United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Corvallis Environmental
Research Laboratory
Corvallis, Oregon 97333
600R88107
OIL DEVELOPMENT
IN
NORTHERN ALASKA
A GUIDE TO THE EFFECTS OF
GRAVEL PLACEMENT ON
WETLANDS AND WATERBIRDS
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OIL DEVELOPMENT
IN
NORTHERN ALASKA
A GUIDE TO THE EFFECTS OF
GRAVEL PLACEMENT ON
WETLANDS AND WATERBIRDS
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OIL OEVELOPMENT IN NORTHERN ALASKA
A Guide to the Effects of Gravel Placement
on Wet lands and Waterbi rds
by
Rosa Meehan
U . S. F ish and Wi 1 d 1 if e S e r vice
Alaska Investigations
Branch of Wet lands and Marine Ecology
1011 E. T udo r R oa d
Anchorage, Alaska 99503
prepared for
u.S. Environmental Protection Agency
under U.S. Department of Energy
Interagency Agreement #DE-A106-84RL 10584
with U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Anchorage, Alaska 99503
Project Manager: Jon R. Nick les
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Alaska Investigations
Branch of Wetlands and Marine Ecology
Anchorage, Alaska 99503
Project Officer: James C. McCarty
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis, Oregon 97333
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CORVALLIS, OREGON 97333
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DISCLAIMER
ThlS report has been reviewed by the Corvallis Environmental Research
Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publication.
Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and
policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade
names or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
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ABSTRACT
This report provides guidance for resource managers involved with 011 and
gas development on Alaska's North Slope. The information is specific to the
Arctic Coastal Plain, and much is drawn from the Prudhoe Bay area. Guidance on
development impacts is most applicable in the Prudhoe Bay area and is generally
applicable to other areas in the Arctic Coastal Plain. The review focuses on
development impacts on tundra and the related changes in habitat value to
waterbirds. Background information on development patterns and specific
information on oilfield facilities are included.
General information is followed by an overview of impacts related to
development and discussion of specific impacts.
The three appendices contain specific information on vegetation and birds.
Appendix A is an annotated bibliography of major references on North Slope
birds and on physical impacts related to oilfield development. Appendix B
contains species accounts of the most common North Slope birds. Appendix C
contains a list of common and scientific names for birds and plants commonly
occurring on the Arctic Coastal Plain.
; i
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Funding for this project was provided through the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency's Cold Climate Environmental Research Program under U.S.
Depa rtment of Energy I ntera gency Agreement DE-A-106-84 RLl0584 with the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service.
Many people in the Fish and Wildlife Service made this project possible.
J. Stroebele helped initiate the project and provided help and encouragement
throughout the project. J. Nickles and K. Bayha provided supervision and
project review. P. Miller and K. Moiteret reviewed and commented on several
drafts of the final report. T. Rothe (now with the Alaska Department of Fish
and Game) was instrumental in project initiation. J. Morrison also aided in
project initiation and R. Jacobsen provided administrative support.
People in the Environmental Protection Agency involved in this project
included T. Rockwell, R. Sumner, R. Lipkin, and J. McCarty. J. States, with
Battelle Northwest Labs, provided project administration.
Many others helped in accessing older literature and unpublished informa-
tion, notably M. Andrews and N. Lederer at the Institute of Arctic and Alpine
Research. Others at the Institute aided through reviews and discussions of
Arctic Ecology and effects of development, including J. Ebersole, V. Komarkova,
and L. Klinger.
i i i
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CONTENTS
1.
Introduction
[[[ ..
2.
Regional Description
P hy s i 0 g rap hy
Climate
Vegetation
Deve 1 opment History
..... ..... ...... .... ........ ..... ... ....... .....
.................................................. .
...... ...... ...... ............ ........ ..... .... .........
[[[ ..
..... ........ ... .... ....... ....... ..... .....
3.
Avifauna
Overvi ew
Spring Migration
Breedi ng Season
Wate rf ow 1
Shorebirds/Passerines
Waterfowl Molting and Staging
Habitat
Distribution Patterns
Geographic
Regional Concentrations
......... [[[
. .................. ... ......... ...... ....... ....... ....
...... .... ............ ........ ...... .... .......
.... ....... ........ ........... ..... ... ..........
......... ...... ....... ............ ....... ........
. ......... .... .... ....... ........ ....
..... ...... .......... ......... ....
. .... ...... ........ ...... ......... .... ... ..... ....... ...
................................... .......
... ........ .... ....... ...... ..... ... ..... ... ....
.. ...... ....... ... ....... ..........
4.
Oilfield Development
Genera 1 Descripti on
Faci 1 i ty Descripti on
Gravel Mines and Overburden
Dri 11 sites /We11 pads
Flow Stations/Gathering Centers
Service Camp Pads
Gravel Roads
Ice Roads and Pads
Powerli nes
Pipelines and Construction Pads
. ....... ........... ............ ...... ...... .....
..... ......................... ... ...........
...... .... ......... ....... ... ..............
...................... .........
. ..... ......... .... .... .... ......... ...
.... ..... .... ...... ........
....... ...... ....... ... ..... ... ..........
. ... .... ... .... ..... ... ...... ..... ............
............... ............ ... ...... ....
. .... ....... .... ....... ..... ........... ... ......
... .... ...... .... ..........
5.
Impacts
Overvi ew
General Patterns
Specific Impacts
Gra ve 1 Cove r
Gravel t~ines
Impoundment s
Dust
Lat e Melt i n g
.... [[[
[[[ ..
.... .... ... ...... .......... ........ .... ..... ...
............................................. ..
....... ....... ........... ..... ...... .... ......
and Overbu rden
.......... ..... ......... ... ....
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G ra ve 1 Spray
Thermokarst
Off-road Travel
40
40
........................................... 41
............................................. .
... ....... .... ... ..... ... ... ..... ....... ......
6.
M i t i ga t i on
o ef i nit ion
Pol i cy
Miti gati on Steps
Recommended Mitigation of Specific
Gravel Cover
Gra ve 1 Mines and Overbu rden
Impoundments
Dust
Snow ba n k s
Gravel Spray
Thermoka rst
Compens at ion
........ ........... ... ... .............. ............ ... ....
[[[ ..
. ............ ...... .... ... ........ ........... ............
................................. ..............
Impacts
.....................
... ... ....... ......... ... ..... ....... .........
.. ....... ..... .......... .......
.......................................... ....
. ... ... ............. ..... ....... .... ... ... ..... ... ....
...... ................................... ........
....... ... .......... .... ... .... .... .... .......
.............................. .................
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7 .
Recommendations
Information Needs
Additional Issues
.............................................. .......
. ...... ..... ......... ....... ...... ......... ...
............................................. .
8.
Ref erences
. ...... ..... ....... ..... ... ...... ....... ....... ...... .....
APPENDIX A.
Waterbird and Surface
Impact Annotated Bibliographies
1.
Waterbi rd Bibl i ography
Introduction
Keyword I nde x
Geographic Location
Major Topic
Species
Annotated References
...... ..... .......... ....
. ........ ......... ...............
..................................... .
......... ..... ... ....... .............
.... ............. ..... ....
. ... .... ........... ... .... ... .....
........ .... ............ ...... ........
2.
Surface Impact Bibliography
I nt rodu ct ion
Keyword Index
Geographic Location
Major Type of Impact
Specific Impact or Information
Annotated References
. ...... ... ... ...............
. ........ ... .... .... ........ ..... .....
.................. ......... ..........
. ...... ......... ... ... ....
............ ... ...... ....
...............
... ...........................
APPENDIX B.
Speci es Accou nts
1.
I nt rodu ct i on
Red-throated Loon
Pacific Loon
Yellow-billed Loon
Tundra Swan
Greater White-fronted Goose
Snow Goose
.... ...... ......... ...... ....... ... ... .....
.... ... ........ ..... ......... ....
.. ....... ......... ...... ... ...... .....
........ ........ ......... .......
.... ..... .... ... ..... ..... .... ..... ....
.......................
. ... ... ..... .... ...... .... ... ... ... .....
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Page
42
42
42
43
45
45
46
46
47
48
48
48
48
49
49
50
51
1
1
1
3
5
8
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AP PENDI X
Brant
Canada Goose
Northern Pintail
Common Eider
Kin g E i de r
Oldsquaw
Lesser Golden-Plover
Semipalmated Sandpiper
Pectoral Sandpiper
Buff-breasted Sandpiper
Dunlin
Red -neck ed P ha 1 a rope
Red Phalarope
Lapland Longspur
................. ..... ...... .................
......... ..... ..... ...............
....... ...... ... .......... ........
... ... .... ...... ...... ....... .....
... .... ....... ...... ..... ......... ......
.. .... ... ....... .... ........ ... ....... ....
........ ... ...... .......... ...
..... .... ...................
.... ........... ..... ........ ....
...................... .....
.......................................... ..
........... ...... ...... .......
... ....... ......... ... ..... ... .......
... ... ...... ... ....... ....... .....
2.
References
...... ........... ... ... .... ..... ..... ........
C.
for North
P 1 a nt s
Slope
Birds
Common
and Scientific Names
and
1. North Slope Birds Sci ent ifi c and Common Names ....... 1
2. North Slope P 1 a nt s Scientific and Common Names ...... 6
3 . References ............................................. 8
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Page
11
13
14
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
25
26
27
28
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Fi gu re
Tab le
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
l.
2.
Physiographic provinces of the North Slope of Alaska
...............
3
Landscape units of the Beechey Point
quadrangle ....................
4
6
3. Thaw-lake Cycle (from Everett
1980) ................................
4.
Areas of oil and gas interest on the North Slope of Alaska ......... 12
5.
6.
Locations referenced in the discussion of bird distribution ........27
Oilfield development on North Slope of Alaska ...................... 31
7 .
Schematic drawing of a central production facility showing pipeline
congestion ............................ ............................. 33
LI ST OF TABLES
Page
l.
2.
Level B vegetation units common in the Prudhoe region
..............
9
Common surface forms in the Prudhoe region
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10
3. Criteria used to delineate wetland classes (Bergman et al. 1977) ...20
4.
Species preference for geobotanical-based habitat classification --
10 habitat classes (from Troy 1985) ................................21
5.
Species preference for geobotanical-based habitat classification --
20 habitat classes (from Troy 1985) ................................24
6.
Nest site preferences in the 10 habitat classifications (from Troy
1985) [[[ 26
7.
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1.
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this gui dance manua 1 is to:
SyntheslZe background information needed to evaluate environmental impacts
of development on Alaska's Arctic Coastal Plain, and
Provide a scientifically sound basis for recommendations to mltigate the
individual and cumulative impacts of wetland fills.
When oi 1 and gas development projects are proposed, they are reviewed by
various government agencies and public interest groups concerned with potential
environmental effects. Agencies must evaluate proposed projects within set
review periods and generally review several projects concurrently. Although
each agency has a specific mandate or emphasis, individual reviews represent
different aspects of the same issue -- the interaction between the proposed
project and the envi ronment -- and they are closely related. The guidelines
presented in this manual will assist agency reviewers in providing timely and
consistent reviews of development projects. The information and review
criteria used by agencies are presented to assist developers in project
planning and design. Incorporation of these criteria early in project planning
and desi gn should expedite permit review.
Rather than attempt to address all issues involved in North Slope develop-
ment, this guidance manual initially emphasizes development activities in
wetlands, specifically, impacts due to gravel fill. Because most development
activities occur in wetlands, focusing on wetlands rather than single species
provides a broader based evaluation of environmental impacts. The wetlands
focus also was chosen because wet lands fi 11 is the subject of major federal
review mandated by the Clean Water Act, as amended in 1977.
This guidance manual is intended to aid both those fami liar with the
Arctic Coastal Plain and those who are not by providing a synthesis of existing
information. The geobotanical classification developed by Walker et ale (1980)
is the basis for much of the interpretation and analysis; information about
impacts and habitat values are related to that classification. Wetlands
impacts are measu red in terms of phys i ca 1 di stu rbance and the subsequent 10ss
or reducti on in shorebi rd and waterfowl (collecti vely termed waterbi rds)
habitat value. Other species (e.g., caribou) and other sources of wetland
impacts (e.g., contaminants) can be incorporated into the assessment once
information becomes available. Waterbirds are addressed in detail as they are
obligate and numerically dominant wetland users and, as migratory birds, are
protected by international treaties.
1
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Habitat for waterbirds is defined in terms of vegetation and surface
forms. Two classification systems have been developed and tested in the
Prudhoe Bay Region (between the Sagavanirktok and Kuparuk Rivers), Bergman et
a 1. (1977) for waterfow 1 and Troy (1984, 1985) for shorebi rds and common
waterfowl. The habitat classification for waterfowl has been used in The
National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska, but not east of Prudhoe Bay (Derksen et a1.
1981). Troy (1985) provides a more detailed habitat classification derived
from the geobotanical classification, but lt has not been tested outside the
Prudhoe Bay regi on.
General patterns of physical disturbance are described from studies of the
Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS), International Tundra Biome Program (IBP)
studies near Barrow, and miscellaneous studies of exploratory activities across
the Arctic Coastal Plain of Alaska and Canada. These general observations
apply across the Arctic Coastal Plain. Oilfield development patterns are drawn
from small scale mapping analyses of the entire Prudhoe Bay Oilfield (PBO;
1:24,000) and more detailed analyses (1:6,000) of a portion of the oilfield
(Walker et al. 1986). General patterns observed are valid for development in
the flat thaw-lake plain and can be tentatively applied to the gently rolling
thaw-lake plain, which is the dominant landscape in the Kuparuk Oilfield.
2.
REGIONAL DESCRIPTION
PHYSIOGRAPHY
North of the Brooks Range, Alaska is divided into two physiographic
provinces (Wahrhaftig 1965): the Arctic Foothills and the Arctic Coastal Plain
(Figure 1). Only the Arctic Coastal Plan will be dealt with here.
The Arctic Coastal Plain is generally flat with numerous lakes and ponds
connected by weakly integrated drainages (Wahrhaftig 1965. Walker et ale
1987). Water covers 30 to 90 precent of the surface. In the west the coastal
plain forms a vast expanse of wetlands, 125 km-325 km wide, stretching south
from the Chukchi Sea coast to the Foothills. East of the Colville River, this
plain gradually narrows until it becomes a thin fri nge, 10 km to 20 km wide,
along the coast of the Arcti c Nati onal Wi ldl ife Refuge (ANWR). Wet lands
vegetation covers most of the broad basins but drier communities are found on
shores, banks, and small raised features such as pingos (ice-cored mounds) and
relict beach ridges. To the south, the coastal plain grades into foothills,
which are better drained and have fewer ponds and lakes. The entire region is
underlain by permafrost and ground ice, which is common within 1 m of the
su rfa ce.
Major landscape units described within the coastal plain (Figure 2)
include flat thaw-lake plain, gently rolling thaw-lake plain, and floodplains
(Walker et a1. 1982, Walker and Acevedo 1984). Flat thaw-lake plains are
associated with old floodplain surfaces and characterized by generally wet,
flat terrain (surface relief seldom exceeding 2 m) covered by pond complexes,
strangmoor (linear ridges) and low-centered polygons. They occur primarily
along the coast and are most extensive in the Prudhoe Bay region. Only a few
areas by deltas in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) are considered
flat thaw-lake plain. Between the Kuparuk and Colville Rivers, and between the
2
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Scale in Miles 0
Scale in Kilometers 50
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100
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F i gu re 1"
Physiographic provinces of the North Slope of Alaska.
-------
1500
70045'
1490
1480
1470
a
5
Scale in Kilometers
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Gently Rolling Thaw-
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Hills
Flood Plain
Islands
Scale in Miles
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Fi gu re 2.
Landscape units of the Beechey Point quadrangle.
-------
Sagavanirktok and Canning Rivers, gently rolling thaw-lake plain is the
dominant landscape. Streams are better defined than in the flat thaw-lake
plain and the terrain is better drained. Floodplains are found along the
braided channels of major rivers and their deltas. Deltas of the Colville and
Sagavanirktok Rivers have extensive mudflats, sand dunes and island complexes.
The Colville River Delta is the largest delta on Alaska's North Slope.
Lakes are a prominent feature of the coastal plain and are estimated to
occupy 25 to 35 percent of the landscape in the Prudhoe Bay region (Rawlinson
1983). Most lakes are part of the thaw-lake cycle, a dominant geomorphic
process in the development of the regional landscape (Figure 3). The cycle
begins when a depression in the landscape fills with water and becomes a
shallow pool. A thaw-lake develops as the permafrost below and beside the pond
melts, expanding the borders of the pond. Many of the lakes are oriented 15°
west of north as a result of either differential erosion patterns due to the
prevai li ng east -northeast winds (Carson and Hussey 1959, 1962, Rex 1961) or
geologic fault patterns (Cannon and Rawlinson 1979). Lakes may be drained by
stream capture or the breaching of low divides. The resultant drained basins
are initially very wet, but over time a microtopography develops as the perma-
frost and ice wedges become reestablished. The actual successional sequence
depends on the lake-bottom substrate and the drainage pattern. Slow drainage
of lakes with peat bottoms often leads to a mosaic of ponds and strangmoor
containing diverse vegetation. Rapid drainage of lakes with mineral bottoms
creates a dry area that is slow to become vegetated. Pingos eventually develop
in some drained basi ns (Britton 1957, Everett 1980, Rawli nson 1983. Walker et
a 1. 1985).
The coastal plain between the Colville and Canning Rivers consists
primarily of unconsolidated sediments deposited during the late Cenozoic Period
(Rawlinson 1983). The gravel deposits mined in the Prudhoe Bay region are
fluvial and glacio-fluvial material deposited by the Colville River during the
late Pleistocene and early Holocene glacial and inter-glacial periods. Histor-
ically, the Colville River drainage extended further east and, for varying
periods, followed in part the current drainages of the Sagavanirktok,
Putuligayuk and the Kuparuk Rivers (Cannon and Rawlinson 1979). Current gravel
replenishment along the Sagavani rktok is minimal and episodic, related to major
storm events (Updike and Howland 1979).
CLIMATE
Climate on the Arctic Coastal Plain is characterized by short summers and
severe winters (Brown 1975, Brown and Berg 1980). Average annual temperatures
range from -10 .6° C in the f oothi 11 s to -12.8° C along the coast. The summer
thaw season begins in mid- to late May and continues until mid- to late August.
The coast is cooler than the foothi 11 s duri ng the summer due to the presence of
sea ice. Winter temperatures are similar from the coast to the foothills.
Prevailing winds are from the northeast although storm winds are from the
west. Precipitation is low (170-266 mm; 7-10 in) with a greater proportion
occurring as snow.
The Prudhoe Bay region has a modified Arctic marine coastal climate (Brown
1975). Mean monthly temperatures range from 7°C in July to -300e in February.
During the summer months, soil temperatures are up to 100e higher than air
5
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F i gu re 3.
Thaw-lake cycle (from Everett 1980). In areas of polygonized
tundra (A). standing water accumulates in the low-centered
polygon basins and troughs (8). Ponds develop as thermal
erosion melts the underlying permafrost (C). As ponds enlarge.
differential erosion. caused by the increased velocity and
temperatures of the water at the ends of the pond, results
in a lake oriented perpendicular to the prevailing wind (D).
The lake is eventually drained by stream capture or breaching
of a low divide (E). and ice wedges and permafrost become
reestablished in the drained lake basin (F).
6
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temperatu res 1 m above the ground surface (Walker 1980, Rawli nson 1983).
Approximately 35 percent of the total precipitation recorded in 1977 and 1978
was rain and the remainder was snow. Average snowfall is about 13 cm of water
equivalent, with a maximum ApMl snowpack of 30 to 40 cm (normally wind
packed). Total precipitation averaged over a two-year period was 20.3 cm
(Walker et ale 1980). A steep summer temperature gradient is associated with
the coastline, and fog is common within a few kilometers of the coast (Walker
1980, Rawli nson 1983).
Snow deposition and distribution are governed by east and west winds
(Benson et ale 1975). Prevailing winds are from the northeast, although
storm winds are often from the west. As a result, large drifts may
be deposited on the east si de as opposed to the west si de of obstructi ons.
Snowdrifts are also associated with natural features such as lake margins and
stream channels (Klinger et ale 1983).
Most water flow on the tundra occurs in the spring during breakup. Much
of the movement is by sheetflow as the ground is frozen and drainages are
filled to capacity. The sheetflow often becomes channelized in the troughs
alongside ice wedges and between polygons, leading to new drainage patterns
(Rawlinson 1983). Wetlands are filled by the spring runoff and drain slowly as
the summer progresses. Summer water movement is s low through ill-defined
drai nages.
V EGETA nON
Vegetation cover is nearly complete in the interlake areas of the Arctic
Coastal Plain (Britton 1967, Webber 1978, Walker and Webber 1980, Walker et ale
1987). The coastal plain is a mosaic of tundra grass communities which change
dramatically along microtopographic moisture gradients (Wiggins 1951, Cantlon
1961). Low, poorly drained areas have wet grass and sedge tundra while drier
sites have dwarf shrub communities. Drained lake basins are common features
that contain a mosaic of wet communities surrounded by the historic lake shore,
which is generally a dry ridge (Britton 1967, Billings and Peterson 1980). Dry
areas also occur along river bluffs and on pingos, which are like dry islands
in the mi dst of ma rshes. Loca 1 ized vegetati on patterns are caused by a vari ety
of other periglacial features such as polygons and frost scars (Webber 1978,
Walker 1985). Floodplains of the major rivers are dynamic and contain willow
thickets, prostrate shrub communities, and barren gravel bars. Other local
vegetation patterns are related to loess (alkaline wind-blown silt) deposits
originating from rivers in the central portion of the coastal plain and to the
presence of extensi ve subi 1 ited dunes west of the Col vi lle Ri ver (Komarkova and
Webber 1978, 1980). Tundra communities are affected by different soil types
and by soil pH, and some plant distributions are related to patterns of loess
distribution (Walker 1985).
Coastal wetlands or saltmarshes occur in low lying areas along the
Beaufort Coast. The vegetation is salt-tolerant and the dominant species
include Puccinellia phryganodes and Carex subspathacea (Jeffries 1977, Walker
et ale 1980). These communities are classified as halophytic grass and sedge
7
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types of the saline sedge-grass class identified by Viereck and Dyrness (1980)
and as emergent wetlands within the Estuarine System in the National Wetlands
Inventory classification (Cowardin et ale 1979). Saltmarshes are not exten-
si ve, partly because the small mean ti de range (10-30 cm; Aagaard 1978) and
comparatively high relief shoreline -- less than 35% of the coast between Point
Barrow and the Canning River is lower than 2 m in height (Hartwell 1972, 1973).
In a survey of the coast between the Kuparuk and Colville Rivers, an estimated
16% of the coastline was considered coastal wetlands (Keiser and Meehan 1980).
Typical wetlands were a mosaic of ponds, exposed mudflats, and salt tolerant
vegetation that seldom extended further than 0.75 km inland and 1.0 km along
the coast.
The productivity of Arctic tundra is low, because of the low air tempera-
ture (Bliss 1962), low soi 1 temperature (McCown 1978), short growing season
(Miller et a1. 1976), and low nutrient availability (Chapin et a1. 1975, Miller
et ale 1976). Studies of the general pattern of vegetation recovery following
disturbance suggest that soi 1 water and nutrient movement may also 1 imit
productivity in natural environments (Chapin and Shaver 1981). More detailed
studies of species compositions, production, and biomass turnover showed
complex interactions between plant species and the environment. The results
still indicate that tundra is generally nutrient limited, but also that species
respond individually to various limiting factors (Chapin et ale 1982).
A hierarchical tundra vegetation classification has been developed for
mapping in northern Alaska (Walker 1983. Walker 1985). The vegetation classifi.
cation has three levels: Level A is for small scale mapping using Landsat
multispectral satellite date; Level B is appropriate for aerial photo interpre-
tation; and Level C is for detailed on-site mapping. Detailed historical
mapping done in the Prudhoe region for this project used Level B of the class-
ification. Level B units have three parts to their names; the first part is a
site moisture modifier, followed by a dominant plant growth form, and a physio-
gnomic descriptor. Moisture descriptors include aquatic, wet, moist, and dry.
which are subjective terms based on the soil moisture at the end of the growing
season. Dominant plant growth forms include tall shrub, low shrub, dwarf
shrub, grass, rush, nontussock sedge, tussock sedge, forb, moss, crustose
lichen, and fruticose lichen. Physiognomic descriptors describe the appearance
of the general vegetation landscape and include tundra, marsh, and barren.
A geobotanical classification has been developed for mapping on the North
Slope (Walker et al. 1980). The classification combines landscape information
such as soil types and terrain features and the hierarchical vegetation classi-
fication. Surface forms and landforms are part of the geobotanical classifica-
tion and are primarily patterned ground features related to the presence of
permafrost. The classification applies specifically to the surface- and
landforms and vegetation in the Prudhoe Bay region, but the units should be
applicable to most areas of the wet Arctic Coastal Plain east of the Colville
River (Walker 1985). Common vegetation types and surface forms of the Prudhoe
Bay region are presented in Tables 1 and 2.
8
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Table 1.
Level B vegetation units common in the Prudhoe region.
Open water
Aquatic grass marsh
Aquatic sedge tundra
Wet sedge tundra
Wet sedge tundra
(saline areas)
Moist nontussock-sedge,
dwarf-shrub tundra
Moist tussock-sedge,
dwarf-shrub tundra
Dry, dwarf-shrub,
crustose-lichen tundra
Dry, dwarf-shrub, forb,
lichen tundra
Moist or dry, dwarf-shrub,
fruticose-lichen tundra
Dry grasslands
Dry, Dwarf-shrub, forb,
grass tundra
Unvegetated water.
Permanent water dominated by Arctophila fulva.
Permanent water with sedges, mainly Carex
aquatilis, Eriophorum angustifolium, and E.
scheuchzeri. -
Wet tundra, flooded in early summer and remains
saturated throughout the summer. Primary sedges
are C. aquatilis and E. angustifolium, common forbs
are ~edlcularis sudetTca and Saxifraga hirculus.
Coastal areas periodically inundated by salt water.
Dominant taxa are Puccinellia phryganodes and C.
subspathacea.
Moist, well drained sites. Common sedges are C.
bigelowii and E. angustifolium, common shrubs are
Dryas integrifolia, Salix reticulata, S. arctica
and S. lanata. -
Moist tussock tundra on well drained sites.
Dominant sedge is I. vaginatum.
Dry site with a mat of D. integrifolia and dwarf
willows and a variety or forbs. Often with a high
percentage of barren soil and crustose lichens.
Dry river terraces with D. integrifolia and many
forbs. -
Snowbeds dominated by Cassiope tetragona, D.
integrifolia, ~. rotundifolia and lichens.-
Partially stabilized sand dunes with Elymus
arenarius.
Partially vegetated river bars near the coast.
9
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Tab 1 e 2.
Common surface forms in the Prudhoe region.
Polygons with a raised center and low trough.
Hi gh -centered poly gons
Low-centered polygons
Frost scars
St rangmoor
Pin go
Non-patterned ground
Sand dunes
Flood -p 1 a i n a 11 u v i u m
Thermokarst pits
Polygons with low central basins bound by a raised
rim, with troughs between polygons.
Roughly circular, slightly convex barren spots of
fine, sandy loam caused by frost churning.
Sinuous ridges up to 0.5 m in height, usually
perpendicular to the local hydrological gradient.
Small, ice-cored hill, usually circular or elip-
tical.
Flat areas with minimal microtopography.
Occur adjacent to river bars, and in river deltas.
Common in braided channels of large Mvers.
Deep pits resulting from the decay of underground
ice.
10
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DEVELOPMENT HISTORY
The 1968 discovery of oil and gas adjacent to Prudhoe Bay marked the
beginning of large scale oil development on Alaska IS North Slope. Previous oil
and gas related activity on the North Slope was limited to pri vately sponsored
exploration of state-owned lands and begining in the early 1940s, to government
sponsored exploration of the National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska (NPR-A). Early
exploration found little oil and gas (Hanley et al. 1981). A minor exception
is the Barrow gas field that was developed to provide an energy source for the
village of Barrow. The discovery of a world class oilfield in Prudhoe Bay led
to the construction of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS). Completed in
1977, it transports oi 1 from Prudhoe Bay to a marine terminal in Valdez.
Exploration is continuing across the Arctic Coastal Plain. Lease sales
have been held in NPR-A and, although prospects for oi 1 and gas seem low for
most areas, exploration is continuing. The state-owned lands between NPR-A and
ANWR have been leased and exploration in this region is active. Seismic
exploration was conducted in the coastal plain of the ANWR in 1984-1985 in
preparation for a Congressional decision on authorization of a leasing program
in the refuge (Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act, P.L. 96-487).
Three lease sales have been held in the federally owned outer continental shelf
of the Beaufort Sea and exploration and development activities are rapidly
expandi ng into offshore areas (Fi gu re 4).
Additional oilfields have been discovered and are being developed. The
Kuparuk field, adjacent to the Prudhoe Bay field, extends over some 1,500 km2.
Smaller fields at Milne Point and in the West Ei leen area are under development.
The Lisburne formation, centered between Prudhoe Bay and the Sagavanirktok
River Delta is being developed. An environmental impact statement for the
fi rst offshore development (Endicott), along the northern edge of the
Sagavanirktok River Delta, was completed in 1984, causeway and facility
construction began in 1985 and drilling was initiated in 1986. Additional
areas are likely to be developed, expanding outward from the transportation
network centered in the P ru dhoe Bay regi on.
Oilfield development causes different impacts than those associated with
exploration. Exploratory impacts are generally site-specific, isolated events.
Impacts associated with development activities are greater in magnitude,
intensity. and longevity. Exploratory operations typically last for only one
or two seasons. Work is often done in the winter with access via ice road or
airstrip. As a result, most surface disturbance tends to be restricted to the
well site. Some construction techniques for temporary facilities, such as the
thin pads used in NPR-A, limit the impact of exploratory activities. Winter
operations have minimal contact with wildlife, arctic foxes and muskoxen
being notable exceptions (Eberhardt 1977, Reynolds and LaPlant 1985). Develop-
ment of a production oilfield is quite different since faci lities are permanent
and are used year-round. Activity levels are generally high and associated
impacts such as dust deposition and traffic noise are continuous.
11
-------
~
~ ~
v.
G
I-' 'T
N
T
I
c
c
E
o
c
A
,
Sea
\\ i. 162<>/00'
C'ey A C>
Cape " A Teshekpuk ,
a C C T , cLake
o~o
.f + -......:~~ L P L A.' ~
NPRAO --
B e a
I
ufOrt
'T
Sea
l~r
,,,,"OlKS
162<>00'
+
154°00'
Scale in Miles 0
Scale in Kilometers 50
50
100
100
o
50
N
~4'2."QQ'
\ 7~
.v--
,100
\ . \
~4'2."QQ \
Canada
Figure 4. Areas of oil and gas interest on the North Slope of Alaska.
-------
3.
AV IFAUNA
OVERVIEW
Birds are a highly visible component of the tundra ecosystem during the
summer season. The vast majority of the species that use the Arctic Coastal
Plain are migratory and therefore protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act.
Some birds that breed on the North Slope winter as far away as Antarctica
(Arctic Tern) and southern South America (Pectoral Sandpiper). Others winter
in the northern Bering Sea or southern Chukchi Sea (Oldsquaw, King Eider and
Common Eider). Most are dependent upon wetlands for feeding, nesting cover and
brood-rearing and may be affected (both directly and indirectly) by wetland
development.
The Arctic Coastal Plain is the breeding ground for many species of
waterbirds. Between late May and mid-September waterbirds are conspicuous
occupants of the tundra and are often the dominant vertebrates in the wet lands.
Birds generally arrive on the North Slope by the first week in June and begin
nesting as soon as snow free tundra is available. The breeding season is short
and acti vi ty on the tundra centers around the eggs and young. Due to the short
season, only limited re-nesting in some species occurs when nests are lost
early in the season. There is a progression of adults and then young moving to
the coast for staging prior to migration, as evidenced by a gradual decline in
bird numbers inland throughout the season with a concurrent increase near the
coast.
Notable concentrations occur at various times and locations: during
spring migration, during late summer, during fall staging, and during the goose
molt in the Teshekpuk Lake Region. Spring waterfowl migrants rest and feed in
open water and congregate around Mver deltas, which provide the first open
water, prior to break-up of the tundra. Nearshore lagoons are a rich,
sheltered habitat for molting ducks, primarily Oldsquaw. Prior to fall migra-
tion large numbers of waterfowl and shorebirds are found near the coast in salt
marshes, river deltas, lagoons and on barrier islands.
SPRING MIGRATION
Spring migration along the Chukchi coast begins in late April or early May
with birds moving into the Beaufort Coast in mid- to late May. Migration lasts
until mid-June. Early migrants include King Eider and Common Eider and
Glaucous Gulls. The majority of eiders pass Point Barrow the last week in May
with King Eiders passing slightly earlier than Common Eiders and males in both
species passing earlier than females (Johnson et al. 1975, Divoky 1983). Adult
Glaucous Gulls move into the Beaufort in late May; subadults move into the area
later in June. Shorebirds and passerines arrive in late Mayor early June.
Most waterfowl arrive during the first week in June with loons arriving slightly
later. Migration tends to follow the progression of break-up with birds moving
north along the Chukchi and Beaufort Coasts as open water becomes avai lable.
Birds typically move onto the tundra as soon as snowfree areas are available.
Many spMng migrants follow a coastal route around the west coast of
Alaska to their North Slope breeding grounds. Although migrants tend to be
concentrated within 10 km of the coast (Flock 1973. Johnson et al. 1975. Divoky
13
-------
1983), some travel well offshore (Divoky 1983) whi le others, notably geese
(Cade 1955), follow inland routes along major drainages. Both King and Common
Eiders pass Poi nt Barrow headi ng in an east -northeast di recti on. Large numbers
of eiders are not observed along the Beaufort Coast past Barrow until Banks
Island where they congregate in a large polynya (Salter et al. 1980). It has
been suggested that eiders migrate far offshore, possibly at high altitudes,
resting on leads in the pack-ice when necessary (Johnson et al. 1975, Divoky
1983, Johnson et al. 1983). During a severe ice year when few if any off-shore
leads were available, a significant die-off (estimated at 10% of the popula-
tioo) of King Eiders was observed (Barry 1968). Inland routes along major
drainages are followed by many geese; Brant migrate north through the Yukon
Basin and along other major drainages (Cade 1955, Irving 1960, Johnson et al.
1975, Lehnhausen and Quinlan 1981). Great White-fronted Geese from the Pacific
Flyway may also follow thse routes whlle those from the Midwest Flyway travel
up the Mackenzie River (Johnson et al. 1975).
Waterfowl rest and feed in open water areas along their migratory paths.
Most birds move north with the progression of break-up and concentrations occur
as birds wait for open water and tundra to become available (Johnson et al.
1983). Waterfowl use shore leads extensively during May in the Chukchi Sea and
during June in the Beaufort Sea (Divoky 1983). River deltas also provide open
water early in the season and are important stopping places for migrants.
Migrants rest and feed on deltas unti 1 tundra breeding areas become free of
snow. Shorebirds use snow-free areas at river deltas, river bluffs, and stream
headwaters during migration. The availability of open water varies annually.
The type of habitat may be similar in any given locality but the timing of melt
may vary consi derably from year to year. In general, the least variable areas
are 1 a rge ri ver deltas, such as the Col vi 11 e River de lta, where open water and
tundra are predi ctably avai lable early in the season.
BREED I NG SEASON
The snow-free period on the North Slope is short and for many species
provides barely enough time to successfully nest and rear young. Birds must
arrive, initiate nesting, lay a clutch of eggs, incubate, and rear their young
before the onset of freeze-up in late September. In years of late break-up or
early freeze-up, many breedi ng efforts are not successful. Many waterfowl,
therefore, only attempt one nest and do not renest if the fi rst nest is lost.
Brant and Greater White-fronted Geese are both determinate layers and do not
have the ability to renest, except in rare cases where a nest is lost early in
the egg-laying phase and only a few eggs have been lost (Johnson et al. 1975).
Nests started too late do not allow sufficient time for young to fledge prior
to freeze-up.
Wate rf owl
Most waterfowl mate either on their wintering grounds or at staging areas
prior to arrival on the breeding grounds. Breeding pai rs start nesting upon
arrival, as soon as snow-free areas for nest sites are avai lable. Tundra Swans
are among the ear 1 i est nesters with nest i nit i at i on noted in 1 ate May (J oh ns on
et al. 1975) and the first week of June (Rothe and Hawkins 1982). By the
third week of June, most waterfowl have begun nesting. Loons arrive slightly
later than other waterbi rds because they require more open water on lakes for
14
-------
landings and take-offs (Johnson et a 1. 1975. Bergman and Derksen 1977. Petersen
1979). Common Eiders nest primarily on offshore islands. Nesting densities
are hi ghest on islands surrounded by ri ver runoff in 1 ate May and early June.
Moats form around islands and isolatE: them from the mainland thereby providing
protection from terrestrial predators. notably arctic foxes (Schamel 1978).
Waterfowl incubation periods range from 23 to 40 days. depending on the
species. Hatching for most species peaks from mid-July to the first week of
August and the young fledge by mid-September. Tundra Swans have one of the
longest incubation periods. 35 to 40 days (Johnson et al. 1975. Rothe and
Hawkins 1982); hatching generally occurs by the second week in July and the
young fledge in mid-September. Loons nest later than most other waterfowl;
egg-laying usually takes place by the third week in June and hatching by late
July. Yellow-bi lled Loons incubate longer than Pacific and Red-throated Loons
and thei r young fledge later. often near the end of September (Johnson et ale
1975. Sjolander and Agren 1976). Geese incubate an average of 24 days.
Greater White-fronted Geese hatch by the fi rst week in Ju ly and Brant by the
second week. Adult geese stay with thei r young duri ng the brood reari ng peri od
and molt just prior to fledging. Fledging takes place by the end of August.
Oldsquaw and King Eiders incubate for 23 to 24 days and thei r young hatch the
second or third week in July (Alison 1975. 1976. Johnson et ale 1975). Females
do all of the incubation in both species and remain with the young until they
fledge. Common Ei ders nest mid- to late June and thei r young hatch by the end
of July. Immediately after hatching the young are led from the nesting island
to the lagoons. where they remain until fledging in September (Schamel 1978).
Waterfowl feed on vegetation. invertebrates. and fish during the breeding
season. The importance of any particular food source varies by species. but
most waterfowl feed on invertebrates and some vegetation (Bergman et ale 1977).
Pacific Loons nest on large ponds and lakes and feed almost exclusively on
invertebrates from the wetlands in which they nest. Red-throated Loons. in
contrast. nest on smaller ponds and feed on fish caught in nearby lagoons and
large lakes. Geese generally feed on vegetation. primarily sedges (Mickelson
1975. Bergman et ale 1977). Brant feed almost exclusively on Carex subspathacea
and Puccinellia phyrganodes in saltmarshes during fall staging and migration
(Kiera 1984).
Shorebi rds /Pas seri nes
Shorebirds arrive unmated on the North Slope and pair on the breeding
grounds. Males of most species perform aerial displays to attract females.
Male Lapland Longspurs establish territories as soon as small patches of bare
ground are exposed (Seastedt and Maclean 1979). Nest initiation is a short.
intense period with most species nesting within two weeks of their arrival on
the North Slope. usually by the second week in June.
Four major patterns of shorebird mating systems are recognized (Pitelka et
ale 1974). three of which occur on the North Slope. A majority of species have
dispersed populations. strongly developed territorial systems. and strong
monogamous pair bonds; their populations fluctuate little from year to year.
Examples are Dunlin. Semipalmated Sandpiper. and Baird's Sandpiper. White-
rumped Sandpipers are polygamous and the females can lay two clutches in rapid
15
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succession. White-rumped Sandpipers are rare to uncommon across the North
Slope. The third pattern is promiscuity, shown by Pectoral and Buff-breasted
Sandpipers. This pattern is characterized by clumped dispersions with strong
year-to-year fluctuations in numbers. Males defend compressible, often small,
territories. Local nesting densities can be high. Females do all of the incu-
bation and rearing of the young and nest placement bears little relationship to
male territory location. Phalarope mating systems are similar as both species
are promiscuous and can be polyandrous; females lay one or more clutches for
the male (or males) to incubate (Johnson et ale 1975, Schamel and Tracy 1977).
The first strategy is conservative in that the over dispersion and maintenance
of territories ensures sufficient food for the offspri ng. The latter strategies
are more opportunistic as local abundances or favorable conditions can be
exp loi ted.
Shorebirds overlap broadly in their diets during the breeding season
(Holmes and Pitelka 1968, Baker and Baker 1973, Baker 1977). Two families
within the order Diptera contain the most important prey species, Tipulidae and
Chironomidae. Larvae from these two fami lies are extensively exploited early
and late in the season and the adults are preyed upon mid-season during their
emergence. Differences in shorebird diets are related to habitat use. Species
that occupy drier habitats, Buff-breasted Sandpiper and Lesser G~den Plover,
take more spiders and beetles in their diets (Byrkjedal 1980. Connors et ale
1983). Chi ronomids are the most important prey for Semipalmated Sandpipers and
Red Phalaropes while tipulids are most important for Dunlin and Pectoral
Sandpiper (Holmes and Pitelka 1968). All species prey heavily on chironomid
and tipulid adults during insect emergence. a period when the adult insects are
extremely abundant and unable to fly well (Maclean and Pitelka 1971). The
timing of shorebird hatch is thought to coincide with the peak of insect
emergence (Holmes and Pitelka 1968). thus providing an easily accessible food
source for the precocial young. Adult shorebirds show thei r young where to
forage. but do not feed them di rect ly. The young shorebi rds' bi 11 s are too
soft and short to probe effectively. so the insects are an important food
source. Lapland Longspur diets are similar to shorebird diets except that they
take more seeds throughout the season. Lapland Longspur young are altricial
and are fed at the nest by the adults for seven to ten days. They hatch about
a week earlier than the peak of shorebird hatch and their fledging may be timed
such that the young are leaving the nest and beginning to forage on their own
during the peak of food abundance (Custer and Pitelka 1977).
In July and August. shorebirds shift from tundra habitats to the littoral
zone along the coast. Post-breeding adults are fi rst to move to the coast,
followed by juveniles. While nearly all species make this move. the extent of
dependence on littoral habitats varies by species (Connors et a1. 1979. Connors
et ale 1983). Red Phalaropes and Ruddy Turnstones are the most dependent since
post-fledging juveni les leave the tundra and use littoral areas almost exclu-
sively (Connors et ale 1979. Connors et a1. 1983). Semipalmated and Baird's
Sandpipers use littoral habitats throughout the breeding season and have
moderate to hi gh dependence on the littora 1 zone. Bai rd 's Sandpipers nest
within the littoral zone and densities are comparable to tundra densities at
Barrow during the breeding season (Connors et ale 1983). Semipalmated Sand-
pipers move to the coast in stages; fi rst the females that leave the young two
to six days after hatching. then the males. followed by juveni les (Ashkenazie
16
-------
and Safriel 1979). Dunlin and Long-billed Dowitcher juveniles are common in
the littoral zone in the fall although both occur on the tundra as well.
Lesser Golden Plovers and Pectoral Sandpipers use the littoral zone less than
other shorebirds. Although Pectoral Sandpipers show a definite coastal move-
ment, they remain on the tundra near the coast and only occasionally appear in
the littoral zone (Connors et al. 1983). There is increased use of riparian
areas, both coastally and inland by staging and migrating shorebirds (Moitoret
et a 1. 1984).
WATERFOWL MOLTING AND STAGING
Large congregations of molting and staging waterfowl occur on the North
Slope in late summer and fall. Brant, Greater White-fronted Geese and other
waterfowl concentrate in the Teshekpuk region in July to molt prior to fall
migration. Oldsquaw males molt in July in nearshore lagoons along the Beaufort
coast. Snow Geese stage on the eastern portion of the Arctic Coastal Plain in
the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge in late August and September. These areas
are traditionally used and disturbances could affect large numbers of birds
(Derksen et ale 1981, Johnson et ale 1983).
The Teshekpuk Lake region has long been recognized as unusual for the
large numbers of waterfowl present in mid-summer, including an estimated 20
percent of the world's population of Brant molting in the region (King 1973.
Derksen et ale 1979a, Derksen et ale 1982). The majority of these Brant are
non-breeders or failed breeders. The region also contains one of the largest
North Slope colonies of nesting Brant on the North Slope; over 100 pairs nest
on Island Lake (Derksen et al. 1981). A significant portion of the NPR-A
population of Greater White-fronted Geese molts in the region and large numbers
of Canada Geese molt there as well. Geese spend the majority of thei r time
feeding whi le in the region. Flocks move rapidly along shorelines as they feed,
returning to the same places every three or four days (Derksen et ale 1979b,
Derksen et ale 1982). Deschampsia spp. and Carex spp. are the primary food.
Molting geese prefer deep. open lakes with low-relief shorelines rather than
shallower lakes with emergent vegetation (Derksen et ale 1979b).
The attraction of the Teshekpuk Lake Region to molting geese is unknown.
Physiographically simi lar lakes occur south of Barrow, yet are not used by
large congregations of molting birds (Derksen et ale 1981, Derksen et ale
1982). Factors that may be important in selection of the Teshekpuk area
include the many large lakes, the duration of the lake ice that provides
resting areas, and the many lakes with gentle shorelines dominated by Carex
spp. (Derksen et al. 1979b). Traditional use of the area may have resulted in
nutrient enrichment along the shorelines. Whatever the underlying reasons for
the congregations are, the area is unique for its high amount of bird use.
Several authors have questioned the ability of molting birds to use other areas
if they are displaced by development (Derksen et ale 1979a, Derksen et ale
1981, De rksen et a 1. 1982, Gi 11 i am and Lent 1982).
Male Oldsquaw molt in nearshore lagoons and protected bays along the
Beaufort coast. Molt begins when the lagoons become ice-free, generally by the
third week in July. Lagoons along the eastern portion of the Alaskan Beaufort,
from the Colville River Delta to Demarcation Bay, support more birds than the
western portion (Johnson and Richardson 1981). An exception is in the vicinity
17
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of the Plover Islands, near Barrow, where many bi rds molt. Male Oldsquaw do
not incubate or help at the nest and move to the lagoons to molt following
mating and nest estab1isment. Lagoons provide safe resting areas on the barrier
is lands, and abundant food in the form of epi benthi c invertebrates. Resting
areas are critical as the birds lose many of their body feathers during molt
and need to spend time out of water to dry. Barrier lslands are generally free
of predators. 01dsquaw stay inside the lagoons duri ng molt but may move offshore
into the pack ice following molt. Male Oldsquaw complete their molt by mid-August
and begin leaving the lagoons. Females with young start moving into the lagoons
by late August and early September as tundra wetlands begin to freeze and
become unavailable.
Although 01dsquaw are the most numerous bird in the lagoons, other species
use the lagoons as well. Species that commonly use lagoons include Ye110w-
billed Loon, Pacific Loon, Red-throated Loon, Common Eider, 01dsquaw, Glaucous
Gull, Red Phalarope, Red-necked Phalarope, and scoters. Juvenile Red and Red-
necked Phalaropes use lagoons extensively in August, feeding along the beaches
of the barrier islands. Dun1in Sanderling and other shorebirds are also found
along barrier islands in late August and early September. Lagoons along the
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge were ranked by bird density, absolute number,
and species diversity (Spindler 1981). In the individual rankings and a
combined mean rank, Demarcation Bay, Simpson Cove, and Tamayariak Lagoon
consistently ranked in the top five.
Snow Geese stage on the eastern port i on of the Arct i c Coasta 1 P1ai n duri ng
the latter part of August and the first part of September. The birds come from
the large nesting colonies on Banks Island and the Anderson River delta and,
depending on the weather, spread out across the coastal plain (Johnson et a1.
1975). Geese have been surveyed on the refuge since 1971 and most surveys were
coordinated with Canadian investigators so the entire population could be
censused. During that time, peak arrival usually occurred by August 30 and
peak departure by September 20 (Oates et a1. 1985). The number of geese on the
refuge has ranged between approximately 10,000 and 325,000, although in 1975 no
Snow Geese were recorded on the refuge. The geese spend their time feeding and
resting, and leave just pri or to freeze-up. Estimates of acti vity budgets
showed adults spending 57 percent of the daylight hours feeding and juveniles
spending 60 to 70 percent of their day feeding (Davis and Wisely 1974). Signif-
icant weight gains have been reported for Snow Geese between their entering and
leaving the staging area. Use of the area is variable, both spatially and in
overall numbers of birds. Weather is probably the major influence in the
variability (Spindler 1983).
Snow Gees e are part i cu la r1y sens it i ve to aircraft and f1 ush when
approached by fixed-wing or rotary aircraft. Experimental disturbances by
fixed-wing aircraft at two-hour intervals resulted in an 8.5 percent decrease
in feeding time. The authors felt that similar disturbance by rotary aircraft
could possibly reduce feeding time by 9.5 percent (Davis and Wisely 1974).
HABITAT
Two generally accepted habitat classifications have been developed in the
Prudhoe region, a habitat classification for waterfowl related to characteris-
tics of wetland basin development, and a classification for shorebi rds and some
18
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waterfowl species derived from the geobotanical classification. The waterfowl
classification was the result of several years study at Storkersen Point near
Prudhoe Bay (Bergman et ale 1977) and has been used in studies of several sites
on the North Slope (Derksen et ale 1981). The habitat system for shorebi rds
and common waterfowl species was derived from the geobotanical classification
used in the Waterflood studies (Klinger et al. 1983. Troy 1984. 1985).
In the Bergman et al. (1977) study. eight wetland classes were defined
based on dominant emergent vegetation and the general size of water bodies
(Table 3). The classification refers mainly to waterbodies and lumps all other
tundra wetlands into a single class. Flooded Tundra. Tundra Swans nested in a
Class VI wetland and Class IV and V wetlands were thought to provide appropriate
brood rearing habitat. Although the sample was small. all of the Brant observed
strongly preferred Class VIII wetlands during pre-nesting and post-nesting. and
nested in Class VI wetlands. White-fronted Geese preferred Class V lakes for
post-nesting and molting; nests were generally located on polygon rims. Loons
preferred Class IV and Class VI wetlands throughout the breeding season. with
Arctic Loons also showing a preference for Class V lakes duri ng post-nesting.
brood rearing. Pacific Loons nested on the shores of larger lakes. whi le
Red-throated Loons nested on smaller ponds (Bergman and Derksen 1977).
Oldsquaw used Class II and Class IV wetlands during the pre-nesting and nesting
periods. moving to Class V lakes for brood rearing. a pattern similar to that
described by Alison (1975.1976). King Eiders preferred Class IV wetlands
throughout the nesting season but also showed a preference for Class II
wetlands for brood rearing. A majority of waterfowl species preferred Class IV
and Class VI wetlands during the entire nesting season. Brant sho.ved a signif-
icant preference for Class VIII wetlands; all sightings during the post-nesting
period occurred in that class. In evaluating total bi rd use. Classes I. II.
VII. and VIII were the least preferred. Although there were differences in
the available habitat types. similar habitat use patterns were found at study
sites in NPR-A (Derksen et ale 1979a. Derksen et ale 1981).
Shorebird species differ in habitat use patterns and most species change
habitat preference over the course of the breeding season (Myers and Pitelka
1980). Overall. most species use wetter habitats. particularly for feedi ng
later in the summer. At the beginning of the breeding season. shorebirds are
found where the snow has melted and the tundra is exposed. Some species prefer
drier habitats. e.g.. Lesser Golden Plover and Baird's Sandpiper. while other
species prefer wetter areas. e.g.. Pectoral Sandpiper and the phalaropes.
Shorebirds leave their nests almost immediately following hatching and the
family groups move into wet meadows where prey is more abundant.
Troy (1985) presents a habitat classification. at two levels of detail.
based on bird sighting data that largely reflects foraging birds and so can be
considered feeding habitat. The majority of regularly occurring breeding birds
are included in a 10 habitat classification and all species tested showed
significant habitat selection during the nesting period (Table 4). Nine of the
classes are wetlands and the tenth is artificial impoundments due to road-blocked
drainages. Patterns of habitat use differed between species both in the types
of habitat used and in the degree of selection shown. Lapland Longspurs demon-
strated the greatest degree of habitat selection. showing definite preference
or avoidance for each habitat type. In contrast. Semipalmated Sandpipers
demonstrated preference for only one and avoidance of only two of the natural
19
-------
Table 3.
Criteria used to delineate wetland classes (Bergman et al. 1977).
Wet land des i gnat ion
S iz e
Dominant emergents
Shore zone Central zone
Flooded Tundra
(C 1 as s I)
Sha 11 ow-Carex
(Class II)
Sha 11 ow-Arctophi 1a
(Class III)
Deep Arctophi la
(C1 ass IV)
Deep -open
(Class V)
Bas i n -comp le x
(Class VI)
Beaded Streams
(Class VII)
Coastal Wet lands
(Class VIII)
Eri oph orum
angustifo1ium
or Carex aquatilis
E. angustifo1ium
or f. aquatilis
pond
C. aquati lis
C. aquati1is
or AFctOj)hlT a
fulva
A. fulva
- -
open
Semi-open to open
pond
A. fulva
pond
---
open
pond or 1 ake
open
lake
Bas i n interspersed with f. aquat i 1 is
~. fu1va and open water
c. aq u at i 1 i s
A. fu1va or open
Pucci n e 11 i a
£h ryganodes,
f. subspathacea,
or open
1 ake
open or A. fulva
pond=bead
--
open
pond or 1 agoon
20
-------
Tab 1 e 4.
Species preference for geobotanically based habitat classification --
10 habitat classes (from Troy 1985).
