from the Hanford reactors were eaten once each week for more than a
year to obtain information on the amount of radioactivity that might
be accumulated by persons living in the neighborhood. During a 12-
month period about 11 kg of fish were consumed, amounting to about
3000 nc of phosphorus-32 and 800 nc of zinc-65. The accumulation
of zinc-65 in the consumer was measured weekly in a whole-body
counter and it was found that the maximal body burden of about
130 nc was reached on the 104th day and again on the 3l0th day.
After the initial increase to equilibrium the body burden was about
7 times the weekly intake, and this was greater than anticipated
from published data. The reduction of zinc-65 body burden following
the last meal of contaminated fish was observed for 511 days, indi-
cating an effective half-life of 162 days.
180.
Foster, R.F., and P.A. Olson. 1951. An incident of high
mortality among large rainbow trout after treatment with
pyridlymercuric acetate. Progr. Fish-Cult. 13:129-130.
An account is given of the use of pyridylmercuric acetate
(PMA) to control infection of salmonoid fish by Chondrococcus
columnaris. PMA in a concentration of 2 mg/l was administered for
1 hour to yearling trout but 13% of the fish died. Two weeks later
a similar treatment caused the loss of 10% of the fish. No fish died
after a third treatment when the fish were not fed until 24 hours after
the administration of PMA. An outbreak of Ch. columnaris and infection
by Ichthyophthirius occurred in two ponds and to eliminate the latter,
treatment was given three times with salt and once with roccal.PMA was
administered to study its effect on the bacterial infection. Very few
fish died as a result of this treatment but 11 days later when PMA was
used again there was a heavy loss of fish.
-78-
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181.
Fowler, S.W. and L.F. Small. 1967. Molting of Euphausia
pacifica as a possible mechanism for vertical transport
of zinc-65 in the sea. Int. J. Oceanol. Limnol. 1:237-
245.
Studies have shown that in the presence of large concen-
trations of zinc-65 (10-25 ~c/l) considerable amounts of the iso-
tope are taken up by the exoskeleton of Euphausia pacifica. Since
this organism is abundant in the North Pacific, with a moulting
frequency of 5 days, it is suggested that accumulation of zinc-65
in the exoskeleton could be a major mechanism of vertical trans-
port of the isotope.
182.
Fowler, S.W., L.F. Small, and J.F. Dean.
of zinc-65 in euphausiids. Proc. 2nd
Radioecology. USAEC Conf. 67053, Ann
1967:399-412.
1969. Metabolism
Nat. Symp. of
Arbor, Mich.
Authors studied uptake and retention of 65Zn by the
pelagic crustaceans Euphausia pacifica and Thysanoessa spinifera.
Experiments were performed at three temperatures (5, 10, and l50C)
and two concentrations of radiozinc (10 and 25 ~Ci/l). Weight-
specific uptake and elimination of 65Zn by dead (formalin-preserved)
animals and by live animals (before molting) were statistically simi-
lar over all temperatures and 65Zn concentrations tested. Molted
exoskeletons averaged 41% of total live body activity. Dissection
of euphausiids into exoskeleton, eyes, and muscle and gut combined
showed that the largest fraction of radiozinc was always associated
with the exoskeleton. The second largest fraction was associated
with muscle and gut, with a smaller fraction in the eyes and body
fluid. Autoradiographs showed that 65Zn mainly was located on the
exoskeleton and between the muscle fibers, not intra-myofibrillar.
Weight-specific activity varied inversely with weight, suggesting
a surface area phenomenon for uptake and loss.
An inverse linear relationship between animal weight and
percentage of total activity in exoskeletons, with a concomitant
positive linear relationship between animal weight and percentage
of total activit~ in muscle and gut, also suggested that uptake and
elimination of 6 Zn were largely a function of surface area. The
Q10 for 65Zn uptake (5-l50C) was almost twice that for oxygen con-
sumption. The relationships between 65Zn uptake and dry weight,
and between oxygen consumption and dry weight, varied by an order
of magnitude. Authors conclude from this evidence that 65Zn uptake
from water is neither directly nor indirectly related to euphausiid
metabolism. Some of the factors that make radiozinc uptake a poor
index of metabolism (particularly molting) are responsible for making
euphausiids potentially important in the cycling of radioactivity
from "hot" pools in the sea.
79
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183.
Fowler, S.W., L.F. Small, and J.M. Dean. 1970. Distribution
of ingested zinc-65 in the tissues of some marine crusta-
ceans. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 27:1051-1058.
Autoradiographs of tissues of euphausiids and shrimps fed
65Zn through a food chain showed the isotope located primarily in
the interstitial spaces between muscle fibers, in the eye, within
the exoskeleton, and on the interior surface of the exoskeleton.
Comparisons of the autoradiographic evidence with concentrations of
radio zinc and stable zinc in the various dissected tissues were in
good agreement. The specific areas of 65Zn localization were much
the same as those seen in an earlier study of similar organisms that
accumulated 65Zn directly from sea water; thus, it appears that 65Zn,
and therefore zinc, is highly labile in marine crustaceans and will
accumulate in certain specific locations regardless of the mode of
uptake. The rates at which various tissues became saturated with
65Zn were dependent upon mode of uptake. However, because most of
the 65Zn was located intercellularly and not intracellularly, most
ingested zinc apparently accumulates in excess of the animals' needs
and is not used ~etabolically.
184.
Friend, A.G. 1963. The aqueous behavior of strontium-85,
cesium-137, zinc-65, and cobalt-60, as determined by
laboratory-type studies. In Transport of radionuclides
in freshwater systems. Report of a meeting held at Univ.
of Texas, January 30-February 1, 1963. U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission, Div. Technical Information TID-7664:
43-60.
Aquarial studies were designed to determine the effects
of the principal cations occurring in natural waters (calcium,
magnesium, sodium and potassium) on the uptake of strontium-85,
cesium-137, zinc-65 and cobalt-60 by small bluegill fish. Results
so far indicate that, over the range of concentration 0.2-20 mg/l
only calcium has any effect on the uptake of strontium; as the
concentration of calcium is increased, the uptake of strontium is
depressed. The shallow freshwater pond used for the semi-natural
studies was lined with black polyethylene to permit retention of
added radionuclides and allow a radionuclide mass balance at the
end of the experiment. Spring water, washed sand, clay samples,
and the selected biota (fish, clams, snails, and tadpoles) were
added to the lined pond; and after about one month an aqueous
mixture of the test radionuclides was distributed over the surface
by a pump and hose.
Cobalt-60, zinc-65 and cesium-137 were rapidly lost by
the water to other pond media, the losses being respectively about
73, 60, and 47% after 1 day and 92, 96, and 95 per cent after 4
80
-------
days. However, there was little loss of strontium-85 from the
water, as would be expected in view of the high concentrations of
calcium in the system. Only a small amount of strontium-85 became
associated with the suspended solids, but cobalt-60, zinc-65, and,
to a lesser extent, cesium-137 were taken up rapidly. These results
were similar to those from field studies. The uptake of cesium-137
by samples of illite, kaolinite, and montmorillonite clays immersed
in the pond is shown graphically and data are also tabulated for
the maximum uptake of cobalt, zinc, strontium and cesium. The
highest level of uptake was that for strontium-85 on montmorillonite.
The uptake by calcium montmorillonite was generally greater than that
by natural sodium montmorillonite, probably owing to the greater
permeability of the calcium clay paste; but there were no differences
in the uptake by calcium, sodium, or natural forms of kaolinite.
Chemical studies on the state of the radionuclides adsorbed in the
pond indicated that for illite clay most of the cobalt-60 was in
the acid-soluble or the reductant-soluble form; up to 60% of the
zinc-65 and 75-85% of the cesium-137 were irreversibly fixed in the
clay; and about 85% of the strontium-85 was in an easily-exchange-
able form. From the fractionation studies, it is suggested that
the removal of radionuclides from the water in the pond experiment
can be attributed to specific components of the pond sediments,
zinc-65 and cesium-137 being removed by the illitic clays, strontium-
85 by the carbonates and oxides, and cobalt-60 by both the acid-
soluble carbonates and oxides and by the reductant-soluble iron
oxides. The accumulation of radionuclides by carp was consistently
greater than that by bluegills, probably owing to their feeding at
different trophic levels. Cobalt-60 and zinc-65 were taken up
rapidly and cesium-137 less rapidly by both fish, their concen-
trations reaching a maximum value, but the concentration of strontium-
85 continually increased in both the bone and the flesh of both
fish. Uptake of these four radionuclides by clams was similar to
that in fish.
185.
Fromm, P.O. and R.M. Stokes. 1962. Assimilation and metab-
olism of chromium by trout. J. Water Pollut. Control
Feder. 34:1151-1155.
Experiments in which trout (Salmo gairdneri) were exposed
to different concentrations of chromium as chromate, showed that the
fish can accumulate chromium from water containing as little as 0.001
mg/l. With concentrations of chromium below 0.01 mg/l, uptake of
chromium became constant after exposure for 10 days, indicating that
excretion was equal to uptake. As uptake of chromium by fish is a
passive phenomenon, the amount accumulated depends on the concentra-
tion in the water and the period of exposure. The in vitro respiration
of pyloric caeca, liver and kidney tissue from fish exposed to 1
mg/l of chromium for up to 39 days was not significantly different
81
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from that of control fish. With regard to the disposal of chromium
waste waters these results indicate that short-term exposure to
relatively l~rge slugs of chromium would be less harmful to fish
than prolonged exposure to very low concentrations. It is not ad-
visable to discharge chromium waste waters into a small static body
of water as the maximum concentration of chromium that can be tolerated
, .
indefinitely by aquatic animals has not yet been establlshed.
186.
Fujihara, M.P. and R.T. O'Brien. 1964. Toxicity of deuterium
oxide to the freshwater fish Aequidans portalagrensis:
survival of embryos and young fish. U.S. Atom. Ener.
Comm. HW-SA-3627: 10 p.
Studies on the toxicity of deuterium oxide to eggs and
young of the cichlid Aequidans portalagrensis showed that the sen-
sitivity of the eggs depended on the stage of development, the
earliest stages being more sensitive; no eggs survived in 40%
deuterium oxide. Young fish of various ages survived in 30% deuterium
oxide, but a concentration of 40% was lethal.
187.
Fujiya, M. 1960. Studies on the effects of copper dissolved
in sea water on oysters. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish. 26:
462-468.
Regressive changes were found in the digestive diverticulum
tissue, with desquamation and necrosis of the stomach epithelium in
oysters cultured in water containing copper at 0.1-0.5 ppm for 2
weeks. The 96-hour TL-50 value in 30 0/00 seawater, pH 8.2 at l20C =
1.9 mg/l.
188.
Fukai, R., H. Suzuki, and K. Watanake. 1962. Strontium-90 in
marine organisms during the period 1957-1961. Bull. Inst.
Oceanogr. Monaco 1251: 16 p.
Various marine organisms, including seaweed Eisena bicyclis,
crustaceans (decapods, myeidaceans, euphausids), tuna, salmon, sardine,
herring, clam (Tapes japonica), and starfish (Astropecten scoparius,
Distolasterias nipon, Ceramaster japonicus, ~. quinari~ collected
over the period 1957-1961 were analysed for strontium-90. The results
indicate that the concentration of strontium-90 in marine organisms
was generally lower than in terrestrial organisms during the same
period. The concentration of Sr-90 varied from species to species
in the same group of organisms and also varied within the same species,
depending on the date and place of collection. SOIne organisms col-
lected in 1959 at depths greater than 1000 m contained strontium-90,
suggesting transport of strontium from the surface to the deep layer.
In spite of relatively wide variations of stable strontium content
82
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among various species, the ratios of strontium to calcium by weight
were fairly constant within the same group of organisms, and the
strontium:calcium ratio obtained suggests the relative discrimination
of strontium to calcium by marine organisms in their metabolic pro-
cesses.
189.
Gaglione, P. and O. Ravera. 1964. Manganese-54 concentration
in fallout, water and Unio mussels of lake Maggiore, 1960-
1963. Nature 204:1215-1216.
It is considered that the ability of Unio mancus var.
elongatulus to concentrate manganese-54 in its tissues might be
used to detect low-level contamination of the environment by this
isotope. The concentrations of manganese-54 in water from lake
Maggiore, Italy, fallout, and Unio were measured during 1960-1963
and the results, which are compared graphically, show that the mussel
could be used to indicate the extent of contamination by radioactive
manganese. During this period the increase in concentration of
manganese-54 in the mussels due to increasing size (calculated to be
about 11%) was negligible compared with the total increase, but it
could be significant in some circumstances. The distribution of
manganese-54 in the body of the mussel is reported and compared with
that of the stable isotope. It was found that Anodonta cygnea also
has a marked ability to concentrate manganese in its tissues, but to
a lesser degree than Unio.
190.
Gard~r, K. and O. Skulberg. 1965. Radionuclide accumulation
by Anodonta piscinalis Nilsson (Lamellibrachiata) in a
continuous flow system. Hydrobiologia 26:151-169.
To study the long-term accumulation of radioactive iso-
topes by a freshwater lamellibranch, Anodonta piscinalis, under
conditions similar to its natural environment, test animals were
exposed over a period of 125 days to controlled concentrations of
selected radionuclides in a model channel through which water was
pumped continuously from a nearby river; a control channel was also
operated to determine the effects of variations in background radio-
activity. The accumulation of radionuclides was determined in the
body and valve portions of the organisms. Individual isotopes studied,
in decreasing order of affinity for the animals, were phosphorus-32,
strontium-89, cerium-144, ruthenium-l03, cesium-13?, and zirconium-
95/niobium-95. After exposure for one month, the radioactivity had
reached an approximately constant level in both the body and valve
portions of the animal; and subsequently the level of radioactivity
fluctuated, probably owing to seasonal and physiological changes.
83
-------
191.
Gardner, G.R. and P.P. Yevich. 1970. Histological and hema-
tolugical responses of an estuarine teleost to cadmium.
J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 27:2185-2196.
Pathological changes attributable to cadmium poisoning
were observed in the intestinal tract, the kidney, and the gills of
Fupdulus heteroclitus after exposure to 50 mg/l of the metal. Micro-
sCbpic examination revealed pathological changes of the intestinal
tract as early as 1 hour after exposure, in the kidney after 12 hours,
arid in the gill filaments and respiratory lamellae after 20 hours.
These manifestations of cadmium poisoning bear resemblance to the
pathological changes that have been demonstrated clinically and ex-
perimentally in mammals.
The examination of circulating blood elements revealed
rapid and striking changes among cells of the eosinophil lineage.
The abundance of eosinophils increases steadily to a level approxi-
mately 45% above the usual amount. Indications of the cellular
increase occurred as an early rise four hours after exposure.
A reduction in the relative numbers of mature eosinophils
was evident in imprints of head kidney tissue. Nuclear anomalies
were associated with the thrombocytes of specimens after eight hours
exposure; however, these changes were not noticeable at either earlier
or later time periods.
192.
Getsova, A.B. and G.A. Volkova. 1964. Accumulation of radio-
active isotopes of phosphorus, yttrium, iodine and mercury
by larvae of aquatic insects. 2001. 2h. 43:1077, Nuclear
Science Abstracts 1965. 19:5270.
In experiments on the uptake of radioactive isotopes by
aquatic invertebrates, larvae of 7 typical aquatic insects were
placed in separate aquaria containing pond water to which was added
10 ~c of iodine-13l, mercury-203, phosphorus-32 or yttrium-9l, per
liter. The radioactivity of the insects and the water was measured
after 2, 4, 8, and 16 days. Yttrium and mercury Ivere accumulated to
the greatest extent by most species, phosphorus had a high coefficient
of accumulation in only two species, and iodine was accumulated to
only a small extent in all species.
193.
Gileva, E.A. 1960. Accumulation coefficients of seven radio-
isotopes by three freshwater algae. C.R. Acad. Sci. V.R.S.S.
132:948-949.
Limited experiments on the uptake of sulphur-35, calcium-45,
iron-59, coba1t-60, zinc-65, rubidium-86 and zirconium-95 by ScenedesmuE
84
-------
Cladophora, and Spirogyra showed that iron, zinc and zirconium were
taken up strongly, rubidium and calcium less so, and sulphur and
cobalt only slightly. Uptake by the single celled alga Scenedesmus
was much weaker than by the filamentous algae. The results confirm
the feasibility of using algae to purify radioactive waste waters.
194.
Glaser, R. 1966. Exchange and metabolism of trace elements
in freshwater mussels with special reference to accumula-
tion mechanisms of radionuclides. 2001. Jb. Abt. Allgem.
2001. Physio. 72:1-114.
Experiments have shown that cobalt-58, zinc-65, zirconium-
95, and cerium-133, are intensively concentrated in the shells and
tissues of Dreissensia polymorpha, but concentration of caesium-137
is less intense and reaches a saturation factor of about 22 in the
muscle within 1 month. The resorption of cobalt, zinc and cerium
by the gastro-intestinal tract was greater than that of the other
metals studied. Uptak~ of the nuclides was reduced or prevented by
addition of EDTA. Formalin had no effect on uptake by the byssus or
shell but did increase the permeability of the tissues.
195.
Glazunov, V.V., V.P. Parchevski and D.G. Fleishman. 1963.
The variation of the fission product content of Cystoseira
in the Black Sea. Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 152:1222-1224.
Determinations of radioactivity of samples of brown sea-
weed (Cystoseira barbata) from the Black Sea over a period of years
indicates that fission products accumulate in the seaweed and are
removed from the water as it dies and settles out in the sediment.
196.
Gohar, H.A.F., S.E.E. Hashish, A. Hassan, and K. Moulokhia.
1964. An experimental study of strontium-90 contained in
marine animals following possible release of radioactive
waste in sea water. 3rd U.N. Conf. Peaceful Uses Atom.
Ener. ALCONF. 28/P/8ll:l5 p. Nuclear Science Abstracts,
1964, 18:4940-4941.
The authors discuss the uptake and release of strontium-
90 by the soft tissues and shells of the gastropod Nerita forskalii
recluz, which normally contains high concentrations of strontium in
the shell and occurs widely in the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and warmer
parts of other oceans.
197.
Goncalves, N.B. and R.D.R.L. Soares.
activity of copper ricinoleate.
7:445-454; Biol. Abstr. 31:3518.
1955. Molluscicide
Rev. bras. Malariol.
85
-------
Experiments in an artificial pond showed that even low con-
centration of copper ricinoleate had greater immediate and delayed
molluscicidal effect on Australorbis glabratus than had either copper
sulphate or pentachlorophenol. A 1.25% alcohol solution sprayed round
the edge of the pond killed 95% of the snails within 1 hour. The
compound is cheap and easily prepared; and in water it forms a stable
emulsion with a tendency to deposit very fine particles on vegetation,
thus prolonging its toxic effect.
198.
Goodman, J. 1951. Toxicity of zinc for rainbow trout (Salmo
gairdnerii). Calif. Fish Game 37(2):191-194.
The toxicity of zinc to rainbow trout was studied, and it
was shown that 6 mg/l zinc was lethal to fingerling rainbow trout
exposed for 48 hrs. or less. Fish that were 4 weeks old or less could
not tolerate 4 mg/l but with increase in age tolerance was developed.
199.
Gordon, M.S. 1959. Osmotic and ionic regulation in Scottish
brown trout and sea trout (Salmo trutta L.). J. Exp.
Biol. 36:253-260.
Adult brown trout (Salmo trutta L.) of both sea-run (sea
trout) and freshwater stream (brown trout) forms were captured in
the vicinity of Aberdeen and acclimatized to full-strength sea
water for periods of up to five months.
Blood serum samples from these fish were analysed for
freezing-point depression, chloride, sodium and potassium concen-
trations.
The patterns of regulation of these concentrations are
very nearly the same in both forms. Brown trout and sea trout, at
least in eastern Scotland, thus appear to be virtually identical in
osmotic and ionic regulatory abilities. However, there is a pos-
sibility that there is a difference between the two forms with res-
pect to mechanisms controlling blood acid-base balance.
The patterns of regulation shown by
same as those shown by American hatchery fish
different populations of the species seem not
icantly from one ar.other in this regard after
more or less complete genetic isolation.
Scottish fish are the
treated similarly. The
to .have diverged signif-
many generations of
The species Salmo trutta is strongly homoiosmotic. Internal
concentrations are either unchanged or increase by less than 10%
above freshwater levels with long-term acclimatizations to half and
full sea water. The brown trout is the first salmonid species known
to regulate so well.
86
-------
200.
Gordon, M.S. 1959. Ionic regulation in the brown trout (Salmo
trutta L.). J. Exp. Biol. 36:227-252.
The osmotic and ionic regulatory abilities of adults of the
euryhaline brown trout (Salmo trutta) have been studied in exp~riments
roughly duplicating the stresses of migration from freshwater to the
sea. Brown trout will survive indefinitely in full sea water if ac-
climatized to it at rates inversely related to the temperature.
Blood serum samples have been analysed for Na, K, CI, and
total P; muscle samples for Na, K, Cl and total solids. Changes in
the concentrations of these constituents following transfers from
fresh water to 50% and 100% sea water have been studied. Transfers
were made throughout the year and at temperatures of 100 and 200C.
Following transfers to 50% sea water at 200C, blood concen-
trations rose significantly above fresh-water levels, but returned
very nearly to these levels after about a week. Transfer from 50%
sea water to 100% sea water at 200C, caused the same sequence of
changes. Transfer to 100% sea water at 20oC, was fatal, and associated
with very high serum concentrations. Many fish survived transfer to
100% sea water at 100C, however, and showed evidence of internal con-
centrations returning to fresh-water levels after 10 days. The brown
trout is strongly homoiosmotic on a long-term basis.
Both
summer. There
concentrations
survival and regulatory ability were lower during the
were also seasonal variations in the blood and muscle
of fish in a given state of acclimatization.
Muscle concentration changes closely paralleled blood changes.
Extracellular volume remained constant, so muscle concentration changes
were attributable to changes in intracellular water. The muscles did
not act as storage sites for sodium and potassium.
201.
Gordon, M.S. 1963. Chloride exchanges in rainbow trout (Salmo
gairdneri) adapted to different salinities. BioI. Bull. 124:
45-54.
Estimates of rates of exchange of body chloride, both total
exchanges and exchanges across the integument and by way of the gut
and kidneys, have been made in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) ac-
climatized to various salinities between fresh water and sea water
(salinity 32 0/00). Radioactive chlorine-36 was used as a tracer of
chloride movements.
Neither total Cl exchanges nor integumentary exchanges varied
in proportion with changes in the magnitude of the trans integumentary
osmotic gradients maintained by the fish. This result is interpreted
-87-
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as indicating that changes in the permeability to water
(probably primarily the gills) are an important part of
adaptation process in rainbow trout.
of the integument
the salinity
Laboratory diuresis and exchange diffusion of chloride are
discussed as possible complications in this interpretation.
202.
Grabske, R. 1966. A survey of the responses of rat-liver
chrondria to simple metal cations. U.S. Atomic Energy
mission Document No. UCRL-50l68: 18 p.
mito-
Com-
Isolated rat-liver mitochondria, incubated in a medium con-
taining succinate inorganic phosphate, KC1, and Tris, were exposed to
50 different metal cations. Recordings were made of changes in respira-
tion, pH, and light scattering in response to the added metal ions.
The iuns tested were classed as respiratory stimulators, respiratory
inhibitors, and inducers of mitochondrial swelling. The response to
Ba was qualitatively similar to the responses of Ca, Sr, and Mn,
indicating that Ba may be actively transported by rat-liver mitochondria
by a mechanism similar to the well-known transport systems of Ca, Sr,
and Mn. Cu, Ag, Au, Zn, Cd, and Hg all induced mitochondrial swelling
and, with the exception of Au, inhibited respiration. Cu, Ag, and Cd,
however, briefly stimulated respiration prior to its ultimate inhibition.
The elements of the lanthanide series induced a slight amount of swelling,
but did not effect respiration. Of the 50 ions tested, 23, one of which
was Pb, were apparently inert.
203.
Grande, M. 1967. Effect of copper and zinc on salmonid fishes.
Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. Water Pollution Research, Munich, 1966.
1:96-111.
In connection with investigations on copper-zinc pollution
in a salmon and trout river in northern Norway, laboratory experiments
were carried out on the effects of these metals on the eggs, fry, and
fingerlings of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), brown trout (Salmo trutta),
and rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). In the experiments with fry in
the yolk-sac stage there was little or no mortality during exposure
for 21 days to concentrations up to 0.04-0.06 mg of copper and 0.5-
1.0 mg of zinc, per liter; there was evidence that brown trout were
slightly more tolerant to both metals than were rainbow trout and salmon.
Concentrations of copper as low as 0.02 mg/l appeared to have certain
sublethal effects on salmon fingerlings, but this was not observed with
zinc. In the experiments with eggs, it was found that small additions
of copper and zinc reduced che percentage of eggs hatching, and the
survival of salmon eggs was affected by concentrations of zinc lower
than those that had any effect on the fry. Low concentrations of
zinc also delayed the hatching of salmon eggs and, to a lesser extent,
-88-
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of brown trout eggs, when live salmon eggs that were overdue in hatching
were punctured to release the larvae into the zinc solution, the larvae
developed normally, and it is suggested that the zinc effects the enzymic
processes that cause softening of the capsule a few hours before hatching.
Further experiments to investigate the effect of soluble organic matter
on the toxicity of copper and zinc indicated that the toxicity was re-
duced, probably as a result of metals being complexed by the organic
compour-ds.
204.
Greenfield, L.J. 1964. Uptake of radionuclides by micro-organisms.
Emphasis upon the mechanism of uptake of calcium in marine
bacteria compared with the mollusc, Strombus gigas. U.S.
Atom. Ener. Cornrn. TID-20499: 62 p.
To investigate the source of calcium carbonate in the
formation of marine molluscan shells, studies were made with the im-
mature queen conch, Strombus gigas, using sodium carbonate labelled
with carbon-14 as a source of inorganic carbonate, and L-alanine,
labelled with carbon-14, L-serine and L-glutamic acid as organic
sources. The uptake of the labelled compounds and of calcium-45 (as
calcium chloride) was determined in relation to the physical activity
of the animal. It was found that the conch can use many substances
dissolved in sea water as a source of carbonate, and that the site of
absorption is not limited to the gut wall. Studies were also made on
the role of marine bacteria in biological calcification in the sea
using Pseudomonas piscicida, a bacterium found in shallow-water marine
sediments; calcium-45 and alanine labelled with carbon-14 were used as
tracers. It was concluded that at least two mechanisms are directly
involved in the uptake of calcium and magnesium from sea water by f.
piscicida, and that as the cells age increased amounts of calcium car-
bonate are deposited, but deposition of magnesium carbonate remains
relatively constant.
205.
Grindley, J. 1946. Toxicity to rainbow trout and minnows of
some substances known to be present in waste waters dis-
charged to rivers. Ann. Appl. Biol. 33: 103 Df.
The toxicity to fish of a given substance is affected by
the type of water in which the substance is dissolved, the concen-
tration of the poison, the temperature, the pH value, and the degree
of oxygenation of the solution, and the species, size, and condition
of the fish. Some of the substances used were dissolved in Watford
tap water and others in aerated distilled water. Aeration was continued
during the tests. Minnows of unknown age and rainbow trout about 1
year old and 75 to 100 mm long were used as test animals. In tests
with sodium arsenite and sodium arsenate in tap water it was found
that neutralized solutions of sodium arsenite were more toxic to
-89-
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minnows than were solutions of sodium arsenate containing an equal
concentration of arsenic. Minnows overturned aftQr 36 hours in a
solution of sodium arsenite containing about 20 mg/l arsenic, and
after about 16 hours in a solution of sodium arsenate containing
about 250 mg/l arsenic. The fish did not recover after removal to
fresh water.
The only solution of zinc Sulphate tested was one con-
taining 25 mg/l zinc in distilled water; the mean period of survival
of trout in this solution before overturning was 133 minutes. All
fish died after transfer to fresh water. In tests with solutions
of potassium chromate and potassium dichromate in distilled water
the temperature was maintained at l8oC; the pH value was not ad-
justed. At equivalent concentrations of chromium, solutions of
potassium dichromate were more toxic than solutions of potassium
chromate. In solutions containing 20 mg/l chromium and in which
the pH value was greater than 5.0, trout survived for about 60
hours in solutions of potassium chromate and for about 72 hours in
solutions of potassium dichromate. As the content of chromium was
increased the pH value of solutions of dichromate was reduced and
the toxicity increased more rapidly than did that of solutions of
chromate. The toxicity of solutions of potassium chromate was al-
most proportional to the concentration of dissolved chromium, but
with solutions of potassium dichromate the toxicity increased rapidly
up to the equivalent of 400 mg/l chromium. Between 400 and 1000 mg/l
the toxicity increased only slightly, and above 1000 mg/l the
toxicity increased rapidly again. The limiting concentrations below
which solutions of potassium chromate and potassium dichromate were
non-toxic to rainbow trout appeared to be equivalent to slightly
less than 30 mg/l chromium. Some fish which had been immersed in
the lower concentrations of chromate, and some which had been in
solutions of dichromate, recovered on transfer to fresh water. The
fish which recovered after being in solutions of dichromate were
usually those which had been the first to overturn; this suggests
that the fish were affected by the acidity of the solution rather
than by any specific toxic effect of the dichromate. In tests on
the toxicity of ammonium compounds, yearling rainbow trout were im-
mersed in solutions of ammonium chloride and ammonium sulphate in
distilled water, in tap water, and in mixtures of distilled water
and tap water. When equivalent amounts of the two salts were dis-
solved in equal volumes of the same type of water there was no ap-
preciable difference in the toxicity of the two solutions; with both
salts the toxicity was greater when dissolved in hard water than in
distilled water. In distilled water the limiting concentration below
which solutions of the ammonium salts were non-toxic was probably
equivalent to slightly less than 100 mg/I ammonia; in tap water solu-
tions containing 50 mg/l aIT@onia were slightly toxic to trout. Only
a small porportion of the fish which had overturned recovered o~ being
transferred to fresh water.
-90-
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206.
Guskova, V.N. and L.N. Guffein. 1964. Some experimental data
on the effect of natural uranium on the sanitary condition
of a body of water. Radioakt. Izotop. Gidrobiol. Metod.
Sanit. Gidrobiol., Moscow-Leningrad: 21-28. Biological
Abstracts 1966)47:6774.
Experiments have shown that the presence of up to 0.5 mg/l
of uranium disturbs the oxygen balance of water and inhibits the
development of enteric bacteria such as Escherichia coli; concen-
trations up to 5 mg/l inhibit biochemical oxidation; and a concen-
tration of 100 mg/l kills water fleas in 1-2 days. Uranyl nitrate
affects mineralization processes for a considerable distance beyond
the point of entry into the water.
207.
Gustafson, P.F. 1967. Comments on radionuclides in aquatic
ecosystems. Proc. Int. Symp. Radioecol. Concent. Process.
1966, Stockholm: 853-858.
After reviewing data which show that the concentration of
cesium-137 is generally 1-2 orders of magnitude greater in freshwater
fish than in ocean fish, probably owing to the higher concentration
of potassium in ocean water, the author reports investigations on the
metabolic behavior of cesium-137 in Red Lake, Minn., involving analyses
of water, bottom deposits, and various species of fish. Data are
tabulated showing that the 3 trophic levels of fish which form a food
chain concentrate cesium-137 by factors of 2 and 5 going from mixed
small fish to perch and from perch to northern pike, and there are
corresponding increases in the ratio of cesium-137:potassium. The
overall concentration factor from lake water to edible fish was 2760.
Bottom deposits showed uniform concentrations of cesium-137 in the
lake proper, with an accumulation near the mouth of the principal
river flowing into the lower lake. Comparing data for previous seasons,
fish showed increasing levels of cesium~137 up to 1965, suggesting that
the concentrations of cesium-137 in fish depend on the total accumulation
of the isotope in the lake ecosystem, rather than upon the rate of ac-
cumulation. Manganese-54 and zinc-65 were also detected in salmon, and
observations on other fish tended to verify the hypothesis that these
2 isotopes are retained only by euryhaline fish, as a result of their
unique osmoregulatory system.
208.
Gustafson, P.F. 1969. Cesium-137 in freshwater fish during
1954-65. Proc. 2nd Nat. Symp. on Radioecology. U.S.A.E.C.
Conf. 670503: 249-257.
Concentrations of l37Cs from worldwide fallout have been
determined in swmples of small perch and walleyes preserved in alcohol
taken from Red Lakes, Minnesota, during 1954 through 1965. Measurements
-91-
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were made in bulk samples by means of gamma ray spectrometry. Col-
lections of fish made each year during the month of July, from near
the same location within the lake, were provided by Professor Lloyd
Smith of the University of Minnesota.
The deposition rate and the total accumulation of l37Cs in
the Red Lakes area were derived from data obtained elsewhere in the
region by aaking corrections for differences in local precipitation.
The l37Cs levels observed in fish changed fairly rapidly in response
to changes in fallout rate; however, there was a substantial contri-
bution from the accumulated deposition of this radionuclide in the
aquatic ecosystem which acts as a sink for this radionuclide. Solu-
tion of a mathematical expression relating to the concentration of
l37Cs in fish to the total amount of l37Cs present in the lake and
its rate of deposition, indicated 25 to 80% of that found in fish
came from the long-term accumulation. This accumulation was the
more important source for l37Cs uptake by fish during times of low
fallout rate. The highest concentration in fish was ~600 pCi/kg
seen during 1963; by 1966 it had decreased to ~250 pCi/kg.
The effective half-time for l37Cs in the lake system, as
inferred from the small fish, was 2~ years. The persistence of l37Cs
in a freshwater system is in sharp contrast to the behavior of ter-
restrial levels. The continuing availability of l37Cs to freshwater
fish suggests that they will provide an important source of dietary
l37Cs, for some time, for persons who depend on them for food.
209.
Gustafson, P.F., 8.S. Brar, D.M. Nelson and 8.E. Muniak. 1967.
Radioactive 54Mn and 65Zn in euryha1ine fish. Can. J. Zool.
45:729-735.
Examination of euryhaline fish showed significant accumu-
lations of radioactive zinc and manganese which could not be detected
in stenohaline fish, even when both types were taken from the same
locality. Of the euryhaline species, those taken from freshwater en-
vironments contained manganese-54 but not zinc-65, while those taken
from the oceans, where the ratio of radioactive to stable zinc is
greater, contained both radionuclides. The herring-like alewife (but
not other euryhaline species) also appeared to accumulate radioactive
lead and polonium~ It is suggested that the complex osmoregulatory
system of these fish and hormonal effects prior to spawning are res-
ponsible for the accumulation of these radionuclides.
210.
Gutknecht, J. 1963. Zinc-65 uptake by benthic marine algae.
Limnol. Ocean. 8:31-38.
Results are given of some experiments on the effect of various
environmental factors on uptake and loss of zinc-65 by benthic algae
-92-
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(Dlva lactuca, Porphyra umbilicalis, Fucus vesiculosus, and Laminaria
agardi). It was found that increase in pH value enhanced uptake of
zinc-65 and retarded its loss in Ulva, Porphyra and Laminaria, a
similar effect of pH value was observed in killed algae of the same
species, which in all cases absorbed more zinc-65 than the live sea-
weed. The addition of carrier zinc to natural sea-water wash solu-
tions has little effect on the rate of loss of zinc-65 from radio-
active algae, but there was a slight increase in rate of loss of
zinc-65 when the temperature of the wash solution was increased.
Polarographic determination of the natural zinc content of the algae
showed that Fucus had the highest concentration (829 mg per kg dry
weight) and Porphyra had the lowest (123 mg per kg). Exposure to
light stimulated both the uptake and loss of zinc-65. Two inhibitors,
uranyl nitrate and phenylurethane both retarded uptake of zinc. The
biological half-life of zinc-65 in algae in the light and in the dark
was estimated; Fucus showed a much higher retention of zinc-65 than
either Porphyra or Dlva.
211.
Gutknecht, J. 1965. Uptake and retention of cesium-137 and
zinc-65 by seaweeds. Limnol. Ocean. 10:58-66.
Tabulated and graphical results are given of experiments
on the uptake and retention, by various seaweeds, of cesium-137 and
zinc-65. For none of the species tested was there any significant
relation between growth rate and either concentration factor or
biological half-life. The effects of various factors, including
light, presence of exogenous substrates, exposure to nitrogen in
the dark, and internal and external concentrations of ions were
investigated. For both isotopes, but especially for cesium-137,
uptake was stimulated by light, although a certain, variable, amount
of uptake did occur in the dark, and it is suggested that consideration
might be given to releasing radioactive waste waters during the night
to minimize uptake.
212.
Haider, G. 1964. Heavy metal
poisoning of rainbow trout
symptoms. Zeitschrift fur
toxicity to fish. I. Lead
(Salmo gairdnerii) and its
angewandte Zoologie 51:347-368.
Rainbow trout were chronically poisoned in an aquarium by
adding small amounts of lead acetate to the water for two to three
months or by giving lethal doses orally or by injection. In acute
poisoning, the gill epithelium and inner organs were destroyed and
the fish died of suffocation. Staining with silver sulfide revealed
the presence of lead in bones, liver, kidneys, gills and spleen.
213.
Halsband, E. and I. Halsband. 1963. Haematological changes in
fish as a result of toxicity. Arch. Fischwiss. 14:68-85.
-93-
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Studies are described on the effect of toxic substances
on Salmo gairdneri. Laboratory experiments were conducted with
sodi~nd potassium chlorides, magnesium sulphate, phenol, ferric
nitrate and X-ray radiation to determine tolerances levels, metabolic
rate and haematological changes. It was found that, once the threshold
level of disturbance had been reached, a change occurred in the blood.
Results indicate that both the surface area of the erythrocyte and the
haematocrit value increase or decrease with changes in the concentration
of toxic substances. After the first day changes occurred in the
metabolic rate; after four days the physiological disturbances in-
creased to such a degree that death occurred. X-ray radiation in-
creased the haematocrit value after two days; this was followed by
a decrease after four days and after nine days the haematocrit value
was below normal.
214.
Hampson, B.L. 1967.
and of niobium-95
fuel reprocessing
Restricted dispersion of zirconium-95
after release to the sea in nuclear
effluent. Health Physics 13:1093-1103.
The dispersion of the radionuclides zirconium-95 and ruthenium-
106 after their discharge to sea was studied, using the alga Porphyra
umbilicalis as an indicator organism to integrate short-term fluctuations
in the sea-water concentrations of the nuclides. It was found that,
compared vlith ruthenium-l06, the dispersion of zirconium-95 and niobium-
95 was restricted and their rate of removal from the sea water to the
bottom deposits by chemical processes was greater than the rate of
mixing of the sea water immediately round the point of discharge with
more distant sea water.
215.
Hampson, M.A. 1967. Uptake of radioactivity by aquatic plants
and location in the cells. 1. The effect of pH on the
Sr-90 and Y-90 uptake by the green alga DIva lactuca and
the effect of stable yttrium on Y-90 uptake. J. Exp. Botany
18:17-53.
In studies on the uptake of strontium-90 and yttrium-90 from
sea water by DIva lactuca, it was found that at pH 8, in the absence
of added carrier, DIva reached a strontium-90 equilibrium at 0.32
times the concentration in the water within 3 hours, but rapidly
depleted the water of yttrium-90. With addition of stable yttrium,
yttrium-90 equilibrium was reached within 3 hours, with a concentra-
tion factor of 550. In the absence of the carrier, yttrium-90 re-
mained on the outer surface of the plants, but when carrier was added
yttrium-90 entered the cells and was deposited in the protoplasmic
inclusions, where strontium-90 was also located. A reduction in pH
value from 8 to 6.5 caused a slight increase in the uptake of strontium-
90 and a large increase in the uptake of yttrium-90, but over the pH
-94-
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range 5.8-5.1 the uptake of yttrium-90 was greatly reduced. At pH
values below 6 the alga died within 5 days. The effect of pH value
on strontium uptake is thought to be due to changes in equilibrium
in the carbonate-bicarbonate system. II. Uptake of Ce-144 by the
freshwater plant Nitella opaca. Ibid. The uptake of cerium-144 by
Nitella from pond water at pH 7.7 without added carrier was studied
over a period of several months; some of the cells were then trans-
ferred to clean water for further observation. It was found that
cerium-144 equilibrium was approached after 100 days, when the whole
plant had 26,000 times more activity than water. Under these
conditions, most of the cerium-144 was located in the cell wall,
although small but significant amounts entered the protoplasm and
cell sap. When freshly taken up, the cerium-144 was freely ex-
changeable, but after about 10 days it became more firmly bound
and was not released again. The differences between the location
of cerium-144 in Nitella and of yttrium in Ulva are discussed.
216.
Hanks, R.W. 1965. Effect of metallic aluminum particles on
oysters and clams. Chesapeake Science 6:146-149.
Laboratory experiments were carried out to determine the
effect on oysters (Crassostrea virginica) and clams (Mya arenaria)
of powdered aluminium, used in photogrammetric studies of water
currents. Although the metal particles were removed by the fil-
tering activity of these organisms, there was no detectable in-
crease in aluminium concentration in the tissues, and it is concluded
that they reacted to aluminium particles as they would to any other
inorganic material of the same particle size.
217.
Hannerz, L. 1966. Accumulation, retention and elimination of
zinc-65 in freshwater organisms studied in pond experiments.
Proc. 1st Int. Congr. Radiat. Proto :417.
Radioactivity was recorded continuously in the water, sedi-
ments, plants, invertebrates, and fish (young pike, roach fry, and
pike fry) in an artificial pond lined with polyethylene sheets and
fed continuously with water from Lake Malar, Sweden, to which zinc-
65 was added to give a mean concentration of about 3 x 10-6 ~c per ml.
Zinc-65 accumulated in the bottom deposits with a concentration factor
of about 20,000; only low concentrations were found in emergent parts
of water weeds but much higher concentrations occurred in submerged
parts, indicating considerable surface absorption in which the micro-
flora and microfauna were believed to play an important role. High
concentrations of zinc-65 were also found in invertebrates, with
concentration factors of 1700 for chironomid larvae, 590 for snails,
and 400 for leeches. The concentration of zinc-65 in fish showed
considerable variations and was inversely related to the length of
-95-
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the fish; the mean concentration factor for pike was about 1250.
When the concentration of zinc-65 in the water was changed, the
concentration in sediments and submerged parts of plants followed
the concentration in the water closely, indicating that an ex-
change equilibrium is reached rapidly for these types of material.
Emergent parts of plants, however, accumulated zinc-65 throughout
the experiment. When pike were transferred from the pond to a tank
with running water from Lake Malar, there was no decrease in the
concentration of zinc-65 over a period of more than 6 weeks.
218.
Hannerz, L. 1968. Experimental investigations on the ac-
cumulation of mercury in water organisms. Rep. lnst.
Freshwat. Res. Drottingholm, No. 48:120-176.
High concentrations of mercury in fish from many lakes
and streams in southern and central Sweden prompted a series of
laboratory and field studies with mercury compounds (phenylmercuric
acetate, methylmercuric hydroxide, methoxyethylmercuric hydroxide,
mercuric chloride, and mercuric nitrate) labelled with mercury-203,
and various species of aqautic organisms. Accumulation and reten-
tion of mercury compounds, in terms of concentration factors, are
tabulated and discussed for various aquatic plants, invertebrates,
sediments, and fish, and the elimination of mercury from fish after
discontinuance of the mercury supply is shown in a table and graphs.
There was no appreciable assimilation of mercury in plant tissues,
but the concentrations were 10-20 times higher in submerged than in
emergent parts owing to surface adsorption. The uptake of mercury
by animals was not related to their trophic level but depended on
several factors such as metabolic rate and feeding habits. Sedi-
ments always contained high concentrations of mercury which was ad-
sorbed on and settled with particles in the pond water. The exchange
of mercury was rapid between plants and water but less rapid between
invertebrates and water; in the sediments, a considerable portion of
the mercury could not be exchanged. In fish, the rate of uptake of
mercury, both from water and food, is fast, while the rate of elim-
ination is slow, giving high concentration factors, which differ for
the different organs, and for the different compounds tested (methyl
mercury was taken up most readily). The uptake was also affected by
the size of the fish and the concentration of electrolytes in the
water (uptake of methoxyethyl mercury was lower in brackish water
than in salt water). There were differences in the results from
ponds and clean tanks and there is evidence to suggest that the
chemical nature of organic mercury compounds is easily changed in
natural waters, so that the mercury is available for uptake by the
biota as a mixture of compounds no matter what chemical form of
mercury was introduced.
-96-
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219.
Harrison, F.L. 1969. Accumulation and distribution of 54Mn
and 65Zn in freshwater clams. Proc. 2nd Nat. Symp. on
Radioecology. U.S.A.E.C. Conf. 670503:198-220.
The accumulation and distribution of 54Mn and 65Zn in the
freshwater clam Anodonta nuttaliana Lea was followed for 147 days
under conditions where the concentrations of Mn and Zn in the water
remained constant. The amounts of the radionuclides in the clam
bodies increased essentially linearly during the uptake period. The
concentrations of 54Mn and 65Zn showed considerable variation from
tissue to tissue, but generally the concentrations within a given
tissue were equivalent. Steady-state conditions of accumulation
and loss were reached after about 100 days in the digestive tract,
gonad, muscles and excretory organs. However, in the calcareous
tissue, mantle and gills, steady-state conditions were not reached
in the 147 days. The rates of accumulation were found to be depen-
dent on the concentration of the stable element in the water, the
temperature and size of the animals. The rates of loss of the
stable element from the clam body were slow -- the large long-lived
pool of Mn having a half-life of about 1300 days, that of Zn of 650.
Measurements of specific activities indicated that in all parts of
the body a large fraction of the Mn and Zn was in pools with which
the radionuclides did not exchange. In Anodonta nuttalliana Lea,
the main storage site in the body of Mn and Zn as well as Ca was
in 1- to 2-micron granules in the calcareous tissue.
220.
Harry, H.W. and D.V. Aldrich. 1958.
lorbis glabratus in Puerto Rico.
18:819-832.
The ecology of Austra-
Bull. World Hlth. Org.
Under laboratory conditions, low concentrations of zinc,
copper, cadmium, and silver produce a distinct distress syndrome
in snails.
221.
Harry, H.W. and D.V. Aldrich. 1963. The distress syndrome
in Taphius glabratus (Say) as a reaction to toxic concen-
trations of inorganic ions. Malacologica 1:283-289.
The most obvious symptom is the continued extension of the
cephalopedal mass without attachment of the foot following exposure
to copper salts. Those in distress are unable to feed or crawl to
the surface to renew their air bubble. Recovery is possible within
a few hours if the medium is replaced within 24 hours.
222.
Harvey, R.S.
and fish.
1963. Uptake of radionuclides by freshwater algae
U.S. Atom. Ener. Comm. DPSPV-63-30-3:l2 p.
-97-
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In order to select a suitable indicator species for routine
environmental monitoring, concentrations of radioactive isotopes in
fish (bluegill, bass, and catfish) in a nuclear reactor cooling water
pond were measured over a period of nine months. The bluegill, con-
taining higher concentrations of zinc-65 and strontium-89, 90 and
only slightly lower concentrations of cesium-134, 137, was selected.
Data on uptake by algae were also obtained.
223.
Harvey, R.S. 1969.
radionuclides by
on Radioecology.
Effects of temperature on the sorption of
a blue-green alga. Proc. 2nd Nat. Sy~p.
U.S.A.E.C. Conf. 670503:266-277-
Effects of a l50C temperature differential on the sorption
of l37Cs, 85Sr, 65Zn, 59Fe, 57Co, and 54Mn by the filamentous blue-
green alga, Plectonema boryanum, are reported. The sorption pattern
for 57Co differed from all others in that concentrations per gram of
algae were highest at 250C and decreased with temperature up to 400C.
The concentrations of 54Mn increased with temperature up to 350C.
There was no positive correlation between water temperatures and
sorption levels for 65Zn, 59Fe, 85Sr, and l37Cs although the con-
centration of each radionuclide was slightly higher at 400C than at
lower temperatures.
224.
Harvey, R.S. 1969. Uptake and loss of radionuclides by the
freshwater clam Lampsilis radiata (Gmel.). Health Physics
17:149-154.
The uptake and loss of radionuclides by the freshwater clam,
Lampsilis radiata, were studied under natural conditions at the Savannah
River Laboratory, S.C., to de~ermine whether or not this species could
be used as a sensitive indicator of low concentrations of isotopes in
a soft-water stream and whether accumulation of radioactivity in the
soft tissues would contribute a significant radiation dose to humans.
Clam specimens were exposed to very low concentrations of 8 radio-
active isotopes for 91 days and were then transferred to fresh water
for 56 days. Except for strontium-90, all the nuclides studies were
concentrated in the soft tissues; only strontium-90, manganese-54,
and cesium-137 were concentrated significantly in the shells. At
apparent equilibrium, the concentration factors for soft tissues
were 220 for cesium-137, 240 for sulphur-35, 440 for chromium-51,
790 for cobalt-60, 900 for cerium-144, 2400 for manganese-54, and
4100 for zinc-65. The biological half-life of each nuclide was
estimated; the short-lived components, with half-lives of 25 days,
represented up to 60% of the radioactivity in the soft tissues.
-98-
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225.
Hasanen, E., S. Kolehmainen, and J.K. Miettinen. 1966.
Biological half-times of cesium-137 and sodium-22 in
different fish species and their temperature dependence.
Proc. 1st Int. Congr. Radiat. Prot.:40l-406.
Experiments were carried out with five species of fish
in laboratory aquaria or in nylon-net cages in lake Suolijarvi,
Finland, to determine the biological half-time of cesium-137 when
administered orally in known doses, usually of about 250 nc. Re-
sults are tabulated and for one species, rainbow trout, are also
illustrated graphically, showing that the excretion of cesium-137
from fish follows 2 exponential equations, the first representing
removal of a fast component (usually 5-10% of the amount adminis-
tered, but 25% in trout and 50% in carp) with a half-life of a
few days, and the second representing removal of a slow component
with a half-life of 200 days for perch, and, depending on the age
of the fish, 57-100 days for roach and 20-80 days for rainbow
trout. The biological half-life of the slow component was also af-
fected by temperature, increasing from 20 days at 200C to 36 days
at 7-80C for l-year-old rainbow trout, and from 55 days at 200C to
120 days at 100C for 5-year-old carp. Experiments with sodium-24
showed a similar dependence on temperature (a 100C-decrease in tem-
perature reduces the excretion rate by about one-half), although
the biological half-lives were much shorter (at 200 and 100C, res-
pectively, these were 7 days and 15 days for perch; 7 days and 11
days for roach, and 10 days and 25 days for carp).
226.
Hasanen, E., S. Kolehmainen, and J.K. Miettinen. 1967. Bio-
logical half-time of cesium-137 in three species of fresh-
water fish: perch, roach and rainbow trout. Proc. Int.
Symp. Radioecol. Concent. Process., 1966, Stockholm:92l-
924. .
After reviewing the literature on the excretion of cesium-
137 from various species of fish and distinguishing between the
smaller "fast" fraction with a short biological half-life and the
larger "slow" fraction with a much longer biological half-life, the
authors describe studies with the species of fish most common in
Finland. The biological half-life of cesium-137 in small perch (6-
months old at the beginning of the study) was investigated in labo-
ratory aquaria, giving for the slow component, which represented
about 83% of the total excretion, a half-life of 200 + 12 days at
l50C in tap water (conductivity 250 mho) dechlorinated by active
charcoal. Larger fish were studied in nylon-net cages in the Suo li-
jarvi lake (conductivity 55 mho). A mobile counter was modified to
permit "whole body" measurements of cesium-137 in the live fish.
Results are tabulated for perch, roach, and rainbow trout in the
lake water at 150 + 50C and also illustrated graphically for the
-99-
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roach. The biological half-life varied considerably with the
species. In perch, the slow component, which represented 88-96%
of the total excretion, had a half-life of 175-200 days, which
did not appear to depend on age; but in roach and trout the half-
life of the slow component varied from 55 to 100 days and from 25
to 80 days, respectively. depending on the age of the fish, and
the fast component represented 6-9% and 24-34%, respectively, of
the total excretion. The rate of excretion was reduced at lower
temperatures (about 50C).
227.
Hasanen, E. and J.K. Miettinen.
freshwater fish in Finland.
1963. Cesium-137 content of
Nature 200:1018-1019.
Results of studies on the concentration of cesium-137 and
potassium in freshwater fish in Finland show that the concentration
of cesium-137 in various fish varies markedly, and occurs within the
range of 0.6-6 wwc per kg. There is a tendency for the radioactivity
to diminish when the fish feed on bottom fauna instead of plankton.
In general, the radioactivity of whitefish rose during 1962, radio-
chemical analyses of pike and trout supported this observation. The
radioactivity of samples from the Arctic Ocean is only about 1/20th
of that of the Lapland samples; it also seems that the cesium-137
values of the fish in southern Finland and somewhat lower than those
in Lapland. It would appear that the fish obtain most of their radio-
active cesium from their food, even though a small proportion may
enter through the gills. Also, it seems feasible that the high con-
centrations of cesium-137 present in the fish of prey from two humus-
type lakes are accumulated in food chain. No clear correlation
between the age of fish (of the same species) and the concentration
of cesium present has been observed. Similar results have been ob-
tained in Sweden.
228.
Hassall, K.A. 1962. A specific effect of copper on the res-
piration of Chlorella vulgaris. Nature 193:90.
Addition of salts of heavy metals to Chlorella vulgaris
cells shaken in phosphate buffer solution (pH value 6.0) often in-
creased endogenous respiration temporarily but, with the exception
of silver, each high concentration did not cause respiratory inhi-
bition for many hours. Copper, however, differed from all the other
metals tested (including barium, manganese, nickel and lead) in that
its effect on respiration depended on the environmental conditions
during the period of treatment. Results show that shaking had a
marked effect in delaying the toxic effect of copper -- when shaking
was stopped the copper rapidly became toxic. More copper was ab-
sorbed in a given period (except during short periods) by the cells
in unshaken vessels than in shaken vessels, but the lower rate of
-100-
-------
respiration in unshaken vessels is not clearly related to the amount
of copper added or to that present in the cells. Respiration was
accelerated in cells shaken continuously with copper even though the
concentration of sorbed copper was greater than the lethal concen-
tration of cells in stationary tubes. Preliminary results indicate
that lack of oxygen is a factor leading to high copper toxicity.
While the possibility of a change in the nature of the applied copper
under anaerobic conditions cannot be excluded, it is possible that
under these conditions either the internal distribution of copper is
different or a respiratory system exists to which copper is highly
specific poison.
229.
Hasselrot, T.B. 1965. A study of remaining water pollution
from a metal mine with caged fish as indicators. Vatten-
hygien 21:11-16.
Studies were carried out in a river in Northern Sweden,
polluted by deposits from waste waters discharged from a metal mine,
and by washings from similar deposits in a tributary stream, to
determine the toxic effects on fish. Cages containing young salmon
and minnows were placed at 12 stations in the river. The trial period
was 5 days; fish were inspected daily and tests were made for any
changes in the physicochemical characteristics of the water sur-
rounding the cages. The area at the confluence formed a boundary
of toxicity and a barrier for fish arriving from further upstream.
It was found that the river is still unsuitable for fish life for
about 6 kID downstream from the confluence. The presence of zinc
appeared to be mainly responsible for the toxic effect on fish,
possibly in conjunction with smaller amounts of other metals present
in the water.
230.
Hasselrot, T.B. 1968. Report on current field investigations
concerning the mercury content in fish, bottom sediment
and water. Rep. Inst. Freshwat. Res. Drottingholm No.
48:102-111.
Young salmon were exposed in net cages in lakes and rivers
upstream and downstream from factories discharging waste waters con-
taining mercury. After one or two months, examination of the fish
showed clearly increased contents of mercury in fish exposed below
pulp mills (discharging organic mercury) and below a chlorine alkali
plant (discharging inorganic mercury); the contents of mercury in
fish held near the points of discharge were considerably higher in
summer than for corresponding exposure periods in winter. The con-
centration of mercury increased initially in the blood corpuscles,
reaching a maximum of about 1000 ng per g, and then increased in the
liver to considerably higher values, while the concentration in muscle
-101-
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increased much more slowly. Studies on pike caught under natural
conditions showed great differences in the mercury content of fish
upstream and downstream of a cellulose mill even after the mill had
ceased to use organic mercury compounds. The mercury content of
bottom deposits also showed marked differences above and below the
mill a year after the use of mercury compounds had ceased. Analysis
of water samples indicated a higher concentration of mercury in water
layers adjacent to sediment contaminated by a previous discharge of
organic mercury. but no similar tendency has been observed for
solution of mercury from bottom deposits downstream from a plant
discharging inorganic mercury.
