Price $3.50
U.S.S.R. LITERATURE ON AIR POLLUTION AND
RELATED OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES
Volume 1
A SURVEY
by B. S. Levine, Ph. D.
Distributed by
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
OFFICE OF TECHNICAL SERVICES
WASHINGTON 25, D.C.
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Illustrations reproduced from the best copy available.
J
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SURVEY
o 11
U. S. S. B.
LITERATURE
o N
A I R
POLLUTION
AND
RELATED
o c CUP A T ION A L
DISEASES
Volume
1.
Selected, translated, arranged and prepared
for photo-offsetting
By
B. S. Levine, Ph. D.
u. S. Publio Health Service
(Beal th, Educat ion, and Welfare)
Researoh Grantee
Washington, D. e., U. S. A.
Submitted for pUblioation lanuary 1960
1
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Previous translations by Dr. B. S. Levine
of U. S. S. R. books on air pollution.
Sanitary Protection of Atmospheric Air.
Purification of Industrial Discharge'
Gases from Suspended Substances -
Office of Technical Services -
Limits of 'Allowable Concentrations of
Atmospheric Pollutants, Book 1 -
Limits of Allowable Concentrations of
,Atmospheric Pollutants, Book 2'- '
~ Limits of Allowable Concentrations of
Atmospheric Pollutants, Book 3 -
'-
" .
11
. 59-21092
59-21113
59-21114
59-21115
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INTRODUCTION
c-
In 1951 the undersigned received a research grant from the Research
Grants Division of the Public Health Service of Bethesda, Maryland, for the
purpose of making"a survey of the U. S. S. R. literature on the general sub-
jec~ of air pollution. The title and scope of the survey were later revised
to embrace occupational diseases related to air pollution. In air pollution,
as in stream pollution, industrial manufacturing plants are the primary and
basic offenders. The control of the type and rate of industrial emission
should begin at the pollution origin, whi'ch can be accomplished by the use of
. "
properly installed industrial gas and air purifiers. From this viewpoint the
engineering phase of air pollution and air purification forms the basis of
the sanitary-hygienic problem of air purification. Aocordingly, it was the
literature which dealt with this phase of air pollution that the undersigned
undertook to survey first. After the undersigned had accumulated a consider-
able amount of material, he noted an announcement in one of the U. S. S. R.
periodicals of the publication of a book on the engineering phase of air pol-
lution by V. M. U~hov, one of the U. S. S. R. engineers associated with the
Technological Division of the Institute for Making Gas Purifying Equipment in
Moscow. Mr. Uzhov's book was translated in toto and published by the Office
of Technical Services of the U. S. Department of Commerce as 59-21092.
A further survey of the air pollution literature of the U. S.'S. R. dis-
closed that there existed in the U. S. S. R. a Committee on the Determination
of Limits of Allowable Conc$ntrations of Atmospheric Pollutants (Community
Air POllutants) under the Chairmanship of Professor V. A. Ryazanov of the
F. F. Erisman Central Scientific Sanitary Hygienic Institute and of the In-
stitute of Post Graduate Medicine (Institut Usovershenstvovaniya Vrachei) of
Moscow. At the time of the initiation of the research survey of the U.S.S.R.
air pollution literature, the above named Committee published three books in
the form of progress reports. Book No.1 was published by Medgiz (State Pub-
lishers of Medical Literature) in'1952; the second report, book 2, was pub-
I
l1shed in 1955, and bo~o. 3 was published by Medgiz in 1951. The under-
. .
sie~ed carefully read and analyzed the three reports by the Committee and
found them to be valuablef ~nd informative documents. Accordingly, the three
volumes were translated into English in tull;'certain supplemental publica-
tions, not parts of the original books, were added for the benefit of Amer-
i11
-------
ican and English scientists for the better understanding of the basic concepts
of air pollution prevention in the U. S. S. R. and of the scope and plan of the
work, of the methods of approach and of the evaluation of the progress made.
The translations have been published by the Office of Technical Services of the
U. S. Department of Commerce and can be purchased as: 59-21173 Book 1, 1952;
59-21174 Book 2, 1955; and 59-21175 Book 3, 1957. Recently the undersigned was
inf'ormed by Professor Ryazanov that Book 4 was due to appear sometime during
the month of Januar,y 1960. As soon as a copy of Book 4 will be in the hands
of the undersigned, by courtesy of Professor V. A. Ryazanov, it will be trans-
lated and published for "sale by the Office of Technical Services of t~e U. S.
Department of Commerce as per forthcoming announcement.
In the foreword to Book 1, 1952, the undersigned stated that it would be
well for the American and English readers of the three volumes to regard each
report as representing a developmental stage in the plans and work of Profes-
sor Ryazanov's Committee on Limits of Allowable Concentrations of Community
Air Pollutants. In that sense, Book 1 can be regarded as a statement of the
first stage, Book 2 as a statement of the second stage, and Book 3 &s a state-
ment of the third stage. Book 4 in the same sense will be a statement of the
fourth stage of the Committee's work. It should not be concluded from the
preceding outline of developmental stage classification that serious work on
community air pollution began in the U. S. S. R. with the birth of the Commit-
tee headed by Professor Ryazanov. It actually existed for some time past and
began on an organized basis with the initiation of the first five-year plan
in 1928 and 1929.
It should be added at this point that at the time Book 3 of the series
was in process ofcampilation, Professor Ryazanov's Committee on Limits of
Allowable Concentrations of Community Air Pollutants ceased to act as a volun-
tar" committee fulfilling a purely advisory function, and began to act, by
official designation, as the Committee of the Chief State Sanitary Inspection
of the U. S. S. R. This placed new responsibilities upon the Committee and
endowed it with some official authority as described in Appendix I, pp. 141-
144 of translation of Book 3, OTS 59-21175.
It ~hould be emphatically brought to the attention of the English and
U. S. A. air pollution scientists that while Professor V. A. Ryazanov's Com-
mittee has became, in a sense, a central official organ for the pl~ing and
iv
"
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directing of community air pollution studies, actually by far the greater vol-
ume of air pollution work is done b,y U. S. S. R. scientists outside the juris-
diction of the Committee. The undersigned has made an extensive survey of the
gene~al U. S. S. R. literature directly or indirectly related to air pollution
covering ma~ scientific periodicals, sborniks, ezhegodniks, books, etc. of
which the following are mentioned as mere examples: Gigiena i Sanitar~a,
Gigiena Truda i Professional1nye Zabolev~a, Koks i Khimiya, Zhurnal Analyt-
icheskoi Khimii, Zhurnal Prikladnoi Khimii, Laboratornoe Delo, Arkhiv Patologii,
Urologiya, Voprosy Onkologii, Meditsinskaya Radiologiya, Zhurnal Fiziologii
imeni Sechenova, Biokhimiya, Ukrainskii Biokhimichnii Zhurnal, Fiziologichnii
Zhurnal (Ukrainian), Referative~i Zhurnal Khimii (Biologicheskqa Khimiya),
Referati~i Zhurnal (Biologiya, Section on Physiology), etc. At the present
writing more than 400 items have been translated in toto, which will be pre-
sented to English speaking scientists in a succ~ssive series of 10 volumes,
each of approximateq 200 pages and containing on the average 40 items. The
present volume, Book 1, is the first of the series. It will be noted that
the contents of this volume has been organized into three sections: Section
1 - General, Section 2 - Toxicity, Effect on Health and on General Living
Conditions, and Section 3 - Analytical.
The undersigned heard m~ remarks made b,yscientists outside of the
U. S. S. R. which had reference to the "ideological" and "propagandistic"
aspects of U. S. S. R. presentation of scientific work. This m~ have been
true in the days when a primitive and ruthless megalomaniac was in power; it
is not generally true at the present time. There may be in the U. S. S. R.
some scientists who under the compulsor,y and rigorous brain washing tutelage
of the so-called Communist Party have accepted the ideological principles as
a religious belief; like other fanatically religious persons they are imbued
with the sense of the missionar,v; but by far the greater number of U. S. S. R.
scientists express such principles either as convenient lip service or as a
matter of caution and safety. However, in the course of years of extensive
contact with ~ phases of U. S. S. R. scientific publications the under-
signed has become convinced that "ideology" and "propaganda" elements appeared
in the so-called "general science editorials", semipopular scientific presen-
v
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tations, forewords, and introductions to books, etc. Reports and discussions
of factual results are based on experimental research data and are presen~ed
in a matter-of-fact plan and manner similar to the presentation of scientific
studies in the U. S. A. or in a~ other non-communist countr.y.
3312 Northampton Street, N. W.
Washington 15, D. C.
B.'S. Levine, Ph. D.
U.S. Publio Health Servioe
Research Grantee
U. S. S. R. Air Pollution
Literature.
./
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
By w~ of grateful acknowledgement each item included in this colleotion
is headed by the original title (in translation), the name of the author or
authors, institutional affiliation and periodical or book from which item was
. - .
selected. The volume,"issue number, year of publication o.nd inclusive pages
are indicated for the oonvenience of those who may wish to consult the Russian
original or make full reference to same.
B. S. L.
vi
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.CONTENTS
Introduction
Section I - General
M. S. Gol'dberg.
The Sanitar.y Proteotion of Atcospherio Air.
Introduction. .
The Sanitar.y Protection of Air. M. S. Gol'dberg. Supplement
No. 1 (Beginning with p. 114).
The Sanitar.y Protection of Atmospheric Air. Professor V. A. Ryazanov.
Introduction by the Author. .
The Sanitar.y Proteotion of Atmospherio Air. Professor V. A., Ryazanov.
Foreword by the Author.
The Sanitar.y Protection of Atmospheric Air. Professor V. A. Ryazanov.
Conoluding ohapter.
Professor V. A. Ryazanov's book entitled "The Sanitar.y Protection of
Atmospheric Air", reviewed by Professor M. S. Gol'dberg.
Section II - Toxicity, Effect on Health and General Living Conditions
The Effect of Crude-Oil Cracking Products on the Animal Organism.
A. G. Bogdat'eva and D. Ya. Vud.
The Effect of High Air Temperature on the Toxicity of Carbon Monoxide.
E. J. Korenevskaya.
Street Air Pollution ~e Traumas. A. L. Iorshin.
Pollution of Atmospheric Air with Lead and Its Effect on the Health
of the Population. A. S. Zykova.
The Toxicity 9f H2S04 Aerosol. K. A. Bushtueva.
The Effect of Electric Heat and Power Plant Discharges on the Health
of Children. M. S. Gol'dberg.
The Effect of Atmospheric Air Pollution on Coniferous Plantings.
G. G. Abramashvili.
The Effeot of Noise and Exhaust Gases of City Traffio on the HYgienic
Conditions of Hospitals and Hospital Grounds. K. G. Beryushev,
M. V. R~antsev and I. L. Koragodina. .
Effects of Sulfur Dioxide Studied with the Aid of Labeled Atoms.
T. A. Bystrova. .
The Effect of Atmospheric Air Pollution by Discharges from Electric
Power Plants and Chemical Combines on the Health of Nearby Inhabitants.
N. Ya. Yanysheva. .
Effect of Low Lead Concentration on Porphyrin Metabolism.
M. I. Gusev. .
vii
1
6
11
20
26
38
41
46
53
55
63
61
15
19
8~
. .9~.
105
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The Effect of Atmospheric Ultraviolet Radiation Insufficiency on
Mineral Metabolism. V. S. Senchuk.
The Effect of Smoke Emission Purification on Air Dust Concentration
of a Large City. F. I. Dubrovskaya.
The Toxicity of Titanium Tetrachloride. E. A. Mel'nikova.
Toxicity of Dimethylformamide. K. P. Lobanova.
Effect of Chronic Lead Poisoning on the Immunological Reaction of
the Organism. B. A. Kiryachko.
Section III - Analytical
A New Method and Apparatus for the Determination of Carbon Monoxide
in the Air. P. N. Lastochkin.
Determination of Vinyl Chloride in the Air. E. She Gronsberg.
Determination of Carbon Monoxide in the Air. Ankica Stepanovich.
Determination of Carbon Monoxide with the .~d of a Gas Analyzer.
N. Turkel'taub and D. N. Senderikhina.
Colorimetric Determination of Active Chlorine in Calcium Hypochlorite.
L. M. Kullberg and L. D. Borzova.
Determination of Carbon Monoxide in the Air by Means of an Indicator
Tube. L. A. Mokhov and A. V. Demidov.
Apparatus for the Determination of Carbon Monoxide and Carbon Dioxide
in the Air and of Gaseous Components of Liquid Fuel.
V. P. Dzedzichek and A. V. Demidov.
The Determination of Radium Aerosol in the Presence of a-active
Aerosols. O. S. Andreeva and E. E. Kovaleva.
Determination of Free Silicon Dioxide in the Presence of Silicates
in Industrial Emissions and in Atmospheric Dust. N. G. Folezhaev.
Colorimetric Determination of Iodine in the Air. T. A. Berezina.
Chromatographic Separation of Benzene and Isopropylbenzene and of
Benzene and Chlorobenzyl in Air Analysis. E. She Gronsberg.
Colorimetric Method for the Quantitative Determination of Methyl
Ester of Methacrylic Acid in the Air of Work Shops.
N. L. Nemirovskii and G. I. Meerovich.
Determination of Simultaneously Present Phenol, Cyclohexanone and
Cyclohexanol. A. S. Maslenikov.
Chromotropic Acid Method for the Determination of Formaldehyde
in Air. Yu. N. Gladchikova and N. I. Shumarina.
Determination of Paraffin and Ceresin Aerosols in the Air of
Industrial Plants. D. P. Senderikhina.
Determination of Lead in the Air by Ampsrometric Titration.
L. P. Grigorova.
viii
111
118
122
128
137
143
148
151
161
163
165
168
174
178
184
187
192
196
202
206
208
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The Sanitary Protection of Atmospheric Air.
(:Book)
:By
M. S. Gol'dberg.
(~edgiz, 1948, Moscow)
Introduction.
The improvement in the sanitar,y condition of inhabited areas is one of
the scheduled programs of our Party in the sphere of public health. The prob-
"
lems of sanitar,y protection of atmospheric air together with problems of san-
itar,y protection of water and soil occupy an important place in the complex
of measures in the improvement of health and sanitation.
The hygiene of air constitutes an inseparable part of community hygiene;
it attained a high rate of development during the first five-year plan, to-
gether with the development of industrialization and with the building of new
socialist towns and industrial centers. Soviet sanitar,y-hygienic institutes
and laboratories rapidly extended this phase of the first five-year plan on a
broad basis. Thus, during the first conference on the protection of atmos-
pheric air, which took place in Khar'kov in 1935, pertinent reports were pre-
sented by members of eight hygienic institutes and laboratories; during the
second All-Union conference which was held in Moscow in 1938 there were pre-
sented 50 pertinent reports from 26 institutes and laboratories; and in 1939
the number of reports presented on subjects related to atmospheric air hygiene
rose to 72.
There is a profound difference in th~ method of approach to this subject
used by investigators abroad and by Soviet investigators; the former limit.
themselves to factual presentation of the total picture of city air pollution;
Soviet investigators attempt to study and explain the part played by individual
sources of pollution and the spread and distribution of air pollution by dif-
ferent industrial manufacturing plants. This leads to better development and
application of concrete measures for the maximal reduction of harmful effects
of industrial discharges on surrounding populations.
It is a fact that nearly 65% of the world's literature dealing with work
related to the study of the spread and distribution of industrial manufactur-
ing air pollutants is the result of Soviet authors.
-1-
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It was only natural that the most potent sources of atmospheric air
pollution should first compel the attention of hygienists; among such sources
are plants of basic chemical industries, plants processing mineral fuels,
chemical combines, plants of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgical industries,
large electric heat and power plants, all of which discharge into the air
tens and hundreds of tons of harmful gases and dust; it is understandable,
therefore, why the greater volume of work in the field of air pollution is
related to these industries. The results of such investigations and reports
were utilized in the development of sanitary laws prescribing the location
of industrial manufacturing plants and the planning of new inhabited locali-
ties.
The fight against air pollution by industrial discharges is of importance
not only from the hygienic viewpoint, but from the economic viewpoint as well,
industrial discharges contain large quantities of valuable by-products which
can be utilized in our national economy. According to estimates of trust
IfGazo-otchistkalf (gas purification) it is possible to extract nearly 175 tons
of sulfuric acid from the sulfurous gases discharged into the atmosphere b.y
the electric heat and power plants of Moscow. Large quantities of sulfur and
of valuable metallic dust are being discharged into the air by the gas emis-
sions of non-ferrous metallurgical plants. It has been estimated that 30 tons
of elemental sulfur could be obtained for each ton of smelted copper. Data
were presented which indicated that the g~ses discharged into the atmosphere
by one Glavmed plant (Glavmed-copper) carried off dust which contained up to
20,000 tons of zinc, over 1,000 tons of l~ad and considerable ~uantities of
valuable rare elements, such as germanium, thallium, cadmium and selenium.
It was estimated that the ferrous metallurgical industry discharged into the
atmospheric air together with the blast furnace gases approximately 6 million
tons of are dust containing 55% or more of iron. The ~uantity of discharged
blast furnace gases per ton of smelted pig iron was estimated at 4,000 m3,
each 1 m3 of which is equivalent, in terms of BTU, to 1 kg of normal heating
material. This valuable heating material is not only being wasted, but is
discharged into the atmosphere, polluting the air in the vicinity surrounding
the manufacturing plants. Of e~ual economic importance is the problem of the
purification of the cement industry gases of the vapors of crude oil process-
ing, such as benzene, of vapors of light industries, such as various organic
solvents, of the forest-chemical industry vapors, such as volatilized acetic
-2-
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acid and wood alcohol, etc.
It was adopted at the XVIII Convention of the All-Union Communist Party
that: "New sulfuric acid froducing plants should be provided by the chemical
industry with facilities for the utilization of gases discharged by non-fer-
rous manufacturing plants, by electric heat and power stations, by fertilizer
combines, soda producing plants and by plants which produce synthetic rubber
and manufacture tires."
The XVIII Party Congress issued clear-cut directives for the initiation
of work along the lines of the utilization of valuable waste products present
in industrially discharged gases.
The successful solution of technical problems related to gas purification
and dust abatement in the U. S. S. R. brought into existence a branch of in-
dustry devoted to the manufacture of appuratus for the purification of gases;
no such industry existed prior to the October Revolution. The first electro-
static precipitator was installed in Leningrad in 1927 in the plant "Krasnyi
Vyborzhets"; 800 electrostatic precipitators constructed in the Soviet Union
were installed in manufacturing plants in 1939. The manufacture of other
types of dust catching apparatus and their installation in a number of indus-
trial manufacturing plants soon followed; these are on par with most up-to-
date apparatus built elsewhere, such, for instance, as the multicyclones, the
disintegrators, and the like.
Installation of apparatus for
ble hygienic and economic results.
the purification of gases yielded inestima-
Thus, in one copper smelting plant an ap-
paratus installed for catching dust from the emitted ~ases of the water-jack-
~
eted ccnversion departments, retained daily up to 35 tons of ash and dust which
contained 50 - 60% of lead and 20% of zinc. Four electrostatic filters assem-
bled in the Bryansk cement plants prior to the War returned to manufacturing
processes 70 tons of coal dust daily. The capturing of H2S gas emitted by the
coke-chemical industry can result in the production of high grade sulfur and
at a low cost. By the proper installation of gas purification devices in all
coke-chemical manufacturing plants it should be possible to secure tens of thou-
sands of tuns of sulfur. In addition it should be possible to extract from
the waste products tens of thousands of p8nta-hydrate hyposulfite. Thus, we
are presented with the possibility to realize the resolution of the XVIII Con-
gress of the All-Union Communist Party in relation to new sources for the pro-
duction of sulfuric acid.
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I
I
The system of a planned socialist economy and the present-day state of
technical development in the"U. S. S. R. offer possibilities for the utiliza-
tion of quantities of valu~91e discharge gases for purposes of gasificetion,
and for capturing valuable production by-products and for rendering harmless
smoke gases.
In capitalist countries the systematic but unsuccessful fight and law
decrees directed against atmosph~ric air pollution with industrial discharges
has been conducted for over 100 years. And yet, at the 1940 Leeds Conference~
at which representatives of the U. S. S. R. were present, Professor ~vens,
speaking on the subject of aerosols, admitted that "technology is able to
solve most of the problems connected with abatement or capturing of industrial
dust and gases, but that essentially the solution of the problem was a ques-
tion of politics."
The ineffectiveness of bourgeois protection of health can best be observed
in England, a countr,y in which the legal aspects of sanitation are in promi-
nence. More than 100 ye~rs passed since (in 1843 - 1844) Engels described
the abominable and wretched lodgings of Manchester. Since then the English
Parliament voted upon many acts in relation to conditions of health under the
Public Health Act. Thirty years later Engels again noted that the previously
described "foci of infection, abominable C3ves and holes into which the capi-
talists annually drive their wage slaves were not being abolished, but trans-
ported into other places." In affirmation of his remarks Engels cited from
an article which appeared in the Manchester "Weekly Times" of 20/VII/1812, in
which it was stated in part: "The misfortune which struck the inhabitants of
the valley of Medlock last Saturd~ will, we hope, have one good consequence,
namely that public opinion will be directed towards the utter disregard of all
hygienic laws, which had been tolerated by the city officials and the city
Sanitary Committee."
Has the situation improved since? The facts speak to the contrary. Here
is a description of the Glasgow hovels (the main industrial manufacturing cen-
ter of Scotland) presented in reports by Government Commissars following an
inspection made in 1926 and again in 1930: "It is difficult to describe the
conditions under which the people live in the houses inspected. All were un-
fit for living purposes. Many of the hovels were surrounded by tall buildings
which shut out the light and air. Dampness was felt everywhere, the ceilings
and walls were saturated with moisture, and nowhere were sanitary facilities
-4-
r..
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found. Signs of destruction prevailed ever,ywhere. Walls were crumpling
down and ceilings showed signs of rot and decomposition; wall plastering
, .
was falling off and there were holes in the walls. In one cold and damp
room 8 human beings were living... I saw evidence of most miserable poverty
in our land and on the Q~n~~ent, yet, after what I had seen in Glasgow, it
seemed to me that nowhere in the civilized world could one encounter such a
- - -- - . - -, ; .
center of criminality, poverty, disease which cou!c1compare with those of
Glasgow. Nobo~ seemingly thinks of cleaning up this sore spot of criminality,
fil th and epidemics, found in the heart of the second great city of the
,Kingdom.1t
Finally, as an indication of conditions in later years let us see what
Mayor Markhe~ said in his report entitled "Coal and Civilization", which he
presented at the joint conference of the Institute of Heating Materials and
the English National Society for the Combat of Smoke, which took place in
London in February 1945. The Mayor said in part: "In the very heart of the
large cities we created such terrifying conditions whioh account for a rapid
growth in mortality and morbidity... Even if we ~a.ke into consideration other
important factors, such, for instance, as poor dwellings, crowded conditions,
etc., we still must admit that morbidity due to affections of respiratory
tracts in the regions where the air is polluted is at an unduly high level.
Vegetation was'unable to survive in such regions; even the most adaptable trees
and rough sh1'ubs survived in such regions only a few years." As an example
the m;yor mentioned Birmingham which has been stripped of any vegetation, was
cluttered with coal and heaps of cinders and was forever wrapped in smoke.
This region, mown in England as the Black Country, Markheim calls, "the dirty
industrial inferno, replete with tuberculosis and other diseases usually as-
sooiated with privation, a oity of darkness and ignoranoe. Nevertheless many
other towns can oompete with Birmingham in this respeot. Thus, Birmingham
loses one third of its normal sun rays, and Glasgow even more than that.
Equally gloomy- pictures are presented by such localities as West Reading,
Sounthorpe, and others..."
These facts indicate that the actual and active and not the declared and
intended protection of the
I
healthy conditions of life
ist'state.
health of toilers and the oreation of normal and
of the population can be realized only in a sooial-
-5-
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The Sanitar,r Protection of Air.
(A Book)
By
M. S. Go1'd'1erg.
Medgiz - 1948 - Moscow.
Supplement No.1 (Begiuning with p. 114)
Directions
The work of the State Sanitar,r Inspection (Gossaninspection) in the
Field of the Protection of Atmospheric Air. Enacted by VGSI (All-Union State
Sanitar,r Inspection) Januar,r, 1946.
1. In the field of protection of atmospheric air purity the State Sani-
tar.y Inspection executes sanitar,r control necessar.y for the protection of the
population against the effects of industrial discharges which pollute the at-
mospheric air, such as smoke, soot, gases, vapors, dust, unpleasant odors,
etc.
2. In order that the purity of the atmospheric air may be appropriately
guarded by the State Sanitar,r Inspection its duties shall include the follow-
ing:
a) Registration of sources of atmospheric air pollution with smoke,
gases, dust, etc.;
b) Determination of degree and nature of atmospheric a1r pollution
by specific pollution sources;
c) Presentation to pertinent economic organizations of lists of re-
quirements related to the adoption and installation of means, methods and mea-
sures for the sanitary air protection by existing industrial production plants
as well as by those which are under construction such as improved technological
processes, hermetization equipment, recover.y apparatus, installation uf dust
and smoke abating equipment, appropriate type of boiler fuel, proper methods
of fuel combustion, etc.;
d) Exercising control over the acquisition, installation and effi-
cient operation of air protection devices and methods recommended or required;
e) Keeping a register of territories and plants subject to speoial
regulations in respect to atmospheric air pollution.
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3. The sanitary supervision and control exercised by the State Sanitar;y
Inspection in the field of protection of atmospheric air shall cover the fol-
lowing:
a) Industrial production plants the discharges of which pollute the
atmospheric air with poisonous gases, smoke and dust (basic chemical manufac-
turing, non-ferrous metallurgy, etc.);
b) Electrio heat and power plants, especially those which use coal
rich in ash and sulfur compounds, and boiler operated plants;
c) Community operated power plants and other combustion centers
which tend to produce atmospheric air pollutants, such as large community
laundries, bath-laundry combines, other combines, etc.);
d) Other sources of atmospheric air pollution, such as garages,
hangars, cattle and other animal yards, etc.
4. The State Sanitary Inspection in relation to its control over the
protection of atmospheric air consists of sections which have the sanitary
supervision and control as follows:
a) Section in charge of living quarters;
b) Section in charge of schools, childrens' homes or the like, even
those of temporary nature;
c) Section in charge of industries related to food, to assure the
sanitary character of the products;
d) Section in charge of territories
production plants the discharges of which are
of territories assigned to neighborhood plants
harmful effects on workers;
e) Section in charge of cultural and recreational facilities, such
assigned to manufacturing and
of an air polluting nature and
with the view to obviating
as clubs,
theatres, etc.;
f) Sections in charge of plant life, in parks, squares, etco;
g) Section in charge of rest homes and the like;
h) Section in charge of vacation resorts for workers and children,
extensive public parks, etc.;
i) Section in charge of various therapeutic and recuperation insti-
tutions, sanitoria, prophylactic stations, etc.
5. It is the duty of the State Sanitary Inspection to protect the at-
mospheric air of the "items" enumerated under 3; in this connection the State
Sanitary Inspection shall keep a registered list of all sources of atmospher-
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io air pollution whioh affeot suoh plaoes adversely.
6. For the determination of the degree and character of atmospherio air
pollution by specifio industrial manufacturing and produotion plants the State
Sanitar,y Inspection shall delegate to institutions and laboratories under ~ts
jurisdiotion or to appropriate institutions and laboratories under the juris-
diotion of the Central Union Government, as' may be .best ind.ioated, the respon-
sibility to make thorough and pertinent studies of sanitar,y air aspeots of
suoh industrial plants.
7. The State Sanitary Inspeotion shall '-examine, prior to approval,
plans proposed by industrial eoonomic organizations for the adoption of de-
vices and methods for the elimination of sanitary hazards; in this connection
the State Sanitar,y Inspection has the authority to approve or rejeot a site
seleoted by the industrial economio group for a specifio production plant
which in the opinion of the inspectio_n will discharge into the atmospheric
air specifio pollutants.
8. In order that the State Sanitary Inspeotion may be able to properly
exeoute the above enumerated basic obligations and responsibilities related
to the protection of atmospherio air, it should oenter its attention first
and foremost on the following:
a) All cases in which the above health improving provisions for
the elimination or reduotion of air pollution oan be realized at low cost,
with least inconvenienoe, in the shortest time and in the near future;
b) Speoifio cases in whioh the pollution of atmospheric air is heavy
and in which the introduotion of purification measures ~ produce immediate
positive improvement in the sanitar,y oonditionof the atmospheric air,
c) All plants under construction, renovation, reconstruction or re-
organization in which sanitary air protection measures or equipment had not
been previously installed or operated;
d) All plants in which the introduction of recommended air protec-
tion measures ~ prove impractioal or not feasible should; 1) be moved from
the territories now occupied by them to more suitable locations; 2) if they
cannot be moved, the nature of their produotion should be replaced by such
which emitted no atmospherio air pollutant; 3) if this were not practical or
feasible suoh plants should be permitted to remain in operation until suoh
time when their operation could be disoontinued; huwever, suoh plants should
under no circumstances be allowed to e~and their operation in ~he reprieve
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time granted.
9. Should the vol-ume of the sanitary air control work to be executed by
the State Sanitary Inspection at any time become too heavy, it can and should
delegate a part of its authority along the sanitary lines under consideration
to one of the locally assigned community state sanitary-inspectors.
10. All questions arising from the need for changes and improvement in
the technological processes, operation of equipment, hermetization and waste
recovery apparatus which act as auxiliary means for the maintenance of the
sanitary condition of the atmospheric air, being of a specialized technical
nature, must be passed upon by the State Industrial Sanitary Inspection in
cooperation with the State Sanitary Inspector assigned to local communities
concerned.
11. All questions arising in connection with proposed plans for major
or minor reconstruction of entire or of part of an industrial manufacturing
or production plant, be it installation of ventilation, improvement of labor
conditions in a work shop or in the working premises, which may affect the
quantity or quality of the industrial discharge, are to be resolved by the
Industrial State Sanitary Inspector; -the latter must be sure that obligatory
regulations concerning the protection of sanitary condition of air of popu-
lated neighborhoods are observed; he must do that in cooperation with the
State Sanitary Inspector assigned to the community concerned.
12. Plans for the sanitary protection of the atmospheric air must be
worked out by the local community State Sanitary Inspection wherever possible
in cooperation with the Industrial and Food ol~~izations of the State Sani-
tary Inspection. Final report on the plan shall be made a part of the gener-
al report of the State Sanitary Inspection.
13. All plants whioh are subjeot to sanitary air purity regulations as
above discussed shall keep a sanitar,y log in whioh the State Sanitary Inspeo-
tion shall reoord results of inspections made and reoomme~dations presented.
14. The State Sanitar,y Inspeotion shall check on the general operation
of and care given to gas purifioation equipment, thereby controlling and
checking on the activities of economic organizations.
15. The State Sanitary Inspector shall welcome the partioipation of
local soviets interested in activities related to the sanitary protection of
atmospherio air, in the health and welfare of workers and other pertinent
citizens oommunity organizations.
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16. In its work related to sanitar,y protection of atmospheric air the
State Sanitar,y Inspection shall be guided by existing decrees, norms, stan-
dards, regulations and instructions of the VGSI (All-Union State Sanitar,y
Inspection) of the main State Sanitar,y Inspection of the Republic involved
and by decisions of the executive committee of local soviets; it shall ac-
tively participate in formulating new regulations and instructions in the
field of the sanitar.y protection of atmospheric air.
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The Sanitar,y Protection of Atmospheric Air.
:By
Professor V. A. Ryazanov.
State Publisbe~ of Medical Literature
Medgiz - 1954 - Moscow.
Introduction qy the Author.
The smoke problem which has become the curse of the present day large
industrial cities is the result of the modern type of social industrial order.
The growth of production during the post industrial revolutionar,y period gave
rise to a sharply increased demand for coal. The curve of coal production and
consumption is still ascending, and with it rises the pollution of the atmos-
pheric air by the products of combustion - gases, smoke, soot.
Coal was known to man long before our era. Yet, only during the second
half of the XVIII century, after the invention of the steam engine, did the
demand for coal attain its rapid growth. This was particularly true of the
XIX and the early part of the XX centuries. :By now the curve of demand for
coal in foreign industrial countries has become stabilized and in peace time
such countries suffered depressions, an economic phase characteristic of the
highest state of the so-called capitalist system. It is a well known fact
that industrial development leads to the growth of cities and to the concen-
tration of industrial manufacturing plants and populations in limited sections
of the cities. The growth of population density resulted in an intolerably
high discharge of smoke. These two factors - the growth of city populations
and of industrial manufacturing plants within limited city areas on the one
hand, and the rise in the consumption of domestic heating fuel (coal) on the
other hand - were primarily responsible for the creation of smoke enwrapped
localities, so characteristic of the end of the XIX and beginning XX centuries.
In addition to the demand for coal, the growth of manufacturing industries
needed metals; this lead to the development of the processes of ferrous and
non-ferrous metallurgy. The smelting of metal added considerably to the pol-
lution of the atmospheric air. This was particularly true of the non-ferrous
metallurgy which discharged into the atmosphere huge ~uantities of gases rich
in sulfur anhydrides and in toxic dusts. :Because of their specific toxic
properties, the smokes emitted by the non-ferrous metallurgical plants affected
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unfavorablr plant life, agricultural crops and domestic animals, leading to
a number of litigations between owners of the industrial manufacturing plants
and "pomeshchiks" (rich landlords of old Russia) because of the damage caused
to surrounding agricultural husbandry.
The development of industr,y was accompa.A1ied by "chemization" of industry
and agriculture. The growth of the chemical industries was accompanied by an
increased output into the atmospheric air of new industrial discharges, ~
of which possessed highly toxic propert1es and unpleasant odors and made lif(
of the surrounding or nearby inhabited localities difficult and intolerable.
. .
Then came the era of the interDal combustion motors, which lead to the
most extensive production and use of the automobile and aviation transporta-
tion, to the mechanization of agriculture, and to the inevitably consequent
~sto~ development in the field of crude oil pumping, processing and consump-
tion. Internal combustion motors discharge into the atmospheric air large
quantities of products of hydrocarbon oxidation and odoriferous aldehydes.
Thus, the use of the automobile further intensified the pollution of the street
air of towns by their exhaust gases and in particular by the oxidized hydro-
carbons. The rise in crude oil production caused an intense pollution of the
atmospheric air around the oil wells and the prooessing plants. This was and
still is particularly true of the localities in which the crude oil is rich
in hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans. We are not going to linger on other
branches of the industries, since, what has been said in the preceding para-
graphs generally applies to all branches and phases of industrially develop-
ing countries.
The increasing pollution of the atmospheric air in highly developed in-
dustrial countries attracted the attention of society as a whole, and partic-
ularly of scientists and governmental h.ealth organizations. This was due pri-
marily to the fact that pollution of the atmospheric air produced the follow-
ing economically damaging effects:
1. Loss of heating fuel due to incomplete combustion. Assuming that the
incomplete combustion is approximately 1%, ~hich is far below the true situa-
tion, then the world's loss of coal in 1935 amounted to 13 million tons, or to
more than one half of the prerevolutionary yield of coal in Russia.
2. The loss in sulfurous gas present in heating fuel consumed by the en-
tire world in 1929 was equivalent to 38.2 million tons of sulfuric acid, or
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nearly three times the world's 13 million ton produotion of sulfurio aoid
during that year. To this must be added losses experienced by the non-ferrous
producers (zinc, lead, arsenio, tin, copper, etc.), by the chemical industry,
by industries using organio solvents, eto., which together add up to an in-
oaloulable loss to the world's economy.
3. There is the loss by destruction of oonstruotion materials by sulfur
gases. The sulfurous gases have a destructive effect on oement, concrete,
reinforced concrete, natural stone building materials and on iron. Atmospher-
ic air contaminants have a particularly deleterious effect on monuments and
arohitectural structures of historical and artistic value.
4. There are also the losses caused by lowered transparency of the at-
mosphere and the consequent increased cost of street and other illumination.
5. There is also loss by damage caused to vegetation. The losses in
perished vegetation caused by smoke density have not been estimated, but they
are judged to be high. Thus, Shafnit estimated that in just one of Russia's
provinces the annual loss caused by such damage to vegetation amounted to 20
million gold marks. According to the calculation of Haselhoff, the forest
husbandry of Germany, for causes above enumerated, was losing close to 24 mil-
lion marks annually.
6. Sickness and loss of domestic and agricultural animals in the vicin-
ity of industrial manufacturing plants was described on numerous occasions in
foreign literature. Vobst described in detail the history of the deleterious
effect of the Freiburg metallurgical indu3tries and the consequent loss in
domestic and agricultural animals after such industries changed to processing
of poor ores containing high peroentages of arsenic and adopted larger blast
furnaces which discharged greater quantities of arsenic-oontaining smoke and
gases from their smokestacks. Frequent oomplaints were registered by the pop-
ulation of siokness and death oaused to their oa~tle by such industrial dis-
charges; this resulted in the oreation of special oommittees, whioh oould at-
tain no sought after results despite all efforts. The oonstruotion of taller
ohimneys failed to reme~ the damaging conditions. There was a seeming reduc-
tion in the death of animals, but Vobst sho~ed this to have been due to the
following: as soon as signs of sickness appeared in the animals, the owners
slaughtered them and consumed the meat rather than allow them to die.
Frequent reports appeared in recent foreign literature which described
numerous instances of sickness among animals in the proximal vicinities of
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aluminum producing plants, which polluted the atmospheric air with fluorine
compounds.
Evidence is inoreasingly aocumu1ating which points to the deleterious
effeot of atmospherio pollutions on the health of populations. Considerable
interest was directed to this problem b.1 the oatastrophe whioh ocourred in
Belgium in the valley of Maas, where many industrial manufacturing plants are
clustered in olose proximity. In Deoember of 1930 a condition prevailed in
this valley characterized by a stable anti-cyclonic state acoompanied b.1 a
high barometrio pressure, low wind ve100i ty and a temperature inversion. This
lead to the formation of a thick persistent fog with a distinot odor of sul-
furous gas. The fog appeared on Deoember the first and persisted for five
days. M~ oomplaints were registered by the population of a sick: feeling and
of weakness; the symptoms beoame aggravated and fatalities ooourred in many
instanoes. The first deaths were reported on the fourth day. Deoember the
sixth the weather ohanged, the wind ve100ity gained momentum, the fog was dis-
persed, and no more sioknesses oocurred. Several hundred persons were thus
affeoted, of whioh 60 died. Deaths a1so oocurred later, seemingly due to seo-
ondary causes. Older people and persons with heart conditions and with asthma
predominated among those who died.
Irritation of the respiratory tract, chest pains, ~spnea of paroxisma1
, \
type, respiratory diffiou1ty of an asthma-like charaoter were among'the symp-
toms common to all the afflicted. There were also persons with manifestations
of cardiac weakness and cardiac collapse. In addition to irritation of the
trachea and bronchi there were also in evidence irritation of the aesophagus,
nausea, vomiting and desquamation of the oral mucous epithelium. An examina-
tion of internal organs, of the nervous By-stem and of the blood showed no ab-
normal or unusual symptoms, with the exception of an eosinophilia. Chemical
and spectroscopic ana~ses of the blood and of tissues failed to disclose the
presence of any poisonous substanoes. Autopsies showed irritation and inflam-
matory processes of the respiratory tracts with necrotio foci scattered over
the mucosa, and pulmonary hemorrhages. Similar symptoms were obseryed among
domestic animals. It was the opinion of experts that intoxioation was due to
a combined action of 502 and sulfurous acid (anhydride).
These poisonings could not be ascribed to some acoident which might have
occurred in industrial plants and which may have caused the discharge into the
atmospheric air of some unknown poisonous pollutant, nor was it due to a:tl'3 un-
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foreseen sudden discharge of an abnormally large quantity of the usual type
of pollutants. So far as investigation was able to ascertain, the work in
the manufacturing plants proceeded under the usually prevailing conditions
of production. The cause of the catastrophe was found in the unfavorable
meteorological conditions which caused industrial gases to remain and accumu-
late in the valley.
This instance of mass air poisoning was not the only one. Such a tragic
occurrence occurred in 1948 in Donora, U. S. A. only 18 years after the Bel-
gium trage~. In Donora, as in Belgium, the underlying meteorological condi-
.tions were a stable anti-cyclonic state of weather, a temperature inversion
and a fog. The fog appeared October 21 and persisted for five d~s as in
Belgium. Sickness among the inhabitants soon made its appearance, with com-
plaints analogous to those reported in Belgium. Donora is a relatively small
town, so far as the number of inhabitants is concerned, and it was reported
that 6,000, or 42.1% of the population had been sick, of which 10% manifested
serious intoxication symptoms. Twenty of the patients died. The sickness af-
fected persons of all ages, but the severity of the symptoms ap~eared to go
with age. Most severe forms of sickness were observed in persons having bran-
chial asthma, chronic bronchitis and heart disease. Siokness duration varied
from 1 - 15 d~s. Basically the symptoms were related to the organs of respi-
ration; severe cough was the most frequent symptom. One third of the afflicted
had gastro-intestinal and other systemic disturbances and head-aohes. The re-
sults of three autopsies showed that the terminal bronohi were basically the
firet to be affected, also the brochioles and the pulmonar,y parenchyma, but
hemorrhagic manifestations, edemas and necrosis were of a ver,y light form.
No air analysis was made during the persistence of the fog. Later analysis
found no unusual pollutants. The probable conclusion was that air pollution
in cities and highly developed industrial centers of the two countries con-
cerned reached a high degree of saturation so that on the slightest opportu-
nity, presented by certain m&teorological conditions, a situation arises Wh1Ch
endangers the health and life of the inhabitants. Lighter cases of air poi-
soning, which did not result in any dedths, were reported in Lancashire, En-
gland in 1946, in the close proximity of a manufacturing plant which discharged
fluorine compounds into the atmospheric air, and in Scotland, in 1949, in the
vicinity of a crude oil processing plant, etc.
rn Los Angeles, U. S. A. a foggy (smoggy) condition occurs periodically
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which causes an irritation 01 ~he mucosa of the eyes. References to this
are frequent in American hygienic literature which records results of inves-
tigations related to the cause of smogs. Despite numerous investigations
made with the most up-to-date equipment, including electron microscopes, in-
vestigations yielded no positive results. It is merely assumed that the ao-
tive initiator of fog (smog) is a complex of organic sulfur-containing com-
pounds. This assumption has not been verified by any reliable test or other
experimental evidence. The importance of the periodic occurrence of fog
(smog) in Los Angeles rests on the fact that in a large highly developed in-
dustrial city unfavorable living conditions had been created, utterly intol-
erable to the inhabitants. All this would clearly point to the inexcusable
granting of "freedom" to masters of indust17 to discharge smoke and gases
emitted by their industrial manufacturing establishments into the air of popu-
lated localities.
In England and in the U. S. A., as in many other foreign industrial coun-
tries, there exist special societies organized to fight against smoke air
pollution; journals are published, which deal with this subject, scientific
research institutes and laboratories perform a considerable amount of inves-
tigational work, lectures are being presented, congresses and conferences
meet, systematic observations are carried out on the purity of the atmospher-
ic air, well-intentioned resolutions are adopted regarding the protection of
atmospheric air; and there the well-intentioned attempts end. The fight for
atmospheric air purity is lacking in realism. The ve17 essence of the prof-
it-type society, the foundation upon which it rests, is a barrier to the re-
alization of practical measures applicable in specific ways to given practi-
cal situations. The owners of industrial manufacturing plants, whose econo~
ic and political influences prevail, stand in the w~ of such realization.
The histo17 of the struggle against smoke in England presents a most
striking example of the impossibility of solving the problem of smoke pollu-
tion under prevailing politico-economic conditions. The volUme of work ao-
complished in England in the stu~ of pollution prevention of atmospheric air
appears impressive; yet, the summar,y of 25 years' accomplishments presented
by Owens at the conference in Leeds in 1936 was anything but impressive. The
work was conducted in 160 field observation stations. The results of the in-
vestigations showed that in some cities, as in Glasgow and in London, the de-
gree of air pollution was reduced, in other towns it remained the same, and
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in a third set of towns it increased. Yet, even in the case of the cities
where the degree of air pollution was reported to have abated, it was not
convincingly proven that such degree of abatement was the result of the adop-
tion of appropriate protective measures. On the contrar,y, there appeared
sufficient reason to believe that such abatement in degree of industrial air
pollution in towns under consideration was a consequence of reduced industrial
acti vity due to conditions created by an economic depression. Thus the bright
hopes which were aroused among the hygienists of the above countries in rela-
tion to a "successful" struggle against atmospheric air pollution in the early
d~s of the English committee for the fight against smoke pollution proved ill
founded and caused the hopeful ones to suffer profound disappointment.
This was vividly illustrated by the events which occurred in London, in
December of 1952. According to accounts presented by English journals an ex-
tremely dense fog prevailed in London during December 5 - 9th of that year;
this fog was accompanied by an increased rate of morbidity and mortality among
the London population. Within one week 2,484 persons died in London as com-
pared with the usual number for a similar period of 753 - 945 persons. The
increase in the mortality rate appeared most pronounced among the aged and, chil-
dren. During the days of the fog the mortality rate equaled the one observed
during the cholera epidemic in 1866. A similar fog, accompanied by a high rate
of mortal! ty among the inhabitants, occurred in London in 1897. Such are the
sad results of the fight against smoke air pollution in London, as is indicated
by the historic account for the past 80 years. (See The Lancet, Februar,y 7,
1953, pp. 288 - 289).
The bourgeois society created the smoke problem, but its attempts for the
past 100 years to solve it brought about no positive results. This can be 8%-
plained by the fact that the fight against smoke air pollution crosses the in-
terests of the industrialists and is in disharmo~ with the basic principles on
which the modem production for profit society is organized. The solution of
the smoke problem can be attained only in a socialist type of society. In the
u. S. S. R., where the means of production belong to the people, the obstacles
which exist in the profit-type of society are non-existent. In the U. S. S. R.
it is prohibited by law to ope~ate new production plants lacking requiredfacil-
!ties for the purification of gaseous emissions. The State Sanitar,y Inspection
has the right to suspend the operation of plants suspected of adversely affect-
ing the health of the population. Measures for the installation of pollution
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.-
I
purification equipment in plants whioh have been in operation for years past
are planned on an annual basis by the State Sanitary Inspection of the U. S.
S. R. in cooperation with the State Planning Organization of the U. S. S. R.
and are gradually being introduced into the national economic plan. In this
way pollution abating measures are plaoed on a practioal basis. Taking into
oonsideration the lack of methods for smoke and gas purification for many in-
dustrial manufaoturing branches, the U. S. S. R. Government adopted a manda-
tor.y regulation requiring all ministries and responsible agencies to develop
in their branoh institutes methods for the purifioation of industrial gases
and for the utilization of valuable waste products. This method of facing the
problem by making all specialized industrial institutes participate in the
fight against atmospheric pollution, presents the one and only correct approach
to the protection of air purity. The problem of discharge purification can
not be solved without t~e thorough knowledge of technology of the processes
which created the discharges. Before approaching the problem of discharge
purification thought should be given to the possible elimination of the dis-
?harges, perhaps by first changing the production-process free from polluting
discharges or emitting discharges of minimum air pollution. Only specialized
institutes which deal with the basic technology of production in all its
phases can conduct a successful search for methods used in the combat of air
pollution.
The outstanding problem of today in connection with air pollution puri-
fication is the staffing of industrial production plants, future establish-
ments and scientific institutes with specialists along lines of dust abate-
ment and gas purification. All industr.y ministries have incorporated into
their educational and training plans and higher technical schools have in-
cluded into their curricula courses dealing with problems of gas purification
and dust abatement. It is hoped that in this way the Soviet national econo-
~ will be assured of specialists qualifie~ in all phases of air pollution
abatement.
Responsibility for the realization of measures to be used in the fight
against atmospheric air pollution has been relegated to the State Sanitar,y
Inspection, which has, as one of its component parts, a group of specialists
whose duty it is to direct this phase of the State Sanitary Inspection. Po-
sitions of state sanitar,y atmospheric air inspectors were established on a
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local basis in connection with regional state sanitar,y inspection organiza-
tions. Sanitar,y-epidemiological stations together with their 1aborator,y fa-
cilities and scientific-research hygienic institutes are gradually drawn in-
to this work.
In this w~ the sanitar,y protection of atmospheric air attained a con-
siderable impetus and was placed on a quasi-official basis; it has been or-
ganized according to a well conceived plan, and it is, in effect, a well de-
fined organizational structure. All this makes success in our work possible
in so far as purification of air of our cities is concerned.
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THE SANITARY PRO'l'EGrIOI 0' ATMOSPHERIC AIR
By
Professor V. A. Ryazanov
State Publishing of Medical Literature
Kedgiz - 1954 - Koscow
Fereword by the Author.
The 70ringest branch of the science of hygiene - hygiene of atmos-
pherio air - is passing through a period of rapid development. The
previous17 unwitnessed tempos of progressive development of industri-
alization demand rapid and radical measures for the prevention of
possible pollution of atmospheric air. The praotioal phase of sooial-
ist construction confronts the scienoe of hygiene with one problem
after another, which demand illllDediate solution. What are the dangers
inherent in the numerous ingredients of industrial discharges? What
are the limits of allowable concentrations for each pollutant? What
measures should be adopted for the prevention of atmospheric pollution
b7 various branohes of the complex and maqy faoeted Soviet industr,y?
For the solution of these and other problems Soviet hygienic soience
had to searoh out its own paths of development.
The fight against atmospherio pollution never rested on suoh a
realistic foundation in oapitalistic countries. The rich, living in
palaces in suburban villas experienced no particular discomfort from
gases and dust, wh.i.oh poison the air of workers' quarters. In oapi-
talist oities there is no real fight for pure air; the capitalist
bourgeoisie 1s in pursuit of maximum profits and is not inolined to
spend sums of mone7 for the improvement Qf living conditions of citY'
dwellers. This explains why the 100 7ear old fight against smoke in
the U.S.A. and in England failed to produoe positive results and is,
in faot, a failure. A't the same time the muoh-ado surrounding the
problems of sanitar,y protection of atmospherio air is favorab~ re-
gard.d by oapitalists. It plaoates the dissatisfaotion of the toiling
masses ot capitalist countries, creates a semblanoe of measures being
taken for the solution of this essential problem. Since capitalistic
lordS of sooiet7 are in faot a180 the lords of bourgeois soience, theY'
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are not interested in putting into effect measures for the success of
the fight against smoke air pollution, they are indifferent to the
progressive development of the science of hygiene. It is natural,
therefore, that the scienca of hygiene of the atmosphere should still
be at a low level of attainment and development.
Soviet hygienists follow an independent path in the development
of atmospheric air hygiene and adopt a8 their basic motive force the
prinoiple of insuring highest favorable life conditions for the teilers.
It is not surprising, therefore, that the Soviet hygienists' concept
of atmospheric air purity differs basical~ from that of capitalist
countries.
The specific features which characterize Soviet hygiene of atmos-
pheric air are as follows:
1. In oapitalist countries hygiene has as its primar,r
interest the general state of city air smoke pollution oaused b.1 home
and house heating plants and eleotric power plants, it excludes almost
totally the study of effects of different industrial manufacturing
emissions on surrounding air. Hygienists of capitalistic countries
accumulated a considerable volume of an~lytical data concerning
community air, th8.1 have practically no accumulated information on air
pollution by specific industries. This is understandable: air
pollution by oity faotors affects more or less city sections where
the riCh and industrial magnates live. Air pollution in vicinities
of industrial manufaoturing establishments is of ooncern on~ to the
population living in workers' quarters and villages located closest
to such sources of air pollution.