Habitat Class
Species Avoiding Class
Moi st Tundra /Low
Re 1 i ef Hi gh
Centered Polygons
Moi s t Tundra /
Frostscar
Moi st, Wet Tundra /
Low Relief, Low-
centered Polygons
Wet Tundra /Low
Re 1 i ef, L ow-
centered Polygons
Wet Tundra /
St rangmoor
Wet Tundra /Non-
patterned ground
Aquatic Tundra/
St rangmoor
Species PreferMng Class
Greater Whi te-fronted Goose
Lesser Golden Plover
Buff-breasted Sandpiper
Parasitic Jaeger
Lapland Longspur
Lesser Golden Plover
White-rumped Sandpiper
Dunlin
Buff-Breasted Sandpiper
Lap land Lon gspur
Dunlin
Buff-Breasted Sandpiper
Lapland Longspur
Lapland Longspur
Northern Pintai 1
Semipalmated Sandpiper
White-rumped Sandpiper
Buff-breasted Sandpiper
Lapland Longspur
Pectoral Sandpiper
Long-billed Dowitcher
Red Phalarope
Kin gEl de r
Pectoral Sandpiper
Long-bi lled Dowitcher
Red Pha larope
21
King Eider
Pectoral Sandpiper
Northern Pintai 1
King Eider
Oldsquaw
Pectoral Sandpiper
Long-billed Dowitcher
Red-necked Phalarope
Red Phalarope
Northern Pintai 1
Kin 9 E i de r
Old sq u aw
White-rumped Sandpiper
Pectoral Sandpiper
Long-bi 11ed Dowitcher
Oldsquaw
Pectoral Sandpiper
Lon 9 -b i 11 e d D ow itch e r
Red Phalarope
Greater White-fronted
King Eider
Oldsquaw
Red-necked Phalarope
Red P ha 1 a rope
Oldsquaw
Semipalmated Sandpiper
Lap 1 and Lon gspu r
Goos e
Northern Pintail
Old squ aw
Lesser Golden Plover
Red-necked Phalarope
Buff-breasted Sandpiper
Lap 1 an d Lon gs pu r
(cont i nued)
-------
Table 4 (continued)
Habitat Cl ass
Species Preferring Class
Species Avoiding Class
Water /Ponds Without
Emergent Vegetation
Water /Ponds With
Emergent Vegetation
Impou ndment s
01 dsq uaw
Red Phalarope
Northern Pintai 1
King Eider
Oldsquaw
Red-necked Phalarope
Red Phalarope
Nort hern Pinta i 1
Red-necked Phalarope
Red Phalarope
Northern Pintai 1
Semipalmated Sandpiper
Pectoral Sandpiper
Dunlin
Buff-breasted Sandpiper
Long-billed Dowitcher
Red-necked Phalarope
Lap 1 and Longspu r
Lesser Golden Plover
Dunlin
Buff-breasted Sandpiper
Lapland Longspur
Whi te-fronted Goose
Kin g E i de r
Semipalmated Sandpiper
Dun 1 in
Buff-breasted Sandpiper
Lapland Longspur
22
-------
habitats, using all others in proportion to availability. This classification
differs from Bergman's in subdividing Bergman IS single Flooded Tundra class
into seven classes of tundra wetlands. Habitat use patterns noted for waterfowl
in this study were similar to patterns described in Bergman et al. (1977). A
more detailed classification (20 classes) was developed to evaluate the impor-
tance of rare habitat types for the most common species. As in the 10 habitat
classification, most species shONed signiflcant selection or avoidance for one
or more habitat classes (Table 5) and the importance of Arctophila ponds for
waterfowl, as shown by Bergman et al. (1977), was confirmed. Nest densities
in the 10 habitat classification demonstrated a general preference by shorebirds
for drier nest site habitats and avoidance of aquatic and pond habitat for nest
sit es ( Tab 1 e 6).
Three habitat types described for the littoral zone include gravel
beaches, littoral flats, and slough edges (Connors et al. 1983). Groups of
species show similar habitat preferences and use from year to year. Diets of
shorebirds in the littoral zone are more related to habitat type than to the
species; birds foraging in similar areas have broadly overlapping diets, e.g.,
species that forage along marine shores with gravel beaches (Ruddy Turnstone,
Dunlin, Sanderling, Red Phalarope, and Red-necked Phalarope) all feed on marine
zooplankton (Connors et al. 1983). Shorebirds concentrate in areas of gravel
spits and barrier islands (Icy Cape, Peard Bay, Point Barrow, Plover Islands,
Jones Islands) and in areas with extensive littoral flats, saltmarshes and
slough edges (Icy Cape, Barrow, Fish Creek Delta, Colville Delta, Cape Halkett,
Can n in g Del ta ) .
DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS
Geographic
Zonal classification of the North Slope has relied mainly on physiographic
criteria, primarily Wahrhaftig's (1965) classification of Brooks Range,
Foothills, and Arctic Coastal Plain provinces (Figure 5). Kessel and Cade
(1958), using information largely from the mid-Beaufort section, related
general patterns of bird distribution to these major zones. They considered
the coastal plain avifauna to contain 51 species, 15 of which were considered
rare or sporadic in occurrence. Shorebirds and waterfowl dominated the coastal
avifauna. Most species showed strong associations with surface water, either
marine littoral or fresh and brackish lacustrine waters. Approximately 50 per-
cent of the North Slope avifauna occurred primarily on the coastal plain.
The North Slope, though dominated by east-west features, can also be
divided into north-south sections (Pitelka 1974). The eastern portion of the
coastal plain is reduced to a narrow fringe because of the proximity of the
Foothills and Brooks Range to the coast. The mid-Beaufort Section, between the
Canning and Colville Rivers, has a defined coastal plain section with a broad
foothills region and shallow lagoons along the coast. Between the Colville
River and Wainwright, the coastal plain is extensive and characterized by
numerous large lakes and meandering river systems and an extensive zone of low
foothills. A fourth section in the west is characterized by the proximity of
the foothills of the De Long Mountains to the coast.
23
-------
Table 5.
Species preferences for geobotanically
-- 20 habitat classes (from Troy 1985).
Habitat
Species PreferMng Class
Dry tundra/1ow-
relief high-centered
poly gons
Moi st tu ndra /1 ow-
relief high-centered
polygons
Moist tundra/1ow-
relief low-centered
poly gons
Moist tundra/mixed
hi gh - and low-
centered polygons
Moist tundra/
frosts car
Moi st tu ndra /
st ran gmo or
Moi st tu ndra /non-
patterned ground
Moist, wet tundra/
1 ow- re 1 i ef low-
centered polygons
Wet tu ndra /1 ow-
relief low-centered
polygon
Lesser Golden-plover
Semipa1mated Sandpiper
Red-necked Phalarope
Lap 1 and Longspu r
Lesser Golden-plover
Lapland Longspur
01dsquaw
Northern Pintai 1
Lesser Golden-plover
Dun1in
Lapland Longspur
Semipalmated Sandpiper
Dun1in
Lapland Longspur
Buff -breasted Sandpip er
Red Phalarope
Lapland Longspur
Lap 1 and Longs pur
Lapland Longspur
based habitat classification
Species Avoiding Class
Northern Pintai 1
Northern Pintai 1
01 dsquaw
Pectora 1 Sandpiper
Red-necked Phalarope
Northern Pintail
Old squaw
Pectora 1 Sandpiper
Red-necked Phalarope
Red Pha 1 a rope
01dsquaw
Pectora 1 Sandpiper
Red-necked Phalarope
Northern Pintai 1
Pectoral Sandpiper
Red-necked Phalarope
Red Phalarope
Pectora 1 Sandpip er
Red Phalarope
24
( conti nued)
-------
Table 5 (continued)
Species Preferring Class
Habitat
Wet tu ndra /
strangmoor
Wet tu ndra /non -
patterned ground
Wet, moi st tu ndra /
low-relief low-
centered pol y gons
Aquatic tundra/
st rangmoor
Northern Pintai 1
Semipalmated Sandpiper
Dunlin
Buff-breasted Sandpiper
Lap land Longspur
Pectoral Sandpiper
Dunlin
Buff-breasted Sandpiper
Lapland Longspur
Semipalmated Sandpiper
Pectora 1 Sandp iper
Red Phalarope
Species Avoiding Class
Oldsquaw
Red-necked Phalarope
Red Phalarope
01 dsq uaw
Semipalmated Sandpiper
Red Pha larope
Lapland Longspur
Northern Pintail
Oldsquaw
Pectoral Sandpiper
Northern Pintai 1
Oldsquaw
Lesser Golden-plover
Buff-breasted Sandpiper
25
-------
Table 6.
Nest site preferences in the lO-habitat classification (from Troy
1985).
Habitat Class
Species Avoiding Class
Species PreferMng Class
MOl st Tundra /Low
Relief High
Centered Poly gons
Moi s t Tundra /
Frosts car
Mo; st, Wet Tundra /
Low Relief, Low-
centered Poly gons
Wet Tundra /Low
Re 1 i ef, Low-
centered Polygons
Wet Tundra/
St ran gmoor
Wet Tundra/Non-
patterned ground
Aquatic Tundra/
Strangmoor
Water/Ponds Without
Emergent Vegetation
Water/Ponds with
Emergent Vegetation
Impoundments
Semipalmated Sandpiper
Lapland Longspur
Dunlin
Dunlin
Red Phalarope
Lap land Longspur
Lap land Longspur
Semipalmated Sandpiper
Red Phalarope
Semipa lmated San dpip er
Dunl in
Red Phalarope
Lapland Longspur
Semipalmated Sandpiper
Dunlin
Red Phalarope
Lap land Longspur
Lap land Longspur
26
-------
\t
~ 'It
'"
G
N 'T
-....J
T
I
c
c
E
o
c
A
BeaufOrt
I 1500\00' \
Sifl1.VSO:
Harrison lP'l,o fI O{ K S
162°00'
\ \
~ 4'2.°0Q \
+
,t
154°00'
Canada
Scale in Miles 0
Scale in Kilometers 50
50
100
100
o
50
F i gu re 5.
Locations referenced in the discussion of bird distribution.
-------
Environmental features associated with these north-south zones probably
influence bird distributions and modify the zonal association noted by Kessel
and Cade (1958). The mid-Beaufort section, with its well-defined north to
south zonation would be expected to show the strongest north to south bi rd
distribution patterns. The same section also has the highest diversity of
waterfowl, which may be related to the presence of extensive nearshore lagoons
and river deltas that provide molting habitat for waterfowl. The waterfowl
community to the west near the Meade River is less diverse (Pitelka 1974,
Derksen et ale 1979a). Compared to the other regions, the eastern section,
with its restricted zone of wetlands, has generally lower waterfowl densities
and few loons, both on the tundra during the breeding season and in the coastal
lagoons (Spindler et al. 1984. Miller et a1. 1985, Moitoret et al. 1985).
Bird distribution on the North Slope has also been influenced by the
former Bering Land Bridge and the proximity of Asia. Species diversity
decreases from west to east. The greater diversity to the west represents, in
part, the presence of species whose center of distribution is in Siberia (e.g.,
Arctic Warbler) and the occurrence of Aleutian avifauna whose center of distri-
bution is in the Bering Sea (Kessel 1961). In general, the avifauna of the
western North Slope is quite similar to that in eastern Siberia (Kessel 1961).
Twelve of the 23 stragglers (birds appearing rarely) reported by Pite1ka (1974)
for the Barrow region are Asiatic species.
Distribution patterns of some species during the breeding season are tied
to regional physiographic features or to specific ecologic requirements of the
species. Distinctive distribution patterns are seen in Tundra Swans, Canada
Geese, Snow Geese, Yellow-billed Loons, and Red-throated Loons. The first four
are tied to specifi c physiographi c features: Tundra Swans are concentrated on
river deltas with the Colville River delta having the greatest numbers and
highest concentrations (Johnson et a1. 1975, Bartels et al. 1983, King 1979.
Hawkins 1983); Canada Geese regularly breed only along the Colvi lle River
bluffs and in the Prudhoe Bay region (Kessel and Cade 1958, Gavin 1980); a
single colony of breeding Snow Geese is at Howe Island in the Sagavanirktok
River delta; and Yellow-billed Loons nest pMmaM1y in the Colville River delta
(North et a1. 1983) and at A1aktak (Sjolander and Agren 1976). Red-throated
Loons eat fish and their distribution is likely related to feeding require-
ments; they are common along the coast and uncommon inland (Derksen et ale
1981, Spindler et a1. 1983, Moitoret et a1. 1985. Miller et a1. 1985). Their
breeding distribution is likely limited by access to fishing areas and may be
largely limited to within 40 km of the coast or large lakes with sufficient
freshwater fish stocks (Derksen et al. 1981).
Regional Concentrations
Birds are most vulnerable when they are concentrated during some portion
of the annual cycle and when a population is dependent upon a specific area.
Specific concentration areas are briefly outlined below as to location (Figure
5) and timing of concentrations. Regional descriptions are drawn primarily
from Connors et ale (1983), Derksen et ale (1979a), Divoky (1983), and Johnson
et a 1. (1983).
Seahorse Islands and Point Franklin S~ -- Densities of nests appear
higher on the Seahorse Islands than on comparable islands in the Chukchi and
Beaufort Seas. Breeders include Arctic Tern, Black Guillemot, Oldsquaw, and
Common Eider. Horned Puffins may breed there as well. Large numbers of Red
Phalaropes, Arctic Terns, Brant and Sabine1s Gulls use the area during the post
breeding season.
28
-------
Elson Lagoon and the Plover Islands -- The gravel shorelines and adjacent
waterS-Consistently support highidensitTes of shorebirds, gulls, terns and some
waterfowl during the post breeding season. Densities of most species peak in
August prior to fall migration. The most abundant species include Red and
Red-necked Phalaropes, Dunlin, Ruddy Turnstone, Sanderling, Arctic Tern,
Sabine's Gull. Glaucous Gull. Black-legged Kittiwake, Ross. Gull. Oldsquaw.
King and Common Eiders. and Black Guillemot. Black Guillemot and Arctic Tern
nest in colonies on the Plover Islands. High densities of surface feeding
bi rds regu larly occur on and adjacent to the Plover Islands. The bi rds feed on
marine zooplankton concentrated in the Bering Sea intrusion. a mixing zone
where the north-flowing Beri ng Sea water enters the Beaufort Sea.
Teshekpuk Lake Region -- Large numbers of waterfowl molt in the region,
notably Brant, Greater White-fronted Geese, and Canada Geese. Most bi rds are
non-breeders and their densities peak in late July. Coastal portions of this
regi on. the west and southwest coasts of Harri son Bay. are used heavi ly
in the late summer by shorebi rds and waterfowl. The shorebi rds and waterfowl
use the extensive saltmarshes and mudflats along the coast.
Colville River and Fish Creek Deltas -- Densities of breeding waterfowl
are the highest on the North Slope, notably Tundra Swans. Greater White-fronted
Geese, Brant. and Yellow-billed Loons. This is also an important spring
staging area for migrants as it is one of the first areas along the Beaufort
coast to become ice-free.
~son Lagoon -- The highest densities of molting Oldsquaw occur in
Simpson agoon. Other species use the lagoon as well; large numbers of juveni le
Red and Red-necked Phalaropes feed along the shorelines in mid-August. The
hi gh densi ty and large bi omass of bi rds usi ng the lagoon are supported by an
abundant invertebrate fauna that consists mainly of epibenthic mysids. amphipods.
and is opods.
Barrier Islands along Simpson Lagoon -- The barrier islands between the
Colville and Canning Rivers provide the core nesting area for the Common Eider
in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea. The highest numbers of nesting Common Eiders are
found on Cross. Pole. Thetis. Egg. Stump. and Narwhal Islands. and Lion Point.
The islands also support nesting Arctic Terns and Glaucous Gulls.
Sagavanirktok River Delta -- The only Snow Goose nesting colony in Alaska
is on Howe Island. located at the outer fringe of the river delta. The geese
rear their young in relatively discrete areas of the delta, with an apparent
preference some years for wetlands south and southwest of the nesting island.
Canning River Delta -- The Canning Delta supports the highest breeding bird
densities on the eastern coastal plain. The lagoon south of Flaxman Island
supports high numbers of molting oldsquaw.
Barter Is land to Demarcat i on Bay -- Bird use of the 1 agoons east of Barter
Island is simi lar to that found in Simpson Lagoon. Overall numbers and
densities of Oldsquaw are lower than in Simpson Lagoon. although high numbers
regularly occur in Demarcation Bay. The extensive lagoon system still supports
large numbers of Oldsquaw and may be of significant importance to a sizable
proportion of the total Oldsquaw population that molts along the Beaufort coast
of Alaska. Large numbers of Snow Geese stage in late sumner on the inland
portion of the coastal plain in this region.
29
-------
4.
OILFIELD DEVELOPMENT
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Oilfield development on the Arctic Coastal Plain is expanding from Prudhoe
Bay and the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS); major developed oilfields
include the Prudhoe Bay Oilfield (POO) and the Kuparuk Oilfield (Figure 6).
The PBO is operated by two companies: Atlantic Richfield Company (ARCO) on the
east side and Standard Alaska Production Company (SAP CO) on the west side. New
roads and facilities to improve oil recovery have been continually added,
expanding the perimeter of the oilfield and creating a greater density of roads
and pads in the developed areas.
The Kuparuk Oilfield is adjacent to the Prudhoe Bay development and
operated by ARCO. It has developed at a nearly steady state since the comple-
tion in 1980 of the pipeline connecting the Kuparuk production centers with the
TAPS. Design of the field has taken advantage of the Prudhoe Bay experience
with greater consideration for natural drainage patterns and some consolidation
of facilities. Facility development in Kuparuk is similar to that in Prudhoe
Bay although the Kuparuk Oilfield extends over a much larger area and the wells
may ultimately be spaced closer due to the nature of the oil reservoir.
The POO is a network of roads and facilities. Man~ wells are drilled from
single, large pads spaced about every 3.2 km (647,800 m or 160-acre well
spacing). Feeder pipelines connect the wells with central processing facil-
ities known as Flow Stations (ARCO) or Gathering Centers (SAPCO). At the
central facilities, the mixture of oil, gas, and water produced at the wells is
separated. Oil is then piped to Pump Station Number 1 for shipment down the
TAPS. Water is reinjected into an oi1bearing formation as part of the water-
flood operation and the gas is piped to the Central Compressor Plant where most
of it is reinjected into the gas cap at the top of the oi1bearing formation.
About 10 percent of the gas is used by the power plant for Prudhoe Bay and as
fuel for the fi rst four pump stations.
All facilities are interconnected by roads. A main road (the Spine Road)
traverses the field and is joined by access roads connecting it to the well-
pads. Other major roads connect the center of the oilfield with the West Dock
-- a causeway at the edge of Prudhoe Bay used for receiving equipment and
materials shipped by ocean-going barges during the summer.
The majority of the oil service company camps are in the Deadhorse service
area on state-owned land. Other pMncipa1 service camps are the Frontier Camp,
centrally located in the field, and the Service City complex adjacent to the
Kuparuk River, which are on private land. These camps contain workshops and
living facilities for employees. Each oil company has a Base Operations Center
(BOC) that contains living quarters, office space, and workshops. Two major
airfields serve the area: the State's Deadhorse Ai rport and the ARCO ai rfie1d
adjacent to its BOC.
Oilfield facilities are placed on thick gravel pads that help maintain
thermal insulation and provide a relatively stable work surface. Gravel fill
insulates the permafrost and prevents major thermal erosion. Pads are con-
nected by gravel roads of similar construction. Pad or road thickness depends
30
-------
,,(.~
~I
E.
"I\"\..
cO'"
W
0--->
BEAUFORT SEA
~
~
WEST .)..C)~
DOCK ~,.
~VJ
~
- ROAD
..... MAJOR PIPELINE IE.clud.. Feede, Linn)
. DRILL PAD OR OTHER FACILITY
Figure 6.
Seal.
o 4MI
. . . . .
o 4Km
~
Oilfield development on the North Slope of Alaska.
-------
on the weight-bearing capacity required and the duration of use (i.e., for one
or more seasons). At Prudhoe Bay, most gravel pads and roads have a minimum
thickness of 1.5 m (5 ft).
FACILITY DESCRIPTIONS
Gravel Mines and Overburden
Gravel in the Prudhoe Bay area comes from large open-pit mines located in
the inactive floodplains and deltas of major drainages. Major mines are located
along the Putuligayuk, Sagavanirktok and Kuparuk Rivers. The top organic layer
of peat and fine mineral soil, termed overburden, is stripped off the mine sites
and piled at the edge of the pits. Gravel deposits in the Kuparuk Oilfield
are not as extensive as those in Prudhoe Bay, thus a larger number of smaller
mines are required.
D ri 11 sites /We 11 pads
Multiple wells are drilled from each gravel pad, called a drillsite (ARCO)
or wellpad (SAPCO). The pads in Prudhoe Bay range in size from 141,700 m2
(35 acres; SAPCO's Pad Q) to 404,900 m2 (100 a~res; ARCO's Drillsite 1j.
Gravel volume ranges from 212,300 to 611,600 m (276,000 to 800,000 yd , or
about 8,000 yd3/acre). The actual amount of gravel used depends upon site
characteristics; the controlling factors are that the pad surface remains level
and a minimum depth of 1.5 m be maintained. Eventually, most drillsites are
expanded to accommodate new facilities and additional wells for enhanced oil
recovery. Pads are usually constructed and allowed to settle and compact for a
year prior to placing facilities on them.
The activity on a drillsite ranges from intense and nearly continuous
during initial construction or expansion to minmal during normal operations.
Construction involves nearly continuous gravel hauling and dumping at the site
with heavy equipment constantly in use. Traffic is light to operating drill-
sites, which are inspected periodically, and the only activity at the site is
for minor maintenance. Intermediate levels of activity occur during drilling
and well testing. Workers live at the drillsites in temporary camps when wells
are drilled. Traffic and related noise levels are high during drilling opera-
tions compared to maintenance activities during production.
Several pits are constructed adjacent to drillsites. Drilling muds are
discharged into large pits (reserve pits), enclosed by gravel berms contiguous
to the pad. Flaring pits are small square pits, set out at an angle from the
pad, used during drilling and well testing for flaring (burning) contaminated
oi 1. Emergency relief pits are simi 1ar in size and shape to flare pits and are
designed as potential disposal sites for oil and flaring sites for gas if
pressure builds up in the manifold building or the feeder pipelines.
Flow Stations/Gathering Centers
Central processing facilities are collection and distribution centers
located near the center of the oilfield (Figure 7). ARCO and SAPCO each operate
three of these facilities. Central facility pads range in size from 161,943 to
385,615 m2 (40 to 95 acres) and require a minimum of 15,000 m3 of gravel/hectare
32
-------
w
w
~~
,.. ~
~~
~
~
"
c0~
F i gu re 7.
Schematic drawing of a central production facility showing pipeline congestion.
-------
(8,000 yd3/acre). The actual quantity of gravel used for a pad depends on the
topography of the site. The pads are routinely expanded to accommodate addi-
tional facilities.
The central facilities handle the oil mixture from production wells and
are distribution centers for secondary oil recovery systems. The oil mixture
from production wells is piped to the facilities where it is separated into the
oil, gas, and water fractions, by means of large separation chambers and by
pumping large volumes between the chambers and other faci lities. Seawater for
waterfl oodi ng (a secondary oil recovery techni que of injecting water i nt 0 the
producing reservoir to maintain pressure) is distributed to production wells
from these faci lities. The seawater is pressurized then transported via
pipeline at high pressure to the drillsites. Safety systems adjacent to the
pads include large flare pits for oil and gas that include burners for flaring.
The gas burners are always lit, functioning as pilot lights. Several pipelines
come together at the processing faci lities and the areas immediately adjacent
to the pads are congested.
Service Camp Pads
Most of the oi lfie 1 d work is performed by compani es under cont ract to the
operators. Service companies maintain facilities in the Deadhorse area on
state lands, and their gravel pads are nearly contiguous. Activity on service
pads varies and is related to the type of work performed by the company. Some
pads are used for storage and have little activity, some are used by companies
that provide emergency or other services that have occasional bursts of
activity, and some belong to gravel contractors who conduct nearly continuous
activities. A variety of chemicals are stored on some pads, most notably by
drilling mud contractors.
Gravel Roads
The Spine Road is the main transportation route through the oi lfield and
for most of the traffic between the Deadhorse ai rport and service area to the
Kuparuk Oilfield. The Spine Road is wider than other roads in the oilfield,
varying from 14 to 20 m (46 to 66 ft) at the base. The quantity of gravel used
in the road ranges from 19,000 to 28,500 m3/km (40,000 to 60,000 yd3/mi). Other
major roads in the oilfield connect the West Dock with the Deadhorse service
area.
Major roads are heavily travelled by both light vehicles and heavy equip-
ment, and are used as routes for the movement of modular building units (modules)
that are transported to Prudhoe Bay by barge. The roads are continuously main-
tained, with snow clearing in the winter and dust control or grading during the
surrmer. Dust is controlled by watering, most often with fluids pumped from
reserve pits; fluids used must meet state water quality standards. There is
limited road oi ling.
DM 11 sites are connected to the Spine Road and other major roads by access
roads. Access roads are generally not heavily travelled except during construc-
tion. Most access road~ have a 9 m (30 ft) base width, with a minimum gravel
requirement of 18,500 m /km (24,000 yd3/mi). Roads that provide access to more
34
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than one drillsite are more heavily travelled and may be 12 m (36 ft) wide.
Heavy traffic occurs during module movement and when drill rigs are moved to
and from the pads.
Ice-roads and Pads
Ice-roads are used for winter transportation during oilfield exploration,
and ice may be used for exploratory drilling pads. Ice-roads and pads are used
in the developed oi lfield as workpads for winter construction, primari ly for
pipelines and powerlines. The road or pad may be constructed by smoothing or
compacting the snow surface and/or spraying water on the surface to build up an
ice layer (Adam and Hernandez 1977, Johnson and Collins 1980).
Power 1 i nes
Electrical power is supplied by a central power plant. Some powerlines
are buried but most power distribution is by overhead lines. Powerlines are
usually installed during the winter; maintenance is accomplished during the
summer by using rolligons, an off-road vehicle with low pressure tires.
Off-road vehicle trails commonly develop under powerlines and are most notice-
a b 1 e in wet tu n d ra .
Pipelines and Construction Pads
Oil is transported to the central processing facilities and the TAPS via a
network of small diameter pipelines. Most drillsites are connected by multiple
pipelines. Major pipelines, such as the Kuparuk Pipeline connecting the
Kuparuk Oilfield with the TAPS, and pipelines in areas where caribou movement
is a particular concern, are constructed with a minimum of 1.5 m ground clear-
ance. Many early pipelines in the center of the PBO have much less ground
clearance.
Construction pads are built alongside pipeline corridors so that pipelines
may be built and reached by vehicles during the summer. The pads are similar
to roads but are travelled only during construction and for inspection and
mai ntenance. The pads are usua lly only 1 m thi ck because they are not used for
re~ular travel. The gravel requirement is approximately 5,700 m3/km (12,000
y d /m i ).
5.
IMPACTS
OVERVIEW
Impacts are simply defined as changes from the ori ginal state (States et
al. 1978, Westman 1985). In this manual, they are evaluated in terms of
changes in habitat, and related changes in use by waterbirds. The original
state is consi dered tundra whi ch is physi cally undi sturbed by man, and impacts
are defined in terms of changes to the vegetation communities and microtopo-
graphy. General patterns of impacts are presented below, followed by a section
that relates impacts to specific types of oilfield facilities.
35
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GENERAL PATTERNS
The dynamic nature of tundra vegetation is exemplified by the recovery of
plant communities following disturbance. Mesic (moist) communities are
initially more resistant to mechanical damage than wet cOfl1T1unities, but once
altered, are slower to recover (Komarkova 1983). The different response is
largely due to the natural variation in moisture regimes that occurs within wet
communities as compared to more stable moisture regimes in mesic communities;
wet corrmunities have broader envi ronmental tolerances. In general, the
recovery of vegetation following a one-time disturbance (e.g., single season
disturbance associated with exploratory operations) is related to the intensity
of the original disturbance and the resulting changes in moisture regimes
(Lawson et ale 1978). Extreme disturbance occurs when the vegetation mat is
removed or destroyed and the permafrost layer is exposed (Webber and Ives
1978). This results in subsurface melting due to alteration of the insulating
layer of vegetation, known as thermal erosion. Disturbance patterns in the
oi lfield differ in that the activity causing the disturbance (e.g., dust
deposition) is often continuous and the vegetation community is subject to a
continual stress.
Recovery from disturbance can be considered complete or functional.
Complete recovery, or a return to the original plant community, is possible
ooly when the oM~nal microsite characteristics are maintained. When micro-
site characteristics (notably moisture and topography) are altered, the result-
ing species composition will differ from the original community. This type of
recovery may be termed functi ona 1 recovery, whi ch is cha racteri zed by deve 1 op-
ment of a relatively stable community that may be more or less productive than
the original community (Walker et ale 1987). Recovery or development of a
stable cOfl1T1unity may not occur in an oilfield until the facilities are aban-
doned and activities causing disturbances cease.
Many surface impacts in an oilfield can be related to gravel fill and
usually extend beyond the direct loss of the area covered by the fill. Associ-
ated impacts include the source of the gravel, large open pit mines with
adjacent overburden piles. Other typical impacts are related to the placement
of the fill and include impoundments, late snowmelt, gravel spray from snow
removal or small construction spills, dust and noise generation, and contami-
nants from dust and road oiling. Although not a cause of significant surface
disturbance, powerlines may interfere with movements of migratory birds. In
addition, support or construction activities not requiring gravel fill, such as
winter ice roads or pads and occasional summer off-road traffic, may also have
surface impacts.
Impacts may differ depending on the season in which construction takes
place. Although no studies have compared the differences between summer and
winter construction, some potential differences are related to the placement of
drainage structures, the extent of gravel spi 11 s and debris, and the absence of
most birds and caribou during the winter. Because drainage patterns and
volumes can only be determined during the summer the accuracy of culvert
placement may be higher in the SUfl1T1er. When culvert locations are marked for
winter construction, exact placement is difficult because drainage patterns are
not visible. Temporary culverts and breaks in the gravel pad have been tried
during winter construction to allow placement of permanent culverts in the
36
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sunmer. These techniques, while potentially alleviating drainage problems,
often result in small gravel spills adjacent to the drainage when high spring
flows carry gravel from the toe of the gravel pad onto the tundra. The
potential for small gravel spi lls and debris seem hi gher during winter construc-
tion due to the extreme weather conditions. In general, though, winter con-
struction may have fewer impacts than summer because the vegetation is dormant,
snow-covered ground is frozen, and most animals are not present.
Impacts do not always result in a complete habitat loss. Some species
take advantage of change and show preference for the affected area when dis-
turbance creates conditions analogous to preferred habitat types. For example,
Northern Pintails and Red-necked Phalaropes preferentially use artificial
impoundments (Troy 1984). Preference by some species does not mean the net
change has been beneficial, however, as five other species were found to avoid
impoundments.
SPECIFIC IMPACTS
Gravel Cover
The placement of gravel fill for roads or pads is a permanent, dramatic
environmental change. The underlying vegetation is replaced with a feature
whose closest natural analog is an unvegetated ri ver bar. Abandoned pads in
the Prudhoe Bay area have been sparsely colonized with some of the same taxa
that are found on river bars. Colonization, however, is limited by the brief
growing season (Billings 1973), limited nutrients and compacted gravel. Human
activity on gravel pads and roads effectively prevents colonization and any
significant wildlife use. In 1987, gravel covered over 8,650 acres of North
Slope oilfields.
Gravel Mines and Overburden
Gravel mines represent a dramatic change from existing conditions and are
not analogous to any natural feature. Unless the pits are deliberately
altered, they will remain essentially unchanged, except where those adjacent to
water courses are subject to flooding. Activity in and around a mine can be
intense and dust deposition from the mines is heavy.
Gravel removal from upland sites is generally recommended over excavation
in river floodplains, to avoid loss of riparian vegetation and potential impacts
to fish. However, the Alaska Department of Fish and Game is currently investi-
gating the feasibility of rehabilitating floodplain gravel pits of intentional
flooding to provide overwintering habitat for fish. The relative value of this
approach must be evaluated on a site-specific basis, as ripaMan areas provide
important habitat for birds and mammals as well as fish.
Deposition of removed overburden material on surrounding tundra results in
direct habitat loss as well as indirect effects from thermokarsting and blocked
drainages, which may be as significant as the impact of the gravel pit itself.
Revegetation of overburden piles is usually unsuccessful because of the inabilty
of these raised piles to retain soil moisture. Sequential mining with replace-
ment of overburden in previously excavated areas can minimize habitat loss and
facilitate rehabilitation of the site.
37
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Impoundment s
Blockage or alteration of natural drainages creates artificial ponds and
lakes. These impoundments can be extensive since gravel roads and pads act as
dams, and the terrain is nearly level. Drained lake basin complexes are
particularly susceptible to impoundments when crossed by roads, due to the
weak ly integrated drai nages and sheet flow pattern of runoff in the sp ri ng.
Aquatic sedge or wet sedge tundra, which naturally drains slowly, is generally
su scept i b 1 e to i mpou ndment.
In 1983, a total of 13.81 km2 (3,400 acres) of the Poo was classified as
impounded (Walker et al. 1984). Impoundments were more common in the center of
the oilfield where the same drainage was crossed numerous times and where
drainages were often blocked by pads (which cannot be culverted). In a 20.9
km2 area located near the center of the oilfield, 13.9 percent of the area was
mapped as continuously flooded (>75 percent open water) and 5.8 percent of the
area as discontinuously flooded «75 percent open water). These measurements
did not include the lakes and ponds within the flooded areas (Walker et a1.
1984). Along a road in the northern part of the oilfield. impoundments were
the most extensive type of impact (Klinger et al. 1983).
Culverts provide drainage across roads but are not always effective.
Culverts can be damaged or blocked by gravel from maintenance activities (Brown
and Berg 1980). The therma 1 properti es of the road are a ltered by the presence
of culverts which may. together with the weight of vehicle traffic, cause the
culvert ends to bow upwards and prevent water flow (Brown et al. 1984).
Culverts may also remain frozen or be blocked by late melting snowbanks
(Klinger et al. 1983).
The effect of an impoundment depends on its duration and depth. Deep,
permanent impoundments resulting from blocked or restricted drainage resemble
deep, open lakes and may have aquatic vegetation around their edges. Plant
growth or speci es compos iti on may be affected. Arctophil a fu 1 va genera lly does
not grow in water depths greater than 80 cm (Walker 1981) and may be eliminated
from deep impoundments. Wet and aquatic sedge communities that are slightly
flooded may show increased production where species are adapted to periodic
flooding. These areas appear greener earlier in the spring and later in the
summer (Klinger et a1. 1983, Envirosphere 1984). Seasonal impoundments, due to
inefficient or blocked culverts, may eliminate species not adpated to periodic
flooding or deep water. Diverse communities, such as those within drained lake
basins, may become monotypic sedge (Carex aquatilis) communities.
The effect of impoundments on birds has been studied along a lightly
traveled road (Troy 1984, 1985). Most species avoided impoundments during the
beeding season, particularly nesting bi rds. Major exceptions were Northern
Pintails and phalaropes that foraged in the area. Post breeding season use of
impoundments increased significantly, notably by White-fronted Geese. The only
species that avoided impoundments late in the season was the Lapland Longspur.
Differences in use between seasonal and permanent impoundments could not be
statistically tested but it appeared that shorebirds that forage in flooded
areas preferred seasonal impoundments (e.g., Pectoral Sandpipers, Long-billed
Dowitcher, and Red Phalarope). Northern Pintails and Red-necked Phalaropes
preferred permanent impoundments, while other species avoided both seasonal and
permanent impoundments.
38
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Dust
Road traffic and construction activities generate airborne dust that
settles on adjacent tundra. Dust levels are directly related to the amount of
traffic and construction activity. Dust deposition is greatest immediately
adjacent to roads, and decreases logarithmically with distance (Everett 1980).
In the Prudhoe Bay area, more dust is deposited by east winds than by west
winds (Benson et ale 1975) because east winds prevail during the summer months
when road dust is most easi ly generated. Dust along li ght ly traveled roads is
generally deposited within 50 m (Klinger et a1. 1983). In contrast, along the
more heavi ly traveled Spine Road, a heavy dust shadow south of the road was
obvious for 25 m and the effects of dust were noticeable up to 75 m from the
road (Walker et ale 1987). A heavy dust shadow entirely due to the S~ine Road
was shown to cover over 0.2 percent (0.04 km2; 10 acres) of a 20.9 km (5,164
acres) area mapped in the center of the oilfield (Walker et a1. 1984).
Dust has a significant effect on mosses and has been shown to reduce the
productivity and growth of Sphagnum spp. (Spatt and Miller 1981). Some of the
common moss species in the Prudhoe Bay area, such as Drepanocladus spp. and
Tomenthypnum nitens, are not as sensitive to dust as is Sphaanum (Werbe and
Walker 1981). Heavy dustfall along the Spine Road eliminate vlrtuallyall
bryophytes within a few meters of the road, and both mosses and lichens were
noticeably affected up to 75 m from the road. In addition, thaw depths were
si gni fi cant ly deeper within 25 m of the road, correspondi ng to the area where
the moss layer had been eliminated or severely affected. In some areas,
low-centered polygons became hi gh-centered polygons because of the loss of the
moss carpet and the consequent thermal erosion (Walker et ale 1987).
Dust deposition in winter decreases the albedo of the snow, leading to
earlier melting adjacent to roads (Benson et ale 1975). This zone extends some
30 to 100 m from heavily traveled roads (Walker et a1. 1984). Areas adjacent
to roads may be snow-free 10 to 14 days earlier than unaffected tundra areas.
The early melt zone may increase annua 1 p rodu cti vi ty of th e plants due to a
slightly longer growing season (Envirosphere 1984). These areas are used
extensively some years by waterfowl pri or to break-up of the adjacent tundra
(Norton et ale 1975. Hansen and Eberhardt 1981, Troy 1984). Waterfowl move to
adjacent tundra areas as soon as they become snow-free, leaving the roadside
areas. The roadside areas are functionally the same as river deltas in
providing open tundra and open water early in the season. Major differences
from the natural areas are the amount of human activity and potential contam-
inant problems in the oilfield.
Late -Melt i ng Snowbanks
Persistent snowbanks form on the west side of lightly traveled roads and
pads due to snow deposition by winter winds, which may shorten the grOl'ling
season and reduce plant growth. In 1982, the snowbank along the West Field
Road melted two weeks later than snow on adjacent tundra. The vegetation
affected by the snowbank had a lower leaf-area index than did control areas,
indicating reduced growth due to a shortened growing season (Klinger et ale
1983) .
39
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In 1981 and 1982 there were lower densities of birds within 100 m of the
West Field Road than beyond the 100 m zone. Persl stent snowbanks were sus-
pected as a major factor contributing to this reduction (Troy and Johnson 1982,
Troy et ale 1983). In 1984, dust deposition along a portion of the road
enhanced snowmelt and there were more bi rds alongside the road (Troy 1985) than
at distance from the road.
Snow clearing operations for construction and maintenance also creates
late melting snowbanks. During winter construction, heavy equipment used to
clear snow prior to gravel placement often causes damage to the tundra. Wet
tundra is more resilient than moist or dry tundra where the vegetation mat may
be damaged or removed (Envirosphere 1984). Snow that is routinely cleared from
existing roads and pads contains gravel and other debris that remains on the
tundra after snowmelt. Deposition of this material reduces plant growth,
particularly in moist and dry tundra types. Along the West Field Road, dis-
turbed study plots in moist tundra types had 15 to 20 percent less live vegeta-
tion than control plots, whi le dry plots had 80 percent less. Shrubs and
1 i chens were most affected (Envi rosphere 1984).
Late-melting snowbanks due to drifting or snow clearing along roads block
culverts and prevent early season drainage (Klinger et ale 1983, Envi rosphere
1984). The duration of the resulting impoundments depends upon the persistence
of the snowbanks. Snowbanks also channel meltwater parallel to the road, which
may increase heat flux along the channel and result in thermokarst.
Ice roads and ice pads may al so reduce plant growth as they melt later
than surrounding areas. Depending on the amount of travel and the snow cover,
the vegetation mat may become compacted. Wet tundra types recover more quickly
from compaction than dry types. Contaminants and debris incorporated into the
road are deposited on the tundra.
G ra ve 1 Sp ray
Gravel and debris are deposited on the tundra adjacent to pads and roads
during construction, snow removal, and other maintenance operations. Gravel
may also be deposited along ice roads during winter gravel hauling. Deposition
is usually limited in extent, occuring within 30 m of the road or pad (Enviro-
sphere 1984, Walker et a1. 1984). Gravel and debris were found in vegetation
types adjacent to roads in the same proportions as the relative occurrence of
these types along the roads (Walker et a1. 1984). This deposition zone
adjacent to roads and pads extends the area of direct physical change.
Culvert failure, wash-outs, and road breaching deposit gravel downstream
on the tundra. Crossings that chronically wash-out can have extensive gravel
deposits in the drainage. Road breaching (a winter construction technique of
leaving a gap in the road in the approximate culvert location so that the
culvert can be placed in the surrrner) results in scouri ng of the unstabilized
edges and the gravel being carried downstream during breakup.
Thermokarst
Gravel placement, dust, or nearly any disturbance to the vegetation can
disrupt the thermal equilibrium of the underlying permafrost, leading to
40
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thermokarst. The vegetation mat insulates the permafrost. When the vegetation
is compressed (e.g., along a rolli gon trail) or removed, heat flux increases
and the active layer becomes thicker. As the permafrost melts, excess water in
the soil layer drains, resulting in subsidence. In flat terrain, where
drainage is slow, the depressions will fill with water. Standing water acts as
a heat sink and accelerates the thaw process (Lawson et al. 1978). Thaw
progression may also follow ice-wedge troughs between polygons (Rawlinson
1983), thus expandi ng the area of impact.
Thermokarst develops adjacent to roads and pads because the thermal
properties of the surrounding area are changed by the gravel fill. When the
fill provides less than the natural insulation (as it does near the edges of
fill structures), the surrounding area thaws and subsides. Meltwater flows
along the side of the pad, increasing heat flux and expanding the area of
thermokarst. When gravel fill provides equal or greater insulation, the core
of the fill generally remains frozen.
Thermokarst in Prudhoe Bay pri mari ly occurs di rect ly next to roads and
pads with the most extensive and deepest thermokarst features next to heavily
traveled roads, such as the Spine Road. Heavy dust along the Spine Road
altered the thermal regime, as mentioned earlier. Most of the thermokarst
mapped in a 20.9 km2 area occurred in wet sedge tundra and in moist sedge,
dwarf-shrub tundra (Walker et ale 1984).
The direct effect of thermal erosion on habitat value is not known;
however, thermokarst formation may be a useful indicator of continuing
secondary impacts. Thermokarst formation is the result of many processes
(Lawson 1982) such as dust and flooding (Klinger et ale 1983). Continued
thermokarst formation with time, as is occurring in the PBO (Walker et ale
1984, Walker et ale in press) indicates changes are still occurring long after
placement of the gravel fill. By extension, habitat loss and change also
continue long after initial gravel placement.
Off -road Tra ve 1
Off-road vehicles are used in the oilfield to service powerlines. explore
and collect test cores for gravel, conduct seismic surveys, and construct
powerlines and pipelines. Travel is regulated by the Department of Natural
Resources to minimize surface disturbance. Winter travel by tracked vehicle is
permitted when a minimum snow cover of 12.8 cm (6 in) is present. Sunrner
travel is restricted to low pressure vehicles, such as rolligons and hover-
craft. The impact of off-road travel depends on the type of vehicle used and
the number of vehicle passes over the same area. Damage is related to the
compression or destruction of the vegetation mat (Abele and Brown 1976. Abele
et ale 1978. Felix and Jorgenson 1985). In general, grasses and sedges (except
tussocks) are tolerant of vehicle disturbance and can be more abundant in
vehicle tracks (Chapin and Chapin 1980, Chapin and Shaver 1981). Willow shrubs
are generally sensitive to disturbance (Lawson et ale 1978, Chapin and Shaver
1981, Reynolds 1981). The skirt of air-cushion vehicles (hovercraft) abrades
vegetation. Exposed bird nests are destroyed by a single pass of a hovercraft;
well concealed nests are disturbed only by repeated passes (Abele and Brown
1976, Walker et ale 1977).
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6. MITIGATION
DEFINITION
Individual or collective actions taken to offset adverse project impacts
are termed mitigation. Mitigation of adverse impacts that affect the mainten-
ance of functional aspects of the ecosystems (e.g., wildlife habitats. natural
biological productivity, species diversity. and water quality maintenance) is
important.
The definition of mitigation used by federal agencies is in the Council on
Environmental Quality (CEQ) regulations for the National Environmental Policy
Act (NEPA) (40 CFR 1508.20[a-e]). This definition lists five types of mitiga-
ti on:
lI(a) avoiding the impact altogether by not taking a certain action or
parts of an action; (b) minimizing impact by limiting the degree of
magnitude of the action and its implementation; (c) rectifying the
impact by repai ri ng. rehabi 1 itati on. or restori ng the affected
envi ronment; (d) reduci ng or el iminating the impact over time by
preservation and maintenance operations during the life of the
action; and (e) compensating for the impact by replacing or providing
substitute resources or environments.1I
POLICY
Several agencies in Alaska have mitigation policies. The Fish and Wild-
life Service (FWS) has a national policy (Federal Register. Volume 46. No. 15.
Friday. January 23. 1981. pp. 7644-7663); The Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) has a regional policy for the Pacific Northwest and Alaska that applies
to dredge and fill activities (Region 10 Mitigation Policy); the Corps of
Engineers has a formal policy (33 CFR 325.4. July 22. 1982. Federal Register);
the National Marine Fisheries Service uses its Habitat Conservation Policy as a
mitigation policy; and the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADFG) has
internal mitigation guidance. Goals are similar in all mitigation policies.
The goal of both EPA and FWS comes from NEPA and is to ensure that the natural
environment receives proper or equal consideration in the review of development
projects. The ADFG has the goal of allowing minimal change in the quality of
the ecosystem. A goal of all three policies is to provide information in the
planning and review process which is timely and will guide. not hinder. develop-
ment .
The FWS Mitigation Policy recognizes mitigation as a management concept
and sees the five elements in the CEQ definition as a desirable sequence of
steps and not menu equivalents. The same approach is outlined in the ADFG
guidance. The steps include: (1) avoid; (2) minimize; (3) rectify; (4) reduce
or eliminate; and (5) compensate. Avoiding impacts is the highest attainable
mitigation goal. Compensation may be required only after impacts have been
determined to be unavoidable through the preceding four steps.
A key aspect of mitigation requires initial identification of resource
values so losses resulting from project development and potential gains through
mitigation can be evaluated and compared to determine the merits of recommended
42
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actions. The FWS Mitigation Policy uses four Resource Categories, based on the
importance and relative abundance of habitats, to set values and goals for
mitigation (Table 7). The purpose of Resource Categories is to ensure that the
level of migitation recommended is consistent with the fish and wildlife
resource values invol ved.
Values are determined for selected evaluation species and scarcity is
based on relative abundance on a national or ecoregion scale. EPA adopts a "no
loss of habitat value" determination for areas with unique aquatic resources,
which is equated with Resource Category 1. Determination of value or damage
assessment is recognized by the ADFG as being difficult to quantify, and the
determination of value is left to the reviewer, based on specific site and
project information.
MITIGATION STEPS
1.
Avoid -- Modify the project to avoid predicted impacts. Specific impacts
may be avoided by changes in structural design through engineering,
relocation, or timing restrictions on construction or operation. In
wilderness or previously undeveloped areas, the "no project" alternative
or a non-structural alternative (e.g., use of existing facilties) are the
only alternatives that truly avoid all impacts as construction disturbs
natu ra 1 p roces ses and changes wil occur.
2.
Minimize -- If development will cause unavoidable impacts to the natural
environment, the second mitigation step is to minimize those impacts.
Minimization occurs during planning, construction, and maintenance and
includes actions taken to directly modify the project design by reducing
the size, or by timing construction, operations, and maintenance to reduce
disturbance to fish and wildlife. Some vegetation types are more sensi-
tive to impacts than others and project impacts can often be minimized by
avoiding specific areas.
3.
Rectif~ -- Following completion or abandonment of the project, actions
taken to rehabilitate or restore the site are termed rectification. These
actions are particularly appropriate for exploratory activities where
disturbance is less drastic and the life of the project is short. This
would be a long-term goal for major development projects.
Restoration of a site to its original state, or rehabilitation to a
more productive condition, are often objectives of rectification. In many
cases complete recovery of an area is not possible because the conditions
under which the original community developed cannot be re-created (Webber
and Ives 1978). Vegetation composition, determined primarily by micro-
topogrpahy and mi crocl i mate, can be dramat i ca lly altered by const ruct ion
activities. The resulting conditions may lead to a functional equilibrium
(i .e. a different vegetation community) that is more or less producti ve
than the original community (Walker et al. 1985). One way to predict the
result is to relate the disturbed area (e.g. an abandoned gravel pad) to
an analogous natural feature (a floodplain gravel bar). All other factors
being equal, vegetation on the natural feature is likely to be similar to
what will develop or could be developed on the disturbed area. For
example, an abandoned gravel pad is similar to a floodplain gravel bar,
43
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Table 7.
Fish and Wildlife Service mitigation policy resource categories.
Unique and irreplaceable area of high value; the goal is no loss
Category 1:
Category 2:
Category 3:
Category 4:
of existing habitat value.
Areas of high value that are relatively scarce; the goal is no
net loss of in-kind habitat value.
Areas that are of high to medium value and are relatively abun-
dant; the goal is no net loss of value whi le minimizing loss of
in-kind habitat value.
Areas of medium to low value; the goal is to minimize loss.
44
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thus the plant species characteristic of gravel bars are likely to be the
most successful at colonizing abandoned pads (Kubanis 1982, Walker et ale
1987). Therefore, rather than complete restoration, a more realistic goal
may be to physi ca lly rehabi 1 itate the site to app roxi mate the natu ra 1
analog, thus encouraging establishment of a natural community. Where
appropriate, natural recolonization may be further enhanced or supple-
mented through fertilization and seeding or planting of native species.
4.
Reduce or Eliminate -- Mitigation measures must be monitored through the
life of the project to ensure that they continue to be effective. Pro-
visions for maintenance and repair or redesign (retrofitting) are neces-
sary so that the level of mitigation initially required for project
approval is achieved.
Compensate -- Compensation is necessary when actions taken to directly
modifiy the project (steps 1 th rough 4) are i nsuffi ci ent to reasonably
offset project impacts. Compensation involves determining the area
permanently altered by the project, the resource value of the altered
area, and replacing that value by increasing the value of other areas.
This may involve rehabilitation of areas not affected by the project whose
potential habitat value to affected species is similar to that being lost.
Mitigation banking is another approach, where land is acquired (title or
easement) by a developer, agency or other private entity either in advance or
concurrently with development, and the habitat is protected or improved to
offset the effects of several development actions on a particular habitat type.
A mitigation bank can be established to create new habitat, restore previously
degraded habitat, improve the value of existing habitat or protect existing
habitat scheduled for development. In either case, the amount and type of land
purchased or enhanced is determined by the amount of area unavoidably affected
by the project and the relative value of the affected land to wildlife.
5.
RECOMMENDED MITIGATION OF SPECIFIC IMPACTS
The approaches outlined below address minimization, rectification and
reduction of specific impacts associated with gravel placement. In all cases,
complete avoidance is possible only through the "no project II or non-structural
alternative because gravel placement does result in physical changes and
consequent ly causes changes in habitat va lue. A discussi on of compensati on
follows the guidance for specific impacts.
Gravel Cover
Gravel fill in wetlands permanently alters the area covered and the
changes cannot be avoided. Impacts due to fill can be minimized in part by
reducing the size of the fill and in part by following the recommendations
discussed below to minimize associated impacts. Other possible ways to mini-
mize associated impacts include winter construction and traffic restrictions
(particularly during periods of high wildlife use). These latter two
approaches may be appropri ate in some cases and not in others dependi ng on the
characteristics of the project area. Pipelines can be constructed from
existing gravel pads or from ice pads during the winter, thus reducing the
need for gravel fi 11.
45
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Rectification following abandonment is under investigation in the Prudhoe
region but results from the studies are not yet available nor is there informa-
tion on gravel pads of similar thickness in comparable areas. Consequently,
little information on appropriate techniques is available. (Few pads in the
Prudhoe region have been abandoned.) Restoration of any site to its original
condition is highly unlikely, however, as the original site characteristics
(e.g. microtopography and soil moisture) will have been dramatically altered.
Even with complete removal of the gravel, the site characteristics will be
dramatically different from the original condition. Rehabilitation to a stable
community analagous to a riverbar may be possible. Appropriate measures need
to be investigated and should be as comprehensive as possible, examining the
potential outcomes of altering the gravel in place through partial or complete
removal of the gravel.
Grave 1 Mi nes and Overbu rden
Large gravel mines, like the ones along the Putuligayuk River, permanently
alter the area and should be considered a complete habitat loss. Rectification
following abandonment of large mines has not been tried. The volume of mater-
ial removed from the mines is tremendous and no feasible method of filling the
mines with a solid fill is apparent. One mine adjacent to the Putulagayuk
River has been converted to a landfill. Consolidated mines are preferable to
gravel removal from active floodplains, but the loss associated with the large
mines must still be considered. The Alaska Department of Fish and Game is
currently investigating rehabilitation of large gravel mines in river flood-
plains so as to provide overwintering habitat for fish.
Filli ng of mines with water has been proposed with the idea that they
would be similar to large lakes. Another mine in the Sagavanirktok River
floodplain has been filled with water and converted to a water reservoi r. Such
techniques depend on the avai labi lity of a water supply, and the approach needs
to be carefully reviewed on a site specific basis.
Impoundments
Large gravel pads cannot be culverted due to thei r size and wei ght beari ng
requirements; therefore they must be sited to minimize blocked drainages.
Sites that should be avoided when constructing such facilities include drained
basin complexes, aquatic and seasonally flooded wet sedge tundra, and minor or
ephemeral water courses which may carry water during break-up. Preparation of
surface hydrology maps prior to construction can aid in the identification of
potential drainage problems.