231.
Hazel, C.R. and S.J. Meith. 1970. Bioassay of king salmon
eggs and sac fry in copper solutions. California Fish
and Game 56:121-124.
Flowing water bioassay of chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha) eggs and fry in a copper solution indicated that eggs
are more resistant to the toxic effects of copper than fry. Copper
concentrations of 0.08 mg/liter did not noticeably affect the
hatching success of eyed eggs, but concentrations as great as 0.04
mg/liter were acutely toxic to fry and concentrations of 0.02 mg/
liter caused increased mortality and inhibited growth.
232.
Heather, C.J. 1966. The structure and biology of Alcyonidium
gelatinosum. Proc. Royal Soc. Medic. 59:1120-1121.
Alcyonidium gelatinosum, a bryozoan, is exclusively aquatic
and occurs in many parts of the world, particularly the Northern
Hemisphere. The adult colony lives on the seabottom, usually at-
tached by a mucilaginous secretion to seaweeds, rocks or shells.
Research with this material centered on the possible association
of toxic plants or animals, the intake of irritant organic matter
and the manufacture and/or concentration of irritant substances
from ingested materials. Analysis of a homogenized sample of
material gave the following results for inorganic elements: zinc,
appreciable amounts; copper, trace; nickel, 20 mg/kg; manganese,
20 mg/kg; tin, very few tenths percent; cobalt, vanadium, lead,
strontium, none detected.
233.
Herbert, D.W.M. and D.S. Shurben. 1963. A preliminary study
of the effect of physical activity on the resistance of
rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnerii Richardson) to two poisons.
Ann. Appl. Biology 52:321-326.
-102-
-------
In studies on the effect of activity on susceptibility to
poisons, yearling rainbow trout were exposed to various concentra-
tions of zinc sulphate and ammonium chloride in still water and in
water stirred at three known velocities. The concentration of am-
monium chloride which killed 50 per cent of fish swimming at 85
per cent of their maximum sustainable speed for 24 hours was 0.81
times that for still water, and the corresponding factor for 48-
hour exposure to zinc sulphate was 0.7. There was no increase in
susceptibility for speeds up to 55% of the maximum sustainable
speed. Oxygen consumption of fish at varying swimming speeds was
measured, and its influence on susceptibility to poisons is dis-
cussed.
234.
Herbert, D.W.M. and D.S. Shurben. 1964.
of mixtures of poisons. T. Salts of
Ann. Appl. Biology 53:33-41.
The toxicity to fish
ammonia and zinc.
Experiments with rainbow trout in solutions of NH4Cl and
ZnS04 were done to examine the empirical rule that a mixture of two
poisons, P and Q, should be at threshold concentrations for acute
toxicity when Ps/Pt + Qs/Qt = 1 (s = concentration in solution; t =
threshold concentration when testing one poison). In every case the
rule under examination provided a better description of the data than
models based on the hypothesis of independent joint action.
235.
Herbert, D.W.M. and D.S. Shurben. 1964. The toxicity of
fluoride to rainbow trout. Water Waste Treat. J. 10:
141-142.
In areas where fluoridation of water supplies is practiced,
sewage effluents may contain up to 1 mg/l fluoride, and it is important
to know whether this would have any effect on fish in the receiving
stream. Laboratory experiments were, therefore, carried out to
determine. the toxicity of fluoride to rainbow trout, in both soft
and hard waters. The results indicate that in soft water 1 mg/l
fluoride would be unlikely to kill more than 0.01% of a trout popu-
lation, which is negligible in comparison with the natural death-
rate, and in hard water fluoride is even less toxic. In addition,
since sewage usually receive dilution with river water, the actual
concentration of fluoride in the water would normally be much less
than 1 mg/l.
236.
Herbert, D.W.M. and J.M. Vandyke.
of mixtures of poisons. II.
mixtures. Ann. Appl. Biology
1964. The toxicity to fish
Copper-ammonia and zinc-phenol
53:415-421.
-103-
-------
The applicability of the following predictive formula was
tested: Ps/Pt 50 + Qs/Qt 50 = 1; where P, Q = 2 poisons; s = con-
centration of poison in solution; t 50 c threshold level of median
resistance.
With ammonia-copper mixtures, this method of
the threshold concentration becomes progressively less
lower percentage mortalities are considered.
predicting
adequate as
For CUS04"5H20 the threshold levels at 2 hours and 48
hours were 2 mg/l and 0.2 mg/l, respectively.
237.
Herbert, D.W.M. and H.T. Mann. 1958. The tolerance of some
fresh-water fish for seawater. Salm. Trout Mag. 153:99-
101.
In order to determine the tolerance of some fresh-water
fish in sea water, an experiment was carried out with roach (Rutilus
rutilus, L.) and perch (Perca fluviatilis, L.) to observe the effect
of transferring them suddenly from freshwater to mixtures of fresh
and sea water. It was found that the perch could withstand about
l~ times the salinity tolerated by roach, and it appears that perch
could tolerate a sudden rise in the salinity to about 45 per cent
sea water for several days, but that roach could tolerate only
about 30 per cent.
238.
Herbert, D.W.M. and A.C. Wakeford. 1964. The susceptibility
of a salmonid fish to poisons under estuarine conditions.
I. Zinc Sulfate. Inter. J. Air Water Pollut. 8:251-256.
Experiments were conducted on the effect of zinc sulphate
on Atlantic salmon smolts and yearling rainbow trout at various
salinities. It was found that the resistance of both types of fish
to zinc sulphate increases with increases in salinity up to 30-40%
sea water, at which salinity rainbow trout can withstand for 2 days
15 times and salmon 13 times as much zinc sulphate as in fresh water.
A further increase in salinity to 72% sea water, however, reduces the
tolerance to zinc. Salmon smolts were more susceptible to zinc than
rainbow trout in fresh water and at all salinities tested, and it is
stressed that results of toxicity tests carried out with rainbow trout
should be applied with caution to estuaries through which salmon pass.
239.
Herde, K.E. 1957. Studies in the accumulation of radio-active
elements in Oncorhynchus tschawytscha (chinook salmon) ex-
posed to a medium of pile effluent water. U.S. Atom. Energ.
Comm., HW-3-5064: 21 p; Nuclear Sci. Abstr. 13:1331.
-104-
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Investigations were carried out to determine the total
accumulation of radioactive elements in fish exposed to cooling
water from a nuclear reactor. Data are reported on the accumula-
tion of sodium-24 and other longer-lived elements in the fish,
including the rate of accumulation of radioactive materials during
controlled exposure for various periods, the effect of temperature
on the rate of accumulation, evidence of accumulation of varied
amounts of longer-lived materials, the significance of the excre-
tion factor when fish containing sodium-24 are removed to fresh
water, and individual variations in fish regarding their metabolism
buffer ability or tolerance to radioactive materials.
240.
Herdman, W.A. and R. Boyce. 1899. Oysters and disease. An
account of certain observations upon the normal and patho-
logical histology and bacteriology of the oyster and other
shellfish. Lancashire Sea Fisheries Memoir No. 1:1-60.
copper
copper
The cause of green oysters may be an
salts or may be due to a green pigment.
salts are harmful to oysters.
accumulation of
Large amounts of
241.
Hibiya, T. and M. Oguri. 1961. Gill absorption and tissue
distribution of some radionuclides (Cr-5l, Hg-203, Zn-65
and Ag-IIO m, 110) in fish. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish.
27:996-1000.
Radioactive nuclides were used to study the rate of ab-
sorption of some heavy metals through the gills of the Japanese eel,
Anguilla iaponica. Zinc, mercury, chromium and silver were absorbed
at rates of 0.7-4.1 x 10-6, 0.3-3.2 x 10-6, 0.8-1.9 x 10-8, and 1.2-
4.2 x 10-7 mg per hour, respectively. The distribution and accumu-
lation of the nuclides in the body were studied by injecting the
nuclides into the air bladder of goldfish. The results obtained dif-
fered with the different nuclides; zinc, mercury, chromium and silver
were accumulated abundantly by the intestine, kidney. head kidney and
liver, respectively.
242.
Hiyama, Y. 1962. Studies on uptake of radio-isotopes by
edible marine products. Progress Reports Tokyo Univer-
sity 1960-62: 51 p. Nuclear Science Abstracts 1965, 19:
5445.
Experiments were carried out to determine the concentration
factors of several radionuclides (that is, the ratio of the concen-
tration of nuclide in tissues or organs to the concentration in the
surrounding water for representative edible marine organisms, including
-105-
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fish, shellfish, and algae). It was found that the rate of uptake,
or time required to reach equilibrium, varied according to the
nuclide, the organism, its age, and the temperature of the water.
Equilibrium concentration factors differed with the kind of tissue
or organ, the organism, and the nuclide, but were not affected by
water temperature or concentration of the nuclide in the water.
The presence of a carrier in the water reduced the concentration
factors for iodine-13l, cobalt-60, zinc-65 and cadmium-115 m, but
had no effect on those of cesium-134 and strontium-89. In the case
of iron taken up by algae, the concentration factor was also af-
fected by light. Uptake of the nuclides also depended on the form
in which they occurred in the water particularly if they were in
the particulate or colloidal state. It is recommended that the
concentration factors for radioactive isotopes in edible marine
organisms should be taken into account when evaluating the hazards
caused by radioactive contamination of sea water.
243.
Hobden, D.J. 1969. Iron metabolism in Mytilus edulis. II.
Uptake and distribution of radioactive iron. J. Mar.
Biol. Assn. U.K. 49:661-668.
Mytilus edulis absorbs radioactive "soluble" iron from
citrated water either directly or via adsorption on to the mucus
used in feeding. The adsorption slows or ceases after 3-7 days
when the total iron uptake is about 1% of the total body content.
In order of decreasing radioactivity, iron is absorbed into the byssus
threads, renal organ, digestive gland, gut epithelia, gills, walls of
heart and blood sinuses and gonadal and muscular tissues. The iron
persists when the animals are transferred to clean sea water.
244.
Hoffman, D.O. and R. Zakhary. 1951. The effect of temperature
on the molluscacidal activity of copper sulphate. Science
114:521-523.
Experiments were made on Biomphalaria boissyi, the inter-
mediate host of Schistosoma, to determine the effect of temperature
on the molluscacidal activity of copper sulphate. Results indicated
that as the temperature increased from 140 to 26°C the concentration
of copper sulphate required to cause 50 per cent of the snails to die
was reduced from 13 mg/l to 0.25 mg/l. The importance is stressed of
temperature as a factor in the control of snails which may transmit
bilharziasis.
245.
Holland, G.A., J.E. Lasater, E.D. Neumann, and W.E. Eldridge.
1960. Toxic effects of organic and inorganic pollutants
on young salmon and trout. Washington State Dept. Fisheries,
Research Bulletin 5: 278 p.
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Studies on the toxic effects of trade waste waters and their
constituents on salmon and trout are reported, including the effect of
waste waters from pulp mills; the supernatant portion of wastes from
the production of acetylene; detergents; fungicides; germicides;
glues; herbicides; insecticides; naphthalene; pea-vine silage liquor;
phenol and phenolic wood preservative waste waters from the manufacture
of plastic boats; potassium phenylacetate; tannic acid; and various
inorganic substances, including ammonia, arsenic trioxide, barium
chloride, residual chlorine, mono-and dichloramine, chlorine plus
ammonia, potassium chromate, chromium sulphate, cupric nitrate and
sulphate, sodium fluoride and sodium sulphide. The effects of the
hardness and the pH value of the water were also examined. Young
salmon (chinook, chum, pink, and silver), and sometimes rainbow trout,
were used as the test fish in both short-term (3 days) and long-term
(up to 30 days) toxicity tests. The experiments with pulp mill
waste waters also included studies on the ability of the fish to
avoid dangerously-polluted waters, and on the effect of sulphite
waste liquor on herring eggs. The results are tabulated and dis-
cussed for each of the compounds and a table summarizing all the
data lS appended, giving the apparent tolerance level and the critical
level for each compound. The effects of some of the pollutants varied
according to the type of medium (fresh or sea water), species and size
of fish, and period of exposure.
246.
Holliday, F.G.T. and J.H.S. Blaxter. 1960. The effect of
salinity on the developing eggs and larvae of the herring.
J. Mar. Biol. Assn. U.K. 39:591-603.
In connection with studies on osmoregulation in the her-
ring and on the range of conditions which herring eggs and larvae
might tolerate in nature and in rearing tanks, experiments were
carried out on the effects of salinity on developing eggs and larvae.
It was found that fertilization, development, and hatching of the
eggs occurred in salinities ranging from 5.9 to 52.2 parts per thou-
sand; both the developing eggs and larvae were larger when incubated
in the lower salinities and their relative water content was higher.
The salinity tolerance of both spring- and autumn-spawned larvae was
found to be between 1.4 and 60.1%0 for 24 hours and between 2.5 and
52.5%0 for 168 hours. When larvae were transferred from one salinity
to another extensive osmotic changes occurred in the body fluids;
under these conditions larvae experienced and survived internal body
fluid concentrations equivalent to salinities of 8.7-22 per thousand.
A regulatory mechanism exists, however, which returns the body fluids
to a more limited range ~about 12.3%0) within 24 hours. It is concluded
that the osmotic forces encountered in nature will not constitute a
serious hazard to herring larvae.
-107-
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247.
Holliday, F.G.T. and J.H.S. Blaxter. 1961.
salinity on herring after metamorphosis.
Assn. U.K. 40:37-48.
The effects of
J. Marine Biol.
The salinity tolerance of herring 9 to 24 cm long is
between 6 and 40-45 0/00. When transferred to different salinities,
herring experienced and survived blood concentrations equivalent to
salinities of 13-22.5 0/00. A recovery to near normal (15.8 0/00)
took place in all salinities within the tolerance range.
Badly descaled herring in sea water showed large increases
in blood concentration before death. High glomerular count in kid-
neys is the probable reason why herring can stand low salinities for
long periods.
248.
Holtzman, R.B. 1969. Concentrations of the naturally occurring
radionuclides 226Ra, 2l0Pb, and 210po in aquatic fauna.
Proc. 2nd Nat. Syrnp. on Radioecology, U.S.A.E.C. Conf.
670503:535-546.
The concentrations of 226Ra, 2l0Pb and 2l0po were determined
in hard and soft tissues of freshwater and marine fish, shellfish,
seals and whales and in some of the dietary components of whales.
The 226Ra concentrations were fairly independent of the species at
about 5 pCi/lOO g bone ash and 0.2 pCi/100 g wet soft tissue. The
concentrations of both the 2l0Pb and 2l0po in a given tissue were
equal to or greater than those of the parent, 226Ra. In bone from
fish and seal the concentrations of the 2l0Pb and 2l0po were similar
to those found in human bone, about 15 pCi/100 g ash. Fish muscle
contained about 0.2 pCi 210pb/100 g wet and about 10 times this
specific activity of 2l0po. The activities of both of these nuclides
in the soft tissues of clams, oysters and squid were higher by one
order of magnitude than in fish muscle. In bone and muscle taken from
a fin whale, concentrations of these nuclides were similar to those
found in fish. By contrast, teeth from sperm whales had concentra-
tions of 210Pb one order of magnitude greater than those in bones of
fin whales. The higher concentrations of 210Pb in sperm whales seem
to be correlated with those found in some of the components of the
diet -- copepods, euphausiids, and possibly squid.
249.
Horn, W.M.V. and M. Katz. 1946. Pyridylmercuric acetate as a
prophylactic in fisheries management. Science 104:557.
Some of the mercurial compounds used for controlling slime
in pulp and paper mills are discharged in the waste waters. Experi-
ments to determine the effect of pyridylmercuric acetate on fish and
other aquatic organisms indicated that this compound in high dilutions
-108-
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could be used for controlling infection of fish in hatcheries. In
experiments with Lake Emerald shiners (Notropis etherinoides) in
water with a temperature of l2°C, a pH value of 7.38 to 7.72, and
a methyl orange alkalinity of 266 mg/l, only 52% of fish in the
control group survived after five days; the organism causing the
death of the fish was not identified. Seventy-five % of the fish
survived in a solution containing 0.05 mg/l pyridylmercuric acetate,
78% survived in a 0.10 mg/l solution and 96% survived in a 0.15 mg/l
solution. Higher concentrations of pyridylmercuric acetate are toxic
to fish.
250.
Hoss, D.I. 1964. Accumulation of zinc-65 by flounder of the
genus Paralichthys. Trans. Arner. Fish. Soc. 93:364-368.
Since zinc-65 is one of the more abundant isotopes dis-
charged in waste waters from nuclear reactors, and zinc is an es-
sential element in the metabolism of most animals, experiments were
carried out on the accumulation of zinc-65 from water and food by 3
species of flounder (Paralichthys dentatus, f. albigutta, and f.
lethostigma). When concentration factors were calculated it was
found that the fish accumulated zinc-65 to higher levels from food
than from water. The initial rate of accumulation of zinc-65 from
water depended on the concentration of the nuclide in the water.
251.
Houston, A.H. 1959. Osmoregulatory adaptation of steelhead
trout (Salmo gairdneri Richardson) to sea water. Can. J.
2001. 37:729-748.
Steelhead trout transferred from fresh water into sea
water exhibited two distinct phases in osmoregulatory adaptation.
The first, or actjustive phase, was distinguished by marked departures
from fresh-water levels and distribution of water and electrolytes.
Increases in muscle chloride space indicated transfer of fluids from
cells into the extracellular compartment. Plasma levels of water,
chloride, sodium, and potassium rose, while that of calcium remained
relatively constant. The ratio of plasma sodium to chloride fell
sharply suggesting a condition of acidosis. Cellular calcium con-
centrations rose markedly. while smaller increases were seen in chloride
and potassium levels. Changes in calcium appeared to be a function
of both cellular dehydration and electrolyte uptake. Changes in cel-
lular potassium concentrations were related primarily to dehydration
since tissue levels of this ion fell slightly in sea water. The roles
of active electrolyte excretory processes, and the passive withdrawal
of ions from the circulating fluids by complex formation, have been
considered as osmoregulatory mechanisms leading to the establishment
of the second, or regulative, phase of adaptation to sea water.
-109-
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252.
Houston, A.H. 1959. Locomotor performance of chum salmon fry
(Oncorhynchus keta) during osmoregulatory adaptation to
sea water. Can. J. Zool. 37:591-605.
Transfer into sea water produced an immediate and marked
depression of the cruising speed of chum salmon fry. Despite con-
siderablerecovery from this initial effect the fish exhibited a
continuing slight depression of cruising speed over the entire ex-
perimental period (80 hours). Variations in total body levels of
chloride and water were significantly correlated with changes in
cruising speed, suggesting that variations in activity might be re-
lated to the process of osmoregulatory adaptation to sea water.
Possible mechanisms underlying this effect have been discussed.
253.
Houston, A.H. and L.T. Threadgold. 1963. Body fluid regu-
lation in smolting Atlantic salmon. J. Fish. Res. Bd.
Can. 20:1355-1369.
Parr-smolt metamorphosis in yearling Atlantic salmon was
accompanied by variations in plasma and tissue electrolyte levels,
and in tissue water distribution. Plasma chloride declined sharply
with the onset of smoltification, but recovered to values somewhat
higher than those seen in parr with the attainment of the silvery
parr stage. Some decrease, with no evidence of a secondary in-
crease, was observed in tissue chloride concentrations. Changes
in chloride space values suggested that parr-smolt metamorphosis
is also characterized by a shift of tissue fluids from the extra-
cellular to the cellular phase. These variations in water-electro-
lyte balance are thought to reflect a premigratory activation and
secondary suppression of the extrarenal salt excretion systems em-
ployed for osmotic and ionic regulation in sea water.
254.
Hubschman, J.H. 1967. Effects of copper on the crayfish
Orconectes rusticus. I. Acute toxicity. Crustaceana
12:33-42.
Crayfish subjected to 6 mg/l of Cu as CuS04,
through system, survived exposure for 24 hours but all
days post-exposure.
in a flow
died by 10~
Exposure to 2.5 mg Cull for 8 hours once a week for three
weeks produced 100% kill in 20 days after the last exposure; one
exposure of 24 hours to 2.5 mg/l Cu produced 100% kill in 15 days
(vs 10~ days for 6 mg/l); eight 24 h exposures one week apart pro-
duced 100% kill in 8 days, after the last exposure.
Continuous exposure to 1 mg/l killed all adults in 16
days, juveniles in 6 days and younger stages in 0.5 days.
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Effect of copper on embryos (13-14 day exposure)
mg/l
% mortality (living vs dead young at
hatching)
0.5
0.25
0.125
0.06 and
lower
100
52
10
<1
In discussion, author notes that 0.35 mg/l of Cu2+ as car-
bonate kills 90% of the barnacle Balanus balonoides in two days, and
that two to five days were required for concentrations between 0.6
and 1.0 mg/l when the metal was supplied in the form of citrate.
Animals remained alive for two weeks at levels <.06 mg/l. The marine
copepod Nitocra spinipes (Boeck) had mortality rates of 42% at 26 mg/l,
21% at 2.6 mg/l, 11% at 0.26 mg/l and 1.3% at .026 mg/l Cu in 24 hours.
255.
Rubschman, J.R. 1967. Effects of copper on the crayfish Orconectes
rusticus. II. Mode of toxic action. Crustaceana 12:141-150.
At very high concentrations (i.e. >100 mg/l) copper coagulates
proteins and acts as a fixing reazent. At concentrations >1 mg/l there
is inhibition of respiratory enzymes. At levels <1 mg/l and >.5 mg/l
Cu2+, author observed degenerative effects of cells and tissues in-
cluding disruption of glutathione equilibrium.
At concentrations <0.5 mg/l author observed that neither suc-
cinate utilization or endogenous respiration is measurably affected.
Detoxification occurs at a rate sufficient to prevent the copper from
inhibiting these systems in hepatopancreas homogenates. At low con-
centrations Cu2+ has a chronic effect on cell maintenance i.e. cray-
fish antennal gland.
256.
Rueck, R.J. and D.M. Adema. 1968. Toxicological investigations
bearing on pollution problems in the North Sea. TNO Nieuws
23:58-64.
To determine the concentration of pollutants in aquatic food
chains, continuous flow tests were carried out using Chlorella pyrenoidosa
and Daphnia magna, with copper as the toxic agent. The concentration
factor for the alga was higher than that determined previously by other
investigators. A concentration of 0.056 mg/l inhibited the growth of
Daphnia but the alga could tolerate concentrations as high as 1 mg/l.
However, when fed algae grown in a medium containing copper, Daphnia
died only when the copper concentration was raised to 0.56 mg/l indi-
cating that Daphnia was able to tolerate higher levels of copper in
food organisms than in aqueous solutions.
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257.
Hunn, J.B. 1963. Uptake, distribution and excretion of the
radionuclide 1-131 by rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnerii).
Thesis, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Mich.:
126 p.
Rainbow trout were exposed for 24 hours to various solu-
tions (distilled water, tap water, 0.6% sodium chloride solution and
66% Ringer's solution) containing carrier-free iodine-13l, and samples
of various tissues were then examined to determine the relative ac-
cumulation and distribution of iodine-13l. It was found that the
uptake of iodine-13l by the gills of trout is inhibited by sodium
thiocyanate and reduced by chloride, and is inversely related to the
calcium concentration in the medium. Iodine-13l in the blood of
trout is more than 90% ionic, and at l40C its biological half-life
is 1-7 days. Determination of iodine storage capacity of the tis-
sues showed that 30% of the total body iodine may be contained in
the muscle. Iodine is lost from the body by the gills and in the
urine.
258.
Hunn, J.B. 1969. Chemical composition of rainbow trout urine
following acute hypoxic stress. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.
98:20-22.
Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnerii) were anesthetized with
MS-222, catheterized, and introduced into urine collecting chambers.
Twenty-four hours after introduction, a 4-hour accumulation of urine
was collected to serve as the control. Water flow to the chambers
was then discontinued for 30 minutes during which the oxygen content
of the water existing in the chamber dropped from 4.9 to 2.8 mg/l.
Following this hypoxic stress fresh water was restored and accumu-
lated urin~ samples were taken for analysis at 1, 4, and 20 hours
post-hypoxic stress. Rainbow trout excrete abnormally high con-
centrations of Na, K, Mg, Cl, and inorganic P04 following hypoxia.
259.
Hunter, B.F., and N.R. Merton. 1965. Occurrence of lead poi-
soning in a wild pheasant (Phasianus colchicus). California
Fish and Game 51:207.
A dead male pheasant, without signs of having been shot,
was found at the Grizzly Island Waterfowl Management area. Necropsy
revealed 29 lead (Pb) shots or fragments thereof in the gizzard; the
weight of this Pb was 3.6 grams. Analysis of the bird's tissues re-
vealed 42 mg/kg Pb in the breast tissue and 168 mg/kg in liver, which
is far above the normal of up to 1 mg/kg in either breast of liver.
Mensch (unpublished), after force-feeding experimental pheasants with
Pb shots, found Pb values of 50 and 143 mg/kg, respectively. for breast
and liver.
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260.
Hutter, O.F., and A.E. Warner. 1967. Action of some foreign
cations and anions on the chloride permeability of frog
muscle. J. Physiology 189:445-460.
Evidence was obtained for the existence in skeletal frog
muscle of a specific cation binding system capable of lowering the
chloride (Cl) permeability. The effect of several metal ions upon
the efflux of C136 from frog muscles equilibrated in solutions with
a high potassium chloride concentration was tested. It was found that
the presence of bivalent nickel, cobalt and lead in 10-4M or higher
concentrations had no detectable influence on the C136-efflux.
261.
Ichikawa, R.
important
Jap. Soc.
1961. On the concentration factors of some
radionuclides in marine food organisms. Bull.
Sci. Fish 27:66-74.
From a survey of the literature, the author discusses the
concentration factors for the radionuclides of manganese, iron, cobalt,
strontium, iodine and cesium by fish, molluscs, crustacea, sea urchins
and algae. Data were not available for the concentration of strontium
by fish, but the factor is less than one in other cases except for
brown algae. Invertebrates concentrate iodine 2 or 3 times more
strongly than fish, and algae also concentrate iodine strongly. Iron
and manganese are concentrated highly by most organisms; zinc is also
highly concentrated, but cobalt is least concentrated of the nuclides.
The nuclides of iron, cobalt, manganese and zinc are quite important
in aquatic food chains, and possibly more so than strontium and cesium
because of high concentrations, but the permissible level of the last
two in human diet is extremely low.
262.
Ichikawa, R., M. Oguri, and N. Takoda. 1962. Metabolism of
radionuclides in fish. III. Comparative behavior of
strontium and calcium at gill absorption in environmental
water with different amount of calcium. Nippon Suisan Guk-
kaishi 28:1160-1163.
Effect of calcium concentration in water on uptake of stron-
tium and calcium by gills of fish was studied by a gill perfusion tech-
nique using calcium-45 and strontium-89, with Japanese eel, Anguilla
japonica, as the test fish. Concentrations of calcium in the water
were 30, 60 and 190 mg/l. Results obtained were similar to those in
previous experiments where the calcium concentration was 100 mg/l, and
it is concluded that the strontium-calcium discrimination factor in
gill absorption of fish is approximately 0.7 and does not vary much
over a wide range of calcium concentrations.
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263.
Idler, D.R., and B.J. Szeplaki. 1968. Interrenalectomyand
stress in relation to some blood components of an elasmo-
branch (Raja radiata). J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 25:2549-
2560.
From the literature there was a doubt as to whether inter-
renalectomy would result in elevated plasma potassium levels in aL
elasmobranch. In this study no elevation was observed by comparison
with sham-operated thorny skate (Raja radiata) held in sea water for
up to 44 days post-operative. Blood calcium levels were significantly
elevated in the interrenalectomized animals between 13 and 23 days
but the increase was only 10%. There was no change in osmolality,
sodium chloride, magnesium, or urea which can be attributed to inter-
renalectomy. Noteworthy was the manner in which both sham and inter-
renalectomized animals were able to maintain plasma electrolyte levels
during the long period of starvation after surgery. Whenever signifi-
cant changes occurred during the course of the experiment, sham and
interrenalectomized fish were similarly affected, apart from the ex-
ception noted for calcium. Plasma urea levels were significantly
depressed after interrenalectomy when the skates were held in a
3:1 mixture of sea water:fresh water for 7-9 days. The same trend
was observed for sham-operated animals but the decrease was not sig-
nificant. Normal animals maintained plasma urea in 75% sea water
but not in 60% sea water.
264.
Il'in, D.I., Yu.I. Moskalev, and A.I. Petrova. 1958. The
accumulation of radio-elements in certain groups of water
organisms. Atom. Energ. 5:171-174; Nuclear Sci. Abstr.
13:379.
Studies of the accumulation of radioactive elements by
living organisms in water have shown selective uptake of phosphorus-
32, strontium-89, strontium-90, cesium-137, and sodium-24 by plankton
and fish. The concentration of phosphorus-32 was 3-4 times higher in
fish, plankton, and deep-sea organisms than in water, and the concen-
tration of strontium-89. strontium-90, and cesium-137 were 2-3 times
higher.
265.
Iorgulescu, A., M. Oncescu, O. Serbanescu, and R. Porumb. 1965.
Active gamma fission products identified in sea plankton.
Studii Cerc. BioI., Ser. 2001. 17:571-577; Nuclear Science
Abstracts 1967, 21:4090.
Analyses of samples of zooplankton collected from the sur-
face layers of the Black Sea near the Romanian shore showed the presence
of the fission products antimony-125, tellurium-125, ruthenium-l06, cerium-
144, and cesium-13? In view of these results it is suggested that the
radioactivity of other marine organisms should be investigated.
-114-
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266.
Irukayama, K.
disease.
Munich,
1967. The pollution of Minamata Bay and Minamata
Proc. 3rd Int. Cont. Water Pollution Research,
1966. 3:153-180.
Results of studies are presented on the relation between
pollution of Minamata Bay, Japan, with mercury compounds from a
chemical plant and the occurrence of Minamata disease, a severe
neurological disorder common in the area. In 1960, facilities for
treatment of the waste waters were put in operation; treatment com-
prises adjustment of the pH value to 10 with calcium hydroxide, co-
agulation with sodium alginate, and removal of the suspended solids
in a centrifugal rotary stirrer. Since the treatment plant began
operation no mercury has been discharged to the bay, and there has
been a gradual decrease in the concentration of mercury in fish and
shellfish in the bay. In the manufacture of acetaldehyde from
acetylene, using mercuric oxide in sulphuric acid as catalyst, a
wet sludge is produced and this was analysed and was found to contain
an organic mercury compound which was isolated and identified as methyl-
mercury chloride. The same compound was also isolated from shellfish
in the bay. The toxicity of this and other organic mercury compounds
to animals was investigated, and they were found to produce symptoms
typical of Minamata disease. It is concluded that so long as no
mercury compounds are discharged the danger from eating fish and
shellfish from the bay will gradually decrease, but care must be
taken to prevent the discharge of the mercury sludge from the acetal-
dehyde plant.
In the discussion that followed the occurrence of a similar
disease in Niigata City, Japan, among fishermen along the Agano River
is described. The hair of all the patients was found to contain
mercury, the amount being related to the quantity of river fish eaten.
Fish from the river were also analysed and were found to contain mercury
The cause of the pollution was attributed to the Kanose factory which,
until early 1965, manufactured acetaldehyde from acetylene, using
mercury as a catalyst. In the discussion appended, Dr. Nozaki pointed
out the importance of providing adequate treatment for all waste waters
containing highly toxic alkyl metal compounds, and described the
development of a method for the treatment of waste waters from the
manufacture of tetraethyl lead. The usual treatment for these waste
waters is chemical coagulation which is effective in removing inorganic
lead compounds but does not remove the organic compounds. Studies
showed that the organic lead compounds could be removed by a strongly
acid cation-exchange resin (Amberlite 200); the resin could be re-
generated with caustic soda. The relatively small volume of eluate
could then be chlorinated and steam-heated to convert the organic
lead compounds to inorganic compounds which could be removed by co-
agulation in admixture with the other process waste waters. A flow
diagram of the complete treatment system is included.
-115-
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267.
from the
with the
Bay. It
disease.
268.
Irukayama, K., F. Kai, F. Fumjiki, and T. Kondo. 1962. Studies
on the causative agent of Minamata disease. III. Industrial
wastes containing mercury compounds from Minamata factory.
Kumamoto Medical Journal 15(2):57-68.
An organomercury compound has been extracted from the sludge
chemical plant at Minamata, Japan, and its properties compared
mercury compound isolated from fish and shellfish in Minamata
is suggested that this compound may be a cause of Minamata
Ishikura, ~. and
and soils of
(4) :228-230.
30.
C. Shibuya. 1968. Analysis of mercury of fishes
Agano River. (In Japanese). Eisei Kagaku, 14
Selected Water Resources Abstracts 3(17): p.
The analysis of mercury was carried out to clear the occur-
rence of poisoned patients caused by organic mercury around the Agano
River. The mercury content was estimated photometrically from the
mercury dithizonate which was isolated from dithizon extract of oxi-
dative degradation product of samples such as soils, fishes and waters.
It was found that the soils obtained near the draining exit of Shyowa
Denko and Nippon Gas Kagaku contained high amounts of mercury, whereas
the mercury was not detected clearly in any waters. Some fishes were
also found to keep the high concentrations of the total mercury and
organic mercury.
269.
Ishizaka, 0., Y. Ito, and S. Yamamoto. 1966. Determination of
the toxicity of food additives by their effects on the life
cycle of Chlorella. I. Cultures and Method. Nagoya Shiritsu
Daigaku Yakugakubu Kenkyu Nempo 14:66-78; Chemical Abstracts
68:Abstr. No. 20598h, 1968.
Toxicities of food additives were examined by cultivating
L- of Da-type Chlorella vulgaris in Arnon culture medium or L-type
Chlorella on an agar plate containing Arnon medium. L-type Chlorella
was stimulated by magnesium or <0.05% zinc acetate, and inhibited by
mercury> silver> copper> cadmium> nickel> Pb > cobalt> zinc>
iron> calcium, and >0.05% zinc acetate.
270.
Ivanov, V.N. 1967. Effect of radioactive substances on the
embryonic development of fish. Proc. 2nd Int. Oceanogr.
Conf., Moscow, 1966: 185-190.
Eggs of various species of fish from the Black Sea were in-
cubated in solutions of strontium-90, yttrium-90, and cerium-144 of
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different activities, and the effects of the radioactivity on mor-
phology and survival of the larvae were measured. It was found that
the mitotic activity decreased and the number of chromosome aber-
rations increased with increasing radioactivity. The uptake of
various radioactive isotopes from sea water by growing fish eggs was
also studied; nuclides of cerium, iron, and yttrium accumulated on
the surface of the eggs, but cesium and strontium became localized
in the embryo tissues and the amount absorbed increased with time.
271.
Jackim E., J.M. Hamlin, and S. Sonis. 1970. Effects of metal
poisoning on five liver enzymes in the killifish (Fundulus
heteroclitus). J. Fish. Res. Ed. Can. 27:383-390.
Activities of five liver enzymes (acid and alkaline phos-
phatase, catalase, xanthine oxidase, and ribonuclease) from Fundulus
heteroclitus surviving exposure to 96-hr TLrn concentrations of salts
of six metals (lead, copper; mercury, beryllium, cadmium, and silver)
differed markedly from those of unexposed fish. Changes in enzyme
activity produced by the exposures were not necessarily the same in
magnitude or direction as those observed when the salts were intro-
duced directly into the enzyme preparations. It is proposed that
changes in liver enzyme activity may be useful as a kind of biochemical
autopsy tool for diagnosing sublethal metal poisoning in fish.
272.
Jennings, C.D. 1968. Iron-55 in Pacific Ocean organisms.
Oregon State University.
Thesis.
Large amounts of iron-55 from nuclear tests in 1961 and 1962
have been deposited in the Pacific Ocean and concentrated by marine
organisms. Since the concentration of iron in the ocean is low, the
marine organisms have a high specific activity for iron-55. This
specific activity was found to vary among five species of Pacific
salmon, being highest in sockeye salmon and lowest in chinook salmon.
Since 1964 the concentration of iron-55 in the salmon has decreased,
related to a decrease in iron-55 in the surface layers of the ocean.
273.
Jenkins, C.E. 1969. Radionuclide distribution in Pacific salmon.
Health Physics 17 (3):507-512.
The following gamma-emitting radionuclides were detected and
measured in four species of Pacific salmon: 54Mn, 60Co, l37Cs~ 226Ra,
22Na, 40K, 46Sc, 51Cr, 57 Co, 59Fe, 65Zn, 88y, 110mAg, l40Ea, 1)2Eu,
203Hg, and 208Tl. The concentration of the first two decreased in muscle
tissue of salmon caught from Northwest Alaska through Southern Alaska
to the Washington-Oregon coast by factors of about 1.5 to 3 and 4.5 to
12, respectively. The concentration of l37Cs decreased only about 25%.
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Concentrations of 226Ra in the tissue of Alaskan salmon were high
enough to cause natives who ate the fish to exceed their maximum
permissible level. Among the factors affecting the distribution
pattern of the radionuclides were the amount present in the Columbia
River and the nuclear tests conducted by the Chinese.
274.
Jernejcic, F. 1969. Use of emetics to collect stomach contents
of walleye and large mouth bass. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 98:
698-702.
Three ml of arsenous acid (1.8 mg arsenic total) were ef-
fective in causing walleye to regurgitate their stomach contents into
the throat. Residual arsenic in the fish flesh was well below recom-
mended safe levels «80 mg/l arsenic). Three ml of tartar emetic =
antimony potassium tartrate (SbOH (C4H206K2)'~H20), equivalent to
1.0 mg antimony total, caused projectile vomiting in largemouth bass.
Tartar emetic would be more effective than arsenous acid in identical
situations.
275.
Jernelov. A. 1969. Conversion of mercury compounds. In Miller,
M.W. and G.G. Berg (eds). Chemical Fallout, Current research
on persistent pesticides. Chas. C. Thomas Publisher, Spring-
field, Ill. :68-74.
It has been shown in Sweden that fish contain methylmercury
in instances where the original discharge contains other types of
mercury compounds. Mercury discharge in the form of metallic mercury,
inorganic divalent mercury. phenylmercury and alkoxy-alkylmercury can
all be converted in nature to methylmercury.
276.
Johnels, A.G. and T. Westermark. 1969. Mercury contamination
of the environment in Sweden. In Miller, M.W. and G.G. Berg
(eds). Chemical Fallout, current research on persistent
pesticides. Chas. C. Thomas Publisher, Springfield, Illinois:
221-239.
By means of activation analysis, the mercury content in
feathers of eleven terrestrial birds species has been studied. Of
these the goshawk (Accipter gentilis) is presented in this paper.
The material has been derived from museum collections and from living
or freshly killed birds; it covers a period of more than 100 years.
These studies reveal nearly constant mercury levels from the middle
of the previous century until 1940. After that, a well documented
increase in mercury contamination occurs, amounting to at least ten
to twenty times the previous level. In 1940 alkylmercury compounds
began to be used as seed dressings. The synchronous appearance of
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increased mercury accumulation in
dressing agents are a main source
environment.
birds indicates that the seed
of contamination in the terrestrial
Activation analysis of the mercury content in axial mus-
culature of pike (Esox lucius) has been used for estimating the level
of mercury in the aquatic environment. The mercury concentration
factor in pike is 3000 or more. The relation between the mercury
content and the weight or age of fish specimens is described. A
graphical method has been used to establish the figure for the mercury
content in pike specimens of 1 kg. Those figures have been used for
geographical comparison. The effect of water contamination from in-
dustrial waste is demonstrated in some cases. There are indications
that mercury also appears as an airborne pollution, mainly affecting
the water environment. In contrast with the goshawk, where a sudden
rise of mercury concentration in feathers occurred together with the
onset of the use of methylmercury compounds in agriculture, two fish-
eating birds species show a gradual increase in mercury content since
the previous century. This indicates that the mercury contamination
of the water follows the general increase in industrial activity. A
number of sources of mercury contamination are discussed, and it is
concluded that in many areas human activities have raised the mercury
level of the environment far above natural levels.
277.
Johnels, A.G., T. Westermark, W. Berg, P.I. Persson, and B.
Sjostrand. 1967. Pike (Esox lucius L.) and some other
aquatic organisms in Sweden as indicators of mercury con-
tamination of the environment. Gikas 18:323-333.
By means of activation analysis, mercury was determined in
the axial musculature of pike (Esox lucius) and the results were used
to estimate the level of mercury present in the aquatic environment.
The concentration factor from water to pike is of the order of 3000
or more. The relation between the mercury content and the weight
and age of the fish is discussed, and the effect of industrial con-
tamination is illustrated by comparing the mercury content of pike
from points above and below the discharge of waste waters containing
mercury. There are strong indications that mercury also occurs as
an air-borne pollutant affecting the aquatic environment. Authors
conclude that human activity has increased the mercury content of
the environment far above the natural levels.
278.
Jonderko, G. and Z. Dabrowski. 1964. The effect of heavy metal
salts and calcium disodium and magnesium disodium versenate
on the activity of serum phosphomonoesterase. I. In vitro
studies. Archivum Immunologiae et Therapiae Experimentalis
12 (5):592-601.
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The behavior of phosphomonoesterase 1 in the presence of
equimolar concentrations of heavy-metal salts and chelating agents
was studied in vitro with human blood serum. Two milliliters of the
blood serum, using sera of 17 healthy patients with conditions un-
related to intoxication was incubated for 1 hour at 370C with man-
ganese sulfate, copper sulfate, mercury (Hg) chloride, lead (Pb) acetate
and cobalt sulfate in amounts giving serum concentrations of 5 x 10-6,
1 x 10-5 and 2 x 10-5M after solution. The activity of phosphomono-
esterase 1 was then determined in the test a~d in control samples.
Sera of 10 individuals were used to study the "prophylactic" and
"therapeutic" effect of calcium disodium versenate (EDTA) on the
enzyme activity by incubating the sera with EDTA either before or
after incubation with the heavy metals.
The degree of inhibition of the enzyme activity increased
as tre concentration of the heavy metals increased from 5 x 10-6 to
1 x ~0-5 and 2 x 10-5M, with Hg and Pb showing the strongest effect.
After prophylactic application of EDTA, Hg and Pb also caused signif-
icantly greater inhibition or enzymatic activity than the other salts
but significantly less than EDTA alone or than Hg and Pb without pre-
incubation with EDTA. Incubation with EDTA for one hour after incu-
bation with the heavy metals (therapeutic use) caused a significantly
greater decrease of phosphomonoesterase activity than incubation with
EDTA prior to incubation with the metal salts (prophylactic use of
EDTA) .
The conclusion was drawn that prophylactic use of EDTA is
more effective than therapeutic use. There was little change in ef-
fect when serum was incubated with EDTA for 1, 2 or 24 hours. Since
all heavy-metal salts including those of Pb inhibit phosphomonoesterase
at concentrations above 5 x 10-6M, determination of the activity of
this enzyme may serve as a nonspecific diagnostic test in intoxication
with these metals.
279.
Jonderko, G. 1964. The effect of heavy metal salts on the
activity of lactic dehydrogenase. Wpyw soli metali ciezkich
na aktywnosc dehydrogenazy mleczanowej. Polskie Archiwum
Medycyny Wewnetrznej 34:1583-1586.
The effect of manganese sulfate, cadmium sulfate, mercury
chloride, lead acetate and cobalt sulfate in concentrations of 5 x
10-6, 1 x 10-5 and 2 x 10-5M on the activity of lactic dehydrogenase
of human erythrocytes was studied in vitro. The results showed that
the salts inhibited the action of the~nzyme in a concentration as
low as 5 x 10-6M.
280.
Jones, J.R.E. 1964. Fish and river pollution.
and Co. (Publishers) Ltd. London. 212 p.
R.E. Butterworth
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In this book, the author's purpose is to summarize and
review the experimental and field research that has been carried
out on the effects of pollution on fish and to bring together much
of the useful data. Chapters are included on the effects on fish
oxygen-reducing effluents, metals, respiratory depressants such as
cyanides and sulphides, inorganic gases, acids and alkalis, syn-
thetic detergents and soaps, phenols and associated substances,
heated effluents, suspended matter, and complex effluents. Refer-
ences are appended to each chapter, and included are a check list
of the fishes most commonly used in experimental work on the ef-
fects of pollutants and related studies, as author index, and a
subject index.
281.
Jones, R.F. 1960. The accumulation of nitrosyl ruthenium
by fine particles and marine organisms. Limnol. Ocean.
5:312-325.
Nitrosyl ruthenium-l06 complexes occur in radioactive
waste waters resulting from the nitric acid treatment of irradiated
uranium rods which is sometimes discharged to coastal waters. In-
vestigations were therefore conducted on the uptake of nitrosyl
ruthenium-l06 from sea water by fine particles, algae, and animal
life. It was found that the uptake by sand and silt is proportional
to the surface area of the particles and is enhanced by the presence
of ferric hydrQxide on the particles; although the uptake follows an
adsorption isotherm, the ruthenium is difficult to remove, suggesting
chemical binding probably due to the formation of an insoluble complex
between the ruthenium and the ferric hydroxide. Uptake of ruthenium-
106 by marine algae is also a surface phenomenon, involving formation
of a complex with the extracellular polysaccharide material, which
varies with the different species, probably owing to differences in
the chemical composition of the cell surface. The marine diatom,
Phaeodactylum cornutum is as effective as fine particles of sand in
adsorbing and retaining ruthenium-l06 from sea water. Mussels ac-
cumulate the isotope principally by adsorption on the shell, and
plaice (Pleuronectes plates sa) in the gut, gills, and skin, with
only an insignificant amount in the flesh. Since differences were
observed in the uptake from sea water of nitrosyl-nitrato ruthenium-
106 and the nitrosyl ruthenium-106 complexes in waters from both a
plutonium separation process and a uranium purification process these
solutions were studied chromatographically and it was concluded that
differences in physical and chemical forms of ruthenium were present;
therefore in laboratory studies on the fate of radioactive waste
waters discharged to an aquatic environmeQt the actual treated waste
water should be used, or the pure solution of the partir.ular nuclide
should be altered to conform with the physical and chenlical nature
of the nuclide present in the effluent,
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282,
Jones, J.R.E. 1938. The relative toxicity of salts of lead,
zinc, and copper to the stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus
L.) and the effect of calcium on the toxicity of lead and
zinc salts. J. Exper. Biology 15:394-407.
Addition of calcium salts to PbN03 or ZnS04 reduces the
toxicity of these salts to Gasterosteus. Fifty mg/l of Ca (as
nitrate or chloride) will annul the toxicity of a 10 mg/l solution
of lead or a 20 mg/l solution of zinc. It is concluded that, in
the presence of sufficient calcium, the interaction between the
lead, or zinc, and the mucus secreted by fish does not take place.
This conclusion was endorsed by experiments in vitro on the slime
secreted by the eel, Anguilla anguilla.
283.
Jones, J.R.E. 1940. The toxicity of the double chloride of
mercury and sodium. I. Experiment with Phoxinus phoxinus
L. J. Exper. Biology 17:325.
Mercuric chloride does not ionize in aqueous solution, but
in the presence of NaCl forms the double chlorides NaHgC13 and Na2HgC14
which ionize readily. It had been claimed that the ionization of
mercuric chloride, thus effected, is accompanied by an increase of
toxicity, a decrease of toxicity, or that toxicity of the solution
remains unaltered. An investigation with the minnow f. phoxinus
using NaCl to convert HgC12 to the double chloride was performed.
There was no marked change when ten times the quantity of NaCl needed
was added. Any adverse affects were due to physical rather than
chemical aspects. A marked prolonged survival time occurs with excess
NaCl.
284.
Jones, J.R.E. 1940. A study of the zinc-polluted river Ystwyth
in North Cardiganshire, Wales. Ann. Appl. BioI. 27:368.
A study of the River Ystwyth in North Cardiganshire has
shown that the destructive effect of pollution by zinc on river
fisheries may be as serious as that caused by lead mining. In the
river valley there are disused metalliferous mine workings which
still continue to discharge water, heavily polluted with zinc salts
and to a less extent with lead salts. Pollution caused by drainage
of surface water from exposed dumps of mine refuse is comparatively
unimportant. The main stream of the river at normal level carries
0.7-1.2 mg/l of zinc in solution and a trace to 0.05 mg/l of lead,
and the bed is silted up with broken rock, rubble and gravel carried
down from the mine workings. The main stream is completely devoid
of phanerogmaic vegetation and submerged grass and bryophytic vege-
tation is extremely scanty. The fauna is limited to Insecta, Platy-
helmia, and Hydracarina. The absence of fish is directly associated
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with the chemical condition of the water, and the absence of Mol-
lusca and Malacostracan Crustacea also appears to be due to the
pollution. The nature of the insect fauna is determined by the
physical nature of the stream rather than by its chemical condition,
the most abundant insects at all points being species characteristic
of swift water and living upon or beneath stones. Certain species
of insects appear to be very tolerant of pollution by zinc, and
some species are found living in the most heavily polluted of the
streams of the river valley. The rarity of planarians and the ab-
sence of oligochaetes and leeches may be due to the scouring action
of the mine refuse and rubble of the river bed upon sluggish soft-
bodied animals.
285.
Jones, J.R. 1948. A further study of the reactions of fish
to toxic solutions. J. Exp. BioI. 25:22-34.
The toxicity of sulphides, lead nitrate, ammonia, and ab-
normally acid and alkaline waters to the stickleback, Gasterosteus
aculeatus, was studied. Gasterosteus reacted negatively (that is,
tried to avoid the solution) to a solution of 27.3 mg/l sodium sul-
phide almost immediately; at lower concentrations a progressively
longer time was taken to react (about 47 min in a 3.1 mg/l solution).
In concentrations from 19.5 to 39 mg/l reaction time was always shorter
than the period of survival of fish continually immersed in the solu-
tions. In a solution of 6,640 mg/l lead nitrate fish reacted negatively
at first and then positively. The positive reaction did not appear to
be due to acidity of the solution or to impairment of the sense organs
but may have been due to the osmotic pressure of the solution. Fish
reacted negatively to 664-3.2 mg/l solutions but reactions to weaker
solutions were not well defined. The minnow, Phoxinus phoxinus, was
much more sensitive to lead nitrate than were sticklebacks; it showed
immediate negative reaction to a solution of 116 mg/l Pb(N03)2. Tests
with a single minnow showed that it reacted negatively to a 1.67 mg/l
solution within 10 minutes. Reactions of sticklebacks to acid and
alkaline water in the range of pH 3.2 to pH 12.0 were studied. Fish
reacted negatively to water with a pH value of less than 5.4 or greater
than 11.4. From pH 6.0 to pH 11.0 there was no definite reaction. In
a solution of 680 mg/l ammonia, sticklebacks showed immediate negative
reaction but with a 170 mg/l solution reaction was slow and some fish
were overcome by exposure to the highly toxic solution. With 17-1.7 mg/l
solutions a definite positive reaction occurred. The importance is
stressed of covering a wide range of concentrations in studying the
reactions of fish to toxic substances, as reactions vary considerably
with concentration and with the sensitivity of the test fish.
286.
Jones, J.R.E.
Ystwyth.
1958. A further study of the zinc-polluted river
J. Anim. Ecol. 27:1-14.
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A further study has been made of conditions in the river
Ystwyth, North Cardiganshire, which a previous investigation showed
to be polluted by lead and zinc from disused mine workings. The
present survey indicated that lead pollution has become negligible,
but zinc still occurs in concentrations of 0.2-0.7 mg/l, according
to river level, although mining operations were discontinued 35
years ago. Above the mines there is a rich flora, but below the
sources of pollution it is poor in quantity and variety. The fauna
consists almost entirely of lithophilous insects. The available
food supply is very limited in variety, and the main food source
appears to be detritus. Although limited in variety the invertebrate
fauna seems quantitatively adequate to feed a reasonable number of
fish, and brown trout now occur in the river. It appears that the
pollution will continue for some time, though with slow improvement.
287.
Joyner, T. 1961. Exchange of zinc with environmental solution
by the brown bull head. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 90:444-
448.
Juvenile Ictalurus nebulosus (Pisces:Ictaluridae) were ex-
posed to dilute solutions of ZnC12 (tagged with Zn65). Initial up-
take of zinc was rapid during the first few hours, but cumulation
proceeded at a reduced rate after 12 hours. Higher zinc levels were
found in viscera and gills, and lower amounts in skin, muscle and
bone. Swallowed water did not add appreciably to zinc content of
the gastro-intestinal tract. Bioassay was in 6 mg/l solution of ZnC12'
One half of accumulated Zn was lost in one day after transfer to fresh
H20, and slightly more after seven days. There was no apparent damage
to the fish from exposure to Zn levels as high as 12 mg/l for 2 weeks,
nor from radiation of Zn65.
288.
Joyner, T. and R. Eisler. 1961. Retention and translocation
of radioactive zinc by salmon fingerlings. Growth 25:151-
156.
Twenty-five chinook salmon fingerlings were immersed for
twenty-four hours in 5 liters of lake water containing 0.2 mg/l of
zinc labelled with 18.5 microcuries of zinc-65. Periodic assays of
the gamma radioactivity in the fish showed that the rapidly growing
fish had removed approximately 2% of the radioactive zinc from the
medium and had retained nearly all of it for 63 days after transfer
to flowing lake water. The increase with time in the percent of
total body radioactivity contributed by the vertebral column, head,
and visceral mass indicates an accumulation of zinc in these parts
at the expense of the remainder of the fish.
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289.
Kaeding, J. 1958. The salt load on rivers of central Germany.
Wasseur-Wass Techn. 8:25.
Pollution of the Wipper, Saale, Unstrut, and Elbe by waste
waters from the potash industry has increased the chloride contents
and hardness to such an extent that the use of the water is seriously
affected. At the mouth of the Wipper the water contains 930 mg/l of
chlorine and 750 (German) of hardness; at the mouth of the Unstrut
the values are 590 mg and 500; in the Saale of Grize 1600 mg and 750;
and in the Elbe at Magdeburg 350 mg and 170.
290.
Kalabina, M.M., K.A.M. Viss, A.S. Razumov, and Ts. I. Govskaja.
1944. Effect of the toxic substances in effluents from
non-ferrous metal industries on the micro-organisms and
biochemical processes associated with the self-purification
of water in storage basins. Gigiena 9:1.
Samples of the waste waters and solutions containing certain
of the toxic constituents, such as copper and lead, were diluted with
river water polluted with sewage and were stored, in light and in the
dark, at a temperature of l8-200C for a sufficient period for self-
purification to take place; a control sample containing only the
polluted river water was also set up. Bacterial counts were then
made, development of the organisms was observed microscopically,
and at intervals, contents of copper, lead, ammonia, nitrite and
nitrate, pH value and oxygen demand were determined. The results
showed that in the presence of even comparatively small amounts of
copper and lead, development of the micro-organisms and the process
of self-purification were retarded. Addition of more than 0.1 mg/l
of copper causes an appreciable decrease in the numbers of bacteria;
after a period, which increases as the concentration of copper is
increased, the numbers of bacteria begin to increase again. though
no increase was observed in concentrations of 50 and 100 mg/l of
copper. At concentrations of 0.5 mg/l copper, development of all
types of micro-organisms was retarded and processes of nitrification
and of biochemical consumption of oxygen were inhibited; the process
of ammoniation, however, was unaffected. The toxic concentration
of lead for bacteria was 1 mg/l and for flagellates and infusoria
was 0.5 mg/l. The biochemical oxidation of organic matter was in-
hibited at concentrations of 1 mg/l of lead and the process of nitri-
fication was retarded when 0.5-1 mg/l lead was presented.
291.
Kalninya, Z.K. and G.G. Polikarpov.
cumulation factor in plankton of
Radiobiologiya 8:160-161.
1968. Strontium-90 ac-
different bodies of water.
Studies on the accumulation of strontium-90 by plankton from
eutrophic, mesotrophic and dystrophic lakes during the summer of 1966
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showed that, owing to the low calcium content (4-6 mg/l) of the
water in dystrophic lakes, plankton in this type of lake have a
greater capacity for accumulating strontium-90 than plankton in
other types of lakes.
292.