On the other hand, Soviet hygienists have accumulated muoh
information concerning the zonal distribution of pollutants of atmos-
pheric air, caused b.1 the different types of industrial manufacturing
plants, they made a study of speoific oharacteristics of production
plants whioh constitute souroes of atmospherio air pollution, they
developed standards (norms) for sanitary olearanoe zones between
looations of production industries and inhabited areas. This phase
of the community hygieneoriginate4 with the Soviet hygienists, no
such precedence existed abroad at the time.
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2. The sediaentatioD method of atmospheric air pollution
8tu~ is practically the only classical method used D.Y~gienist.
abroad, this method fails to present the true pioture of the extent
of atmospheric air pollution. The use of this method cannot be ex-
plained on the basis of technioal backwardness, it is due to the fact
that the use of this method by scientists, who are at the order of the
oapitalists, enables them to conceal the true degree of the pollution
of atmospheric air. The indexes obtained by sedimentation methGlds
do not lend themselves to evaluation frail the viewpoint of effect on
the human organism, the human organism is affected by pollutants sus-
pended in the air and not by the fractions which have settled down to
the ground.
Soviet hygienists are conoerned with the problem of the effeot
on the human organism of air pollutants found in the atmosphere, for
this reason they adopted the aspiration method of atmospherio air
Btu~ as the basic one, and the sedimentation method as an au:r:illiar.r
or supplemental one.
3. Modern bourgeois hygiene failed to adopt hygienio stan-
dards (norms) of atmospherio air purity. The establishment or accep-
tance of suoh standards would faoe them with the problem of acioptiDg
praotical measures for oombatting atmospheric air pollutants, a phase
in whioh oapitalists of foreign lands, in whose hands rests the ruliDB
power, are not interested. Soviet hygienists, on the other hand,
, puttins into realization the aims of the government, developed limits
of allowable concentrations for different atmospherio air pollutants
for the first time in the history of the world, and they did it in a
ver, short time.
4. The U.S.S.R. science of hygiene was in a position to
brins into realization the aims of the government beoause it is based
on the principles of lichurin biology and Pavlov p~siological
teachinss' from the viewpoint of both the organism is regarded as
being vitally interrelated with the external environment, all changes
which oocur in the organism are ooncei ved as phenomena conditioned D.Y
the environment, Soviet soience of hygiene regards the effect of
environment on the organism as the directive force of all hygienic
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evaluations.. In evolving and selecting hygienic standards (norms)
Soviet hygienists follow biological and physiological controlling
principles.
Another
important characteristic resulting from the p~siological
. .
Pavlovian orientation of Soviet science of hygien~ is the fact that it
recognizes the leading role played by the central nervous system and
especially of the cerebral cortex in the process of adaptation to the
external environment, in its fight against harmful factors and in its
capacity to mend damaged functions. Soviet hygienists attach con-
siderable significance to the .effect of low intensity factors upon man,
including so-called, indifferent faotors of external environment, which
could acquire pathologic magnitudes due to the formation of new
natural conditioned reflexes. In their studies of limits of allowable
air pollutant concentrations Soviet hygienists took into serious
account the effect of various air pollutants upon the higher nervous.
activity and of the changes which they effected in the organoleptic
properties of the surrounding enviromnent.
5. Soviet science of hygiene is vitally concerned with
practical living conditions, it attempts to solve problems dictated
by the need of people's econo~ and checks on the correctness of its
solutions under practical conditions. In capitalist countries practical
proposals of hygienists remain unrealized; the Soviet hygienists have
the opportunity to witness the realization of their proposals in
practice. Such cooperation between science and practice is one of
the main reasons for the sucoess of Soviet hygiene in general and of
air hygiene in particular.
We have at our disposal all the possibilities for the systemiza-
tion of the present state of atmospheric air hygiene. A course of
lectures presented in 1951/1952 on the subject of the sanitar,y pro-
tection of atmospheric air can well serve as the starting point for
such a systemization. The lectures mentiOned were presented at the
Central Institute of Post Graduate Medicine in Moscow and ~ere intend-
ed to raise the qualifications of the State's sanitary inspectors.
We think it is timely and appropriate to review the results
attained by Soviet hygienists in the field of atmospheric air hygiene;
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it will undoubtedly stimulate the interest of our younger generation
in the sanitary protection of atmospheric air; of this there exists
a great need. This becomes emphasized by the rapidly progressing
industrial development plans proposei by the XIX Conference of the
Communist Party of the Soviet Union. We must recognize the fact
that in text books on hygiene the phase of air purity and air pollution
is presented in an elementary m.aDD.er. The only monograph dealing
with this question was written by M. S. Gol'dberg; it is a small
volume and does not touch fully upon the problems confronted b.1 the
sanitary physician; and in addition, its edition has long since been
sold out.
The subject of atmospheric air protection is here discussed with an
eye on the perspectives of future actual developments. The shortcomings
of this volume reflect to a large extent shortcomings of the present
state of our science. There are m~ omissions in the book. Data are
lacking concerning the pollution of atmospheric air caused by ~ of
our industries. We still have established no limits of allowable
concentrations for many of the industrial manufacturing air pollutants;
same of the limits suggested and adopted can not be regarded as based
on satisfactor.y rational reasoning and should be studied further. No
information exists regarding the effect on man's central nervous system
of ~ deleterious air pollutants. Most substances dealt with have not
been studied from the viewpoint of prolonged, so-called, chronic effects
in small concentrations, etc.
Because of this we were not able to throw any light on the problem
of the sanitary protection of the atmospheric air to the extent desired.
It is hoped, however, that even as of now our work may serve as a stimulus
to further scientific investigaticns of Soviet hygienists and will fill
the gaps within a short time.
It is hoped that practical hygienists
important role in the future development of
atmosph,eric air.
By enrolling the organized cooperati~n of such workers along the proper
channels we should obtain, within a short time, valuable material, thereb7
filling in the gaps now existing in our lenowledge of atmospheric air
and sanitarians will play an
sanitary protection of
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protection. :BeariDg this in mind we devoted a considerable. portion ot
the last chapter of this book to the scientific phase of the work of
8anitar,r service.
The author will greatly appreciate
- suggestions in regard to ~his book.
the readers' criticisms 'and
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Concluding chapter of the book entitled
"The Sanitary Protection of Atmospheric Air."
By
V. A. Ryazanov.
Published by Medgiz, of Moscow, U. S. S. R., in 1954.
Organization of Work in Sanitary Protection of Atmospheric Air.
In accordance with the U. S. S. R. sanitary laws no plans can be proposed
for the construction of new industrial plants without including provisions for
,the purification of discharges into the atmosphere, and no production plant
can be set into operation without the permission. of the appropriate sections
of theStat~ Sanitary Inspectorate; the latter must be assured that the pro-
duction plant was equipped with the required and appropriate purification de-
vices. Accordingly, the first problem with which the State Sanitary Inspec-
torate is faced is the securing of precise information regarding the products
and operational methods of the proposed manufacturing plant. It is the duty
of the Regional State Sanitary Inspector to be in constant close contact with
the Regional Division of the Industry Planning Organization, rural or urban,
and to be fundamentally informed of details pertaining to any new industrial
construction. The Regional State Sanitary Inspection must also be in close
touch with the architectural administration, which has the authority and ex-
pert knowledge in matters pertaining to the assignment of construction sites,
particularly in urban surroundings. The higher organization of the State San-
itary Inspectorate must supply its Regional offices with a list of proposed
large constru?tions included in the national economic plan and assigned to a
specific republic of the U. S. S. R. It is also the responsibility of the
State Sanitary Inspectorate to be in contact with regional planning organiza-
tions and to obtain from them information regarding their future industrial
construction plans. The organization of the State Sanitary Inspectorate is
urged to, and, indeed, it is mandatory that it avail itself of the services
of the sanitary-epidemiological station on sanitary-hygienic aspects connected
with the erection of new plants thus filling in informational gaps.
The sanitary aspects of some planned production plants may be closely
related to the protection of atmospheric air purity; iri some inatances the
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air pollution aspects may not be well understood because of the newness of the
technology involved; in such eventualities the State Sanitarylnspector must
request from the planning organization explanatory details, inoluding graphic
material, concerning the products and processes of the proposed plants. In
formulating his final decision the State Sanitary Inspector of the region to
which he is assigned shall take into consideration the following: the materi-
al submitted by the construction organization, the data obtained concerning
the sanitary aspects of the site selected by the regional sanitary-epidemiolog-
ical station or by the state sanitary inspector himself; the decision of the
latter may be final, if the project is of purely local origin and depends upon
local authority; his decision may be provisional, if the project is of concern
to the U. S. S. R. as a whole, or if it is industrially and nationally of a
basic character.
Decisions of projects of concern to an individual Republic or Union must
be referred to appropriate higher Departments for final action. Regardless
of the nature of the authority making the final decision, it must be clearly
indicated which of the antioipated discharges into the atmosphere must be pu-
rified first and within what limits, also what kind of purifioation equipment.
is reoommended for installation; the type and width of the sanitary olearance
zones to be established between the proposed produotion plants and inhabited
areas must be clearly defined. In complicated situations local scientific-
researoh institutes of hygiene and technology should be consulted, or the fi-
nal decision should be mandatorily referred to some higher competent authority.
In some instances a provisional decision may be made, and permission to
proceed with the construction may be issued, with the view in mind of solving
technical and unforseen difficulties as the construction advances step b.1
step. In such cases the State Sanitary Inspector shall demand that he be
supplied with pertinent information regarding the progress of the new con-
struction, in time for him to be able to issue permits to proceed with the
construction or to postpone same until pertinent corrections have been made.
It is not the duty of the State Sanitary Inspector to pass judgment on the
technical phases of the project. His authority shall be limited to deciding
whether or not the degree of purification of discharges anticipated and the
extent and location of the sanitary clearance zones are in acoord with the
basic sanitary-hygienio requirements of the State Sanitary Inspection Cammit-
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tee of the U. S. S. R. or of the specific republic, as the case may be, etc.
However, he may interject his authority in instances in which his judgment
indicated that deliberate deviations from and errors in the original plans
of construction m~ lead to undesirable sanitary-hygienic consequences. In
the absence of gross deviations and deliberate errors in the construction,
the state sanitary inspector, whether Regional, Republic, or Union, must
scrupulously abstain from interfering with the erection and technological
equipping: of the planned construction. Such a policy shall be enforced, on
the one hand, as a measure to insure the proper progress of the planned con-
struction, and on the other hand, as a protection to the State Sanitary In-
spector against any blame in the event deficiencies in the cons~.~ction appear
.~
at some future time.
. It is the, duty of the State Sanitary Inspector in the field of protection
of atmospheric air to periodically visit the site at which the new industrial
. .
building is being erected and to assure himself of the fact that purification
equipment is being installed in accordance with the approved plan, that the
equipment is of the recommended type and that its functioning m~ be available
at the time the plant will be set into operation. If there is a del~ in the
installation of the purification equipment, the State Sanitary Inspector should
warn the constructionorga~ization that without the simultaneous functioning
of the purification installations no permit will be issued for the operation
of the plant. In such eventuality the State Sanitary Inspector must file a
report with the Main State Sanitary Inspection and other responsible organi-
zations, such, for instance, as the trust or the Ministry under whose juris-
diction the new plant will operate, informing them of the measures he had
taken. Furthermore, the state sanitary inspector is duty bound to resort to
any and all such authority at his command and locally take such appropriate
legal action as the circumstances in the case may dictate. Upon the comple-
tion of the construction the State Sanitary Inspector may constitute himself
a member of the approving committee, or, in accordance with previous arrange-
ments, he may refer all file material pertaining to the case to some one au-
thorized by the higher office of the State Sanitary Inspection who will then
work in cooperation with the committee on approval.
Prior to the final acceptance of the purification installations, a pre-
liminary test run should be made, the results of which will determine the fi-
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nal action to be taken with regard to approval or disapproval for the plant's
operation. The duty to determine the coefficient or degree of purification
of the installations belongs to the organization of technologists; the State
Sanitary Inspector must then secure the cooperation of the authorized sanitary-
epidemiological station for the purpose of making a thorough study of the air
of inhabited localities in the vicinity of the newly erected plant and to de-
termine on a practical basis whether or not the gases discharged into the at-
mosphere are being adequately purified. It is also desired that the popula-
tion in the vicinity of the new plant be interrogated as to whether the new
plant's discharges cause them any discomfort. Should any justifiable complaints
be recorded, then measures should be taken to eliminate the causes of such
complaints. Data 60 accumulated may prove of future value. The construction
organizations must be fully informed of all the defects found, in order that
they may be obviated in future construction of siwilar plants.
As soon as the performance of the purification equipment has been found
adequate or as soon as the discovered defects have been satisfactorily remedied,
the connection of the State Sanitary Inspection with this project shall termi-
nate. The responsibility of seeing that the recommended purity of the atmos-
pheric air of the inhabited locality in the vicinity of the new plant is prop-
erly maintained is thereafter relegated to local or regional sanitary-epidemio-
logical stations whose duty it shall be to maintain thereafter an appropriate
sanitary vigilance. The State Sanitary Inspector, in line with his duties,
shall check on the work of the sanitary-epidemiological station to assure him-
self that the sanitary situation around the newly erected plant was under
proper control. He shall report to the Chief Physician of the sanitary-epidem-
iological station any defects he may find in the general sanitary situation,
asking him to proceed with appropriate type of, remedies. One of the important
duties of state sanitary inspectors is to cooperate with the authorities of the
sanitary-epidemiological station to whom they must offer every needed assis-
tance so that they may more efficiently and more effectively accomplish their
"
missions.
The inspection of and the control over the sanitary condi~ions of the vi-
cinities surrounding newly built industrial plants is only one of the many re-
sponsibilities with which the position of State Sanitary Inspector in endowed.
There are in operation many manufacturing, industrial 'plants which were built
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before the present sanitar,ylaws and regulations had been adopted with regard
to the protection of atmospheric air; and it is the duty of the StateSanitar,y
Inspector to exert ever,y effort in the direction of applying and bringing into
realization appropriate health-improving measures in connection with these old
manufacturing plants.
First of all, the State Sanitary Inspector should secure a complete list
of industries, plants, work-shops and other places of employment which by the
nature of ~heir production pollute the atmospheric air. In connection with
each work-place of such nature the inspector must secure information regarding
the type of air pollution the discharges contain, the chemical composition and
volumes or quantities in which such air pollutants are being discharged into'
. .
the atmosphere. Such information can be used in the preparation of lists of
enterprises which in the judgement of the state sanitar,y inspector must install
pollution abating equipment. It is felt that complete and,radical elimination
or even desired reduction of the pollutants cannot be attained at once in all
the old plants. The list prepared as above described, must be carefully ana-
lyzed and broken up into sublists of different degrees of emergency. Such
lists should then be presented either to the Union or appropriate Republic
planning committees who have the a~thority over certain types of industrial
enterprises, requesting that recommendations be issued for appropriate action.
Strictly local or regional matters are to be decided on a regional or local
basis by appropriate regional or municipal authorities.
In presenting lists of large plants to be equipped with purification in-
stallations the state sanitary inspector must state clearly whether he indi-
cates the possible need for a plan of instaliations or specifically recommends
actual installation in compliance with an existing plan. This will expedite
consideration of the inspector's suggestions and action to be taken upon his
recommendations; it will simplify the process of selecting the responsible
agency under whose authority and jurisdiction the work of planning or install-
ing is to be conducted - municipal, regional or state sanitary inspection or-
ganizations.The State Sanitary Inspector must have an indexed record of all
cases under consideration and must exert ever,y effort possible for the reali-
. .
zationof the projects recommended by him and must maintain a follow-up system
until the project has been completed. The procedure to be followed in examin-
ing and approving projects, in checking on the progress made and in approving
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and accepting the completed projects, are essentially the same as described
in connectiQn with construction of new production plants. Completed. projects
are transferred to local, municipal, regional or Union sanitary-epidemiological
. .
stations for further control and executive direction. However, the authority
of the All-Union State ~anitary Inspectorate shall prevail in all cases. Fi-
nal acceptance of purification installations and granting permission for their
operation shall be accomplished as specified ina letter of authority issued
by the All-Union State Sanitary Inspectorate. Formal quarterly reports shall
. be submitted to the main State Sanitary Inspectorate concerning progress made
on purification installations undertaken by individual republics or by the
Union's national economy planners.
The above defines the basic duties and responsibilities of the State San-
itary Inspector associated with the sanitary protection of atmospheric air.
In performing his duties and responsibilities, the State Sanitary Inspector
shall rely upon and cooperate with local sanitary-epidemiological stations
and shall maintain close and continuous contact with such institutions in mat-
tars pertaining to projects related to the sanitary protection of atmospheric
air, beginning with the preparation of lists of projects proposed for the in-
stallation of health protection devices. Analysis and study of such projects
shall be made by local sanitary-epidemiological stations at the inspector's
request or upon his recommendation. The State Sanitary Inspector shall make
certain that laboratories of sanitary-epidemiological stations are organized
and equipped to perform all types of laboratory tasks related to sanitary pro-
tection of atmospheric air; he shall exert every effort possible in the direc-
tion of raising the qualifications of the professional personnel of such labo-
rat9ries.
Sanitary-epidemiological stations shall be required to participate in the
approval and acceptance of installed purification equipment. This will enable
sanitary physicians of sanitary-epidemiological stations to become intimately
familiar with general situations as they exist and to detect defects and defi-
ciencies in purification installations over which he will have ultimate con-
. .
trol.An indexed card record shall be kept of all p~rification installations.
Sanitary physicians of sanitary-epidemiological stations shall make scheduled
periodic visits and inspections of industrial purification installations placed
under their authority. It shall be their duty to:
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1. Determine whether or not competent personnel has been assigned to
care for and watch over purification installations under their professional
authority;
2. See that adequate and detailed instructions for the operation of
purification installations are available and properly displayed;
3. Determine whether equipment and other necessar,y facilities are avail-
able for checking on the proper operation and effectiveness of purification
installations, such as ampmeters, voltmeters, thermometers, etc.; they shall
determine whether the personnel assigned to watch over purification installa-
tions were familiar with the operation of such control equipment;
4. Require that the original authorization papers in relation to purifi-
cation installations be presented to them and that they be given copies of
same for their official files; they must personally examine to assure them-
selves that installations were constructed in accordance with specifications
outlined in permits;
5. They shall see that a diar,y (log) is kept of operations as prescribed
by regulations and assure themselves that entries were made according to form;
. .
it shall be the duty of sanitar,y physicians of sanitar,y-epidemiological sta-
tions to see that shifts in personnel were observed and that accidents, mi~-
haps and irregularities were properly recorded; if instances of interrruptions
in the operation of purification installations occur sanitar,y-epidemiological
physicians shall order the plant administration to take immediate and proper
remedial measures to avoid similar interruptions in the future;
6. Insist that plant authorities keep records of prevailing sanitar,y
conditions and that remedial suggestions entered by the sanitary physicians
into the record books shall be put into effect by proper administrative au-
thorities of the plant.
Members of plant personnel
fication installations shall be
responsible for the proper operation of puri-
appropriately disciplined in cases of gross
duty neglect.
Sanitar,y physicians of sanitary-epidemiological stations and State San-
itary Inspectors engaged in work related to the sanitary protection of atmos-
. .
pheric air shall conduct educational and training activities among members of
plant personnel whose work was related to sanitary protection of atmospheric
air. They shall offer courses and conduct seminars on related subjects for
-)2-
-------
the benefit of teohnioa1, professional and. soientific personnel whose aotivi-
ties were related to sanitary proteotion of atmospherio air. Periodio and
, ,
systematio oontrol over the operation and maintenanoe of purification installa-
tions and over the purity of atmospherioair of inhabited areas shall be in
operation at all times. Practical details of such systematic and periodic
controls are outlined in '~ethodologioal Directions for the Organization of
Sanitary Control over the Purity of Atmospheric Air in Inhabited Areas," to
which the reader is referred.
Scientific-practical phases. of work in oonnection with sanitary protection
of atmospheric air constitute a large and important part of the work of state
sanitary inspectors. Such activity serves as a means of improving the quali-
fications of appropriate specialists and as an aid in accumulating new scien-
. ,
tific data of value to the development of the science of air hygiene.
It can be readily seen from preceding statements that many .problems in
the field of atmospheric air hygien~ h~ve been barely touched upon, that in
many instances and situations the desired and, indeed, the much needed factual
information is completely lacking, that. no limits of allowable concentrations
. have been adopted for ~ important atmospheric air pollutants, and that
standards of allowable limits adopted for many industrial air pollutants. need
to be rechecked and revised to make them accord with actual practical condi-
tions. It is suggested that workers engaged in practical phases of sanitary-
epidemiological work and in state sanitary inspection service, should contrib-
ute to the further development and improvement of sanitary protection of at-
mospheric air.
Accumulation of factual information in oonnection with different produc-
tion processes which may be sources of atmospheric air pollution is a matter
of primary importance. During the early periods of development of Soviet la-
bor hygiene members of the sanitary inspection organization of the ''Narkomtrud"
(People's Committee on Labor) collected a wealth of sanitary-descriptive in-
formation which characterized many branches of production industries and pre-
sented details of many occupations in relation to sanitation. Such informa-
tion and practical material' served as the foundation for the early develop-
. .
ment and enactment of Soviet laws applicable to sanitary protection of labor.
Collection of such information should be continued under the unified direc-
tion of ,the All-Union State Sanitary Inspection with the specific view in
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mind of obtaining 'thorough, practical and detailed knowledge regarding produc-
tion processes which by their nature constitute sources of atmospheric air
pollution.. With such information at our disposal we can and should define
the sanitary aspects of specific production processes, establish a list of
, .
sources of industrial discharges, their qualitative and quantitative chemical
composition, indicating the per cent of discharge per ton of raw material
used. The value of such information to our future sanitary air protection
work is self evident. Knowing in advance what to expect in the way. of quan-
tity and qualifY of the industrial discharge of a proposed production pl~t,
we can determine with a higher degree of certainty the required width of sani-
~ .
tary clearanc~. zones between production plants and inh~bited areas. This ap-.
plies equally 'to situations arising in connection with plants already in ex-
- .
istence as to plants proposed for future construction. It is believed that
in the work herein outlined sanitary physicians of sanitary-epidemiological
stations should regard themselves as initiators, stimulators and practical
organizers.
Next in importance is the determination of the actual concentrations of
discharged air pollutants at various distances from sites of different produc-
tion plants. These problems require sanitary-epidemiological investigations
to be undertaken by stations equipped and authorized to do such work. In this
connec.tion it is suggested that the All-Union State Sanitary 'Inspectorate .for-
mulate plans for the annual observation and inspeotion of different branches
of.production industries to be executed by regional state sanitary inspection
bodies or by the regional sanitary-epidemiological stations, as the case may'
dictate. In this way it will be possible to collect basic and reliable infor-
mation on the effect which specific branches of industries have on the condi-
tion of atmospheric air. All analy~es must be conducted in accordance with
nationally and officially accepted standard analytical procedures.
The collection of information related to the ef~ctiveness of purificati~n .
installations and other health-improving measures is next in importance. This
. .
. .
. .. ..
phase of our work should be conducted by sanitary epidemiological stations and
. . . }
their laboratories under. the direction of Sta.te. Sanitary Inspectors. Descrip-'
.tion of the installations and preliminary data made available by production
plants and their laboratories re~rding such installations may be used by in-
vestigators as starting points. With such information at their disposal labo-
-34-
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ratories of the sanitary-epidemiological st~tions can initiate their.ownstud-
ies in accordance with specific local conditions. The results of such studies
can then be evaluated in the light of results found in the files of theproduc-
tion plants. Should any defect in the operation of purification installations
be disclosed, appropriate remedial measures should be recommended b.f sanitary-
, epidemiological station authorities, after a suitable recheck and verification
of the findings. AccUmulated informati.on resulting from such inspections and
studies will prove of value in all phases of future work along the line of san-
itary protection of atmospheric air.
Next in importance is the effect of atmospheric air pollutants on living
conditions of inhabitants. . Here the sanitary questioner method can be employed
. .
advantageously. Information suppiied by such a method can be evaluated in re-
. .
lation to proposed limits of allowable concentrations of pollutants in atmos-
pheric air and can serve as an aid_in deciding upon the methods for the pre-'
ventian or appropriate reduction of such air pollutants. The procedure should
include questions concerning objectionable odors, contamination or spoilage of
household articles, inability to open windows for ventilation, inability to
b.an8. out clothes for drying, etc. In making these inquiries care must be ex-
ercised to avoid making leading or suggestive questions, or questions which
may result in personal irritation or in exaggerated complaints.
Next come such effects as damage to vegetation, dirty window panes, de-
. .
facing of buildings, da.mage to roofs, etc. Useful information can be obtained
from a stu~ of effects of industrial discharges on soil pollution, especially
where discharges contain intensely toxic poisons. It is suggested that studies
" ,
of such phases of atmospheric air pollution should be conducted parallel with
deterininations 'of the contents of 'lead, arsenic, fluorine, and the like., 'Such
. .
parallel investigations' should prove of inestimable value in our attempts to
determine limits of allowable concentrations of pollutants under investigation
in atmospheric air.
With the help of veterinar.y'services organized observations can be 'made
over the health and general condition of domestic animals housed or pastured
, ..' .
in the proximities of large industrial production plants which discharge toxic
substances. The information thus accumulated b.1 veterinarians will be of sci-
entific":value only if observations over the animals are accompanied by deter-
minations of concentrations of ingredients causing tbe toxic or otherwise un'"
-35-
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favorable effects upon the animals. The effect which different concentrations'
of the toxic.discharges ~e8~nt in.the atmosphere may have upon the quality
of milk and other dairy p~oducts should prove of undoubted interest to sanitar-
ian-epidemiologists. ,Tests should 'be conducted with experimental animals kept
in cages Under the effects of the investigated air at different distances frQm
the discharge sources, that is under the effects of, different concentrations
of the discharges as they exist under natural conditions.
Studies should also be conducted to determine the ,effects.pf air-suspended
industrial atmospheric pollutants on air transparency, that is, on visibility;
the effect of suoh air-suspended industrial discharges on reduction in intensity
of natural ultra-violet radiation should be thoroughly investigated. Of par-
ticular interest in this connection is the erythema-producing ultra-violet ra-
diation. In studying the effect of smoke density on the screening out of a
part of the solar ultra-violet radiation recourse should be had to certain bi-
olQgical te~ts sufficiently sensitive to detect ultra-violet radiation deficien-
cy. The following are examples of such biological tests: determination' of
the erythematous dose, fragility of the capillaries as determined by the Nestor
test, determination of phosphotase. activity, and other tests. The study. of
degree of atmospheric air pollution parallel with the ~plication of these bi~
ological tests should yield information of value to the development of limits
of allowable conoentrations of air-suspended industrial discharges. Observa-
tions should also be made over animals fed on a rickets inducing diet under
different degrees'of atmospheric smoke density.
Qpportunities for practical scientific and experimental scientific inves-
tigations in the field of the sanitary pro~ection of atmospheric air ,~re many.
Some are simple problems, others are inherently complex. The simpler problems.
can be attacked by any well trained sanitary physician.: The complex,problems.
require expert technical and scientific training and tpe cooperation of, several
scientific departments. The need and opportunities for additional i~tensive
investigations were mentioned to show that in the. field of sanitary protection
of atmospheric air there exist many unsolved problems covering a wide area of.
scientific research.
Every sanitary phy~ician should undertake the study of at least one prob-
lem no matter how simple. Such activity will stimulate his interests and rouse
his desire to improve himself professionally in, order that. he may grow and mea-
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sure up to the newly arising demands in his tield' ot studies as time and in-
. .
dust rial developments-progress. Having solved one simple problem in one nar-
row ohannel of the general stream ot air sanitation, the sanitar,y physician
must progressively proceed to other channels in order that he m~ not remain
limited in his methods ot approach, evaluation and solution of other problems
arising in this tield ot hygiene and sanitation. It is suggested that, the
sanitar,y physioian commence with the study ot environmental conditions; having
become familiar with that phase, he should then proceed to learn the mutual
. .
relationship between environment and the living organism. In this connection
. it is suggested that in conduoting his physiological and toxicological studies
the sanitar,y physician do that as a practical sanitarian and not as'a detached
theoretical physiologist or toxicologist. There is a protound difference be-
tween the physician sanitarian-hygienist and the pure~ theoretical and de-
tached toxicologist; unlike the latter, he must think ot the organism and ot
the immediate surroundings as an integral.si tuation functionally interdepen-
dent and interrelated and not as two detached and independently functioning phe-
nomena. The problem of the sanitar,y physician is to study the environment and
the organism monistically. Any other method of approach to the problem of the
protection ot atmospheric air is inadmissible.
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-------
Professor V. A. B1'azanov's book en~~tled; "~e. Sanitary~~o~e~t.ion ofyA~ID~~p~e,+;:-.~
. .:;,..:.; ":. 1'- j"" .....-c >")f: ':.,r-.,~:;",~. .... ;c.r"'( d}:~. ,1.:1..1 A~"':.t~,- :.J ;, ~.:...Ci...._:..)-.) :.;":"~.) ~. :;\..~~, \",.', ;j."-' ',JJ,...........,
ic Air", ':'pub1-iEinecrby' M~dgi~ il;1 1955. I.ifaviewed by Professor, M. S. 'r Go~ . dberg,_.
~ " ~""J" '.- ,,:' ,. ,,,,','t"-:"C-',I ,~.~;th-:";"": ~"r...' ~'...;,,,;I()~':. ~::};i..~..;'!....~-g,:.'>:~~ .h~-L~'~'~;"I~,.';;~.-. :.~ .~.-:....:.-;;.,,:,'.1."';:\'
one '~of 'tb:e"S6viet'~Uriron' 8 :'specialists in air pollution. . ., . I
," . ..' " ~: ,,".: . -.'':'.f,".'''i5:: ". '-','.'" :- 0':;" -",.,..:., 't;:):~:J}2-'? '~-,).-~' -',-,' ~,"".."'~i1_' ,~:.: ~
~ . '. ':~..:.~f2,t' ,<.ts.~;:~ ~~.. . .. - --
The book reviewed is devoted ,to. one. of.. the 'most urgent ,problems 'of pres~~,.' ,
.1':..1":-::'>...::E;'-/ . ','...Y";;'i:-, "; ." .1,.;,"; ",'>- I -.' '.~..-\-.._- - "'''''''-~''', .
ent .,day. ~~~~~,,/the saq~taryp:ro:tect.i.o~.~o~.a~~Qsph~:r;~c'.air'of populated l0ii0.JL'::
cali ti~S"iTh~ b~S~9 p~~b+ems.whi~l::J.:stand. :~p'e~~~e ,the"..~gi.enist.. of the atm()s~2~ ('.'::'
;', ,} ", ~ '. '. .
ph~r~,c; ~i.r::~d. ;,~h~:~,~~s. 4sec:1. .fo~:~.s()1-,'4%l€~~h~IIl,,:~edisC\,1ssed ,by.' thea~u;f;hQr\:,from:.
theviem>oi;nt of ,favlovi~J psych01.~gy ,:-vh1ch j,s the.,;Q~ts1ianding feature:,ofethe~~
book.. "T~e;ba~ip.'.~;oblem, o,r the' present-day '~gie%1~.iQf .-city air, ,1s'well :ch8rac- :
..": ': j ',-. "'.. ,..!,.... '- -c.4: ......... .-.. . - ,-' -
terizeg" .i~ ~p.ter,2,,;inwhich .the, ~author pres~nts,the.,~rinciples ~of .~gten1'c ~ ~
;... ;:, ,. J.,. .~..," -....' -,:', - ., ,'. ~ .. ~ . . ....' - .
st8f~-f,~~~at.io~ of.,:~tm.QsPll~rj,c. pol1u~an:ts.:'z'.~pte:r; .1, in which, ~re d;iscu$sed':;;ij'
the .p'~evailing pa~terns : of,~ s,mokeQ.istri but1.on. :in- ,the: air ,;:and,:Cha:pter J2,~ :rl1!:a~) ~::
s~nse,.~~presentthe ~.n~ro,ductory p'art~ of the.pook,'anQ.are devoted::;t,()0genei'~1:'
pro'bl~s.:, ~f atmospheri~ ~i;t' ~gi.ene., The ~u~h()r corr~c,tlyemphasiieEi' :.the' ex'::)''''':
ceptional: :yar~,abil,i tyofconc.en~rat~ on ill81-',edient s fo~~.iri ~ tmospher~c" at_~,.;
and...ca:J.lsa~ten.~j,()n ~o the fact . t.b,~tt};l~. ryagni t,uQ.~ C)f 'de:tel'Dii,ned .;conc~ntra-tion; ,.~
~ '. '1'1.;. - , . -..., . ;
of alV a~IIl()"sph~~:!-c pollut~~ ,~~pen~. ,o,n. a numbfilr Q:f factors ~uch as: -'"1.) the"',' ,:.
l!1et,hod of sample . collect~; 2.) the ~ccnJracy andsens:1tiVity :of' th~ ';~Iyti'cal ~.
pro~~du~~; 3.)th.~ Peri0c1 e~apsed from ,the tirpe o.f E!.a.mplecol1ec~ioriir:''4) :thel~. ;'.
!lumber of ~amples collected for 'lihe determin~tiQn of Qoncentratio~ averages;
5.) the ab~olute qu~tit~ of pollutant~ initiall~ d,ischargedinto the, air; 6l
the altitude at ",hich th~ pollutant was dil;lcharg~~; 7) the Ciistance of the.
. ,". ~ .'~~' \ . . . .' .. - ~ ; - ,~ '. . " '
s~plin~ p~~nt from t~e po~t of poll~tant #s.~h.arge into the air; 8) the fre~
que~py o~ finding th~ point. of sam~lin~ in the discharg~ plume; ~) direction
a:nd velocity of the, wind; IP) ra~ of ",ertical t,emperature variations, which,'
. ',''- ,; .~.. " / . .. '. . ." '. . . ".
c,ontJ;pl 'thE:!, coefficient of tur~lence di~fusion;' l~l the 4egree o:f re;I.a.t,ive
humi~ity, apd l~) the ra.te of air auto-pur~f'j,catit).n.
In Pa.rt. II, the auth~;- o~tlines. the proble~s related to atmospheric air
pt)ll:uti,o~ wi th ~sct, ~d t.p.~ means of. c0:rP~atti~ sam~n problems related t,o
pollut,ion of at}!1ospheric air with fumes aAd ga~es and means of combatting them,
are dis.cussEJd in,Part I~. The conc1-~dil,lg p~t of~the..b()Qk, is devoted to the
~ . '".. ~ ~ ~. :- . " - '." "'.... '\ .
organizatipn~l phas~ of prac:rj;ical work in the sanitary protection of atmosphe~
1c air i~ p~;pulated 10Q~11ti.es. ;tn the addend\1~, a. ta:t3,le, is presented listing
the lim~ts,o~ allo~~ble ct)n~entrations of atmos~heric po~lutants. The book
also has an, extensive bib~iography, most of recent,pub;I.ic~tions, and a subject
-38-
,,' "
-------
index.
Especial~ welcome is the author's wide utilization of the results of his
many years experience and original investigations. These present rich factual
material related to the basic nature and principles of the spread and distri-
bution of smoke in atmospheric air and to the general scope covered b.1 the ef-
, ,
fects of air pollutants on the health and sanitary conditions of every~ life.
The classification of air dispersion systems presented by the author deserves
special attention.
Generally, the book presents the ~ch needed practical information con-
cerning the present-~ state of scientific investigations in problems of pu-
rity of air and means for combatting atmospheric pollutants, filling in the
void which existed in the literature in this field of sanitation. The book
also has certain shortcomings. In discussing the characteristics of pollutants
of atmospheric air of populated areas, the author, does that not in'relation
to the various branches of industr,y, which m~ be causative agents of such pol-
lutants, but on the basis of individual components discharged, and in doing
that, he analyzes the solid phase of air dispersion in Part II and the gaseous
phase in Part III of the book.
, In practical sanitary protection of atmospheric air the specialist has to
deal with a particular branch of industry as an entity regarding its discharge-
complex which i~ composed of the solid and gaseous phases. 'In this respect,
the above, referred to plan of the author makes the use of his monograph as' a '
reference guide somewhat inconvenient.
In discussing the effect of wind velocity on the concentration of atmos-
pheric pollution, 'the authors speaks only of the inverse correlation exiSting "
between them; ,he fails to indicate the possibility of the existanceofadi-'
rect co-relation between these two factors in the discharge plumes in the prox~
.',
...,
imi ty of the industry.
The author calls attention to the difficulty of drying cotton filters; ,
this difficulty can be overcome b.1 drying such filters in an air current.
The examination of the pupils of the Dzerzhinskii region (Page 89) in 1946
and 1947 was not made roentgenologically, as stated in the book, but fluoro-
scopically, a method which is generally regarded as unsuited for the detection
of light chanses in the pulmonary picture usually seen in the- in1 tisl stages
of pneumosolerosis.
-39-
-------
,-
The author notes rightly as one of the accomplishments, the fact that
Soviet ~giene gathered a wealth of material concerning the original zonal
distribution of atmospheric pollution... and established standards for sani-
tary clearance zones between industrial plants and populated regions, based
upon data obtained by the:-sedimentation method; at the same time the author'
is of the opinion that the sedimentation method lacks the possibility of
evaluating the, true degree of atmospheric air pollution, and that such data
. ,
cannot be evaluated from the viewpoint of effect on the human organism, be-
cause the human organism is affected b.y the pollutants suspended in the air,
and not by those settled to the BTound.
It ~st be born in mind, however, that: 1) dust'which had settled upon
the surface of the ground or on other objects, was suspended in the air up to
the time of its settling; 2} the effect on the human organism of air sus-
pended pollutants is not eliminated the moment it settled on the ground or on
other objects, such as the skin, the mucous membrane, the clothing, the under-
wear, food products, furniture, etc., merely some 'conditions of its effects
have been modified; 3) the dust settled or some surfaces can serve as a souroe
of secondar,y air pollution when redispersed b,ywinds and other agents. Hence,
settled dust and dust suspended in the air remain interconnected, as it were,
as "inter-conditioned categories" which can mutually change into one another.
This seems to explain the parallelism which was found in the regularity of the
asp~ration and sedimentation'data of air pollution as the distance from sources
of pollution increased. In both methods of dust pollution determination the
sensitivity of the particular method used is of importance.
The preceding remarks do not detract from the theoretical and practical
value of the monograph; it ,will undoubtedly prove of value to all workers in
the field of sanitary protection of atmospheric air. The discussion.presented
in the volume wil~ stimulateproduotive thinking and will initiate further in-
vestigaiions intq the mechanisms and principles controlling,the intereffects
. ' .
between the organism and its environment. :-
-40-
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The Effect of Crude-Oil. Cracking Products on the Animal Organism..
A. G. Bogdat feva and. D.ta. Vud.
. .
. . .
The Scientific-Research Institute of Roentgenology, Radio 1 Ogfand. .
Oncology of the Ministry of Health of ~erb. 5.6. Ii~' .
.Gigiena i Sanitariya 22, No.5, 31-40, 1941.
Reference is made to our studies on the effect of products of pyro~sis
on the animal organism which appeared in Novosti Meditsi~, Zlokachestve~e
Opykholi, 1948, p. 82, Voprosy Eksperimental'noi Biologii i Kedits~, 1951,
No.1, B,yulleten Eksperimental~noi Biologii i Medits~, 1954, No.2, and
Gigiena i Sanitariya, 1955,No. 1. The results of those studies showed that
the products of pyrolysis, and in particular the higp molecular substances,
possessed'properties highly toxic to the organism; this was true also when
these products were applied continuously to a small skin area.
Following the same general plan of experimentation we studied the effect
of crude oil cracking products. We know that the processes of pyrolysis and
of cracking differed in many basic respects; however, in both heat and pres-
sure caused crude oil decompOsition; therefore, we made a parallel stu~ of
. .
cracking products on a similar basis. We secured cracking-gasoline, cracking-'
kerosene and cracking-residue from the Baku cracking plant. Experiments were
performed with three groups of five rabbits each; one group was treated with
the cracking-gasoline, the second group with cracking-kerosene and the third
group with the cracking-residue.. All products were used in liquid form. Spe-
cial care was taken to prevent the products from gaining entrance into the
ears of the animals, only the outer side of the ear was treated with I ml of
the product per I kg of animal bo~ weight. Groups consisted of both sexes of
rabbits of different ages; animals weighed between 2250 to 2120 g.; they were
weighed at given intervals. . The skin and all the inter~l organs of rabbits
wh1ch died in the course of the experiment were studied histologically. Ten,
rabbi ts died in the course 'of the experiments and 5 were killed by embolism.
The results of the tests are presented in the order of increasing temperature
at which the cracking products split off~
Experiment 1. Cracking-gasoline. The physico-chemical constants of
cracking-gasoline are - Fractional composition: initi~lboiling 43°, 15°/1Q%,
100°/24%, 134°/50%, 188°/90%, terminal boiling point 200°; sulfur content -
0.11%; acidity - 1.5 KOH; true tar content - 4.5 mg; no mineral acids. or alka-
-41-
-------
lies. Two rabbits were treated with the product dai~ and three rabbits ~ver.v
other day, the total number of applications amounting to 150. Applications
were made over a period of six months. In the course of the experiments rab-
bits lost 1/3 of their weight. ,Histologic studies showed the following:
,
Liver. Acute hyperemia; fading of the general histologic picture due to
the breakdown of the protopiasm into small clumps and the complete absence of
cell outlines.
Kidnmr. Hyperemia, hemorrhages, both layers- of kidney epithelium showed
signs of breakdown into small lumps; complete obliteration of cell outlines;
all fields showed signs of some broken down nuclei; glomeruli were part~
wrinkled and homogenized; the epithelium of the glomeruli was pycnotic tn
,-'
spots.
Adrenals. General degeneration of the cortical layer and cellular erQaian
accompanied by the formation of fine~ granulated vacuole networks; most of
the nuclei were badly decomposed, soma to almost complete disappearance.
Spleen. Poorly defined follicles with bare~ visible centers of prolif-
eration; small amount of white and red pulp; proliferation of the reticule-
-' . I .
endothelial elements; acute edema of the endothelium of the central arteries.
Heart. Complete disappearance of horizontal striations; clear-cut granu-
lar degeneration; acute muscular edema; small hemorrhages.
Ovaries. Degenerative changes of the epithelial follicles; small foci of
decomposing tissue; no eggs or egg bearing elements_were observed in the fol-
licles.
Skin of the ear. Considerable ~hiokening on the side of application;
edema and hyperemia of the skin proper.
Thus, the application of cracking gasoline brought about moderately ex-
pressed degenerative changes in some of the internal organs; hyperplasia of the
outer epithelium was the only change observed on the application site of the
skin.
'Experiment 2. Cracking-kerosene. Physico-chemical constants - Fractional
composition: initial boiling point 1400, 250°/57%, 3000/9'1$, te:nninal boiling
0' '
point 315 ; true tar content 30 mg; acidity - 6 - 8 mg KOB. Three rabbits of
this set were treated with the cracking kerosene dai~ for 48 ~s, and two eve-
, , '
ry other day until each rabbit reoeived 46 treatments. The method of kerosene
application was the same as for gasoline. Rabbits lost weight, in some cases
up to 50%. Results of histologic studies of the organs were as fol10wsl
-42-
-------
Liver. Acute hyperemia; liver oells lost their outlines; in few surviv-
ing liver oells a swelling and turbidit7 development were observed, also vac-
uole degeneration; numerous small neorobiotic fooi; general structural defor-
mation due to the loss of cell substances at the edges of the gall bladder
capillaries.
Kidney. The epithelium of the canaliouli was in a state of lump7 decem-
posi tion; glomerular mass was deformed, wrinkled and the glomerular epithelium
was in a state of atrophy; vascular net of the glomeruli partly disappeared
and part17 underwent process of homogenation; interspaoes of the capsules wid-
ened considerab17.
Spleen. Small amount of red pulp; lymphatic follioles poorly defined;
hypertrophy of. reticular aPParatuB; evidenoe of er.ythrocyte decomposition in
the extended sinuses and liberation of a large amount of blood pigment.
(Bistograph 50. 1).
Graph 10 Section of spleen
Experiment No.3
. ,.1
..~ ~ I
.' ":,,." ~
. '. ~
:~ ,.
-
.J>
:~.
Graph 2.
ear.
Section of skin of
Experiment No.3
Heart. H1Peremia, edema, granular degeneration and amall foci of lumpy
decomposition.
Ovaries. ~ follicles of different degree of maturit7; entire follicular
epithelium showed signs of degenerative changes and decomposition; no eggs were
observed; in some of the more mature follicles a granular l$Yer was observed
-43-
-------
the epithelium of which was wrinkled and pycnotic; no egg-bearing elements
were observed.
Skin of the ear. Acute hypertrophy of the outer epithelium and accesso-
ries aocompanied by formation of islets and borD1' oysts; acute edema and mod-
erate infiltration with oellular elements ili the skin proper. (Hi etograph
NO.2).
Treatment of the rabbits with cracki~kerosene produced more pronounced
, .
pathologio ohanges in the organs of tbe rabbits than did cracking-gasoline.
This was true of the skin proper wbicb at the point of application showed
signs of acute byperplasia not only in the outer epitbelial layer but in the
:. . .
epithelial accessories as well.
Experiment 3.' CrackinA'-reBidue. Cracking-residue is the waste product
, of the industry, which consists of the following fractions: ' initial boiling
point - 256°; 3.00°/40%; and 350°/17%.
In this set 3 rabbits received daily applications and 2 rabbits every
other day until each rabbit received 37 applications. Animals lost 50% of
their original weight. The histclogic studies showed the following results:
Liver. Acute hyperemia of the organ; connective tissue be~ween lcbes
hypertrophied and showed remnants of decomposed cells; surviving, cells showed
. '
degeneration of small vacuoles and fine lump,y decomposition.
, Kidney. Epithelium of the canaliculi was in a state of' granUlar degener-
ation and decomposition into small lumps; some surviving cells' were observed
'in some of the oanaliculi; the vascular net of most glomeruli was vaoant to
varying degree.
Adrenal gland., 'Corti.cal epithelium br'oken down into, small lumps; mani-
festations of kar,rorrhexis and karyolysis; double necrosis.
Spleen., ' Reduotion -in number and loss of follicles; proliferation of re-
ticular tissue'.
Beart. Completedisappearanoe of muscular striation; acute edema of in-
termuscular tissue; manifestations of small lump decomposition.
- ,Skin of ear. ~eremia of the s1d.n proper; deposition of blood pigment
in the walls of the blood vessels.
Ovaries. Follicles of different maturity observed ~n' the cortical layer;
in the larger more mature follicles evidence appeared of granular degenerative
, '
, ,
changes.
- '
Resul t8 ,showed that cracking-residue effected graver changes in the - organs
-44-
-------
of the rabbits than did the other two cracking components studied. Changes
in the skin of the ear at the point of application were generally of the .
same character and intensity as in the cases ot cracking-gasoline and crack-
inB-:'kerosene.
Conclusions.
1. Crack1D8""gasoline, cracking-kerosene and cracking-residue were rubbed
. .
into the skin of rabbit's ears as described,which resulted in certain changes
. '
in the histologic picture of the skin and some organs.
2. Changes at the point ot application were limited to moderate h1Per-
plastic and intlammator,y manifestat10ns.
3. The gen.eral etfect of the tested cracking products was as follows:
acute emaciation and death of most of the test rabbits.
4. Cracking products which had a higher initial boiling point manifested
more profOund toxic effeots as evidenoed bY the histologic pictures, and by
the shorter surri val ~rfoQ..
,5. The liver. showed the gravest pathological (degenerative) chaZJges;
next in the degree of general organic degeneration were the ov~ies.
6. In the course of the histologic studies no canoerogenic tendenoies
were displ~~d b.1 the cracking products tested.
, .
7. The results clearly show that the skin of workers in the crude 011,
industry (cracking) must be protected to prevent the development of, s,uch con-
sequences as were indicated by this stud.Y.
This paper appears to have no direct relation to air pollution, it Was
translated tor the purpose of comparison of pathologio results produced by
cracking products such as gasoline and kerosene upon inhalation :\.nthe form
of atmospheriQ air polluting,vapors.
B. S. L.
-45-
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The Effect of High Air Temperature on the Toxicity of Carbon Monoxide.
By E. J. Korenevskaya.
Department of General Hygiene, First Order of Lenin Medical Institute.
Gigiena i Sanitariya 1955, No.9, p. 19.
The determination of maximal permissible concentrations of poisonous pol-
lutants of air in industrial premises must take into account their effect at
high air temperatures. This is particularly true of carbon monoxide the gen-
, ,
eration of w~ich is frequently accompanied by surrounding high temperatures.
Observations and e~perimentai evidence of individual investigators indi-
. cated that the poisonous effects of carbon monoxide were enhanced at high air
temperatures but the mechanism of action of this phenomenon remained undeter-
mined. Advocates of the anoxemia theor.y (Henderson, Sayers) believe that the
, ,
intensification of the poisonous CO effect at'high air temperatures was due to
increased lung ventilation ~nd the consequent increase in the.rate of carbo:Q"-
hemoglobin formation. Other investigators (Yu. P. Razgu1yaev and O. M. Karasik)
concluded that contrary to the above viewpoint the concentration of carbo:Q"hemo-
globin in the blood in CO poisoning at high air temperature decreased. They
assumed that the intensified effect of CO poisoning at high,air temperature was
the result of lowered bo~ resistance brought about by hyperthermy. V. A.
Pokrovskii and V. K. Navrotskii were of the opinion that the concentration of
carbo~hemoglobin in the blood at high air temperature was not indicative of
the degree of intoxication; hyperthermy, they believed, affe~ted first the cen-
tral nervous system, enhancing its reactivity to the poisonous effects of CO
thereby augmenting the depth of the intoxication.
In 1952-1953 this author studied the effect of high air temperature on the
processes of accumulation and dissociation of carboxyhemoglobin in the blood in
the presence of small doses of CO and the relation between the rate of carboxy-
hemoglobin accumulation in the blood and the appearance time of intoxication
symptoms. Women working in the underground passages of the Moscow coal-tar chem-
ical plant were 'examined during the winter months, when the air temperature in
the shops was 20 - 250 C, and during the summer months, when the air t'emperature
in the work places rose to 40 - 500 C; the CO concentration in the shop air
rang~d between 0.01 and 0.1 mg/l. During the summer months, when the air tem-
perature reached 40 - 500 C, women working in the underground passages complained
':"46-
-------
of general malaise, frequent headaches, dizzy spells, lack of appetite; at the
end of the shift their body temperature rose to 37.6 - 380, respirator" move-
ments went up to 30 and the pulse rate increased considerably. Ca~bo~hemo-
globin concentration of the blood averaged 7 - 10% in the winter at 20 - 250
as well as in the summer at 40 - 500. These effects appeared in exaggerated
form in women of short work records which pointed to the possibility of becom-
ing accustomed or inured, as it were, but not immune to the unfavorable physi-
ologic effects of CO at high air temperature.
