60-21188 Price $4.00
U. S. S. R. LITERATURE ON AIR POLLUTION AND
RELATED OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES
^
Volume 2
A SURVEY
by B. S. Levine, Ph. D.
Distributed by
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
OFFICE OF TECHNICAL SERVICES
WASHINGTON 25, D.C.
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SURVEY
o F
U. S. S. R.
LITERATURE
o N
A I R
POLLUTION
AND
RELATED
OCCUPATIONAL
DISEASES
Volume
2.
Selected, translated and pilot copy prepared
for photo-offsetting
By
B. S. Levine, Ph. D.
U. S. Public Health Servioe
(Health, Eduoation, and Welfare)
Research Grantee
Washington, D. C., U. S. A.
SUbmitted tar publioation Maroh 1960
This report is reproduced from the best copy available.
i
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Other books and surveys dealing with U.S.S.R.
air pollution and related occupational diseases.
Sanitary Protection of Atmospheric Air.
Purification of Industrial Discharge
Gases from Suspended Substances -
Office of Technical Services - 59-21092
Limits of Allowable Concentrations of
Atmospheric Pollutants, Book 1 - 59-21173
Limits of Allowable Concentrations of
Atmospheric Pollutants, Book 2 - 59-21174
Limits of Allowable Concentrations of
Atmospheric Pollutants, Book 3 - 59-21175
U.S.S.R. Literature on Air Pollution
and Related Occupational Diseases.
A Survey. Volume 1 - 60-21049
Russian-English Medical Dictionary.
By Stanley Jablonski. Edited by
Ben S. Levine. - Academic Press
ii
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I N T R 0 DU C T I ON
Air pollution abatement in the U.S.S.R. was initiated as a fulfilment of
a program plank of the political party in power. Since the Great October Rev-
oluation was started b.Y the workers and was won b.Y them, the h~alth and welfare
of the toilers were pre~ented as issues of primary. concern. Accordingly,
measures for.the protection of workers' health and working conditions were
recommended during the early Congresses of the ruling party. Measures for the
abatement of harmful air pollution had to be adopted as primised at once,
without waiting for the results of scientific investigation, on a temporary
and arbitrary basis. With this as a background research was begun by central
and widely scattered sanitary-hygienic and occupational health institutes. At
first attention was centered almost entirely on workrooms, shop and production
. .
plant indoor air. Regulation codes were formulated for the abatement of indoor
air pollution by the joint action of health officers, research scientists and
sanitary and hygienic officers, on an equally urgent arbitrary but temporar.y
basis, subject to revision upon the accumulation of new data derived from basic
studies. The latter were presented for consideration to the Chief Sanitary
Inspector of the Ministry of Health of the U.S.S.R. Almost without fail such
recommendations were incorporated into the legal Code of Health Regulations.
Community air pollution prevention and abatement were initiated some years
after indoor factory air pollution abatement, o~an equally urgent, arbitrary,
but temporary basis. Without waiting for results of time-consuming investiga-
tions b.Y scientists, limits of allowable open (atmospheric) air pollution for
inhabited localities were accepted as one third of the limits previously adopted
for factory air for corresponding pollutants. As research progressed and ra-
tional data were accumulated, arbitrary standards were amended or replaced.
The presently adopted limits of allowable concentrations in atmospheric air of
inhabited localities are all the result of careful investigation by one method
of study or another.
Professor V. A. Byazanov, who is the Chairman of the Medical Control C~~
mittee on Air Pollution of the State Medical Commission of the U.S.S.R.. ~ead
a paper at the International Clean Air Conference of the National Soci~~J ~~
i1
Clean Air in London, October 20, 21 and 2~, 1959. The paper presented G>;;" ~T
but clear and. broadly inclusive account of the most important phases of ijo~o6oR.
i1i
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community air pollution prevention and .abatement. The undersigned has taken
the liberty to incorporate it into the introduction too this volume. In this
connection it deemed desirable to radically revise in many parts the par-
ticular English style in which the original draft was presented. The under-
signed was aware of the fact that certain thoughts and ideas may appear dif-
ferent from the original; for definite reasons he was willing to bear the bur-
den of such possible blame. Here, then, is Professor ~azanov's paper, as
stylistically revised by the undersigned:
"The investigations of Soviet hygienists in arriving at values for maximum
permissible concentrations of noxious substances in atmospheric air are based
on the principle that the action of each poisonous agent on the human organism
was determined not only by its quantitative, but also by its qualitative con-
centration. By gradually reducing the concentration of the toxic substance,
a limit can be reached below which it could no longer have a~ deleterious or
otherwise unfavorable effect on the human body, and, thereby, become devoid
of harm to the latter. Since this assumption has been accepted as a general
rule, there was no reason for demanding absolute purity of air in the cities
of the U~S.S.R.; it was sufficient to reduce the concentration of harmful
agents to a limit at which the,y become harmless and indifferent to the human
organism. Such an approach to the problem. eliminates the need of incurring
huge additional and practically needless expenses.
"In this connection the question arises - how shall the limit be deter-
mined below which the poisonous agents become indifferent for the human organ-
ism? In the U.S.S.R. this was attained by the following three procedures,
singly or in combination:
"1. An experimental stu~ of the chronic effect exerted on animals by
low concentrations of the noxious substances, with the aid of most sensitive
methods available. These include the study of effects on the higher nervous.
activity of animals by the conditioned reflex method, or by appropriate chro- '
naximetr1c methods; by the stu~ of sensitive histologic changes in the cere-
. bral cortex with the aid of Go1gi staining method; by the stu~ of certain
biochemical changes, such as the spectrophotometric observation of porphyrin
metabolism, or the accumulation of noxious agents in the organism, etc.
"2. The study of shi tfts in the physiological and biochemical indexes.
occurring in the organism of humans residing in localities with polluted at-
iv
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mospheric air, and of control persons who resided in loca1it~es in which the.
air pollution did not exceed the ~1mits of the proposed allowable maximum con-
centrations.
"3. The stu~ under controlled experimental conditions of the acute ef..
fect of poisonous and stimulating substances in low conoentrations for the
determination of the threshold of reflex changes in the organism.
"It is well known that inhaled irritants produced reflex cough, epiphora,
sternutation, etc., which are facts of common experience. There also occur
latent reflex reactions which become manifest on~ through special method» -of
investigation such as changes in the volume and rate of respiration, in the
. tonicity of the peripheral blood vessels, and in the functional state of the
cerebral cortex. Considerable importance is attached b.1 U.S.S.R. scientists
to reflex changes in the higher nervous activity. The effect of very low con-
centrations of noxious agents on eye sensitivity to light, and especia1~ on
opitca1 chro~ and on cerebral biocurrents are carefully investigated. The
last mentioned method proved particularly sensitive.
"Essentially it consists of the following: A test person is placed in a
comfortable position in a.dark, isolated test room; a light is suddenly flashed;
the electroencephalogram of the individual under observation manifests changes
in the reflex inhibition. of a-waves, pointing to a-rbythm desynchronization.
This is an unconditioned reflex. The person .under observation inhales pure air
supplied 'direct~ to the point of. inhalation, the nose. From the adjacent
room, with the aid of a control panel, it is possible to add to the pure air
the gaseous substances under stu~ in a concentration which by itself would
evoke no desynchronization of the a-rhythm; this can be done at any desired.
moment without the subject's being aware of it. By synchronizing the inhala-
tion of the test substance with the flashing of the light a conditioned reflex'
can be developed rapidly which has been designated as the e1ectrocortica1 con-
I di tioned reflex. The substance under study begins to effect desynchronization
a few seconds before the switching on of the light. The electrocortical con-
ditioned reflex comes into being after 5 - 8 combinations of light synchroni-
zation with the inhalation of the substance under stu~. It indicates that
the agent under stu~ produced a certain effect on the cortex of the. cere~ra1
hemispheres. By varying the concentration of the sub~tance inhaled, it is
possible to determine the threshold below which this reflex can no longer be
e11ci ted.
v
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"The sensitivity of this method oan be illustrated b.y the following data
obtained by Gofmekler in his studies of the effeot of aoetate:
. Odor peroeption threshold ,for most sensitive individuals - 0.6 mgfm3.
Threshold of reflex oha~ges in eye sensitivity to light - 0.3 mg/m3.
Threshold of eleotrooortical conditioned reflex appearanoe - 0.13 mgfm3.
"In the case of sulfur dioxide Bushtueva obtained the following results:
Odor perception thresh~ld - 1.6 - 2.6 mslm3.
Threshold of reflex changes in eye sensitivity to light - 0.92 mgfm3.'
Threshold of eleotrooortical oonditioned reflex appearanoe - 0.6 mgfm3.
"The above results demonstrate that the method of elioiting the eleotro-
cortioal oonditioned reflex was more sensitive than the other methods and that
the conoentration of oertain noxious agents, though imperoepitble by their
odor, oan elioit reflex ohanges in the state of the oerebral cortex of man.
"As the result of suoh investigations two indexes have been established:
The maximum permissible (one time) single oonoentration, and the maximum per-
missible average daily oonoentration. The purpose of the former was to prevent
the possibility of any reflex changes during inhalation of short duration; the
purpose of the latter was to prevent the possibility of chronic effeots fol-
lowing prolonged inhalation of the deleterious substanoe. In establishing
maximum pennissible oonoentrations of atmospherio air pollutants other points
were taken into aooount, namely, the effeot on plant life, the oorrosion of
metallio objeots, the effect on air clarity, eto.
"In the determination of maximum allowable concentrations of atmospherio
air pollutants, the following guiding prinoiples should be kept in mind: The
effeot of the substanoe on the organism as determined by the gross methods used
heretofore; equal, if not b~eater, oonsideration should be given to the results
of tests whioh bring into 'evidence a variety of defensive reactions and the
manifestation of oompensatory processes. Positive results obtained with such
tests point to the fact that certain factors in the external environment nota-
bly deviated from the normal p~siologioaloptima, and, therefore, were not in
accord with sanitary-~gienic requirements. That is principle No.1. Prin-
, oiple No.2 is as follows: Any irritant or stimulant whioh m~ possess agree-
ableandfor disagreeable properties in relation to man, ~ beoome disagree-
able, or should be regarded as disagreeable, intolerable or harmful the moment
it begins to affeot the human being oontrary to his or her desire and against
rl
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their free wi~l. Principle No.3 is an equally strict ones Max~ allowable
concentrations should be established as indicated b.Y the most sensitive deter-
mination procedures available.
"On the basis of the above guiding principles air pollution specialists
in the U.S.S.R. have established maximum allowable concentrations for thirty
different air pollutants. (The list of these thirty limits is presented in
the Appendix to this volume. B.S.L.). Scientists in the U.S.S.R. are fully
aware of the imperfect nature of the table; it is, therefore, considered as
a temporary one. Work is now in full progress involving checking on old
standards, developing new ones and replacing incorrect values with values of
latest findings.
"As new industrial processes come into being, such as synthetic plastic
industries and the production of m~ heretofore unknown polymers, new air
pollutants are bei~ discharged into the atmospheric air. Accordingly, the
field of air pollution abatement and protection is constant~_widen1ng in the
directions of variety and volume. Further work demands the participation of
many specialized research institutes of the country; it is hoped that sub-
stantial progress will be made in the future b,y all concerned in community air
pollution abatement and prevention. In the U.S.S.R. such work is efficiently
headed by the Committee for the Sanitary Protection of Atmospherio Air."
3312 Northampton Street, N.W.
Washington 15, D. C.
B. S. Levine, Ph. D.
U. S. Public Health Service
Research Grantee
U. S. S. R. Air Pollution
Literature.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
B.Y w~ of grateful ackno~ledgement each item inoluded in this collection
is headed b,y the original title (in translation), the name of the author or
authors, institutional affiliatio~ and periodical or book from whioh item was
selected. The volume, issue number, year of publioation and inclusive pages
are indicated for the convenience of those who m~ wish to oonsult the Russian
original or make full reference to same.
B. S. L.
vii
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CONTENTS
Introduotion
Seotion I - Methods and Procedures
The Gravimetrio and' Co~nt Methods tor the Detemtnation ot Dust
Conoentration in Industrial Establishments. G. S. Erenburg,
M. B. Krasnogorskq'a, I. I. Litshits and E. f. lqkh1na.
l4ercu17 Pollution ot Industrial Premises in Work Involving Mercurio
Chloride. V. A. Xhrustaleva' and N. G. Sha~a. .
Ditterential Det.ermination ot Organio and Inorganic Lead in the Air
ot Garages. V. A. Xhrustaleva. .
. .
Properties ot Ozone as an Industrial Poison.. S. M. Gorodinsk1i.
Puritioation ot. Air trom Tetraetql Lead. A. S. Arkhipov,
P. I. Bogatkov, I. V. Oreshkevieb and N. V. Seredn1k:ova.
Dust Prevention Measures tor FOUDdr;y Shopa. S. S. Sheter.
A Rapid Method tor the Determination ot Small Quantities ot
a-naphtqlamine in the Air ot Indltstrial Areas. D. B. VaskeV1eb
and T. I. Sergeeva. .
Proposed New Sanita17 Standards tor Projected Industrial Production
Planta. (To replace BIOI-54). N. S. Isaev, Z. B. Smelyanskii,
L. K. Xhotqanov and E. V. Xhukhrin.
Air Evaluation in Industrial Premisea in the Presenoe ot Several
Pollutants. A. G. Aver'yanov.
Air Evaluation in Induatrial Premisea in the Presence ot Several
Bamful Compound. in the Air. P. I. Bogatkov and Yu. G. Netedov.
. Present Day Prob181D8 ot Industrial Ventilation. V. V. Baturin.
Residential Indoor Air Pollution with Atmospherio Sulfur Diorlde (Gas).
Ta. P.Kruglikova and V. K. Etimova.
Seotion II - Carcinogenesia. Radiation and Air Pollution
A Stu~ ot the Bla.tomogenio Properties ot Some Tars Derived trom
Atmospherio Dust and trom Combustion Produota ot Ditterent Fuel Types.
B. P. Gurinov,F. D. Jlashbita and L. II. Shabad.
A Comparative Studt ot Atmospheric Air Pollution with a Carcinogenio .
Substanoe (3.4-Benzpyrene) in Irkutak and Angarak. Ya. II. Gruahko,
P. P. Diltun, L..M. Shabad, T. I. Rukavishnikova, L. M. Zak and'
O. II. VlaseDko..
A Method tor Determination ot Natural Radioactivity- ot Air Based on
Radon Fission.Product.. I. I. Gusarovand V. K. lqapidev8k1i.
Aeroaol Radioactivit7 of the Atmospherio' Air. A. Z. Belouaov,
Yu. V. Bortkoy, V. F. Oreahko and B. I. P~l1vo~.
viii
.J.
4
8
10
11
23
31
31
48
52
53
68
14
81
81
96
-------
Determination of Natural Radioactive Aerosols in AtmospheriC) Air.
A. S. ZTkova, V. A. Schastnnr and G. P. Efremova.-
The Determination of Batural Aerosol Radioactiv1 V of Atmospheric Air.
A. Z. Belousov, Yu. V. Bonkov, V. F. Oreshko and B. I. Polivoda.
The Determination ~- Radio~ctivity in Atmo8pherio Dust. B. M. Tomaon.
All-Union Conference on Methods for the Determination of Small
~antities of Radioactive Substanoes in the External Enviroament.
N. F. Galanin.
The Determination of 3.4-Benzpyrene in Products Occurring in the
Manufacture of Synthetic Liquid Fuel. P. P. Dikun.
The Detection of 3.4-Benzpyrene in Some Species of Smoked Fish.
(Fluorescence-Spectral Analysis). D. B. Gorelova and P. P. Dikun.
A Study of Air Pollution with 3.4-Benzpyrene in the Vioinityof an
Old Pit oh-Coke Plant. P. P. Dikun and I. I. Bikbl'P>'t'p:.
The Presence of Caroinogenic Substances, and of' 3.4-Benzpyrene 1A
Particular, in the Environment of JIan.L. M. Shabad.
A Study of the Possible Blastomogenic Properties of Some Substances
Resulting from the Production of Synthetic Liquid Fuel.
A. T. Mironova.
Polarographic Determination of Strontium.
G. A. Zubova.
The Determination of Strontium in Ores by Means of Flame
Spectrophotometry. N. S. Poluektov, 14. P. Nikonova,
Te. A. ~yderman and G. S. Lauer.
N. M. Selivanova and
Section III - Toxicity. Effect on Health and General Living Conditions
The Effect of Aluminum Dust on the Animal Organi&Jll. M. G. Ivanova
and I. S. Ostrovskqa.
The Quality of Atmospheric Air in the Vicinity of Petroleum Refine17
Plante. L. I. Los', A. G. Sadivnikova, R. M. Soboleva and
D. Ta. Turets.
An Experimental Stud;y of the Biologioal Effect of Industrial Dust.
Ye. V. Khukhrin.
Effect of Small Benzene Concentrations on Higher Nervous Activ1~ of'
Animals in Chronic Experiments. Yu. V. Bovikov.
The Effect of. Titanium and Titanium Dioxide Aerosols.
0.. Ya. Mogilevskqa.
The Effect of Benzene on the Organism at High Air Temperature.
T. A. Koslova.
Pollution of Atmospheric Air with Carbon Monoxide in the Vicinit7 of
Ferro-Metallurgical Plants. N. N. Skvortsova.
Effect of Smoke on C1t7 Light. M. M. Fedorov.
ix
102
106
115
118
122
126
135
141
.147
155
159
167
175
181
185
191
196
204
213
-------
The Effect of Ultraviolet Irradi~tion on Mineral and Nitrogen
Metaboliam in Adolescent8. A. P. Shit8kova and Ie. A.Kalinina.
Pneumoconio8ia . in Children of Industrial Towns the Atmospheric Air
~f ,Which Was Polluted with Dust Containiag Silicon. N. wpu
and ,K. Ve],ikan.
The Role of Silicon Dioxide Aerosol Condensate in the Development of
Silic08i8. A. G. Kogan and I. I. Lifshit..
Occupational Lung Diaea8e8 Caused b.Y Prolonged Action of Cadmium
Oxide Aerosol. R..S. Vorob'eva.
Pathological Change. in the LUDgS Cau.sed b7 Rot Air Inhalation.
I. II. Iharkhurim and S. G. Vigalok.,
Clinical Aapects of Et~lated Gasoline Intoxication in Automobile
Driver8. II. N.' Sadch1kova.
The Central Nervous SY8t8Jll and 'the PAarmaco-Dynamica of SOlie Vapor
Formil2g Sub8tance8 Inhalecl wi tli the Air. A. Te. Alexeyev.
The Effect of Iqdrogen Sulfide 'and Sodiua Sulfide on the Blood
Sugar Level. V. L Zburzh1nsqT.
Appendix.
A List of Thirty Mu;mum Allowable Concentrations of Air Pollutants.
x
218
225
230
236
241
245
251
255
260
-------
The Gravimetric and Count l4ethods.for the Determination of Dust
Concentration in Industrial Establishments.
B7
G. S. Erenburg, M. N. 'Xrasnogorskaya, I. I. Lifshits and E. T. ~khina.
From the Aeros~l Laborator", State Scient1!ic-R~search Institute for
Labor ~g1ene and Occupational Diseases, Leningrad.
Gig1ena i Sanitari7a, No.7, 3-5, 1950.