Roads can be culverted or bridged to allow drainage where it is clearly
defined, but current engineering practices have not been entirely effective.
Consistent drainage problems occur where roads traverse drained lake basins and
aquatic or wet sedge tundra. Therefore, to minimize impoundments, roads should
not be sited across these types. Design and construction of drainage struc-
tures should be improved to prevent slumping, bowing, or blockage. Ideally,
some combination of bridging and filling, rather than culverting, should be
employed in these situations or where drainage is not clearly defined or where
problems have persisted.
46
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Infrequently traveled pads, such as those utilized for pipeline construc-
tion, should include low water crossings instead of culverts, as along the
Trans-Alaska Pipeline workpad. The pads should be breached across larger
drainages or where wash-outs have occurred in previous years. Further reduc-
tion of impoundments can be accomplished by consolidating facilities (e.g.
siting pipelines adjacent to roads instead of constructing separate workpads).
Culverts blocked with snow and ice delay drainage. Large, early season
impoundments can be minimized by using steam pipes to thaw culverts. Culverts
that are susceptible to drifting snow or that become filled with snow due to
road clearing should be identified for regular thawing in the spring. The ends
of culverts may be intentionally blocked following freezeup to prevent filling
with snow and the blocks removed during breakup. To prevent blocking or
damaging culverts, their locations need to be marked clearly and maintenance
operations modified. Impoundments due to inadequate or damaged culverts may
require retrofitting. Upgrading of drainage structures must be done before
there is an effect on vegetation (i.e., prior to the next growing season).
When winter construction is planned, culvert locations along new road align-
ments should be determined and marked during early summer. A drainage and
culverting plan should be prepared for review prior to construction. Winter
construction of roads and culvert placement is preferred when drainages have
been identified.
To rectify impoundments, culverts should be removed from pads when they
are abandoned, and the pad breached at culvert or drainage structure locations.
Introduction of aquatic vegetation, such as Arctophi la fulva should be consid-
ered. The feasibility of re-vegetation with A. fulva is currently being
studied jointly by FWS and SAPCO.
To reduce impoundments, culverts should be inspected every spring immedi-
ately prior to breakup to ensure that they are open. The inspection should
occur during late May and any necessary maintenance should be performed immedi-
ately. It is important that drainage be unhindered throughout breakup, since
even temporary spring impoundments affect vegetation and bird use.
Dust
Airborne dust generated by road traffic and construction settles on and
affects adjacent vegetation. As with impoundments, total avoidance of dust is
impractical. During the summer, dust can be controlled but not eliminated,
along heavily traveled roads by watering (oiling roads can introduce contami-
nants into adjacent wetlands). However, the effects of using water from
reserve pits on roads or of dewatering lakes for the water source must be
considered. North-south roads generally have the greatest dust shadow due to
prevailing summer winds, and should be watered on a regular basis. In situa-
tions requiring regular and heavy traffic, regular and frequent road watering
should occur. In general, traffic patterns should be monitored and regular
watering initiated when dust plumes become apparent.
Where dust deposition has been extensive, such as along the southern side
of the Spine Road, revegetation may be necessary following abandonment of the
road. A heavy dust shadow is similar to a fill, although it takes a long time
to develop.
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Snowbank s
Snowbanks cannot be entirely avoided because elevated structures alter
wind patterns and enhance snow deposition, and it is not feasible to haul
cleared snow to a disposal site.
Structures should be oriented so that their long axis is oriented parallel
to the prevailing wind (i.e., east-west). Since late-melting snowbanks are
also the result of winter snow clearing, designated dumping sites adjacent to
pads should be established and used exclusively (i.e. formal snow removal plans
shou ld be prepared and approved). Cleari ng shou ld be done to the wes t si de of
a facility where snowbanks form naturally, thus impacts will be consolidated.
This will also reduce deposition of the debris and gravel that are incorporated
into the cleared snow. Snow removal operations along roads should avoid
culvert openings.
Rehabilitation, including revegetation, may be necessary following abandon-
ment where the vegetation has been severely disturbed.
Gra ve 1 Spray
Gravel spray generally occurs during both construction and snow removal
and cannot be completely avoided. Therefore, a buffer of at least 50 m should
be maintained between construction and maintenance activities and sensitive
habitats (e.g. habitats that support the most birds and/or habitats that are
unique to a project area).
Proper handling of heavy equipment during construction and during snow
removal can minimize gravel spray. Designated snow disposal areas identified
in an approved snow removal plan will also minimize this problem. Excessive
amounts of gravel deposited during snow removal should be removed early in the
spring, prior to surface thawing and preferably while some snow cover remains.
Removal should be discontinued if it damages the tundra. Rehabilitation may be
required for some sites, involving removal or revegetation as appropriate.
Extensi ve gravel spray may be consi dered an unauthorized fi 11.
Thermokars t
Complete avoidance of thermal erosion is not possible since it is the
indirect result of other factors (e.g. dust and impoundments) which are also
not completely avoidable. Thermokarst develops adjacent to structures either
as a result of the structure altering the thermal stability of the adjacent
area or due to the presence of dust, impoundments or other disturbances. The
extent of thermal erosion depends in part on the extent of other disturbances;
it will be more extensive adjacent to major facilities and heavily traveled
roads. Vegetation types most susceptible to thermal erosion are wet, sedge
tundra and moist sedge, dwarf-shrub tundra. Care should be taken during
construction not to disturb adjacent vegetation and to maintain thermal
stability of the pad.
COMPENSA nON
Successful compensation requires the identification of lost resource
values (analagous to loss of habitat units), proven techniques to enhance
48
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resource values of previously impacted areas, and a means to equate the lost
resource values with the enhanced resource values. The assessment method
presented above can be used to help determine the lost resource values (e.g.
number of birds potentially supported by the impacted habitat). Different
methods of enhancing resource values need to be tried and the results studied
to provide a suite of potential actions appropriate for different situations.
A caution in conducting such studies is that the desired outcome is not just
that the impacted area is changed but that the change results in habitats that
are more productive. Studies must be designed to follow changes through to the
resulting effect on wi ldl ife use of the area.
7 .
RECOMMENDATI ONS
The following recommendations identify data gaps in the information
presented and provide guidance on how the additional information could be
incorporated. Additional issues that should be added to the manual are listed,
and new issues will no doubt be identified as development expands into new
regi ons.
INFORMATION NEEDS
1.
Bird-habitat relationships in landscape units other than the flat thaw-
1 ak e p 1 a in.
The general pattern of habitat relationships has been described from
several locations and detai led studies have been conducted in the Prudhoe
Bay region, within the flat thaw-lake plain landscape unit (Bergman et ale
1977 and Troy 1985). Bird-habitat relationships may vary between landscape
units as the abundance and composition of vegetation types varies between
units. Habitat use in the gently rolling thaw-lake plain is being studied
as part of a Fish and Wildlife Service project in which field work began
in summer 1986.
Detailed habitat use patterns are needed for other areas outside the
Prudhoe region and out of the flat thaw-lake plain.
2.
Local bird concentration areas need to be identified.
Bird distribution is not entirely explained by fine-grained habitat
use. Local concentrations occur, particularly for colonially nesting
species (e.g. Brant) and in productive areas like river deltas. Concen-
trations also occur duMng both spring and fall migration and duMng
molting. Identification of local concentrations should take place prior
to detailed project planning and information on these areas included in
the species accounts and in the discussion of distribution patterns.
3.
Baseline information on the coastal region between Teshekpuk Lake and
Barrow needs to be collected.
Little is known about bi rd use in the coastal region between
Teshekpuk Lake and Barrow. Areas of particular interest in terms of
49
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potentially productive habitat are Smith Bay with its extensive salt-
marshes and Dease Inlet due to its estuarine character. Information on
bird use in these areas should be incorporated into species accounts and
into the discussion of distribution patterns as appropriate.
4.
Test relationships between human-induced disturbances and covertype
measured in the Prudhoe Bay Oilfield and in the Kuparuk Oilfield.
The results of the detailed (1:6,000) mapping analysis of gravel
cover and associated impacts in the Prudhoe Bay Oilfield (Walker et al.
1984) need to be tested in the other major landscape units; the gently
rolling thaw-lake plain, and the large floodplains. The relationships may
differ between the units due to differences in topography and covertype
composition. These units describe the majority of the landscape between
the Colville and Canning Rivers and mapping information from both units
would make quantitative predictions of potential impacts throughout this
re gi on p os sib 1 e .
5.
Study habitat use by bi rds adjacent to roads and pads in the center of a
developed oilfield.
Information from the Waterflood studies (Troy et al. 1984, Troy 1985)
have provided extensive information on habitat use by birds adjacent to a
seldom traveled road. The results of the study showed some roadside
effects on birds, primarily due to impoundments, but the effect was
largely restricted to a narrow zone adjacent to the road. This same type
of analysis is needed adjacent to heavily traveled roads and adjacent to
facility pads because the extent of physical disturbance is greater in
these areas. The potential for behavioral disturbance/avoidance is
greater where acti vity is greater. (A recent report by Troy 1988 addresses
this issue.)
6.
Develop and test additional mitigation methods.
Much remains to be learned about effective mitigation, largely
because information on the extent and persistence of impacts is just
becoming avai lable. By way of example, impoundments are the most exten-
sive impact due to inadequate drainage structures. Development and
testing of various structures needs to be conducted and guidelines devel-
oped identifying appropriate structures for different types of tundra
drainages. Effective means of minimizing other types of impacts need to
be developed and tested as well.
ADDITIONAL ISSUES
1.
Cari bou
Issues relating to impacts of development on caribou have been
recently analyzed by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (Shideler
1986). Thei r report is thorough and should be incorporated as a separate
chapter in the manual and the specific impact information incorporated as
appropri ate.
50
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2.
Oth er impact s of de ve 1 op ment
Available information on noise. water quality. and contaminants
should be summarized and presented in a chapter. Impact and mitigation
information. to the extent available. should be incorporated into the
appropriate chapters.
3.
Other vertebrates
Information on other wi ldlife that occurs on the North Slope and may
be affected by development needs to be summarized and included as a
chapter in the manual. Notably. Arctic Foxes. which are common scavengers
in developed areas. and Polar Bears that may be attracted to development
along the coast or may be affected by development near denning areas. need
to be addressed.
4.
Riverine systems
Effects on major rivers and their ecosystems need to be addressed.
particularly as development expands into the Savavanirktok and Colville
River deltas. Information on resources. such as fisheries. and potential
impacts. such as gravel mining. needs to be summarized and data gaps
i dent if ied.
8.
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Klinger, L. F., D. A. Walker, M. D. Walker, and P. J. Webber. 1983. The
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56
-------
Komarkova, V. 1983. Recovery of plant communities and surrmer thaw at the 1949
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57
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Miller, P. A., C. S. Moitoret, and M. A. Masteller. 1985. Species accounts of
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58
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59
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Spindler, M. A. 1981. Bird populations and distribution in the coastal
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60
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61
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62
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APPENDIX A.
WATERBIRD AND SURFACE IMPACT ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHIES
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APPENDIX A.
WATERBIRD AND SURFACE IMPACT ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHIES
Rosa Meehan, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Alaska
Investigations, Wetlands and Marine Ecology
PREFACE
Evaluation of the impacts due to oi 1 and gas development on the North
Slope is hampered by a lack of a consolidated information base. Information
relevant to the assessment of impacts is contained in a variety of published
and unpublished sources. The purpose of this bibliography is to provide a
comprehensive information source of annotated, relevant studies. The annota-
tions are detailed and contain the site of the study, the emphasis, major
results, and conclusions. Sufficient information is included in the annota-
tions so that the user, in most cases, wi 11 not need to consult the original
reference. The bibliography addresses two topics in depth, waterbirds and
surface impacts, other topics may be added at a later date.
The annotated bibliographies are included as an appendix to the impact
assessment manual to provide detailed references for the material presented in
the manual. The manual will address the impacts due to development, not
exploration, and the references in the surface impact section of the biblio-
graphy are focused on developmE!nt impacts, although many studies of exploratory
operations are included. Exploratory impacts have been addressed in detail in
a Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (CRREL) report entitled
"Disturbance and recovery of Alaskan tundra terrain: a summary of recent CRREL
research" (Walker et al. 1987). The two topics, exploration and development,
are distinct because development impacts are more severe than exploratory
impacts due to the intensity and longevity of the development activity.
Surface impacts are addressed in depth because surface disturbance due to
gravel placement is one of the major sources of impacts. Nearly all develop-
ment facilities in the Prudhoe Bay region are placed on extensive gravel pads
due to the engineering constraints of construction on permafrost. Gravel
placement in wetlands causes significant, long-term changes to the wetlands.
Facilities are also interconnected by a spiderweb of roads and pipelines, so
surface impacts are ubiquitous in a development. Contaminants are addressed
only in a superficial manner because major gaps remain in our understanding of
how contaminants act in North Slope wetlands, specifically their longevity and
dispersal in the natural environment. The effect and behavior of contaminants
need to be understood before the effects of a contaminant spill, other than
those impacts caused by direct contact, can be related to impacts on wildlife.
This is an important topic and basic research of the fates and effects of
contaminants in the oi lfield is needed.
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The amount of information available on North Slope wildlife resources is
extensive and project timing and funding did not allow an exhaustive coverage
of this information base. Waterbirds are addressed in depth because of their
legal importance as migratory birds, the amount of ecological information
available, and their direct dependence on wetlands. Waterbirds are of inter-
national significance and they are a readily visible, major component of the
North Slope ecosy stem. Waterbi rds are di rect ly dependent on wet 1 ands for
breeding habitat and numerous studies have addressed thei r specific habitat use
patterns. Changes in landcover due to development can be interpreted in terms
of local and cumulative impacts on migratory bird habitat. This information
can be used as a basis for developing a practical planning guide that outlines
relative values of specific habitats, the susceptibility of those habitats to
development, and recommended mitigation measures.
The selection of references for inclusion in the bibliography involved
several steps. An initial list of references was compiled through a title
search of appropriate publications and government holdings. The specific
sources are listed in the introductions to each section in the bibliography.
The list of titles that seemed related to development impacts and to waterbirds
was di st ri buted for revi eWe The ref erences were a cqu ired, read and those that
actually addressed the topic were annotated. The specific criteria for selec-
tion are detailed in the introductions to each section. Not all titles origin-
ally listed were ultimately selected for inclusion.
ii
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1.
WATERBIRD BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
The waterbird bibliography includes information on the breeding biology
and ecology of birds that regularly breed on the North Slope of Alaska (Table
1). The birds included are either those of special emphasis identified by the
Fish and Wildlife Service or are common tundra breeders. Inclusion of other
species was limited by the availability of ecological and life-history informa-
tion. Species that do not breed in significant numbers on the North Slope, but
use the North Slope for a significant portion of their life cycle were
included. Examples of significant non-breeding use are the molting concentra-
tions of Brant in the Teshekpuk Region and 'the staging of Snow Geese on the
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. Information on subsistence harvest patterns
were included when the article contained life-history information for a
species. Studies conducted in the sub-Arctic and in Canada were included to
supplement life-history information for some species.
The annotations include the site of the study, its duration, and the
study's emphasis. Major results of the study and the conclusions are summar-
ized. The annotations are intended to contain sufficient information such that
the user, in most cases, would not need to consult the original reference.
Exceptions are publications of species accounts, which are impractical to
summarize. Many studies were published as a series of progress reports with a
final report. In most cases, only the final report was annotated, with the
exception of progress reports that contained information not included in the
final report. Dissertations were not annotated if the information had been
subsequently published in a journal or other type of report. Dissertations not
published in any other format were included.
The citations were taken in part from An Annotated Bibliography of Litera-
ture on Alaskan Waterbirds (Handel et al. 1981). References for this biblio-
graphy published before 1976 were taken from the electronic data services of
the Fish and Wildlife Service Reference System (Denver Public Library), BIOSIS,
NTIS, Ocean Abstracts, and Dissertation Abstracts; these were supplemented by
visual searches of key references and periodicals. References published after
1976 were obtained by visual searches of common journals and bibliographic
sources, primarily Arctic, Auk, Canadian Field Naturalist, Condor, Ecology,
Ecological Monographs, Ibis, Journal of Field Ornithology, Journal of Wildlife
Management, Murrelet, Pacific Seabird Group Bulletin, Wader Study Group
Bulletin, Western Birds, Wildlife Review, and Wilson Bulletin. Material
published after this bibliography were obtained by visual searches of the same
journals. Searches were made of federal and state government holdings for
unpublished technical reports. Interim reports were not included when a final
report was available.
KEY WORD INDEX
Key words accompany each annotation. The key words include the geographic
location of the study, the bird species studied, and the major topics of the
study (e.g., habitat, behavior). "Migration" as a key word includes staging
and migration. "Behavior" includes territoriality and behavior associated with
mating. Studies located along the Beaufort Sea Coast had "coastal" as a key
1
-------
Table 1
Gavia stellata
Red-throated Loon
Pacifi c Loon
Tundra Swan
Greater White-fronted Goose
Snow Goose
Bra nt
Canada Goose
Northern pi ntai 1
Kin 9 E i de r
Spectacled Eider
Oldsquaw
Lesser Golden Plover
Semipalmated Sandpiper
Bai rd IS Sandp ip er
Pectoral Sandpiper
Dunlin
Buff-breasted Sandpiper
Red-necked Phalarope
Red Phalarope
Lapland Longspur
Gavia arcti ca
Cygnus columbianus
Anser albifrons
Chen caerulescens
Branta bernicla
Branta canadensis
Anas acuta
Somateria spectabilis
Soma t e ri a f is ch e ri
Cl angu la hyemali s
Pluvialis squatarola
Calidris pusilla
Calidris bairdii
Calidris melanota
Calidris alpina
Trygnites subruficollis
Phalaropus lobatus
Phalaropus fulicaria
Calcarius lapponicus
2
-------
word. "Impacts" was used as a key word for studies that discussed direct
impacts due to habitat modification and impacts due to noise disturbance.
the study contained recommendations pertinent to evaluating impacts due to
development, "recommendations" was included as a key word. Figure 1 shows
geographic locations used as key words.
If
Geographic Location
ANWR:
Bartels et a1. 1984; Bartels and Doyle 1984a; 1984b; Bartels and
Ze11hoefer 1983; Brackney et a1. 1985a; 1985b; 1985c; 1985d; Garner and
Reynolds 1983; 1984; Martin and Moitoret 1982; Moitoret et a1. 1985; Miller et
a1. 1985; Oates et a1. 1985; Spindler 1978; 1983; 1984; Spindler and Miller
1983; Spindler et a1. 1984a; 1984b; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1982
Alaska:
Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959; Handel et al. 1981; Kessel 1979; Kessel and
Gibson 1978
Atkasook:
Myers and Pite1ka 1980
Barrow:
Ashkenazie and Safrie1 1979a; 1979b; Barry 1968; Connors et a1. 1979;
Custer and Pite1ka 1977; Dodson and Egger 1980; Holmes 1966; 1970; Holmes and
Pite1ka 1968; Maclean 1980; Maclean and Pite1ka 1971; Myers 1979; Myers and
Pite1ka 1980; Norton 1972; Pite1ka 1959; Schamel and Tracy 1977; Seastedt and
Maclean 1979
Canada:
Alison 1975; 1976; Baker 1977; 1979; Baker and Baker 1973; Mayfield 1978;
Salter et a1. 1980
Canning River Delta:
Martin and Moitoret 1982
Colville Delta:
Hall 1975; Hawkins 1983; 1986; Kiera 1979; North et ale 1983
Colville River:
Kessel and Cade 1958
Icy Cape:
Lenhausen and Quinlan 1981
3
-------
\>..
~
c
+:>
'T
T
I
c
o C
E
A
B e a N
I Sea
'~r
c
158°00'
162"00' S e 'a Point I
i I Franklin
Wainwright
Icy
Cape .
aR--- Atkasook
\C.
c \1.
'"
+
+
+
+
,
\0
~. I»
I»\~
'} 0-
1».1»
.
\
,
,
+
,ef\O/KS
162"00'
\ \
,\",'l0()() ,
\
"L
t
s'1\
c~«:-
\
150°00'
Canada
154°00'
Scale in Miles 0
Scale in Kilometers 50
50
100
100
o
50
F i gu re 1.
Geographic locations used as key words.
-------
Kuparuk:
Truett et al. 1982; Woodward-Clyde Consultants 1982a
Manitoba:
Alison 1975; 1976; Baker 1977; 1979; Baker and Baker 1973
North Slope:
Barry and Spencer 1976; Connors et al. 1983; Davis and Wisely 1974;
Derksen and Eldridge 1980; Derksen et al. 1979a; 1979b; 1981; 1982; Divoky
1983; Flock 1973; Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959; Garner and Reynolds 1983; 1984;
Gilliam and Lent 1982; Gollop and Richardson 1974; Handel et al. 1981; Johnson
and Richardson 1981; Johnson et al. 1975; 1983; Kessel 1961; 1979; Kessel and
Gibson 1978; King 1973; 1979; Koski 1975; Myers and Pitelka 1980; Pitelka 1974;
Pitelka et al. 1974; Schamel 1977; Seamen et al. 1981; Sjolander and Agren
1976; Sladen 1973; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1982
Okpilak Delta:
Spindler 1978; Spindler and Miller 1983; Spindler et al. 1984a; 1984b
Oliktok Point:
Hall 1975; Woodward-Clyde Consultants 1982b
Prudhoe Bay:
Bergman and Derksen 1977; Bergman et al. 1977; Gavin 1979; 1980; Hansen
and Eberhardt 1981; Kiera 1979; Murphy et al. 1986; Norton et al. 1975; Troy
1985a; 1985b; Troy and Johnson 1982; Troy et al. 1983; Woodward-Clyde Consult-
ants 1983
Major Topic
Behavior:
Alison 1976; Ashkenazie and Safriel 1979b; Baker and Baker 1973; Brackney
et al. 1985d; Connors et al. 1982; Davis and Wisely 1974; Derksen et al. 1982;
Hawkins 1986; Holmes 1970; Murphy et al. 1986; Myers 1979; Pitelka et al. 1974;
Schamel 1977; Schamel and Tracy 1977; Seastedt and Maclean 1979; Sjolander and
Agren 1967; Spindler 1984a
Breeding Biology:
Alison 1975; Ashkenazie and Safriel 1979a; Bartels and Doyle 1984b; Bartels
et al. 1983; Bergman and Derksen 1977; Brackney et al. 1985b; Hansen and
Eberhardt 1981; Hawkins 1983; 1986; Johnson et al. 1975; Mayfield 1978;
Mickelson 1975; Moitoret et al. 1985; Myers and Pitelka 1980; North et al.
1983; Norton 1972; Petersen 1979; Pitelka 1959; Pitelka et al. 1974; Schamel
1977; Schamel and Tracy 1977; Sjolander and Agren 1967; Soikkeli 1967; Troy
1985b
5
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Coastal:
Barry 1968; Bergman and Derksen 1977; Bergman et al. 1977; Connors et al.
1979; 1983; Divoky 1983; Flock 1973; Gollop and Richardson 1974; Hall 1975;
Holmes 1966; Johnson et al. 1975; Miller et al. 1985; Moitoret et al. 1985;
Meyers and Pitelka 1980; Spindler and Miller 1983; Spindler et al. 1984a; 1984b
D i st rib ut ion:
Bartels et al. 1983; 1984a; 1984b; Bartels and Zellhoefer 1983; Brackney
et al. 1985b; 1985c; Connors et al. 1983; Divoky 1983; Gabrielson and Lincoln
1959; Hall 1975; Irving 1960; Johnson et a1. 1975; 1983; Kessel 1961; Kessel
and Cade 1958; Kessel and Gibson 1978; King 1973; 1979; Maclean and Holmes
1971; Martin and Moitoret 1982; Miller et al. 1985; Moitoret et al. 1985;
Pitelka 1974; 1979; Sage 1974; Salter et al. 1980; Sladen 1973; Spindler et al.
1984a; 1984b
Habitat:
Alison 1976; Ashkenazie and Safriel 1979a; Baker 1977; 1979; Baker and
Baker 1973; Bergman and Derksen 1977; Bergman et al. 1977; Connors et al. 1979;
1983; Custer and Pitelka 1977; Derksen and Eldridge 1980; Derksen et al. 1979a;
1979b; 1981; 1982; Garner and Reynolds 1983; 1984; Gollop and Richardson 1974;
Holmes 1966; Holmes and Pitelka 1968; Johnson and Richardson 1981; Johnson et
al. 1983; Kiera 1979; Lenhausen and Quinlan 1981; Martin and Moitoret 1982;
Mickelson 1975; Myers and Pitelka 1980; North et al. 1983; Norton et al. 1975;
Seamen et al. 1981; Seastedt and Maclean 1979; Spindler 1978; Spindler et al.
1984a; Troy 1985a; Troy and Johnson 1982; Troy et al. 1983; van der Zande et
a 1. 1980
Habitat Classification:
Bergman et al. 1977; Connors et al. 1983; Derksen et al. 1979; Kessel
1979; Troy et al. 1983
Impacts:
Barry and Spencer 1976; Bartels et a1. 1983; Brackney et al. 1985a;
Connors et al. 1983; Davis and Wisely 1974; Divoky 1983; Gilliam and Lent 1982;
Hansen and Eberhardt 1981; Johnson and Richardson 1981; King and Sanger 1979;
Murphy et al. 1986; Spindler 1984a; Troy 1985a; Troy and Johnson 1982; Troyet
a 1. 1983; van der Zande et a 1. 1980
Inland:
Derksen et al. 1981; Kessel and Cade 1958; Myers and Pitelka 1980
Lagoon:
Bartels et al. 1984; Bartels and Doyle 1984; Bartels and Zellhoefer 1983;
Brackney et al. 1985c; 1985d; Johnson and Richardson 1981; Spindler and Miller
1983
6
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Migration:
Barry 1968; Brackney et al. 1985a; Cade 1955; Connors et al. 1983; Davis
and Wisely 1974; Derksen et al. 1974b; 1981; Divoky 1983; Flock 1973; Garner
and Reynolds 1983; 1984; Gollop and Richardson 1974; Johnson et al. 1975; 1983;
Koski 1975; Lenhausen and Quinlan 1981; Martin and Moitoret 1982; Miller et al.
1975; Moitoret et al. 1975; Oates et al. 1985; Pitelka 1979; Salter et al.
1980; Spindler 1978; 1983; 1984b -
Population:
Connors et al. 1983; Derksen and Eldr~dge 1980; Derksen et al. 1979b;
1981; Maclean and Holmes 1971
Prey:
Ashkenazie and Safriel 1979b; Baker 1977; Baker and Baker 1973; Bergman
and Derksen 1977; Bergman et al. 1977; Byrkjedal 1980; Connors et al. 1982;
Custer and Pitelka 1977; Divoky 1983; Dodson and Egger 1980; Holmes 1966; 1970;
Holmes and Pitelka 1968; Johnson and Richardson 1981; Kiera 1979; Maclean 1980;
Maclean and Pitelka 1971; Mayfield 1978; Myers and Pitelka 1980
Recommendations:
Alison 1976; Bergman et al. 1977; Connors et al. 1983; Derksen et al.
1979a; 1979b; 1981; 1982; Gollop and Richardson 1974; King 1973; Lenhausen and
Quinlan 1981; Seamen et al. 1981; Troy and Johnson 1982; Troy et al. 1983;
Truett et al. 1982; van der Zande et al. 1980
Shorebirds:
Baker 1977; 1979; Baker and Baker 1973; Connors et al. 1979; 1983; Garner
and Reynolds 1983; 1984; Hansen and Eberhardt 1981; Holmes and Pitelka 1968;
Johnson et al. 1975; 1983; Maclean 1980; Maclean and Pitelka 1971; Martin and
Moitoret 1982; Miller et al. 1985; Moitoret et al. 1985; Myers and Pitelka
1980; Norton et al. 1975; Pitelka 1974; 1979; Pitelka et al. 1974; Salter et
al. 1980; Seamen et al. 1981; Spindler 1978; Troy 1985a; 1985b; Troy and
Johnson 1982; Troy et al. 1983; Truett et al. 1982; U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service 1982; Woodward-Clyde Consultants 1982a; 1982b
Species Accounts:
Derksen et al. 1979a; Divoky 1983; Garner and Reynolds 1983; 1984; Hall
1975; Johnson et al. 1975; Kessel and Cade 1958; Lenhausen and Quinlan 1981;
Martin and Moitoret 1982; Miller et al. 1985; Salter et al. 1980; Spindler and
Miller 1983; Spindler et al. 1984b; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1982
Waterfowl:
Barry and Spencer 1976; Bergman et al. 1977; Derksen et al. 1979a; 1981;
Divoky 1983; Flock 1973; Garner and Reynolds 1983; 1984; Gavin 1979; 1980;
Gilliam and Lent 1982; Gollop and Richardson 1974; Hall 1975; Irving 1960;
Johnson et al. 1975; 1983; King 1973; 1979; Lenhausen and Quinlan 1981; Martin
7
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and Moitoret 1982; Miller et al. 1985; Moitoret et al. 1985; Pitelka 1974;
Salter et al. 1980; Seamen et al. 1981; Spindler 1978; Troy 1985a; Truett et
al. 1982; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1982; Woodward-Clyde Consultants 1982a;
1982b; 1983
Species
Pacific Loon:
Bergman and Derksen 1977; Petersen 1979
Baird's Sandpiper:
Holmes and Pitelka 1968; Norton 1972; Pitelka et al. 1974
Brant:
Berry and Spencer 1976; Cade 1955; Derksen et al. 1979b; 1982; Kiera 1979;
King 1973; Koski 1975; Mickelson 1975; Murphy et al. 1986; Woodward-Clyde
Consultants 1982b
Buff-breasted Sandpiper:
Myers 1979; Pitelka et al. 1974; Troy 1985a
Canada Goose:
Barry and Spencer 1976; Derksen et al. 1979a; 1979b; 1982; Mickelson 1975;
Murphy et al. 1986
Common Eider:
Gotmark and Ahlund 1984; Schamel 1977
Dunlin:
Baker 1977; 1979; Baker and Baker 1973; Holmes 1966; 1970; Holmes and
Pitelka 1968; Maclean and Holmes 1971; Norton 1972; Pitelka et al. 1974;
Soikkeli 1967; Troy 1985; Troy et al. 1983
Golden Plover:
Baker 1977; Byrkjedal 1980; Troy 1985a
King Eider:
Barry 1968; Divoky 1983; Troy 1985a
Lapland Longspur:
Custer and Pitelka 1977; Maclean 1980; Seastedt and Maclean 1979; Troy
1985a; Troy et al. 1983
8
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Oldsquaw:
Alison 1975; 1976; Bartels and Doyle 1984; Bartels and Zellhoefer 1983;
Bartels et al. 1984; Brackney et al. 1984c; 1984d; Divoky 1983; Garner and
Reynolds 1983; 1984; Johnson and Richardson 1981
Pectoral Sandpiper:
Holmes and Pitelka 1968; Norton 1972; Pitelka 1959; Pitelka et al. 1974;
Troy 1985a; Troy et al. 1983
Pintail:
Derksen and Eldridge 1980; Derrickson 1978; Troy 1985a
Red-necked Phalarope:
Baker 1977; Divoky 1983; Johnson and Richardson 1981; Troy 1985a
Red Phalarope:
Divoky 1983; Dodson and Egger 1980; Johnson and Richardson 1981; Mayfield
1978; Schamel and Tracy 1977; Troy 1985a; Troy et al. 1983
Red-throated Loon:
Bergman and Derksen 1977; Divoky 1983
Semipalmated Sandpiper:
Ashkenazie and Safriel 1979a; 1979b; Baker 1977; 1979; Baker and Baker
1973; Holmes and Pitelka 1968; Norton 1972; Pitelka et al. 1974; Troy 1985a;
Troy et al. 1983
Snow Goose:
Barry and Spencer 1976; Brackney et al. 1985a; Davis and Wisely 1974;
Derksen et al. 1979b; Garner and Reynolds 1983; 1984; Gavin 1979; 1980; Koski
1975; Murphy et al. 1986; Oates et al. 1985; Spindler 1983; 1984
Tundra Swan:
Barry and Spencer 1976; Bartels and Doyle 1984b; Bartels et al. 1983;
Brackney et al. 1985b; Garner and Reynolds 1983; 1984; Hawkins 1983; 1986; King
1973; Koski 1975; Murphy et al. 1986; Sladen 1973
White-fronted Goose:
Barry and Spencer 1976; Derksen et al. 1979b; 1982; King 1973; Koski 1975;
Mickelson 1975; Murphy et al. 1986; Troy 1975a
9
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Yellow-billed Loon:
Divoky 1983; Sjolander and Agren 1976; North 1986; North et al. 1983
ANNOTATED REFERENCES
Alison, R. M. 1975. Breeding biology and behavior of the Oldsquaw (Clangula
hyemalis). AOU Ornithological Monographs 18. 52 pp.
Canada, Manitoba, Oldsquaw, breeding biology
The breeding biology and behavior of Oldsquaw were studied at
Churchill, Manitoba, from 1968 throug~ 1971. Oldsauaw mated on their
wintering grounds and arrived at the breeding grounds in pairs. The males
defended territories. The females did not participate in territorial
defense. The author suggests that territoriality limits local breeding-
population density.
Nests were located on islands and on the mainland, usually near lakes
or ponds. The females chose the nest sites. About half of the nests were
in clusters on the islands and the rest were isolated. Traditional nest
sites were used and the re-use of a site was not affected by the success
or failure of the previous year. Predation was the major cause of nest
failure.
Egg laying commenced in the second week of June. Severe May tempera-
tures could significantly delay nest initiation by delaying breakup on the
tundra. Males departed the breeding grounds by the end of July. Hens
with broods remained until the end of August.
Alison, R. M.
1976.
Oldsquaw brood behavior.
Bird-Banding 47:210-213.
Canada, Manitoba, Oldsquaw, behavior, habitat, recommendations
Oldsquaw brood behavior was observed near Churchill, Manitoba, in
July and August of 1974 and 1975. Adult females and immatures were
captured and marked and their movements and behavior observed. Communal
broods were common as was brood adoption. Older females were more success-
ful in rearing young and they often formed the nucleus of a communal
brood. The composition of the communal broods changed frequently as the
females with their young moved to different ponds.
The young avoided predators by diving and swimming along the bottom,
which disturbed the sediments and clouded the water. In small ponds, they
surfaced in dense vegetation near the shore. In large ponds, they
remained in the center within the turbid water. The females either
performed distraction displays or helped stir up the bottom sediments.
Broods typically remained on small ponds for the first week following
hatching. Communal broods began forming on larger lakes during the second
week. Individual broods moved between lakes at night, perhaps in response
to food depletion of the current lake or pond. Broods began congregating
on large lakes prior to departing the area. The lakes used were tradi-
10
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tional sites and routes walked between some lakes
well. As large lakes used prior to departure are
author recommended that these sites be identified
natural state.
were traditional as
traditional sites, the
and retained in their
Ashkenazie, S., and U. N. Safriel. 1979a. Breeding cycle and behavior of the
Semipalmated Sandpiper at Barrow, Alaska. Auk 96:56-67.
Barrow, breeding biology, habitat, Semipalmated Sandpiper
The breeding biology of the Semipalmated Sandpiper was studied at
Barrow, Alaska, in the summer of 1973. The birds arrived on the breeding
grounds by the end of Mayor beginning of June. The males established
territories and the females seemed to select territories of the estab-
lished males. Egg laying began four to six days after pair formation and
partial incubation began prior to completion of the clutch. Both sexes
incubated, during which time the incubating bird was constantly alert.
Incubation lasted 20 days. The female left between two and six days after
hatching and the male remained with the family group until the young
fledged.
Nests were located in high-centered polygons. During incubation, the
free adult fed up to 3 km away from the nest. Following hatching, the
family group remained and fed within the nesting territory until the
female left. The male then moved the family group to areas of low relief,
sedge meadows and stream edges, up to 3 km away from the nesting territory.
Ashkenazie, S., and U. N. Safriel. 1979b. Time-energy budget of the Semi-
palmated Sandpiper, Calidris pusilla, at Barrow, Alaska. Ecology 60:783-
799.
Barrow, prey, behavior, Semipalmated Sandpiper
The time-energy budget of the Semipalmated Sandpiper was studied in
Barrow, Alaska, in the summer of 1973. Feeding, incubating and young-
attending were the most time consuming activities. Females spent approxi-
mately 80 percent of their time feeding during the egg-laying period and
both sexes fed about 80 percent of time prior to migration.
Energy requirements were estimated from the time activity budget.
Energy uptake was estimated by using available data on diet composition
and observed feeding rates. Females had a 15 percent higher energy
requirement than males, but ultimately required less energy from the local
area as they left shortly after hatching. The energy budget calculated
for the season was generally negative. The authors concluded that either
the energy uptake was under estimated or that the birds rely on energy
reserves obtained at wintering grounds or during migration.
Baker, M. C. 1977. Shorebird food habits in the eastern Canadian arctic.
Condor 79:56-62.
Canada, Manitoba, shorebirds, Semipalmated Sandpiper, Dunlin, Golden
Plover, Red-necked Phalarope, prey, habitat
11
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Food habits of ten shorebird species breeding at Churchill~ Manitoba,
were studied by stomach analyses. The species included: Least Sandpiper,
Semipalmated Sandpiper, Red-necked Phalarope (referred to as Northern
Phalarope), Semipalmated Plover, Hudsonian Godwit, Stilt Sandpiper,
Dunlin, Golden Plover, Lesser Yellowlegs~ and Short-billed Dowitcher.
Shorebird body size was positively correlated with prey size, i.e., larger
birds ate larger prey. Comparisons of the food available to the food eaten
showed larger birds to be more selective foragers. However, the ten
species overlapped broadly in the prey consumed. The authors suggest
competition may be relaxed due to abundant food resources.
Larval chironomids, tipulids, and dolichopodids were common in the
diets of Stilt Sandpiper, Dunlin, Semipalmated Plover, Lesser Yellowlegs,
Least Sandpiper, and Semipalmated Sandpiper although the frequency of
occurrence varied between the species. Short-billed Dowitchers and Golden
Plovers ate substantial numbers of seeds. Diptera larvae of the
Cyclorrapha group predominated in Hudsonian Godwit stomachs. Red-necked
Phalarope ate primarily adult chironomids.
Baker~ M. C. 1979. Morphological correlates of habitat selection in a commu-
nity of shorebirds (charadriiformes). Dikos 33:121-126.
Canada, Manitoba, habitat~ Semipalmated Sandpiper, Dunlin, shorebirds
Feeding habitat for six species of shorebirds (Least Sandpiper,
Semipalmated Sandpiper~ Dunlin~ Short-billed Dowitcher~ Lesser Yellowlegs,
and Semipalmated Plover) was compared with the surrounding environment on
both the summer and winter ranges. The summer range was near Fort
Churchill~ Manitoba~ and the winter range was in Florida. Habitat was
defined by the height of the vegetation and depth of water. These vari-
ables were measured along foraging paths and were compared with the
surrounding areas. In general~ the shorebirds tended to forage along the
edge of deeper water and the edge of taller vegetation. The degree to
which the foraging area differed from the surrounding area varied among
species. Semipalmated Sandpipers and Semipalmated Plovers were the most
selective and Dunlin were the least selective.
Baker, M. C., and A. E. M. Baker. 1973. Niche relationships among six species
of shorebirds on their wintering and breeding ranges. Ecological Mono-
graphs 43:193-212.
Canada, Manitoba, Semipalmated Sandpiper, Dunlin~ habitat, behavior, prey~
shorebirds
Foraging behavior and habitat utilization of six species of shore-
birds (Least Sandpiper, Semipalmated Sandpiper, Dunlin, Short-billed
Dowitcher, Lesser Yellowlegs, and Semipalmated Plover) were studied on the
breeding grounds in the eastern Canadian arctic and the wintering grounds
in southern Florida. Foraging behavior, defined by the pattern of locomo-
tion and by how the bill was used, changed seasonally. The change was
independent of air temperature, number of conspecifics present and total
number of shorebirds present.
12
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Microhabitat was defined by the presence of vegetation and the depth
of water. There was greater microhabitat diversity on the breeding
grounds than on the wintering grounds. Foraging behavior and microhabitat
use was analyzed in combination to determine the amount of resource
overlap between the six species on a seasonal basis. Overlap was gener-
ally higher during the breeding season than on the wintering grounds.
Based on this overlap, the authors hypothesized that food is ftbundant on
the breeding grounds and may be limiting on the wintering grounds. The
need to analyze the entire annual cycle to determine parameters that
regulate populations was emphasized.
Barry, T. W. 1968. Observations on natur~l mortality and native use of eider
ducks along the Beaufort Sea coast. Canadian Field Naturalist 832(2):140-
144.
coastal, Barrow, King Eider, migration
An extensive die-off of King Eiders was recorded in 1964. The
die-off was due to an extreme ice year when few if any leads were open.
The numbers in the natural die-off were estimated to represent 10 percent
of the population. In contrast, the native take of King Eiders was
estimated to be less than one percent of the population. At the time of
this paper, traditional hunting techniques were still being employed,
e.g., snares and slings.
Barry, T. W., and R. Spencer. 1976. Wildlife response to oil well drilling.
Canadian Wildlife Service Progress Notes No. 67. Canadian Wildife
Service, Edmonton, Alberta. 15 pp.
Snow Goose, Brant, Tundra Swans, White-fronted Goose, Canada Goose,
waterfowl, impact, North Slope
Effects of an oil well drilling operation on wildlife in the
Mackenzie River delta were studied for one season in 1971. Both the
effects of the drilling itself and the transportation activities to and
from the drilling were monitored.
Waterfowl were less abundant in plots within 2.5 km of the drilling
operation than in the control plots 8 km from the drilling. Waterfowl
that showed this response included Tundra Swans, White-fronted Geese,
Canada Geese, Pintails, Green-winged Teal, and Scaup. Molting flocks and
family groups of swans, White-fronted geese, Canada Geese, and Snow Geese
generally stayed more than 2.5 km from the drilling.
Air traffic caused varying amounts of disturbance, depending on the
species and their stage in the breeding cycle. Swans and geese flushed
from helicopters at distances ranging from 10 m to 2.4 km. Nesting Snow
Geese flushed 0.8 to 2.4 km ahead of helicopters and did not return to
their nests until the aircraft was at least 0.8 km away. Resettling on
the nests took up to 45 minutes. Predation by gulls and jaegers increased
while the geese were off their nests.
13
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Bartels, R. F., T. J. Doyle, and T. J. Wilmers. 1984. Movement of molting
oldsquaw within the Beaufort Sea coastal lagoons of the Arctic National
Wildlife Refuge, Alaska, 1983. pp. 157-168. In: Garner, G. W.~ and
P. E. Reynolds (eds.). 1984. 1983 Update report, Baseline study of the
fish, wildlife, and their habitats. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Anchorage, Alaska. 641 pp.
Oldsquaw, lagoon, ANWR
Sixteen molting Oldsquaw were captured in Tapkaurak Lagoon and fitted
with radio transmitters. Observers relocated the birds, weather permit-
ting, until the birds departed the refuge. Over 75 percent of the reloca-
tion points were within lagoons or wi~hin 400 m of the barrier islands.
The oldsquaw were fairly sedentary with 47 percent of the sitings in the
lagoon system where they were originally captured and the majority of all
sitings (90 percent) were in water less than 5 m deep. Migration coin-
cided with the beginning of freeze-up in the lagoons. Distribution
patterns noted in this study agree with patterns observed in aerial
surveys.
Bartels, R. F., and T. J. Doyle. 1984a. Migratory bird use of the coastal
lagoon system of the Beaufort Sea coastline within the Arctic National
Wildlife Refuge, Alaska, 1983. pp. 170-200. In: Garner, G. W., and
P. E. Reynolds (eds.). 1984. 1983 Update report, Baseline study of the
fish, wildlife, and their habitats. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Anchorage, Alaska. 641 pp.
Oldsquaw, lagoon, distribution, ANWR
Aerial surveys of 10 lagoons revealed Oldsquaw as the primary species
using the lagoon (over 80 percent of all birds sited). Temporal distribu-
tion of Oldsquaw was similar to the previous three years although a
westerly shift in lagoon use occurred as well as a gradual increase in use
of offshore areas.
Comparisons of a single strip transect and a three strip survey with
a complete lagoon survey showed the latter technioue as the best estimate
of bird numbers.
Bartels, R. F., and T. J. Doyle. 1984b. Distribution, abundance and produc-
tivity of Tundra Swans in the coastal wetlands of the Arctic National
Wildlife Refuge, Alaska, 1983. pp. 201-209. In: Garner, G. W., and
P. E. Reynolds (eds.). 1984. 1983 Update report, Baseline study of the
fish, wildlife, and their habitats. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Anchorage, Alaska. 641 pp.
Tundra Swan, breeding biology, distribution, ANWR
Coastal wetlands of ANWR were surveyed twice during 1983 to determine
distribution, abundance and productivity of Tundra Swans. An estimated
105 pairs nested in ANWR, which was greater than that observed in 1981 and
1982. Productivity in 1983 was higher than in either 1981 or 1982.
Nesting success was between 60 and 81 percent, the lower figure represent-
14
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ing the number of nests plus pairs present, and the higher figure repre-
senting actual nests observed and the number of broods observed. A total
of 377 adults and 175 cygnet tundra swans were observed.
Bartels, R. F., and W. J. Zellhoefer. 1983. Migratory bird use of the coastal
lagoon system of the Beaufort Sea coastline within the Arctic National
Wildlife Refuge, Alaska. 1981 and 1982. pp. 62-86. In: Garner, G. W.,
and P. E. Reynolds (eds.). 1983. 1982 Update report, Baselfne study of
the fish, wildlife, and their habitats. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Anchorage, Alaska. 379 pp.
Oldsquaw, ANWR, lagoon, distribution
Aerial sursveys of 10 coastal lagoons in the ANWR showed similar
temporal use patterns for oldsauaw as described in previous years.
Spatial distribution varied with large numbers of birds observed outside
of the lagoons. Oldsquaw were the dominant lagoon user, over 80 percent
of all birds were Oldsquaw.
Attempts to use two new survey techniaues showed problems with both.
A strip transect in lagoons was not comparable to entire lagoon surveys
because the birds were not evenly distributed in the lagoons. Attempts to
capture Oldsquaw for marking with nasal saddles were not successful.
Oldsquaw were adept at avoiding capture, either by swimming under (or
over) capture nets and under boats used for driving.
Bartels, R. F., W. J. Zellhoefer, and P. Miller. 1983. Distribution, abun-
dance, and productivity of Whistling Swans in the coastal wetlands of the
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska. In: Garner, G. W., and P. E.
Reynolds (eds.). 1983. 1982 Update report, Baseline study of the fish,
wildlife, and their habitats. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage,
Alaska. 379 pp.
Tundra Swan, distribution, breeding biology, impact, ANWR
Wetlands along the ANWR coast were surveyed for Tundra Swans on 12
August 1982 and the results compared with a simliar survey in 1981. Swan
concentrations were noted on the Canning-Tamayariak Delta (0.38 and
0.15/km2 in 1981 and 1982, respectively), Hulahula-Okpilak Delta (0.48
and 0.23/km2 in 1981 and 1982, respectively), and the Aichilik Delta
(0.66/km2 both years). The density estimates include adults and young,
breeders and non-breeders. The apparent decrease between 1981 and 1982
was undetermined due to insufficient data, but human disturbance was
suggested as a possible cause and previous incidents of nest desertions
due to disturbance were summarized.
Bergman, R. D., and D. V. Derksen. 1977. Observations on Arctic and Red-
throated Loons at Storkersen Point, Alaska. Arctic 30:41-51.
Prudhoe Bay, coastal, Arctic Loon, Red-throated Loon, habitat, prey,
breeding biology
15
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Habitat requirements of Arctic Loons and Red-throated Loons were
studied at Storkersen Point on the Arctic Coastal Plain of Alaska from
1971 to 1975. The two species were ecologically isolated by their feeding
habits and use of wetlands. Arctic Loons fed invertebrates caught in
their nesting pond to their young and Red-throated Loons fed fish caught
in the Beaufort Sea. Both species preferred islands as nest substrates,
but Arctic Loons utilized large ponds with stands of Arctophila fulva for
nesting, and Red-throated Loons used smaller, partially drained basins or
ponds. Arctic Loons and their young would move between lakes, perhaps in
response to diminishing food resources. Red-throated Loons do not rely on
their nesting ponds for food and their young remained on the same pond
throughout the nesting period.
Bergman, R. D., R. L. Howard, K. F. Abraham, and M. W. Weller. 1977. Water-
birds and their wetland resources in relation to oil development at
Storkersen Point, Alaska. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Resource
Publication 129. 39 pp.
Prudhoe Bay, coastal, waterfowl, habitat classification, prey, habitat,
recommendations
Waterbirds were studied for five years at Storkersen Point, Alaska.
Nesting density, success, and breeding phenology of the waterbirds were
recorded. Twenty-five species nested in the area. Wetlands were classi-
fied on the basis of size, depth, vegetation, and water chemistry and the
resulting classes related to bird use. These wetland categories are
readily identified on aerial photography.
Invertebrate populations were examined to provide a basis for under-
standing the food relationships and potential pollution problems. A
strong relationship was found between Arctophila fulva and Carex spp. and
high invertebrate populations. The peak of emergence for adult inverte-
brates coincided with peak hatching of shorebirds and ducks. Limited
sampling of bird food habits indicated that invertebrates are the major
food source.
Eight wetland classes were identified and characterized by their
dominant emergents. Not all areas of tundra fit in this classification,
just those areas with standing water during at least a portion of the
growing season. The eight classes and their dominant emergents are:
Class I (Flooded Tundra) -- Eriophorum augustifolium or Carex aquatilis;
Class II (Shallow-Carex) -- C. aquatilis; Class III (Shallow-Arctophila)
-- A. fulva; Class IV (Deep-Arctophila) -- A. fulva; Class V (Deep-open)
-- Open; Class VI (Basin-complex) -- Basin Tnterspersed with C. aquatilus,
A. fulva, and open water; Class VII (Beaded Streams) -- C. aquatilus, A.
fulva, or open; and Class VIII (Coastal Wetlands) -- Puccinellia
phyrganodes, C. subspathacea, or open. Classes III, IV, and VI were
identified as-the most productive for breeding birds. Class VIII is
important for migrating geese.
Potential conflicts between breeding birds and oil development were
discussed. Major potential problems identified were pollution by oil and
wetland modification by impoundment or drainage due to the road and
16
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pipeline system. Preservation of wetlands was recommended to maintain the
populations of breeding birds. Specific recommendations were: (1) preserve
large tracts in their natural state; (2) small and well-distributed units
of about 42 SQ km should be left undisturbed; and (3) key production units
should be protected from oil pollution, even in areas of intense develop-
ment.
Brackney, A. W., M. A. Masteller, and J. M. Morton. 1985a. Ecology of Lesser
Snow Geese staging on the coastal plain of the Arctic National Wildlife
Refuge, Alaska, fall 1984. pp.246-267. In: Garner, G. W., and P. E.
Reynolds (eds.). 1985. 1984 update report, Baseline study of the fish,
wildlife, and their habitats. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage,
Alaska. 777 pp. .
Snow Goose, migration, impacts, ANWR
Feeding ecology and energetics of fall staging Lesser Snow Geese were
studied along the ANWR coastal plain. The study gathered information to
address the potential effects of disturbance by aircraft and ground
activities on the energy budget of staging geese.
Thirty-six geese were collected during the staging period; 14 during
the arrival phase, two during the middle of the period, and 20 during
departure. Mean weight gain was 23.4, 17.6, and 14.5 g/day for adult
males, adult females, and juvenile males, respectively. Food items, based
on esophageal and proventricular contents, were primarily cottongrass
(over 90 percent Eriophorum augustifolium).
Time budgets were examined by recording the behavior of individual
birds at 15 second intervals while they were on the ground, and by
instantaneous counts of the number of flying and total geese in flocks.
Adults spent 60.6 percent of the day feeding and juveniles spent 78.7
percent of the day feeding. Alert behavior by adults occupied 12.2
percent of the day compared to 1.5 percent by juveniles. Sleeping by
juveniles was insignificant, while adults spent 6 percent of the day
sleeping. The estimated time spent flying by the geese was 5.8 percent of
the day.
Brackney, A. W., J. M. Morton, J. M. Noll, and M. A. Masteller. 1985b.
Distribution, abundance, and productivitry of tundra swans in the coastal
wetlands of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska, 1984. pp. 298-
308. In: Garner, G. W., and P. E. Re'ynolds (eds.), 1985. 1984 update
report, Baseline study of the fish, wildlife, and their hbaitats. U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska. 777 pp.
Tundra Swan, breeding biology, distribution, ANWR
Two aerial surveys to estimate the number of Tundra Swans along the
ANWR coast were flown in 1984. The first survey was for pair/nesting
birds and 149 pairs and 100 nests were counted, an increase of 42 percent
and 23 percent over 1983. The second survey was for productivity and the
average brood size was 2.7 cygnets/pair. Nesting increased the most on
the Canning-Tamayariak delta.
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Brackney. A. W., J. M. Morton, and J. M. Noll. 1985c. Migratory bird use of
the coastal lagoon system of the Beaufort Sea coast line within the Arctic
National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska, 1984. pp.310-350. In: Garner, G. W.,
and P. E. Reynolds (eds.). 1985. 1984 update report, Baseline study of
the fish, wildlife, and their habitats. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Anchorage, Alaska. 777 pp.
Oldsquaw, lagoon, distribution, ANWR
Foorteen lagoons were surveyed three times duri ng Oldsquaw molt, on
22 July, 5 August, and 18 August. The peak of molt was estimated to occur
between 7 and 13 August. No set pattern of spatial distribution within
the lagoon system could be detected, although Oldsquaw seemed to move
offshore as the season progressed.
Brackney, A. W., J. M. Morton, J. M. Noll, and M. A. Masteller. 1985d.