Experimental studies were made of the combined effects on rabbits of high
air temperature (30 - 450) and carbon monoxide in 0.1 - 0.2 and 0.4 ms/lcon-
centrations. Rabbits subjected to the, effect of carbon monoxide at normal tem-
perature and rabbits subjected to high temperature only (without the effect of
carbon monoxide) served as controls. Exposures were made in special thermo-
chambers. Before and after exposure the weight and temperature of the test
animals, respiration rate, concentration of hemoglobin,-of carboxyhemoglobin
and the er,ythrocyte counts were recorded. Carbo~hemoglobin concentration in
the blood of animals and humans was determined by the infra-red absorption meth-
od of E. E. Sarkisiants of the Department of General ~giene. Results are shown
in Table 1. It c~ be seen from Table 1 that frank symptoms of functional
disturbances appeared in the rabbits kept at 400 exposure manifested as rise
in body temperature, increased respiration rate, loss of weight, i~crease in
blood viscosity and some rise in the percentage of blood carbo~hemoglobin.
, Studies of carbon monoxide action at high air temperatures showed that
with a rise in air temperature the toxic effect of CO increased due to a co~
plex of' causes. At normal body temperature the increase in CO to~icity was
slight even at 30 - 350 air temperature. 40 - 450 air temperature distUrbed
the thermoregu1ati9n mechanism and the toxic effect of CO was considerab~ in-
tensified so that concentrations as low as 0.1 mg/l elioited olear symptoms'
of poisoning, and the general' clinical picture indicated inhibition effects
exerted by the CO on the- funotional cElpaci ty of the brain cortex. Thus, at
the end of the first ho~r,.of exposure to 0.4 mgfl CO concentration the rab-
bit's state of exoitement ohanged to depression; du~ing the third hour of ex-
posure the animals were stretched out motionless in the exposure chamber, oon-
vulsive twitching appeared over the entire body. Respiration rate rose only
during the first part of the exposure, losing.momentum later, possibly reflect-
ing increased functional inhibition of the brain cortex.
-47-
-------
!l'able 1..
Effect'of c~bon monoxide on rabbits physiological
functions at different air temperatures. '
00 .1i1' QhaDges during 3 hrs. exposure.
temp
con CD. in Boay E ~h Oarb
in expo- wi; Boq Resp1 Hb rr te hellOglo
mg/l sure in teJJ1P ation ooon. 007 in ~
c~b. rate in" No
g
Pu~ air r-25' 0 +24 0 '--1110.
~o 0 +80 -0.7 ---
4O-45. ;;..ae +1.5" +232 +2.1 ..
..
{ 20 -25' .;..e. 25 -0,1. +33 '.0 ~
0.1 30 -35° -23.8 ° +126 -o~1 :t-t.'
40 -4S' -88.2 +2.". +247.4 +3.0 +9.2
r-25' ,",:,,"1.5 ,+O~05° +70 +0,25 +22.7
0.2 3D-350 -18.1 +0.16° +149 -0.2 +2~.1
40 - 4$ -SNi.7 +3.5. +288.8 +3.0 +27
. '
Exposure of rabbits to the toxic effect of CO at high air temperature
resulted in a loss of body weight exceeding that of control rabbits; the num-
ber of erythrocytes, carbo~hemoglobin copcentration, and blood. viscosity al-
so' increased, Increases in the number of erythrocytes may be due to increased
, .
hemopoiesis compensatory to increasing hyperemia evoked by the CO. Body tem-
- 0 .
peratu~e of rabbits exposed to CO at h~gh temperature rose to 42 ; in the
controls in "simple hyperemia" it rose only t040,ao. "Exposure" to similar
carbon monoxide concentrations at normal air temperature had no effect on
body temperat~re. "
~ate of carboxyhemoglobin accumulation in the blood markedly increased.
(See graph). Character of curves of accumulation and breakdown of carboxy-
hemoglobin at high air temperature was similar to that occurring at a normal
temperature except that in the fi~st case the curve ascended more steeply
-48-
-------
reaching its maximum at the end of the first hour.
In co~paring concentrations
of carooxyhemoglobin in the blood with the accon~anying symptoms it was appar-
ent that in ~erther~ a lack of parallelism existed between carboxyhemoglobin
content in the blood and the gravity of intoxication; in isolated cases the
blood carboxyhemoglobin concentrations of-individual animals exposed to CO and
hyperthermy were not higher and at times lower than in cases of similar CO ex-
posure at normal air temperature; yet, the toxic syndrome-complex were more
pronounced. This seeming paradox of low carboxyhemoglobin concentration and
clinical toxicity appeared more outstanding when results of summer and winter
atudi~s were compared.
CO=O.l mg/1
C~0.2 mg/l
cO=O.4 mg/l
28
U
;:f ~ I
fH ., \-4
0 i 0 CD Ii) ,''.
k ~\
rd -~ ~ .~ 1*,
~ 0 i.e 0 i
~ /' 1 ~ IJ 0 't;) 1 ~. I
., ~
I~/ CD~ II ~i '~ i !
-" .......::; ~,\ /1 \ Ii 1& [\1
Z'- y-'.1 " I ' I{ H \J I
CD i
~ 20
s:=
8 16
k 12
.,
Pot I
I
II
II / II 11/1111 0/ H H/IIIII n
Hours of exposure
Accumulation and breakdown of carboxyhemoglobin in rabbits
exposed to different carbon monoxide concentration at diff-
erent air temperatures.
1 - 40-45°, 2 - 30-35°, 3 - 20-25°.
01#
18 III
It was mentioned previo~sly that some workers became accustomed to the
effect of carbon monoxide at high air temperatures. An attempt was made to
develop similar tolerance in animals experimentally. To accomplish this, rab-
bits were kept in special chambers at 400 air temperature for a period of two
months; they were exposed to different CO concentrations and at the same time
to (40°) high air temperature. (Results are presented in Table 2). Data pre-
sented in the Table show that the increased action of carbon monoxide in hyper-
thermy was disproportionate symptomologically to the concentration of carboxy-
hemoglobin in the blood, leading to the conclusion that carboxyhemoglobin con-
centration in the blood in hyperthermy can not be regarded as the criterion of
the gravity of inhaled CO toxicity, and ~~. The results demonstrated
-49-
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that at high air temperature some acceleration of carboxyhemoglobin breakdmvn
occurred which m~ have affected its concentration in the blood at a given
temperature. On the other hand, it is known that at higher temperatures the
affinity between oxygen and hemoglobin in enhanced and the rate of oxyhemoglo-
bin dissociation is reduced, thereb,y lowering the chance of carboxyhemoglobin
formation.
TABLE
2.
Effect of adaptation to high air temperature on changes in physiological
functions of animals exposed to 0.2 mg/l of carbon monoxide
at 400 air temperature.
Cha:~s
Animal Body Respi-' : Per cent: Number : Per cent
Body of : carboxy-
group weight . tem- ration : hemog1o- : erythro- : hemog10-
. perature : rate : bin :
cytes bin
Prior to
adaptation - 92.5 0 + 256 + 2.5 + 775,000 + 16.6
+ 3.2
After
adaptation - 61.0 + 2.60 + 213 + 1.7 + 442,000 + 12.4
Carbon monoxide as a poison possesses a wide scope of effects attacking
first the central nervous system. Experiments of L. S. Gorsheleva and Yu. P.
Frolov demonstrated that changes in conditioned reflex activity of animals
. .
were observed at carbon monoxide concentrations at which carboxyhemo~lobin
formation was undetectable. Changes in the central nervous system in carbon
. . .
-- monoxide .into~~9~tion were predominantly of a functional character apparently
'Hcaused by blocking the respiratory cell enzyme and . the consequent "hypoxia" of
brain tissue highly sensitive to oxygen deficiency. The effect differed with
the state of the central nervous system and with its relation to the highest
. .
~. nervous activity Qf the liVing organism, human or animal.
High air temperature. disturbed the thermoregulating mechanism affecting
considerably the functional state of the central nervous system, and with it
of the entire organism. Under such conditions carbon monoxide acted as an ad-
. .
ditive factor on a substrate already affected b,y a preceding toxic factor.
This may eXplain the reason why low concentrations of carbon monoxide alicited
slight additional reactions. Instead of responding in the usual stimulation
manner to small doses of CO, the central nervous system, sensitized by the ef-
-50-
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fects of hyperthermy, functioned ina protective capacity, through retardation
and inhibition. Hence, the animals' delayed reactions, their state of apathy
and depression and functional respiratory changes. (1)
Effects of hyperthermy in animals exposed to carbon monoxide appeared con-
siderably earlier and in a more intensive form, the bo~ temperature reached
higher levels, blood viscosity increased, pointing t~ disturbdnce in the ani-
mal's thermoregulatingcapacity. "Hypoxia" originating in the organism in
hyperthermy by incre::J.e.ed tissue oxygen consumption enhanced the "hypoxia" caused
by carbon monoxide blocking the respiratory enz~~e, thereby increasing further
the symptom-complex emanatir~ from the central nervous system.
Accordir~ to A. A. Ukhtomskii the organism's adaptation to the effect of
high air temperature tends to reduce cortex stimulability thereby lowering the
unfavorable effects of carbon monoxide at high air temperature, without fully
counteracting the summation effect of high air temperature and carbon monoxide
effects. This was substantIated by the experimental da.ta here recorded, and
by the fact that in workers with relatively long work records at high summer
air temperatures the physiological shifts were expressed more sharply than in
winter.
Conclusions.
1. Results of the experimental study of carbon monoxide effect at high
air temperature showed that air temperature below 350 caused no disturbances
in rabbit's thermoregulation mechanism; the increase in CO toxic effects at
such temperature was insignificant and probably depended on the accelerated
accumulation of carboxyhemoglobin in the blood, mainly due to increased lung
ventilation.
2.
High air temperature (40 - 45°) disturbed the process of thermoregu-
lation .in the organism.
Under such conditions intoxication with carbon mon-
oxide followed a graver course than in normal temperature conditions; carboxy-
hemoglobin concentration in tIle blood cannot serve as the criterion of intoxi-
cation gravity since the rise in the carboxyhemoglobin level lagged consider-
ably behind the developing clinical S;)rmptoILs of poisoning.
3.
Intensification of the effect of poison in hyperthermy may be due to
changes in the re'J.ctivity of the superheated orgc"nism rmd its lowered resis-
(1) Ed. Remark. This should be regarded as purely speculative, since the
author presented nc substantiating experiILental data.
-51-
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tance to toxic effects.
4.
In addition to intensification of the effect of carbon monoxide in
couiliined hyperthe~ and CO intoxication the organism's resistance to temper-
ature was also reduced. Thus, the toxic effects of CO in hyperthermy were
synergistic, a fact which is expressed ir. intensified cHnical s;,rmptomological
pictures.
5.
Under production conditions workers were making adjustment to unfa-
vorable climatic conditions, tending to retard to some extent the increasing
effect of CO toxicity at high air temperatures. However, this adaptation only
reduced the degree of physiological effects, failing to counteract them com-
pletely.
6.
Methods should be developed for air temperature lowering in work rooms
and appropriate maximum permissible concentration of CO in the air of work
shops should be determined for different prevailing air temperatures.
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Street Air Pollution E,ye Traumas.
A. L. Iorshin.
From the Leningrad Sanitary-Hygienic Medical Institute.
Gigiena i Sanitariya No. 10, 1955, pp. 40-43.
During the month of April, 1941 the Department of Com:nunity Hygiene oon-
duoted a study of eye trauma ocourrence caused b7 particulate matter floating
in street air. The study was based on case histories of three polyclinics
located at different distances from a large hydroelectric station. A de-
tailed study of 18,510 histories of ambulator,y cases belonging to the emer-
gency division of the Institute of E.1e Diseases showed that the number of
cases treated for street-caused eye traumas during six months in 1950 con-
sti tuted 60% of all the emergency oalls. In 58% of the cases the eye traumas
were accompanied by corneal traumas, 3% of which showed signs of erosion,
hyperemia, and infiltration. Another study was made of 10,521 cases of street
air pollution eye traumas for the months of Januar,y to June inclusive, belong-
ing to 23 different polyclinics located in different sections. The greater
number 'of cases of street-occurred eye traumas belonged to the polyclinics
located in the immediate vicinity of the railw~ stations and of a large
electric power plant, neither of which had provision for ash abatement or ash
trapping. As in the case of the Institute of EWe Diseases, the number of
cases of street-occurred eye traumas in the polyclinios was greatest in the
spring months, particularly in April, due to the disappearanoe of the snow
which trapped and retained the partioulate matter. Of the particles removed
from the eyes 85% were coal particles, 1% ash particles and 8% sand particles,
pointing to the predominant part played py the type of burning facilities
used in industrial manufacturing plants and electric power plants in the in-
cidenoe of street-air eye traumas. Of the total visits 87% were new cases,
1% were second visits and 6% repeat visits.
The Table below demonstrates the effectiveness of dust trapping instal-
lations as a preventative measure against street-air caused eye traumas in
the vicinity of an electrio power station which prior to the installation of
the dust trapping devices was the primar,y source of air pollution of the sec-
tion under study. The data presented in the Table emphasize the need for
adoption of atmospheric air protection measures. The attention of the Minis-
-53-
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try of Transportation and Machine Building should be forcefully called to the
need of constructing and installing facilities for the reduction of air pol-
lution discharges emanating from locomotive boilers, since .stations and side
tracks are frequently located within close proximity of inhabited sections.
Number of street eye traumas in 10 days before and after the installation
of ash-trapping devioes at the e1ectrio power plant.
Distance from Number of eye trauma inoidents
Polyolinic power plant Before dust After dust
number trapping in- trapping in-
in m. stallation stallation
9 50 248 18
5 700 187 39
38 1 250 84 19
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Pollution of Atmospheric Air with Lead and Its Effect
on the Health of the Population.
~
A. S. Zykova
From the Moscow Regional Sanitary Hygienic Institute.
Gigiena i Sanitariya, 22, No.2, 12-17 (1957)
Most production plants which use lead in their manufacturing processes
are active or potential sources of air pollution with lead. Among such are
the non~ferrous metallurgical plants, alloy producing plants, the polygraphic
industry, cable manufacturing plants, accumulator producing plants and other
plants of similar nature. The extent of air pollution by industrial manu-
facturing plants in which lead is involved was studied by M. A. Bykov in 1949,
E. K. Ugryumova in 1939, M. K. Khachatryan in 1952, N. M. Tomson in 1948-1952,
and by many others.
This paper presents the results of studies of the extent of air pollu-
. .
tion with lead parallel with the study of the effect of such pollution on the
health of the population. We selected one of the industrial manufacturing
centers where a lead smelting and accumulator making plants were located in
an inhabited locality and which polluted the atmospheric air of the living
quarters. The study included the determination of total discharges of lead
into the air, degrees of lead pollution prevailing in the air of the inhab-
ited surrounding localities and the effect of such pollutions on the health
of the inhabitants.
~
The accumulator factory discharged lead into the air from its lead melt-
ing vats, the ventilation system and other production departments. At the
time this study was conducted the ventilation system was equipped with puri-
fioation installations of appropriate types. When the purification instal-
lations operated at normal capacity and efficiency the total lead discharged
into the atmospheric air was as high as 5.1 kg per day. The ventilators dis-
charged their air pollutants at a height of 12 - 15 meters from the ground.
The main source of air polluting discharges emanating from the lead
smelting department via the smokestacks came from smokestack gases generated
by the Hereshoff furnaces and other pertinent sections of this plant.
The
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plant was equipped with electrostatic precipitators; the smoke and vapors
from the tasic sections and departments passed through the precipitators
for the elimination of the lead. The total of lead discharged into the at-
mospheric air after having passed through the precipitators and other lead
removing installations amounted to 14.1 kg per day.
For the determination of the distribution of the atmospheric air pollu-
tion with lead caused by the industrial plants under investigation we stud-
ied the snow covering the ground in the proximal vicinity of the plants.
Results of the snow sample analyses showed a direct relation between the
quantity of lead found in the samples and the distance from the production,
plants ?t which the samples were taken. The content of lead in the snow
samples collected in the proximity of the lead smelting plant was approxi-
mately ten times as great as in samples collected at comparable distances
from the accumulator plant. Thus, at a distance of 1000 meters from the lead
smelting plant the lead content amounted to 25.8 mg/m2 and only 2.56 mg/m2
at the same distance from the accumulator plant. Lead was found in the
ground-snow as far as 1000 meters from the plants.
Samples for the determination of lead concentration in the atmospheric
air were collected by the aspiration method. Analytical determinations were
made by the colorimetric micromethod of N. G. Polezhaev. The results are
presented in Tables 1 and 2.
TABLE
1.
Concentration of lead in the atmospheric air in
the vicinity of the accumulator plant
during the Bummer months.
Distance from
the accumulator
plant
Lead
during
concentration in the air
the period of investigation
. / 3
J.11 mg m
Maximal daily avo
concentration
Maximal single
concentration
100
300
500
100
0.0044
0.006
0.004
0.0044
0.0041
0.003
0.0023
0.0031
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TABLE
2.
Concentration of lead in the atmospheric air in the proximal vicinity of
the lead smelting plant at different seasons of the year.
Distance
from the
lead smelt-
ing plant
in meters
Summer Fall . Winter-Spring
I Maximal I Maximal I Maximal: Maximal: Maximal: Maximal
I . 1 : daily: . 1 I daily: . 1 : daily
slng e Slng e slng e
I I average I : average I I average
Concentration of lead in mg/mj
during the period of study
I ' :
100
250-300
500
100
900-1000
1500
No samples taken
0.022 0.018
0.0056 0.0048
0.008 0.0053
0.025 0.016
No samples taken
0.0033 0.0021
0.005 0.0034
0.003 0.0022
No samples taken
0.0005 No sample
No samples taken
0.046 0.021
0.045 0.039
0.046 0.017
0.029 0.015
No samples taken
0.0091 0.0041
In 94% of the samples collected at a distance of 100 meters from the
plant lead pollution was positive. The average daily lead concentrations at
distances of 500-100 meters were as high as 0.0023 - 0.0031 mg/m3, which is
3 - 5 times as high as the adopted limit of allowable lead concentration in
the atmospheric air of inhabited localities. (0.0001 mg/m3.) In 91% of -the
air samples collected during the summer months within a radius of 1000 meters
from the plant evidence of lead pollution was positive. Average daily con-
centration at a distance of 900-1000 meters from the plant was 0.016 mg/m3,
which is 25 times as high as the limit of allowable lead concentration for
the air of inhabited localities.
In 13% of the samples collected during the Fall months at distances up
to 1000 meters from the plant the evidence of lead air pollution was positive.
The daily average concentration at a distance of 500 meters from the plant
was 0.0022 mg/m3, which is three times as high as the allowable concentration
limit for lead, but at a distance of 1000 meters the concentration of lead in
the air stayed well within the allowable concentration limit. In 95% of all
the tests collected during the Winter-Spring months at distances up to 1500
meters from the plant the evidence of lead air pollution was positive. The
average daily concentration at a distance of 1500 meters from the plant was
as high as 0.0041 mg/m3, which is six times as high as the upper limit of
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allowable lead ~onoentrationin oommunity air~ The discharge of the lead
smelting plant also contained S02' but its conoentration was almost imper-
oeptible and undeteotable by the presently existing quantitative methods of
analysis.
A study was also made of the air of individual and oommunal living
quarters. The results showed that in some instanoes the average lead con-
centration of samples taken during the day exceeded the allowable concen-
tration limit by several times. Highest lead conoentration in this series
of studies were found in air samples taken in dwellings situated within 300
meters from the plants. In a few instances the lead concentration of indoor
air was the same as of the atmospheric air at same distances from the plants.
Settled dust samples were oollected in some of the dwellings. Of 29
samples oolleoted in houses in the vicinity of the lead smelting plant 21
showed evidence of positive lead pollution; quantitatively the lead content
ranged between 0.012 - 0.03%.
Samples of water from artesian wells were also analyzed; the lead con-
centration did not exceed 0.0019 mg/li, which is 5 times lower than the of-
ficially permitted lead ooncentration in potable water.
We studied next the effect of pollution of air of inhabited localities
with lead on the general health of the population. For this purpose 404 in-
habitants residing within 1000 meters from the lead smelting plant were sub-
jected to a thorough polyclinic study, 147 inhabitants residing within areas
not subject to the lead air pollution were used as a control group. Both
groups consisted of individuals ranging between 18 - 50 years of age, who
resided at the addresses given by them for not less than two years and none
of whom had any direct association with industries such as were under con-
sideration in our studies. Every attempt was made to select the two groups
with regard to age, sex, ocCupation, mode of living, etc. in such a way as to
regard them suitable for parallel and comparative study. The results are
presented in Table 3.
,
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T.A:B L E
3.
Morbidity per 100 individuals.
Nature of sickness
The studied section
The control section
All diseases
which inoluded:
respiratory diseases
neurological
circulatory system
digestive organs
136.2
12.4
50.2
38.9
34.7
46.3
16.9
6.3
19.3
3.9
Table 3 shows that among the group residing within the area subject to
the industrial discharges of the lead smelting plant but not in any direct
way connected with th~ production industry neurogenic disturbances oocurred
8 times as frequently as among the control group; the same was true of the
occurrence of digestive disturbances. Circulatory disturbances occurred in
the study group twice as frequently as in the control group. The neurologi-
. .
cal disturbances were of functional character, such as'vegetodystony, asthenic
and neurotic states, etc. The. gastric disturbances were of the nature of
gastritis, colitis, ulcers, etc. In some oases evidenoe of liver and gall
bladder disturbances were also manifested in the form of hepatitis, hepato-
cholecystitis, etc. Changes in the cardio-vascular system were expressed in
the form of ~ocardia1-dystrophy, .stenocarditis and mitral insufficiency.
The group living in the vicinity exposed to the industrial air pollution with
lead generally showed a tendency towards a lowered minimal blood pressure
which ranged between 236 - 390 mm. The total of disease in the study group
was 2.6 times as high as in the control group.
A study of the blood picture showed the following: 10% of the group
residing in the vicinity of the lead smelting plant manifested a low to mod-
erate anemia. One case showed the presence of reticulocytosis, 5 showed the
presence of basophilic granulo-erythrocYtosis (1 per 15-25 fields). Some
showed blood changes suggestive of chronic lead poisoning (hemoglobin 59%,
reticulocytosis 10%, basophilic granulation 1:10-1:5).
Urine studies for the presence of lead were made in 18 subjects living
in the industrial area and in 15 living in the control area. Of the 78 living
in the industrial area lead was present in the urine of 66~ ranging between
0.01 - 0.2 mg/li; .in 49 of these the lead urine content ranged between 0.03 -
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0.04 mg/li which i~ in excess of the ~oun~ regarded as physiologioally
. - . .
normal. In 25 test. suJ:~jects the urine lead content ranged between 0.1 -
. .
0.2 mg/li. The lead con.tent of1the urine of .the 15 persons of the oontrol
. .
group was withintb,e physiologicaUy n()rmal range. Thus, the results clearly
indicated that th~inhab1tahts of the region subject to industrial lead air.
contamination; carry a constant load, and even an overload, of. lead in their
. .
system. The polyclinic examination of the test individuals. residing in the
lead exposed industrial locality manifest.ed no symptoms of chronic' lead poi-
soning. Nevertheless the previously mentioned high increase in the morbii-
; i ty in this group of individuals as compared with the control group and the
. .
high content'" of lead in the urine of those belonging to the group residi.ng
in the industri?l section must be regaxded as sequelli of the pollution of
the air with the lead contained in the industrial discharges.
We then investigated the possibility of lead accumulation .i:l th~ organ-
ism of those residing in the locality subjected to the industrial air pol1u-
tants. For this. purpose a study was made of the tissues and. organs of cats
which lived in that vicinity continuously for 2 to 1 years at a distance of
100 ~ 200 meters from the lead smelting plant. This was donA in 1953 when
the concentration of lead at the. distances indicated ranged between 0.0021 -
.0.021 mg/m3.. .Forcontrol purposes similar tissue (hlstologic) studi.es were
made of the organs of cats residing in a control locality which was free from
I industrial sources of air pollution. The histochemical studies were made b,y
the spectrographic method using the ISP-51 apparatus.
gan tissues similar studies were made of the femur, the
er and kidneys. The results are presented in Table 4~
In addition to the or-
tibia, the brain, 1iv~
TABLE
4.
Quantity of lead in. the cats I tissues.
Age. and :. Quantity of lead. in mg/m3kg.
1>esigna- : years liv-.
tion of ing ,in the . . : .
.. ..
cat air pol- Tibia Femur Brain . Kidney .. LiveJ;
. .
luted area . : :'
.
BarBik 2 years 120 200 300 65 115-
Pushok 3yearB 180 260 400 125. 90-
Murka 4 years 1 000 880 140 120
Chernaya 1 years 2 000 1 640 200 10 150
Control cat. 4 years 20 10 30 70
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" Hignest ~oncentration of lead was found in the' bones; it was also ap-
parent. that a dfrect relationship existed betwee~ the increase ,in the,quan-
tity'of lead accumulated in the bone tissue and the period the cat lived in
the air-polluted regiop. The quantity of le~dfound in the tibia of the
cats living in the ai~polluted region was 6 - 100 times as great as of the
control cat. Nex~ highest lead accumulation was found in the brain, followed
by the liver and' kidney tissues.. The concentration of lead found in all the
tissues of the control cat was considerably below that of the tissue of the
cats living in the region of lead pol1uted air. Analysis of the da.ta pre-
sented in Table 4 clearly shows that the accumulation of lead in tissues of
,animals living in regions- the air of which was polluted'by lead-containing
- .
industrial discliarges increased with> the length of time the animals lived in
the air-polluted regions.
The following recommendations are offered for the improvement of the
sanitary condition of atmospheric air of regions where lead discharging
plants are located:
4
a) Maximum purification of the industrial discharges from lead by means
of' appropriat:e t'echnical iri~tallati:ms;
b), The, construction of new dwellings or major repairs of old ones
should be' prbhib'it'ed"; at" distances less than: 100 meters from the plants con-
stituting sources of' lead air pollution;,
c)
Tree arid shrub~parks should'be cultured as sanitary clearance'zones
for the sanitar.Y- pro~ection of the air of the inhabited localities.
Conclusions.
1) The pollution of atmospheric air with lead-containing. discharges by
the industrial plants under investigation (the accumulator and lead smelting
plants) was found to be of permanent character. Lead was found in 73 - 97%
of the air samples tested. The total quantity of lead liberated into the air
by the discharges of the accumulator plant under normal conditions of produc-
tion amounted to' 5.7 kg/day and by the discharges or the lead smelting plant
to 14.7 kg/day.
2) The average
daily concentration of lead in the atmospheric air at a
, ,
from the storage battery plant was 3 - 4 times
upper limit adopted as the allowable concentra-
meters from the ,lead smelting plant the average
distance of 500 - 700 meters
as great as the 0.0007 mg/m3
tion. At a distance of 1500
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daily concentration of lead in the air was 5 - 6 times as great as; the limit
of allowable concentration.
3) The lead contained in the atmospherio air penetrated into the liv-
ing quarters and co~nity dwellings where its concentration in the indoor
air was 3 - 5 times as great as the limit of allowable concentration. Anal-
ysis of the dust settled inside living dwellings showe~ that lead accumulat-
ed within living premises, creating an indoor source of lead pollution.
-4) Polyclinic examination of a group of old inhabitants of the region
subject to the industrial air pollution showed that the frequenoy of occur-
rence of functional neurological andgastro-enteric disturbances among them
was many times greater than among a control group coming from a region free
from such industrial air poll~tion; the same was true of the frequency of
occurrence of functional cardio-vascular disturbances.
The quantity of lead
found in the urine of persons living in the industrially air-polluted region
indicated that many inhabitants carried within them high concentration lead
'deposi ts.
5) Results
of a histochemical stu~ pointed to the existence of a lead
. .
accumulating process among the residents of the industrially air-polluted
region, which progressively increased with 'the oontinued residence 'in suoh
lead polluted regions.
6) Recommendations are offered for alleviating the existing and poten-
tial dangers to the health of persons residing within certain proximities of
plants such as have been reported on.
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The Toxicity of H2S04 Aerosol.
By
"K. A. Bushtueva.
Chair of Community Hygiene, the Central Medical Post-Graduate Institute.
Gigiena i Sanitariya 22, No.2, 11-22 (1951).
The problem of H2S04 aerosol toxicity attracted the attention of hygien-
ists as show~ by the fact that many investigators attempted to explain mass
intoxication of populations in foreign lands during the occurrence of toxic
fogs (smogs) by the presence in the atmospheric air of H2S04 aerosol. Recent
experiments demonstrated the high toxic properties of H2S04 aerosols; this in
turn served to strengthen the belief that the presence of H2S04 aerosol may
have been the primar.y causative factor in the mass intoxications which oc-
curred abroad during smogs.
Malthur and Olmsteed made a stu~ of the toxicity of H2S04 aerosol. Guin-.
ea pigs and mice were exposed to the effects of H2S04 aerosol for 30 min. M.
and 0. were the first to demonstrate the high susceptibility of guinea pigs
" .I 3
to the effects of H2S04 aerosol. The.1 showed that at or above 65 mg,m con-
centration of the aerosol some of the exposed guinea pigs died, and that to
attain the same effect with mice the concentration of the H2S04 aerosol had
to be as high ~s 500 'IfJgfm3. Treon ~!!!. studied the effect of H2S04 vapor on
guinea pigs, mice, rabbits and rats. Exposure lasted 6 - 1 hours daily over
a week. The results verified the sensitivity of guinea pigs to H2S04 aerosol.
Three of the guinea pigs died after 2 hours exposure to 81 mg/m3 of the"aero-
sol. Amdur, Schultz and Drinker studied the effects of low concentrations of
sulfuric acid aerosol using longer periods of exposure. The first series of
experiments was designed to determine the average lethal concentration at
eight hour exposures.: They employed 2 groups of guinea pigs; one consisting-
" of guinea pigs 1. 5 years old weighing over 1 kg; the other consist~ng of guin-
ea pigs 1 ~ 2 months old weighing 250 grams. The average lethal dose for the
older guinea pigs was 50 mg/m3 and for the younger only 18 mg/m3, thus showing
that age was an important factor in this case. Exposure to aerosol concen-
tration~of S"-mg/m3 resulted in no fatalities even after 72 hours of continuous
exposure. How~ver, histologic studies showed marked damage causeq. to the
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lungs., Some exposed animals were sacrificed immediately after the prolonged
exposure and some three weeks later. In either case observation showed the
presence in the lungs of large areas of consolidation, multiple hemorrhages,
shedding of the epithelium of the bronohi,'etc. These authors were able to
show that prolonged exposure (72 hours) to H2S04 aerosol of 8 mg/m3 concen- ,
tration caused graver damage to the lungs than did 8 hour exposure at concen-
trations of 20mg/m3. ' , , '
Thus, studies of foreign investigators showed the high toxic properties
of aerosols, 'especially to guinea pigs. Concentrations lower than 8 mg/m3
were not studied qy them. The above studies were made with H2S04 aerosols
of low dispersion which is seldom, if ever, encountered in city air. We de-
cided to study the effect of low concentrations of H2S04 aerosols, obtained by
a chemical condensation method. We performed three series of uninterrupted
experimental exposures to 8,4 and ,2 mg/m3 H2S04 of aerosol over five d~ pe-,
riods. We used guinea pigs 1.5 to 2 months old weighing 200 - 270 g.
Animals were placed into 100 liter capacity chambers; each series of tests
consisted of four guinea pigs. The 8, 4 and 2 mg/m3 concentrations were ob-
tained bY mixing a current of air containing sulfuric anhydride with, a current
of air of normal humidity. As a result of mixing the dry sulfuric anhydride
with the humid air a condensed H2S04 aerosol was obtained in a state of very
high dispersion. Constancy of the aerosol concentration was attained by regu-
lating the ratio between the rates of the moisture oontaining and the dry sul-
furl. 0 anhydride containing air currents. Samples of mixed air were taken every
two hours for analysis; the results showed average concentrations to have been
corresp6nding~y 8.2s!0.15 mg/m3, 4.02:O.06mg/m3 and 1.9S:O.03 mg/m3.
The animals behaved normally under the effect of 2 and 4mg/m3 concentra-
tions; they ate and moved about normally. Not such was the case with the,ani-
mals exposed to 8 mg/m3ofthe 'aerosol. After two hours exPosure the respirato-
ry rate of the animals increased, snd 29 hours after exposure one of the guinea
pigs died. 'The remaining animals survived to the end of the tests; however, they
ate poorly and behaved indifferently. Fig. 1 shows the data pertaining to the
weight of the animals subjected to the 8, 4 and 2 mg/m3 H2S04 aerosol concentra-
tions and of the control animals. The trends of the curves speak for , themselves.
Surviving animals of each series were sacrificed immediately an~ 1, 2 and 3 weeks
after the- conclusion of the exposures. Autopsies showed that in the animals ex-
,-64-
-------
posed to the 8 mg/m3 of the aer~$ol there were marked changes in the lungs,
similar to those seen in the g~inea pigs which died on the 29th day of expo-
sure; normal areas alternated with multiple areas of dark cherr.y color. No
recordable changes were observed in the other organs. No macroscopically vis-
ible changes were seen in the tissues of the guinea pigs exposed to 2 mg/m3
of sulfuric acid aerosol.
Histologic studies were made under the direction and supervision of Prof.
P. P. Dvizhkov. Lungs and tissues of the upper respirator.y tract were care-
fully studied. In all animals of the three concentration series, acute inter-
weaving processes were observed resulting from disturbances caused to the
blood and lymph circulation. The higher was the aerosol concentration to
which the guinea pigs were exposed the more clearly expressed were the above
mentioned processes. Edema of the lungs developed in the early stages of ex-
posure to the aerosol, especially in the case of 8 mg/m3 concentration, as
can be seen from Fig. 2.
It can be seen from Fig. 2 that a marked accumulation of fluid and free
epithelial cells occurred in the alveolar spaces. The interalveolar boundaries
showed signs of thickening and swelling; they showed an increased number of
histiocytes and fewer segmentonucleated leucocytes. The multiple edematous
areas showed intermittent emphysemas. There was evidence of clearly expressed
peribronchial and perivascular edemas, as can be seen in Fig. 3.
In the early stages of exposure to 4 and 2 mg/m3 of the aerosol the edemas
were not as clearly expressed, but the interalveolar boundaries were consider-
ably thickened and showed the presence of segmento-nucleated leucocytes; simul-
taneously there appeared evidence of a developing focal pneumonia of a catarrh-
al-desquamation type.
One to two. weeks after exposure to the 8 mg/m3 H2S04 aerosol ~oncentration
there ~ppeared in the lungs of the animals evidence of acute diffuse intersti-
tial processes and numerous segmento-nucleated leucocytes. The lungs of ani-
mals exposed to the effects of 4 and '2 mg/m3 of the aerosol during this period
showed similar changes but a less clear~ expressed catarrhal bronchitis and
a regeneration of the epithelium of the mucous membrane of the bronchi.
Around the vessels and the bronchi there was observed a widening growth of con-
nective tissue and here and there evidence appeared of the accumulation of
cells of the histioc.yte type.
-65-
-------
Later (3 wks. after the end of the exposure) there appeared evidence of
increased infiltration by ~phoi~ and hystioo~e cells into the environ of
the vessels and bronchi, as shown in Fig. 4. In suoh cases here and there
evi~ence appeared of infiltration by giant cells. As can be seen 'in Fig. 5
there was also evidence of pronounoed folds of the mucosa of the bronchi,
thickening of the walls of the vessels and surrounding them were manifestations
of sclerosis.
Thus, in the lungs of guinea pigs exposed to the effects of H2S04 aerosol
there appeared disturbances of the blood and lymph circulations with the de-
, ,
velopment of focal edemas and acute interstitial processes with the consequent
development ot chronic processes. This process was observed after 5 days ex-
posure of animais to 2 mgfm3 of the aerosol, or the equivalent of the limit of
, -
allowable concentrations of H2S04 aerosol in workrooms and s~ops. This find-
ing indicates that there is need for the restudy of the limit of allowable
H2S04 aerosol concentration presently in effect for manufacturing and produo~
tion premises; the evidence here presented points to the need of lowering the
, present limit of such allowable concentration.
It is suggested that additional studies be made of the effects of still
lower concentrations of H2S04 aerosols.
110
M 105 '
100
"P
,
/' ?
","'~ ,/'~
, /
," /...",.,.~
"," _.~;,....,..
J:6-'-' /
_.-:::~....-: ./'
.,.,0-.-:-- /0
/.~-- ~
-----..;I'~""- , _..d
. ""P- ..".".,. -..,,-~,.
,," ~~ ~-
- :;00"'.""'" ...,/
~ ." .".'
~.~ "'"
.~.~. ~,~
.-..-..----a'
'. "'50
... 145
1,~0
I 135
~ 130
.
, 125
" 120
'I 115
I
-.Conbol
--- 2M2/""
-- 4M2/M'
--- 8 M2/N'
1 a
~SIIala ..1"8 ..ighed:
s "
1 ... betore the experiment
2 ... after the eXP8r1ment
3 ...'one week latv
" .. two weeta later
5 ... t1lr.. w..k.8 later
"
5
1'18. 1. a-tt.o~ ot Ba88" aerosol on the, weight or the experi-
, iD.~al an1aa18.
-66-
-------
j .- .~. I . -. .~.. , .
j .' - ~ '. t, " ~,~ . '/, It .. . --
. ". ~ ... .. "..''''" ..-Y', ,
, , -". J ~ ..t-. ..,.
f ".:}) " ...{:: .: .' ,'~,. ~..; ;'. p ;'-, .
.~. . ~,1."'.."" ~ J), ,'!' .. 1-'t. ~/
" ", .. , .: ~ '; , .:
, ...,.. e... -: . '_'\' .. -I ',(,
", ."',,' ,"'" -,':, '<~". . 11..,-
, . 1,.' ., ". ,,' :",'" 110.." t ~ ...#fa
., . r, ",
~~ : ~.(.: -"". .. , ., , -' :;.
,:, ," '~'::-i';; ; ': \~..~ '~;~ '" ' ;.., :', ~ :'i: " "".~~"
~. '''''''rr. ':"II~.) ..'. .,. ""''';.
';"'P.' G.......:..... ~-:'~.;r ,~" , ',," '" ~,..:.,... "";' - ,
w'I'...... 4 .'. 1. j' :' .~~!. .. . ........~. .t-4-
.. - .--...~' i-r '.' ' , I>, :
"..~ -'1,'....,;" . "" ; 11 '.. I
... .. . ......... ~ ., ,.,- . .....', . . . \or - I I
f"''-I ., r 1'c. . 'to , -.#. '" ~ .
,. ;-,: i : .t':~-". "1~ I~J. " :, 1 -.
I . ....:~. .. '... ...~-;r-.. . .
h. ' " 'f.... "...~,/ ' ~ - .'''' , . '
~.. '~ ~" ~ . . .... .'" . ., , ''''.
.. ~~~;~ J\' ~. ' , - ~ \, , . ~
,.,:;~: ,~t.~:_...".....:",~'.~.~,~; ~...'" ~. :.' "
. '. ~ ~.. ,-'. ..'. \ ') . . ".'
...,' ". '") '~',,~~.';~ ", .
"
, 1
fig. 3. I.uD&8. Sharpl,. expreM84 p8"1Yu'88lar
8d18a .. ~h8' re8ul~ ot :) daJ8 ezp08UN to 8 ~
ooIlC8n1ira't1oa of BJSO" aer0801
-66a-
-------
-; .~~J/!/I'~ - IP\~ -'.' ~... ,
~. :' ...~ "~'~' ~r. ""~;':~ " .~. .<
!Iii.." "+A.;, ...1, .\!'.'"
T;!..,~'t~-~, ~', ~," t-~,: ", 11
.c~;" '. ~ . '("'1 f, ~ '.. 4
~i,~'" ~, " ~ ~ '..
~,-,.;;;. <;.~~~ . .! . .If I
.,... t.t ..,..~ : ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~.,
, .' O~.~ ~.o r~ f ..,,~'~:.!~ ~ ~
~~ r-"'. ,-- -
Fig. 4. LunsII. Round O4tll histiocyte infiltra-
tion around th8 bronchi an4 ..,.88818 3 weeD af-
t8r a 5 cia,. 8XP08Ul'8 to 2 861M3 co nc8 ntr at ion
of B2SO~ a81"0801
l ""\. ..'1 f.' , . ~\....;",.."." ... ~
'''''',Ii . ~. ..' --J, .-". ..;"
~ . '. .~. 1~ .Lf~ .,~'~"~" 'f:., "
".. ".. ,.....' '!' .~~. ,." ~~ I
t.".,71, . "'..n ~., ',. ~ ".~.i/l ro' - I
. ""( ~ iii. . , "', '~., L ., /
':' ':0 '-:','...gl,~, ..~.'t~',,~..,. ,
. Y. ~'...... ..- .~j. ~ ...... ...I ; . .
. . ... .~" /'.~..- . oAt ...JI :"." ...-1;.' -~~..
'. ",,"~"" ;"'~~'" "~'/; ~.'~-:.'
:..:. ~-Y.f-...'"'' '.~.: '.1-'-'4. '. - -1;,-'-:-
. :'. "?~ , . ~( ,-.t.". '-~~..- t""'"
'.1' ,".....~... . -...,., ~ "'k'~ '. ..~.:_~ "'- ~ .
~=,,,,',.'~~.::"~ .!' ,,',~." ',...,." \'~-""~.
. ~""""""...~ '''~Ir':,:, .~. .,., '. ~ ~ ~ "',.. . .t-.
~ ~,t:;-..a~ .~', ,J :" ".... .- -..- '''- . -
. J" . . .:.~;.... .:.,-.. .~-. .-- . ,~..
. ,,':'~. ~~.. ".. 4 .,. .:.~~(..;;:.~ ". '-
"".''''-r:;~.~'-;;' .. . ~. :.-. :..." '.~ j
'[. ~f"'.M7. 4~"" ,.' : " . ~' . )-\~ - 0' .p, , j
,,' ." '" Io.~ ~ ...-
, , . ~ ../,
~~~' , ,.( "~~~f" " ' ' .. ,,:
>\. 0. ~. '--'11('" . ....
. .. ,,~.. ~""'" ~ to ~#ri8... . r'~
Fig. , . LUI1g8~ Per1't'alacular edema and early man-
ifestation of 8c1:ei0818 :3 weeks Jt.e18 a 5 daya
e~8ure to 2 ~ concentration of H2SO4 aerosol
-66b-
-------
The Effect of Electric Heat ,and Power Plant Discharges on
the Health of Children.
By M. S. Gol'dberg.
(Institute of General and Community HYgiene of the Acade~ of
Medical Sciences of the U. S. S. R.).
Gigiena i Sanitar~a 1957, No.4, pp. 9-15.
Our thermo-electric stations (electric heat and power plants) use hard
coal of high ash content. During the sixth Five-Year Plan many powerful elec-
tricity generating plants will be constructed which will bring the problem of
atmospheric air pollution into sharper focus. Proper procedures for combatting
such air pollution must be based on an intimate knowledge of the nature of
industrial air pollution. For this reason we made a study of the effect of
discharges of one of our largest e1ectrostations (electric heat and power
plant) on the population's health. The electric station was discharging daily
into the atmospheric air about 800 tons of fly ash and 350 tons of S02. Thir-
ty per cent of the air samples collected had a.dust concentration of 5 mg/m3
or more. Within 1 km from the station maximal single concentration of the
dust in the atmospheric air ranged between 9.38 - 40.84 mg/m3, which is con-
siderably above the liDlitof allowable dust concentration for work rooms and
shops. The ash being carried from smokestacks by the discharge gases con-
tained up to 24% free Si02 in the form of alfa-quartzand up to 22.2% of free
Si02 or 2.2 times as high a concentration as the allowable limit of such dust
concentration (10%), which under industrial conditions has been regarded as
detrimental to health due to silicosis development. The discharged fly ash
was of a high degree of dispersion, 14.5% of the particles measuring from a
fraction of a ~ to 10 ~ in diameter. No other sources of atmospheric air pol-
lution were situated within the study area.
For our health study we selected school children of the three lower grades,
whose parents resided within a 2 knl radius from the electrostation. The cbil-
dren were given clinical-roentgenological examinations; this was done in May -
. .
June of 1949; special attention was focused on the following: duration of res-
idence in the vicinity of the electric plant, general home living conditions,
detailed anamnesis, general physical development, condition of the skin, of
the peripheral lymphatic nodes and internal organs, tuberculin reaction, blood
-67-
-------
, picture and results of lung roentgenography. The medical examinations were
made by Doctors of Medical Sciences R. Z. Sherman and G. B. Rozovskii, both
experienced pediatricians. Three hundred and twenty two, or 30% o! all the
children, ranging between 8 - 12 years of age were examined; data obtained
. from the medical examination of 285 children were subjected to detailed analy-
. sis. Of all the children examined by the Pirquet and Mantoux tuberculin tests
73.5% gave negative and 26.5% positive reactions. Chest X-ray examinations
were made at a focal distance of 150 cm, 0.2 sec. exposure, 80 - 90 kilowatt
and 20 milliamper; pictures were taken with the children in a standing position
following deep inhaiation and retention.
It was established that 77.7% of the children were born in the locality
and lived there uninterruptedly since birth; 15.7% lived there less than 4
years,. Examination of the roentgenograms disclosed changes from normal pic-
tures of greater or lesser significance in the majority of the children. The
roentgenographic material was organized into 4 groups: G+oup I - normal pic-
tures which constituted 41.3% of all roentgenograms taken; Group II - changes
limited to the base of the lungs totaling 24.3%; Group III - in addition to
above there were generalized superficial lung changes in 14.6%; and Group IV-
whose roentgenograms closely resembled those of borderline cases of silicosis
stage,[.
All children were examined to determine the possibility of factors, other
than exposure to polluted air, responsible for lung changes observed, such as
- ,
diseases not related to silicosis. The possibility was also considered of
progressively increasing lung changes due to continued residence in the air-
polluted section. A statistical analysis was made of the following informatibn:
1) duration ofresi.lence in the area under stu~, 2) type of tuberculin re-
action, 3) diseases. in the past. The relative significance of these factors'
in the etiology of lung changes disclosed among th~ children became apparent
when their specific values were considered in the light of the roentgenographic
group-classifications previously mentioned.
The ,results of the statistical analysis pointed to a definite correlation
between the length of children's residence in the air-polluted district and
the disclosed pulmonary changes. Thus, of the children of Group IV 19.2% con-
tinuously resided in the air-polluted area and only 8.0% resided there only a
part of their life. The number of children of Group IV who lived in the air-
. .
polluted district uninterruptedly was 8.4 times as great as the number of chil-
-68-
-------
dren whose residence in the air-polluted district was not permanent or con-
tinuous. The results of the analysis indicated further that the changes found
upon roentgenologic chest examination were in no way related to lung tubercu-
losis which the children may have had in the past.
The roentgenologic examination~f 31 children showed healed tuberculosis
lesions. Seventeen of these, or more than 50% belonged to Group I and only 7
belonged to Group IV. The per cent of children showing signs of healed tuber-
culosis was identical in Groups I and IV. On the basis of studies made of
other childrens' diseases in the past it was concluded that the type of lung
changes observed during the examination of the children was in no way related
to such past diseases. Thus, of 64 children who had 5 - 6 infectious diseases,
25, or 39.1% were of Group I and only 9, or 14% of Group IV. Similar results
were obtained from our statistical studies related to whooping cough, measles
and the grippe. Thus, of 92 children with records of such diseases, 37, or
40.2% were of Group I and only 17, or 18.5% of Group IV. Of 17 children with
past records of bronchitis and pneumonia 41, or 57.8$ were of Group I and only
1 of Group IV.
For control purposes a similar health study was made of children living
in the Moscow suburb of Zvenogorodsk, the atmospheric air of which was pure.
The study was made in 1950. The basic principles underlying the selection and
medical examinations of the children of Zvenogorodsk were in eve~ detail the
same as above described. During the study some of the children moved from the
suburb for various reasons. The study began with 285 children, but for the
above stated reason, ended with 232, or 81.4% of the original group. The gen-
eral living and atmospheric conditions surrounding the children residing in
either of the two localities studied remained essentially the same. The elec-
tric plant continued to use the same hard ash-rich and S-rich coal.
The examinations of the 232 children of Zvenogorodsk extended into 1952;
according to the results the children fell into the previously described four
gTOUpS as follows: of 117 children who in 1950 were classed into Group I (the
normal group), 91 remained in residence in 1952; of the 69 classed as Group II,
56 remained in residence in 1952; of 52 children originally placed into Group
III, 41 remained in residence in Zvenogorodsk in 1952; of 41 children originally
belonging to Group IV, 44 remained in residence in the suburb. These ch~nges
in the childrens' residence necessitated the following reorientation in the ba-
-69-
-------
sic statistical material: 9 children with symptoms of tuberculosis and 4 chil-
dren with acute pulmonary vascular hyperemia and 6 children whose roentgeno-
grams were missing had to be excluded from the total group examined, as a re-
sult only 213 roentgenograms were used in the final statistical interpretation
of the medical findings.
Certain changes were observed in the 1952 roentgenograms of children ex-
amined in 1949: 9 of 47 children originally placed into Group II showed signs
of return to normal in their roentgenologic pictures, and had to be counted as
belonging to Group I (the normal group). Similar normalization was observed
in 7 children of Group III' and 16 child,ren of Group IV, necessitating their
shift to Groups II and III correspondingly. The statistical picture of the
pathomorphologic pulmonary changes in these children was finally arrived at as
. summarily presented in Table 1. It can be seen from the table that the number
of children with normal pulmonary picture was greater in 1952 than in 1949 by
4.3%. This was due primarily to the fact, mentioned above, that in 1952 some
of the Group II children had to be included into Group I and some of Group IV
had to be placed into the upper bTOUPS because of pulmonary normalization.
Thus, the overall changes in the total pulmonary roentgenographic pictu~es
of the Zvenigorodsk children was only 4.3% for all practical statistical pur-
poses this was regarded as negligible. Results can be summarized as follows:
46.5% of the children presented a normal pulmonary roentgenographic picture
and 53.5% presented pictures of premature pulmonary fibrotic changes usually
not characteristic of children. ,The data were then analyzed for the purpose
of eliciting information regarding the possible connections between duration
of residence and pulmonary symptoms observed ir. May - June of 1949. The re-
sults are presented in Table 2.
It can be seen from Table 2 that the general parallelism between duration
of residence and nature of pulmonary findings among children living in the vi-
cinity of the electrostation in 1949 and 1952 was essentially of the same char-
acter. The data were then subjected to an additional and more detailed statis-
tical analysis. The results are shown in Table 3.
It is seen from Table 3 that the continuously residing group consisted of
children who were born and lived in the vicinity for a period of not less than
11 years; on the other hand, children of the non-permanent group were born else-
;
where and lived in the district up to 10 years. . Only 4.8% of the total of the
-70-
-------
TABLE
1.
Chi1drens' pulmonary pathomorphological changes.
Roentgeno-: May - June of 1949 :November - December of 1952:D"ff
~ erence
graphic Number of Number of . : in per cent
Per cent . Per cent
group children children
I 90 42.3 99 46.5 + 4.3
II 47 22.1 45 21.1 - 1.0
III 36 16.9 45 21.1 + 4.2
IV 40 18.8 24 11.3 - 7.5
Total 213 100.0 213 100.0
TABLE 2.
Continued residence in the electrostation vicinity and the degree of
pulmonary pathologic changes in the children.
Description of :No.of: Roent~enographic group
: chi1-: %: I, II III IV
group of children :dren . : Jlo. . % : No. . : No. . crt : No. . crt
. . . . .