Tbe solution of the air dust problem in industrial establishments depends
upon the selection of the proper methods for the determination of dust concen-
tration. Soviet investigators in the field of air ~g1ene have been engaged
in this work for maDl' 7ears. Nevertheless, the question regardil1B the proper
choice between the gravimetric and count methods is still unanswered. One of
the principal ,properties of suspended dust whioh determines its harmful effect
to man, and especia1l7 to indoor workers, is the degree of its dispersion, or
the size of its particles. Dust particles of larger diameters rapid17 fall
out from air suspension, hence, the larger the diameter of the particles the
less chance there is for the dust to enter the upper respirato17 tract or to
penetrate deep into the tissues after be1nc inhaled. On the other hand,. since
the weight of a material particle is proportional to the third powers of its
diameter the larger particles of a given dust suspension ~ be numerical17
insignificant ccmpared with the dust particles of high dispersion and yet
their total weight may be ~ times greater than the weight of the fine17
dispersed particles. This point brings out one of the shortcomilJ88 of the
gravimetric method in sanitar,r-~gienic studies of air dust concentrations.
E. A. Vigdorchik of the aerosol laborator,r of the above named Institute
and his &ssociatescame to the follow1Qg conclusions which were substantiated
b7 the results of years of observation on human beings: The retention of
dust particles in an organism during respiration varied with the diameter of
tbe particles; within certain limits the smaller the particles the smaller
was the percentage retained during respiration; below approximately o. 25 ~
the percentage of particles retained marked17 increased.
The retention of aerosols ~ an organism during respiration, as well 80
the general reaction between aerosol particles and the tissues of ~ organism,
are complex phenomena, in which p~sical and chemical processes developin6 at
-1-
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the poin~ of contact between the tissues of an orcan1am and the aerosol par-
ticles are factors of prima17"1rnportance. At the present time, it is g8ner-
al17 acknowledged that the effect of .dust on the respirato17 organs depended
prlncipall;r on the pqsical and chemical properties of the dust particles,
along which the electrical charp of the particles, or their potentials.
pl~ed an important part. Results of recent investigations indicated that
the state of the electrical tension of particulate matter profound17 affected
the degree of aerosol retention in the respirato17 tract. The higher was the
degree of particle dispersion, i.e., the amaller ~he diameter of particles of
a c1 ven mass, the greater is their total surface and the more intimate is the
contact with the cells of mucous tissues, resulting in a more intense pqsical
and chemical interaction between the aerosol and the tissue cells. Such in-
tensification of the pqsical and chemical activities of partl~les of small
diameter m~ be due to the greater solubility- of the smaller particles.
It can be readi17 seeD from the above that the principal i.actor control-
liDB the p~sical and chemical processes referred to is not the total weiibt
of the particles but their total surface. The latter depends on two varia-
bles: the number of the particles and their diameters. The number of parti-
cles, or their fractional concentration and the diameter of the particulates
are the sanita17-hTCienic factors of primar,y concern in studies of the problem
of dust prevention in industrial establishments. In most instances a combina-
tion of the two factors constitutes the required and sufficient criterion-for
the evaluation of dust concentration and its characteristios from the view-
point of abilit;r to penetrate into the orpniam and its re~ention b7 the re-
spirato17 orcans.
It has been recoDlDended heretofore that suspended dust consisting of par-
tioles 10 p or less in diameter be divided into fractions of different disper-
sion, and the value of each fraction determined gravimetrioal17. In view of
what was stated previousl;r regarding the functional dependence between total
mass, size of diameter and DUmber of particles on the one hand and the size of
the particle and its abilit;r to penetrate deep into tissues on the other hand
it can be readil;r seen that the results obtained by the gravimetrio method
will not reflect the possible true effect of the dU8~ on the heal~h of man,
animals or plants. The san1tar,r-~g1en1c significance of extreme hich disper-
sion and ultramicroscopic particles has been gener8l~ recognized, it is
-2-
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.qual~ well recognized that it is,practical~ impossible to determine them
b7 the gravimetric method. On the other hand, recent developments in the
field of ultramicrosoopy made it possible to determine not only the presenoe of
suoh particles, but their relative numbers and their rate of sedimentation,
two factors which are of prime importance in determining the health hazard of
a given air dust conoentration.
This is the reason wq the count methods of evaluation of dust concentra-
tions became wide~ used, not on~ b7 hTgi~nists and sanitarians but alsob7
engineers who work in the field of dust prevention in industrial establish-
ments. For the same reason the count methods have been more frequently and
more thorough17, discussed in hTgienic and technical literature and have been
acknowledged as more adequate.' A similar attitude was taken b7 the Koscow
Conference on Siliccsis in 1948 and 'b7 the Leningrad Conference on Gas Purifi-
oation in 1949, as well as 'b7 the editors of "Gipena i Sanitari7a".
The gravimetric method as a criterion for the evaluation of dUst concen-
tration is adequate and should be employed where the, dust concentration is
related principally to the coarser fractions of dust, as in the efficienC7
evaluation of dust separation measures, particular~ as applied to low dis-
persion dust. However, with reference to finer fraotions of dust the count
method is superior.
The gravimetric method can be effective~ used in the evaluation of air
polluted with tonc dust, in combination with the count methods. The gravi-
metric method will predominate as long as it forms the basis for existinc
, .
regulations. The present sanita17-hTgienic regulations related to dust con-
centration standards were enacted during the ear~ staces of dust problem
studies. However, recent scientific attainments, the results of koniometrio
investigations and the demands of indust17 make it imperative that the new
standards be established based on the results of dust particle counts and
their degree of dispersion.
Standards based on the count method would be in accord with recent scien-
tific information related to the dust problem, aDd would help to establish
procedures for rational hTgienic evaluation of air dust concentrations, 'this
would elevate the problems of labor hTgiene and industrial s&D1tation to
:\1igher levels.
Editor's note, This paper is published in the hope that it will elicit con-
siderable discussion.
-3-
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. .
Jlercu17 Pollution ot IDd\lstrial Premises in Work Involving Mercuric Chloride.
B7
V. A.. IChrustaleva and If. G. SluL17a.
Central Sanitar,y-~g1enic Laborato17, Moscow Cit7 Health Department.
G1g1ena i Sanitari7a, 9, 22-25, 1950.
The preparation ot electro17tes constitutes the major operation at one
ot the lIosco. chemical plants engaged in the manufacture of dr,y cells. used 1n
cnrmm~nioation iDStallations. The paste for the electro17te is made from ammo-
nium chloride, zinc chloride and calcium chloride, to which are added wheat
flour as a thickener aDd 0.2 to 0.4% mercuric chloride. Like the .thickener,
mercuric chloride, an important industrial chemical, is not an electrolTte.
The interaction of mercuric chloride with sine in a dr,y cell produces a mercu-
ric amaleam which prevents corrosion of the zino, improves the properties ot
the cell, aDd prolongs its lite.
The electrolTte paste is manufactured in shop A. The process consists of
dissolving and mix1nc all the constituent parts in vats aDd mixers and pouring
the prepared paste into containers, which are then brought to assemb17 shop B.
The operation is carried out in the cold. All the equipment, including the
mixers and containers, are made of wood. In assemb17 shop B the prepared
paste is put into the zinc cells containing carbon-manganese rods. The filled
cells are then heated to 800 in a "aterbath to thicken the flour. Unlike shop
A, assemb17 shop B has a considerable stock of metallic parts and half-finished
sinc parts. The pouring in of the paste results in t~e formation of consider-
able spr~; spr~ 1s also formed when the cells are placed in the hot water-
baths, on tables, etc.
. The content of HcC12 fUmes in the air of the working areas of both shops
has been studied over a number of years. A stucq similar to this one was made
. .
in Karoh 1947; the results showed that the air of the electrolyte and assemb17
shops of the dr.r cell manufacturing plant contained high fume ooncentrations.
According to the literature, HgC12 oan find its w~ into the air with water
vapors at high temperatures when its volatility increases. Ho"ever, this COD-
ditiondid not prevail in the shops of the present Btu~. Therefore, it was
assumed that the pollution which was detected in shops A and B was caused, in
-4-
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greater pari, not b;r :tJ&Cl2 fumes, but by metallic mercur;y fumes emitted from
the deposits of BgC12 accumulating over IDaI17 years of the plant' s operation.
The method of HgC12'absorption by a !laCl solution was used in MAking
separate determinations of the simultaneous presence of mercuric chloride and
of mercu17 fumes. Separate samples for the determination of HcC12 and of Be
were collected as follows: 50 to 100 Ii of the tested air was aspirated at
the rate of 1 to 2 Ii/min through 2 sets of 2 interconnected Petri absorbers.
BgC12 fumes were absorbed by 5% !laCl solution in the first two absorbers and
mercu17 fumes were absorbed by 0.25% iodine and 3% XI solution in the other
two absorbers. Separate samples of the two substanoes were thus collected
s1multaneous~.Merour.r was determined color1metrical~ by Pole~ev's
method. To determine the BgC12' 0.5 DIg (the original text states 0.5 DIg which
should be 0.5 mI. B.S.L.), of a solution containing 2.5 12 and 3% XI was added
to each sample. Several samples were collected in each case. The'results
yielded b.r the separate determination of BgC12 and HI are shown in Table 1.
TABLE
1.
I Kercur,r in mgfm3 I BgC12 in J1J8/m3
Shop "A"
At working places 1.5 m above the floor
Center of shop A, 1.5 m above the floor
Over the vat containing the finished paste,
2.5 m above the paste level
0.13 None found
0.09 Ilone found
0.06 0.005
0.06 None found
0.04 Bone found
0.03 None found
0.13 0.033
0.16 0.006
0.06 Bone found
0.03 Ilone found
0.19 None found
0.09 0.009
0.49 0.09
0.11 0.015
0.03 Trace
0.03 Trace
0.07 None found
0.01 Bone found
At working places 0.25 m above the floor
Shop "B"
At working places near'hot waterbaths,
1.5 m above the floor
-5-
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The results indicate. that air pollution in the shops was caused almost
entirely b7 Hg fumes and that the concentration of the HaC12 fumes was negli-
gible. High concentrations of both substances were found in scrapil188 from'
the walls and floor. Twenty ml of 5% .aCl solution were added to 5 - 10 C of
pulverized scrapings to dissolve the HsC12. The supernatant was poured ot.f,
and the sediment wa~hed with water, alcohol, and ether until the H&C12 reae-
.tion disappeared. HgCl2 was determined in the filtrate by t~emethod men-
tioned above. The residue was treated with the 12-11 solution; '.mercu17 was
determined colorimetrically in the solutionb,y the Polezh~ev method. The
results are shown in Table 2. Lar88 quantities of Hg and HgC12 were found in
the floor sorapings due to spilling of the electroqte paste and the subs&-
. .
quent reduotion of the HaC12 to He.
TAB L E 2..
Scrapings
I
:
Jig per 10 g 0+ scrapings
JIg : ~2
1.9 1.58
6.6 0.2
0.08 12.4
8.00 6.3
4.00 6.2
From the walls
From the walls
From the floor
. From the floor
From the tl oor
At this point it .beoame certain that mercu17 was the source of pollution
of the working area; attempts were then made to establish the cause of B8C12
reduc~ion to He. The reducing action of the individual ingredients of the
electro~te and of the flour thickener was also investigated. Since oalcium
ohloride, ammonium chloride and zinc chloride did not reduce mercuric chloride,.
it was assumed that metallic zinc, as an impurity ot the zinc chloride, might
have been responsible for imparting this property to the electro~e. .Howev-
er, results of the analyses did not substantiate this assumption.
An attempt was then made to determine mercur.r in the final eleotro~e
which contained the flour thickener. To accomplish this a sample of the final
eleotrolyte was washed with a 5% .aCl solution, water, alcohol, and ether un-
til the HgCl reaotion disappeared. The residue, free from HgC12' was treate.d
with the 12-KI solution, and the mercury determined after 24 hours b,y Pozhel-
~evts method. )(ercu17 was found in amounts of 0.099 - 0.2 ID8 per 100 g of
final electroqte.
-6-.
-------
On the basis of information found in the literature concerniDg the 'prop-
erty of organic substances to reduoe HgCl2 exPeriments were set up to deter-
mine the reducing properties. of the flour. An electrolyte was prepared at
the plant without the addition of the flour; it was analyzed colorimetrical17
for mercu17 with neptive results. Wheat flour .as then added to the mixture;
24 hours later metallic mercur.1 fumes were detected in the air over the elee-
trolTte by' means of reagent paper. Subsequent colorimetric determinations of
. .
mercu17 in the electrolTte yielded posi~ive results. Simultaneous17 tests
were made to determine the reduc111g properties of ~oarbons such as starch,
soluble starch, glucose. All tests .for He in the air over the BaC12 solution
or in the electrolTte free of ~ocarbons were neptive; all tests were posi-
tive in the presence of the h1'droearbons. Aspiration check tests 7ielded
. similar results, pointing to mercury as the source of air pollution in shop A..
Objective proof of the presence of merc\117 deposits in this shop came with the
41sCOV817' of metallic mercu17 on the bottom, sides, and blades of the mixer
while it 'was being repaired.
To improve the sani t&17-~gienic conditions in the shops, it is suggested
that mercuric chloride, which is not an electrolyte, be replaced by another
less toxic substanoe, and that substitutes be found tor the flour thickener.
The above replacements necessitate technological readjustments, according17,
measures were proposed for the sanitization (olean1.D& up) of the work1n& prem-
ises and of the equipment by remov111g the merCU17 deposits, as partial com-
pliance with the ~g1en1o standards prescribed for all work 1nvolvinB metal:-
lie mercury.
Conolus10ns.
1. Mercurio chloride is reduoed to metallic mercur;y by some organic con-
stituents of wheat flour.
2. The eTqminat10n of the air in shops workiDg with weak solutions of
BgC12 should consist of separate but s~ltaneous determinations of HgCl2
and He.
. 3.. Measures recommended for the improvement of sani tary-h1'gien1c COD«>
ditlcms in shops work1.nc with BgCl2 should inolude the replaoement of the
BsC12 by lsss tOJt1e reacent~ wherever this is technologioally feasible.
4.. '1'h@ possib1lit;r of metallic mercury fumes being emitted into \JorkiDg
areas should be investlpted during periodic medioal eXa1!Iinations ot workers
who come into contaot with BgC128
-7-
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Differential Detemination of Organic and Inorganic Lead in the Air of Garages.
:B7
v. A. Xhrustaleva.
From the Koscow City Sanitar,v-Epidemologic Station.
Gig1ena i Sanitar17a, Bo. 9, 48-49, 1952.
The et}ql liquid which 1s added to gasoline consists of equal volumes of
two components: the anti..detonator, which 1s tetraet}ql lead, (C2H5)4Pb, and
the "remover" of lead, a haloid organic compound, usUally ethyl bromide, .
. C2H5Br. This liquid undergoes the followil18 changes in the process of inter-
nal combustion: during the compression cycle the temperature inside the 071-
inder rises to 4000 - .2,0000 after the fuel i's ignited. Tetraethyl lead
breakS down at 2000, so that at the t~mperature developed inside the en&ine
the entire tetraeth7l lead is decomposed prior to the formation of lead and
lead oxide. Decomposition of et~l bromide, the second component of et}ql
liquid, occurs at high temperatures and is accompanied ~ the liberation of
bromine whioh combines with a part of t~e lead formiDg lead bromide; the
residual lead remains in the metallic state or as lead oxide.
Inorganic lead compounds are discharB8d. from the combustion chamber into
the air with the exhaust gases even under most favorable conditions of engine
. .
performance; small amounts of unburned gasoline containing tetraetb1'l lead
also rDa7 be expelled into the air in cases of incomplete combustion. Conse-
quently, under conditions of normal performance of an engine the principal
danger created by et}qlated gasoline used as automobile fuel is in the ex-
pulsion of inorganio lead co~0UDd8. The presence of tetraetb1'l lead in the
exhaust. gases indicates poor engine performance. It should be noted that
vapors of tetraetb1'l lead may be present in the air for other reasons, namely,
owinc to the evaporation of etb1'lated gasoline spilled on the ground or on the
equipment during dismantling or overhauling of the engine and during cleaning
small parts of the engine with etb1'lated gasoline, etc.
The toxicity of inorganic lead compounds and of tetraethyl lead varies
with th~ causes of their presence in th~ air; accord1Dgly, the method for the
determination of these lead. compounds in the air of gar&B8s, interior of buses,
eto., must also varr. The m~T1mAl permissible concentration of lead and its
-8-
-------
inorganic compounds in the air of working premises was set at 0.01 mg/m3,
but in the All-Union State Sani taX7 Standards no provision .as inclUded
for the maxi~tm permissible concentration of tetraet~l lead. The Gor'k1i
Institute of Labor Hyg1ene and Occupational Diseases proposed that the mArllllltJII
permissible concentration of tetraet~l lead' should be 0.005 mg/m3, which in
metallic lead equivalent would be 0.003 mala3. Air samples for the determina-
tion of inorganic compounds should be collected b7 aspirating 300 - 500 li of
air through absorbent cotton at a rate of 10 li/m1n~ With reference to tetra-
et~l lead it may be stated that, owing to the presence of carbon monoxide
and vapors of ~drocarbons in the air and the nonspecificitl' of the method,
its determinat'1on in the fcrm of intact molecules is not feasible. It is
necess&r,1 first to dsstro,r the mclecules and to proceed with the determination
of free lead. For this purpose tstraetql lead is absorbed from the air into
alcohol at a rate not exceeding 1 li/min, i.e., 60 11 per hour; at a higher
rate evaporation of the alcohol-dissolved tetraetb7l lead .ill take place.
By the method used in this stucq metallic lead determinations Could be made
reliably with 0.002 - 0.005 DIg as. the lower limit. Taking into consideration
the maximum permissible conoentration of air, and to accumulate in the ab-
sorber a quantitl' of tetraetb7l lead required for a precise determination, it
would be necessar,r to aspirate not les8 than 1 .3 of air, .hich at .the rate
previously indicated would take approximately 15 hours. The colleotion of
test'samples over so long a time is impractical, if not impossible, because
of the volatility of the absorber liquid and also beca~se conditions on in-
dustrial premises continually change.
For the collection of tetraetb7l lead air samples this author proposed
the use of conventional equipment, such asa suction dust colleotor, a high
velocitl' flowmeter, corrugated tubes as adapters for cotton filters to retain
. . .
metallio lead, and Petri tubes contain1nc 10 ml of alcohol for the absorption
ot the tetraetb7l lead. The proposed modification calls for 10 to 12 pairs
of absorbers installed in parallel series and connected to the flowmeter;
each pair consists. of a corrugated tube and two Petri tubes. The air is
passed through each pair of the absorber tubes individually at the rate of
1 11/min, thus giving a total rate of air aspiration of 10 to 12 11 per min.
At this rat&' 600 to 720 li of air ..111 have been aspirated through the entire
set of absorbers in one hour. Upon the completion of the air aspiration the
-9-
-------
alcohol from all the Petri tubes is poured into one container, and the tetra-
etql lead determination' made by the usual method. The' cotton from all the
corrugated tubes is treated with nitric acid and the metallic lead determined.
By the proposed method of air sampling it was possible to aspirate wi thin
one hour and a halt up to 1 m3 of air and to accumulate a quantit7 of tetra-
etql lead sufficient for a precise determination.
'.
Properties of Ozone as an Industrial Poison.
:87
S. II. Gorodinsk1i.
From the Institute of Labor atgiene and Professional Diseases;
Acade~ of Medical Sciences, U.S.S.R.
, . ,
Gig1ena i Sani tari7a, NO.2, 28-33, 1955.