Kameda, K., M. Shimizu, and Y. Hiyama. 1968. On the uptake
of zinc-65 and the concentration factor of zinc in marine
organisms. I. Uptake of zinc-65 in marine organisms. J.
Radiation Res. 9:50-62.
In experiments on the uptake of zinc-65 by different marine
organisms, it was found that the concentration factors differed for
different organisms as well as for different tissues, and ranged from
3 to 20 for fish, from 50 to 400 for shellfish, and from 15 to 500
for sea urchin. However, the final concentration factors may be
higher than this, since equilibrium was not reached in many of the
organs and tissues during the 42-day experimental period.
293.
Kaplan, H.M. T.J. Arnholt, and J.E. Payne. 1967. Toxicity of
lead nitrate solutions for frogs (Rana pipiens). Laboratory
Animal Care 17:240-246.
A study was conducted to determine if the common laboratory
frog, Rana pipiens, suffers toxic effects when held in tanks containing
residues of Pb. Six groups of 24 frogs each were immersed in Pb nitrate
solutions containing 25 to 300 mg/l Pb; 2 groups of 20 frogs each were
immersed in solutions containing 500 and 1,000 mg/l Pb, respectively,
to study changes in the gastric mucosa and the red blood cells; some
frogs were kept in solutions of 25 mg/l Pb for 40 days to observe histo-
pathologic effects on liver and stomach. Twenty-four control frogs were
immersed in distilled water. A marked sloughing of the skin was noted
in about 20 days in all frogs at 25 mg/l Pb and in about 7 days at 300
mg/l. A permanent loss of the normal semi-erect posture occurred in
all concentrations, with atony appearing in about 90% of the animals
at 25 mg/l Pb after 25 days and in about 100% at 300 mg/l Pb after 10
days. Total loss of the righting reflex was seen only at 150 to 300
mg/l Pb. Excitement, salivation and muscular twitchings were evident
when frogs were first exposed to Pb solutions. Internally, a progres-
sive darkening of liver, gall bladder, kidney and spleen was observed,
and there was excessive bile excretion at all Pb concentrations. After
immersion for 48 hours at 1,000 mg/l Pb or for 2 weeks at 500 mg/l Pb,
the gastric mucosa was eroded or destroyed. Frogs exposed to 25 mg/l
Pb for 40 days had Pb deposits in the liver. Red and white blood cell
counts decreased with increasing Pb concentrations. Basophilic stippling
of erythrocytes occurred after exposure for 2 weeks to 500 or 100 mg/l Pb,
but there was no definable stippling at 25 mg/l Pb. Many frogs died at
the higher Pb concentrations.
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Frogs in municipal or well waters are apparently in no
danger of Pb poisoning; however, in laboratory tanks freshly coated
with Pb compounds such as litharge, they may suffer toxic effects.
294.
Kariya, T., S. Eto, N. Yamaguchi, and K. Suzuki. 1969. Studies
on the postmortem identification of the pollutant in fish
killed by water pollution-XI. On acute poisoning with tin
plating solutions. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish., 35:1172-
1178. (In Japanese with English abstract).
Tin content of tissues was determined by the phenylfluorone
method. In tin plating, two kinds of plating solutions are commonly
used, viz alkaline and acid. Experiments showed that the 48 hour
median tolerance limits of these 2 kinds of tin plating solutions to
goldfish were approximately 100 mg/l Sn. Sn was not detected in
control fish bodies, but was clearly detected in the bodies of fish
killed by either of the two kinds of solutions. The bodies of fish,
killed by tin plating solutions, showed values higher than 13.0 y/g
Sn, while the bodies of fish still living in tin plating solutions
showed values lower than that. It was also possible to detect Sn
even in fish washed by running tap water for 24 hours after death.
The distribution of tin in seven parts of the fish body was examined
under two conditions. Sn was detected in all the parts examined
under the condition that fish were killed by tin plating solutions.
Under the other condition, the fish were soaked in tin plating solu-
tions for 15-24 hours after being killed by suffocation. Sn was
detected in skin, gill and muscle, but not in the spleen, hepato-
pancreas and kidney. The bodies of fish killed by solutions con-
taining organic tin compounds showed very low values of tin content
as compared with fish killed by tin plating solutions.
295.
Kariya, T., H. Haga, Y. Haga, and K. Kimura. 1969. Studies
on the postmortem identification of the pollutant in fish
killed by water pollution - X. Acute poisoning with lead.
Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish. 35:1167-1171.
A lead solution (lead nitrate) of 3 mg/l was found to be
fatal to rainbow trout in 23-24 hours and the 48 h TLm was found
between 1 and 3 mg/l Pb. The nature of the water used for preparing
the lead solution influences considerably the toxicity of lead; hard
water (2.0 meq/l alkalinity) resulted in a great reduction of the
toxicity. Lead content of tissues was determined by the Diphenyl-
thiocarbazone method. Lead levels of the control fish were less
than 0.34y/g Pb and 0.25y/g Pb on an average. Lead content of fish
killed by lead solutions was higher than that of the control fish.
When the body of fish was washed with running tap water for 24 hours
after death, lead content decreased to 60.2-95.5% of the initial
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values. Seven parts of the fish body were examined for distribution
of lead in two cases. In the first case, fish were killed by a lead
solution and in the second, fish were soaked in a lead solution after
death by suffocation. In both cases the gills showed the highest
value of lead content among the seven parts and the muscles showed
the lowest. Lead content of the gill was higher in the first case
than in the second case. It was of interest to note that lead was
detected scantily in the liver and alimentary canal in the second
case. It should be pointed out that in the diagnosis of lead poi-
soning it is important to know the distribution of lead in the
carcass.
296.
Katsuki, Y. and T. Hashimoto.
ment of mechanoRensitivity
(3910):1287-1289.
1969. Shark pit organs:enhance-
by potassium ions. Science 166
The mandibular pit organs of pelagic sharks, which respond
sensitively to monovalent cations, often show neural discharges syn-
chronized with respiratory gill movement. The mechanosensitivity of
the organs is remarkably enhanced by application of potassium ions on
the same end organ, respiratory movement remaining constant. In view
of their mechanosensitivity to an increase of potassium ions in the
cell environment, as well as their chemosensitivity, the pit organs
of sharks, rather than the canal organs which have no chemosensitivity,
may be designated as a better model of the inner ear of higher animals.
297.
Ketchum, B.H., J.C.
contributing to
tidal estuary.
Ayers, and R.F. Vaccaro.
the decrease of coliform
Ecology 33:247-258.
1942. Processes
bacteria in a
The author derives equations for evaluating the effects of
dilution, bactericidal action of sea water, and action of predatory
organisms in reducing the numbers of coliform bacteria in a tidal
estuary and describes their application to conditions in the Raritan
River in 1949. The numbers of coliform organisms were found to de-
crease from 110,000 per ml at New Brunswick, where the salinity was
less than 40/00, to less than 100 per ml at the mouth of the river
where the salinity was 21-24 0/00. The combined processes of dilution,
bactericidal action, and predatory activities were found to be res-
ponsible for more than 99% of the decrease. The most important
single factor was the bactericidal action of the sea water and the
least important was dilution. The factors effecting the disappearance
of bacteria which is not accounted for by the three processes considered
are more important than dilution or predation but much less important
than the bactericidal action, it is suggested that the unevaluated
process may have been due to sedimentation.
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298.
Kevern, N.R. 1964. Strontium and calcium uptake by the
green alga, Oocystis eremosphaeria. Science 145:1445-
1446.
Using strontium-85 and calcium-45 as tracers, studies
were made on the uptake of calcium and strontium by the green uni-
cellular alga Oocystis eremosphaeria when cultured under controlled
conditions in media containing the two elements in the concentrations
found in freshwater environments. Uptake of both elements was rapid
for the first day, slightly greater than the growth rate of the popu-
lation for the next nine days and parallel to the growth rate subse-
quently. indicating equilibrium between the cellular and media con-
centrations. Uptake of each element is directly proportional to its
concentration in the medium and variations in the concentrations of
either element have slightly inverse effects on the uptake of the
other element. Formulae are presented for predicting the uptake of
strontium and calcium. Increased uptake of strontium when the con-
centration of calcium was very low suggests that the algae use stron-
tium in place of calcium when calcium is limiting. Therefore, a
significant reduction in the uptake of strontium could be produced
by adding calcium only if the existing concentration of calcium were
limiting. Uptake of strontium and calcium by Oocystis is best ex-
plained as a chemical equilibrium reaction.
299.
Khmeleva, N.N. 1962. Accumulation of
cerium, and yttrium radio-isotopes
biologiya 2:944-946.
strontium, calcium,
by crustacea. Radio-
Experiments on the uptake of strontium-90, calcium-45,
cerium-144 and yttrium-91 by Garnrnarus lacustris showed the strong
ability of crustacea to accumulate radioactive isotopes, particularly
cerium. Addition of EDTA caused a marked reduction in the uptake of
calcium, cerium and yttrium but caused a four-fold increase in the
uptake of strontium.
300.
King, S.F. 1964. Upt~e and transfer of cesium-13? by Chlamo-
domonas, Daphnia, and bluegill fingerlings. Ecology 54:
852-859.
The uptake of cesium-13? by Chlamydomonas, Daphnia pulex,
Daphnia magna, and bluegill fingerlings from water and labelled food
was studied at different cesium and algal concentrations. Increases
in the concentration of cesium in the water raised the amount concen-
trated in the alga and daphnids, but the concentration factor for
Daphnia pulex was 3 times that for Daphnia magna; the uptake of cesium
from water by the bluegills was negligible. Increases in the algal
concentration in the water decreased the uptake of cesium by the alga,
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but increased the uptake by Q. pulex. Algal density did not affect
the uptake of cesium by the alga and daphnids was greater at 220
than at 80C. Concentration factors of about 4 and 8 were obtained
for bluegill muscle tissue when the fish were fed on labelled Q.
magna and Q. pulex respectively about 13% of the activity available
from both species was retained in muscle tissue.
301.
Kirpicnikov, V.S., A.N. Svetovidov, and T.S. Trosin. 1956.
Absorption and output of radioactive calcium by Daphnia,
Cyclops, and guppies. C.R. Acad. Sci. V.R.S.S. 110:1122-
1125.
Daphnia and Cyclops placed in water containing calcium
chloride labelled with radioactive calcium-45 were found to concen-
trate the calcium, so that after 47 hours they contained about 1380
mg/kg fresh weight. When they were transferred to non-radioactive
solutions, the loss of radioactivity was rapid, the concentration of
radioactive calcium in their bodies being halved in 30 min. Guppies
were fed on Cyclops which had concentrated radioactive calcium, and
the guppies then took up calcium-45, but the process was slow. Direct
uptake of calcium-45 from the water by the guppies was more rapid.
Calcium-45 taken up in 3 hours in this way disappeared only slowly
from the body.
302.
Kiyoura, R. 1963. Water pollution and Minamata disease.
J. Air Water Pollut. 7:459-470.
Int.
Minamata disease is a severe neurological disorder which
has been recognized among people living near Minamata Bay, Kyushu,
Japan. It was first suggested that it was caused by consumption of
seafood contaminated with a mercury compound from the waste water
of a chemical plant discharged to the bay. Further studies by various
workers, however, indicate that pollution of the bay by the waste
water is not excessive when compared with other similar cases in
Japan, and the concentration of mercury in sea water in this area is
of the same order as in other bays of southern Kyushu. In other
parts of the country, the same kinds of seafoods, containing high
concentrations of mercury; are eaten and no outbreak of a similar
disease has been reported. It is suggested, therefore, that the
disease must be caused by factors other than the mercury in the
waste waters.
303.
Klassen, C.W., W.A. Hasfurther, and
toxicity of hexavalent chromium
Proc. 4th Industr. Waste Conf.,
68:229-237.
M.K. Young. 1948. The
to sunfish and bluegills.
Purdue Vniv. Extn. Ser.
-130-
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A study has been made of the toxicity to fish of waste
waters from electroplating containing hexavalent chromium. The
waste waters were added to spring water, with a total hardness of
294 mg/l and a pH value of 7.7 to 8.2, to give a content of 22-83
mg/l chromium. Bluegills and several varieties of sunfish were ex-
posed to the solutions for periods of up to 46 days. Results showed
that in hard alkaline water containing 50 mg/l chromium or less both
species could survive for at least a month. With high concentrations
(more than 70 mg/l) most fish died within 14 days. There was considerable
variation in the tolerance of individual fish and from the limited number
of tests made no definite relation could be found between the period of
survival and concentration of chromium. Examination of fish that died
during exposure to high concentrations of chromium showed that chromium
was present in the body cavity or that internal organs had deteriorated.
Factors Ivhich may have affected sensitivity of the fish are discussed.
304.
Klement, A.W. and I.E. Wallen. 1960. A
on marine and aquatic radiobiology.
3903, U.S. Dept. Commerce, Office of
D.C. :42 p.
selected list of references
U.S. Atom. Ener. Comm. TID-
Technical Services, Wash.
This report contains ~22
aspects of the pollution of marine
activity. An author index is also
references to papers on the
and aquatic environments by
provided.
biological
radio-
305.
Kolehmainen, 5., E. Haesaenen, and J.K. Miettinen. 1966.
137 levels in fish of different limnological types of
in Finland. Health Physics 12:917-922.
Cesium-
lakes
Results of studies are reported on limnological characteristics
of 12 lakes and 3 rivers in Finland and on Cs-137 levels in several fish
species. The lakes ranged from oligotrophic to fully eutrophic, with
the conductivity ranging from 11 to 79 mho units, the color from 5 to
100 mg/l of platinum, and the penmanganate demand from 8 to 144 mg/l.
The concentration of cesium-137 in fish was inversely related to the
conductivity of the water, and was also affected by the feeding habits
of the different fish and the general limnological character of the
waters, but did not appear to be related to the total beta-activity
of the water, which varied only slightly.
306.
Kolehmainen, S., E. Haesaenen, and J.K. Miettinen. 1967. Cesium-
137 in fish, plankton and plants in Finnish lakes during
1964-5. Proc. Int. Symp. Radioecol. Concent. Process.,
1966, Stockholm:9l3-919.
With a view to elucidating the behavior of cesium-137 in
the ecosystem of lakes, radioecological invescigations were carried
-131-
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out on 26 eutrophic, oligotrophic, and dystrophic lakes, 4 rivers in
Finland, and on the Gl11f of Finland. Graphical and tabulated data
are reported on the chemical characteristics of the waters and the
cesium-137 contents of fish (perch, pike, burbot, roach, and white-
fish), zooplankton, and aquatic plants. The concentration of cesium-
137 in the organisms was inversely proportional to the concentration
of potassium in the water, probably because the concentration of in-
active cesium in the water is extremely low and potassium acts as a
non-isotopic carrier. Piscivorous fish were 2-3 times more radio-
active than those eating bottom animals or plankton. Cs-137 varied
with the biological half-life of the isotope in the particular specie
i.e. although perch feeds on plankton when young, on bottom animals
during its growth period, and on small fish only when fully grown
it had a higher concentration of radioactivity than the other fish
species probably owing to the longer biological half-life, of 200
days at 150C. The concentration of cesi~~-137 in fish from the
brackish water of the Gulf of Finland of salt concentration about
4-5 parts per thousand, is only about one-hundredth of that in fish
from the nutrient-deficient lakes, and this is attributed to the
differences in electrolyte content. The limnological character of
the lakes affects the rate of change of the concentration of cesium-
137 in the biota: maximal body burdens in fish were reached a con-
siderable period after the maximal fallout; in fish of eutrophic
lakes the maximum occurred in 1964 but in oligotrophic lakes the
burden was slightly higher in 1965 than in 1964.
307.
Koroleva, N.V. 1960. Tolerance of young salmon (Salmo salar)
to various degrees of water salinity. Nauch-Tekh. Byul.
Gos. Nauch.-Issl. Inst. Ozern. Rech. Rybn, Khoz. 12:33-
34.
Fingerlings and year-old salmon of various sizes were kept
for 15 days in 10, 15, 20 and 25% salt solutions. The results showec
that tolerance of salinity increased with increase in size of the
fish; fingerlings weighing about 1 g survived 10% salinity but could
not tolerate 15%, while yearlings weighing 6-10 g survived a salinit~
of 15%.
308.
Kovalsky, V.V., I.E. Vorotnitskaya, and V.S. Lekarev. 1967.
Biogeochemical food chains of uranium in aquatic and ter-
raneous organisms. Proc. Int. Symp. Radioecol. Concent.
Process., 1966, Stockholm:329-332.
The migration of uranium in ecological food chains has
been studied in a lake where the concentration of uranium in the
water (3.0 x 10-6 per cent) exceeded the average content in sea
water and was nearly double the average concentration in rivers and
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freshwater lakes. Results showed that uranium accumulates in aquatic
organisms indirectly via the food chain and that the amount of uranium
accumulation by fish differs with the species, corresponding to the
amount of uranium absorbed with the food (the greatest amounts were
absorbed by plant-eating fish such as carp and the least amounts by
predatory fish such as trout). Uranium was concentrated particularly
in the gonads of fish and also in the cell structure of Charaphytae
(these organisms contained 3-5 times as much uranium as other algae).
309.
Kozn, Y. and T. Tomiyama. 1949. Studies on factors governing
the productivity of water. III. The influence of chemical
constituents of water upon the mortality of young rainbow
trout. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish. 15(6):277-282; BioI.
Abstr. 26:1022.
Analyses were made of the water of 11 trout hatcheries to
determine constituents of the water. A straight line was obtained
when mortality was plotted against the logarithm of age of the fry
in months. The slope represented intensity of mortality which was
found to be directly proportional to concentration of silica and
inversely proportional to the concentration of calcium in the water.
310.
Krumholz, L.A. 1954. A summary of findings of the ecological
survey of White Oak Creek, Roane County, Tennessee, 1950-
1953. U.S. Atom. Energy Comm. Tech. Inform. Serv., ORO-
132:54 p.
Results are given of an ecological survey of White Oak
Creek which was made during 1950-1953 to investigate the effects of
radioactive waste waters from the Oak Ridge National Laboratory on
the flora and fauna. The waste waters consist of a mixture of
chemical wastes from laboratory, pilot-plant, and full-scale opera-
tions. Some wastes are radioactive and some are not. Before they
reach the creek they pass through retention ponds to permit decay
of the radioactive isotopes. Sewage is also discharged after sedi-
mentation and chlorination. Results showed that all living plants
are capable of selectively concentrating specific radioactive nu-
clides. The commonest radioactive elements concentrated were stron-
tium, cesium, ruthenium, rare earths, and zirconium. Only in the
case of the American elm tree was enough radioactive material con-
centrated to cause obvious damage to tissue. Filamentous algae ac-
cumulated much greater amounts of radioactivity than phytoplankton.
Radioactive phosphorus was selectively concentrated in greater
amounts than other radioactive elements. The rate of growth of all
species of fish was slower in White Oak Lake, in which the waste
waters are held before discharge to the creek, than in other nearby
impounded waters and the life span was as much as 25% shorter. Fish
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selectively accumulated radioactive materials far in excess of the
amounts occurring in the water. Cesium was concentrated in the soft
tissues and strontium, and to a lesser extent phosphorus, was con-
centrated in the hard tissues. Two species apparently were unable
to maintain their populations in these circumstances. Muskrats and
woodchuck also accumulated radioactive elements in large amounts.
The view is held that circumstantial evidence against the continued
discharge of radioactive waters to surface waters is very strong.
311.
¥Jumholz, L.A. 1963. Biological transfer of natural and fall-
out radionuclides in streams. In Report of a working meeting
held at Univ. of Texas, January 30-February 1, 1963. u.s.
Atomic Energy Commission Div. Technical Informati8n TID-
7664:261-267.
Studies, including analyses of water and biota, are re-
ported on the fate of radioactivity entering Doe Run, Ky., from
soils and fallout. Radioactivity was accumulated by the various
organisms throughout the 9~-mile length of the stream but there was
no pattern of accumulation when the total aspect of the stream was
considered. Particular attention was given to radioactivity in the
food chain of Cottus (fish). The studies also indicated the importance
of allochthonous detritus, since as much as 40-60% of the total nutrients
in the stream were derived from leaves from the surrounding trees.
Studies on the growth form of Fissendens, the moss on the bed of part
of the river, showed that there are micro-currents within the moss
beds and the concentrations of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other
chemicals show differences of one or two orders of magnitude between
the surface and the deep parts of the bed. Further downstream there
are stands of Potamogeton, Nitella, Myriophyllum, and finally water-
cress and forget-me-not, both of which concentrate large amounts of
radioactivity.
312.
Kuenzler, E.J. 1969. Elimination and transport of cobalt by
marine zooplankton. Proc. 2nd Nat. Symp. on Radioecology,
USAEC Conf. 670503:483-492.
Zooplankton are significant agents in cycling of cobalt in
surface layers of the sea and in its transport through the thermo-
cline. Net hauls in the eastern Pacific Ocean in spring 1962 showed
that, over the whole day, the mean biomass (wet weight) in the upper
100 m was 3.87 g/100 m3, of which 42% were copepods, 13% were pyro-
somas, 13% were siphonophores, 11% were salps and doliolids, and 11%
were chaetognaths. The diurnally migrating zooplankton amounted to
4.16 g/m2, of which 22% were copepods, 19% were pyrosomas, 20% were
siphonophores, 18% were salps and doliolids, 6.5% were medusae, and
4% were chaetognaths.
-134-
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Using data from the literature on cobalt content of zoo-
plankton and of seawater and measured values for cobalt elimination
rates of zooplankton, the turnover time for cobalt in the upper 100 m
was calculated to be about 13 years. Similarly, diurnally migrating
zooplankton carry down and eliminate below the thermocline a quantity
of cobalt equal to that in the upper 100 m in about 56 years. Trans-
port of Co through the thermocline by migrating zooplankton may often
equal or exceed the transport by vertical eddy diffusion.
313.
Kuenzler, E.J. 1969. Elimination of iodine, cobalt, iron,
and zinc by marine zooplankton. Proc. 2nd Nat. Symp. on
Radioecology, USAEC (Conf. 670503):462-473.
Measurements of elemental elimination rates were made using
zooplankton labeled by fallout from a nuclear test and upon zooplankton
labeled with tracers. The rates at which elements were eliminated by
zooplankton depended on the element, the animal species, and the time
since they became labeled. In experiments performed soon after labeling,
copepods had elimination rates of l-6%/hr for I, 4-6%/hr for Co, and
about l%/hr for Zn; Sagitta, 22%/hr for I, ll%/hr for Co, and 3%/hr
for Zn; euphausiids, l%/hr for I and Co, and 5%/hr for Zn; pteropods,
5-6%/hr for I and Fe, and l-3%/hr for Co and Zn.
Filtration and ion-exchange techniques indicated the physical
and chemical form of the eliminated products. Most of the iodine eliminated
by zooplankton was probably 1-, but copepods also eliminated some cationic
form. Much of the eliminated iron was particulate, but significant amounts
were soluble anionic (Pyrosoma, Salpa) or non-exchangeable (Sagitta).
Some eliminated cobalt was particulate, but most was cationic. Eliminated
zinc also was frequently found in the particulate fraction, but exchange-
able and non-exchangeable zinc were also eliminated.
314.
Kujala, N.F. 1966. Artificial radionuclides in Pacific salmon.
Thesis, Oregon State Univ., Corvallis, Oregon:62 p.
Pacific salmon, Oncorhynchus, concentrate certain gamma-
emitting radionuclides (zinc-65, manganese-54, potassium-40, and
cesium-137) in their viscera. In some cases, the pattern of concen-
tration of the nuclides appears to be related to the position of the
Columbia River "plume"; thus, fish whose migratory paths are far south
of the river contain more zinc-65 and less manganese-54. In other
cases the nuclide concentrations can be explained, at least in part,
by differences in feeding habits: the more carnivorous chinook and
coho salmon accumulate the highest concentrations of zinc-65, manganese-
54 and cesium-137, while sockeye salmon, which feed on plankton, ac-
cumulates less radioactivity, with manganese-54 the dominant nuclide,
some zinc-65, but no cesium-137. The effects of diet on concentration
-135-
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of radioactivity in salmon were investigated by
contents; crab larvae concentrated manganese-54
euphausiids concentrated only zinc-65.
analysing stomach
and zinc-65 while
315.
Kujala, N.F., I.L. Larsen, and C.L. Osterberg. 1969. Radio-
isotope measurements of the viscera of Pacific salmon.
Proc. 2nd Nat. Symp. in Radioecology, U.S.A.E.C. Conf.
670503:440-449.
Pacific salmon, Oncorhynchus~, concentrate certain
gamma-emitting radionuclides (65Zn, 54Mn, OK,137Cs) in their vis-
cera. In some cases the pattern of concentration of radionuclides
seems related to the position of the freshwater plume of the Columbia
River, a well-known source of 65Zn in the northeast Pacific Ocean.
Fishes whose migration paths were far south of the river had more
65Zn, but less 54Mn. In southeastern Alaskan waters there was a
distinct difference in relative abundance of 65Zn and 54Mn in
salmon. Manganese-54 was the dominant isotope in salmon of northern
Alaskan waters and 65Zn was more prominent in the spectra of fishes
from Canadian and contingent United States waters. The Columbia
River plume undoubtedly accounted for this increase in 65Zn.
Concentrations of radionuclides differ with species and
stocks of salmon. The chinook and coho salmon, which feed more on
small fishes than the sockeye, accumulated the highest concentrations
of 65Zn, 54Mn and l37Cs. On the other hand, the sockeye, feeding on
a lower trophic level, had low radioactivity, with 54Mn the dominant
radionuclide, some 65Zn and no l37Cs. The chum and pink salmon examined
most nearly resembled the sockeye in radioactivity.
Ocean food habits and migratory pathways both appear relevant
to the levels of artificially produced gamma-emitters in the viscera
of salmon.
316.
Kurland, T., S.N. Faro, and H. Siedler. 1960. Minamata disease.
The outbreak of a neurologic disorder in Minamata, Japan, and
its relationship to the ingestion of seafood contaminated by
mercuric compounds. World Neurology 1960:370-395.
The occurrence of a degenerative disease of the brain at
Minamata, Japan, was found to be associated with eating fish and shell-
fish from Minamata Bay; to which is discharged mercury-containing waste
waters from a factory where mercuric chloride is used as catalyst in
the production of vinyl chloride from acetylene and hydrogen chloride.
Large amounts of mercury were found in the waste waters and in the bottom
mud in the bay. The waste waters now receive treatment before discharge
to remove the mercury, and the spent catalyst is dumped after removal
of the mercury by distillation.
-136-
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317.
Kushmerick, M.J. and R.J. Podolsky. 1969. Ionic mobility in
muscle cells. Science 166 (3910):1297-1298.
The diffusivities of ionic potassium, sodium, sulfate and
adenosine triphosphate inside a frog muscle cell are reduced by a
factor of two, relative to diffusivities in aqueous solution. The
diffusion coefficients of nonelectrolytes are reduced by the same
factor, showing that the diffusion of the ions is retarded by phy-
sical, rather than chemical, interactions. In contrast, the dif-
fusivity of the calcium ion, which is taken up by the sarcoplasmic
reticulum, is reduced fiftyfold.
318.
Lackey, J.B. 1959. Shellfish and radioactivity.
Univ. Fla. Leaflet 115:8 p.
Engng. Prog.
The author reviews known information on the effects of radio-
activity on shellfish, dealing with sources of radioactivity; fate of
radioisotopes in the sea; effects on food, reproduction, and larvae;
and dangerous levels of activity in shellfish for human consumption.
He concludes that there is always some natural radioactivity in shell-
fish due at least in part to potassium-40. Shellfish are filter
feeders and therefore will ingest radioactive micro-organisms ranging
in size from bacteria to much larger organisms, and thus acquire radio-
activity at varying rates and amounts, depending on various environ-
mental factors.
319.
Laurent, P.J. 1956 (1958). Resistance of fresh-water crustaceans
to the action of sodium chromate. Verh. Int. Ver. Limnol. 13:
590-595.
In studies to investigate organisms requiring a shorter
duration of toxicity test than fish, it was found impossible to use
Asellus, owing to cannibalism of groups in captivity and excessive
mortality when the individual organisms were isolated. The results
of tests with Gammarus pulex were more satisfactory and are shown
graphically. In a solution containing 85 mg/l of sodium chromate,
total mortality occurred after 160 minutes, and with a dose of 4.3
mg/l after 68 hours 30 minutes. In these two solutions, the greatest
mortality occurred after 13 hours 10 minutes, and 24 hours 25 minutes,
respectively. The delay before the first signs of intoxication was
not, however, related to the concentration of chromate. When the time
of greatest mortality was plotted against concentration, both on
logarithmic scales, a straight line was obtained, in the range 4.3-
85 mg/l of chromate.
-137-
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320.
Leandri, M., J. Charrel, and D. ames. 1963. Trials of experi-
mental decontamination of mediterranean shellfish pol-
luted by radioactive waters. Rev. Hyg. Med. Soc., Paris,
11:411-416.
Experiments indicated that shellfish experimentally con-
taminated with radioactivity do not appear to possess any biological
powers of decontamination; the rate of decontamination is similar to
the rate of decrease of the contaminating isotope.
321.
Leandri, M., J. Charrel, and D. ames. 1963. Study of experi-
mental contamination of certain currently consumed mediter-
ranean shellfish. Rev. Hyg. Med. Soc., Paris 11:401-410.
Experiments on the uptake of radioactive iodine-13l and
iron-59 by the principal types of edible Mediterranean shellfish
showed that maximum contamination occurs between the 4th and 7th
days of exposure, and the extent of the contamination varies with
the type of shellfish. Greatest uptake occurs in the shell, the
body fixing only 1/50 to 1/10 of the iodine-13l taken up by Mytilus
galloprovincialis.
322.
Lear, D.W. and C.H. Oppenheimer. 1962. Biological removal of
radio-isotopes Sr-90 and Y-90 from sea water by marine
micro-organisms. Limnol. Ocean. 7 (Supplement): XLIV-
LXII.
Experiments were carried out to develop accurate and prac-
ticable experimental methods for determining the uptake of radio-
active isotopes by micro-organisms. Methods investigated included
autoradiography of bacterial colonies grown on radioactive media
(this method does not lend itself to quantitative measurement and
with the procedures employed selective uptake of isotopes from mix-
tures cannot be readily detected); uptake of radioactive isotopes
from liquid media (this procedure possibly delineates the materials
truly incorporated into the cells from those loosely bound by sur-
face force on the cells); and chemical fractionation of cellular
components of washed radioactive cells (this procedure indicates the
nature of the binding agencies involved in the true uptake of iso-
topes). The organisms used were the marine bacterium, Serratia
marinorubra, and the marine phytoplankton, Platymonas subcordiformis,
and the isotopes were a carrier-free mixture of strontium-90-yttrium-
90 in equilibrium of decay. From the results, which are given in
tables and graphs and discussed, various recommendations are made
for carrying out experiments on uptake of radioactivity by micro-
organisms.
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323.
Lebedeva, G.D. 1959. The accumulation of cerium-144 by year-
old carp and Elodea. Med. Radiol. U.S.S.R. 4(4):73-77.
Laboratory experiments have shown that the accumulation of
radioactive cerium in the tissues and organs of carp and in Elodea is
directly proportional to the radioactivity of the water. Cerium is
taken up more rapidly by Elodea than by fish. The greatest concen-
tration of cerium is found in the gills and internal organs. Excretion
of cerium from the organs is very slow; 8-41% of the isotope still
remained in the fish after they had been kept in pure water for 3
months.
324.
Lebedeva, G.D.
of water on
water fish.
1966. Influence of different salt composition
cesium-137 accumulation and excretion in fresh-
Radiobiologiya 6:556-559.
The maximal accumulation of cesium-137 by freshwater fish
(yearling carp) from water containing lxlO-7c per liter occurs in
the muscle tissue after 1-2 months and in bone after 2.5-3 months.
Uptake of cesium-137 can be reduced considerably by increasing the
concentration of potassium and sodium in the water.
325.
Liepolt, R. and E. Murer. 1958.
sulphate on water organisms.
353.
The toxic action of copper
Wass. u. Abwass. 1958:335-
The author describes tests on the toxicity of dissolved
copper to rainbow trout, minnows, and various fish-food organisms,
with special reference to the effects of hardness, temperature, and
pH value. Tables of results show the limits of toxicity to the
various animals; sensitivity is more easily compared by the rapidity
of action. The symptoms of poisoning shown by the various test ani-
mals are described. Toxicity at high temperatures and in soft water
are considerably greater than at low temperatures and in hard water.
Copper sulphate remains in solution to a greater extent in acid water
and is thus more toxic. No effect was observed in fish when copper
was taken by mouth.
326.
Linn, D.W. 1963. The effects of radium on
blood constituents and organs. Thesis,
sity, Salt Lake City, Utah. 116 p.
certain goldfish
Utah State Univer-
Goldfish were immersed in water containing radium under
controlled conditions, and observations were made on blood changes
and deposition of radium in bone and internal organs. The blood
characteristics studied were the micro haematocrits, total plasma
-139-
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proteins, white blood cell counts, and differential ratios. Both
bone and internal organs were found to accumulate radium, but the
pattern of uptake and concentration were rather inconsistent.
327.
Lloyd, R. 1960. The toxicity of zinc sulphate to rainbow trout.
Ann. Appl. Biol. 48:84-94.
Investigations are reported on the toxicity of zinc sulphate
to rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) in waters of different chemical and
physical properties, with special reference to the effects of hardness,
temperature, and concentration of dissolved oxygen. Zinc sulphate was
less toxic to rainbow trout in hard water than in soft water; the
response curve obtained by plotting log concentration of zinc against
the median period of survival was linear in very soft water and curvi-
linear in hard water approaching an apparent threshold concentration,
below which zinc was not toxic. Fish exposed to concentrations of
zinc below the threshold value acquired an increased resistance to
higher lethal concentrations. Zinc was markedly less toxic in water
containing calcium chloride than in borehole water where the hardness
was due to calcium bicarbonate. Decreases in temperature increased
the survival time for a given concentration of zinc in borehole water,
but had little effect on the threshold concentration. A reduction in
the oxygen concentration of the water increased the toxicity of zinc,
but the effect was reduced when the fish were previously acclimatized
to the concentration of dissolved oxygen used in the tests. The death
of the fish did not appear to be due to coagulation of mucus on the
gill surface, but tests using zinc-65 as a tracer suggested that death
was caused by damage to the tissues of the gills themselves. There
was no difference in the toxicity of zinc chloride and zinc sulphate.
328.
Lloyd, R. 1961. Effect of
the toxicity of several
gairdnerii Richardson).
dissolved-oxygen concentrations on
poisons to rainbow trout (Salmo
J. Exp. Biol. 34:447-455.
A reduction in the dissolved-oxygen concentration of the
water from air-saturation increased the toxicity to trout of zinc,
lead, and copper salts and of a mixture of monohydric phenols by
about the same extent. This increase in toxicity is attributed to
a physiological reaction by the fish to the change in environment,
independent of the nature of the poison. Using two theoretical
methods to calculate the relation between the increase in toxicity
of poisons and the reduction in dissolved-oxygen concentration, and
comparing the results with experimental data, it is concluded that
most, if not all, of the increase in toxicity of poisons in water
of low dissolved-oxygen concentration is caused by the increase in
the rate of respiratory flow, and any environmental or physiological
change which affects the rate of respiratory flow of a fish will also
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affect the concentration of poison at the surface of the gill epithe-
lium. a known relationship existing between these two factors. This
relation will be the same for all poisons except those. such as am-
monium salts. where the toxicity depends on ionization and is affected
by the pH value of the water; the additional increase in toxicity ob-
served experimentally with such compounds was accounted for by a the'-
oretical calculation of the difference between the pH values of the
bulk of the solution and that at the gill surface.
329.
Lloyd. R. 1961. The toxicity of mixtures of zinc and copper
sulfates to rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnerii Richardson).
Ann. Appl. Biology 49:535-538.
The toxicity to rainbow trout of a mixture of Zn and Cu
sulfates in relatively low concentrations can be calculated from the
toxicities of the individual metals by assuming that they exert a
similar joint action. Higher concentrations of the mixture in soft
water exhibit a synergistic action.
330.
Lloyd. R. 1965. Factors which affect the tolerance of fish
to heavy metal poisoning. In Biological Problems in Water
Pollution. Third Seminar. U.S. Dept. Health. Education and
Welfare. Aug. 13-17. 1962. Public Health Service 999-WP-25:
181-186.
Heavy metals (salts of Zn. Cu. and Pb) cause epithelial cells
to swell and separate from pilaster cells of the lamellae. and finally
to slough off. The amount of Zn required to kill a fish is quite small
(analysis of gills for Zn. after exposure to Zn solution. showed only
2 X normal content). The small amount of Zn required and its mode of
action suggested a defined lethal threshold. The threshold is at the
point where the blood stream no longer can carry away metal ions from
the epithelial cell; the excess build up of metal ions in the epithelial
cells causes death. It is suggested that mercury has a different mode
of action.
More alkaline waters decrease solubility of heavy metals. and
calcium ions reduce toxicity of heavy metal ions. Temperature decreases
usually increase survival time. Toxicity increased with decreased dis-
solved oxygen. The combined action of Cu and Zn is additive. as the
action of each is similar.
331.
Lloyd. R. and W.R. White. 1967. Effect of high concentration
of carbon dioxide on the ionic composition of rainbow trout
blood. Nature 216:1341-1342.
-141
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Experiments to determine the changes in ionic components
in the blood of rainbow trout subjected to high concentrations of
carbon dioxide are reported. Serum from fish which were put into
an environment of high carbon-dioxide concentration were analysed
for sodium, bicarbonate, chloride and phosphate. Sodium and in-
organic phosphate levels did not differ greatly from those of the
control group of fish; the bicarbonate in the serum rose from the
control level of 6.75 mequiv/l to 32.2 mequiv/l within 24 hours with
35 mg/l free carbon dioxide in the water; a corresponding decrease
in the chloride levels, which fell from 152.5 mequiv/l to 114.6
mequiv/l was noted. The change in serum chloride content was 13
mequiv/l greater than the corresponding change in the bicarbonate
level; the nature of the extra anionic component which compensates
for this is not known. The serum bicarbonate and chloride levels
returned towards normal after the free carbon dioxide was removed
from the water but the pre-test values were not reached, further
indicating the presence of an unknown anionic component.
332.
Lodge, M. and P.C.G. Isaac. 1958. Control of algae in a
reservoir. Dniv. Durham, Kings ColI., Dept. Civ. Enging.
Bull. 12:13.
In order to determine the best algicidal treatment for a
reservoir in the northeast of England, weekly examinations were made
in February-August, 1957, to determine the nature and the amount of
algae present, and screening tests with various algicides were car-
ried out. The effects of algicidal treatments on the algal popula-
tions are shown graphically. Copper sulphate was at first considered
the most suitable algicide but chlorine later proved more valuable.
Throughout the test period, the algal flora was predominantly chloro-
phycean, but an autumn peak of diatoms later replaced the green algae.
333.
Lowman, F.G., R.A. Stevenson, R.M. Escalera, and S.L. Dfret.
1967. The effects of river outflows upon the distribution
patterns of fallout radioisotopes in marine organisms.
Proc. Int. Symp. Radioecol. Concent. Process., 1966, Stock-
holm: 735-752.
Further studies are reported on the distribution of radio-
isotopes in waters along the west and south coasts of Puerto Rico with
special reference to the effects on algae, which derive their trace
elements direct from solution in water, and sponges, which ingest
particulate matter containing the trace elements. The ash content
of organisms in water off the west coast (which receives the outflow
of three major rivers) was 1~-2 times that in the same species col-
lected off the south coast (where the streams are intermittent). The
content of potassium-40 was inversely related to the ash content. The
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distribution of radioactive isotopes in algae and sponges is compared
in gamma spectra. Of the two biologically important fallout radio-
nuclides (manganese and cobalt), soluble and particulate manganese
could be studied individually by observations on algae and sponges
respectively, owing to their different intake mechanisms (results
suggest that manganese-54 enters the ocean in a different chemical
form not fully in equilibrium with the stable manganese), and cobalt-
60 was accumulated only by one species of sponge. Compared with
manganese and cobalt, relatively large amounts of fission products
(zirconium-95-niobium-95, ruthenium-106-rhodium-106, and cerium-144-
praseodymium-144) were accumulated by algae, probably owing to sur-
face adsorption; sponges also accumulated large amounts of ruthenium-
106-rhodium-106, and some cerium-144-praseodymium-144, but no zirconium-
95-niobium-95 could be detected. Comparing the distribution of radio-
active isotopes in water and organisms off the south and west coasts,
it is concluded that the lithogenic material carried into the sea by
rivers causes an increase in the total amount of all fission products;
an apparent increase in the amounts of soluble or colloidal zirconium-
95-niobium-95 (4.7 times), ruthenium-106-rhodium-106 (2 times), and
cerium-144-praesodymium-144 (3.6 times); and an apparent increase in
the amounts of particulate ruthenium-106-rhodium-106 (about 3.6 times)
and cerium-144-praesodymium-144 (1. 2 times).
334.
Lucas, H.F., Jr., D.N. Edgington, and P.J. Colby. 1970.
centrations of trace elements in Great Lakes fishes.
Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 27:677-684.
Con-
J.
The concentration of 15 trace elements was determined by
activation analysis of samples of whole fish and fish livers from
three of the Great Lakes: Michigan, Superior, and Erie. The average
concentrations of 7 elements in 19 whole fish from 3 species were
as follows: uranium, 3 micrograms/l (parts per billion); thorium,
6 ppb; cobalt, 28 ppb; cadmium, 94 ppb; arsenic, 16 ppb; chromium,
1,000 ppb; and copper, 1,300 ppb. The average concentrations of 8
elements in 40 liver samples from 10 species of fish were as follows:
uranium, approximately 2 ppb; thorium, ~2 ppb; cobalt, 40 ppb; copper,
9,000 ppb; zinc, 30,000 ppb; bromine, 400 ppb; arsenic, 30 ppb; and
cadmium, 400 ppb. Other elements observed in most of the samples were:
antimony, 5-100 ppb; gold, 2-5 ppb; lanthanum, 1-20 ppb; rhenium, 0.5-
5 ppb; rubidium, 0.06-4 ppb; and selenium, 0.1-2 ppb.
Trace element concentrations varied with species and lake.
Uranium and thorium varied with species, but not for the same species
from different lakes. The level of copper, cobalt, zinc, and bromine
varied little between species and lakes. The concentration of cadmium,
arsenic, and chromium varied between species and with species between
lakes.
- 1A 3-
-------
335.
Lucas, J.W. and D.C. Pickering. 1958. Direct absorption of
dissolved strontium-90 and yttrium-90 by tadpoles of ~
temporaria. Nature 182:1242-1243.
A long-term investigation is in progress on the direct bio-
logical effects of radioactive isotopes on the life cycle of the frog,
and preliminary results are given in tables and graphs on the absorp-
tion of radioactive strontium and yttrium by tadpoles of Rana temporaria.
In about one week 100 tadpoles absorbed approximately 18% of the strontium-
90 and 72% of the yttrium-90, which was equivalent to about 0.02 and 0.09
~C., respectively. The strontium-90 content of the tadpoles was not ap-
preciably reduced by washing with water, even after 4 weeks; a 0.01%
solution of ethylenediaminetetra-acetic acid increased the rate of de-
contamination. Preliminary studies suggest that the presence of calcium
bicarbonate in the water reduces the uptake of strontium-90 by the tad-
poles, although the curves obtained were similar to those for soft water.
Histological changes and the effect on metamorphosis are being investi-
gated.
336.
Lucu, C. 1968. Sodium metabolism in crab Carcinus mediterraneus
CRSN. Proceedings of the third international colloquium on
medical oceanography. Fifth and sixth sessions:6l-69.
Laboratory studies on the uptake and release of sodium-22
by Carcinus mediterraneus from natural, diluted, and concentrated sea
water demonstrated the crab's ability to regulate the concentration
of this element in its blood stream and the rate of accumulation and
loss. Results, which proved similar to those obtained by others for
~. maenas, were presented graphically.
337.
Ludemann, D. 1953. The toxicity of manganese to fish, crabs,
and animals forming the food of fish. Schr Reihe Ver.
Wasserhyg. 7:18 p.
After a summary of information available in the literature
on the toxic action of manganese on fish, the author describes experi-
ments on fish, river crabs, and water animals on which fish feed. Solu-
tions of manganese sulphate and manganese chloride were used and tests
were made in glass aquaria or glass dishes in which the water was
aerated. Using manganese sulphate it was found that manganese in con-
centrations such as are naturally found in water, even in water con-
taining much iron, had no effect. The first effects became visible
at concentrations of 0.5 g/l of manganese; a solution containing 1 g/l
caused death of fish. With manganese chloride the first effects were
visible at a concentration of 33 mg/l and death was caused at 40 mg/l.
The symptoms were the same with both compounds. Experiments with lower
water animals showed great resistance in some species especially Sphaerium,
-144-
-------
dragonfly larvae, and Cambarus affinis Say, all of which were un-
damaged in solutions containing 1 g/l of manganese. The second
part of the investigation was concerned with methods of detecting
manganese in dead fish. Sections of the most important organs
showed no histological alterations which could be regarded as due
to uptake of manganese. Manganese could however be detected by
chemical analysis of dead fish.
338.
Mackenthum, K.M. 1958. The chemical control of
nuisances. A report on the use of chemicals
ponds, and streams for the control of algae,
other aquatic nuisances. Committee on Water
Madison, Wis.: 64 p.
aquatic
in lakes,
weeds, and
Pollution,
The author discusses the use of chemicals for the control
of aquatic weeds and algae, including the calculation of the amount
of chemical required, the equipment for duplication of the chemical,
and precautions to be taken. The effects of treatment are described.
Sodium arsenite is usually used for the control of aquatic weeds and
copper sulphate for the control of algae. A section is also included
on the nature and development of swimmers' itch and on chemical con-
trol of the snail~ which form the alternate host of the schistosome
cercariae. Snails can be killed by treatment with copper sulphate
and copper carbonate or with copper sulphate and fresh hydrated lime.
Tables are given showing the lakes in Wisconsin which have received
treatment with copper sulphate or sodium arsenite during the past 8
years.
339.
Mackenthum, K.M. and H.L. Cooley. 1952. The biological effect
of copper sulphate treatment on lake ecology. Trans Wis.
Acad. Sci. Arts Lett. 11:177-187.
Laboratory experiments have shown that copper sulphate pre-
cipitated and accumulated on bottom muds of lakes is, at a concentra-
tion of about 9,000 mg per kg of mud (dry weight), toxic to Tendipes
damosus and between 11,200 mg and 17,400 mg per kg of mud is toxic
to Pisidium dahoense. In 2 lakes in Wisconsin, which had received
repeated treatment with copper sulphate to control algal growths,
it was found that the concentration of copper in mud was considerably
lower (maximum of 480 mg per kg of mud) than the toxic concentrations.
Differences in the density of the population of bottom organisms in
treated and untreated lakes could not be attributed to copper.
340.
Mackereth, F.J. and W.J.P. Smyly. 1951. Toxicity of copper
in solution to the stone loach. Nature 168:1130.
-145-
-------
Investigation of the cause of death of stone-loach, Nema-
cheilus barbatulus, in an aquarium indicated that the fish died of
copper poisoning as a result of a change in the water supply. The
fish had originally been kept alive in water containing 0.15 mg/l
copper and died when the supply was replaced by lake water containing
0.28 mg/l copper. Studies showed that stone-loach could survive in
water containing less than 0.20 mg/l copper but died within 24 hI'S
in water containing 0.20 mg/l or higher.
341.
Maetz, J. 1969. Seawater teleosts: evidence for a sodium-
potassium exchange in the branchial sodium-excreting pump.
Science 166(3905):613-615.
The net sodium extrusion rate by the gill of a seawater-
adapted euryhaline flounder is identical to the potassium influx.
The excretion of sodium is blocked in ~-free seawater solutions.
The instantaneous sodium outflux readjustment pattern of flounders
transferred from seawater to solutions of various sodium chloride
or potassium chloride concentrations is consistent with the hypothesis
of a linkage between Na+ outflux and ~ influx through a common ex-
change carrier. External Na+ and ~ compete for this common carrier.
It is suggested that the exchange diffusion mechanism (linkage of
sodium influx and outflux) and the high internal sodium turnover
rate which characterizes all seawater teleosts are the results of
this competitive process. The sodium-potassium dependent adensoine
triphosphatase system occurring in the gill of the seawater teleosts
may playa central role in this sodium-potassium exchange pump.
342.
Malacea, I. 1966. Contributions to knowledge on the toxic ef-
fect of cyanides, ammonia, mercury, and arsenic on some
species of fish and on Daphnia. Studii Proto Epur. Apel.,
Buc.7:75l-792. (English summary).
Bio-assays were carried out to determine the effects of
potassium cyanide, ammonium sulphate, mercuric chloride, and disodium
hydrogen ortho-arsenate on common Romanian fishes (minnmv, gudgeon,
bitterling, and carp) over a period of 4 days and on Daphnia magna
over a period of 2 days, and to establish the maximal permissible
concentrations of these subs tanees in surf ace \vaters. The minimal
lethal concentrations of cyanide ion, expressed in rng/l were 0.47
for bitterling, 0.06 for gudgeon, 0.2 for minnow, and 1 for Daphnia.
The cyanide affects the nervous system and respiration of fish to an
extent depending on enviromnental factors, especially the pH value
of the water. Fish which survived recovered completely on transfer
to clean water, even after losing their equilibrium. The minimal
lethal concentrations of ammonium sulphate, in mg/l, were 200 for
carp, 300 for gudgeon, 160 for bitterling and minnow, and 73.4 for
-146--
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Daphnia. The toxic effect on fish is due to hydrolysis of ammonium
sulphate to free ammonia which acts on the nervous system and irri-
tates the epithelium of the gills; after losing their equilibrium
the fish will not recover on transfer to clean water. The toxic
action of mercuric chloride is due to the mercury ions which des-
troy the epithelium of the gills, leading to asphyxia. Expressed
in mg/l of mercury, the minimal lethal concentrations were 0.04 for
bitterling, 0.05 for gudgeon, 0.3 for carp, 0.02 for minnow, and
0.15 for Daphnia. Fish cannot recover after beginning to lose their
equilibrium. The toxic effect of arsenic compounds on aquatic or-
ganisms is attributed to the arsenic ion, which has a slow action,
giving a prolonged latent phase. Trivalent arsenic compounds, such
as arsenites, penetrate more quickly into animal tissues and for
equivalent arsenic concentration they are more toxic than the penta-
valent (arsenate) compounds. The minimal lethal concentrations of
the sodium arsenate tested were, expressed in mg/l of arsenic, 100
for bitterling and minnow, 160 for carp, and 5 for Daphnia. Toxicity
of sodium arsenate was affected by external factors, particularly
the pH value, temperature, and oxygen concentration of the water.
343.
Malacea, I. and E. Gruia. 1964. Contributions to the study
of the toxic effect of heavy metals on some aquatic or-
ganisms. lnst. Hydrotech. Res., Sci. Sess., Bucharest,
Sect. 4:47-49.
Bioassays were conducted with freshwater organisms in-
cluding Daphnia magna and three cyprinid fish species: bitterling,
carp, and minnow. Poisoning with heavy metals such as copper, zinc,
lead and nickel is an additive process depending on metal concentra-
tion and duration of exposure. Water hardness has an important ef-
fect on toxicity since, in the presence of calcium, heavy metals
(except nickel) form carbonates and hydroxides which are sparingly
soluble and thus reduce the toxicity. It was concluded that the
present value of 0.1 mg/l for the maximum permissible concentration
of lead and nickel is adequate to protect aquatic organisms. How-
ever, it was recommended that the present thresholds of 0.1 and 5
mg/l, respectively, for copper and zinc be lowered.
344.
Malacea, I. and E. Gruia. 1965. Contribution to the study of
the toxic effect of copper, zinc, lead, nickel on some
species of fish and on daphnia. Stud. Protect, Epurarea
Apelor lnst. Stud. Cercetari Hidrotehnice 6:391-451.
The toxic effect of copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), Pb and nickel
(Ni) was studied on three species of fish: bitterling (Rhodeus sericeus
amarus), carp (Cyprinus carpio L.), and minnow (Phoxinus phoxinus), and
on Daphnia magna. The town's water was used after previous dechlorination
-147-
-------
for dilution. The experiments with the fish lasted four days and
those with Daphnia two days. The results confirmed previous find-
ings that the heavy metals have an irritating effect on the tegu-
ment and particularly on the gills of the fish, leading to death
by asphyxiation; bitterlings and minnows also showed a noxious ef-
fect on their nervous system. It was demonstrated that the latent
phase of intoxication lasts until the first signs of loss of equi-
librium appear; thereafter the eff~cts become irreversible. Factors
influencing the toxicity were concentration and time and hardness of
the water. With the exception of Cu, the metals reacted with cal-
cium salts in the water to form slightly soluble carbonates and hy-
droxides, thus decreasing the toxicity of the solution. As hardness
of water varies generally with season, so does the binding capacity
of the metal ions, thus demonstrating that the toxicity of the
metals is different for various aquatic basins and seasons. The
present standards for Pb and Ni of 0.1 mg/l were considered as safe,
but the existing standards of 0.1 and 0.5 mg/l for Cu and Zn, res-
pectively, should be lowered.
345.
Maloney, T.E. and C.M. Palmer. 1956.
icals to thirty cultures of algae.
103:509-513.
Toxicity of six chem-
Wat. & Sewage Wks.
Tests were carried out using six chemical compounds,
which had previously shown promise as algicides, to determine the
lowest concentration of each chemical which could control algae,
whether it was selective or general in its algicidal effects, and
its toxicity to fish. The chemical compounds used were copper sul-
phate, 2,3-dichloronaphthoquinone, dodecylacetamido dimethyl benzyl
ammonium chloride, rosin amine D acetate, rosin amine D sulphate,
and zinc demethyl dithiocarbamate. The toxicity of these compounds
to 30 species or strains was determined.
346.
Mandelli, E.F. 1969. The inhibitory effects of copper on
marine phytoplankton. Marine Science 14:47-57.
The growth of several species of dinoflagellates and dia-
toms in batch cultures under continuous illumination was inhibited
at 200C by concentrations of copper between 0.055 and 0.265 mg/l.
Coccochloris elabans failed to grow at 0.03 mg/l and 400C, whereas
Dunaliella tertiolecta survived 0.6 mg/l at 300C. Skeletonema
costatum in light-dark cultures with maintenance of constant number
of cells and copper ions was inhibited at 0.05 microgram/mI. A
positive correlation wa~ found between the log of copper uptake:
biomass of algae ratio and the temperature, and a negative correla-
tion between the same ratio and salinity.
-148-
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347.
Marei, A.N., M.M. Saurov, and G.D. Lebedeva.
mission of radio-strontium by nutritional
water reservoirs into the human organism.
U.S.S.R. 3:69-76; Nuclear Abstr. )12:1122.
1958. On trans-
chain from open
Med. Radiol.
Aquatic organisms such as plankton, aquatic plants, mol-
luscs and fish, as well as domestic ducks, accumulate significant
amounts of radioactive strontium in their tissues from the water,
and the isotope may pass into the human organism when fish and
poultry are eaten. In view of this, it is suggested that the maxi-
mum permissible concentration of radioactive strontium in reser-
voirs should be revised.
348.
Marshall, J.S., A.M. Beeton, and D.C. Chandler. 1964. Role
of zooplankton in the freshwater strontium cycle and in-
fluence of dissolved salts. Verh. Int. Ver. Limnol. 1962,
15:665-672.
Experiments on the uptake of strontium-85 by Daphnia magna
showed that at equilibrium more than 95% of the strontium in the
animal was concentrated in the exoskeleton and therefore lost on
moulting. It was considered probable that dense populations of lim-
netic plankton species might account for a significant proportion of
the total calcium and strontium (including strontium-90) removed
from the epilimnion of a stratified lake, as a result of the continual
shedding of exoskeletons by the living organisms rather than by set-
tling of dead plankton. When the animals were transferred to an un-
labelled medium before reaching equilibrium the rate of loss of
strontium was negligible compared with the rate of uptake. As with
recently-moulted crayfish uptake of strontium by Daphnia appeared
to follow a first-order reaction. In predicting the biological fate
of strontium-90 in terrestrial food chains, use has been made of the
OR (or 'observed ratio') between the strontium-90: calcium ratios in
the acceptor and the precursor, and in order to test the applicability
of the OR equation for predicting the uptake of strontium-90 by an
aquatic organism experiments were carried out with Daphnia magna in
spring water (diluted with various proportions of distilled water to
give different concentrations of calcium) and in natural waters from
11 different sources. The results, given graphically, suggest that
the OR is a constant for a given species, and that calcium is con-
centrated to a much greater degree than is strontium. The OR can
also be defined by the ratio of the concentration factors for stron-
tium and calcium, and the average OR for Daphnia.