Children born and 171 100 77 45 33 19.3 40 23.3 21 12.4*
continuously resid- - - - - - - -
ing in the vicinity 219 84 38.4 54 24.6 39 17.8 42 19.2
Children born in
other districts;
residence in e1ec- 40 100 22 55 10 25 5 12.5 3 7.5
trostation vic~ni- - - - - - -
ty not continuous 63 33 52.4 12 19 13 20.6 5 8.0
* Upper figures indicate number of children in 1952, lower - number of chil-
dren in 1949.
examined children lived in the vicinity between 11- 14 years, and none lived
there for 15 - 16 years. The interpretation of the data obtained 3.5 years
after the first investigation pointed to the etiologic significance of-the
. -
dust as a factor responsible for the ~ppearanceof premature sclerotic chanses
in the children and emphasized the persistent nature of such p~lmonary changes.
. -
~. Ya. Yanysheva (1955) made a clinical ~~d roentgenologic study of 484
school children in a city section the air of which was heavily,pol1uted by the
discharges of an electric generating,plant and of a chemical combine. The
electric plant used pulverized coal of a high ash content; its' ash trapping
installations were of low efficiency; as a result the plant was discharging
into the atmospheric air 700 tons of fly ash daily with a 3 - 16% content of
-71-
-------
TABLE
3.
Duration of r~sidence in the electrostation v1cinityof children
examined in 1952.
:Tota1 number of:
: children
Duration of : :
residence' :
;Number :
$
4 - 10 years
11 ~ 14 years
15 - 16 years
Total
32
168
11
211
100
100
100
100
Grouped according to continuous or non-
continuous residence
Continuously resid- : Not continuously re-
ing in the. electro-sJding iI! .j;he. _el~Q-
station vicinity trostation vicinity
. Number % Number - %
None
160
11
171
32
8
None
40
100.0
4.8
19.0
95.2
100.0
81.0
free Si02' The results of Yanysheva's studies showed that among the school
children who resided within 1 kilometer from the electric station the numger
of children with pumonary rOeIltgen~clinica1 negative -examinations was 10.5% .
below that of children who resided 12 km away from the station; corresponding-
ly, the per cent of children with pneumosclerotic symptoms were 14.6 and 4.3;
residuals of healed pulmonary tuberculosis, the etiology of which was in no
. way related to the state of the air pollution under study, appeared in 13.1
and 12.9% of the two groups correspondingly.
D. N. Ka1yuzhnyi(1955) made a study of air pollution by emissions of a
ferrous metallurgical plant, paralleling same with clinico-roentgenological
examinations made by the Sanitary-Epidemiological Station; the study covered
1100 school children of the first five grades who resided in 4 different areas
of the Ukrainian R. S. R.; the atmospheric air dust pollution in these villages
differed in degree; the air dust contained 8 - 15% free Si02. Kalyuzhnyi came
to the conclusion that the disclosed pulmonary fibrotic .changes in the examined
children were in no wqy related to previous childhood or other diseases, but
. .
were traceable, on a correlative basis, to the degree of atmospheric air dust
pollution of the districts investigated. Thus, the number of children classed
as Group I or II, in accordance with previously presented group definitions,
increased regularly with the increase in the distance of their residence from
the sources of air dust pollution from 64.5 to 79.5% of the examined children.
Of the children residing in close proximity to the ferrous metallurgical plant
27.2% had to be ~lassed as belonging to Groups II and IV (as~ previously de-
-72-
-------
fined); only 4-.3% of the total number of children-residing in districts hav~ng
an at~ospherio air -dust density one-tenth of that found in the air of the pre-
viously discussed districts had to be clinically classed as belonging to Group
III, and none to Group IV.
K. L. Moskovskaya made a roentgenologic study of school children of in-
habited areas situated in districts the atmospheric air of which was polluted
to varying degrees. She found that 50% of children living in close proximity
to ferromet~llurgical industries had symptoms of roentgenologic intensifica-
tions and foci of pulmonary Fe accumulation; similar symptoms were found in
only 10% of the children of the _control district. A. A. Pershin (1954) made
a study of the effects of P-dust and D. N. Kalyuzhnyi(1955) made a study of
the effect of cement dust in the atmospheric air. Both concluded that a def-
inite correlation existed between the degree of air dust pollution and the
pulmonary condition of the population residing in villages at close proximity
to the sources of pollution even in persons who were not directly connected
with or exposed to the immediate conditions prevailing in the prenlises of tee
two industries.
This is in agTeement with the results of our findings.
Studies
such as ours lead to the development of measures for the abatement of atmos-
pheric air pollution by industrial air discharges, and particularly by electric
heat and power plants; a wet ash trapping installation has been developed and
installed, and the height of smokestacks was increased to 150 meters,result-
ing ina reduced atmospheric air pollution in the environs of electrostations.
Conclusions.
1. Two parallel studies were made, at an interval of 3.5 years, of the
effect of discharges into the atmospheric air by powerful electrostations on
the pulmon~ry condition of children. Persistent fibrotic pulmonary changes
found among the children were regarded as the results of high concentrations
of quartz in the industrial air-polluting dust.
2. The results pointed to the immediate imperative need for the develop-
ment of special corrective sanit~rJ measures for the protection of the health
oi children residing in districts the atmospheric air of which was being pol-
luted by discharge gases coming from electric heat and power pl~~ts; such oea-
Bures may be children's sanatoria, schools located in forest areas, protected
playgrounds located outside the heavily air polluted area, etc.
-13-
-------
3. Powerful thermoelectrostations which use hard ash-rich coal shov.ld
. .
De permitted to operate only when equipped with effective dust-abating in-
stallations and smokestacks of appropriate height.
4.
In addition to the dust-trapping installations technical provision
should be made for reliable periodic inspection and evaluation of the efficien-
cy of dust-trapping installations, especially as applied to 5i02.
5. . As a sanitary prophylactic measure, tho quantitative determination of
free Si02 in industrial emissions should be a requisite part of atmospheric
air inspection procedures.
-14-
-------
The Effect of Atmospheric Air Pollution on Coniferous Plantings
By - G. G. Abramashvili
(Sukhumsk Branch of the Giprogostroi Planning Institute)
Gigiena i Sanitariya, 1957, No.4, pp. 67-69.
In recent years there has been noticed a general trend to use coniferous
trees in the landscaping of gardens, parks, boulevards and residence grounds.
This trend gained impetus due to the fact that in the northern part of the
U.S.S.R. leafy trees remain bare during 6 - 7 months of the year, whereas
the evergreen ooniferous tree varieties enliven the winter landscape and are
of value from a hygienic point of. view acting as purifiers of atmospheric
air from dust and.gaseous pollution. V. I. Fedynskii (1935), V. A. Yakovenko
(1936), A. A. Adamova (1937) and v. F. Dokuchaeva (1952) demonstrated that
living verdure screened out city dust and that the degree of such air puri-
fying action varied with the tree variety. According to V. I. Fedysenko
coniferous trees retained city air dust most effectively.
Our studies indicated that coniferous tree varieties also possessed the
property of first adsorbing and then absorbing !!! the stoma and leaf openings
such city street gases as S02 and S03 and accumulating them to varying de-
grees, as shown in the appended Table. The climatic conditions of our section
of the country are such that during the fall and winter months the electric
power and heat plants supplying our manufacturing establishments and. apartment
houses discharge into the city air increasing volumes of smoke and soot, while
the city leaf-bearing trees remain bareJ in this connection the role which
.. .
coniferous trees can serve as landscape enliveners and as air purifiers comes
. .
to the forefront. It must be remembered, however, that not all species of
coniferous trees can withstand the specific meteorological and air pollution
conditions prevailing in our section of the U.S.S.R. It has been established,
for instance, that the majority of pine and spruce trees planted within city
confines soon dry up and die~ In the culture and rest parks of SUC~ cities
as Sokol'niki and Izmailovo and their suburbs coniferous trees died almost en
masse as industrial and manufacturing production developed. We were impelled
to make a ,study of the lack of survival on the part of coniferous trees, if we
are to use them for landsoape improvement and for sanitary and hygienic pro-
tection of the atmospheric air of our cities.
-75-
-------
Among the coniferous trees which manifested greatest resistance to the
detrimental effects of city conditions the silvery, the blue-gray and the
dove-blue ~. pungens Eng. stand 'out as promising varieties. For some un-
known reason, city parks consisting of these conifers are rarely found in
our cities; existing plots are sadly neglected; dead specimens are not r~
placed by new ones, dead branches are not trimmed off; and since the needles
on such conifers remain on the branches 1 or 2 and only occasionally 3 years,
the crown makes a poor and neglected appearance. The dying tree specimens
are covered with smoke produots, ash and soot and frequently signs of dam-
age in the form of black spots or burns can be observed. Such signs ot dam-
age occur most frequently to a highly pronounced degree in the older tree
specimens. In contrast to this the condition of the prickly spruce, which
grows outside the city confines, is more encouraging; its needles remain on
the branches for 5 - 6 years (which is normal for this variety of conifers),
theneedles are plentiful and show signs of good growth and development.
From the evidence presented in the literature and on the basis of the
results of our studies we concluded that the poor state of the spruce city
tree-plots was the result of deleterious effects of atmospheric air pollu-
tion by smoke which contains harmful industrial gases, particularly S02 and
S03. However, even in this respect, the prickly spruce showed promising
resistance. We made a study of the chemical pollutants contained in the at-
mospheric air in different sections of Moscow where spruce parks predomi-
nated; particular attention was paid to the S02 air content and to the con-
tent of S in or on the tree needles, using the method of Es~. The results
indicated that a definite correspondence or ratio existed between the S02
content of the air and the sulfur compounds found in and on the needles; it
was observed that the higher the S content of the atmospherio air, the higher
was its content in and more of it was found on the tree needles, as is shown
in. the appended Table.
Results of analysis of coniferous needles collected at different points
of )losoow showed that the sulfate content which the spruce tree needles can
tolerate without any notable ill effect ranged between 0.5 ~ 0.85% on the dry
basis. This finding served to verif7 and explain our observations over spruoe
plots in the suburb "Sokol" located in the "Lenin" hills. The above mentioned
S-compound content of the dry coniferous needles points to a 0.09 - 0.2 mgfm3
-76-
-------
of 602 in the surrounding atmospheric air. Our studies and observations
lead us to conclude that the needles of the prickly spruce can absorb from
the surrounding air a greater quantity of industrial gaseous air pollutants.
containing 602 and 603' which accumulate in the needles as Bulfates. On the
basis of above recorded findings it must be concluded that the content of
602 in the atmospheric air must be so regulated that a single concentration
of sulfuric acid aerosol formed as the result of 602 oxidation should not
exceed the limit of allowable 0.3 :mg/.3 concentration even under the most
unfavorable circumstances.
The results of our studies and observations indicated that coniferous
species, especially the prickly spruce, are useful city landscape decorating
agents and can play an important part in the sanitary improvement of urban
atmospheric medium. 6uoh a role played by the above mentioned coniferous
tree species becomes more important as our city industrial and manufacturing
developments progress. Provisions should be inoluded in all city planning
for coniferous park areas, they should be given the same consideration and
priority in the cities as are now given to dust and gas trapping installa-
tions, gas purifiers, etc. in industrial production and manufacturiDg estab-
lishments.
-.17-
-------
Sulfur in and on prickly spruce and tree damage under different growth conditions in Moscow.
Analysis by -the Eshk method. S calculated as percent of S03.
Condition
of sample
taking area
i
i
t 1
I
i year
! old
Quantity of
sulfur in the
needles
i 2
! years
i old
i 3
. years
i old
I
i Quantity
I of sulfur
i on needles
I in per cent
i in relation
I to total S
: Condition:
i of conifer- !
i ous needles!
I Degree of i
i smoke and !
I soot pollu- I
I tion I
Signs of damage
I
! Survival
! of conifer-
I ous needles
I on the tree
I branches
!
Delegatakqa I
street, close!
to industrial i
I
plants. I
Heavily smoke!
coated. !
i
I
I
:
I O.~
i 0.49
i
Red PloElhchad,
Sverdlov
Ploshchad in
center of
city
Village
"Sokol"
Control area
River park
near R-R
station
Xhimild
Semkhoz R-R
station of
Northern R-R
near
Zagorskaya
Footnote:
I I
I I
I :
: 0.25 I
: .
: I
! I
: :
: :
: I
: I
I 0.22 !
: :
: I
: I
I :
!
!
i
1.24!
I
i
!
i
I
I
i
!
:
! No
1 76 i trees
. i of 3
! yrs
I
1.15 I
!
0.72 !
i
:
:
0.23 !
i
i
i
:
:
:
0.27 I
!
i
Plantings within the city confines
I
I
I
I
!
i
i
!
i
l.n I
!
i
0.85 i
i
:
I
:
0.85 I
I
!
!
i
I
I
0.27 i
0.24
0.18
0.04
Heavy
! Acute damc.ge sim- !
! ulating burns to !
I .
i 1 yr old needles i
! Worse to 2 yrs i
I old needles t
i Chronic damange i
i in the form of i
!.: black spots on I.
older needles
! !
i Slight damange to i
! tips of older I
: needles only I
Heavy
Moderate
Suburban plantings
None
observed
None
observed
Analyses were performed in tril>licates.
Slight
!
!
i
i
:
:
:
I
I
!
None
None
Slight
1 - 2 yrs
2-3yrs
4 - 5 yrs
5-6yrs
5 - 6 yrs.
Calculations were made on the dry weight basis.
-78-
-------
The Effeot of Ioise and Exhaust Gases of City Traffio on the ~gienic
Conditions of Hospitals and H9spital Grounds.
By X. G. Beryushev, II. V. JhuD;rantsev and I. L. Koragodina.
(Central Institute of Post Graduate ](edicine and F. F. Erisman ](oscow
Scientific-Research Institute of Sanitation and ~g1ene.)
Gig1ena i Sanitar17a, 1957, No.5, pp. 9-16.
The first step in instituting required sani t817-1Q'g1enic conditions in
hospitals built in new city developments is the selection of the most suitable
hospital location. City streets, particularly main thoroughfares of large in-
dustrial centsrs, are tull of noise and the air is heavily polluted with auto-
mobile exhaust gases. In ~ instances the hospitals are located on main
thoroughfares where pedestrian and automobile traffio are heavy. This is par-
ticularl7 true of hospitals built in prerevolutionary time, in some instances
- t!:ds is equally true of hospitals built in reoent years. Construction regula-
ti08s ot 1954 (9 and p-54) oontain no restriotive clauses in this respect. It
was desirable, therefore, to determine what sani ta17 re~1mes should be insti-
tuted in hospitals located on streets where traffic was normally heavy.
The studies were made ot ](osco. city hospitals located: a) OD the main
thoroughfare, where passenger and freight automobiles, including auto and trol-
le7 busses, was normally heavy, such as in the case of lirst Gradsk and Fifth
. .
Soviet Hospitals, located on Bol'shqa Xalushkqa Street, b) on streets the
predominant traffic of which cODsisted of trolleys and automobile traffic, as
is the case with lIedsantrud Hospital located on International Street, and City.
Bospital No. 48, located on Volochaeva Street. Noise intenei ty measurements
were made and air samples were taken during the summer-fall and spring seasons
ot 1954 - 1955 at the following collection points: a) between the sidewalk and
the drivewq part of the street in froni- ot hospital grounds, b) on hospital
grounds in front of wards at distances of 15, 30, 45, 60 and 82 meters from the
sireet, c) inside hospital buildings, 20, 25, 30, 36 and 82 meters awq from
the streets, with windows closed, as well as open. Noise intensity was deter-
mined b;y noisemeters Sh-l and Sh-2, which were checked before being used. (The
lett.~ Shlin Sh-l and Sh-2 is the initial letter of the Russian word SHOOJ4,
which literally translated means noise.. .B.S.L.) The prevail~ looal condi-
ti0D8 or the time of the ~ when the street noises were loudest were not points
-79-
-------
of priJlar1 cone8m, nevertheless, some suoh informaUon was collected as an in-
cidental by-product ot the. main stuq. General4r the noises were not as loud
dur1Dg the night when traff10 stopped almost enUre11'. Thus, on :8ol'shqa
ralun.1rl7a Street the no1-8e intens1tl' measured as low as 40 decibels; the pasS-
iDB ot one automobile per mtaute tor 15 minutes raised the no1semeter to 82 db.
Between.6 - 7 o'cloCk in the mom~, w~en automobile tratt1c rose to 116 ma-
. oh1ne.. per 15 minutes, the miD1mwD recorded on thenoisemeter was 51 db. and
the manlllQJP 85 db. :Bet.een 9 and 17, .hen the DUmber ot automobiles rose to
450 per 15 ID11mtes, the JlrhtilllWD recorded. .a8 76 db. and the mS\nnn1Jll 92 - 97 db.
There .as an autobus and trollel' stop station near F1rst Gradak Hospital at the
interseot1on, and BIOstOt the;tre1ght tratt1c made a turn there, all ot which
heiptened the noise intend t7 in tront ot that hospital; this was further auB-
mente" b7 the tact that in moviag awq trom the stopping point the accelerators
.ere opened .1de17 which reBUl ted. in a BUddeD high rise in the noise recorder.
In streets with predOlD1natiDg tramw87 tratt1c the noise .as ot a lower intend t7
thp in streets .here the tratt10 o0D81stedmostq ot vehicles operated b7 in-
ternal comba.t1on BDgines; nevertheless, eVeD with such tratt1c the noisemeter
record never tell below 49 db. c1.ur1ag the night, and.as. as high as 93 - 96 db.
duriDg the dq. International Street is on1,y 25 meters .1d8 and is 11ned on
both .1des .1th three sto17 bui141Jiga; 1t has no l8ndsoap~ trees or shrubs;
. . I .
here the street no1s8 .as intens1t1ed b,y the reflection ot the sounds troll balld-
iDB. walls, most of which were constructed ot brick, stone, cement, eto.
. GeD8ralq the results ot our street no1s8 investigations aereed with the
results obtained. b7 s. 1. Almeev 111 1948 and 1959~ ne IDAnnn1Jll no1s8 inten-
s1V recorded b7 h1m at the Stratenak and Petrovak gates .&8 92 - 95 phones
(wdts ot 8Ub~eot1ve loudness of sCUDd) 8114 in the CJor'Jd.1, Kirov and Arbst
Streets 72 - 78 phones. Van.... noise intena1t7 recorded in 1954 - 1955 in :801'-
abaTa Ialv.,..1rqa Streets .as 92 - 97 db., 111 International Street 88 - 93 db.
and 111 Volockaevskap Street 96 db.. Such street noises" penetrated not onl,y'1D-
to the hospital grounds, but also d88p into. the .&rds 10cate4 15 - 36 meters
awq trom the street., .1than 1I1teD81t7 ot coD81derable mapitude. The main
bu11d1Dg ot theF1rst Gradsk Hospital was. fronted b7 old trees and shrubber,
and looated 45 meters aW87 !rea the streets, despite this the street no18e. pen-
. .
etratecl into the interiorot th18bulldiDg with an intensitT ot 62 - 84 db. which
18 on1T 13 - 14 db. 1888. than recorded by sidewalk no1s8.. Within thehosp1-
-80-
-------
J 5{J
J. t dri veW'ay III --Z{/
~stanoe
.. ~I
11
Kinimal
,
~verage -.-.-, M8.%1mal
i'ig. 1.
Distribution of autotraffio noise over the grounds of
First City Hospital faoing its main building situ-
ated on Bol'shaya Kaluzhskaya Street
-81-
-------
tal grounds, at a distance 01' 60 - 82 meters, the intensity 01' penetrated
street nois~ increased considerab~ due to echo sounds ret1ecting trQm build-
ing walls and trom asphalt paved interspaces in tront 01' the main building
(see Fig. 1). Hospital ~edsantrudn was situated 15 meters trom the street
and was not tronted by trees 01' shrubs; the street was heavi~ tratticked by
tramways; the intensity of the street noise penetrating into the grounds ot
this hospital ranged between 61 - 68 db. or only 1 - 5 db. below the noise in-
teneit7 in the street. (See Table 1.)
TABLE
1.
Distribution 01' street noises on the grounds and within the premises
01' hospital "Kedsantrud".
I Time . Number 01' pass- I Sound intensit7 in
.
Test poillt I 01' I ing vehicles . deoibels
.
I da.Y I in 15 minutes IMin1mum I Average IJIaximum
On the sidewalk Dq 247 autos 62 76 93
17 tram cars
15,meters away Dq 247 autos 61 73 88
17 tram cars
Within premises tirst 247 autos
t100r - windows OpeD Day 53 65 80
30 meters. away 17 tram cars
As above with windows 'Dq 247 autos 50 55 78
closed 17 tram cars
On the sidewalk Night 29 autos 49 59 86
7 tram cars
Within the premises sec- Night 29 autos 49 54 75
ond floor windows open 7 tramcars
As above with windows Nisht 29 autos 46 50 70
olosed 7 tram cars
Noise measurements made inside ditferent hospital buildings during the dq
and night, with windows open or closed, showed that street noise penetrated in-
to the wards at a high inteDSit1'. Beoause 01' fau1t7 construotion 01' window
tramesthe ditterenoe in intensity with whioh the street noise penetrated into
the interior 01' hospital buildings was negl1gib1e. Determinations 01' street
noise penetration into hospital bui1diags at night was made in rooms unoccupied
by patients or personnel, thus eliminating theeftect 01' illside hospital noise
per u. " Great Xa1uuu:ak'Va Street was heaviq trafficked with automobiles during
-82-
-------
the ~; some of the hospital buildiugs were situated 26 meters. fram the street,
when windows of such buildiugs were open, street noises penetrated with an in-
tensi tl' of 60 -82 db. ,which is on17 8 - 11 db. below the level of street
. .
noise; with windows closed, the noise level was 48- 65 db. or12- 17 db. be-
low the street noise intensitl'. Data of approximately same magnitudes were
recorded for buildiDgS located 36 meters frOm the street.
'The aupenting effeot which street noise had on the intensitl' of noises
prevailing in buildiugs of Citl' Hospital No. 48 are shown in Fie. 2. Even dur-
tQc niBht hours, when tramw~ traffic was reduced to 4 - 7 cars per 15 minutes,
noise inteneitl' in ward;s with windows open recorded at 50 - 68 db. DurtQc the
morning and duri~ the dq, when the tramwq traffic inoreased to 8 - 10 cars
per 15 min., noise intenei tl' in wards was reoorded at 70 - 87 db.
An attempt was made to determine subjective effects of street noise on the
,
general well beil\i of ward patients. For this purpose, 193 patients>were given
special question oards. The answers were ana17zed and graphioal17 oharted in
Fie. 3. The answers indioated that most patients of wards 25 - 36 meters fram.~
the street, and with windows faoing the street, strongly reacted to street
noises I noises disturbed them, oaused restless sleep, intertered with their
rest periods, caused head-aches and heart palpitations after re8tless nights.
The unfavorable reactions were particu1ar17 pronounoed in instances of sudden
rise in street noise tntenei tl' caused b7 r1ng1nc of. tramw~ bells, screeching
of wheels, sudden brake stopping and exhaust sounds of the freight';'ca1'r'71n&'
automobiles. RTAmin1ng p~sicians, likewise complained that street noises in-
tertered with questioning and eTAmining of patients.
Sanitar,r Codes SI and P-54 prescribe 35 phones as the allowable noise level
for hospital wards, p~sicians examining rooms and hospital living quarters.
The data expressed in terms of decibels (db) can be convenient17 and without
much error compared with data expressed in terms of phones. Accordingly, our
, .
data indicated that predominating noise intensitl'in the four hospitals in-
vestigated was considerab17 above the ~g1enio limit of allowable noise inteneitl'
defined bl' the sanit&r7-~gienio regulations. The noise inten8itl' on the hos-
pital grounds audible in the treatment buildiugs sharply exceeded the limit of
allowable noise intensitl' even with the windows closed. The results a180 showed
that with a sanitar;y olearance spaoe (sanita17 protection lIone) of 30 meters or
more between the street and the hospital bui1diugs and the presenoe of old trees
-83-
-------
to.
.p 16
.-4
III 60
~
.
.p SIJ
~
.-4 II
~ 11
a
=' 11
o
co .
..
.
I?
.,
11
11
A
.11,,/ ,
.fI !J.- .
,....... J1 ..J!."- sz 'vI
.fI.."...-:::'--- --.J!......- - - P
11 SZ
SouD4 1ntens 1 ty
zg
.ulb18. 11018. "
11 ,,1.at8D81'ty /
\ 11/
-.' /
b ",\~/
s ~ 1
. 0
a
, .
.", .J- -.1- ... _11- ""'".
~ - "1" IIJ' ..1" 11"- .11' .11'
Sept. 2 4118. 31 AUB ao
11 --
.
-I
---I
----J
--4
ti8 in hr8
Intensity of city traffic noise penetrating into the
hospital wards with windows open in relation to num-
ber of passing tramway cars {Ward 48 of City Hospital,
25 meters from the red line. .
1 - Maximal; 2 - Average; 3 - Mini~a1; 4 - No. tram cars
A - from - 1:45 3:00 5:10 10:50 13:00 14:00
to - 2:15 3:30 5:45 11:20 13:35 14:30
Fig. 2
-84-
-------
JIJ
t')
1 45
40
~
..-t 15
~
0 10
..-t
~ 25
cd
J.i
~ 20
~
CD
0 15
~
o
0 10
o ~
o
,
First Cit,. Hesp1tel
01 ty Heap 1 tan Xo. 48
..':~i'
!~~'.
'f~lfJ1r
l:edical bldg 41 11
l'rom red 11Q8
.:t
J:I . ~,. J"8eU...
~ ~ 3oB8What rietlees
...
. 0 Not restless
p.
1i.d1cal hldg 25 M
frcn re d li De
Fig. 3.
Effect of auto- and tram car noises
on patients feeling according to
replies to questions.
~5J
CO concn.
o Minimal
~. Average
~ Max:ims].
Limi t of all b le ma~ 170
single concn ! '
Thoro 30 M 60 Ai 82 M 2d
fare From red line flr
~horo 30 M in
f are from ward
r. 1.
Gynecol. building
Main building
Fig. 4. CO concentration on the grounds- of First
City Hospital, accor~ to 1955 data.
-85-
-------
and shrubs the intensity of street noises penetrating into hospital buildings
was oonsiderably in exoess. of the allowable, 35 . phOnes.. Stopping and landtDg
points for oit7 transportation vehicles close to hospital locations added to
the intensi t7 of street noise penetrating into the interior of hospital build-
ings .
Atmospheric air pollution with carbon monoxi.dein the vioinity of hospi-
- .
tals and hospital grounds was studied next. Air samples were colleoted at a
height of 1.2 - 1.5 meters in the hours of moming and da3' when automobile
tratfic was at its peak. Simultaneously, observations were made of the wind
direotion and velocity, atmospheric pressure and air temperature; records were
also kept of the number of automobiles passing at the time the air samples were
collected. Carbon monoxide concentration determinations were made in the phis;';:'
ico-chemioal labo~atories of the F. F. Erisman-Institute using a gas-analYtical
apparatus. Of 228 air samples, 119 were collected in the vicinity of First
Gradsk Hospital, 60 in the vicinity of the Soviet Hospital and the remaining
in the vicinities of the other two hospitals. Carbon monoxide content of the
atmospheric air of the traffic part of the street exceeded the 11mi t of maximal
single concentration (6 malm3) in all instanoes, as shown in Table 2. Highest
content of carbon monoxide was found in the atmospherio air of the street oppo-
site First Gradsk Hospital. This oan be explained. by the presence of an auto-
bus stop in the immediate proximity of the hospital grounds, and by the close-
ness of the previously mentioned traffic turn point, as well as by the greater
number of passing vehicles. .
Carbon monoxide emitted with the automobile exhaust fumes reaching conoen-
trations of 53 - 57 malm3 in the atmospheric air was observed by Z. G. Vol'fson
as far baok as 1936 when autcmobile traffic inArbat was verr 11gbt. 10 paral-
lel~sm was discerned between oarbon monoxide content of atmospheric air and the
number of passing cars. This ~ have been due to the fact that sample collect-
,ing required on17 2.5 - 3.0 minutes, where exhaust gas distribution progressed
at a considerably slower rate; other factors not easily taken into considera-
tion, suoh as meteorological conditions, rate and direction of the air current
in relation to the street direction (longitudinally or across), the width of
the street, the nature and height of the surrounding buildinp, the presence of
trees, shrubs or other plants, etc. mq have been contributing oauses. .
The concentration of oarbon monoxide in the atmospheric air of Intemation-
-86-
-------
Tl..BLE
2.
CO concentration on ho£pital grounds.
Desig-i
nation;
of :
hospi-i
tal I
Distance from
street red line
: : Concentration of CO : N f: Av. no.
: : in mg/m3 : !o. 0 : of auto-
iNumberi : : itest~.ex-i vehicles
! of! i i ! ~~eo~ngf!during pe-
i tests!Minin,um!Averabe!Maxic1um! 111illl blo i riod of
. . . . .a owa e'
! ~ ! ! ! ! sample
. conons.
: : : : : : colltng.
Mdn buildi~
On the side walk 5 7.3 11.5 17.9 5 70
30 meters a\vay 5 3.0 7.0 9.0 4
First 60 meters away 5 1.5 4.9 7.5 2
City 82 meters away 5 0.0 ~.9 6.0
Hospi- 87 meters away
tal 2nd floor 5 0.0 2.2 5.2
Gynecolo,\;Oical building
On the side walk 5 3.0 17.0 46.3 4 58
30 Cleters away 5 3.0 7.5 12.1 3
First floor ward
small ventilating
window open 5 0.75 3.2 5.8
Surgical buildinp;
At side walk 6 6.2 10.6 16.2 6 62
Thoroughfare bound-
Fifth ary 15 meters 6 3.8 9.0 17.2 4
Soviet- In the hallway of
skaya building with win-
dow frame open 6 0.0 4.7 7.4 4
In back of the surgical building
On the side walk 6.0 3.0 18.8 25.1 3.0 54
Within the premises
facing street red
line, window frame
open 6.0 1.5 8.6 11.1 3.0 54
Main building
On the side walk 9.0 5.3 12.9 28.6 7.0 28
Med- 30 meters away 9.0 0.7 4.0 7.4 1.0
san- Within the building,
trud first floor, 30
Hospi- meters away, sma 11
tal vent. window open 9.0 0.0 2.2 4.4 25
Medical school
On the side walk 6.0 4.4 7.4 10.5 5.0
Vii thin the building
facing street red
line, windows open 6.0 3.0 8.25 15.0 4.0
-87-
-------
al Street was almost identical with that determined for the air of Bol'sh~a
Kaluzhskaya Street despite the less frequent automobile traffic. This mq have
been due to the fact that International Street was considerab~ narrower than
Bol'shaya Kaluzhskqa, and most of its buildings were constructed of stone or
red brick and the lawns were tree from trees, shrubs or other green plants. A
steep hill near the hospital of International Street forced autobusses to in-
crease gas feediDB; as a oonsequence the volume of exhaust gases also increased.
The distribution of carbon monoxide from the traffio part of the street is pre-
sented in Fig. 4.
Carbon monoxide determinations were also made in air samples collected in-
side hospital buildings free from ~ type of gas burning apparatus and located
at sufficient distances from bathrooms and compariments which' might have gas
burning installations. The concentration of carbon monoxide in the air of the
hospital quarters was as followsl 7.4 mgfm3 in a building situated 26 meters
from the dr1vew~ pari of the street; 5.8 mgfm3 in a bulldiDB 30 meters and
4.4 mgJm3 in another bulldiDB30 meters trom the street, the automobile traffic
of which was lighter than in the other two instances. No carbon monoxide was
found in the inside air of the quarters or the atmospheric air of the grounds
of hospital No. 50 which was situated at a considerable distance from a street
with an intense traffic and wi thin close proximi t7 to a densely arbored park.
Conclusions.
1. The noise created b7 o1t7 traffic in streets with heav,yvehicular move-
ment traveled through considerable distances and penetrated into the interior
of hospital territories, into hospital wards and through the dq maintained a
noise intens1t7 exceeding the limits of allowable noise intensities which af-
fected the patients' subjeotive sense of well beiDB.
2. Exhaust gases of autobuses traveling through hospital located streets
polluted the atmospherio air of hospital grounds and hospital wards. The car-
bon monoxide content of most air samples oollected inside hospital buildiDBB at
different distances from the driv..~ part of the street considerabq exceeded
the 11mi t8 of its allowable concentration for atmospherio air.
Definitions I Decibel - one tenth of a bell unit for measuring loudness of
sound. Equivalent to loss in power in a mil.e of standard cable at 860 cycles.
Phone - a unit ot subjeotive loudness of a sound.
-88-
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Ef'feo'ts of Sulfur Dioxide Studied with the Aid of Labeled Atoms.
By'!'. A. Bystrova.
(Department of General Iq'giene, I. M. Sechenov ls't. Mosoow Order
of Lenin Medical Institute).
GigieD& i Sanitariya 22, 110. 5, 30-37, 1957.
Protection of atmospheric air oftnhabited looalities against pollution
is one of the urgent problems of our present dq cnnnnnm. ty sanitation. '!'he sub-
ject of discussion in this cnmmvnication is atmospheric air pollution ~ S02.
This gas is discharged into 'the atmosphere wi'th the smoke emitted b.1 industrial
manufacturing and production plants, electrostations, electric heat and power
centers and b.1 plants supp~ng heat to local community establishments aDd to
private homes. '!'he harmful effect of S02 to metabolic and en~ic process has
been basically established. However, such iDt01'lll&t1on, basic though it is, is
incomplete aDd remains to be clarified. Some authors expressed the opinion
that the toxic effeots ot S02 to the living organism were not of a general but
of local character. In this connection it was felt that the mechaD1sm of S02
penetration into the organism, its distribution throughout the different organs
aDd tissues and avenues of elimination constituted important points which might
shed light on the mechanism of action not only of S02 but of other toxio sub-
stances as well. I. V. Sidorenko showed that S02 found its way into the blood
circu1ationJ however, he tailed to determine the way the gas entered into the
blood stream, how long it took before it appeared in the blood, how long it re-
mained in the blood stream before it began to enter into other bod.Y organs, it
at all. This stud.Y was undertaken to determine the distribution of S02 in the
organism, its effects on the blood circulation and methods and avenues of its
elimination.
s3502 was prepared b.1 the method ot oxidizing solid S. A special set-up
was devised for this work which had a11 the provisions required for the pro...
tection of those who worked with radioactive gases. '!'he set-up is sohematically
presented in Fig. 1. It consisted of an exposure chamber, electrical spiral for
the oxidation of S, vacuum pump, a series of absorption tubes and outlets for
taking samples of the exposure chamber air. Deaotivation of the air was accom-
plished by passing it through a series ot absorbers tilled with aotivated char-
coal, caustic alkali, solution ot Bertholetts salt (KCl) and ~S04. '!'he set-up
-89-
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G~J .a.uU&.a'~ a
Sampling
outlet -
-
Eleotric
spiral
To the
oircuit
l
Abaorbers
+
Vacuum pump
Exposure chamber
Transformer
Fig. 1.
S3502 experimental .ni_1 exposure ohaiAber.
J 19 nlSIIl1Z'f
Hours
Fig.A 2: Rate ot S35 aocumular-
tiOD aDd reduotion in the blood.
of five rats hours attar ex;poaure
-90-
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was placed inside an eXhaust hood. Gas dosages were administered as follows&
a definite quantity of 835 was dissolved in ~ given volume of chloroform; a
required volume of this solution was taken up with a micropipette and delivered
into a small ball of glass ..001 attached to the electrical spiral within the
exposure chamber. The chloroform was allowed to evaporate after which its va-
por was removed b,r appropriate ventilation; white rats were then placed inside
the exposure chamber; the electric current was switched on and, as the electric
coils became red hot, the 835 was converted into 83502. Calculation of 83502
concentration in the organism was made on the basis of radioactivit7 of 1000
iUlJ)/m1n/g of living animal weight. It was determined that 31 microcurie of 835
were required for one animal in an exposure chamber of 17 lit. capacity. How-
ever, practical consideration indicated that much of the 83502 was d8posi ted on
the exposure chamber walls, the fur of the animals, etc.; for this reason a dos-
age of 31 microcuries proved insufficient for the purpose of our stu~. In ac-
cordance with the results of further studies w. used 64microcuries of 835 per
animal.
In the first stage of our studies we attempted to determine the content of
835 in the blood of the test animals. For this purpose W8 performed 4 sets of
experiments, each consisting of 4 rats. Animals ..ere placed inside the expo-
sure chamber and subjeotedto the effects of 83502 for one hour; 0.05 ml of
blood was then taken from the tail vein at 20 - 30 min and 19 2, 3, 6, 9, 12
and 24 hour intervals. The blood was diluted 20 times with distilled water and
0.4 ml placed on a piece of foil and speoifio counts made with 900 blood prepa-
rations. .
Results of the first series of tests showed that 835 appeared in the blood
20 min. after exposure and that the quantity of labeled 8 in the blood increased
with the oonoentration in the air of the exposure chamber. The percent of 835
absorbed by the blood was. the same in all experimentsl the average was between
0.07 and 0.1% of the radioactivity index per liter of inhaled air, as shown in
Table 1. Changes of 835 content of the blood were studied at first over 24 hours.
The results are shown in Fig. 2, in whioh the value of the first determination,
made 20 min. after exposure, was taken as 100%. The curves in Fig. 2 indicate
. that during the first 2 - 3 hours the 83502 oontent of the blood increased; it
then began to fall and after 24 hours was only 20 - 40% of the1n1t1al. The re- .
su1ts indioated that 835 remained in the blood for a consld.~ble ttme after a
short period of its inhalation.
-91-
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TABLE
1.
Sulfur (S35) content in the blood 30 minutes after exposure.
Radioactivity of
1 liter of inhaled
air in imp/min.
.
.
!
i
:
Radioactivit,y of
20 mg of blood
in imp/min.
:
.
:
I
Per cent of
S35 absorption b.1
the blood
243 250
243 250
165 900
165 900
165 900
144 466
144 466
144 466
88 165
208
182
186
162
138
137
135
98
88
0.05
0.07
0.11
0.09
0.08
0.09
0.09
0.07
0.10
The next stage of our study dealt with the distribution and incorporation
of 635 into the various organs following the inhalation of s3502. Experiments
were performed with 19 white rats. Specific radio counts were made on thick
sections of tissue specimens as recommended by the Department of ¥edical Radi-
ology of the Central Institute of Post Graduate Medicine. Results of the spe-
cific counts are presented in Tables 2 and 3. S35 was found in all the organs
studied.' The quantity of S35 entering the organs was in definite proportion to
the 63502 concentration inhaled b.1 the animals. :But the values of the specific
counts differed with the different organs. Respiratory organs showed a greater
concentration of 63502. A comparison of the data presented in Tables 2 and 3
showed that after 24 hours the content of S35 was reduced in all the organs stud-
ied. The lar,ynx and trachea showed highest reduction in theS35 content, while
its content in the lungs remained practically unchanged. Thirty minutes after
the inhalation Ofs3502 was discontinued, the lar,ynx and trachea recorded 16 -
190 and 116 - 119 imp/min respectively; 24 hours after exposure these were re-
duced to 28 - 30 imp/min; the specific count was still 130 - 136 imp/min in the
lung tissue.
In the above recorded experiments the higher rate of 635 ,incorporation in-
to the lung tissue seemed to be due to th~- fact that tissues of the respiratory
organe acted as the portal, so to speak, through which the 635 penetrated into
the organs., Therefore, we made a similar study b.1 a different method of 635
entering the organism. I. V. Sidorenko showed that upon the inhalation of S02
there were formed in the blood K and Na salts of sulfurous acid (K2 and Na2S03).
-92-
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Tabl.
Sulphv (S35) inoorporation into organs of white rats inhaling 83502 for one hour.
(AD1mal were ld.lled 1/2 hOU1' atter exposure).
..' ~..,_... -_. - -_.- ..
.. - ------- - -- -- -
2 .
---.--
!iad1oaotivit;r of 1 l1\e. r ' 69269
of il'1haled 81r in imp/1II1n
:;~~::::- ~~/'::I %~/:1
-.. -
11004. .,.....",. 56 I 00 I 60
Esophogus and. trachea, 166 296 i 1 ~o
Wnp. .,...,..,. 116 202' II ')
Liyer ' ' " " " .. " " I 95 169 86
Kidne;,.s 61 108 EO
S.pleen . . , , . , , " 28 50 41>
lreari .",.,...., 30 53 3;3
Musoles . . . , , . , . . ,. 44 78 I 23
Brain, .,..,.,,34 60120
es 165 I 144 466 I 243 250
N. II I N.12 N. 13 I-~ I N,16
I I I I I I
0' ~/1II1n1 % % 1JD.p/m1n % Impjlll1n %
Imp/ad.n lO fmp/minj
I - I I I r' I
I 83 i 100 I 1r:D 1100 I 137 100 I 209' I CO II~ 100
378 i 4fJ5 211 214 ' 3.13 250 1038 /.!90
194 2:33 I 1,,)[ 1151 17-1 340 I 551 265 '540 298
75 98 123 123 138 100 I 277 1131 1191 91
143 1'12 105 1105 IG8 122 294 1140 I 200 I 96
69 83 77 77 3"1) 235 163 90
"-- . 1 44, 70 I
57 68 49 49 06 70 196/ 81 139 I 76
34 41 29 29 78 I 57 96, '6 124 68
38 46 32 32 ;;.\ 24 130 I 0') 120 I 65
!able 3 .
%
I
I 100
I' 316
200
1153
133
76
55
38
33
I
,.,..,
0'\
,
Sulphur (835) inoorporation into orpns of wh1 te rats inhaling s3502 for one hour
(Animals .ere ld.lled 24 hours atter exposure)
aadioaotivit;y of 1 liter of
1nhaled air in iDlD/min .
Experimental rat 50.
Radioaotivit;y of orpaa
and tissue.
Blood' . . . . . . . . . . \
Eeophogus and traohea . .
lAmp
Liver. . . .. . . . . . .
Kidneys ....,.....
Spleen, . , , . , , , , ,
Seari
MU80leS
..........
Brain. . . . II ... . . , .
..~...,
. . . . . .
. . . .
69 269 88165
N't 17 I .18 16 19 I Hr20
s:s s:s !
.t "i % % }I %
g. """
a,~-H !
16 100 14 100 11 1100 11 1100
30 187 28 200 28 260 25 220
136 850 130 930 102 920 91 820
19 118 21 150 11 100 12 109
44 274 21 150 31 280 20 180
24 150 18 130 19 170 18 160
8 50 6 42 4 36 10 90
7 44 14 100 16 140 11 100
5 30 8 67 6 54 6 54
10
144 466
243 250
Ht23
16 21
N't 24
N't22
" ! %
!
100 13 100
781 - -
- 186 1430
237 49 370
360 158 1200
- 154 1180
160 39 300
- 36 270
160 13 100 .
.'
78
100
290 2
445 2
160 1
218 1
320
79
69
.f{7
!-r:-
!L
37 1100
44 660
68 720
00 270
65 440
80 226
44 110
29 79
28, 75
~!
J
16
125
1
-~
46
135
205
74
101
147
36
32
31
38
58
26
-------
This caused us to make new series of tests by subcutaneously injecting white
rats with N&2S3503. The latter was prepared b,y passing S3502 through 0.1 N so-
lution of NaOH. The radio-labeled sulfite was injected into white rats sub-
cutaneously at the rate of 5 000 imp/min/g of boct' weight. Some rats were sac-
rificed at different time intervals and the specific activity of the organs
studied. Results are shown in Table 4. In presenting the results of the spe-
,
cific radiocounts the values obtained in the blood were taken as 100%. Table
4 shows that b,y this method of introducing S35 into the organism of rats the
amount of absorbed S35 by the lungs excee4ed that of the other organs.
TAB L E 4.
Incorporation of sulphur (S35) into organs of white rats
injected subcutaneously with Na2S35028
)
I Hours after exPosure
. .
: 2 i 6 9 i 24
Organs and tissues i : .
.
! . . .
Rat 33 . Rat 34 : Rat 35 i Rat 36
.
. .
: . .
. . .
Blood 100 100 100 100
Lungs 70 84 60 46
Liver 87 125 70 170
Kidneys 255 300 300 330
Spleen 40 90 95 85
Heart 44 40 60 78
Muscles 24 12 30 21
! .
The next stage of our study dealt with the elimination of s3502 from the
organism. Radioactive counts were made on specimens of blood, urine and feces
for a period of nine days after subcutaneous injections of radioactive sulfite. .
There appeared no w~ for the estimation of the amount of s3502 which was in-
haled b,y the animals during exposure in the experimental chamber. Consequently,
we could not express the amount of radioactive S eliminated by the urine and
feces in percen~ of S35 ab~orbed. According~, our results are expressed in
terms of actual S35 eliminated from the organism and its level in the blood as
is shown in Fig. 3. The radioactivity of the urine and feces was estimated on
the basis of daily elimination of S35. Results indicated that 25 ~inutes after
exposure the urine manifested a considerable degree of radioactivity (over
23,000 imp/min per 20 mg of urine). The content of the descending colon of .
rats killed 20 - 25 min. after exposure to the 53502 manifested a high radio-
-94-
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activity. Maximum radioactivity was observed in the urine and in the feces
12 - 24 hours after exposure; thereafter the elimination of S35 abated. It
was interesting to note that the dire~tion of the curves of S35 elimination
from the organism completely coincided with the direction of the curve of S35
in the blood. The elimination of Na2s3503 following subcutaneous injection ran
parallel to the elimination of inhaled S35.
The time it took S35 to become eliminated from the organism depended upon
the concentration of S35 in the. inhaled air. Thus, rats which inhaled air the
radioactivity of which was 243 - 250 imp/min per liter for a period of one hour,
11 days later eliminated only a slight amount of the radioactive S. On the
other hand, rats which inhaled air having a radioactivity of 495 )00 imp/min
were eliminating a large amount of S35 three weeks after exposure. In the or-
gans of rats killed 11 days, also three weeks, after exposure traces of S35
were still present, to a higher degree in lung tissues.
Results of the above experiments lead to the assumption that repeated in-
halation of 502 may cause the accumulation of S-containing products in the blood
and in the organs. The following experiments were performed to check on this
assumption: test animals were subjected to inhalation of S02 for one hour daily
on eight successive days; the s3502 concentration emanated a radioactivity equal
to 100 000 imp/min. Changes in the S35 content in the blood and urine are pre-
sented in Fig. 4. The paths followed by the curves reflect the process of S-
compounds accumulating in the blood and the increase in their rate of elimina-
tion 11! the urine. A comparative study of the two clearly pointed to the fact
that, as a matter of protection, the organism tried to combat any increase in
the accumulation of S-compounds. It would be interesting to make a similar
study over considerably longer periods of time. The results of our final se-
ries of tests showed that S35, whether inhaled or injected as s3503 subcutane-
ously, was incorporated into the protein fractions of the organs.
Conclusions.
1. Following the inhalation of S02' its S-containing conversion products,
were rapidly distributed by the blood over the entire organism and deposited
in the organs where they were retained for 11 days and longer, depending upon
the original concentration inhaled or injected. The distribution of S among
the organs showed no pattern or regularity, except for the fact that lung tis-
sues retained it in concentrations higher than did any other organ. In sub-
-95-
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hIl. 3.
.t' ~/8; qrine '4
:: 18811, \
~ 3 1\
o "" CD ""a.
.. .... \,
o ~ '.
j III \ '''..:
:Blood :', =',
, ,
\ ",
.8\
. ..
\J '''..
~ \\8
'... '" ..
. ~ I!,i\,.. .
., .. .~,'"
..".. '~
. '~
-r" ..
. ... '\
.. \ '...
.. .. ,
. \ :
\
.. \.
114
~
R
:! i "/1
~G: 1/1
bori
~~ II
-
o
J
i
.s
/1
I
..
Il" 11111
. Da"..
Rate ot 835 el1m1nation from organ-
isms ot' white rata.
IOOOOfJI a
to. 11100000
...
~ 1000000 .
.... -
i 500008 .. t v-
.
150080 .. .
0 .. .. Urine
j
100000
'H
o .
52
~~
i!
!~
o
i
i
.s
1000
J/JO ..
108 ,
.. I
.
100 . I I .
50 -
~.I.ood
I I . I I J ~
, 7 .r t 4 I 1 I
D&78.
Pig. 4. 835 oontent of blood and ~e
r88Ul tiDg from dailY , ~.J ation ot 8 02
-96-
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cutaneous injections the 5 deposited in the lungs was in the form of sulfites.
2. Upon repeated inhalation of 53502 its conversion products containing
5 showed a tendency to accumulate in the body organs.
3. The results of the experiments substantiated the conclusions previ-
ous~ reported in the literature ooncerning the properties of the living organ-
ism to absorb 502.
4. The faot that products of 502 conversion became accumulated in the bo~
organs leads to the assumption that daily inhalation of even low concentrations
of 502 can develop pathologic processes in the organism.
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The Effect of Atmospheric Air Pollution by Discharges from Electric Power
Plants and Chemical Combines on the Health of Nearb.y Inhabitants~
By
N. Ya. Yanysheva.
(The F. F. Erisman Scientific Research Institute of Sanitation and
HYgiene of the Ministry of Health of the U.S.S.R.)
Gigiena i Sanitariya, 1957, No.8, pp. 15-20.
A study was made of the effect of industrial discharges on the health of
inhabitants of a large industrial center the atmospheric air of which was be-
ing polluted by the discharges of several production and manufacturing plants.
The industrial center was made up of a residential section known as the South-
End and of an industrial section known as the North-End. The industrial en-
terprises of the North-End consisted of an electric power plant, a chemical
combine and a phenolic production plant. A large building of living quarters
was erected in the North-End section without regard to the officially pre-
scribed width of the sanitary clearance zone and regardless of the original
plan adopted by the inhabitants of the South-End.
The electric power plant, one of the largest in the U.S.S.R., was using
ash-rich and sulfur-rich coal for its operation; its smokestack gases dis-
charged into the atmospheric air large quantities of ashes and S02 at a height
of 44 m, but the plant was located in a low level part of the town. Its ash-
trapping installations operated at 45 - 65% efficiency. The .combine p~oduced
sulfuric acid by the contact method, nitric acid, chlorine and chlorinated
lime and constituted the basic source of the atmospheric air pollution, dis-
charging SO) and S04' H2S, oxides of nitrogen and chlorine. The central
heating installation of the chemical combine discharged into the atmospheric
air large quantities of ash and S02. The plant producing phenol compounds
discharged into the atmospheric air phenol, S02' and oxides of nitrogen.
Neither the chemical combine nor the phenol compounds producing plant had gas
purifying equipment, and the disoharges polluting the atmospheric air were
liberated at heights not exceeding 20 - )0 meters.
A study was made of the degree of atmospheric air pollution with dust
(fly ash), S02' sulfuric acid aerosol, hydrogen sulfide, chlorine, nitrogen
oxides and phenol. Air samples were collected by the aspiration method under
-98-
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the smoke plume coming ~rom the smoke ratacks at distances ranging ~rom 200
to 2,500 meters ~rom the chemical combine and the electric power plant, and.
up to 800 meters ~rom the phenol producing plant. The distances chosen oor-
responded to distances at whioh living quarters were located away ~rom the
plants. A total o~ 1,605 air samples were collected. Data obtained regard-
ing the atmospherio air pollution o~ the North-End section are schematically
depicted in Figure 1.