The widespread. industrial use of high voltage equipment, of spectro-
scopic methods of gas ana17sis and of ultraviolet radiation emit ozone as a
manufacturing b)-product. Sanit817-qg1enio prop~lu:is makes it imperative
that limits of allowable ozone concentrations be scientifical17 established
, .
for purposes of sani t817-qg1enio regulations. Despite the fact that ozone
, ,
was discovered more than a centur;r ago, its effects upon the living organism
have been studied insufficient17, and sharp 'oontradictions in the evaluation
of its toxic properties still exist. While U.S.S.R. and foreign authors,
such as Lazarev,' Fl7uri, Tsemik, Neumann, Patt7, Fairhall and Thorp are ot
the opinion that ozone possessed a high tonoiV'whioh caused pathological
conditions in concentrations of 0.0001 to 0.01 mgfli, other authors, such as
Sletov, Yanshin, Hill, etc. regard ozone as on17 mildq tono, or not toxic
at all. ~ authors asoribe the toxic properties of ozone to its nitrogen
oxides admixture. However, no thoroughl1' exhaustive investigations on the
subject were foUnd in the literature.
-10-
-------
_0 reliable data were found relative the threshold toxic concentrations
of ozone; for this reason ind1 vidual authors made hip17 diverse recOllll18nda-.
tions regarding the limit of allowable ozone concentration in the air of
working establishments. Even in recent17 published papers the'limit ot al-
lowable ozone concentration r~ed betwee 0.00005 J1Jf&/li as recommended by
Patt7 and Fairhall, and 0.03 to 0.06 mgfli recomended by Bill and Thorp.
One of the. causes of such contradictions lies in the inappropriate methode
used in the experiments with animals; the operative performance of ozonators
was incomplete17 investigated, the gas produced was not ana17zed; conse-
quentq the dosage could not be regulated to accord with the p~sical. and
chemical properties of the gas, or its volume; it differed with each type of
ozonator and the results were not comparable. The nature of the reaction of
. an organism to the action of ozone remains 1nsuf'ficientl7 studied, and reli-
able data are still lacking on which the threshold of ozone concentration in
industrial establishments could be rationa1l7 defined. This is the reason
w}q the 11m1 t of allowable ozone concentration in the air of industrial estab-
lishments has not been inoluded in the Soviet Code of Sanit&r7 Laws.
The object of the stu~ here. reported was to determine the effect on the.
orfr8l1ism of ozone generated during different manufacturing processes, and to
obtain reliable experimental data as a basis for the recOlllDendation of qg1enio
. standards for the improvement of industrial working oonditions. Acoordingq,
the present investigations were devoted to the stu~ of the conditions and the
sources of ozone formation as well as to the determination of ozone concentra-
tions whiCh ~ be encountered in industrial establishments. The investiga-
tions were oonducted during the operation of different hip voltage generators,
. gas spectrographs and during the use of ultraviolet radiation. Determinations
were made of the ozone ooncentrations and ot other products produced by elec-
trical disoharges and of suCh factors as meteorological conditions, dust con-
centrations, etc., which ~ act as contributor)P factors unfavorable to the
health and production efficienCT of the workers, thereby aggravatiD8 the ef-
fects of ozone. The results showed that during the operation of different
hip voltage generators, gas speotrographs and ultraviolet radiation lamps,
average concentrations of ozone in the air of industrial establishments ranged
between 0.001 am 0.003 IJJ8/li, the IrIATimnm concentrations ransed between
0.008 and 0.009 rsc/li. Parallel determinations of nitrogen oxides in the air
-11-
-------
were made in all cases, the results showed that the concentrations ranged be-
tween 0.0001 and 0.0003 mg/li, which was below the limit of allowable concen-
tration prescribed b.J B 101-54. - The prinoipal sources of OBone formation
were the electrical disoharges produced by equipment components subjeoted to
- .
. high voltage charges. The content of ozone in the air of industrial estab-
lishments abovereterred to can be substantially reduced, . by placing the equip-
ment into air tight enclosures and by inoreasing the air ventilation from 8 to
10 times b7 installing more powerful inflow. and exhaUst tans, and by provid-
ing local ventilation in some cases. Suoh sanitary improvements were made,
and the content of ozone in the air of the working premises dropped to
0.0001 - O.Q004mg/li.
The next step was to experimentaJ,17 determine the action of pure ozone
. .
on the organism, as the basis tor recommendations ot limits of allowable
ozone oonoentrations. Attempts were made to solve this problem b7 ,mA.}rlngthe
tollowing.
a. Determinations ot the upper toxici t7 parameter, as indicated by
the mortality rate ot white mice;
b. A studT ot the clinical pioture of ozone poisoning and of the
parallel morphological changes in organs and tissues,
c. Dete1'lllination ot the threshold concentration of ozone, by
studTing its effect on the higher nervous activities ot white
. .
rats, and
d. A stucq of the etfects ot repeated OBone insults in sub-threshold
. .
toxic concentrations on animals.
Attention was devoted to problems ot methodoloQ' and particular17. to
oreating persistent and reliably oonstant ozone concentrations in the ex-
posureohamber.
A special experimental installation was constructed which enabled the
use ot ozone tree trom admirtures of nitrogen ondes, hydrogen peroxide or
other gases, and the creation in the exposure chamber of persistent OBone
constanc,r in ~ desired concentration. The experimental installation is
schematical17 illustrated in Pig. 1.
The OBone was produced trom pure o:qgen, which obivated the possibility
ot nitrogen oxide f01'lllation in the oBonizer. The amount of ozone supplied
into the exposure chamber was controlled by the number ot ozonizers in opera-
-12-
-------
liD
,..
19 0
~
II!
.J.i
....
Pt
I'D
II!
KJ 19 /1
!2
Fig. 1. Schematio drawing of the experimental
ozonator.
1 - oxygen tank, 2 - sulfuric acid moisture absorber, 3 -
flowmeter for oxygen supply, 4 & 5 - phosphorus pentoxide
and oa1cium chloride desiccators, 6 - casing for ozonat-
ors, 7 - the ozonator system, 8 - exposure chamber, 9 -
air mixer, 10 - exhaust ventilator for the removal of the
ozone from the exposure chamber, 11 - high ~oltage trans-
former, 12 - suction gauge, 13 - oxygen reducer, 14 - high
tension bus bars, 15 - grounding bars, 16 - hydrolic camb-
seal, 17 - rarifying air conduit, 18 - manifold for taking
air samples from upper or lower chamber air, 19 - air out-
let to the outside, 20 - sealing valve; 21 - mixer, 22 -
absorber with porous filter plate; 23 - aeroin damper.
. tion and also b1the amount of o:qgen passing through the system of ozonizers
in unit time. The content of OZODe in the air of the exposure chamber was
checked after every addition of the gas and at the end of the .experiment. The
chemical determination of ozone concentrations, which varied inside the ex-
posure chamber between 0.0001 - 0.3 mg/1i, were made b.J the t1trimetrio:and
calorimetric methods, developed for this stucq by O. D. Xhalizova and V. A.
Shch1rskqa.
For the determination of the ozone concentration lethal to white mice,
160 animals were sacrificed by exposing them to ozone concentrations ranging
betweell 0.25 am 0.01 mgfli for two hour p~riods. The results showed that an
ozone concentration of 0.15 mgf1i was highl;y lethal, since it killed all the
-13-
-------
animals in the chamber during the two-hour exposure;' an ozone concentration
ot 0.02 mg/li constituted the maximum tolerance dose on ~he basis ot two-hour
exposure.
.!JO
~.8tJ
s= liJ
'I'i
60
t>a
.... 50
'I'i
~ 11(1
t JO
& 10
ro
IJO
'!he curve in Fig. 2 represents the-
number ot deaths in relation to ozone COD-
centrations; it illustrates graphical17
the rapid rise in the ozone toxic ettect
with its concentration increase. . This and
the results ot the lethal tests indisputab17.
prove the high toxici t7 of ozone.
The clinical picture of animal poison-
1Qg with ozone, as seen in tests with white
mice, rats and rabbits, was one of charac-
teristic stimulation tollowed b.1 a state of
depression; the unconditioned reflexes were
reduced, and tault7 coordination and disturbed respiration became manifest.
The total picture pointed to a series of complex disturbances in the most
vi tal functions. ot the organism.
The histo-morphological investigations were conducted with the partioi-
pation of M. S. Tolgslaqa, candidate of Medical Sciences. The results showed
that in all the organs ot animals subjected to acute ozone poisoning with
doses rangingtrom 0.006 to 0.01 mg!li, sharp vascular disturbances occurred,
such as plethora, perivascular edema, bronchitis, lobar catarrhal pneumonia
and vague17-d.etined degenerative changes in the liver. lio clinical evidence
ot intoxication cr chanBes in the internal organs were observed following the
animals exposure to ozone concentrations less than 0.004 llJ8/li. Morphological
investigation of the organs of the animals exposed to ozone concentrations
ranc1ng trom 0.006 to 0.01 mgfli revealed yacuolation. in the cellular proto-
plasm of subcortioal nodes, swelling of discrete cells in the brain cortex,
interstitial pneumonia, desquamato17 catarrhal bronchitis, degenerative liver
process, and in some instances, intersti tial myocarditis.
The next step was devoted to the determination of the minimal toxic ozone
concentration, i.e., the threshold ot its toxic action. For this purpose the
- - higher nervous activities of the animals exposed to the action ot ozone were -
detezmined b7 the conditioned motor reflex method. These investigations en-
00
- . 0.01 QIIf IlJ61.fJ6 OJ 0.11 -81'.mg
Fig 2. Curve of white 1irl. oe
mortali~ in % with increase
in ozone oonoentration
-14-
-------
abled to establish the tact that the initial disturbance in the conditioned
reflex activit~ was caused b7 a one hour exposure to 0.003 'f1JIJ/li ozone con-
, ,
centration, while concentrations ranging from 0.002 to 0.0018 ms/li caused
the initial disturbance in the higher nervous activit.J atter repeated one
hoUr exposures. '!'he initial disturbances in the fUnctions ot the . cerebral
cortex were charaoterized b7 disruption of conditioned iDhibition differenti-
ation. Del~ed positive oonditioned reflexes and disruption of Conditioned
internal'iDhibition were observed atter a one-hour exposure to ozone conoen-
trations of 0.005 and 0.006 mc/li. Acute disturbances in conditioned reflexes,
disappearanoe or delqs in the positive conditioned reflexes, weakening or
absence of unconditioned food reflexes were observed in rats exposed to hich
concentrations of ozone, such as 0.008 to 0.01 rqJli. '!'he .xestoration of the
,n01'lll&1 conditioned reflexes of the poisoned animals occurred after a lapse of
five to eight dqs, while the processes of conditioned active internal 1nh1-
, bi tion were the last to, be restored. Bo changes of arq' kind were recorded in
the conditioned reflexes atter repeated exposures to ozone concentration ot
0.001 ms/li. The results of the investigation established that the toxic ef-
feot of pure ozone rested between the narrow limits of 0.15 to 0.002 mc/li.
The low values of the lethal and threshold concentrations class ozone as a
dangerou8 and hi8h17 toxic substance. The stud1' of the mechanism of ozone
action was not a planned part of the present investigation, however, a' 3ux:ta-
position of the experimental data warrants the assumption that ozone acted on
the organism !1! the neuro-reflexi ve apparatus of the orpDism. Ozone entered
the organism via respiration, stiDllated the receptors of the respiratoZ7 appa-
ratus, the irritation effect is transmitted to the central nervous system
alona the afferent fibers. '!'he changes in the internal organs such as the
liver and heart, must be regarded as seoondaZ7 effects.
For the determination of the action of ozone on indoor workmen 32 persons
employed under conditions of highly ozonized air were g1 ven a thorough poly-
clinioal examination. Functional nervous B7stem disturbances, which belonged
to the type of neurolcgical reactions and astheno-neurological conditions,
were, seen during the polyclinical investigation. The majority of the examined
manifested vascular hnlotonia and hnler8lD1a of the mucous membrane of the upper
respirator.y tract. '!'he data obtained confirmed the results ot the experimental
investigation and warranted the ascribinc the enumerated morbid conditions to
-15-
-------
the action ot ozone. After the introduction ot sani tar.r-hl'gien1c measures.
which lowered ozone concentration in the air ot the work1nB premises to 0.0001
am 0.0004 mtt/li a reexamination. ot persons ot the s8lle group showed that pre-
viousl;)" described S1D1Ptoms had completeq disappeared.
On the basis ot the above discussed experimental data, the results ot ob-
servations and ot the investigations conducted on the wor1d.ng pre~ses, and ot
ther8SuUs ot the poqcl1n1c examinations ot workers betore alld atter the in-
troduction ot sanitar,y corrective measures, it is recommended that 0.0001 mgfli
concentrationot ozone be adopted as the legal limit ot allowable ozone concen-
tration in the air ot iDdustrial establishments.
The high toncit7 ot ozone and the possibilit;)" ot its penetration into the
air ot work1ac premises require appropriate measures tor the sani tar,y 1mprov~
ment ot working conditions. Among such measures mention can be made ot plac-
1nc certain equipment into airtight compartments, provid1nc a rational pneral
air ventilation system, including looal ventilation protections. Mandator"
periodic medical .xaminations ot the workmen, engineers and technical personnel,
who are relU1arq exposed to the action ot ozone, should be instituted. The
. . .
. .
eYAminations sh~ld be made at intervals not exceecl1n& six months, jointl;)" 'b7
a therapist, neuropathologist, and an oto-rhino-lar.vngologist, and should in-
clude a chest.roentgenograia.
Biblioaraphl'.
n .3 a.p UI H. B., XXMH'IecKHe BPeJtHbie aeuiecTBa a npoMblwn~, M.-ll.. 1953.
II. 11.":'" en e T 0 a H. B., l106b1BaHHe O3OH8 H era $U3HOJlOl1I'Iec:xoe H TepaDelmllI~
3Ha'lflllJle. MeA. o603peHHe, 1895. Nt 5.- ~ /110 pH.1I U e pH H K. BpeAHbIe fa3Y, M.,
1938. -, Sf H W II H 8 M. C.; fuml'fla HC8JIHT'8p11I1, 1946. Nt 5.- H t II E. V., Pure ozeee..
effect in air conditioning. International Engineer, 1942.. October. - Fa i r h a I~I L. f).
. Industrial toxicology, BaltimOre. Po 122-125, 1949,- N e u m a n.n N.,Zur Toxa . des
Ozons und .nitrosen Gase, Arch. f. exper. Pathol. u. Pharmacol., 1919, D, 1.-
P ..I t y ~. A., Industrial hyg!ene and toxicology, v: 2, New York; 1949. - Thorp C. E.,
~e tO~~lty 01 ~%OIIe, Industnal Medicine and Surgery, v; I~, N. 2.19&0.-:- T ru ch e R...
L. tOXICJt~ de lozane, Arch. d. Mat profeu., 1951, t. 12, N. I, 55-58. .
. nCICI'Jn.... IOfV''''.r - \
. .
-16-
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. PurificatiOZl of Air from Tet.raetql Lead.
By
A. S. Arkhipov, P. I. Boptkov, I. V. Oreshkevioh and B. V. Serednikova.
G1c1eaa i Sanitari7a, .0. 3, pp. 11-16, 1955.
. .
In the production of tetraetlv"l lead aDd its compound mixes large volumes
ot yentilation air &re.em1tted into the atmospherio air. In his stu~, "sy-
gi8D1c Sipificance ot Air Pollution on Grounds of Chemical Production Plants",
. .
A.~ S. Arkhipov stated that the concentration ot tetraetql lead emitted into
the atmospheric air duriDC its produotion varied from 0.79 to 36 mgfm3, and
in the production of its compound ~es from 0.13 to 2.02 mc/.3. It should be
noted that ventilation air is the chief factor of environmental air pollution
with tetraet~l .lead 'b7 the industries mentioned. Tetraetql lead is a high17
toxic substanoe whioh affects the human orpniea in low concentrations. Accord-
ing to A... S. Arkhipov ohronio intoxication oan result from tetraetql lead con-
centrations as low as 0.001 and 0.00001 mgfli. The molecule ot tetraetql lead
does .not disintegrate in the outside air tor a long time. Prevention of air
pollution b1' industrialq emitted tetraetql lead is pre sent 1,. a~tained b1' the
purification of the ventilation and exhaust air cOlDing trom industrie. produc-
ing or using tetraetlv"l lead. Generalq, however, not III8Dl' iDdustrial plants
. have been puri17iDc their ventilation air because ot l1'8at technical d1.tficul-
tiesiDherent in the solution of this problem. The ventilatioD air emitted b1'
tetraetql lead iBdDstrial enterprises in millions 'of =bio meters per dq COD-
taiBa relative17 10. concentrations of the tetraetlv"l lead pollution, the .tre-
JUDdou. volume of ventilation air and low pollution cODCentration add to the
. .
above mentioned technical difficulties.
In the. plant. inve.tipted b1' these authors ventilation air .&8 emitted
into the air at 11 - 50 . above the 11"OUDC1, nevertheless, the conceDtration ot
tetraet~l lead W&8 relativeq high. The hip toxicity of tetraetlv"l lead, the
stabil1v of it. molecule in the open air, its conoentration in ventilatioD air
even when it is.upelled at 50 or 75 m above the ground, point to the impera-
tive need to pur1f',f air trom tetraetlv"l lead. In this oODDectioD, the chemioal
fluid tilter de.igned b7 I. V. Oreshkev1ch has been used. '!he experimental
purit7inc installation consisted. ot a. hort.ontal cylindrical reservoir 100 em
in leDC'h and 80 om in d1a1Aeter.. The operatiDg prinoiple ot the air filter .i.
. .
.ohematicalq illustrated in 1'1&. 1. The aqueous solution of sUitable chem1-
-17-
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7
n
6
15
D
A schematic drawing of a *et chemical filter model~
for the purification of ventilation eXhaus~ air dur-
- ing the production of tetraethyl lead.
1 --eleotric motor, 2 - coupling, 3 - supporting be~
ing, 4- shaft, 5 --spraying disk, 6 - eliminator,.1 -
repelling shield, 8, 9 - brackets, 10 - supports, 11 -
intake and exhaust vent tube; 12- observation window;
13 - emptying valve, 14 - air door with observation
glass, 15 - water gauge glass, 16 - water filling tube,
- 11 - the filter bo~
oa1 absorbers is poured into the apparatus to a level 50 to 100 DIll above its
operating discs, - as indicated b;r an attached glass water gaup. The filter 0p-
erates b;r converting the chemical liquid absorber into a sp~ which creates a
1ars- specifio sUrface oithe substanoes used for reoovering tetraethyl lead.
The men t of thi. filter is its low pressure drop. The air is drawn thr~gh
the apparatus at the rate of 0.3 - 0.6 m/seo.
The effeotivene.. of the filter was determined q, taktQg air samples si-
IIII1ltaneous17 at points of air entranoe and exit and ana17zing them for tetra-
- -
ethyl lead. 6.3 liters of air were aspirated-for each ana17sis, and a total
of 406 air samples were tested. The absorbent used was 0.5% -alcohol-solution
of iodiDe. Tetraetq1 lead was determined colorimetrical17 b;r the dithizone
method. - -Tests we1':8 made with different absorbents for the selection of one
- -
most suitable for _thepurp08e,t~ into oonsideration the physico-chemioal
properties of tetraethyl lead. Chlorine water, processed. lubricants and kero-
sene were f1nal17 chosen. Attempt. were also made to condensate aDd emulsif'7
tetraethyl lead vapor in alkaline solution - and soap water. Ventilation air
from workshops W&8 passed through the filter. Tests were :t'irst mac1e with 10%
- solution of allrali. The rate - of air aspiration through the solution w.. 0.3
.3/sec. at 11.2-. :ae~t8 pres_ented in Table 1 show -that the conoentration of
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TABLE
1.