Movements of molting Oldsquaw within the Beaufort Sea coastal lagoons of
the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska, 1984. pp.351-361. In:
Garner, G. W., and P. E. Reynolds (eds.). 1985. 1984 update report,
Baseline study of the fish, wildlife, and their habitats. U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska. 777 pp.
Oldsquaw, lagoon, behavior, ANWR
Forty-four Oldsquaw were captured during molt (August 7-11) and 28
fitted with radio transmitters. Of the 28,21 Oldsquaw died prior to
migration, 10 of which died within before August 12. High mortality may
have been due to behavioral changes or physical irritation of the
back-pack attachment. Habitat selection inferred from 23 relocations
indicated an avoidance of open water in the center of the lagoon and
offshore of barrier islands.
Cade, T. J. 1955. Records of the Black Brant in the Yukon basin and the
question of a spring migration route. Journal of Wildlife Management
19(2):321-323.
Bra nt , mi g rat i on
The au thor
i nteri or Alaska
observat ions of
are primari ly a
been cons i dered
names and short
hypothes i zes an important movement of Brant th rough
based on specimens collected along the Yukon Ri ver and
Brant by locals throughout the Yukon River basin. Brant
coastal species and an interior migration route had not
pri or to these findi ngs. The note includes observers
accounts of their observations.
Connors, P. G., J. P. Myers, and F. A. Pitelka. 1979. Seasonal habitat use by
Arctic Alaskan shorebirds. Studies in Avian Biology 2:101-111.
Barrow, coastal, shorebirds, habitat
Shorebi rds display a wide range in seasonal patterns of habitat use
along the arctic coast near Point Barrow. Differences between species
ref lect habi tat preferences, the timi ng of movements with respect to
18
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seasonal habitat availability, and whether the use is breeding, post-
breeding, or migrational. During the breeding season, most activity is
centered on the tundra, but by early August a marked coastal movement
occurs, resulting in high densities of particular species in shoreline and
adjacent habitats. In August and September, widespread use of littoral
habitats develops, especially by such species as Red Phalarope, Ruddy
Turnstone, and Sanderling. In contrast, Golden Plovers and Pectoral
Sandpipers restrict most of their activities to the tundra. Other species
exhibit intermediate patterns of habitat use. These patterns determine
the dependence of each species on arctic coastal habitats and the suscept-
ibi lity of each species to disturbances related to offshore oi 1 develop-
ment. The detailed results of this are presented in Connors et al.
(1982) .
Connors, P. G., C. S. Connors, and K. G. Smith. 1983. Shorebird littoral zone
ecology of the Alaskan Beaufort Coast. In: Environmental Assessment of
the Alaskan Continental Shelf, Final Reports of Principal Investigators,
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/Outer Continental Shelf
Environmental Assessment Program, Juneau, Alaska. 101 pp.
shorebirds, coastal, habitat, habitat classification, behavior, popula-
tion, migration, prey, recommendations, North Slope, distribution
Shorebird distribution, habitat relationships, trophic dependencies
and behavior were studied at several Beaufort sea coast sites from 1975 to
1982. The object i ve was to assess the degree and natu re of dependence of
shorebird species on arctic habitats that are potentially susceptible to
perturbation from oil development activities. Common shorebird species
were categorized in terms of relative sensitivity to habitat disturbances
associated with oil development, and seasonal habitat use patterns of all
species have been defined to determine sensiti ve periods within the year.
Types of coastal habitats were ranked on the basis of bird use and
possi b 1 e effects of oi 1 development. Wi th other researche rs, several
sensitive sites along the Beaufort coast were identified.
During June and early July, shorebird acti vity centered on the tundra
where shorebi rds nest. In July and August a major shift in habitat use
occurred, beginning with post-breeding adults followed by fledged
juveniles, from the tundra to littoral habitats to forage prior to south-
ward migration. Species varied in timing and magnitude of this habitat
shift, but the phenomenon is widespread across species. Bird use of the
littoral zone in Barrow represents more than local breeding populations.
Shorebi rd popu lat ions are most sens it i ve to pertu rbat ions when they are
concentrated in the littoral habitat. Three important habitats were
identified in the littoral zone: gravel beaches, littoral flats and
slough edges. Groups of species occurred in the same types of habitats
within each year, and some showed similar microhabitat preferences.
Groups of species with similar preferences will likely be affected in the
same way by environmental disturbances. Diets of shorebirds in the
littoral zone related to the habitat rather than preferences by the
species. Birds that foraged along slough edges and in littoral flats fed
19
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mainly on chironomid fly larvae, and birds that fed along gravel beaches
(marine shorelines) took a mix of marine zooplankton and under-ice
amphi pods.
The common shorebird species were classified with respect to their
sensitivity to disturbances. Oil spills were considered to be the most
likely type of disturbance along the coast. The ranking was based on the
relative use of littoral versus tundra habitats modified by the type of
littoral habitat use, choice of microhabitats, foraging methods and
behavior of each species. Red Phalarope, Northern Phalarope, Sanderling,
and Ruddy Turnstone were considered highly sensitive. A moderate rating
was assigned to Semipalmated Sandpipers, Western Sandpipers, Baird's
Sandpipers, Dunlin, and Long-billed Dowitchers. Lesser Golden Plovers,
and Pectoral Sandpipers had a low sensiti vity rating.
Sensitive areas along the Beaufort Sea coast in terms of large
concentrations of shorebirds are: Peard Bay, Pt. Barrow, Plover Islands,
Jones Islands, Fish Creek Delta and the Colville Delta. Sensitivity of
littoral habitats, based on use and availabi lity, was determined and the
following ranking produced: (1) littoral flats and saltmarsh; (2) sloughs
and small lagoons; (3) spits and barrier islands; (4) mainland shorelines
with broad beaches; and (5) mainland shorelines with narrow beaches.
At Prudhoe Bay, the dust shadow produced on tundra beside gravel
roads reduced densities of nesting shorebirds and passerines. A tundra
area where natural drainage was altered by construction showed a reduction
in shorebird breeding densities but an increase in densities of late
summer migrants. An artificial gravel pier at Prudhoe Bay was used less
than adjacent mainland shores by passerines and several species of shore-
birds, but densities of Red-necked Phalaropes were extremely high.
Custer, T. W., and F. A. Pitelka. 1977. Seasonal trends in summer diet of the
Lapland Longspur near Barrow, Alaska. Condor 80:295-301.
Barrow, Lapland Longspur, prey, habitat
Contents of Lapland Longspur stomachs and esophagi were sampled near
Barrow, Alaska, duri ng four breedi ng seasons. Data from stomach contents
were corrected for differential digestion of prey items. Longspurs
shifted seasonally from larval to adult arthropods and back to larvae in
response to their changes in abundance. Seeds were a vital supplementary
food in late May and August when arthropods were scarce or inaccessible.
Longspur diets were similar to those of the four common shorebird species.
The most overlap occurs when feeding sites were restricted because of snow
and surface water and when prey was abundant in early and mid-July.
Competition may have occurred early in the season but was unlikely in July
when surface insects were abundant.
Davis, R. A., and A. N. Wisely. 1974. Normal behavior of Snow Geese on the
Yukon-A 1 aska North Slope and the effects of ai rcraft -i nduced di stu rbance
on this behaviour, September 1973. Arctic Gas Biological Report Series
27 : 1-85.
20
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North Slope, Snow Goose, impacts, migration, behavior
Observations of staging Snow Geese were made at five locations on the
North Slope duri ng the fall of 1973. The geese normally spent 57 percent
of the daylight hours feeding. Juveni les spent 65-70 percent of their
time feeding. The geese flushed at the approach of both fixed-wing and
rotary ai rcraft. Non-experi menta 1 ai rcraft di sturbances averaged 0.25 per
daylight hour. These resulted in a potential decrease of 2.6 percent in
time spent feeding. Experimental overflights at two hour intervals by
fixed-wing aircraft produced more severe reactions. These caused an 8.5
percent decrease in feeding time, and could cause a reduction of 20.4
percent in the energy reserves that juvenile geese can acquire on the
North Slope in preparation for migration. The corresponding figure for
overflights by small helicopters is a possible reduction of 9.5 percent.
These potential decreases are dependent upon the extent of accommodation
by the geese to increase overall feeding efforts.
Derksen, D. V., and W. D. Eldridge. 1980. Drought-displacement of Pintails to
the Arctic Coastal Plain, Alaska. Journal of Wildlife Management 44:224-
229.
North Slope, Pintail, habitat, population
Pintail migration, breeding densities and production at selected
sites along the Arctic Coastal Plain of Alaska were compared to the 1977
wetland conditions in the Prairie Potholes region. Spring migration was
monitored in a major migration corridor near southcentral Alaska and
breeding information was gathered at three sites along the Beaufort Coast
(Storkersen Poi nt, Teshekpuk Lake, and the Meade Ri ver Delta) and one site
near the foothills of the Brooks Range (Singiluk).
1977 was a severe drought year and pond counts in the Prairie Pothole
region ranged from 20 percent to 50 percent below the 10-year average.
Pintail densities at the coastal site were nearly double that of previous
years. An estimated 6 percent of the continental population of Pintails
occurred on the North Slope in 1977 compared with an estimated 0.7 percent
in 1978 (post-drought). Production was low, which may be related to the
birds arriving on the Coastal Plain in poor breeding condition. The
northern area is important to the population in providing a refuge from
the drought conditions and therefore a reservoir of Pintails for the
pothole region when the conditions there improve. The northern habitat
may be essential habitat for these ducks that normally breed in an area
where drought can be severe.
Derksen, D. V., W. D. Eldridge, and 1. C. Rothe. 1979a. Waterbird and wetland
habitat studies. pp.229-312. In: P. C. Lent (ed.). Studies of Selcted
Wildlife and Fish and Their Use of Habitats on and Adjacent to NPR-A, 1977.
1978. Field Study 3, Volume 2. U.S. Department of the Interior, National
Petroleum Reserve-Alaska, Anchorage.
21
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North Slope, waterfowl, habitat, habitat classification, species accounts,
recommendations
Distribution, abundance, and use of wetlands by migratory birds was
studied at several locations in the National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska for
two years. Wet lands were classified using the system developed by Bergman
et a1. (1977) and bird use related to these classes. Use patterns fol-
lowed those observed by Bergman and thi s report presents deta i led account s
for the common species. Information from this study is presented in
Derksen et a1. (1981).
Based on waterbird abundance, distribution, and sensitivity to
disturbance, the following recommendations were made:
1.
Modification of water levels of wetlands used by waterbi rds should be
avoi ded.
2.
Construction activities, including roadways, drillpads, and airstrips
should be restricted to dry, upland sites. When this is not pos-
sible, use of flooded tundra wetlands will least impact waterbirds.
Construction activities should not be allowed within 1,500 ft of
Shallow and Deep-Arctophi1a wetlands, Deep-open wetlands, and Coastal
wetlands. No constructlon activities that alter the flow of Beaded
Streams should be permitted.
3.
If waterbird species diversity and maximum productivity are to be
ensured, large blocks of wet land habitat wi 11 need to be protected
from disturbance and development.
4.
The Teshekpuk Lake goose molting area should have complete protection
from all exploration and development activities. Such protection
must include coastal wetlands, bays, lagoons, and stream deltas since
geese shift use from inland lakes to these areas following completion
of the wing molt. Any winter ro11igon trails across this area should
be no less than 1,500 ft from shoreslines of deep-open lakes, espe-
cially where contiguous wet meadows are present.
5.
Overli ghts by small ai rcraft at altitudes of less than 4,600 ft
during the month of July in the Teshekpuk Lake goose molting area can
be expected to have particularly disturbing and deleterious effects
on geese.
Derksen, D. V., W. D. Eldridge, and M. W. Weller. 1982. Habitat ecology of
Pacific Black Brant and other geese molting near Teshekpuk Lake, Alaska.
Wild1fie 33:39-57.
North Slope, Canada Goose, Brant, White-fronted Goose, behavior, habitat.
recommendations
B61avior, habitat selection, and foods of molting Brant, Canada
Geese, and White-fronted Geese were studied in the Teshekpuk Lake area in
22
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1977 and 1978. The geese gathered in large flocks and spent the majority
of their time feeding. Flocks moved rapidly along shorelines and returned
to the same sites every three to four days. All three species were highly
social. Flocks responded to aircraft by moving from feeding or nesting
sites to the safety of open water or ice flows.
Deschampsia sp. and Carex spp. were the most important grass and
sedge, respectively, found in Brant and Canada Goose droppings. Mosses
were also found in droppings from both species at both sites, but percent-
ages were considered abnormally high probably due to their tendency to
fragment more readily than vascular plants. Grasses were higher in
nitrogen and non-structural carbohydrates than were sedges. Percentage of
nitrogen, as well as phosphorus and potassium, in above-ground biomass
declined from early July through early August and peaked as geese were in
thei r second week of wi n g mo 1 t .
Protection of the Cape Halkett peninsula from petroleum development
is recommended because of the unique combination of large, isolated lakes
that afford protection to molting geese and nutrient-rich food supplies
that occur in abundant drained basins.
Derksen, D. V., 1. C. Rothe, and W. D. Eldridge. 1981. Use of wetland
habitats by birds in the National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska. U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Resource Publication 141. 27 pp.
North Slope, inland, waterfowl, habitat, recommendations
Distribution, abundance,and use of wetland habitats by migratory
birds were studied at two interior and three other Arctic Coastal Plain
sites in the National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska (NPR-A) in 1977 and
1978. Comparati ve data were collected in the same years from a Beaufort
Sea coastal site near Prudhoe Bay.
Species composition and densities varied between the sites, although
the variation was greatest between the coastal and the foothills sites.
Speci es ri chness was greatest at Storkersen Poi nt, whi ch may be due to the
effects of the Beaufort Sea coast in channeling movements of birds.
Variation seen between the sites is at least partially explained by differ
ences in habitat composition and availability.
Wetlands were classified using the Bergman (1977) system and the
composition for each site determined. Class III and Class IV wetlands,
both with Arctophila fulva, were the principal breeding habitats for the
most common waterfowl. A. ful va is consi dered a key component of the
habitat as it provides food for grazing waterfowl, protective cover for
young, nest material for loons, and substrate for aquatic invertebrates
that are important prey. Deep open lakes near Cape Halkett and Teshekpuk
Lake were important for large concentrations of molting geese.
Management recommendations to minimize the impacts of oi 1 and gas
development follow those of Bergman et ale (1977). Preservation of large
23
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blocks of habitat is encouraged to avoid the cumulative impacts of piece-
meal development. In addition, high-density or unique breeding, molting,
and staging areas should be preserved. The molting area near Teshekpuk
Lake is specifically identified for protection.
Derksen, D. V., M. W. Weller, and W. D. Eldridge. 1979b. Distributional
ecology of geese molting near Teshekpuk Lake, National Petroleum Reserve-
Alaska. pp. 189-207. In: R. L. Jarvis and J. C. Bartonek (eds.).
Management and Biology of Pacific Flyway Geese: A Symposium. OSU Book
Stores. Inc., Corvallis, Oregon.
North Slope, Brant, Canada Goose, White-fronted Goose, Snow Goose,
migration, habitat, population, recommendation
Aeri a 1 and ground su rveys of 1 akes used by mo 1t i ng Canada Gees e,
Black Brant, White-fronted Geese, and Snow Geese were conducted in 1976,
1977, and 1978. These surveys showed a significant increases in Brant, a
slight increase in Canada Geese, and a decline in White-fronted Geese and
Snow Geese in the 2000 km2 Teshekpuk Lake molting area.
Canada Geese and Brant used inland lakes during the molt. Both
species exhibited a shift to coastal wetlands and stream deltas along the
Beaufort Sea following molt. White-fronted Geese were more concentrated
in the western porti on of the area and di d not move to the coast after
completion of the wing molt.
Habitat requirements of molting geese were evaluated in order to
develop management recommendations. Geese showed a definite preference
for deep, open lakes as opposed to those having emergent vegetation.
Low-relief shorelines that supported grasses and sedges were used more
frequently by geese than precipitous shorelines with dry adjacent uplands.
It is recommended that the Teshekpuk Lake molting area receive
special protection from petroleum development in the National Petroleum
Reserve-Alaska and the Beaufort Sea.
Derrickson, S. R.
114.
1978.
The mobility of breeding Pintai1s.
Auk 95( 1 ) : 104-
Pint ail
The mobility of breeding Pintails was studied for three years in the
pothole region of central North Dakota. Home range estimates were made
based on the movements of 5 unpaired males, 8 paired males, and 15
females. The mean home range size for unpaired males, paired males, and
paired females were 579 ha, 896 ha, and 480 ha, respectively. Mobility
varied with reproductive chronology and males were more mobile than
females. Female mobility was greatest prior to egg-laying. Four pair
ranges that included only the nesting period averaged 167 ha.
24
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Divoky, G. J. 1983. The Pelagic and nearshore birds of the Alaskan Beaufort
Sea: Final Report. In: Environmental Assessment of the Alaskan Contin-
ental Shelf, Final Reports of Principal Investigators, National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration/Outer Continental Shelf Environmental
Assessment Program, Juneau, Alaska. 114 pp.
North Slope, distribution, coastal, impact, migration, prey, waterfowl,
species accounts, Arctic Loon, Oldsquaw, King Eider, Red-necked Phalarope,
Red Phalarope, Red-throated Loon, Yellow-billed Loon
Large scale distribution and abundance patterns of birds using the
nearshore and pelagic Beaufort Sea were determined by shipboard surveys.
The surveys were conducted during the period of maximum bird abundance
(early August through mid-September). Over 1400 km2 were surveyed during
six pelagic and three nearshore cruises. Pelagic refers to waters deeper
than 20 m and nearshore to waters shall ower than 20 m but not within 300 m
of land. The pelagic and nearshore regimes were divided into longitudinal
sections (five for the pelagic and six for the nearshore) in order to
demonstrate geographic differences in bird use. The activities of birds
were examined by analyzing migration rates and the number of birds sitting
on the water to better interpret bird density data.
The pelagic regime consisted primari ly of surface feeding species
(gulls, terns, phalaropes, and jaegers) with almost no use by diving
speci es, except as a mi gratory area. The extreme western Beaufort had
high bird densities, which is likely due to increased productivity caused
by the Bering Sea Intrusion. Nearshore waters contained large numbers of
Oldsquaw, loons, and migrant eiders with low densities of surface feeders.
The density of surface feeders approximated that of the pelagi c zone.
Densities in most nearshore regions were similar with the exceptions of
Harrison Bay, which had consistently lower densities, and the extreme
western Beaufort, which had abundant surface feeding species. Calcula-
tions of biomass densities in each region showed a marked east-west trend
with highest biomass reported in the west. The eastern region had low
biomasses for many surface feeders.
Species accounts are presented that include information on distribu-
tion, breeding, post-breeding dispersal, and migration. Information for
some species are lumped into species groups, e.g., loons. The accounts
primarily present information from the cruises, with information from
other studies presented as necessary to place dispersal and migratory
information in perspective. Average densities and frequency of occurrence
for the numerically important species by region are presented in tables
for th e nea rsh ore and pe 1 a gi c zones.
Several birds were collected for stomach content analysis. In
general, arctic cod were the primary prey for birds feeding in the pelagic
zme and zoop lankton was most important for bi rds in the nearshore. The
common diving species are largely restMcted to the nearshore and fed on
epibenthic crustaceans.
25
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The vulnerabi lity of species to development-related impacts, primar-
ily oil spills, is discussed. In general, diving species are considered
more vulnerable than surface feeders to oi 1 spills because the former can
become oiled by diving through and surfacing in spills. Surface feeders
can more easi ly avoi d spills. The Jones Island group and associ ated
lagoon, Simpson Lagoon, and the Plover Island vicinity are considered
especially sensitive due to the large concentrations of birds that
regularly occur in those areas.
Dodson, S. E., and D. L. Egger. 1980. Selective feeding of Red Phalaropes on
zooplankton of Arctic ponds. Ecology 61:755-763.
Red Phalarope, prey, Barrow
Food preferences and feeding rates were estimated for five Red
Phalaropes eating zooplankton. Birds were captured in the Barrow, Alaska,
area and put into enclosures containing a known amount of zooplankton.
Predation preference and feeding intensity were calculated from the rate
of disappearance of zooplankton from the cages. Results indicate
phalaropes are size-selective predators on zooplankton. Preferred food
included Daphnia middendorffiana, Q.. pulex, Eurycercus lamellatus, and
Diaptomus bacillifer.
Flock, W. L. 1973. Radar observations of bird movements along the Arctic
Coast of Alaska. Wilson Bulletin 85:259-275.
migration, coastal, waterfowl, North Slope
DEW line radar records of bird movements along the northern arctic
coast of Alaska appear to document the westward summer mi grat i on of ei ders
past Pt. Barrow, Wainwright, and Lonely. In addition the records show a
sometimes heavy fall westward migration that persists into November at Pt.
Barrow. An extensive spring east-west migration and a high-altitude
eastward sumner migration have also been observed by radar at Oliktok,
near Prudhoe Bay east of Pt. Barrow. At the time of the summer westward
eider migration, identification of radar echoes as due to eiders was based
on correlation with visual observations and on the fact that no major
westward migration of other species is known to take place then. In the
other cases, positive identification by visual or other means was not
accomplished. The spMng migration at Oliktok was complex in nature,
presumably involved at least several species, and took place at a time of
heavy overcast when the ocean and tundra were frozen and covered with
snow. The summer eastward migration recorded at Oliktok took place at a
sufficiently high altitude that it could not be seen by naked eye or
binoculars in clear weather.
Gabrielson, 1. N., and F. C. Lincoln. 1959.
Management Institute, Washington, D.C.
The Birds of Alaska.
9 22 p p .
Wildlife
Alaska, North Slope, distri buti on
26
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This is the classic reference on bird status and distribution in
Alaska. It has been partially updated by Kessel and Gibson (1978). It is
out of pri nt.
Garner, G. W., and P. E. Reynolds (eds.) 1983. 1982 Update report: Baseline
study of the fish, wildlife and thei r habitats. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Anchorage, Alaska. 379 pp.
North Slope, Snow Goose, Tundra Swan, Oldsquaw, lagoon, habitat, migra-
tion, shorebirds, waterfowl, species accounts, ANWR
Thi s report is an update to the 1982 Base 1 i ne report. Appendi ces of
this report include studies conducted on fall staging Snow Geese, breeding
Tundra Swans, mi gratory bi rd use of the lagoon systems, and terrestrial
bird populations and habitat use on coastal tundra. The studies and their
major conclusions are summarized below.
Snow Geese from three major colonies in Canada stage on the North
Slope between Parry Peninsula, Northwest Territories, and the Canning
River, Alaska. Distribution within this area varies annually. The geese
departed the area between 16 and 18 September in 1981 as the tundra lakes
were freezing over. Major departure in previous years has ranged from 7
to 27 September.
An aerial survey was conducted to determine the distribution, abun-
dance, and productivity of Tundra Swans utilizing coastal wetlands. The
results were compared with a su rvey conducted in 1981. Tota 1 numbers
declined in 1982 as did productivity. Swan numbers on one concentration
area remained the same both years, but declined on three other concentra-
tion areas. Possible reasons for the decline include inclement spring
weather, increased air traffic, or increased human disturbance.
Aerial surveys were conducted on 10 selected lagoons. Oldsquaw were
identified as the major species using the lagoons. The temporal distribu-
tion observed was similar to previous years but the spatial distribution
varied. Comparison of Oldsquaw numbers and density observed in a 400 m
strip transect within the lagoon to the whole lagoon area showed that the
birds were not randomly distributed and the strip transect cannot be used
as an index of numbers or densities. Terrestrial bird populations and
habitat use on coastal plain tundra in 1982 were measured at the Okpilak
River Delta and inland along the Katakturuk River. Four large (25-50 ha)
plots previously censused in 1978 at the Okpi lak Delta were censused as
were four 10 ha plots. Six 10 ha plots were established and censused at
the inland site. The 10 ha plots were censused to test the efficiency of
smaller replicate plots versus censusing single larger plots.
Break-up was late and migration was delayed compared to previous
yea rs. Twenty speci es bred on the Okpi lak De lta and fou rteen speci es bred
at the Katakturuk site. Breeding densities were highest in riparian willow
27
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and mosaic tundra plots, while lowest densities were recorded in flooded
and sedge meadow tundra plots. Overall breeding densities on the Okpilak
Delta plots were relatively constant between years except for a 200
percent increase in Pectoral Sandpiper density. The total summer popula-
tion was higher than the breeding population, with 48 species observed at
Okpilak and 35 at Katakturuk. Highest total populations were observed in
riparian willow and flooded plots. Numerous birds used but did not breed
in the flooded plot. In August, shorebirds using Okpilak coastal habitats
increased while shorebird use at the inland Katakturuk area declined.
Fall staging populations of shorebirds in the flooded plot reached a peak
in excess of 500 birds/km2.
Comparisons of replicate 10 ha plots and the corresponding 25 or 50
ha plot indicated that the replicate plots and the singular large plot
provided comparable estimates of mean summer total population in the wet
sedge and sedge-tussock plots, but estimates were not comparable on the
more populous and diverse flooded and wet sedge plots.
Garner, G. W., and P. E. Reynolds (eds.). 1984. 1983 Update report baseline
study of the fish, wildlife, and their habitats. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Anchorage, Alaska. 614 pp.
North Slope, Oldsquaw, Snow Goose, Tundra Swan, shorebirds, waterfowl,
habitat. ANWR, lagoon, mi grati on, speci es accounts
This is the second annual report for the Arctic National Wildlife
Refuge's assessment of fish and wildlife on the Arctic coastal plain. It
summarizes work completed or ongoing in 1983 with emphasis on studies
being conducted by the Fish and Wildlife Service. Progress reports for
these studies are included as appendices of this report. Many of the
results reported are part of continuing studies whose findings should be
viewed as preliminary.
Aerial surveys of Lesser Snow Geese were conducted in August and
September to determine their distribution, abundance, and productivity.
The surveys were coordinated with the Canadian Wildlife Service so that
the entire staging area was surveyed. Fall staging was later than pre-
vious years, beginning two days later than the long-term average. A total
of 393,000 geese were estimated to be present; 12,828 were estimated on
the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. Age ratios varied spatially with the
highest proportion of young occurring on the Yukon North Slope. The geese
occupied generally the same areas of the Wildlife Refuge as in previous
years, although the IIcoreli area was located sli ght1y closer to the coast,
perhaps due to snow cover. The majority of geese observed on the ground
were feeding. The Snow Geese were as sensitive to aerial disturbance as
noted in previous studies. Flushing distances averaged 3 km and altitudes
up to 3000 ft. Low altitude (less than 30 m) flights caused less disturb-
ance, perhaps due to lessened lateral dispersion of sound.
Two aerial surveys of Tundra Swans utilizing coastal wetlands were
conducted, ooe in early June and one in late August. The nesting
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population was estimated to be a minimum of 105 pairs. Total swan
numbers increased over the previous two years, with a big increase in
cy gnet p rodu ct ion.
Terrestrial bird populations and habitat use on the coastal plain
were measured at three sites. Forty-one 10 ha plots representing seven
habitat types at the three sites were censused. Variability in bird
populations due to location was primarily attributed to differences in
habitat type available at coastal versus inland sites. Habitat type was
found to be one of the most significant factors controlling densities of
birds as well as the mean total populations and number of species.
Seasonal variation was noted in most habitat types and the numbers of
bi rds at the inland sites decreased through the season and increased at
the coastal site. An attempt was made to characterize the bird communi-
ties associated with the Landsat level mapping done for the Wildlife
Refuge, but it was not successful. Features that are important in deter-
mi ni ng bi rd habi tat are not rep resented in the Landsat cl asses. The
Landsat classes were therefore subdivided to take these variables into
account.
Species accounts for the birds present at each of the study sites are
presented. Separate accounts were presented for each of the study sites.
Each account includes the status, breeding chronology, migration, and
habitat use for each bird at each study site. Field work was carried out
between 1 June and 18 August so the first and 1 ast dates of observat ion
may not reflect the actua 1 status of the bi rd.
Gavin, A. 1979. Wildlife of the North Slope: The islands offshore Prudhoe
Bay, the Snow Geese of Howe Island, the seventh year of study. Atlantic
Richfield Co., Anchorage, Alaska.
Prudhoe Bay, waterfowl, Snow Geese
Qualitative obervations of wildlife made over a 7-year period are
presented. Arrival dates for some species are presented. Estimates of
breeding densities of waterfowl were made based on aerial helicopter
surveys of the area. An overall breeding density of 2.8 pairs per square
mile was recorded with pockets of higher density, 5.8 pairs per square
mile. A small colony of Snow Geese was oberved on Howe Island that
su ccessfu 11y nested in 1971 and 1972.
Gavin, A. 1980. Wildlife of the North Slope:
Atlantic Richfield Co., Anchorage, Alaska.
A ten-year study, 1969-1978.
Prudhoe Bay, waterfowl, Snow Goose
Observat ions made over a ten -year peri od in the Prudhoe Bay regi on
are presented. Qualitative observations of numbers within the area are
summarized. The breeding history of the Snow Geese is presented and
possible reasons for breeding failures in some years discussed; poor
weather one year and extensive helicopter overflights another.
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Gilliam, J. K., and P. C. Lent. 1982. Proceedings of the National Petroleum
Reserve in Alaska (NPR-A), Caribou/Waterbird impact analysis workshop.
U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Alaska State
Office, 701 C Street, Box 13, Anchorage, Alaska. 29 pp.
North Slope, waterfowl, impact
A group of experts on waterbirds and the potential effects of develop-
ment was convened by the Bureau of Land Management, National Petroleum
Reserve-Alaska Office to discuss the implications of the proposed leasing
program in the NPR-A. The panel discussed species and species groups and
identified sensitive locations along the Beaufort coast.
Impacts associated with various development activities were briefly
outlined. Aircraft traffic has the potential to cause severe impacts
depending on a number of factors, e.g., flight altitude, number of
flights, frequency of flights, activity of the birds. Powerlines and
towers can kill flying birds. Contamination by oil and drilling muds can
alter habitats and should be completely contained. Summer use of rolli-
gons and hovercraft may disturb birds and should not be allowed in high
use areas. Roads and facilities should be sited to cause least surface
impacts. Waterfowl were noted as being sensitive to noise disturbance.
Avian scavengers may be attracted to developments and their presence may
lead to increased mortality of the local breeding birds. Impacts of ports
and material sites would be related to the exact location in relation to
concentration areas, the season of the activity, and the project size.
Gollop, M. A., and W. J. Richardson. 1974. Inventory and habitat evaluation
of bird breeding and molting areas along the Beaufort Sea Coast from
Prudhoe Bay, Alaska to Shingle Point, Yukon Territory, July 1973. Arctic
Gas Biological Report Series 26:1-61.
migration, coastal, waterfowl, North Slope, habitat, recommendations
Aerial surveys were flown along the arctic coast between July 17 and
21, 1973, from Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, to Shingle Point, Yukon Territory.
The purpose of the surveys was to identify correlations between specific
habitat features and areas in which breeding and molting birds are
present. Univariate and multivariate statistical procedures were applied
in examining the relationships between the degree to which islands were
used by waterbirds and various characteristics of these islands. The
characteristics that were considered were soil composition, elevation,
area, distance from shore, extent and size of driftwood present, extent
and type of vegetation, signs of human activity, accessibility to preda-
tors, presence of standing water, and presence of ice.
Ninety-five coastal spits and islands and seven river deltas were
surveyed. Evidence of breeding was found on 15 coastal islands and one
spit, and on five river deltas. The principal breeding species observed
was the Glaucous Gull. However, nesting Brant, Common Eider, Oldsquaw,
and Arctic Terns were also noted. A total of 31,778 molting Oldsquaw was
counted on the survey, and 16 locations accounted for 67 percent of this
30
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total. More birds were found on vegetated than on unvegetated islands.
Islands with relatively long shorelines were found to have more ducks than
islands with shorter shorelines.
This study demonstrated the critical importance of a few areas to
breeding and molting birds and the importance of not altering the charac-
teristics of these areas. Islands that supported nesting Brant and/or
Common Eiders included Arey Island, Flaxman Island, Foggy Island,
Tigvariak Island, Cross Island. Jago Delta, and Shaviovik Delta.
Gotmark, F., and M. Ahlund. 1984. Do field observers attract nest predators
and influence nesting success of Common Eiders? Journal of Wildlife
Management 48(2):381-387.
Common Eider, impact
The effect of observers on nesting Common Eiders was studied for one
season in an eider colony in southern Sweden. Egg predation by gulls
increased for birds flushed from their nests because the nests were left
uncovered. Under natural conditions, birds leaving a nest pull the
nesting material (down) over the eggs, which camouflages the nest. The
authors recommend observers cover nests of flushed birds in a similar
fashion to reduce aerial predation.
Hall, B. E. 1975. A summary of observations of birds at Oliktok Point Summer
1971. pp. 245-274. In: P. J. Kinney et a1. (eds.). Baseline data study
of the Alaskan Arctic aquatic environment. Institute of Marine Sciences,
University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Report R723.
coastal, distribution, species accounts, waterfowl, Colville Delta,
Oliktok Point
Birds were observed in the vicinity of the Oliktok DEW-line station
for seven weeks in the summer of 1971. The observation period was from 12
June until 23 August. Bird observations were made from the tower at
Oliktok, walks in the surrounding areas and boat trips in Simpson Lagoon
and the Colville Delta. The qualitative observations are presented in an
annotated list of species seen. Observations are presented in detail and
the list provides important distributional information for the area.
Handel, C. M., M. R. Petersen, R. E. Gill, Jr., and C. J. Lensink. 1981. An
annotated bibliography of literature on Alaska waterbirds. U.S. Depart-
ment of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Biological Services Program,
Washington, D.C. FWS/OBS-81/12. 515 pp.
Alaska, North Slope
This bibliography includes both published and unpublished references
on Alaskan waterbirds. The listing is extensive and is divided into four
sections, seabirds, waterfowl, shorebirds and avifauna. Each section is a
separate bibliography. Each reference includes the citation, a brief
31
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summary or evaluation of content, and key words that identify the region
and locality of the study, family or species of concern and subject of
discussion.
Hansen, H. A., and L. E. Eberhardt. 1981. Ecological investigations of
Alaskan resource development. In: Pacific Northwest Laboratory annual
report for 1980 to the C.O.E. Assistant Secretary for the Environment,
Part 2. Ecological Sciences.
Prudhoe Bay, shorebirds, breeding biology, impact
Nesting densities of tundra birds were measured in 1979 and 1980 at
two sites, one in Prudhoe Bay and one at Mile 12 along the Dalton Highway
(North Slope Haul Road). Nesting densities were affected adversely by the
snow fence effect of the elevated pipeline; persistent snow drifts pre-
cluded nesting. Banded bird returns have demonstrated breeding site
fidelity and pair fidelity in Semipalmated Sandpipers.
Hawkins, L. 1983. Tundra Swan study, 1983 Progress report. unpublished field
report, USFWS, Special Studies, 1011 E Tudor Road, Anchorage, Alaska.
6 pp.
Tundra Swan, breeding biology, Colville delta
Breeding biology of Tundra Swans was studied on the Colville River
Delta in 1982 and 1983. Objectives of the study were to measure produc-
tivity, describe behavior, and continue a neck banding program.
Swans arrived on the delta at the end of May with movement onto the
delta in 1983 peaking on 30 May. Territorial defense began by 24 May.
Nests were found through ground searches and aerial surveys, only half of
the nests found during ground searches were noted during the aerial
survey. Nest density in the ground-searched area (central and western
delta) was 0.18/km2, for the rest of the delta it was 0.10/km2, and for
Fish Creek delta it was 0.15/km2.
Clutch size averaged 3.59 eggs in 1983 and 3.42 in 1982. Clutches
hatched from 7-15 July, after an estimated 30-31 days incubation. Arctic
fox predation seemed to be the source of all nest failures. Productivity
increased overall in 1983, due in part to slightly larger clutches and in
part to higher nest success.
Large numbers of non-breeding swans move into the delta during the
latter part of June.
Hawkins, L. L.
Behavior.
1986. Tundra Swan (Cygnus columbianus colubianus) Breeding
unpublished MS thesis, University of Minnesota. 145 pp.
Tundra Swan, breeding biology, behavior, Colville delta
32
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Tundra Swan breeding behavior was studied from 1981 through 1983 on
the Colville delta. The purpose of the study was to Quantify male and
female nesting, compare male and female nest care, and determine the
effect of nest attendance on the daily activity budgets of males and
females. Behavior of wild birds was compared with captive birds.
In the wild, males sat on the nest during incubation while the
females were absent. In captivity, males stood near, but did- not gener-
ally sit on the nest.
Females incubated between 60 and 80 percent of the time, with indi-
viduals showing high variability in the amount of incubation time.
Females increased their incubation time when wind chill and absolute
temperature decreased. Females increased their foraging time mid-to-late
incubation, then increased incubation sharply when hatching began. Male
incubation behavior was related to territorial defense and associated
aggression.
Holmes, R. T. 1966. Feeding ecology of the Redbacked Sandpiper (Calidris
alpina) in Arctic Alaska. Ecology 47:32-45.
Dunlin, Barrow, coastal, prey, habitat
The Red-backed Sandpiper, or Dunlin (Calidris alpina), was studied
near Barrow, Alaska, for five summers. The Dunlin fed largely on larvae
and adults of the families Tipulidae and Chironomidae (Diptera). Sampling
for availability and abundance of insect populations shows that the food
source readily available and heavily used in early summer and again in
late summer consists of tipulid larvae. As summer predation proceeds,
important changes in numbers and availability of different food species
result from progression of their life-cycle stages and from changes in
environmental conditions. Food supply and diet are most varied in July.
Although feeding behavior and diet of Dunlin change with prey avail-
ability, preferences are shown by adult sandpipers for tipulid larvae in
early and late summer and to a lesser extent for chironomid larvae in
midseason. Recently hatched young feed entirely on small-sized adult
insects, mostly chironomid flies, which are obtained easily on the tundra
surface. Differences between adult and young Dunlin in habitat and food
selection during late summer represent an intrapopulational means of
apportioning food supply in a critical part of the season.
With arctic insect faunas depauperate in variety of taxa, there is a
limited diversity of food species for sandpipers. Adverse weather condi-
tions characteristic of high-latitude climates can cause local food
shortages. The widest variation in food conditions occurs in July when
young sandpipers are hatching and growing.
Holmes, R. T. 1970. Differences in population density, territoriality, and
food supply of Dunlin on arctic and subarctic tundra. Symposium of the
British Ecological Society 10:303-319.
Barrow, Dunlin, prey, behavior
33
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The densities, territorial activities, and food supplies of Dunlin
breeding in the Barrow area were compared with those breeding in the Yukon
Delta region. The population in the Yukon Delta region nested at densi-
ties approximately five times higher than that in the Barrow area. The
food supply was more abundant in the Yukon Delta study area. Weather in
the Barrow region is much harsher and less predictable and this may affect
the food supply. The presence of congeneric species in Barrow and lack of
congeners in the Yukon area does not seem to affect the densities.
Removal experiments conducted at Barrow showed that males were replaced
immediately if removed prior to June 20. After that date, the territories
remained empty. probably because there would not be sufficient time to
mate, nest and raise a brood prior to the onset of adverse weather. It
was concluded that the density of breeding Dunlin is related to the
abundance and availability of their food supply and that the main function
of territorial behavior is to disperse the populations in relation to
food.
Holmes, R. T., and F. A. Pitelka. 1968. Food overlap among coexisting sand-
pipers on northern Alaska tundra. Systematic Zoology 17:305-318.
Barrow, Dunlin, Pectoral Sandpiper, Semipalmated Sandpiper, Baird's
Sandpiper, shorebirds, prey, habitat
Diets of the four commonly breeding sandpipers in the Barrow area
were studied over a 5-year period. The diets of the four species, Dunlin,
Pectoral Sandpiper, Semipalmated Sandpiper, and Baird's Sandpiper, over-
lapped broadly. Among adults, the period of strongest species separation
is late June, when insect diversity is maximal and when a rapid rise in
insect numbers toward a mid-July peak is just beginning; among young, the
period of strongest species separation is early August, when the insect
supply is declining rapidly. The early migratory departure of the adults
of three of the species may act to reduce competition among the four
species. Partial habitat separation of the two smaller species, Baird's
and Semipalmated Sandpipers, may also reduce the competition. There is
also an important difference between the two larger species; Dunlin
populations are relatively stable between years and they nest in rela-
tively low densities while Pectoral Sandpiper populations fluctuate widely
between years and between areas to take advantage of locally abundant food
resources.
Irving, L. 1960. Birds of Anaktuvuk Pass, Kobuk, and Old Crow.
Museum Bulletin 217. 409 pp.
u.S. National
distribution, waterfowl
Distribution information for birds in the central Brooks Range and
Old Crow is given based on personal observations and those of the local
inhabitants. Although an old publication, this has useful information on
distribution patterns and migration timing.
34
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Johnson, S. R., and W. J. Richardson. 1981. Beaufort Sea Barrier Island-
Lagoon Ecological Process Studies: Final Report, Simpson Lagoon. Environ.
mental Assessment of the Alaskan Continental Shelf, Final Reports of
Principal Investigators, Volumes 7 and 8. National Oceanic and Atmos-
pheric Administration/Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Assessment
Program, Juneau, Alaska.
North Slope, Oldsquaw, Red Phalarope, Red-necked Phalarope, habitat, prey,
impact
An integrated ecological study of the Simpson Lagoon-Jones Islands
area and vicinity was conducted over a 4-year period. The study focused
on geological. oceanographic, and ecological processes that supported
vertebrate species of primary interest to people.
Numerically important bird species in the coastal environment include
Oldsquaws and Red and Red-necked Phalaropes. These feed mainly on
crustaceans; Oldsquaws eat mostly mysids, and phalaropes eat large amounts
of copepods. The activities of these birds are largely restricted to the
shallow bays, lagoons, and beaches from mid-summer to early fall
(Oldsquaw) and in August (Phalaropes). These birds use the nearshore
environment mostly for resting, feeding, and (for Oldsquaws) molting, but
not for nesting. Their main vulnerability to human activities would
probably be to oil on the water and beaches in late summer and early fall.
Additionally vulnerable to human activities would be island-nesting
species (eiders, Brant, and Snow Geese), that occur area-wide in small
numbers. Island nesting species are particularly vulnerable to fox
predation; productivity is generally high when no foxes are present on the
islands and may be zero when a fox is present.
Migration patterns were observed for the two years of the study.
Spring migration occurred over a broad front and the major species groups
passing through the lagoons included loons, Brant, Pintails, Oldsquaws,
eiders, gulls and jaegers. Two peaks were noted during the male seaducks'
westward molt migration, the first in late June and early July and the
second during the latter half of July. Fall migration extended over a
long period with some species leaving the study area by the end of August
and others not until the end of September.
Johnson, S. R., W. J. Adams, and M. R. Morrell. 1975. Birds of the Beaufort
Sea: I. Literature Review. II. Spring migration observed during 1975.
Unpublished report, Canadian Wildlife Service, Prairie and Northern
Region, Edmonton. 310 pp.
North Slope, coastal, waterfowl. shorebirds, breeding biology, migration,
distribution, species accounts
This publication is a comprehensive review of the information on the
majority of species that migrate and/or nest along the Beaufort Sea coast.
The first part of the paper reviews the studies of all waterbird species
in the Beaufort Sea area and presents the information in detailed species
accounts. A list of the papers cited in the accounts and other references
that may be useful follow each account. The accounts cover the distribu-
35
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tions and statuses of birds in the area and the patterns of movement that
accompany these distributions. Major events within the breeding cycle of
each avian species that breeds or occurs commonly in the area are dis-
cussed; these include such phenologically-determined phenomena as first
spring occurrences at various locations within the Beaufort Sea area,
breeding chronology and biology, and the timing and routing of fall and
spring movements to and from wintering areas. Part II covers information
gathered during spring and fall migration watches. The information is
organized into species accounts that cover the status and distribution
information known about the species as well as the information gathered on
migration. The accounts include passerines as well as waterbirds.
Johnson, S. R., G. J. Divoky, P. G. Connors, D. W. Norton, R. Meehan, J.
Hubbard, and T. Warren. 1983. Avifauna. In: Sale 87, Harrison Bay
synthesis. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/Outer Contin-
ental Shelf Environmental Assessment Program, Juneau, Alaska.
North Slope, distribution, habitat, migration, coastal, shorebirds,
waterfowl
An overview of avifaunal use of coastal and marine systems is
presented that updates previous OCS syntheses. The coast and marine areas
are subdivided into regions and general use patterns, relative productiv-
ity or importance and data gaps are described. Bird use of specific areas
along the Chukchi and Beaufort coasts is outlined and the primary sources
of the information identified, summaries are presented below.
Seahorse Islands and Point Franklin Spit have vegetated dunes that
are unusual for the area north of Cape Lisburne. Approximately 40 pairs
of Arctic Terns and a few Black Guillemots, Oldsquaw, and Common Eiders
nest near or in the dunes. The Point Franklin Spit is used extensively by
feeding and roosting birds during the post-breeding staging and migration
period. A shoreline transect in early August recorded about 12,000 Red
Phalaropes, 6,000 Arctic Terns and 800 Sabine's Gulls. Brant stage in
this area later in the fall.
Point Barrow-Elson Lagoon and the Plover Islands have been exten-
sively studied and consistently support high densities of shorebirds,
gulls, terns, and some waterfowl in the late summer. Densities of most
species peak in August as birds are staging for or stopping during migra-
tion. The Plover Islands are an important feeding and roosting area. Two
primary food sources are the abundant under-ice zooplankton and the high
productivity associated with the Vering Sea Intrusion. Arctic Terns and
Black Guillemots nest in the Plover Islands. The high densities of birds
in this area compared to other portions of the Beaufort make it one of the
most sensitive areas.
Little is known about the coastal area from Admiralty Bay to Smith
Bay. Smith Bay to Cape Halkett has been studied some and apears to
include several areas of productive saltmarsh. (The inland area in the
vicinity of Teshekpuk Lake has been studied extensively by USFWS in
connection with the molting geese; see Derksen et al. 1980, 1981, 1982.)
The southwestern coast of Harrison Bay is used extensively during the
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later part of the summer by shorebirds and waterfowl. The most extensive
saltmarshes and mudflats along the Beaufort coast are along this part of
the coast, including the Colville River delta. The Colville River delta
is a unique and important area for breeding waterfowl.
Simpson Lagoon has the highest average density and biomass of
Oldsquaw of any lagoon along the Alaskan Beaufort coast. Thousands of
juven i 1 e Red and Red- necked Pha 1 aropes a 1 so concentrate in ttTe 1 agoon
during August. The birds feed on epibenthic invertebrates in the lagoon.
Nearby Prudhoe Bay is not nearly as productive as the lagoon. The
Sagavanirktok River delta has the only colony of breeding Snow Geese in
Alaska nesting on Howe Island in the outer delta.
Bird use of the coast and lagoons between the Sagavanirktok River and
Barter Island is relatively low compared to other parts of the Beaufort
Coast with the exception of river deltas. The Canning River and Okpilak
River deltas are used extensively by waterfowl during spring migration.
Nesting densities of shorebirds and waterfowl were higher than at any
other North Slope study sites.
Lagoons east of Barter Island are used by molting Oldsquaw although
the densities are not as high as in Simpson Lagoon. In general, the
pattern of lagoon use by Oldsquaw and other species is similar to that
described for Simpson Lagoon. Snow Geese stage inland of the coast in the
fall but do use coastal areas and lagoons for resting on occasion.
Kessel, B. K. 1961. West-East relationships of birds of Northern Alaska.
pp.79-84. In: J. C. Grisset (ed.L Pacific Basin Biogeography: A
Symposium. BishoD Museum Press, Honolulu, Hawaii.
distribution, North Slope
Distribution patterns of North Slope birds were analyzed in terms of
their faunal affinities. In general, the avifauna of the North Slope is
similar to the avifauna of Siberia. This pattern is most pronounced in
the Barrow area, including the Chukchi coast, while the eastern portion of
the coastal plain includes fewer of the Siberian species and more North
American species.
Kessel, B.
1979.
Avian habitat classification for Alaska.
Murrelet 60:86-94.
Alaska, North Slope, habitat classification
A basic overall classification system for Alaskan birds was devel-
oped. The two morphologic features with the greatest impact on the avian
community relate to the occurrence and characteristics of water and of
woody plant growth. These features provide the basis for the classifica-
tion. The classification includes sevpn major categories, each of which
can be defined in more detail to fit a particular situation. Each of the
classes is defined and common birds listed.
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Kessel, B., and T. J. Cade. 1958. Habitat preferences of the birds of the
Colville River, northern Alaska. Biological Papers of the University of
Alaska 2. 83 pp.
species accounts, inland, Colville River, distribution
A survey of the Colville River was conducted to learn more about the
occurrence, distribution, and habitats of the birds of the North Slope.
The findings of a full summer of observation and parts of two others are
presented as species accounts. The accounts are supplemented by informa-
tion from published literature. This is a dated, but for that time,
complete listing of birds that occur in the region and contain important
information on distribution.
Kessel, B., and D. D. Gibson. 1978. Status and distribution of Alaskan birds.
Studies in Avian Biology 1. Cooper Ornithological Society. 100 pp.
Alaska, North Slope, distribution
This publication updates Gabrielson and Lincoln (1959). Birds of
Alaska. Complete accounts of 202 species, their status and distribution,
are presented. The differences noted between the distribution of these
species today and that presented in Birds of Alaska may be due to actual
changes in distribution, or, more likely, be the result of improved
information. This publication is intended to be used as a companion to
Gabrielson and Lincoln.
Kiera, E. F. W. 1984. Feeding Ecology of Black Brant on the North Slope of
Alaska. pp.40-48. In: Marine birds: their feeding ecology and commer-
cial fisheries relationships. D. N. Nettleship, G. A. Sanger, and P. F.
Springer (eds.). Proceedings of the Pacific Seabird Group Symposium,
Seattle, Washington, 6-8 January 1982. Canadian Wildlife Special Publica-
tion.
Colville Delta, Prudhoe Bay, Brant, prey, Habitat
A population of nesting Brant on the island in the Colville Delta and
the late summer use of a salt marsh near Prudhoe Bay were observed for one
season. Food preferences and food intake were estimated for Brant feeding
on salt marshes.
Migrating Brant began arriving in salt marshes in mid-August just
after salt-marsh vegetation reached peak production. They fed primarily
on Carex subspathacea and Puccinellia phyrganodes. Food intake during
this time was estimated at 283 g dry weight of vegetation per day.
Seventy-seven percent of the daylight hours was spent feeding. Chemical
analysis of graminoid samples showed no relationship between goose prefer-
ence and the nutritional characteristics of the vegetation they ate.
Grazing pressure on arctic salt marshes where Brant fed was calculated at
373 goose-days/ha. This is believed to be near the carrying capacity of
the marshes without resulting in overgrazing.
38
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King, J. G. 1973.
21:11-17.
The swans and geese of Alaska's arctic slope.
Wil dfowl
North Slope, distribution, waterfowl, recommendations, Brant, Tundra Swan,
White-fronted Goose
Aerial surveys of the North Slope were conducted in 1966. The
purpose of the surveys was to assess the overall use of the North Slope by
waterfowl and determine if their habitat may be affected by man's activ-
ities. In general, the area is characterized by low production. The
production may be important, though, in years when failures occur in
areas. Large numbers of molting Brant and White-fronted Geese were
observed in the area between Teshekpuk Lake and Cape Halkett. This area
was identified as unusual and the author recommended further studies of
the area and development of management recommendations.
King, J. G., and G. A. Sanger. 1979. Oil vulnerability index for marine
oriented birds. pp. 227-240. In: J. C. Bartonek and D. N. Nettleship
(eds.). Conservation of marine birds of Northern North America, USFWS,
Wildlife Research Report 11, Washington, D.C. 315 pp.
impact
A system to determine relative susceptibility of species to oil
development is presented. The system is based on subjective determination
of a species' sensitivity in 20 aspects of its biology, including consid-
erations of range, population, habits, mortality, and annual esposure.
Scores for the 20 factors are summed for a total oil vulnerability index.
The intent of the system is to compare potential vulnerability of the
avifauna of different areas by summing the scores of the species that
occur in each of the areas and comparing the combined sums.
King, R. 1979. Results of aerial surveys of migratory birds on NPR-A in 1977
and 1978. PP. 187-226. In: P. C. Lent (ed.). Studies of Selected
Wildlife and Fish and Their Use of Habitats on and Adjacent to NPR-A
1977-1978, Volume 1. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Petroleum
Reserve in Alaska, 105(c) Land Use Study, Anchorage, Alaska.
waterfowl, North Slope, distribution
Aerial surveys of the National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska (NPR-A) were
conducted three times each summer for two summers. The purpose of the
study was to estimate populations of birds that use NPR-A. Categories of
birds were counted as not all species are identifiable from aircraft.
When possible, birds were identified to species. Ground surveys were
conducted to provide a ratio of birds seen from the air to total birds
present. Conversion factors were developed to interpret the aerial data
using the ground information, general knowledge of the species and infor-
mation from previous studies. The estimated number of birds decreased
from 1977 to 1978 by 16 percent. The decrease is apparently related to
drought conditions in the Prairie Pothole region in 1977, which led to
increased numbers of ducks -- primarily Pintails -- on the North Slope,
39
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and the improved wetland conditions in the Pothole region in 1978, which
kept the ducks from immigrating north. Raptors increased between 1977 and
1978, probably in relation to increased numbers of lemmings.
High densities of loons, more than three per square mile, occurred 20
miles west of the Colville River delta, within a 20 mile radius of Barrow,
and immediately adjacent to and within 20 miles of Icy Cape. The highest
densities of swans, more than 1 per square mile, were found west and
southwest of Teshekpuk Lake and adjacent to the Colville River delta.