A study was also made o~ the morbidity rate among the population o~ vil-
lages Nos. I and 2 located in the North-End sections, ,he South-End section
was studied similarly ~or control purposes. The conoentration o~ dust (~ly
ash), o~ S02' and of H2S in the atmospheric air o~ both villages exoeeded
the allowable concentration limits. For example, the concentration o~ dust
ranged between 24.9 - 66.3 mgfm3, o~ S02 between 13.3 - 33 mg/m3 and o~ hy-
drogen sulfide between 0.6 - 1.6 mg/m3. The concentrations o~ sulfuric acid.
and chlorine aerosol were somewhat higher than the concentrations of oxides
of nitrogen and of phenol, but stayed within the limits of allowable concen-
trations. Eighty per cent of the dust (fly ash) in the atmospheric air o~
these villages consisted of particles measuring up to 2~. Gravimetrically
particles of this size constituted only 0.1$ of the total content, particles
exceeding 10 ~ constituting 89.5% of the total b.1 weight. Chemical analysis
of the dust showed it to contain 15.8% of free silicon dioxide, as determined
by the method of V. V. Dobrovo19skaya.
Such massive pollution of the atmospheric air of the two North-End vil-
lages (Nos. 1 and 2) brought about complaints from 90% of the adult popula-
tion of general ill feeling, difficulty in breathing, coughing, nasophar,yngeal
disturbances, etc., as well as of serious inconveniences caused to the general
mode of living, such as penetration of dust into the living quarters, damagG
caused to clothing, curtains, landscaping, vegetation, etc. The concentrationa
of ash and of S02 in the atmospheric air of the. South-End (control) section
were below the allowable concentration limits.
The fact that the pollution of the atmospheric air of the North-End vil-
lages (Nos. 1 and 2) with dust (fly ash) and gaseous industrial discharges was
detectably great enabled us to make a comparative study of the morbidity rate
among the inhabitants of villages Nos. I and 2 and of the South-End control
area. The studies included inhabitants beginning with the age of 8 years.
-9.9-
-------
Persons regularly exposed to the effects of the noxious substances as a re-
sult of their occupation were excluded from the study. The groups of inhab-
itants were selected on a comparable basis with respect to sex, age, occupa-
tion, general living standards, available medical facilities and duration of
residence in the corresponding city sections.
The study of the type and frequency of morbidity WaQ based on medical rec-
ords extending over a period of two years. The morbidity per 100 population
in the North-End section villages Nos. 1 and 2 during each of the 2 study
years was twice as high as in the South-End control section; the occurrence
of sickness due to infection, respiratory and neurologic disturbances, dis-
turbance of the digestive organs, of the skin, the eyes, etc. was 1.6 - 3.8
times as frequent among the population of villages Nos. 1 and 2 of the North-
End as in the control section; a higher frequency was also observed in the
occurrence of the grippe, angina, disturbance of the upper respiratory tract
accompanied by bronchitis, vegetative neurosis, conjunc~lvitis, a~~e ~astritie
and purulent diseases.
With the cooperation of specially chosen medical specialists (the names
are given in a foot note) a comparative medical stu~ was made of selected
groups of each of the villages. Thus 321 adults were selected from village
No.1 and from the control section who had never been exposed to the direct
effects of dust or other toxic substance of industrial nature; in addition 613
children of lower school age were selected from villages Nos. 1 and 2 of the
North-End section and from the South-End control section. These groups were
studied on a comparative basis with regard to sex, age, duration of residence
(adults - over 3 years, youngsters from the date of birth), type of occupation,
and general living conditions.
The results showed that morbidity per 100 was 1.8 times as high among the
population of village No.1 than in the control section; there were 81 cases
per 100 in village No.1 and only 45.3 in the control section. Cases of upper
respiratory injury among the adults of village No.1 were twice as numerous as
in the control section, and injuries to the nervous system 4.5 as frequent.-
Diseases of the respiratory tract among the population of village No.1 were
almost entirely limited to the upper respiratory parts, 75% of which were symp-
tomatic of atrophic processes. Disturbances of the nervous system were almost
exclusively of the nature of vegetative neuroses.
-100-
-------
The results of the medical studies of the children are summarized in
Table 1. It should be noted at this point that changes in the peripheral
lymphatic glands occurred twice as frequently among children of villages Nos.
1 and 2 as among children of the South-End control section (moderate and
grave 72 - 74 as compared with 36.2 per 100 correspondingly). Results indi-
cated that with the exception of otitis the occurrence of all, as well a8
specific diseases, was 1.7 - 2.6 t~mes a8 frequent among the children of vil-
lages 1 and 2 of the North-End section as among the children of the South-
End control section. In the children as in the adults, respiratory affections
were limited to the upper parts of the tract and to the bronchi. (See Table
2). Upper respiratory atrophic changes predominated among the children and
the adults.
The results of roentgenographic studies are shown in Table 3. It can be
seen from this Table that the changes manifested in the lung tissue of chil-
dren were of the nature of pneumosclerosis and that the occurrence of such
changes among the children of villages Nos. 1 and 2 was 3.1 times as frequent
as among children of the control section. Isolated cases 8huwed pneumoscle-
rotic changes of diffuse character; in the absence of any signs of inflamma-
tion these could be explained only as being the result of atmospheric air
pollution with dust and gaseous industrial discharges.
Results of the study of the red blood cells and hemoglobin of childxen
are presented in Table 4. It can be seen from the data presented in this Ta-
ble that in the children ~f villages Nos. 1 and 2 the number of erythrocytes
stayed within the normal limits while the hemoglobin was low.
Increased stimulability, exaggerated'reflex response, tremor of the upper
extremities and of the eye lids were encountered 2 - 4 times as frequently
among the children of villages Nos. 1 and 2 as among the children of the South-
End control section. Heightened stimulability was accompanied by other signs
of nervous disturbances. Thus, of 90 children of villages Nos. 1 and 2 with
,increa~ed stimulability 36 were restless sleepers, 11 complained of head-aches,
39 manifested exaggerated tendon reflexes, 62 manifested a red and 5 a white
dermatographism, 11 had tremors of upper extremities and 1 easily perspired.
Thus, the medical study disclosed sharp differences in the state of health
of the population of the villages subjected to industrial air pollution and of
the control section.
-101-
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Conclusions.
1. Atmospheric air pollution with industrial discharges brought about
complaints on the part of the population against unfavorable effects which
such air pollution had on the general well-being of the inhabitants and on
the sanitary state of general living conditions.
2. Pollution of the atmospherio air with dust (fly ash), sulfurous
gas, hydrogen sulfide in concentrations many times above the allowable l~
its and of aerosols of sulfuric acld and ohlorine in concentrations just
above the allowable limits, as well as the oxides of nitrogen and phenol with-
in the limits of allowable concentrations deleteriously affected the popula-
tion's health.
3.
The effects of the above mentioned atmospherio pollutants produced
the following pathologio results:
a) Increased by several times
dren and adults of diseases of the
the frequency of occurrence among chi 1-
respiratory organs, of the nervous system,
of the organs of vision and of ~he skin; affected to a greater extent the up-
per parts of the respiratory tract and produced atrophic manifestations,
bronchitis, vegetative neuroses, conjunctivitis and purulent diseases.
b) Lowered the resistance of the organism to such infectious disease
as the grippe and angina.
c) Induced in children a state of susceptibility to the development of
rickets and anemia, and brought about early manifestations of diffuse pneumo-
sclerosis in isolated oases.
4. The sanitary condition of the atmv~pheric air of the villages studied
should be improved by way of appropriate dust trapping and gas purifying in-
stallations by increasing the height of the smoke stacks and by strictly en-
forcing the laws regulating the right width of sanitary clearance zones be-.
tween the industrial production establishments and the residential or workers'
living quarteTs.
Inhabitants now residing in areas subject to industrial air pollution
should be moved to new residential areas situated in accordance with the
specifications prescr~bej in the codes regulating the sanitary clearance
zones.
Local heal~u departments must appropriately intensify the medical pro-
tection of the health of the population subjected to the del~terious effects
-102-
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of industrial discharges and must institute the necessary therapeutic and
prophylactic measures.
TABLE
1.
Childrens' sicbJess per one hundred.
Nature of the disease
Villages NOB.
1 and 2
Control
section
Respiratory diseases
Anemia .
Rickets, residuals
Otitis
53.3 .
39.3
15.8
2.2
20.6
16.3
9.1
1.5
TABLE
2.
Di~eases of the upper parts of resp~ratory tract per 100 children.
Nature of the disease
Villages Nos.
1 and 2
19.2
10.8
6.8
Control
section
Rhinitis
Atrophic rhinitis
Rhino-pharyngo-laryngitis
Atrophic rhino-pharyngo-
laryngitis
Tonsilitis and adenitis
5
3.1
5.3
,17.5
8.5
TABLE
3.
Patho-roentgenographic findings per 100 children examined.
Condition of respiratory
organs
Pneumosclerotic changes
Residuals of healed tuber-
culosis
No deviation from normal
Villages Nos.
1 and 2
14.6
Control
section
13.1
72.3
4.2
12.9
82.9
TABLE
4.
Hemoglobin per cent pe~ 100 children examined.
Hemoglobin per cent
Villages Nos.
1 and 2
Control
section
40.0 - 45.0
46.0 - 50.0
51.0 - 55.0
56.0 - 60.0
61.0 - 70.0
20.3
34.5
31.5
3.7
-lQ3-
4.1
16.3
51.5
28.1
-------
I -
r
!
~Jl___-1'
t~~~~!~
. I
I
.....
~
.~ ~
'<:
~ Eleotrio heat and I . \_~~~~ol. Pl~~!_1
power plant L~___- -~-
..........
Hydr0'P'~-sulfi de
Dust (F17 ash)
Sulfurous anhydride
Ohlorine
Sulfurio acid fog (aerosol) I
Allowable gas oonoentration I
'\
-.-.-.-.-
-. .-. .-. .
- ~ ~ ~ ~
- ~. ~ - -~. ~.
\-- ~.8mioal co.b'~~~}.
-.. .-...-
:.
Fig. 1 . Ratio of determined mA~imAl atmospherio concentration of
po~~u~an~s to the allowable limits of single concentrations' (North-
em). Allowable concentration for all pollutants was taken as
the arbitrary unit of comparison. The ratios ot concentrations of
atmospheric pollutants are presented in logarithmic scale
-------
Effect of Low Lead Concentration on Porphyrin Metabolism.
M. I. Gusev.
Chair of Hygiene, ~azan I. P. Pavlov Medical Institute and Chair
of Community Hygiene, Central Institute of Post-Graduate Medicine.
Gigiena i Sani tariya, 1957, No.. 8, pp. 21-25.
According to the 1955 - 1960 five-year plan the production of lead is
~o be increased by 42%. It is reasonable to expect that the discharge of
lead into the atmospheric air will increase in some proportion and that it
will affect unfavorably the health of the workers and inhabitants, espe-
cially of certain localities. ThemAyim1m allowable average concentration
of 0.7 g/m3 lead in atmospherioair was adopted as an estimated value and
should not be regarded as one resting on a rational foundation. The limit
of allowable concentration of lead in atmospheric air should be restudied
using the newly developed physiological and biochemical methods of inves-
tigation. The dete1.'mi.nation of allowable limit of lead ooncentration in
atmospheric air acquires additional significance when it is considered that
it constantly enters into the atmospherio air from the so11.
Lead is a polytropic poison which predominantly affects the central ner-
vous system. Therefore, 1nourattempts to establish allowable limits of
lead concentration in atmospherio air we subjeoted the experimental animals
to chronio lead exposure to dete1.'mi.ne its effects as manifested by changes
in the activity of the animale~ conditioned reflexes, in the lead balance,
~ .
in the porphyrin metabolism, etc. Results of studies made in the past estab-
lished the fact that lead poisoning disturbed the general course of porphyrin
metabolism, but no quantitative studies were found in the literature. For
this reason we began our investigation with a stu~ of the effeots of differ-
ent lead concentrations on the porphyrin metabolism of rabbits. Increased
porphyrin excretion'y'!!' the u1\ine has been regarded by some investigators as
a symptom of lead poisoning.
Porphyrin compounds have been regarded as component elements of vital
respirator,y,pigments of plants and animals. Metalporphyrin complexes are
present in hemoglobin, ~oglobin, catalse and cytoohrome. Free porphyrins,
not in complex with metals, have also been found in the animal organism.
Protoporphyrins, coproporphyrins and uroporphyrins are among the most 1m-
-105-
-------
portant porphyrin compounds present in the animal organism. Under normal
physiological conditions free porphyrins are present in erythrocytes as pro-
toporphyrins in the white substance of the brain where, according to Kluver,
they are identical with coproporphyrin: The above is of importance from the
viewpoint of physiological processes which take place in the nervous system,
because porphyrins are found in tissues devoid of cytochrome or in tissues
with only a trace of cytochrome. Charnyi was of the opinion that porphyrins
acted as oxidizing agents in nervous system tissues which were devoid of
cytochrome.
The mechanism by which toxic substances affect porphyrin metabolism ad-
versely has not been clearly understood; however, it is known that all toxic
substances, including lead, which affect the central nervous system are in-
variably accompanied by disturbances in porphyrin metabolism. Porphyrinuria
was observed in cases of poisoning with bismuth, mercury, selenium, nitro-
toluol, illuminating gas, oxides of nitrogen, carbon tetrachloride, ethyl
alcohol, sulfanilamide and veronal. On the other hand, substances such as
zinc, copper, iron, silver, gold, uranium, thorium, beryllium and zirconium
have not been known to produce porphyrinura. R. B. Mogilevsk~a believes
that porphyrinuria ~ be a characteristic symptom of lead poisoning, but
that diagnostically it was less significant than a basophilic erythrocytic
granulation. She believes, however, that a direct relation existed between
the degree of porphyrinuria and the severity of lead poisoning; in mild lead
poisoning only 1 - 3 mg of porphyrin m~ be eliminated via the urine, in
mildly severe cases 3 - 9 mg and in grave lead poisoning 9 mg or more m~ be
eliminated via the urine. SOlne authors believe that the presence in the
urine of more than 1 mg/li should be regarded as a warning of impending cri-
sis. K. A. Pokrovskii also noted increased porphyrin elimination via the
urine in lead poisoning, but is inclined to regard this as a non-specifio phe-
nomenon. He noted a correlation between the size of the dispersed lead par-
ticles in the. urine and the degree of porphyrinuria. Only 50% of cases into~-
icated with large particulate lead were found to developporphyrinura,.where-
as in cases of -intoxication with lead vapor the number of cases with porphy-
rinuria reached 10%. P. B.Mogilevskaya observed that the elimination of
. .
porphyrin in the urine of dogs in experimental lead poisoning began on the
3..:"_- ~ day of the ~xposure and persisted for 25 - 44 days. Thereafter the
-106-
-------
porphyrin elimination via the urine became variable. The author thought
this to have been due to individual physiological variations in the test
dogs. Yu. K. Smirnov injected rabbits subcutaneously with lead acetate at
the rate of 0.01 - 0.1 g per kg of animal body weight. The 0.1 g dose was
injeoted fraotionally in subdoses of 0.05 g over a period of 2 days. He
noted a 1.5 - 3 times increase in the urinary elimination of coproporphYrin
in the case of the smaller injection doses. In the case of the large dose
the porphyrin elimination ~ the urine ranged between 152 - 181 g per day.
Our investigation concerned the effect of small doses of lead on the
urinary elimination of porphyrin. We used young male rabbits 3 - 4 months old
weighing 1160 - 2140 g. Rabbits were exposed to concentrations of lead ap-
proximating the limits of allowable concentrations for the air of work-roo~
and also of atmospheric air (of inhabited looalities). Exposure to the ef-
fects of lead were made on a dynamio basis. The air entered the exposure
ohambers after it had been purified through a ootton filter, silioagel and
activated charcoal. Highly refined metallic lead was melted at 850 - 9000
\
under temperature controlled conditions. Air was passed through the oven,
and later mixed in proportions desired for the experiments. From the mixers
the lead oxide containing air was passed into the exposure chamber. The air
left the exposure chamber through adapters filled with glass wool treated
with HN03. The lead absorbed by the adapters was determined by the method of
Polezhaev. The desired lead concentrations, temperature and air exchange in
the e~posure chamber were controlled b.1 means of special arrangements. Ani-
mals were exposed to the lead-containing air for six hours daily over 6.5
months. The average lead concentration in the first chamber was 10 g/m3 of
air, which is the equivalent of the limit of allowable ooncentration for
work-rooms, calculated on the basis of a 6 hOur working day. Maximum de-
viations from the average on the plus side did not exceed 11 g/mJ and on the
minus side the concentration fell to 611m3 on several occasions an1y. In
:the second chamber the average lead concentration was 3.9 g/m3. Caloulated
on the basis of average 24 hour concentration this single concentration is
the equivalent of 0.91 g/m3 or only slightly above the 0.1 g/m3 adopted as
the normal concentration.
Determinations of porphyrin in the urine were made by the method of
Fisher. The principle of the method is based on the property of s~ecific
-101-
-------
porphyrin compounds to be extracted from bi9logical fluids with ether in
the presence of acetic acid, followed by extraction with HCl as porphyrin-
dihydroch1orides. Protoporphyrin and coproporphyrin are ether extractable;
uroporphyrin is insoluble. Therefore, our studies were limited to the study
of the content of coproporphyrin in the urine. Qualitative and quantitative
determinations were made photospectrometrically using the SF-4 photoelectric
spectrophotometer. Determinations were made in the laboratory of Professor
N. I. Grashchenkov under the supervision of Yu. K. Smirnov. Qualitative
. .
porphyrin determinations were made on the basis of light absorption in the
region of 400 to 410 mm wavelength; quantitative determinations were made at
A of 402 mm. Quantities of porphyrin found in the urine are summarized in
the appended Table. Coproporphyrin in the urine was determined fortni~htly
over 7.5 months, during which time 15 determinations were made on the urine
of each rabbit. The initial determination was made prior to placing the
rabbits into the exposure chambers; the last two determinations were made
after the exposure to lead-polluted air was discontinued, designated as the
recovery period.
The daily urine output of rabbits normally depends on the nature of the
ration and was found to vary between 40 to 225 ml (according to Yu. K. Smirnov).
In our studies the daily urinary output of the rabbits varied from 36 to 240
rol. According to Yu. K. Smirnov the quantity of porphyrin eliminated via the
urine daily, as indicated by results of spectrophotometric determinations,
varied between 4 to 9.2 g, with a daily average of 6.5 g. Results of our
studies yielded a daily average urinary elimination of coproporphyrin of 5.5t
l.5g with a range between 4.11 and 7.09 g. It was found that the amount of
urine-eliminated coproporphyrin varied in direct proportion to the concen-
tration of lead in the air to which the rabbits had been exposed. The in-
crease in the amount of the urine-eliminated coproporphyrin exhibited a de- .
gree of gradualness, but no specific regularity could be discerned, since
higher and lower values at times alternated. But the coproporphyrin elim-
inated !!! the urine of lead exposed rabbits was invariably on a higher level
than in the control rabbits. The elimination of coproporphyrin via the
urine of the experimental rabbits was 10.59 g per d~, or twice that of
. rabbits of the control group during the same test period. No noteworthy
changes in the porphyrin metabolism were observed in rabbits exposed to
comparatively low concentrations of lead.
-108-
-------
Porphyrin determinations in the urine of the test rabbits were contin-
ued for a time after the discontinuation of the exposure to establish the
course of recovery. Results of such a study showed that two weeks after the
discontinuation of the exposure the amount of porphyrin in the urine of rab-
bits of the first series was 10.59 - 7.13 g per day and one month after dis-
continuation of exposure 4.26 gper day, which was below the amount of por-
phyrin eliminated per day via. the urine by rabbits of the control group.
Conclusions.
1. Chronic exposure of rabbits to lead oxide concentration of 10 g/m3
daily for 6 hours over a period of 6.5 months increased the urine-eliminated
coproporphyrin. to 5.5 - 10,59_~per d~. Exposure of similar duration to
3.9 g/m3 of lead oxide failed to effect any quantitative changes in the
urine-eliminated coproporphyrin of the tested rabbits.
2. The results may prove of value in the determination of limits of
allowable concentrations of lead in the atmospheric air.
-109-
-------
COPROPORPHYRIN CO~TXN'r I If R.A.BBI'1'S I H lV~e
.,. 0_._-- --.. - - - -'..-.-'-----'-'--'--
r 18 0 0 n ~ e' n ~ ..,Ln U hour a 1. :i:.-,
Da.a, t.acl oOI1O.nVa~1on a.V,r Control nbblte
..1 1tO. 3 . .A.ft- ro.. No.1 Aft. RD. 7 .~~r .:I£Y8 ..
9/111 I 5,01 6,37 6,72 I 6,03 1),51 6,24 I 6,98 6,52 I 6,f!3 6,73
! 6,58
I I I
,24/111 I 6,82 7,01 6,92 6,95 5,09 4,83 5,38 5,1 6,04 4,77 4,64 5,09
i
611 V ' 7,21 6 6,6 6,4 7,57 6,19 6,26 6,73 6,08 6,72 6,21 6,34
2O,'IV 7,41 7,56 7,72 7,56 7,09 7,01 6,24 ' 6,78 7,09 6,61 4,61 6,1
II/V 6,5 6 6,25 4,28 4,24 5,32 4,61 4,39 4,97 4,67 5,37
25/V 7,27 7,81 7,09 7,58 5,61 5,62 5,48 5,57 4,58 5,98 5,84 5,6
16/\'1 6,53 7,15 5,75 6,48 5,81 4,03 3,6 4;48 4,5 5,66 4,27 4,81
,
6/VI 1 8,46 8,78 9,39 8,88 4,92 6,98 5,95 5;72 4,76 4.62 I 5,03
i
i
27 /VII 7,17 7,21 8,46 7,61 5,11 6,5 6,35 5,99 4,87 6,28 4,15 i 5,43
I
15/VIII 4,53 4,52 I 4,53
13,68 9,94 8,13 10,55 4,29 4,98 5,48 4,92 J
I
29/VIII 9,1 8,98 12,93 10,34 4,53 6,53 5,19 5.43 4,85 4,46 4,27 ! 4,86
14/IX 10',84 10,04 10,06 10,31 4,21 4,86 4,54 5,3 4,33 4,12 4,58
~8/1X 10,64 10,41 10,24 10,59 7,06 5,07 5,15 5,72 5,58 5,08 6,21 5,62
lJ/X 7,19 6,96 7,24 7,13 6,56 6,12 4,7 5,79 4,16 5,18 I 5,66 5,06
I
26/X 7,27, 4,41 4,11 4,26 6.77 6,32 5,01 6,03 6 5,39 6,16 6,18
-110-
-------
The Effect of Atmospheric Ultraviolet Radiation
Insufficiency on Mineral Metabolism.
By V. S. Senchuk.
(Chair of Hygiene, Minsk Medical Institute)
Gigiena i Sanitariya 22, No.9, 9-14 (1951)
Atmospheric air of large industrial cities suffers of considerable loss
in ultraviolet radiation as the result of air pollution by discharges emitted
by industrial production and manufacturing plants. According to some authors
loss in ultraviolet radiation may range between 15 - 40% (N. F. Galanin, N. M.
Danzig, Z. N. Kulichkova and others). We made observations from March through.
October, 1956. Our results indicated that the loss in ultraviolet radiation
in Minsk ranged between 1 - 25%.
It has been reliably established that the intensity of solar radiation
near the surface of the earth changes with the seasons of the year; during the
fall and winter" months the biologically active ultraviolet rays are either of
very low intensity or they may be entirely absent from the solar spectrum;
this should be given serious consideration since such r;qs are intimately as-
sociated with the synthesis of vitamin D in the organism. Some authors oboe
served t.he occurrence of so-called light hunger during the fall and winter
months.
Below are presented results of biochemical blood studies on experimental
animals, the pictures of which reflect the state of mineral metabolism during
the different seasons of the year; results of similar character are. presented
showing, on a comparative basis, differences in blood pictures of animals kept
within city sections which suffer loss in U-V radiation and in suburbs, where
the loss of solar radiation is assumed to be at a m1~im~. Evidence presented
in the literature indicates that rickets can be produced easily in young pups;
for this reason we used young pups as our experimental animals. Activity of
. .
alkalinephosphot~se and the content of inorganic P and Ca in the blood are
used as biological indicators.
Experiments were initiated October 10, 1955 with 6 pups four weeks old.
Their normal mineral metabolic character1stic~ were established first. Up to
the. onset of oooler weather (Nov. 20, 1955) the pups were kept out in the open
during the day, and in the vivarium during the night. Blood studies were begun
-111-
-------
Sept. 4, 1955, when the pups reached the age .of 8 months; such studies were
made every 14 days up to April 16, 1956. The pups were kept under experi-
mentation for a period of 6 months, the greater part of which coincided with
the season of prevailing "light hunger" or U-V rad1stion insuffioienc,y. Pups
were kept on the usual normal diet. The, results of the biochemical blood
studies are presented in Table 1, and the averages are presented graphically
in Fig. 1.
Table 1 and Fig. 1 show that during the initial stages of
the experiments, when the pups were kept in the yard and were exposed to the
U-V (solar) radiation the activity of the alkaline phosphotase and
the inorganic P of the blood retained their physiologically nOrmal levels
while the blood Oa was comparatively low (6.8 - 9.2 mg%). :Beginning with.
the latter part of November, when the pups were deprived of the beneficial
effects of solar radiation, the blood chemistry manifested disturbances in
the mineral metabolism paralleled D.f an increase in the activity of the alka-
line phosphotase and a reduction in the blood content of inorganic P. :By the
middle of December the intensity of such metabolic changes rose considerably:
the activity of the alkaline phosphotase continued to rise and the inorganic
o P fell to 3.7 - 2. 7~. The blood Oa continued to rise reaching-,lO.4 - 12.5
~ and thereafter remained at 9.3 - 11.2 l!I(!$. During this period the rate 0
of 0 growth and gain in weight of the experimental animals was arrested and in
some instances losses occurred in both.
The disturbances in the mineral metabolism observed in the pups can be
explained b.1 the fact that the animals were deprived of the beneficial ef-
fects of solar radiation which is intimately connected with the process of
vitamin D synthesis in the organism. This assumption was verified by the
following: on Dec. 20, 1955 we supplemented the pups daily diet with 3 ml
of vitaminized fish oil per pup (1 ml of the fish oil contBtined 4000 IU of
vitamin A and 200 IU of vi tamin D); after a comparatively short time the
symptoms of mineral metabolic disturbances disappeared.c~mpletely. The level
of inorganic P began to rise, but the activity of alkaline phosphotase re-
o mained at the higher level for a time. The animals began to gain weight.
A. P. Parfenov, A. P. Zabalueva, T. A. Sviderskaya and others are of the opin-
ion that a rise in alkaline phosphotase activity is the first symptom of dis-
turbed mineral metabolism of the living organism. This is followed by a fall
in inorganic blood P; in grave instances of rickets tissue complications and
-112-
-------
a lowering in the blood content of Ca ~ also appear. The blood PiCa ratio
may become altered. Most frequently, however, the blood Ca retains its nor-
mal level or it 'may fall to the lower limit of the normal range, while the
content of the inorganic blood P becomes sharply lowered, as was shown by
E. S. London, S. Ya. Kaplanskii and others. During the recovery period the
inorganic P was the first to return to its normal level; this was followed by
. . . I
a gradual return to normal activity of alkaline phosphotase. At the present
most of the authors regard changes in the activity of alkaline phosphotase
alone as the cardinal symptom of developing rickets due to lack of solar ra-
diation.
After return of the normal state in the experimental animals, asevi
denced by a rapid rise in the level of inorganic blood P and a fall in the
activity of alkaline phosphotase (on Jan. 16, 1956), the vitaminized fish oil
supplement was discontinued. Following _this and Up to the onset. of warm
spring weather, when the pups were again kept in the open yard during the day
and were receiving the benefit of solar radiation, no inorganic metabolic
changes were observed in the experimental pups, a possible indication of vi-
tamin insufficiency. Evidence has been presented in the literature indicating
. .
that vitamin D may be stored in the organism. It can be assumed that the
daily supplement of 3 ml of vitaminized fish oil may have provided a sufficient
amount of stored-up vitamin D preventing the appearance of rickets (distur-
bances ~n inorganic metabolism) during the period preceding spring when the
pups were kept indoors and were, thus, deprived of the beneficial effects of
. .
natural U-V radiation.
The secQnd series of experiments was carried out as follows: six pups,
born from the same mother and six months of age, were divided into three groups
of two. Two groups were experimental and one a control group. Of the two
groups one wac kept in the Medical Institute located in the city of Minsk and
the other was transported to a suburban location known as Veselovska. The ob-
servations were cuntinued over 14 weeks, from June 3 to Nov. 9th of 1956. An-
imals of both groups were kept in dark rooms with the exception of one hour
daily when they were promenaded in the open yard. In addition animals of both
experimental groups were kept on a rickets producing diet proposed by Mel1anby
and described by Mikhlin. Every two weeks the animals were weighed. The
amount of U-V radiation received by the animals of either of the experimental
-113-
-------
groups was determined by the oxalic acid method. Daily loss in U-V radiation
in the city, as compared with the radiation in the suburban location, ranged
between 1.2 - 18%. The control pups were kept on a normal diet and during'
the day were in the open yard exposed to the effects of solar U-V radiation.
Two weeks after the initiation of the experiments results of blood studies
showed that the increase in the activity of the alkaline phosphotase of the
blood of the pups kept on the rickets producing diet in the city as well as
in the suburban location rose to some extent; there was a tendency on the
part of the city-kept experimental pups to manifest a lowering in the level
of the inorganic P of the blood as compared with that of pups kept in the
suburban locality, as can be seen from Table 2.
As time advanced, this tendency further increased and the increase in
the activity of the alkaline phosphotaso further progressed. Shifts, such
as previously described, also occurred in the levels of inorganic blood P
and Ca. At the end of the tenth week of experimentation differences in the
changes in inorganic metabolism of the two groups of pups became markedly
manifest reflecting the differences in the environmental conditions in which
the two sets of pups were kept, so far as the degree of available U-V solar
radiation was concerned. Analysis of the data obtained with the two sets of
experimental pups and a stu~ of the roentgenogram of their bones indicated
that the same processes of inorganic metabolic disturbances developed in both
sets of experimental pups, but at a considerably lower rate in the pups kept
in the suburban locality than in the pups kept in the Medical Institute in
the city; the intensity of the symptoms of developing rickets was also of a
lesser magnitude.
Conclusions.
1. During the fall and winter months (season of light hunger) pups kept
under observation showed signs of disturbed inorganic (mineral) metabolism;
this was expressed in the form'of increased activity of alkaline phosphotase
and a lowering in the blood level of inorganic P.
2. The loss of solar U-V radiation in Minsk resulting from atmospherio
pollution must not be regarded with indifference; under certain conditions
such loss in the natural solar U-V radiation may cause disturbed mineral me-
tabolism in the inhabitants.
-114-
-------
Tab l. l.
Content ot alk. phosphotase, inorganic P and Ca in the blood
ot experimental puppies during the Fall-Winter-Spring months
.Pu \ Blood. anal7ses results
PP7 - 19,)=, r'.1 19.'16;--
_labeled 14/XI I ~~XI 113,'Xlli 26/X11I 9/1 \23/1 16/11 I ~?O/1I15/11J :19/11112/IV 116/IV
t7 in U/ml
R-
Alk. Phosphotase &Ctivi
56 67 67 125 1125 1:$3 83
45 56 83 150 187 125 ICO
4, 45 83 150 11:10 1\10 100
45 56 67 100 1':0 I 67 I 83
I 12,')
56 67 100 125 83 83
- 56 8'J i2S!ICO 8:3 83
67 67 56 56 4,)
83 83 67 56 56
67 56 56 56 56
67 56 56 - 67 67
67 67 56 56 56
67 67 56 56 56
Zh-
T-
D-
A-
P-
R- 5.1 4,8 I 3,1 4.2 4,5 ! 5,6 i 5.J I 5.4 i S,,31 5' 4.8 5,2
Zh-- 5 3,8 2,7 3,7 4,6 5,8 I 5,3 5.'2 4.9! 4,6 <4 3,9
I
T - 5,2 3,5 2,9 3,6 5 5 .5,2 5 4,8 4,8 4,:' 4,1
D~ 5,2 3,9 3,7 4,1 5 5,.5 5,4 52 4.8 4,9 4,5 4,3
A- 5,7 4,3 3,5 5,5 4,9 5,8 5,7 5.2 5,1 4,9 .,7 4,3
P- - 4,3 3,1 4,7 4,6 5.3 4,9 4,9 4,4 4,2 4,3 4
Ca in m6
R- - 7,6 8,5 I 11.2 10.2 9,6 ill, t I 9..'j i 10,5 ! 10,5 11.6 ] 1.2
" ,I
Zh --- - 7,7 9,6 10,4 10,4 10,4 110,9 9..5 110,2 10,1 10.6 10,1
T- 7,6 I
- 9,1 12,5 11,6 11,2 10.3 1O,5! 10,4 10.5 11,0 10,4
D- - 8.4 10,1 11,6 13,,5 11,7 10,6 10,9 9,6 9.9 10,1 9,6
A -....-. - 0,8 9,,1 8,8 10,9 10,6 111,2 9,1 9,3 10,5 10,5 9,8
P- - 9,2 9.9 11,7 11.2 10.8 10,7 9,3 9,5 10,5 11,4 10,6
Inorganic blood P in llJffI,
-_115-
-------
--
T ab 1 e 2.
Biochemical ana~ses of blood of puppies kept under different
natural u-v radiation intensities in city and suburban sections.
,J'upp1es group Results of blood S88
19f16 r.
and ~ 17/Vul 31/V1I1 14/Vl/I 28/VIlI lIt/IX I 25/IX I
label 9/X
EEptl. Group 1 Allt. phosphotase ac,,1V1ty 1n U/ml
Inst. of lied.
Bo.. . . . . . . .tA> f7 125 183 ISO 150 125 126
Ro .~ . . . . . . 45 07. 100 15"1 12.5 l!iO 125 100
Exptl. Group 2 : I::
Veselovk:a
.Sh . ... . ... . 45. 56 125 150 125 100
Ba , . . . . . . 5($ .67. Iro 125 175 100
Control GroUp I
Po. ... . . . . 56 56 67 56 56 67 67 I 67
JIu ... . . . . . 67 67 81 67 81 8.1 ft1 67
~tl. Group 1 Inorganic phosphorus 1n JIJIt11
Inst. of J4ed.
:i,6 5,3 5,0 3,9 &,8 4,3 4,9 4,8
5.2 5,1 4,8 4,3 4,6 4,5 4.8 I 5.1
. . . . :i,2 ..6.. 5,3 4,8 5 4,3 4,9 5.1
.Ba . , . . . . . S,S 5.1 6,4 5,2 ~,'l 4,8 .4,7 4,9
Control group
Po . .. . . . . . 5,4 5,3 5,3 5,~ 5,4 5,7 5.2 5.1
lIu e. . . . . . . 4.2 4.4 4,9 .~,6 5,5 fi,3. 5,6 5,2
Exptl. Group 1 Calcium in md>
!net. of Ked.
Bo . . . . . . . It ,3 10,6 9,8 11,8 10,9 9,1 10,1 10,2
Ro ~ . . . . . 10,7 10,6 10.2 12,0 10,2 10,3 9,9. 10,7
I
Exptl. Group 2 I
V8selovka I
Sh . . . . . . . 1!1,9 10,8 111,0 11,2 10,8 11,3 10,2 9,8
. . . . . . . i 1,5 10,0 W,8 10,0 10,1 10,6 IP,5 !0.7
Control group
Po . . . . . . . 11,5 10,1 10,4 10,0 10,7 11,2 10:9 10,6
JIu. . . . . . . IO,~ 10,<4 10,8 9.9 10.7 9,8 10,8 10,5
-116-
-------
A
oS.
IDID
02' .
ae...,~, 0,
.lJD lJ
Iro 12
110 11 ./,
IOIJ 10. 10
-gO .9 .9
40 v 8
70 7 7
GO b G
fO 5' of
40 # #
JD J
ro 2
rl
i - \
i/r'" ....,....-- .' ,I~%J
I " ~", ~-- ........ 1
,- -...
/. .
/ I L.""""\ -
/j ~
1 / ,~
i .\~
/' ,~-
.~~
. ~ "'-.:. "q('~-J
/./ ~ -'-'- 2
. (Dr ,"'Z %)
#
J
J
2
~ Rations supplemented with
~,fiBh oil 20/XII - 16/1
4/%1 JOi,XIIJ/lf1l i'GI-¥1I .911 2311 Gill i'tll/I 5/U/ /.9/1/ 211Y lollY
Dates of blood ana~s.s
. . . " . . .
. ,
Average values of biochemical blood studies
1 - Ca in JlJltl,J 2 - alk. phosphotase in U/ml '
3 - insol. P in ~.
----
, -117-
-------
The Effect of Smoke Emission Purification on Air Dust
Concentration of a Large City.
F. I. Dubrovskaya.
From the F. F. Erisman Scientific-Research Institute of Sanitation
and ~giene of the R.S.F.S.R. Ministry of Health.
Gigiena i Sanitariya,23, No.1, 1958, pp. 69-71.
Over a period 'of several years the above Institute studied the pollu-
tion of Moscow air. The accumulated data presented the opportunity to
determine the changes in air pollution intensity which resulted from the in-
troduction of means for the prevention of pollution of the atmospheric air
of inhabited areas. One of the basic measures was an official mandatory re-
quirement that fly ash be removed from smoke gases emitted by electric power
and heating plants and b,y boiler operated manufact~ring and production in-
dustries.
According to the available information ash-catching installations had
not been in operation in the Moscow electric power and heat plants during
1947 - 1948. Such installations were introduced into most of the electric
plants beginning January of 1949. At the same time ash-catching equipment
was installed in some boiler operated industrial production and manufacturing
establishments. During 1950 - 1951 similar ash-catching equipment was in-
stalled and operated in many other boiler operated manufacturing industries.
In 1948 the above named Institute studied some of the most frequently
o~curring atmospheric air pollutants, including dust. Up to 1952 the work
was done by a brigade consisting of B. P. Gurinov, F. I. Dubrovskaya, R. Ia.
Samorodina, and since 1953- M. K. Kharakhinov and V. A~ Khrustaleva. Air
dust samples were collected b,y the aspiration method at several established
points which were equipped with aspiration apparatus consisting of an alter-
natingelectric motor of 0.25 - 0.5 kw, an air blower, flow meter and an ash-
free filter of 50 rom in diameter housed in a special container. Samples were
collected at 4 open air points located in the center of the city, in the
I
.South-Side and South-Eastern residential sections and in the industrial sec-
tion. No sources of air pollution were located within the immediate proxim-
ity of the collection points.
During 1948 - 1956 16,136 air samples were collected at all the col1ec- .
-118-
-------
tion points: 5,882 at the
idential section, 3,831 at
at t~e industrial section.
The nature of air dust pollution as indicated by average yearly concen-
trations, is presented in Graph 1. It can be seen that the highest index of
air dust pollution in the center of the city, in the South-Side residential
section and in the industrial section was found in 1948, when in most of the
electro-centers and in the industrial manufacturing establishments the ash-
catching installations had not been operating. In 1949, when such installa-
tions began to function, the air dust concentration became considerably re-
duced. The indexes of air dust pollution were even more drastically reduced
in the center of the city and in the South-Side residential section. In 1951
the indexes of air dust pollution rose as the result of increase in the power
output of some electric heat and power plants, increase in the general fuel
consumption and also due to the unsatisfactory and irregular operation of the
ash-catching installations which was detected by special inspection. After
1951 there appeared a tendency to reduction in the air dust pollution indexes,
especially in 1956..
Analyzing the indexes of air dust pol~ltion on the basis of total aver-
ages of the entire period of observation in relation to cold (heat-using
months) and warm (no heat-requiring months) seasons of the year, it appeared
that, as a general rule, the air dust conoentration over the city was greater
during the cold than during the warm seasons of the year, as can be seen from
Graph 2. The blocks shown in Graph 2 depict the following: 9-year ave~ages
for the center of the city; 2-year averages for the industrial section and
7-year averages for the South-Side residential section. The seasonal varia-
tions of air dust concentrations depended upon the amount of fuel consumed.
Thus, if the fuel consumed in the winter months be taken as 100%, then its
use during the summer months varied between 45% in 1950 and 62.% in 1949.
A comparison of the data under stu~ with the value representing the
. .
limit of allowable concentration of dust in the atmospheric air of inhabited
center of the city, 5,109 at the South-Side res-
the South~Eastern residential section and 1,314
localities shows that in most of the samples studied the dust concentration
exceeded the maximal single limit of allowable dust concentration of 0.5
. mg/m3, indicating that even in the face of considerable attainment in the
-119-
-------
fight against atmospheric air pollution in Moscow the condition of the air
with regard to dust concentration failed to come up to the official sani-
tary requirement. All this points to the need of introducing furthersani-
tary improvements for the combat against city air pollution by smoke.
Conclusions.
For further reduction in the city air dust concentration the following
measures must be put into practice:
1. Further extension of thermofication of the city and a corresponding
liquidation of the numerous small boiler-operated heating plants, and the
construction of additional new electric heat and power plants outside the
city limits.
2. Gasification of boiler operated electro-centers and industrial pro-
duction and manufacturing enterprises.
3. Until such time as above measures will have been adopted, especially
those related to the gasification of the boiler-operated plants, the latter
should be supplied with fuel of low ash content, and effectively operating
ash-catching apparatus should be installed and kept in efficient operation.
4. Electrification of the rail-way transportation system is recom-
mended.
-120-
-------
1,11
Center of City
South-East Re8idential
Section
U,29 tJ,17
tl!.J 1l,!1 0,2/J
U,1,f
D,U Il,tf 0.... o,tt
0,.11 '
Plt!
"
I~.i 1.:l~.5' 1.J.f,,' IF! '-Q.'.: 1.i5.1 l.1.ft 1~51.5'j5
.
1~5Q Inl {.15! I.5'H I.JJ~ :.?f" f~.f5
Industrial Section
South Side Re8idential
Section.
c,n;
11.""
l1.U
Il,Jt
I~I I.'I.~ 1#1l1~.f1 IflL 1.9.1.1 I~.f~ 115.f 1.9.55
/fl8 I.9M
Graph 1. Pollution of Atm!spheric Air
wi th Dw1t in mg/JI. .
..~S?
,.
M
OJ?
~ m o.J8
hILi U
Ci t;y Ind. Sectn 5-E R So. Resid. Aver&88
Center of All.
c::::I Cold Season C!ID. Warm Season
Graph 2. Pollution of Air with Dust in mg/)!3
During Cold and Warm Seasons of the Year
-121-
-------
The Toxicity of Titanium Tetrachloride.
E. A. Meltnikova.
First Moscow Order of Lenin I. M. Sechenov Medical Institute.
(Gigiena i Sanitariya 23, No.5, Pp. 27-31, 1958).
Titanium tetrachloride is used in industry as a primary or intermedi-
ate substance in the preparation of pure metallic titanium or its compounds
which are used as dyes or mordants. Titanium is used in the preparation of
iron-titanium alloys known as ferrotitanium or ferrocarbotitanium. Ferro-
titanium enhances the homogeneity of metallic alloys, increases their abra-
sion and impact resistance; it is employed in the preparation of tool and
instrument-making steel, crucible steel, automobile and other high quality
steel (according to V. S. Syrokomskii). Pure metallic titanium powder is
used in the preparation of alloys in the powder industry.
The basic method of metallic titanium preparation consists in heating
titanium tetrachloride to red heat under pressure in the presence of metal-
lic sodium. The titanium tetrachloride used in this reaction is obtained by
the proces's of rutile (Ti02) chlorination. The titanium tetrachloride is
conveyed from reactor to reactor via pipe lines. Titanium tetrachloride is
highly active chemically and rapidly corrodes the conduit pipes especially
at the joints and vents; this destroys the impermeability of the pipe lines
and permits the escape of titanium tetrac~loride vapo~ into the air of the
industrial establishment.
Titanium tetrachloride is a transparent colorless liquid having a vapor
tension of 10.05 rom mercury at 20 degrees. It is easily hydrolyzed in humid
air forming a highly dispersed smoke consisting of a mi~ure of aerosol of
titanium hydrate and vapors of HCI. TiC14 undergoes violent hydrolysis in
water whioh can be represented by the following series of reactions:
TiC14.5H2 ~ C13(OH).4H20 + HCl~TiCI2.3H20 +
HCI~TiCI(OH)3.2H20 + HCl~ Ti(OH)4°H20 + Rci
The reaction progresses rapidly at high temperature, but at low temperature
the formation of intermediate products may take place. The reaction pro-
ceeds to completion in the presence of an excess of water forming colloidal
-122-
-------
or~ho~itanic acid (Ti(OH)4H20]. According to G. P. Luchinskii, of all the
in~ermediate compounds of hydrolysis TiCI(OH)3'2H20 is the most resistant ~o
the effects of water. There exists no definite .and speoific information rel-
ative to the toxioityof titanium tetraohloride. TiC14 is used in smoke mak-
ing beoause it is regarded as a producer of neutral smoke, one which is free,
from suffocating, toxic or irritating properties (according to F. I. Vanin).
According to F. Fl~ury and F. Zernik the toxicity of TiCl4 smoke or fog (aer-
osol) is very sligh~, being equivalent to the toxicity of its HCI content.
The use of titanium tetrachloride in industry is constantly increasing
and, as was previous~ indicated, possibilities of its exit into the air of
,
industrial.ork-rooms can not be excluded. Therefore, it was felt that more
precise information conoerning,the toxicity of '1'iC14 might prove helpful in
the determination or ~he limit of its allowable concentration in the air of
metallurgical and other working premises. Previous investigation indicated
that the toxic effeot of titanium tetrachloride was defined by its property
to,hydrolyse to HCI. With this assumption in mind, our study was of the na-
ture of a comparative investtgation. We compared the toxicity of HCI in
~ na~cendi wi~h ~he toxioity of the aerosol 'formed by TiCl4in the proc-
ess of its hydrolysis.
Experiments were performed with micet test animals were placed into a
chamber of 12liter oapacity and exposed to the aotion of HCI obtained from
NaCl heated in strong H2S04' the HCl was introduced into the exposure cham-
ber a~ the moment of its formation through a special opening in the chamber
wa11. Doses of nascent HCI were controlled according to B. V. Nekrasov by
regulating the quantity of reactive H2S04 andb,y the reaction time. Vapori-
zation of titanium tetrachloride in the exposure chamber was attained b,y
plaoing some of the liquid into a suspended Petri dish and by the action of a
rotating fan. The ooncentrations of the HCI and Ti were determined at the
beginning ot the exposure and one hour later. HCI was determined nephelomet-
rically and titanium b.1 the colorimetric method proposed by M. V. Nifontova
. .
of the Moscow Regional Soientific-Research Hygienic Institute. The principle
of the method is based on the reaction betweenTi and H202 in the presence of
H2S04' which results in the formation of(~T102(S04)]2)' a compound which
impa.rts to the solution a color ranging from light yellow to orange. The
. .
sample is collected b,y aspirating the air through a battery of three conseo-
-123-
-------
r-
. utively installed Petri aspirators containing 10 ml of 5% solution of H2S04
each. The standard so1utiQn~f. Ti was prepared as follows: 0.01 g of powder
of pure metallic Ti was dissolved in 10 ml of concentrated H2S04; this was
carefully stirred'by a 81ass rod and 5 ml of water added; bubbles of H appear.
If the rate of H formation is judged to be too slow the solution should be
heated on an electric plate; this must be done with proper caution, since
the H may explode. The final clear solution was transferred into a 100 m1
volumetric flask. The final standard solution should contain 0.1 mg of Ti
per mI.
The hydrolytic properties of pure and technical titanium tetrachloride
were first tested in desiccators. The HCl concentration was the same in sam-
ples collected from either type of the titanium compounds. However, pure ti-
tanium tetrachloride was used in the toxicity studies. It should be noted
that the introduction into the exposure chamber of the same ~uantities of
TiC14 did not always result in the same either titanium or HCl concentration
in the air which may have been due to the different degrees of air moisture
in the chambers on different exposure days. Bringing the test animals into
the exposure chambers increased the air moisture, and the concentration of
the Ti and HCl fell at a relatively rapid rate. Within approximately 20
minutes the precipitation of the aerosol and its formation into a gel became
visible, and after one hour the concentration of the two substances in the
air became reduced 8 - 15 times. The fall in the HCI concentration occurred
whether it was introduced in the form of pure gas or formed as the result of
titanium tetrachloride hydrolysis; this m~ have been due to the fact that a
part of the HC1 gas dissolved in the air moisture and condensed upon the ex-
p08ure chamber walls.
Mekla and his coworkers found that exposure to HCI concentration of 6.4
mg for 30 minutes (It does not s~ so, but I (BSL) assume it to mean per li-
ter) caused rapid death, and exposure to a concentration of 5 mg/l for 90 min-
utes resulted in death within 2 - 6 days (as cited by N. V. Lazarev). We used
0.4 ml of TiC14which in the exposure chamber of lQO 1 generated an HCl con-
centration of 6 mg/l. Concentrations of pure HCl were attained emperically
and corresponded approximately to the ~uantities of HCl formed in the bydoly-
. .
sis of the quantity of TiC14used. Six concentrations of TiC14 and corre-
spondingly six concentrations of pure HCl were used in our exposure tests.
The results of preliminary tests indicated that the degree of toxicity of
-124-
-------
HOI and equivalent quantities of Ti014 was not of the same magnitude. Data
presented in the following Table clearly indicate that the number of deaths
was greater among the animals exposed 'to the ROI resulting from Ti014bydro-
lysis than among the animals exposed to equivalent concentrations of pure HOI.
Autopsies showed lung edemas in the animals ;expo~ed to either of the HOI va-
pors. Microscopic examination showed the lungs to have a pasty appearance,
a rose or reddish-green color and punctate surface hemorrhages. Incision and
pressure of the lungs forced out a foam~ng clear fluid. The lung edges
showed signs of emphysema.
A second series of experiments presented supplemental evidence of greater
toxicity of Ti014. This series of tests was designed to establish the degree
of lung edemas which either of the substances could produce. For this purpose
the degree of edema developed was based_Qn the magnitude of the lung coeffi-
cient determined according to the following formula:
K = Wt of lung in g
Wt of body in g
In 10 control animals (not exposed to the effects of Ti014) the value of X
ranged between 0.018 and 0.023, the latter appeared in only three of the con-
trol mice.
Two groups of mice were exposed for one hour to the 0.18mg/l of pu~e
HOI and HOI resulting from Ti014 hydrolysis. Animals were sacrificed at once
and their lungs examined. Results showed development of lung edeams only in
those mice which were exposed to the effects of hydrolyzed Ti014. The lung
coefficient (X) of 4 of 10 mice so exposed was 0.023 and in 2it was 0.027.
Among the mice'exposed to the pure HOI lung coefficients above 0.023 did not
occur either at 0.18 or at 0.56 mg/l (The text has it 0.056 mg/l, but this i8
definitely an erratum BSL).