Etfectiv.eness of air purification from tetraethyl lead
with 10% solution of alkal~.
Before
pUrification
Concentration of tetraethyl lead_in rDR/m3
1 After 1 Before' 1
1 purification 1 purification 1
After
purification
1.22 0.92 2.30 1.84
1.38 1.07 2.30 1.99
1.53 1.22 1.84 1.53
1.38 1.07 1.99 1.53
1".83 . 1.38 2.30 1.99
tetraethyl 1e,.d in 19 tests r~d b.etween 1.22 and 2.3 llI8/m3, and that. the av-
erage purification was as low a8 19.6%. Data in Table 2 show that tests for
. . .
air purification with processed lubricating oil gave unsatisfactor,y results;
the average degree of purification was 30.9%. Subsequent tests were made with
aqueous solutions of mono- and d1ethy1phe~lpc17g1icol esters added to the wa-
ter at the rate. of 10 ml of the esters to 84 liters of water; .larger quantities
cf monO- and d1ethylphe~lpo17glycol esters formed excessive foam which blocked
the filter; the velocity of the air drawn through the solutions was 0.3 mfsec.;
the temperature of the air w~s20o. Results.of 20 tests are shown in Table 3.
'L. B L E
2.
Etfectivene~8 of air p~fication from tetraet~l lead
with lubricating oil.
Tetraet~ead concentration in rDR/m3 ITetraethyl iead'concentrati~in mgfmJ
Test 1 Before 1 After ITest 1 Before 1 After
_0. 1 PUrification 1 pUrificatiOn' 1 No. 1 pUrif~on 1 purification
1
2
3
4
5
1.91
1.01
1.15
1.53
2.14
1.01
0.62
0.62
0.88
1.39
6
7
8
9
10
1.76
2.45
2.'29
1.91
1.91
1.65
1.76
1.76
1.65
1.15
'-
The degree of .air purification 'from tetraet~l lead with this absorbent varied
greatly.. In SODle tests (Nos. 2 and 9) the result was nil; in other tests puri-
fication of the air reached 60 - 66%. The average purification computed from
data of 20 tests was 20%. .
-19-
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. '1' A Bt E
3. .
Etfectivenessof' air purification from tetraethfl lead
with aqueous solutions of mono- and diethTlphe~lpolyglY'co1 esters.
TetraethYl lead concentrat~on in mRlmj ITetraet~ concentration in wmj
Test I Before I After ITest I Before I After .
No. ,.1 :purifioation. I purWoation I No. I puri~on I :ourifica1:!2!!.-
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
3.0
2.5
3.0
2.5
4.0
4.0
4.0
5.0
4.0
'.0
2.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
4.0
3.0
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
4.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
1.38
0.61
1.07
4.44
6.27
6.27
2.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
1.07
0~46 .
0.37
3.06
3.98
3.52
The next series of tests were made with 1 and 3% emulsions of household
. spap'. With the 1$ soap emulsion and 0.3 m/sec. air aspiration velocity average
purification &mounted to 33.8% and at air velocity of 6 mfsec. it amounted to
33.6%. Results of tests with 3% soap solution are shown in Table 4. The con~
centration of tetraeth71 lead in these tests varied fram. 2.68 to 4.33 mslm3,
. . . 0
the air aspirated at 0.3 m/sec. at 10 . Average purification amounted to 43.9%.
TABLE
4.
Effectiveness of air purification from tetraet~l lead
nth a 3% emulsion of household soap.
1etraete.t!J.ead concentrayon in riJgfmj ITetraetb.vUead concentration in 'IDR/mJ
Test I Before . I . Atter ITeet : Before I Atter
lio. I purification I. purifioation ,. I _0. : purification: purification
1 3.45 2.03 6 2.93 1.77
2 3.56 2.03 7 3.56 1.77
3 3.56 1.77 8 4.33 2.29
4 2.68 1.65 9 3.69 2.14
, 2.80 1.77 10 4.20 2.29
. According to the data found.in medical literature tetraet~l lead reacted
energetically with haloids. Therefore, tests were made with chlorine water
which was prepared. by saturating tap water with chlorine gas. The rate of air
... 0
drawn through the .filter .as 0.3 m/sec. and the temperature was 7. Results
. are liste~ in Table 5. With tetraethT1 lead concent,rations of 1.34 - 3.36 mgjm3
-2<>-
-------
the average purification was 61.1%.
TABLE
5.
Effectiveness of air purification from tetraethyl lead
with chlorine vater.
TetraethYl lead concentration in mgfmj :TetraethYl lead concentration. in mgJmj .
Test: Before.: After :Test I Before.: Aft+3r... .
Bo. : purification: purification I lio. : purification: purification
1 2.30 0.77 8 2.30 1.07
2 1.34. 0.56 9 3.06 1.53
3 1.53 0.76 10 1.38 .0.31
4 1.53 0.92 11 3.21 0.76
5 2.60 1.38 12 3.06 0.76
6 2.60 1.15 13 3.36 0.92
7 1~68 0.76
, .
Tetraethyl lead is soluble in kerosene; therefore, tests were made with
. .
kerosene as the absorbent. A 1:6 solution of kerosene emulsion in water was
tried. The air was aspirated at 0.3 mfsec. at 17.4°. Results of the tests are
listed in Table 6.
TABLE
6.
Effectiveness of air purification from tetraethyl lead
with kerosene.
TetraethYl lead concentration in mgJmJ :TetraethY!-}ead concentration in mg/mj
Test: Before : After :Test : Before : After
No. I purification:. purification: No.: purification: purification
1
2
3
4
5
1.53
1.68
1.15
1.38
1.15
0.15
0.15
0.12
0.12
0.09
6
7
8
9
10
1.91
1.76
1.15
1.01
1.01
0.60
0.45
0.09
0.11
0.11
As shown by the data in Table 6 the air purification in ~ cases reached
~ and higher with tetraethyl lead concentrations of 1.01 - 1.91 ms{m3. The
average air purification -&s 85.5%. Tasts were then made with a 2:5 kerosene-
water emulsion. The concentration of tetraethyl lead in the air varied from
1.75 to 2.04 mgfm3. The rate of air aspiration was 0.3 mfsec. and the average
purification. efficienC7 was 88.7%, which was higher than in the preceding se-
ries of tests. . The next series of tes$s were performed with kerosene and water
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. .
. .
in the same 215 proportion, but the rate of th~ air drawn through the filter
. ,was 0.6 m/sec. and the air temperature was 11°. The concentration of tetraethyl
lead in the air entering the Purification emulsion varied from 2.04 to 4.56
rIJ8/m3. In these tests the average purificati~ was 86..98%. . Another series of.
tests was performed with kerosene and water in the proportion of 215 and with
the concentration of tetraet~l lead from 1.91 to 4.2 ~/m3, the temperature
. at 7.6° and the rate of air aspirated through the filter at 0.3 m/seo.; the
average purification reached 90.1$ with some tests as high as 96%.
. Under the latter operational oonditions only the top layer of absorbent
was di'spersed irit~, the air. For' this reason, the kerosene water emulsion was
prepared before pOu,~ing it into t~e apparatus. The kerosene was regained by
,blowing sulfur dionde' or chlorine through the emulsion. Laboratory expert,ments
. ,
demonstrated that in each case a crystalline sediment precipitated from the,
kerosene.
The ,degree of ventilation air purification from tetraet~l lead oan be in-
creased by installing a series of successive filters. The lowest tetraet~l
lead' concentration after purifioation with kerosene varied from 0.09 to 0.11
m&/m3and the highest from 0.60 to 0.76 mgfm3. AVe;ageooncentrations of tetra-
et~l lead after air purification in different series of tests were I 0.12;
'0.27; 0.22; 0.21; 0.44; and 0.29mg/m3. Thus, after purification with kerosene
concentrations of tetraet~l lead in the air were :t 0.0001 of mgfl. According
to data presented b7 the Gor'kii Institute of Labor 1qgiene and of Occupational
Diseases of the Ministry of Health of R. S. F. S. R., prolonged contaot with
tetrae~l lead 1D concentrations of :t 0.0001 me/l produced chronic intoxica-
tion. The maximum allowable ooncentration of tetraet~l lead has not been es-
tablished b;y regulation iOl-54. Some investigators proposed 0.01 ~ 0.005 mg/m3
as the maximum allowable tetraet~l lead concentration in air of industrial
workrooms. The mA.y;nnlm allowable concentration of tetraethyl lead for outside
air has not been established. The average concentrations of tetraet~l lead
remaining in the air after experimental purification ..i th kerosene was 12, 27,
24, 42, 58,' and 88 times. the recommended maximum allowable concentration for
workroCDs. By using this method of air purifying and emitting the air at higher
. ,
atmospheric levels, tetraet~l lead concentration can be diluted to the concen-
trations recommended for workrooms or to lower levels.
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SWIII1817 .
1. An apparatus and method are desoribed for the purification of air
oontaining small oonoentrations of tetraethyl lead. Tests were made with a
10% alkaline solution, 1 and 3% soap emulsions, ohlorine water, mono- and 41-
. .
.ethylphe~lpo~g~col esters, prooessed lubrioating oils and kerosene emulsion
in water in 116 and 215 proportions.
2. Highest purification. was obtained with an emulsion of kerosene in wa-
ter in 215 ratio at air aspiration rate of 0.3 mVseo. Degree of purification
amounted to 90.1 - 96.0%.
3. Kerosene reoovery with sulfur dioxide and ohlorine is reoommended..
4. Even the highest degree of air purification from tetraethyl lead failed
to attain the presoribed sanitary-hygienio levels. Therefore, it is reoommended
that after purification .the ventilation air be .discharged into the atmosphere
at oonsiderab17 higher levels than those in present praotioe.
Dust PreventionJleasures for F0UDdr7 Shops.
B7
S. S. Shefer.
Prom the Institute of Labor ~giene and Professional Diseases,
Aoadem;y of Medioal Soienoes, U.S.S.R.
Gig1ena i Sanitariya, Bo. 3, 17-22, 1955.
During the iliduBtrialization of the U.S~S.R. mazv salutary measures
were instituted aDd ohanges made in the technologi""l operation of foundries,
Suoh as the meohanization of m&IV' industrial prooesses, ttl1m1nation of scat-
. .
tered castiDg, introduction of oonveyers, etc.; the introduoed improvements
opened a W83 to fiDd.irJc a rational solution to the carbon monoxide problem.
'lbe new designs for 'the oonstruotion. of tcnmdr,y shops provided the work
premises with a well plazmed natural air ventilation. Observations reo8ntq
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mad. on ~he health ot t~workmen aDd studies ot ~he air pViV 111 t0UDdr7
shops es~ablished ~~, the ~r8sent-dq principal untavora)letao~or was no
more carbon mono~d. but ~he ai1"-suspeDd4td dust.
. .
The probl- ot air dus~ preven~ion in workrooms has been solved onq
panialIT.- ~iDg 1950 - 1952 a group ot Moseow 1ndus~rial san1 ~ar.y pqsi-
c18D8 in coopera~ion wi th SCi.D~is~s tram ~h.. Ins~i tu~e o~ Labo~ iTgiene aDd
. .
Occupational Diseases, Aca4.., ot,.e~ca1 Sciences, U.S.S.R., made a s~
ot ~he workbig ooDd1~iOns in the eanh-processiDg and ~he 'r1mm1nc aDd olean-
ill&' sections ot 12 tcnmcJ.r.r shops ot d1tteren~ prooessing methods. This surv81
. . .
inoludec1 an an&~is ot the results ot periodic medical exam1utioDB ot the
workers, and ot clinical morbid1t7 data rela~ed to occupational diseases. A.
. .
thorough ex,,'nation was also mad, ot the condition ot the air in all earth-
prooessiDg and ':tr1amiDC aDdolean1q sectioDS' the Nsults iDd1cat8d that the
principal detects were in the technolog;r, in the tne ot equipment and in the
san1tar.y techD1~ arraDg8D1en~sfthis intomation was helpful 1a tOl"lllUlatiq.
. .
recommendatiau : tor the improvemen~ ot ~he wor1d.Dg coDdi ~i0D8 in these seo.-
. .
tiona.
. .
. '!'he dust. concen~ration disoovered in ditteren~ shops varied wia.eq.. The.
. wide variatione in dus~ CODC8n~rations were . the results ot ditterencss in
pl&DD1nc ~he toundr;y shops, 1a the ma1n~eD8Dce ot the . technological equipment,
in t~ l.eCbDological process.s aDd 1a types. and maintenance otV8ntilators and
other sanitar.y installations. One ot the outst&Dd1DB tactors was the shape ot
. .
.the build1Dc trame, another one was the plan ot the conV87ors aDd sca~tered
castlDc shops. !he probl.. ot dust prevention in toUDd17 shops is. connected
wi~h ~he &rch1tectural design ot the bu.ildiDgs, theretora, the two should be
considered ~ointq ~ h a buildi.Dc haviq.1D&JV DqS aDd sid. aisles the proD-
1- ot i80latiDg workrooms with a hip air dust oODc.ntra~ion trom roo lIS with
low air dust ooncentration trequentq presents grea~ aDd even 1D8uJ:'IDOUDtable
ditticulties. 11Dder such coDc11 tione the workerS located in seotions produciDg
. oDIT mod.ra~e dust are exposed to the etteot ot. cODCen~rated dust ototh.r'
processing seotions 10oatec1 in olos. Dqs or aisles. Such .as tOUDd to be' the
caS8 in the emerr wheel 'abratsiDe ssctiona where the high air dust cODC8ntra-.
. .
tion was not created bi ~he operatioD ot the elll8r,y wheels, ~~ ~ ~he saDd-' .
. .
blastiq maohine8, cleaniDg ch'uma aDd other duS~aeDeratiDC equipment which
. .
. '.
were lDS~alled 1D the 8- seo~ioD. Ia this counection 1 t shcQld be DO~ecl .
-24-
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that the du.t pDerated by a'bra1siug machil1e17 contained not more than la
. .
free 8i02' whereas the dust tomed b7 the sandblastiaa operation contaheel
86. ,of 8102. . . .
The problem ot dust remov1Dc ventilat10n in a bu1lcl1Dc oampris1Dg a IIUJD8
'ber ot bqa or .aisles is trequentq complicated 'b7 the tact that the tr1mm1~ "
ancl ole&D1Dg sections, the stampiq and eanh-pro~ess1Jlg sect10nawere locatea
1n the interior part of the build1Dg at a considerable distance from the outer
wal18, requiriDB 10Dpr air 00Ddu1t8 and reD4er1Dg aeoentralisation of iDdi-
"vidual dust removiDg facilit1e8 difficult, 1f not imposs1ble. The tluctuationa
in the dust concentrations in the earth-processiag seotions Doted duri.Dc the
8U1"Vq retlectea the difference8 in the technologioal earth-».rocess1Dc method8,
of the state ot the equipment maintenance, and ot the sanitar,y aDd teohnical
installatiou. IDolosiDB the roller orushers in the earih-prooess1Dc seotiona,
" "
installiDB suotion ventilation Underneath the inclosures, provid1Dg the roller
cNshers, haviDg vision tne dust direotors, with a tlow of water are all ra-
t10nal and important sanitar,y-qg1eDic IUasur8S. .
The investiption ot the air dust concentration in earth-proces8iq seo-
tiou, where the roller cNshers were not sheltered, established the tact that
. the air dust was the rawl t of uneV8D distances from the' bunker. openiDg to the
space occup1eci b7 the roller installations, which raD&8d f1"ClR 1.5 m to l' - 20
om. ShorteDiDB "the distance to 15 - 20 em redu~d the dust ooncentration in
the vicinit7 ot the roller orushers to 10.0 - 8.3. of the erie''''al. Improve-
ment in the sani t&17 labor ooDdi. ti01'18 in the earth-prece8eiDg 8eetions mq" be
att&1ned 'b7 automation ot earih-prooeeeiq, utilisation ot modern equipment
such "as the oentrifugal roller crUshers, and the use of cllQ' emulsions instead
of dry clq.
The burn"' earth tuzmele are the most uns&D1 tary work" spaces in foUDdr;y'
shops. Invest1&at10D showed that iDclosiaa the areas at whioh earth was fed
to the conyeTor bel t8trom the bunkers did no", insure proper air puri t7 of the
work1.Dg premsee. The best solution' to the sanitation of the workiDB condi-
t10~ in the burnt-earth. tumBls .as in proteotiJlc the workers trom the moTiDC
oonyqor belt b7 glass partitions and to install the leyers ot theteediDB and
oon"70r control meohaD1sm OD the worker's side ot the glass partition. The
conve70r belts in suoh t\1DDels IUIlst be equipped with side tlaD88s to prevent
the eanh trom talliDg onto the tloor. Investigation" ot air dust concentra-
tiOD in one tUDDel equippea as above desor1becl show~ that even in the worst
-25-
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section the air dust concentration can be reduced to an average of 10 mg/m .
lncle.ii* of the conveyor belt. made th. u.. of exhaust ventilation fro. th.
tunnel unnecessary provided that other means of fresh air supply were sub-
,tit«t.d. With th. aid of .uoh cow.iui.tor7 ventilation the air dust concen-
trations in th. burnt .arth tunn.l. were furth.r reduced. A high air dust
concentration was noted where th. ha-mcring out of th. moulds was don. by
hand, and in cases where shaking frat.. were not provided with exhaust venti-
latiom. A partial «haust rotilation which dr«r th. air away along th. sid.s
of th. .hakinf «rat., with or without an upp.r air inflow z*du<*d th. air dus
concentration to a marked degree.
Better result, were at-
tained in one foundry plant by
a combination of a special
sliding incloaure covering the
vibratory grate and an exhaust
ventilation, as shown in Pigs.
2 and 3.
The air dust eonoentra-
Carry-off
dust pipes
Suction
openings
Shake-out
grate
tion in the mould haanMrinf
out sections varied with th.
rat. of production and of air
ventilation and of the pour-
ing of the castings and of
Pig. 1. Lateral suction dust removers for the knocked-out earth. In
the knock-out or shake-out gra ^ ^^ ^ ^^^
sir method of forcing out the core, is used without shi.ld.| «ueh a praotic.
is usually accompanied by a high air dust concentration.
An inspection of the trimming sections, where casting, were delivered
after having passed through the sandblasting and drum cleaning operations,
disclosed a comparatively high air dust concentration, particularly in plants
where larg. castings were mad.. Th. dust concentrations produced by trimming
the inner •urfao.s of large complex casting, were considerably higher than
those produced by the trimming of small and medium sised castings. Among
technological foundry shop equipment, the cleaning drums disperse a consider-
able amount of dust into the air. However, the installation of effective ex-
-26-
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Fig. 2. Stationary shake-out grate dust
eliminator with movable housing
haust ventilation and of
air-tight drums helped to
lower the air dust concen-
trations to a notable de-
gree.
A thorough inspection
was made of the open and in-
closed sandblasting com-
partments in which castings
were cleaned with the aid of
quarts sand under high air
compression; the sand con-
tained up to 98* of free
SiOg and its suspension in
the air created a serious
health hazard. The dust
concentration in the in-
closed sandblast compart-
ments averaged 10 mg/m .
After all leaks in the walls
From water supply
Sorubl
Position of
housing
when cham-
ber is open
T*a*d
>
j:_
^ 'in A
»er " 'Mi.
11
_ jijj
— v
-£
~~ Purified air
m^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^a
Slurry to sedimentation tank
Movable housing Control panel
^ s \-^"-^'^^^A/
L Air suction ./^^^^^^ „._ ,
-> --f , ouajce— grate -- \ o i/cn,4.oricijfjr ouu.— iraxj.