High densities of geese, more than 7 per square mile, were found adjacent
to and west of the Colville River delta, in the Teshekpuk Lake area, and
southwest of Barrow 30 miles. High densities of dabbling ducks were found
near most of the coastline in 1977; in 1978 moderate densities of dabblers
were found over most of NPR-A. High densities of diving ducks were found
within 30 miles of the coast between Icy Cape and Wainwright and from
Smith Bay to Peard Bay. High densities of Snowy Owls were recorded near
the coast from Icy Cape to Barrow in 1978.
Highest densities of shorebirds were found within 40 miles of the
Arctic coast from Harrison Bay west to Point Barrow and within 15 miles of
the arctic coast east of Icy Cape to Wainwright. The aerial survey did
not sample the coastline itself and thus omitted large concentrations of
shorebirds staging prior to and during migration.
Koski, W. R. 1975. Study of the distribution and movement of Snow Geese,
other geese and Whistling Swans on the Mackenzie Delta, Yukon North Slope
and Alaskan North Slope in August and September with similar data from
1973. Arctic Gas Biological Report Series 30:1-58.
North Slope, Snow Goose, White-fronted Goose, Brant, Tundra Swan, migra-
tion
Aerial surveys of the Mackenzie Delta and the Yukon and Alaskan North
Slope were conducted in the end of August to determine the usage by geese
in this area and compare the usage with that of the previous year. Snow
Geese used the study area between August 21 and September 30; a peak
number of 160,000 geese used the area between August 29 and September 15.
The major concentration sites in Alaska were the Upper and Lower Aichilik
River sites. The peak numbers of White-fronted Geese occurred between
September 4 and 6 at 22,000 birds. In both years, Brant used the entire
coastline extensively.
Lehnhausen, W. A., and S. E. Quinlan. 1981. Bird migration and habitat use at
Icy Cape, Alaska. unpublished manuscript, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Office of Special Studies, 1011 E. Tudor Road, Anchorage, Alaska. 298 pp.
Icy Cape, migration, habitat, waterfowl, species accounts, recommendations
An intensive one year study was conducted at Icy Cape, on the north-
western coast of Alaska. The purpose of the study was to document
wildlife use of the Icy Cape area and determine which areas were most
important. A major part of the study focused on bird migration. Bird
censuses were conducted on mainland tundra, barrier islands, salt marsh,
40
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mudflat, beach, and staging areas. Major spring migration occurred during
two periods, 26 May to 12 June and 16 June to 14 July. The first movement
was primarily birds migrating to breeding grounds and the second was
waterfowl moving north to molting areas. Waterfowl made up 84 percent of
the net movement northward, jaegers 6.1 percent and shorebirds 4.8
percent. Fall migration was more diffuse with noticeable southward
movement beginning in mid-July. Fall miqration was most intense in
September. The majority of migrating birds flew along the barrier islands
or over the sea.
Average bird density on the tundra plots was 182.8 birds/sq km.
Shorebirds and passerines occurred in the highest densities. Average bird
density in the salt marsh was 479 birds/sq km with the species composition
dominated by Dunlin, Pintail, Brant, and Western Sandpiper.
Species accounts of all birds seen at Icy Cape are presented. The
accounts include observations of the birds during the season and compares
their observations with those of others on the North Slope.
Recommendations for protecting parts of the Icy Cape area from
development were made based on their observations of bird and wildlife
use. The recommendations include: protection of a zone of nearshore
water, protection of the barrier island, all development related activity
should avoid the lagoon and associated salt marshes, and large blocks of
upland tundra should be preserved.
Maclean, S. F., Jr. 1980. The detritus-based trophic system. pp. 411-457.
In: J. Brown, P. C. Miller, L. L. Tieszen, and F. L. Bunnell (eds.). An
Arctic Ecosystem: The Coastal Tundra at Barrow, Alaska. Dowden,
Hutchinson and Ross, Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania.
shorebirds, Barrow, Lapland Longspur, prey
The structure of the detritus-based trophic system is outlined and
discussed in detail. The system is made up of organisms that use energy
only after it has passed from living components through the pool of dead
organic matter. Shorebirds and Lapland Longspurs are at the top of this
community, feeding primarily on soil invertebrates.
Bird breeding is timed so that the young can feed on the adult
Diptera that emerge in early and mid-July. In June and August dipteran
larvae, especially those of craneflies, are the most important prey.
Energy reauirements are determined by body size and duration of residence
on the tundra. When breeding density is also considered, longspurs are
the most important consumers of tundra arthropods. Birds may consume 35
percent of the annual production of the cranefly, Tipu1a carinifrons, and
50 percent of the peak emergence of adult craneflies.
Maclean, S. F., Jr., and R. T. Holmes. 1971. Bill lengths, wintering areas,
and taxonomy of North American Dun1ins, Calidris alpina. Auk 88:893-901.
Dun1in, population, distribution
41
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Bill lengths of Dunlins collected on their breeding grounds in
northern Alaska, western Alaska, and their wintering grounds along the
Atlantic and Pacific coasts of North America and the Pacific coast of Asia
identify two separate breeding populations. The birds breeding in western
Alaska, on the Seward Peninsula, have larger bills than the birds breeding
on the North Slope. The west coast birds winter along the Pacific coast
of North America. The North Slope birds are close in bill length to birds
that breed in Siberia and are thought to migrate across the Bering Strait
and winter along the coast of the Sea of Japan with the Siberian popula-
tion.
Maclean, S. F., Jr., and F. A. Pitelka.
of tundra arthropods near Barrow.
1971. Seasonal patterns of abundance
Arctic 24:19-40.
prey, shorebirds, Barrow
Arthropods active on the surface of the tundra near Barrow, Alaska,
were trapped for four seasons using "sticky board" traps. More than 95
percent of the arthropods (excluding Acarina and Collembola) captured were
of the order Diptera. Adults of most species of Diptera emerged in the
middle two weeks of July; the abundance of arthropods on the tundra
surface was maximal at that time. Peak emergence is accompanied by the
peak in hatching for shorebirds. Young shorebirds rely on the surface-
active adult Diptera for food as the shorebirds' bills are still soft and
they are unable to probe for food. Year-to-year variation in abundance of
various arthropod taxa is related to prevailing weather conditions and to
the cycle of tundra disturbance and recovery associated with the abundance
of brown lemmings.
Martin, P. D., and C. S. Moiteret. 1982. Bird populations and habitat use,
Canning River Delta, Alaska. Report to the Arctic National Wildlife
Refuge, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fairbanks, Alaska.
Canning delta, habitat, shorebirds, waterfowl, migration, distribution,
species accounts, ANWR
Bird populations and use of habitat at the Canning River Delta,
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, was studied during the summers of 1979
and 1980. Bird use of tundra habitats, shoreline habitats, and the
progression of migration was studied. Species accounts for all 84 species
recorded at the Canning Delta were prepared. The accounts include a
review of the status and distribution in the region as well as details of
chronology of migration and breeding activities for each species.
Four intensive study plots were established: in a lowland (wet,
polygonal), an upland (well-drained, indistinctly polygonized), a mosaic
(intermixed wet and dry), and a saline tundra area. The upland and mosaic
had high populations of Longspurs and shorebirds early in the season,
probably as a result of relatively early melt-off at these sites. The
mosaic had the highest nesting density of longspurs and shorebirds, while
the lowland was most used by late summer migrants. The saline meadow was
used extensively by shorebirds including staging phalaropes, but also by
42
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breeding and migrant waterfowl, loons, and larids; this habitat attracted
the highest concentrations and diversity of birds. Complex wetlands with
Arctophila had high concentrations of breeding loons and waterfowl.
An intensive study of bird use of coastal shoreline habitats was
conducted in 1980. The river mouth provided the first open water in the
spring and was heavily used by migrant waterfowl. Early snow~melt on the
sand dunes provided the first open tundra habitat for migrating shore-
birds. Shoreline use was heaviest in the late summer by molting Oldsquaw
and staging shorebirds. Saline meadows received the highest use of any
type of shoreline habitat.
Migration watches were conducted in the spring and fall. Oldsquawand
jaegers were the most common spring migrants, other species may have been
following offshore leads. A gradual westward molt migration of Oldsauaw
was observed from mid-June to late July. A major westward movement of
male Common Eiders peaked on 28 July. Westward fall migration of Brant,
Oldsquaw, and loons built up gradually from mid-August to a peak on 31
August. During spring migration, the open water of the Canning River was
heavily used as a resting place for migrating waterfowl. During fall
migration, the saline meadow provided important resting and feeding areas
for Brant and shorebirds.
Mayfield, H. F. 1978.
Auk 95:590-592.
Undependable breeding conditions in the Red Phalarope.
Red Phalarope, prey, breeding biology, Canada
Red Phalaropes were studied on Bathurst Island for seven years. A
one sq km plot was censused each year. Phalarope nesting was affected by
weather and predation by Arctic foxes. The primary food taken was
chironomids: larvae early in the season and adults during their emergence
in early July. Hatching rate measured over a three year period was 25
percent. Polyandry was suspected based on the behavior of individual
females and post-ovulatory scars on one female. The pair bond is termin-
ated shortly after the clutch is completed and females are able to mate
again. Males incubate and care for the young. The females leave the
breeding areas prior to the males and the males leave prior to the young.
The sequence of departures may reflect an adaptation to an uncertain food
supply by leaving a minimum of consumers at each stage.
Mickelson, P. G. 1975. Breeding biology of Cackling Geese and associated
species on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, Alaska. Wildlife Monographs 45:1-
35.
Canada Goose, Brant, White-fronted Goose, breeding biology, habitat
The breeding biology of Cackling Geese, Brant, White-fronted Geese
and Spectacled Eiders was conducted during the breeding seasons of 1969
through 1972. The study took place on the Clarence Rhode National
Wildlife Range on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta. Brant nested on islands in
lakes and sloughs in colonies. White-fronted Geese generally nested on
the shorelines of ponds or along sloughs. Brant, being smaller birds,
43
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were unable to successfully defend their nests against foxes, but the
White-fronts were able to defend successfully. The geese showed no
preferences for vegetation types in their selection of nest sites.
During
feeding and
and rivers.
feeding and
the brood season, Cackling Geese preferred sedge meadows for
resting areas. Brant reared their young along tidal sloughs
White-fronted Geese utilized the heads of smaller sloughs for
resting.
Predation was the cause of 65.8 percent of all goose and eider egg
losses. Most losses were due to predation by Glaucous Gulls. The other
predators, e.g., foxes and jaegers, did not cause significant losses.
About half of all losses of goose and eider eggs and young were the result
of human-induced predation. Adults, when disturbed, abandoned the nest or
young, which exposed the nest or young to aerial predators. It was
recommended that human activity on the nesting and brood rearing grounds
be minimized.
Miller, P. A., C. S. Moitoret, and M. A. Masteller. 1985. Species accounts of
migratory birds at three study areas on the coastal Plain of the Arctic
National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska, 1984. pp. 447-485. In: Garner, G. W.,
and P. E. Reynolds (eds.). 1985. 1984 update report. Baseline study of
the fish, wildlife, and their habitats. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Anchorage, Alaska. 614 pp.
coastal, distribution, migration, species accounts, shorebirds, waterfowl,
ANWR
Species accounts are presented based on intensive investigations of
three sites during June-August 1984. The accounts are drawn from the
investigator's field notes and from notes taken during brief site visits
in 1983. The accounts describe status, breeding chronology, migration and
habitat use.
Moitoret, C. S., P. A. Miller, R. Oates, and M. Masteller. 1985. Terrestrial
bird populations and habitat use on coastal plain tundra. In: Garner,
G. W., and P. E. Reynolds (eds.). 1984 update report. Baseline study of
the fish, wildlife, and their habitats. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Anchorage, Alaska. 777 Pp.
coastal, distribution, migration, shorebirds, waterfowl, breeding biology,
ANWR
Breeding birds were censused at three sites in ANWR as a continuation
of previous terrestrial bird studies. As in past years, plots were
arranged within landsat classes within each of the study areas and the
densities of birds within each class compared between areas and between
plots within a single study area.
Analysis of variance indicated significant differences due to
location within each of the three habitats found at all three study sites.
The most variable habitats were mosaic, wet sedge, moist sedge-shrub. and
tussock tundra. Based on the diversity within these habitats and the
44
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associated diversity in levels of bird use, the authors suggest defining
tundra bird habitats by factors such as micro-relief, interspersion of
ponds, and shrub cover rather than broad vegetation-type classes.
Murphy, S. M., B. A. Anderson, and C. L. Cranor. 1986. Lisburne terrestrial
monitoring program -- 1985, The effects of the Lisburne Development
Project on geese and swans. Prepared for Arco Alaska, Inc., P.O. Box
100360, Anchorage, Alaska. 151 pp. - .
Prudhoe Bay, Brant, Snow Goose, White-fronted Goose, Tundra Swan, Canada
Goose, impact, behavior
Potential effects of the Lisburne development on geese and swans were
evaluated through behavioral observation throughout the breeding season
and surveys conducted largely from the road system. The entire area was
searched on foot for nests.
Peak abundance of geese and swans during the pre-nesting period
occurred during late May. The most abundant species were Canada and
Greater White-fronted Geese, which concentrated in the vicinity of the
West Dock Road.
Nest distribution, except for Tundra Swans, did not suggest any
avoidance of development or disturbance. A total of 75 nests (46 Canada
Goose, 24 Brant, # Greater White-fronted Goose, and 2 Tundra Swan) were
found. Overall nest success was 16 percent. Canada Geese and Brant had
near total breeding failures. Nests were lost to predation by gulls and
foxes, flooding, clean-up crews, and road construction activities.
Predation and human activity appeared to be related and more detailed
observations were suggested to clarify this relationship.
There was a net movement of geese into the study area during the
brood rearing period. Snow Geese and Brant primarily used salt-marsh
areas, while the other geese remained inland. Distribution during the
brood-rearing period was similar to distribution patterns recorded in
previous years. Numbers of birds peaked during fall staging. Distribu-
tion patterns for Brant and Snow Geese were similar to brood-rearing but
patterns for the other geese were less defined.
Vehicular traffic was the most frequent source of potential disturb-
ance with a range of 0 to 67 vehicles/hour recorded along the roads.
Noise levels exceeded 70 dB throughout most of the area; ambient levels
outside the field were about 36 dB. Activity budgets of Canada and White-
fronted Geese were affected by road traffic with the geese showing more
alert and feeding behavior near the roads and less resting behavior. No
effects were seen for Tundra Swans, Brant, or Snow Geese.
Myers, J. P. 1979.
33: 823 -82 5.
Leks, sex, and Buff-breasted Sandpipers.
American Birds
Barrow, Buff-breasted Sandpipers, behavior
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Mating between Buff-breasted Sandpipers occurs on leks, small display
grounds that are used exclusively for mating. Females choose their mates,
copulate and then nest and raise the young alone. The males leave the
tundra long before the eggs hatch. Behavior on the leks consists of a
variety of raised wing displays and short flights.
Myers, J. P., and F. A. Pite1ka. 1980. Effect of habitat conditions on
spatial parameters of shorebird populations. Report to the Department of
Energy. 82 pp.
shorebirds, habitat, breeding biology, prey, inland, coastal, Barrow,
Atkasook, North Slope
Habitat ecology of shorebirds was studied intensively for five years
on the North Slope of Alaska. Data were gathered at two study sites; a
coastal site near Barrow and an inland site near Atkasook, along the Meade
River. Permanent transects were censused every five days throughout the
field season at each site. A total of 100 ha at Barrow and 140 ha at
Atkasook was censused. Fourteen variables reflecting the physical and
vegetative characteristics of the tundra were measured in each transect
unit. The measurements wer combined in a factor analysis to identify
major gradients explaining the variation in tundra. Habitat preferences
were determined by analyzing the distribution along the habitat gradient
corrected for the abundance of units defined along the gradients.
Four gradients describe the range of conditions seen in different
tundra habitats: polygonization, pondiness, vegetation density, and
shrubbiness. Shorebirds showed a seasonal shift in habitat use, moving to
lower and wetter sites as the season progressed. Habitat selectivity
varied inversely with density during the breeding season for territorial
species. Following the breeding season, no correlation was seen between
selectivity and density. Early in the season, shorebirds were distributed
more evenly across habitat types, but toward the end of the summer, almost
all were in low and wet ponded areas.
At Barrow, peaks in abundance were noted in the beginning of June
(arriving birds), beginning of July (non-breeding transients), and late
August (staging and migrating birds). The only peak of abundance at
Atkasook occurred at the beginning of the summer. Numbers of birds inland
gradually decreased following the end of breeding in early July. Inland
habitats are used for breeding and coastal habitats are used by breeding
birds for staging and resting during migration.
The annual variability of the bird communities was compared with that
of other regions. The magnitude of variability was comparable to that of
North American grasslands, and was not as variable as that in deserts. The
coastal site was more variable than the inland site.
North, M. R., R. B. Renken, and M. R. Ryan. 1983. Habitat use by breeding
Yellow-billed Loons on the Colville River Delta: 1983 Progress Report.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Special Studies, 1011 East Tudor Road,
Anchorage, Alaska. 13 pp.
46
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Colville delta, breeding biology, habitat, Yellow-billed Loon
Habitat use of the Colville Delta by Yellow-billed Loons was studied
in 1983. The loons were common breeders, with nesting beginning in mid-
June. Incubation took about 27 days and productivity for 17 nests was 1.3
chicks/nest. The loons preferred deep Arctophila fulva (Class IV) and
deep-open (Class V) wetlands throughout the nesting season.
Intensive observations of seven pairs in July were made to determine
home ranges, core use areas, and response to disturbances. Home ranges
changed with the progression of ice-melt on the lakes. Males seldom left
their territories and a single incident of a female leaving the territory
was recorded. Adults seldom used river channels and foraging seemed
confined to territories. Both parents fed the young. The young were
brooded on or near the shore by one of the adults.
Norton, D. W. 1972. Incubation schedules of four species of calidridine
sandpipers at Barrow, Alaska. Condor 74:164-176.
Barrow, Pectoral Sandpiper, Dunln, Baird's Sandpiper, Semipalmated
Sandpiper, breeding biology
Incubation by four species of sandpipers at Barrow was observed for
three seasons. Incubation was monitored by telemetric nest temperature
recordings and by direct observation. For all species, nearly continuous
incubation began during the latter part of egg-laying. The amount of time
spent incubating began decreasing with the onset of hatching. Pectoral
Sandpipers had the lowest nest attentiveness, 85 percent of the time,
because all of the incubation is done by the female. For this species,
the time spent incubating decreased during inclement weather due to the
increased amount of time the female would have to spend foraging. Nest
attentiveness in Baird's Sandpipers and Dunlins was greater than 95
percent of the time because both sexes shared incubation duties and did
not have to compromise incubation time with foraging requirements.
Norton, D. C., I. W. Ailes, and
ships of the inland tundra
133. In: J. Brown (ed.).
in the Prudhoe Bay Region,
Alaska, Special Report 2.
J. A. Curatolo. 1975. Ecological relation-
avifauna near Prudhoe Bay, Alaska. pp. 125-
Ecological Investigations of the Tundra Biome
Alaska. Biological Papers of the University of
215 pp.
Prudhoe Bay, shorebirds, habitat
Breeding shorebirds were studied at Prudhoe Bay for two years. Birds
were censused on study plots totaling 45 ha. Plots were censused on a
regular basis throughout the breeding season.
Habitat use by shorebirds in Prudhoe Bay was similar to that observed
in Barrow. Nesting densities and species composition differed between the
two areas and is likely due to differences in habitat composition. The
study site in Prudhoe Bay lacked the extreme variation in microhabitat
47
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composition that is characteristic of Barrow. Nesting densities were
lower in Prudhoe Bay for all species except for Semipa1mated Sandpipers
and Red Phalaropes.
Oates, R. M., A. W. Brackney, and M. A. Masteller. 1985. Distribution,
abundance, and productivity of fall staging Lesser Snow Geese on Coastal
habitats of northeast Alaska and northwest Canada, 1984. pp. 226-224.
In: G. W. Garner and P. E. Reynolds (eds.). 1985. 1984 update report,
Baseline study of the fish, wildlife, and their habitats. U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska. 777 PP.
Snow Geese, migration, ANWR
Staging Snow Geese were surveyed twice in September to determine
their distribution, estimate population size, and estimate reproductive
success. The main influx of geese occurred between 30 August and 7
September. Peak numbers counted gave an estimate of 94,528 geese.
Photographs of the flocks for reproductive estimates were of insufficient
quality to determine age ratios.
Petersen, M. R.
91:608-617.
1979.
Nesting ecology of Arctic Loons.
Wilson Bulletin
Arctic Loon, breeding biology
Arctic Loons were studied on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta from the time
of their arrival in May to their departure in September, in 1974 and 1975.
Nests were found in a 26.3 km2 study area and the chronology of all nests
followed. Pairs arrived on breeding ponds as soon as sufficient meltwater
was available to allow their take-off and landing. Nesting did not begin
immediately and was not related to the availability of nest sites. Loons
may not begin yolk formation until their arrival on the breeding grounds
and the delay in nest initiation may be due to the period required for the
yolk formation. Predation was the major cause of nest failure. Gulls and
jaegers primarily took island nests, while foxes took nests along lake
shorelines.
Pite1ka, F. A. 1959. Numbers, breeding schedule, and territoriality in
Pectoral Sandpipers of Northern Alaska. Condor 61:233-264.
Pectoral Sandpiper, breeding biology, Barrow
Breeding bird censuses were conducted at Barrow for five seasons.
Three study plots totaling 146 acres were censused each year. Information
from these censuses and other incidental observations of Pectoral Sand-
pipers provided the data for this paper.
Breeding densities ranged from three to fifteen male territories per
100 acres and the number of females was similar. The pair bond is brief
and nests are placed independently of the males' territory. Eggs may be
laid over a long period from the beginning of June to the beginning of
July. Males leave their territories in late June and early July. Females
depart in late July and early August and the juveniles depart in August.
48
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Flocking is most conspicuous in July when the numbers of both breeders and
non-breeders moving about in early stages of migratory departure are
greatest.
Pitelka, F. A. 1974. An avifaunal review for the Barrow region and North
Slope of Arctic Alaska. Arctic and Alpine Research 6:161-184.
shorebirds, waterfowl, North Slope, distribution
This is a complete review of the status and distribution of birds
that occur on the North Slope up to the time of publication. The main
features of species composition and se~sonality of the Barrow region
avifauna are summarized and discussed. The avifauna of the region is
strongly influence by the proximity of Siberia and many species have old
world affinities.
Distributional zonation of birds on the North Slope is examined
briefly with regard to physiographic and biological criteria for the
delimitation of zones. The mid-Beaufort section is noteworthy in having
relatively high densities of breeding waterfowl, which may be related to
the presence of large river deltas and extensive nearshore lagoons.
Pitelka, F. A. 1979. Introduction:
Studies in Avian Biology 2:1-11.
The Pacific Coast shorebird scene.
migration, shorebirds, distribution
The distribution of shorebirds along the entire Pacific Coast, from
Barrow to the southern tip of South America is discussed. The greatest
diversity of breeding shorebirds occurs between 65 and 70 degrees north
latitude. In the winter, the numbers of species in South America are
roughly quadrupled by the influx of North American species. The geo-
graphic distributions are presented to exemplify the importance of various
segments of the coast and the need to look at migratory requirements on a
very broad eco-geographic scale.
Pitelka, F. A., R. T. Holmes, and S. F. Maclean, Jr. 1974.
evolution of social organization in Arctic sandpipers.
14:185-204.
Ecology and
American Zoologist
shorebirds, breeding biology, North Slope, behavior, Semipalmated Sand-
piper, Baird's Sandpiper, Dunlin, Pectoral Sandpiper, Buff-breasted
Sandpiper
A comparative analysis of sandpiper social systems on arctic and
subarctic breeding grounds (24 species in the family Scolopacidae,
subfamily Calidridinae) shows four major patterns. In a majority of the
species (15), populations are dispersed through a strongly developed
territorial system, with strong monogamous pair bonds and only minor
yearly fluctuations in numbers, e.g., Semipalmated Sandpiper, Baird's
Sandpiper, and Dunlin. The second pattern is seen in three species in
which the female of a pair may lay two sets of eggs in auick succession,
one for each member of the pair to incubate, e.g., Sanderling. The third
49
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and fourth patterns are of polygyny, e.g., White-rumped Sandpiper, and
promiscuity, e.g., Pectoral Sandpiper and Buff-breasted Sandpiper. These
last two groups show clumped dispersions; their year-to-year fluctuations
tend to be strong; the males defend compressible, often small, terri-
tories; and high densities can occur locally. It is suggested that the
pattern of overdispersion and monogamy represents a conservative mode of
adapting to high latitude environments, while the pattern of clumped
dispersion with polygyny or promiscuity represents an opportuntstic mode
in that the birds are concentrated into breeding areas where and when
weather, food, and/or some other environmental factors are particularly
favorable.
Sage, B. L. 1974. Ecological distribution'of birds in the Atigun and
Sagavanirktok River Valleys, Arctic Alaska. Canadian Field-Naturalist
88(3):281-291.
distribution
Bird observations made in the Brooks Range during the construction of
the TAPS are compiled and listed as species accounts. This contains
distributional information for a portion of the North Slope that has
received relatively little attention.
Salter, R. E., M. A. Gollop, S. R. Johnson, W. R. Koski, and C. E. Tull. 1980.
Distribution and abundance of birds on the Arctic Coastal Plain of
northern Yukon and adjacent Northwest Territories, 1971-1976. Canadian
Field-Naturalist 94(3):219-238.
Canada, shorebirds, waterfowl, migration, distribution, species accounts
Observation on avian distribution, abundance, habitat relationships,
and seasonal movements in extreme northwestern Canada are summarized. A
total of 122 species was recorded; at least 46 (and possibly an addi-
tional 14) nest in the area. The known breeding ranges of 15 species are
extended. Species accounts in this paper present information on distribu-
tion, status, breeding and migration that was gathered during 30 studies
conducted in the area. The coast is a major migration route for various
waterfowl and shorebirds. The avifaunas of the Canadian and Alaskan
portions of the Coastal Plain are similar, with the primary exception that
Asiatic, Beringian, and maritime stragglers are confined largely to the
Alaskan portion.
Schamel, D. 1977. Breeding of the Common Eider (Somateria mollissima) on the
Beaufort Sea coast of Alaska. Condor 79:478-485.
North Slope, Common Eider, breeding biology. behavior
Common Eiders were studied for two breeding seasons on Egg Island, a
barrier island near Prudhoe Bay. Behavioral observations were made from a
blind using a 20 power spotting scope.
50
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Eiders arrived as soon as open water was available. They were
already paired and began nesting as soon as the island was surrounded by
open water, which is assumed to be a defense against predators, notably
Arctic foxes. Nests were camouflaged with vegetation and/or driftwood
that also provided some wind protection. Males departed prior to incuba-
tion, which was done exclusively by the females. Nests tended to be
clumped within Glaucous Gull territories, which may serve to reduce
predation by the gulls. -.
Schamel, D., and D. Tracy. 1977. Polyandry, replacement clutches, and site
tenacity in the Red Phalarope (Phalaropus fulicarius) at Barrow, Alaska.
Bird-Banding 48:314-324.
Barrow, Red Phalarope, behavior, breeding biology
Red Phalarope behavior was observed at Barrow for two seasons. The
Red Phalaropes showed less site tenacity than other Calidris sandpipers.
Only four instances of serial polyandry were observed and it does not seem
to be a common occurrence in the population. For polyandry to occur,
there has to be an excess of males. This does not always occur and in one
year there was an excess of females. Females are able to lay replacement
clutches for clutches lost early in the incubation period.
Seaman, G. A., G. F. Tande, D. L. Clausen, and L. L. Trasky. 1981. Mid-
Beaufort Coastal evaluation study: Colville River to Kuparuk River.
MCHM, Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Anchorage, Alaska. Prepared
for: The North Slope Borough. 180 pp.
North Slope, shorebirds, waterfowl, habitat, recommendations
This report was prepared for the North Slope Borough to provide
information needed for their Coastal Management Plan. The report summar-
izes existinq information on the area between the Colville and Kuparuk
Rivers, called the Mid-Beaufort Area. Coastal habitats were identified
and their use by fish and wildlife described. Critical habitat areas were
described. Major activities that might affect the area were identified
and mitigation measures recommended. Major information gaps and needed
studies of fish and wildlife were identified.
Important areas identified for waterfowl included: Simpson Lagoon
for molting OldsQuaw, the Colville River delta for breeding waterfowl,
shorelines for migrating shorebirds, and saltmarshes for migrating shore-
birds and waterfowl, particularly Brant. Management recommendations
include timing and distance restrictions for activity in the vicinity of
the high bird use areas and reiterate the recommendations made in Bergman
et al. (1977) regarding wetlands.
Seastedt, T. R., and S. F. Maclean, Jr. 1979. Territory size and composition
in relation to resource abundance in Lapland Longspurs breeding in Arctic
Alaska. Auk 96:131-142.
Barrow, Lapland Longspurs, habitat, behavior
51
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The relationship of size and composition of breeding territories to
productivity of arthropod prey in the component habitats was studied in a
population of Lapland Longspurs nesting near Barrow. Territories are
established auite synchronously around the time of snow melt in early
June, before their resource value can be assessed directly. Twenty
territories averaged 1.76 ha in area. Large territories contained nearly
equal amounts of wet, mesic, and dry habitat. Small territories contained
less wet and dry habitat, but a much larger proportion of mestc habitat.
Territory size was positively correlated with prey density in the year of
measurement, due to an unusual abundance of prey in the relatively
unpreferred wet habitat. Territory size was inversely correlated with
indices of resource density based upon 3 and 7 years of data on prey
productivity in the various habitats. 'These indices show average or
expected prey density. The inverse correlation is increased when prey
biomass data are weighted for prey selectivity by longspurs. No relation-
ship between territory size and reproductive success was seen.
Sjolander, S., and G. Agren. 1976. Reproductive behavior of the Yellow-billed
Loon, Gavia adamsii. Condor 78:454-463.
~
North Slope, Yellow-billed Loon, breeding biology, behavior
Breeding behavior of the Yellow-billed Loon was studied at Alaktak,
approximately 80 km southeast of Barrow. Pairs were highly territorial,
using both displays and calls in territorial encounters. Copulations,
preceded by very little courtship, took place on land. The nest site was
chosen by the male. Both sexes engaged in limited nest-building, mostly
at nest relief, throughout incubation. Both parents incubated the eggs.
The young left the nest at hatching but were brooded on the nest or on
shore during the first days. Both parents fed the young, mostly with fish
but also with plants. All pairs had two eggs, but only in one case were
two young reared.
Sladen, W. F. L. 1973. A continental study of Whistling Swans using neck
collars. Wildfowl 24:8-14.
Tundra Swan, distribution
The use of coded colored neck collars increased the resighting rate
of individual Tundra Swans to as much as 90 percent compared with a
resighting rate of only 5 percent for leg-banded birds. Individual birds
were observed on both their breeding grounds on the North Slope and their
wintering grounds in Maryland. Details of the continental marking
protocol are given for four swan species. The information gained by the
use of color neck collars far outweighed the small negative impact on the
birds.
Soikkeli, M. 1967. Breeding cycle and population dynamics in the Dunlin
(Calidris alpina). Annals Zoologica Fennica 4:153-198.
Dunlin, breeding biology
52
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A color banded population of Dunlin was studied in Finland for
5-years. Dunlin arrived on the study site in mid-April. No difference in
arrival dates was seen between males and females. Egg laying occurred
over the course of a month and with few exceptions, the female laid a
clutch of four eggs. Destroyed clutches were replaced during the early
part of the incubation. Both adults incubate; incubation lasts 22 days.
The female remains with the brood approximately 6 days past hatching; the
male remains for approximately 19 days. The young are able to fly after
20 days.
Males showed strong site tenacity as did females. Males were often
faithful, with the change of mate often due to the late arrival of one of
the pair from the wintering grounds. In general, the young returned to
the place of birth to nest. Of 222 Dunlin marked as young, 15 percent
were later recovered on the study area and 11 percent were found nesting.
Spindler, M. A. 1978. Bird populations and habitat use in the Okpilak River
delta area, Arctic National Wildlife Range, Alaska. U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Fairbanks, Alaska. 86 pp.
Okpilak delta, shorebirds, waterfowl, habitat, migration, ANWR
Bird census plots totaling 1.75 SQ km in area on the Okpilak River
delta were sampled to determine nesting bird density and total breeding
and non-breeding population during the summer of 1978. A total of 57 bird
species was observed on the study area, while 23 species were recorded as
breeding. The most abundant species were: Lapland Longspur, Pectoral
Sandpiper, Red Phalarope, Northern Phalarope, and Semipalmated Sandpiper.
Bird populations varied about two-fold between the most productive and
least productive habitat types censused. Ranked in descending order of
total bird population, the four habitat types censused were Flooded
Tundra, Mosaic Wet Sedge/Dry Sedge Tunrda, Upland Sedge-Tussock Tundra,
and Wet Sedge Tundra. Total population ranged from 111.9 to 245.2
birds/square kilometer. Nesting density ranged from 45 to 87 nests/square
kilometer. Features such as wetland characteristics and interspersion of
microhabitat and micro-relief, to a large extent, best characterize
coastal plain habitats, and combined with a knowledge of snow melt-off
pattern, are likely the best predictors of avian density and productivity.
On the Okpilak area, flooded polygonal tundra and mosaic wet/dry-high/low
polygonal tundra will generally support more birds than drier tundra with
less relief, a pattern which has been observed in other areas of the
Alaska and Yukon North Slope.
Large bird populations were censused in a much larger (50 SQ km)
area. The most abundant species were OldsQuaw, Brant, Glaucous Gull, Red-
throated and Arctic Loon, and Tundra Swan. Total density of large birds
was 21.7/sQ km but nesting density was low, at 3.5 nests/square kilometer.
On two wetland areas regularly censused, total bird populations were lower
but stable early in the summer; later, numbers were occasionally high, but
sporadic. Patterns of large bird use were Quite similar to those observed
at Storkersen Point, with the areas receiving highest use including
diverse wetland complexes (drained basins) and large, deep Carex, shallow
53
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Arctophila and deep Arctophila wetlands. All are quite recognizable and
separable during aerial surveys or from aerial photography taken in
August.
Chronology of bird use includes an intense migratory period during
the first week of June, high populations during courtship in mid-to-late
June, and generally declining populations through July as ne~ting is
completed and adults depart from mainland areas. A shift of bird use from
generally dispersed in June to locally concentrated in July and August was
noted, especially with respect to shorebirds moving to wetland areas, and
waterfowl moving to larger wetlands and coastal lagoons during mid-July
and early-August.
Spindler, M. A. 1983. Distribution, abundance, and productivity of fall
staging Lesser Snow Geese in coastal habitats of northeast Alaska and
northwest Canada, 1980 and 1981. pp. 88-106. In: Garner, G. W. and
P. E. Reynolds (eds.). 1982 update report, Baseline study of the fish,
wildlife, and their habitats. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage,
Alaska. 379 pp.
Snow Goose, migration, ANWR
Fall staging of Snow Geese on the ANWR and adjacent Yukon Territory
and Mackenzie River delta was observed from 7 August to 22 September.
Observers censused the geese and estimated productivity through the use of
aerial surveys and aerial photography of the flocking geese. The onset of
staging in 1982 was earlier than in previous years, but major arrivals
were normal, occurrin9 24-36 August. The duration of the staging period
(20 days) was the second longest observed since 1971. A gradual buildup
in numbers occurred through late August and early September with 30-40,000
birds estimated using the ANWR coastal plain at that time. Peak Snow
Goose numbers were estimated on 14-15 September at 107,072 + 13,866 in
Alaska; 117,892 + 15,279 in Yukon, and 6,155 in the Mackenzle delta, for a
total western arctic population esimate of 231,119 + 29,242. Estimated
productivity was low, at 4.6 percent young. Spatial variation in produc-
tivity was observed, with concentrations of higher productivity occurring
in Alaska as compared to farther east, a pattern opposite to that observed
in 1981.
Medium telephoto lenses with a large-format 60 x 70 mm camera and ASA
400 film on cloudy days and a 35 mm camera and ASA 50 fine-grain film on
sunny days produced the best photos for counting geese.
Spindler, M. A. 1984. Distribution, abundance, and productivity of fall
staging Lesser Snow Geese in coastal habitat of northeast Alaska and
northwest Canada, 1983. Pp. 75-101. In: Garner, G. W., and P. E.
Reynolds (eds.). 1984. 1983 Update report, Baseline study of the fish,
wildlife, and their habitats. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage,
Alaska. 614 Pp.
Snow Goose, migration, behavior, impact, ANWR
54
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USFWS and the Canadian Wildlife Service cooperated on the 1983
studies of staging Snow Geese in northeast Alaska and northwest Canada.
Aerial surveys emphasized the temporal and spatial distribution patterns.
Ground crews studied habitat use, feeding, and behavioral responses to
aircraft overflights.
Fall staging was later than the previous 11 years, with major arrival
occurring within the Canadian sections on 1 September and on ANWR sections
on 8 September, which was 13 days later than 1982 and 2 days later than
the long term average. Peak numbers were counted on 12 September for a
total of 393,000 geese: 12,828 on ANWR, 300,651 on the Yukon North Slope,
54,523 on the Mackenzie delta and 25,000 south of the delta. The esti-
mated numbers of geese on the Mackenzte delta and in ANWR were much lower
than the long term average for those areas, while the estimate for the
Yukon North Slope was much higher than average.
The entire staging ground was photographed and the age ratio deter-
mined on September 12. An overall ratio of 26.8 percent + 11.0 young was
observed, although the age ratios varied spatially. The highest per-
centage of young was observed on the Mackenzie River delta and the lowest
on the Yukon North Slope. Productivity levels were higher than in 5 of
the previous 9 years. The majority of the birds departed the staging
areas between 21 and 26 September.
Snow Goose distribution on ANWR occupied generally the same area
between the Hulahula and Egaksrak Rivers as in previous years, although
the most frequently used concentration area centered more coastally and
eastward in the Aichilik, Egaksrak, and Kongakut River deltas. Snow cover
may have been a factor in this distribution. The majority of geese
observed from the ground were feeding. The geese appeared to be feeding
extensively on sedge rootstocks in wet sedge tundra and on grass leaf
blades in riparian areas.
The sensitivity of Snow Geese staging in ANWR ws simliar to that
noted in other studies in the Yukon. Geese were flushed by aircraft at an
average of 3 km lateral distance and 3000 m altitude. An evening aircraft
overflight on the lower Aichilik River caused all geese within a 4 km
radius to take flight, 70 percent of which left the area, but total
numbers the following morning were comparable to the previous morning's
numbers. Low altitude flights (less than 30 m) caused less disturbance
than those at higher altitudes.
Spindler, M. A., and P. Miller. 1983. Terrestial bird populations and habitat
use on coastal plain tundra of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuae. pp.
108-200. In: Garner, G. W., and P. E. Reynolds (eds.). 1983. 1982
Update report, Baseline study of the fish, wildlife, and their habitas.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska. 379 pp.
coastal, inland, species accounts, ANWR, Okpilak delta
Birds were censused throughout the summer on plots near the Okpilak
River delta and inland along the Katakturuk River to determine breeding,
summer total, and fall bird populations. Census plots were placed within
55
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uniform habitat types and ranged in size from 25 to 50 ha. Smaller 10 ha
plots were also censused to test the efficiency and reliability of using
smaller plots. Habitats censused included: flooded, mosaic, wet-sedge,
sedge-tussock, riparian willow, tussock, and sedge meadow. Detailed
descriptions of all habitat types are included in the report. The
riparian willow plots were all inland along the Katakturuk River. Species
accounts for all birds observed during the study follow the report and
include arrival and departure dates, habitat use, and breeding informa-
tion.
A late break-up was followed by warm weather in late June and nesting
dates were comparable to 1978. Twenty species bred on the Okpilak delta
and 14 along the Katakturuk River. Breeding densities were highest in
Riparian Willow and Mosaic plots and were lowest in Flooded and Sedge
Meadow plots. Breeding densities on the Okpilak delta were generally
comparable to 1978 densities, an exception being a 200 percent increase in
Pectoral Sandpiper breeding densities.
Total summer population was higher than the breeding population, with
48 species observed at Okpilak and 35 along the Katakturuk. The largest
numbers of birds occurred on Riparian Willow and Flooded plots. The
lowest summer population was in the Sedge Meadow plot. Within year
changes in the summer total were similar to those observed for breeding
populations, and ranged from a 7 percent increase in the Mosaic plot to a
59 percent increase in the Wet Sedge plot.
In August, shorebirds increased at the coastal Okpilak site and
decreased at the inland sites along the Katakturuk River. Fall staging
densities were highest in the Flooded plot, exceeding 500 birds/km2.
The replicate 10 ha plots gave larger estimates of breeding density
and total summer density than did the large plot, except in the Wet Sedge
habitat. Comparisons of replicate 10 ha plots and the corresponding 25 or
50 ha plot indicated that the replicate plots and the singular large plot
provided comparable estimates of mean summer total population in the Wet
Sedge and Sedge-Tussock plots, but estimates were not comparable on the
more populous and diverse Flooded and Wet Sedge plots. Census of plots
every 7-10 days during the breeding season and once in August gave compar-
able estimates to those from weekly censuses of the same plots.
Spindler, M. A., P. A. Miller, and C. S. Moitoret. 1984a. Terrestrial bird
populations and habitat use on coastal plain tundra of the Arctic National
Wildlife Refuge. pp. 211-291. In: G. W. Garner and P. E. Reynolds
(eds.). 1983 Update report, Baseline study of the fish, wildlife, and
their habitats. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage, Ak. 614 pp.
coastal, distribution, habitat, ANWR, Okpilak delta
Birds were censused at three sites in the ANWR, at the Okpilak River
delta the Katakturuk River and at the Jago River-Bitty area. The study
addre~sed the following objectives; (1) determine and compare habitat
occupancy levels of breeding, resident, and transient birds ~sing the.
major habitat classes defined by Landsat mapping; (2) determlne breedlng,
56
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resident and transient population density estimates for population
extrapolations based on Landsat classes; and (3) determine baseline levels
of annual and seasonal variation for the most abundant ann most con-
spicuous species.
The Landsat classification was found unsuitable for describing bird
habitat and therefore also unsuitable as a basis for area-wide population
extrapolations. Problems with Landsat included small scale ~atchiness in
covertypes that was too small for Landsat to characterize, wide variation
within Landsat Classes, and the absence of some important habitat para-
meters (notably shrub height). Riparian habitat showed the greatest
variation, largely due to shrub height.
Landsat classes were modified by additional descriptors for habitat
analysis. With the modified classification, habitat was generally more
important in explaining variability than study site location. Exceptions
were Pectoral Sandpipers and shorebirds as a group. Location is more
important for these birds because they move to the coast upon completion
of breeding. The shift to the coast is most pronounced in the later
surveys.
Ranking of habitats by mean total bird density for three years of
surveys on the Okpilak River delta produced the same ranking all three
years. Some habitats had high annual varibility, but this variation did
not affect the overall ranking.
Spindler, M. A., P. A. Miller, and C. S. Moitoret. 1984b. Species accounts of
migratory birds at three study areas on the coastal plain of the Arctic
National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska, 1984. pp. 421-463. In: G. W. Garner
and P. E. Reynolds (eds.). 1983 update report of baseline study of the
fish, wildlife, and their habitats. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Anchorage, Alaska. 614 po.
coastal, distribution, migration, species accounts, ANWR, Okpilak delta
Species accounts describe the status, breeding chronology, migration
and habitat use of birds at three study sites, Okpilak river Delta,
Jago-Bitty River, and Katakturuk River. Each study are is presented
separately. The information was drawn from the daily field notes of the
investigators during June to August. The accounts include status informa-
tion from previous years at the Katakturuk and Okpilak study areas.
Information for 45 species observed at Okpilak River Delta, 51 species at
Katakturuk, and 56 species at Jago-Bitty River is presented.
Troy, D. M. 1985a. Tundra Bird Monitoring Program. Annual Report of the
Prudhoe Bay Waterflood Environmental Monitoring Program, U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers, Alaska District, Anchorage, Alaska. 163 pp.
Prudhoe Bay, shorebirds, impact, waterfowl, habitat, Semipalmated Sand-
piper, Pectoral Sandpiper, Dunlin, Buff-breasted Sandpiper, Golden Plover,
White-fronted Goose, King Eider, Lapland Longspur, Pintail, Red Phalarope,
Red-necked Phalarope
57
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Impacts of a lightly traveled road on birds was studied for three
years (over a four year period). Effects were measured on sighting
density, nesting density and productivity. The study was part of the
Prudhoe Bay Waterflood Monitoring Program and the road studied was the
west field road, which connects the SOHIO side of the field with the West
Dock.
Impoundments due to insufficient drainage across the road were the
most extensive type of impact. They reduced or eliminated nesting habitat
for Greater White-fronted Geese, King Eiders, Semipalmated Sandpipers,
Dunlin, Buff-breasted Sandpipers and Lapland Longspurs. In contrast,
Northern Pintail and Red and Red-necked Phalaropes used impoundments
extensively during the breeding season and several species used impound-
ments during the post-breeding season.
Densities of early nesting species, e.g., Semipalmated Sandpiper,
Dunlin, and Lapland Longspurs, are reduced close to the road due to the
presence of persistent snowbanks and impoundments. This impact was less
in 1984 than in 1981 and 1982.
Oust-induced early melt zones are used by early migrants and may
support higher densities of nesting birds, at least under the low traffic
conditions that occur along the West Road.
Pipelines and debris along the road provide nesting habitat for Snow
Buntings and have resulted in much higher use of the road corridor than
prior to the pipeline.
Troy, D. M. 1985b. Birds of Prudhoe Bay and Vicinity, A synopsis of the
natural history of birds of the Central Arctic Coastal Plain of Alaska.
Prepared by D. M. Troy, LGL Alaska Research Associates, Inc., Anchorage,
Alaska. For Sohio Alaska Petroleum Company, Anchorage, Alaska. 36 pp.
Prudhoe Bay, shorebirds, waterfowl, breeding biology
Information about birds in the Prudhoe Bay vicinity is presented in
two parts, first a general overview of the pattern of bird use followed by
species accounts for some of the more common species. It is written to
present detailed information about birds to the lay person and contains
numerous excellent photographs. Species accounts include Snow Goose,
Canada Goose, Oldsquaw, Common Eider, Lesser Golden-Plover, Semipalmated
Sandpiper, Rednecked and Red Phalaropes, and Lapland Longspur.
Troy, D. M., and S. R. Johnson. 1982. Bird monitoring program. Annual Report
of the Prudhoe Bay Waterflood Environmental Monitoring Program, U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers, Alaska District, Anchorage, Alaska. 62 pp.
Prudhoe Bay, shorebirds, recommendations, habitat
This was the first year's report of a study conducted to determine
the effects of a road on bird distribution, abundance, and nest success.
The road was not open for through traffic and many of the effects were
considered minimal, e.g., dust and noise disturbance. Two study areas
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were established, an experimental area around the road and a control area
away from the road. More birds were found in the experimental area,
although nesting densities were similar for the two areas. The only
exception was for Red Phalaropes, which nested in the experimental area at
almost twice the density observed in the control area. Proximity to the
coast was not a major factor in determining bird nest densities.
The road created extensive impoundments along the east slde. Nesting
density was only half as great on the east as on the west side. Immedi-
ately adjacent to the road (within 100 m) bird use was also reduced in the
impounded area; however, over a broader area phalaropes decreased in
abundance at increasing distances from the road. Semipa1mated Sandpipers
increased in abundance with increasing distance from the road.
Troy, D. M., D. R. Herter, and R. M. Burgess. 1983. Tundra Bird Monitoring
Program. Annual Report of the Prudhoe Bay Waterf100d Environmental
Monitoring Program, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Alaska District,
Anchorage, Alaska. 86 pp.
Prudhoe Bay, shorebirds, habitat, recommendations, habitat classification,
Semipa1mated Sandpiper, Pectoral Sandpiper, Dun1in, Red Phalarope, Lapland
Longspur
This is the second year's report of a study conducted to determine
the effects of a road on bird distribution, abundance, and nest success.
The same experimental and control areas were used both years. Comparisons
were made between areas and among years using ANOVA and paired-sample
statistical methods to determine if changes in bird distribution, nest
density, and nest success had occurred between years and if these changes
might be attributable to the presence of the West Road. Because traffic
levels were low during the two years of study, it is assumed that disturb-
ance and dust effects were minimal. The only impact specifically
addressed in this report is the effect of road-created impoundments on
birds.
The 10 most common species were analyzed for changes in distribution
and abundance. Five of these species: Semipa1mated Sandpiper, Pectoral
Sandpiper, Dun1in, Red Phalarope, and Lapland Longspur, were monitored for
changes in nest density and success. The results showed that Semi-
pa1mated, Pectoral, and Buff-breasted Sandpipers, Dun1in, and Lapland
Longspurs avoided impoundments. Repetition of the analyses using only
birds observed foraging resulted in the addition of Red Phalaropes to the
list of birds avoiding impoundments. Some of these species preferred
natural aquatic habitats to other tundra habitat types available in the
area. Nest density within 100 m of the road of all 5 species examined was
approximately 50 percent lower on the southeast (impoundment) side. When
the two sides of the road were compared, a reduction in nest density of
all areas out to 1 km from the road could only be demonstrated for Dun1in.
Nest success of Semipa1mated Sandpipers and Red Phalaropes appeared to be
reduced by approximately 20 percent near the road. Northern Pintai1s and
Red-necked Phalaropes preferentially used the impoundments over other
habitats.
59
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Habitat analysis
geobotanical units of
were combined to form
species to the extent
species.
was based on the vegetation and surface form
the Walker and Webber classification. Similar units
11 habitat classes. Preferred habitats varied among
that each habitat was preferred by at least one
Truett, J. C., R. Howard, and S. R. Johnson. 1982. The Kuparuk Oilfield
Ecosystem -- A literature summary and synthesis and an analysis of impact
research. L.G.L. Ecological Research Associates, Inc. Prepared for:
ARCO Alaska, Inc., Anchorage, Alaska. 168 PP.
Kuparuk, shorebirds, waterfowl, recommendations
Available information on shorebirds and waterfowl as it applied to
the Kuparuk Oilfield area was summarized, potential sensitivity to impacts
discussed, information needs identified and reseach recommendations made.
Sensitivity to impact was evaluated in terms of potential population level
effects. For the birds that nest in the area, little is known about
population regulation mechanisms and so potential levels of impact are not
possible to predict. It was postulated that adult survival of some
shorebird species may be controlled on the wintering grounds, but that the
evidence was not clear and further study was needed. A major Question
regarding the impact of development on birds is the potential for birds
displaced by development (birds have been shown to avoid roads) to success-
fully nest away from the disturbance, i.e., is there available habitat
that can be used by displaced breeders.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1982. Arctic National Wildlife Refuge coastal-
plain resource assessment -- initial report. Baseline study of the fish,
wildlife and their habitats. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage,
Alaska. 507 pp.
North Slope, shorebirds, waterfowl, species accounts, ANWR
This is the first in a series of reports on the fish and wildlife on
the coastal plain of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. The reports are
mandated by congress to provide information prior to a final decision on
oil and gas leasing in the refuge. The report contains a section on
avifauna. Bird use is described for Landsat classes at two coastal study
sites, for shorelines, and for lagoons. An annotated species list is
presented that summarizes available records for each bird species known to
occur on the refuge, as well as other pertinent ecological information
currently available.
Nesting densities reported for the ANWR sites (Canning River and
Okpilak River Deltas) were lower than other areas of the Arctic Coastal
Plain. Differences may be related to census techniques, habitat composi-
tion, and/or geographic distribution of individual species. High annual
variability was noted for plots with two years of data, largely due to
decreased Red Phalaropes and Pectoral Sandpipers during the second year of
the study. Seasonal habitat use was summarized from Martin and Moitoret
(1981).
60
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Four major periods of littoral or shoreline use were defined.
Pre-breeding adults foraged along shorelines and saline pools during early
June. Non-breeding birds used littoral areas in late June and July.
Adults and junveniles staged in littoral areas prior to migration, with
the heaviest use in August.
Three years of lagoon surveys demonstrated periods of pe~k use by
species. The 11 lagoons surveyed were ranked based on density, absolute
numbers, and diversity. Demarcation Bay, Tamayariak Lagoon, and Simpson
Cove had the highest overall mean ranks.
The annotated species list summarizes all previous information on the
status, population, habitat use and dfstribution of the species present on
the Arctic Coastal Plain of ANWR. Most work had been done along the
coastal portion of the region and data from the inner coastal plain were
scarce. Much of the information was drawn from unpublished refuge
reports.
van der Zande, A. N., W. J. ter Keurs, and W. J. van der Weijden. 1980. The
impact of roads on the densities of four bird species in an open field
habitat -- evidence of a long-distance effect. Biological Conservation
18:299-321.
impacts, habitat, recommendations
The effect of roads on the use of adjacent areas by birds were
measured in open grassland areas in Norway. Bird use and nesting density
was measured on strip plots placed perpendicular to the roads. Habitat
distribution and other potential sources of disturbance, e.g., farm
buildings, were included in the analyses. A long-distance effect was found
for two of the four common species, the Lapwing and the Black-tailed
Godwit, no effect was observed on the Oystercatcher and insufficient data
were available for the Ruff. Depressed use of the area by affected
species was measured up to 1.5 km from the road. The authors recommended
that this type of effect be considered in evaluating the impact of planned
roads.
Woodward-Clyde Consultants. 1982a.
mental Studies. Prepared for:
Oliktok Point and Vicinity: 1981 Environ-
ARCa Alaska, Inc., Anchorage, Alaska.
Kuparuk, shorebirds, waterfowl
Qualitative surveys in the vicinity of Oliktok Point were conducted
to determine bird use of the area. Brief surveys were conducted three
times during the season, coinciding with major breeding events. Bird use
was related to a general habitat classification: coastal spits and
beaches, coastal lagoons, coastal brackish marshes, freshwater marshes,
lakes and streams, and moist upland tundra. The study area was considered
to be similar to the surrounding area and since no unusual components were
present, many potential impacts in the area would be insignificant.