349.
Martin, D. and E.D. Goldberg. 1962. Uptake
of radio-strontium by Pacific mackerel.
(supplement): LXXVI-LXXXII.
and assimilation
Limnol. Ocean. 7
-149-
-------
Pacific mackerel (Pneumatophorus diego) were fed with
radioactive strontium-90, and the activity in various organs was
measured over a period of 235 days. Ninety-five per cent of the
radioactiviry was excreted in 24 hours. The remaining 5% remained
fixed in the body throughout the period of the experiment; of this
fixed activity, 80% was located in the calcareous portions of the
fish. The gills showed the greatest activity per unit weight in 1-
3 days after feeding, indicating the isotope was being excreted by
these organs.
350.
Martin, S.C., W.T. Helm, and W.F. Sigler. 1969. Accumulation
of radium-226 in two aquatic ecosystems. Proc. 2nd Natn.
Symp. Radioecol. 1967, Ann Arbor, Mich: 307-318.
Details are given of research carried out in Colorado to
assess the effects of waste waters from uranium mills on stream
biota and to examine the accumulation of radium-226 in various
biotic components. Over a period of three years, studies were made
on water, sediment, algae, invertebrates, and fish in the Animas
Tiver, which, following diversion of waste waters from Durango
uranium mill, was recovering from the effects of the previous pol-
lution, and in the San Miguel and Dolores river system which was
still receiving waste waters from the Uravan uranium mill. The
Animas river is recovering from the previous pollution, as indicated
by the abundance and diversity of biotic components, and the lower
concentrations of radium-226 (only about 3 times background level
in the last years of the study compared with up to 20 times back-
ground in earlier samples and several hundred times in still earlier
studies). In the San Miguel-Dolores river system, the number and
diversity of organisms were reduced below Uravan and the concentra-
tion of radium-226 in the biota showed an unexpected increase with
increasing distance downstream, although the concentration in the
water and sediments decreased with distance downstream; it is con-
cluded that in the upper part of the pollution zone the organisms
could not survive long enough to accumulate the amounts of radium-
226 which might otherwise be found.
351.
Marvin, K.J., L.M. Lansford, and R.S. Wheeler.
of copper ore on the ecology of a lagoon.
Serv., Fish. Bull. 184:153-160.
1961. Effects
U.S. Fish Wildl.
An analysis of the biological and chemical data shows that
copper concentration of a lagoon located off Galveston in the Gulf
of Mexico was not increased to a level lethal to Gymnodinium breve
after the addition of 55,000 kg of copper ore (highest CUL+ concen-
tration at any time = 0.45 ~g atoms/l; concentration lethal to G.
breve = 0.5). The flora and fauna of the lagoon and organisms placed
-150-
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there in dialysis bags and live cars showed no significant effect
attributable to the ore. The copper level, after the addition of
the ore) increased to a maximum that was below the laboratory estimate
of the level toxic to~. breve and then dropped to a lower level.
These results show that the ore is not capable of maintaining a suf-
ficiently high copper concentration to be considered as a means of
controlling red tide outbreaks in waters similar in quality to that
of the lagoon. "Results of this experiment indicate that copper
ore does not have the desired characteristics of red tide control-
ling agent, and we recommend that it not be used."
352.
Matida, Y. and H. Kumada. 1969. Distribution of mercury in
water, bottom mud and aquatic organisms of Minamata Bay,
the River Agano and other water bodies in Japan. Bull.
Freshw. Fish. Res. Lab., Tokyo 19 (2):73-93.
Distributions of mercury and other heavy metals were
examined in water, mud and aquatic organisms in Minamata Bay, the
River Agano and other waters in Japan. Of the heavy metals, only
mercury was very high in Minamata Bay and the River Agano where
Minamata disease occurred. The distribution of mercury in Minamata
Bay indicated that the origin of mercury was the Minamata factory
of Shin-Nippon-Chisso Company. The content of total and organic
mercury in aquatic organisms suggested that monitoring, background
survey and study of the mechanism of accumulation of these substances
are desirable.
353.
Mauchline, J. and A.M. Taylor. 1964. The accumulation of
radionuclides by the thornback ray, Raia clavata L., in
the Irish Sea. Limnol. Ocean. 9:303-309.
The thornback ray is a non-migratory elasmobranch that
occurs in the Irish sea near the point of discharge of atomic wastes
from the Windscale Works of U.K. Atomic Energy Authority. Waste
waters include the relatively-soluble strontium-90 and cesium-137
and the relatively insoluble (in sea water) ruthenium-l06, cerium-
144, zirconium-95 and niobium-95. It was found that Cs-137, Ru-l06,
and Ce-144 were accumulated to a greater extent than Sr-90 in flesh,
stomach, and stomach contents; Sr-90 was concentrated to a greater
extent in liver, and Sr-90 and Cs-137 were more important than Ru-l06
and Ce-144 as contaminants of cartilage.
354.
Mehran, A.R. and J.L. Tremblay. 1965. An aspect of zinc meta-
bolism in Littorina obtusata L. and Fucus edentatus. Revue
Can. BioI. 24:157-161.
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The uptake of zinc-65 by the alga Fucus edentatus and the
mollusc Littorina obtusata was studied in an apparatus designed to
simulate the tidal cy~ Zinc disappeared from the sea water rapidly
at first, 42% having been removed after one day, and after 10 days
the water contained no more than 10% of the concentration initially
present. Littorina took up the zinc rapidly during the first two
days and reached equilibrium after three days; Fucus reached satura-
tion after three to four days.
355.
Merlini, M.
cator of
Concent.
1967. The freshwater clam as a biological indi-
radiomanganese. Proc. Int. Symp. Radioecol.
Process., 1966, Stockholm: 977-982.
Samples of the bivalve Unio mancus var. elongatus from
lake Maggiore were compared with those from lake Varese, Italy, es-
pecailly with respect to their ability to concentrate stable manga-
nese and manganese-54 from fallout. Water from lake Varese is com-
paratively rich in manganese (0.033 mg/l) and Unio from this lake in-
corporates more manganese into its shell and some parts of the soft
tissues than the animals from lake Maggiore where the water contains
less manganese (0.02 mg/l). However, since the stable manganese
dilutes the radioactive manganese in the fallout accumulated by the
animals, Unio from lake Varese have a lower specific activity, expressed
as atoms of manganese-54:atoms of stable manganese, than those from
lake Maggiore. Concentration factors for stable manganese in gills
and mantles were more than 80,000 in lake Varese and more than 100,000
in lake Maggiore, while those for manganese-54 were 40,000 and 300,000,
respectively, with corresponding concentrations of 0.0004 and 0.00015
pc in the water. In Unio from both lakes the soft tissues accumulated
more manganese than the shells, the concentration of both stable and
radioactive manganese decreasing in the order: gills, mantle, vis-
ceral sac, adductor muscles, and shell (this order was confirmed ex-
perimentally 10 minutes after immersion of Unio in water containing
manganese-54 as the chloride). Although the shells do not accumulate
such high concentrations of manganese as the soft tissues, they are,
nevertheless, excellent indicators of contamination of the environment
with manganese-54.
356.
Miles, H.M. and L.S. Smith. 1968. Ionic regulation in migrating
juvenile coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch. Compo Biochem.
Physiol. 26:381-398.
The mean levels for hematocrit (37.8%) percentage of total
dissolved solids (4.77%), and sodium (146.7 mequiv./l), potassium
(8.58 mequiv./l), calcium (6,,73 mequiv./l), magnesium (1.08 mequiv./
1) and chloride (117.3 mequiv./l) concentrations in blood plasma were
determined for juvenile coho salmon in fresh water.
-152-
-------
Observations suggest a correlation between hematocrit and
temperature during the winter and spring residence in fresh water.
served.
No premigratory change in electrolyte composition was ob-
Migrating juvenile coho salmon were transferred into sea
water to observe changes in blood parameters during the adjustive
phase.
The adjustive phase was apparently completed in
hr and was characterized by transient increases in plasma
tions of sodium, chloride and magnesium.
about 36
concentra-
357.
Miller, M.A. 1946. Toxic effects of copper on attachment
and growth of Bugula neritina. Biol. Bull. 90:122-140.
Critical concentrations of copper to early life stages
of Bugula >0.2 mg/l kill larvae and completely inhibit growth of
attached fauna; 0.2-0.3 mg/l retard growth; <0.2 mg/l retard growth
and interfere with enzyme function.
Bugula ancestrulae can recover and develop almost normally
after seven days exposure to sublethal concentrations of copper. They
can recover after repeated immersion in Cu solutions that practically
prevent growth. Length of exposure has no effect on the ability to
recover.
358.
Miyake, Y., Y. Sugiura, and T. Nan'niti. 1962. Studies of
radioactive contamination in local marine resources. Final
Report. Int. Atom. Energ. Agency, 1 AEA-R-19: 138 p. Nuclear
Science Abstracts 1965, 19:620.
A study was made in Suruga bay Japan, on the Pacific side of
the island of Honshu. Observations were made on various oceanographic
and chemical factors, and on the distribution of natural and artificial
radionuclides. The vertical profile of strontium-90 suggests a faster
rate of vertical mixing than previously supposed. Analyses of Sergestes
lucens showed a concentration factor for strontium-90 of 11-17.
359.
Moiseev, P.A. 1958. New data on the effect of thermonuclear
explosions on aquatic organisms. Rybroe Khoz. 34 (1):22-
24.
The author reviews the results of several investigations
on the radioactivity of water and aquatic organisms from the Pacific
-153-
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ocean after thermonuclear explosions, and gives tabulated data on
the concentration of strontium-90 in sea water and the bones of
various fishes collected at several sampling stations during 1956
and 1957. The data indicate that the testing of thermonuclear
devices has resulted in high levels of radioactivity in practically
all the water masses of the western Pacific.
360.
Moiseev, P.A. and A.V. Kardashev. 1964. Radioactivity of some
hydrobionts in seas in the Soviet Far East in 1958 after
the USA had tested atomic weapons in the central part of
the Pacific Ocean. In Radioactive contamination of seas
and oceans, Moscow, 1964: 126-135; Biological Abstracts
1967, 48:1977.
Following the nuclear weapons tests in the Pacific Ocean
in 1958, the radioactivity of marine organisms from the east of
U.S.S.R. was determined, using a method with potassium chloride as
standard. The radioactivity of plankton was found to be high and
was due mainly to short-lived isotopes; the concentration factors
for plankton ranged from 30 to 900. In the fish which were studied,
the gills, viscera, and bone marrow were highly radioactive. The
various organs had accumulated the isotopes selectively, and the
bones, scales, and gill covering were found to have accumulated
strontium, zinc, barium, lanthanum, and zirconium. Laminaria, which
is used as food, had accumulated 37-58 ~~c of beta activity per g
of dry weight.
361.
Morgan, F. 1964. The uptake of radioactivity by fish and
shellfish. I. Cesium-134 by whole animals. J. Mar.
Biol. Assn. U.K. 44:259-271.
Studies on the uptake of cesium-134 by 36 species of fish
and shellfish showed that the time taken for the concentration in
the fish to reach the water concentration was 0.5-4 days for marine
pelagic species and most shellfish except scallops and freshwater
mussels, 6-17 days for marine demersal species and bottom-feeding
species, and 30-120 days for freshwater fish and rays. Experiments
on selected species indicated that uptake of cesium-134 is propor-
tional to a power of the weight. For plaice lobster and eel over
a wide range of weights uptake varies as W.7~ and the times taken to
reach half-equilibrium concentrations vary as a value between W.25
and W.29.
362.
Mount, D.I. 1964. An autopsy-technique for zinc-caused fish
mortality. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 93:174-182.
-154-
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It is shown that the relative zinc content of the gills
and opercular bone in fish can indicate whether death of the fish
was caused by toxic levels of zinc in the water. The ratio of zinc
in the gills to zinc in the bone remains reasonably constant when
fish are held in water containing sub-lethal concentrations of zinc,
but at toxic levels, the metal accumulates more rapidly in the gills
and the ratio shows a marked increase. In carp, however, the zinc
content of the gills is more variable and may be high under non-
toxic conditions, making diagnosis more difficult. The ratio was
not affected by the presence of five other metals, the combined
toxicity of which was equivalent to that of the zinc. Tests with
freshwater species showed that zinc is not absorbed after death,
and so immediate removal of the fish for autopsy is not necessary.
The gill/bone ratios of zinc in 22 species from polluted and unpol-
luted waters, and the effects of zinc content of the water on this
ratio in five species are discussed.
363.
Mount, D.I. 1968. Chronic toxicity of copper to fathead
minnows (Pimephales promelas, Rafinesque). Water Re-
search 2:215-223.
The effects of continuous chronic exposure of fathead
minnows (Pisces: cyprinidae) to copper was studied for a year.
Concentrations of approximately 99, 33, 11, and 3.7 ~g/l of copper
were used in the test tanks and data on the physical and chemical
characteristics of the water used are presented. The percentage
survival of fish for the test period, the sex ratios and sexual
maturity; growth rate measured over two periods of 60 days; and
the mean final weight of fish from each tank were recorded to-
gether with the number and viability of the ~ggs produced. Ef-
fects of copper on the growth rate of fry were observed at 96 ~g/l
of copper. The 96-hour TLm concentration of copper for adult min-
nows was 430 ~g/l in static test and 470 ~g/l in a flow-through
system. Histological examination of tissues revealed no damage
even in fish from high concentrations of copper which were sexually
retarded and showed a stunted growth rate. It was found that there
is a range of concentrations of copper in water at which indefinite
and apparently healthy survival is possible but at which reproduction
is inhibited. This effect cannot be detected by growth or histo-
pathological examination. The experimentally determined maximal
acceptable concentration was divided by the 96-hour TLm to give an
'application factor' that could be used to estimate safe copper con-
centrations for other species and other types of water; this factor
was found to be between three and seven % of the TLm value.
364.
Mount, D.I. and C.E. Stephan.
cadmium poisoning in fish.
168-172.
1967. A method for detecting
J. Wildlife Management 31:
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Bluegills (Centrarchidae) exposed to various non-toxic con-
centrations of cadmium sulphate for periods up to 90 days accumulated
amounts of cadmium in their gill tissues which in the live fish never
exceeded 130 wg per g of tissue. Brown bullheads (Ictaluridae) and
bluegills exposed to lethal concentrations of cadmium sulphate ac-
cumulated a minimum of 150 Wg cadmium per g of gill tissue. It is
suggested that acute cadmium poisoning can be detected by measuring
the amount of cadmium in gill tissue.
365.
Mount,
to
J.
D.I. and C.E. Stephan. 1969. Chronic toxicity of copper
the fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) in soft water.
Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 26:2449-2457.
The toxicity of copper to fathead minnows in a soft water
was determined under continuous-flow and static conditions. An ap-
plication factor of 0.13-0.22 was calculated for the 96-hour static
tests, compared with limiting values of 0.03-0.08 found during the
hard-water tests. Growth and reproduction data are tabulated. The
results suggest that the degree of water hardness could affect the
application factor, but this was not conclusive and other variables
could be responsible for the differences in the ranges found.
366.
McKee, J.E. and H.W. Wolf. 1963. Water quality Criteria, 2nd
edition. Resources Agency of California, State Water Quality
Control Board, Sacramento, California. Publ. No. 3A: 548 p.
This volume satisfactorily summarizes the major literature
on toxicity of heavy metals and other pollutants to aquatic biota es-
pecially freshwater organisms. A bibliography of 3,827 references is
appended, many of which deal exclusively with heavy metals.
367.
Nagabushanam, R. 1961.
of Martesia striata.
103.
The effect of low salinity on the larvae
J. Sci. Industrial Research, 20 C:l02-
The results are given of experiments to determine the effect
of changes in the salinity of sea water on larvae of the wood-boring
mollusc, Martesia striata. It was found that a sudden change in
salinity from 33 to 15 0/00 had no effect. Movement of the larvae
ceased during the first 24 hours in sea water with a salinity of 9
0/00, but later they were observed swimming. At a salinity of 6 0/00,
movement ceased completely within 24 hours and death occurred within
36 hours, and at a salinity of 3 0/00 the larvae died within 12 hours.
These results indicate that the larvae can tolerate salinities in the
range 9-30 parts per thousand.
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368.
Nakatani, R.E. and R.F. Foster. 1963. Effect of
feeding of Sr-90-Y-90 on rainbow trout. U.S.
Comm. HW-SA-2255: 14 p.
chronic
Atom. Ener.
Results are given of experiments on prolonged feeding of
yearling rainbow trout with stronti~1-90-yttrium-90. Growth depres-
sions and significant mortalities occurred in fish fed 0.5 ~c per g
of fish daily for 21 weeks, but other groups receiving lower con-
centrations (0.05 and .005 wc per g) did not differ from the control
fish. A pronounced leukopenia was observed fay the high-level treat-
ment group at the end of the test. All treatment groups retained
about 25% of the administered dose; the total body burden of a 309 g
fish in the highest group was in the order of 2200 ~c. At the end
of the test no obvious damage was observed in the low and mediwITI
groups, but six months post-treatment leukopenia was indicated in
the medium group. Effects observed in the high-dose group included
anorexia, loss of weight, listlessness, and a diminished response to
external stimuli.
369.
Nehring, D. 1962. Experiments on the toxicological effect
of thallium ions on fish and fish-food organisms. Z. Fisch.
11:557-562.
Experiments on the toxicity of thalliwm to fish and other
aquatic organisms showed that concentrations causing damage within
three days were, per liter, 10-15 mg for rainbow trout, 60 mg for
perch, 40-60 mg for roach, 2-4 mg for Daphnia, and 4 mg for Gammarus.
Harmful effects were also observed when fish were exposed to low con-
centrations for prolonged periods. The effect of thalliwm is to in-
crease the blood pressure.
370.
Nelson, D.J. 1963. Role of bottom organisms. In Transport
of radionuclides in freshwater systems. Report of a
working meeting held at Univ. of Texas, January 30-Febru-
ary 1, 1963. U.S. Atom. Ener. Comm. Div. Tech. Inf. TID-
7664: 193-207.
The author discusses the respective roles of tubificid
worms, clams, and aquatic insects in the distribution or redistribu-
tion of radioactive material in an aquatic environment, emphasizing
the need to consider rate processes rather than the standing crop.
Tubificid worms were the most abundant organisms in the bottom of
the Clinch river and a laboratory model study was made to determine
the movemen~ of sediment downstream by these worms, taking into ac-
count their unique feeding habit in which they burrow with their
heads in the sediments and tails up in the flowing stream, defecating
upwards into the liquid so that faecal pellets fall back. The transport
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of sediment in this way by tubificid worms was found to be insig-
nificant in the Clinch river but it would probably be significant,
as compared with transport by water, when the population of worms
reached about 100 per cm2. Studies on clams in the Tennessee river
showed that although these organisms can concentrate radioactivity
by about 4xl03 times they cannot adsorb sufficient to alter the
whole distribution pattern in the river. The harvest of clams re-
moves about 64 mc of strontium-90 from the river annually, compared
with a discharge of 1-2 c per week from Oak Ridge National Labora-
tory. Emergent insects caught in light traps on the bank of the
Clinch river were found to have significant concentration factors
for strontium-90 and cesium-137 but not for total rare earths.
Comparative data are tabulated for the insects (almost exclusively
chironomids) and for sediments taken from the same part of the river
at about the same time. In view of the difficulty of representa-
tive sampling of bottom deposits, it is suggested that for some
radionuclides, such as strontium-90, insects might be regarded as
integrating samplers over the surface area of the mud and thus used
in monitoring this radioactivity. The removal of strontium-90 by
chironomids in Clinch river is calculated to be about 3.55xlO_5 ~c
per m2 year, which is only about 1/45th of that contributed to the
river by fallout, and it is therefore concluded that the apparent
dispersal of radioactivity by emerging aquatic insects is of little
significance.
371.
Nelson, D.J. 1967. The prediction of strontium-90 uptake in
fish using data on specific activities and biological half-
lives. Proc. Int. Symp. Radioecol. Concent. Process.,
1966, Stockholm: 843-851.
White crappie (Pomoxis annularis) and other fish from the
Clinch river, Tenn., which are subjected to chronic exposure to
controlled releases of strontium-90 and other radio-isotopes from
the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, were collected monthly and ana-
lysed chemically and radiochemically. In this paper data for calcium
and strontium are tabulated and discussed. Good agreement was ob-
served between the specific activity of strontium-90 and water and
white crappie bone, indicating that the concentration of strontium-90
in fish can be predicted when the specific activity of the water is
known. This method of prediction is considered superior to the method
using the strontium-90 stable calcium ratio since in five species of
Clinch river fish differences in the concentration of either calcium
or strontium would affect the accuracy of predictions based on cal-
cium concentrations. The biological half-life of strontium in white
crappie flesh ranged from 12 to 48 minutes, showing that fish flesh
will reflect quickly changes in the environmental concentration of
strontium-90.
-158-
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372.
Nelson, D.J. 1969. Cesium, cesium-137, and potassium concen-
trations in white crappie and other Clinch river fish.
Proc. 2nd Nat. Symp. on Radioecology. USAEC Conf. 670503:
240-248.
Potassium concentrations in white crappie were relatively
constant throughout the year and the average of all specimens was
3.48 mg/g fresh weight. Other species -- including drum, white bass,
channel catfish and bluegill -- contained similar K concentrations,
and the K content of fish was considered a conservative property.
Cesium concentrations in the white crappie flesh were about 0.8xlO-2
~g/g fresh wt from May through July, and during the remainder of the
year varied from 1.OxlO-2 to 1.6xlO-2 ~g/g. In addition to varying
seasonally, the Cs content of different species ranged from 0.344x
10-2 ~g/g in bluegill to 1.60xlO-2 in white bass. Concentration
factors for K were from 2500 to 2700, while those for Cs were from
140 to 640.
The average specific activity of 137Cs in white crappie
flesh was about the same as the average specific activity in Clinch
river water. These results showed that specific activities of 137Cs
may be used to predict 137Cs concentrations in fish for chronic re-
leases of 137Cs to surface streams. The variable Cs content and the
constant K content of fish vitiates application of 137Cs to K ratios
for predictive purposes.
373.
Nelson, W.C. and F.W. Whicker. 1969. Cesium-137 in some
Colorado game fish, 1965-66. Proc. 2nd Nat. Symp. on
Radioecology- U.S.A.E.C. 670503: 258-265.
In 1965 and 1966 the 137Cs concentration in muscle tis-
sue of 132 fish representing eight game fish species from 23 Colo-
rado waters varied from non-detectable (50 pCi/kg) to 5800 pCi/kg.
Waters sampled included 3 plains, 2 foothills,S montane and 12 al-
pine reservoirs and lakes as well as one plains stream. Elevation
of these waters varied from 1538 to 3498 meters. Lake depths varied
from 1-45 meters, lake areas from 1.4 to 230 hectares and lake water-
shed areas, where measured, from 53-2480 hectares. Conductivity of
waters varied from 8-1700 micromhos and potassium concentration from
0~1-10.3 mg/l. Based on six samples, 137Cs concentrations were from
2-7 times greater in 1965 than 1966. In general sunfish, crappies
and trout sampled from plains and foothills reservoirs and lakes and
the river contained little or no 137Cs. Trout from alpine lakes and
reservoirs contained moderate to high concentrations of 137Cs. Vari-
ations in 137Cs concentrations in fish from diffirent types of waters
were ascribed to differences in 137Cs input and availability due
chiefly to differing climatic, edaphic and limnological conditions.
Variations in 137Cs concentrations between species were ascribed to
differences in the biology and physiology of the species.
-159-
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374.
Neustroev, G.V. and V.N. Podymakhin. 1966. Respiration of
Salmo salar L. spawn in radioactively contaminated waters.
Radiobiologiya 6:115-116. Nuclear Science Abstracts 1966)
20:5226.
Salmon roe were kept in aquaria in water containing lxlO-6
cesium-136/l. Respiration was measured and compared with that of
control roe kept in uncontaminated water. In both aquaria oxygen
consumption increased gradually, but oxygen consumption of roe in
the contaminated water was always higher than that of the controls.
After hatching, control larvae consumed 50% more oxygen than had the
roe, while larvae in the contaminated water consumed twice as much oxygen
as the roe. The results indicate that irradiation increases the
intensity of respiration of both roe and larvae.
375.
Nishikawa, K. and K. Tabata. 1969. Studies on the toxicity
of heavy metals to aquatic animals and the factors to de-
crease the toxicity. III. On the low toxicity of some
heavy metal complexes to aquatic animals. Bull. Tokai
Fish. Res. Lab., Tokyo, No. 58:233-241. (In Japanese
with English abstract).
The toxicity of heavy metal ions decreased considerably
with the addition of sodium thiosulfate or sodium citrate.
With addition of EDTA the toxicity of such highly toxic heavy metals
as Cu2+ or Hg2+ decreased remarkably, but the toxicity of lowly-toxic
Ni2+ or Co2+ increased. It was considered that the toxicity might be
attributable to EDTA. Carp grew well in a complex solution containing
Cu2+ equivalent to 10-fold TLm concentration and sodium thiosulfate.
Thus, one should take complexing substances into account in certain
instances when one discusses the toxicity of heavy metals in environ-
mental water.
376.
Nishiwaki, Y., H. Kawai, H. Honda, Y. Kimura, H. Morishima, T.
Koga, and R. Ono. 1965. Studies on the behavior and dis-
tribution of radionuclides in the suspended matter in sea
water. I. On the accumulation and distribution of some
radionuclides in the suspended matter in sea water. Radio-
Isotopes, Tokyo, 14:368-373.
Results are given of studies on the accumulation and distri-
bution of the radioactive isotopes iron-55 and -59, cobalt-60 and stron-
tium-89 in suspended matter in surface sea water from Osaka bay, Japan.
It was found that accumulation of the nuclides by the suspended matter
reached equilibrium in about 7-10 days. The greatest concentration
factors occurred with the larger particles of s0lids. More cobalt-60
was taken up by the larger particles and more iron-55 by the smaller
particles.
-160-
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377.
Nolan, M.O. 1950. Laboratory tests on the rapidity of mo1-
luscacidal action of copper sulphate in high concentra-
tion. Publ. Hlth. Rep., Wash. 65:1481-1485.
Laboratory experiments were made to determine the effect
of copper sulphate at a concentration of 20 mg/l on the planorbid
snails Australorbis glabratus, Biomphalaria boissyi, and Bulinus
contortus. The snails were immersed for periods of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
and 24 hours. In half the experiments the water was aerated and in
half unaerated but results were not significantly different. After
immersion the snails were placed in fresh water and observed until
they either died or recovered. All snails immersed for 24 hours
were killed within that period. Australorbis and Biomphalaria were
not killed during immersion periods of 1-5 hours but the numbers of
Australorbis that died subsequently ranged from 55% of those im-
mersed for 1 hour to 96% of those immersed for five hours. The
numbers of Biomphalaria that died later varied irregularly between
58 and 78%. Bulinus was more susceptible; these snails survived
periods of immersion of 1 and 2 hours but most died within the next
24 hours. It is thought that the copper inactivates certain enzymes,
and studies are at present being made on the physiological effect of
toxic agents on snails.
378.
Okun, D.A., ~ al. 1966. A review of the literature of 1965
on wastewater and water pollution control. J. Water Poll.
Cont. Fed. 38:1049-1137.
Permissible concentrations of copper, zinc, lead and nickel
to aquatic organisms was determined in bioassays with Daphnia and 3
species of cyprinids. Poisoning with heavy metals was found to be
an additive process which depended on concentration of the toxicants
and length of exposure.
379.
Ophel, I.L. and J.M. Judd. 1962. Absorption of radiostrontium
by the gills of freshwater fish. Nature 194:1187-1188.
In experiments to determine the site of direct absorption
of radioactive strontium by fish, the accumulation of the isotope by
goldfish (Carassius auratus) with only the head and gills exposed to
a solution of strontium-90 was compared with that accumulated by gold-
fish with the whole body exposed. Each fish was placed in a tube,
with its head resting on an open grid at the lower end, and suspended
vertically in distilled water containing strontium-90; precautions
were taken to prevent dessication of the partially-immersed fish,
and the solution was aerated continuously. Various immersion periods
and concentrations of isotope were used. The concentration of stron-
tium-90 accumulated was determined by weighing each fish, wet-ashing
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it with concentrated nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide, evaporating
the resulting solution and counting the residue. The results showed
no significant difference between the concentrations of strontium-90
accumulated by the partially-and totally-immersed fish under the same
experimental conditions.
380.
Ophel, 1.1. and J.M. Judd. 1967. Experimental studies of radio-
strontium accumulation by freshwater fish from food and
water. Proc. Int. Symp. Radioecol. Concent. Process., 1966,
Stockholm: 859-865.
Aquarium experiments are described in which goldfish (Caras-
sius auratus), acclimated to the experimental temperature, were fed
known amounts of strontium-90 in a maintenance diet of 'commercial'
food (which contained both calcium and strontium), or basic 'synthe-
tic' food (containing negligible concentrations of alkaline-earth
cations). or diets prepared from the synthetic food by adding 500 m.
equiv. per kg of magnesium, calcium, or strontium. Results show that
the presence of Ca, Sr, or Mg in the diet caused a great reduction in
the retention of strontium-90 by the fish. Compared with a retention
of about 27% from the basic diet, diets containing Ca or Sr gave re-
tentions of about 5% and that containing Mg gave a retention of about
8%. To compare the uptake of strontium-90 from water and food, the
concentration of strontium-90 in the water was kept constant by daily
changes, a maintenance diet of non-radioactive food was supplied, and
the fish were withdrawn daily for force-feeding with equal amounts of
either radioactive or non-radioactive food. From the results of two
experiments it was calculated that the water contributed 8 and 30%
and the food contributed 92 and 70%, respectively, of the retained Sr.
The difference in the two experiments was not directly attributable to
the size of the fish since data on the direct uptake of strontium-90
from the water did not reflect this difference, but it is considered
attributable to differences in the amount of non-radioactive food fed
to the fish, since this was based on the body weight and therefore
resulted in different concentration factors for strontium-90 in the
food. Further experiments, in which the non-radioactive food was
given either immediately or 48 hours after the force-fed dose of
radioactive food, showed that the retention of strontium-90 was
greater when the highly concentrated force-fed food passed through
the gastro-intestinal tract undiluted by non-radioactive food. It
is therefore concluded that the uptake and retention of strontium-90
from food by fish will be affected by the composition and specific
activity of the food, and by the feeding habits of the fish; and there-
fore prediction of the body burden of strontium-90 in fish, and the
relative contributions of food and water, should take into account
the influence of these factors.
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381.
Ophel, I.L. and J.M. Judd. 1967. Strontium-calcium relation-
ships in aquatic food chains. Proc. 2nd Natn. Symp. Radio-
ecol., Ann Arbor, 1969: 221-225.
In waters contaminated with strontium-90, there is a direct
relation between the amount of nuclide incorporated into fish tissue
and the concentration of stable strontium in the tissue. Studies
were therefore made using flame emission spectrophotometry to de-
termine the strontium content of fish from two lakes in Ontario.
Results show marked differences in the concentration of stable stron-
tium in different species of fish from the same lake and in the same
species of fish from different lakes. The differences in stable
strontium are accompanied by corresponding differences in radioactive
strontium, resulting in essentially identical specific activities in
the different species of fish. However, the calcium concentration is
similar for all species and therefore the strontium-calcium ratios
are very different from the different species. Data are also tabu-
lated on the strontium:calcium ratio in various aquatic plants. There
is a marked correlation between the strontium:calcium ratios in fish
and in fish-food organisms.
382.
Osterberg, C. 1962. Zn-65 content of salps and euphausids.
Limnol. Ocean. 7:478-479.
Samples of herbivorous filter-feeding pelagic plankton,
Salpa spp. and Euphausia pacifica, collected in the Pacific Ocean
off the Oregon coast, were found to contain zinc-65. Although the
presence of other fission products after the 1961 Russian test series
suggested that some of the zinc may have been deposited as a result
of fallout, the concentration of zinc in both salps, collected be-
fore the 1961 test series, and euhpausiids, collected after the tests,
gradually decreased with distance from the mouth of the Columbia river,
suggesting that the river is the major source of this isotope.
383.
Osterberg, C., W.G. Pearcy. and H.J. Curl. 1964.
and its relationship to oceanic food chains.
22:2-12.
Radioactivity
J. Marine Res.
Gamma-ray spectra were prepared for some primary producers,
filter-feeding herbivores and carnivores, representing different trophic
levels obtained from the Pacific Ocean off the coast of Oregon; these
organisms had been exposed in their natural environment to radioactive
fallout and to neutron-induced radionuclides from Columbia river water.
The results indicated that zirconium-95, niobium-95 and cerium-144 were
concentrated by primary producers and herbivores but not by carnivores;
chromium-51 was abundant only in primary producers; manganese-54, cobalt-
60 and cesium-137 were found only in herbivores and carnivores; and zinc-
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65 was present in every organism examined. The authors conclude
that particulate radioactive fallout, although concentrated at the
second trophic level by filter-feeding plankton, does not occur to
any great extent in animals used for human consumption; neutron-
induced zinc-65 is more likely to enter the human food chain, but
this is relatively innocuous isotope since it emits few ionizing
particles. In the event of high levels of radioactive fallout,
therefore, the higher trophic levels of the marine food chain should
be considered as a good source of food.
384.
Ozretic, B. and M. Krajnovic. 1968. The turnover of zinc-65
during the early embryonal development of the sea urchin,
Paracentrotus lividus Lam. Proceedings of the Third Inter-
national Colloquim on Medical Oceanography. Fifth and Sixth
Sessions: 101-106.
Laboratory tests showed that whereas the uptake of zinc-65
by unfertilized sea urchin eggs is low, a rapid increase occurs on
fertilization and during the early stages of development, excepting
the phase immediately following hatching.
385.
Pahl, G. 1969. Radioactive and stable strontium analysis of
upper Mississippi river clamshells. Proc. 2nd Nat. Symp.
on Radioecology. U.S.A.E.C. Conf. 670503:234-239.
The freshwater clam forms a significant portion of the
benthic fauna of the Upper Mississippi River biological community.
Evidence indicates that it may serve as an ideal biological monitor
of the 90Sr concentration not only in the Upper Mississippi River
but also of the worldwide fallout of this radionuclide. Advantage
was taken of the fact that the shells of the long-lived clams of
this area are composed of distinct annual layers and chemically are
composed almost exclusively of calcium and/or strontium carbonate.
The shells of live clams of the genus Lam~silis collected at the end
of the 1962-4 growing seasons were analyzed for both stable and radio-
active strontium. Shell layers formed over the ten-year period of
1955-64 showed stable strontium to be consistently 10 orders of mag-
nitude greater than that of radioactive strontium. During this time
the stable strontium increased by a factor of only 2, while the 90Sr
increased by a factor of 8. This rise of radiostrontium over the
1955-64 period, while not corresponding with the overall strontium
increase, did correlate closely with the fallout pattern associated
with nuclear weapon testing carried out during this period.
386.
Palmer, H.E. and T.M. Beasley. 1967. Fe-55 in the marine en-
vironment and in people who consume ocean fish. Proc. Int.
Symp. Radioecol. Concent. Process., 1966, Stockholm:259-262.
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Tabulated data are given from measurements of iron-55 in
various species of marine fish and other marine organisms. The con-
centrations of iron-55 were about 1000 times higher than those re-
ported for cesium-137, cobalt-60, and silver-llO, but the differences
in concentration in fish from different geographical locations (in-
cluding both the northern and southern Atlantic and Pacific Oceans)
were consistent for all the isotopes. The high concentrations of
iron-55 in marine species are attributed largely to the low concen-
tration of stable iron in sea water. The implications of these re-
sults are discussed as regards the body burden of iron-55 in individuals
consuming large quantities of marine fish.
387.
Parchevskii, V.P., G.G. Polikarpov, and I.S. Zabarunova. 1965.
Certain regularities in the accumulation of yttrium and
strontium by marine organisms. Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR 164:
913-916.
Results are given of studies to determine the probable re-
lation between accumulation of radioactive isotopes by marine plants
and animals and the activity of the isotopes in the water. The ac-
cumulation of yttrium-90 was found to be independent of the activity
in the water. With strontium the accumulations of stable strontium
and strontium-90 were found to be similar in the case of plants, but
were markedly different in the case of molluscs because accumulation
is a function of their growth.
388.
Parry, G. 1960. The development of
the salmon, Salmo salar (1.) and
J. Exp. BioI. 37:425-434.
salinity tolerance in
some related species.
A study has been made of the survival and osmotic regula-
tion of young salmonid fishes following transfer from fresh water
to various dilutions of sea water. Survival is in the order: Salmo
salar > ~. gairdnerii >~. trutta and is generally better the larger
the fish. The survival pattern of alevins differs from that of the
older stages.
Hypo-osmotic regulation is first seen in parr and becomes
fully effective in smolts.
389.
Parry, G. 1961. Osmotic and ionic changes in blood and muscle
of migrating salmonids. J. Exp. BioI. 38:411-427.
Osmoregulation of the Atlantic salmon in fresh water and
sea water, and during transfers from one salinity to another, has
been studied by measuring the freezing-point and the levels of some
inorganic ions in the blood plasma, and water content and ions in
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whole muscle. An increase in blood concentration of about 12% fol-
lows the transfer of juvenile fish from fresh water to sea water;
and a fall of concentrations of about 5% follows the transfer of
the adult fish from sea water to fresh water. Some changes in
analyses of whole muscle indicate changes in the extracellular
compartment during transfers from one salinity to another. Osmo-
regulatory powers of juvenile salmon and fresh-run adults are good,
but spent fish returning from fresh water to sea water, osmoregulate
with difficulty or not at all.
390.
Parsons, J.D. 1968. The effects of acid strip-mine effluents
on the ecology of a stream. Arch. Hydrobiol. 65:25-50.
The complete oxidation of iron sulfide occurs on spill
piles. Strip-mine lakes act as holding areas of oxidated sulfuritic
material. Cedar Creek, in Missouri, was affected by both continuous
and periodic flows of acid-mine effluents. The longitudinal succes-
sion associated with a stream of this type has been modified in biotic
response to the continuous atypical aquatic environment as a function
of effluent ions. The greatest deviation from the expected pattern
was found in fishes, and the least in the benthos with its great
dependency upon the abiotic substrate, and of intermediate response
the zooplankters with both inhabitable volume as well as water quality
being a factor. In both zooplankton and benthic populations in the
continuously polluted area, the number of species was small compared
to the total number of individuals. This was in direct contrast to
the biotic structure in the downstream area. The populations of
fishes in the periodically polluted area were typical of streams in
the surrounding area. In the final analysis, not only the initiation
of an excess acid flow, the maintenance of such a flow, the concen-
tration of effluent ions, and the distance travelled by such a flow,
but also the rate of recovery of the downstream area were dependent
upon a delicate, ever-changing balance in the amount, distribution,
and intensity of rainfall, and to some extent, upon the time interval
between rains. The effects of acid effluents upon the abiotic en-
vironment were the a) precipitation of the normal silt load, b) des-
truction of the bicarbonate buffer system, c) increase in the titra-
table acidity and hydrogen-ion concentration, d) introduction of
various metal ions, and e) reduction of the oxygen concentration in
the downstream stations. The acidity of the strip-mine effluent as
measured by titratable acidity and hydrogen-ion concentrations was
responsible for the destruction of animal populations of the down-
stream communities. The response of the community structure to the
abiotic environment during the a) normal, b) pollution, and c) recovery
conditions was studied comparatively. A complete picture of the
biotic response to abiotic environment has been ascertained based
on community response. The repopulation of the ecosystem was depen-
dent upon a) water quality, b) type of life cycle, and c) season of
high water.
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391.
Parsont, M.A. 1967. The
aquatic environment.
133 p.
distribution of radium-226 in an
Thesis, Colorado State University:
Detailed results are given of studies on the distribution
of radium-226 in a stream below a uranium mine. It was found that
the concentration of radium in the sediment was directly related
to particle size and showed no seasonal variations; the concentra-
tion in both large and small particles decreased exponentially with
distance from the source of contamination. Filtered water samples
showed lower concentrations of radium-226 than unfiltered samples,
indicating that most of the radium was associated with the particu-
late material. In areas where the sediment contains high concen-
trations of radium-226, the root system of aquatic plants contained
more radium than did the stems and leaves. The reverse was true in
areas of lower sediment radium concentration. Aquatic insects con-
centrated large amounts of radium-226, but the concentration of
radium accumulated by fish could not be related statistically to
stomach contents.
392.
Passow, H., A. Rothstein and T.W. Clarkson. 1961. The general
pharmacology of the heavy metals. Pharmacological Reviews
13:185-224.
This article is devoted to a discussion of predominantly
theoretical aspects of metal poisoning, with emphasis on chemical
and physico-chemical modes by which chemicals can alter the func-
tions of living cells. Topics discussed include chemical inter-
actions between heavy metal ions and biochemical substances; the
action of metals on enzyme systems, including inhibition kinetics,
metal interactions with various components of enzyme systems, and
relations between the chemical properties of heavy metals and en-
zyme inhibition; interactions with surface films; action of metals
on cells; actions of metals on epithelial tissues; and the nature
of the metal induced response. Numerous examples are cited with
specific metals including mercury, silver, lead, cadmium, zinc,
calcium, magnesium, uranium, manganese, barium, nickel, and cobalt.
A bibliography of 130 references is appended.
393.
Patin, S.A. and N.I. Popov. 1966. The absorption of artifi-
cial radionuclides by marine detritus under natural ocean
conditions. Proc. Symp. Int. Atom. Energ. Agency: 443-
449.
Sea water and suspended solids from the Indian Ocean were
analysed for radionuclides. Although relatively large amounts of
material were analysed, the activities of strontium-90 and cesium-
137 in solids were below the limit of sensitivity of the analytical
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methods used; the maximal possible concentrations of these isotopes
did not exceed 0.1-0.3 pc per g dry weight, representing a concentra-
tion factor of less than 1000. The concentrations of cerium-144 and
ruthenium--106 in the suspended matter were about 2 pc per g dry
weight, representing concentration factors of 10,000-50,000. These
results stress the great differences in the effectiveness of accumu-
lation of fission products by marine detritus. Since the proportion
of nuclides in the suspended material is, in general, not very large,
most of the artificially produced radionuclides in sea water must
exist in the ionic or colloidal state.
394.
Patrick, R., J. Cairns, Jr., and A. Scheier. 1968. The rela-
tive sensitivity of diatoms, snails and fish to twenty
constituents of industrial wastes. Prog. Fish-Cult. 30:
137-140.
other
Physa
fish;
Acute toxicity of salts of zinc, copper, chromium and
wastes were determined against various freshwater species;
heterostropha, a snail; Lepomis macrochirus, bluegill sun-
and Nitzschia lineaus, a diatom.
Concentrations fatal to 50% of sunfish in 96 hours, in
mg/l metal were: 113 for Cr3+, 168 for Cr2+, 1.25 for Cu2+ and
2.86-3.78 for Zn2+. For snails these values were 17.3 for Cr3+,
16.8 for Cr2+, and 0.79-1.27 for Zn2+. Concentrations that cause
50% reduction in number of cells of diatoms produced in 120 hours,
in mg/l, were: 0.208 for Cr3+, 7.8 for Cr2+, 0.8 for Cu2+ and 4.3
for Zn2+.
395.
Pauley, G.B. and R.E. Nakatani. 1968. Metabolism of the radio-
isotope zinc-65 in the freshwater mussel, Anodonta califor-
niensis. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 25:2691-2694.
The distribution of zinc-65 in the freshwater mussel Anodonta
californiensis after exposure to aerated Columbia river water spiked
with the isotope, was investigated. The uptake by mussels after a
5-day exposure was proportional to the concentration of the zinc.
The concentration of zinc-65 in various tissues is shown as a func-
tion of period of exposure to a concentration of 100 WC per liter;
after 36 days of exposure, 75% of the isotope was in the gills, mantle,
and palps, and this was distributed in a pattern similar to that of the
stable zinc content. Autoradiographs showed some zinc-65 in all tissues
except Leydig cells and the mucous cells of the epithelial layers, but
little was adsorbed on the surfaces of the mussels.
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396.
Paulini, E. and J. Pellegrino. 1957. Influence of
of Schistosoma mansoni on the susceptibility of
glabratus to copper sulphate. Trans. Roy. Soc.
Hyg. 51:283-284.
infection
Australorbjs
Trop. Med.
Infected snails were more susceptible to copper.
397.
Pearcy,
and
off
W.G. and C.L. Osterberg. 1967. Depth, diel, seasonal,
geographic variations in zinc-65 of midwater animals
Oregon. Int. J. Oceanol. Limnol. 1:103-116.
Macroplankton and micronekton at one station off the coast
of Oregon were sampled over a 2-year period to obtain information on
variations in the uptake of zinc-65. Animals collected in the upper
150 m showed marked seasonal variations in the content of zinc-65
per g of biomass, with summer maxima related to the seasonal occur-
rence of Columbia river 'plume' waters off Oregon; these variations
were less noticeable in animals from depths of 150-550 m, and no
seasonal variations were found in animals at greater depths. Al-
though the concentration of zinc-65 in animals collected at all
depths during winter was low, it was higher than in samples col-
lected further offshore, indicating that even in winter more of the
zinc activity originated from the Columbia river water than from
fallout and that some of the river water is retained off Oregon
throughout the year. The concentration of zinc-65 per g of sample
was markedly higher at night than during the day in animals col-
lected in the upper 150 m in summer indicating that vertical migrants
may accumulate more radioactive isotopes than non-migratory epipelagic
animals. A first approximation of the vertical movement of radio-
active zinc suggests that about 40% of the zinc-65 incorporated in
the animals moves twice daily through the base of the permanent halo-
cline at 150 m, indicating that vertically migrating animals may play
a major role in the movement of certain radioactive isotopes, and
other materials, through density gradients in the open sea.
398.
Pearcy, W.G. and C.L. Osterberg. 1968. Zinc-65 and manganese-
54 in albacore Thunnus alalunga from the west coast of North
America. Limnol. Oceanogr. 13:490-498.
A study was made to determine the major gamma-emitting radio-
isotopes found in the livers of albacore, Thunnus alalunga, taken from
the coastal waters off northwest America during the summers of 1962-
1966. Zinc-65 and manganese-54 were found to be the dominant arti-
ficial radionuclides and their concentration and specific activities
changed considerably during the summer. Levels of zinc-65 content in
albacore taken off Oregon and Washington increased during the summer
and were directly related to their association with the Columbia river
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plume; zinc-65 content of fish taken from Baja, California was only
10% of fish taken further north and showed no seasonal trends. There
was no evidence of migration between the northern and southern fisheries
The radioactivity and specific activity of manganese-54 during the
summer, indicating that manganese-54 is more readily available in
offshore waters than in coastal waters. The main source of manganese-
54 is fallout from nuclear weapon tests.
399.
Pendleton, R.C. 1958. Effects of some environmental factors
on bioaccumulation of cesium-137 in an aquatic community.
Hanford BioI. Res. Ann. Rep.; U.S. Atom. Energ. COmill. HW-
59500:42-46.
The amount of cesium-137 taken up by algae, submerged water
weeds, grass, fish, and amphibians was found to vary with temperature.
Shading reduced uptake by submerged plants, and emergent plants rooted
in gravel accumulated more cesium-137 than did those rooted in mud.
Contamination of all organisms decreased because of loss to bottom
mud.
400.
Pendleton, R.C. and W.C. Hanson. 1958. Absorption of cesium-
137 by components of an aquatic community. Proc. 2nd U.N.
Int. Conf. Peaceful Uses Atom. Energ. 18:419-422.
Field studies and controlled experiments are reported which
confirm the hypothesis that a marked difference exists in the avail-
ability of cesium-137 to ecologic chains originating in aquatic as
compared with terrestrial environments. Numerical results are tabu-
lated in terms of the concentration factor for various organisms in
water containing mixed fission products from the Hanford chemical
separations facilities, Wash.; the wide variation between different
species is explained. Plants exposed to cesium-137 in an aquatic
environment accumulate the isotope at least 500 times as much as
previously reported for plants grown in soil, and animals feeding on
these plants become proportionately more contaminated than those
utilizing terrestrial food chains. For example, a carp may concen-
trate the isotope by a factor of 3000. The discharge to an aquatic
environment of cesium-137 at the recognized maximum permissible con-
centration level for drinking water will produce hazardous levels of
contamination in organisms which may be consumed by man. Based on
these results, a probable route for the transfer of hazardous quantities
of cesium-137 to man is shown diagrammatically.
401.
Pendleton, R.C.,
Chamberlain.
delta of the
36:925-927.
R.D. Lloyd, C.W. Mays, D.R. Atherton, and N.V.
1964. Radium contamination at the Jordan River
Great Salt Lake. J. Water Pollut. Contr. Fed.
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Following on the accidental release of wastes from a uranium
ore refining plant in Utah, a study was made to determine the extent of
contamination in the Jordan river delta where it enters the Great Salt
lake. High concentrations of radium and thorium were found in environ-
mental samples and in muskrats living in the area, but carp appeared to
contain relatively low levels. The contamination was limited to ir-
rigated fields, water channels and impoundments, and there was evidence
of high accumulation in localized areas, such as mats of blue-green
algae where maximum deposition of silt occurs. Since much of the flow
in the river is used for irrigation, the possibility of contamination
of crops for human consumption is great, and the need for strict control
to prevent future release of wastes is stressed.
402.
Perkins, R.W. and J.M. Nielsen. 1960. Radioactivity in foods
resulting from Columbia river water radioisotopes. U.S.
Atom. Ener. Comm. HW-63824:25-32.
Water from the Columbia river is used for cooling the re-
actors at Hanford, Wash., and is then returned to the river. The
used cooling water contains trace amounts of several radioactive
isotopes, most of which have half-lives of up to only a few hours.
However, the half-lives of some of the isotopes are sufficiently long
for their distribution to be traced through the food chains of the
aquatic life in the river, and some can be traced from irrigation
water through farm produce to man. The results are given of a com-
prehensive study of the radioactive isotopes present in farm produce
irrigated with water from the Columbia river. The isotopes present
in sea foods harvested from waters near the mouth of the Columbia
river were measured and compared with those present in sea foods
from several other parts of the world.
403.
Petkevich, T.A. 1967. Elemental composition of bony tissue of
plankton-feeding and benthos-feeding fish from the North-
west part of the Black Sea. Dopovidi Akademii Nauk Ukrains'
koi RSR, Ser. B 29, No. 2:142-146.
The content of certain trace elements in the bones of sprats,
anchovy, mackerel and other fish was determined by spectral analysis.
The bony tissue of plankton-feeding fish can concentrate manganese,
nickel, chromium, vanadium, titanium, tin, lead and strontium to a
greater extent than that of benthos-feeding fish.
404.
Phelps, D.K. 1967. Partitioning of the stable elements Fe, Zn,
Sc, and Sm within the benthic community, Anasco Bay, Puerto
Rico. Proc. Int. Symp. Radioecol. Concent. Process., 1966,
Stockholm: 721-734.
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A preliminary report is given of studies on the partitioning
of the stable elements iron, zinc, scandium and samarium between the
predominant members of the benthic fauna and in the sediments at two
points in Anasco Bay, Puerto Rico, at depths of 8 and 13 m directly in
the mouth of the river, Anasco, which carries large quantities of sedi-
ment. Data, obtained by neutron activation analysis, are reported in
tables and diagrams. The qualitative and quantitative structure of the
faunal community has a direct effect on the distribution of the elements
examined; a shift in predominance from polychaete annelids to pelycopod
molluscs would result in a decrease in the amount of iron and zinc in-
corporated into the living community and conversely a change in pre-
dominance from pelycopods to polychaetes, particularly if Capitella
or Paraprionospio were present, would result in increased concentrations
of scandium and samarium. Among the polychaetes, at least, the composi-
tion of the community based on feeding-types is an important factor in
the partitioning of the stable elements; the less dependent an organism
is on the sediment as a source of food, the lower its concentration of
these trace elements becomes. The polychaetes which feed primarily from
the sediment water interface (selective deposit feeders) concentrate
iron to the apparent exclusion of zinc, while the polychaetes which feed
primarily below the sediment-water interface (non-selective deposit
feeders, omnivores, carnivores) concentrate zinc to the apparent ex-
clusion of iron. Scandium was concentrated to a high level by a few
individual species but in general the concentrations of scandium and
samarium in the organisms were similar to those in the sediments.
There was a greater difference in the amounts of stable elements con-
centrated by different feeding types at the same location than there
was between the same feeding types from different locations.
405.
Phelps, D.K., R.J. Santiago, D. Luciano, and N. Irizarry. 1969.
Trace element composition of inshore and offshore benthic
populations. Proc. 2nd Nat. Symp. on Radioecology. U.S.
A.E.C. Conf. 670503: 509-526.
Preliminary studies of stable element partitioning within
shallow water assemblages of infauna have shown discrimination between
Fe and Zn that follows feeding categories. Select deposit feeders con-
centrate Fe over ambient sedimentary levels while non-select deposit
feeders and omnivores concentrate Zn. This study represents a further
investigation of relationships between the distribution of Fe, Zn, Cu,
Sc, and Sm and the ecology of benthic assemblages.
Levels of Cu and Sm in the fauna were found to be enhanced by
proximity to the land mass. Iron and Sc were higher in fauna collected
from silty clays than in fauna living in sands and gravelly sands with
no apparent increase due to the influence of the land mass. Zinc levels
in the animals showed no relationship to proximity of the land mass or
to changes in substrate although there was a tendency for higher values
to occur in organisms found in the offshore silts and clays.
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406.
Pickering, Q.H. 1968. Some effects
centrations upon the toxicity of
Lepomis macrochirus, Raf. Water
of dissolved oxygen con-
zinc to the bluegill,
Research 2:187-194.
The effects of three levels of dissolved oxygen on the
non-lethal toxicity of zinc to bluegills in hard spring water under
continuous-flow exposure was studied. The nominal dissolved-oxygen
concentrations were 1.8, 3.2, and 5.6 mg/l; temperature was main-
tained at 250C and pH value at 7.8. It was found that for the suc-
viving fish at all three concentrations of oxygen growth was greatest
in fish exposed to 1 mg/l of zinc and least in th6se exposed to 4
mg/l, and that growth increased with increase in oxygen concentra-
tion. Statistical analysis indicated that the effect of zinc on
growth was not significant but that the effect of dissolved oxygen
was significant. It is thought that zinc has little cumulative
toxicity for bluegills.
407.
Pickering, Q.H. and C. Henderson. 1966. The acute toxicity
of some heavy metals to different species of warm water
fishes. Air and Water Pollution 10:453-463.
A comparative study was undertaken to determine the acute
toxicity of the salts of copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), nickel (Ni), tri-
valent and hexavalent chromium (Cr), and lead (Pb) to four species
of warm water fishes and the dependence of this toxicity on cer-
tain other water quality characteristics. The species used were
fathead minnows, bluegills, goldfish, and guppies. Ten individuals
of a species were used for each of the concentrations tested and in
the control. The test solutions were prepared in a logarithmic
series of numbers such as 10, 5.6, 3.2, 1.8 and 1.0 mg of the metal
salt per liter of water, and from the mortalities at different con-
centrations the 24-, 48- and 96-hour median tolerance limits (TLm)
were computed. With all four species in soft water, Cu was the
most, and Cr6+ the least toxic while with the other metals, rela-
tive toxicity varied with the test species. With Pb (as chloride
and acetate), the mechanism of toxicity appeared to be different at
high concentrations and short exposures than at low concentrations
and long exposures. The 96-hour TLm values in soft water for the
fathead minnow (7.33 and 31.5 mg/l) and goldfish were significantly
lower than the 24-hour values (11.5 and 45.4 mg), and the 96-hour
TLm in soft water was significantly lower for the fathead minnow
than for the other species.
408.
Pickering, Q.H. and W.N. Vigor. 1965. The acute toxicity of
zinc to eggs and fry of the fathead minnow. Prog. Fish-
Cult. 27:153-157.