!K'^^K^tt..^^.^f!'/iW^5»/?^^^
Stationary end-wall of housing Used earth
Fig. 3. Schematic presentation of shake-out grate cover-
ing with stationary exhaust of purified air
A - Position Of housing at shake-out time} B - Position
of housing during removal of free casting
-27-
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and enolosures ot the compartment were made air-tip.t the air dUst oonoentra-
tion in 31.2S of the tests was below 2 mgjm3 . The dust conoentration in the
air in the pro%1m1 t7 of the open sandblast ,compartments was muoh bip.er,
aanmtiq to n % 10 1IIIl/m3 in sOme instances. Other means of loweriDg the air
dust concentration in the cast and sandblastiDB chambers have been tried with
oonsiderable sUccess. In maD1' plants 'the sandblast1n& operations were re-
plaoed 'b7 metal shot blast. Tests showed that air dust ooncentration in the
viciD1t7' of the metal shot blast chambers was 5 t~ 6 msJm3, indicating that
, ,
the metal shot blast chambers were leas effioient dust abators than the method
, '
of water wettlDcfhowever, the7 oonstituted a marked advantage over the sand-
bla$ting Chambers. 'It W&S recoDllended that the sandblastiDB chambers be re-
placed b.J the metal shot blasting chambers as 8xpeci1tious~ as possible. ,
A caretul and' thorough stucq was made of the' qual1 t7 of air suppl;y uDder
, the helmets of the sandblast operators. This was an important pUseof the
entire investiption since the work in sandblasting chambers was performed
under ooDd1tiODS ot high clot conoentration. The results indioated that the
dust content UDder the helmets was higher than 111 surrounding air; this W&8
, ,
due to the high dust pollution' of the air supplied. In some foundries, where
the compressor air ,was purified 'b;y ad.d1tional filters, and the helmets were
oaretul~ cleaned atter work and stored in special closets outside the shops"
no dust was discovered UDder the helmets. Further inspeotion and observatipn
ot toundr;y prooesses brought out the fact that the air supplied into the hel-
mets was comiDg from. high compressors at a hip. rate of flow. The1'D1ometrio
, ,
tests showed that in the winter the temperature of the air supplied to the
helmeted workers was about 15- 160 and caused considerable chilling of the
. head of the operator who had to wear warm caps. 110 special facilitie8 'were
provided for warm1DB the air, sin08 it W&8 ,warmed in the compressor. During
, ' 0
the sWDID8r months at' an outside temperature of 26.5 th,e oonci1tions were re-
versed, the temperature of the air, entering UDder the, helmets vari'ed between
36 and 380, which was hiP.. Such a situation oreated the double, probiem of
warming the helmet entering air in the winter and cooling it in the summer.
The purification oft~e ,air drawn from the dust generatingequipnent,
such as sandblasting and metal shot blastinB ohambers, cleanina dJ:\mIs, ham-
, ,
maring out of grates, etc., is a problem of considerable masnitude. This
problem was iDcorreot;q attacked in some plants, with reference to the proper
-28-
-------
choice of purif71nB facilities and resulted in a loW performance efficiena.v.
. '"
Most effective proved to be the so-called ""8~clean1ng" me1;hod. One survqed
plant had an installation consistbg of a "washing chamber" or "wetting cham-
ber" equipped with a jet sp~er, the efficienet of which was low because of
. .
the inadequatequantit7 of water suPP17. In another plant, where the air drawn
f~m the sandblast chamber had an initial. dust concent~ation of 17,514 msfm3
. . ,
the management installed the "inertia dust separator", type WI of, one step
cleaning. Tes~8 showed that the air leaving this inertia dust separator con-
tained a residual dust concentration of 720 mg/m3~ It should be noted in this
connectioQ that the Chief State Sanitar,r Inspection of the Mlnistr.y of Public
. .
Health, U.S.S.R., recommends for such cases the use of a two-step dust abator;
a dr7 a.vclone 1:I;>r the first step, and a "et C7clone for the second step of
dust. separation. .
In the next step of the investigation the ori£inal materl:als and the set~
tl.d dust fractio~ were anal7zed .for the ccntent of free 8i02. The original
moulding earth cOntained an average of 70 to 78% of free Si02. The ccntent .
of tree Si02 in the settled dust varied in different foundries !rem 29 to 50%.
Such variation reflected the' differences in the composition of the mould and
. . .
core mixtures. HoWever, in the majorit7 of instances the settled dust con-.
tuned over 40S of free Si02. .
Editor's notel The composition of settled dust in general, and with ref-
erence to the. content of 8i02 in particular, differs from the composition of
suspended dust. Therefore, the content of 8i02 in the settled dust, expressed
in 'percentages, cannot be accepted wi~out reservation as an indicator of the
general characteristic8 of the dust in f0unch7 shops. Ed.
Such high. 8i02 content in conjunction "i th the hi~ dust concentration
are Suffioient Cause for the regular clinical eT~mination of workers of foun-
dries ~ other industrial plants.
Conolusions.
Dust control in fOUDd.r.r shops should be conduoted' along the follow1J3c
lines I
'1. Appropriate lfq~out of the general buildiDg and of individual shops.
The standard desiBD for a foundr,y with an annual output of more than 10,000 t.
of oasthlg .should be.in the fom of a three-wiDg shaped buildiDg with the
clean1Dg and trlmmi~BeaUons oceuP71q the two outer ,wings. For foundrJ'
-29- .
-------
shops with an aDDUal output of les,s than 10,000 t. a oontinuous stra1t:ht line'
building lJJIJ.7 be accepted.. In either type ot builcliDB, sections which generate
. .
heav,r dust must be well isolated from sections which generate moderate dust
concentrations, this should apP17 particular17 to the processes ot abra1sion
. .
which should be tight17 separated from' the processes ot hammering out and
tri -1 ~B' separate build.1DgS should be provided tor the housiDg ot the cle8l1-
. .
inB drums. The clust-generatlnc equipment should be installed olose to the
. outer .walla 80 that air conduit8 oou~d be the shortest possible.
2. The tecbnolOD ot. the cast cleaninB processes and ot the preparation
ot mould earth should be radicalit changed. The latest equipment. such &8
. .
water cleaJiiDB, wet sand cleaninc, centr1fU8al roller crushinc, etc., should
be introch1ced into the. ind.ust~ on a wide scale. The earth emulsion method
tor the preparation of mould aDd oore JDirlures should replace the cl17 earth
. .
. ..
method. .
. .
3. .. The torcillB out ot cores 'b700mpre8sed air should, be striot17 pro-
'. hibited. .n methods tor cleaDiDg the earthen moulds from dust should be de-
veloped. to repiace. the present method ot air blast cleaninc.
4. Etf'icimt exhaust ventilation should be provided tor the removal ot
dust c~ from the halrmeriDg or Dockins-out ot the crates 8I1d trom the
. vibratinc claws, all dust-geDeratiDe operations should be ticht17 enclosed.
.5. The air supplied under the helmet ot the sandblast operators should
be purified b.r supplemental air tilters installed between the oompressor and
the helmet air hose,. continuous laborato17 control should be maintained. over
the qUa1itT ,of the air supplied under the helaet.
6. ])Qst-remon. installations must be selected caretu1l7 8I1d appropri-
. .
ate17 and t1;leir operation proper17 maintained, air conduits should be oleaned
periodical17 aDd overhauled to forestall operational breakdown.
.A. Subsequent inspection iDdioated that the dust prevention problem in
fOUl1dr7 shops bas received. on17 partial attention. The qg1enists and. the
technologi8ts are urged to exert all possible eftort to attain an ear17 solu-
tion . ot the teohnological and sani tar,y-qBienic problems ex1stiDB in the
foundr,r indust%7.
-30-
-------
A Rapid Method. for the Dete1'lllination ot Small Quantitiea ot a:-Ilapht}qlamine
in the Air ot Industrial Areas.
B7
D. 1f. Vaskench and. T. I. Sergeeva.
A1l-UnicnScient1ti~~~8earch Institute ot Industrial Satet7,
A11~UDion-Central Council of Trade Unions, K08Co..
Gigiena i. Sanitari7a, .0. 3, 41-45, 1956.
The methods tor the dete1'miDation ot a:-napht}qlamine described. in the
literature are based on its d1azotization and combination with p-nitroaniline
or on diazotization ot sultanilio acid and combining it with a:-napht~lamine.
The low content ot napht1qlamines in the air and the time consumed in de-
termi DiJ"g them b7 the enstiDg methods make an accurate ~gienic appraisal of
an industrial process a task ot great ditficul t7. Theretcre, an attempt W&8
made to develop rapid methods tor the determination ot naphtqlamines which.
would be more sensitive, simpler, and. less time conswDing in their pertormance
and in the collection ot the air samples.
The methodot microti tration b7 0.001 1f solution ot perchloric ~cid in a .
. .
non-aqueous med1um was discounted .!. Priori because ot the explosive propertie.
ot perchloric acid and the kn01ni ditticul t7 of mArl ng an ana1Jrsis in a non-
aqueous med1u. Special attention was given the colorimetric methods. Evi-
dence was gathered. trom the literature to the effect that D&pht~lamines
formed colored conjugation_molecules and colored conversicncompound.s. A
thoroup stud1"of the conjugation reactions indicated that the products tormed
were oDl7 taintq colored and that the sensi ti vi t7 of the reactions was
slight, which made the utilization of this reaotion unsuited. tor the deter--
minatioD of small quanti tie8 ot the naphtqlamin88 nomal1Jr present in the
air. However, it was discovered later that p-aminophenol in alkaline medium
prodgced a violet oolor with a:-naphtb7lamine with a sensitivit7 ot 5 pg in 3
mI. The color developed. gradual1Jr, reaching the peak ot intensit7 after 2
hours. or greater interest were the conversion reactions 7ieldedb,r naph-
t}qlamine. For the determination ot «-napht}qlamine advantage was taken of
its reaction with diazoamincbenzol in acetic acid solution. The course of
the reaction i8 probab17 as follo"81
-31-
-------
. CH3COOH
CeHsN=N -NHC6Hs -+C6HsNH2+CeHsN2' CH3COOH
. .NH2 N~.
/'-/'-.. /'-./'- -N=N-CeHs
CeHsN2' CH3COOH+ I II- I. I I +CHaCOOH
. '-/'-./ '-/'-'
, The resultiD&' producR is a raspberr;y-red 4e. ~-naphtqlamine reacted s1m1-
. .
lar17, but, with on17 lOS 'of the sensitivit~n highest color intensitT appeared.
when the aoidcontent in the solution ranged between 20 and 35%. PerChlorio
acid in a varle't7 of concentrations produoed no 00101'.
For, the detemination of u-naphtqlamine an alooholic solution of'd1azo-
amiDobenzol containillg 0.2 mg in 1 liter was used. The diazoaminobenzol so-
lution kept for one week. 0.1 m1 of diazo amino benzol solution was added to .
1~5 mlof 7~ acetic aoid formiag a'so-oalled co~lex solution~hich also kept
tor one week. An alooholic solution of CI-naphthTlamin8 containing 0.01 mg in
1 m1 ~'" prepared at the same time. A series of standards was prepared as
. 0
tollowsl 1.6 mi of the oomplex solu",ion prepared in advanoe, was placed into
o , .
eaoh of 9 test tubes and the follow1D& amounts of u-naphtq18llline solu",1on
added I 0 0, 0.03, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1.0 1111. The volume. in the
o .
o 0
tubes was made up to 3 al b;y. the 0 addit10n of aloohol. The test samples weN
treated ident1ca111'. The .tandard setoontained the following amowrts of 0;-
naphtqlamiJ1e in 3 ml of solut10nl 0, 0.3, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 PC.
o 0
The control sample developed a light 7ello. color. In the pNsenC8 of' 0;-
naphtqlam1ne 0 a rasp'berr.r color develops the intens1 t7 of whichie propor-
t10nal to the amount of the iuptqlamine. The sens1tiv1t7 of the test is
0.3 .,,&/3 ml; the dilut10n 11111 t 1s 1 x 107. Colorimetric' determ1Dat10l1s
should be made w1th reflected light reading aloDg the axis of the tsst tube.
Dete~t1an of 00101' 1Dtens1t7 oan also be made photooolorimetrical17
. 1n combination with a nomocraph as shown ill 'iC. 1. The determ1nat1011B here- 0
in reponed were made wUh the a1d of direot aot10n LI<1l photocolor1aeter
without uslncarq light filter. Hipest color intens1t7 developed atter 20
. II1nutes and pers1sted for several manths. .
Results of experimental visual dete1'minat10ns of u-napht1qlamine made
20 to 30 minutes after prepariDg the solution are presented in Table 1. Con-
centrations exceeding the st~ _.series should not 0 be determined b7 dilut1cm
-32-
-------
IZ.14S671~JfJ
Co.ncn~ . in pg/3 ml
Fig. 1. Calibration curve
for «-naphthylam1ne detn.
:because such a procedure yielded incorreot17
low results. In such cases the detemination
IIII1st be made by usinc less of solution so that
the color intenei t7 would fall .i thin the raDg8
of the standard set.
Under industrial oondi tiol18 CI-napht~la-
mine contained up to 15. of p-napht~lamine.
Attempts were made to detemin8 «-napht~la-
mine 18 the presence of different amounts. ot
p-naphthylamine. The results are listed in
Table 2..
At 20~ the vapor tension ot «-naph- .
tqlamine is 171.6 DID of mercur,r and ot
p-napht~lam1ne 175.8 II1II. Consequently,
both substances 1IJ1q be present s1illult"';'
neoUsq in the air of industrial produo-
0; 0; 0: 0 . tion premises in the fom of dust and of
0,3; 0,3; 0,3; 0,3 twDes. The multiple (s1x-bllb) ~.absorber
I: I; I; J
of 1'. V. Alekse7eva and B. E. Andronov
2; 2; 2; 2; 2 .
can be used. oonven1ent17 for speed;, 001-
3;.3; 4: 3
lection of the air samples. The absorber
L ~ ~ 6 6
@ 8. 7; 7 JlI0'.f-2 constructed b;r Vaskevieb and
10 . 10; 10; 10. Sergeeva, retains theadvantag8s ot the
. . absorber mentioned. above, and its con-
struction. i8 8impler and oan be easiq made in &fIT laborato~. It ~erm1 t8
rapid collectioD of air samples oontain1nc different degrees of dust8uap8J1-
8ion aDd. of fues ot the substance UDder.investigation. . (Pi,. 2). Cotton
wade are iD8ertedthrough the absorbu neck into the lower bulb. The neck.
is then tilled with ootton and overlqed with glass beads.. The absorber Deck
acts &S a reta1Der of sprq,. dust and aerosol camiDB trom the absorber medium.
A groUDCl-~o-fi t stopper is insertea. l8to the neck, the glass stopper is pro-
videa. With a tubular outlet. If no gromuJ.:-to-fit stopper is available, a
perforatea. rubber stopper can be used in. its pl... .&s is shown inFtg. 2.
.. Por the oolleotion of samples the ab80rbiac liquia. is poured l8to the
test-tube. throup the stopper outlet wh1.ch is then ooDJ1eoted to the set-up.
..
~
o
~ so
Pi
J.44tJ
o
II) J(}
~
.pM
~
.... KJ
M
Table 1
Deterudnation of «-naphthyl&Ddne
wi th diazoamnobenzene by the com-
bining method
pg/3 ml I /
_tak:en ..' pg 3 m1 found
o
0,3
2
3
-33-
-------
'The set-up is tirmly installed
in a vertical posi t,ion, the
cork outlet qonnected to the
aspirator, dust collector, etc.,
and the air aspirated at the
desired speed., Fig. 3 is a
locus ot the pressure drop ot
the set-up, at different air
'speeds. DuriDg the operation
some absorber solution is
sucked into the absorber, and
a thin l~er of it accumulates
over the cotton. When the
sample collection is completed
. .
the apparatus is disconnected and disassembled; "the neck is washed with I to
2 ml of the absorber liquid, the beads removed, the cotton forced down into
, "
the absorber solution co~tained in the lower bulb. IV' the applioationof
negative air pressure; while squeezing the wet cotton with a small metal
stick:, the solvent is drawn into a test tube. The cotton is washed several
_~1mes b;r intermittent vacuum suction while adding 2 ml of the solution. One
Table 2.
Determination of a-naphthylamine in
the,presenoe of ~~naphthylamine
Weight ratios mak n in: Found in
ot a/~ .~ e ';
naphtbylamine I1g I1g
----------".
I: 1
I': 0,5
I: 0,1
J :.0;25
I: 0,5
I: I
I~: 2,5
I: 5
I: 10.
-"------
2
2
2
i'
I
2
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4 .
4
4
4 .
4
Notdetermtd
due to dif-
ferent colo1,'
~T
- !
I
, ~
'"
, , I
1 .
(/)f'()
Fig. 2. Absorber MIO'!\-2
-34- ,
S
::S'
r-f
o
o
-..
t)
.p,'
= 400
6,
~ 300
'f'f .
Pi. .
E zoo
'd'
f: 100
::s
ID
ID
t)
~ , 1
P-t,Aspiration
l J 4
rate in Ii/min.
Fig. 3. Pressure drop ot absorber
at different rates ot aspiration
-------
or two washings proved sufficient for the complete removal of the collected
substance. The spent cotton is then pulled through the bottom tube of the
absorber apparatus with the aid of a steel wire hook.
.Optimal conditions for the operation of the absorber were determined b.7
the smoke flume method. Several absorbers, containing 5 ml of alcohol each,
were placed at different distances from the flume of condensed naphthyl amine
particles. A dispersion ana~sis of the flume particles indicated the fol-
low1D&l. depending on the rate of condensation, particles up to 1.7 p in di-
ameter constituted 31 to 81$, particles of 2 to 3.5 p in diameter - 0 to 69%;
particles of diameter exceeding 7p constituted 19 to 69%.
Completeness of absorption was cheCked b.7 passing the tested air through
two successive~ connected absorbers. '!'he cheCk investigation covered a wide
range of air pollutant concentrations. The results are shown in Table 3.
The data shown in Table 3 indicate that at air aspiration speeds of 120 and
150 li/hr all the naphthyl amine was retained b.7 the first absorber. At 180
li/hr a IQsTillDtJII of 3.5% escaped into the second absorber. Such ma&J1itude of
error oan be ignored tor all practical purposes. The data also show~hat
the KIOT-2 absorber collected air samples in 5 to 7 minutes as compared with
30 to 40 minutes by the LIOT absorber. However, the MIOl-2 apparatus cannot
be used for the absorption of gases of fumes. Naphthylam1ne samples can also
be collected with the aid of porous glass plate filters.
Table 3
a-naphthylamine samples collected through absorber MIO~2
!; ~ 1st absorber
o
G»,q
....,
cd'f'4
f):
-------
Conolusions.
.1. A . rapid method was developed for the detemiDation of small amounts
ota-naphthylamine, whioh is based on the tormation ot a coloredoompound
resulting trom the reaction taking place between a-naphthylamine and diazo-
aminobenzol in aoetic acid mediwa. The sensitivit7 ot the method i.. 0.3
. pgf3 ml with a concentration 11m! t ot 1 x 107. The color of the standa~
sets keeps for several months and can be used instead of artifioial sets.
2. The presence in the air of a thresfold excess of p-naphthylamine
did not interfere with the correct quantitative determination of a-napb-
thylam1ne.