61
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Woodward-Clyde Consultants. 1982b.
Report, Chapter 6 -- Avifauna.
Anchorage, Alaska.
Kuparuk Waterf100d Project -- Final
Prepared for: ARCO Alaska, Inc.,
01iktok Point, Brant, shorebirds, waterfowl
Qualitative observations of bird use of coastal marshes were made
during the latter part of 1982. Aerial surveys of the coast-between
01iktok Point and Kavearak Point were conducted on three occasions and
waterfowl and gull use recorded. Brant use appeared to be heavier in the
vicinty of the Ugnuravik River. Bird abundance appeared higher in the
nearshore zone than in the coastal marshes. Use of the coastal marshes
declined in September.
Woodward-Clyde Consultants. 1983.
mental Studies. Prepared for:
Lisburne Development Area: 1983 Environ-
ARCO Alaska, Inc., Anchorage, Alaska.
Prudhoe Bay, waterfowl
The Lisburne Development Area, located directly south of Prudhoe Bay,
was surveyed in 1983 for waterfowl use. Goose, duck and swan nests were
located and mapped. Nest densities for Brant, White-fronted Geese and
Tundra Swans were considered typical for the Arctic Coastal Plain.
Nesting Canada Geese were noted as unusual. Brood rearing areas were
identified and mapped and substantial movements between nesting areas and
brood rearing areas were observed.
2.
SURFACE IMPACT BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
The bibliography is focused on terrestrial impacts resulting from petro-
leum related development, primarily due to the placement of gravel. Gravel
placement is a key activity as all facilities are placed on gravel pads which
are interconnected by gravel roads. Many impacts are associated with gravel
placement, such as direct loss of habitat, impoundments due to altered drainage
patterns and thermokarst due to altered permafrost regimes. Contaminants and
their associated impacts in wetlands are a separate major topic that is not
addressed by this bibliography.
The geographic region of concern is the Arctic Coastal Plain and only
studies relevant to this region are included. Studies conducted in the high
Canadian Arctic and in the low Arctic taiga regions are generally not applic-
able as the ecosystems are different. Impacts to the terrestrial system are
the focus of the bibliography and the aquatic system is not included.
Information on the actual impacts due to development is limited. The
majority of impact-related research has addressed the effects of exploratory
activities and much of this information is not relevant in addressing develop-
ment impacts. The impacts due to exploration are different from development
impacts in magnitude, intensity and type of activity. Exploratory operations
typically last for only one or two seasons and usually are conducted during the
winter. As a result, surface impacts are minimized and the only direct inter-
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actions with vertebrates are with scavengers, notably arctic foxes. Develop-
ment activities occur year-round with continuous impacts to the surface such as
dust deposition and impoundments. Vertebrates that breed and use the area for
summer range, such as waterbirds and caribou, are directly affected by the
activity. Many construction techniques used in exploration are for temporary
facilities and are not used in development. The thin pads used in the National
Petroleum Reserve and ice roads and runways are examples of tempo~ary facil-
ities used in exploration. Studies along the Dalton Highway have shown the
Qualitative difference between the two types of activity (e.g., Brown and Berg
1980) on surface impacts, noting that the impacts from ice roads were minor in
comparison to those of gravel roads.
The lack of information on the types and severity of development impacts
should be addressed. Information from studies on exploration has been used to
partially address the lack of specific information and the bibliography
includes those studies in which the author discussed the resistance and
resilience of the vegetation or landforms to impacts. Resistance is the
susceptibility or sensitivity of species and communities to disturbance in
general. Resilience is the ability of species or communities to recover after
disturbance and is often described for plants as pre-adaptation to colonize
disturbed areas. These two concepts are important in developing the impact
assessment methodology and this type of information will be used in developing
the impact analysis portion of the manual.
Principles of revegetation are included in the bibliography, but not an
exhaustive listing of all of the revegetation work that has been done. Revege-
tation will not be a major mitigation technique in an operating oilfield as
few, if any, facilities are abandoned. The most current studies and older
studies that present basic principles or discuss the resistance and resilience
of vegetation to impacts are included. The knowledge about revegetation and
the techniaues are developing rapidly and much of the earlier work is now out
of date.
The citations for the bibliography were obtained from searches of the
fOllowing publications: Arctic, Arctic and Alpine Research, American Natural-
ist, Biological Conservation, Canadian Field Naturalist, Ecology, Ecological
Monographs, Holarctic Ecology. Journal of Applied Ecology and Oecologia.
Searches were made of federal, state, and local government holdings for unpub-
lished technical reports.
KEY WORD INDEX
Each citation is followed by a list of key words. The key words include
the geographic location and the major topics addressed by the study. Key
studies of the natural condition of the North Slope are included. These and
studies that discuss baseline conditions prior to disturbance have "baseline
conditions" as a key word. Studies or review articles that make specific
recommendations for future development have "recommendationsll as a key word.
"Resistance" is used as a key word for studies that discuss the susceptibility
of species and communities to disturbance. "Resil ience" is used for studies
that discuss the ability of species or communities to recover after disturb-
ance; the majority of these studies are about plants and refer to the pre-
adaptation of particular species to colonize disturbed areas. IIRecovery" is
63
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used for studies that determined the actual rate or period of recovery follow-
ing specific disturbances. "Off-road travel" is used for any type of vehicle
used to travel across the tundra and includes rOlligons, air-cushion vehicles,
and tracked vehicles.
Key words are listed below with the author and year of the citations that
include that key word. The key words are listed first by geographic location,
then by major type of impact (development or exploratory) and theiby specific
type of impact or information (e.g., dust, recovery. baseline conditions).
Geographic Location
Banks Island:
Kerfoot 1972; Lambert 1972
Barrow:
Abele 1976; Abele and Brown 1976; Abele et al. 1984; Webber 1978
Canada:
Adam and Hernandez 1977; Bliss and Wein 1972; Kerfoot 1972; Lambert 1972;
Radforth 1972
Mackenzie Delta:
Kerfoot 1972; Lambert 1972; Radforth 1972
North Slope:
Abele et al. 1978; 1984; Alexander and Van Cleve 1983; Billings 1973;
Brown and Berg 1980; Brown and Hemming 1980; Chapin and Chapin 1980; Chapin and
Shaver 1981; Chapin et al. 1982; Ebersole and Webber 1983; Gartner 1983; Hanley
et al. 1981; Hobbie 1984; Hok 1969; Komarkova 1983; Kubanis 1980; 1982; Lawson
1986; Lawson et al. 1978; Nelson and Outcalt 1982; Pamplin 1979; Reynolds 1981;
Technan Engineering Limited 1982; Walker et al. in press; Webber 1978; Webber
and Ives 1978; USDI -BLM 1978
Prudhoe Bay:
Benson et al. 1975; Brown 1975; Brown et al. 1984; Envirosphere 1984; Howe
1982; Klinger et al. 1983; Rawlinson 1983; Simmons et al. 1983; Walker et al.
1980
Trans-A 1 aska Pi pe 1 ine:
Alexander and Van Cleve 1983; Brown and Berg 1980; Pamplin 1979; Spatt and
Miller 1981
64
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Major Type of Impact
Development Impacts:
Benson et al. 1975; Brown 1975; Brown and HemminQ 1980; Brown et al. 1984;
Eller 1977; Envirosphere 1984; Howe 1982; Klinger et al. 1983; Pamplin 1979;
Rawlinson 1983; Simmons et al. 1983; Spatt and Miller 1981; Walker et al. 1980
Exploratory Impacts:
Abele 1976; Abele and Brown 1976; Abele et al. 1978; 1984; Adams and
Hernandez 1977; Chapin and Shaver 1981; Ebersole and Webber 1983; Hanley et al.
1981; Kerfoot 1972; Komarkova 1983; Lambert 1972; Lawson 1986; Lawson et al.
1978; Nelson and Outcalt 1982; Radforth 1972; Reynolds 1981; Walker et al. in
press; Webber and Ives 1978; USDI-BLM 1978
Specific Impact or Information
Impact Prediction:
Alexander and Van Cleve 1983; Bliss and Wein 1972
Baseline Conditions:
Brown 1975; Brown and Berg 1980; Hobbie 1984; Komarkova 1983; Rawlinson
1983; Walker et al. 1980; Walker et al. in press; Webber 1978
Impoundments:
Brown and Berg 1980; Brown et al. 1984; Envirosphere 1984; Howe 1982;
Klinger et al. 1983
Contaminants:
Hobbie 1983; Simmons et al. 1983; Walker et al. in press; West and
Snyder-Conn 1984
Oust:
Benson et al. 1977; Brown and Berg 1980; Dyck and Stockel 1976; Eller
1977; Envirosphere 1984; Techman Engineering Limited 1982
Gravel Spray:
Envirosphere 1984
Ice Roads:
Adam and Hernandez 1977
65
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Off-road Travel:
Abele 1976; Abele and Brown 1976; Abele et al. 1978; 1984; Chapin and
Shaver 1981; Hok 1969; Radforth 1972
Pipelines:
Brown and Berg 1980
Recommendat ions:
Brown and Hemming 1980; Chapin et al. 1982; Hanley et al. 1981; Klinger
et al. 1983; Kubanis 1982; Lawson et al. 1~78; Pamplin 1979; Webber and Ives
1978; USDI-BLM 1978
Recovery:
Abele 1976; Chapin and Shaver 1981; Ebersole and Webber 1983; Komarkova
1983; Lawson et al. 1978; Reynolds 1981; Walker et al. in press
Resilience:
Abele et al. 1984; Chapin et al. 1982; Ebersole and Webber 1983; Klinger
et al. 1983; Komarkova 1983; Reynolds 1981; Walker et al. in press
Resi stance:
Abele 1976; Abele et al. 1978; Billings 1973; Bliss and Wein 1972; Brown
and Berg 1980; Lambert 1972; Spatt and Miller 1981; Webber and Ives 1978;
USDI-BLM 1978; Walker et al. in press
Revegetat ion:
Bliss and Wein 1972; Brown and Berg 1980; Chapin and Chapin 1980; Chapin
et al. 1982; Gartner 1983; Kubanis 1980; 1982; Lawson et ale 1978
Review:
Alexander and Van Cleve 1983; Brown 1975; Hanley et al. 1981; USDI-BLM
1978; Walker et al. in press
Roads:
Benson et al. 1977; Brown and Berg 1980; Brown et al. 1984; Howe 1982;
Klinger et al. 1983; Spatt and Miller 1981
Snowbanks:
Benson et al. 1975; Envirosphere 1984
66
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ANNOTATED REFERENCES
Abele, G. 1976. Effects of hovercraft, wheeled and tracked vehicle traffic on
tundra. Proceedings of the Sixteenth Muskeg Research Conference, National
Research Council of Canada. Associate Committee on Geotechnical Research
Technical Memorandum No. 116. PD. 186-215.
Barrow, off-road travel, exploratory impacts, resistance, recovery
The effect of an air cushion vehicle (Bell SK-5), a small tracked
vehicle ("Weasel"), and a rolligon on tundra was tested at Barrow. The
test consisted of 1, 5, 25, and 50 passes of the first two vehicles in
four separate areas over varying terrain. Effects were measured for the
initial year and the four following years. Only 1, 5, and 15 passes were
made with the rolligon due to deterioration of the vegetation mat after 15
passes. The rolligon was available only during the fourth year and so
only the initial effects were recorded.
The visual appearance of the area was worst in the initial year but
showed improvement the following year. After 4 years, the air cushion
vehicle tracks were not visible for the 1- and 5-pass tracks and barely
perceptible for the 25- and 50-pass tracks. The tracks for the Weasel
were barely perceptible for the 1- and 5-pass tracks and visible for the
25- and 50-pass tracks. All of the rolligon tracks were visible the
initial year.
The major impact of the air cushion vehicle was due to abrasion of
the surface by the skirt of the vehicle. Microrelief affected the level
of impact; areas of greater microrelief, such as high-centered polygons,
were the most affected. These effects were enhanced with repeated passes.
Well-concealed bird nests were not affected except by repeated passes.
Exposed nests did not survive even one pass.
The visibility of tracks was due initially to the compression of the
active layer. Visibility in subsequent years was due to the regrowth of
some vascular plants that caused a "greening" effect. In all cases,
except for the rolligon's 15 passes, any depression of the active layer
began to rebound the following year. The visual impact appears largely
aesthetic and no significant ecologic effects were noted.
Abele, G., and J. Brown. 1976. Arctic transportation: operational and
environmental evluation of an air cushion vehicle in northern Alaska.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, ASME Paper No. 76-Pet-41.
Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology, pp. 1-7.
Barrow, off-road travel, exploratory impacts
This is another report of the tests conducted with the air-cushion
vehicle in Barrow (see Abele 1976). The same results and conclusions are
presented. This report does include a detailed description of air cushion
vehicles that is not contained in the other report.
67
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Abele, G., J. Brown, and M. C. Brewer.
vehicle traffic on tundra terrain.
2~.
1984. Long-term effects of off-road
Journal of Terramechanics 21(3):283-
North Slope, Barrow, off-road travel, exploratory impacts, resilience
The effect of off-road vehicles on vegetation and thaw depth were
studied at two sites on the North Slope, Barrow and Lonely. -Impacts of
air cushion vehicles, light track vehicles, and rolligons were tested.
Recovery of the active layer and qualitative observations of the vegeta-
tion were made 2, 3, and 10 years after the tests.
After 10 years, recovery had occtlrred in all test lanes. Rebound of
the depressed tundra surface reached its original level. Rate of rebound
for the rolligon test area is approximately 0.25 cm/year. Soil thermal
regime (decrease in thaw depth) begins 2 or 3 years after the initial
traffic impact. Standing water in vehicle tracks inhibits the recovery of
the thermal regime.
Significant regrowth of some vascular plant species results in a
"greenbelt" effect, which makes the traffic signature quite visible. This
effect is longer lasting than surface depression or thermal changes and is
considered largely an aesthetic impact. A general conclusion is that the
tundra vegetative mat will usually recover to nearly its original state
within several years, as long as the disturba~ce from vehicular traffic is
limited to depression of the surface, even though it may have involved
serious damage to the growing vegetation, as long as it did not damage the
root system. If the disturbance due to traffic has resulted in shearing
or separation of the organic mat due to excessive wheel or track depres-
sion, which is ordinarily accompanied by complete destruction of the mat,
the result is a water-filled trough, and any recovery is very slow.
Abele, G., D. A. Walker, J. Brown, M. C. Brewer, and D. M. Atwood. 1978.
Effects of low ground-pressure vehicle traffic on tundra at Lonely,
Alaska. U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory.
Hanover, NH. CRREL Special Report 78-16. 63 PD.
North Slope, off-road travel, exploratory impacts, resistance
Tests were conducted near Lonely to determine
different types of all-terrain vehicles on tundra.
and a smaller tracked vehicle (Nodwell) were tested
The effects of 1, 5, and 10 passes along a straight
curve were evaluated immediately after the test and
the effects of three
Two sizes of rolligons
in similar terrain.
path and around a
one year later.
Vegetation impact was caused primarily by compression of the vegeta-
tion and the organic mat, and some displacement of vegetation and plant
breakage. The large rolligon caused slightly more total impact than the
smaller one; the Nodwell caused the least. The impacts were higher on
curves than on the straight path.
68
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The major impact seemed to be visual, that is the tracks were visible
both on the ground and from the air immediately after the test and 1 year
later.
Thawing of the active layer was not significantly increased in any of
the test areas. None of the tests sheared or broke the vegetation mat and
therefore the trails were expected to recover, based on the tests con-
ducted at Barrow.
Adam, K. M., and H. Hernandez. 1977. Snow and ice roads: ability to support
traffic and effects on vegetation. Arctic 30(1):13-27.
Canada, exploratory impacts, ice roads
A test of winter snow and ice roads was conducted in March 1973 near
Norman Wells, N.W.T. Vegetation on the test site was boreal forest,
characterized by black spruce, Laborador tea and other heaths, shrub
birch, and several willows with a ground cover of bearberry and mosses. A
test loop of road was built by first clearing the area, part with a
bulldozer and part by hand for comparison purposes. Three road types were
tested, a compacted snow road, an ice-capped snow road, and an ice road.
The snow road failed to support light traffic due to insufficient
moisture in the snow, which resulted in the snow road not being hard
enough. Capping the snow road with water, making an ice-capped snow road,
strengthened the road so that it could supoort heavy traffic. The ice
road supported heavy traffic. Both the ice-capped snow road and the ice
road were tested with wheeled and with track vehicles. Both performed
equally with wheeled vehicles but the ice-capped snow road was more
durable when tested with track vehicles.
Vegetation recovery following the tests was similar in pattern to
that reported for seismic lines. Average plant cover the season immedi-
ately following the tests was 12 percent. Plant cover increased to
between 30 and 40 percent and consisted of shrubs and herbs. Plant cover
on hand-cleared areas and bulldozed areas adjacent to the snow and ice
roads was compared. In general, the hand-cleared areas showed less
disturbance with slightly greater live-plant cover, taller shrubs, and
less litter. These differences were slight and would be insignificant if
the area was subject to additional disturbance.
In conclusion, the authors felt winter roads could be successfully
used if sufficient moisture was present for snow roads or a water source
for either ice-capped snow roads or ice roads.
Alexander, V., and K. Van Cleve. 1983. The Alaska pipeline:
Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 14:443-463.
North Slope, impact prediction, review, Trans-Alaska Pipeline
a success story.
This article reviews the scientific successes and failures associated
with the Trans-Alaska Pipeline. Extensive study programs were conducted
to gather information about potential impacts from construction of the
69
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pipeline and to provide guidelines to minimize potential impacts. The
authors consider the pipeline a success story because of the quantity and
quality of the studies conducted that provided information on a previously
little known region. They also noted the increased access provided by the
pipeline and its infrastructure as a benefit in that it would allow
continued study of the region, which had previously been difficult and
costly to study.
Terrestrial and aquatic tooics were briefly reviewed in this paper.
Terrestrial topics include: vegetation and soils, oil spills, revegeta-
tion, mammals, and birds. The aquatic topics include: lakes, fish,
disturbance to aquatic systems, and oil in streams and rivers. The
reviews provide a good starting point for finding information on a
particular topic. The conclusions presented for some of the topics,
notably revegetation, birds and mammals are now outdated.
Benson, C., R. Timmer, B. Holmgren, G. Weller, and S. Parrish. 1975. Observa-
tions on the seasonal snow cover and radiation climate at Prudhoe Bay,
Alaska during 1972. pp. 13-52. In: Brown, J. (ed.). Ecological
Investigations of the Tudra Biome in the Prudhoe Bay Region, Alaska.
Biological Papers of the University of Alaska, Special Report Number 2.
215 pp.
Prudhoe Bay, dust, roads, development impacts
Seasonal snow cover and snow distribution patterns were studied
during the winter of 1971 and 1972 in the Prudhoe Bay area with some
additional observations made in 1973. Transects for measuring snow depth,
water content and other variables were established perpendicular to roads.
Prevailing winds are almost
east or west, during the winter.
west and new snow deposition was
winds tended to redistribute the
roads that were perpendicular to
exclusively from two directions, either
Winter storms were generally from the
largely associated with west winds. East
new snow. Large drifts formed along
the orevailing winds (north-south roads).
Windblown dust is deposited on the snow in the spring. Dust comes
from the dunes adjacent to the Sagavanirktok River delta and from heavily
trafficked roads in the oilfield. Dust decreases the albedo of the snow
resulting in earlier melt than other areas. Most dust deposition is
associated with east winds and the west side of roads tends to melt first.
Billings, W. E. 1973. Arctic and alpine vegetations: similarities, differ-
ences, and susceptibility to disturbance. BioScience 23:697-704.
North Slope, resistance
The author reviews the characteristics of alpine and arctic areas
over a vast geographic region, from the Andean mountains in Ecuador to
Peary Land in Greenland. Fragility of arctic and alpine systems and their
susceptibility to disturbance is discussed in general. Differences in
susceptibility are noted and related to the type of vegetation, soil,
permafrost and animal life present.
70
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In general, recovery is slow because of the short growing season and
harsh climate. The extent of potential disturbance varies, largely
related to the amount of ground ice. Permafrost areas are most suscept-
ible due to thermokarst processes that can occur when the vegetation mat
is disrupted. The resulting loss of soil leads to an indefinite recovery
period. (Once the soil is removed, an unknown time is required to replace
it, which could easily be thousands of years.) Areas with rocky or dry
soils are less susceptible to damage. - .
Bliss, L. C., and R. W. Wein. 1972. Ecological problems associated with
Arctic oil and gas development. In: Proceedings, Canadian Northern
Pipeline Research Conference, 2-4 February 1972. National Research
Council of Canada, Associate Committee'on Geotechnical Research, Technical
Memorandum 104 (NRCC 12498).
impact prediction, Canada, revegetation, resistance
Different regions in the Canadian Arctic were described and the
biota, climate, and topography contrasted. Major regions included the
Mackenzie Delta, the eastern Arctic Islands, and the mainland. The
differences were emphasized to illustrate the need for different manage-
ment strategies in each of the regions.
Vegetation response to disturbance was discussed in general terms.
Moss and lichen communities were noted as the most susceptible to disturb-
ance and the slowest to recolonize disturbed areas. Some of the difficul-
ties with revegetation include the need to use plants that will be
sufficiently hardy to survive in the high Arctic and the variation in the
various regions that will require different plants. Revegetation will not
lead to "natural communities" at least in the short term due to changes in
the microtopography and microclimate.
Vertebrates were predicted to be affected by losses of habitat, when
the development was extensive, and by behavioral avoidance of development
structures. The exact magnitude of the effect could not be predicted due
to the lack of detailed ecologic knowledge. Two major recommendations
were to continue integrated baseline studies and to set aside nature
preserves, such as the Arctic National Wildlife Range (now the Arctic
National Wildlife Refuge).
Brown, J. (ed.). 1975. Ecological investigations of the Tundra Biome in the
Prudhoe Bay Region, Alaska. Biological Papers of the University of
Alaska, Special Report No.2. 215 pp.
Prudhoe Bay, baseline conditions, development impacts, review
During the period 1970-1974, the U.S. Tundra Biome Program, which was
stationed in Barrow, performed a series of environmental and terrestrial
ecological studies at Prudhoe Bay. The purpose of many of the studies was
to compare the Prudhoe area with the more intensely studied Barrow area.
The studies were grouped into three major subdivisions: abiotic and soil
investigations, plant investigations, and animal investigations. The
abiotic section contains papers on the air and soil temperature regimes;
71
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the snow cover, particularly its properties adjacent to the roadnet; major
soil and landform associations; and the chemical composition of soils,
runoff, lakes, and rivers. The plant section contains reports on a
general vegetation survey; a follow-up vegetation mapping project, and a
study of the growth of arctic, boreal, and alpine biotypes in an experi-
mental transplant garden. The animal section contains reports on the
tundra invertebrates; the bird, lemming, and fox populations, and the
behaviora' and physiological investigations of caribou and several experi-
mental reindeer. Appendices contain a checklist of the vascular, bryo-
phyte, and lichen flora of the Prudhoe Bay area and selected data on
vegetation.
Brown, J., and R. Berg (eds.). 1980. Environmental engineering investigations
along the Yukon River to Prudhoe Bay Haul Road, Alaska, U.S. Army Cold
Regions Research and Environmental Laboratory, Hanover, NH. CRREL Special
Report 80-19. 187 pp.
North Slope, Trans-Alaska Pipeline, baseline conditions, dust, impound-
ments, revegetation, resistance, roads, pipelines
The Federal Highway Administration sponsored a series of environ-
mental engineering investigations along the Yukon River to Prudhoe Bay
Haul Road from 1975 to 1978. The Department of Energy joined these
investigations in 1976 with ecological studies that continued through
1980. This volume is a collection of the major studies conducted by these
two agencies. The research had five main objectives: (1) evaluate the
performance of the road; (2) assess the changes in the environment associ-
ated with the road; (3) document the flora and vegetation along the road;
(4) develop methods for revegetation and restoration; and (5) assess
biologic parameters as indicators of environmental integrity. Specific
studies were made of climate, thaw and subsidence, drainage and side slope
performance, distribution and properties of road dust, vegetation distri-
bution, vegetation disturbance and recovery, occurrence of weeds and weedy
species, erosion and control, and revegetation. Studies that pertain to
the North Slope are outlined below. Names of the authors follow the
summaries.
Climate on the Arctic Coastal Plain is characterized by cold winters,
cool summers and short thaw seasons. The mean annual temperature is -10.6
to -12.8 degrees centigrade. Wind is a significant environmental factor
due to wind-chill effects and the blowing and drifting of snow. Precipi-
tation amounts are relatively low (170 to 266 mm) with a greater propor-
tion occurring as snow (95-165 mm frozen vs 56-101 mm unfrozen). (J.
Brown)
The roadbed investigation focused on the magnitude of thaw under and
adjacent to representative portions of the road and the associated settle-
ment of the road. Drainage problems were surveyed. Seasonal thaw
probably does not penetrate the 1.7 m or 1.8 m thick embankment along the
northernmost portion of the road. Ice-rich side slopes tend to stabilize
from erosion after a few years by thaw degradation and resulting subsi-
dence that continues beneath the ditches and roadway embankment. The most
frequent problem related to cross drainage was observed to be clogging of
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culverts by gravel pushed down during maintenance. Lateral drainage
problems were caused by the interception of waterflow by access roads that
did not have culverts. (R. Berg)
Road dust loads decreased logarithmically away from the road at all
sites and was closely related to prevailing wind direction. Silt and
finer material constituted between 8 and 15% of the material available for
transport. Significant peaks in the concentration of available soil
cations occurred with respect to distance from the road, most commonly at
312 m from the road. Other peaks occurred at 30 and 125 m and were
probably related to particle size. The dust loads contained insufficient
soluble calcium and magnesium to directly affect either the pH or nutrient
status of the soil but the direct effects were observed on some plant
species. Early snow melt (2 to 3 weeks) brought about by dust accumula-
tion in the winter may extend between 30 and 100 m on either side of the
road. (K. Everett)
Revegetation and restoration approaches were observed and their
short-term success was evaluated. The majority of revegetation involved
mulching, fertilizing, and seeding with non-native grasses. Attempts to
use native grass species were limited due to a lack of availability.
Native species had been slowly reinvading revegetated areas. Willow
cuttings using unrooted cuttings seemed to be successful. Impacts from a
snow and ice pad used during the construction of the fuel gas line were
varied. Microtopography was generally reduced due to debris filling the
depressions and abrasion of tussock or hummock tops. Depth of thaw was
initially greater where the snowpad was located, but decreased with time.
Plant species varied in susceptibility to damage; willow and birch shrubs
were frequently sheared off and mosses were more susceptible to damage
from debris. Overall, the disturbance due to the snowpad was minor when
the construction was conducted in a careful manner and gravel and fill
material were not stored on the snowpad. (L. Johnson)
Brown, J., B. E. Brockett, and K. E. Howe. 1984. Interaction of gravel fills,
surface drainage, and culverts with permafrost terrain. Final report
prepared for State of Alaska Department of Transportation and Public
Facilities, Division of Planning and Programming, Research Section; 2301
Peger Road, Fairbanks, AK. 35 Pp.
Prudhoe Bay, roads, impoundments, development impacts
Culvert performance in terms of drainage across roads in the Prudhoe
Bay and Kuparuk Oilfields was studied for three years. Thermal probes
were placed around culverts to assess the causes of failure or ineffi-
ciency in operating.
A major cause of culvert failure or insufficient drainage is due to
alteration of the thermal regime beneath the culvert. Frozen ground below
the culverts thaws, resulting in subsidence of the center of the culvert.
Sinking of the center causes the ends of the culverts to bow upwards,
which reduces the drainage efficiency.
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Brown, J., and J. Hemming. 1980. Report on the Workshop on Environmental
Protection of Permafrost Terrain. The Northern Engineer 12(2):30-36.
North Slope, development impacts, recommendations
A workshop on Environmental Protection of Permafrost Terrain was held
in May of 1980 in Fairbanks. The purpose of the meeting was to discuss
the effects of large engineering projects on permafrost terr~{n. Recent
experiences with the Trans Alaska Pipeline were the focus of much of the
discussion. The intent of the meeting was to provide a forum for informa-
tion exchange between engineers and scientists from the government,
universities and the private sector.
Conclusions and recommendations from the workshop included:
1.
Interdisciplinary teams should be utilized in all phases of large
projects.
2.
Effective communications along all disciplines involved should be
established early and maintained. Surprises should be avoided.
3.
Monitoring prior to, during, and after construction should be an
integral part of the project design. Analysis of data to assess
impacts should be a continuing part of the process.
4.
5.
Case histories should be documented, published, and available.
Engineering designs based on recent innovative practices should be
incorporated into revised doctrine, manuals, or specifications.
6.
Data acquired on a project should be readily available to all inter-
ested parties and only patentable or otherwise competitive data
treated as proprietary.
Chapin, F. W., III, and M. C. Chapin. 1980. Revegetation of an arctic dis-
turbed site by native tundra species. Journal of Applied Ecology 17:449-
456.
North Slope, revegetation
Succession on an organic tundra soil in interior Alaska was monitored
for ten growing seasons following removal of vegetation. The study was
conducted at Eagle Creek in an upland tundra community underlain by
permafrost and dominated by Eriophorum vaginatum. The site is similar to
other E. vaginatum dominated communities in northern Alaska and other
circumpolar tundra. A 20 x 50 m plot was bulldozed free of vegetation and
the organic layer exposed. Seeds of six exotic grass species commonly
used in revegetation were sown in a random design, both with and without
fertilizer.
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Exotic grasses established on the plots in the first season but
decreased in density after three years and were virtually eliminated after
five years. Fertilization did not affect initial density or long-term
survival of the exotic species but did increase shoot density of native
species three years after the disturbance.
Native sedges established on the disturbed site in 5-10 years,
producing an above-ground biomass equal to that in undisturbea tundra.
The sowing of exotic species neither promoted nor retarded long-term
natural revegetation and the utility of sowing exotics is questioned
except in cases where severe erosion may occur.
Chapin, F. Stuart, III, and G. Shaver. 1981. Changes in soil properties and
vegetation following disturbance of Alaskan Arctic tundra. Journal of
Applied Ecology 18:605-617.
North Slope, off-road travel, exploratory impacts, recovery
Soil characteristics and vegetation were studied in and adjacent to
four vehicle tracks over a broad geographic range. The study was con-
ducted at sites adjacent to the Haul Road and along a moisture 9radient.
The wet sites were at Franklin Bluffs and Slope Mountain, mesic sites at
Sagwon, Slope Mountain, and Fish Creek, and dry sites at Franklin Bluffs,
Slope Mountain, and Fish Creek. The organic mat at Franklin Bluffs had
been only lightly compacted; it was partially removed at Sagwon, Slope
Mountain, and Fish Creek. A track where the organic mat had been removed
entirely was examined at Sagwon. The following soil parameters were
measured: thaw depth, soil temperature, bulk density, moisture content,
pH, organic content, available phosphorus, and presence of ferrous iron.
The following vegetation parameters were measured: above-ground biomass,
tiller density, shoot weight, nitrogen and phosphorus concentration, leaf
production rate, depth distribution of live root biomass in selected
stands, and cover (visually estimated).
Vehicle tracks generally had slightly higher soil temperatures,
deeper thaw, and higher concentrations of available soil phosphate than
adjacent undisturbed tundra, but did not differ consistently from controls
in soil bulk density, volumetric moisture content, pH, or soil organic
content. Vegetation in the tracks had fewer species than controls,
reflecting decreased abundance of shrubs, particularly evergreens, and
increased dominance by a few species of graminoids. Wet and mesic tracks
exhibited a 2- to 15-fo1d increase in above-ground standing crop of
nitrogen and phosphorus as a result of increased leaf nutrient concentra-
tions and increased leaf biomass of graminoids, a consequence of increases
in both shoot density and shoot weight.
The results do not support the original hypothesis that the known
temperature effects upon root growth, nutrient absorption, and organic
matter mineralization account for the increased standing crop of biomass
and nutrients in vehicle trails. The authors conclude that other factors,
perhaps related to soil water and nutrient movement, are in large part
responsible for the increased nutrient status and production of vehicle
tracks and exert an important control over growth in undisturbed tundra.
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Chapin, F. S., G. R. Shaver, and A. E. Linkins.
disturbed sites by native tundra species.
Grant #DAA G 29-79-C-0112. 16 pp.
1982. Revegetation of Alaskan
U.S. Army Research Office,
resilience, revegetation, North Slope, recommendations
This is a summary report of 6 years of studies conducted by the
authors and their associates. The purpose of the research was to develop
methods by which the recovery of native plant populations might be
promoted on development-related disturbances in northern Alaska. Much of
the revegetation to date had been done with non-native species, which is
undesirable because they may eliminate native plants or reduce their
recovery.
The research focused on two major topics. The first was a series of
descriptive and experimental studies of relationships between species
composition, primary production, biomass turnover, and nutrient cycling in
tundra ecosystems. The assumption underlying these studies was that
vegetation response to tundra disturbance is largely mediated by changes
in nutrient cycling caused by the disturbance. The second line of
research addressed plant population dynamics, in particular, the establish-
ment and growth of species in natural and man-caused disturbances. The
latter comparison looks at how well native plants might be "pre-adapted"
to unnatural disturbances, and how the disturbances might be manipulated
to promote native plant recovery. The research was conducted at Toolik
Lake, sites along the Haul Road, and in alpine tundra at Eagle Summit. As
the studies addressed basic ecologic processes, the results are widely
applicable.
Species composition, production, and biomass turnover studies showed
complex interactions between factors that limit growth. Species respond
differently to yearly variation in weather conditions, each species is
individually distributed, there are patterns of specialization of resource
use, and no single limit to growth and productivity. As a result, it is
difficult to generalize about specific nutrient limitations although
tundra in general is nutrient limited.
Studies of plant population dynamics demonstrated the importance of
seeds present in the soil. This buried "seed bank" contributes to the
reproduction of some tundra species. Eriophorum vaginatum was the most
abundant species due in part to establishment from seeds in the seed bank
and in part to its ability to alter its life history strategy in response
to disturbance.
The primary recommendation was to stockpile and reuse organic soil to
cover disturbed areas. The original recommendation to fertilize the
adjacent area to stimulate seed production was determined to be less
successful because most native plant populations are established from the
buried seed bank. In cases of severe erosional potential, the organic
cover could be fertilized or sown with non-native species.
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Dyck, R. I., and J. J. Stokel. 1976. Fugitive dust emissions from trucks on
unpaved roads. Environmental Science and Technology 10(10):1046-1048.
dust
A mathematical expression for estimating the fugitive dust emissions
from trucks operating on unpaved roads was developed. The expression
s~ggests a linear relationship between vehicle speed, vehicle weight, and
sllt content of the road.
Ebersole, J. J., and P. J. Webber. 1983. Biological decomposition and plant
succession following disturbance on the Arctic Coastal Plain, Alaska.
pp. 266-271. In: Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on
Permafrost, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska; 18-22 July 1983.
Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
North Slope, exploratory impacts, recovery, resilience
Vegetation at a 30-year-old well site was investigated and the
recovery measured. Vegetation plots were established and species abun-
dance and distribution monitored through four seasons. Growth of willows
was measured for 2 years.
Vigorous stands of grasses and erect willows dominate the mesic
disturbed areas. The presence of these communities was hypothesized to be
the result of greater decomposition rates in the warm, well-drained sites
and greater nutrient availability. The increase in willows and grasses,
which are pre-adapted to colonizing natural disturbances, was at the
expense of other plants usually present in tundra communities. The
conditions on the disturbance are predicted to continue for an extended
time.
Eller, B. M. 1977. Road dust induced increase of leaf temperature.
mental Pollution 13:99-107.
Environ-
dust, development impacts
Only a part of the solar radiation absorbed by plant leaves is used
for photosynthesis, the rest is converted to heat and influences energy
balance. Dust cover on leaves increases their absorptivity and increases
leaf temperatures, which leads to overheating. Respiration may increase
much faster with rising temperature than does photosynthesis, consequently
reducing the net photosynthesis. The primary factor causing overheating
is absorbed energy in the wavelengths over 700 nm.
Envirosphere. 1984. Synthesis, Prudhoe Bay Waterflood Project Environmental
Monitoring Program 1983. Prepared for Department of the Army, Alaska
District, Corps of Engineers, Anchorage, Alaska. 46 pp.
Prudhoe Bay, development impacts, dust, impoundments, gravel spray.
snowbanks
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An aspect of the Waterflood Monitoring Program was to measure the
effects of the West Field Road on the surrounding vegetation and birds.
Bird and vegetation studies were not conducted in 1983, but measurements
of some of the physical attributes were continued. The road was used
during the winter for construction of the adjacent pipeline and during the
summer for construction of Pad K. Both activities resulted in major
physical changes along the road, the most notable being an increase in
gravel cover, which destroyed several vegetation plots and parts of
established bird transects.
Snowbanks along the road were not generally persistent with the
exception of a north-south section of the road that had a large drift,
which may have been partially responsible for the extensive impoundment in
the area. Snow removal for pipeline construction and road traffic
resulted in scraping of vegetation and soil underneath the pipeline and
deposition of gravel and debris adjacent to the road. Construction
disturbed vegetation plots had less vegetation cover (mesic 15-20 percent
less and dry 80 percent less).
Impoundments were more extensive than in the previous two years.
Impoundments were greener than the non-impounded side of the road. A
pilot study showed that the greening was due to increased growth of Carex
aauatilis, less standing dead, and water cover. Thaw depth in the impound-
ments was the same as the opposite side of the road but impoundments did
not appear to be in a steady state and conditions may change. In some
impoundments, the active layer had detached and it seems likely that the
thaw conditions would change, perhaps leading to a deeper impoundment with
no vegetation.
Gartner, B. L. 1983. Germination characteristics of Arctic plants.
338. In: Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on
frost, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska; 18-22 July 1983.
Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
pp. 334-
Perma-
North Slope, revegetation
The seeds of Eriophorum vaginatum and many other arctic plants were
found to have germination traits similar to colonizers in the temperate
zone. In general, they have the following traits: the seeds are wind
dispersed, intrinsic dormancy is non-existant or weakly developed, the
optimal temperature for germination varies between populations within the
range of 20 to 30 degrees centigrade, and some viable seeds are stored in
the buried seed bank in organic soil (no seeds were found in the mineral
so i 1) .
Hanley. P. 1., J. E. Hemming, J. W. Morsell, 1. A. Morehouse, L. E. Leask, and
G. S. Harrison. 1981. Natural resource protection and petroleum develop-
ment in Alaska. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Biological Services
Program, Washington, D.C. FWS/OBS-80/22.
review, North Slope, recommendations, exploratory impacts
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This study reviews a variety of issues associated with oil and gas
development. The purpose of the study was to provide a review of oil and
gas leasing and development procedures and activities because leasing of
federal lands for oil and gas was expected with the final resolution of
Section d2 of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act. It was believed
that some federal lands contained high oil and gas potential and that the
federal government would be involved in leasing programs and be respons-
ible for environmental protection of the lands. - .
The then-existing permitting system and the associated legislative
mandates are covered in detail. Much of this information is now out of
date. The history of oil and gas development in Alaska is reviewed.
Petroleum industry practices are listed with brief descriptions. The
descriptions present the general case and, as stated in the summary, are
lacking in details. Potential impacts on wildlife are listed and subjec-
tively related to the various types of development activities. The impact
information is not well referenced and again is presented for the general
case. Two case studies of petroleum activities are presented, exploration
in the National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska and the Kenai Peninsula. The
information on NPR-A covers only exploratory activities.
Information needs for evaluating impacts are discussed in some
detail. The need for information is critical, particularly in the Arctic
where relatively little is known about the natural system. Decisions
regarding studies designed to gather information for resource managers are
important and guidelines are presented for making these decisions. Much
of these guidelines were drawn from the Trans-Alaska Pipeline experience
and the planning effort for the Natural Gas Pipeline. The major recommen-
dations include: an interdisciplinary approach, an open planning system
that involves resource managers and scientists, incorporation of a method
for information synthesis, and follow-up studies to determine the value of
mitigation and the accuracy of predicted impacts. These recommendations
need to be formalized into a written agreement prior to the initiation of
any large projects.
Hobbie, J. E. 1984. The ecology of tundra ponds of the Arctic Coastal Plain:
A community profile. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, FWS/OBS-83/25.
52 pp.
North Slope, baseline conditions, contaminants
This community profile synthesizes much of the information on the
ecology of tundra ponds and wetlands. Information on pond ecology is
drawn largely from the IBP studies at Barrow and information of birds
comes largely from Fish and Wildlife studies in NPRA and at Point
Storkerson. Wetlands are classified using the system developed by Bergman
et a 1. (1977).
Nutrient dynamics in the ponds are complex and interactions are
controlled by the sediments. Iron comes from the iron-rich peat soils and
is present in a thin oxygenated zone on the surface of the pond sediments.
Phosphorus binds to the iron, which results in low concentrations of
phosphorus in the water column. Relatively more nitrogen is present but
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most is inorganic and therefore not available. Nitrogen fixation occurs
at a low rate in the sediments and the available organic nitrogen is
rapidly used by the plants. As a result of these processes, production in
the ponds and lakes is limited by both phosphorus and nitrogen.
Ponds contain many organisms similar to temperate ponds although some
groups are not present and those that are have fewer species represented.
Phytoplankton, zooplankton, and benthic organisms are all pr~stent but
amphibians, dragonflies, mayflies and true bugs are missing. Fish are
present only in waters deeper than 1.7 m.
The majority of carbon fixed in a pond is by Carex. As there are no
herbivores that eat the sedge, the carbon is deposited in the pond and
enters the detrital system. Carex achieves the same productivity as
temperate plants.
Two ways development can adversely affect wetlands are through oil
spills and through road construction. Zooplankton are the most dramatic-
ally affected by oil and in an experimental spill in a pond near Barrow,
it was six years before the zooplankton community was re-established.
Roads block drainages and create artificial impoundments, which resemble
natural lakes but may be less productive for birds than the original
wetlands.
Hok, J. R. 1969. A reconnaissance of tractor trails and related phenomena on
the North Slope of Alaska. U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Land
Management Publication. 66 pp.
North Slope, off-road travel
A broad reconnaissance of off-road vehicle trails was conducted for
one summer to obtain preliminary observations of vegetation recovery on
trails of known history, to compile a bibliography of studies on the
effects of off-road vehicles, and to develop hypotheses about the effects
of vehicles on tundra vegetation. Trails of known history were visited
and the effects of past disturbance were described in relationship to the
topography of the region. For each trail, the season of use, mode of
construction, and vehicle that caused the major disturbance were recorded.
Numerous photos of each site were taken and are included in the report.
The report presents a broad overview of the types of disturbance that
can occur. The importance and interrelationship of season, the degree of
disturbance, the moisture content and topography and their effects on
erosion are well illustrated.
Howe, K. 1982. Observations of impoundments and culvert performance along the
West Dock to Pad E Road, Prudhoe Bay, Alaska. Draft interim report to
Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities. 44 pp.
Prudhoe Bay, impoundments, road, development impacts
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Culvert performance and impoundments were observed along a road in
Prudhoe Bay that was built according to typical design criteria. Measure-
ments of thaw depth, water movement and culvert status were conducted for
one summer.
In late July, approximately 15 cm of frozen gravel was encountered at
the base of the road, however, by early September the thaw had penetrated
through the gravel fill. The road, with a frozen base, acts-like a dike
and does not pass surface water. As a result, extensive impoundments were
formed along the east side of the road. Maps from earlier years showed
that the extent of ponding varies from year to year depending on climatic
conditions.
Culverts placed in the road were not effective due to deformation and
subsidence. The culverts may alter the surrounding thermal regime enough
to thaw frozen gravel and allow permafrost degradation beneath them. They
subside in the middle and the ends bow up until they are above the level
of adjacent standing water.
Kerfoot, C. E. 1972. Tundra disturbance studies in the western Canadian
Arctic. ALUR 1971-1972. Department of Indian Affairs and Northern
Development, Canada. 115 p.
Mackenzie Delta, Banks Island, exploratory impacts
Impacts of summer and winter seismic operations on the Mackenzie
Delta region and a winter exploratory operation on Banks Island were
measured in the summer of 1971. The short-term impacts were Quantified by
evaluating relative changes in surface microrelief features and the
thickness and thermal regime of the active layer. Qualitative assessments
were made of the degree of disturbances of the tundra vegetation cover.
The sample size of disturbed sites was limited and the specifics of the
operations were not known so the obesrvations were tentative.
Winter road routes used for more than one season showed increased
depth of thaw and thermokarsting. Snow-packed roads seemed to cause more
damage than ice roads. The authors recommended that routes not be used
for more than 2 years in succession.
Summer seismic lines, in some terrains, showed negligible disruption
of the surface. Most of the surface disturbance was due to compaction of
the vegetation layer, which is able to deform slightly in the summer. The
abrasive action on frozen surfaces can cause more surface disruption. The
surface could not hold up under repeated passes in the summer and the
surface degraded after two passes of even lightly loaded vehicles.
The surface disturbance associated with the winter operation on Banks
Island seemed negligible. The careful selection of routes and the pres-
ence of a local resident throughout the operation was thought to have
contributed to the minimal disturbance.
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Klinger, L. F., D. A. Walker, M. D. Walker, and P- J. Webber. 1983. The
effects of a gravel road on adjacent tundra vegetation. Prudhoe Bay
Waterf100d Project Environmental Monitoring Program. Prepared for the
Alaska District, Corps of Engineers, Anchorage, Alaska 99510.
Prudhoe Bay, road, development impacts, impoundments, resilience, recom-
mendations
A gravel road in the Prudhoe Bay oilfield was studied for 2 years to
determine the effect of the road on the surrounding vegetation. The
vegetation was sampled along transects perpendicular to the road. The
sampling was done in a non-destructive manner by systematically measuring
the leaf-area index. .
The area adjacent to the road was mapped using the classification of
Walker and Webber. The area was mapped four times throughout the growing
season to present the serial progression of snow-melt and impoundments.
Flooding, or impounding, was the most extensive impact of the road,
covering nearly twice the area covered by late melting snowbanks. The
snowbanks and main dust cover occurred within 50 m of the road. The
snowbanks did not completely melt until June 28. The main effect of the
snowbank was to channel melt water and block culverts.
Impacts after 2 years and general changes expected after 5 years are
summarized in a table. The effects of the late snowbanks are expected to
be overridden by those due to dust and flooding. Flooding will affect
moist and wet areas the most and lichens and mosses will likely be e1im~
inated. Deeply flooded areas will resemble lakes. Dust will eliminate
some of the less tolerant species adjacent to the road, notably mosses.
Komarkova, V. 1983. Recovery of plant communities and summer thaw at the 1949
Fish Creek Test Well 1, Arctic Alaska. pp. 645-650. In: Proceedings of
the Fourth International Conference on Permafrost, University of Alaska,
Fairbanks, Alaska, 18-22 July 1983. Washington, D.C.: National Academy
Press.
North Slope, baseline conditions, exploratory impacts, resilience,
recovery
Plant communities at a test-well site abandoned in 1949 were studied
to determine the amount of natural recovery that had occurred on the
disturbed areas. The similarity between disturbed and undisturbed commu-
nities was compared with the similarity between undisturbed communities.
The average similarity between the disturbed and undisturbed communities
was slightly less than between undisturbed communities. The differences
were found primarily in the mesic communities; wet marshes had almost
completely recovered.
The common marsh species, Carex aquatilis and Eriophorum
augustifolium, spread by rhizomes and this allowed their rapid coloniza-
tion of the disturbed areas. The grass species that colonize the drier
areas, Poa and Arctagrostis species, spread by seeds and due to a high
seedling mortality are not able to colonize as quickly. The difference in
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recovery between wet communities and mesic communities reflects the
average conditions under which they occur. Mesic areas show less fluctua-
tion in environmental factors such as depth of thaw. Environmental
factors in wet areas show a much wider range and therefore the plants are
adapted to a wider range of conditions. While recovery does occur follow-
ing disturbance, the rate is slow due to the slow dynamics of the system.
Kubanis, S. A. 1980. Recolonization by native and introduced plant species
along the Yukon River-Prudhoe Bay Haul Road, Alaska. Unpublished Master's
thesis, San Diego State University.
revegetation, North Slope
Recolonization, plant migration and persistence, phenological develop.
ment, and reproductive success of native and introduced species in sub-
arctic and arctic environments were examined along the Prudhoe Bay Haul
Road from 1977 to 1979. Forty-nine native species and 20 weeds were
observed. Both increases and decreases in ranges occurred. More invasion
of disturbed areas occurred south of the Brooks Range than north of the
range. Older disturbances were occupied primarily by native species. The
number of sites in which weeds or native plants appeared over time was
nearly offset by the number from which plants disappeared. Mean percent
cover values for most native species and all weeds represented less than
20 percent cover. Mean percent cover of bare ground represented the 80-99
percent cover class. Nine weed species were observed dispersing seed
north of the Brooks Range and the collected seeds proved viable. Native
plants did invade disturbed areas but their persistence was limited.
Recolonization is a slow, erratic process. Introduced species have the
capability of establishing in the arctic and native and introduced species
have not shown a dramatic difference in persistence or rate of invasion.
Kubanis, S. A. 1982. Revegetation techniques in arctic and subarctic environ-
ments. Office of the Federal Inspector, Alaska Natural Gas Transportation
System, Office of Environment, Biological Programs. 40 pp.
North Slope, revegetation, recommendations
In preparation for possible construction of the natural gas pipeline,
a review and analysis of revegetation techniques was conducted. Based on
past experiences with the Trans-Alaska Pipeline and other revegetation
research, recommendations were made. The results and recommendations are
summarized below.
Severe environmental conditions limit the rate of vegetative recovery
following disturbances in arctic and subarctic areas and must be consid-
ered in revegetation efforts. Changes associated with construction-
related superficial disturbances also limit both natural and induced
vegetative recovery. Revegetation success is increased with greater
percentages of organic matter and silts. Adequate site prepar~t!on. .
including reapplication of stripped surface materials and scarlfl~at1on 1S
essential in maximizing the rate and success of induced revegetat10n and
natural reestablishment of vegetation. Non-native, agronomic grasses show
limited success in revegetating subarctic and, particularly, arctic
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disturbed areas. Cover of these agronomics decreases over time and
maintenance treatments of seeding and fertilization may be needed. In
addition, agronomics slow or prevent the reinvasion and reestablishment of
native species which might otherwise provide long-term vegetative cover.
Use of native grasses where moderate cover for erosion control is needed
would be advantageous. Three native grasses identified as suitable for
this purpose are Arctagrostis latifolia, Poa glauca, and Calamagrostic
canadensis. Areas which do not have potential for erosion problems
necessitating vegetative cover should be left to revegetate naturally
after receiving site preparation to facilitate the reestablishment of
cover. Only areas with the need for rapid, dense vegetative cover should
be seeded with an agronomic grass because it provides only temporary
cover. Several species of shrubs and-trees would also be beneficial to
this revegation program for specialized uses including ameliorating visual
impacts and revegetating streambanks. Fertilization with standard N-P-K
fertilizers rather than specialized fertilizers with micronutrients is
adequate for both areas to be seeded and those to be left to revegetate
naturally. Use of mulches can be disadvantageous and should be limited.
Lambert, J. D. H. 1972. ALUR 1971-72.
Northern Development, Canada.
Department of Indian Affairs and
Canada, Mackenzie Delta, Banks Island, exploratory impacts, resistance
Botanical studies of the impacts due to two types of winter road, and
a winter and a summer seismic operation were conducted during the summer
of 1971. Numbers and species of plants within quadrats were measured to
quantitatively assess the impacts of the operations.
Two-year winter use of a road using standard snow pack methods
eliminated the lichen cover and reduced coverage of vascular plants to 8
percent and mosses to 6 percent. The effects were not as severe on a road
only used for one season. Hummocks had been levelled and microdrainage
patterns altered on both the single season and the 2-year road. The
effect of an ice road had a similar effect on the vegetation but only a
minimal effect on the microtopography and was therefore expected to
recover more rapidly.
Initial observations of the effects of summer seismic operations were
that damage was extensive. The observations were considered very prelim-
inary and no conclusions were drawn.
Lawson, D. E. 1986. Response of permafrost terrain to disturbance: a synthe-
sis of observations from northern Alaska, USA. Arctic and Alpine Research
18:1-17.
North Slope, exploratory impacts
Long-term physical modifications resulting from disturbance of
perennially frozen terrain was examined at former exploratory drilling
sites in the NPR-A. Camp construction and drilling activites in the late
1940s and early 1950s resulted in disturbances to the vegetation; trampl-
ing, killing, and removal. Removal of the vegetation led to the most
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extensive modifications at all sites, but the subsequent response to
disturbance varied with four primary factors; ground ice volume, distribu-
tion and size of massive ground ice, material properties during thaw, and
relief. Variations in response time resulted from the influence of these
factors on the type and activity of degradation. Physical stability is
required for growth of vegetation and thermal equilibration has taken over
30 years to attain in ice-rich, thaw-unstable areas. Ice-poor, thaw-
stable materials in undrained or low relief areas required a~ estimated 5
to 10 years for stability.
Lawson, D. E., J. Brown, K. R. Everett, A. W. Johnson, V. Komarkova, B. M.
Murray, D. F. Murray, and P. J. Webber. 1978. Tundra disturbances and
recovery following the 1949 exploratory drilling, Fish Creek, northern
Alaska. U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and En9ineering Laboratory,
Hanover, NH. CRREL Report 78-28. 81 pp.
North Slope, exploratory impacts, recovery. revegetation, recommendations
A 1949 test well site was investigated in 1977 to measure the amount
of visible disturbance and the amount of recovery. The well was drilled
during the summer of 1949 at Fish Creek, 28 km south of Atigun Point on
the Arctic Coastal Plain. Terrain characteristics, soils and permafrost,
and vegetation characteristics, floristics and geobotany, were measured.