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It appears from bioassays with zinc that these fish (fry)
exposed during the egg and embryo stages, as compared to fry not so
exposed, develop a tolerance to zinc. One-day-old eggs exposed to
1.1 mg/l of zinc hatch, and the fry live at least three days. Newly-
hatched fry not previously exposed to zinc died within 24 hours
after exposure to 1.1 mg/l. T1m value of Zn to eggs was greater
than 3.98 mg/l but the T1m value decreased to 1.69 mg/l after 12
days exposure. The survival at 1.06 mg/l or less of zinc was not
significantly different from survival in controls.
409.
Podubsky, V. and E. Stedronsky. 1948. Toxic effects of some
metals on fish and river crabs. Ann. Acad. Tchecosl.
Agric. 21:206-222; Chem. Abstr. 44:8008.
The toxic effect of several metals to fish and river crabs
was investigated. Copper was most toxic followed by zinc, brass,
iron, and nickel. Aluminum was toxic in waters containing little
calcium. Copper coated with zinc, and tin and iron coated with
zinc were slightly toxic, while stainless steel, iron coated with
nickel and chromium, and lead were not toxic.
410.
Podubsky, V. and E. Stedronsky. 1950. Toxic effects of some
metals on both small and large water organisms. Ann. Acad.
Tchecosl. Agric. 23:209-215; Chem. Abstr. 45:6309.
organisms
Ephemerid
The effects of copper, zinc, and other metals on aquatic
are discussed. Copper and zinc are markedly toxic to
larvae but Chironomid larvae are fairly resistant.
411.
Podubsky, V. and E. Stedronsky. 1951. The toxic effects of
some metals on the fry of the common pike (Esox lucius),
the spawn of the great maraena (Corogonus ~ena), and
the spawn of the common trout (Salmo fario). Ann. Acad.
Tchecosl. Agric. 23:295-301; BioI. Abstr. 27:1413.
For pike fry, and spawn of the great maraena and common
trout the toxicity of metals increases in the order zinc, brass and
copper. Zinc killed all spawn before hatching time. Iron was harm-
less to fry and spawn.
412.
Podubsky, V. and E. Stedronsky. 1952. The effect of
fish spawn and young fish and on Daphnia in water
ferent degrees of hardness. Ann. Acad. Tchecosl.
25:441-448.
zinc on
of dif-
Agric.
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Experiments with fish spawn, young fish, and Daphnia showed
that zinc plate placed in hard well water did not form poisonous salts
(chloride and sulphate) but such salts were formed in the soft water
of fish ponds. Such water became toxic. Damage was caused to the
plasma. The effect was even stronger with brass.
413.
Polikarpov, G.G. 1961. Ability of some Black Sea organisms
to accumulate fission products. Science 133:1127-1128.
The coefficients of accumulation of strontium-90, cesium-
137, and cerium-144 in seaweeds, eelgrass, Actinia, molluscs and
crustacea in the Black Sea were determined, and are given in a
table. The discharge of strontium-90 into sea water from decomposing
seaweed and the retention and additional absorption of cesium-137
and cerium-144 on organic debris are discussed. The results are
discussed in relation to the effects of radioactive waste waters dis-
charged into the Black Sea. It has been estimated that the time
interval for the rise of bottom waters to the surface in the Black
Sea is from 60 to 130 years, and during this period there would be
a 5 to 30-fold decrease in the activity of strontium-90.
414.
Polikarpov, G.G. 1961. The absorption of strontium-90 by
marine organisms. Prirorda 2:83.
A study was made of the uptake of strontium-90 by actiniae,
molluscs, shrimp, crab, and algae. The coefficients of accumulation,
related to live weight, were actiniae 1, molluscs 6, shrimps 8, and
crabs 3. The radioactivity of dying brown algae decreased, but in
dying green and red algae the concentration of strontium-90 remained
the same as in, living algae. When animals or algae with a high ab-
sorption coefficient for strontium-90 die, a significant part of the
activity passes out again into the surrounding water.
415.
Polikarpov, G.G. 1961. The role of detritus formation in the
migration of strontium-90, cesium-137, and cerium-144.
Experiments with the seaweed Cystoseira barbata. C.R.
Acad. Sci. URSS 136:921-923. Nuclear Sci. Abstr. 1961.
15:1872.
In the disposal of radioactive wastes at sea, a knowledge
of the effect of decaying matter on the movement of fission products
is important. Experiments were therefore carried out with strontium-
90, cesium-137, and cerium-14~. in the presence of Cystoseira barbata,
a brown alga commonly found in the Black Sea. As the sea water was
not circulated or aerated the alga began to die in four days and was
completely decomposed at the end of the experiment (64 days). It was
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found that strontium-90
ganic matter by the sea
137 and cerium-144 were
organic matter.
was almost completely leached from
water, but that additional amounts
adsorbed from the sea water by the
the or-
of cesium-
decayed
416.
Polikarpov, G.G. 1966. Radio-ecology of aquatic organisms.
Reinhold Book Division, New York: 340 p.
In this translation of a book originally published in
U.S.S.R., the author discusses the importance of marine radioecology
in determining the effect of radioactive contamination of sea water
on commercial fisheries, in predicting the risk to humans from con-
taminated sea food, and in developing measures for controlling radio-
active contamination of seas and oceans. Factors affecting the ac-
cumulation of radionuclides by marine organisms are discussed and
the effects of nuclear radiation on marine organisms are described.
In drawing conclusions from the available data the author points out
that strontium-90 accumulated during life is returned to the en-
vironment from dead marine plants; in addition to being more hazardous
to man than other isotopes in food, strontium-90 is also more mobile
in the sea.
417.
Polikarpov, G.G., Y.. P- Zaitsev, G.V. Barinov, and V.P. parchevsky.
1967. General features of the concentration processes of
radioactive substances by hydrobionts in different seas of
the world ocean. Proc. Int. Symp. Radioecol. Concent. Process.,
1966, Stockholm: 771-790.
Giving tabulated data and a list of 49 references the authors
review and discuss the accumulation of radionuclides by marine organisms,
with reference to isotope-exchange kinetics and their use to develop
laws of uptake and loss of radionuclides by hydrobionts. Concentra-
tion factors are listed for individual radio-isotopes in similar and
closely related species of hydrobiont in different seas, showing that,
in general, concentration factors obtained in one sea are also valid
for other seas. Distribution of strontium-90 in similar species in
different oceans and seas demonstrate that geographical distribution
of strontium-90 is very uneven; mathematical analysis of changes in
concentration of strontium-90 in plankton, algae, and molluscs in the
Black, Adriatic, and Ligurian seas, show a similpr mathematical de-
pendence.
418.
Pomeroy, L.R., R.E. Johannes, E.P- Odum, and B. Roffman. 1969.
The phosphorus and zinc cycles and productivity of a salt
marsh. Proc. 2nd Nat. Symp. on Radioecology. U.S.A.E.C.
Conf. 670503: 412-419.
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By synthesizing the results of two field experiments using
32p and 65Zn with earlier work in Georgia salt marshes, the cycles
of the elements P and Zn are described quantitatively. Marsh grass
(Spartina alterniflora) and sediments dominate both cycles. The up-
permost meter of sediments contains enough P to support Spartina
production for 500 years and enough Zn for 5000 years. Spartina
production removes P and Zn from the subsurface (reduced) sediments
and introduces them into the water (via bacterial utilization of
dead Spartina and subsequent utilization of the bacteria by detritus
feeders) at a rate that replaces total water P in a month and total
water Zn in a year. A significant part of the P is exported from
the marsh in organisms and detritus. The P and Zn in the estuarine
water are in equilibrium with plankton, bacteria, and surface (oxi-
dized) sediments. The equilibrium strongly favors the sediments.
Probably the subsurface-sediment compartment of P and Zn is replaced
by the conversion of oxidized sediments to reduced sediments through
the process of creek meandering. The oxidized sediments are in equili-
brium with the water, which receives inputs of P and Zn from both land
and sea. The transfer of P and Zn from the deep sediments to the water
by Spartina explains the high concentration of these elements in the
water of marshy estuaries.
419.
Pomeroy, L.R., E~P. Odum, R.E. Johannes, and B. Roffman. 1966.
Flux of phosphorus-32 and zinc-65 through a salt-marsh eco-
system. Proc. Symp. Int. Atom. Ener. Agency: 177-188.
Zinc-65 and phosphorus-32 were introduced simultaneously
into the waters of a tidal creek flowing through a salt marsh on
the east coast of U.S.A., and the distribution of radioactivity in
the various components of the ecosystem was observed over a period
of several months. It was found that the isotopes were taken up
rapidly by the clay sediments and also by the bacteria in these
sediments; higher plants in the marsh did not take up either of the
isotopes, and populations of diatoms and algae did not become as
radioactive as the sediments in which they lived, but a dinoflagel-
late bloom did accumulate appreciable amounts of radioactivity. The
isotopes were removed from the sediments by animals which consumed
the sediments either as their food or incidentally during feeding,
and it is thought that digestion of bacteria from the sediments by
sediment-feeding animals is an important step in the transport of
radioactivity from sediments to biota.
420.
Pooth, I.S. 1954. The effect of mine water on the diatomaceous
flora in some oligotrophic lakes in Vasterbotten. Rep.
Inst. Freshw. Res. Drottning#35:l84-209.
Investigations are described of three lakes in Sweden, the
Hobackstjaru, Gillervattnet, and Brutrasket, and their connecting
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, J
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streams, carried out to find the effect of the discharge of waters
from the Boliden mine and from an ore-concentration plant. The
ores mined contain mainly iron and zinc with some copper, arsenic,
and lead, and considerable amounts of sulphur. Analyses are given
of the mine water, which is acid and conLains free sulphate ions
and metal salts. Examinations were made in 1950 before discharge
of mine water began and in 1952 when the lakes had received mine
water for a year, and shorter investigations were made in 1953 and
1954 when waste waters from the ore-concentration plant were being
discharged. In 1950 the lakes in their natural condition were oligo-
dystrophic in character with a low content of lime and nutrient mat-
ter and the plankton contained a more or less rich diatom population
consisting of the pure water forms common in the northern forest dis-
tricts. This population disappeared almost completely after mine
water had been discharged for a year, being almost completely re-
placed in the first lakes and streams of the series by Eunotia exigua,
whose occurrence and appearance are described. Discharge of warm
water from the ore-concentration plant restored the reaction of the
lake water to neutral and the effect on the biological conditions will
be investigated later.
421.
Portmann, J.E. 1968. Progress report on a programme of in-
secticide analysis and toxicity-testing in relation to the
marine environment. Meeresuntersuchungen 17(1-4) :247-256.
Static 48 hr bioassays were conducted in 10 liter perspax
aquaria using aerated full-strength sea water and the following assay
species: pink shrimp, Pandalus montagui; brown shrimp, Crangon crangon;
shore crab, Carcinus maenus; and cockle (bivalve) Cardium edule. Ani-
mals were acclimated for three days then placed in sea water to which
heavy metal solutions at a range of concentrations had been added and
left for 48 hours. All studies were in the dark and temperature-regu-
lated at l50C. Four heavy metals were tested: mercury as HgC12,
copper as CuS04, zinc as ZnS04 and nickel as NiS04.
Approx. 48 h TL-50 value - mg/l
Mercury Copper Zinc Nickel
Pink shrimp 0.1 0.2 10.0 200.0
Brown shrimp 'V6.0 'V30.0 '1,100.0 'V150.0
Shore crab 'V1. 0 'VIOO.O 'V12 'V300.0
Cockle 'VlO.O '1,1.0 'V200. '\"500.0
Hg > Cu > Zn > Ni
This sequence follows the relative solubilities of four metals in
sea water.
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The effect of temperature on toxicity of Cu and Hg to
brown shrimp and cockle was very pronounced. A reduction in tem-
perature from 220 to 50C was sufficient to increase the tolerance
of brown shrimps to Cu and Hg by a factor of 5. With cockles, the
effect was more pronounced, with increases in resistance of 80 for
Cu and 130 for Hg.
resulted
was only
Starving shrimp and cockles for two weeks prior to assay
in increased sensitivity to mercury for both species (Hg
compound tested) by factors of approximately 2.
The age of brown shrimp is important in resistance to
mercury. Larger (= older) shrimps were more resistant than smal-
lest group by factor of about 2; it is possible to predict sen-
sitivity of this species to Hg on basis of size.
422.
Potts, W.T.W., M.A. Foster, P.P. Rudy, and G.P. Howells. 1967.
Sodium and water balance in the cichlid teleost, Tilapia
mossambica. J. Exp. Biol. 47:461-470.
The total body sodium increases from 10.6 mg/g fish in
fresh water to 13.8 mg/g fish in 200% sea water. The rate of ex-
change of sodium increases from .046 mg/g/hr in fresh water to 13.8
mg/g/hr in 100% sea water. The rate of drinking increases from 0.26%/
hr fresh water to 1.6%/hr in 400% sea water. Even in 200% sea water
drinking accounts for only a quarter of the total sodium influx. The
permeability to water, as measured by tritiated water, is highest in
fresh water and lowest in 200% sea water. The permeabilities to water
measured in this way are consistent with the drinking rates determined
in sea water and 200% sea water.
423.
Prasad, G. 1959. The toxicity of common salt
Vijn. Parish Anusand, Patr. (Res. J. Hind.
2:105-109. (English summary).
to cyclops.
Sci. Acad.)
Experiments were made to determine the toxicity of sodium
chloride in waste waters to Daphnia magna. A concentration of 0.83%
sodium chloride killed 50% of the organisms in 24 hours at 250C. The
72-hour TLm at 250C was 0.78% sodium chloride, but only 0.50% at a
temperature of 500e.
424.
Preston, A. 1967. The concentration of zinc-65 in the flesh
of oysters related to the discharge of cooling pond ef-
fluent from the C.E.G.B. nuclear power station at Brad-
well-on-sea, Essex. Proc. Int. Symp. Radioecol. Concent.
Process., 1966, Stockholm: 995-1004.
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Before operation began at the Bradwell nuclear power sta-
tion, Essex, the maximal permissible limits for discharge of waste
waters from the fuel-element cooling ponds were calculated, using
oyster flesh as the critical material and zinc-65 as the critical
isotope. The radioactivity of the cooling-pond water is kept to
acceptable levels by passing a small volume of the water regularly
through ion-exchange columns; most of the zinc-65 activity is re-
moved on a non-regenerable resin but the back-washing water from
other regenerable resins is the principle source of zinc-65 dis-
charge to the Blackwater estuary. The calculated maximal rate of
discharge is compared with that based on subsequent operational
data; and graphical and tabulated data are also given on the con-
centration of zinc in sea water and oyster flesh and the corres-
ponding concentration factors in oyster flesh, including the varia-
tions with zinc concentration and with distance from the cooling-
water outfall. Results support the view that radioactivity is
transported to the oysters on particles associated with the water
close to the sea bed. Since the power station began operation the
concentrations of stable zinc in the estuarine water and in the
oysters have also increased, but the increase is probably too small
to have influenced the accumulation of zinc-65 by the oysters. The
zinc content of oysters was related to their dry weight; oysters of
good quality should have minimal zinc contents.
425.
Price, T.J. 1965. Accumulation of radionuclides and the ef-
fects of radiation on molluscs. In Biological Problems
in Water Pollution Third Seminar August 13-17, 1962.
U.S. Public Health Service 999WP-25:202-2l0.
A report, with graphical results, is given of laboratory
experiments on the accumulation and retention of cesium-137, cerium-
144, zinc-65, and gold-199 by the hard clam, Mercenaria mercenaria,
oyster, Crassostrea virginica, and bay scallop, Aequipecten irradians,
and on the lethal effects of ionizing radiations on these organisms.
All three organisms concentrated cesium-137 from the water. After
10 days scallops showed a concentration factor of 10 in muscle, with
the concentration rate still increasing; visceral mass had a concen-
tration factor of 8 but equilibrium with the medium was near. Clams
showed a lower rate of accumulation with a concentration factor of 6
in the soft tissues after 20 days (the uptake of cesium-137 was still
continuing). With oysters, the concentration of cesium was reaching
equilibrium after 12 days with a concentration factor of only 5.
Both uptake and subsequent biological elimination of the isotope show
an initial rapid phase, attributed to the visceral mass, followed by
a longer continuous uptake or loss attributed to the muscle tissue.
In tests on biological elimination of cesium, the oysters retained
4% and the clams 12% of the activity after 28 days probably owing to
the formation of chemical complexes within the tissues. Cerium-144
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was made available to the organisms as particles in the medium or
associated with known populations of Nitzschia c10sterium cells,
and the experiments showed that accumulation of this isotope was
affected by the physical (particulate) state. Uptake of cerium
was slow and continuous for 10 days, after which it fluctuated,
the maximum concentrations being reached after 20 days. Most of
the activity was in the shell owing to surface adsorption, with
less in the meats and still less in the liquid. The activity in
the meats was possibly due to particles adhering to tissue sur-
face and present in organs and structures connected with the di-
gestive tract. Only a small percentage could be assimilated,
since the particle size would limit absorption through the walls
of the intestinal tract. The initial loss of cerium-144 from clams
and scallops placed in rapidly-flowing sea water was rapid, and was
followed by loss at a very reduced rate. After 195 days, clams re-
tained 20% of the original cerium-144 while with scallops, after 35
days, the shells had lost 55% of the original activity, the muscle
62%, and the visceral mass 89%, and it appeared that any further
loss of activity would be small. Molluscs have a higher zinc con-
tent than other invertebrate groups and are important in the trans-
fer of zinc-65 through food chains to man; however, oysters concen-
trate zinc-65 to higher levels than clams. The uptake of gold-199
by both clams and separated shells was rapid for the first 14 days,
after which it was much slower; live clams removed 3.6 times more
gold-199 than the separated shells, apparently owing to absorption
of the nuclide on body surfaces and to some contribution from meta-
bolic processes. Clams which burrowed in montmorillonite clay on
the bottom of the tank were prevented from absorbing gold-199 and
after 23 days contained 38% less activity than the clams in the
water.
426.
Pringle, B.H., D.E. Hissong, E.L. Katz, and S.T. Mulawka. 1968.
Trace metal accumulation by estuarine mollusks. J. Sanitary
Engineer. Div. 94 SA3:455-475.
In view of the relative paucity of information on trace
metal distribution in marine animals, a series of studies were ini-
tiated in order to investigate the mechanics of concentration of
these materials. Data were obtained on a number of mollusk species.
There is a wide variation in species ability to take up and concen-
trate zinc, lead, nickel, cobalt, iron, manganese, copper, cadmium,
and chromium within their natural (estuarine) environment. Uptake
rates in a controlled, simulated-environment system using various
concentrations of lead, copper, cadmium, and zinc indicate that all
of the species studied varied in their selectivity for the particular
metal taken up. The rate of uptake, and the tissue level attained,
were found to vary with time, and the particular metal concentration
used. Using various lead concentrations it was observed that of the
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various anatomical areas, the muscle, mantle edge, mantle, remainder,
gill, gonad, and digestive gland accumulated increasing tissue levels
in that order. Depletion is a relatively slow process in most cases;
it varies from species to species as to rate and final tissue con-
centration. Species used were quahaug clam, Mercenaria mercenaria;
soft shell clam, Mya arenaria; and the oysters Crassostrea gigas
and f. virginica. Copper was especially toxic to Mya. Concentra-
tions >0.02 mg/l were toxic over a continuous exposure of several
weeks. Copper is selectively concentrated over zinc by Mya. Mya
concentrates cadmium at a lower rate than do either copper or zinc
under identical experimental conditions. Lead is also picked up
and concentrated.
427.
Pshenin, L.P. 1960. The accumulation of U-UX, by nitrogen-
fixing microorganisms of the Black sea. C.R. Acad. Sci.
U.R.S.S. 133:1448-1450; Nuclear Sci. Abstr. 15:1090-1091.
The ability of nitrogen-fixing
the Black Sea to accumulate uranium from
Yeasts were found to be more active than
bacteria and yeasts from
sea water was investigated.
bacteria in taking up uranium.
428.
Pulley, T.E. 1950. Effect of aluminum chloride in small con-
centrations on various marine organisms. Texas J. Sci. 2:
405-411.
Experiments were made on the effects of aluminum chloride
in sea water on various marine organisms. Results showed that in
concentrations of 44 mg/l aluminum chloride did not kill adult fish,
shrimps, or oysters. At 88 mg/l young redfish died quickly and other
species more slowly; 132 mg/l killed most fish in a few hours and all
in a few days; 176 mg/l killed all test fish in a few hours. The
solution of the salt in sea water was strongly acid, but by the action
of natural buffering agents neutrality was restored in 1-2 days with
concentrations up to 88 mg/l and in 3-5 days with concentrations of
132-176 mg/l. The importance of bacterial action as an agency in
restoring neutrality is greater with high concentrations of aluminum
chloride than with low. Oysters were found to be more resistant
than fish to the action of aluminum chloride, for a few days at
least. It is considered that the toxic effect of aluminum chloride
was not the result of a decrease in pH value of the sea water.
429.
Pyefinch, K.A. and J.C. Mott. 1948. The sensitivity of barn-
acles and their larvae to copper and mercury. J. Exp.
Biol. 25:296-298.
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Precipitation of copper from the medium occurred at con-
centrations of 6-7 mg Cull. Authors suggest that heavy metals
penetrate tissues and act intracellulary as enzyme poisoners or
protein precipitants. Authors observed a decrease in dissolved
oxygen uptake of a marine amphipod following exposure to copper
suggesting that Cu acts on respiratory enzymes. Dilute sea water
markedly reduced the toxicity of copper and mercury to barnacle
larvae. Hypertonic seawater also reduced toxicity of copper. TLm
values at 6 hours in mg Cull for Balanus balanoides and B. crenatus
ranged from 0.23 to 0.46 for 5 and 6 hour larval stages.
430.
Rachlin, J.W. and A. Perlmutter. 1968. Fish cells in culture
for study of aquatic toxicants. Water Research 2:409-414.
The effect of zinc in various concentrations on tissue cul-
tures of cells of the fathead minnow was compared with its effect on
the intact animal as found by previous work. The cultures were ex-
posed to concentrations of zinc representing the 96-hour TLm (7.5
mg/l), one-tenth of TLm (0.75 mg/l), ten times the TLm (75 mg/l),
and the calculated safe value (1.8 mg/l), all derived from the in-
tact animal study. The cells were more sensitive than the whole
animals, and the safe value of zinc concentration for the latter
reduced the mitotic index of the cells to 50% of the control value,
while the 75 mg/l concentration had no effect. It is concluded
that safe concentrations based on toxicity studies of cell systems,
and not the mature animal, should be used as starting +evels for
studying the effects of toxic substances on the test animal in
various stages of its development.
431.
Rachlin, J.W. and A. Perlmutter.
bred strain of platyfish and
Prog. Fish-Cult. 30:203-207.
1968. Response of an in-
the fathead minnow to zinc.
The toxicities of zinc to an inbred strain of platyfish
(Xiphophorus maculatus) and the fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas)
over concentration ranges of 10-100 mg/l and 1-10 mg/l respectively,
were determined, under identical conditions of water quality and
temperature (230C). Concentrations fatal to 50% in 96 hours were
12.0 mg/l for platyfish and 7.6 mg/l for minnow; the latter exhibited
a relatively high female threshold level of about 10 mg/l zinc.
432.
Rachlin, J. and A. Perlmutter. 1969. Response of rainbow
trout cells in culture to selected concentrations of zinc
sulfate. Prog. Fish-Cult. 31:94-98.
The response of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) gonadal
cells in culture to various concentrations of zinc was studied. A
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concentration of 18.0 mg/l zinc reduced the mitotic index of these
':ells by approximately 70%. Concentrations of zinc between 1.8 mg/l
and 10.0 mg/l had no effect on the mitotic index of the cultures,
whereas 32.0 mg/l zinc completely inhibited mitosis. The relation
between these values and previously determined values for fathead
minnow (Pimephales promelas) cells in culture is discussed.
433.
Ray, P. and A. David. 1962. A case of fish mortality caused
by precipitation of ferric iron in the river Daha at Siwan
(North Bihar). Indian J. Fish., Sect. A 9:117-122.
The river Daha, Bihar, India, is polluted with waste waters
from sugar refineries and distilleries, and in September 1959 a heavy
fish mortality occurred in the river at a period when the distillery
waste vaters were being discharged into the river which was at its
lowest summer flow. Investigations showed that the gills of the af-
fected fish were covered with fine brown suspended matter, and the
water also contained a brown suspended floc. It was concluded that
the distillery waste waters, which had a high content of organic
matter, while moving slowly in the river had dissolved iron salts
from the bottom deposits, and further downstream the presence of
bicarbonates had resulted in precipitation of ferric hydroxide
which caused physical damage to the gills of the fish. In addition,
the local villagers had entered the water to catch the distressed
fish, thus stirring up the muddy bottom and causing a reduction in
the dissolved oxygen concentrations and an increase in the carbon-
dioxide concentration of the water.
434.
Raymont, J.E.G. and J. Shields. 1963.
chromium in the marine environment.
lution 7:435-443.
Toxicity of copper and
Int. J. Air Water Pol-
Results are given of experiments on the toxicity of copper
and chromium to certain marine animals. Most of the experiments were
carried out on the polychaete worm, Nereis virens, but some tests
were also made with the shore crab, Carcinus maenas, and small prawns,
Leander squilla. Since the solubility of copper in sea water is low
and most inorganic salts precipitate readily, most of the experiments
on copper were carried out with copper sodium citrate; in the tests on
chromium, sodium chromate was used. The results indicate that with
Nereis a toxic threshold exists for copper at a level of about 0.1 ppm
copper, but chromium is less poisonous, the toxic threshold approaching
10 times this value. The experiments with the crab Carcinus indicate
that copper is at least 10 times, and possibly nearer 20 times, more
toxic than chromium, and copper also appears to be more toxic than
chromium for Leander. Carcinus was found to be much more resistant
than Nerei~ to both copper and chromium. This is attributed to specific
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differences in the physiology of the two animals,
of the gut and body wall, composition of the body
of excretion; size may also have some effect.
such as permeability
tissues, and rates
435.
Reed, J.R. and D.J. Nelson. 1969. Radiostrontium uptake in
blood and flesh in bluegills (Lepomis macrochirus). Proc.
2nd Nat. Symp. on Radioecology. U.S.A.E.C. Conf. 670503:
226-233.
The rapid initial uptake of radiostrontium by bluegill sun-
fish (1. macrochirus)was attributed to a quickly exchanged Sr pool
in flesh and blood. Two percent of the Sr pool in blood consisted
of a component having a biological half-life of two hours. Another
1% of the blood Sr exchanged in 35 days and 97% was contained in a
component with a long, undetermined biological half-life. Strontium
in blood contributed less than 0.09% to the Sr in flesh. At least
three compartments of Sr metabolism were identified in flesh. One
percent of the Sr in flesh was turned over with a biological half-
life of about two hours while 9% was turned over with a half-life of
nine days. The remaining 90% of Sr in flesh had a long but undetermined
half-life.
Uptake of Sr in the quickly exchanged Sr pool was directly
proportional to the Sr concentration in test solutions in the range
from 0.3 to 300 mg/l Sr. At 3,000 and 30,000 mg/l Sr, bluegills took
up more Sr than at the lower concentrations indicating to authors an
inability to discriminate against Sr at abnormally high environmental
concentrations.
436.
Regnier, J.E. 1965. Zinc-65 uptake in a two-step marine food
chain. Thesis, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Fla: 175 p.
Dissertation Abstracts 1966, 27:B848.
To evaluate the validity of the maximal permissible con-
centration of zinc-65 in sea water, laboratory experiments were car-
ried out using a two-step food chain comprising two species of micro-
scopic marine algae (Nitzschia closterium and Carteria sp.) and a
bottom-feeding fish, mullet, (Mugil sp.). It was found that the con-
centration factor for zinc-65 was slightly greater for Carteria than
for Nitzschia, but the size of these factors appeared to be limited
by the available zinc-65 rather than by species characteristics. Up-
take of zinc-65 by mullet from the algae could be described by a
mathematical model, and the apparent maximal concentrations were
reached in 55-60 days; the maximal concentrations decreased with in-
creasing size of fish. There was evidence that the mullec tended to
discriminate against zinc-65. The differences in uptake of zinc-65
from the two algae were significant, but appeared to be due to variations
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in the concentrations of zinc-65 and total zinc in the fish food
rather than to differences in the mode of uptake from the two
species of algae. It was concluded that mullet are useful indi-
cators of contamination of marine environments with zinc-65. From
the results of these experiments it appears that the maximal permis-
sible concentration of zinc-65 in sea water could be five times
greater than the currently value of 7 x 10-6 ~c per ml, but further
work on other marine food chains is required to confirm this.
437.
Renfro, W.C. 1968. Radio-ecology of zinc-65 in an arm of the
Columbia river estuary. Thesis, Oregon State University.
Results of a one year study of the concentrations of zinc-
65 in water, bottom deposits, plants, and animals in Alder Slough, a
small ecosystem in the Columbia River estuary, indicated temporary
fluctuations in the activities of zinc-65 and in the concentrations
of total zinc in all components of the ecosystem. There were also
variations between individual fish. In general, individuals with
high zinc-65 activities also had high total zinc concentrations.
Following the shut-down of the nuclear reactors at Hanford for 45
days it was found that the rates of decrease in zinc-65 activity in
several organisms varied with the trophic level of the organism and
with changes in prevailing ecological conditions.
438.
Renfro, W.C. and C. Osterberg. 1969. Radiozinc decline in
starry flounders after temporary shutdown of Hanford re-
actors. Proc. 2nd Nat. Syrnp. on Radioecology. U.S.A.E.C.
Conf. 670503:372-379.
Concentrations of 65Zn and total Zn were measured in starry
flounders collected periodically over a one-year period from Alder
Slough, a small arm of the Columbia River estuary. The nuclear re-
actors of Hanford, Washington, which supply most of the 65Zn in the
river were shut down for 45 days during this period and, as a re-
sult, the input of radioactivity to the study area was greatly re-
duced and specific activity (65Zn/g total Zn) in the flounders de-
clined. The time required to reduce the 65Zn specific activity by
one-half under these conditions in which the flounders continued to
obtain 65Zn from their food web and vlater is termed "ecological
half-life". The "ecological half-life" for 65Zn in juvenile starry
flounders was 139 days under the conditions prevailing in this study.
The effective half-lifes of 65Zn in three flounders held in the labo-
ratory were 56, 91, and 162 days, depending on the initial concentra-
tion of 65Zn in each test fish.
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439.
Rice, T.R., J.P. Baptist, and T.J. Price. 1965. Accumulation
of mixed fission products by marine organisms. Proc. 2nd
Int. Conf. Wat. Pollut. Res. Tokyo, 1964. 3:263-286.
Phytoplankto~Nitzechia) closterium and Carteria sp.), scal-
lops (Aequipecten irradians), shrimps (Penaeus setiferus) and croaker
(Micropogon undulatus) were exposed to sea water containing mixed
fission products, including Ce144jpr144 and Sr90jy90, and oysters
were fed on Carteria cells grown in such water. Uptake and subsequent
losses of S- and y-activity were measured. Much of the S-activity be-
came associated with phytoplankton cells by non-metabolic processes,
probably adsorption and exchange. Carteri~ cells appeared to remove
a greater percentage of cerium-144jpraseodymium-144 than of other
radioactive isotopes with weaker energies. There appeared to be a
rapid uptake of isotopes of short half-life, with the uptake of iso-
topes with longer half-lives proceeding more slowly; it required about
144 hours for the cells to take up enough of the different isotopes to
give a decay rate similar to that of the mixtures of isotopes initially
present in the sea water. The radioactivity accumulated by phytoplankton
was not lost readily; the individual isotopes accumulated were examined
by ion exchange. In the feeding tests with oysters, the y-activity
reached a slightly higher concentration than the S-activity, giving a
S:y ratio similar to that in the Carteria cells, with about 0.3% of
the available activity accumulated in the soft tissues. When the
oysters were transferred to flowing sea water, there was a rapid
initial loss of 76% of both S- and y-activity, which was attributed
to elimination of non-assimilated activity from the gastro-intestinal
tract, but subsequent losses were small. In the scallop, more S-than
y- activity was accumulated, the uptake in each case decreased in the
order visceral mass, shell, and muscle; concentration factors calculated
for these tissues were, respectively, 35, 29, and 11 for S-activity and
26, 23, and 20 for y-activity. In shrimps the ratio of S-:y-activity
was also changed as compared with the sea water; concentration factors
for the head and viscera, muscle, and shell were, respectively, 3.5,
0.6, and 10.2 for S-activity and 7.7, 1.8, and 19.4 for y-activity.
In the croaker, concentration of fission products was greatest in the
internal organs, reaching about 5 times the initial concentration in
sea water, while muscle accumulated the least amount of radioactivity.
The internal organs contained a S-emitter with energy corresponding to
that of praseodymium-144 and accounting for about 26% of the activity.
Bone contained an emitter with energy corresponding to yttrium-90 and
accounting for 37 per cent of the total activity; this indicated that
the parent strontium-90 was also present, and strontium-90/yttrium-90
would account for 74% of the total activity if the two isotopes were
in equilibrium.
In the discussion that followed Ophel, I.L., emphasized the
difficulties of interpreting the results of experiments on the accumu-
lation of radionuclides and summarized experiments on the effects of
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environmental factors on the accumulation of radioactive strontium
by fish. Ophel's results showed that the rate of accumulation of
strontium-90 was approximately doubled for each 100e increase in
temperature (within the tolerable range), and it was depressed by
starvation or by the presence of magnesium or inactive strontium,
but not by sodium or potassium; the course of the uptake in rapidly-
growing fish differed from that in fish maintained at constant weight.
It was shown that there is no constant concentration factor even for
a single species of fish and one particular isotope, but that each
concentration factor determined experimentally relates to those par-
ticular experimental conditions. The relation of the experimental
concentration factors to the "true" concentration factor was dis-
cussed. Saiki, M. and Umezu, T., stressed that induced radioactive
material, such as zinc-65 and iron-55 (rarely found in fission prod-
ucts) is also important in the radioactive contamination of marine
organisms, as indicated by analytical data on fish caught in the
Pacific Ocean where it is affected by nuclear tests. It was con-
cluded that most of the colloidal and particulate matter consists
of minute chlorophyll-free particles and the remainder of phyto-
plankton with only a small percentage of micro-organisms; and that
the most effective accumulators of radionuclides in the ocean are
the mucous, ciliary, and pseudopodial filtering zooplankton.
440.
Rice, T.R. and V.M. Willis. 1959.
loss of radioactive cerium-144
Limnol. Oceanogr. 4:277-290.
Uptake, accumulation and
by marine planktonic algae.
The uptake of radioactive cerium-144 by 6 species of marine
planktonic algae was studied. In these experiments the cerium occurred
mostly in the particulate state when added to sea water. Different
species of algae concentrated the cerium from 300-3000 times over the
amount in the medium within 30 min, and after 24 hours all 6 species
tested had concentrated cerium from about 2000-4500 times. A culture
of Nitzschia closterium containing dividing cells removed all the
cerium-144 ori~inallv added to the medium. Non-dividing cells of
Nitzschia kept in the dark continued to take up radioactive cerium
for as long as 3 days. The amount of cerium taken up by cells of
Nitzschia as the concentration of cerium in the medium was increased.
Particulate cerium became associated with the cells more rapidly than
did ionic cerium. The uptake of cerium by Nitzschia was reduced by
the addition to the medium of a chelating compound. When radioactive
cells of Nitzschia were resuspended in non-active medium, they lost
about 25% of their contained cerium-144 in 5 hours. More cerium-144
was lost from cells resuspended in 4 successive portions of non-active
medium than from cells remaining in the first portion. When the medium
contained a chelating compound, a greater amount of cerium-144 was lost
from the cells. The greatest loss of cerium-144 per unit of protoplasm
in cells in nonactive medium was from "biological dilution" as a result
of cell division; this loss amounted to one-half of the contained activity
of the cells at each division.
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441.
Roberts, H. 1963. Cadmium toxic to rainbow trout.
Fish-Cult. 25:216.
Prog.
During testing of a closed-system plastic tank at Darran
Springs Hatchery, Calif., the small cadmium-plated metal screen
being used was found to be lethal to rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri)
under certain conditions. Small numbers of rainbow trout were placed
in the tank and each group of fish died within 24 hours. Since the
cadmium screen has been replaced, however, normal mortality has oc-
curred in the tank. Cadmium-plated bolts are in common and extensive
use today and the utmost caution should therefore be exercised in
their use in construction of fish planting tanks and hatchery facil-
ities.
442.
Rodgers, E.G., B.H. Hazen,
1951. The toxicity of
(PMA) to rainbow trout
Cult. 13:71-73.
S.B. Friddle, and S.F. Sneiszko.
pyridylmercuric acetate technical
(Salmo gairdnerii). Progr. Fish-
Experiments on the toxicity of pyridylmercuric acetate
(PMA) to trout showed that PMA at a concentration of 10 mg/l was
more toxic to rainbow trout fingerlings than to fingerlings of brown
and brook trout and that its toxicity increased with increases in
temperature of the water. Experiments using rainbow trout finger-
lings of an average size of 60 mm showed that treatment with PMA
reduced the appetite of the trout for almost a day, but regardless
of the toxic effect of PMA, it is still considered to be a useful
disinfectant in controlling gill diseases and external parasitic
infestation.
443.
Rosenthal, H.L. 1957. The metabolism of strontium-90 and
calcium-45 by Lebistes. BioI. Bull. 113:442-450.
Experiments have shown that the uptake of strontium-90 by
male guppies from the water in which they swim is linear with time
for the total carcass and the tissues studied. Tissues containing
high concentrations of calcium accumulate more strontium-90 than do
soft tissues. The rate of turnover of the nuclide varied from very
fast to very low according to the type of tissue; the whole body,
head and spine retain strontium-90 for long periods, while viscera
loses the isotope rapidly when the fish is transferred to fresh water.
It was found that the uptake and turnover of strontium-90 and calcium-
45 by male fish are qualitatively similar, but significant quantita-
tive differences are apparent.
444.
Rosenthal, H.L. 1957. Uptake of calcium-45 and strontium-90
from water by fresh-water fishes. Science 126:699-700.
-189-
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Experiments using three species of freshwater fish: gup-
pies, zebra fish, and white cloud mountain fish, have shown that
these fish take up calcium-45 and strontium-90 from the water at
similar rates, the uptake being directly proportional to the period
of exposure. This is in contrast to the results of other workers
using marine fish, which were found to discriminate against strontium
in favor of calcium. It is suggested that the apparent lack of dis-
crimination of strontium-90 by freshwater fish reflects differences
between freshwater and marine fish in absorption of the isotope by
the gills, skin and intestinal tract, rather than fundamental al-
terations in the metabolism of mineral elements of bone.
445.
Rosenthal, H.L. 1963. Uptake, turnover, and transport of
bone-seeking elements in fishes. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci.
109:278-293.
The rate of uptake of calcium-45, strontium-90 and sul-
phur-35 from water by the male guppy (Lebistes) is linear with time;
similar results were obtained from uptake of calcium-45 and strontium-
90 by white cloud mountain fish (Tanichthys and zebra fish (Danio) of
both sexes. The rate of incorporation of the nuclides is also linear
with time for various tissues of the body. The rate of uptake was
found to be related to the concentration of the nuclides in the water
at constant ionic concentration. A series of double tracer experi-
ments, using calcium-45 and strontium-90, indicated that freshwater
fish have little ability to discriminate between strontium and calcium
when the isotopes are taken up from the surrounding water.
446.
Rounsefell, G.A. and J.E. Evans. 1958. Large-scale experimental
test of copper sulphate as a control for the Florida red tide.
USFWS Spec. Sci. Rept-Fisheries No. 270: 57 p.
Large-scale experiments were carried out in 1957 on the use
of copper sulphate for the control of red tide on the coast of Florida.
The chemical was sprayed from the air at the rate of about 20 lb. per
surface acre (22.5 kg per surface hectare). This treatment rapidly
reduced the numbers of Gymnodinium breve from several million per liter
to almost none, but in two out of five areas the numbers of organisms
increased again after 10-14 days to concentrations lethal to fish.
This method is not recommended for general control, but can be used
to give temporary relief from the air-borne toxin in local situations.
447.
Rucker, R.R. and W.J. Shipple. 1951. Effect of bactericides
on steelhead trout fry. Prog. Fish-Cult. 13:43-44.
Experiments were made to control the growth of a fluorescent
species of Pseudomonas which had infected yearling blueback salmon
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(Oncorhynchus nerka). Neither Roccal nor malachite green would
control the bacterium at concentrations tolerated by the fish, but
pyridylmercuric acetate successfully controlled the pathogen when
the fish were immersed for one hour in a solution containing 10 mg/l.
448.
Rucker, R.R. and D.F. Amend. 1969. Absorption and retention
of organic mercurials by rainbow trout and chinook and
sockeye salmon. Prog. Fish-Cult. 31:197-201.
The Food and Drug Administration has established zero
tolerance for mercury in foodstuffs because of its potential hazard
to human health. This limit may be modified if further studies
indicate permissible levels.
These experiments indicate that mercurials used as thera-
peutics and prophylactics for fish diseases can be absorbed ~nd re-
tained by fish for prolonged periods, and that legal-size wild fish
may ingest enough mercury-contaminated fingerlings to accumulate
relatively high levels of mercury. Therefore, legal-size hatchery
fish treated with mercurials or wild fish that have eaten mercury-
contaminated fingerlings may be a public health hazard.
449.
Rudakov, N.l. 1961. Accumulation, distribution, and exchange
of calcium-45, strontium-90, cerium-144, and cesium-137 in
fish and methods of marking fish fry. lzv. gosud. nauchno-
issled. Ozern. Rechn. Ryb. Khoz. 51:165-254. Nuclear Science
Abstracts 1965. 19:4462.
Experiments with five species of fish (Cyprinus carpio, Caras-
sius carassius, Salmo salar, Salmo irideus, and CoregDnus autumnalis
migratorius) show that young fish can accumulate considerable amounts
of radioactive isotopes from radioactive and stable isotopes in solu-
tion. Calcium-45 and strontium-90 accumulate first in organs and
tissues in contact with the solution (gills, scales, fins, and skin),
and more slowly in the bones, internal organs, and muscles, but after
15 days both isotopes are almost entirely localized in bone tissue.
Cerium-144 and cesium-137 do not accumulate in the gills to the same
extent, but enter the blood rapidly; cerium is then concentrated in
the liver and bony elements, while cesium is distributed throughout
all the organs and tissues. Owing to exchange processes, however,
the radioactivity of all the organs and tissues decreases more rapidly
than would occur by natural decay alone.
450.
Ruf, M. 1965. Radioactivity in freshwater fish. Zentbl. Vet.
Med. 12:605-612. Nuclear Science Abstracts 1967. 21:51.
-191-
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In view of increasing contamination of surface waters with
artificially produced radioactivity, it is important to assess degree
of contamination of freshwater fish which could be eaten by man. It
was found that total beta-activity in muscle (mostly due to potassium-
40) ranged from 2 to 3.7 pc per g of freshweight for cyprinid fish
and from 2.7 to 3.8 pc per g for salmonids. Most the gamma activity
found in fish muscle consisted of potassium-40, cesium-137 and barium-
133; the activity due to cesium-137 amounted to about 3150 pc per kg.
Cyprinid fish muscle contained 1-12 pc of strontium-90 per kg, but
higher concentrations were found in bones. There was also evidence
of the presence of strontium-89. The degree of uptake of the various
isotopes depended on several factors that could not be predicted. In
addition to intake with food, absorption of radioactive strontium
through the body surface appeared to be important.
451.
Salo, E.G. and W.L. Leet. 1969. The concentration
by oysters maintained in the discharge canal of
power plant. Proc. 2nd Natn. Symp. Radioecol.,
1967: 363-371.
of zinc-65
a nuclear
Ann Arbor,
Cooling water and low-level radioactive waste waters from
Humboldt Bay Nuclear Power Plant, near Eureka, Calif., are discharged
into a short canal leading into Humboldt Bay. Pacific oysters, Cras-
sostrea gigas, were reared for periods up to 13 months on trays sus-
pended on a raft in the discharge canal (the canal bed is not suitable
for oysters owing to heavy siltation) and the uptake of zinc-65 (which
is the dominant radionuclide in the discharge from the standpoint of
biological concentration) was studied by removing oyster samples as
fresh groups were added. The monthly average concentration of zinc-65
in the canal waters ranged from 0.104 x 10-2 to 1.963 x 10-2 pc per ml,
and changes in the concentration in the water were reflected in changes
in the concentration in the oysters; it is therefore concluded that
oysters maintained on rafts can be used as long-term indicators for
zinc-65. The concentration of zinc-65 in oysters reached 175 pc per g
after exposure for 13 months; concentration factors ranged from 5.6 x
103 to 1.2 x 104 for the 1962 brood and from 8.6 x 103 to 1.1 x 104 for
the 1964 brood. As regards public health, the maximal body burden that
could be derived from eating the oysters is well within the maximal per-
missible concentration, and considerable dilution of the discharge occurs
before it enters Humboldt Bay.
452.
Sanborn, N.H. 1945.
fresh-water fish.
The lethal effect of certain chemicals on
Science 101:13.
Studies are described of the toxicity of
waste waters from canneries to goldfish (Carassius
to large-mouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) 75-100
chemicals for treating
auratus) 50-75 mm long,
mm and to bluegill
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sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus) 40 to 65 rnrn in length. Tests were
made with water which had a pH value of 7.2 to 7.6 and a total hard-
ness of 64 to 80 mg/l, of which 28 to 36 mg/l were non-carbonate
hardness. In one series of experiments a solution of the chemical
being tested was introduced continuously into the bottom of the tank
containing the fish at a rate which maintained a solution of constant
composition in the tank, as judged by the pH value. Two fish of each
species were used in each tank which was continued for 7 days. All 3
species survived in water containing 50 mg/l sodium hydroxide but died
within 2 to 5 hours in water containing 100 mg/l sodium hydroxide.
Goldfish survived in water containing 500 mg/l sodium carbonate but
bass died within 7 to 9 hours and sunfish within 4.5 to 11 hours.
Sunfish withstood 100 mg/l ferrous sulphate (FeS04.7H20) but bass
died within 4 to 7 days and sunfish within 2.5 to 3.5 days; bass
and sunfish survived in water containing 50 mg/l ferrous sulphate;
ferrous sulphate was precipitated as ferric hydroxide and death ap-
peared to be due to accumulation of ferric hydroxide on the gills.
All 3 species survived water containing 100 mg/l aluminum sulphate
(A12(S04)3.l8H20). Neither species of fish was able to withstand 250
mg/l of aluminum sulphate. The concentrations of lime, ferrous sul-
phate, and aluminum. sulphate discharged in waste waters from canneries
are small. In one sample obtained from a cannery treated with 68 kg of
lime and 34 kg of ferrous sulphate, the concentration was equivalent to
7 mg/l ferrous sulphate. The concentration of sodium nitrate in waste
waters from canneries is less than 1,000 mg/l and this sodium nitrate
is normally decomposed in lagoons before the waste waters are discharged
to streams. Sodiula carbonate is sometimes used to reduce the acidity of
waste waters which are to be treated in percolating filters; the concen-
trations of sodium carbonate in effluent from the filters is small.
453.
Sather, B.T. 1967- Chromium absorption and metabolism by the
crab, Podophthalmus vigil. Proc. Int. Syrnp. Radioecol. Con-
cent. Process, 1966, Stockholm: 943-976.
Literature on the toxicity of chromium to freshwater and
marine organisms is reviewed (a bibliography of 54 references is ap-
pended), and experiments are reported on the accumulation and meta-
bolism of chromium in the portunid crab Podophthalmus vigil. After
exposure to sea water containing 1 wc/l of chromium-51, as chromic
chloride, for 16 days, the radioactivity in the tissues was highest
in gills, then muscle, mid-gut gland, carapace, and blood in that
order. Gills and muscle reached equilibrium in 2-3 days but the mid-
gut and haemolyrnph required 4-5 days. After 16 days the crabs had
removed 90% of the radioactivity from the medium (which had contained
936 times the amount found in natural sea water). When the crabs
were subsequently transferred to non-radioactive sea water, the medium
and the blood were not enriched with chromium-51 but the gills lost
chromium probably owing to transportation to other tissues. After
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intrapericardial injection of 5.3 ~c of chromium 51 and exposure to
non-radioactive sea water, the radioactivity of the medium did not
increase but radioactivity was transported and deposited in the
gills. When the injection was accompanied by an equal dose of iron-
59, all the tissues discriminated against the iron, but the iron
also affected the metabolism of chromium; with injection of both
elements the gills and other tissues lost radioactivity, both as
chromium and iron, and the medium became enriched with both elements.
Incubation of gills with chromium-51, with or without addition of
potassium cyanide, to inhibit phosphorylation, and Diamox (acetazol-
amide), to inhibit carbonic anhydrase, showed that the control gills
could regulate the amount of chromium absorbed (the regulatory mech-
anism was much better for hexavalent chromium than for the trivalent
form), and that this regulation tended to be dependent on oxidative
phosphorylation and partially dependent on the zinc containing carbonic
anhydrase. Iso-electric precipitation and electrophoresis of blood
showed that most of the radioactivity of the blood was probably in
the saline portion of the haemolymph.
454.
Saunders, R.L. and J.B. Sprague. 1967. Effects of copper-zinc
mining pollution on a spawning migration of Atlantic salmon.
Water Research 1:419-432.
Studies on the effects of pollution by copper and zinc in
the Northwest Miramichi River, N.B., have included observations in
the avoidance reactions of migrating Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar).
Results, showed that metal concentrations of less than half the
lethal threshold value caused a considerable reduction in the number
of salmon reaching the spawning grounds above the polluted zone and
a marked increase in the number returning downstream without spawning.
455.
Saurov, M.M. 1957. Radioactive
containing strontium. Trud.
Gig. Dozimetr., 66-73; Chem.
contamination of fish in waters
Vses. Konf. Med. Radiol., Vopr.
Abstr. 52:16657.
Experiments were carried out on the uptake of radioactive
strontium by four species of fish kept in water containing different
concentrations of strontium-90. It was found that considerable amounts
of strontium-90 were taken up over prolonged periods, and there was a
direct relationship between the concentration of strontium-90 in the
tissues, the activity of the water, and the period of exposure. The
uptake of strontium was inversely proportional to the concentration of
calcium in the water. Greater amounts of strontium were accumulated
in the scales and bones than in the muscles and internal organs. Maxim~
permissible concentrations for radioactive strontium in open water re-
servoirs was established.
-194-
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456.
Sautet, J., H. Olliver, and J. Quicke. 1964. Contribution to
the study of the biological fixation and elimination of
arsenic by Mytilus edulis. Second Note. Annls. Med. leg.
Crimin. Police scient. 44:466-471.
Tabulated and graphical results are given of experiments on
the uptake of arsenic by mussels. It was found that neither the flesh
nor the shells retained more than traces of arsenic (4-10 ~g and 0.5-
2 ~g respectively) when exposed to a dose of 100 g/l of arsenic; these
concentrations are much less than the toxic concentration for humans
(100 mg). By contrast, the byssus accumulated 250-500 ~g, and the
excreta contained 550-800 ~g in an insoluble organic form.
457.
Schelske, C.L. 1965. Ecological implications of fallout radio-
activity accumulated by molluscs. Paper presented at l3lst
Annual meeting of Amer. Assn. for Adv. Sci., Montreal: 21 p.
Nuclear Science Abstracts 1965. 19:5444.
To obtain data for future comparisons of radioactivity in
estuarine organisms, measurements were made of gamma-emitting isotopes
in four species of molluscs collected near Beaufort, N.C. It was
tound that both clams (Mercenaria mercenaria) and marsh mussels (Modiolus
demissus) contained relatively large amounts of cerium-144 and ruthenium-
106 and were, therefore, suitable as biological indicators of these iso-
topes. Oysters (Crassostrea virginica) also accumulated these isotopes,
but were more suitable as biological indicators for zinc-65. The gamma-
activity of scallops (Aequipecten irradians) was greater than that of
the other molluscs, and these organisms were found to be indicators of
manganese-54. The differences in the isotopes taken up by the different
organisms are attributed to selective feeding and it is suggested that
the distribution of environmental radioactivity in marine organisms may
be used to distinguish ecological niches among organisms with similar
feeding mechanisms.
458.
Schiffman, R.H. 1961. The
water by rainbow trout.
12 p.
uptake of strontium from diet and
U.S. Atom. Ener. Comm. HW-72107:
The results of experiments on the uptake of radioactive
strontium from food and water by trout are discussed. In three weeks
the concentration of strontium-90 in the fish approached about 1.5
times the concentration in the surrounding water. When the isotope
was administered in gelatine capsules about 21% of the isotope was
retained, but retention was only about 7% when the isotope was incor-
porated into natural food. Under the conditions of the experiments,
uptake from the water was greater than uptake through the food chain.
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459.
Schiffman, R.B. 1965. Strontium-calcium transport across
the gill of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnerii). J. Cell.
Compo Physiol. 65:1-5.
It was found that there can be two rates of uptake for
strontium, a passive rate and a higher energy-dependent rate; the
passive uptake of strontium is not affected by the presence of cal-
cium, but calcium in concentrations greater than 4 mg/l does inhibit
uptake of strontium by the energy-dependent system.
460.
Schiffman, R.B. and P.O. Fromm. 1959. Chromium-induced changes
in the blood of rainbow trout, Salmo gairdnerii. Sewage
Industr. Wastes, 31:205-211.
Experiments were made on the effect of exposure to high sub-
lethal levels of chromium on the physiology of the blood of rainbow
trout. The percentages of red blood cells (hematocrits) on both
splenectomized and intact fish exposed to 20 mg/l of chromium were
significantly higher than for control fish in clean tap water. Ex-
posure of fish to concentrations as low as 2-4 mg/l was found to
raise the hematocrit to its maximum value. The presence of the spleen
was found to have no effect on the rise in hematocrit under chromium
stress. The potential influence of the potassium ion in the potas-
sium dichromate on the experimental results is discussed.
461.
Schmitz, W., W. Besch, and I. Kneissl. 1967. Salinity tolerance
of Gammarus pulex pulex, Gammarus tigrinus, and Asellus aquaticus
depending on the relative concentrations of the sodium, magne-
sium, potassium, and calcium cations. Int. Revue ges. Hydro-
biol. 52:589-616.
Using the 24-hour and 48-hour TLm values as criteria of salt
tolerance, experiments were carried out with Gammarus pulex, ~. tigrinus,
and Asellus aquaticus exposed to various solutions of mixed salts covering
a wide range of variations in the concentrations of potassium and cal-
cium, and also in the ratio of the ionic concentrations of sodium and
magnesium. The survival of the test species depended principally on
their cyto-osmotically-determined tolerance to the concentration of
total salts, even when the relative concentrations of ions differed
from those in sea water; but variations in relative ionic concentrations
modified the salt tolerance, generally in the same direction for all
three species. Increases in the ratio of magnesium:sodium decreased
the salt tolerance, with an optimal tolerance at the ionic proportions
in sea water; the tolerance was also decreased slightly when all the
magnesium ions were replaced by sodium. In solutions of mixed salts,
the tolerance decreased considerably with increasing concentrations
of potassium above a certain level (195-390 mg/l for Asellus and Gam-
marus pulex, but higher for G. tigrinus), and the tolerance increased
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with increasing concentrations of calcium up to 20 mg/l for Asellus
and Q. pulex and up to 400 mg/l for Q. tigrinus. Observations on
the distribution of the test species in the rivers Werra, Weser,
and Innerste corresponded with the results of the experiments.
462.
Schmitz, W. and K. MUller.
Jber. Limnol. Prussia.
1949. Death of fish in the Werra.
Freudenthal: 3-10.
The authors describe an investigation of serious destruc-
tion of fish which occurred in the river Werra, Germany, in July
1949. The content of salt in the Werra is high because of the dis-
charge of waste waters from the potash industry; the concentration
of chloride varies during the year from several hundred to more
than 1,000 mg/l and is highest in late summer and autumn. The al-
terations caused in the population of streams by variations in con-
tent of salt are discussed. Mass development of plankton occurred
in the Werra in July 1949; the dominant organism was Thalassiosira
fluviatilis. As a result the water became hypersaturated with oxygen
and the pH value increased to about 10. No observations were made
at night but it is possible that absorption of oxygen during respira-
tion led to an oxygen deficiency, arrested development of the algae
which decomposed and caused further pollution. The factors important
in the destruction of fish were the increase in pH value and the
decrease in oxygen. Experiments on the effect of gradually increasing
th0 pH value of water showed that the increase observed in the Werra
was sufficient to kill or damage the more sensitive types of fish.