3. A rapid method was developed for the colleotion of air samples with
the aid ot a new MI01'-2 .absorber; the method is based on the formation ot
. .
flakes b.1 the absorbed partioles and the dissolution of the flakes and fumes
of a-naphthylamine by a solvent applied to the large ootton surfaoe area.
4.:By the new method herein described the quantitative determination
ot a-naphthylam:1ne in the air oanbe made in 10 to 15 mintues instead of 50
. to 60 minutes oonsumed b.1 the old method. .
Referenoes.
An eKe e e B 8 M. B., A HAP 0 HOB. 5. E.., n86.np8KTHK8, 1941, Hi r.
CTp. 18-21.-AneKceeB8 M. B., AHJlPOHOB 5. E., rYPBHU C.C., )l(HTKO.
5.8 A. C., ) KH.: Onpe.ae.1eHHe BpeJlHblX Bew.eCTB B B03J1yxe npOH3BQJlCTBeHHblX nOKew.e. .
RHI!, H3./l.2-e, CTp. 405, M., 1954. - 5 Y P M H e T p 0 B.C. Ii., 5JOJ1n. Beee. XHM. 0-8a
HM. MCHJle./lceB8, 1942, N2 2, eTp. 14-14. - K e II .n., n 9 6 H T., Cnp8BOQRHK 4!R3Hxa-
9KcncpHMeHT8Top8, - crp. 129, M., 1949. -n e R X.O n b J1 B., AHHnHJlO-Kp8C01lH811 npoll..
1933, N2 2-3, CTp. 87--88. -'- M e II e p r., AHanH3 H onpeJ1eJleHHe' crpoeHHII OpraRRQe.
CKHX Bew.ecrB, KHCB, 1935, CTp. 371-372. - n H M e HOB a 3. M., )l(YPH. BHanHT.. XHMHH.
1951. T. VI, N2 I, CTp. 59-60. - n 0 H 0 M 8 P e H K 0 5. B., )l(YPR. npllJUl. XHMHH, 1938,
T. XI, Hi I, CTp. 147-150. . . . . .
. . . noc:rynM.'l8 25fXlI 19IW r.
-36-
-------
Proposed New Sanitary Standards for Projected
Industrial Production Plants. .
(To replaceN 101-54). .
N. S. Iaaev, Z. B. Smelyanskii, L. K. Khotayanov and E. V. Khukhrin, Moscow.
From the Institute of Labor Hygiene and Occupational Diseases of the Academy
of Medical Sciences of the U.S.S.R. and the Department of Labor Hygiene of
the Central Institute of Post-Graduate Medicine. .
Gigiena Truda i Professional'nye Zabolevaniya, Vol. 1, No.4, 3-11 (1957).
. .
. New "Construction Standards and Regulations" are now in the process of
developmertt; simUltaneously the sanitary standards for the planned industri-
al enterprises are also being reviBed.
The earliest sanitary standards regulating the construction of proposed
. .
industrial enterprises were issued in 1939 in the form of GOST 90014-39. The
new revision of the sanitary standards is the sixth in order of legally en-
acted documents in the field of industrial hygiene; mention is here made of
GOST 1324-43,1324-47, NSP 101-51, N 101-54.
Since the enactment of the first sanitary code of laws the sanitary
standards have been,undergoing revision in concert with research.develop-
ments attained in the field of hygiene from the theoretioal and applied view-
points. The adopted standards and regulations markedly improved sanitary
working conditions in industrial enterprises. The norms adopted. for the
quality ot air which prevailed in industrial production and manufacturing
plants served as vivid examples of the benefits which the introduced sani-
tary standards resulted in by reducing the high incidence of occupational dis-
eases and prevented their occurrence in many industries, espeoially the new
ones.
Nevertheless, it is recognized that existing sanitary standards, as de-
fined in N 101-54, in many :r:-espects fall short of the sanitary needs pre-
sented b.1 recent industrial developments and do not aocord with the latest
teohnical aocomplishmentsof the sciences of modern hygiene and sanitation.
The high level of present ~ production technic in most instances en-
ables the hygienist and sanitarian to make provision for the introduction of
such measures as~ be required from a sanitary-hygienic viewpoint at the
time a new production plant is planned and while it is being constructed,
thereb,y plaoing proper air and health protection on a prophylactic rather
than ona oorrective basis. In this respect trends in the direction of in-
-37-
-------
dustrial production mechanization and automation should, and we feel sure
will, play an important role. Such mechanical progress was anticipated and
pertinent regulations were presoribed by the resolutions of the XX Congress
of theCPSS (Communist Party of the Soviet Union).
Experience in combatting dust, gases and vapors in production and manu~
. -
facturing surroundings clearly indicated that the newly developed technics
pointed to possibilities of bringing the concentration levels of air pollut-
ing dusts, gases and vapors to the required allowable limits in mining, the
production and manufacture of toxic substances, etc. It is felt further that
in their research studies or in the performance of their practical duties the
hygienist and sanitarian should be primarily guided by physiological-hygienic
considerations and not by considerations of technical feasibility. We must
be reminded at this point that all previously allowed deviations from the
physiologically determined sanitary-hygienic requirements were dictated by
considerations of technical non-feasibility. Such laxities should now be
revoked, and no exceptions and concessions should be allowed in the future.
- Our present-day sanitary requirements related to industrial production
and manufactu~ing planning are based in many instances on or include many
concrete features proposed and approved by industrial oonstruction engineers,
such as the lay-out .of buildi~, their ventilation and heating systems, etc.
. -
Teohnioal developments in the U.S.S.R. are proceeding at a high tempo. In.
proposing means for the attainment of sanitary and hygienic protection of the
workers we must be flexible; we must be discriminating and not confuse our
sanitary and hygienic obligations and responsibilities with those of the
technical and construction engineers. At the same time the sanitary stan-
. .
dards related to industrial planning must be sufficiently extensive, verti-
cally and horizontally, to insure beyond any doubt the creation of maximum
favorable oonditions for the maintenance and protection of the health of those
who are to be employed in the projected production and manufacturing plants.
The sanitary st~rds now in existence must be supplement~d and broadened
in anticipation of needs which ~ arise from the new factors constantly be-
ing introduoed into modern production and manufacture. As examples mention
is he~e\made of ionizing radiation, electromagnetic polarity, noises and vi-
brations, etc. Sanitary hygienic standards for adequate .counteracting of
such factors as were just mentioned have been developed and defined; they
w111 be presented and discussed at some future time.
-38-
-------
Determinations 23, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, and 34 were made by
the Department of Labor Hygiene of the Firat MO$oOW Medioal Institute.
The proposed sanitar,y standards are the result of collec~ive efforts of
many scientific workers associated with differentInst~tutes and Departments
of Labor Hygiene. The authors of this communication merely make.publio the
results of the studies.
Received for publication by the journal Gigiena Truda i Professional'.
nye Zabolevaniya, 3/VI, 1957.
All scientifio and practical workers are asked by the editors of this
journal to consider carefully the proposed standards herein outlined and
discussed and to send in their remarks and criticisms to the Institute of
Labor Hygiene and Occupational Diseases of the Academy of Medical Soiences
of the U.S.S.R.
-47-
-------
Air Evaluation in Industrial Premises in the Presence of
Several Pollutants.
A. G. Aver'yanov.
Gig1~na i Sanitariya, 1957, No.8, pp. 64-66.
In appendix 3 of Sanitary Standards for Proposed Industrial Plants, of
code H 101-54 there. appears a table en~itled "Limits of Allowable Conoen'r.a-
tions of Poisonous Gases, Vapors and Dust in the ~ir of Working Areas of
o Industrial Plants." Note 4 of that table reads as follows: "When vapors of
, 0
several solvents, such as benzene and its homologues, alcohols, esters of
acetic acid, etc. or several irritating gases, such as 503' 502' HCl, IIF,
etc., or nitrogen oxides together with CO, are being simultaneously dis-
o 0
charged into the air, the total ventilation volume must be calcu~a~e4on the
basis of the sum of the volume of air required for the dilution of each of
o 0
o '
the solvent vapors, each of the irritating gases and of the CO individually
in accordance with the presor1De~ standards. In instances of simultaneous
discharge of several gases and vapors of other than solvents and irritating
gases or CO in conjunction with oxides of nitrogen, the volume of ventila-
tion air is calculated on the basis of the volume prescribed for dilution of
the most harmful of the components."
, The above cited requisite fails to clarify what values should be taken
as limits of allowable concentrations in instances in which vapors of sever-
o 0
al solvents, of several irritating gases, or when CO and oxides of nitrogen
are simultaneously discharged into the workroom air. Assume that CO and
oxides of nitrogen are discharged simultaneously into the workroom air and
that a general supply and exhaust ventilation system must be installed for
the removal of the gases and vapors. Assume, further, that the total dis-
charge of such gases and the required total volume of exchange air for the
o dilution of each, of the gaseous air pollutants to the prescribed concentra-
tion have been determined as 0.005 mg/m3 for oxides of nitrogen and 0.03
mg/m3for 00. Applying the instructions of note 4 to the hypothetical case
under consideration it would be necessary to supply the workroom with 20 000-
o m3 per hour of fresh air, or a volume twice that required for the appro-
o 0
priate dilution of each of the gases individually; accordingly the concen-
trationof the oxides of nitrogen would become 0~0025 ~/m3 and the concen-
-48-
-------
tration of the CO would become .0.015 mg/m3, or half the allowable concen-
tration for each of the air pollutants.
Assume further that with an hourly exchange of workroom air of 20 000
m3 per hour the concentration of the oxides of nitrogen was 0.005 and of
CO - 0.03 mg/m3 as a result of increase in the production load or due to
other causes. The question arises,.what method of evaluation of ventilation
effectiveness should be used and what gas concentrations should be consid-
ered as allowable. Off hand it might appear as if the gas concentrations
determined did not exceed the limits of the allowable concentrations pre-
scribed by H 101-54 and that accordingly there seemed no reason to regard
the existing air ventilation as inadequate. And yet, according to the in-
structions of note 4 the rate of air exchange in the instance under consid-
erationcan be accpeted as twice the rate of air exchange required for the
dilution of each of the air polluting gases to the concentrations adopted by.
H 101-54 as the limits of allowable concentrations. This could be regarded
as justifiable only in cases in which the possibility of equal degree of air
dilution at all points in the workroom has been established. According to
some U.S~A.publications in isolated cases of general ventilation an air
dilution safety ratio may be required of 2 - 6 in relation to the calcu-
lated volume of the fresh air supply.
. As a rule, in checking ventilation the instructions presented in note 4
are not taken into consideration and the ventilation rate is regarded as
adequate if the dilution of several coexisting irritating gases or of the
simultaneously present oxides of nitrogen and of CO is in compliance with
the levels prescribed for the limits of allowable concentrations in H 101-54.
The correctness of such an interpretation of the regulation may be questioned.
Were we to accept such an interpretation and proceed to evaluate the
effectiveness of ventilation on the basis of the standard limits of allowable
air pollutant concentrations defined in H 101-54, then the instructions pre-
sented in note 4 regarding the volume of the total air exchange would have
no justification. On the other hand, if the instructions are appropriate and
justifiable, then the entire problem must be properly clarified and revised
standards of limits of allowable gas concentrations must be adopted for such
specific cases as are here dealt with. Present d~ industrial hygiene has
. .
DO data at itsdispGsaJ. related to the effect on the organism of several
irritating vapors or poi~onous gases. The solution of such problems b.1
-49-
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pharmaco-toxicologic studies may take years. But we must not wait that
long, we must find appropriate means for the immediate solution of such
important sanitary problems.
We propose the following expedient: As was previously mentioned and
according to the ~egulation in note 4, the calculation of general ventila-
tion must be based on the sum of the fresh air volumes required for the
:lndividual.dilution of each solvent vapor,of eac~ irritating. or poisonous
gas, of the oxides of .nitrogen and of the CO to the required concentrations.
In. such eventualities we may encounter the following possibilities: Several
. .
poisonous gases may be discharged for which regulations prescribe the same
limits of allowable concentrations, such for instance as gasoline and white
spirits; in such cases the ventilat~on effectiveness could be regarded as
. satisfactory only when the sum of the .determined concentrations of the dis-
charged gases and vapors did not exceed the value of the maximum allowable
concentration prescribed b,y H 101-54. On the other hand, where the limits
. of allowable concentrations of the individual discharged gases. and vapors
. .
are of different magnitudes, as in the .case of o~de~of nitrogen and CO,
the evaluation ot ventilation effectiveness must be determined on the basis
of "equivalent magnitude." Such an evaluation maybe expressed as the ratio
of maximum allowable concentrations of vapors and gases discharged in the
workrooms. For example, assuming that the discharged pollutants in the work-
room consisted of oxides of nitrogen and of CO the limits of allowable con-
centrations of which correspondingly are 0.005 and 0.03 mg/m3; the equivalent
magnitude for CO would be ~:g~5 . 6, and for oxides of nitrogen it would be
0.001 0 11 . .
0.03 . . . .
Assume now that during inspection or checking the oxides of nitrogen
concentration was O~003 mg in which case the limit of allowable ~ontent of
oxides ofnitragen (X)' should,',be determined, from equation: 0.005. 0.003 +
~ ,accor~~~y X . 0.002 x 6 . 0.01~mell1~If the concentration of CO
was 0.012 ~I1, then the content of the Qxides of nitrogen must not exceed
the limit of X - 0.018 x 0.11- 0.003 mg/11. If in addition to the oxides
of nitrogen and CO vapors of benzene are also discharged into,the workroom
and t~e concentration of the oxides of nitrogen was 0.002 mg/li, and of the
CO - ~.Ol mg/li then the lim1tofallowable concentration of gasoline vapors
can be determined by the following equation:
-50- .
-------
. 0.01 X ( )
0.005 - 0.002 + ~ + 60 1
03.
where 60 - 0.005 is the equiV8~ent value of or the ratio bstween gasoline va-
pors and oxides of ni trogen.So1 ving the following equation
x - ( 0.005 - 0.002 - ~ ) 60 co 0.078 mgj1i
Dividing both sides of equation (1) by 0.005, whioh is the limit of allowable
concentration of oxides of nitrogen, we havel
0.005 0.002 + 0.01 + X
0.005 - 0.005 6 x 0.005 60 x 0.005 or
a1 a2 83 .
1 - - + - + - (2)
~ ~. ~
in which al' 82' and a3 denote corresponding]y concentrations of ~.:x1des of nitro-
gen, of CO and of gasoline in the workroom air, and ~, x2' and x3 denote their
corresponding limits of allowable concentrations. It follows from equation (2)
that in the simultaneous pr~$ence..in the air of vapors of several solvents, ir-
ritating gases or oxides of nitrogen and CO a satisfactory sanitar,y condition
of the air can be had only when the sum of the individual ratios of the actually
determined concentrations to their corresponding maximum allowed concentrations
did not exceed unity', that is:
~ a2
~ + ~ ........
an <
+ - 1.
xn
Editorial note.
In the absence of experimental information on the subject of the simultane-
ous effect on the human organism of several poisonous or irritating gases or va-
pors present in workrooms, the editors thought it desirable to bring A. G. Aver'~
yanov's paper to the attention of the reader for P\Jrposes of discussion and com-
ment .
This paper is brought to the attention of U.S.A. cOlllDUnity air pollution
students and investigators with the thought in mind that similar methods of cal-
culation of limits of allowable concentrations of simultaneously present vapor
and gas pollutants in the air of inhabited localities m~ prove of interest and
value.. (B. S. L.)
-51-
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Air Eva1uatioa i. Industrial Premises in the Presence of Several
Harmful Compounds in the Air.
B7
P. I. Bogatkov and Yu. G. Befedov.
Gig1ena i 8an1tar~a, Vol. 24, Bo. 3, p. 70, 1959.
In Gig1ena i Sanitariya, 1957, No.. 8, pages 64-68 there appeared a paper
'b7 A. G. AveryaDov entitled "Air Evaluation in Industrial Premises in the
Presence ot Several Pollutants". In that article the author concluded that
. .
if the sum of the ratios of the actual pollutant concentrations to their re-
. .
spectiv8 limits of allowable concentration did not exceed unit,. (1) then the
sani tar;y condition of the. air could be regarded as sat is fact 017 . Avery&nov
formulated his conclusion in the following generalization:
a1 a2 an . .
X; + X; + ... + X; -< 1.
in which a1' a2' ... an denote the concentrations of the air pollutants and
xl' x2' ... xn their respecU ve 11m1 ts of allowable concentration.
In making sanitar.r-chemica1 air evaluations heretofore, o~ the actual
concentrations of individual air ;pollutants were taken into consideration,
and if the determined concentration of each individual pollutant did not ex-
ceed the respective prescribed norms the sanitar,y condition of the air was
regard.das satisfactor7. In other words, on~ the specific effect of each
individual pollutant was taken into account. However, it is well known that
some harmful substances affected the organism negative 1,. in sOlDe secondary
non-specific w81', which becomes most apparent in the simultaneous. presence of
one or more deleterious pOllutants, as was brought out 'b7 I. G. Friedland in
his book "Concerning the So-Called Non-Specific Effect of Industrial Poisons",
published by' Moscow Medgiz in 1957. (B. and N. obviousl,. have reterence to
what in ths U.S.A. is commonly called "the phenomenon of s7Dergism". B.8.L.)
If this be true then it becomes imperative that all air admixtures be con-
sidered not onlY' individualq but also in their tota1it7. Here in the case
of the effect of different modes of ionizing r81's the integral dose should be
taken into account.
A. G. Avery&nov in his article introduces the concept of the "equivalent
magnitude" which in our opinion approaches the concept which takes into con-
sideration the "integral" dose when dealing with the effect upon the orpnism .
of the sum-total action ot several deleterious substances. .
-52-
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Present D~'Problems of Industrial Ventilation.
By V. V. Baturin.
The VTsSPS Institute of Labor Protection.
Gigiena iSanitariya Vol. 23, Jo. 1, 1958, pp. 10-21.
Meteorological conditions prevailing in working spaces of 'industrial prem-
ises and gas concentrations are largely the results of location of sources and
of intensity of heat and other sequeli of volume production, the nature and
, ,
sha~e of production premises as well as of the basic air circulation system in
operation. The picture is a complex 'one, involving as it does problems in air,
dynamics, heat diffusion, etc. This complexity of air pollution factors ex-
, ,
isting under working conditions in industrial premises 19~ds the problem of
air ventilation with almost insurmountable difficulties. Attempts to analyze
such ventilation problems with the aid of basic generalized formulas necessi-
tate the introduction of simplification factors which in the ultimate lower
or completely negate the practical value of the final resultsjin the end
one is forced to turn to experimental empiricism. However, results of experi-
roenta~ empirical investigations are applicable to specific instances, and can
not be applied, as in the case of basic formulas, to other specific cases.
The method of building small scale aerodynamic and heat diffusion models
based on the theor.y of simplification was found helpful in s91ving ventilation
problems. This method makes possible the determination of the role pl~ed by
each factor influencing the thermo- and aerodynamic processes in a building,
such, for instance, as the height of the building, the equipment distribution
of any ventilation circulation chosen, etc. This is not always'possible under
practical working conditions. Such a method also permits the determination of
air parameters anywhere on the production premises. Coloring of air currents
for visibility ,may be of help in detecting factors not forseeable by even most
careful theoretical speculation. The model method as a rule does not re-
quire extensive expenditure of time or money, and the results can be verified
through experimental studies under working conditions.