Disturbances at the site included bladed trails, excavations, pilings,
solid waste, and hydrocarbon spills.
Thaw depth on the disturbed sites was generally higher than surround-
ing areas and in some cases dramatically deeper. Thermokarst processes
led to the development of hummocky terrain with a relief of up to 2 m.
Thermokarst was still occurring in some of the heavily disturbed areas.
Soil horizons were still compressed under some of the deeper vehicle
trails and soil morphology was completely destroyed in some areas. Diesel
fuel was still detectable in the soils and the thaw depth of spill areas
was twice that of the surrounding area and the vegetation still had not
recovered.
Vegetation recovery was related to the intensity of the original
disturbance and the resulting moisture regime. Vegetation cover was
complete in wet and mesic sites while xeric sites and fuel spill sites
remained barren. The communities on the mesic sites differed from natural
mesic sites in that many species were absent or present only in low
numbers, such as shrubby species. The disturbed mesic sites were dom-
inated by grasses.
The authors recommended that prior to abandonment of future sites,
the slope of the pad should be graded to form an even slope to the tundra.
This would allow the establishment of moisture gradients. Non-native or
domestic species should not be used for revegetation as natural revegeta-
tion can occur on some sites. Areas that need rapid revegetation due to
potential erosion problems should be revegetated with willow cuttings and
grasses as clones. Suggested species are: Sa1ix a1axensis, S. niphoc1ada,
S. glauca, and Poa arctica, Festuca rubra, Leymus mo11is (= Elymus
arenarius), Bromopsis pumpe11iana (- Bromus pumpe11ianus). Carex obtusata.
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Nelson, F., and S. I. Outcalt. 1982. Anthropogenic geomorphology in northern
Alaska. Physical Geography 3(1 ):17-48.
North Slope, exploratory impacts
Natural geomorphic processes that occur
bladed road were measured in 1980. The road
in the Deadhorse area constructed in 1968 by
layer.
after the abandonment of a
studied is an abandoned road
blading the organic surface
Drainage patterns were severely disrupted by subsidence and the
road's influence extends laterally many meters. Thaw season flow has
caused extensive thermal subsidence. . In general, thaw progression plotted
as a linear form against the SQuare root of time in undisturbed areas and
some disturbed areas. Some areas of the road did not show a linear
relationship, indicating that the road had still not stabilized 12 years
after the disturbance.
Pamplin, W. L. 1979. Construction-related impacts of the Trans-Alaska Pipe-
line System on terrestrial wildlife habitats. Special Report Number 24,
Joint State/Federal Fish and Wildlife Advisory Team. 132 pp.
Trans-Alaska Pipeline, development impacts, recommendations, North Slope
Wildlife habitats along the entire length of the Trans-Alaska Pipe-
line System (TAPS) were evaluated using aerial photography. The study
area was cover typed on pre-construction aerial imagery using a classifi-
cation system consisting of 12 habitat types. A broad habitat classifica-
tion was developed that corresponded in part with the Viereck and Little
vegetation classification. Post construction imagery of the same scale
was used to determine the surface area impacts. Approximately 31,403
acres of terrestrial wildlife habitat were altered or destroyed by con-
struction activities as of July 1976. The greatest overall impact
occurred on the North Slope (10,900 acres). Material sites caused the
most habitat alteration.
Recommendations for future large-scale projects include:
1.
An inter-agency/inter-disciplinary approach must be used to evaluate
the potential adverse impacts of all project features on wildlife
habitats.
2.
Comprehensive terrestrial and aquatic habitat evaluations of proposed
project areas must be conducted to identify wildlife habitats in
terms of quantity and quality.
3.
These evaluations must be emphasized during the preliminary planning
and design stages prior to the construction phase.
Results of inter-disciplinary evaluations must be incorporated in
project designs to ensure the protection of wildlife habitats.
4.
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5.
Regardless of the habitat type, unnecessary and avoidable impacts
must be eliminated.
6.
When adverse impacts are unavoidable, the least environmentally
damaging alternative must be selected.
7.
Mitigative measures must be applied consistently throug~out project
development.
The project sponsor should be required to adequately compensate for
all significant unmitigated losses of pUblic wildlife resources as
determined by government resourc~ agencies.
Radforth, J. R. 1972. Analysis of disturbance effects of operations of
off-road vehicles on tundra. ALUR 1971-72. Department of Indian Affairs
and Northern Development, Canada. 77 pp.
8.
Canada, Mackenzie Delta, off-road travel, exploratory impacts
During the summers of 1970 and 1971, observations were made of
off-road vehicle tracks in the Mackenzie Delta region. Temperatures in
and out of the vehicle tracks and the frost depths were made. The tracks
were photographed at ground level and from the air to determine if aerial
photography could be a useful technique in evaluating disturbance levels.
The photographic analysis was useful in analyzing vegetation damage
and recovery and the exposure of mineral soil. Vegetative recovery was
related to the season in which the activity occurred, the weight of the
vehicle, and the number of passes by the vehicles. Thermokarsting was
most likely to occur on slopes where melt water could be channelized in
the vehicle ruts. Any level of traffic caused some recession of the
permafrost table.
Rawlinson, S. E. 1983. Guidebook to permafrost and related features, Prudhoe
Bay, Alaska. Prepared for: Fourth International Conference on Perma-
frost, July 18-22, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska. 202 pp.
(available from: DGGS, 794 University Avenue, Fairbanks, Alaska 99701,
cost $6).
baseline conditions, development impacts, Prudhoe Bay
This guidebook was prepared for participants of the field trip to
Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, associated with the Fourth International Conference
on Permafrost held in Fairbanks, Alaska, July 18-22, 1983. Common perma-
frost mechanisms and features in the Prudhoe region are identified and
described. Some of the impacts due to development, such as thermokarst
pits, are identified and their history described. The guidebook begins
with a general discussion of the climate, biota and landforms of the
region. This is a good introductory guide to the area and the landform
features associated with permafrost terrain.
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Reynolds, P. C. 1981. Some effects of oil and gas exploration activities on
tundra vegetation in northern Alaska. Presented at: Society of Petroleum
Industry Biologists, Annual Meeting, Denver, 1981. 15 pp.
resilience, recovery, exploratory impacts, North Slope
Winter cross-country travel associated with oil and gas exploration
in the National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska was monitored between 1978 and
1981. Different effects on four vegetation types were documented.
Tractors pulling sled-mounted trailers did more damage than did low
ground-pressure seismic vehicles. A dry upland meadow was moderately
affected by tractor trains, but recovered within 16 months. Sedge
tussocks and riparian willows recovered in 16 months from the effects of
low ground-pressure seismic vehicles, but significant effects were still
present along a tractor trail after 28 months. Trails created by tractor
trains will be visible through riparian willows for several years. A
major effect of winter cross-country travel was to mar aerial scenic values
of a wilderness area. Impacts had no apparent effects on wildlife as the
amount of plants killed or altered were small compared to the total
habitat available.
Simmons, C. L., K. R. Everrett, D. A. Walker, A. E. Linkins, and P. J. Webber.
1983. Sensitivity of plant communities and soil flora to seawater spills,
Prudhoe Bay, Alaska. U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering
Laboratory, Hanover, NH. CRREL Report 83-24. 35 pp.
Prudhoe Bay, development impacts, contaminants
To determine the effects of a potential leak in the seawater pipeline
used for waterflooding the oilfield, test saltwater spills were done in
the summer of 1980. Eight sites representing the range of vegetation
types along the pipeline route were treated with single, saturating
applications of seawater.
Within a month of the treatment, 30 of 37 taxa of shrubs and forbs in
the experimental plots developed clear symptoms of stress, while none of
the 14 graminoid taxa showed apparent adverse effects. Live vascular
plant cover was thus reduced by 89 and 91 percent in the two dry sites and
by 54, 74, and 83 percent in the three moist sites.
Live bryophyte cover was markedly reduced in the moist experimental
sites in 1981. Bryophytes in all but one of the wet site experimental
plots were apparently unaffected by the seawater treatment. Two species
of foliose lichens treated with seawater showed marked deterioration in
1981. All other lichen taxa were apparently unaffected by the seawater
treatment.
The absorption and retention of salts by the soil is inversely
related to the soil moisture regime. In the wet sites, con9uctivit1es
approached prespill levels with1n about 30 days. In such sltes, sp111s at
the experimental volumes are quickly diluted and the salts flu~hed ~rom
the soil. In the dry sites, on the other hand, salts are reta1ned 1n the
soil, apparently concentrating at or near the seasonal thaw line.
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On spill sites, microbial-related soil respiration and hydrolysis of
cellulose and organic phosphorus were significantly reduced, as were soil
enzymes and viable microbial biomass, for up to one year after treatment.
Ectomycorrhizal roots of Salix on the treated plots showed a significant
reduction in v~able biomass, number of mycorrhizal roots, and respiration
rates of the vlable roots.
Spatt, P. D., and M. C. Miller. 1981. Growth conditions and vitality of
Sphagnum in a tundra community along the Alaskan Pipeline Haul Road.
Arctic 34(1 ):48-54.
Trans-Alaska Pipeline, road, developm~nt impacts, resistance
The effect of road dust and road-related construction on Sphagnum
lenense were measured along the Alaska Pipeline Haul Road, the Dalton
Highway. Plots were established at various distances from the road and
the dust deposition and chemistry of the area monitored for one season.
Dust from traffic settled in greatest quantities near the road with
the amount rapidly decreasing away from the road. Water content of S.
lenense in quadrats close to the road and to a buried gasline was gener-
ally low when compared with those in more distant quadrats. Total conduc-
tivity, pH, and calcium content of water extracted from the Sphagnum
was greatest in heavily dust-impacted quadrats. Chlorophyll content was
greatest in the Sphagnum little exposed to dust and lowest in Sphagnum
heavily exposed. Carbon uptakes in Sphagnum was greatest in the quadrats
furthest from the road. A long-term effect of heavy road dust accumula-
tion upon Sphagnum may be decreased productivity and growth.
Techman Engineering Limited. 1982. Road dust suppression in Northern and
Western Canada, Review of alternatives and existing practices. Environ-
ment Canada, Water Pollution and Contaminants Control, Environmental
Protection Service, Edmonton, Alberta. 102 pp.
North Slope, dust
Mechanisms of road dust generation and suppression techniques were
reviewed for the Canadian Federal Environmental Protection Service. Road
dust is generated by passing vehicles in three ways; vortex entrainment,
slippage entrainment, and saltation and creep of larger vehicles. The
rate and amount of dust generated depend upon vehicle speed, number of
wheels/vehicle, particle size distribution, surface moisture, vehicle
weight, vehicle cross-section, tire width, tire design, length of unpaved
road, and design of roadway. Dust impacts include safety, aesthetics,
health, vegetation, soils, and aquatic resources.
Road dust may be reduced by traffic controls, paving, and applica-
tions of road stabilizers or dust suppressants. Paving is the most
effective method of dust control but is expensive and the impact of the
paving operation may be great. Dust suppressants include wat~r and
wetting agents, deliquescent and hygroscopic chemicals, organlc non- .
bituminous binders, and petroleum based suppressants. Water and w~ttlng
agents have no environmental impacts, except for salt water. Calclum
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chloride is the most widely used deliquescent chemical and it may
adversely affect water supplies, plants, and aquatic species. Petroleum-
based products have adverse effects on plants and aquatic species.
Walker, D. A., D. Cate, and J. Brown (eds.). In press. Disturbance and
recovery of arctic Alaskan tundra terrain: a summary of recent CRREL
research. U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory.
Hanover, NH. 177 p. -.
North Slope, exploratory impacts, baseline conditions, recovery,
resilience, resistance, review, contaminants
The response and recovery of permafrost terrain followinq disturbance
has been a major topic of research in northern Alaska for the-past 25
years. Much of the work has been funded through the U.S. Army Cold
Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (CRREL). This report presents
a summary of the work that has been done by CRREL and its affiliated
university personnel. The goals of their research were to document
natural and man-caused disturbances on Alaskan tundra and to investigate
responses of tundra ecosystems to disturbance.
The report is organized in two major sections. The first section is
a review of disturbance studies. Natural disturbances addressed include
thaw lakes and thermokarst, streambank erosion and slope failures, coastal
storm surges, frost action, animal disturbance, fire, and other natural
disturbances. Man-caused or "anthropogenic" disturbance is divided into
off-road transportation, permanent structures, and contaminants. The
second section discusses the ecological relationships between disturbance
and recovery. Natural and man-caused disturbances are compared and
related. Recommendations are made for future arctic disturbance research.
Walker, D. A. P. J. Webber, K. R. Everett, and J. Brown. 1980. Geobotanical
Atlas of the Prudhoe Bay region, Alaska. U.S. Army Cold Regions Research
and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, NH. CRREL Report 80-14. 73 pp.
baseline conditions, development impacts, Prudhoe Bay
The interrelationships among the landforms, soils, and vegetation of
the Arctic Coastal Plain of Alaska are illustrated. Vegetation communi-
ties, landforms, and soil types are described. The vegetation is related
to three important gradients: temperature, soil pH and moisture. Aspects
of the Prudhoe Bay region are discussed: the climate, geology and perma-
frost. Historical descriptions of the development of the oilfield are
included.
This is the initial classification scheme developed by Drs. Walker
and Webber. The classification system has undergone several revisions
since this publication; however, important historical information is
contained in this atlas.
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Webber, P. J. 1978. Spatial and temporal variation of the vegetation and its
production, Barrow, Alaska. In: Vegetation and Production Ecology of an
Alaska Arctic Tundra, Ecological Studies 29 (L. Tieszen, ed.). Springer-
Verlag, New York.
Barrow, North Slope, baseline conditions
The tundra at Barrow is characteristic of the seaward areas of the
Arctic Coastal Plain. It has a cool, moist climate and it is flat, poorly
drained, and underlain by permafrost. The vegetation changes character
every few meters in concert with the microrelief of ice-wedge polygon
complexes. Species, growth forms, standing crop and production were
related to moisture, aeration, and phosphate. Other environmental
controls included were wind, snow cover, temperature, depth of active
layer, substrate stability, and the effects of lemming grazing. The
interrelations are complex but they are all initially controlled by the
microrelief. The vegetation is dominated by bryophytes and monocotyle-
dons. The dominant species are wide ranging along the principal environ-
mental gradients. Production increases along the moisture gradient. The
majority of production occurs in 60 days and seeds can be produced within
75 days.
Webber, P. J., and J. D. Ives. 1978. Recommendations concerning the damage
and recovery of tundra vegetation. Environmental Conservation 3(5):171-
182.
North Slope, exploratory impacts, recommendations, resistance
The notion of fragility is discussed with respect to tundra. In
general, the term has been misused, referring to the slow recovery time
associated with disturbance rather than the actual susceptibility to
disturbance. Some types of tundra are more susceptible than others,
notably the wet tundras of northern Alaska that have ice-rich soil. In
these areas, recovery is related to the extent of thermokarsting that
occurs when the thermal regime has been disrupted.
The use of non-native species in revegetation is discussed. Based on
the history of agriculture in Greenland and the introduction of non-native
species around settlements, the spread and competition of introduced
species with the native flora was not seen as a major problem. The
longevity of non-native species in revegetated sites was questioned and
the authors suggest that these species may be useful to establish an
initial ground cover but that they would not persist. Presumably, with
time, the area would be recolonized by native species.
Principal to successful design of revegetation programs is an under-
standing of natural plant succession. This knowledge is not available in
the arctic and the authors stress the need to conduct regular inventories
of permanent plots to address this. Mapping of the soils, landforms and
vegetation on composite maps was also suggested as a useful technique for
planners. Once the effects of activities are known on the various compo-
nents of the ecosystem, predictive or sensitivity maps can be made.
Detailed mapping was noted as time-consuming and labor intensive.
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West, R. L., and E. Snyder-Conn. 1985. The effects of Prudhoe Bay reserve
pits on the water Quality and macroinvertebrates of tundra ponds. Unpub-
lished report, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Northern Alaska Ecological
Services, Fairbanks, Alaska. 50 pp.
Prudhoe Bay, contaminants, development impacts
Water Quality and macro invertebrates were sampled in tu"dra ponds
adjacent to reserve pits. Water was being removed from reserve pits and
deposited directly on the tundra or pumped onto roadways.
Grab samples of water and composite sweep net samples of inverte-
brates from three remote control ponds were compared with those from six
reserve pits; six adjacent ponds that had received direct pit fluid
discharges in 1983; and six far ponds that may have been contaminated as a
result of connections with the adjacent ponds. All six reserve pits
examined were devoid of any invertebrate taxa and most displayed poor
water Quality as well as elevated levels of metals and hydrocarbons.
Simple linear regressions on treatment (control ponds, far ponds, adjacent
ponds and reserve pits) demonstrate significant (P=0.05) gradients of
increase in pH, salinity, alkalinity. turbidity and sediment loads pro-
ceeding toward reserve pits. Also, significant trends of increase in
aluminum, barium, chromium, zinc, arsenic, aliphatic hydrocarbons and
aromatic hydrocarbons occur proceeding from control ponds to pits. Most
of the above water Quality and contaminant parameters are statistically
correlated with significant (P=0.05) decreases in total taxa, species
diversity and invertebrate abundance of tundra ponds, even when pit data
are excluded from regression analyses. Multiple linear regressions are
used to suggest the best water quality and contaminant parameters to
monitor in the future. Water quality parameters that best predict
deteriorating biological conditions include alkalinity, hardness, pH, and
turbidity. The metals most indicative of biological change include
aluminum, nickel, copper and arsenic. The abundance of crustaceans is, in
addition, forecast by aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations.
USDI-BLM. 1978. Proceedings of the symposium on surface protection through
prevention of damage. Focus: the Arctic Slope. May 1977. BLM-Alaska
State Office. 302 pp. NTIS # PB 284 966.
exploratory impacts, North Slope, resistance, recommendations, review
A symposium was held by the Bureau of Land Management to discuss
surface management on the Arctic Slope. One purpose of the symposium was
to update information presented at the previous year's symposium. Another
purpose was to provide a forum for all people involved in surface manage-
ment to interact, which would lead to continued cooperation between the
agencies involved. Although the focus was on the entire Arctic Slope,
most of the discussion and information came from experiences in the
National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska (NPRA) and the Trans-Alaska Pipeline
(TAPS). The symposium was followed by a two-day workshop to discuss and
recommend guidelines for surface activities.
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The majority of the symposium concerned the legislative mandates for
surface protection. The actual legislation and the procedures for
implementation were presented by both federal and state representatives.
Protection requirements currently in effect were also presented. The
status of the North Slope Borough's planning effort was also presented.
The experiences on the TAPS line were presented by an engineer and a
former member of the Joint State-Federal Fish and Wildlife (JfWAT) team.
The engineer stressed the need for clear, specific guidelines that could
be used in planning. Problems incurred with changing guidelines were
illustrated. The experience from the JFWAT team was that the greatest
impacts occurred in the aquatic system -- largely due to siltation of
important fishery areas and blockage of fish movement -- and to caribou in
restricting their movements. The need for resource information was
stressed as was the need to re-establish tight coordination between the
various government agencies.
Some information on revegetation was presented. Of the grasses used
in revegetation, those strains developed from Arctic stock were the best.
The use of hardwood cuttings, primarily willows, was presented as a
potentially useful technique and the factors that must be considered for
this evaluated. The information presented has been updated since this
symposium.
The working groups made extremely general guidelines. The only
specific guidelines presented were for air and water quality and these
were based on existing state and federal standards.
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AP PEND IX B.
SPE CI ES ACCOUNTS
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APPENDIX B.
SPECIES ACCOUNTS
Rosa Meehan, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Alaska Investiga-
tions, Wetlands and Marine Ecology
1.
INTRODUCTION
The following species accounts briefly describe distribution and status on
the North Slope, breeding biology, migration, and vulnerability to impacts due
to development for selected bird species. Distribution and status information
describe where the species occur, when and where they concentrate, and include
all available density estimates. Breeding biology is summarized and known
requirements or resource limitations during the breeding season are identified.
Migration timing and routes are summarized. Susceptibility to impacts includes
information from specific studies of impacts and hypothesized sensitivity to
development activities based on the life history of the species. Known sensi-
tivity to development based on previous studies is clearly referenced to ensure
hypothesized and known impacts are not confused. The purpose of the species
accounts is to summarize life history information for the selected species,
provide key references for all aspects of their life history, and summarize
distribution information so that areas with high concentrations or high diver-
sities can be identified.
References are contained in the annotated bibliography. The species
accounts are drawn from studies in the Arctic. Distribution and status infor-
mation comes primarily from species accounts written for specific studies,
notably for the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) (Martin and Moitoret
1981, Miller et a1. 1985, Spindler et a1. 1984), the Canadian Wildlife Service
(Johnson et a1. 1975, Salter et a1. 1980), the Outer Continental Shelf environ-
mental studies (Connors et al. 1983, Divoky 1983), and the Fish and Wildlife
Service (Derksen et a1. 1981, Lenhausen and Quinlan 1981).
Accounts are arranged in taxonomic order (after Gibson 1982) and follow
the conventions of the American Ornithologists Union (Thirty-fourth Supplement
to the AOU Check-List of North American birds [Auk 99(3):1CC-16CC, 1982]). Two
commonly used habitat classifications are referenced for most species; Bergman
et al. 1977 and Troy 1984. Status and abundance terminology follows Kessel and
Gibson (1978) and their definitions are listed below.
Abundant -- Species occurs repeatedly in proper habitats, with available
habitat heavily utilized, or the region regularly hosts great numbers
of the species.
Common -- Species occurs in all or nearly all proper habitats, but some
areas of presumed suitable habitat are occupied sparsely or not at
all, or the region regularly hosts substantial numbers of the
species.
1
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Fairly common -- Species occurs in only some of the proper habitat, and
large areas of presumed suitable habitat are occupied sparsely or not
at all, or the region regularly hosts substantial numbers of the
species.
Uncommon -- Species occurs regularly, but utilizes little of the suitable
habitat, or the region regularly hosts relatively small numbers of
the species; not observed regularly even in proper habitats.
Rare -- Species within its normal range, occurring regularly but in very
small numbers. "Very" rare is used for a species which occurs more
or less regularly, but not every year, and usually in very small
numbers.
Casual -- A species beyond its normal range, but not so far but what
irregular observations are likely over a period of years; usually
occurs in very small numbers.
Accidental - A species so far from its normal range that further observa-
tions are unlikely; usually occurs singly.
Resident -- A species present throughout the year.
Migrant -- A seasonal transient between wintering and breeding ranges; in
spring, includes species that have overshot their normal breeding
range.
Breeder -- A species known to breed; prefixed by "possible" or "probable"
if concrete breeding evidence is unavailable.
Visitant -- A nonbreeding species; also, in fall, a species not directly
enroute between breeding and wintering ranges.
Red-throated Loon (Gavia stellata)
Distribution and Status
Red-throated Loons are abundant and common breeders along the Beaufort
coast and at Icy Cape (Pitelka 1974, Johnson et al. 1975, Lenhausen and Quinlan
1981, Martin and Moitoret 1981). They become less common inland (Sage 1974),
much less common in interior Arctic Coastal Plain sites in NPR-A than coastal
sites (Derksen et al. 1981). Red-throated Loon distribution may be limited by
access to fishing areas due to their reliance on fish during the breeding
season (Davis 1972, Bergman and Derksen 1977, Derksen et al. 1981) and may be
restricted to areas near the coast or where sufficient quantities of freshwater
fish are available.
Breeding densities were 0.5 and 0.6 nests/km2 at the Canning River Delta
(Martin and Moitoret 1981). Tundra densities of 1.3/km2, 0.53/km2, and 0.1/km2
were reported for the Teshekpuk area, 0.2 for the Meade River, and none at
Square Lake or Singiluk, which were adjacent to the Foothills region (Derksen
et al. 1981). A similar pattern of high densities along the coast and low
2
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densities inland was observed in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge at the
Okpilak, Sadlerochit and Jago Deltas and inland sites along the Jago and
Aichilik Rivers (Spindler et al. 1984, Miller et al. 1985).
Breeding Biology
Red-throated loons nest on small ponds and wetlands. Class III wetlands
were used throughout the breeding season in the Teshekpuk region and at
Storkersen Point, where Class IV wetlands were also used during the latter part
of the breeding season (Bergman and Derksen 1977, Derksen et al. 1981). Nests
are on marshy islands or along the shore if no islands are present. The clutch
usually consists of two eggs, laid during the last week of June (Davis 1972).
Both adults incubate and the first egg laid has a better chance of survival
than the second egg. The four loon nests found at Icy Cape in 1980 were all
single egg clutches (Lenhausen and Quinlan 1981). Hatching generally begins
during the third week in July and the young fledge about a month later. Late
hatching young may not fledge by freeze-up. The young and adults leave the
breeding areas for coastal waters following fledging.
Adult loons fed in the lagoons and estuaries of the Beaufort adjacent to
the Canning River Delta (Martin and Moitoret 1981). and by Storkersen Point
(Bergman and Derksen 1977). In the Teshekpuk region, loons fished for white-
fish in large lakes and in pools of beaded streams. In general, Red-throated
Loons are associated with lagoons, estuaries and large lakes in the coastal
region (Salter et al. 1980).
Migration
Red-throated Loons migrate along the coast in the spring, arriving at
their breeding grounds by the second week in June (Johnson et al. 1975). They
were first sited during the first week of June at Icy Cape (Lenhausen and
Quinlan 1981). Peak spring movement at the Canning River Delta occurred during
the first week in June (Martin and Moitoret 1981). Birds rest in overflow
areas adjacent to river deltas until tundra ponds are thawed (Martin and
Moitoret 1981).
Fall migration begins by the end of August and continues through September
(Divoky 1983). They migrated singly or in loosely associated flocks of up to
20 birds and within 0.5 km of the barrier islands past Icy Cape (Lenhausen and
Quinlan 1981).
Susceptibility
Red-throated Loons feed in either large fresh water lakes or nearshore
lagoons and would be adversely affected by actions that affect their prey
resources. Loons would be most sensitive to contaminant spills in the marine
environment from mid-August to freeze-up as this is the period of greatest
congregation in nearshore waters (Divoky 1983).
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Pacific Loon (Gavia arctica)
Distribution and Status
Pacific Loons are common breeders on the Arctic Coastal Plain (King 1979,
Derksen et al. 1981, Divoky 1983). They are more abundant than Red-throated
Loons in most areas, such as, Demarcation Bay (Dixon 1943), Okpilak River Delta
(Spindler 1978), Canning River Delta (Martin and Moitoret 1981), ~torkersen
Point (Bergman et al. 1977), at inland locations in the National Petroleum
Reserve-Alaska (King 1979, Derksen et al. 1981). and at Icy Cape (Lenhausen and
Quinlan 1981). Reported nesting densities are: 0.55/km2 in 1979 and 0.75/km2
in 1980 for the Canning River Delta (Martin and Moitoret 1981).
Breeding Biology
Pacific Loons generally nest on islands surrounded by deep water or
Arctophila fulva in lakes with fish (Derksen and Bergman 1977, Lenhausen and
Quinlan 1981. Martin and Moitoret 1981). The birds move from the nearshore to
tundra lakes as soon as sufficient melt water is available in the lakes for
take-off and landings (Petersen 1979). Nests are mounds made from the surround-
ing vegetation and are not concealed. A clutch is usually two eggs. Hatching
success is strongly influenced by predation; on the Yukon-Kuskokwim River
Delta, 95 percent of the nests in 1974 and 68 percent of the nests in 1975 were
destroyed by predators. The adults and young feed on small fish and inverte-
brates in their lake and will move between lakes, presumably when the food
becomes depleted. Some adults will forage in the lagoons and bring fish back
to the young. Use of lagoons sharply increases in August as failed breeders
then family groups move to the lagoons prior to migration (Derksen and Bergman
1977, Petersen 1979).
Migration
Spring migration of Pacific Loons occurs from early to mid-June. They
arrive in the Beaufort prior to breakup on the tundra and rely on the meltwater
off river deltas for resting and feeding (Martin and Moitoret 1981). Pacific
Loons are not as dependent on the flaw-leads in the Chukchi and Beaufort as are
Yellow-billed Loons, which may reflect a later spring migration (Divoky 1983).
Fall migration peaks in mid-September (Lenhausen and Quinlan 1981, Divoky
1983). Migration in the Beaufort is scattered across a large front, with many
birds travelling over the pelagic zone (Divoky 1983). The loons migrated as
individuals or in small flocks of up to 10 birds flying low over the water and
near the barrier islands (Lenhausen and Quinlan 1981).
Susceptibility
Pacific Loons are most susceptible to spills in the nearshore waters of
the Beaufort Sea in late August and early September when they are concentrated
prior to migration (Oivoky 1983). On the tundra, movement between lakes is
important for family groups to ensure access to a sufficient food supply; loons
may therefore be adversely affected by structures or activities that restrict
these movements. The sensitivity of Pacific Loons to noise and disturbance is
4
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unknown; however, activities that flush adults from their nests exposes the
eggs to predation. Adults may remain off their nests for long periods after
being disturbed (Petersen 1979).
Yellow-billed Loon (Gavia adamsii)
Distribution and Status
The Yellow-billed Loon is an uncommon breeding species across most of the
North Slope. Exceptions are the Colville River Delta, where it is a common
breeder (North et al. 1983) and the Alaktak area (80 km south of Barrow) where
it is a fairly common breeder. Breeding has been reported in several interior
coastal plain and foothills region sites; in the National Petroleum Reserve-
Alaska (Derksen et al. 1979), near Franklin Bluffs (Sage 1971), in the Lake
Schrader area, and in the Killik River valley (Irving 1960).
Non-breeding birds use coastal lagoons beginning in mid-July (Schmidt
1973, Martin and Moitoret 1981, Johnson et al. 1983). Isolated birds have been
reported in the Brooks Range region as well (summarized in Martin and Moitoret
1981).
Breeding Biology
Two studies of breeding Yellow-billed Loons have been conducted on the
Arctic Coastal Plain, on the Colville River Delta (North et al. 1983) and at
Alaktak (Sjolander and Agren 1976). Loons nest on deep-open lakes (Classes IV
and V in the Bergman system [Bergman et al. 1977]). Pairs that nest in small
Class IV wetlands moved to larger Class V lakes for brood rearing as soon as
the young hatch. Nesting lakes at Alaktak ranged from 20 ha to 150 ha. The
adults are territorial and seldom leave the nesting areas. Nests are small
mounds built of surrounding vegetation. Incubation takes 27 to 29 days and is
performed by both adults. The clutch consists of two eggs; generally only one
survives to fledging. The young swim within a day of hatching. They are
initially brooded at the nest, then occasionally along the shore for the first
9 or 10 days. The parents feed the young small fish caught in the lake. The
young are unable to fly until 10 or 11 weeks of age.
Migration
Yellow-billed Loons migrate east along the Beaufort Coast in late May and
June (Johnson et al. 1975, Salter et al. 1980) and spring migration has been
observed through Anaktuvuk Pass as well (Irving 1960). Migrants are found in
leads off the major river deltas by the first week in June, where they remain
until the rivers and lakes break up (Johnson et al. 1975). Little is known of
the fall migration pattern but the main fall movement is thought to occur
during the latter part of September and early part of October (Lenhausen and
Quinlan 1981, Divoky 1983). Yellow-billed Loons arrive in their wintering
areas in Southeast Alaska in late October (Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959).
5
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Susceptibility
Yellow-billed Loons use flaw leads in the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas during
spring migration (Divoky 1983). They would be most susceptible to an oil spill
in a lead during this time as the amount of open water is restricted. They
also dive for their prey, which increases their susceptibility as they may dive
through or surface in a spill.
Two geographic areas where Yellow-billed Loons are susceptible to impacts
are the Colville River Delta and Alaktak, where they are common and fairly
common breeders, respectively. The degree of sensitivity to noise and disturb-
ance is unknown. They are likely to be sensitive to contaminants as family
groups depend entirely on their large lake during the nesting and brood rearing
period.
Tundra Swan (Cygnus columbianus)
Distribution and Status
Tundra Swans breed across the Arctic Coastal Plain into the Northwest
Territories, Canada. Within this broad region, maximum densities occur between
the Anderson River and Mackenzie River Deltas and the lowest densities along
the Alaskan North Slope and east of the Anderson River Delta (Johnson et ale
1975). Tundra Swans are considered an uncommon breeder in the Arctic National
Wildlife Refuge (Spindler et ale 1984, Miller et ale 1985), although concentra-
tion areas have been noted on the Canning-Tamayariak River Delta and the
Aichilik River Delta (Brackney et ale 1985b). Nesting densities in ANWR ranged
from 0.02 pairs/km2 to 0.14 pairs/km2 in 1983 and 0.03 to 0.18 pairs/km2 in
1984, with the highest densities on the Aichilik River Delta, and a total of 78
and 100 nests in 1983 and 1984, respectively. Aerial surveys of the NPR-A in
1977 and 1978 found the highest densities (0.4/km2) adjacent to the Colville
River Delta and south of Dease Inlet (King 1979), High nesting densities of
swans occur on the Colville River Delta, 0.22 pairs/km2 and 0.18 pairs/km2 in
1982 and 1983, respectivley; 59 nests were found in 1983 (Hawkins 1983). The
Colville Delta is the largest swan concentration area on the Alaskan North
Slope.
Breeding Biology
Tundra Swans do not begin breeding until five or six years of age. Groups
of nonbreeding swans have been observed along the coast of the Yukon Territory,
notably along river deltas (Johnson et ale 1975). Nonbreeding flocks also
occurred near the Meade River Delta (Derksen et ale 1981). Nonbreeding swans
began arriving on the Colville River Delta by the end of June and may have been
competing with nesting swans for habitat as aggressive encounters were fre-
quently observed (Hawkins 1983). Swans may traditionally use nesting terri-
tories and may use previous nests; 20.6 percent of the nests found on the
Colville Delta in 1983 were in nests used in 1982 (Hawkins 1983). Swans arrive
on the nesting grounds prior to breakup and were defending territories on the
Colville River Delta by May 24, 1983. Nests are built of moss and peat clumps,
grass, weed stalks, feathers and down, and are large. Nests on the Colville
Delta are usually on raised areas in moist graminoid meadows at the junction
6
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of polygon rims. The number of Tundra Swans in the Yukon Kuskokwim River Delta
was related to the linear miles of lake shoreline, number of lakes, and number
of small islands (King and Hodges 1981). Clutches are usually three to five
eggs (3.59 mean clutch size on the Colville Delta in 1983). Incubation takes
about 30 to 40 days (Johnson et al. 1975) and the peak of hatching occurs in
late June and early July. Broods are raised in large wetlands or lake com-
plexes with stands of Arctophila fulva, which provides food and cover for the
young (Derksen et al. 1981). The young fledge by mid-September, Just prior to
fall migration.
Migration
Tundra Swans move to the North Slope in the spring following overland
routes. Sladen (1973) suggests that at least some of the population winters
along the Atlantic coast and migrates directly across the continent to the
Mackenzie River Valley. Birds may also travel along other major drainages,
e.g., the Porcupine, Yukon, and Koyukuk Rivers (Irving 1960). The majority of
swans observed during spring migration by Johnson et al. (1975), at the Canning
Delta (Margin and Moitoret 1981). and the Colville Delta (Hawkins 1983) were
traveling west. Only a few individuals were observed at Icy Cape (Lenhausen
and Quinlan 1981). Swans arrive at the breeding grounds by the end of May and
appear to arrive in the vicinity of the Mackenzie River Delta before arriving
at areas-to the east or west (Johnson et al. 1975). Fall migration is the
reverse of spring migration beginning in mid to late September, depending on
the weather (Johnson et al. 1975). Fall migration past Komakuk peaked between
25 and 27 September in 1973.
Susceptibility
Incidental reports of nest desertions indicate Tundra Swans may be
adversely affected by human activity (summarized in Bartels et al. 1983).
Desertions were related to helicopter traffic near nests. Concentration areas,
such as river deltas where nesting concentrations are highest, are most suscept-
ible to disturbance. Areas that should be avoided by extensive air traffic and
other types of disturbance are the Colville, Canning-Tamayariak, and the
Aichilik River Deltas. Of these, the Colville is the largest and has the
greatest number of regularly breeding birds.
A Tundra Swan habitat model is being developed by FWS for the Prudhoe Bay
region. The model is limited in that it is based on information gathered
primarily on the Colville River Delta, which is physically and biologically
different from the Prudhoe region. Major model assumptions are: (1) reproduc-
tive habitat suitability is a function of nest site, feeding, and brood habitat
suitability and that all three factors are equally important; (2) all non-
wetland cover types have some value as potential nest sites if they are within
a reasonable distance of suitable feeding and brood rearing wetlands; and (3)
disturbance zones are subjective estimates.
7
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Greater White-fronted Goose (Anser albifrons)
-
Distribution and Status
Greater White-fronted Geese have a circumpolar distribution and occur
commonly along the North Slope, although they nest in low numbers (Johnson et
al. 1975, Salter et al. 1980). High nesting densities have been recorded only
at the Colville River Delta where the overall nesting density was ~.29/km2;
densities at four colony sites were 6.6/km2, 3.4/km2, 2.8/km2, and 2.5/km2
(S impson 1983). Bergman et a 1. (1977) cons idered them common in the Prudhoe
Bay area although they occurred in low numbers and over 90 percent of the birds
present in June were non-breeders. Nesting densities in the Prudhoe Bay area
are low, only three nests were found in a 63 km2 study area in 1985 (Murphy et
al. 1986). White-fronts are a common spring and fall migrant across the ANWR
although little nesting has been observed (Salter et al. 1980, Martin and
Moitoret 1981, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1982). Groups of molting geese
occur allover the North Slope but high concentrations occur only in the
Teshekpuk Lake area (King 1970, 1979; Derksen et al. 1981).
Breeding Biology
Greater White-fronted Geese nest either singly or in loose colonies. The
birds arrive on the breeding grounds already paired and are often accompanied
by offspring from the previous year. Nesting begins in late Mayor the first
half of June depending on snow melt. These geese are determinate layers (they
can not replace a clutch if it is lost) and clutch size is usually from 5 to 7.
Sub-adults help guard the nest during early incubation but leave during the
latter part. Incubation takes from 23 to 28 days. Upon hatching, young are
led directly to water, usually beaded streams or lakes (Derksen et al. 1981).
Both adults remain with the brood and molt during the brood rearing period.
Family groups often join in large groups around lakes. Fledging occurs during
mid-August. The geese do not make a pronounced shift to the coast prior to
migration (Johnson et al. 1975. 8ellrose 1976, Derksen et al. 1981, Troy
1985 a) .
On the Colville River Delta, most nests were on polygon rims, particularly
in areas of high nest density. Family groups often joined to form larger
groups for brood rearing. Hatching success over three years ranged from 50.0
percent to 59.4 percent. Arctic foxes were the primary predator (Markon et al.
1982, Simpson 1983).
Migration
Spring migration seems to be primarily overland with birds following major
drainages through interior Alaska. Major routes seem to be along the Yukon,
Koyukuk, Kobuk, and Noatak Rivers (Johnson et al. 1975, Salter et al. 1980).
Low numbers were seen during spring migration watches at Icy Cape (Lenhausen
and Quinlan 1981) and at Peard Bay (Gill et al. 1985), which supports the
interior migration routes. White-fronts are an uncommon spring migrant along
the ANWR coast (Martin and Moitoret 1981, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1982).
Fall migration follows a broad front to the east across the Arctic Coastal
8
-------
Plain (Johnson et al. 1975, Salter et al. 1980, Derksen et al. 1981). They are
a common fall migrant in the ANWR (Martin and Moitoret 1981, U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service 1982).
Susceptibility
Greater White-fronted Geese may be most affected by disturbance in areas
where they concentrate, the nesting concentrations on the Colvill~ River Delta
and the molting concentrations in the Teshekpuk Lake area. Management recom-
mendations for the Teshekpuk Lake area have repeatedly stressed complete
protection of the area from development due to its importance to all the
species of geese (Derksen et al. 1979a, Derksen et al. 1979b, Derksen et al.
1981, Gilliam and Lent 1982).
In a study of disturbance effects on geese in the Prudhoe Bay area, Murphy
et al. (1986) found that Greater White-fronted Geese displayed more alert
behavior near roads and more resting behavior at distances greater than 300 m
from roads. The observations are based on a small sample and the authors
suggest that the difference in behavior patterns may be related to the distri-
bution of feeding and resting habitat with relation to the road.
Snow Goose (Chen caerulescens)
Distribution and Status
Snow Geese historically may have been common nesters along the arctic
coast and it has been suggested that introduced reindeer and their herders may
have destroyed the nesting areas (Bailey 1948, Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959).
Records of the geese are not substantive and it is possible that early sitings
were of Glaucous Gulls (Johnson et al. 1985). Currently, the only breeding
colony of Snow Geese along the Alaskan coast is on Howe Island, in the outer
portion of the Sagavanirktok River delta, which has between 50 and 100 breeding
pairs (Gavin 1979, 1980, Johnson et a1. 1985). Incidental nesting has been
reported for the Colville River delta and the Smith Bay-Teshekpuk Lake area
(King 1979).
Immigration into the Howe Island colony is low and it appears to be
relatively discreet from other, larger colonies in Canada and Siberia (Johnson
et al. 1985). Geese from the Canadian colonies that nest on Kendall Island,
Anderson River Delta and Banks Island stage on the ANWR in fall (Koski 1975,
Garner and Reynolds 1983, Soindler 1983. 1984, Brackney et al. 1985a). Snow
Geese from all nesting colonies have on occasion been recorded molting in the
Teshekpuk Lake area (Derksen et al. 1979b).
Breeding Biology
Snow Geese arrive mated in the spring and can lay eggs upon arrival,
weather permitting. Eggs are usually laid within one to two weeks of arrival.
Clutches range from 3 to 5. Snow Geese are determinate layers and lack the
ability to replace lost clutches. Nests are placed on high sites near salt-
water. Extreme temperatures, either high or low, during incubation and
hatching reduce productivity (Cooke et a1. 1981). Incubation takes 20 to 22
9
-------
days. Brood rearing takes place in nearby wetlands, usually in traditional
areas, and family groups join to form large flocks. Salt marshes and marsh!
pond complexes are preferred feeding areas. Adults molt during the brood
rearing period. (Johnson et al. 1975, Bellrose 1976, Cooke et al. 1981, Troy
1985b) .
Birds on Howe Island move off the island to the Saqavanirktok River delta
immediately following hatching. The delta, within 6 km south of t~e island,
receives most use during brood rearing. Densities in brood rearing areas are
lower for the Howe Island birds than at other colonies and the Howe Island
birds seem to have low fidelity to specific brood rearing areas (Johnson et al.
1985 ).
Productivity of the western arctic population (the Canadian colonies) has
been estimated during aerial surveys of the fall staging birds. Production
peaked in 1973 with productivity estimated at 119 percent. Low years recorded
were 1979 and 1980 with an estimated 3.1 percent productivity. 1982 was a low
year for Howe Island, less than 25 percent of the total population were young
of the year compared with greater than 50 percent recorded for 1980 through
1984 (excluding 1982) (Johnson et al. 1985, Troy 1985b).
Migration
Spring migration is slow and follows the progress of snow-melt on the
Canadian Prairies and up the Mackenzie River. Birds arrive on their breeding
grounds in mid- to late May (Johnson et al. 1975. Salter et al. 1980). Fall
migration of the Howe Island birds, as evidenced from band recoveries and
resightings of neck-collared birds, proceeds south through the Canadian
prairies. They winter in both the Sacramento and Rio Grande valleys (Johnson
et a 1. 1985).
Fall staging on the ANWR takes place in late August and early September.
Birds from Banks Island, Anderson River delta and Kendall Island spread out
across the coastal plain, primarily to feed prior to migration. In years of
bad weather, the geese may not move past the Mackenzie River delta. Use of the
ANWR has ranged from 0 (1975) to over 300,000 (1978) (U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service 1982, Spindler 1984)-
Susceptibil ity
Breeding Snow geese flushed 0.8 to 2.4 km ahead of helicopters and took up
to 45 minutes to return to their nests (Barry and Spencer 1976). Predation by
gulls and jaegers increased while the birds were off their nests. Staging
birds flushed up to 3000 m from aircraft and flushed at greater distances when
the craft was below 300 m (Salter and Davis 1974). Davis and Wisely (1974)
found staging birds flushed at greater distances from helicopters but remained
disturbed longer following fixed-wing craft. Howe Island was abandoned in
1977, probably due heavy helicopter traffic (Gavin 1980, Johnson et al. 1985).
Howe Island is adjacent to an offshore develoDment, the Endicott Project,
and may be subject to increased levels of disturbance. Productivity of the
colony has been adversely affected by weather (1982) as well as helicopter
traffic (Johnson et al. 1985). During the brood rearing period, flocks have
10
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moved across roads and through the edge of the developed oilfield (in the
Lisburne area) (Johnson et al. 1985, Murphy et al. 1986). Densities in the
brood rearing areas are low in comparison to other colonies, brood rearing site
fidelity is low, and energetic requirement estimates indicate that sufficient
delta wetlands will be available for brood rearing even if the Endicott Road
and causeway prevent the geese from reaching the eastern delta (Johnson et al.
1985). With the information available, it appears that the Howe Island colony
is susceptible to disturbance during the nesting period and less ~$ceptible
during the brood rearing period.
Brant (Branta bernicla)
Distribution and Status
Brant breed along the Beaufort coast, qenerally in colonies. In NPR-A,
brant were found breeding near the Meade River Delta and in the Teshekpuk
region but not at the southern edge of the coastal plain. Derksen et al.
(1981) suggest brant may not breed further than 40 km inland along the Arctic
Coastal Plain. Brant regularly nest on four islands in the eastern Colville
Delta; 242 nests were counted in 1982 and 293 nests in 1983 (Simpson et al.
1982, Renken et al. 1983). Considered an uncommon breeder in basin-complex
wetlands in ANWR, a small colony of 15 pairs was found at the Okpilak River
Delta in 1981 but not in 1982 (Spindler et al. 1984). Single pairs with broods
have been reported at the Canning River Delta (Martin and Moitoret 1981) and
have been listed as rare breeders at the Jago Delta (Miller et al. 1985). A
small colony regularly breeds near Prudhoe Bay (Bergman et al. 1977) and brant
with young have been sighted in the Kuparuk region.
Brant are common to abundant migrants along the Beaufort coast and have
been observed traveling along inland routes during spring migration (Martin and
Moitoret 1981). Fall migration seems confined to the coast and Brant are
common to abundant in coastal wetlands in the fall (Johnson et al. 1975, Salter
et al. 1980, Derksen et al. 1981, Martin and Moitoret 1981).
Large concentrations of non-breeding brant and failed breeders molt in the
vicinity of Teshekpuk Lake (Derksen et al. 1979b, Derksen et al. 1982). Approx-
imately 20,000 and 30,000 molting brant were in the region in 1977 and 1978
respectively. An estimated 20 percent of the world population of Brant molt in
this area (Gilliam and Lent 1982). Peak use of the molting area occurred on 24
July 1978 and most birds had departed by 5 August (Derksen et al. 1981).
Molting concentrations of hundreds of birds were recorded in Kasegaluk Lagoon,
near Icy Cape, in 1981 (Lenhausen and Quinlan 1981).
Breeding Biology
Brant nest in Arctophila fulva wetlands (Class IV) and prefer to nest on
islands away from predators (Johnson et al. 1975, Bergman et al. 1977). Nests
are shallow scrapes lined with down. In general, clutches consist of four to
eight eggs and incubation takes approximately 24 days. Clutches ranged from
one to six on the Colville Delta in 1983 with a mean of 3.8 and mode of 4.0.
Brant are determinate layers and will not renest if the first attempt fails.
Brant generally are not able to defend their nests from foxes (Mickelson 1975,
11
-------
J. Helmericks pers. comm.). Adults with broods move from Class IV wetlands to
deep open lakes or to tidal sloughs and flats (Mickelson 1975, Bergman et ale
1977, Derksen et ale 1981). Adults molt during the brood rearing period and
are flightless for about three weeks.
Brant feed in salt marshes during migration (Kiera 1984), primarily on
Carex subspathacea and Puccinellia phryganodes. Kiera (1984) estimated food
intake at 283 g dry weight of vegetatlon/day and that geese foraged about 77
percent of the day. Use of salt marshes by Brant coincides with peak produc-
tion of the salt marsh.
Migration
Brant congregate in Izembek Lagoon in late April. Migration continues
north along the coast to the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, where many birds are
thought to leave the coast and migrate overland along the Yukon River and
through Anaktuvuk Pass (Irving 1960, Johnson et ale 1975). Others continue
north to the Kobuk and Noatak Rivers and follow these overland, presumably
crossing the Brooks Range and traveling down the Colville River. Some continue
north along the coast, passing around Pt. Barrow. Only small numbers of birds
passed Icy Cape prior to mid-June in 1980, supporting the idea of overland
migration routes (Lenhausen and Quinlan 1981). In a review of historical
evidence, Cade (1955) found conclusive evidence that Brant migrate overland
through the Yukon Basin during spring, but not in the fall. Brant arrive along
the Beaufort coast during the first week in June, with some incidental records
of birds during the last week in May (Johnson et ale 1975, Salter et ale 1980).
Migration in the Beaufort region follows a broad front along the coast with
many flocks seen nearshore (Salter et ale 1980). Low numbers of birds were
observed migrating past Oliktok Point during spring migration watches (Johnson
and Richardson 1981). Large numbers passed the Canning River between 30 May
and 8 June in 1980 (Martin and Moitoret 1981). Brant were considered a common
spring migrant the first week of June at Okpilak Delta in 1982 (Spindler et ale
1983) but not in 1983, although the lack of observations in 1984 probably
reflect the late start (June 12) of the field camp (Moitoret et ale 1985).
They were a common spring migrant at Sadlerochit Delta and a fairly common
migrant at Jago Delta in 1984 (Miller et al. 1985).
From mid-June to mid-July, an estimated 35,000 Brant passed Icy Cape
(Lenhausen and Quinlan 1981). These were presumed non-breeders on their way to
Teshekpuk for molting.
Fall migration seems confined along the coast and birds are rarely seen
inland (Johnson et ale 1975, Salter et ale 1980). Migration begins the second
or third week in August, although some birds remain along the coast until
September. Migration was noted past the Canning River during the third week of
August in 1979 and was confined to a narrow band along the coast. Fall migra-
tion was not observed in 1980 prior to camp closure the first week of September.
Strong west winds prevailed during the latter part of August and incidental
observations at Barter Island indicated that a heavy migration occurred when
east winds resumed in early September (Martin and Moitoret 1981). Birds during
fall migration are thought to wait in coastal salt marshes for favorable wind
12
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conditions. Fall migration at Icy Cape peaked between 4 and 15 September 1980.
Most birds flew down Avak Inlet, bypassing Icy Cape. Salt marshes were used
extensively for feeding and resting (Lenhausen and Quinlan 1980).
Susceptibility
Local concentrations of Brant on the North Slope include coastal salt
marshes during migration, Teshekpuk region for molting, and a few -larqe nesting
colonies (south of Camp Lonely, western portion of Teshekpuk Lake and north-
eastern portion of the Colville Delta).
Coastal salt marshes are a limited and important habitat for Brant during
migration (Derksen et ale 1979, Connors et"al. 1983, Johnson et ale 1983, Kiera
1984). Brant use may be approching the carrying capacity of the salt marshes
(Kiera 1984) and the ability of other areas to absorb displaced birds seems
unlikely. As they are low-lying areas, salt marshes are susceptible to oil
spills in the marine environment.
The molting area at Teshekpuk is a uniaue area used by a significant
portion (an estimated 20 percent; Gilliam and Lent 1982) of the world Brant
population. Brant are sensitive to aircraft overflights during molt, display-
ing intense escape behavior. Activities that alter water levels in the
wetlands could decrease their value for feeding. Brant are also sensitive to
human disturbance during the molting period (Derksen et ale 1979, Derksen et
ale 1982, Gilliam and Lent 1982).
Brant are sensitive to disturbance during nesting and brood rearing.
Activity near nesting colonies may drive adults off nests, exposing the eggs to
predation by gulls and foxes. Colonies are particularly susceptible to disturb-
ance as large numbers of nesters may be affected (Gililam and Lent 1982).
Canada Goose (Branta canadensis)
Distribution and Status
Two nesting populations of Canada Geese occur along the Arctic Coastal
Plain, in the Prudhoe Bay area, and along the Colville River (Kessel and Cade
1958, Gavin 1980). An estimated 200 to 300 pairs nest along the Colville River
(Kessel and Cade 1958) and nestinq densities ranqing between 0.32/km2 and
0.73/km2 have been reported for the Prudhoe Bay area (Murphy et ale 1986).
Nesting densities on the Canning River were 0.25/km2 and 0.30/km2 in 1979 and
1980, respectively (Martin and Moitoret 1981). Canada Geese are considered
uncommon breeders in the ANWR (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1982). Molting
concentrations are recorded for the Teshekouk Lake area (approximately 10,000
birds; Dirksen et ale 1981) and the Sagavanirktok River Delta (approximately
100 birds; Troy 1984). Salter et ale (1980) consider Canada Geese uncommon
spring and fall migrants along the Beaufort Sea coast.
13
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Breeding Biology
In Prudhoe Bay, Canada Geese nest on small islands in lakes and ponds
(Gavin 1980, Troy 1985b, Murphy et al. 1986). Geese along the Colville River
nest on cliff ledges. The young tumble down the cliffs shortly after hatching
and brood rearing takes place along the river (Kessel and Cade 1958). Clutch
size ranges from 4 to 8 and incubation takes between 24 and 30 days (Bellrose
1976). Geese remained paired throughout the breeding season. The male helps
guard the nest but the female does all of the incubation (Johnson et al. 1975,
Troy 1984). The geese are able to defend the nest from most predators but the
nest is left when the female feeds and eggs are subject to predation (Murphy et
al. 1986).