What, then, is the cause of the greater toxicity of TiOI4? In our opinion
the answer is to be"found in the physico-chemical state of the active sub-
stance. It does appear probable that HClconst1tutes the active principle in
both cases. The orthotitan!cacid resulting from the process of TiCI4' hydro-,
lysis is a weak acid; the HCl, on the other hand, becoming dissolved in the
fluid of the mucosa of the respiratory tract forms strong HOI. It can also be
. .
assumed that the physico-chemical state of the aerosol formed frOm the Ti014
acts upon the organism in a manner which renders the organism more susceptible
or sensitive to the normally deleterious effects of HOI. Consideration should
-125-
-------
be given to the possibility of hydrated particulate matter adsorbing the gas-
eous HCI and, upon their being inhaled, carrying the HCl into the deeper lung
tissues. Upon permeating into the lung alveoli such titanium hydrated parti-
oles continue to become hydrolyzed down to the stage of orthotitanic aoid
. .
while in intimate contact with the lung tissue, thus oreating possibilities
for the additional effeot of HCl on the deeper lung tissues.
Conolusions.
io The toxic effect of titanium tetrachloride is determined by its prop-
erty to form HCl (gas) which under specially developing sets of physico-chem-
ical conditions is able to permeate into and act upon the deeper lung tissues.
2. Results of the study showed that the formed Tiaerosol possessed more
intensive toxic properties than pure HCI. Accordingly the limit of allowable
concentration of HCI formed as a result of TiC14 hydrolysis should be set at a
level below the one adopted for pure HCI.
3. Appropriate studies should be made for the scientific determination
. of the limit of allowable ooncentrations of TiC14 in the air of pertinent in-
dustrial premises.
Literature cited.
Vanin, F. I. - War Smokes, Moscow-Leningrad, 1935. Veits~r, Yu. I. and
Luchinskii, G. P. - The Chemistry and Physics of Masking Smokes, Moscow-Lenin-
grad, 1941. Luchinskii, G. P. - TitaniUm Tetrachloride, Moscow and Leningrad,
1939. Same author - The Chemistry of Titanium, Moscow-Leningrad, 1941.
Syrokomskii, V. S. in book: Titanium and Its Compounds, Leningrad, 1926, Vol.
1, '16-109. Flury, F. and Zernik, F. - Sch~dliche Gase, Berlin, 1931.
-126-
-------
COffi.parativetoxicitl of titanium tet~~chl~ide aerosol with ~droohlorioga8.
k i~ mg/l 6. d~~t&' 2\' .q No of
Conon. ~ ,q
0 I ID ~ID .0 ~o f~ ID .. d~~~~~-. .olD
~f1 CD ID ~CD CDID r-t First signs lM:g' i:
First signs. or-t.
~r-i ~ CD CD i! ~W PI i~ H''d I CD CD-
of ~~ :!fl. ~~ of n .,ql ~k k
r-t~ ~ ~ Ci" ~. ~$~"
TI HCI poisoning ~~ 'rilD 5 poisoning ID(I) elD
o k kO. .~o m .!:t.~ T kO ~ ~ CJ]r-t
.ri .~~ ~~ . [J)-4 8.~ c+
,8 ~. ,~. IZt a~ CD
.. c::t--'
-
o I
0,4 0,84-0,04 6,0-0,08 k 5 3 5 .- 3-0,18 5 12 5
F+ri ID - .:~ I - -
0,2 0,3-,-0,03 0,24-0,24 ft.4CDPt ~s:: 5 3 4 .- I 1-0,12 ID CD I.~ 5 24 - 5 "'-
0,15 0,24-0.02 O,IS-O,OI ..Q.~ ~ ~.~ 5 3 2 I 2 0,54-0,06 S::.ri k IDlk 5 24 - 4 I
OlD ~.
0,1 0,2-0;018 O,OS-O,OI S::::S O,s::j.p 5 15 I I 3 O,II~O,036 ..-IoS:: 5 - 5
o ~~ ~ k ~ ,CD - -
0,07 O,I5-,-Q,OI 0,07-0,005 .ri'd o.IXI ~k 5 35 I I 3 0,24-0.03 as () ID..-: () 5 - - I 4
~~IJ)-t~ ~CDO~S::
0,05 0,09-0,006 0,06:-0,012 as ~s:: 5 - - - 5 O,05-,-Q,OI2 ....s:: () 0 5 - ~ -. 5
~ CD ~ ~'rit() !
.ri as ~ ' 0,06-0,03 ~ r-t 5 24 - I 4
. t.>1D s:: .riO IDa
ri!DO 0 ~ .
.~~.a() r-ti"O'diJS
. () PtaS CD ~s:: ~
~9 CDlilk >....s::
.S::OCD
~
r-tOCD~
rJ)()~ .
..-100 ~
~p".fIDJfH
. () ~ ID+>' 0
S::Q)aSCD~,
::s,q~ c ID
'~..-IW~:S::
C k ID CD:O
OOkCDS::..-I
o..-..-Ir-t ~
-127-
-------
Toxicity of Dimethylformamide.
K. p. Lobanova.
(In~titute of Labor Hygiene and Occupational Diseases,
Acad. Med. Sci., U.S.S.R.) .
(Gigiena iSanitariya 23, No.5, 31-1, 1958.)
Dimethylformamide is used as a solvent of acrylonitrile, a product of
importance ih the manufacture of synthetic "nitron" fibers, a phase of our
production industr,y which has prospects of future growth.
A review of the literature showed that our knowledge concerning the
toxicity of dimethylformamide was limited. We are cognizant of one report
published by Massmann in 1956 after our work was completed. The results of
Massmann's experiments indicated that dimethylformamide permeated intact
animal skin and that it was only weakly active; it was eliminated from the
animal organism ~ the urine in its original form; rats exposed to vapor
of dimethylformamide in concentrations of 0.2, 0.6 and 1.2 mg/l for long
periods of time manifested no signs of intoxication; autopsy of dead animals
showed substantial changes in the parenchymateous o.~gans in the form of fatty
~egeneration of the liver and kidneys, accompanied by widespread foci of ne-
crosis. Dimethylformamide has the following formula: [(CH3)2NCOH], under
normal temperature conditions it is a colorless liquid having a specific odor,
sp. gr. of 0.96, boiling point of 1530 and vapor tension of 3.1 mm of mer-
cur,y; it is easily soluble in water, alcohol and in simple and compound es-
ters; its volatility is 48 ti~es below that of ethyl ether.
We exposed 115 white mice to the action of dimethylformamide vapor for
periods of 2 hours at concentrations ranging from 2 to 14 mg/l. Surviving
test animals were kept under observation for 14 days. Test animals were
placed into an exposure chamber of 101 1 capacity. Air, saturated with di-
methylformamide vapor, entered the chamber as a continuous stream at a rate
calculated to maintain the desired 2 to 14 mg/l concentrations. Vapor con-
. . .
centrations ranging between 11 - 23 mg/l were attained by heating the test
liquid. An electrically operated air mixer insured homogeneity of vapor
dis~ribution. Actual concentrations of vapor of dimethylformamide in the
exposure chamber air were determined by the analytical method of M. D. Babina
. .
and G. S. Pavlovskaya of the Institute of Labor Hygiene and Occupational Dis-
-126-
-------
eases of the Acad. Med. Sci., U.S.S.R.
The results presented in the following Table show that 23 mg/l of di-
methylfo~amide was lethal, 9.4 - 6.0 mg/l concentrations were medium lethal,
and 2 mg/l was the tolerance concentration.
Mortality among white mice exposed for two hours to the effect
of.dimethylfo~~ide vapors at indic~~ed concentrations.
C;~'cn' (]),.O Number of deaths after x days I ..----
m~il ~g I I 2 I 3 I 4 I 51 6 , 7 I 8 I 9 ! 10 III I. ~~:dl
: I ~ : ; I 2 - 1:1= =1=1
I ~ ; 2 2 . -; =.1=
1= ~I=I~
! I
23
17
14
12
9,4
6
2
20
20
10
10
15
20
2Q .
=1-
I
20
16
6
6
7
2
o
10
Exposure of the animals to concentrations below 6 mg/l produced irri-
tation of the mucous membranes of the eyes and nose. Exposure to concentra-
tions above 6 mg/l produced, in addition, motor stimulation which gradually
turned into motor depression. Following one hour exposure the body tempera-
ture of the animals fell by 2 - 3 degrees. No deaths were observed follo~ing
2 hours of exposure. Deaths occurred after 1 - 10 days exposure.
Dimethylformamide was administered intragastrically to 95 white mice.
The results showed that 5 g/kg constituted anabsoiute lethal dose, 3.7 g/kg
constituted a medium lethal dose, 1.25 g/kg a minimal lethal dose and 0.5
g/kg a maximal tolerance dose. The clinical'picture produced by the adminis-
tration of dimethylformamide intragastrically was practically identical with
the one produced by inhalation, but symptoms of toxicity appeared earlier
and death frequently set in before the oncome of convulsions. Autopsies per-
formed on animals which died from acute dimethylformamide intoxication showed
hyperemia of the internal organs and isolated foci of lung hemorrhages. Mi-
croscopic examination showed the presence of degenerative changes in the par-
enchymatous organs, multiple minor lung and brain hemorrhages, which were
more pronounced in the animals receiving the compound intr~gastrical]y (See
Fig. 1) .
-129-
-------
Fig. 1. Section of the liver of a mouse which died
six d~s after the intragastric administration of
5 g/kg of dimethylformamide. Extensive necrosis.
The method of conditioned reflex effects was used for the determination
of the compound's toxic threshold concentration and of the lower toxicity
parameter, using young growing rats. The development of the conditioned re-
flexes and the study of the effects elicited by the dimethylformamide were
carried out by the motor-nutritional chamber method of L. I. Kotlyarevskii.
The rats with the developed stereotypes were observed ar-d special character-
istics of their reflex behaviour. determined. They were then exposed once
for two hours to 1.1, 1.4, 1.2, and 0.8 mg/l concentrations of dimethylform-
amide vapor and changes in their reflex patterns noted and recorded. The
static method of exposure was used. As a result of the rats exposure to the
dimethylformamide vapor the constancy and firmness of the positive and nega-
tive conditioned reflexes had suffered some changes. Thus, immediately fol-
lowing exposure to 1.1 mg/l of dimethylformamide vapor the positive condi-
tioned reflexes in response to weak stimulation (light) fell out and the la-
tent period in the conditioned reflex response to the strong stimulus (bell)
was.delayed. The conditioned reflexes returned to their original intensities
after 30 - 50 days. A 1.4 mg/l concentration brought about analogous reflex
changes but of lesser intensity, and return to the original response magni-
tudes occurred between 15 - 20 days. Exposure to 1.2 mg/l concentration
brought about some lessening in the intensities of the positive conditioned
-130-
-------
reflexes and a disturbance in the process of differentiation in the rats of
the weaker type, with normalization occurring between 7 - 9 days. A concen-
tration of 0~8 mg/l elicited no changes i~ the conditioned reflex activity
of the rats.. On the basis of the above results it can be concluded that 1.2
mg/l concentration of dimethylformamide.can be regarded as the threshold
concentration, which upon a single exposure of experimental animals produced
slight and rapidly vanishing conditioned reflex disturbances.
The chronic effect of dimethylformamida was studied in two series of
experiments with young growing male rats weighing 90 - 120 g. Ten rats were
used in each experimental series. Rats of the first series were exposed to
0.3 - 0.5 mg/l ofdimathylformamida.and anima1sof'tha second series to 0.03 -
0.05 mg/l. The results are presented correspondingly in Graphs 2 and 3.
Rats were exposed to the dimethylformamide vapor for four hours daily
over a period of six months. Appearance and development of intoxication was
judged by such symptoms as loss, m~intenance or gain of weight, blood picture,
conditioned reflex activity, morphologic changes in the central nervous system
and internal organs, etc. Throughout the exposure animals of both series
appeared healthy and showed no signs of difference from the controls.
The
rats were active, ate well and gained weight. However, closer examination
of rats of the first series, exposed to 0.3 - 0.5 mg/l of dimethylformamide
vapor, indicated that shifts occurred in some of the indexes under obs~rva-
tion; at the end of the second month of exposu:-€ their CO'J.TRF. of reflex re-
action was altered; there appeared a delay and falling out of response to
posi tive stimulation following the application of differentiE..I stirrov.lation,
and later the differentiation reaction itself was disturbed. Continued ex-
posure deepened the changes in the conditioned reflex reactiOlls.
Towards the
end of the sixth month signs appeared of leveling and paradoxical phases.
At
the end of the third month of exposure the hemoglobin content became slightly
lowered and the number of leucocytes reduced.
All clinical and reflex changes followed a wave-like course, and the de-
gree and time of their appearance varied with typological characteristics of
the test a.nimals; changes in the indexes under observation appeared later and
were of'lesser magnitudes in r~ts of the strong and balanced neuro-pattern
than in those. of the weak type.
Return to normal was delRyed considerably in
the rats of the weak neuro-pattern as compared with the strong and balanced
-131-
-------
type.
On the basis of our observations it was concluded that functional
disturbances in the higher nervous activity of the rats indicate that di-
methylformamide affected the inner processes of arrest and inhibition caus-
ing the process to lose its high functional concentration, a disturbance
which radiated widely over the cerebral cortex. This arrest appeared to be
in the nature of a defense inhibition, which was affirmed by the appearance
of phase phenomena pointing to a transition from the state of wakefulness to
the state of somnolence.
No changes in the condHioned reflex activity were observed in the rats
of the second series, expose~ to 0.03 - 0.05 mg/l of dimethylformamide vapor,
nor were there any observable changes in their blood pictures.
At the termhJation of the vapor expos~re period and after records .were
made of pertinent observations; animals used in the chronic experiments were
sacrificed by cutting the spinal cord. Some rats of the first series were
killed immediately and some 3 - 4 weeks after the termination of the exposure
period; 3 - 4 weeks duration is the period of no~~alization of conditioned
reflex acti vi ty.
Histologic studies were made in the Patho-anatomic Department of the
Institute with the cooperation of Pr~fessors P. p. Dvizhkova and M. S.
Tolstaya.
No histologic changes were observed in the tissues of the internal
organs of the rats of either of the series. SUdes from the cerebral tis-
sues of rats of the first series, (those exposed to 0.3 - 0.5 mg/l concen-
trations), which were killed immediately after the termination of the ex-
posure showed changes in the cerebro-cortical interneuron connections, mani-
fested in the form of disappearance of the spinous protuberances and the
appearance of irregular beaded swelling of the upper dendrites (Fig. 4).
The dendrites of rats killed 3 - 4 weeks after exposure termination,
that is at the time of normalization of the conditioned reflex activity, were
covered by minute spinous protuberances in close arrangement to one another.
The protoplasmic protuberances of the cerebro-cortical nerve cells of rats of
this group in no way differed from the neura-cellular protuberances of the
control rats. The structure of the inter-neuron dendrite connections of the
first and second cerebro-cortical la.yers of the rats exposed to 0.03 - 0.05
mg/l of dire ethyl formam ide vapor remained free from pathologic effects. Thus,
the results of the studies point to an existing connection between the func-
tionaldisturbances of the higher nervous activity and the morphologic changes
-132-
-------
C11
:' I r
: ~~ .". ii:j f1
oM. :'~uQ[I. ii.IUD hli!3n~nlj
''8' 60th- ..... ..... ... .JL___,
OM ,- 16th-
H
Q) ,'01
Pe,
.p
s::
C1>
.p
cd
H
i~~nll ~. ..L.ndnn. ~
120th- ' B8th-155th- 1 63d'-day
.
'~i I~J n
J ~111r adllli
;
"r
3:
-
::~ n ,,!!
:1. riJI ".'1::
:?'---'-' : - -..:iI. ..!J1J
-- .-.--""- -- --
101
Jf
4f
7,
, I
7.
:'f.l r: l:1
.7' - ~IJJJ"~lIjJiJ
14 th-
.. --- "- --
14th-
Before exposure
~~~J.~.!I nu.
Exposure
~
Itlln-n~
46th-da.y
~n Inn
..L'd). ill.!
... _.~- -.--
- -28th-
n -'
~b!t~
35th-
~
~J !~!:1l.rl.. Ill:}
96th'
I ~
..~tnL!li
----- --
106th-day
After exposure
IL f]n I
mll-'r.1£ln
-----..-LL -. . m'
19th-
~~ny_~~ .~.~~
24th 28th-day
!; .1
IE!
!:.12
Fig. 2. Graphic presentation of the state of conditioned reflex
activity of rat No.5 (of strong and balanced type) after chron-
ic exposure to 0.3 - 0.5 mg/l concentrations of dimethylformamide.
Blocks extending below the hOrizontal line indicate the ab-
sence of motor reactionso
is
in the ce:::-ebro-cortical interneuron connections.
In this connection attention
called again to the previously described disappearance, during the period
of conditioned reflex normalization, of the interneuron connection changes
which became manifest at the time of the diHturb&nce in the conditioned reflex
activity of the experjmental rats.
E&sed on the reGults obtained with the chronic exposure tests, 0.03 - 0.05
mg/l (If dimethylformamide vapor are regarded as threshold concentrations
of prolonged exposu:::-e to such vapor, since changes brought about by such con-
-133-
-------
,----
ilJt~ ~~:~;o.ure
I
'I
IQ ; I Exposure
11l..llHyJ~ ~~ ~~~~ ~
IQ 14th- 28th- 35ih- 46th-day
J:1
oM
o-d Jl
o ..l
J'
i1~
~ . -
J:1 60th-
Q)
~ ,t
H 4f . .-.
J~~I[M ~~'~Dn wJbjj] ~!ntlJl~
120th- i38th- 155th- 163d-day
n
~ ~ dlllllU~
76th- 96th- 106th-dAy
J'
J, .. "j
If g IlW
;.~~
14th-
After exposure
~~J. ~gJ}_ll~_~ Itfl.n~~~
19th- 24th- 2Bth-daY
..' ~
81
sz
Fig. 30 Conditioned reflexes of rat no. 1 (of weak type)
after prolonged (chronic) exposure to 0.03 - 0.05
mg/l of dimetbylformamide.
centrntions, whether functional or morphological, were reversible (complete
nonnalization), and vapor concentrations below 0.3 - 0.5 mg/l produced no
functional or morphological changes; this was particularly true of 0.03 - 0.05
mg/l concentrations.
The effect of dimethylformamide on the mucous meGlbrane of the eye was
studied in four rabbits. Tests were made with undiluted dimethylformamide and
with 25, 50 and 75% dilutions. One drop of the fluid was in!roduced into the
conjunctiv~l sac. The undiluted reagent produced a slight conjunctivitis
which disappeared in 2 - 3 days. The 25, 50 and 75% dilutions produced no
discernible effects. Five rabbits were used in a series of skin tests. The
-134-
-------
."', ' , '::,1 /"b-,.,~, "t-~
.".Z:' '. '/", ;
" c- : ." ' , " . ,
;. '-"-~". '. i4. ~1." J tI
" ..-; . ..,'~ ~.~C / .~ ,"'W ~
:, '\' '.#' ~'
.',," , ,~ ,,- \
., A." ~ £~ ,\. '. ~~~ .
" ~; "'~~)' '!' 'V~~...... 'rl.',.,
. ~ -.~. . '. r-'" '-~
...( ." .. . ...,~."..
~,¥", ~ ~. -'- ....
t:';'~.. 'i\....~ ' ":"\ ~,
"-... -.-, J
Fig. 4. Beaded-like swelling of the superior dendrite
of the cerebro-cortical motor neurons; disappearance
of the spine-shaped Processes.
fur was removed from a 25 cm2 area and 1 ml per kg of body weight applied
(does not state how - BSL) over periods of 1, 2, 4 and 6 hours. Irritation
tests were made by daily two-hour application of the dimethylformamide to the
skin over a period of 25 days. Single applications brought about no dis-
cernible changes in the skin. Repeated application over the same skin area
for 5 - 8 days elicited a slight hyperemia, infiltration and exfoliation.
Twenty white nlice were used in testing the skin permeability by dimeth-
ylformamide. The tails of the mice were submerged into test tubes containing
dimethylformamide up to 3/4 of the tail lengths, precautions being taken to
exclude the possibility of the dimethylformamide entering the organism via
the respiratory tract. Tails remained submerged in the reagent for ~O, 60,
120 and 180 minutes. At the end of e~ch period of exposure the dimethylform-
amide was washed off with water. Anirr:als so treated were kept under observa-
tion for two weeks, during which time no signs of detectable poisoning could
be discerned. Outwardly tte mice appeared in good health. After 2 - 3 hours
exposure the skin of the tails showed slight signs of hyperemia which disap-
peared in 24 hours. The results indicated that dimethylformamide was devoid
of frank irritating properties and that its ability to permeate through the
~135-
-------
skin was very limited.
Conclusions.
1. Dimethylformamide belongs to the group of toxic substances which,
under certain conditions, can elicit acute and chronic intoxication. The
vapor tension of dimetbylformamide is low; for this reason possiblities of
acute poisoning with this substance in industrial manufacturing premises
under conditions of normal temperature are very limited.
2. Continuous (chronic) exposure to low dimethylformamide vapor concen-
trations, incapable of producing acute poisoning, elicited. jr. tbe animal or-
ganism changes symptomatic of chronic intoxication, of which disturbance in
the higher nervous activity was the first to appear.
3. Skin permeability of dimethylformamide appeared. to be Emited..
4. Taking into consideration the physico-chemical and toxicological
properties of dimethylformamide as determined by this investigation, the
author recommends that 0.05 mg/l be provisionally accepted as the limit of
allowable dimethylformamide concentration in the air of working premises.
Literature cited.
Massmann, W. - Brit. J. Indust. Med., 13, 51-4, 1956. --- Idem. Zbl.
Arbeitsmed. u. Arbeirsschutz, 6, 201-12, 1956. --- Skipper,H. E. Schabel,
F. M. et al. Cancer Res., 15, 143-6, 1955.
-13~-
-------
Effect of Chronic Lead Poisoning on the Immunological Reaction
of the Organilim.
B. A. Kiryachko
Chair of Hygiene and Occupational Diseases, Ukrainian Institute
of Post Graduate'Medicine.
(Gigiena i Sanitariya No.8, 1958, pp. 30~34)
It is a well known fact that changes in the immunological reactions are
sensitive indexes of the effects of external environment on the living or-
ganism. It seem3 surprising, therefore, that students of immunology should
. , .'
possess scanty knowledge of the effect of environmental factors on the im-
munological functions of the organism. The effect of chemical agents on th~
immunological processes of the organism of workers of some industries has
not been investigated as thoroughly as it should have been. And yet, there
, '
appear some indications that the effect of some chemical agents on the im-
muna-protective mechanism of the organism may cause chronic toxic condi-
tions. Ya. D. Sakhnovskii, L. L. Kandyby, She G. Perlina in their reports
dealt w~th problems.related to changes in immunological indexes caused by
lead poisoning.
This is a report of an experimental study of. chronic lead poisoning
effects on the organism's immunological reactivity, in which symptoms of
early stages of chronic lead intoxication are emphasized. The effect of
lead on the higher nervous activity was thoroughly studied by Z. M.
, ,
Vainshtein, E. A. Dorgichina ~ al, N. K. Kulagina and F. B. Shakhnovskaya.
Our investigation included a study of the chemical nature of neurostimula-
tion (acetylcholine and esterase activity). The experimental procedure
, ,
. .
generally was as follows: Thirty rabbits were kept under observation for
, ,
. .
periods of 2 - 3 weeks; studies were made of their blood serum complement
titres" the blood protein concentrat,ion,- a~d. the presence of acetylcholine
and esterase activity to obtain the rabbits' normal immuno-biological blood
. .
.' , .
picture prior to t~e initiation of the experiments. The rabbits were divid-
ed into three groups of 10 each. Rabbit~' ~f Group No.1 received typhoid
. -
vaccine only and served as controls; rabbits of Group 2 were immunized with
. ,
. , '
typhoid va~cine before being subjected to lead intoxication; rabbits of Group
3 were subjected to lead intoxication before receiving the typhoid vaccine
-131-
-------
injections. Rabbits of Groups 2 and 3 received lead acetate per ~.During
the first 4.5 months the. rabbits received daily 10 mg/kg of lead ace~ate, 20
./ktG during the month following and 30 mg/k8 thereafter. Immunization was
made with killed ~ typhosa vaccine containing 150 million bacteria per ml
of saline. The . vaccine was administered intravenously in doses of 0.5 ml
for the first injection and 0.8 ml for t~enext two injections. The immu-
nological indexes ~ere studied on a dynamic basis, administering the second
and third. vaccine injections at a time when the agglutination titre fell to .
. .
. .
the original level. Duration of high agglutination titre periods differed
with each group of rabbits, as.can be seen in Table 1.
Data presented in Table 1 show that high immuno-bo~ titres persisted
for a shorter period in rabbits of Group 2 and especially in rabbits of Group
3 than in rabbits of control Group 1. Kaximal agglutination titres after
. .' .
each vaccine injection for each rabbit group are presented in Table 2. The
data in the Table show that lowest agglutination titres were obtained with
rabbits of Groups 2 and 3.
Following the first intravenous injeotion of the typhoid vaccine into
. .' .
rabbits of Group 1 the complement titre fell by 13.4%; it then rose and
after the third injection inoreased b.f. 15.4% of the initial titre. The
complem.ent titre of Group 2 fell by only 1.9% after the first vaccine in-
jection, but thereafter followed the same progressive course as in rabbits
of Group 1. The titre of rabbits of Group 3 presented a different picture.
, .
. . ,
It became reduced by' 14.7% during the 6'months of the preliminaI7 lead in-
, ,
torlcation. However~ following the first, second and third. vaccine injec-
, '
tions the complement titre showed a tendenoy to rise to a level exceeding
the complement titre level of rabbits of Group 2, thus indicating that in
the ear~ stages of rabbit :ead poisoning biological changes came into action
which brought about a rise in, the complement titre as compared with the
titre of r,abbits of control Group 1. '
. . \. ~ . . "
Results of total protein and protein fractions studies disclosed defi-
:, . ". .' ..' .' .
niteregularities which could not be interpreted as due to the effect of lead
poisoning. In the course of immunizatJ.onof rabbits of the control and lead
adminis~ered groups changes in protein b~lance occurred in the form of
slightly lowered albumin, some rise in the globulin, which caus.ed the albu-
min/globulin ratio to fall from its initial 1.8 to 1.2 value after the
third ,'accine injection.
-138-
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The morphological blood changes were as follows: 3 - 4 months after
the initiation of lead acetate injections the hemoglobin content fell by
2 - 3%, the leucocyte number rose from 7,890 to 8,a40/mm3 of blood, and
basophilic granulation appeared to the extent of 100 - 200 per million of
erythrocytes. Immunization brought these changes into greater prominence.
No lowering of hemoglobin content.and no granular basophilia were observed
in rabbits of control Group 1, but leucocytes were lower numerically than
in the lead poisoned rabbits.
Results of the study of the rabbits' blood serum esterinase are pre-
sented in Table 3 according to groups. Esterinase activity of rabbits of
Group 1 increased in the course of their immunization; esterinase activity
also rose in rabbits of Group 2 but to a lesser degree; in rabbits of Group
3 esterinase activity sharply fell except for a short period following the
third vaccine injection. ,It is possible that in this case the phenomenon
of so-called humoral compensation came into pl~ at the conclusion of the
lead acetate administration, three months before the termination of the
experiments, when symptoms of lead poisoning made their appearance.
No acetylcholine was found in the blood of the rabbits prior to the
initiation of the vaccine injections. Following the first vaccine injec-
tion acetylcholine was found in 13% of tests in rabbits of Group 1, 17% in
rabbits of Group 2 and 21% in tests of rabbits of Group 3. Here, again, the
possibility suggests itself that in the course of immunization of rabbits
of control Group 1 there occurred a moderate accumulation of aoetylcholine
and an increased cholinester~se activity, symptomatic of humoral compen-
sation aocording to the terminology proposed by D. E. AI'pern.
Rabbits subjected to preliminar,y periods of lead poisoning presented a
different picture: accumulation of acetylcholine in the blood and a lowering
in oholinesterase activity bec~e manifest at the very beginning and became
. augmented in the course of vaccine injection, again pointing to the possi-
ble development of humoral compensation.
The above described changes in the acetylcholine-cholinesterase system
----
and the observed changes in agglutinin formation appeared during the first
month of lead injection as first signs of lead poisoning; slight changes in
the blood, such as basophilic granulation of erythrocytes, etc., which
here fore have been regarded as earliest signs of lead intoxication, appeared
-139-
-------
3 - 4 months after the initiation of lead acetate administration.
The re-
suIts presented in this report are comparable with those of N. K. KUlagina
and F.B. Shakbnovskii who showed that lead intoxication appeared first in
the form of speoific disturbances of higher nervous aotivity. The data
here presented show that in chronic lead poisoning the immunologic reactiv-
ity of the organism was oonsiderably reduced. Most data presented in the
literature on this subject indicate that in lowered immunologic reactivity
of the organism the course of infectious diseases is of a graver type.
Conclusions.
1. Lead intoxication in rabbits was accompanied by a reduction in the
organism's oapaoity to produoe agglutinins in theoourse of immunization
with!. tlPhosa vacoine. Suoh reduction in agglutinin generation became
most pronounoed in rabbits subjected to lead intoxioation prior to the ini-
tiation of immunization injections.
2. Blood serum oomplement activity was lowered in lead poisoning.
However, immunization following experimental lead intoxication raised the
oomplement titre to ~ considerably higher level than in non-intoxioated
rabbits.
3. During the immuniza~ion with!. typhosa vaccine oontrol rabbits
developed a slight amount of acetyloholine and a simultaneous increase in
blood serum cholinesterase activity, assumed to be indicative of the pres-
ence of humoral compensation. Rabbits subjected to lead poisoning after
immunization with the typhoid vaooine acoumulated a considerable amount. of
ace1ylcholine in the presenoe of a simultaneous reduction in oholinesterase
aotivity; this was particularly in evidenoe among rabbits of Group No.3,
with the exception of a short period following the third vaooine injeotion.
4. Lowered oapaoity to generate agglutinins and disturbed intersti-
tial metabolism appeared early in rabbits subjeoted to lead intoxioation.
These symptoms appeared muoh earlier than the olassical symptoms of lead
poisoning usually limited to changes in the blood pioture.
-140-
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TA:BLE
1.
Duration of high agglutination titre following vaccination.
,
Animal:
group,
:
Indexes
: High agglutination titre ,
: After : After : After :
: first seoond: third:
:vaccination:vacoination:vacoination:
Total
duration
First Arithmetical mean 2 mos. 2 mos. 11 d 2 mos. 4 d 7.5 mos.
a ~in days) 10 11 22
m probable error of
arithmetical mean) 3.5 3.9 8.0
Second Arithmetical mean 1 mo. 3 d 2 mos. 3 mos. 6 mos. 23 d
a (in days) 8 12 22
m (probable error of
arithmetical mean) 3.6 5.4 10
Third Arithmetical mean 1 mo. 23 d 1 mo. 7 d 15 d 3.5 mos.
a ~in d~s) 1.0 0 0
m probable error of
arithmetical mean) 0.4 0 0
Reliability index of
difference between
first and third
groups 2 8.7 9.8
TA:BLE 2.
Maximum agglutination titres after immunization.
:: : Maximum titre after
Group Initial Indexes 1st 2nd 3rd
number: titre:
: : : vaccination, vaccination: vaccination
First 1:160 Arithmetical mean 1:76 800 1:61 440 1'54 440
m..-....... 12 960 14 740 8 480
Second 1:180 Arithmetical .mean 1,18 430 1'36 590 1:28 670
m......... 990 10 770 11 600
Third 1,160 Arithmetical mean 1:12 800 1: 8 960 1:17 920
m......... 2 180 1 090 2 678
Reliability index
of differences on
basis of control 4.8 3.5 4.1
-141-
-------
TABLE
3.
Average of cholinesterase activity in rabbits' blood serum in % of
acetylchol~ne hydrolyzed during the experimental period.
, .
. . .
- ;~,...:: .
Rabbit' Initial' Cholinesterase
ou '(control)"ac:t;1vityduring
:mb:r' data ~ prelimina17
: '.' '.intoxication
:Cholinesterase activity after vaccination
, '.'. .. .
, 1st I 2nd ' 3rd
. : : :
First
Second
19.16
19.96
27.18
26.18
26.3
22.85
9.2
..28.2.
22.8
15.2
20.0
'21.27
49.3
Third
u' ..14.?~
. ,
-------
A New Method and Apparatus for the Determination of Carbon Monoxide in the Air.
By P. N. Lastoohkin (Mosoow)
st 1)
(Institute of HYgiene of 1-- Mosoow State University.
Gigiena i Epidemiologiya, No.1, 1928, pp. 9-12.
The method and apparatus are intended for the determination of oarbon mon-
oxide in air in general and in air of industrial premises in particular. The
method and apparatus are based on the property of a mixture of metals known as
hopoalite Mn02' CUO~ C0203 and Ag20) to oatalytioally oxidize CO oontained in
the.air to C02; the prooess is aooompanied b,y elimination of heat which can be
measured direct~or after conversion into a measurable electrical phase. In
the preparation of hopcalite eaoh of the metallio oxides is precipitated indi-
vidually and then mixed in prescribed proportions and the mixture thoroughly
- washed and filtered to free it from possible impurities; the water is expressed
- and the mixture shaped into pellets or tablets of 1.5 - 2.0 mm in diameter and
thoroughly dried. A hopcalite-mixture giving satisfaotor" results is composed
ofa Kn02 - 50%; cuo - 30%; C0203 - 15%; and Ag20 - 5%.
Hopoalite wi11 manifest its oatalytic properties only when it is carefully
prepared and is absolutely moisture-free and when the air passing through it has
~
been rendered free of moisture and of such aotive gases as C12' HCl, HON, etc.
When all these conditions have been observed hopcalite will oxidize CO to C02
aocording to the formula CO + ° - C02' i.e., 2 vol + 1 vol. 2 vol. The con-
centration of CO in the air oan be as high a6 10% or more, the catalytic prop-
erties of hopcalite will persist indefinitely. Because of its durability as a
catalyzer American soientists recommend it as a respirator CO absorber.
!l'he catalytic oxidation of CO to C02 was investigated as follows: (See
Fig. 1) Carbon monoxide produced b,y the reaction of H2S04 wit~ sodium formate
was introduced into a gasometer in var"ing quantities to obtain air mixtures
containing 2%, 1%, 0.5%, etc. of CO. The conoentration of carbon monoxide in
the gasometer was determined gasometrically with the aid ot cuprammonium solu-
tion and a :Bunte burette. !l'he Co-oontaining air was then directed into the
tube with hopoalite grains (G); the passing air volume was determined with pre-
1 (NotE,). This stu~ was started in the ~g1enic Laborator" of the Leningrad
Medical Institute in 1925.
-143-
-------
cision by a tlow meter (b): moisture was removed by sulfuric acid (c) and cal-
cium chlor~de (d); C02 normally contained in the air was absorbed by soda lime
(E). The air temperature was recorded betore it entered the hopcalite tilled
tube (t); C02 tormed by the CO oxidation was caught by the potash bulb (H) and
its quantitative determination made by the usual analytical procedure. CO pass-
ing through was detected by reagents: 1) aqueous PdC12 solution according to
Potain and Drouin; 2) Ammonium solution AgIl03 according to Bertholot.
Control tests showed that hopcalite prepared as described oxidized CO to
C02 stoichiometrically. Catalytic hopcalite oxidation ot carbon monoxide to
carbon dioxide generates heat in proportion to the intensity ot oxidation. Tem-
perature records made in the course ot hopcali te oxidation ot CO indicated that
temperature (T) depended upon 1) the concentration (c) ot CO passing through the
hopcalite, 2) the volume (v) ot the air-CO mixture passing through the hopcalite
per unit time, 3) the air temperature (t), 4) the presence in the tested air ot
admixtures reacting with hopcalite, 5) the total quantity of hopcalite used in
the test and the height and cross-section area of its column in the tube (a,b,
g) and 6) the specitic catalytic activity ot hopcalite (A), allot which can
be expressed by the tollowing generalization:
T - A .2Y t + a. b. g
r
Thus, it the hopcalite is of identical quality and quantity and is identi-
cally packed into the tube and the quality, quantity and passage rate ot the air
are the same the reaction temperature will be a tunction ot CO concentration.
Ditterent hopcalite preparations are characterized by ditterent temperature tac-
tors. Thus, the reaction temperature ot 1% CO in the air with hopcalite (a) was
1550, with hopcalite (b) 92°, with hopcalite (c) 75°, with 0.1% CO the reaction
temperature ot hopcalite (c) was 10.5°, with 0.01% CO - 0.9° and with 0.005% CO -
0.5°. The reaction heat can be measured with the aid ot thermoelements or with
sound or light waves ot determinable intensities or by some other suitable thermo-
electric procedure. The results can then be interpreted in terms ot equivalent
CO concentration in the air.
This method ot CO determination in the gasometer air with the aid ot appa-
ratus shown in Fig. 1 yielded accurate results. Fig. 2 is a schematic presen-
tation ot a portable apparatus designed tor the determination ot CO in the air
ot industrial premises by the hopcalite catalytic method. The set-up consists
ot a painted metallic box; it has an opening in the bottom tor the entrance ot
-144-
-,
i
-------
air and two holes in the top, one tor the insertion ot a thermometer and the
other serves as an air exit. The box is tilled, tirst, with a l~er ot soda
lime which is overlaid b.Y (2) a layer ot activated charcoal, toll owed b.Y (3)
a layer ot a chemical absorber, known as the English mixture; the latter is cov-
ered by a layer ot calcium chloride tollowed by a topmost (5) second layer ot
activated charcoal; the layers are separated by wire screens, the lower screen
being dome-shaped; a box containing asbestos-wrapped hopcalite is set on top ot
the uppermost wire soreen; a thermometer graduated in 0.10 is inserted into the
box through one ot the top holes; a glass tube is inserted through the exit hole
extending 2/3 down into a special burette equipped with a ground stopper; the
burette is attached to the metallic part ot the apparatus and tilled with known
volumes ot standard Ba(OH)2 solution tor the absorption ot the tormed C02 which
is later determined b.Y the usual analytical method. A thermometer ~ be at-
tached to the external part ot the apparatus tor the determination ot the atmos-
- - - --
pheric temperature. Heat-sensitive thermocouple extension plates ~ be enolosed
within the apparatus.
The air tested tor carbon monoxide is introduced into the apparatus at a
rate ot 0.5 - 0.8 li/min with the aid ot a double action rubber bulb ot a stan-
dard volume or by a tlow meter equipped with an air blower. The air passes tirst
through the U-shaped tubes tilled with calcium chloride; it then. passes through
an inside tube at the lower opening ot the apparatus. As the air passes through
the absorber layer, the carbon dioxide is removed and the air enters the hopcal-
- - -
i te box where the carbon monoxide is oxidized to carbon dioxide; the air then
passes through the tube containing the Ba(OH)2 solution which absorbs the C02
atter which the air leaves the box through the exit.
Air concentrations ot 0.1% CO or more were determined by the Ba(OH)2 titra-
tion method or b.Y the liberated heat method. CO air concentrations less than
0.1% were determined b.Y the temperature rise method by means ot automatic re-
cording on an empirical sqale. An example ot an automatic empirical scale is
presented below. 'or an apparatus tilled with hopcalite of medium activity:
Temperature
95° - - 500
50: - - l~
160 - 7 0
7 0 - 1.20
1.20 - 0.70
0.7 - 0.2
Percent of CO
1.0 - 0.5
0.5 - 0.1
0.1 - 0.05
0.05 - 0.01
0.01 - 0.005
0.005 - 0.001
-145-
-------
l .
Fig. 1. Apparatus for the determination
of the catalytic activity of hopcalite.
"
~
~
-~_""'\
~!
CaC12
Hopcalite
L..::':':':'':':.~--
Ca.C12
r
t
~
.
f
\
o<'i
:
~
Fig. 2. Set-up for the determination of
carbon monoxide in the air.
-14~
-------
~ of the determination procedures described in the text including the
conversion of the thermocouple and expansion plate effects into sound or light
waves can be used for ~ CO concentration. Hopcalite of higher catalytic ac-
tivitY' increases the sensitivitY' of the apparatus.
This method and apparatus have the following shortcomings: l) difficultY'
of obtaining a sufficient17 stable, hard and active hopcalite; 2) necessitY' for
preparing a scale for each set-up and each lot of hopcalite; 3) necessitY' to re-
place used-up calcium chloride in the U-shaped tube..
The construction ot this apparatus can be simplified b7 omi tUng the barium
~drorlde-containing burette and. the thermometer, and by mAking qualitative de-
terminations for carbon monoxide b7 sound and light wave methode, which may be
adequate for danger signal purposes.
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Determina1i1on of. V~l Chloride in the Air.
B7 E. Sh. Gronsberg.
(Gor'ld.i IDstUute of Labor ~g1ene and Oooupa1i1onal Diseases.)
Gig1eDa i SaDitariya, Bo. 11, pp. 43-44 (1954).
Despite the fact that viD1'l chloride is now wide17 used in the manufacture
of synthetio res1i1s no methode have been desoribed in the literature for the
. .
determination of Us presenoe in the a1r~ Theretore, this author undertook to
develop a method for the determination of ~l chloride in the air in the pres-
ence of dichlorethane, methanol,. etqlene and chlorine. .As a. first step a stud1'
was made of thepossibili t7 to determine the presence of viD1'l chloride b7
testing its double-boDd reac1i1on with chlorine and bromine in different sol-
vents and with solutions of bivalent mer0UX7 salts. Bromina1i1on of vi.lq'l chlo-
ride .y1elded best -results according to the following reaoUon.
eBz. CHCl + Br2 ~ CH2Br-CHClBr.
Under the experimental conditions and with the Br solvents used the reaction
proceeded onl,- under conditions of photobromination.Daylight, the use of two
500 W lamps or of a Bakhtype mercur.J lamp were equall,- effective.
In attempts toestabl1sh optimal vi~l chloride bromination oonditions for
purposes of quantitative determination, the vi~l chloride and the Br were dis-
solved in different solvents, such as met~l alcohol, glacial acetic acid, chlo-
rotom, carbon tetrachlorlde, in different concentrations,. with the bromination
process extended to different lengths of time. Best results were obtained when
viZJl'lchloride was dissolved in chloroform and the Br in a mixture of glacial
aoetic acid and chloroform. The following procedure is recommended for best
bromination results. place 5 or 10 ml solution of the tested v1ZJl'1 chloride
into a 100 ml volumetrio flask provided with aground-to-fit glass stopper;
prepare a Br solution in 1.1 mixture of glacial acetic acid aDd ohloroform b7
dissolving' 0.5ml of bromine in lOOml of above solution; add 4 ml of this Br
. .
solution to the 100 mlvo1umetrio flask and expose to the action of d~ or oth-
er Ii~cated light tor 40 . minutes; . run a parall~l control test using 5 - 10 ml
of chloroform in. the p1aoe of the tested viZJl'l chloride solution. After 40
minutes oaref'ul17removethe stoppers from the flasks, taking care to avoid
.108S of Br and add 1 m1 of 20% solution of II; shake and leave rest for 5 min-.
-148-
-------
utes, wash the stopper and the flask walls and titrate with 0.02 B solution ot
thiosulfate, stopper the. flask from time to time and shake vigorously to hasten
. .
the transfer of the iodine from the chloroform into the water.
As soon as the greater part of the iodine will have been titrated the water
lrqer will acquire a light yellow tint J at this point add to the flasks sever-
al drops ot J$solution of starch and continue titration. to the point ot simul-
taneous disappearanceot the light yellow color in the chloroform layer and of
the blue color in the water lrqer. The amount of thiosulfate consumed in the
titration is proportional to the amount of vi~l chloride present in the tested
solution.
Brom1nation of gaseous vinyl chloride in the gas or air collecting pipette
yielded lower results than titration in chloroform solution. Therefore, it
became imperati~e to find a method for the absorption of v~l chloride from
air b,ysolvents which make possible its further determination as described. To
meet the required condition, tested air was aspirated through four absorbers
oontaining porous filter plates and 5 - 10 ml of chloroform; the absorber tubes
were submerged into ice-cold water maintaining a temperature of -10 to -15°,'
under such conditions of sample colleotion the vi~l was absorbed completely
by the absorber solutions. Air can be aspirated at the rate of 10 - 12 l/hr.
The contents of the four absorbers is then poured into a 100 ml volumetric flask
and the determination aocomplished as previously described.
One ml of the 0.02 B thiosulfate solution is equivalent to 0.625 mg ot
vi~l chloride. Sensitivity of the method is 0.1 mg of vinyl chloride per test.
Titration. results fall within 85 - 90% of actual vi~l chloride content; the
method is specific. in the presence of dichlorethane and methane, since the lat-
. .
ter remain non-brominated. Chlorine interferes with the determination, there-
fore, its entrance into the absorbers should be prevented by appropriate means.
To accomplish this pass the tested air through a U-shaped tube, the first arm
of which contains fused lumps of XI and the second arm contains crystalline
thiosulfate, before it is admitted into the collecting aspirators. . The deter-
mination of vi~l chloride in the air in the presence of ethylene requires ad-
ditional steps. It was found that during the aspiration of the air through the
chloroform-containing tubes 10 - 15% of etbylene present in the air became ab-
sorbed with the vi~l chloride and interfered with the quantitative determina~
tion of the latter. Under such conditions use was made of the fact that ethy- .
-149-
-------
lene was easi17 brominated in chlorofom solution in the dark. Hence, a por-
tion of the tested solution was brominated in the presence of light. The dif-
ferenoe between the volumes of thiosulfate used in the titration of the control
and the test solutions represented the proportional equivalent of the sum total
of vinyl chloride and of et~lene present in the tested solution. Another por-
tion of the tested solution was brominated in the dark, and the difference be-
tween the volumes of thiosulfate used in the . titration of the control and of
the test solution represent-ed the proporlional equivalent of et~lene present
in the tested solution. Finai results were calculated on the basis of the dif-
ference between the two titrations.
Conclusions.
1. A method was developed for the determination of vinyl chloride in the
air based on bromination in chlorofom solution with a bromine solution in a
. .
111 m~ure of glacial acetic acid and chlorofom. The method is sensitive to
0.10 mg of ~l chloride per test.
2. The absorption of vinyl chloride from air is accomplished by aspirating
the tested air through chlorofo1'm kept at -10 to -150, at the rate of 10 - 12
liters per hour.
3. This method for the determination of vilV'l chloride in atriaspecifio
in the presence of methanol and diohlorethane. Observing the additional steps
and precautions indicated in the text obviates the interference of et~lene and
of chlorine with the determination of vinyl chloride.
-150-
-------
Determination of Carbon Monoxide in Air.
Ankica Stepanovioh.
Glasnik Higienskog Ins~itute (Beograd) 4 (1-2) : 77-85 (1955).
Free translation fran Serbo-Croatian.
Carbon mQnoxide is one o:f the common industrial poisons. Its determi-
. nation in the air of industrial plants and mines is of primary concern to the
chemical laborator,y of the Department of Industrial aygiene. In this conneo-
tion our problem was to adopt a method applioable to our working conditions.
whioh would be reliable, easy to perform in the field, suffioiently sensitive
and speoifio, ana whioh oould be acoomplished with the limited means at our dis-
posal in field investigations and in atmospherio CO pollution control tests.
Our studies inoluded:
1. A survey of existing methods;
2. The development of a new convenient and applicable method;
3. The checking of MAS - CO paper indicators with the aid of samples
oontaining known conoentrations of carbon monoxide against aocepted analyti-
oal methods.
4.
The calibration of indioator paper for the detection of oarbon mon-
oxide.
Many methods exist for the determination of CO in the air. Only methods
heretofore regarded as suitable (1,2) are discussed in this report. The clas-
sical absorption methods (3) can be used only for relatively high CO ooncen-
trations. Orsat's apparatus can be used for the determination of CO in oon-
oentrations up to 0.2%, and Haldane's for CO concentrations up to 0.02%.
Lower concentrations of CO, such as are usually found in the air of industrial
establishments and maximum allowable concentrations for an 8-hours work daf
(0.01%) can not be determined by these methods. The blood (4) or CO-hemoglobin
method is highly specific; however, it can not be applied under ever,y-day prac-
tical conditions. The iodine pentoxide method (5) is often used in industrial
hygienic laboratories. By this method carbon monoxide is heated and converted
to carbon dioxide; simultaneously iodine is set free making possible separate
determinations of the C02 and 12. This method should be preferred by those
who have the necessar,r apparatus, such as precision burettes, electric heaters,
etc. We could not use it for lack of the required apparatus. The hopcalite
-151-
-------
method is'used frequently. Hopcalite is the trade name of a catalyst mix- -
ture, chiefly of Mn02 and CUO; it transforms CO into C02 at normal tempera-
ture releasing heat, and the carbon monoxide is determined from the formed
carbon dioxide by caloric or temperature meas~rement. Hopcalite is produced
by several manufacturers, but its composition is protected by patents. Among
other methods and apparatus, which are based on different principles, the
most useful is one in which the concentration of CO is recorded over a long
period of time.
available.
The palladium chloride method appears most suitable for the determination
of CO under our working conditions. We experimented with the Christman method
(7). We simplified the procedure of sample collecting in the field. The pal-
ladium method is adequately sensitive, though not entirely specific for CO;
however, substances giving the same reaction and substances interfering with
the CO determination can be easily eliminated. As modified by us, the chosen
method insured easy, rapid and accurate determination of CO in air.
Unfortunately, only few of this type of apparatus are easily
The principle of the method:
Carbon monoxide reduces palladium
cording to the following reaction:
chloride to elementary palladium ac-
PdC12 + CO + H20 = Pd + C02 + 2RCI
The palladium is removed by filtration; the unused palladium chloride is
treated with an excess of potassium iodide solution which develops a red color
the intensity of which is proportional to the amount of unused PdC12' . CO in
the sample i6 determined from the difference between the original and remain-
ing PdC12'
Rea,g:ents:
1. Palladium chloride solution: Heat 500 rug of palladium chloride to
1000C for one hour. Place dry preparation into a beaker, add 150 ml of water
and 2.5 ml of concentrated HCl and heat until ingredients are completely dis-
solved. Cool and add water to the 500 ml mark using a volumetric flask.
2. Aluminum sulfate - 10% solution.
3. Solution of gum gamboge: Dissolve 5 gof the gum in 500 ml of water;
leave rest for 24 hours with occasional stirring. Filter to clarity by repeat
filtration at Suitable time intervals.
4.
Potassium iodide - 15% solution, freshly prepared.
-152-
-------
5.
bromine
Bromine solution: Add one part of water to two parts of saturated
water; add 5 g of KBr for each 100 ml of the solution.
Potassium hydroxide - 33% solution.
6.
Sample collecting:
Taking of air samples, sample purification and method of keeping the
sample in the container where it is to be treated with palladium chloride
can be accomplished in several ways. We found the following procedure most
suitable and practica~ under our werking conditions: The air sample was col-
lected into a deflated rubber or leather ball by means of a small hand pump.
This method of air collecting is not co~nonly mentioned in Western literature,
but is frequently used in the Soviet Union (8). Rubber can be used conve-
niently in c011ecting air samples, particularly air samples containing CO.
Air samples can be stored in rubber receptacl~s for 3 - 4 days without under-
going any change in the CO concentration due to diffusion. This method of air
sample collecting has the advantage of sin~licity, lightness of transportation
and ease with which smaples can be taken from remote mine shafts.
Sample purification:
Substances other than CO which react with palladium chloride and sub-
stances which interfere with the CO reaction must be removed from the air sam-
ple before it is analyzed. These substances consist chiefly of unsaturated
hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide and ammonia. They can be pre-
cipitated with bromine water and with concentrated hydroxide solution.