Problems of expansion and circulation of ventilation _curr~tB, heat dif-
fusion currents are of ,importance in the study of air circulation. Results of
experimental and theoretical studies in aerodynamics of free currents are help-
, ,
ful in studying the theoretical and technical aspects of ventilation; they lead
-53-
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to the development of computation methods used in the construction of hu-
midifiers and, so called, air curtains now widely used in the U. S. S. R., and
abroad. N. N. Sadovskaya and V. N. Troyanovskii 'have shown that a free stream,
i. e. , ,a stream which emerges from a round or rectangular extension orprotru-
sion follows the known course of behavior as iong as the expanding cross section
area of the stream is not in excess of 20 - 25% of the cross section of the
premises; after that the stream widening and the increase in air volume become
reduced. However, when the cross section of the widening stream becomes equal
to 40 - 42% of the cross section of the premises the stream begins to abate,
the air delivery is sharply reduced and with it the cross section of the stream
and its axial speed also become reduced. With the increase in the degree of
, ,
turbulence caused by the intermixing of the ventilation and indoor air re-
sult~ng from the rotation of the blades of the installation the stream under-
goes rapid development and equally rapid abatement. In this connection it was
established that the CX9sssection shape of the premises had no effect on the
course of the air stream development.
, ,
On the basis of principles regulating the flow of air streams V. N.
Troyanovwkii eVQived calculation formulas for central supplementation of air
for air heating and ventilation. Centered air supplementation brings about
intensive air mixing as a result of which the properties of air at all vertical
levels differ only slightly. Such air supplementation was found expeditious
in cases where air mixing reduced thermal loss and increased air input without
lowering the hygienic conditions of the working zone. Formulas for the esti-
mation of centered air supply in work rooms were derived from studies of air
, current expansion in limited space.
1. For the number of air currents throughout the width of the room the
. formula is:
B'
n co O/3.5f'H
in which B is the width and H the height of the workroom ,in meters.
2. MaximUm range of an inflowing air stream, designated S, has a coeffi-
cient a = 0.08. Such a turbulence coefficient ~an be obtained with a rectan-,
gular extension outlet equipped with rotating blades. In the case of air cur-
, , '
rents supplied at a level of 0.1 H from the floor S = 4.16 F meters, and at a
, n
level of 0.5 H from the floor S =3.31 F meters, in which 5 .. the maximum air
, , n
stream range in meters, F ='the cross section area of the'room in m2. If the
-54-
-------
length of the room exceeds 5 then another supplemental air stream should be
introduced 5 meters from the first.
The diameter of the air current inlet must ,be su~h as to allow a velocity
of air not exceeding 0.5 m/sec. and not less than 0.1 m/sec. as per the fol-
lowing formula:
1,76L
o
do = F M
n
in which L is the rate of air consumption per second (in m3/sec.). The ini-
o
tial velocity of the air stream V is determined by the following formula:
o
4~o
V =-
o nd
o
These formulas were used in determining the type of ventilation installation
which had been adopted by the wet departments of Moscow and Kazan tanneries.
The results attained verified the practical utility of the formulas.
Hot air currents coming from heated surfaces inside high temperature pro-
duction sections play an important role in the flow of air streams. A study
of principles regulating the'flow of such air currents substantially aids in
the determination of the temperature of the air emitted from the upper levels
of the working premises as well as the temperature of the air of the working
areas. In dealing with general mechanical exchange-ventilation men~ion should
be made of the method of active supply of intake-air in spinning and weaving
mills, ,of the cotton industry which were developed by the Ivanovski1 Institute
of 'Labor Protection. The incoming air is directed towards the aisles between
the machines (working areas) from above through slitlike openings. This type
of ventilation is now widely used in the U. S. S. R., but to-date this system
of industrial work room ventilation has not been critically evaluated.
Problems related to overheated industrial production rooms are frequently
solved by combining general aeration with on-the-spot mechanical ventilation~
by the use of air sprays, air curtains and air exhausts. Effectiveness of
natural air circulation is closely connected with the conditions of general
aeration which must be taken into consi~eration in the,original planning of
the industrial production plant and its technical installations; the proper
and efficient utilization and operation of ventilation installations should be
strictly enforced. ,To properly utilize natural air circulation it is necessa-
ry to eliminate obstruction and shut-offs caused by unfavorable winds which
-55-'
-------
frequently blow shut the intake jalousie blades, etc.; it is also necessary
to prevent air from flowi~from hot to cold aisles and to insure free air flow
at points of air intake and outgo. This can be accomplished by the installation
of wind-diverting devices at the points of air intake and outgo. In this con-
nection mention should be made of the following :windshield designs: "MIortl,
"ICl'IStI, tlPromstal 'kostru1.""tsiya", "Lenpromstroiprcekt", "Gipromez" , " one designed
by the author and one b.y Sinerukhov. The use of the right kind of windshiel~
or diverter is of importance because such devices prevent the backflow of pol- .
luted air into the working zone and facilitate the operation of the ventilation
system.
Elimination of through or draft ventilation in h~gh temperature production
departments is attained by regulating the jalousie openings on the windward
side. Pressure from within can be reduced by increasing the opening between
the jalousie blades. To reduce the flow of air from a hot to a cold working
" "
"aisle located on same level it is necessary to separate them by a partition
suspended halfway from the ceiling. Effective ventilation in the interwind-
" "
shield spaces prevents accumulation and stagnation of exhaust air coming fram
the j~lousie exhaust devices. Satisfactory ventilation can be achieved where
the ratio between the depth of the inter-lantern (between enclosure) space
and the distance bet~een the lanterns (enclosures) is about 1:3. In the pres-
ence of many between-machine aisles fresh air should be supplied to working
areas by aeration gates installed at the openings of the aisles, and when the
aisles are too wide, the ventilation air should be brought in through the open-
ing of special aisles. In making ventilation calculations attempts have been
made to take into consideration not total heat excess but the part which af-
" , '
fectedtemperature regulation in the 'working areas. Difficulties encountered
in the 'determination of excess in high-temperature work shops are well known.
However, in instances under present consideration data on air heat balances
and equations on heat transfer can be utilized with'1:l,enefit... Exact determina-,
tion of heat escaping into the working zone seems impossible, and there remains
only the empirical (experimental) way of investigation.
Using data of air heat balances of different workshops, as obtained by
actual observation and recording and with values of Q , t , t Z and t e"
" excess n w a
available (where t = estimated summer temperature, t = working zone temper-
, n" wz
ature and t D exhaust air temperature) the value of m, or the increment of
" ae" '
excess heat which affected the temperature in the work zone, can be calculated
-56-
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for concrete sets of conditions, i. e., i~ is possible to determine that incre-
ment of excess heat which affected the working zone temperature, by the fol-
lowing equation:
t - t
wz. n
m .. t - t
aa n
It is apparent that the value. of m arrived at on the basis of air heat
balance calculation can not be appropriately applied to other workshops which
operated under same technological and production conditions. Based on the re-
sults of a large series of experiments a nomograph was constructed of approxi-
mate ~ t I ~t values depending upon the area occupied by the basic sources
wz ae
of hearth or furnace heat emission as compared with the total working area
which can be expressed as Ff /Ffl. Naturally, the greater the number
. urnac~ oor
of furnaces the more intensive will be the exchange-circulation between the
upper and lower air levels, the more extensive will be the air-mixing and the
smaller will be the difference between t and t . The nomograph makes pos-
. wz ae .
sible the determination of values t and L when t of the air in the working
. ae .
space is not above the summer outdoor temperature by more than 50, as can be
inferred from the following formula:
t
t . - t =' wz
ae n m
- t
n 2.&
=
m
Air spraying installations have become atandard equipment. ~1hat is most
needed at present is further improvement in the design and construction of such
equipment, especially of the fan type. The Sverdlovsk lOT Institute designed
a number of fan-shaped air spray equipment of different stream ranges. In
Table 1 are listed some characteristic features of ventilators TsAGI and MTs.
TABLE
1.
:
A' :Diameter : Outflow :
J.r . Energy
: volume :o~ °ie~'g:d.val~e . required
: in m3/hr. :w ee J.n: J.c;une er : in KWH
: .: mID J.n mID
: Revolu- : Impulse
:tions per: range
. minute. per
: : minute
Type of
apparatus
SIal' - portable
SIar -) -
Mov<;J.ble
Revolving SIor
SIal' - 7
4,450
7,000
13 , 500
30,000
30,000
500
700
800
1,000
1,000
400
600
700
875
875
0.25
1.40
3.20
7.00
2.80
1,450
1,000
1,450
1,450
965
5.6
7.0
13..5
20.0
15.0
-57-
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The SIOT ventilators ~re widely used in open hearth plants. Fig. 1 isa sche-
matic drawing of the most widely used fan-type apparatusSIOT - 3. To align
an air stream and to increase its horizontal range the apparatus has a recti-
fying device equipped with 24 blad~s and a metallic deflector. The apparatus
can supply forced water spray coming from two outlete having openings 0.6 mm
in diameter and a pressure of 2 -'3 atmospheres. The air jet or flume con-
figuration of this apparatus is shown in Fig. 2. Without the constricting
nozzle and the rectifying apparatus the range of the air jet is reduced b.1
approximately 50%.
I~
t~
- 701/
1100
Fig. 1. Mobile
SIOT-3
I:
1,0" .
1,1"
Fig. 2. Air flume of the mobile fan assembly SIOT-3
m/cek. = meters per second
B. Yu. Danyuahevskii utilized the air plane propeller principle. He used
two airplane blades of 2400 mm for the production of forced water spray in
washing and humidifying the air of open hearth departments. The propeller is
enclosed within a short tubular installation so as to bring in a forced stream
of outside air. The propeller axis was placed 5.9 meters above the floor and
the .air current was directed towards the workers at an angle from behind and
from above.
At 725 - 730 r.p.m. the propeller noise was not of greater inten-
-58-
-------
sity than the normally prevailing shop noise. The air supply amounted to
143,000 m3/hr. Electric energy consumed amounted to 8 KNH. Velocity of air
flow in working areas at a distance of about 2 m from the open hearth was '2.0 -
3.4 m/sec; at a distance of 4.0 mfrom the hearth 'and 8 m from the outflow
nozzle the air velocity was 2.0 - 4.9 m/sec. Fig. 3 is a schematic presenta-
tion of the contrivance and Table 2 presents data which offer a basis for
judgement concerning its efficiency.
,.
5 . --
-t ------
1.~~- - - - ..--?,
~ . 1'1.u.~! .-: ... - - - ..-" 14%
~1: I --- ./' ~;,/8
~aS' -"-6-""--'/ t\ejl...~
Q) ~...o~. dJ~~
M Q) 1').U.~"" ><.~~//, ):
! ~"I / -- ~ct~IJ~~~ I ">
. o,~ o~""", <{'i'~ .
Fig. No.3. Air shower installations in front
of open hearth furnaces
1 Electric motor; 2. Plane propeller; 3. Directing outlet; 4.
Window opening for 3d light, 5. Telpher beam; 6. Window open-
ing for 1st light; 7. Outside balcony, 8. Inside platform;
9." Boiler shell
TABLE
2.
.
.
Temperature with
ventilation
in operation
.
.
Temperature
without
ventilation
Environmental factors
.
.
Surrounding air temperature
Atr mobility in m/sec.
Intensity of radiating energy
in gfcal/cm2/min. "
CO concentration in mg/l
30.5 - 36.00
3.5 - 5.5
35.5 - 40.00
Up to 0.5
2..3 - 5~0
0.013 - 0.016
2.3 - 5.0
0.022 - 0.027
-59-
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Steel mill workers gave favorable personal accounts of the effective op-
" ,
erationofDanyushevskii's,venti1ating design. V. A. Ka1yugin suggested a
, ,
nozzle designed for air spray washing in production rooms containing gases,
parti~ularly for work rooms in which felts were treated with solution of for-
, ,
maldehyde which filled the room in vapor form. Kalyuginaimed todlrect the
stream~o that its center would be 'at the level of man's breathing because the
air at the axis 'of the stream was free from workroom pollution. The air out-
flow tube, 'which is connected with a 200 x 200 mm tube, has an end-opening of
800 x 400 mm, as shown in Fig. 3.
--------
~ ,~
. ,
, . ~
, ,L....L~lt.... ~~
"~'.'" ~".'.-J......I..J1111~
~~ , ~ .
<::>~ ~~ ~. ~ ~ c::> ~
~~ ~~'~.~
'. . . . I . I ',I ' . .. U--' I J..... '. ..~
Fig. No.4. Fields of air velocity of the cutlet: '
equipped with wire netting ,
A wire screen and distributing grate are placed inside this air outlfow tube;
the screen and grate.equalize the resistance of individual air streams formed
, .
. ,
' ,
within the main air feeding conduit. The velocity ranges of this air outlet'
tube at ~ total air flow of 1,300 m3/hr are schematically indicated in Fig. 4.
Numerical figures indicate formaldehyde concentrations in tDg/1 (allowable for-
maldebydeconcentration in workroom air is 0.005 mg/l). The temperature of the
air supply is approximately 24°. It can be judged from the specifications
here presented that the apparatus :operated in an effective UJanner. Similar
";6~
-------
types of ventilation apparatus had been installed in the same production de-
partment in close proximity ~o the ironing machines.
Air soreens proved their effeotiveness in the proteotion of workspaoes
and of the intrusion of oold air, and, as a oonsequence, are now widely used.
the present time use is made of floor air soreens or lower air. strata soreens
with the air flowing in from low gate openings; use is also made of unilateral
and bilateral air soreens. The olose-to-the-floor, or low-type of air screens
were found more eoonomioal beoause they require smaller air volume, lower tem-
perature and aocord with sanitar,y-hygienio requirements. In oase of a sudden
gust of oold air the low-level air-soreen throws it upward where, after mixing
with the wanner air, it again desoends to the lower levels. Where lateral air
soreens are used the inrushing oold air is direoted towards' the sidewall, there-
by lowering oonsiderably the temperature of abutting work areas. Bilateral air
screens are fully as effeotive as unilateral air sore ens , however, at equal
effioienoy the bilateral air sore ens require twice the air volume. Their use
oan be reoommended best in plants where transportation equipment, suoh as load-
ing and unloading car~, are retained at the gate opening an~ interfere with the
main flow of the air-stream.
u
Determination of th~ amount of heat required to raise fresh ventilation
air to the desired temperature should be based on the average oold season out-
door-air temperature. Most economioal are air-soreens which operate uninter-
ruptedly with the gates open or olosed, thereb,y performing both, heating and
ventilating funotions.
Suotion pumps of the riul type are widely used in galvanizing and piokling
shops and in oasting foundries; these oan be of the one, two- or three-rim type.
It should 'be noted, that opinions differ regarding the air-volume performanoe
of the one and two-rim types of suotion pumps and there exists at present no
aooepted.basis for the performanoe oaloulation of three-rim and angle-type
suction pumps oharaoterized by any degree of preoision and universality. The
development of suoh a method of suotion pump effioienoy oaloulation is one of
our present day immediate and urgent problems.
The satisfaotor,ysolution of all phases of the ventilation problem of in-
dustrial produotion premises is only one of the means for rendering working
oonditions more sanitar,y and hygienio. As such, it does not minimize the im-
portanoe and imperative need of oomplying with the .basio production regulations
intended for the proteotion of the workers' health, suoh as proper_tigb~~~~ng
-61-
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of conduit joints to prevent leakage of noxious gases, removal of sulfuric
acid and other harmful aerosols, elimi~~tion of harmful dusts, proper organi-
zation of production processes, etc. Dusts in various industrial production
departments are thrown into the shop air by grinding processes,'transportation
of pulverized dr.y materials, etc. the elimination of which can not be attained
even by the best of ventilation systems. In this connection much remains to be
done in the determination of basic principles and means for proper dust sepa-
ration.
A. M. Gervas'ev of the Sverdlovskii InStitute of Labor Protection, VTsSPS,
showed that in grinding and milling departments of the Pervoural'sk DinasBrick
factory dust concentration in working areas was reduced to 2 mg/m3 by intro-
ducing an efficient system of air dust separation. The system consists of a
process of pulverized material humidification, leakage elimination from grind-
ing and pulverizing installations and ground material conveying conduits, suc-
tion ventilation, washing away of settled dust and many other technological
and organizational procedures and improvements. The water consumption for
moistening the ground quartzite amounted to 2%. Discontinuation of moisten-
ing of the pulverized material for three hours resulted in a 1 - 14 fold in-
crease in the air dust concentration~ In addition to air suction purifiers the
intake of ventilation-air and the mandatory warming of the air during the cold
months Const~tuted important factors in the maintenance of sanitary-hygienic
. working conditions.
. .
Among the technological and organizational~easures instituted for the re-
duction of dust concentration, the following should be mentioned: 1) heating
of raw materials in the feed hoppers during the cold weather seasons and sub-
sequent moistening; 2) improvement in corrosion and abrasion resistance of metal
walls of conduits, elevators, heat conveyors, hoppers, ventilators and other
equipment; 3) installation of reverse operating conveyor-belt scrapers. The
increasing volume of literature indicates the emphasis which has been placed
recently on the problem of creating and maintaining sanitary-hygienic. conditions
in industrial grinding and milling departments. ( ventilation and aspiration) .
T. A. Fialkovskaya and G. I. Krasilov of MIOT studied these problems and
issued a leaflet under the title "Ventilation Installations in Grinding and
Milling Work Premises", published by Mash€;1z in 1954. Some work was done by
I. T. Kamyshenko of the Sverdlovsk !nsti tut e of Labor Protection. Siulilar re-
-62-
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ports were also published in Collection No.4 of "Industrial Ventilation"
(Sverdlovsk,.1951) and in a collection of.reporls.entitled "Improvement in
Working Conditions in Facteries", published by Mashgiz in 1953. A. S. SereDko
of the Xhar 'kov Institute of Labor Hygiene i~sued a .volume e~ti tIed "Dust Re-
moval from Air in the Refractory Materials Industry", published by Metallurg-
. .
izdat in 1953, and A. M. Garas of the same Institute issued a volume entitled
"Dust Catchers SlOT", published by Profizd,at in 1954. L. A.. Gushkov of the
Sverdlovsk Institute of Labor Hygie,ne wrote a book entitled "Dust Control in
the Process of Ore Crushing", published by Metallurgizdat in 1955 and V. A.
Kalyagin of the same. Institute wrote one on I1On-the-Spot . Ventilation Installa-
tions in Composing Departments of Glass Worksff, published by Profizdat in 1955.
Haulin~ of dry pulverized and other dust producing materials in tightly
closed cars substantially aids in reducing air dust concentration .in working
departments. M. F. Bromley and G. I. Krasilov of MIOT showed that the operation
of suction-fan dust transportation was simple, efficient and economical. If
pneumatic conditions were insured, that is if all leakage is eliminated, then
the air duct dust transportation proves itself as a sanitary-hygienic measure
par excellence. However, aerial duct dust removal does not exclude the need
for sectional su6tion ventilation. Pneumatic transportation of sand and of
moulding burnt earth is utilized in many Moscow cast iron foundries; it elim-
inates the need for burnt earth tunnels in which sanitary-hygienic air condi-
tions are difficult to maintain.
) The solution of ventilation problems in crane operators' cabins in high
temperature work premises presented great difficulties due to the liberation
of noxious and poisonous gases, as in the case of non-ferrous smelti~depart-
ments; the presence of such gases renders the utilization of workshop air for
. .
ventilation purposes undesirable and impractical; unless such air was first
cooled and freed of the 'pre~ence of undesirable gaseous constituents, all of
which requires special and complicated installations. It was, .therefore, nec-
essary to find means of supplying crane operators' cabins with outdoor air.
Practical solutions of these problems were attained by GPI-2 and by "Gipronikel".