Family groups move to large wetland complexes for brood rearing and the
adults molt during the brood rearing period. Several families may form a group
during this period. Sedges are the primary food, which the young supplement
with insects picked off the vegetation (Johnson et al. 1975, Troy 1984).
Migration
Canada Geese arrive on the North Slope during the last two weeks in May
(Johnson et al. 1975, Salter et al. 1980). Studies at Icy Cape and at Peard
Bay noted few Canada Geese during spring migration watches and conclude that
the majority of migrants follow inland routes along the Mackenzie River and
other major North Slope drainages (Lenhausen and Quinlan 1981, Gill et al.
1985). A westward molt migration of non-breeding birds and failed breeders to
the Teshekpuk Lake area begins in late June and early July (Derksen et al.
1981, Margin and Moitoret 1981). Fall migration begins in late August and
continues through mid-September. Birds either move east to the Mackenzie River
and then south to the overwintering areas in New Mexico, Texas, and Mexico or
migrate straight south to overwintering areas along the Arctic Flyway (Johnson
et ale 1975, Troy 1985b).
Suscept ib i1 ity
Canada Geese are usually able to successfully defend their nests from
predators, however, disturbances that flush the birds from their nests leave
the nest vulnerable to predation, notably by Glaucous Gulls (Mickelson 1975,
Murphy et a1. 1986). Nests within 100 m of roads in the Prudhoe Bay area were
not successful, while those 100 to 200 m from roads were the most successful
(Murphy et a1. 1986).
Northern Pintail (Anas acuta)
Distribution and Status
The majority of Northern Pintails on Alaska's North Slope are non-
breeders, although they are a regular breeder (Pitelka 1974, King 1979,
and Eldridge 1980). At Point Storkersen, an estimated 50-75 .Der~ent of
pintails present were non-breeders (Bergman et ale 1977). Plntalls are
Derksen
the
gener-
14
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ally considered a rare breeder on the ANWR (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
1982), although they were a common breeder on the Okpilak River Delta
(Spindler and Miller 1983).
Northern Pintails are abundant during drought years in the Prairie
Potholes region (Derksen and Eldridge 1980). An estimated 6 percent of the
continental population summered on the North Slope in 1977. Usually, females
outnumber males, but in drought years the ratio is nearly equal. ~hen breed-
ing, females molt on the breeding grounds while the males always leave and molt
elsewhere.
No breeding was observed at Icy Cape althouoh non-breeders remained
throughout the summer (Lenhausen and Quinlan 1981). Densities at Icy Cape were
high in 1980 (6.3/km2 on the tundra), which may reflect drought conditions on
the prairies that year (Lenhausen and Quinlan 1981).
Breeding Biology
Egg laying begins in mid-June and clutch size ranges from 7 to 10.
Females do all of the incubation, which lasts 22 to 24 days. Fledging takes
place by September and fall migration immediately follows (Gabrielson and
Lincoln 1959, Johnson et al. 1975). Pintails preferred basin complexes and
shallow Arctophila wetlands for molting. Arctophila and sedges in these
wetlands provided cover for the birds and feeding was their primary activity
(Bergman et al. 1977). Troy (1985a) found pintails preferred wet tundra/
strangmoor, Arctophila wetlands, and impoundments. Numbers of pintails decline
during the middle of the summer, then increase prior to fall migration. The
decline may be due to molting birds being secretive (Derksen et al. 1979a,
Lenhausen and Quinlan 1981).
Migration
Northern Pintails follow the Arctic and Central Flyways and follow several
routes to the North Slope: the Mackenzie River drainage, through interior
Alaska and across the Brooks Range, and some follow the coast. They arrive by
the end of May and are one of the first ducks to reach the North Slope (Johnson
et al. 1975, Salter et al. 1980, Lehnhausen and Quinlan 1981, U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service 1982). Fall migration also follows a broad front and a major
movement of pintails to the east was noted at the Canning River Delta between
14 and 20 August (Martin and Moitoret 1981).
Susceptibility
The Arctic Coastal Plain is important to Northern Pintails during drought
years in the Prairie Potholes (Derksen and Eldridge 1980). Within the region,
pintails are wide-spread and use a variety of habitats (Bergman et al. 1977,
King 1979). Along a lightly travelled road in Prudhoe Bay, pintails preferred
impoundments, which are the most extensive type of development impact (Troy
1985a). It appears that pintails as a population would not be susceptible to
development except for massive oilspills or other wetland contamination.
15
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Common Eider (Somateria mollissima)
Distribution and Status
Common Eiders breed along portions of the Beaufort coast, primarily on
barrier islands (Johnson et ale 1975, Salter et al. 1980). They are common
breeders in the Jones Islands and Prudhoe Bay area, notably on Cross, Egg,
Thetis and Pole Islands (Divoky 1983). They are an uncommon breeder alonq the
ANWR coast, but are common in the lagoons during molt (US Fish and Wildlife
Service 1982).
Breeding Biology
Common Eiders prefer to nest on islands and spits that offer some protec-
tion from Arctic foxes (Gollop and Richardson 1974, Johnson et ale 1975,
Schamel 1977). Nesting begins after a moat forms around the island, breaking
any connection with the land (Schamel 1977). Nests are often placed in associ-
ation with gulls. Most nesting is colonial or semi-colonial and nests are
placed in sites that offer some protection from wind and sea spray. commonly
amongst driftwood. Clutches range from 1 to 10 with an average of 4. Incuba-
tion takes 28 to 30 days and is done exclusively by the females. The females
do not feed during incubation. Young are led straight to water upon hatching
and suffer heavy mortality from gulls while travelling from the nest to the
lagoon. Brood rearing is done in groups, termed creches, where one female
guards several broods. Fledging occurs approximately 8 weeks after hatching.
Males leave when incubation begins and migrate to molting areas near Icy Cape
and Point Lay (Johnson et ale 1975, Schamel 1977, Johnson and Richardson 1981,
Divoky 1983, Troy 1985b).
Migration
Common Eiders winter in the Bering Sea, near the ice edge. Similar to
King Eiders, they migrate north following the lead from the Bering Strait to
Barrow. They pass Barrow in early June (Divoky 1983). In years of severe
spring weather, massive die-offs have been recorded (Barry 1968). Common
Eiders also follow off-shore leads in the Beaufort Sea and are not seen along
the coast between Barrow and Cape Dalhousie (Johnson et ale 1975, Salter et ale
1980, Divoky 1983).
Males migrate west to molt near Point Lay and Icy Cape beginning by the
end of June and continue through July. Most males have left the Beaufort Sea
by the end of August. Females and young head west at the end of August and in
early September. They pass Barrow until the end of October. Westward migra-
tion follows a path between the outer edge of the barrier islands and the 20 m
isobath (Divoky 1983).
16
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Susceptibil ity
Common Eiders are susceptible to oilspills in the spring lead between the
Bering Strait and Barrow as they congregate in the lead system during spring
migration (Oivoky 1983). Nesting colonies on Cross, Egg, Pole and Thetis
Islands are also susceptible to disturbance during the nesting season (Divoky
1983 ).
King Eider (Somateria spectabilis)
Distribution and Status
The majority of King Eiders that migrate through the Beaufort Sea, nest in
arctic Canada (Johnson et ale 1975, Salter et ale 1980). They are a common
breeder in the Prudhoe Bay area (Bergman et ale 1977) and an uncommon breeder
in the ANWR (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1982). King Eiders may be excluded
from breeding in some areas by the larger, more aggressive Common Eider
(Schamel 1977).
Breeding Biology
King Eiders mate on breeding areas or just prior to their arrival. They
arrive on their breeding areas in late may and early June (Johnson et ale 1975,
Bergman et ale 1977). Males remain with the females only until the clutch is
started at which time they leave for molting areas. Females do all incubation,
which lasts 22 to 23 days. Young hatch during the second and third weeks in
July. Brood rearing takes place on ponds and lakes, with a lot of movement
between different water bodies (Gabrielson and Lincoln 1958, Johnson et al.
1975 ).
Migration
King Eiders winter in the Bering Sea along the ice edge and near the
Aleutian Islands. Spring migration follows a major lead system from the Bering
Strait north to Barrow. An estimated 800,000 birds passed Barrow in a 30 day
period, with most birds passing between 26 May and 4 June. Males migrate
slightly earlier than females (Oivoky 1983). Relatively few spring migrants
were observed at Icy Cape (Lenhausen and Quinlan 1981) and at Peard Bay (Gill
et al. 1985) due to ice ridges that blocked observation of open leads. Massive
die-offs have been recorded in years with severe spring weather (Barry 1968).
Migrants pass Barrow and head north-east, possibly following leads in the ice
pack as large numbers of birds are not seen along the Beaufort coast between
Barrow and Herschel island during spring (Johnson et al. 1975, Salter et al.
1980, Johnson and Richardson 1981, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1982).
Molt migrations of males begin in the end of June and peak past Barrow in
mid-July (Oivoky 1983). Females and young of the year migrate at the end of
August and beginning of September. Fall migrants remain primarily between the
outer edge of the barrier islands and the 20 m isobath in the Beaufort (Oivoky
1983 ).
17
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Susceptibility
King Eiders are most susceptible in the spring when they are concentrated
in the lead system from the Bering Strait to Barrow (Divoky 1983). Breeding
birds nest in low densities and at a population level that does not seem
susceptible during the nesting season.
Oldsquaw (Clangula hyemalis)
Distribution and Status
OldsQuaw have a circumpolar distribution. They are one of the most common
ducks on the tundra and are common breeders along the Beaufort coast (Johnson
et al. 1975, Salter et al. 1980, Derksen et al. 1981, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service 1982). OldsQuaw are abundant in nearshore lagoons in the Beaufort with
the highest concentrations recorded in Simpson Lagoon (Johnson and Richardson
1981, Divoky 1983). Tney are also abundant during molt in Peard Bay (Gill et
al. 1985) and at Icy Cape (Lenhausen and Quinlan 1981).
Breeding Biology
Oldsquaw nest singly or in loose colonies (Alison 1975). Nesting begins
in mid-June and clutch size ranges from 5 to 8. Females do all of the incubat-
ing, which takes 23 to 26 days (Alison 1975, Johnson et al. 1975). Nests are
usually located near small, non-vegetated ponds and the females lead their
young to water immediately following hatching (Bergman et al. 1977). Females
molt during brood rearing. Communal brood rearing groups form and groups often
move between ponds and lakes (Alison 1976). Fledging takes place by September.
Males depart the tundra by late June and move to lagoons to molt. Large
congregations form in lagoons and peak molt is between mid-July and mid-August.
Along the Beaufort coast, the area south of Flaxman Island and Elson and
Simpson Lagoons consistently have the highest concentrations and numbers of
molting birds (Divoky 1983). During molt, Oldsauaw prey on amphipods and
mysids and take the most abundant species (Johnson and Richardson 1981, Gill et
al. 1985).
Migration
Oldsquaw winter in the Bering Sea and, like the eiders, migrate north
along the lead from the Bering Strait to Barrow. They also follow interior
routes over the Brooks Range. They arrive as soon as open water is available
(Johnson et al. 1975, Salter et al. 1980, Divoky 1983). OldsQuaw pass Icy Cape
and Peard Bay offshore over the open lead, which was largely out of site of
observers (Lenhausen and Quinlan 1981, Gill et al. 1985).
Fall migration continues through September. Birds leave as lagoons
freeze. Migration tends to follow a leap-frog pattern along the coast (Divoky
1983).
18
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Susceptibility
Oldsquaw would be susceptible to oilspills in the nearshore during the
molting period. Susceptibility would be highest during the latter half of July
when the birds are flightless and unable to avoid a spill (Divoky 1983).
Oldsquaw are also susceptible to activities, e.g. docks and causeways, that may
alter lagoon processes and productivity (Johnson and Richardson 1981, Johnson
et a 1. 1983).
Lesser Golden-Plover (Pluvial is dominica)
Distribution and Status
Lesser Golden-Plovers are common breeders on the North Slope. Reported
nesting densities range from 1.3 pairs/km2 at the Canning River delta (Martin
and Moitoret ]981) to 5-10 pairs/km2 in the foothills near Franklin Bluffs
(Jones et al. 1980, Garrot et al. 1981, McCaffrey et al. 1982). Other reported
densities are 2-4 pairs/km2 in Prudhoe Bay and 7.7 pairs/km2 in Barrow. During
fall migration, plovers are more common near the coast than at inland sites
(U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1982, Spindler and Miller 1983, Spindler et al.
1984, Miller et a1. 1985).
Breeding Biology
Ma le Lesser Golden-Plovers have a conspicuous aerial courtship display
accompanied by a two-note call. Males display over large territories, from
5-20 ha in size, and pairing takes place on the territory. Nests are in dry
habitats, either in upland areas or dry microsites of wet areas. Clutches
consist of four eggs and both adults incubate and care for the young. Males
may assume a majority of parental duties following hatching, allowing the
females more time to feed. Adults leave the tundra and begin migration prior
to the young. The adults do not snow a pronounced coastal shift, although fall
migrants are more common near the coast than inland. The young move towards
the coast and begin migration in mid-August (Martin and Moitoret 1981, Connors
1982, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1982, Connors et a1. 1983, Spindler and
Miller 1983, Spindler et a1. 1984, Miller et al. 1985, Troy 1985b).
Larval chironomids and tipulids are the primary prey during the breeding
season and other surface active insects, notably coleoptera, are also utilized.
Berries (Empetrum nigrum) are eaten both early and late in the season (Baker
1977, Byrkjedal 1980, Connors 1982).
Troy (1985) found that Lesser Golden-Plovers preferred moist and dry
tundra with low-relief, high-centered polygons during the breeding season.
Preferences during the post-breeding season remaiend the same with the addition
of aquatic strangmoor.
19
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Migrati on
Peak arrival on the North Slope is during the first week of June. The
birds that breed along the Beaufort coast winter in South American grasslands
and migrate north along the Central Flyway. Fall migration retraces the spring
route and most birds have left the North Slope by the end of August (Salter et
ale 1980~ Connors 1982~ Troy 1985b).
Suscepti bi lity
Lesser Golden-Plovers are not dependent on coastal habitats duri ng fall
~gration and therefore have a low suscepti~ lity to coastal oilspills (Connors
et ale 1983). As nesting densities are low and plovers are common across the
North Slope~ sensitivity to tundra disturbances should be low (Connors et al.
1983). Troy (1985) showed that plovers did not avoid impoundments along a
lightly traveled road. Densities adjacent to the road were lower than expected
based on habitat avai lability. however densities between 100 and 300 m from the
road were hi gher than expected ~ whi ch su ggests di sp 1 a cement of bi rds to adjacent
areas (Troy 1985a).
Semipalmated Sandpiper (Calidris pusilla)
Distribution and Status
Semipalmated Sandpipers are common breeders across the North Slope and are
often the most abundant breeding shorebird (Pitelka 1974, Norton et al. 1975,
Spindler 1978~ Salter et al. 1980. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1982~
Spindler and Miller 1983, Spindler et al. 1984. Miller et al. 1985). An
average density of 36.7 birds/km2 during the breeding season has been reported
in Prudhoe Bay (Troy 1985).
Breedi ng B io logy
Semipalmated Sandpipers nest in moist upland habitats~ areas that become
snow-free early (Troy 1985b). Males do an aerial display over their terri-
tories and mating takes place on their territories (Ashkenazie and Safrial
1979a). Clutches consist of four eggs, both adults incubae~ and incubation
takes about 21 days. Females feed heavily during the egg laying period
(Ashkenazie and Safriel 1979b). Semipalmated Sandpipers are site tenacious~
returning to the same area (within 100 m) to breed (Hanson and Eberhardt 1981).
Females depart once the eggs are hatched. The males stay with the young,
leading them to food and brooding them when necessary. Once the young have
developed to the point where brooding is no longer necessary~ the males leave.
Young leave as soon as they fledge, usually withi n three weeks of hatching.
Baker (1977) found Semipalmated Sandpipers one of the most selective
feeders in a community of shorebirds. Chironomids and tipulids made up the
majority of their diet (Baker 1977~ Maclean 1980). Hatching coincided with the
peak of adult insect emergence, the time of greatest food availability for the
young as their bills are too soft for probing (Maclean and Pitelka 1971,
Maclean 1980).
20
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In Prudhoe Bay, Semipalmated Sandpipers preferred dry habitats and moist
and wet strangmoor. Preferred nesting habitat was in moist, low-relief,
low-centered polgons and in wet strangmoor (Troy 1985a).
Migration
Arrival on the North Slope generally peaks during the first week in June
and is related to snow melt (Norton et al. 1975, Myers and Pitelk~ 1980, Salter
et al. 1980). Departure occurs in waves with first the females in early July,
males in mid-July, then young by mid-August moving to the coast for staging
prior to fall migration (Connors et al. 1983).
Susceptibility
Semipalmated Sandpipers are common nesters and, in a regional sense, are
not at risk to development, but their site tenacity may make local populations
susceptible to disturbance. Along a lightly traveled road, this species
avoided the road, in particular, they avoided impoundments (Troy 1985a). They
are moderately susceptible to oilspills along the coast due to the staging of
young along the coast prior to fall migration (Connors et al. 1983).
Pectoral Sandpiper (Calidris melanotos)
Distribution and Status
Pectoral Sandpipers are common at Barrow and are widely distributed across
the North Slope (Pitelka 1959, Pitelka 1974). They are a common breeders on
the eastern portion of the Coastal Plain and were the most abundant breeding
shorebird at many of the study sites in the ANWR (Spindler 1978, U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service 1982, Spindler and Miller 1983, Spindler et al. 1984, Miller
et al. 1985).
Breeding Biology
Pectoral Sandpiper males are obvious in the spring with their chest-
inflated, hooting aerial display and prominant perching on hummocks and other
raised sites. Peak of male display occurs during mid-June and territories are
used for pairing, mating, roosting, and sometimes for feeding. Pair bonds are
brief and males may mate with several females. Nests are located on male
territories only incidentally, with females preferring areas with heavy grass
or sedge cover for nest sites. Most clutches (usually four eggs) are laid
during the latter half of June and females do all incubation and parental care.
Males flock and leave the tundra by the first week in July. Females leave
prior to fledging of the young, usually by early August. Birds shift toward
the coast but are not prominent users of the coastline. Pectoral Sandpipers
are noted for their high annual and spatial variability (Pitelka 1959, Myers
and Pitelka 1980, Connors et al. 1983).
21
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In Prudhoe Bay, Pectoral Sandpipers preferred wet tundra/non-patterned
ground, aquatic tundra/non-patterned ground, and aquatic tundra/strangmoor
duMng the breeding season (Troy 1985a).
Mi grat ion
Pectoral Sandpipers arri ve on the North Slope duri ng the latter part of
May and the first week of June (Pitelka 1959, Johnson et ale 1975, Salter et
ale 1980).
Sus cept i bi 1 ity
Pectora 1 Sandpipers do not seem hi gh ly sens i t i ve to d i stu rbance as no
avoidance of a lightly traveled road was observed (Troy 1985a). The same study
demonstrated that the sandpipers used impoundments in proportion to their
availability during the breeding season and preferred impoundments during the
post-breeding season. Coastal susceptibilty to the effects of an off-shore
oilspill is considered low as Pectoral Sandpipers primarily use tundra areas
and not coastal wetlands (Connors et ale 1983).
Buff -breasted Sandpiper (Tryngites subrufi coll is)
Distribution and Status
Buff -breasted Sandpipers are 1 isted as a rare to uncommon mi grant, summer
visitant, and breeder along the Beaufort Sea coast of northern Alaska between
late May and early June, and in late August (Kessel and Gibson 1978). They
were rare at Icy Cape in 1980 (Lenhausen and Quinlan 1981) and classified as an
occasional breeder -- visitant some years and a breeder other years -- at
Barrow (Pitelka 1974). They are uncommon and rare breeders at some inland
sites n Square Lake (Derksen et ale 1981), Aichilik River (r~iller et ale
1985), but common breeders at Franklin Bluffs (Hanson and Eberhardt 1980).
They are common breeders in the Prudhoe Bay region (Troy 1985). Annual varia-
tion has been high at some sites, ranging from uncommon to fairly common
breeder at Jago Delta and Okpilak Delta (Spindler et ale 1983. Moitoret et ale
1984, Miller et al. 1985). They were listed as an uncommon summer visitant at
Sadlerochit Delta (Miller et ale 1984).
Breeding Biology
Buff-breasted Sandpipers have a promiscuous type of mating system (Pitelka
et ale 1974). Males concentrate in small areas -- leks -- to display. Leks at
the Canning River Delta were in drier areas, along lake bluffs and ridges
(Martin and Moitoret 1981). The display behavior consists primarily of wing
flashes, flutter jumps and postures that expose the silver wing linings (Myers
1979). Females visit the leks to mate, then nest alone. Clutches are gener-
ally four eggs. Males presumably leave breeding areas in early July and
females and young leave the latter part of August. Incubation for one nest at
the Canning River Delta was 23 days and hatching occurred during the second and
22
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third weeks in July (Martin and Moitoret 1981). Nests were found in dry upland
tundra sites, in Dryas dominated tundra and in riparian areas (Martin and
Moitoret 1981, Moitoret et ale 1984, Miller et ale 1985).
On the Canning River Delta, the majority of lek activity occurred during
the second and third weeks in June (Martin and Moitoret 1981). An increase in
sitings of males displaying in the first week of July was thought to be a
coastal movement of males following break-up of leks at inland sites.
In the Prudhoe region, Buff-breasted Sandpipers strongly preferred the
following habitat types with these reported densities: moist tundra/low
relief-high centered polygons (13.3/km2), Moist tundra/frost scar (15.9/km2),
and wet tundra/strangmoor (11.0/km2); average density was 6.4/km2 (Troy 1985a).
Migration
Birds migrate through the interior and arrive on the breeding grounds from
the end of May through the first week in June. Males depart the breeding areas
first and may move to the coast prior to migrating south (Johnson et ale 1975,
Salter et ale 1980, Martin and Moitoret 1981).
Susceptibility
Buff-breasted Sandpipers are generally uncommon and do not congregate in
any particular or restricted habitat type and are not considered vulnerable
other than to massive habitat loss or alteration.
Dunlin (Calidris alpina)
Distribution and Status
Dunlin are common breeders at sites along the outer coastal plain from
Barrow through NPR-A (Myers and Pitelka 1980, Derksen et ale 1979a). They are
fairly common breeders in the Prudhoe Bay region (Norton et ale 1975, Hanson
and Eberhardt 1980, Troy 1985a). They are fairly common to uncommon breeders
at inland coastal plain sites (Derksen et ale 1979a). Dunlin decrease in
abundance to the east and are listed as a rare visitor in the Yukon Arctic
Coastal Plain (Salter et al. 1980). They are a fairly common breeder and
migrant at the Canning River Delta, which may be near the eastern limit of
their breeding distribution (Martin and Moitoret 1981). Some breeding has been
reported east of the Canning River at Jago River Delta: courtship flights were
observed in early June and three nests were subsequently found (Miller et ale
1985). Breeding was suspected at the Katakturuk River based on the behavior of
one individual (Moitoret et al. 1984). During migration, Dunlin are uncommon
at Jago River Delta and Katakturuk and are common at Sadlerochit (Miller et ale
1985, Moitoret et ale 1984).
Breeding Biology
Holmes (1966, 1970, and Holmes and Pitelka 1968) studied Dunlin exten-
sively on their breeding grounds in Barrow and at the Kolomak River, in the
west-central portion of the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta. Dunlin arrived on their
23
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breeding grounds in early June during snow-melt. Territories were established
and actively defended until the eggs hatched. All courtship, nesting and
feeding occurred on the territory. Territory size at Barrow was relati vely
constant during four ~ears of census work and ranged from 5.5 to 7.5 ha,
averaging 15 pairs/km. Clutches consisted of four eggs and both adults
incubated (Norton 1972). Eggs were laid by the thi rd week in June and hatched
by the second week in July. The precocial young left the nest soon after
hatching.
Dunlin are insectivorous, feeding primarily on Tipulidae and Chironomidae.
Tipulid larvae are most abundant in the diet in June, adult tipu1idae in early
July and chionomid larvae in August (Holmes 1970). Nesting and foraging during
the early part of the breeding season (June and early July) is on drier, upland
sites. After hatchi ng, family groups move to low lying marshy areas where
chironomid larvae and emerging adults are more numerous. By late July and
early August, adults begin flocking on the tundra, to feed and molt prior to
mi grati on. Juveni 1 es move to the coast as soon as they can fly and feed on
chironomid larvae. Juveniles are somewhat more common in littoral areas than
on the tundra in August (Connors et ale 1983). Dun1in remain along the
Beaufort coast much longer than other shorebi rds.
In Prudhoe Bay, Dun1in preferred moist, wet tundra/low-relief low-centered
polygons. They also preferred moist tundra/strangmoor, wet tundra/strangmoor,
and wet, moist tundra/strangmoor. The highest nesting densities occurred in
rooi st tu ndra /st ran gmoor.
Migration
Dun1in that breed along the west coast of Alaska, on the Yukon-Kuskokwim
Delta and the Seward Peninsula belong to the race C. a1pina pacifica and winter
along the pacific coast of north America. Dun1in that breed along the Beaufort
coast, at Barrow and to the east, belong to the race C. a1pina sakha1ina, and
winter along the Pacific coast of Asia (Maclean and Holmes 1971). The latter
race migrates north along the coast of Asia and crosses the Bering Strait,
arriving on the North Slope in late May and early June. Dun1in migrate in a
series of long flights with few stopovers along the coast (Senner and West
1978). Fall migration retraces spring migration routes.
Suscepti bi 1 ity
Dun1in do not nest in concentrations and the population is therefore not
considered sensitive to development impacts on the tundra. They do concentrate
and depend on food resources in the littoral zone and are considered moderately
at risk to oil spills in the marine environment (Connors et ale 1983). As
Dun1in nesting densities have low annual variability, they may be a useful
indicator species for studies concerned with long term impacts to tundra
wet lands.
24
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Red-necked Phalarope (Phalaropus lobatus)
Distribution and Status
Red-necked Phalaropes are found throughout the circumpolar region. On the
North Slope, they are more common to the east along the coast of the Arctic
National Wildlife Refuge (Salter et al. 1980, Martin and Moitoret 1981,
Spindler and Miller 1983, Spindler et al. 1984, Miller et al. 198&). Densities
reported for Prudhoe Bay were 7.3 birds/km2 and 1.4 nests/km2 (Troy 1985a). In
the fall, Red-necked Phalaropes are less abundant in coastal lagoons and
nearshore areas of the Alaskan Beaufort than are Red Phalaropes (Divoky 1983).
Breeding Biology
Traditional roles are reversed in phalaropes and female Red-necked
Phalaropes are slightly larger and more brightly colored than males. Mating
takes place on the breeding area and the pair bond lasts until the female
completes the clutch and then leaves. Males take over and do all of the
incubation and care of the young. Phalaropes feed in shallow water and along
pond margins. Chironomids are the primary prey (Johnson et al. 1975, Baker
1977, Troy 1985b).
In Prudhoe Bay, Red-necked Phalaropes preferred aquatic tundra/strangmoor,
water/ponds with emergent vegetation and impoundments but avoided water/ponds
without emergent vegetation during the breeding season. No habitat preferences
were demonstrated during the post-breeding season or for nest sites, the latter
may relate to the low number of nests found (Troy 1985a).
Migration
Red-necked Phalaropes arrive on the North Slope in early June. Few were
seen during spring migration at Icy Cape (Lenhausen and Quinlan 1981) and at
Peard Bay (Gill et al. 1985), and they were not common in the Bering Sea lead
(Divoky 1983). Phalaropes stage along the coast in the fall, concentrating in
lagoons and along barrier islands. Red-necked and Red Phalaropes form mixed
flocks, with Red Phalaropes more common along the Alaskan Beaufort than
Red-necked Phalaropes. Large concentrations of phalaropes occur near the
Plover Islands, Pitt Point, and Jones Island/Prudhoe Bay (Divoky 1983).
Copepods and amphipods are the primary food source (Johnson and Richardson
1981, Connors et al. 1983).
Susceptibility
Red-necked Phalaropes occurred in high densities near a lightly traveled
road in Prudhoe Bay, which reflected their selection for impoundments (Troy
1985a). Based on these observations, Red-necked Phalaropes do not seem sensi-
tive to disturbance on the tundra. During fall staging they are susceptible to
oilspills in the marine environment, particularly in areas where they concen-
trate (Connors et al. 1983).
25
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Red Phalaropes (Phalaropus fulicaria)
Distribution and Status
Red Phalaropes occur throughout the circumpolar region (Johnson et ale
1975, Salter et ale 1980, Tracy and Schamel 1982) and are more numerous than
Red-necked Phalaropes along the Alaskan Beaufort. Large between years varia-
tion in abundance has been noted in Barrow and related to snow melt patterns
(Myers and Pitelka 1980). They are a common to abundant breeder near the coast
but are less common inland (Bergman et ale 1977, Derksen et ale 1981, Martin
and Moitoret 1981). In the ANWR, they were common breeders on Okpilak, Jago,
and Canning River deltas, and generally uncommon to rare inland and east of
Barter Island (Spindler and Miller 1983, Spindler et ale 1984, Miller et ale
1985).
Breeding Biology
Females are brightly colored and are larger than the males. Pairing takes
place on the breeding grounds, which is immediately followed by nesting. The
females lay the clutch and depart, leaving the male to incubate and raise the
brood. Females have the potential to lay more than one clutch and can either
replace a lost clutch for a mate or lay a clutch for a second mate. Nests are
located in a variety of areas, generally close to wet sedge marshes that are
primary foraging habitat. Nesting begins later than most other shorebirds
(past mid-June) as the wet habitats are the last to become snow free. Incuba-
tion takes 19 days, fledging 18 to 21 days, and the males stay with the brood
until they are nearly fledged. Foraging is concentrated in aquatic habitats
and chironomids and tipulids are the primary prey (Schamel and Tracy 1977,
Mayfield 1978, Tracy and Schamel 1982).
Phalaropes stage in coastal lagoons and nearshore areas in the fall and
feed on marine copepods and amphipods. Feeding is important for pre-migratory
fat deposition. Foraging patterns in the nearshore seem to depend on zoo-
plankton availability and weather conditions. In a year of low zooplankton
densities, phalaropes fed on under-ice amphipods that became available when ice
piled-up along windward shores. When zooplankton densities were high,
phalaropes foraged along protected shorelines (Johnson and Richardson 1981,
Connors et ale 1983).
Red Phalaropes preferred all types of wet and aauatic habitats in Prudhoe
Bay, including impoundments, during the breeding season. Dry habitats were
avoided, as were lakes with no emergent vegetation. Preferred nesting habitat
was moist, wet tundra/low-relief, low-centered polygons, and wet tundra/non-
patterned ground. No post-breeding habitat preferences were demonstrated (Troy
1985a).
Migration
Red Phalaropes arrive on the North Slope in early June. They are not
common in the Bering Sea lead (Divoky 1983). They were the most commonly
identified shorebird during spring migration at Icy Cape but less than 550
26
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birds were recorded during that period (Lenhausen and Quinlan 1981) and were
the most common shorebird passing Peard Bay (95 percent of the birds during the
peak of migration (Gill et ale 1985).
Phalaropes stage in coastal lagoons and nearshore areas prior to fall
migration~ concentrating around gravel beaches and spits. High pelagic
densities were recorded near the Plover Islands and high nearshore densities
adjacent to the Plover Islands~ Pitt Poi nt areas~ and Jones Islands/Prudhoe
Bay area. Pha 1 a ropes may move westward rapi dly du ri ng mi grati on and congregate
in the Plover Island area prior to moving offshore for the winter (Divoky
1983) .
Susceptibi lity
Red Phalaropes did not show any response to a lightly traveled road in
Prudhoe Bay and preferentially used impoundments during the breeding season
(Troy 1985a). In contrast~ mortality of Red Phalaropes due to powerlines has
been observed in Barrow (Tracy and Schamel 1982). The overall effect on
phalaropes is therefore difficult to jduge but since gravel placement causes
the majority of habitat alteration, it seems likely that susceptibility of Red
Phalaropes to tundra development impacts is low.
Oilspills in the marine environment could affect birds staging in lagoons
either directly or by adversely affecting their prey (Divoky 1983. Connors et
al.1983). In an artificial setting, juvenile phalaropes were exposed to light
oil films on water. The juveniles learned to avoid the oi 1 and the author
tentatively concluded that the phalaropes could learn to avoid spills if non-
polluted alternatives were available (Connors et ale 1983).
Lapland Longspur (Calcarius lapponicus)
DistMbution and Status
Lapland Longspurs have a ci rcumpolar distribution and are one of the most
common breeding birds on Alaska's North Slope. Nest densities range from 15 to
35 nests/km2 (Salter et ale 1980~ Troy 1985a).
Breeding Bi ology
Lapland Longspurs arrive as soon as snow melt begins and are one of the
first birds to initiate nesting (Troy 1985a). Males defend territories with
aeMal song displays (Seastedt and Maclean 1979). Nests are made of woven
grasses and lined with white feathers. A preference for nest sites with a
southern exposure was noted at the Firth and Babbage Rivers in 1972 (Salter et
ale 1980). Clutches usually consist of 5 or 6 eggs and both adults incubate.
Incubation is rapid, 10 or 11 days~ and the female does all of the incubation.
The young are altricial ~ totally dependent upon the adults for food, both
adults help feed. Prey is largely insects and seldom includes seeds, which are
a major component of the adult's diet (Custer and Pitelka 1977 ~ Seastedt and
Maclean 1979). Longspurs fledge when 10 days old, before they are able to fly.
and while still dependent upon the adults for food.
27
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Longspurs nest and feed in a variety of habitats, from dry to fairly wet
providing the wet areas are interspersed with dry sites. Longspurs avoided
impoundments during the nesting season (Troy 1985b).
Longspur nests suffer heavy predation, largely due to Arctic foxes and
jaegers. If a nest is lost early in the season, a pair will renest. Second
clutches are usually smaller (Troy 1984).
Mi grat ion
Lapland Longspurs migrate along the Central Flyway and winter in north-
central North America (Troy 1985b). Spring migration is early with most birds
arriving by the end of May (Salter et ale 1980). Fall migration begins in
August and most longspurs are gone by September (Salter et al. 1980).
Suscept i b il ity
Lapland Longspurs are ubiquitous across the coastal plain and, at a
population level, do not seem at risk from development.
2.
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108-200. In: Garner, G. W., and P. E. Reynolds (eds.L 1983. 1982
Update report, Baseline study of the fish, wildlife, and their habitas.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska. 379 pp.
Spindler, M. A., P. A. Miller, and C. S. Moitoret. 1984. Species accounts of
migratory birds at three study areas on the coastal plain of the Arctic
National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska, 1984. pp. 421-463. In: G. W. Garner
and P. E. Reynolds (eds.). 1983 update report of baseline study of the
fish, wildlife, and their habitats. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Anchorage, Alaska. 614 pp.
Tracy, D. M., and D. Schamel. 1982. Red Phalarope. Unpublished species
account. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/Outer Contin-
ental Shelf Environmental Assessment Program. Juneau, Alaska. 9 pp.
Troy, D. M. 1985a. Tundra Bird Monitoring Program. Annual Report of the
Prudhoe Bay Waterflood Environmental Monitoring Program, U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers, Alaska District, Anchorage, Alaska. 163 pp.
Troy, D. M. 1985b. Birds of Prudhoe Bay and Vicinity, A synopsis of the
natural history of birds of the Central Arctic Coastal Plain of Alaska.
Prepared by D. M. Troy, LGL Alaska Research Associates, Inc., Anchorage,
Alaska, for SOHIO Alaska Petroleum Company. Anchorage, Alaska. 36 pp.
u.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1982. Arctic National Wildlife Refuge coastal
plain resource assessment -- initial report. Baseline study of the fish,
wildlife, and their habitats. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage,
A 1 ask a . 50 7 P P .
36
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AP PEND I XC.
COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES FOR NORTH SLOPE BIRDS AND PLANTS
-------
APPEND I XC.
COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES FOR NORTH SLOPE BIRDS AND PLANTS
Rosa Meehan, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Alaska
Investigations, Wetlands and Marine Ecology
Donald A. Walker
University of Colorado
Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research
1.
NORTH SLOPE BIRDS -- SCIENTIFIC AND COMMON NAMES
(From Troy 1987)
Birds recorded in northern Alaska (north of the continental divide) are
listed below. Species marked with asterisks (*) have been found nesting, while
species marked with a plus (+) have only been found infrequently on the North
Slope.
Common Names
Scientific Names
*Red-throated Loon
*Paci f i c Loon
Common Loon
*Vellow-billed Loon
* Horne d G re be
*Red-necked Grebe
Northern Fulmar
Short -tai led Shearwater
Pelagic Cormorant
+Great Blue Heron
*Tundra Swan
*Trumpeter Swan
*Greater White-fronted Goose
*Snow G oos e
+Ross I Goose
+Emperor Goose
*B rant
*Canada Goose
*Green-winged Teal
+Baikal Teal
*Mallard
*Northern Pintail
+Blue-winged Teal
*Northern Shove le r
+Gadwa 11
+Eurasian Wigeon
*Ame ri can Wi geon
+Can vas back
+Redhead
Ga v i a s tell at a
~. pacifica
G. immer
"IT. adamsii
Podice~ auritus
P. grisegena
Fulmarus glacialis
Puffi nus tenui rost ri s
Phalacrocorax ~agicus
Ardea herodias
Cygnus columbianus
C. bucci nator
Anser alibfrons
Chen ca~escens
c:-ross i i
C. C"anaglca
Branta bernicla
B. canadeiiS-:rs-
Anas crecca
A. formosa
!. platyrhynchos
A. acuta
A. discors
- --
12. clypeata
~. st repe ra
~. penelo~
A. americana
Aythya valisineria
A. ameri cana
1
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Common Names
Scientific Narres
+Ring-necked Duck
+Tufted Duck
*Greater Scaup
+Lesser Sc aup
*Common Eider
*King Eider
*Spectacled Eider
*Stellerl sEider
*Har 1 eou i n Duck
*01 dsouaw
Black Scoter
Surf Scoter
*White-winged Scoter
Common Goldeneye
+Barrowls Goldeneye
+Buff lehead
*Red-breasted Merganser
Osprey
Bald Eagle
*Northern Harrier
Sharp-shinned Hawk
Northern Goshawk
+Red-ta il ed Hawk
*Rough-legged Hawk
*Golden Eagle
*American Kestrel
*Merlin
*Peregrine Falcon
*Gyrfalcon
*Willow Ptarmigan
*Rock Ptarmigan
+Amer ican Coot
*Sa ndh ill Crane
*Black-bellied Plover
*Lesser Golden-Plover
+Mongolian Plover
*Semipalmated Plover
+K i 11 deer
*Eurasian Dotterel
+Greater Yellowlegs
*Lesser Yellowlegs
+Wood Sandpiper
*Solitary Sandpiper
*Wandering Tattler
+Gray-tailed Tattler
*Spotted Sandpiper
*Upland Sandpiper
+Eskimo curlew
*Whimbrel
Hudsonian Godwit
*Bar-tailed Godwit
A. collaris
A. fuligula
A. marila
A. affinis
Somateria mollissima
S. spectabilis -.
s. fischeri
~olysticta stelleri
Histrionicus histrionicus
Clangula hyemalis
Melanitta nigra
M. perspicillata
M. fusca
Bucephala clangula
B. islandica
'If. albeola
Mergus serrator
Pandion haliaetus
Haliaeetus leucocephalus
Circus cyaneus
Accipiter striatus
A. gentil is
Buteo jamaicensis
B:1"agopus
Aquila chrysaetos
Falco sparverius
F. columbarius
F. peregrinus
F. rusticolus
Lagopus lagopus
L. mutus
rulica americana
Grus canadensis
~ialis souatarola
P. dominica
rharadrius monQolus
C. semipa lmatus
r. voc iferus
r. morinellus
Tringa melanoleuca
T. flavipes
T. glareola
T. solitaria
~eteroscelus incanus
H. brevipes
Actitis macularia
Bartramia lOnQ1Cauda
NumenlUS borealls
N. phaeopus
Limosa haemastica
L. 1 apporll ca
2
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Common Names
Sci ent i fi c Names
*Ruddy Tu rnstone
*B1ack Turnstone
*Red Kn ot
*Sanderli ng
*Semipalmated Sandpiper
*Western Sandpi per
*Rufous-necked Sti nt
+L itt 1e Sti nt
*Least Sandpiper
*White-rumped Sandpiper
*Bai rd 's Sandp iper
*Pectoral Sandpiper
+Sharp-tai1ed Sandpiper
*Dun 1 in
*Curlew Sandpiper
*Sti It Sandpiper
+Spoonbi11 Sandpiper
*Buff-breasted Sandpiper
+*R u ff
*Long-bil1ed Dowitcher
*Common S n i pe
+Wilson's Phalarope
*Red-necked Phalarope
*Red Pha 1 a rope
*Pomarine Jaeger
*Parasitic Jaeger
*Long-tailed Jaeger
+South Polar Sku a
+Common Black-headed Gull
+Bonaparte I s Gull
*Mew Gu 11
* Her ri n 9 Gull
Th ay er I s Gu 11
Slaty-backed Gu 11
Glaucous-winged Gull
*G 1au cou s Gu 11
Black-legged Kittiwake
Ross I Gu 11
*Sabi ne 's Gu 11
I vary Gu 11
*Arct i c Te rn
+*A1eutian Tern
+Dovek i e
Common Mu rre
Thick-billed Murre
*B1ack Guillemot
Kitt1itz's Murre1et
Parakeet Auk let
Least Auk1et
Crested Auk let
Tufted Puffin
Horned Puffin
Arenaria inter~res
~. me1anocepha a
Calidris canutus
C. alba -------
CalTarTs pus ill a
C. ma u ri
r. ruffio11 i s
c. mi nuta
C. minuti11a
C. fuscico11is
C. bairdii .
C. me 1 anotos
C. acumi nata
f. aTpTna-
C. ferrugi nea
C. himantopus
Eurynorhynchus pygmeus
Tryngites subrufi co11 is
Phi10machus pugnax
Limnodromus scolopaceus
Ga11inago ga11inago
Pha1aropus tricolor
P. lobatus
P. fu1icaria
Stercorari us pomari nus
~. parasiticuS--------
~. longicaudus
Catharacta maccormicki
Larus ri di bundus
L. philadelphia
L canus --
L. argentatus
I. thayeri
T. schistisagus
L glaucescens
I. hyperboreus
Rissa tridactyla
RhOdOstethia rosea
Xema sabini
Pagoph i 1 a ebu rnea
Sterna paradisaea
S~eutica .
1\11 e all e
Uria aalge
u:l oiTiVTa
Cepphus gry11e
Brachy ramphus brevi rost ri s
Cyclorrhynchus psittacu1 a
Aethia pusi11a
A. cristate11a
fratercula cirrhata
F. corniculata
3
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Common Names
+Band-tailed Pigeon
Great Horned Owl
*Snowy Owl
*Northern Hawk-Owl
*Short-eared Owl
+Common Nighthawk
+Belted Kingfisher
+ Three -t oed Woo dpeck er
+*Northern Flicker
+01 i ve-si ded Flycatcher
+Western Wood-Pewee
+Alder Flycatcher
+Hammond I s Flycatcher
+Dusky Flycatcher
*Say IS Phoe be
+Eastern Kingbi rd
*Horned Lark
+Purple Martin
*Tree Swallow
Violet-green Swallow
+Northern Rough-winged
*Bank Swa 11 ow
*Cl iff Swa 11 ow
Barn swallow
*Common House-Martin
*Gray Jay
+Black-billed Magpie
*Common Raven
+Black-capped Chickadee
*Siberi an Tit
+Boreal Chickadee
+W i nt e r Wren
*American Dipper
*Arcti c Warbler
Rudy-crowned Kinglet
*Bluethroat
*Northern Wheatear
*Mountain Bluebi rd
+Townsend's Solitaire
*Gray-cheeked Thrush
*Swainson's Thrush
+Hermit Thrush
+Eye-browed Thrush
+Dusky Thrush
+Fieldfare
*Ameri can Robi n
*Varied Thrush
+Brown Thrasher
+Siberian Accentor
*Yellow Wagtai 1
White Wagtai 1
Scientific Names
Swallow
Columba fasciata
Bubo-vTrginianus
~ctea scandiaca
Su rni a u 1 u 1 a-
As i 0 f 1 amiTieU s
LnOrdeiles minor
--
Ceryle alcyon
Picoides tridactylus
Co 1 aptes au ratu s
Cont opus boreal is
C. sordidulus
Empidonax alnorum
E. hammondii
E. obe rho 1 seri
Sayorni s saya
ryranm:iS t:Yr3 nn us
Eremophila alpestris
Progne subi s
Tachycinera-bicolor
T. tha lassi na---
Ste 1 gi dopteryx serri penni s
Riparia riparia
Hi rundo pyrrhonota
H. rus t i ca
De 1 i chon u'rbi ca
PeMsoreus canadensis
---,
Pica £.!.E~
Corvus corax
Parus atrTCapillus
P. cinctus
P. hudsonicus
Troglodytes t rogl odyt es
Cinclus mexicanus
PhYlTOScopus borealis
Regulus calendula
Luscinia svecica
Oenanthe oenanBhe
Sialia currucoides
Myadestes townsendi
Catharus minimus
C. ustulatus
c. guttatus
Turdus obscurus
T. naumanni
I. pilaris
T. mi g rat ori us
Ixoreus naevius
Toxostoma rufum
Prunella montanella
Motaci lla flava
M. alba -
- _.
4
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Common Names
Scientific Names
-----_.
+Red-throated Pipit
*Water Pip i t
+B ohemi an Waxwi ng
+Ceda r Waxwi ng
*Northern Sh ri ke
Orange -crowned Warb ler
*Yellow Warbler
+Magnoli a Warbler
+Cape May Warbler
Yell ow- rumped Warble r
+Townsendls Warbler
+Blackpoll Warbler
+Black-and-white Warbler
+Ameri can Redstart
+Ovenbird
Northern Waterthrush
+Kentucky Warbler
+MacGillivray IS Warbler
*W i 1 s on 1 s War b 1 e r
+Canada W arb 1 e r
+Scarlet Tanager
+Western Tanage r
*American Tree Sparrow
+Chipping Sparrow
+Clay-colored Sparrow
*Savannah Sparrow
*Fox Sparrow
+Lincoln IS Sparrow
+White-throated Sparrow
Golden-crowned Sparrow
*White-crowned Sparrow
+Harris 1 Sparrow
*Da rk-eyed Junco
*Lapland Longspur
*Smithls Longspur
+ Li t t 1 e Bunt i n 9
+Pallas' Reed-Bunting
*Snow Bunting
+Bobo 1 i nk
+Red-winged Blackbird
+Yellow-headed Blackbird
Rusty B lackbi rd
+Brewer's Blackbird
+Common Grack le
+Brown-headed Cowbird
+Bramb 1 i ng
*Rosy Finch
Pine Grosbeak
White-winged Crossbill
*Common Redpoll
*Hoary Redpoll
+Pine Sisk i n
Anthus cervi nus
12. spinoletta-
Bombyci lla garrulus
B. ced rorum
Tani us excubit or
Vermi vora cel at a
Dendroica petechia
~ magnol i a
Q. tigrina.
D. coronata
D. townsendi
D. striata
Mniotilta varia
Setophaga.rutTCilla
Seiurus aurocapillus
S. noveboracensis
Opororni s form os us
o. tolmiei
Wilsonia pusilla
W. canadensis
Pi rang a olivacea
P. ludoviciana .
Spi zell a arborea
~. passeri na
S. pallida
~asserculus sandwichensis
Passerella iliac a
Melospiza lincolnii
Zonotrichia albicollis
1:.. at ri capi lla
Z. 1 eu ch oph ry s
l. queru 1 a
Junco hyemalis
caTCarius lapponicus
l. pi ctus
Emberiza pusilla
E. pallasi
Pl ect rophenax ni va 1 is
Dolichonyx oryzivorus
Agelaius ~h~eus--
xaritfiocep a 1 us xanthocepha 1 us
Euphagus carolinus
E. cyanocephalus
"Q"u i s ca 1 us qu 1 S cu 1 a
Mo loth rus at er
Fringilla montifringilla
Leucosticte arctoa
Pinicola enucleator
Loxia leuco~tera
Cardeulis f ammea
C. hornemanni
I. pinus
5
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2.
COMMON NORTH SLOPE PLANTS -- SCIENTIFIC AND COMMON NAMES
Scientific Names1
Common Names2
Achillea borealis
Androsace chamaeJasme
Anemone parviflora
Arctoph il a fu 1 va
Arctostaphylos alpina
Arctostaphylos rubra
Arnica alpina
Artemisia arctica
Artemisia borealis
ArtemlSla glomerata
Artemisla tllesli
Astragalus arboriginum
Astragalus alpinus
Astragalus umbel latus
Betula nana spp. exilis
Braya purpurascens
BrOmUs pumpellianus
Caltha palustris
Campanula uniflora
Cardamine pratensis
Carex aquati lis
Care x atrofusca
Care x bigelowii
Carex chordorrhiza
Care x membranacea
Carex mlsandra
Carex ramenskii
Carex rariflora
Care x rotundata
Carex rupestris
Carex saxatilis
Carex scirpoidea
Carex subspathacea
Carex ursina
cassTope tetragona
Castilleja caudata
Cerastium beringianum
Chrysanthemum blpinnatum
Chrysanthemum integrifolium
Cochlearia officinalis
Deschampsia caespitosa
Dryas integrifolia
DiJj)Ontia Fisheri
Elymus arenarius
Empetrum nigrum
common yarrow
grass-leafed androsace
small-flowered anemone
pendant grass
alpine bearberry
bearberry
alpine arnica
arctic wormwood
northern wormwood
glomerate wormwood
Tilesiusl wormwood
Indian milk-vetch
alpine milk-vetch
tundra milk-vetch
dwarf birch
purplish braya
arctic brome-grass
marsh-marigold
arctic harebell
cuckoo-fl ower
aquatic sedge
dark-brown sedge
Bigelow's sedge
cordroot sedge
fragile sedge
short-leafed sedge
Ramenski1s sedge
loose-flowered alpine sedge
round-fruited sedge
rock sedge
rocky sedge
northern single-spike sedge
Hoppner sedge
bear sedge
Lapland cassiope
pale paintbrush
Beringian chickweed
wing-leafed tansy
entire-leafed chrysanthemum
common scurvy-grass
tufted hair-grass
arctic avens
Fisher's tundragrass
lyme-grass
crowberry
1 Hulten (1968)
2 Polunin (1959) and Hulten (1968)
6
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Scientific Names1
Epilobium latifolium
Equisetum arvense
Equisetum variegatum
Eriophorum angustifolium
Eriophorum russeolum
Eriophorum scheuchzeri
Eriophorum vaginatum
Festuca rubra
Gentiana prostrata
Gentianella propinqua
Hippuris vulgaris
Ledum palustre ssp. decumbens
fTOYdia serotina
Lupinus arctica
Luzula arctica
Melandrium apetalum
Minuartia arctlca
Oxytropis borealis
Oxytropis nigrescens
Oxytropis viscida
Papaver lapponicum
Papaver macoun i i
Parnassia kotzebuei
Parnassia palustris
Pedlcularis capltata
Pedicularis kanei ssp. kanei
Pedicularis lapponica
Pedicularis sudetica ssp. albolabiata
Pedicularis sudetica ssp. interior
Pedicularis verticillata
Polemonlum acutiflorum
Polemonium boreale
POlygonum viviparum
Potentilla palustris
Puccinellia phyrganodes
Ranunculus pallasii
Salix alaxensis
Salix arctica
~ glauca
Salix lanata ssp. richardsonii
~ niphoclada
Salix ovalifolia
~ pulchra
Salix reticulata
~ rotundifolia
saxlfraga foliolosa
Saxlfraga hlrculus
Saxifraga oppositifolia
~axifraga punctata
Senecia atropurpureus
"S"enecio lugens
Common Names2
river-beauty
common horsetail
variegated horsetail
common cottongrass
russet cottongrass
arctic cottongrass
sheathed cottongrass
red fescue
moss gentian
arctic gentian
common mare's tail
narrow-leafed Labrador tea
common alp-lily
arctic lupine
arctic wood-rush
nodding lychnis
arctic sandwort
pale oxytrope
blackish oxytrope
pale oxytrope
arctic poppy
Macoun1s poppy
Kotzebue1s grass-of-parnassus
common grass-of-parnassus
capitate lousewort
woolly lousewort
Lapland lousewort
sudetan lousewort
sudetan lousewort
whorled lousewort
acutish Jacob's ladder
boreal Jacob's ladder
alpine bistort
marsh cinquefoil
creeping alkali-grass
Pallas1s buttercup
feltleaf willow
arctic willow
northern willow
woolly willow
tongue-leafed willow
oval-leafed willow
diamond-leafed willow
net-veined willow
round-leafed willow
folio lose saxifrage
bog sax ifrage
purple mountain saxifrage
brook saxifrage
arctic senecio
black-tipped groundsel
7
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Sci ent ifi c Names 1
Common Names 2
Senecio resedifolius
Silene acaulis
~arganTUm~erboreum
tell aria humlfusa
Stellaria laeta
Th 1 asp i a rct i cum
Trisetum spicatum
Utri cul a ri a vu 1 gari s
Vaccinium uliginosum
Vaccinium vitis-idaea
Wilhemsia physodes---
mignonette-leafed groundsel
moss campion
northern bur-reed
low sta rwort
long-stalked stitchwort
arctic penny-cress
spiked trisetum
common bladderwort
bog blueberry
1 i n gon berry
merckia
3.
REFERENCES
Hulten, E.
Press.
1968. Flora of Alaska and neighboring territories.
1008 p.
Standard Uni v.
Polunin, N.
19 59 .
Circumpolar arctic flora.
Oxford Univ. Press.
514 p.
Troy, D. M. 1987. Birds of Prudhoe Bay and vicinity.
Alaska Prod. Co. 36 p.
Second ed.
Standard
8
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