Damage was done to the fish, causing difficulty in respiration and
even if the fish were not killed they were more sensitive to lack of
oxygen.
463.
Schofield, C.L. 1965. Water quality in relation to survival
of brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis (Micthi11). Trans.
Amer. Fish. Soc. 94:227-235.
Studies on the survival of groups of test fish in Honnedaga
lake, New York, have shown that there is a relation between survival
of brook trout and water quality. Heavy mortality of trout from a
hard-water and a soft-water hatchery coincided with periods of high
acidity and high concentrations of heavy metals in the lake water
during the summer, but trout from another hard-water hatchery, where
the water supply contained traces of zinc, survived transfer to the
lake. Water from 30 other lakes in the Adirondack mountains was
analysed for comparison, but none showed a similar combination of a
very low salinity, high acidity and relatively high concentration of
metals.
-197-
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464.
Schott, W. 1951. Sensitivity of trout to
smittrdsch. 48:62-63.
zinc.
Dtsch. Lebin-
Trout kept in fish tanks died when the water supply con-
tained 0.15 mg/l of zinc. Zinc in toxic concentrations was dissolved
from newly galvanized pipes when the concentration of free carbon
dioxide in the water increased to 16.5 mg/l.
465.
6 h,,, "f t t.
Schreiber, B. 19 3. Acant arla as scavengers or s ron lum
and their role in the sedimentation of radioactive debris.
In Nuclear detonations and marine radioactivity. The re-
port of a symposium held at the Norwegian Defense Research
Establishment, 16-20 September 1963: 113-126.
The marine planktonic protozoan Acantharia has an absolute
and specific capacity for absorbing strontium from the medium and can
presumably accumulate radioactive strontium from fallout and radio-
active wastes. Since pure cultures of Acantharia could not be ob-
tained for experimental purposes, the author is carrying out experi-
ments on the concentration factor for strontium-90 in total marine
plankton, using plankton from the Tyrrhenian sea which contains 10-
20% of Acantharia and plankton from the Adriatic which contains al-
most no Acantharia. Preliminary results indicate that the concentra-
tion factor is about 5 times greater for plankton samples containing
Acantharia.
466.
Schreiber, B. 1967. Radionuclides in marine plankton and in
coastal sediments. Proc. Int. Symp. Radioecol. Concent.
Process., 1966, Stockholm: 753-770.
Studies are reported, with detailed tabulated and graphical
results, on the uptake of fallout radio-isotopes by marine plankton in
the Ligurian-Tyrrhenian and upper Adriatic seas. In addition to analyses
of plankton and sea water, to permit determination of concentration
factors, cuttlebone samples were also analysed, using this animal,
equally present in both seas, as a "biological comparator". While
cuttle-fish shows slow fixation of natural strontium contaminated by
strontium-90 and averages the specific activity allover its bone,
without exceeding the average temporal value of the environment,
plankton is submitted more rapidly to fallout contamination and much
higher values of strontium-90 can be found in plankton than in the
surrounding sea water. Comparison of concentration factors confirms
that in the plankton of the Tyrrhenian sea there is a component,
Acantharia, capable of selective concentration of both natural stron-
tium and its radio-isotopes. Other radionuclides were also determined
and from May 1961 to September 1963 significant increases were recorded
for the plankton and in the concentrations of strontium-90-yttrium-90,
cerium-144-praseodymium-144, and zirconium-95-niobium-95; and other
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fallout nuclides (antimony-125, promethium-147, europium-155, and
manganese-54) and the natural nuclides radium-226 and potassium-40
were identified in ash from plankton caught in the Ligurian-Tyrrhenian
sea in the period of maximal contamination, summer 1963. Radionuclides
are also being studied in coastal sediments of the Ligurian sea;
further results are given for 1965, and the data are discussed as
regards the fate of individual fallout nuclides, and their vertical
movements in oceanic waters. The distribution of beta activity along
the depth of the sediment cores were also examined and interpreted in
relation to the recent deposition of radionuclides and the residual
radioactivity of previous depositions of fallout. On the basis of
the results, a method is formulated for evaluating the rate of sedi-
mentation on the basis of the "absolute age" of the different layers
of the sediments.
467.
Schurr, J.M. and M.N. Starnper. 1962. Model for the accumula-
tion of strontium and calcium by recently moulted crayfish
(Cambarus longulus longerorostus art.). Limnol. Ocean. 7:
474- 4 77 .
The effect of crayfish in concentrating radioactive stron-
tium may be important in waters contaminated with radioactivity, par-
ticularly as crayfish lose major reserves of elements such as calcium
and strontium by moulting of the exoskeleton. Crayfish which had re-
cently moulted were placed in water containing calcium and strontium
tagged with strontium-85. The initial absorption of strontium-85 was
rapid, but the rates of uptake decreased exponentially as an upper
limit was reached. A simple mathematical model was developed which
attributes this limit to the number of sites available for deposition
in the exoskeleton. Deposited ions are relatively immobile until 2-4
days before the next moult when some are redistributed to the calcareous
gastroliths prior to re-use. There is therefore a striking structural
fluctuation in the strontium burden of contaminated crayfish.
468.
Schweiger, G. 1957. The toxic action of heavy metals salts on
fish and organisms on which fish feed. Arch. Fischereiwiss.
8:54-78.
The author describes and gives the results of investigations
into the toxicity of mercury, cadmium, nickel, cobalt, and manganese
salts to one- and two-year-old tench, carp, rainbow trout, and char,
and to crustacea, worms, and insect larvae forming the food of fish.
The results show that concentrations of 0.2 mg of mercury, 0.03 mg of
cadmium, 1 mg of cobalt, or 15 mg of manganese per liter were not
harmful to any of the fish or animals tested. The toxic action in 7-
day experiments was that of acute poisoning and was similar in its ef-
fects on all the animals. Fish showed symptoms of slow suffocation and
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paralysis and the food organisms showed signs of increasing exhaustion
and paralysis. After a considerable period of difficulty in respira-
tion, fish did not recover in fresh water. Examination of skin and
gills showed that suffocation was caused by deposition of dead cell
matter on the gills and surface of the body; cells were loosened from
the gill epithelium and from the body surface. Chemical analysis and
spectrographic examination showed the presence of the metals in the
slime and deposited cells covering the body and accumulation of man-
ganese and cadmium in the organs. Injection of much larger amounts
than were found in poisoned fish showed that the toxic action was
due to the destruction of the gill epithelium causing respiration
difficulty and final suffocation.
469.
Serbanescu, O. and p. Jitaru. 1965. On phosphorus-32 uptake
in the body of some Black Sea fishes. Anal. stiint. Univ.
Al. 1. Cuza, Sect. II A, 11(1):7-12; Nuclear Science Ab-
stracts 1967, 21:4083.
In experiments on the uptake of phosphorus-32 by fish from
the Black Sea (Gobius cephalarges and Sprattus sprattus phalericus),
some of the fish were kept in aquaria containing sea water with added
radioactive sodium phosphate, while other fish received intramusclar
injections of phosphorus-32. Preliminary results indicate the uptake
of phosphorus-32 from sea water is affected by the natural environ-
mental conditions of the fish.
470.
Serfaty, A. and R. Labat. 1960. Cardiac irregularities and
sudden changes in salinity in the case of marine teleostean
fish. Hydrobiologia 15:293-308.
An electrocardiographic technique was used to study the ef-
fects of sudden changes in salinity on the cardiac rhythm of mullets
and sea bream. Sudden changes from sea water to fresh water caused a
number of distinct changes in the electrocardiograms. The first stage
involved tachycardia, and at the same time an accumulation of carbon
dioxide in the blood. In the second stage tachycardia was gradually
reduced and bradycardia occurred accompanied by a significant diminution
in the amplitude and frequency of diaphragm movement. In the final
stages, severe abnormalities occurred in the electrocardiogram, and
diaphragm movements ceased, after which death followed rapidly. Death
occurred about l~ hours after exposure to fresh water with sea bream
(Cantharus cantharus), a stenohaline species, and 4 or 9~ hours after
exposure in the case of the more euryhaline mullets, Mugil auratus and
Mugil capito, respectively. Consideration was given to the relation
between the electrocardiograph abnormalities and the osmotic regula-
tion and anoxaemia.
-200-
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471.
Seymour, A.H. 1959. The distribution of radioisotopes among
marine organisms in the western central Pacific. Pubbl.
Staz. 2001. Napoli 31, Suppl.:25-33.
In the western central Pacific Ocean, cerium-144 was the
only long-lived fission product found in significant amounts in marine
organisms. Of the induced radioactive isotopes, iron-55 and -59, zinc-
65, cobalt-57, -58, and -60, and manganese-54 contributed up to 100%
of the radioactivity in marine animals but almost none of the activity
in algae. Zinc-65 was the isotope found most often in ocean fish, and
iron-55 in reef fish. Plankton had greater amounts of cobalt-60 and
less iron-55 than fish. The distribution of radioactive isotopes in
terrestrial plants and animals from the same geographical area dif-
fered greatly from the distribution in marine organisms.
472.
Shabalina, A.A. 1964. The effect of cobalt on the growth of
young carp and filamentous green algae. Izv. gosud. nauchno-
issled. Inst. Ozerm rechn. ryb, Khoz. 57:290-294. Biological
Abstracts, 1966. 47:6901.
A three-month experiment on growth of young carp in static
water containing 0.05, 0.5, and 5 mg of cobalt chloride per liter
showed that initially the growth of the test fish was slower than
that of control fish, but towards the end of the first month the
weight gain of the test fish equalled that of the controls; the
initial lag period increased with increasing concentration of cobalt.
Cobalt was also observed to inhibit growth of Spirogyra, Oedogonium,
and Volvox, and a concentration of 5 mg/l suppressed growth of Sapro-
legnia.
473.
Shabalina, A.A. 1968. Effects of cobalt chloride on physiological
indices in rainbow trout (Salmo irideus gibbons). Problems of
Ichthyology (Voprosy Ikhtiologii) Amer. Fish. Soc. 8:741-747.
Cobalt chloride was added to the diet of young and two-year
old rainbow trout. The tolerance of the young trout to increased water
temperatures was not affected, but the tolerance of the two-year olds
was increased by 1.60C. Hemoglobin content of the blood was unchanged.
The distribution of body fat was changed. In toxic doses cobalt pro-
duced gastro-intestinal hemorrhages in both groups of fish.
474.
Shekhanova, I.A. and V.L. Pechkurenkov. 1968. Accumulation of
strontium-90 and yttrium-90, dissolved in the water and its
effect on the embryonic development of loach. Problems of
Ichthyology (Voprosy Ikhtiologii) Amer. Fish. Soc. 8:551-561.
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The dynamics of accumulation of loach (fish) eggs differed
for strontium and yttrium-90. There are grounds for believing that
yttrium-90 accumulates mainly on the surface of the egg membrane,
whereas from 1/3-1/4 of the accumulated strontium-90 passes through
the membrane into the embryo. The accumulation of strontium-90 and
yttrium-90 by loach eggs proceeded differently in solutions with
different activities. The coefficients of accumulation in solutions
with activities of 1.75 x 10-6 and 1.5 x 10-8 Ci/liter were of the
same order, while those for the 3.11 x 10-10 Ci/liter solution were
an order higher. The radiation dose, calculated very approximately
from the graphs for the disintegration energy of accumulated stron-
tium-90 and yttrium-90, was several orders less than the X-ray dosage
which increases the incidence of malformations among larvae.
475.
Shuster, C.N., Jr. and B.H. Pringle. 1969. Trace metal accumu-
lation by the American oyster, Crassostrea virginica. 1968
Proc. Nat. Shellfish. Assoc. 59:91-103.
A 20-week study was conducted early in 1968 to corroborate
an earlier experiment on uptake by Crassostrea virginica. About 200
November-harvested oysters were placed in each'of eighteen l20-liter
tanks making use of a flow-through sea water system. During the ac-
climation and experimental periods the sea water was maintained at a
flow rate of 2.5 l/min and a 20 ~ 10C temperature with salinity vari-
able but usually 30 ~ 2 0100. Beginning in January, the oysters were
subjected to continuous levels of the nitrate salts of zinc (0.1 and
0.2 mg/l),copper (0.025 and 0.05 mg/l),cadmium (0.1 and 0.2 mg/l)and
chromium (0.05 and 0.1 ~g/l). Each week oysters were removed for analyses.
Information was obtained on trace metal accumulation rates, on
mortalities, shell growth and on the general appearance of the oysters.
The most obvious effects were observed in the copper- and the cadmium-
exposed oysters. The bodies of the oysters exposed to copper became
bluish-green in color and their shells showed excellent growth, mantle
edge pigmentation increased and mortalities were slightly higher than
in the controls. Cadmium-exposed specimens were emaciated, showed very
little shell growth, lost pigmentation of the mantle edge and coloration
of the digestive diverticulae and suffered high mortalities. Noteworthy
is the observation that mortality of cadmium-subjected (0.2 mg/l)osyters
commenced between the 4th and 8th week of exposure and was essentially
complete (100%) between the 13th and 17th week.
476.
Sigler, W.F. 1966. Some effects of accumulated radium on the
productivity of algae. Final progress report U.S. Atom. Ener.
Comm. TID-22322: 31 p. Nuclear Science Abstracts 1966 20:4.
Laboratory experiments on the effect of accumulation of radium
on the productivity of benthic algae (Vaucheria and Cladophora) from Logan
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river, Utah, showed that the accumulated radium had some effect on
the algae, but it was not possible to distinguish between radiation
and chemical effects. The amount of radium accumulated depended on
the algal genus, the concentration of radium in the medium and the
period of exposure.
477.
Skauen, D.M. 1963. Radioactive zinc-65 in marine organisms
in Fisher's Island Sound and its estuaries. Final Report
December 1, 1959 through November 30, 1963. u.S. Atomic
Energy Comm. TID-19922:52 p.
Results are given of studies on the concentrations of
total zinc and zinc-65 in marine organisms from the Thames river,
New Haven harbor and the Pawcatuck River, Conn., in 1961, 1962,
and 1963. The methods developed for determining trace amounts of
zinc, zinc-65, copper and cadmium in marine organisms and sediments
are described. Particular attention was paid to the uptake of zinc-
65 by oysters (Crassostrea virginica) and limpets (Acmoea~. testudi-
nalis) under natural and laboratory conditions. The effects of en-
vironmental factors such as current velocity, temperature, salinity,
turbidity and dissolved-oxygen concentration on uptake of zinc-65
were investigated.
478.
Skauen, D.M. 1964. The effects of tritium oxide on aquatic
organisms. U.S. Atom. Ener. Comm. NYO-3039-l: 18 p.
Nuclear Science Abstracts 1965, 19:4-5.
When guppies were kept in tritiated water, no toxic ef-
fects were observed; some fish lived in the tritiated water for 10
months and no long-term effects caused by build-up of tritium in
the fish were apparent, nor were there any genetic changes in the
third generation of fish living in tritiated water. It appeared
that the amount of tritium in the fish reached equilibrium with
that in the surrounding water. About 90% of the tritium in the
fish was in the body water and only 10% was actually incorporated
in the body tissues. It is thought that the turnrover of tritium
in the fish may have been rapid. Fish living for the longest period
in tritiated water contained less tritium than fish in some of the
other experiments; in this case, the amount of tritium in the water
was lower as a result of evaporation losses over a prolonged period.
479.
Skidmore, J.F. ].964. Toxicity of zinc compounds to aquatic
animals, with special reference to fish. Quarterly Rev.
Biology 29:227-248.
The toxicity of zinc compounds to aquatic animals is modi-
fied by several environmental factors: hardness, D.O., and temperature
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Resistance of aquatic animals to zinc varies with species. It is
modified by acclimatization and possibly age. Survival time is
inversely proportional to concentration of zinc. For these reasons
concentrations reported as lethal vary widely. The author feels
the action of zinc differs at different concentrations, and with
age at development. A bibliography of 75 references is included.
480.
Skidmore, J.F. 1965. Resistance of zinc sulfate to the zebra
fish (Brachydanio rerio Hamilton-Buchanan) at different
phases of its life history. Annals of Applied Biology 56:
47-53.
Eleven age groups of zebra fish were exposed to four con-
centrations of ZnS04, (5, 10, 20 and 40 mg/l) in soft water (CaC03
10 mg/l) at 250C. In all Zn concentrations newly-laid eggs sur-
vived longest. Survival decreased with age until hatching on fourth
day. Fish 4-13 days old had short survival; 40-day-old fish, and
adults (100 days old) survived slightly longer in highest concen-
trations. Many adults survived indefinitely. Threshold concentra-
tion of Zn was approximately 10 mg/l for adults and 1.3 mg/l for
40-day-old fish.
481.
Skidmore, J.F. 1967. Oxygen uptake by zebra fish (Brachydanio
rerio) of different ages in relation to zinc sulphate resis-
tance. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 24:1253-1267.
The routine rates of oxygen uptake in tap water of zebra
fish of 11 age groups were measured using a Warburg constant-volume
respirometer, and comparison of the rates of uptake per dry weight
of fish with the survival periods for zebra fish of similar age
groups exposed to zinc sulphate in a previous experiment showed a
curvilinear relation between rate of uptake and the reciprocal of
survival period. However, on dividing survival periods into minimal
survival periods independent of uptake rate, and reaction periods, a
rectilinear relation between rate of oxygen uptake and the reciprocal
of reaction period was found for a minimal survival period of 1.3
hours. Disregarding data for fish aged less than 5 days, survival
periods for a given concentration of zinc were related to the dry
weights of the fish.
482.
Skidmore, J.F. 1970. Respiration and osmoregulation in rain-
bow trout, with gills damaged by zinc sulphate. J. Exp.
BioI. 52:481-494.
Damage to the gill epithelium occurs when hatched fish are
killed rapidly by solutions of zinc sulphate. The rate of routine
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oxygen uptake by lightly sedated rainbow trout did not alter on expo-
sure to a rapidly toxic solution of zinc'sulphate. However, oxygen
utilization decreased seven-fold, gill ventilation volume increased
six-fold, heart rate was halved, "coughing rate" increased l8-fold
and the P02 of dorsal aortic blood declined. Unsedated trout usually
struggled on exposure to zinc. The survival time of struggling fish
was reduced and oxygen uptake increased, but other physiological
changes were similar to those in quiet fish. The respiratory changes
in poisoned trout were generally similar to changes observed earlier
in the same fish under hypoxia. The osmotic concentration and the
blood were largely unaffected by immobilization in zinc sulphate solu-
tion. Trout survived a four-fold increase in zinc concentration in
the blood by injection. The results suggest that epithelial damage
decreased the permeability of the gills to oxygen, and did not in-
crease their permeability to cations. Zinc was not a rapid internal
poison. Death was probably caused by tissue hypoxia, when maximum
gill ventilation was no longer sufficient to supply the oxygen needs
of the fish.
483.
Slowey, J.F., D. Hayes, B. Dixon, and D.W. Hood. 1965. Distri-
bution of gamma-emitting radionuclides in the Gulf of Mexico,
Occ. PubIs. Narragansett Marine Lab., Univ. of Rhode Island,
Kingston, R.I. 3:109-129.
Results are given of preliminary studies on distribution of
some gamma-emitting isotopes in the Gulf of Mexico. Manganese-54,
which is produced from neutron activation of iron, was found in all
samples of water examined and its concentration factor in algae was
higher than that of other isotopes. Particulate matter contained
higher concentrations of manganese-54 than of stable manganese-55,
suggesting that the chemical form in which manganese-54 reaches the
sea is different from that of stable manganese; it is probable that
some of the manganese-54 enters as manganese dioxide which is rela-
tively insoluble in sea water and would tend to form a colloid or
precipitate out as particulate matter. The studies also showed that
50% of zirconium-95-niobium-95, 66% of ruthenium-l06, and 33% of
cerium-144 occur in the soluble (including collodial) form even 18
months after the last nuclear test. Antimony-125 was found for the
first time in surface sea water, the concentration being higher near
the shore than in the open Gulf, but it was not found in organisms
or in particulate matter; it is thought that antimony may be washed
down from land surfaces and concentrated in the surface waters of
the ocean.
484.
Smith, M.W. 1939. Copper sulphate and rotenone as fish poi-
sons. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 69:141.
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Experiments on the destruction of fish in lakes in Nova
Scotia preparatory to stocking with trout are described. The toxi-
city of copper sulphate to fish varies with the species, the tempera-
ture and hardness of the water, and the content of organic matter.
A concentration of 3 mg/l copper sulphate proved effective for killing
fish, though some eels (Anguilla rostrata) and some killifish (Fundulus
diaphanus) survived. Most of the plankton and bottom fauna were des-
troyed, but higher plants such as Nymphaea, Juncus, etc. were not af-
fected. The algal populations were almost entirely destroyed. It was
about a year before plankton and aquatic insect larvae and nymphs re-
populated the lakes; molluscs did not reappear. Much of the copper
is apparently removed from solution in acid waters by combination with
organic matter. A considerable quantity of copper remains in the
water for some time but much of it probably combined and is not in a
toxic ionic form. In experiments on the toxicity of rotenone, derris
and cube powders containing 5% rotenone killed yearling trout in a
concentration of 0.2 mg/l at 50 and 200C. When applied to a small
acid lake 0.25 mg/l of derris containing 5% rotenone killed most
fish, though a few eels, lake chubs, and sticklebacks survived.
Storage of derris and cube powders in dry conditions for three years
did not affect their toxicity. The toxic action of rotenone increased
with increasing temperature. Concentrations of rotenone sufficient
to kill fish destroyed crustacea and may have affected some amphipods,
but other forms of plant and animal life appeared to be unaffected
under natural conditions. Caddis larvae were killed by prolonged
exposure to 0.5 and 1.0 mg/l derris under experimental conditions.
After a small lake had been treated with 1.33 mg/l derris the water
remained toxic to fish for about 1 month.
485.
Soyer, J. 1963. Contribution to the study of the biological
effects of mercury and silver in sea water. Vie et Milieu
14 (1):1-36.
Analyses have shown that low concentrations (0.15 ~g/l) of
silver are present in the surface waters of the Mediterranean. Ex-
periments on the effects of silver on the development of Echinoid
larvae showed that low concentrations, similar to those found in
sea water, are much more toxic than corresponding concentrations of
other heavy metals such as copper, zinc and mercury. However, the
sensitivity of different species to silver varied considerably.
Copper and silver appeared to act synergistically when both were
present. The importance of the effect of heavy metals in bottom
deposits on the benthic fauna is considered. It is possible that
silver also affects the development of plankton.
486.
Sparling, A.B. 1968.
and heavy metals.
Diss. Abstr. 1969,
Interactions between blue-green algae
Thesis, Washington University: 168 p.
29B: 2921-2922.
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Laboratory studies on the effect of certain heavy metals
(copper, zinc, cadmium, and nickel) in concentrations of 0.5-10 mg/l
on four genera of blue-green algae showed that low concentrations of
some metals stimulated growth, and serious growth inhibition occurred
only at concentrations higher than those usually used in algal control
programs. Each of the metals was adsorbed to a significant extent by
at least one species of alga, and in most cases where high levels of
adsorption occurred high growth inhibition was noted. The adsorption
of metals was too low to be of value in the treatment of industrial
waste waters, but was high enough to affect the overall metal balance
in natural waters, and it is pointed out that the application of heavy
metals such as copper sulphate may actually stimulate predominance of
blue-green algae over more desirable forms.
487.
Sprague, J.B. 1962. Effects of
zinc and copper on migration
Pub. Health Serv., Publ. No.
sublethal concentrations of
of Atlantic salmon. u.S.
999-WP-25: 332-333.
By using a counting fence in the Northwest Miramichi River
a consistant correlation was established between salmon movements and
the combined effects of Zn and Cu pollution and H20 hardness. Migra-
tion behavior was affected by concentrations of Zn and Cu below inci-
pient lethal levels. The toxicity indexes (actual concentration of
Zn or Cu as a fraction of the incipient lethal concentration) were
combined to give a single index. An index value of approximately 0.15
is the maximum safe level of Zn and Cu for the undisturbed migration
of salmon.
488.
Sprague, J.B. 1964. Avoidance of copper-zinc solutions by
young salmon in the laboratory. J. Water Poll. Cont.
Feder. 36:990-1004.
Laboratory tests have been made on the avoidance reactions
of Atlantic salmon parr to copper and zinc sulphates. The apparatus
used consisted of a plastic trough with water flowing into each end
and draining from the center; successively higher concentrations of
copper or zinc sulphate, or both, were produced periodically in ran-
domly chosen halves of the trough. Strength of avoidance was measured
by the relative length of periods spent by the fish in ordinary and
modified water, and by determining whether individual 'visits' in the
metal solutions were significantly shorter than those in ordinary water.
Threshold concentrations at which avoidance occurred were estimated to
be 2.3 ~g of copper and 53 ~g/l of zinc; for a mixture, the threshold
concentratlons were 0.42 ~g/l of copper plus 6.1 ~g/l of zinc. Expressed
as fractions of the incipient level these avoidance thresholds corres-
pond to 0.052 incipient lethal level for copper, 0.092 for zinc, and
0.021 for mixtures. However, the soft laboratory water used had a
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natural metal content of 2 ~g copper and 3 ~g zinc, so the actual
avoidance thresholds were slightly higher than these values. When
both metals were present, they exerted a slight synergistic effect
in causing avoidance. It was also found that when fish were re-
tested immediately; they did not avoid a significantly lower con-
centration of zinc in the second test. It is pointed out that
although these experiments show the minimum concentrations of copper
and zinc which young salmon avoid, in nature higher concentrations
might be tolerated without showing an avoidance response, since the
fish would be holding territories and pollution might extend over a
large section of water, giving the fish little choice of unpolluted
water.
489.
Sprague, J.B. 1964. Lethal concentrations of copper and zinc
for young Atlantic salmon. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 21:
17-26.
The toxicity of copper and zinc was tested using young At-
lantic salmon in soft water. When metal concentrations were plotted
against resistance times on logarithmic paper, a straight-line rela-
tion was demonstrated, but a sharp break indicated the incipient
lethal level (approximately 48 ~g/l for copper and 600 ~g/l for
zinc), below which the fish could survive indefinitely. Mixtures
of copper and zinc were twice as toxic as would be expected if the
effects were additive. Resistance times for zinc increased between
pH 7.9 and 9.3, probably owing to the decreased solubility of zinc;
it is thought that only dissolved zinc is toxic and suspended zinc
is without effect. The incipient lethal level was considerably
raised in tests on zinc carried out at SoC.
490.
Sprague, J.B. 1968. Avoidance reactions of rainbow trout to
zinc sulphate solutions. Water Research 2:367-372.
Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri Richardson) showed strong
avoidance reactions to sublethal concentrations of zinc sulphate.
The threshold avoidance level was 5.6 ~g/l of zinc added to labora-
tory water. This is only 0.01 of the lethal threshold concentration.
There were no significant differences in threshold avoidance levels
at 9.50 and l80C, nor when background of zinc in the water was in-
creased during acclimation and/or testing, from 3 ~g/l to 13 ~g/l.
491.
Sprague, J.B. and D.E. Drury. 1969. Avoidance reactions of
salmonid fishes to representative pollutants. Proc. 4th
Int. Conf. Water Pollut. Res., Prague: 169-179 and 181-
186.
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Studies are reported on the avoidance response of rainbow
trout and Atlantic salmon to alkylbenzene sulfonate (ABS) (in a com-
mercial detergent), phenol, chlorine, and effluents from kraft pulp
mills and their bleacheries. Results, given graphically, are dis-
cussed individually for each pollutant and compared with those for
zinc sulphate on the basis of "toxic units" (that is fractions of
the lethal threshold concentration). There were, however, no common
patterns of reaction and no common relations between the lethal level
and the avoidance response. For ABS, trout showed a threshold avoid-
ance level of 0.37 mg/l but at an almost lethal concentration of 10
mg/l the fish were confused and unable to show avoidance. Phenol
was not avoided at any concentration from 0.001 mg/l which is almost
lethal. Chlorine was avoided in concentrations of 0.01 mg/l, lethal
in 12 days, and 1.0 mg/l, rapidly lethal, but an intermediate lethal
concentration of 0.1 mg/l was preferred by the fish. Salmon showed
strong avoidance of kraft mill effluents at a lethal concentration
of 56% and moderate avoidance at concentrations from 10% dose to 10
mg/l, with no avoidance below this level. Similar avoidance res-
ponse to both types of kraft mill effluent suggests that the response
depends on products of the kraft cooking process rather than the
bleaching process. Only zinc sulphate produced a sharp and consistent
avoidance reaction at sub-lethal concentrations. The results are dis-
cussed in relation to field situations.
492.
Sprague, J.B., P.F. Elson, and R.L. Saunders. 1965. Sub-lethal
copper-zinc pollution in a salmon river -- a field and labo-
ratory study. Int. J. Air Water Pollut. 9:531-543.
The authors summarize laboratory and field studies on the
effect of copper and zinc pollution of the Northwest Miramichi River,
N.B. on salmon. Observations on the river have shown that each year
young salmon populations are severely depressed downstream from the
entry of the polluted tributary; this is attributed to a combination
of two factors: the low numbers of eggs brought in by adults, and
the poor survival to underyearlings and parr. Lethal or near-lethal
periods of pollution have occurred most years, while young salmon
must live successfully in the river for three successive years. The
invertebrate fauna in the river also show evidence of pollution, and
their sensitivity to copper and zinc has been used as an index of the
degree of pollution.
493.
Sprague, J.B., P.F. Elson, and R.L. Saunders. 1965. Sublethal
copper-zinc pollution in a salmon river -- a field and labo-
ratory study. 2nd International Conference on Water Pollu-
tion Research, Tokyo, 1964. 1:61-82 and 99-102.
A summary of studies on the effect of copper-zinc pollution
on salmon was given. Similar studies on aquatic macro-invertebrates
-209-
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suggest that mayflies, which are approximately equal to salmon in
their sensitivity to copper-zinc pollution, could be used to monitor
the severity of such pollution, but caddisflies and certain midges
are at least 1.5 times more resistant than mayflies and salmon.
In discussion that followed, it was noted that copper and
zinc caused a green color in oysters (the minimal concentration of
copper causing this phenomenon was concluded to be about 20 Wg/l);
that self-purification was inhibited by concentrations exceeding
0.05 m/gl cuprous copper and 0.05 mg/l zinc, and nitrification was
inhibited by 1.0 mg/l cuprous copper and 5.6 mg/l zinc. The lethal
levels were found to be 250 mg/l copper and 200 mg/l zinc for Escherichia
coli, 0.04 mg/l copper and 12.0 mg/l zinc for Daphnia and 0.15
mg/l copper and 15 mg/l zinc for minnows. The benthic fauna was almost
completely destroyed when concentrations of 0.03 mg/l cuprous copper
and 1.1 mg/l zinc were present at the same time. Also, when copper
and zinc (or cadmium) were present together the lethal effect on
salmon, trout, and roach was increased fivefold, but other heavy
metal salts showed only an additive lethal effect. It was concluded
that the maximal permissible concentration of cuprous copper in streams
ranges between 0.1 mg/l and 0.25 mg/l at a temperature of 10oC; in
stagnant waters, a concentration of 0.03 mg/l cuprous copper may
cause damage. The maximal permissible concentration of zinc depends
on the hardness of the water, but for fish in water of average hardness
it is 3-4 mg/l; lower organisms are less sensitive and many insect
larvae, including Diptera, can tolerate zinc in concentrations up to
60 mg/l. Tests with Daphnia showed that the simultaneous presence
of copper, zinc, and nickel salts does not necessarily increase the
lethal effect, but is partly compensatory. Tables are included sum-
marizing the results of this work and also the data (including some
not widely known) obtained by previous workers on the toxic concen-
trations of copper and zinc for fish and other aquatic organisms.
494.
Sprague, J.B. and B.A. Ramsey. 1965. Lethal levels of mixed
copper-zinc solutions for juvenile salmon. J. Fish. Res.
Bd. Canada 22:425-432.
Observations are reported on the threshold or incipient
lethal levels of mixtures of copper and zinc (as their sulphates).
With salmon in very soft water (total hardness 14 mg/l) the inci-
pient lethal levels were 32 Wg/l for copper and 420 Wg/l for zinc.
The concentration of the toxic substance was expressed in "toxic
units" by calculating the chemical concentration as a proportion
of the incipient lethal level and assigning a value of one toxic
unit to the incipient lethal level. Experiments showed that the
incipient lethal level of a mixture was reached when the sum of the
toxic units for the individual metals reached unity, confirming that
the effects of copper and zinc are additive. When the concentrations
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of the metals were plotted as toxic units the resistance times of
young salmon were almost identical when the fish were exposed to
lethal concentrations of copper and zinc separately, but lethal
concentrations of mixtures of these two metals acted two or three
times more rapidly than the individual metals.
495.
Sprague, J.B. and R.L. Saunders. 1963. Avoidance of sub-
lethal mining pollution by Atlantic salmon. Proc. 10th
Ontario Ind. Waste Conf.: 221-236.
Studies were carried out on the effects of copper-zinc
pollution on the movement of salmon in the Northwest Miramichi
river. Results were compared with data obtained in laboratory
studies, and confirm that Atlantic salmon can detect copper and
zinc at very low concentrations, of less than 10% of the incipient
lethal levels. The two metals are at least additive in their ef-
fects on fish, and there may be a synergistic effect under some
circumstances. The degree of pollution by copper and zinc, as
regards their effects on fish, can be expressed as a single number
which can be easily calculated. The migration of Atlantic salmon
may be disturbed if the copper-zinc pollution exceeds 35-45% of the
incipient lethal level.
496.
Sreenivasan, A. and R.S. Raj.
fish. Curro Sci. 32:363.
1963.
Toxicity of zinc to
As effluents from the manufacture of viscose rayon con-
tain zinc sulphate, experiments were carried out to determine the
effect of zinc salts on fish, using as test animals the Bangkok and
Ooty strains of Cyprinus carpio, Tilapia mossambica, and Danio sp.
For the Bangkok strain of Cyprinus, in water of pH 7.0-7.2, with a
methyl-orange alkalinity of 46 mg/l, temperature of 280-30oC, and a
dissolved oxygen concentration of 8.8 mg/l, the 48-hour lethal con-
centration (LClOO) of zinc sulphate was 12-15 mg/l, and the TLm was
10-12 mg/l. For Danio sp., the TLm of zinc sulphate was 10 mg/l.
Addition of 200 mg/l calcium chloride reduced the toxicity of zinc
sulphate considerably, but 200 mg/l zinc sulphate had no toxic ef-
fect on the Ooty strain of Cyprinus. At pH 5.0 a 60% mortality oc-
curred, and similar effects were observed with the Bangkok strain.
In experiments with zinc chloride, the TLm for Tilapia was 10-15
mg/l and the LClOO was 20-22 mg/l when the pH value of the water
was 7.1-7.5, the alkalinity 33.6-48.8 mg/l, temperature 25.8°-28.50C,
and the dissolved-oyxgen concentration of 5.6-8.2 mg/l. Calcium
carbonate in concentrations of 100-200 mg/l did not reduce the
toxicity of zinc chloride to Tilapia, but 200 ppm calcium chloride
reduced the toxicity by 75%. An increase in dissolved-oxygen concen-
tration to 12.5 mg/l also reduced the mortality due to zinc chloride
by 60%.
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497.
Starr, T.J. and M.E. Jones. 1957.
the growth of bacteria isolated
Limnol. Oceanogr. 2:33-36.
The effect of copper on
from marine environments.
The use of copper may be practical to prevent heavy fish
mortalities associated with blooms of Gymnodinium brevis. However
this type of control requires some knowledge of the effect that
relatively high concentrations of copper may have on the marine com-
munity as a whole. Experiments were therefore made on the effect of
copper on 145 marine bacteria. All the bacteria grew in a medium
containing copper in concentrations of 0.25 mg/l. This concentra-
tion was compared with the in vivo (0.2 mg/l) and in vitro (0.1 mg/l)
lethal doses of copper for Gymnodinium brevis. In addition, the
growth of about 4% of the bacteria was stimulated by this concentra-
tion of copper, probably because of increased pigment production.
498.
Strogonov, A.A.
caesium-137
9:604-607.
and E.P. Lisachenko. 1969. Accumulation of
in hyponeuston of the Black sea. Radiobiologiya
Biol. Abstr., 1970, 51:2314.
It was found that there were marked seasonal variations in
the coefficients of accumulation and concentration of cesium-137 by
hyponeuston from the Black Sea. The greatest accumulation coefficients
(up to 2000) were observed in samples containing a large amount of
organic detritus and with a predominance of planktohyponeuston.
Comparison of the coefficients for stable and ratioactive cesium
showed that there is complete exchange between the two isotopes in
the sea water and in the hyponeuston.
499.
Stubbings, H.G. 1959. Abnormal development of the basis in
Balanus amphitrite var. stutsburi Darwin. Nature 183:
1282.
Scalloped bases were developed when barnacles attached to
a toxic metal surface, such as copper sheathing on ships. There
were large amounts of copper salts in the deformed shells.
500.
Stundl, K. 1955. The effects of waste waters from the iron
industry and mining on Styrian waters. Ost. Wasserw. 7:
75-82.
The rivers Mur and Mlirz and their tributaries in Styria
are heavily polluted with industrial waste waters, with most of the
industrial plants of the district situated in the valleys of these
rivers. The author deals with two types of waste waters, those from
the iron industry and those from mining. Figures are given for the
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suspended matter and iron added to a tributary of the Mur by foundry
waste waters. The most damaging constituent is fine slag which does
not settle in the settling pits and 'vhose sharp grains cause damage
in the turbines of power works down-stream. Where suspended matter
settles in the stream, the banks and bed are rendered almost sterile.
Pickling waste waters also render the stream more or less sterile and
at low flow may cause death of fish; this is due less to the acidity
than to P!ecipitation of iron hydroxide on eggs and gills of fish.
Phenol in gas works waste waters may also cause death of fish; evapora-
tion of such waste waters is practised in some works. The iron industry
has increased rapidly in the valley of the Mlirz. The effect of depo-
sition of iron on the fauna of various tributaries is described and
an account is given of biological and chemical examination of the
water of the Mlirz in 1953. With the stoppage of industry after the
war the streams rapidly regained their natural condition and the sub-
sequent deterioration was slower than the recovery. Methods of treat-
ment of pickling waste waters are briefly described. Waste waters
from mining also playa large part in the pollution. Waste waters
from treatment of iron ore have a high content of suspended matter
and cause turbidity over long stretches. Sedimentation before dis-
charge would remove a large proportion of this matter. The effect
of coal mining waste waters, especially coal washing water with its
high content of suspended matter, on some of the streams is des-
cribed.
501.
Summerfelt, T.C. and W.M. Lewis.
sunfish by certain chemicals.
39:2030-2038.
1967. Repulsion of green
J. Wat. Poll. Cont. Fed.
The repelling ability of 40 different chemicals for fish
was studied. The green sunfish was used as test fish because it is
not a schooling species. Five fish were used for each trial. Most
of the chemicals were screened at a concentration of 20 mg/l. Of
the 40 chemicals screened, 32 failed to repel test fish at the con-
centrations used; among these was lead nitrate at test concentrations
of 10, 20 and 40 mg/l, but it was avoided by fish.
502.
Surber, E.W. 1959. Cricotopus bicinctus, a midge fly resistant
to electroplating wastes. Trans. Amer. Fish Soc. 88:111-116.
In polluted stretches of Michigan rivers, larvae of the
midge fly Cricotopus bicinctus have been found to be resistant to
plating waste waters containing hexavalent chromium, cyanide and
copper, and to low concentrations of oxygen. This insect survived
in the Clinton River, and matured in the presence of concentrations
of 25 mg/l chromium, 2.2 mg/l copper, and 3.2 mg/l cyanide. In
streams receiving such plating wastes, the only other common bottom
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invertebrates were the annelids, Limnodrilus and Tubifex, and a
midge tentatively identified as a species of Pentapedilum.
503.
Swift, E. and W.R. Taylor. 1960.
cium-45 by Fucus vesiculosus.
stract of paper presented at a
Laboratory, Woods Hole, Mass.,
Uptake and release of cal-
Biol. Bull. 119:342. Ab-
meeting of the Marine Biological
August-September, 1960.
Experiments were conducted on uptake of calcium-45 by whole
young thalli of Fucus vesiculosus incubated in sea water at 220C and
under constant illumination. The algae took up radio-calcium rapidly,
most of the uptake occurring in the first hour. The isotope did not
appear to be concentrated, as the amount of isotope taken up was of
the order of magnitude that would be expected if the radio-calcium in
the sea water came into equilibrium with the calcium in the algae.
Subsequently the algae were transferred to sea water to which no iso-
tope had been added, and 90% of the radio-calcium was released from
the algae in the first two hours. These results indicate that there
is a rapid turnover of calcium by Fucus vesiculosus.
504.
Syazuki, K. 1964. Studies on the toxic effects of industrial
wastes on fish and shellfish. J. Schimonoseki ColI. Fish.
13: 157- 211.
Laboratory experiments have been carried out on the effects
of various pollutants on marine fish (goby, crescent perch, and gray
mullet) and shellfish kept in running water in a gradient tank, which
is described. It was found that lethal concentrations were lower
under these conditions than in static water. With the exception of
phenol and potassium cyanide, the "avoidance concentrations" for the
test fish were lower than the toxic concentrations. Over the tempera-
ture range 100-260C the relation between oxygen consumption and tempera-
ture was linear, but above 27°C oxygen consumption increased markedly
and became unstable. When the concentrations of dissolved oxygen
exceeded 6 ppm the rate of uptake of oxygen was constant, but in-
creased with decrease in oxygen concentration to about 2 mg/l, below
which the rate of oxygen uptake fell sharply. With the goby the rate
of oxygen uptake decreased in the presence of certain concentrations
of pollutants but increased again rapidly when the fish were trans-
ferred to clean water; exposure to pollutants also reduced the ap-
petite of the goby. With shellfish the rate of oxygen uptake in-
creased linearly with increase in water temperature from 120 to 260C
but decreased at a temperature of 300C; oxygen uptake was reduced in
diluted sea water and increased again when the shellfish were trans-
ferred to full-strength sea water. In the presence of pollutants the
shellfish either closed their shells or else the rate of oxygen uptake
became abnormal, decreasing in the presence of sulphuric acid, sodium
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hydroxide, copper sulphate and zinc sulphate, and increasing in the
presence of potassium cyanide, sodium sulphide, and phenol.
505.
Sylvester, R.O., R.T. Oglesby, D.A. Carlson, and R.F. Christman.
1967. Factors involved in the location and operation of an
aluminum reduction plant. Proc. 22nd Ind. Waste Conf. Purdue
Univ., Engng. Extn. Ser. No/29:44l-454.
Before and after the aluminum ore processing plant of Intalco
Aluminum Corporation on the coast of Washington began operation, a
study was made of conditions in Georgia Strait to which the waste
waters are discharged. The sources and general characteristics of
the waste waters were determined. It was found that strong tidal
currents occur in the area, usually flowing parallel to the shore.
The waste waters had a relatively high content of non-filterable
solids and a high fluoride content; the size of the suspended particles
varied considerably so that some samples of the waste waters showed
significant sedimentation in sea water while the settling characteristics
of other samples were poor. The simulated effluent was not found to be
toxic to indigenous marine organisms in the concentrations anticipated
in the vicinity of the outfall.
506.
Tabata, K. 1969. Studies on the toxicity of heavy metals to
aquatic animals and the factors to decrease the toxicity --
I. On the formation and the toxicity of precipitate of
heavy metals. Bull. Tokai Fish. Res. Lab., Tokyo, No.
58:203-214. (In Japanese with English abstract).
Some experiments were done with regard to solubility of
Zn2+ added to environmental water, the factors controlling it, and
the toxicity of fine precipitates of heavy metals. If heavy metals
precipitate in environmental water, they will not harm aquatic animals.
However, Zn precipitate in sea water was toxic to Mytilus edulis.
While metals were toxic in solution, the amount of C032- or OH-, in
the water affected the toxicity significantly- Dissolved Sn4+, Cr3+,
A13+, and Fe3+ were not acutely toxic to aquatic animals within the
pH range shown in water quality criteria.
507.
Tabata, K. 1969. Studies on the toxicity of heavy metals to
aquatic animals and the factors to decrease the toxicity --
II. The antagonistic action of hardness components in water
on the toxicity of heavy metal ions. Bull. Tokai Fish. Res.
Lab., Tokyo, No. 58:215-232. (In Japanese with English ab-
stract).
The TLm of metal ions increased almost 2.8 + 0.6 fold when
hardness in water increased eight fold by addition of CaC12 and MgS04.
-215-
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This applies to 2n2+, Cu2+, Ni2+, C02+, or Cd2+ as heavy metal ions,
with Japanese killifish, carp, rainbow trout or daphnia as test
animals and more than 24 hours test duration. The toxicity of Hg2+
or Cu2+ was not affected by hardness. The toxicity of heavy metal
ions was affected slightly by sodium ions.
508.
Tabata, K. 1969. Studies on the toxicity of heavy metals to
aquatic animals and the factors to decrease the toxicity --
IV. On the relation between the toxicity of heavy metals
and the quality of environmental water. Bull. Tokai Fish.
Res. Lab., No. 58:243-253. (In Japanese with English ab-
stract) .
The 24 hr TLrn of 2n2+ to daphnia in water samples collected
from e freshwater areas was determined. It 1.;ras found that there is
generally a relationship between the toxicity of heavy metals and
water quality. The difference in the toxicity of heavy metal ions
in various freshwater areas of the world was calculated on the basis
of this relationship. The toxicity of heavy metal ions exhibited in
the average quality of Japanese freshwater increased about 2.5 fold
in comparison with that in North America. Fifty important rivers and
lakes in Japan were classified into 6 groups according to hardness,
and the difference in the toxicity of heavy metal ions among these
groups was estimated.
509.
Tabata, K. and K. Nishikawa. 1969. Studies on the toxicity
of heavy metals to aquatic animals and the factors to de-
crease the toxicity -- V. A trial to decrease the toxicity
of heavy metal ions by the addition of complexing agents.
Bull. Tokai Fish. Res. Lab., Tokyo, No. 58:255-264. (In
Japanese with English abstract).
Investigation was made to determine whether the counter-
action of complexing agents on the toxicity of heavy metal ions could
be applied to decrease the toxicity of industrial wastes. The ad-
dition of sodium citrate or EDTA to copper mine waste, and sodium
thiosulfate to mercury pesticide resulted in reduction of toxicity.
Cu-EDTA complex was more stable against bacterial decomposition than
was Cu-citrate. Cu complexed with thiosulfate or citrate accumulated
in the body of aquatic animals, while Cu complexed with EDTA accumulated
only slightly. Such removal of toxicity might be suited to the secondary
purification of industrial wastes in which a small quantity ot toxic
heavy metals remained after customary purification. A disadvantage of
EDTA as a complexing agent is its high cost. The addition of EDT A to
waste in which a small quantity of Cu2+ remained might be effective
for the prevention of green color in oyster.
- 216-
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510.
Tagatz, M.E. 1961.
shad to changes
Sd. Rept. 388:
Tolerance of striped bass and American
of temperature and salinity. USFWS Spec.
8 p.
Abrupt transfer was made between fresh and salt water of
different temperatures on adult and juvenile shad and bass. Gradual
changes were also made. Temperatures ranged from 7 to 270e and
salinity from 0 0/00 to 35 0/00. Adult bass were tolerant to ab-
rupt changes between salt and fresh water at differences in tempera-
ture between 7 and 27°e. Juvenile bass survived abrupt transfers
between salt and fresh in 13 to 2loe range but were not tolerant to
transfers from fresh water at these temperatures to salt water of 7oe.
Adult shad survived abrupt changes from fresh to salt water up to 90e
difference in temperature. They displayed some tolerance to abrupt
transfers from salt to fresh water up to 5.50e difference, but showed
no tolerance at a 140e temperature change. Juvenile shad survived
abrupt changes from salt to fresh water at temperature differences
over the range 7 to 21°C. They were not tolerant to abrupt changes
from fresh to salt water at temperature differences over the 7 to 2loe
range. In transfers conducted within fresh water, juvenile bass
mortality occurred only in changes from water of 2loe or l30e to water
of 70C. Juvenile shad mortality occurred in all tests where tempera-
ture decrease was more than 3.goC. However, mortality was less in
tests conducted within fresh water than in tests conducted from fresh
to salt water over identical temperature differences, for both species.
No mortality of either species (juveniles) resulted from fresh water
transfers at an increase in temperature over the 7 to 2loe range.
Juvenile bass and shad were able to acclimate under certain conditions
to gradual changes in temperature or salinity over most ranges not
tolerated in abrupt transfers.
511.
Tagatz, M.E. 1969. Some relations of temperature acclimation
and salinity to thermal tolerance of the blue crab, eal-
linectes sapidus. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 98:713-716.
Crabs were less tolerant to temperature extremes at low
salinity, and at both low (6.8 0/00) and high (34 0/00) salinities
the upper and lower tolerance limits increased as the acclimation
temperature increased. Limits for adults and juveniles were similar.
512.
Tarzwell, e.M. and e. Henderson. 1960. Toxicity of less com-
mon metals to fishes. Industr. Wastes 5:12,
Data are tabulated showing the toxicity of fish to several
of the less common metals, expressed as the 96-hour TLm value, Beryl-
lium was found to be the most toxic of the less common metals studied,
having a 96-hour TLm value as low as 0.2 mg/l in very soft water;
- 217-
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uranium was also relatively toxic with a 96-hour TLm value of about
3 mg/l in soft water; and the TLm values of the other less common
metals tested ranged from 5-15 mg/l. For all these metals, the TLm
values in hard water were 10-100 times greater than those obtained
on soft water, this lower toxicity probably being due to a lower
solubility. It has been found that the toxicity to fish of many
trade waste waters depends largely on the pH value, alkalinity, and
hardness of the receiving water, and preliminary studies have indi-
cated that a useful graphical relationship can be established satis-
factorily for some materials.
513.
Taylor, W.R. and E.P. Odum. 1960. Uptake of iron-59 by
marine benthic algae. Biol. Bull. 119:343. Abstract of
paper presented at a meeting of the Marine Biological
Laboratory, Woods Hole, Mass., August-September, 1960.
Preliminary experiments have been made on the uptake of
iron-59 from sea water by marine benthic algae. The isotope was
taken up rapidly by Ceramium rubrum and Enteromorpha intestinalis,
and there was little loss of the isotope when the algae were re-
moved from the radioactive medium and placed in fresh sea water.
The concentration factor was estimated roughly to be 100-300. To
prevent adsorption of the isotope in the walls of the container,
the chelating agent ethylenediaminetetra-acetic acid was added to
the medium; in experiments lasting 3-4 hours both the amount and
rate of uptake were less in the presence of EDTA. In an experi-
ment with Fucus it was found that the radioactivity in the medium
decreased at a rate less than that in a blank containing no algae,
it is suggested that Fucus may release a chelating substance into
the medium.
514.
Telitchenko, M.M. 1961. Accumulation of radioactive isotopes
of strontium and yttrium by mirror carp. Rybn. Khozy. 5:
40-43.
Results are given of studies on the uptake of radioactive
strontium-yttrium by various tissues and organs of mirror carp. The
isotopes were found to accumulate in tissues, such as bones and scales,
which contain a large amount of calcium. Since the muscles and inter-
muscular bones are used as food, the radioactivity of the edible por-
tion of the fish is considerably increased. Saturation of the organs
and tissues with strontium-yttrium occurs after about three months if
the contamination of the water does not exceed the natural strontium
concentration of fresh wat2r (0.1 mg/l); at this time the radioactivity
of the carp meat approaches the activity of the surrounding medium.
-2l8~
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515.
Templeton, W.L. 1965. Ecological
radioactive wastes to the sea.
trial Society. A symposium of
Society, Swansea, 13-16, April
aspects of the disposal of
In Ecology and the Indus-
the British Ecological
1964: 65-97.
From the literature, the author reviews various aspects
of marine disposal of radioactive wastes, with reference to the
various sources of radioactivity in sea water, behavior of radio-
nuclides in the sea, uptake of radionuclides by marine organisms,
estimation of maximum permissible concentrations, effects of radia-
tion on marine organisms, and studies on the distribution of effluent
from Windscale discharged to the Irish Sea.
516.
Teresi, J.D. and C.L. Newcombe. 1966. An evaluation of hazards
from immersion of plutonium in the marine environment. Proc.
1st Int. Congr. Radiat. Prot: 673-680.
Studies were made to evaluate the potential hazards from the
examination of the Californian coastal environment with plutonium fol-
lowing an instantaneous release upon immersion. The analysis considered
the ocean environment at those distances from shore where the depth was
about 10 m; at greater depths the hazard is expected to be less. The
hazards were evaluated on the basis of the possible incorporation of
plutonium into marine food chains. Using published concentration
factors for fish and marine algae, the expected body burdens resulting
from ingestion of fish, agar, algin, and Porphyra were calculated, on
the basis of conservative assumptions, and compared with the recommended
permissible body-burden for large populations. Using various mathematical
diffusion models, details of which are given in an appendix, the dif-
fusion parameters were calculated for instantaneous release of plutonium
and were used to predict the area of the sea which would become con-
taminated with a hazardous concentration of plutonium and the duration
of the hazardous concentration.
517.
Teulon, F. and C. Simeon.
products on freshwater
Rappt. CeaR2938: 42 p.
1966.
fish.
Toxicological tests of chemical
Comm. Energie At. (France)
Two species of carp (f. carassius and f.
in water containing various concentrations of lead
concentration was 9.6 g/l.
auratus) were placed
(Pb). The tolerated
518.
Thomas, M.L.H. and G.N. White. 1969. Mass mortality of estuarine
fauna at Bideford, P.E.I. associated with abnormally low salini-
ties. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can, 26:701-704.
-219-
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Following a gale in May 1967, a deep layer of fresh water
occurred in the Bideford River, Prince Edward Island, and salinities
of less than one part per thousand were found at depths of 3 m in
the inner part of the estuary. The reduced salinity caused exten-
sive mortality of a variety of fauna, including Anguilla rostrata,
Asterias vulgaris, Macoma balthica, Tellina agilis, and Yoldia limatula
Mortalities of A. rostrata and M. balthica, which are typical of
brackish waters~ could not be easily explained. A rising tempera-
ture, increasing the activities of species, as well as lack of time
for acclimation to lower salinities, may have contributed to many
cases of mortality.
519,
Thomas, W.H., D.W. Lear and F.T. Haxo. 1962.
marine dinoflagellate, Gonyaulax polyedra,
formed during an underwater nuclear test.
7 (Supplement): LXVI-LXXI.
Uptake by the
of radioactivity
Limnol. Oceanog.
After explosion of the test device, samples of radioactive
sea water were collected near the test site at a depth of 125 m, and
used for the culture of the coastal dinoflagellate, Gonyaulax polyedra.
It was found that appreciable amounts of radioactivity were taken up
by the organism: such activity could be transferred to the next
trophic level and might eventually be incorporated into fish or other
marine resources important to man. It is stressed however, that this
organism is not an oceanic but a coastal species, and represents only
part of the marine phytoplankton; other representative species of
diatoms or nannoplankton might behave differently. Gamma-energy
spectra suggested that Gonyaulax fractionated the mixture of radio-
active isotopes, not all the isotopes being taken up to the same
extent. Formation of precipitate in the samples may have been the
result of the addition of phosphate to the solution. If this is the
case similar precipitates might be formed when radioactive materials
in surface water containing low amounts of phosphate diffuse into
deeper water containing more phosphate; such a process might transfer
some radioactivity to bottom sediments.
520.
Thumann, M.E. 1941. The effect of waste waters containing ar-
senic on fish and crabs. Angew. Chern. 54:499.
Author reports on the effect of waste waters containing
arsenic on several kinds of fish and on crabs. The animals were
placed in waste waters diluted to give concentrations of arsenic
varying from 0.35 to 3.1 mg/l. The affected fish sometimes became
agitated, lost their equilibrium and overturned. Many died in con-
centrations greater than 1.1 mg/l. The effect of arsenic did not
appear to be influenced by changes in temperature. The sensitivity
to arsenic decreased in the order: perch, roach, carp, and eels,
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crabs, though there was much variation in the behavior of indivi-
duals of each species. The content of arsenic in dead fish was
determined; the concentrations of arsenic per kg wet weight were
higher in less sensitive genera than in more sensitive genera. The
contents of arsenic were not sufficiently great to make the fish
poisonous if used for human consumption.