Apparatus:
1. Rubber receptacle for air sample collecting.
2. Aspirator bottle containing bromine water.
3. Aspirator bottle containing 33% KOH solution.
4. High quality glass flask of 500 ml capacity provided with rubber
stopper equipped with glass stop-cock.
A known vacuum (PI) is created in a flask of known capacity (V in ml)
with the aid of a vacuum pump connected to a manometer. After the desired
vacuum has been attained the set-up is connected as shown in Fig. 1. The air
to be analyzed is released from the rubber receptacle into the flask by re-
leasing the pinch-cock on the left and then slowly opening the glass stop-
cock at the right. The air transfer must be accomplished slowly. When the
pressure in the flask and in the rubber receptacle have reached the point of
balance, the flask is disconnected from the purification system and the pres-
-153-
-------
sure is balanced against the at~ospheric pressure (p) by a quick turn of the
stop-cock. Add 2 ml of palladium chloride solution, 0.2 ml of aluminum sul-
fate solution and 3 ml of water. Agitate the flask occasionally for 4 hours
keeping the wall of the flask moist. This step must be observed to prevent
the metallic palladium from coating the flask wall, as such coating could
prevent the free CO from coming in contact with the palladium chloride. Af-
ter 4 hours the flask content is filtered through Whatman N .40 filter paper
o
into a 100 ml volumetric flask. The flask and the filter paper are thorough-
ly washed with about 60 ml of water. Two ml of the gum gamboge solution are
added to the volumetric flask and the mixture vigorously agitated. Five ml
of the potassium iodide solution are then added directly to the flask and 5
ml through the filter paper to take up any remaining palladium chloride. The
volume in the volumetric flask is made up to the mark with water washings
from the filter paper.
The solution now acquires a reddish-brown color which reaches maximum
intensity in 5 minutes and remains constant for 24 hours. Zeiss electropho~o-
meter Elko II with filter 5-49 and cell 1.999 cm was used in the colorimetric
determinations.
1.
z
J
Fig. 1.
."
For description see page 153
under apparatus.
Standard solutions:
Place 2.0, 1.15, 1.5, 1.0, 0.5 and 0.25 ml of the palladium chloride
solution into 100 ml volumetric flasks and add 50 ml of water, 2 ml of the
gum gamboge solution and 10 ml of the potassium iodide solution; add water
to the mark; shake and use as standards in the colorimetric determinations.
-154-
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Calculation:
1 mg of palladium chloride is reduced by approximately 0.1261 ml of CO
at OOC and 760 rom mercury. The percentage of carbon monoxide (concentration)
is calculated at standard temperature and pressure as follows:
% CO = illg of PdC12 reduced x 0.1261 x 160/P x T/273 x 1oo/V or
% CO = mg PdC12 reduced x (0.1261 x 760 x 100)/273 x T/PV or
% CO - mg PdC12 reduced x 35.104 x T/PV where
T = absolute temperature at point of analysis.
P a atmospheric pressure in rom mercury.
v = volume in ml of air transferred to the flask
V = VI - V2 ; and V2 = (VI x PI x 273)/(760 x T) where
VI = flask capacity in mI.
V2 = volume of air remaining in the flask and
Yl = a residual pressure in the flask in rom mercury.
Sensitivity and accuracy of the method:
The method is sensitive to 0.001 - 0.05% and carries with it ! 4% error.
Checking the MSA CO indicator paper:
Recently obtained MSA CO indicator paper was tested against 1310\vn con-
centrations of carbon monoxide. Sin~ltaneously known concentrations of CO
we~e checked by the palladium chloride method. Results obtained by the PdC12
method are presented in Table 1, and those obtained by th~ indicator method
are presented in Table 2.
TABLE 1.
Results of determinations obtained by' the palladium chloride method.
Test Air volume Determined Calculated Difference
No. in liters concn. concn. in %
1 127.2 512.0 526.0 - 2.1
2 137.0 415.0 437.0 - 5.1
3 157.0 312.0 310.0 + 0.6
4 167.0 270.0 264.0 + 2.2
5 584.0 219.0 200.0 + 9.5
6 200.0 157.0 152.0 + 3.2
7 206.0 146.0 138.0 + 5.7
8 220.4 105.0 113.0 - 7.1
9 241.5 85.0 78.0 + 8.9
10 257.0 58.0 59.0 - 1.7
11 282.0 37.0 39.4 - 6.6
-155-
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TABLE 2.
Results of determinations obtained by the MSA CO indicator.
Test Air volume . Determined Calculated Difference
..
No. in liters concn. ppm concn. ppm in. %
1 10.5 1 240.0 1 318.0 - 5.9
2 92.3 910.0 910.0 + 0.0
-
3 119.1 540.0 515.0 - 6.1
4 140.0 315.0 401.0 - 1.9
5 153.1 300.0 331.0 - 9.3
6 168.2 265.0 255.0 + 3.9
7 118.5 200.0 218.0 - 5.9
8 190.0 160.0 117.0 - 9.7
9 202.4 125.0 144.5 - 13.5
10 210.5 110.0 128.0 - 14.3
11 221.4 95.0 101.0 - 11.2
12 234.0 15.0 85.0 - 11.8
13 247.0 60.0 69.0 - 13.0
14 260.5 50.0 56.0 - 10.1
15 271.4 50.0 46.7 + 1.0
16 218.2 45.0 41.6 + 8.1
Known initial concentrations of CO were prepared in a 60 li flask as
described in text references 9, 10 and 11. Dilution with pure air lowered
CO concentration in the flask according to the generalization en = CO x:n,
where C = CO concentration at the time of the first determination; in other
n
words, Cn = the original CO concentration; n = l/v = ratio of new volume of
air in liters to the total capacity of the flask; 1 = volume of aspirated air
in liters, and v = the capacity of the flask.
Results can be expressed 5Taphically in te~s of regularly sloping
straight lines as shown in Figs. 2 and 3. Table 1 and Fig. 2 present results
obtained by the PdC12 method and Table 2 and Fig. 3 present results obtained
by the MAS CO indicator paper method. The error with the MAS CO indicator
method was! 7.1% and with the palladi~1 chloride method! 4.8%. Data pre-
sented in Table 2 show that differences between CO concentrations deter~ined
and concentrations calculated tended to rise with the increase in the dilu-
tion of the original sample. This m~ have been due to the fact that as the
dilution increased the volume of air in liters required for a single analysis
increased, at times exceeding the capacity of the glass flask by 10%. This
indicat3s that the volume of the sample tested may have an'effect on the accu-
racy of the final results. Deviations from the calculated (theoretical) val-
-156-
-------
.k
c. . c. e
Fig. 2. Theoretical curve of CO concentration changes.
Dots in~ca~e values obtained qy the PdC12 method.
.,
{ ".'
1
-~
c..Co e
.
-
-
Fig. 3. Theoretical curve of CO concentration changes.
Dots indicate values obtained qy the MSA CO indicator
method.
-157-
-------
ues m~ have been due a160 to errors inherent in the manner in which the
samples were handled and to some methodological errors characteristic of the
apparatus used. The latter type of errors can be obviated by occasional
checking and restandardizing of the apparatus prior to field or control ap-~
plication.
Below is a report on one of our observations: During the determination
of CO concentration with the appar&tus values were obtained which were almost
50% below the expected. It was found that thehopcalite became inactivated
after less than eight tests, the number recommended in the specifications.
We were also able to establish that this occurred due to the fact that the
samples tested contained higher CO concentrations than normally expected.
This fact served as additional proof of the superiority and greater reliabil-
J
ity of our palladium method for CO determination in air samples, provided
that tbe set-up is occasionally rechecked and restandardized. It must be
emphasized that this is equally true of the MSA CO indicator method, the dis-
cussion of which follows.
Detection of carbon monoxide by the paper indicator method:
Known concentrations of CO were used for the calibration of the paper
strips to be used in the detection and estiIDation of carbon monoxide in air.
This was done as follows:
Solutions used:
1. Palladium chloride, 1% solution: Dissolve 1 g PdC12 in 10 ml of 1:1
HCl in a 100 ml volumetric flask; add water to the mark.
2. Sodium acetate, 15% solution.
Dip strips of filter paper into palladium chloride solution for 1 min-
ute; air dry; dip into sodium acetate solution; dry between filter papers;
strips are reaQy for use. Indicator paper can be used in the field as fol-
lows (12): Collect air sample at desired working place by siphoning water
out of the 500 ml collecting flask and allowing the air to replace the water;
add a few drops of bromine water; keep walls of collecting flask moist at all
times to inactivate substances which may tend to interfere with the reaction.
After 5 minutes drop into the air receptacle a crystal of NaCl and close
tightly; ten minutes later insert a strip of moist palladium paper; close the
vessel. In the presence of CO metallic palladium will form on the paper.
The following Table presents definitions of results obtained by us with pal-
-158-
-------
ladium indicator paper in the detection and estimation of CO in the air.
% of CO
Time in min.
: '
Color observed
0.1 - 0.3
0.1 - 0.3
0.1 - 0.3
0.02 - 0.06
0.02 - 0.06
0.02 - 0.06
0.01
0.01
0.005
2
5
10
5
10
20
10
20
Several hours
Trace of palladium
Light gray
Dark gray
No reaction
Light gray
Gray'
No reaction
Light gray
Trace of palladium
Field determinations of carbon monoxide:
We present a summar,y of our experience with CO determinations b.1 the pal-
ladium method in industrial plants and mines in Serbia during the past year.
- - . - - - - -
Values of 81% of 155 analyses were within the range of allowable concen-
trations, despite the fact that nlost air samples were collected at locations
of production plants and mines where high CO air concentrations could be ex-
pected. This was apparently due to the fact that generated CO became widely
dispersed within a matter of seconds, A reliable picture of the amount of CO
discharged into the atmosphere in the environs of some plants can be obtained
only under controlled conditions and the collection of air samples over,long
periods of time thereby assuring sample collecting throughout full working
days and catching periods of maximum CO air concentrations. Atmospheric con-
ditions also affect the CO concentration of the air, which is an additional
reason for the recommended manner of CO content examination of air in indus-
trial working places. Accurate CO determinations can not be performed by a
central laborator,y, therefore, it is imperative to train personnel capable of
performir~ the task under various types of field conditions. Sanitar,y and
hygienic studies of air of industrial premises should be accompanied b.1 peri-
odic medical examinations of the workers to detect possible chronic intoxi-
cation. The level of CO in the blood should be used as a preliminar,y detect-
ing indicator.
Conclusions:
1. The palladium chloride method for the determination of CO in the air
can be used conveniently in the field. It is easy to perform, can be used
for CO concentrations ranging between 0.001 - 0.05%, and is well adopted for
'-
"
-159-
-------
the determination of concentrations usually found in industrial establish-
ments. A field worker can be trained to collect and analyze 10 air samples
a day. Range of error is ! 4%.
2. Commercially produced materials and apparatus used in the detection
of CO in the air should be checked and used in strict conformity with the
instructions supplied.
3. Indicator paper strips can be used reliably for the detection of CO
concentrations exceeding the allo~ble limits.
4. At no time should a single CO determination be regarded as reliable
or indicative. Air of industrial work roams should be examined over long
periods of time in order to obtain reliable average maximal concentrations
of CO in the air of industrial shops and workrooms.
Bibliography.
1) J:1 cob sM.. The Analytical Chemistrv of Industrial Poi.:;on!':. Hazards
'nrl Solvents, New York. 1949. - 2} Pat t y t., Industrial Hygiene and T,o~i-
:3!Ogy II, New York, 1949.- 3) Lunge, Ambler. Technic1i1 G'\s A)'1aly-
-'~. New York. 1934. - 4) MOKnalt.a11 M., Tcxcm'3;tYX!i n::>'J~nIWJbe-
!UlX npe1l1IDHanm I. MocKBa. 1947. - 9\ Boy It B.. cf> y raw M., Apx. xnr.
~a::Ja 1 (1950). 168. -10\ S tea d F..' J. Ind. Hyg. Tox. 29 (1947\. 4011. ~ 11)
3 e tt e r J.i n d A., Ind.. Hyg. Quarterly 14 (1953), 113. - 12) Win k I e r L.
z. anal. chern. 9'1 (1934), 10'1.
-.1.60-
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Determination of Carbon Monoxide with the Aid of a Gas Analyzer.
N. Turkel'taub. - Zhur. Analit. Khimii, 1950, Vol. 5, No.4;
D. N. Senderikhina, Infonuatsiono-Metodioheskie Materialy
No.5, 1955, 21.
Carbon monoxide is oxidized with the aid of a red-hot platinum wire spi~
ral in a special apparatus, as described elsewhere. The resulting oarbon di-
oxide is absorbed by a given volume of 0.005 or 0.01 N barium hydroxide
Ba(OH)2 + CO2 . »aCO) + H20.
The quantity of carbon dioxide is determined by the differenoe in ti trations
against HCl before and after the air sample is passed through the oxidizing
(combustion) chamber. The sensitivity and accuracy of the method was found
to be 0.0014 mg.
EQuipment required. (See - Limits of Allowable Concentrations of Atmos...
pheri... Pollutants, -U. S.. Departmen't of Commerce, O. T. S. - 59-21174., p:p.
116 - 20, 1:17'.) For the determination of carbon monoxide two V-shaped tubes
are inserted into a gas analyzer (see illustration). One V-shaped tube is
. filled with p~oe saturated with H2S04 of 1.80 - 1.82 sp. gr.; the other tube
is filled with silicagel. The V-shaped tubes are placed at the entranoe open-
ing of the gas analyzer or between the glass capsule containing ICCI and the
combustion tube.
Reagents required. (See same volume p. 118.)
1. Heated granulated pumioe for the absorption of unsaturated hydro-
oarbons.
2. SulfUrio aoid, 1.80 - 1.82 sp. gr.
Sample collecting. For the determina~ion of maximal single conoentration
two air samples are collected into soft rubber reoeptao1es (Same as in Ankioa
Stepanovich Palladium Test). The latter are deflated by tightly oompressing
them. 'l'he air sample is then pumped in with the aid of a two-way rubber bulb-
pump for 10 minutes. It is recommended that the air sample be analyzed the
day it has been oolleoted; if this can not be done the air sample should be
transferred to a glass aspirator filled with a 25% solution of NaCl. To ac-
complish this the rubber air sample reoeptacle is connected to the aspirator- .
bottle and the air sample transferred by squeezing the rubber recep~acle; the
air enters the aspirator replacing the NaCl solution. Air samples can also
-161-
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be collected in 300 - 500 ml collecting glass receptacles. For the determi-
nation of average 24 hours concentration collect 12 air samples at two hour
intervals. A specially constructed gas-air receptacle can be used for this
purpose.
Calculation of results. In the case under consideration the sample vol-
o
the temperature 20 and the atmospheric pressure 752 mm mer-
ume was 500 ml,
cury. Hence
Vo - 1~3x+2~~)xx7~~0 - 470 ml or 0.47 liter
The entire sample was used in the determination. In the control titration
4.25 ml of 0.005 N HCI was consumed. After oxidation of the air sample 4.21
ml of similar HCl was consumed. The difference between the two titrations
was 0.04 mI. Hence 0.07 x 0.04 - 0.0028 mg is the weight of the CO in the
0.0028 x 1000 -~J. 3
entire sampl-e, 0.47" 6 wesJ"m is the concentration of the CO in
the air sample.
1
Fig. 1. Apparatus for the de'tA'rllliY'a1iion ot 'total hj"drocarDOI18 and of CO.
1.- Prelim1n&r7 oombustion chamber,2 & j - spiral-containing chambersf
4 - sample dry1ng chamber, 5 - combustion ohallber, 6 - absorber 'with
spiral tube extension; 7 - aspira'tor with 3-W&J' ..stopoock: and level ad-
jus'ting flaSk, 8 & 9 - mioroburettes, 10 - overflow flaSk, 11 - 4-W&J'
stopcock, 12 - rubber bul~, 13 & 14 - titration solution containers,
15 & 16 -. satev valve -flasks, 17 & 18 - ti traticn and llioroburette fil-
11Dg stopcock, 19 - gas container, 20 - tunnel-shaped leveling flask.
-1.62-
l
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Colorimetric Determination ot Aotive ChloriDe in Calcium ~och1orite.
B7 L. )I. IiIl 'berg and L. D. Borzova.
Gig1ena i Sanitari7a 1955, .0. 9, pp. 50-51.
A method was developed tor the determination ot tree chlorine in calcium
~oohlorite based on the indophenol reaction. In the. presenoe of hypoohlorite
ions in alkaline solution pheDol and aniline undergo s1l1thetic oxidation, which
in tbe case
-------
t
O,q
0.5 .
0,4
0.3
0.2
0.1
9.25. flSo.7S 1 . 1.15 1,5 1.75 2 2,25
Concentration in grams
Nomograph for the determ1natlon of aotive Cl
in__chJ~ride of lime.
The diagram shows that the Lambert-Baer law prevailed in this reaction.
The etaDda1'd scale is prepared as shown in the table belowl
Preparation of standard scale for the determination of active
ohlorine in chloride of l1me.
I Solution volume. in ml
CliD I COileD. I I .et~len I ltCr(S04)2. I Co(1I03)2
mg/ml I 1D% I Kl I blue I 1~0 I .6H20
I I I , . I
2.0 20.0 4.0 0.03 1.0 6.3
1.5 20.0 4.5 0.02 0.6 4.75
1.0 11.6 4.0 0.02 0.3 2.5
0.7 7.7 4.0 0.02 0.2 1.7
0.3 7.7 5.0 0.02 0.1 1.2
Uon of active chlor1rie in oaloium }qpochlori te conta1D1Dg no other oxid1sers
.as checked b7 _~1"'g parallel iodometric and oolorimetrio determinations. Av-
erage differenoe in results did not exceed 0.09%, indicatiDg that the method
described can be recommended for use in detem1ning aotive chlorine in calcium
hT,pochlorite miziure for practioal purpose..
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Determination of Carpon Monoxide in the Air by Means of an Indicator Tube.
. By L. A. Mokhov and A. V. Demidov.
Laboratornoe Delo, Vol. 3, No.1, 48-50 (1957).
Many methods have been proposed for the determination of carbon monoxide
in the air. Nearly all are basedo~ the reducing property of CO. The method
based on the reduction of palladium salts, producing a blackening of the so-
lution and of the filter paper saturated with the p~lladium salt solution is
the one used most frequently. Many of the palladium salt reduction methods
have shortcomings such as low sensitivity, require relatively large volumes
of air for analysis, their indicators lack stability, the time needed for the
color developing is too long, etc.
The method here described is rapid, the reagents employed are stable"
and the reaction-color develops in a short time. The principle of the method
is the reduction of palladium sulfate by CO. Control tests established that
palladium sulfate is reduced more rapidly than any other palladium salt. Am-
mo~ium sulfate, one of the components of the indicator, stabilizes it, and
ammonium molybdate increases the sensitivity of the reagent. Silica-ge~ is
used as the indicator base. The final product is introduced into a glass in-
dicator tube and the air aspirated through it in a given volume.
Preparation of ~he silica-gel.
Prepare a solution of commercial sodium silicate of 1.25 - 1.27 sp. gr.
and dilute with an equal volume of distilled water. To 500 ml of 5.5 N solu-
tion of S' ",lfuric acid add an equal volume of the prepared sodium silicate so-
lution gradually with constant vigorous stirring. Leave stand for 24 hours
at room temperature. Check its formation by pressing the gel with the finger;
the gel should be resilient and should develop cracks upon pressure. Out the
gel into small pieces and dry at 900 for 3 - 4 hours. Transfer into a beaker
a.nd fill beaker with nitric acid of 1.29 - 1.30 sp. gr. and leave stand for
24 hours. Wasnfirst with tap water to remove the acid as shown by congo re~
paper; again wash with distilled water to remove all chlorine as shown by
AgN03. Dry in a drying chamber to the point of translucency resembling glass.
Grind in a porcelain ball mill or mortar to fine powder and sift through a
100 - 200 mesh sieve; again dry in a muffle furnace for 8 hours at 6000.
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Preparation of indicator gel.
Place 3 m1 of 4.8% solution of ammonium molybdate into a flask; add 0.05
illl of 1% solution of ammonium sulfate and 1 ml of palladium sulfate solution
which contains 0.019 g of palladium. Determine the ~uantity of the palladi-
um i~ the solution by the method of Gillebrandt and Lendell. Concentrations
as here indicated should be adhered to scrupulously; an dxcess ~uantitT of
palladium may cause u~fficulties in the colorimetric determination, while in-
sufficient palladium may re~uirea larger volume of aspirated air.. Add 1.5 g
of silica-gel prepared as described. Seal the flask tightly with a stopper
through which insert a glass tube the lower end of which is drawn into a cap-
illary. Connect the upp~r and of the tube by means of a rubber tube with a
calcium chloride tube which contains intermittent layers of charcoal, si1ica-
gel .and hopcalite for the purification of the outside air (as will be shown
later) frow impurities, including CO. Leave flask and contents stand for 6
hours; immerse into a waterbath at 50 - 60° and vacuumate to 11 - 20 mm.
Evaporation of water will take place during the first 15'- ~O minutes. Raise
the temperature to 60 - 650 and vacuumate further to 4 - 5 rom for final drying
of the substance for 30 - 35 min. Let in air through the capi11ar.y tube into
the flask to e~ualize with atmospheric pressure. Transfer to a tightly sealed
glass jar previously washed with CO-free air.
Preparation of indicator tube.
An indicator tube is schematically presented in the drawing shown below.
The tube is filled with each of the components in the indic~ted order, holding
the tube with the wide end up. A small cotton plug is inserted into the nar-
row end of the tube and g~nt1y but finnly packed with a glass rod. Introduce
a 5 rom layer of silica-gel, a 3.5 rom layer of indicator, another l~er (20 roDl)
of silica-gel and a 2 rom layer of CUS04 to absorb H2S if present. Finally
insert a layer of glass wool and pack, gently tapping the tube, narrow end
. .
down, aga~nst a hard surface. Seal the tube with a gas flame, being careful
not to allow any of the gas to enter tLa tube. This can be done by shaping
the left end of the tube as shown in the illustration over 4 - 5 rom and by
applying the sharp point of a gas flame at the tapering shvulder.
-166-
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Analysis of air for CO.
Open the tube at both ends respectively at positions I and II shown in
the illustra.tion. Use a syringe and force 50 ml of the -test Olir through the"
tube over a period of 1 minute. The indicator will change color. Determine
colorimetrical~.
Preparation of the stQndard scale.
Prepare mixtures of air and CO in concentrations from 0.0005 - 1 rug/I.
Check the accuracy of the concentrations by a precise method, such as the
Reberg method. Pass 50 rnl of each CO-air concentration through indicator
tubes as previously described. The nature and intensity of the resulting
. /
color for each CO concentration is reproduced or recorded on paper by a col-
" .
or artist. Store the scale in a dark room to prevent fading.
The .sensitivity. of the method is 0.005_mg/l. Determination accuracy is
~ 5% on the volume basis.
:::=
1
Si 11 cage 1 I
:-~"'.,~-
I Indio I
, I"
. Cotton'
Indicator tub.
~
Gi, llebrand V. G. and Lendell, G. - Practical Manual of Inorganic Analysis.
Moscow, 1935.
-167-
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Apparatus for the Determination of Carbon Monoxide and Carbon Dioxide in the
Air and of Gaseous Components of Liquid Fuel.
By V. P. Dzedzichek and A. V. Demidov.
Laboratornoe Delo, Vol. 3, No.4, pp. 46-51 (1957).
The determination of toxic components in industrial plants, storehouses
of inflammables, garages, etc., is an important problem of the semi tary eval-
uation of air pollution. The air of the establishments mentioned contains,
in addition to other noxious substances, carbon monoxide and volatile hydro-
carbons which come from liquid fuel. There exis~ sufficiently accurate meth-
ods for the deter~nation of carbon monoxide in the air with the aid of spe-
cial apparatus, such ~s the Reberg and the conductoroetric apparatus of the
Leningrad Institute of Labor Protection of the All-Union Central Council of
Trade-Uniona. However, these have disadvantages: they are of complex con-
struction, they are large, the glass parts are fragile, the preparation of the
reagents and conducting of the analysis are time-consuming.
Quantitative anslyses of air for fuel vapors is made by two methods dis-
tinct in their principles. The nephelometric method is based on the fact
that addition ~f distilled water to a solution of gasoline or kerosene in
concentrated acetic acid produces a turbidity the intensity of which is pro-
portional to the dissolved hycirocarbons. The vapor concentration of an in-
flammable hydrocarbon is determined by comparing the turbidity in the tube
containing the teat material with respective turbidities of a standard scale
of gasoline or. kerosene solutions in acetic acid. This method yields only
approximate results. .Another, more widely used method is wore accurtite; it
is based on the combustion of hydrocarbons in a tubular furuC:l.ce or in a spe-
cial apparatus. The formed carbon dioxide is absorbed by a known alkaline
solution, the excess of which is titrated with hydrochloric acid of known
concentration.
The apparatus and method here described yield quantitative results of
greater accuracy in the determination of carbon wonoxide, carbon dioxide and
gaseou~ co~ponents of liquid fuels, such as gasoline and kerosene present in
the air. Control tests and tests under working conditions clearly showed
that the proposed apparatus and method possessed the following advcntages:
1. Light weight (about 300 g) and small dimensions (16 x 12 x 18).
-168-
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3.
Compact assenilily and easy portability.
Can be used in the laboratory and in the field.
2.
4.
5.
6.
Apparatus can be quickly set up for tests.
Analysis can be made in 10 - 15 winutes.
SiD~licity of procedural steps.
Results of a series of simultanebus detenninations of carbon monoxide and
kerosene vapors in air are shown in Tables 1 and 2.
TABLE
1.
Comparative CO determinations by the Reberg and the proposed methods.
Dates of tests
CO in mg/l
Reberg apparatus
CO in mg/l by
proposed method
23/XI/1955
23/XI/1955
23/XI/1955
23/XI/1955
23/XI/1955
24/XI/1955
28/11/1955
28/11/1955
29/11/1955
0.050
0.045
0.045
0.050
0.050
0.105
0.400
0.400
0.020
TABLE
0.045
0.045
0.045
0.050
0.045
0.100
0.400
0.395
0.022
2.
Comparative kerosene vapor determinations by gas analyzer TG-5a and
b.y the pro~osed apparatus.
Dates of tests
Results in fig/I of air
By TG-5a By proposed
gas analyzer apparatus
29/11/1955
30/11/1955
30/11/1955
30/11/1955
0.395
0.110
0.480
0.480
0.390
0.110
0.485
0.490
The principle of the method.
Basically the principle of the method is
the same as of the combustion methods currently in use. The carbon monoxide
or the hydrocarbons contained in the air are oxiaized to carbon dioxide in a
combustion chamber with the aid of an electrically heated coil. The carbon
dioxide is then passed through a coil condenser (absorber) which contains a
known volume of a known solution of barium hydroxide, and the excess of the
latter determined by titration with a standardized solution of HCI, and the
-169-
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results expressed in mg of CO or of hydrocarbons, as the case may be, per 11-
ter of air. Use formulas shown in the following paragraphs for the calcula-
tion of results.
The apparatus.
four main sections:
As shown in the drawing below, the apparatus consists of
the purifying section, the Qtstributor, the combustion
chamber and the absorber.
The function of
interfering with the
of cylindrical glass
the purifier section is to free the air from components
analysis, particularly from carbon dioxide. It consists
parts 1, 2, 3 as shown in the drawing below.
,
-
Fig. ~. Scheme o't the S""'9-
The lower half of cylinder 1 is filled with small pieces of pumice (a) mois-
tened with concentrated sulfuric acid to absorb the air moisture.
Crushed
brick can be used instead. A layer of glass wool (b) is placed over the pum-
ice and the glass wool is overlaid by coarse grained silica gel (c) to adsorb
the combustible vapor from the air. Cylinder 2 is filled with calcined soda
lime and cylinder 3 with granulated sodium hydroxide. The function of qylin-
ders 2 and 3 is to absorb the C02.
The distributor of the apparatus 4 is a three-way stop-cock by means of
which the analyzed air, coming in at 7, can be directed through the purifier
and into the combustion chamber 5, or through 8 directly into the combustion
chamber for the determination of hydrocarbons. The combustion chamber con-
sists of a medium diameter glass cylinder with a fixed platinum coil. A di-
rect or alternating current of 3 - 4 V can be passed through this coil from a
circui t including a flow meter (R) and an amP1eter (A). Wi th a 2 V current the
-170-
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coil consumes 3.5 - 4.5 A. A storage batter.y can be used in field work.
the current is drawn from a light circuit the voltage is stepped down by a
transformer.
If
The absorber coil is connected with the combustion chamber by means of
a rubber tube; the analyzed air coming from the eombustion chamber passes
through the absorber coil in small bubbles and enters the upper widened part
where the final titration is made. Considerable time is saved in the corn-
pletion of the analysis, first because the cxidation of the CO and of the
hydrocarbons is more rapid and more complete by the hot coil combustion aJeth-
od than b~ the iodic anhydride used in the Reberg apparatus, and secondly be-
cause the greater length of the absorber coil assures a more complete absorp-
tion of the C02 than the Reberg absorber. For these reasons the analyzed air
can be passed through the apparatus at a much faster rate witnout risking the
passage of incomplete oxidation products through the coil, or some C02 not
becoming absorbed by the alkaline solution.
The technic of the analysis.
Determination of carbon dioxide in the air. The first step consists in
introducing 4 ml of 1/50 N solution of barium oxide into the absorber coil to
free it from C02. To do thiE turn stopcock 4 so as to connect the purifier
with the absorber. A slow flow of air, coming at 7, passes thr.ough cylinders
1, 2, 3 and enters the absorber which is still empty. After one half a minute,
the time required to fill the entire system with C02-free air, the end of a
microburette, which is connected to a fla~k containing 1/50 solution of Ba(OH)2'
is lowered into the absorber and 4 ml of barium oxide run into the absorber,
while the flow of C02-free air through the system is maintained. The control
determination is made as follows: The current switch is turned on and the
platinum coil heated to bright red; 250 ml of air, measured by an aspirator,
is passed through the system. The air-flow should be at the rate of 3 bubbles
per second entering the widened part of the absorber. The rate of gas-flow is
controlled by a clamp or a stopcock. After 250 ml of C02-free air has passed
through the absorber, the barium hydroxide solution is titrated with 1/50 N
hydrochloric acid, using phenolphthalein as the indicator. Following the con-
trol deter~mination the analysis of the air under investigation is conducted
as just described. Results of the analysis are calculated by formula:
X = J8 - v) x 0.28 x 1000
v
-171-
-------
/
in which X is the concentration of CO in the air in mg/l
a = ml of 1/50 E" hydrochloric acid consumed in the control determina-
tion
v = ml of 1/50 N hydrochloric acid consumed in the titration of the
control test
0.28 conversion coefficient of HCl to CO; 1 ml of 1/50 N HCl is
equivalent to 0.28 mg of CO
v = volume of air passed through the apparatus and adjusted to normal
(standard) temperature and pressure. It is the same for all
tests.
Three tests ':ire wade in the determination of E:::aseous components of liq-
uid fuel (hydrocarbons) in the air, two basic and one control. The control
test determines the presence in the air of admixtures which affect the titra-
tion of barium oxide in the determination of hydroc&.rbons in the air. In the
control test pur~ air is passed through the absorber with the coil red hot.
In the two basic tests the analyzed air bypasses the absorber, but in one case
the air is passed through the combustion chamber with the coil not heated and
is known as the "cold test"; it serves to determine the amount of C02 not pre-
viously removed. In the other basic test the analyzed air is passed through
the combustion chamber with the coil heated to bright red; this test is known
as the "hot test" a.nd serves to deterr.ri.ne the total C02 in the test sarople,
i. e., the carbon dioxide in the air plus that formed during the combustion of
the hydrocarbons.
In making the control test the coil is heated to bright red and 250 ml of
pure a.ir admitted through 7, passed through cylinders 1, 2 and 3 into the com-
bustion chamber and therefrom into the absorber which now contains 4 ml of 1/50
N solution of Ba(OH)2' By placing stopcock 4 into the appropriate position,
isolate the absorber section and titrate with 1/50 N hydrochloric acid pre-
venting the barium oxide from coming in contact with the carbon dioxide of the
a.ir.
In making the basic test a 500 ml pipette is filled with the air to be
analyzed; 250 ml of the air is then passed into the absorber by water displac~
mentthe air is run throughOintake 8; passed through the unheated coil into
the absorber which contains 4 ml of the barium oxide solution and then titrat-
ed with hydrochloric acid. The results of the titration is denoted as VI mI.
The remaining 250 ml of the air is used similarly for the second basic test,
except that the platinum coil is heated to bright red. The result of this
-112-
-------
titr~tion is designated as V2 mI.
Calculate the result by formula:
v-v
X = 1
- V )
2
W
mg/l
of air
x 1000
X 0.12
in which X is the carbohydrate in
W is the volume of air passed through absorbers, adjusted to standard
(normal) temperature and pressure and is the same in all three
tests
0.12 is the conversion coefficient of hydrocarbons to carbon.
To express the analytical results in milligrams of carbon per liter of
fuel, the content 01 v~rbon in percentage~ contained in a given type of fuel
should be determined first and the conversion made according to formula:
C = m x 100
p
in which C is the true concentration of fuel vapor in mg/l
m is the test concentration of fuel vapor in mg of carbon per liter
p is carbon in fuel expressed ~n per cent.
An accurate determination of carbon dioxide in the air by the apparatus
can be made by admitting a measure~ volume of air through intake 8 and passing
it through a heated combustion coil into an absorber containing a standard
solution of barium oxide and titrating the residual free alkali with hydro-
chloric acid.
Bibliography.
Senderikhina, D.
Turkeltaub, N.
Gigiena i Sanitariya, 1953, No.1, p. 44.
Zhur. Analit. Khim., 1950, v. 5, No.4, p. 200.
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The Determination of Radium Aerosol in the Presence of a-active A~rosols.
By O. S. Andreeva and E. E. Kovaleva.
Gigiena i Sanitariya 22, No.5, 27-30, 1957.
The wide use of radioactive substances and in particular of radium in
different industries, in bi~logy and in medicine necessitated the introduction
of strict sanitar.y-hygienic control of the air of certain industrial and man-
ufacturing premises. T.he opportunities for radium penetration into the or-
ganism are great among workers employed in the prevaration of luminous co~
positions and appliance~, in the manufacture of radium-berillium neutron e~
anators,in the processing of radioactive ores, in making radium preparations,
e~c. Due to cumulative radium effects, grave consequences ~. result from
extremely minute radium quantities as tenths of a microgram. Deaths have 00-
curred among workers employed in the manufacture or use of radium preparations
Therefore, it is important to have reliable methods for the detection of ra-
d~Ulli ~erosol in the air.
The determination of radium aerosol in the air is a complex problem. The
existing limit of allowable radium aerosol concentration in the atris lxlO-14
curie per/I; this corresponds to 22 dissocia~ions per minute per cubic meter
of air, the determination of which presents great difficulties. In the yres-
ence of other a-active aerosols the determination of a-active radium aerosol
concentration in the air offers particular difficulties. Presently existing
methods for the determination of active aerosols are based on aspirating the
air through ash-free chemical filter paper or through a l~er of fine synthetic
fibers. The precipitation of a-active aerosols by electric poles (electric
precipitators) has been regarded lately as the method of choice. The a-activ-
ity of the filters or targets must be tested first, and the concentrat~on in
the air determined in accordance with the results obtained. In using ordina-
ry filters, especially those made of paper, difficulties may be encountered
in the preliminar.y determination of the passage or absorption magnitude of a-
particles within the filter material. Due to the fact that absorption depends
upon many factors, evaluation of those magnitudes is a matter of extreme dif-
ficulty. The value of the required correlative factor can not be determined
with sufficient accuracy. In the case of electrio precipitators the factor of
absorption need not be accounted for; this simplifies the determination of a-
-174-
-------
activity of the target and the consequent calculation of the a-activity of
the aerosol concentration in the air.
When, in addition to radium aerosol, other a radiation i~present in the
air, and, hence, also on the filter, the use of above mentioned methods be-
comes impossible since a-activity of radium proper cannot be separated by usu-
al measuring methods or with the DA, IRIS and TISS set-ups. Therefo~e, an-
other method is here proposed for the determination of radium aerosols in the
presence of other a-active aerosols, which is based on the specific radium em-
anation. Radium-is not the only element which possesses emanation properties;
thorium X (ThX224) and Actinium X (AcX223) also possess emanation properties;
but the effects of thoron snd actinon emanations on the results of the deter-
mination of rau.ium emanation in the sample are obviated by measurement con-
ditions. All other a-emitters have no emanation properties. In the proposed
method radiometric a-activity measurements of the filter are replaced by the
method of emanation determination. The proposed method consists of three
steps: aspirating the air through a filter (sample collecting); chemical
processing of the air sample; determination of radium content by radon.
Dust samples can be collected in glass adapters on ~groSCQ~ic cotton
filters. The thickness of the cotton layer must be not less than 20 mm. Fil-
ters must be of uniform density ~nd cracks and light spots must be obviated.
To prevent the aerosols from passing through the filter density must be such
as to create an air suction pressure (pressure drop) equivalent to 150 mm of
water column. Filters other than cotton can be used provided that they ful-
fill the technical requirements. Radium content of the air is usually of the
order of 10~14 g/l; therefore, the aspirated air volume should be between
1000 - 2000 lit. Air swnp1es should be taken in the immediate proxixity of
working areas and at center points of workrooms.
Recommended time of air
aspiration is 50 min. to 1.5 - 2.0 hr~., depending upon the expected air aer-
osol content.
After air samples have been collected they are chemically processed to
convert the radium to soluble form. For this purpose the cotton filter is
carefully removed from the aspirator and placed into .a porcelain crucible
and 20 ml of 15% HN03 added. The adapter is rinsed with an acid solution
which is poured into the crucible.. The crucible is heated and the contents
evaporated to dryness. 25 ml of 15% EN03 is again added to the crucible and
the solution is passed through an ash-free filter. Thp. residue remaining on
-~ 15-
-------
the filter is discarded. In cases of air samples with a high content of in-
ert dust it may be desirable to use concentrated HN03. The filtered liquid
is placed into a vial, sealed and kept for 3 - 4 days for the formation of
radon. The time of vial sealing must be recorded. The separp-ted radon is
transferred to the previously vacuumated ionizing chamber of the SG-1M elec-
trometer. The ionizing chamber and the vial are connected with a desiccator
containing dried CaC12 to prevent moisture from entering the chamber.
Electrometric measurements are. performed as usual. The ionization cur-
rent is determined 3 - 4 hrs. after placing the radon in the chamber, i.e.,
after equillibrium has been establisb~d between the radon and its short lived
products of decomposition.
The half-lives of a-active aerosol, other than
radium aerosol, of the thorium and actinium family and their decomposition
products present in the air sample do not exceed 36.1 Inin (Actinium B) and
undergo decomposition during the 3 -4 days of the sealed vial's storage
time. The effects of thoron and of ThA, which may be present in the electro-
meter, can be discounted since their half-lives are 54.5 and 0.158 s.econds
correspondingly. The effect of the possible presence of TllB is excluded by
the fact that the 10.6 hrs. of its half-life is exceeded by the 3 - 4 days
of radon formation. In addition ThB radiates ~-particles the energy of which
is only 0.36 meb.
The quantity of separated radon is calculated according to the following
formula:
Q .. keN - No>
in which Q denotes radon concentration in the chamber in curie units; k de-
notes the calibration coefficient, i.e. the quantity of radon corresponding
to the movement rate of the hair in div/min; N denotes basic or background
o
rate,~r the indicator-hair movement in div/min. The quantity of radon in
CUri~~~~it8 corresponds to the quantity of radium contained in the air sample,
which\~~ determined by the following formula:
Q= m (1 - e -It) from which
m = Q
I - e -It
in which m is the quantity of radium in grams; 1 is the decomposition constant
-It
and t is the time of radon accumulation in the vial. The value of e is
determined from tables found in the book Radioactivity by M. Curie, Moscow-
-176-
-------
Leningrad 1947.
In making the calculations, the total volume of aspirated
air is taken into account.
The results are presented in grams per liter of
air.
Exa.ml)le:
A.,sume tha.t the time of radon'accumulation was <3 days.
The
air sat:,ple aspi I'a ted through the filter was 1000 liters.
In measuring the
radon electrometrically the .rate of the indicator-bair :aovewent was 60 grad-
uations per 283 seconds. Accordingly:
60 x 60 - 12 7
283 -..
at K = 9.6 X 10-12
From this radon concentration
-12 .
122 x 10 cur18.
6quals 9.6 x 10-12 x 12.7 =
'iii th the time of radon A.ccumulation t = 3 days the equiv-
alent of radium concentration in the air sample can be deteI'l}lined from the
tables previously r;Jentioned.
,..,
~
m = -17 =
1 - e
122 x 10-12
1 - 0.58
=
-11
29 x 10 r of radium in the entire srumple.
Converting this to terms of radiuln aerosol content in the air sample studied
the following is obtained: 29 x 10-14 ill.
The method was tested under l)ractical
suIts. After proper training dnd with due
0801 determination can be made within 25 -
conditions with satisfactory re-
caution this method of radium aer-
30% of actual concentrations.
-177-
-------
Determination of Free Silicon Dioxide in the Presence of Silicates in
Industrial Emissions and in Atmospheric Dust.
By
N. G. Polezhaev.
Institute Q:f General and COl!lI!Junity Hygiene, AMS, U. S. S. R.
Gigiena i Sanitariya 22, No. ll, 91-94, 1951.
Free silicon (lioxide (5i02) is one of the ~ost potent toxic components
of the hard phase of aerodispersed systems. It was felt, therefore, that sim-
plification of the presently used methods of 5i02 determination would be of
v3.1ue to hygienists concerned with problems of atmospheric air pollution.
Chemical methods for the determination of quartz in the presence of silicr,tes
are based on the solubility of silicates in fluorosilicic, pyrophosphoric and
tetra-borofluoric acids and on their separation from the unqffected and un-
changed Si02.
In the present method for the determination of free 5i02 in the pr~sence
of silicates, tte 5i02 is destroyed as such and is removed from the sample
leaving the silicates intact. The method is based on fusing free 5i02 and
the silicates with RHC03 or }T:;.HC03 in the presence of chlorides. In the proc-
ess of fusion the free 5i02 becomes converted into alkaline salts of silicic
p.cid while the silicic acid of the silioates is retained by the silicate mole-
cule enriched by the alkaline flux. The silicic acid is determined ~uantita-
tively colorimetrically by the yellow color intensity of the formed silica-
molybdic complex. The method is sensitive to 0.2 mg of Si02 in 50 mI.
Reag9nts and equipment required.
1.
2.
Chemically pure RHC03 or NaHC03.
Chemically pure KCl or NaCl.
3. Flux consisting of different graviproportions of KHCO) and KCI. Na
salts can be used instead of K salts. The v~riously composed fluxes are ground
in a mortar to a fine powder of homogeneous consistancy. The homogeneity of
the flux is determined by titration with HCl: take 1 g of the flux, dissolve
in 10 ml of H20 and titrate with 1 N HCl; 1 g of the flux should be equivalent
to 5 ml of the HCI. In the final fusion test use 50 times the quantity of the
KHC03-contaiDing flux and 40 times the ~uantity of the NaHC03-containing flux.
. -11~-
-------
4.
1 N solution of HCl.
5. 5% and 10% solutions of chemically pure Na2C02.l0 H2O.
l
6. Ammonium molybdate 10% solution.
7. HCl 1: 3.
8. 20% solution of the flux prepared as fol1ows: place 5 g of the com-
posite flux into a steel crucible and melt to fluid consistancy: dissolve in
25 ml of boiling water and filter. In place of the above dissolve 10 g KCl
in 100 ml of 6.9% of K2C03. .
9. Standard solution of S102 each wI of which contains 0.5 mg (the Rus-
sian text says 0.5 ml, which surely is an error) of Si02. This solution must
be freshly prepared as follows: take 0.05 g of finely powdered chemically
pure Si02 and mix thoroughly with 2.5 g of the composite flux, if made up of
K salts, and with 2 g of the flux, if made up of Na salts; place in a steel
crucible and fuse, applying heat to the side _of the crucible for- the first 3 -
5 min. then heat to red heat; continue heating after material is melted for
another two minutes slowly and carefully rotating the crucible. Cool and
gradually add to the congealed mass 40 ml of 5% solution of Na2C03.l0 H20
while lightly boiling the solution with the aid of a low flame. Filter the
dissolved material into a 100 ml graduated cylinder; wash filter with dis-
tilled water and bring volume up to the 100 ml mark.
10. Artificial standard scale. Dissolve 0.55 g of K2Cr04 in 100 ml dis~ ,
tilled water in a 100 ml volumetric flask; prepare standard scale from this
as shown in Table 1. Standards will keep for one month if kept tightly stop-
pered in a cool, dark room.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
HN03 1:1 solution.
HCl 1:1 solution.
S~turated solution of Na2B407.
Saturated solution of tartaric acid (CHOH)2 {CHOH)2'
2% solution of ammonium chloride.
4% solution of freshly prepared KOll.
19.
HYdrogen peroxide.
Coloriraetric cups, 20 x 2.5 em.
Stainless steel crucible 7 - 10 ml capacity.
20.
Test tube rack.
-179-
-------
Tab I e
I .
Artificial standard scale for the determination of Si02
Tube number
Reagents
.
.
.
.
.
! 0
II I
2
13 r .PI & 161718191101
II
. .
!
K2C~04 So In. 10,0
l.n ml 0 0.2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 2,0 3,0 4;0 6,0 8,0
S~ ~, Na2B 4 °1 12,5 12,5 12,5 12,5 12,5 12,5 12,5
l.n ml 12,5 12,5 12,5 12,5 12,5
Water in ml 37,5 37,3 37,1 S6,9 36,7 36,5 35,0 34,5,33,5 31,5 29,5 27,5
Equivalent to 3,014,0
mg of Si02 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 2,0 6,0 8,0 10,0
Analytical procedure.
Take 0.05 g of the sample in powdered form and fuse with the composite
flux directly, if the material is free from non silicate compounds (Fe, Ca,
Mg etc.). If such compounds are present, treat the test material as follows:
Grind the sample to a fine powder and place 0.05 g into a glass beaker of
25 - 50 ml capacity; moisten with a few drops of water and add 10 ml of an
acid mixture made up of equal volumes of HNO) (1:1) and HCI (1:1); boil lightly
for two min. Filter through a small ash-free filter; wash sediment retained
on the filter twice with 10 ml ~% solution of ammonium chloride previously
brought to a boil.
Utilize this solution first for rinsing the glass beaker which contained
the material. Moisten the filter with 1 - 2 mI. of cold 10% solution of Na2C03;
add 20 ml of boiling 10% solution of Na2C03 to the beaker which contained the
sample, rinse well and pour into the filter. Wash the beaker and sediment on
the filter twice with 10 ml of boiling wru~onium chloride solution as a final
washing operation. Remove filter from the funnel, fold and dry with another
filter paper; place into a stainless steel crucible and ignite carefully; in-
cinerate in a muffle furnace. This is the last step in the preliminary treat-
ment of the test material.
Fuse the material with the composite flux as follows: take 2.5 g of the
composite flux, if K salts are used, or 2.0 g if the Na salts are used; place
-180-
-------
a portion of this into the crucible containing the incinerated residue, mix
with a metallic rod and transfer to an agate mortar; place a second portion of
the composite flux into the crucible and again mix well to the point of homoge-
neity and place ~nto the agate mortar; repeat this procedure until all the flux
has been used up; thoroughly grind the mixture in the agate mortar and trans-
fer into the crucible. Slowly heat the sides of the crucible with a gas burner
for 3 - 5 min. then increase the flame and heat to red heat using a welding
torch. The mixture in the crucible will gradually melt to a fluid consistency;
continue heating for another 2 min while carefUlly rotating the crucible. Cool
and add to the congealed mass 40 ml of 5% solution of Na2C03 previously brought
to a boil. This is added fractionally repeatedly stirring the solution with a
glass rod; each dissolved fraction is poured into a small funnel provided with
ash-free filter paper and the filtrate run into a 100 ml volumetric cylinder.
Wash the filter with wa~er until the volume in the cylinder reaches 60 mI. Mix
thoroughly. For the -determination, take 30' ml and' place into -a, colorimetric
cup. In case of turbidity, clarify by repeated filtration. Prepare the stand-
ard scale simultane.ously as shown in Table 2.
Tab 1 e 2.
Natural standard scale for the determination of 5i02
- ~'be:L
.i -Tube . -~
~ .,..- - 171 819 1101~
Reagents I I I I I I G
o I 2 I 3 4 5
I I
Standard sol. I I I
a I I
inm1...._-~ 0 0,4 0,8 1,2 1,6 2,°14,0 6,0 8,0112,0,16,0 20,0
9,9 9,8 9,8 9,7 9,619,2 8,8 8,4 7,6[ 6,8 6,0
I ,~
6,2 6,1 6,1 6,0 6,0 15,7
12,4' 11,1
10~.Na2C03.l0H20
J.t. ml - -- -.- 10,0
2Ul> flux or
4
K2C03 and KCl
6.9% in ml- - --..J 6,2
H20 in ml... - - 13,8 13,5 13,3 12,9 12,7
10% ~o soln. in
ml.. - - - - 10,0 10,0 10,0 10,0 10,0
HCl 1:3
in m1... - - - - 10,0
Content of 5i02
in mg , 0
~---
0,5
, , I
5,5 5,2, 4,714,21 3,5,
9,7 8,415,7,' 3,0 0,5
1 I
10,0 10,010,0110,0110,0110,010,0
1 I!
I ,I
10,0 10,010,010,010,°110,010,0
,r " ,
1,0 I 2,03,01 4,0 6,01 8,010,1
10;0 10,0
i
0,21 0,4
10.0 10,0
0,8
-.181-
-------
It tor some reason less than 30 ml must be taken, tor example, '20, 10 or
5 ml, then the rest ot th6 volume must be made up by the addition ot 10% ot
Ba2C03' 20% of the oomposite tlux of K salts and water in corresponding quan-
tities as shown in Table 3.
If, after the addition of the 11lo1ybdate and the 1:3 BClt. there develops a
greenish-violet uolorJ then place the other half of the sample into a flask,
add 0.5 - 1.0 ml of H202 as long as bubDles continue to form. Cool and add
:i:l20 to the volume of 30 ml and proceed with the determination as above indi-
oated.
Tab 1 e
3 .
Ingredients
J.n mJ.
ml of sample
20 10
'5
10% NaC03......
20% composite
£lux or 6.9~
~C03 and HCl ..
Water .......
3.4 6.1 8.5-
..
2.1 4.2
4.5 9.1
502
1104
- .-~~--~.,-
Determination of free amorphous 5i02.
Take 0.05 g of th~powdered sample and place into a metallic crucible of
20 - 25 ml capacity; add 15 ml of 4% KOH, slowly heat and boil for 3 - 5 min.
Pass through a small ash-free filter and collect into a volumetric cylinder.
Wash the fJ.lter with 12.5 mlof 20% composite flux solution or 6.9% of ~C03
and KCl solution, first rinsing the crucible with the wash solution. Wash
crucible with 10 ml of 2% KOH solution; wash filter w~th same solution. BriDg
volume in the volumetric cylinder to 60 ml, mix well and take 30 ml for the
determination of free 5i02 as previously described.