521.
Ting, R.Y. and R. deVega. 1969. The nature of the distribu-
tion of trace elements in longnose anchovy (Anchoa lampro-
taenia Hildebrand), Atlantic thread herring (Opisthonema
oglinum LaSueur), and alga (Udontea flabellum Lamouroux).
Proc. 2nd Nat. Symp. on Radioecology U.S.A.E.C. Conf.
670503: 527-534.
Trace amounts of the elements copper, iron, and zinc were
determined in longnose anchovy (Anchoa lamprotaenia) and in alga
(Udotea flabellum) from La Parguers and Joyuda, Peurto Rico. Levels
of cobalt, copper, iron, manganese, nickel, and zinc in Atlantic
thread herring (Opisthonema oglinum) from La Parguera, Puerto Rico,
were also determined. Analyses were accomplished with atomic absorp-
tion spectroscopy. Concentrations of the elements in individuals of
the same species sampled within the same locality at the same time
did not approximate a normal distribution. However, the distributions
of the log-transformed concentrations closely approximated a normal
curve in most cases.
522.
Tiniofeeva, N.A. and N.V. Kulikov. 1967. The role of fresh-
water plants in accumulation of strontium-90 and its distri-
bution over the components of reservoir. Proe. Int. Symp.
Radioecol. Concent. Process, 1966, Stockholm: 835-841.
The accumulation of strontium-90 (supplied as the chloride)
was studied in freshwater plants found frequently in lakes of the
southern and middle Ural, using a laboratory aquaria containing water
and washed sand from the B. Miassova lake. Coefficients of accumula-
tion are tabulated for 32 species of plant, the highest values being
1,910 for Cladophora fracta and 1,070 for Potamogeton compressus.
The coefficients of accumulation were much greater for the 12 other
isotopes which were studied. In some species of plants which had
been killed by heating, the coefficient of accumulation of strontium-
90 was considerably higher than that for the living plants, thus
indicating the essential role of detritus in determining the fate
of radioactive strontium in a reservoir. Other experiments showed
that the coefficients of accumulation of strontium-90 were inversely
related to the concentrations of stable isotopes of strontium, cal-
cium, and magnesium in the water but were independent of a specific
radioactivity of the solution, over a wide range. Experiments with
-221-
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Elodea canadensis as the test plant and different concentrations of
stable calcium in the water confirmed that with increasing concen-
trations of calcium there was a considerable reduction in the
amounts of strontium-90 accumulated by the plants and the sand,
while increased concentrations remained in the water. It is con-
cluded that there may be at least two probable processes involved
in the accumulation of strontium-90 in freshwater plants, one being
reversible, of the ion-exchange type, and the other irreversible,
based on the co-deposition of strontium and calcium carbonates.
523.
Todd, M.E. and P.A. Dehnel. 1960. Effect of temperature and
salinity on heat tolerance in two grapsoid crabs, Hemi-
grapsus nudus and Hemigrapsus oregonesis. BioI. Bull.
118:150-172.
Experiments were made on the effect of acclimatization to
various combinations of temperature and salinity on the tolerance
to heat of two species of grapsoid crabs. Acclimatization to a high
temperature generally increased the resistance to lethal tempera-
tures, while acclimatization to low salinities generally decreased
it. The greatest resistance to high temperatures occurred in crabs
acclimatized to high temperature and high salinity. The tolerance
of crabs to high temperatures was adversely affected by moulting
during the experiment, and by crowding. Smaller animals appeared
to be slightly more resistant.
524.
Townsley, S.J. 1967. The concentration of strontium-90 and
other nuclides of strontium in fish. Proc. Int. Symp.
Radioecol. Concent. Process, 1966, Stockholm: 867-878.
Experiments were carried out in aquaria to determine the
rates of accumulation of three nuclides of strontium (strontium-85,
-89, and -90) by the euryhaline, cichlid, teleost Tilapia mossambica,
after acclimation to fresh or sea water. Results obtained during
chronic exposure periods, with sampling at intervals of 1, 2, 4, 8,
and 16 weeks, are given graphically in terms of concentration ratios.
In fresh water, with concentrations of up to 100 ~c/l of isotope,
there was no significant difference in the concentration ratios
relative to the medium, and the accumulation and deposition of stron-
tium isotopes by Tilapia was therefore proportional to the concen-
tration in the medium, but at concentrations higher than 200 ~c,
the concentration ratios were reduced significantly for all three
isotopes. Mortalities of Tilapia were recorded for all three nuclides
at concentrations in the fresh water ranging from 65 to 240 ~c/l,
with a significant increase in mortality rates at concentrations
above 100 ~c/l; 50% mortality occurred when the body burden was 0.8-
1.0 ~c per g fresh weight. No such radio-sensitivity or mortality
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was observed with sea-water-adapted Tilapia. In sea water the con-
centration ratios were the same for all three nuclides and at all
test concentrations; the body burden in sea water with concentra-
tions up to 100 wcll was 2-5 times less than that in fresh water
with the same concentration and the same period of exposure. The
concentration of radioactive strontium in the fish reached equili-
brium with the medium after two weeks in sea water but only after
more than 30 days in fresh water.
525.
Townsley, S.J., R.E. Johannes, and B.T. Sather. 1962. The
accumulation of radioactive isotopes by tropical marine
organisms. Annual Report 1961-62. u.S. Atom. Ener. Comm.
TID-19l04: 52 p.
Results are given of studies on the uptake, tissue distri-
bution, and elimination of radioactive isotopes by marine organisms.
Specifically, the metabolism of strontium-85, -89, and -90, yttrium-
90 and -91 and calcium-45 by tuna and Tilapia; the adsorption and
excretion of chromium-51 by crabs; the effect of salinity on accumu-
lation and loss of chromium-51 by various organisms; and the effect
of the benthic amphipod Lembos intermedius, on the availability of
phosphorus to the other trophic levels in an artificial marine
ecological system, using inorganic phosphate labelled with phosphorus'
32 as tracer.
526.
Townsley, S.J., D.F. Reid, and W.T. Ego. 1962. The accumula-
tion of radioactive isotopes by tropical marine organisms.
Annual Report 1960-61. u.S. Atom. Ener. Comm. TID 14420:
36 p.
The results of studies on the uptake of radioactivity by
different types of marine organisms are reported. The effect of
light and enzyme inhibitors on the uptake of phosphorus-32 and
zinc-65 by the mushroom coral, Fungia scutaria, was studied, and
preliminary experiments were carried out on the ability of this
coral to remove dissolved organic matter (glucose) labelled with
carbon-14. The uptake of chromium-51 from sea water by the alga,
Ulva lactuca, and the eggs of the ascidian, Pyura momus, was also
investigated.
527.
Trama, F.B. 1954. The acute toxicity of copper to the common
bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque). Notulae Naturae
257:13 p.
The acute toxicity of copper depends on the amount of free
copper present in the water. This amount is governed by the pH of
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the water; i.e. below pH 5.3 all the copper is in solution; as the
pH increases the copper salts precipitate.
tion of
This is
tion.
Survival curves at 96 hours with respect to the concentra-
copper were estimated at 0.74 mg/l (0.9 mg/l for 48 h TLm).
for a 50% kill on the basis of unprecipitated copper in solu-
The toxicity of copper salts is due to the amounts of Cu
present and is independent of the anion (viz CuC12.2H20; CuS04.5H20).
In discussion that followed it was noted that 3.0 mg/l of
CuS04'5H20 (ca 0.75 mg/l Cu) produces almost 100% fish kill in four
acid lakes in Nova Scotia and that 0.5 mg/l of CuS04'5H20 is definitely
toxic to growing trout (ca 0.125 mg/l Cu).
528.
Trama, F.B. 1954. The acute toxicity of some common salts of
sodium, potassium, and calcium to the common bluegill
(Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque). Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.
Philad. 106:185-205.
The effects of the chlorides, sulphates, and nitrates of
sodium, potassium, and calcium upon the common bluegill were tested
for a 96-hour period at 20oC. The 96-hour median toxicity level,
in g/l, was 19.9 for sodium chloride, 13.5 for sodium sulphate, 12.
for sodium nitrate, 2. for potassium chloride, 3.55 for potassium
sulphate, 3. for potassium nitrate, 10.6 for calcium chloride and
10. for calcium nitrate. A saturated solution of calcium sulphate
(2.980 g/l) did not produce significant mortalities.
529.
Trama, F.B. and E.J. Benoit. 1960. Toxicity of hexavalent
chromium to bluegills. J. Water Pollut. Cont. Fed. 32:
868-877.
Studies carried out by various workers on the toxicity of
chromium to fish have given very variable results, largely because
the tests have been carried out under a wide range of conditions.
The authors describe experiments which they have carried out on the
toxicity of chromate and dichromate. Experimental procedure is des-
cribed. It was found that the 96-hour TLm for bluegills in soft
water is about 110 mg/l of chromium, as dichromate, and 170 mg/l as
chromate, the reasons for this difference are discussed. The 24-
hour TLm in soft water is between 175 and 225 mg/l of chromium. The
toxicity of chromium is considerably reduced by increase in alkalinity
and hardness, and it is stressed that the alkalinity of the receiving
water should be considered as well as the dilution when the disposal
of waste waters containing hexavalent chromium is planned.
-224-
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530.
Turner, R.L.
organisms.
1970. Quicklime: Effects on soft-bodied marine
Science 168:606-607.
Authors suggest the possible use of quicklime to control
the coral-eating sea star Acanthaster planci. This method of con-
trol has serious implications for other soft-bodied reef organisms.
Quicklime has been used, since the mid-1930's, to eradicate sea stars
in oyster beds and, more recently. sea urchins in kelp beds. The
particulate lime spread over the surface waters falls upon and des-
troys the soft tissues of the body wall, causing eventual death.
Quicklime is detrimental to numerous other marine organisms.
Effects of lime on the soft-shelled clam Mya arenaria and
the sea cucumber Cucumaria frondosa were investigated. At concentra-
tions used to eradicate sea stars, all ten lime-treated clams con-
siderably reduced their filtering activity for a few hours after lim-
ing. The irritating lime particles, taken in through the inhalant
siphon, interrupted "normal" feeding ability. However, the clams
enveloped the particles in mucus and discharged the fouled mucus
periodically via the siphons. The clams resumed "normal" filtering
activity within one day.
Although the sea cucumbers secreted abundant mucus after
liming, they developed wounds in the body wall, through which vis-
cera protruded within 12 hours. Within 11 days, 20 of the 24 lime-
treated ~. frondosa died, and the remaining four were extremely
deteriorated. Unlike Mya, the sea cucumbers were unable to dispose
of the fouled mucus.
The use of quicklime for controlling Acanthaster must de-
pend on the ability of coral polyps and other soft-bodied reef or-
ganisms to remove quicklime effectively from their bodies by mucus
secretion or other mechanisms.
531.
Ullmann, W.W., R.W. Schaefer, and W.W. Sanderson. 1961. Arsenic
accumulation by fish in lakes treated with sodium arsenite.
J. Wat. Pollut. Contr. Fed. 33:416-418.
Since 1956 sodium arsenite has been used for the control of
weeds in Chautauqua and Findley lakes in New York State. In 1959 a
study was made to determine the extent of accumulation of arsenic in
fish from these lakes; the results were compared with fish from Cas-
sadaga lake which has not been treated with the herbicides. In none
of the fish examined was the amount of arsenic found equal to that
present in edible salt water fish. The fish from Chautauqua lake
contained less arsenic than those from Findley lake; this is attri-
butable to the presence of residual arsenic in the water of Findley
lake. It is concluded that longer contact periods are necessary for
a significant accumulation of arsenic in fish under these conditions.
-225-
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532.
Umezu, T. and M. Saiki. 1967.
by marine microorganisms in
Reg. Fish. Res. Lab. 24:1-9
Gross uptake of radionuclides
batch culture. Bull. Naikai
(English Summary).
Relative values are given of the gross uptakes of radio-
active isotopes from sea water by 15 species of micro-organisms
(yeasts, bacteria, phytoplankton, and crustaceSfi zooplankton) as
suspensions of living or heat-killed organisms. Uptakes of cesiurn-
134 and strontium-85 were only just measurable; phosphorus-32 was
accumulated by living organisms, while zinc-65 was adsorbed more
rapidly by dead organisms than by living ones.
533.
Valee, B.L. 1959. Biochemistry, physiology and pathology of
zinc. Physiological Reviews 39:443-490.
The article critically reviews the literature on zinc in
view of the present knowledge of biochemical function of the metal.
Physiological, pathological, and nutritional aspects are considered.
Author also considers zinc in various species and tissues of marine
molluscs and echinoderms.
534.
Vecchio, P.V., A.M. Alasia, and G. Gualdi. 1962.
tion of arsenic in molluscs (Mytilus Linn.).
Pubbl. 18:18-30.
Determina-
Igiene San.
As workers in other countries have reported high concen-
trations of arsenic in some aquatic animals, the authors determined
the concentration of arsenic in mussels collected at three different
places on the Italian coast. The arsenic concentrations found were
about 3 mg per kg of edible flesh.
535.
Vinogradov, A.P. 1953.
of marine organisms.
Memoir 2, Yale Univ.,
The elementary chemical composition
Sears Foundation for Marine Research,
New Haven, Conn.: 647 p.
This volume provides a summary and comprehensive presenta-
tion of most that was known about the elements found in marine or-
ganisms up to about 1950. Extensive data, including 327 tables,
deal with elemental composition of marine algae, bacteria, higher
aquatic plants, protozoa, porifera, coelenterata, bryazoa, brachio-
poda, annelida, phoronidea, echinodermata, mollusca, crustacea,
tunicata, and fishes -- including cyclostomes and sharks. Elements
that are discussed include aluminum, iron, copper, zinc, titanium,
molybdenum, tin, cobalt, nickel, mercury, silver, gold, vanadium,
chromium, bismith, antimony, tungsten, gallium, germanium, cadmium,
beryllium, praseodymium, samarium, cerium, lanthanum, yttrium, rubidium,
cesium, lithium, strontium, barium, thallium, sodium, potassium,
calcium, silicon, niobium, arsenic and neodymium.
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536.
Vogel, F.S. 1959. The deposition of exogenous copper under
experimental conditions with observations on its neuro-
toxic and nephrotoxic properties in relation to Wilson's
disease. J. Exp. Medicine 110:801-810.
Goldfish that were subjected to approximately 0.25 mg/l
copper plus detergent (added to decrease coagulation of gill mucus)
took in and retained copper in their brains, livers, and kidneys in
concentrations comparable to those that occur naturally in Wilson's
disease. After 25 weeks in copper-rich waters goldfish were slug-
gish, ate less, and exhibited a marked wasting when compared to
controls.
Copper accumulated within the large neurons principally
in those of telenecephalon and the anterior horn region of the
spinal cord and in the tubular epithelial cells of the kidney, nuclei
of the parenchymal cells of the liver, the sarcoplasm of the skeletal
muscle and the epithelial covering of the gills. Cytologic damage
include necrosis of renal epithelium and contraction and hyperchrom-
aticity of the nerve cells. Author concludes that the similarity of
the cytologic alterations induced in the central nervous system by
copper and those that occur naturally in hepatolenticular degenera-
tion in human beings provides evidence that copper itself plays an
important role in the pathologic alterations of the brain in Wilson's
disease.
537.
Warnick, S.L. and H.L. Bell. 1969. The acute toxicity of
heavy metals to different species of aquatic insects.
Wat. Poll. Cont. Fed. 41 (2, Part 1):280-284.
some
J.
In static bioassays the acute toxicity of Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb,
Cr, Hg, Co, Ni, and Fe salts on three species of stoneflies, may-
flies and caddisflies was determined. The median tolerance limits
of the metal salts for these organisms was determined. The mayfly
was the most sensitive of the insects tested to all of the metals
used. Insects seemed to be more tolerant than many species of fish.
In the experimental procedures used, the dissolved oxygen, pH, and
hardness remained fairly constant and these factors did not seem to
influence mortalities.
538.
Watson, D.G., C.E. Cushing, C.C. Coutant, and W.L. Templeton.
1969. Effects of Hanford reactor shutdown on Columbia
River biota. Proc. 2nd Nat. Symp. on Radioecology. USAEC
Conf. 670503: 291-299.
Closure of the Hanford reactors for an extended period
caused a rapid and extensive decline in the concentration of radio-
nuclides in Columbia River biota. Chromium-51 and 32p decreased
-227-
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two to three orders of magnitude in the lower trophic levels; declines
in concentrations of 65Zn, 54Mn and 59Pe were much less, suggesting
a cycling of these nuclides from the sediments to the water during
shutdown. In fish, 32p was lost rapidly, 65Zn slowly. Near equili-
brium concentrations of radionuclides in most river organisms were
approached within two or three weeks after the resumption of reactor
operation.
539.
Watson, D.G., J.J. Davis and W.C. Hanson. 1963. Interspecies
differences in accumulation of gamma emitters by marine
organisms near the Columbia River mouth. Limnol. Ocean.
8:305-309.
In 1959 and 1960 samples of marine plankton, sessile algae,
molluscs, crustaceans and fish were collected near the mouth of the
Columbia River and analysed for concentrations of gamma-emitting
isotopes; the results for the various species are tabulated. The
highest concentrations of most isotopes were found in plankton and
the sessile alga Pucus furcatus; this is attributed to their posi-
tion as primary producers in the food web, to their high surface-
to-volume ratios making adsorption of greater significance, and to
the inclusion of minute particles of sediments and organic debris
with these samples. Comparison of results for the two years showed
that zinc-65 appeared to have increased, ruthenium-l03 and -106 and
zirconium-95-niobium-95 decreased, and chromium-51, cerium-14l and
-144, and manganese-54 showed no marked change. The levels of
activity in plankton at the river mouth were markedly influenced
by tidal direction and amplitude; greatest concentrations were found
in samples collected at extreme low and ebbing tides, the periods
when the river water was least diluted by ocean water.
540.
Watson, D.G. and W.H. Richard. 1963. Gamma-emitting radio-
nuclides in Alaskan fish and plants. u.s. Atom. Ener.
Comm. HW-76000: 244-257.
Measurements have been made of amounts of gamma-emitting
radioactive isotopes in fish from sea water, brackish water and
fresh water bodies in Alaska. Naturally occurring potassium-40 ex-
ceeded the quantity of fallout isotopes by a factor of 10-100. Zinc-
65 was present in all fish from lakes and in anadromous salmon, but
was absent from stream fish. Highest levels of cesium-137 occurred
in the freshwater lakes that collect run-off from the surrounding
land.
541.
Welander, A.D. 1969. Distribution of radionuclides in the
environment of Eniwetok and Bikini Atolls, August 1964.
Proc. 2nd Nat. Symp. on Radioecology. USAEC Conf. 670503:
346-354.
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Radionuclide analyses were made of more than 2000 samples
of animals, plants, water, bottom sediments and soils collected at
Eniwetok and Bikini Atolls, the site of 59 nuclear tests between
1946 and 1958. Cobalt-60 was found in all samples but was dominant
in the marine environment. Cesium-137 and 90Sr, however, were pre-
dominant in the land environment. All samples contained traces of
54Mn, although there were slightly larger amounts of this radio-
nuclide in land plants and land invertebrates. Rutheniurn-106 and
l25Sb were detected in significant amounts in groundwater and soil,
with traces in animals and plants. Also, trace amounts of 207Bi
were found in most samples, and l44Ce usually in algae, soils and
land plants. There were comparatively large amounts of 55Fe in a
number of samples, especially in vertebrates. Plutoniurn-239 was
found in soil and in the skins of rats and birds in the few samples
analyzed. The soils contained the highest levels of radioactivity,
followed by invertebrates, groundwater, shorebirds, plants, rats,
plankton, algae, fish, bottom sediments, seawater and seabirds.
542.
Westfall, B.A. 1945.
Ecology 26:283.
Coagulation film anoxia in fishes.
Previous workers have suggested that the lethal effect on
fish of substances which coagulate the mucus on the gills is due to
a decrease in the permeability of the mucus to dissolved oxygen.
To test this hypothesis the author determined the effect of the con-
centration of dissolved oxygen on the toxicity of solutions of sul-
phuric acid and lead nitrate which caused coagulation of the mucus.
It was found that goldfish were not harmed in a period of two hours
in tap water containing only 0.9 mg/l dissolved oxygen. In concen-
trations of sulphuric acid sufficient to reduce the pH value to 2.8
the mucus on the gills was coagulated; when the concentration of dis-
solved oxygen was 5.7 mg/l 10 fish lived an average of 96 min. in
this solution, but when the concentration of dissolved oxygen was
only 1.2 mg/l the average period of survival was 53 min. Concentra-
tions of sulphuric acid sufficient to give a pH value of 4.5 did
not coagulate the mucus and did not cause death of fish even when
the concentration of dissolved oxygen was 1.0 mg/1. Solutions of
lead nitrate caused precipitation of the mucus without reducing the
pH value to below 4.9. In solutions containing 5 gm/l of lead ni-
trate, 10 goldfish survived for the 2 hours of the experiment when
the content of dissolved oxygen was maintained at 6.2 mg/l, but ~Jr.en the
content of dissolved oxygen was 1.4 mg/l the average period of survival
of the fish was 93 min. It is concluded from these results that pre-
cipitation of the mucus of the gills does decrease the permeability of
the gills to dissolved oxygen. The content of dissolved oxygen had no
effect on the toxicity of solutions of lactic acid which coagulate the
mucus to only a very slight extent; it is considered that the lactic
acid has a direct action on the fish.
-229-
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543.
Westoo, G. 1969. Methylmercury compounds in animal foods.
In Miller, M.W. and G.G. Berg (eds.) Chemical Fallout-
Current research on persistent pesticides. Chas. C.
Thomas Publisher, Springfield, Ill. 111:75-90.
A method for determining methylmercury compounds in fish
by gas-liquid chromatography and thin-layer chromatography was de-
veloped in 1965. In 1966 and 1967 the procedure was improved and
can now be used also for other animal foodstuffs. Methylmercury com-
pounds were found, ~., in eggs, meat, liver (average values 0.06 mg
of Hg/kg), and fish. The substitution of methoxyethylmercury for
methylmercury compound as a seed disinfectant in Sweden in 1966
caused a decrease in the methylmercury content of eggs, meat, and
liver in 1967 and 1968 to approximately 1/3 of the average values
found earlier. Marine fish caught near the shore and freshwater
fish often show high methylmercury levels. Frequently more than
0.4 mg of Hg/kg (very infrequently, as much as 5-10 mg/kg) in fish
muscles has been found in Sweden. Levels above 1 mg of Hg/kg are
usually caused by industrial discharge of mercury compounds. Re-
gardless of the nature of the mercury pollutant, methylmercury has
been found in the fish. When hens were fed with seed disinfected
with different mercury compounds, part of the mercury in the eggs
was in the methylated form.
544.
White, G.F. and A.J. Thomas. 1912. Studies on the absorption
of metallic salts by fish in their natural habitat. I.
Absorption of copper by Fundulus heteroclitus. J. Biol.
Chem. 11:381-386.
With r. heteroclitus, greatest absorption takes place in
the first part of a period of exposure to copper, and a following
gradual increase which then affects the fishes life. As much absorp-
tion may occur in dilute solutions as in the concentrated solutions
if enough time is allowed. In two fish species (Tautoga onitis and
r. heteroclitus) the largest amount of copper was found in the blood
system. Authors concluded that Cu entered the system through gills.
Visible evidence of Cu was found in microscopic sections of treated
fish and not in controls.
545.
Whitley, L.S. 1968. The resistance of tubificid worms to
three common pollutants. Hydrobiologia 32:193-205.
Median tolerance limits for 24-hour periods are given for
tubificid worms in solutions of various pH values, containing zinc,
lead, and sodium pentachlorophenate; these ranged from 1.4 mg/l at
pH 9.5 for sodium pentachlorophenate to 49.0 mg/l at pH 6.5 for lead.
The 24-hour TLm for zinc was 46.0 mg/l at pH 7.5. In the modified
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Knop solution used, without the addition of toxic substances, sur-
vival levels were highest for pH values between 7.0 and 9.0. The
results, the visual appearance of poisoned worms, and the various
toxic mechanisms, are discussed in detail.
546.
Wilder, D.G. 1952. The relative toxicity of certain metals
to lobsters. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 8:486-487.
The toxicity of some common metals to lobsters was in-
vestigated, using wooden tanks with metal floors. Lobsters died
within I day in tanks with copper floors, within 6 days with monel
metal, 9 days with zinc, and 9 days with lead. In tanks with iron,
stainless steel, or aluminum floors more than 80% of the lobsters
survived for 2 months.
547.
Williams, B.R., H. Perkins, E.J. Hinde, and J. Gorman. 1965.
The biology of the Solway Firth in relation to the move-
ment of radioactive materials. III. Fisheries and food
chains. U.K. Atom. Energy Authority Prod. Gr. Rep. 611,
H.M. Stationary Office, London: 88 p.
In connection with the detailed study of the Solway firth
to assess its capacity for receiving discharges of radioactive waste
w8rers, results are given of investigations on fisheries, on algae,
and on accumulation of radioactivity in the fauna. Studies on the
bottom fauna and food of fish, particularly flounder and plaice,
showed that marked interspecific competition for food occurred, and
it was concluded that no one food chain is limiting. Investigations
on the uptake of ruthenium-l06 by the brown algae in the fucoid belt
showed that the quantity of insoluble ruthenium-l06 by the brown
algae in the fucoid belt showed that the quantity of insoluble ruthe-
nium-I06 associated with each species can vary according to its posi-
tion in an estuary; of the 4 species observed, the greatest amounts
of ruthenium-l06 were usually associated with Fucus spiralis. In
studies on the specific activity of potassium-40, strontium-90, and
ruthenium-106 in representative fauna, it was found that at higher
trophic levels the specific activity of ruthenium-106 decreases,
while the reverse is true for strontium-90. Uptake of strontium-90
by the flounder is thought to be related to food intake.
548.
Williams, L.G. 1960. Uptake of caesium-137 by cells and detritus
of Euglena and Chlorella. Limnol. Ocean. 5:301-311.
Species of Euglena and Chlorella had previously been found
to accumulate considerable amounts of cesium-137 and further experi-
ments were carried out to obtain information on the factors affecting
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the bio-accumulation, exchange, and cycling of the isotope. All
the experimental cultures contained selected pollution bacteria
since the accumulation of cesium-137 and the population density
were significantly greater than in bacteria-free media. The presence
of antibiotics affected both the growth of the algae and the uptake
of cesium-137. Dni-algal cultures of Euglena and Chlorella grown
in 3 concentrations of cesium-137 chloride showed that the uptake of
cesium-137 is linear with concentration in the range 1-10 ~c per
liter, which might be encountered in natural aquatic habitats. Al-
though there is bioaccumulation of the isotope during the exponential
growth phase, the greatest uptake by Euglena is during the subsequent
stationary phase. High concentrations of potassium express the up-
take of cesium-137 by living cells, and considerably smaller concen-
trations of stable cesium carrier have an even greater effect; but
potassium and cesium behave independently in killed cells of Chlorella.
With Chlorella, both dead and alive, and at all ages, most of the
cesium is bound to the cell wall and particles of cell inclusions; but
with Euglena, most of the cesium in young and dividing cells is un-
bound, whereas in old cells and cell fragments (detritus) it is bound.
During the investigations the highest removal of cesium-137 from the
medium was 93% in 34 days by Euglena and its detritus; and Chlorella
removed about 47% in about 13 days. The radioactive cesium removed
from natural waters by algae is deposited on the bottom in bound form
in the dead cells, and, subsequently the detritus.
549.
Williams, L.G. and H.D. Swanson. 1958.
137 by algae. Science 127:187-188.
Concentration of caesium-
As cesium-137 is one of the critical fission products in
reactor wastes and atomic explosion fall-outs, and as it has a fairly
long half-life and is water-soluble, it may be expected to increase
in the environment as more use is made of nuclear energy. Experi-
ments were therefore carried out on the accumulation of cesium-137
by fresh-water algae, particularly Euglena intermedia and Chlorella
pyrenoidosa. It was found that both these algae concentrate cesium
to a considerable extent. Traces of potassium in the medium appear
to have a slight depressant effect on the uptake of cesium. It was
also found that dead cells of Chlorella show a high concentration
factor for cesium, indicating that structural components persist in
the dead cells which are capable of adsorbing cesium from very dilute
solutions; this adsorption is not affected by the presence of potassium.
550.
Williams, R.B. and M.B. Murdock. 1969. The potential importance
of Spartina alterniflora, in conveying zinc, manganese, and
iron into estuarine food chains. Proc. 2nd Nat. Symp. on
Radioecology. DSAEC Conf. 670503: 431-440.
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The potential importance of cord grass, Spartina alterni-
flora, in conveying radioisotopes of zinc, manganese, and iron into
estuarine food chains was evaluated on the basis of its annual pro-
duction, its content of the three elements, and its annual cycle of
growth and decay. The growth of Spartina was studied with harvest
and other techniques in salt marshes near Beaufort, N.C. Standing
crop at maturity (in the fall) and annual production were estimated
to average 545 and 650 g dry wt/m2, or 208 and 248 g C/m2, respectively
Spartina production approached one-third the total phytoplankton net
production of adjacent estuaries, and was thus potentially important
in estuarine food chains. Zinc, manganese, and iron all had markedly
higher concentrations in dead Spartina than in live, and averaged 22,
200, and 5,000 mg/kg (dry weight), respectively, in the dead material.
The unusually high iron content of the dead material suggested that
Spartina detritus may be especially important in the movement of
radioisotopes of iron from water and sediment into estuarine animal
populations.
551.
Wilson, P.D. 1968. Some aspects of the chemistry of ruthenium
in sea water. U.K. Atom. Energy Auth., PG-Reg. 819: 10 p.
Nuclear Science Abstracts 22:1283-1284.
The waste water discharged to the sea from the Windscale
works, Cumberland, Great Britain, contains radioactive ruthenium
both in solution and as a co-precipitate with ferric hydroxide.
Laboratory experiments using synthetic ruthenium solutions showed
that in sea water an equilibrium is established between cationic,
anionic and perhaps neutral ruthenium complexes. Ruthenium is,
therefore, taken up by both anionic and cationic exchange materials
and by the polysaccharide porphyran, which is a major constituent
of the edible seaweed Porphyra; it is also adsorbed strongly by
particles of ferric hydroxide. In all cases the degree of sorption
increases slowly with time. Ruthenium co-precipitated with ferric
hydroxide is only superficially leached by sea water; since, after
aging, the particles became resistant to acid, it is concluded that
ruthenium in this form is not a serious source of contamination to
marine organisms.
552.
Winkler, L.R. and L.W. Chi. 1964. Defensive mechanisms of
the schistosome snail host Oncomelania formosana against
copper sulphate in adult and egg stages. Am. J. Trop.
Med. Hyg. 13:897-902.
Copper is deposited in high concentrations in special cells
in the digestive gland hemocoel, and in lower concentrations in special
cells of the tissue surrounding the stomach area. Embryos still in the
egg deposit copper in the stomach area. Eggs are protected by mucus in
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the mud capsule and by a "protein bath" surrounding the embryo, both
of these serve to bind the copper.
553.
Wisely, B. and
vertebrate
Australian
R.A.P. Blick. 1967. Mortality of marine in-
larvae in mercury, copper and zinc solutions.
J. of Marine and Freshwater Res. 18:63-72.
The toxicity of sea-water solutions of mercury, copper and
zinc salts to the larvae of some species of bryozoans (Watersipora
cucullata and Bugula neritina), tubeworms (Spirorbis lamellosa and
Galeolaria caespitosa), bivalve molluscs (Mytilus edulis planulatus
and Crassostrea commercialis), and the brine shrimp (Artemia salina),
were studied. TL-50 values are reported for a range of concentra-
tions and the effects of pH variations on mortality rates are dis-
cussed. The experiments which were designed to find a suitable or-
ganism for screening potential anti-fouling compounds, showed that
Artemia larvae, which were highly resistant to mercury and copper
and could tolerate a low pH value, would be most useful in testing
compounds.
Death rate of Artemia larvae in copper concentrations
between 256 and 1,800 mg/l Cu with a pH range of 3.2-4.5 was simi-
lar to that of larvae in comparable solutions not containing copper,
but with a similar pH range.
TL-50 (2 hour) values for copper sodium citrate in mg/l Cu,
in the pH range 7.0-8.2 were: 0.51 for Spirorbis, 0.57 for Water-
sipora, 2.9 for Galeolaria, 3.85 for Bugula, and 22.5 for Mytilus.
TL-50 (2 hour) values for zinc chloride, in mg/l Zn, ranged between
32.5 and 4.6 for Watersipora, Bugula, and Spirorbis. TL-50 (2 hour)
levels for mercuric chloride at pH 7.8 to 8.2 were quite variable
and ranged between 0.1 and 1,800 mg/l Hg.
554.
Wiser, C.W. and D.J. Nelson. 1964. Uptake and elimination of
cobalt-60 by crayfish. Amer. Midland Natural. 72:181-202.
Studies on the uptake of cobalt-60 by living and dead cray-
fish (Cambarus longulus longerostris) indicated that about half of
the accumulation was by adsorption and half by absorption. However,
most of the adsorbed cobalt was deposited in the exoskeleton, and 95%
of the body burden was lost at moulting. Large animals accumulated
more cobalt-60 than smaller ones, but the uptake per g was greater
in the smaller animals, indicating the importance of surface ad-
sorption phenomena. Rates of accumulation, measured by biological
half-times, were 70 hours for small animals and 66 hours for large
animals in a continuously renewed medium, and 24 hours for small
animals and 16.5 hours for large animals in a medium which was not
renewed, indicating that higher percentages of total uptake occurred
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more rapidly when the supply of the isotope was limiting, and with
larger animals. Rates of elimination were much slower than accumu-
lation.
555.
Wlodek, S. 1966. Aquatic organisms as biological indicators
of radioactive contamination in the surrounding medium.
Verh. Int. Verein. Theor. Angew. Limnol., 1965. 16:985-
995.
Continuing studies on the accumulation of radioactive iso-
topes by aquatic organisms were made in several freshwater bodies in
Poland, the south of France, and also in model reservoirs contami-
nated artificially with cesium-137 in concentrations of 4, 0.43,
and 0.046 ~c/l. Studies on the freshwater weeds in tributaries of
the river Isere, France, showed the existence of three groups dif-
fering in the levels of both total beta and total gamma activity,
the lowest activity occurring in plants such as Cladophora where
the leaves are rough and dissected but have a large total surface
area, while the amount of activity found in amphibiotic plants is
affected by the precipitation received directly by the emergent
leaves. Both in France and Poland the radionuclides found in aquatic
plants included cerium-144/promethium-144, ruthenium-106/rhenium-106,
cesium-137, and manganese-54; zirconium-96/niobium-95 also occurred
in Polish aquatic plants in 1963 but not in 1964. Under conditions
in tributaries of the Isere where the level of radioactivity in the
water and sediments is relatively stable, the coefficients of accu-
mulation of S- and y-activity in aquatic plants appear to be suitable
indicators of the degree of contamination of a water body. In cer-
tain cases, it may be advantageous to consider individual species
of plant rather than the total flora; problems involved in assessing
the value of an organism as an indicator of contamination and in
choosing a formula for the coefficient of accumulation are considered.
Studies on the distribution of radioactive cesium in an aquatic eco-
system showed that the element occurred principally in the bottom
deposits, the plant community playing only a secondary role and seldom
an important role, while the water mass tended to give up the cesium
rapidly at the expense of the other components of the ecosystem; the
periphyton also appear to be involved in the distribution of cesium.
The uptake of cesium-137 by aquatic plants, which was proportional
to the degree of contamination in the water, was not uniform through-
out the plants; the upper, younger parts contained much less cesium
than the older, lower parts. In general, dense plant growths con-
tained less than 1% of the total cesium introduced into the water
but, immediately follm;ing the contaminatlon, about 5-7% of the cesium
is retained temporarily by growths of Lemna and Elodea and more than
60% by Ulothrix. Filamentous algae, particularly Ulothrix, are con-
cluded to be the most promising organisms for use in decontamination
of water by the plant-harvesting method; about 30% of the initial
contamination could be removed in the period immediately following
contamination.
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556.
Wobeser, G., N.O. Nielsen, R.H. Dunlop, and F.M. Atton. 1970.
Mercury concentrations in tissues of fish from the Saskat-
chewan River. .T. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 27:830-834.
Muscle tissue of 81 fish from several locations in the
Saskatchewan River system contained an average of more than 1.0 mg/l
of mercury. Fish collected at two sites had much higher concentra-
tions, with individual fish containing up to 11.2 mg/l. The concen-
trations found were higher than those reported for fish from uncon-
taminated environments, and corresponded to values reported for
Scandinavian fish collected in areas of industrial pollution.
557.
Wolfe, D.A. and C.L. Schelske. 1969. Accumulation of fallout
radioisotopes by bivalve molluscs from the lower Trent and
Neuse Rivers. Proc. 2nd Nat. Sympt. on Radioecology. USAEC
Conf. 670503: 493-504.
Bivalve molluscs have proven useful indicators of the dis-
tribution of fallout radioisotopes in an aquatic environment. Three
species of filter-feeding molluscs, Elliptio complanatus, Rangia cuneata,
and Polymesoda caroliniana, were collected from stations in the Trent
and Neuse Rivers in Eastern North Carolina at four to six week intervals
for more than a year. The soft tissues of each species were ashed and
analyzed for gamma radioactivity in a multichannel spectrometer and
10 x 10 cm Nal crystal. The concentrations of gamma-emitting fallout
radioisotopes were monitored in Rangia over a 48.2 km stretch of river
and a salinity range of <0.1 to >15 0/00. Ruthenium-l06, l44Ce, l37Cs,
54Mn, and 65Zn were present in all samples. After the Chinese nuclear
tests in May and December 1966, the amounts of l4lCe, 103Ru, 95Zr-95Nb
and l40Ba-140La rose suddenly in the samples. Ruthenium-l06 and 103Ru
were more concentrated in Rangia from downstream stations (salinity
range 6-15 0/00), whereas l37Cs was more abundant in the same species
from fresher water (salinity range 0-8 0/00). Zirconium-95-niobium-95
from the Chinese test in May remained in Rangia from freshwater stations
after it was no longer detectable in the same species collected down-
stream.
558.
Wood, R.A. 1955. Toxicity studies on one, thirty. sixty-day
old and adult Stagnicola reflexa. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci.
64:291-294.
The effects of copper and magnesium sulphates and carbonates
and sodium chloride on the snail Stagnicola reflexa were compared.
Snails of different ages were exposed to varied concentrations of
the salts for different periods of time. Copper carbonate and copper
sulphate were the most toxic, the latter particularly so in the case
of the adult snail.
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559.
Yager, C.M. and H.W. Harry. 1964. The uptake of radioactive
zinc, cadmium, and copper by the freshwater snail Taphius
glabratus. Malacologica 1:339-353.
Freshwater snails (Taphius glabratus) were exposed to zinc-
65, cadmium-115m, and copper-64 in concentrations which allowed normal
behavior and in concentrations which caused the distress reaction (in-
ability to retract into the shell), and it was found that the uptake
patterns were similar for the three nuclides. In normal snails more
radioactive ions were taken up by snails exposed to larger volumes of
solution than by snails exposed to only 10 ml of solutions of the
same concentration for the same period. Uptake by the shell decreased
with increase in period of exposure. In normal snails the amounts of
nuclides concentrated in the liver were 4 to 7 times the amounts in
other tissues, but in distressed snails the amount in the liver was
only twice that in other tissues, and the amounts in the tissues were
often lower than in snails showing normal activity. It is concluded
that distress depends on the concentration of nuclide rather than on
the amount absorbed, and that the ions produce distress by disrupting
membrane permeability rather than by interfering with some internal
metabolic mechanism.
560.
Yager, C.M. and H.W. Harry. 1966. Uptake of heavy metal ions
by Taphius glabratus a snail host of Schistosoma mansoni.
Exp. Parisotol. 19:174-182.
kidney,
cause a
Radioisotopes of cadmium and zinc concentrate in liver,
oviduct, and sections of the intestine. These metal ions
"distress syndrome" in affected snails.
561.
Young, D.R. and T.R. Folson. 1963. Concentrations of zinc-65,
manganese-54, and cobalt-60 observed recently in marine
organisms of the east Pacific. Paper presented at Inter-
national Symposium on Radioactive Contamination of the
Human Environment. Hiroshima, 1963: 13 p. Nuclear Science
Abstracts 1967, 21:50.
Owing to their ability to concentrate radionuclides, ses-
sile mussels and barnacles are useful for studying distribution of
radioactive fallout. Variations in the concentrations of manganese-
54, zinc-65, and cobalt-60 in the mussel Mytilus californianus col-
lected at various points along the Pacific coast of USA, shows that
radioactivity decreases towards the south. The concentrations of
zinc-65, manganese-54, and potassium-40 in Mytilus collected from
Scripps pier on the open coast, from San Diego harbor, and from a
land-locked boat harbor were measured, showing that the greatest
activity occurred at Scripps pier. There were no differences in
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the concentrations of the various isotopes in mussels of different
size. Analyses of different organs showed that the kidneys con-
tained 50 times as much zinc-65 as the muscles.
562.
Young, D.R. and T.R. Folson. 1967. Loss of zinc-65 from the
California sea mussel, Mytilus californianus. Biol. Bull.
133:438-447.
Colonies of the California mussel Mytilus californianus,
collected near the mouth of the Columbia River, where they had taken
up zinc-65, were transferred to coastal waters of southern California
where much lower levels of zinc-65 occur, and were subsequently
sampled at intervals for one year. During this period the concen-
tration of zinc-65 in the soft tissues (after allowing for radioactive
decay) decreased by more than 97%. This decrease appears to be des-
cribed satisfactorily by a single exponential function, with a bio-
logical half-life for growing organisms of 76 ~ 3.5 days; if radio-
active decay is not excluded the observed rate of loss of zinc-65 is
described by an effective half-life of 58 ~ 2.7 days.
563.
Yudkin, J. 1937. The effect of silver ions on some enzymes
of Bacterium coli. Enzymologia 2:161.
The poisonous effect of metal ions on enzymes is known
but, up to now, their effect on bacterial enzymes has not been in-
vestigated. The author examined the effect of silver ions on various
enzymes of !. coli. It was shown that the glucose succinic acid, and
lactic acid dehydrogenases, hydrogenases and hydrogenlyases are
completely inhibited by about the same concentration of silver. The
poisoning did not appear immediately after the silver was added but
reached a maximum after 1-2 hours at a temperature of 20oC. Attempts
to reactivate the poisoned enzymes with potassium cyanide, hydrogen
sulphide, and other substances were without result; slight reactiva-
tion was only sporadically observed.
564.
Zavodnov, S.S., E.E. Iobchenko, and N.G. Fesenko. 1965. Pol-
lution with copper and zinc of the Armenian S.S.R. rivers
and the processes of their self-purification. Gidrokhim.
Mater. 40:149-155.
Studies on the concentrations of copper and zinc in surface
waters in Armenia showed that unpolluted rivers contained 2-3 times
the maximal permissible concentration for zinc and 20-30% of the
permissible concentration for copper. Trout, which are known to be
sensitive to the chemical composition of the water, thrive in these
rivers. The concentrations of copper and zinc in polluted waters
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were only slightly higher than in unpolluted waters, and it is sug-
gested that the present maximal permissible concentrations are too
low. Although the concentrations of copper and zinc in polluted
rivers decrease rapidly with increasing distance from the source of
pollution, it is pointed out that much of these metals may be asso-
ciated with the bottom deposits, and a change in conditions, such as
a reduction in pH value or an increase in mineral content of the
water, could bring them back into solution.
565.
Zesenko, A.Y. and G.G. Polikarpov. 1965. Coefficients of
accumulation and distribution of ruthenium-106 in organs
and tissues of sea molluscs. Radiobiologiya 5:320-322.
Studies on the distribution of ruthenium-106 in mussels
showed that 65% was accumulated in the shell and 30% in the byssus.
It is thought that these organisms may playa significant role in
filtering ruthenium-106 from shallow s~a water.
566.
Zlobin, u.S. 1966. Accumulation of radioactive strontium by
the brown seaweeds. Gig. Sanit. 31 (12):86-88. Nucl. Sci.
Abs. 1967, 21:2349.
Uptake of strontium-89 by the brown seaweeds Fucus vesi-
culosis, !. serratus, and Ascophyllum nodosum reaches equilibrium
within 5-7 days. An increase in stable strontium in sea water up
to 0.16 g/l causes a threefold reduction in the uptake of strontium-
89 by Fucus serratus.
567.
Zlochevskaya, I.V. and I.L. Rabotnova. 1966. Toxicity of lead
to Aspergillus niger. Mikrobiologiya 35:1044-1052.
The effect of lead (Pb) on~. niger was tested in growth
media containing glycerol, cysteine hydrochloride and ammonium ni-
trate as sources of carbon, sulfur and nitrogen, by adding 1420 mg/l
of lead nitrate at a pH of 2.5. Inclusion of Pb in the medium de-
creased the growth rate of ~. niger to complete suppression after 3
transfers. However,~. niger grew well and formed conidia in the
supernatant in which only traces of the Pb complex were dissolved.
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SECTION III
INDEX
Two indices are presented: INDEX-METAL and INDEX-TAXA. In each
case, reference numbers followed by an asterisk (*) denote that
the subject organism is either strictly freshwater or anadromous
with the major biological effect observed in freshwater. Ref-
erence numbers not followed by an asterisk indicate that the sub-
ject organism is marine, euryhaline or anadromous with the major
effect occurring in saline waters.
-240-
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INDEX - METALS
ALUMINUM
Algae (see also Higher Plants): 535
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 428, 506, 546, 535, 409*
Echinodermata: 535
Fish (Teleostei): 142, 156, 428, 506, 535, 18*, 142*, 409*, 452*
Higher Plants: 535
Miscellaneous: 505
Mollusca: 216, 428, 506, 535
Phoronidea: 535
Porif era: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535
ANTIMONY
Alg~e: 483, 535, 541
Aves: 541
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 535, 541, 13*
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 535, 541, 274*, 334*
Higher Plants: 535, 541
Mammalia: 541
Mollusca: 466, 535, 541
Phoronidea: 535
Plankton: 466
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Sediments: 466
Soils: 541
Tunicata: 535
ARSENIC
Algae: 535, 37*,
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
42*, 338*
-241-
-------
ARSENIC (continued)
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 520, 535, 12*, 92*, 342*, 520*
Diatoms: 420*
Echinoderms: 535
Fish. 142, 205, 245, 520, 535, 37*, 42*,
245*, 274*, 334*, 342*, 520*, 531*
Higher Plants: 535, 531*
Mollusca: 456, 534, 535, 338*
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535
70*, 142*, 166*, 205*,
BARI UM
Algae: 56*, 228*
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 360, 535, 13*
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 156, 245, 273, 360, 535, 56*, 142*, 245*, 273*, 450*
Higher Plants: 535
Mammalia: 202*
Miscellaneous: 392*
Mollusca: 535, 557, 557*
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535
BERYLLIUM
Algae: 535
Amphibia: 138*
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 535
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 156, 271, 535, 512*
Higher Plants: 535
Mollusca: 535
-242--
-------
BERYLLIUM (continued)
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Miscellaneous: 366, 366*
Mollusca: 45, 45*, 56*
BISMUTH
Algae: 535, 541
Annelida: 535
Aves: 541
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 535, 541
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 535, 541
Higher Plants: 535, 541
Mammalia: 541
Mollusca: 535, 541, 65*
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Soils: 541
Tunicata: 535
CADMIUM
Algae: 242, 535, 269*, 486*
Annelida: 155, 535, 468*
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 155, 535, 13*, 92*, 468*
Echinodermata: 155, 535
Fish: 35, 106, 142, 155, 156, 191, 242, 271, 441, 507, 535, 35*,
142*, 334*, 363*, 407*, 441*, 468*, 507*
Higher Plants: 535
Insecta: 468*, 537*
Mammalia: 202*, 279*
Miscellaneous: 392*
- 243-
-------
CADMIUM (continued)
Mollusca: 155, 242,
Phoronidea: 535
Porif era: 535
Protozoa: 535
Sediments: 478
Tunicata: 535
426, 475, 477, 535, 221*, 559*, 560*
CALCIUM
Algae: 503, 535, 37*, 193*, 269*, 298*, 381*, 549*
Amphibia: 184*, 317*
Annelida: 115, 535, 115*
Bacteria: 204, 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 31, 115, 461, 535, 13*, 115*, 299*, 301*, 381*, 461*,
467*
Echinodermata: 530, 535
E1asmobranchii: 153
Fish: 2,7,11,22,69,115,142,156,157,251,262,282,309,
356, 449, 459, 525, 535, 1*, 4*, 7*, 11*, 22*, 37*, 80*,
95*, 115*, 128*, 142*, 184*, 251*, 262*, 282*, 301*, 309*,
371*, 380*, 381*, 443*, 444*, 445*, 449*, 459*, 528*
Higher Plants: 535
Insecta: 115, 115*
Mammalia: 202*
Miscellaneous: 392*
Mollusca: 32, 33, 61, 115, 158, 204, 530, 535, 65*, 66*, 115*,
184i~
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Sediments: 184*
Tunicata: 535
356*,
CERIUM
Algae: 17, 28, 215, 333, 383, 413, 415, 439, 440, 483, 535, 539.