In the course of work with the described procedures it was observed that
an excess of phosphate at first intensified and then destroyed the yellow 001-
or ot the phosphomolybdio complex forming, as it appeared, a new colorless
oomplex richer in P, bu~ th~silica-molybdenum complex and the intensity of
its yellow color remained unaffected. This was determined as follows: to
50 ml of a solution containing a known small quantity of silicates and phos-
phates solutions of molybdate and 1:3 HCl were added; 2 - 3 min later, when
a yellow color of definite intensity d~veloped 1 ml of 20% solution of
-182-
-------
NaH2P04.2 H20 was added; the intensity of the yellow color previously de-
veloped at first increased, then fell ~ack to the original level.
Summary.
1.
A rapid method is described for the determination of tree Si02 in
the presence ot silicates.
2. The method is based on the breakdown of tree Si02 by a special flux
composited by this author; the Si02 is then extracted from the sample with the
aid of an alkaline solvent, leaving the silicates of the sample intact.
-183-
-------
Colortmetric Determination of Iodine in the Air.
T.A. Berezina.
.The I. M. Sechenov First Koscow Order of Lenin Medical Institute.
Gigiena. i Sanitariya 22, No. l2,pp.88-90,. 1951.
A stu~ was made of the present methods used in the determination of io-
dine in the air which are based on the direct titration of the iodine with a
1/1000 N solution of thiosulfate, the determination of iodine b7 the subjec-
tive colorimetric method, the determination of iodine b.1 chloroform extraction
followed b7 colorimetric determination. All such methods were found to have
some basic shortcomings. Experiments w~re then made to define the possibility
of determining iodine in air electrocolorimetrically (electrophotometrically).
Electrophotometric methods of investigation are now in constant use in
different fields of science and technology, in the stu~ of staple commodities,
in technical and pharmaceutical chemistry, in medicine, biology, etc. The
characteristics of electro photometric methods are rapidity of determination,
high degree of sensitivity, and pOssible use in microanalysis. The high qual-
. ..
ity of electrophotometers now available made possible the determination of
quantities of material which could not be determined b,y any of the gravimetric
methods. .
We used the U. S. S. R. manufactured electrophotometer known as the TsZ-
A. No instructions have been issued for the use of this instrument in connec-
tion with the determination of iodine in the air. Therefore, specific proce-
dural steps had to be established. The use of this electrocolorimeter is based
on the property of some solutions to absorb a part of light rays which pass
through a layer of a solution and the property of the photoelements to gener-
ate a photocurrent. The light current passing through the solution is reduced
in intensity in proportion to the absorbing capacity of the solution and, as
the light comes in contact with the photoelements, the intensity of the photo-
current becomes reduced accordingly and is recorded b,y a highly sensitive gal-
vanometer. Different concentrations of test solutions possess different absorp-
tion capacities and create photoe1ement illumination of different intensities;
therefore, it is necessary to balance the electroscheme with the aid of supple-
mental resistance (rheochords). We enhanced the sensitivity of the stationary
galvanometer b,y installing a mirror galvanometer which doubled the sensitivity
-184-
"'-.
-------
of the original instrument (see Graph 1).
Yellow tinted iodine solutions avid~ absorb blue r~s. of 440 ~ length.
Therefore, in the determination of iodine the blue light filter should be used.
The illumination of iodine solution with this monochromatic light (blue) cre-
ates a set of cond1 tions under which. the r8.'Ts of light are absorbed b7 the so-
lution in a definite ratio to the concentration of the iodine.
In making quantitative air iodine determinations .e used a a II soluticm
as the absorber. Atmospheric oqgen does not liberate iodine frCD a a II so-
lution, and has no effect on the accurac;y of the ana~ical procedure. In
th1A. procedure. final iodine determinations are made simul taneous~ on the II
absorber solution for control purposes and on the absorber solution through
which the air sample .as passed. Therefore, arq free iodine which IIUQ' have
been present in the XI solution- is proper~ accounted for. The galvanometric
zero point is determined with the aid of two colorimetric cups, both containing
the XI absorber solution. Based on the above, we prepared two sets of iodine
solution standards (scales) from 0.05 to 5 mg per 50 ml of the 1% II solution
(see Graphs 2 and 3). The scale represented by Graph 2 consisted of 0.05 mg
steps and the one in Graph 3 of 0.5 mg steps, both in 50 mg of final volume.
Control titrations were made with 1/1000 N thiosulfate, which showed differ-
ences in the anal7tical results ranging between 0.4 - 0.5%.
By this method a single determination and calculation of the results can
be made in 2 - 3 minutes. It requires no previous~ prepared titration solu-
tions for each determination, since the nomographic scales need be prepared on~
once and can be used for all future determiaations. The air samples were col-
lected into three successive absorbers of the Petri type, each of the first two
containing 20 ml of the 1% KI solution and the third containing 10 ml of the ab-
sorber solution. The air was aspirated at the rate of 60 lit/hour. The air was
passed through an electric oven which vaporized the iodine. The content of the
three absorbers were poured into the left colorimetric container, the one on
the right side containing 50 ml of the original XI absorber solution. The elec-
tric current was switched on and the galvanometric needle adjusted to the zero
point with the aid of the current flowmeter. Meter readings were then made and .
converted to quantitative terms with the aid of the nomograph. The results wers
then converted into mg/lit. of air.
The method enables the determination of 0.001 mg of iodine per ml of solution.
-185-
-------
,
,Iv
3
II
I
/4
1.1
6SS
~'1 ~~ -
/.f
)0
Graph 1. Sohematic drawing of colorimeter TsZ-A with
mirror galvano~etero
1-120 V sooket; 2-120/6 transformer; 3-filament rheo-
stat 3w; 4-tumblerswitch for lisht bulb; 5-light bulb;
6-mirrorsJ 1-objectives; 8-solution cups; 9-photo-elements;
10-rheochord; ll-constant resistance coil; 12-galvano-
meter; 14-voltmeter for control of charge tension;
15-1ight filterso
. 0.5
~ 0",45
o 0 /1.4
W'a 0.35
o~ OJ
Q) ~ ~15
s:::/I.l
:a ~ ~?
o D,05
H
5
- I' '7'
u
_L
~......-
- f--
f---
- f--
-- - -
-- f-- f----
8 10 1/ 14 /6 16 10 Z2 14 15 16 30 3Z 34
Rheochord scale indeces.
Graph 20 Determination of iodine concentration in the air
with the aid of colorimeter TsZ-A and blue light filter.
J5 40 44 48 5Z 56 60 64 68 7Z 75 80
Rheochord scale indeces
Graph 30 Determination of iodine cO.'1centration in the air
with the aid of colorimeter TsZ-A and blue light filter
5,0
~ 4,5
o .. 4,0
s::t'"\a 3,5
g......... 3,0
~ 1,5
Q) a z,O
.~ s::: 1,5
:0..... ~o
o 11,5
1=1 - Jl
1/
-186--
-------
,- -
Chromatographic Separation of Benzene and Isopropy1benzene
and of Benzene and Ch1orobenzy1 in Air Analysis.
E. Sh~ Gronsberg.
From Gor'kii ScientifiQ-Research Institute of Labor Hygiene
and Occupational Diseases.
Gigiena i Sanitariya 23, No.1, 1958, pp. 11-81.
In the study of the sanitar.y-chemica1 characteristics of air it fre-
quently becomes necessar.y to make separate determinations of benzeae and its
homo1ogues. Many methods have been proposed in the literature for the sep-
arate determination of benzene and its homo1ogues in quantities of 10 - 20
mg or over. This author investigated the possibility of separating benzene
and isopropylbenzene and benzene and chlorobenz.y1 chromatographically in
small volumes of natural gases. The method studied consisted of a combina-
- - . - - - .
. .
tion of thermal desorption 'and chromatographic analysis. Grade ASK si1ioa-
gel was used of 0.25 (d < 0.5) mm granulation. The height of the silicagel
column was 60 em and its weight, depending upon the diameter of the column,
ranged between 12 - 4.5 g. The air was aspirated at the rate of 10 - 100
m1/min. and the rate of the heater movement ranged between 1 - 2.5 cm/min.
Results of tests .showed that when the column was loaded with 0.3 - 8.0
mg of benzene the predominant part of the latter was separated during the
first heater shift along the si1icage1column at a temperature of 30 - 25°.
. After 3 - 5 heater shifts additional desorption took place of some hundredths
of gm of the benzene remaining in the silicage1. Similar results were ob-
tained with the desorption of 'isopr~py1'ben~ene. This indicated that under
such conditions of desorption no separation of benzene from :isopr~py1Denzene
or fram c~lorobenzy1 could be accomplished. It was necessar,y to develop a
set of conditions under which the components under consideration would be
separated during their adsorption from the air; for this purpose a partition-
ing system was employed consisting of a silic~gel\ho1ding tube of a special
construction and of an absorber of an appropriate type. The quantity of si1-
icagel and its adsorbing property must be such as to enable the component
with the lower adsorption potential. to become desorbed at room temperature,
so that it could be subsequently trapped by the absorbers; the component with
the higher adsorption potential had to remain adsorbed by the silicage1. Ac-
-187-
-------
cord.inglythe'probl~mreduced itself to finding a suitable silicagel and a
set of conditions which would make possible the subsequent complete desorp-
tion of the benzene at room temperature. We used V-shape4.chromatographic
glass tubes of different diameters which were filled with silicagel.
The experimental procedure wa~ as follows: a known quantity of the sub-
stance was passed through the V-shaped tube containing silicagel and through
two small Petri absorbers containing 2 ml of nitro-mixture. The air was
. aspirated through the system at the rate of 8 - 10 Ii/hour. Absorbers were
changed at definite intervals of time, or when the volume of aspirated air
indicated the need for ~bsorber change. The content of the absorbers was
. .
analyzed to determine the course of the desorption process of the adsorbed
. .
substance from the silicagel. Dosing of benzene'in mg fractions was accom-
plished as follows: using a vacuum pipette a sample of saturated benzene
vapor was taken ata given temperature and passed through the chromatographic
system. The quantity of the benzene contained' in the sample was determined
experimentally. Mg quanti ties of the components were measured by a micro-
pipette calibrated in 1 mm3; these were measured in liquid form into a small
chamber and the air from the chamber aspirated through the absorber system.
Three grades of silicagel were thus tested, MSM, ASM and ASK, . of which the
last proved most suitable. With an optimal diameter of the silicagel chamber
of 3 mm and with 0.4 - 0.5 g of ASK silicagel, the height of the column was
approximately 20 em; with such a set of conditions and with a given volume of
air asp1.rated at room temperature the benzene became des orbed from the silica-
ge1 column while the adsorbed isopropylbenzene and the chlorobenzyl. remained
undisturbed.
Results of benzene separation from chlorobenzylare presented in Table
1; they show that the benzene became desorbed from the silicagel column and
was subsequently absorbed by the nitro-mixture, while the chlorobenzyl in
9-uantities up to 10 mg remained firmly adsorbed by the silicagel through whic.a
approximately 20 li of the air was aspirated.
Results of benzene separation from isopropylbenzene are presented ir
'Table 2. As above, isopropylbenzene became chromatographically separated
from benzene.
The results presented in both tables ahow that mg fractions of benzene
can be determined in the presence in the air of 9 - 10 mg of chlorobenzylor
-188-
-------
TA:BLE
1.
Partitioning of benzene and ch1orobenzy1.
Compound
: Became des orbed in mg at the aspiration of' air in 1i
:Mg used: 63 3: 6 :Tota1 desorbed
IDR :' %
Benzene
Ch1orobenzyl
Benzene
Chlorobenzyl
Benzene
Ch1orobenzyl
0.23 0.2 0.02 None
5.05 None found None found None
0.23 0.2 0.12 None
5.0 None found None found None
0.23 0.2 .0.01
5.05 None found None l' ound
found
found
found
found
0.22
o
0.212
o
0.21
o .
96.0
o
92.0
o
91.0
O.
TABLE
2.
Partitioning of benzene andisopropylbenzene.
Compound
: ::Became adsorbed in ~ at the aspiration of air in li
:Mg used: 6' 6: 6 : Total des orbed
lDR %
Benzene 0.23 0.2 0.02 0.22 96.0
Isopropylbenzene 8.6 None found None found. 0 0
Benzene 0.23 0.2 0.01 Trace 0.21 91.3
Isopropy1benzene 8.6 None found None found None found 0 0
Benzene 0.23 0.21 0.01 Trace. 0.22 96.0
Iso~ropy1benzene 8.6 None found None found Trace Trace
:Benzene 0.23 0.23 0.02 0.01 0.26 113.0
Isopropylbenzene 8.6 None found ,None found None found 0 0
of isopropyl benzene. After the required volume of air has been aspirated the
chromatographic system was brought to the laboratory and 5 Ii of air aspirated
through it to displace from the silicage1 column any of the benzene which may
have enterad the silicagel chamber with the last portion of the aspi~ated air,
following which the nitro-~xture absorber solutions were analyzed for their
benzene content. It is important that each air sample be aspirated through a
fresh portion of the silicagel.
Chlorobenzyl was not desorbed completely from the silicagel even at a
temperature of 150°; therefore, the air was aspirated directly through the
nitro-mixture-containing absorbers and the 6hlorobenzy-l determined as de-
scribed below. Isopropylbenzene, on the other hand, became easily and quan-
titatively des orbed from the si1icagel at 100° and was determined in the nitro-
mixture. Isopropylbenzene can be aspirated directly through the ni tro-mix-
-189-
-------
ture absorbers and determined ~uantitatively colorimetrically. It is on the
principle of its dinitro derivative reaction in an alkaline mixture of ether
and alcohol.
Isopropylbenzene vapor was absorbed by aspirating the air at the rate
of 8 - 10 li/hr through two Petri or Polezhaevabsorbers'containing 2 ml of
the nitro-mixture. The sample was then nitrated for one hour over a boiling
waterbath. The dinitro derivative was extracted with 10 ml of ether b.1 the
rapid method of B. S. Boikina. To 5 ml of the dinitro derivative ether ex-
tract 5 ml of alcohol and 0.5 ml of 5% of Na-alcoholate were added. After
some mixing an orange yellow color developed the intensity of which increased
during the first hour; the maximum coloration attained persisted for several
hours. The solution thus obtained was homogeneous and clear making possible
the determination of color intensities with a high degree of precision. Col-
orimetric determination was made-with the aid of standard solutions of 0.01,
0.02, 0.04, 0.08, 0.12, 0.20, 0.30 and 0.40 mg Jf isopropyl benzene per stan-
dard tube. Standard solutions thus prepared and boiled kept in the nitro-
mixture without any change in color intensity or clarity for not less than one
month.
The determination of chlorobenzyl was also based on the principle of
nitrification as described for isopropylbenzene.- The air was aspirated
through two Petri or Polezhaev absorbers at the rate of 20 - 30 li/hour. Ni-
trification occurred during the sample collection. If the final analysis was
~ade 1 - 2 hours after air aspiration, then 1 ml of water was added to each
absorber and the mixture shaken. Extraction of the dinitro. derivative of the
chlorobenzyl . was made with ether, as above described, for isopropylbenzene
derivative. For colorimetric determination to 5 ml of the extract 5 ml of al-
cohol and 0.5 ml of 5% Na-alcoholate were added and mixed. A green color de-
veloped. Final colorimetric determination was made with the aid of standard
solutions. The standard scale consisted of solutions of chlorobenzyl as fol-
lows: 0.005, 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 0.05, 0.075, 0.10, 0.15 and 0.70 mg.
Mixed with the.nitro-mixture absorbing solution in 2:1 ratio the standards kept
well for not less than one month. The color of the standard solutions prepared
as described lost 10 - 15% intensity in 15 minutes. It is recommended, there-
fore, that a permanent artificial standard scale be used which also saves time.
Such an artificial standard scale was made of aqueous solutions of brilliant
green and methyl orange of appropriate color intensities determined experimen-
-190-
-------
tally. Comparison of the color intensity of the artifical standard with the
natural standard should be made 5 oinutes after the Na-alcoholate has been
added to the alcohol-ether solution containing the desired quantity of the
chlorobsnzy~. The chlorobenzyl leterminations should be made one at a
time. The alcohol and Na-alcoholate should be added to the ether extract and
the colorimetric comparison made; this should be followed by the second,
third, etc. tests. The artificial color scale can be kept in the dark for
six-months without undergoing an;y change.
Conclusions.
1. Sets of conditions were developed for the chromatographic partition-
ing of vapors of benzene, isopropylbenzene and chlorobenzy1 present in the
air of industrial manufacturing prenrises.
The partitioning is acco~pli~he4 at the time ~f_the ~ample taking when
the air is aspirated through the sy~tem which consists of a V-shaped tube
containing gTade ASK silicagel and of two absorbers containing 2 001 of a ni-
tro-mixture.' The benzene is absorbed by the
nent remaining adsorbed by the silicagel.
2. Colorimetric methods are described
nitro-mixture, the second compo-
for the determination of the iso-
profylbenzene
and the chlorobenzy~
in the presence of benzene.
References.
Boikin9., B. S. - Zav. Lab. 1950, No. 11, pp. 1400-1401. Bykhovskaya,
~. S., Ginzburg, S. L. and Khalizova, O. D. - Praktich. Rukov. po Promyshl.-
SEmite Khi.rnii 1. Crejanicheskie Soed.ineniye., Medgiz, 1554, p. 138. Turke1'-
taub, M. ~. - Zhur. Phiz. Khimii, 1953, T. 27, No. 12, pp. 1827-1836.
Ray N. H. - Jour. App1. Chern. 1954, V. 4, No.1, pp. 21-25.
-191-
-------
Colorimetric Method for the Quantitative Determination of Methyl Ester of
Methacrylic Acid in the Air of Work Shops.
N. L. Nemirovskii and G. I. Meerovich.
(Leningrad Sanitary-Hygienic Medical Institute).
Gigiena i Sanitariya 23, No.2, pp. 83-85, 1958.
The present methods for the determination of acrylates in the air are not
sufficiently sensitive, require the performance of many operations and are
time consuming. The method used in the quantitative determination of methyl
ester of methacrylic acid was developed by G. P. Efremova in 1951 at the Mos-
cow Regional Sanitary Hygienic Institute; its performance requires 2.5 hours
exclusive of the time consumed in collecting the air sample and involves such
complex operation as the hydrolysis of the ester and the subsequent oxidation
of the products of hydrolysis.
The colorimetric method for the quantitative determination of methyl es-
ter of methacrylic acid in the air of work shops was developed at the labora-
tor" of organic chemistry of the Leningrad Sanitary-Hygienic Medical Insti-
tute (LSHMI); it is based on the property of this type of unsaturated organic
. ester to uni te with Br.. The air sample is collected with the a~d of ethyl
alcohol which readily absorbs the methyl ester of the methacrylic acid. To
the alcoholic absorber solution aqueous solutions of KBr, KBrO) and of HCI
are added in quantities just enough to liberate Br in slight excess over that
required as per the following reaction:
. 5ICBr + ICBr03+. 6HCl . 6ICCl + 3H20 + 3Br2
The reaction which takes place between the bromine and the ester is as fol-
lows:
Br
.
.
!
CH2 + ~. - CooCH) + Br2 ~ CH2Br - ~ - COOCH)
.
.
.
.
CR) . .CH)
~he Br excess colors the solution. The greater the ester concentration
in the alcoholic absorber the more free Br will be consumed and, hence, the
lighter will be the Br coloring of the solution. By adding a known quantity
of free Br and by comparing the colored solution with known colored standards
the quantity of the Br combined with the ester can be determine~, and the
quantity of the ester in the absorbed air sample computed. The colorimetric
-192-
-------
dete~ination can be adjusted to bave standard,oolored series represent di-
rectly the quantity of the ester contained in the alcohol absorbed air sample,
without having to resort to additional computation. A few drops of XI can be
added to the tested solution whereupon the free Br will replace the I in the
XI thereby making the color of the solution more intense.
For the. determination of traces of iodine the authors used the colori-
metric method; it was found that the method of microtitration required the
use of starch as indicator; the starch worked poorly in alcoholic solution
since it adsorbed the iodine only slightly. This ~ be due to the fact that
iodine is easily dissolved in alcohol.
Required rea~ents: Solution No. I - KBr 200 mg, NaBr03 (in the place of
KBr03) 50 IDg; dissolve in 750 ml of H20. . Solution No.2 -KBr 200 mg, NaJ3r03
50 mg, dissolve in 250 m1 of H20. Solution No.3 - Dr 200 mg, NaBr03 50 mg,
Hdissolve in-lOO-mLof H20. -HCl solution -HCl of-l.l9- sp. gr. 430 ml_in_lOOO_-
ml of H20. XI solution - 5%;eth¥1 alcohol.
Apparatus required: 2 aspirators of 5 lit. capacity; 2 absorbers to
hold 10 ml of absorber solution; 2 25 ml graduate cylinders; 2 dropping bot-
tles for the XI solution; 25 colorimetric cups No. 120/15; one thermometer
° - 1000; 6 pipettes of 2 and 5 ml capacity; one suitable colorimeter.
As previously stated, for the colorimetric determination of the methyl
ester of methacrylic acid in alcoholic absorber a slight excess of Br has to
be added, so even a slight change in the concentration of the ester might
notably change the color intensity of the solution. To be able to attain that
un~er all conditions of study, the above mentioned three concentrations of
Dr and of NaBr03 and correspondingly three sets of color standards must be
prepared. Color standards of set No.1 are to be used with low concentrations
of the ester and color standards of sets Nos. 2 and 3 with correspondingly
higher concentrations of the ester. The standard color solutions are pre-
pared from alcoholic solutions of the ester in concentrations up to 0.8 mg/m1.
Fiveml of each solution are then placed into a series of colorimetric cups.
If the concentrations of the ester in the alcohol are expected to be 0.01,
0.02, 0.05 and 0.08 mg/ml, then 2 ml of solution No.1 are added to each
colorimetric cup; if the ester concentrations are expected to be between 0.05
and 0.2 mg/ml then I m1 of solution No.2 is added, and if the ester concen-
tration is expected to be between 0.16 - 0.8 mg/ml then 2 ml of solution No.
3 are added to each colorimetric cup, after which 2 ml of the HCI solution
-193-
-------
are added to each colorimetric cup. The cups are then safely stoppered and
thoroughly mixed.. Ten minutes later 5 drops of XI solution are added to each
cup, again safely stoppered and mixed. The liberated iodine will produce a
yellow color of different intensities.
Since the color of X2Cr207 solution is of the same type of yellow as the
color produced b,y free iodine and since the color is of permanent nature,
different solutions of X2Cr207 can be used in the preparation of three perma-
nent sets of color standards. Such color standards kept for one year without
change or deterioration in either the nature of the tint or the color inten-
sity.
Air samples should be collected by the aspiration method, using two ab-
sorbers connected in series, each containing 10 ml of alcohol; 5 - 10 lit. of
air are aspirated through the absorber solutions at the rate of 20 lit. hour.
Records are kept of the air temperature and of atmospheric pressure. During
the collection of the air samples the absorbers must be kept submerged in a
cooling mixture. Upon conclusion of the air collection the content of the
two absorbers are poured into a 25 ml cylinder graduate, rinsing the absorbers
once or twice with alcohol and pouring the rinse into the same 25 ml cylinder,
and the volume brought up to 20 mI. Now, 5 ml of the absorber solution is
placed into each of 3 colorimetric cups followed by the addition of.2 ml of
solution No.1 into the first cup, 2 ml of solution No.2 into the second cup
and 2 ml of solution No.3 into the third cup, supplemented b,y 2 ml of the HCl
solution, stoppered and mixed. After ten minutes 5 drops of XI solution are
added to each cup, again stoppered, mixed and compared colorimetrically with
the standards. Experience will indicate how best to manipulate the three sets
of color standards in order to obtain the closest possible quantitative deter-
mination of the ester contained in the alcoholic absorber.
~bere the color , intensity of the test solution is
er standard and too strong for the weaker standard the
should be taken as the final value.
Calculate the ester content in the air in mg!lit. with the aid of the fol-
too weak for the strong-
average of the two
lowing formula:
axb
x=-
c
where x = mg of the ester per lit. of air; a = quantity of ester in mg/lit.
of alcohol; b = quantity of alcohol in ml in the absorber; c - volume of air
.. -194-
-------
in lit. aspirated through the absorber.
Example: The volume of aspirated air was 8 lit. the temperature 200 and
the atmospheric pressure 754 mm of mercury. The volume of aspirated air re-
duced to standard conditions was 7.6 lit. The colorimetric determination
showed that the. alcoholic absorber contained 0.02 mg of the ester per ml of
the alcohol. Hence the quantity of the ester per lit. of air was:
a % b 0.02 x 20 0 052
x"'--o-= 7.6 ... mg
Conclusions.
1. A method is proposed for the determination of the methyl ester of
methacrylic acid content in the air which is simple, rapid and in which per-
manent color standards can be used conveniently.
2. The method can be used for the quantitative determination of other
substances with wh~ch Brreacts by un~t~ng or by s~bstitution. -
3. Methyl ester quantities as 10w as 0.01 mg/ml can be determined ac-
curately b.1 this method.
No. of stan-:
dard SOlUtion:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Concentration
of ~Cr207
Description
of color
Standard scale No.1.
50 mg in 300 ml H20
50 mg in 400 ml H20
50 mg in 1000 ml H20
Light yellow
Faintly yellow
Yellowish tint
Colorless
Corresponds
to mg of" the
: ester Iml ale.
0.01
0.02 .
0.05
0.08 or over
Standard scale No.2. for solution No.2.
200 mg in 500 ml H20
200 mg in 650 ml H20
200 mg iri 1000 ml H20
200mg in 5000 ml H20
Yellow
Light yellow
Faintly yellow
Yellowish tint
Colorless
0.05
0.08
0.12
0.16
0.2 or over
Standard scale No.3. for solution No.3.
200 mg in 150 ml H20
200 mg in 250 ml H20
200 mg in 600 ml ~O
200 mg in 900 ml- H20
200 mg in 4000 ml H20
Brown
Dark yellow
Light yellow
Faintly yellow
Yellowish tint
Colorless
-195-
0.16
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.6 -
0.8 or over
-------
Deter~ination of Simultaneously Present Phenol,
Cyclohexanone and Cyclohexanol.
A. S. Maslenikov.
Division of Prophylactic ~isinfection of Gor'kii Regional
Sanitary-Epidemiological Station.
Gigiena i Sanitariya, 23, No.3, 1958, pp. 80-83.
A review of the literature failed to find methods for the determination
of simult~neously present phenol, cyclohexanone and cyclohexanol. The need
for such a method has become pressing since the production of cyclohexanone
and cyc1ohexanol is based on hydration and dehydrati~n of phenol as the ini-
tial product. The most suitable method for the determination of phenol in
the presence of cyclohexanone and cyclohexanol is based on the ability of
phenol to react with chloro-paradiphenyldiazonium. This method was described
by many authors in connection with a variety of analytical applications.
This author used the method of P. E. Efremova for the determination of phenol
in the presence of cyclohexanone and cyclohexanol.
are presented in'Table 1.
The analytical results
TABLE
1.
Determination of phenol in the presence of cyclohexanone and cyclohexanol.
Mixture contained Found Error in
Phenol Cyc1 ohexa- Cyclohexa- phenol %
in 11« none in ill« no1 in mg in I.L«
0.5 0.1 0.44 - 12
1.0 0.2 1.07 + 7
1.5 0.3 1.6 + 6.66
2.0 0.3 2.15 + 7
2.5 0.2 0.2 2.35
3.0 0.25 0.25 2.90 3.34
3.5 0.4 3.7 + 5.71
high volatility.
was taken of its
Under certain conditions cyclohexanone can be determined in the presence
of phenol and cyc1ohexano1 with the aid of 2-4-dinitropheny1bydrazine. ~ow-
ever, this method is complicated, requires the use of specially purified meth-
anol and is not suited to air analysis basically because of the sorbent's
. .
Therefore, for the determination of cyclohexanone advantage
capacity to react with diazonium salt of Ash-acid (l-naph-
-l~~
-------
tbylamine-8-oxy-3-6-disulfonic acid), with the resulting formation of a diazo
dye according to the following reaction:
tiw:-<: -N 2-X
C
HC . H
HOa5-C C -SOa~
CH CH
H,c~H'
HzCVHz
CH2
X-N~rc C C-OH
HC CH
+ =
HOaSC -S~3H
CHCH
c=O
HO-C C-~=N-HC~H-N= N- C C C-OH
HC-M-CH H,eYCH' Hc-tt~-CH +2HX.
HOeSC-\y"-C-S03H CH2 H03S-C~-SOaH
CH CH CH CH
The seDs~ti_vi:J;y of_t1!e re?ct!qn is 0.2y/ml. tphe_azo-:-dyewas_isC?la.t_ed__-
in pure state and its physico-chemical characteristics studied. The beha-
vior of the dye solutions followed the law of Lambert.-Beer. Maximum light
~bsorption occurred in the region of 500 mJ.l wave lengths, as shown in Graph
1. Molar coefficient of extinction was 15 700.
',2
~ZD
f,QO
OJ
~~ 0,5
~
a+
0,2 42
0 0
,
IJJD .-.100 600 700 800 +00 500 500 700 600
Wave length in ~
Graph 1. Light absorption by the
solution color resulting from the
reaction between cyclohexanone and
diazonium salt of the Ash-acid.
-197-
Wave length in ~
Graph 2. Licht absorption by the
solution color resulting from the
reaction between cyclohexanol and
diphenylamine.
-------
Auto-conjugation of the diazonium salt of the Ash-acid was prevented
by the addition of Na-metabisulfite to the analyzed solution. In determin-
ing cyclohexanone in the presence of large quantities of cyclohexanol a
small amoun~ of the latter becomes oxidized toqy~lohexanone causing the fi-
nal determination to be higher than it should be. The addition of urotro-
pine (hexamethylenetetramine) to the solution inhibits the oxidation of the
cyclohexanol without negatively affecting the final determination ofcyclo-
hexanone in the presence of phenol.
Cyc1ohexanol can not be determined qy existing methods in the presence
of phenol and cyclohexanone. In this study cyc1ohexano1 was determined by
the diphenylamine method. Heating a solution of cyc1ohexano1 in strong
H2S04 to 1000 or higher in the presence of diphenylamine produced a red col-
oration. The substance responsible for the color has not been identified;
however, it did not behave in accordance with the Lambert-Beer law and its
maXimum light absorption was in the region of 530 m~ wave length, as can be
seen in'Graph 2. Phenol did not interfere with the determination of cyclo-
hexano1 by the diphenylamine reaction. The presence of cyc1ohexanone in con-
centrations exceeding 0.5 mglml slightly intensified the color of the so-
lution, but the addition of hydroxylamine acid sulfate counteracted it. The
sensitivity of the test was 5 y/m1.
The following reagents are required for the determination of cyc1ohexa-
none: a) a freshly prepared Ash-acid solution, prepared by dissolving 50 mg
of mono-nitrate of the Ash-acid in 20 m1 of 0.05 N solution of H2S04; it will
keep for 2 days if stored in a dark room in a glass container; b) 1.0% so-
lution of,sodium nitrite; c} 20.0% solution of urotropine (hexamethylenetet-
ramine); d) a freshly prepared solution of Na-metabisulfite;e) a 20.0% so-
lution of NaOH; f) a standard solution of cyclohexanone, containing 40 y/ml.
Proceed with the determination as follows: place 1 ml of the solution to be
tested into a colorimetric cup; add 2 m1 of each of the following: Ash-acid,
Na-nitrite, urotropine, Na-metabisu1fite and NaOH; mix before adding the last
2 reagents. The reagents must be added in the above indicated order. Wait 5
minutes and add H20 to the 10 ml mark; compare co1orimetrical~.
For the preparation of a standard nomographic curve, such as shown in
Graph 3, proceed as follows: set up a series of colorimetric cups; add cy-
c1ohexanone in quantities varying from 1 to 40 ~g; add reagents exact~ as
-198-
-------
above and treat exactly as above and compare colorimetrically using a green
light filter. The same method is used for the preparation of standard col-
or scale for use in direct cyclohexanone determination. Results of photo-
colorimetric determination of cyclohexanone in the presence of phenol by the
diazotized Ash~acid reaction are listed in Table 2.
to
::I
: fOO
~
~ 80.
Pi
ctl 5Q
'H
o
tuJ W
,:::
:8 ZQ
ctl
Q)
p:;
o
5
f(J
15
20
25
30
JS
- - --
Cyclohexanone concn. in y
Graph 3. Nomographic curve for photO-
colorimetric determination of cyclo-
hexanone from its reaction with di-
azotized Ash-acid using VNIVI KFE-l
photocolorimeter with green filter.
TABLE
2.
Results of photocolorimetric determinations of cyc1ohexanone ~n
the presence of phenol and cyclohexano1.
Ingredients contained in Found Error in
~g of cycle-: mg of : mg of cycla-: C-hexanone %
hexanone phenol hexano1 in .~
0.5 0.1 0.45 - 10
0.5 0.48 - 8
1.0 0.1 1.07 + 7
1.5 0.1 1.6 + 6.66
2.0 0.2 2.12 + 6
3.0 0.2 2.9 3.34
4.0 0.2 4.3 + 7.5
5.0 0.3 5.2 + 4
8.0 0.3 7.6 5
no1:
The following reagents are required for the determination of cyclohexa-
a) .'i, 2% solution of diphenylamine in concentrated H2S04; b) a 25%
-199-
-------
aqueous solution of hydroxylamine acid sulfate; c) a standard aqueous so-
lutlon of cyclohexanol containing 100 ~g/ml.
Proceed with/the determination as follows: place 2 ml of the solution
to be tested into a colorimetrio cup; add 2 ml of the diphenylamine solution;
prepare standard scale at the same time, by- setting up a series of colori-
metric cups; add standard solution of cyclohexanol in quantities var,ying
from 10 to 100 ~g; bring volume up to 2 ml with H20 and add 2 ml of the di-
phenylamine solution. In cases where less than 1 mg of cyclohexanone is
present in the test aliquot add to all the cups 0.2 ml of the hydroxylamine
acid sulfate solution; mix and place for 15 min. into an oilbath at 1500;
remove from oilbath, wipe off oil and compare colorimetrically. Results ob-
tained in colorimetrio determination of cyclohexanol in the presence of cy-
clohexanone and phenol are presented in Table 3.
TABLE
3.
Results of photocolorimetric determinations of cyc1ohexano1 in
the presence of phenol and cyclohexanone.
Ingredients contained
Cyclohexa- Phenol Cyclohexa-
nol in ~~ in mg none in mg
Found
C-hexanol
in ~g
Error in
%
10
12
15
18
20
25
30
35
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.4
9.1
13.5
16.2
17.4 .
21.5
23.6
28.8
37.0
- 9.0
+ 12.5
+ 8.0
3.34
+ 7.5
5.6
4.0
+ 5.n
For the determination of phenol, cyc1ohexanone and cyclohexanol in air
use water as the sorbent agent. Aspirate the air through a series of 3 suc-
cessively connected absorbers, each containing 10 ml of water; aspirate 15 -
20 1 of the air at the rate of 15 - 20 l/hr. At the end of the aspiration
take 1 - 2 ml from each absorber for the determination of phenol, cyclohexa-
none and cyclohexanol. As a rule the entire of the phenol and cyclohexanol
contained in the air sample is absorbed by the water in the first 2 absorbers;
the cyc1ohexanone may be carried over partially into the third absorber, if
its concentration in the air exceeds 20 ~g/liter.
-200-
-------
Conclusions.
,
1. Phenol can be determined in the presence of cyc1ohexanone and cy-
c1ohexanol qy the ch1oro-paranitrophenyl diazotization method.
2. A method is described for the determination of cyclohexanone which
is based on its reaction with the diazotized salt of Ash-acid. The method
permits the determination of
concentrations of phenol and
is 0.2 y/m1. Error does not
wi thin the 30 j.1g range.
3. A diphenylamine method has been developed for the
cyc1ohexanol in the presence of considerable qu~ntities of
hexanone. The. sensitivity of the method is 5 r/m1, with an
ceeding 12.5%.
cyc1ohexanon€
cyc1ohexano1.
exceed 10% in
in the presence of hundredfold
The sensitivity of .the method
a cyclohexanone concentration
determination of
phenol and cycle-
error not ex-
4. A special air sample collection procedure has
determination of phenol, cyolohexanone and cyclohexano1
of industrial establishments.
been described for the
in work departments
~
-201-
I
"
-------
~....
Chromotropic Acid Method for the Determination of Formaldehyde in Air.
Yu. N. G1adchikova and N. I. Shumarina. (*)
(From the ~vanovsklnstitute of Labor Protection VTsSPS).
Gigiena i Sanitariya 23, No. 4~ 83-4 (1958).
The method presently recommended for the determination of formaldehyde
in industrial manufacturing premises calls for the use of the fuchsin-sulfur-
OUB reagent. Our exp~I:i~nceshoVJed that, as specified in GOST 5607-50, this
. .
method yielded low values, especially in cases where the formaldehyde concen-
tration waS low to begin with. We found that more accurate results were ob-
tained by this method when the order in which the reagents are added was al-
tered by adding the fuchsin-sulfurous reagent first and the H2S04 next, as
was recommended by M. V. Alekseeva and others.
TABLE 1.
Test tube number
Reagents 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Water in ml 3.5 3.4 3.3 3.1 2.9 2.7 2.5
Standard soln. -
. HOOH 0.01 mg/ml 0.0 0.1. 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
2% chromotropic
acid 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
H2S04 1.82-1.83
sp. gr. 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
Mg equivalent of
I . HOOR 0.0 0.001 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
I
GOST 5007-5 does not specify what brand of basic fuchsin is to be used in
-the preparation of the fuchsin-sulfurous reagent, a point which is of consid-
erable importance since not all brands of basic fuchsin are suitable for the
preparation of the reagent. This may ex:plain why many authors found that the
fuchsin-sulfurous method yielded inconsistent and non-reproducible results.
The shortcomings inherent in the method and the fact that not infrequently
the desired brand of basic fuchsin can not be secured ferced us to search for
other me1;hva.s for the quantitative determination of formaldehyde in the air.
We chose the method which is based on the reaction taking place between chro-
(*)
With the technical assistance of E. P. Mikheev.
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(**)
rootropic acid and formaldehyde in the presence of H2S04 which results
in the formation of a compound having a violet-rose color in solution. This
method waS first recommended for the quantitative determination of formalde-
hyde in sewage in the presence of a number of organic scbstances. We used
this method with a slight modification and checked its accuracy with aLlOT
photocolorimeter using a green light filter, making quantitative determina-
tions in solutions containing 0.02 up to 0.2 mg/lit of formaldehyde. The
standard color scale was prepared in accordance with reagent quantities shown
in Table 1. All the test tubes of the color scale were heated for 30 min.
in a boiling waterbath and their content poured into 50 001 volumetric flasks
and water added to the mark; required amounts were taken from the flasks for
the colorimetric determinations. Photocolorimetric determinations were made
immediately after the preparation of the standards. 2 hours later and the
following d~. The co19r i~tensity persisted for 24 ~s.- . Calibrated curves
(nomographs) were constructed from the immediate and 24 hours photocolori-
metric determinations (see Figs. I and 2).
The method of visual determination was tested by us under practical in-
dustrial conditions by determining formaldehyde concentrations in the air of
one of the cotton textile plants; simultaneously the fuchsin-sulfurous method
was also used as modified by M. V. Alekseeva and others. The values obtained
30 - 50 min. after the preparation of the standard color scale were practi-
cally identical.
TABLE
2.
Formaldehyde found in mg/lit
FuchRin-sulfurous method
Chromotropic acid method
0.0046
0.0112
0.0023
0.0006
0.0004
0.0050
0~0020
0.0043
0.0112
0.0023
0.0005
0.0005
0.0050
0.0020
(**) Chromotropic acid - 1.8-dioxi-3.6-disulfonaphthalic acid, or its di-
sodium salt.
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No changes were noticed in the color intensity of the chromotropic acid
scale after 24 hours or longer; the color intensity in the fuchsin-sulfurous
method at first increased and later became weaker.
Conclusions.
1.
The chromotropic acid method for the determination of formaldehyde
was superior to the fuchsin-sulfurous method.
a) It was more sensitive; b) it was more specific even in the presence
of many organic compounds; c) i~s standard color scale was more permanent.
2. Chromotropic acid solutions become turbid in 10 - 20 days; there-
fore, stock solutions should not be prepared much in advance. This is not
a serious difficulty since chromotropic acid so~utions can be prepared rap-
idly ilronediately before use, or 1 - 2 days in advance. Chromotropic acid is
easily soluble in water.
Literature cited.
Alekseeva, M. V., Andronov, B. E., Gurvits, S. S. and Zhitkova, A. S. -
Determination of Harmful Substances in the Air of Industrial Premi$es, Moscow,
1954. Lurie, Yu. Yu, Nikolseva, Z. V. - in "Factory Laboratory", 1954, No.6,
614-81. Chemical Reagents and Preparations, V. I. Kuznetsova, Editor, Moscow-
Leningrad, 1953. Elgriwe, E. - Ztschr. f. Anal. Chem., 1937, Bd. 110, 22-5.
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of
a
o
L-'"'
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Determination of Paraffin and Ceresin Aerosols in the Air of Industrial Plants.
By D. P. Senderikbina.
F. F. Erisman Scientific-Research Institute of Sanitation and Hygiene, the
R. S. F. S. R. MinistI"'j of Health, !;IOE Govi.
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 23. No.8, 1'1'. 77-78, 1958.
A. P. Astapenya et & developed a method (*) for the deterrninstion of
paraffin vapor in the air; the pa:r;affin is absorbed in et:b;yl ether, thf~ latter
evaporated and ~he paraffin dete=mined gravimetrically. For qUffi1titative de-
termination of petroleum paraffin vapor the author utilizeC1, its differential
characteristics of readily dissolving in ether and with difficulty in ethanol.
The ethanol is add€d to the ether-dissolved petroleum paraffin and cooled to
0° which causes the paraffin to separate from solution as an emulsion the tur-
bidity of which varies directly with the quantity of the dissolved paraffin.
The standard solution to be used in the turbim8tric comparator is pre-
pa.red from a weighed p.mount of petroleum paraffin in et:b.yl ether, usually 1
mg per ml. Prepare the standard scale as follows: POU1' the standard parC'.ffin
solution into a set of colorimetric tubes in increasing steps of 0.1 ml from
0.1 ml to 1.0 m1 and bring volumes up in a11 tubes to 1.0 ml with ether; add
to each tube 4 m1 of ethanol, nlal~ing final volume in all tubes 5 ml; dip tubes
into icewater for 10 - 15 minutes; a turbidity will develop the intensity of
which increases in proportion to the paraffin concentration. Experimental
tests were made catching the paraffin vapor by aspirating the air through
glass filters Nos. 1, 2 and J and in adapters filled with cotton; the air was
aspirate~ at different rates. Results showed that with air drawn at the rate
of 2 liters/min. paraffin vapor was caught in the first absorber equipped with
glass filter No.2; with filter No.1 approximately 50% of the paraffin passed
through into the second absorber. Cotton filters also gave satisfactory re-
sults; however, the preliminary cotton extraction in ether was time consuming;
therefore, the tests were conducted with glass filter No.2.
Synthetic paraffin vapor easily dissolv~~ in hot ethanol and with diffi-
culty ir. water; this differential solubility of synthetic para:finformed the
basis for the quantitative determination of its vapor in air.
The general
(*) Labor Hygiene and Safety Technic, 1935, No.4, p. 75.
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procedure was the same as above described, except that. the water-alcohol system
was used instead of the alcohol-ether system. The standard stock solution con-
tained 1 mg of synthetic paraffin in I ml of alcohol. Prepare the standard set
as follows: into a set of colorimetric or turbimetric tubes place O~l, 0.2,
. - -
0.3 ....... 1.0 ml of the standard ~~9~hol~gsuspension of the synthetic paraf-
fin; add ethanol to bring volume in all tubes to 2.0 ml and mix; add to each
tube 2 ml of water and mix; leave stand for 5 - 10 minutes again mix and make
turbimetric comparison as usual.
(
I
Aspiration of air samples with the aid of glass filter No.2 was found
most suitable for the purpose. Remove the paraffin from the glass filter with
ether and collect in a porcelain dish; drive. off all ether by evaporation and
redissolve the synthetic paraffin in alcohol at 50 - 600. To 2 ml of the alco-
holic paraffin solution add 2 ml of water then proceed as previously described.
S~rnthetic cerecin does n~t _diss~lve_in ~ny _~f the ~o~ so~ve1?-~s~at room
temperature; it can be determined quantitatively only gravimetrically. In de-
termining cerecin vapor the air is aspirated through a glass filter 'No. 2 at
the rate of 0.2 lit./min. using ether as the absorber. The absorbe~ cerecin
is removed from the glass filter plate by dissolving it in hot gasoline; the
latter is driven off by evaporation in a preweighed porcelain dish over a
waterbath. After the gasoline has been evaporated th€ dish i6 cooled for 20 -
30 minutes i~ a desiccator and weighed on an analytical balance.
All methods described above collect and determine, .on the average,. up to
90% of the substance under investigation. These methods for the determination
of hydrocarbon aerosols were checked in air studies under working conditions
at the "Neftemaslo" plant, close to vats containing hotcerecin and paraffin
and at a distance of 2 m from the vats. Results were as follows: close to
vats containing a mixture of paraffin and "petrolak" their concentration in the
air was 0.001 mg/l, close to vats containing hot synthetic cerecin - 0.002 mg/l;
close to a vat containing cerecin and colophony - 0.023 mg/l and at a distance
of 2 m from the vats the concentration in the air was 0.008 mg/l, 0.004 mg/l
and mere traces of the carbohydrate vapors.
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Determination of Lead in the Air b,y Amperometric Titration.
L. P. Grigorova.
Sverdlovsk Scientific-Research Institute of Labor Protection.
Gig1ena i Sanitariya, 22, No. 11, pp. 94-95, .1958.
The nephelometric methods for the determination of lead present~ use~
in industrial sanitary chemistry possess ~ shortcomings, such as low sen-
sitivity, difficulty to estimate degree of turbidity in the presence of col-
or tints, subjectivity, time consuming sample collection, etc. This author
developed an amperometric titration method for the determination of lead and
its compounds. The quantitative analysis is based on the amperometric ti-
tration of ~drochloric acid solutions of lead with ammonium mo~bdate.
, ,
Pb.. + MoO 4 ~ PbMo04
This method enables the determination of 10 x 10-6 mg of lead in 10 mI.
The mercury capillary electrode was used in the analytical procedure. The
comparing electrode consisted of a calomel-saturated semielement. Recording
of the diffusion current was accomplished by a reflection mirro galvanometer
m --".
of theG~~41 type. A solution of 0.1 N !NO) was used as the medium. Ex-
periments were made at potential 1 b in an atmosphere the o:qgen of which was
replaced b.Y ~drogen. The lead compounds present in the air were retained b,y
" "
paper filters of a grade which was preliminarily tested and found to retain
highly dispersed lead aerosols. The air was aspirated through the filters at
the rate of 10 - 15 lImine Depending upon the expected aerosol concentration
in the air between 50 - )00 liters of the air were sucked"through.
Sanitary regulation H 101-54 provides that lead and its inorganic com-
pounds and sulfide of lead be determined differential~, the limit of allow-
able concentration of the former being 0.00001 mg/l and of the latter 0.0005
mg/l. Despite this all sanitary chemical methods in the ultimate are reduced
basical~ to the determination of total lead in airL~~p~~~; The method here
described enables the differential determination of lead compounds. The
method 1s based on the principle of innovation ana~sis of oxidized "and cal-
cined lead-containing ores descr1~ed in Aggeenkov's book. Soluble and insol-
uble lead are determined in one sample, and another sample is used for the
determination of total lead.
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Determination of soluble lead.
Place the paper filter containing the sample into a 100 - 250 ml glass
beaker, add 15 ml of 15% solutio~ of ammonium acetate and boil light~ for
30 min. Remove the paper filter with a glass rod; wash down the dust adher-
ing to the filter into the beaker with a small volume of water. Dust per-
. .
sistently adhering to the filter is treated with 10 ml of 1:1 HCl .and Rl{03'
this is added to the solution obtained during the treatment of the calcined
sediment. For the separation of the soluble from the insoluble compounds
proceed as follows: filter the solution through ash-free filter paper; use
the filtrate for the amperometric titration of soluble lead; use the precip-
. .
itate held.~ack b.y the ash-free filter paper for the determination of insol-
uble lead~
The determination of insoluble lead.
Dr.1 the filter with the adhering precipitate and calcine ata temperature -
not exceeding 5500 for 30 - 40 min. Dissolve the calcined residue b.y adding
10 ml of 1:1 HCl (1.19) and HN03 (1.40) directly to the incineration crucible.
Transfer to a glass beaker, neutralize with. 25% NH40H till a faint odor is
percei ved, boil slowly for 5..- 10 min., and fil ter amperometrical~ (it s8.ys
filter, probably meant to s8.y titrate?).
TABLE
1.
Comparative results (averages of 5 - 7 tests) of lead
determinations-of sulfide concentrates.
Test No.
DeterminatiOn:oflea~ in
per cen't by method.s of
V 1 t i g Amperometric
o ume rei titration
.
.
.
.
i
i Absolute
g
Relative
Difference
224
15409
16500
307
9.80
2..62
31.21
65.00
9.88
2.75
31. 60
65.38
+0.08.
+O.B.
+0.39
+0.39
0.84
4.95
1.25
0.60
Determination of total l~ad.
Place paper filter with lead aerosol sample into a 100 -250 ml glass
beaker; add 10 ml of 1:1 HCl (1.19) and HN03 (1.40). After the dust is com-
pletely dissolved neutralize with 25% of NH40H to a faint odor and bOil.
. lightly for 5 - 10 min, carefully acidify with strong acetic acid to a faint
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odor and again boil lightly for 5 - 10 min. Filter to free from precipitate,
if any has formed; filtrate is now rea~ for final determination. Titrate
as follows: pour filtrate into a 50 - 100 ml glass beaker and add 10 mI. of
0.1 N KN03 for "background". With the aid of a microburette add 0.1 - 0.2
m:J. of 0.01 N (NH4)2Mo04; mix by bubbling through hydrogen for 30 seconds;
hold for 1 min. and record position of galvanometer needle; repeat entire
procedure. Titrate to the 4 - 5th point beyond the equivalent point. Use
the results for the construction of curves, and determine volume of reagent
required for ithe titratlori~-
Compute concentration of lead in the sample by formula a - Tb, where T
is the molybdate lead titre in mg/l and b is the volume of the molybdate so-
lution consumed by the titration as indicated by the scale (curve previously
prepared). The 'titre is established amperometrically with standard lead so-
lution. Checks of the lead compound determinations were made by amperometric
titration of artificially prepared lead compound solutions and with the aid of
industrial or commercial lead sulfide concentrates, the results of which are
shown in Table 2.
TABLE
2.
Analytical results of air samples aspirated through paper filters.
(Samples were taken at all points at the same time).
Points
:
:
:
:
:
Determination of total lead by methods:
Nephelometric ! Amperometric
i titration'
1
2
3
4
None found
None found
0.00249
0.00336
0.00081
0.00325
0.00218
0.00680
The data shown in Table 2 show that more accurate determinations of con-
centrations of lead compounds in the air can be attained (obtained) by the
amperometric titration method.
Conclusions.
1.
Determinations of lead concentrations in the air can be made by
amperometric titration.
2. A procedure for the .differential determination of soluble, insol~ble.
and total lead present in'the air has been described.
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