541, 323*, 555*
Annelida: 535
Aves: 541
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 28, 111, 124, 265, 413, 439, 471, 535, 539. 541, 299*
-244-
-------
CERIUM (continued)
Detritus: 110, 111, 393, 415
Echinodermata: 535
E1asmobranchi: 353
Fish: 28, 106, 207, 270, 383, 439. 449, 471, 531, 535, 541, 207*,
323*, 449*
Higher Plants: 413, 535, 541, 555*
Mammalia: 541
Mollusca: 28, 383, 425, 439, 457, 535, 539. 541, 190*, 224*,
466*
Phoronidea: 535
Plankton: 466
Porifera: 333, 535
Protozoa: 413, 535
Soils: 541
Sediments: 466
Tunicata: 535
CESIUM
Algae & Diatoms: 28, 53, 242, 261, 383,
29*, 211*, 222*, 223*,
555*
19*, 184*, 399*
83, 535
413, 415, 532, 535, 541,
300*, 310*, 399*, 548*,
Amphibia:
Annelida:
Aves: 541
Bacteria & Yeasts: 532, 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 83, 535
Crustacea: 28, 52, 82, 83, 84, 86, 261, 264, 265, 314, 361, 413,
498, 532, 535, 541, 300*, 306*, 314*
Detritus: 393, 413, 415
Echinodermata: 83, 261, 535
E1asmobranchii: 353
Fish: 28, 41, 52, 156, 169, 176, 226, 242, 261, 264, 270, 273,
314, 315, 361, 374, 383, 386, 449, 535, 540, 541, 19*,
79*, 169*, 170*, 184*, 208*, 222*, 225*, 226*, 227*,
273*, 300*, 305*, 306*, 310*, 314*, 315*, 324*, 371*,
372*, 373*, 374*, 399*, 400*, 449*, 450*, 540*
Higher Plants: 413, 535, 541, 19*, 306*, 310*, 399*, 400*, 555*
Mammalia: 541, 310*
Miscellaneous: 358
Mollusca: 28, 52, 83, 84, 242, 261, 361, 383, 413, 425, 535, 541,
557, 79*, 184*, 190*, 194*, 224*, 557*
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 83, 415, 535
-245-
-------
CESIUM (continued)
Sediments: 79, 184, 399
Soils: 541
Tunicata: 83, 535
CHROMIUM
Algae: 40, 383, 526, 535, 539, 394*
Annelida: 114, 434, 535, 502*
Ascidia: 526
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 40, 124, 434, 453, 506, 526, 535, 539. 13*, 91*, 319*, 409*
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 106, 142, 156, 185, 205, 241, 245, 383, 403, 460, 506, 535,
538, 539, 1*, 19*, 93*, 94*, 95*, 98*, 142*, 185*, 205*,
241*, 245*, 273*, 303*, 334*, 394*, 407*, 409*, 460*, 529*,
538*
Higher Plants: 535
Insecta: 502*, 537*
Miscellaneous: 64*
Mollusca: 475, 506, 535, 539. 93*, 224*, 383*, 394*, 426*
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 526, 535
COBALT
Algae & Diatoms: 242, 261, 333,
269*, 472*
79*, 184*, 260*
535, 468*
383, 471, 541, 193*, 223*, 224*,
Amphibia:
Annelida:
Aves: 541
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 232, 535
Chaetognatha: 312, 313
Coelenterata: 312, 535
Crustacea: 261, 312, 313, 471,
507*, 554*, 561*
Echinodermata: 261, 535
Fish: 106, 142, 156, 242, 261,
507, 521, 535, 541, 79*,
472*, 473*, 507*
Higher Plants: 535, 541
507, 535, 541, 13*, 91*, 468*,
273, 376, 383, 386, 471, 473,
142*, 184*, 273*, 334*, 468*,
-246-
-------
COBALT (continued)
Insecta: 468*, 537*
Mammalia: 541, 278*, 279*
Miscellaneous: 392
Mollusca: 79, 261, 312, 383,
224*, 242*
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 333, 535
Protozoa: 535
Salps: 312, 313
Sediments: 79*, 184*
Soils: 541
Tunicata: 535
426, 535, 541, 561, 184*, 194*,
COPPER
Algae: 256, 346, 521, 535, 42*, 122*, 134*, 173*, 175*, 228*,
269*, 332*, 338*, 339*, 345*, 394*, 486*
Amphibia: 138*, 175*
Annelida: 405, 434, 535, 553, 502*
Bacteria: 497, 535, 290*
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 232, 357, 535, 553
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 50, 51, 85, 119, 256, 421, 429, 499, 507,
546, 553, 13*, 25*, 60*, 91*, 122*, 171*,
343*, 344*, 378*, 409*, 412*, 434*. 507*,
Diatoms: 48*, 132*, 420*
Dinoflagellates: 446, 134*
Echinodermata: 71, 485, 487, 535, 487*
Fish: 2, 20, 30, 76, 77, 106, 108, 142, 156, 203, 231, 236, 245,
271, 282, 325, 328, 329, 330, 411, 454, 484, 488, 492, 493, 494
495, 504, 509, 521, 535, 544, 18*, 42*, 48*, 76*, 77*, 93*,
128*, 134*, 142*. 143*, 175*, 203*, 231*, 236*, 245*, 282*,
325*, 328*, 329*, 330*, 334*, 340*, 343*, 344*, 345*, 363*,
365*, 375*, 378*, 394*, 407*, 409*, 410*, 411*, 454*, 484*,
488*, 489*, 492*, 493*, 494*, 495*, 509*, 527*, 536*. 564*
Higher Plants: 535, 38*, 175*
Insecta: 492, 493, 171*, 175*, 410*, 492*, 493*, 502*. 537*
Mammalia: 202*, 278*
Miscellaneous: 10, 64*,89*, 289*
Mollusca: 72, 108, 187, 240, 405, 421, 426, 475, 477, 504, 509,
535, 553, 44*, 133*, 175*, 197*, 220*, 221*, 244*, 338*,
377*, 394*, 396*. 509*, 552*, 558*, 559*
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Sediments: 477, 48*, 339*
Tunicata: 535
509, 535,
254*, 255*,
509*
-247-
-------
EUROPIUM
Crustacea: 466
Fish: 273, 273*
Mollusca: 466
Plankton: 466
Sediments: 466
GALLIUM
Algae: 535
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Crustacea: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 535
Higher Plants: 535
Mollusca: 535
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535
GERMANIUM
Algae: 535
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 535
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 535
Higher Plants: 535
Mollusca: 535
Phoronidea: 535
Porif era: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535
GOLD
Algae: 535
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535
- 248-
-------
GOLD (continued)
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 146, 535
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 146, 156, 535, 334*
Higher Plants: 535
Mammalia: 202
Mollusca: 146, 425, 535
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Sediments: 146
Tunicata: 535
IRON
Algae: 130, 242, 261, 471, 513, 521, 535, 541, 550, 193*, 223*,
269>'" 420*
Annelida: 115, 404, 405, 535, 115*
Aves: 541
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Chaetognatha: 313
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 115, 261, 313, 453, 471, 506, 535, 541, 546, 13*, 60*,
91*, 115*, 161*, 390*, 409*
Diatoms: 130, 48*, 132*
Echinodermata: 261, 535
Elasmobranchii: 153
Fish: 3, 24, 106, 115, 142, 156, 213, 242, 261, 272, 273, 386,
411, 471, 506, 521, 535, 538, 541, 551, 3*, 18*, 26*, 48*,
90*, 115*, 129*, 142*, 161*, 168*, 213*, 273*, 390*, 409*,
411*, 433*, 452*, 500*, 538*
Higher Plants: 535, 541
Insecta: 115, 115*, 537*
Mammalia: 541
Miscellaneous: 24
Mollusca: 115, 158, 242, 243, 261, 313, 321, 404, 405, 426, 506,
535, 541, 14*, 115*, 390*
Phoronidea: 535
Plankton: 131
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Salps: 43, 313
Sediments: 48*
- 249-
-------
IRON (continued)
Soils: 541
Tunicata: 535
LANTHANIUM
Algae: 535
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 360, 535
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 360, 535, 334*
Higher Plants: 535
Mollusca: 535, 557, 557*
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535
LEAD
Algae: 228*, 269*
Amphibia: 58*, 138*, 260*, 293*
Annelida: 545*
Aves: 118*, 259*
Bacteria: 290>'<
Bryazoa: 232
Crustacea: 546, 13*, 92*, 161*, 343*, 344*, 378*, 409*
Diatoms: 420*
Fish: 2, 139, 140, 142, 156, 209. 212, 248, 271, 282, 295, 328,
330, 403, 104*, 105*, 123*, 140*, 142*, 161*, 209*, 212*,
248*, 282*. 286*, 295*, 328*, 330*, 343*, 344*, 378*, 407*, 409*
501*, 517*, 542*
Fungus: 567*
Insecta: 537*
Mammalia: 248,
Miscellaneous:
Mollusca: 248,
Reptilia: 74"<
202*, 248*, 278*, 279*
52, 89*, 104*, 392*
426, 137*, 248*
LITHIUM
Algae: 535
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535
-2':}0-
-------
LITHIUM (continued)
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 31, 535, 13*
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 142, 156, 535, 142*
Higher Plants: 535
Mollusca: 32, 61, 535
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535
MAGNESIUM
Algae: 269*
Amphibia: 184*
Annelida: 115, 115*
Crustacea: 115, 461, 13*, 115*, 461*
E1asmobranchii: 153, 263
Fish: 7, 115, 142, 152, 156, 157, 213, 258, 356,
128*, 142*, 184*, 213*, 258*, 356*, 380*
Insecta: 115, 115*
Miscellaneous: 392*
Mollusca: 61, 115, 158, 115*, 184*, 558*
Sediments: 184*
7*, 80*, 115*,
MANGANESE
Algae & Diatoms:
17,261,333,383,471,483,539,541,550,223*,
224*, 228*, 555*
Annelida: 468*
Aves: 541
Bryazoa: 232
Crustacea: 13, 88, 261, 314, 466, 471, 539. 541, 561, 91*, 161*,
314*, 337*, 468*
Echinodermata: 261
Fish: 2, 106, 142, 156, 207, 209, 261, 273, 314, 315, 383, 398,
403, 457, 471, 521, 538, 539, 541, 142*, 161*, 207*, 209*,
273*, 314*, 315*, 337*, 468*, 538*
Higher Plants: 541, 555*
Insecta: 337*, 468*
Mammalia: 541, 202*, 278*, 279*
Miscellaneous: 392*
Mollusca: 100, 261, 383, 426, 466, 539, 541, 557, 561, 189*, 219*,
223*, 355*, 557*
-251,-
-------
Plankton:
Porifera:
Sediments:
Soils: 541
466
333
466
MERCURY
Algae: 535, 269*
Annelida: 535, 553, 468*
Aves: 276, 543, 276*, 543*
Bacteria: 447, 535, 447*
Bibliography: 21, 21*
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535, 553
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 119, 120, 121, 218, 421, 429, 507, 509, 535, 553, 13*,
92*, 218*, 342*, 468*, 507*, 509*
Echinodermata: 485, 535
Fish: 2, 11, 21, 36, 49, 57, 63, 142, 160, 180, 218, 230, 241,
266,267,271,273,275,276,283,316, 352, 442, 447,448,
507, 509, 535, 543, 11*, 21*, 49*, 57*, 63*, 116*, 142*,
160*, 218*, 230*, 241*, 249*, 266*, 268*, 273*, 275*, 276*,
277*, 283*, 342*. 352*, 375*, 442*, 447*, 448*, 468*, 507*,
509*, 543*, 556*
Higher Plants: 218, 535, 543, 218*, 543*
Insecta: 192*, 468*, 537*
Mammalia: 266, 302, 316, 202*, 266*, 278*, 279*
Miscellaneous: 392*
Mollusca: 266, 267, 302, 316, 352, 421, 509, 535, 553, 266*, 352*,
509*
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Sediments: 218, 230, 267, 218*, 230*
Tunicata: 535
MOLYBDENUM
Algae: 535
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Crustacea: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 535
Higher Plants: 535
Mollusca: 535
-252-
-------
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535
NEODYMIUM
Algae: 535
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 535
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 535
Higher Plants: 535
""follusca: 535
Phoronodea: 531
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535
NICKEL
Algae: 535~ 228*~ 269*~ 486*
Amphibia: 260*
Annelida: 535~ 468*
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 232~ 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 428~ 507~ 535~ l2*~ 9l*~ l6l*~ 343*~ 344*~ 378*~ 409*~
468*~ 507*
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 2~ 77~ l06~ l4l~ l56~ 507~ 52l~ 535~ 77*~ l28*~ l4l*~ l43*~
l6l*~ 343*~ 344*~ 375*~ 378*~ 407*~ 409*~ 468*~ 507*
Higher Plants: 535
Insecta: 468*~ 537*
Mollusca: 46~ 42l~ 426~ 535
Miscellaneous: 64*~ 392*
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Soil: 46
Tunicata: 535
-253-
-------
NIOBIUM
Algae: 102, 178, 214, 333, 383, 483, 535, 539, 555*
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 102, 111, 466, 535, 539
Detritus: 110, 111
Echinodermata: 535
E1asmobranchii: 353
Fish: 383, 535, 539
Higher Plants: 535, 555*
Mollusca: 383, 466, 535, 539, 557, 190*, 557*
Phoronidea: 535
Plankton: 466
Porifera: 333, 535
Protozoa: 535
Sediments: 466
Tunicata: 535
PLUTONIUM
Algae: 150, 516, 541
Crustacea: 541
Fish: 150, 516, 541
Higher Plants: 541
Mammalia: 541
Mollusca: 541
Sediments: 150
Soils: 541
POLONIUM
Fish: 209, 248, 5*, 209*, 248*
Mammalia: 248, 248*
Mollusca: 248, 248*
POTASSIUM
Algae: 333, 535, 547, 548*, 549*
Amphibia: 184*, 317*
Annelida: 83, 115, 535, 115*
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 83, 535
Crustacea: 82, 83, 84, 86, 115, 167, 314, 461, 466, 535, 561, 13*,
115*, 306*, 314*, 461*
-254-
-------
POTASSIUM (continued)
Echinodermata: 83, 535
E1asmobranchii: 153, 263, 296
Fish: 2, 7, 115, 142, 152, 156, 157, 199, 200, 207, 213, 245,
251, 258, 273, 314, 315, 341, 356, 460, 535, 540, 547,
1*, 70*, 80*, 115*, 142*, 184*, 199*, 200*, 207*, 213*,
227*, 245*, 251*, 258*, 273*, 306*, 314*, 315*, 356*,
370*, 372*, 450*, 460*, 528*, 540*
Higher Plants: 535, 306*
Insecta: 115, 115*
~isce11aneous: 289*
Mollusca: 33, 34, 83, 84, 115, 158, 318, 466, 535, 561, 115*,
184*
Phoronfdea: 535
Plankton: 466
Porifera: 333, 535
Protozoa: 83, 535
Sediments: 466, 184*
Tunicata: 83, 535
PRASEODYMIUM
Algae: 333, 439. 535
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Crustacea: 439, 466, 535
Coelenterata: 535
Detritus: 110
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 439. 535
Higher Plants: 535
Mollusca: 439, 466, 535
Phoronidea: 535
Plankton: 466
~orifera: 333, 535
Protozoa: 535
Sediments: 466
Tunicata: 535
PROMETHIUM
Algae: 17, 555*
Crustacea: 466
Higher Plants:
Mollusca: 466
Plankton: 466
Sediments: 466
555*
-255-
-------
RADIUM
Algae: 151, 350*, 401*, 476*
Crustacea: 466, 350*
~ish: 248, 273, 248*, 273*, 326*,
Higher Plants: 391*, 401*
Insecta: 391*
Mammalia: 248, 248*, 401*
Mollusca: 248, 466, 65*, 248*
Plankton: 466
Sediments: 466, 350*, 391*
350*, 391*, 401*
RHENIUM
Algae: 555*
'Fish: 334*
Higher Plants:
555*
RHODIUM
Algae: 17, 333
Detritus: 110
Porifera: 333
RUBIDIUM
Algae: 535, 193*, 310*
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 535
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 156,535,334*
Higher Plants: 535
Mollusca: 535
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535
RUTHENIUM
Algae: 17, 28, 53,
Aves: 541
Crustacea:
Detritus:
Diatoms:
150, 214, 281, 483, 539, 541, 547, 551, 555*
28, 53, Ill, 265, 539, 541
llO, Ill, 393
281
-256-
-------
RUTHENIUM (continued)
Elasmobranchii: 353
Fish: 28, 53, 150, 281, 539, 541,
Higher Plants: 541, 310*, 555*
Mammalia: 541, 310*
Mollusca: 28, 53, 281, 457, 539,
Porifera: 333
Sediments: 150, 281, 551, 73*
Soils: 541
547, 310*
541, 557, 565, 190*, 557*
SALINITY
Algae: 462, 462*
Bacteria: 297, 297*
Crustacea: 148, 461, 506, 511, 523, 461*
Dinoflagellates: 9
Echinodermata: 578
Fish: 7,8,15,23,57,59, 103, 112, 117, 144, 177, 199, 200,
201,237,246,247,251,252,253,307,341,356,388,
389,422,462,470,507,510,518,7*,8*. 23*, 57*, 59~~,
112*, 117*. 144*, 177*, 199*, 200*, 201*, 237*, 251*, 252*,
307*, 356*, 388*, 389*, 422*, 462*, 507*, 510*
Miscellaneous: 289*
Mollusca: 148, 367, 518
253*,
SAHARIUH
Algae: 535
Annelida: 404, 405, 535
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 535
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 535
Higher Plants: 535
Mollusca: 404, 405, 535
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535
SCANDIUH
Annelida: 404, 405
Crustacea: 124
Fish: 273, 273*
Mollusca: 404, 405
-257-
-------
SELENIUM
Fish:
334*
SILICON
Algae: 535
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 535
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 309, 535, 309*
Higher Plants: 535
Mollusca: 535
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535
SILVER
Algae: 535, 228*, 269*
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryozoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 535
Echinodermata: 485, 535
Fish: 142, 156, 241, 271,
Higher Plants: 535
Mammalia: 202*
Miscellaneous: 392*, 563*
Mollusca: 535, 221*
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535
273, 386, 535, 142*, 143*, 241*, 273*
SODIUM
Algae: 535
Amphibia: 184*, 317*
Annelida: 115, 535, 115*
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
-258-
-------
~
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 31, 84, 115, 264, 336, 423, 461, 535, 12*, 13*, 113*,
115*, 423*, 461*
Echinodermata: 535
Elasmobranchii: 153, 263
Fish: 2, 7, 15, 108, 115, 142, 152, 156, 157, 162, 163, 164, 165, 199,
200, 213, 239, 245, 251, 258, 264, 273, 307, 341, 535, 1*,
7*, 80*, 99*, 113*, 115*, 123*, 128*, 142*, 184*, 199*,
200*, 213*, 225*, 239*, 245*, 251*, 258*, 273*, 307*, 356*,
452*, 528*
Higher Plants: 535
Insecta: 115, 115*
Mollusca: 32, 33, 34, 61, 84, 108, 115, 158, 367, 535, 115*, 184*
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Reptilia: 149*
Sediments: 184*
Tunicata: 535
STRONTIUM
Algae, Diatoms, Dinoflagellates:
53, 150, 188, 215, 242, 261, 387,
413, 414, 415, 417, 439, 532, 535, 541,
547, 566, 6*, 222*, 223*, 224*,
298*, 310*, 347*, 380*, 381*, 522*
Amphibia: 79*, 184*, 335*
Annelida: 535, 370*
Aves: 541, 347*
Bacteria & Yeasts: 322, 532, 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryophyta: 414, 6*, 310*
Bryazoa: 232, 535
Coelenterata: 413, 414, 535
Crustacea: 53, 107, 188, 261, 264, 358, 360, 413, 414, 439, 466,
532, 535, 541, 13*, 291*, 299*, 348*, 380*, 381*, 467*
Detritus: 393, 413, 415, 6*
Echinodermata: 188, 261, 535
Elasmobranchii: 353
Fish: 53, 67, 68, 69, 75, 142, 150, 156, 169, 188, 222, 242, 261,
262, 264, 349, 359, 360, 368, 439, 449, 458, 459, 524, 525,
535, 541, 547, 4*, 16*, 75*, 79*, 80*, 142*, 169*, 170*,
184*, 262*, 310*, 368*, 371*, 379*, 380*, 381*, 403*, 435*,
443*, 444*, 445*, 449*, 450*, 455*, 458*, 459*, 474*, 514*,
524*
Higher Plants: 535, 541, 347*, 522*
Insecta: 370*
Mammalia: 541, 202*, 310*, 347*
-259-
-------
STRONTIUM (continued)
Miscellaneous: 358
Mollusca: 14, 53, 188, 196, 242, 261, 387, 413, 414, 417,
466, 535, 541, 65*, 66*, 79*, 184*, 190*, 224*,
370*, 385*
Phoronidea: 535
Phytoplankton: 322
Plankton: 466
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 413, 414, 466, 535
Sediments: 150, 466, 73*, 79*, 184*
Soils: 541
Tunicata: 535
TECHNETIUM
Sediments:
73*
TELLURIUM
Crustacea:
265
THALLIUM
Algae: 535
Amphibia: 138*
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 369, 535, 369*
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 156, 273, 369, 535,
Higher Plants: 535
Mollusca: 535
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535
273*, 369*
THORIUM
Algae: 151
Amphibia: 138*
Fish: 334*, 401*
Higher Plants: 401*
Mammalia: 401*
-260-
439,
347*,
-------
TIN
Algae: 535
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 232, 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 506, 535, 13*, 92*, 409*
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 106, 142, 403, 535, 142*, 294*, 409*
Higher Plants: 535
Mollusca: 535
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535
TITANIUM
Algae: 535
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 535
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 403, 535
Higher Plants: 535
Mollusca: 535
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535
TRITIUM
Fish: 478*
Sediments:
73*
TUNGSTEN
Algae: 535
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
-261-
-------
TUNGSTEN (continued)
Crustacea: 535
Echinodermata:
Fish: 535
Higher Plants:
Mollusca: 535
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535
535
535
URANIUM
Algae: 151, 308*
Bacteria & Yeasts: 427, 206*
Miscellaneous: 392*
Fish: 27, 308*, 334*, 512*
VANADIUM
Algae: 535
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 232, 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 535
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 106, 403, 535
Higher Plants: 535
Mollusca: 535
Phoronidea: 535
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Tunicata: 535
YTTRIUM
Algae: 215, 387, 439, 535
Amphibia: 335*
Annelida: 535
Bacteria: 322, 535
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryazoa: 535
Coelenterata: 535
Crustacea: 439, 466, 535, 299*
Echinodermata: 535
Fish: 22, 68, 75, 273, 368, 439,
474*, 514*
-262-
525, 535, 22*, 75*, 273*, 368*,
-------
YTTRIUM (continued)
Higher Plants: 535
Insecta: 192*
Mollusca: 387, 439,
Phoronidea: 535
Phytoplankton: 322
Plankton: 466
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Sediments: 466
Tunicata: 535
466, 535
ZINC
Algae, Diatoms & Dinoflagellates:
40, 47, 53, 54, 87, 102, 210,
211, 242, 354, 383, 436, 471,
521, 532, 535, 539, 550, 48*,
127*, 193*, 222*, 224*, 269*,
345*, 394*, 419*, 420*, 486*
Amphibia: 79*, 138*, 184*
Annelida: 404, 405, 535, 553, 217*, 284*, 545*
Bacteria & Yeasts: 532, 535, 419*
Brachiopoda: 535
Bryophyta: 284*
Bryazoa: 232, 535, 553
Chaetognatha: 313
Coelenterata: 526, 535
Crustacea: 40, 53, 80, 102, 124, 125, 145, 147, 148, 181, 182,
183, 313, 314, 360, 382, 397, 421, 471, 506, 507,
532, 535, 539, 546, 553, 561, 13*, 60*, 92*, 284*,
314*, 343*, 344*, 378*. 409*, 507*, 508*
Detritus: 286*
Echinodermata: 101, 291, 384, 485, 533, 535, 533*
E1asmobranchii: 153
Fish: 3, 20, 40, 53, 62, 76, 77, 78, 106, 108, 142, 152, 154, 156,
157, 179, 198, 203, 205, 207, 209, 229, 233, 234, 238, 241,
242, 250, 273, 282, 288, 292, 314, 315, 327, 328, 329, 330,
360, 383, 398, 411, 432, 436, 437, 438, 454, 463, 464, 471,
479, 482, 487, 488, 489, 490, 491, 492, 493, 494, 495, 504,
507, 521, 535, 539, 540, 3*, 18*, 19*, 20*, 48*, 76*, 77*,
78*, 79*, 81*, 93*, 94*, 95*, 97*, 98*, 109*, 123*, 128*,
142*, 179*, 184*, 198*, 203*, 205*, 207*, 209*, 217*, 222*,
229*, 233*, 234*, 238*, 241*, 273*, 282*, 284*, 287*, 288*,
314*, 315*, 327*, 328*, 329*, 330*, 334*, 343*, 344*, 345*,
362*, 378*, 394*, 406*, 407*, 408*, 409*, 411*, 412*, 430*,
431*, 432*. 454*, 463*, 464*, 479*, 480*, 481*, 482*, 487*,
488*, 489*, 490*, 491*, 492*, 493*, 494*, 495*, 496*, 507*,
540*, 564*
Higher Plants: 418, 535, 19*, 284*, 419*, 437*
-263-
-------
Insecta: 493, 217*, 284*, 286*, 410*, 493*, 537*
Mammalia: 202*
Miscellaneous: 89*, 127*, 392*
Mollusca: 53, 62, 108, 145, 146, 147, 148, 158, 172, 174, 242,
313, 354, 383, 404, 405, 421, 424, 425, 426, 451, 457, 475,
477, 504, 506, 524, 533, 535, 539, 553, 557, 561, 562,
79*, 93*, 135*, 136*, 184*, 194*, 217*, 219*, 220*,
223*, 224*, 284*, 394*, 395*, 524*, 533*, 557*, 559*,
560*
Phoronidea: 535
Platyhelminthes: 284*
Porifera: 535
Protozoa: 535
Sa1ps: 313
Sediments:
Tunicata:
101, 147, 418, 437, 477, 48*. 79*, 184*, 217*, 419*
382, 535
ZIRCONIUM
Algae: 102, 178, 214, 333, 483, 539, 193*, 310*, 555*
Crustacea: 102, Ill, 360, 466, 539
Detritus: 110, III
E1asmobranchii: 353
Fish: 360, 383, 539, 310*
Higher Plants: 310*, 555*
Mammalia: 310*
Mollusca: 383, 466, 539, 557, 190*, 194*, 557*
Plankton: 466
Porifera: 333
Sediments: 466
-264-
-------
INDEX - .TAXA
ALGAE (INCLUDING DIATOMS & DINOFLAGELLATES)
A1uminwn: 535
Antimony: 483, 535, 541
Arsenic: 535, 42*, 338*, 420*
Bariwn: 535, 56*, 228*
Bery1liwn: 535
Bismuth: 535, 541
Cadmium: 242, 262, 535, 262*, 486*
Ca1ciwn: 503, 193*, 269*, 298*, 380*, 381*
Ceriwn: 17, 28, 214, 215, 333, 383, 413, 414, 415, 439. 440,
471, 483, 535, 539, 541, 323*, 555*
Cesium: 28, 53, 211, 242, 261, 383, 413, 414, 415, 532, 535,
541, 29*, 222*, 223*, 224*, 300*, 310*, 399*, 548*.
549*, 555*
Chromiwn: 40, 383, 526, 539, 394*
Cobalt: 242, 261, 333, 383, 446, 471, 535, 541, 193*, 223*, 224*,
269*, 472*
Copper: 256, 346, 351, 521, 535, 42*, 48*, 122*, 132*, 134*,
173*, 175*, 228*, 269*, 332*, 338*, 339*, 345*, 394*,
420*, 486*
535
535
Ga1liwn :
Germaniwn:
Gold: 535
Iron: 30, 242, 261, 262, 471, 513, 521, 535, 541, 550, 551, 48*,
132*, 193*, 223*, 224*, 262*
Lanthaniwn: 535
Lead: 228*, 269*, 420*
Lithiwn: 535
Magnesium: 269*
Manganese: 17, 261, 333, 383, 471, 483, 539, 541, 550, 223*, 224*,
228*, 555*
Mercury: 535, 269*
Mo1ybdenwn: 535
Neodymiwn: 535
Nickel: 535, 228*, 269*, 486*
Niobiwn: 102, 178, 214, 215, 333, 483, 535, 539, 555*
P1utoniwn: 150, 516, 541
Potassiwn: 333, 535, 547, 548, 549
Praseodymium: 333, 439, 535
Promethewn: 17, 555*
Radiwn: 151, 350*, 401*, 476*
Rheniwn: 555*
Rhodiwn: 17, 333
Rubidium: 535, 193*
Rutheniwn: 17, 28, 53, 150, 214. 281, 333, 483, 539, 541, 547,
551, 310*, 555*
-265-
-------
ALGAE (continued)
Salinity: 9, 462, 462*
Samarium: 535
Silicon: 535
Silver: 535, 228*, 269*
Sodium: 535
Strontium: 53, 150, 188, 214, 242, 261, 387,
439,532,535,541,547,566,6*,
298*, 310*, 380*. 381*, 522*
535
151, 401*
413, 414, 415, 417,
222*, 223*, 224*,
Thallium :
Thorium:
Tin: 535
Titanium: 535
Tungsten: 535
Uranium: 151, 308*
Yttrium: 215, 387, 439, 535
Vanadium: 535
Zinc: 47, 53, 54, 87, 102, 210, 211, 242, 354, 383, 436, 471,
521, 532, 535, 539, 550, 127*, 222*, 223*, 224*, 269*,
345*, 394*, 419*, 486*
Zirconium: 102, 214, 215, 333, 383, 483, 539, 193*, 310*, 555*
AMPHIBIA
Beryllium: 138*
Calcium: 317*
Cesium: 79*. 399*
Cobalt: 79*, 260*
Copper: 138*, 175*
Lead: 58*, 138*, 260*, 293*
Nickel: 260*
Potassium: 317*
Sodium: 317*
Strontium: 79*, 335*
Thallium: 138*
Thorium: 138*
Yttrium: 335*
Zinc: 79*, 138*
ANNELIDA
Aluminum: 535
Antimony: 535
Arsenic: 535
Barium: 535
Beryllium: 535
Bismuth: 535
Cadmium: 155,
Calcium: 115,
535, 468*
535, 115*
-266-
-------
ANNELIDA (continued)
Cerium: 535
Cesium: 84, 535
Chromium: 114, 434, 535, 502*
Cobalt: 535, 468*
Copper: 405, 434, 535, 553, 502*
Gallium: 535
Germanium: 535
Gold: 535
Iron: 115, 404, 405, 535, 115*
Lanthanum: 535
Lead: 545*
Li thium: 535
Magnesium: 115, 115*
Manganese: 468*
Mercury: 535, 553, 468*
Molybdenum: 535
Neodymium: 535
Nickel: 535, 468*
Niobium: 535
Potassium: 84, 115, 535, 115*
Praseodymium: 535
Rubidium: 535
Samarium: 404, 405, 535
Scandium: 404, 405
Silicon: 535
Silver: 535
Sodium: 115, 535, 115*
Strontium: 535, 370*
Thallium: 535
Tin: 535
Titanium: 535
Tungsten: 535
Vanadium: 535
Yttrium: 535
Zinc: 283, 404, 405, 535, 545, 553, 283*
ASCIDIA
Chromium:
526
AVES
Antimony:
Bismuth:
Cerium:
Cesium:
541*
541*
541*
541*
-267-
-------
AVES (continued)
Cobalt: 541",
Iron: 541*
Lead: 118*, 259*
Manganese: 541*
Mercury: 276, 543,
Plutonium: 541*
Ruthenium: 541*
Strontium: 541*
276*, 543*
BACTERIA
Aluminum: 535
Antimony: 535
Arsenic: 535
Barium: 535
Beryllium: 535
Bismuth: 535
Cadmium: 535
Calcium: 204, 535
Cerium: 535
Cesium: 532, 535
Chromium: 535
Cobalt: 535
Copper: 497, 535, 290*
Gallium: 535
Germanium: 535
Gold: 535
Iron: 535
Lanthanum: 535
Lead: 290*
Lithium: 535
Mercury: 447, 535, 447*
Molybdenum: 535
Neodymium: 535
Nickel: 535
Niobium: 535
Potassium: 535
Praseodymium: 535
Rubidium: 535
Salinity: 297
Samarium: 535
Silicon: 535
Silver: 535
Sodium: 535
Strontium: 322, 532, 535
Thalli um: 535
Tin: 535
-268-
-------
BACTERIA (continued)
Titanium: 535
Tungsten: 535
Uranium: 427, 206*
Vanadium: 535
Yttrium: 322, 535
Zinc: 532, 535, 419*
BRACHIOPODA
Aluminum: 535
Antimony: 535
Arsenic: 535
Barium: 535
Beryllium: 535
Bismuth: 535
Cadmium: 535
Calcium: 535
Cerium: 535
Cesium: 535
Chromium: 535
Cobalt: 535
Copper: 535
Gallium: 535
Germanium: 535
Gold: 535
Iron: 535
Lanthanum: 535
Lithium: 535
Mercury: 535
Molybdenum: 535
Neodymium: 535
Nickel: 535
Niobium: 535
Potassium: 535
Praseodymium: 535
Rubidium: 535
Samarium: 535
Silicon: 535
Silver: 535
Sodium: 535
Strontium: 535
Thalli urn: 535
Tin: 535
Titanium: 535
Tungsten: 535
Vanadium: 535
Yttrium: 535
Zinc: 535
- 269-
-------
BRYAZOA
Aluminum: 535
Antimony: 535
Arsenic: 535
Barium: 535
Beryllium: 535
Bismuth: 535
Cadmium: 535
Calcium: 535
Cerium: 535
Cesium: 535
Chromium: 535
Cobalt: 232, 535
Copper: 232, 357, 535, 553
Gallium: 535
Germanium: 535
Gold: 535
Iron: 535
Lanthanum: 535
Lead: 232
Lithium: 535
Manganese: 232
Mercury: 535, 553
Molybdenum: 535
Neodymium: 535
Nickel: 535
Niobium: 535
Potassium: 535
Praseodymium: 535
Rubidium: 535
Samarium: 535
Silicon: 535
Silver: 535
Sodium: 535
Strontium: 232, 535
Thallium: 535
Tin: 232, 535
Titanium: 535
Tungsten: 535
Vanadium: 232, 535
Yttrium: 535
Zinc: 232, 535, 553
BRYOPHYTA
Strontium:
Zinc: 284*
414, 6*, 310*
- 27 0-
-------
CHAETOGNATHA
Cobalt: 312, 313
Iron: 313
Zinc: 313
COELENTERATA
Aluminum: 535
Antimony: 535
Arsenic: 535
Barium: 535
Berylli um: 535
Bismuth: 535
Cadmium: 535
Calcium: 535
Cerium: 535
Cesium: 83, 535
Chromium: 535
Cobalt: 312, 535
Copper: 535
Gallium: 535
Germanium: 535
Gold: 535
Iron: 535
Lanthanum: 535
Lithium: 535
Mercury: 535
Molybdenum: 535
Neodymium: 535
Nickel: 535
Niobium: 535
Potassium: 535
Praseodymium: 535
Rubidium: 535
Samarium: 535
Silicon: 535
Silver: 535
Sodium: 535
Strontium: 413, 414, 535
Thallium: 535
Tin: 535
Titanium: 535
Tungsten: 535
Vanadium: 535
Yttrium: 535
Zinc: 535
-271
-------
CRUSTACEA
Aluminum: 428, 506, 535, 546, 409*
Antimony: 535, 541, 13*
Arsenic: 520, 535, 12*, 92*, 342*, 520*
Barium: 360, 535, 13*
Beryllium: 535
Bismuth: 535, 541
Cadmium: 155, 535, 13*, 92*, 468*
Calcium: 31, 115, 461, 535, 13*, 115*, 299*, 301*, 381*, 461*,
467*
Cerium: 28, 111, 124, 265, 413, 471, 535, 539. 541, 299*
Cesium: 28, 52, 82, 83, 84, 86, 261, 264, 265, 314, 361, 413,
498, 532, 535, 541, 300*, 306*, 314*
Chromium: 40, 124. 434, 453, 506, 526, 535, 539, 13*, 91*, 319*,
409*
Cobalt: 261, 312, 313, 471, 507, 535, 541, 13*, 91*, 468*, 507*,
554*, 561*
Copper: 50, 51, 85, 119, 256, 421, 429, 499, 507, 509, 535, 546,
553, 13*, 25*, 60*, 91*, 122*, 171*, 254*, 255*, 343*,
344*, 378*, 409*, 412*, 434*, 507*, 509*
Europium: 466
Gallium: 535
Germanium: 535
Gold: 146, 535
Iron: 115, 261, 313, 453, 471, 506, 535, 541, 546, 13*, 60*, 91*,
115*, 161*, 390*, 409*
Lanthanum: 360, 535
Lead: 546, 13*, 92*, 161*, 343*, 344*, 378*, 409*
Lithium: 31, 535, 13*
Magnesium: 115, 461, 13*, 115*, 461*
Manganese: 13, 88, 261, 314, 466, 471, 539, 541, 561, 91*, 161*,
314*, 337*, 468*
Mercury: 119, 120, 121, 218, 421, 429. 507, 509. 535, 553, 13*,
92*, 218*, 342*, 468*. 507*, 509*
Molybdenum: 535
Neodymium: 535
Nickel: 428, 507, 535, 12*, 91*, 161*, 343*, 344*, 378*, 409*,
468*, 507*
Niobium: 102, 111, 466, 535, 539
Plutonium: 541
Potassium: 82, 83, 84, 86, 115, 167, 314, 461, 466, 535, 561,
13*, 115*, 306*, 314*, 461*
Praseodymium: 439, 466, 535
Promethium: 466
Radium: 466, 350*
Rubidium: 535
Ruthenium: 28, 53, 111, 265, 539, 541
Salinity: 148, 461, 506, 511, 523, 461*
-272-
-------
CRUSTACEA (continued)
535
124
535
535
31, 84, 115, 264, 336, 423, 461, 535, 12*, 13*, llY<,
115*, 423*, 461*
Strontium: 53, 107, 188, 261, 264, 358, 360, 413, 414, 439.
466, 532, 535, 541, 13*, 291*, 299*, 348*, 380*,
381*, 467*
Tellurium: 265
Thallium: 369, 535, 369*
Tin: 506, 535, 13*, 92*, 409*
Ti tanium: 535
Tungsten: 535
Vanadium: 535
Yttrium: 439, 466, 535, 299*
Zinc: 40, 53, 80, 102, 124, 125, 145, 147, 148, 181, 182, 183,
313, 314, 360, 382, 397, 421, 471, 506, 507, 532, 535,
539, 546, 553, 561, 13*, 60*, 92*, 284*, 314*, 343*,
344*, 378*, 409*, 507*, 508*
Zirconium: 102, 111, 360, 466, 539
Samarium:
Scandium:
Silicon:
Silver:
Sodium:
DETRITUS
Cerium: 110, 111, 393, 415
Cesium: 393, 413, 415
Niobium: 110, 111
Praseodymi1~: 535
Rhodium: 110
Ruthenium: 110, 111, 393
Strontium: 393, 413, 415, 6*
Zinc: 286*
Zirconium: 110, 111
ECHINODERMATA
Aluminum: 535
Antimony: 535
Arsenic: 535
Barium: 535
Beryllium: 535
Bismuth: 535
Cadmium: 155, 535
Calcium: 530, 535
Cerium: 535
Cesium: 83, 261, 535
Chromium: 535
- 273-
-------
ECHINODERMATA (continued)
Cobalt: 535, 261*
Copper: 71, 485, 487, 535, 487*
Gallium: 535
Germanium: 535
Gold: 535
Iron: 26l, 535
Lanthanum: 535
Lithium: 535
Manganese: 261
Mercury: 485, 535
Molybdenum: 535
Neodymium: 535
Nickel: 535
Niobium: 535
Potassium: 83, 535
Praseodymium: 535
Rubidium: 535
Salinity: 518
Samarium: 535
Silicon: 535
Silver: 485, 535
Sodium: 535
Strontium: 188, 261, 535
Thallium: 535
Tin: 535
Titanium: 535
Tungsten: 535
Vanadium: 535
Yttrium: 535
Zinc: 101, 291, 384, 485, 533, 535, 533*
ELASMOBRANCHII
Calcium: 153
Cerium: 353
Cesium: 353
Iron: 153
Magnesium: 153, 263
Niobium: 353
Potassium: 153, 263, 296
Ruthenium: 353
Sodium: 153, 263
Strontium: 353
Zinc: 153
Zirconium: 353
- 2 7 4-
-------
FISH
Aluminum:
Antimony:
Arsenic:
142, 156, 428, 506, 535, 18*, 142*, 409*, 452*
535, 541, 274*, 334*
142, 205, 245, 520, 535, 37*, 42*, 70*, 142*, 166*,
205*, 245*, 274*, 334*, 342*, 520*, 531*
Barium: 156, 245, 273, 360, 535, 56*, 142*, 245*, 273*, 450*
Beryllium: 156, 271, 535, 512*
Bismuth: 535, 541
Cadmium: 35, 106, 142, 155, 156, 191, 242, 271, 441, 507, 535,
35*, 142*, 334*, 363*, 407*, 441*, 468*, 507*
Calcium: 2, 7, 11, 22, 69, 115, 142, 156, 157, 251, 262, 282,
309, 356, 449. 459, 525, 535, 1*, 4*, 7*, 11*, 22*,
37*, 80*, 95*, 115*, 128*, 142*, 184*, 251*, 262*,
282*, 301*, 309*, 356*, 371*, 380*, 381*, 443*, 444*,
445*, 449*, 459*, 528*
Cerium: 28, 106, 207, 270, 383, 439, 449, 471, 535, 539. 541,
207*, 323*, 449*
Cesium: 28, 41, 52, 156, 169, 176, 226, 242, 261, 264, 270, 273,
314, 315, 361, 374, 383, 386, 449, 535, 540, 541, 19*,
79*, 169*, 170*, 184*, 208*, 222*, 225*, 226*, 227*,
273*, 300*, 305*, 306*, 310*, 314*, 315*, 324*, 371*, 372*,
373*, 374*, 399*, 400*, 449*, 450*, 540*,
Chromium: 106, 142, 156, 185, 205, 241, 245, 383, 403, 460, 506,
535, 538, 539, 1*, 19*. 93*, 94*, 95*, 98*, 142*, 185*,
205*, 241*, 245*, 273*, 303*, 334*, 394*, 407*, 409*,
460*, 529*, 538*
Cobalt: 106, 142, 156, 242, 261, 273, 376, 383, 386, 471, 473,
507, 521, 535, 541, 79*, 142*, 184*, 273*, 334*, 468*,
472*, 473*, 507*
Copper: 2, 20, 30, 76, 77, 106, 108, 142, 156, 203, 231, 236, 245,
271, 282, 325, 328, 329, 330, 411, 454, 484, 488, 492, 493,
494, 495, 504, 509, 521, 535, 544, 18*, 42*, 48*, 76*, 77*,
93*, 128*, 134*, 142*, 143*, 175*, 203*, 231*, 236*, 245*,
282*, 325*, 328*, 329*, 330*, 334*, 340*, 343*, 344*, 345*,
363*, 365*, 375*, 378*, 394*, 407*, 409*, 410*, 411*, 454*,
484*, 488*, 489*, 492*, 493*, 494*, 495*, 509*, 527*, 536*,
564*
Europium: 273, 273*
Gallium: 535
Germanium: 535
Gold: 146, 156, 535, 334*
Iron: 3, 24, 106, 115, 142, 156, 213, 242, 261, 272, 273, 386, 411,
471, 506, 521, 535, 538, 541, 551, 3*, 18*, 26*, 48*, 90*,
115*, 129*, 142*, 161*, 168*, 213*, 273*, 390*, 409*, 411*,
433*, 452*, 500*, 538*
Lanthanum: 360, 535, 334*
-275-
-------
FISH (continued)
Lead: 2, 139, 140, 142, 156, 209, 212, 248, 271, 282, 295, 328,
330, 403, 104*, 105*, 123*, 140*, 142*, 161*, 209*, 212*,
248*, 282*, 286*, 295*, 328*, 330*, 343*, 344*, 378*, 407*,
409*, 501*, 517*, 542*,
Lithium: 142, 156, 535, 142*
Magnesium: 7, 115, 142, 152, 156, 157, 213, 258, 356, 7*, 80*,
115*, 128*, 142*, 184*, 213*, 258*, 356*, 380*
Manganese: 2, 106, 142, 156, 207, 209, 261, 273, 314, 315, 383,
398, 403, 457, 471, 521, 538, 539, 541, 142*, 161*,
207*, 209*, 273*, 314*, 315*, 337*, 468*, 538*
Mercury: 2, 11, 21, 36, 49, 57, 63, 142, 160, 180, 218, 230, 241,
266, 267, 271, 273, 275, 276, 283, 316, 352, 442, 447,
448, 507, 509, 535, 543
Molybdenum: 535
Neodymium: 535
Nickel: 2, 77, 106, 141, 156, 507, 521, 535, 77*, 128*, 141*, 143*,
161*, 343*, 344*, 375*, 378*, 407*, 409*, 468*, 507*
Niobium: 383, 535, 539
Plutonium: 150, 516, 541
Polonium: 209, 248, 5*, 209*, 248*
Potassium: 2, 7, 115, 142, 152, 156, 157, 199, 200, 207, 213, 245,
251, 258, 273, 314, 315, 341, 356, 460, 535, 540, 547,
1*, 70*, 80*, 115*, 142*, 184*, 199*, 200*, 207*, 213*,
227*, 245*, 251*, 258*, 273*, 306*, 314*, 315*, 356*,
370*, 372*, 450*, 460*, 528*, 540*
Praseodymium: 439, 535
Radium: 248, 273, 248*, 273*, 326*, 350*, 391*, 401*
Rhenium: 334*
Rubidium: 156, 535, 334*
Ruthenium: 28, 53, 150, 281, 539, 541, 547, 310*
Salinity: 7, 8, 15, 23, 57, 59, 103, 112, 117, 144, 177, 199, 200,
201,237,246,247,251,252, 253, 307, 341, 356, 388,
389, 422, 462, 470, 507, 510, 518, 7*, 8*, 23*, 57*,
59*, 112*, 117*, 144*, 177*, 199*, 200*, 201*, 237*,
251*, 252*, 253*, 307*, 356*, 388*, 389*, 422*, 462*,
507*, 510*
535
273, 273*
334*
309, 535, 309*
142, 156, 241, 271, 273, 386,
2,7,15,108,115,142,152,
199, 200, 213, 239, 245, 251,
1*, 7*, 80*, 9)*, 113*, 115*,
200*, 213*, 225*, 239*, 245*,
452*, 528*
Samarium:
Scandium:
Selenium:
Silicon:
Si1v,::r:
Sodium:
535, 142*, 143*, 241*, 273*
156, 157, 162, 163, 164, 165,
258, 264, 273, 307, 341, 535,
123*, 128*, 142*, 184*, 199*,
251*, 258*, 273*, 307*, 356*,
-276-
-------
FISH (continued)
Strontium: 53,67,68,69, 75, 142, 150, 156, 169, 188, 222, 242,
261, 262, 264, 349, 359. 360, 368, 439, 449, 458, 459,
524,525,535,541,547,4*, 16*, 75~', 79~', 80*, 142*,
169*, 170*, 184*, 262*, 310*, 368*, 371*, 379*, 380*,
381*, 403*, 435*, 443*, 444*, 445*, 449*, 450*, 455*,
458*, 459*, 474*, 514*, 524*
Thallium: 156, 273, 369, 535, 273*,369*
Thorium: 334*, 401*
Tin: 106, 142, 403, 535, 142*, 294*, 409*
Titanium: 403, 535
Tritium: 478*
Tungsten: 535
Uranium: 27, 308*, 334*, 512*
Vanadium: 106, 403, 535
Yttrium: 22, 68, 75, 273, 368, 439, 525, 535, 22*, 75*, 273*, 368*,
474*, 514*
Zinc: 3,20,40,53,62,76,77,78,106,108,142,152,154,156,
157,179.198,203,205,207,209,229,233, 234, 238, 241,
242, 250, 273, 282, 288, 292, 314, 315, 327, 328, 329, 330,
360,383,398,411,432,436,437,438,454,463,464,471,
479, 482, 487, 488, 489, 490, 491, 492, 493, 494, 495, 504,
507,521,535,539.540,3*,18*,19*,20*,48*,76*,77*,
78*, 79*, 81*, 93*, 94*, 95*, 97*, 98*, 109*, 123*, 128*,
142*, 179*, 184*, 198*, 203*, 205*, 207*, 209*, 217*, 222*,
229*, 233*, 234*, 238*, 241*, 273*, 282*, 284*, 287*, 288*,
314*, 315*, 327*, 328*, 329*, 330*, 334*, 343*, 344*, 345*,
362*, 378*, 394*, 406*, 407*, 408*, 409*, 411*, 412*, 430*,
431*, 432*, 454*, 463*, 464*, 479*, 480*, 481*, 482*, 487*,
488*, 489*, 490*, 491*, 492*, 493*, 494*, 495*, 496*, 507*,
540*, 564*
Zirconium: 360, 383, 539, 310*
HIGHER PLANTS
Aluminum: 535
Antimony: 535, 541
Arsenic: 535, 531*
Barium: 535
Beryllium: 535
Bismuth: 535, 541
Cadmium: 535
Calcium: 535
Cerium: 413, 535, 541, 555*
Cesium: 413, 535, 541, 19*, 306*, 310*, 399*, 400*, 555*
Chromium: 535
Cobalt: 535, 541
Copper: 535, 38*, 175*
-277-
-------
HIGHER PLANTS (continued)
Galli um: 535
Germanium: 535
Gold: 535
Iron: 535, 541
Lanthanum: 535
Lithium: 535
Manganese: 541, 555*
Mercury: 218, 535, 543, 218*, 543*
Molybdenum: 535
Neodymi um: 535
Nickel: 535
Niobium: 535, 555*
Plutonium: 541
Potassium: 535, 306*
Praseodymium: 535
Promethium: 555
Radium: 391*, 401*
Rhenium: 555*
Rubidium: 535
Ruthenium: 541, 310*, 555*
Samarium: 535
Silicon: 535
Silver: 535
Sodium: 535
Strontium: 535, 541, 347*, 522*
Thallium: 535
Thorium: 401*
Tin: 535
Titanium: 535
Tungsten: 535
Vanadium: 535
Yttrium: 535
Zinc: 418, 535, 19*, 284*, 419*, 437*
Zirconium: 310*. 555*
INSECTA
Cadmium: 468*, 537*
Calcium: 115, 115*
Chromium: 502*, 537*
Cobalt: 468*, 537*
Copper: 492, 493, 171*, 175*, 410*, 492*, 493*, 502*, 537*
Iron: 115, 115*, 537*
Lead: 537*
Magnesium: 115, 115*
Manganese: 337*, 468*
Mercury: 192*, 468*, 537*
-278-
-------
INSECTA (continued)
Nickel: 468*, 537*
Potassium: 115, 115*
Radium: 391*
Sodium: 115, 115*
Strontium: 370*
Yttrium: 192*
Zinc: 493, 217*, 284*, 286*, 410*, 493*, 537*
MAMMALIA
Antimony: 541
Barium: 202*
Bismuth: 541
Cadmium: 202*, 279*
Calcium: 202*
Cerium: 541
Cesium: 541, 310*
Cobalt: 541, 278~,279*
Copper: 202*, 278*
Gold: 202*
Iron: 541
Lead: 248, 202*, 248*, 278*, 279*
Manganese: 541, 202*, 278*, 279*
Mercury: 266, 302, 316, 202*, 266*,
Plutonium: 541
Polonium: 248, 248*
Radium: 248, 248*, 401*
Ruthenium: 541, 310*
Silver: 202*
Strontium: 541, 202*, 310*, 347*
Thorium: 401*
Zinc: 202*
Zirconium: 310*
278*, 279*
MISCELLANEOUS
Aluminum: 505
Barium: 392*
Bibliography: 366, 366*
Cadmium: 392*
Calcium: 392*
Cesium: 358
Chromium: 64*
Cobalt: 392*
Copper: 10, 64*, 89*, 290*
Iron: 24
-279-
-------
MISCELLANEOUS (continued)
Lead: 52, 89*, 104*, 392*
Magnesium: 392*
Manganese: 392*
Mercury: 392*
Nickel: 64*, 392*
Potassium: 289*
Salini ty : 289*
Silver: 392*, 563*
Strontium: 358
Zinc: 89*, 127*, 392*
MOLLUSCA
Aluminum: 216, 428, 506, 535
Antimony: 466, 535, 541
Arsenic: 456, ~34, 535, 338*
Barium: 535, 557, 557*
Beryllium: 535
Bibliography: 45, 45*, 56*
Bismuth: 535, 541, 65*
Cadmium: 155, 242, 426, 475, 477, 535, 221*, 559*, 560*
Calcium: 32, 33, 61, 115, 158, 204, 530, 535, 65*, 66*, 115*, 184*
Cerium: 28, 383, 425, 439, 457, 535, 539, 541, 190*, 224*, 466*
Cesium: 28, 52, 83, 84, 242, 261, 361, 383, 413, 425, 535, 541, 557
79*, 184*, 190*, 194*, 224*, 557*
Chromium: 475, 506, 535, 539, 93*, 224*, 383*, 394*, 426*
Cobalt: 79, 261, 312, 383, 426, 535, 541, 561, 184*, 194*, 224*,
242*
Copper: 72, 108, 187, 240, 405, 421, 426, 475, 477, 504, 509, 535,
553, 44*, 133*, 175*, 197*, 220*, 221*, 244*, 338*, 377*,
394*, 396*, 509*, 552*, 558*, 559*
Europium: 466
Gallium: 535
Germanium: 535
Gold: 146, 425, 535
Iron: 115, 158, 242, 243, 261, 313, 321, 404, 405, 426, 506, 535,
541, 14*, 115*, 390*
Lanthanum: 535, 557, 557*
Lead: 248, 426, 137*, 248*
Lithium: 32, 61, 535
Magnesium: 61, 115, 158, 115*, 184*, 558*
Manganese: 100, 261, 383, 426, 466, 539, 541, 557, 561, 189*, 219*,
223*, 355*, 557*
, Mercury: 266, 267, 302, 316, 352, 421, 509, 535, 553, 266*, 352*,
509*
Molybdenum: 535
Neodymium: 535
- 280--
-------
MOLLUSCA (continued)
Nickel: 46, 421, 426, 535
Niobium: 383, 466, 535, 539, 557, 190*, 557*
Plutonium: 541
Polonium: 248, 248*
Potassium: 33, 34, 83, 84, 115, 158, 318, 466, 535, 561, 115*,
184*
Praseodymium: 439, 466, 535
Promethium: 466
Radium: 248, 466, 65*, 248*
Rubidium: 535
Ruthenium: 28,
Salinity: 148,
Samarium: 404,
Scandium: 404,
Silicon: 535
Silver: 535, 221*
Sodium: 32, 33, 34, 61, 84, 108, 115, 158, 367, 535, 115*,
Strontium: 14, 53, 188, 196, 242, 261, 387, 413, 414, 417,
466, 535, 541, 65*, 66*, 79*, 184*, 190*, 224*,
370*, 385*
535
53, 281,
367, 578
405, 535
405
457,539,541,557,565,190*,557*
184*
439,
347*,
Thallium:
Tin: 535
Titanium: 535
Tungsten: 535
Vanadium: 535
Yttrium: 387, 439, 466, 535
Zinc: 53, 62, 108, 145, 146, 147, 148, 158, 172, 174, 242, 313,
354,383,404,405,421,424,425,426,451,457,475,477,
504,506,524,533,535,539,553,557,561,562,79*,93*,
135*, 136*, 184*, 194*, 217*, 219*, 220*, 223*, 224*, 284*,
394*, 395*, 524*, 533*, 557*, 559*, 560*
Zirconium: 383, 466, 539. 557, 190*, 194*, 557*
PHORONIDEA
Aluminum: 535
Antimony: 535
Arsenic: 535
Barium: 535
Beryllium: 535
Bismuth: 535
Cadmium: 535
Calcium: 535
Cerium: 535
Cesium: 535
Chromium: 535
Cobalt: 535
Copper: 535
-281-
-------
PHORONIDEA (continued)
Gallium: 535
Germanium: 535
Gold: 535
Iron: 535
Lanthanum: 535
Lithium: 535
Mercury: 535
Molybdenum: 535
Neodymium: 535
Nickel: 535
Niobi um: 535
Potassium: 535
Praseodymium: 535
Rubidium: 535
Samarium: 535
Silicon: 535
Silver: 535
Sodium: 535
Strontium: 535
Thallium: 535
Tin: 535
Titanium: 535
Tungsten: 535
Vanadium: 535
Yttrium: 535
Zinc: 535
PLANKTON
Cerium: 466
Iron: 131
Praseodymium: 466
Zirconium: 466
PORIFERA
Aluminum: 535
Antimony: 535
Arsenic: 535
Barium: 535
Beryllium: 535
Bismuth: 535
Cadmium: 535
Calcium: 535
Cerium: 333, 535
Cesium: 535
Chromium: 535
Cobalt: 333, 535
-282-
-------
PORIFERA (continued)
Copper: 535
Gallium: 535
Germanium: 535
Gold: 535
Iron: 535
Lanthanum: 535
Lithium: 535
Manganese: 333
Mercury: 535
Molybdenum: 535
Neodymium: 535
Nickel: 535
Niobium: 333, 535
Potassium: 333, 535
Praseodymium: 333, 535
Rubidium: 535
Samarium: 535
Silicon: 535
Silver: 535
Sodium: 535
Strontium: 535
Thallium: 535
Tin: 535
Titanium: 535
Tungsten: 535
Vanadium: 535
Yttrium: 535
Zinc: 535
Zirconium: 333
PROTOZOA
Aluminum: 535
Antimony: 535
Arsenic: 535
Barium: 535
Beryllium: 535
Bismuth: 535
Cadmium: 535
Calcium: 535
Cesium: 413, 535
Cerium: 83, 415, 535
Chromium: 535
Cobalt: 535
Copper: 535
Gallium: 535
Germanium: 535
- 2 8 3-
-------
PROTOZOA (continued)
Gold: 535
Iron: 535
Lanthanum: 535
Lithium: 535
Mercury: 535
Molybdenum: 535
Neodymium: 535
Nickel: 535
Niobium: 535
Potassium: 83, 535
Praseodymium: 535
Rubidium: 535
Samarium: 535
Silicon: 535
Silver: 535
Sodium: 535
Strontium: 413, 414, 466, 535
Thallium: 535
Tin: 535
Titanium: 535
Tungsten: 535
Vanadium: 535
Yttrium: 535
Zinc: 535
REPTILIA
Lead: 74*
Sodium: 149*
SALPS
Cobalt: 312, 313
Iron: 43, 313
Zinc: 313
SEDIMENTS
Antimony: 466
Cadmium: 478*
Calcium: 184*
Cerium: 466
Cesium: 79*, 184*, 399*
Cobalt: 79*, 184*
Copper: 477, 48*, 339*
Europium: 466
Gold: 146
Iron: 48*
- 284-
-------
SEDIMENTS (continued)
Magnesium: 184*
Manganese: 466
Mercury: 218, 230, 267, 218*, 230*
Niobium: 466
Plutonium: 150
Potassium: 466, 184*
Praseodymium: 466
Promethium: 466
Radium: 466, 350*, 391*
Ruthenium: 150, 281, 551, 73*
Sodium: 184*
Strontium: 150, 466, 73*, 79*. 184*
Technetium, 73*
Tri tium: 73*
Yttrium: 466
Zinc: 101, 147, 418, 437, 477, 48*, 79*, 184*, 217*, 419*
Zirconium: 466
SOILS
Antimony: 541
Cerium: 541
Cesium: 541
Cobalt: 541
Iron: 541
Manganese: 541
Nickel: 46
Plutonium:
Ruthenium:
Strontium:
541
541
541
TUNICATA
Aluminum: 535
Antimony: 535
Arsenic: 535
Barium: 535
Beryllium: 535
Bismuth: 535
Cadmium: 535
Calcium: 535
Cerium: 535
Cesium: 83, 535
Chromium: 526, 535
Cobalt: 535
Copper: 535
Gallium: 535
-285-
-------
TUNICATA (continued)
Germanium: 535
Gold: 535
Iron: 535
Lanthanum: 535
Lithium: 535
Mercury: 535
Molybdenum: 535
Neodymium: 535
Nickel: 535
Niobium: 535
Potassium: 83, 535
Praseodymium: 535
Rubidium: 535
Samarium: 535
Silicon: 535
Silver: 535
Sodium: 535
Strontium: 535
Thallium: 535
Tin: 535
Titanium: 535
Tungsten: 535
Vanadium: 535
Yttrium: 535
Zinc: 382, 535
-286-
-------
SECTION IV
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This project was undertaken at the suggestion of Dr. Clarence M.
Tarzwell and Dr. Gilles LaRoche, Director and Program Coordinator,
respectively. National Marine Water Quality Laboratory. I wish
to acknowledge the assistance and cooperation of the following
individuals who participated in this project: final typing --
Mrs. Denise McNulty; preliminary typing -- Mrs. Beverly Clark,
Mrs. Shirley Wilkins; filing, indexing, cross-indexing, and
proofing -- Mr. Raymond J. Hennekey. Mr. Dennis F. Walsh, Mrs.
Joanna Bristol, Mrs. Nancy Leonard; editorial assistance -- Dr.
Carman S. Hegre and Dr. Donald K. Phelps.
-287-
*u.s. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE:I973 514-153/207 1-3
-------
SELECT ED W AT ER
RESOURCES ABSTRACTS
INPUT TRANSACTION FORM
1. RetJo(r No.2.
w
<
pO" Da.le
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF
METALS IN AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS.
/..
8. P ,rfornu. ,: Orga; :iation
R'PR7\e::.~~~~-:! -"".,
Ronald Eisler, Ph.D.
National Marine Water Quality Laboratory
P.O. Box 277
West Kingston, R.I.
02892
1.
Type I Rep" . ,1m!
Pnioa Cevered
'2. S,
"sorir: Organ .tion
Environmental Protection Agency report
number, EPA-R3-73-007, February 1973.
A total of 567
organisms were
Preference was
estuarine, and
references on biological effects of metals to aquatic
annotated and subsequently indexed by metals and by taxa.
given to articles on toxicity of heavy metals to marine,
anadromous species.
}' ,i [!
*Assay (Bioassay),
Effects (Toxicity)
*Aquatic animale,
*Metals, *Water Pollution
.'"}, r f
'.i.' ,
.~, ,l;r'!
*Bibliography
19. Security Class.
Repo,' )
Se. nty C; ,$.
(Pa;;e)
21. No. of
Pages
PI ..
Send To:
''I.
WATER RESOURCES SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION CENTER
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
WASHINGTON. D. C. 20240
Author
I
National Marine Water Quality Lab.
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