According to these solutions an air storage compartment was introduced along
the crane track and outside air pumped into it. From this storage compartment
the air was fed into the cabin ~ a special air conduit. In one design the
. .
lower part of the air storage compartment contained two.expanding rubber air
-63-
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conveyors as shown in Fig. 5. These air conveyor belts are kept apart by a
special s~uttle which moves with the crane bridge, as shown in Fig. 5. In
. .
another design the lower part. . of the air storage compartment was. shut off by
the flat rubber conveyor belt. . Other operating parts are schematically in-
. . .
dicated in Fig. ~.
Box-like conduit runs
rfE~~i~OP .
. . l
.,- . < .
",. - ---/-',------ -- ~J;_mtivleln-
,,:_,",...:.--, I '""--. stor
I I I", ------ .-. .
:..r ': .
I
4DiJ ,
r
Fig. 5. Construction plan No.1 for vent~lstion
installation1n orane cabins
The entire device moves along with the crane bridge~ The crane cabin
air ventilation includes dust elimination and air heating during the cold sea-
son. The sanitary-hygienic effectiveness of such crane cabin air purifi-cation
installations was investigated qy M. F. Bromley and S. S. Shefer. According t~ .
their results 300 - 500 m3jhr of air was required for the ventilation of closed
. .
crane cabins. The rate of air supply must be such as to maintain in the cabi~
a pressure of 0.8 -1.0 kgjm2 in order to prevent polluted air from coming in
while the crane is in motion. Because of inevitable leakage, only 20 - 30% of
the air supply was utilized f9r actual ventilation. The ventilation of clip-
ripper crane cab{ns {n metallurgical plants can be attained by automatic air
conditioning installations. These are still in limited ~sein theU. S. S. R.
An installation developed qy ~. A. Fialkovskaya of ;the MICYl' is proof of
the progress achieved in solving complicated problems of on-the-spot exhaust
ventilation.. The installation was. intended for ventilation during spr~ paint-
ing of all-metal passenger r~i1w~ _~ara.- Painting of outside car surfaces was
done with the car in motion by operators poised on stationary platforms. Fig.
-64-
-------
SI'S —
Fig. 6. Construction plan No. 2 for ventilation
installation in crane cabins
To crane
-65-
-------
Pig. 7. Plan and cross sections of MIOT installation
-66-
-------
7 is a schematic illustration of such an installation. The portal part of the
installation was designed in the form of a gate through which the car moved
while it was painted. Exhaust shafts (1) were located on each side of the gate;
the exhaust shafts were connected with an air conduit (2) which operated by
suction and carried off the paint mist when the roof was painted. The car sides
were painted from two stationar,y platforms (3) on each side of the car. When
the car faced the shafts between the exhaust opening and the car walls, 250 mm
channels were formed through which the spray-polluted air was drawn off the
premises. According to regulations, painting must be done in strokes made by
the operator in the direction of the air current in order that the air passing
by the painter may carry off the 'paint [:list into the exhaust shaft. The ends
and roof of the car were painted from platform (4). A forced water spray com-
ing frornnozzle (5) in the exhaust shafts washed the air free from suspended
paint mist, after which the air passed through a moisture-remover and.there-
from into the outside air by ventilator (7) shown in.F!g. 1.. This installation
is now in use in the Kalininsk car building plant. Its effectiveness was proven
by the fact that it reduced paint mist concentration from 100 to 0.6 u¥s/m3 in
the air of the paint rooms.
Bibliography.
Baturin, V. V. and Kucheruk, V. V.
Moscow, 1954.
Ventilation in Machinebuilding Plants.
Gras'ev, A. M.
Heating and Ventilation in Cast Iron Plants.
Moscow, 1954.
Danyushevskii, B. Yu. Ventilation Problems in Oil Refineries and Machine-
building Plants. Moscow-Leningrad, 1953, pp. 36-63, 95-107.
Kalyagin., V. A. Problems of Industrial Ventilation. Kazan, 1953, pp. 109-121.
Malykh, A. A. Huraidifying Fan-Shaped Assemblies. Sverdlovsk-Moscow, 1953.
Sadovskaya, N. N. Studies of the All-Union Sci~ntific Research Institute of
Labor Protection. Leningrad, 1927 - 1952, pp. 113-178.
Troyanovskii, V. N. Ventilation and Heating in Wet Tanneries. Moscow, 1953.
Fialkovskaya, T. A. and Shifman, G. M. Improvement in Sanitar,y Conditions of
Spray-Painting in Machinebuilding Industr,y. Moscow, 1954.
-67-.
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Residential Indoor Air Pollution with Atmospheric Sulfur Dioxide (Gas).
Ts. P. Kruglikova, Candit. Med. Sci.
and .
V. K. Efimova, Physician.
(Sanitar,y--Epidemiological Station, Moscow)
Gigien~i Sanitariya, 23, No. 3, 1958, pp. 15-78.
The purpose of this study was to determine the degree of atmospheric air
. -
S02 penetration into residential dwellings. A review of the literature showed
that this phase of air pollution received only little attention. It has been
known that exposure to S02 concentrations as low as. 1 mg/m3 for a long. time
. caused certain disturbances of the organism's physiological functions. Such
. .
low concentrations of S02 may prevail in the air inside living quarters under
certain conditions. We made two parallel studies: one, of the air of an in-
dustrial region where a chemical and a crude oil processing plants were locat~
ed, each discharging S02 into the atmospheric air; another, of the air of two
streets, Octyabr Street and Nizne-Pervomaiskaya Street; no industrial plants
were located in ~ither. The houses on Octyabr.Street were ol~ and crowded
together; the outdoor air circulation was poor; ma~ of the houses had indi-
- .
vidual boiler heating plants. The houses in Nizhne-Pervomaiskaya Street were
built according to Qodern planning, spaced widely apart; the outdoor air cir-
culation was good; all houses received their hea~ from one central boilerop-
erat~d heating plant. A supplemental control study was made of the air of an
. area in the Main OstankinoBotanical Garden of the Acad~ of Sciences of the
. .
U.S.S.R.; it was located at a considerable distance from industrial plants
and from residential dwellings.
Two sets of air samples were taken in the vicinity surrounding the chem-
ical plant: one set at distances ranging between 200 - 300 and the other be-
tween 800 - 1000 meters from the point of air pollution discharge. Only one
set of air samples was collected at a distance of 200 meters from the crude
oil processing plant. In all 183 air samples were collected in the industri-
al regions over a period of one year, 106 were outdoor (atmospheric) air sam-
ples; 11 samples were collected inside residential dwellings. A total of 119
air samples were collected in the t~ streets mentioned above; 104 samples
were collected indoors and 15 out of doors. Sixty-five air samples were col-
-68-
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lected in the control region:
Garden buildings.
25 atmospheric and 40 inside. the Botanical
It should be noted at this point that indoor samples were collected in
rooms locate~ on the first an~ third floors; no air samples were collected
in rooms located immediately above the boiler room.
The results of the air analyses showed that the degree of atmospheric
air pollution was in direct correspondence with the distance of the sample-
taking points from the sources. of air pollution. The 502 concentrations in
the air at 200 - 300 m from the chemical and the crude oil processing plants
were practically of the same order; the analytical results of the two are
presented as combined average values in Gra~h 1.
11
.u
~
~
1""\ 1.1
~z.s
~2)
Zl
~
.,-j (I
~ 1,1
.~ I)
+> t,J
ro
F-i 1,1
~ qg
~ 41
~ 45
o
00)
0) .
Cold season
Warm season
~ mg/S in atmosph.air
o mg/m inside dwellings
Ifill
I9SSt
11//1 WI
17/1
Date of observation
Graph 1. SO concentration in the air within a
radius of 206-300 meters from industrial plant.
The plotted values in Graph 1 show that the 502 concentration of indoor
air increased when the 502 concentrations of the atmospheric air were higher,
and .!!£! versa. The maXimal 502 concentration in the atmospheric air was 2.1
mg/m3 in the winter season and 2.2 mg/m3 fn the summer. The corresponding
maximal 502 concentrations inside the residences ranged between 0.8 -0.9
mg/m3, which is above the officially allowable limits of 502 concentration
-69-
-------
for atmospheric air. . Minimal 502 concentrations in indoor residential air
ranged between 0.25 and 0.00 mg/m3 and in the atmospheric air at a distance
of 200 - 3QO mete~s the minimal 502 values ranged between 0.4 - 0.25 mg/m3. .
It should be noted that 72 - 73% of the indoor air samples were. S02 positive.
Air samples collected at 800 - 1000 m from the chemical plant contained.
less S02' showing a lesser intensity of SO~ pollution. The.maximal con-
centration of S02 in the atmospheric air did not exceed 1.6 mg/m3, simulta-
neously the maximal concentrations of S02 of indoor residential air ranged
between 0.6 - 0.7 mg/m3. ~ fewpreliminar,y tests were made on indoor air
with windows open and closed. The results indicated that S02 from the at-
mospheric air found its way into the indoor air even with the windows closed.
In the absence of air circulation, when windows were closed, the S02 con-
centration of the indoor air tended to stay at a more constant level than in
the atmospheric air. In one such case, where the indoor air was kept stag-
nantfor 10 - 12 hours, the S02 concentration in the air was as high as 0.8 -'
1.0 mg/m3, a condition which prevailed for a long time. Simi~ar situations
were encountered in the city studied streets and in the air in the proxtmtty
of the industrial plants. For example, at a distance of 200 meters from the
source of S02 discharge by the chemical plant, its concentration in the at-
mospheric air at the same sample-collecting point varied from 1 to 2.7 mg/m3
within a period of 3 hours; simultaneously the S02 concentration of the in-
door residence air varied within the narrow limits of 0.7 - 0.9 mg/m3 when
the windows were closed or when only one small ventilating window was open.
The same was true ofS02 content of'the indoor air of residences on Octyabr
and Nizhne~Pervomaiskaya Streets. Studies were also made of the S02 concen-
tration of the air of a residential block which was free from industrial
plants. The analytical results are presented in Graph 2.
An analysis of the data plotted in Graph 2 shows that here, as in the
previously discussed cases. a direct correlation existed between the S02 con~
centratione of the, indoor 'and atmospheric air. In sOIDe instances maximal
concentrations, of S02 in the indoor and atmospheric air during the cold win-
ter season reached correspondingly I mg/m3 and 1.9 mg/m3, concentration lev-
els nearly as high as those found in the air of the industrial regions. The
concentration of S02 in the indoor and atmospheric air of the non-industrial
streets r~rely exceeded 0.25 mg/m3, and the number of samples analytically
-70-
-------
U
~4
lJ
~ ~O
~
~ ~,
~ 1,6
~
!\!l H
~ f,Z
~
~ to.
41
8.5
~~
az
o
3f/Ir '/01 D/D Sh
Warm season
~ mg/5 in atmosph. air
. 0 mg/m inside dwellings
Cold season
115+1
Graph 2.
IliSl
fl/l
S02 concentration in Octyabr street
negative for 502 predominated. No graph is presented for the results of anal-
yses of the air of Nizhne-Pervomais~a 5treet. Here the number of negative
samples was somewhat smaller and the maximal 502 concentrations were of lower
values, but the correlation trend between the indoor and atmospheric air 502
concentrations was equally in evidence. A study of the plots representing
the 502 air concentrations during the cold seasons of the year, as compared
with those of the warm seasons of the year, most emphatically brought out the
502 concentration correlation above spoken of. A comparison of the results
plotted for the cold and warm seasons of the year, as presented in Graph 1 (re-
gionof industrial plants )" with the corresponding results presented in Graph 2
(residential street free from any industrial plants) clearly showed that in
the latter case the 502 air pollution was primarily caused by the small boiler
operated heating plants, and that such air pollution during the cold winter
and fall months could be anticipated with certainty.
502 concentrations of the air of the control area, the Ostankino Main
:Botanical Garden, are plotted in Graph 3 for the cold and warm seasons of the
year. It should be noted here that even though this area was located at some
considerable distance from the industrial sources of air pollution, it had
coal burning boilers which serit heat to some of the official buildings, such
as the hothouses, etc.
-71-
-------
11
1)
2,'
Cold season
Warm season
i!a mg/m3 in atmosph. air
D mg/m3 inside dwellings
"""1'1
.........
~ 1,1}
1,1
s::
ori
s::
o
'M
~
aI
F-t
~
.s::
CD
o
s::
o
o
1,5.
(3
('
~I}
0.7
0)
0)
0.'
1/1 1111
Graph J.
502 concentr~tion at control point
. It can be seen from Graph 3 that the.S02 concentration of the atmos-
pheric and indoor air of the control region at no time exceeded 0.3 - 0.4
mg/m3, which. was below the limit of allowable S02 concentration for atI:1os-
pheric air. It can also be seen that the 502 concentrations of the atmos-
pheric and indoor air were correspondingly of approximate~ identical values.
. A stu~ was made by the question and answer method (subjective method)
of the effect ofS02 air pollution on the general f~e11ng of the inhabitants,
on animals, on plants, on utility objects and art and ornamental objects.
Fifty residents of the sections under stu~ were thus interrogated. Most
frequent complaints came from inhabitants of the industrial regions and were
of the nature of general ill feeling, indisposition, irritation of the mucosa.
of the upper parts Qf the respirator.y passages, bad taste in the mouth, etc.,
especially when S02'disc~ges into the air were heaviest. Complaints were
also heard regarding the rusting and corroding of metallic objects.
House plants grown in the industrially polluted areas rapidly perished,
outdoor plants of small p.ark areas and the like failed to develop, appeared
sickly, rapidly lost their foliage and sooner or later dried up and died.
-72-
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Conclusions.
1. A simultaneous study of the atmospheric and indoor air S02 concen-
trations showed that a parallelism existed between the intensities of the
two.
2.
Such a parall~lism or correlation was demonstrated "in the industri-
ally air polluted regions, in city blocks free fram industrial type of air
pollution and in the control area.
-73-
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A Stu~ of the Blastomogenic Properties of Some Tars Derived from
Atmospheric Dust and from Combustion Products of Different Fuel Types.
By
B. P. Gurinov, F. D. llashbits and L. )I. Sbabad.
From the Erisman Sani ta17-lqgienic Institute and the Laborato17 of
Experimental OncoloS7,Acad~ of Medical Sciences, U.S.S.R.
GigieD& i Sani tari7a, Bo. 10, 12-16, 1954.
In a report published in Gigiea i Sanitari7a, Bo. 2, 1953, it was .shOWJl
that oarcinogenic qdrocarbons, and in partiCular, 3.4-benzp~ene, were pres-
ent among the pollutants of the atmospheric a,ir. and in smokestack emissions.
The content of 3.4-benzpyrene was detemined b7 :the speotral-fluorescent
method.
The purpose ct the present investigation was to stu~ the blastomogenic
properties ot some tarry substances, particular17 ot the products ot oombus-
tion.ot various t7Pes ot fuel, such as coal, wood, peat, oil and 1ts b7-prod-.
uctli, as well as ot substances isclated trom atmospheric dust. Samples were
collected either b.1 sedimentation or b.1 aspiration and CC57 mice 2 - 3 months
old were used as the e~erimental animals. The tur was removed from the skin
between the shoulde:t blades and 10% benzene solution of the tar under s tu~
was applied to the e:!;posed skin section about three times a week. The reac-
tions observed were recorded up to the time ot the death ot the test animals.
After that, and tollow1Dg autopsies, . all tumors discovered were exam1ned his-
tologicalq. Since the quanti t7 of each of the tars was limited, on:q- a
small DUmber ot animals could be tested in eaoh individual case. In the first
series ot experiments eight tar samples were tested which were collected in
the burninc ot crude oil and its b7-products.
Tar Bo. 1, with 3.4-benzpyrene content greater than 0.01%, was tested on
three mice, two males and one temale. The tar was applied 83 times within a
pericd ot6.5 months,- at the end ot this period all the animals died beoause
ot the high toxioit7 of the tar. However, even during this relativeq short
periodot time signs appeared which manifested the blastomogenic properties
ot this tar. Thus, tirst s1gns ot papilloma development appeared atter 34
appl~cations ot the tar and atter the 70th application there appeared multi-
ple tooi ot skin canoer; the two mioe surviving developed DUmerous papillomata
-74-
-------
and died atter the 54th application. The last surviving mouse, which devel-
oped multiple keratoid skin cancers, died after the 82nd application.
In the subsequent experiments a 5% solution of the same tar was applied
to two mice which withstood 10, applications; duri-ng,the period of tar appli-
cation papillomas appeared and disappeared repeated17, and by the time the
experiments were completed no changes were observed on the skin of the, ani-
mals. However, five months later one of the mice died with indications of
leukemia, enlargement ot the tbyroid gland, ot the spleen and of the l1mPh
nodes. A month later the other mouse developed cancer of the skin which me-
tastasized into the lungs and liver.
Tar No.2, with 3.4-benzPJrene content ot approximate17 0.01% was tested
on four mice, three females and one male. 150 applications were made within
a period of 12 months. First ohanges of a papillomatous charaoter appeared
at the time of the 70th application. However, by the time of the 80th app1i- '
cation signs of skin cancer development were observed. By the end ot the ex";
periment all mice developed malignant tumors metastasized into the ~ph
nodes and lungs of two mice pointing to the high malignancy ,ot the tumors.
Tar No.3, with 3.4-benzpyrene content ot approximate17 0.005%, was
tested on three mice, two males ,and one female. The test consisted of 85
applications within a period of 6.5 months~ First appearance ot papillomas
was observed atter the 25th application. One mouse developed a ,tumor at the
area of the application at the time of the 70th application; the other mouse
developed a papilloma at the end of the experiment. After the applicationa
were discontinued, the papillomas disappeared and the skin tumor began to
disappear from the surface, but continued to spread interna117. Histological
examination of the tumor revealed the presence of spindle-celled sarcoma.
The absence of ohanges in the other mice mq have been due to an insufficient
number of tar applications.
Tar No.4, with 3.4-benzpyrene content of 0.002%, was tested on seven
mice, four males and three females. A total of 150 applications were made
over 12 months. The first papillomas began to ap;pear at the time of the 70th
applioation. Three mioe developed cancer ot the skin; two developed met as-
tasese into the lungs and ~ph nodes and one developed a papilloma.
Tar Bo. 5, with 3.4-benzpyrene content of approx1mate17 0.002%, was
tested on three mice, two females and one male. The te8ts extended over 15.5
-75-
-------
months with a 3.5 months rest period between the 90th and 9lst tar applioation.
No changes were observed.. t~oughout the duration otthe experiments. Autops7
performed on one mouse disclosed multiple malignant tumors ot the lungs.
Tar Bo. 6, with 3.4-benzP7r8ne oontent greater than 0.01$, was tested
on five mice. The tests consisted ot 100 applications within a period of 7.5
months. The tirst papillomas began to' appear at the time ot the 90th appli-
cation, and malignant tumors appeared at the time ot the lOOth application.
Four mice developed cancer ot the skinJ two ot them with ulceration, and two
others with considerable keratonization.
Tar No.7, with 3.4-benzp7r8ne content greater than 0.01%, was tested on
five mice. The tests extended over 10 months and consisted of 122 tar appli-
cations. First papillomas appeared at the time of the 40th ,application, and
the tirst maligDfU1t tumors appeared at the time of the 50th application.
SUbsequent17, two mice developed squamous cell carcinomas ot the skin with
keratinization and metastasese into the l7mPh nodes; another mouse develcped
a large papilloma.
Tar .0. 8, had a content ot 3.4-benzpJ'rene of 0.001%. This tar was the
produot ot diesel oil combustion; it was obtained trom the exhaust pipe of a
bus and was carbon black in appearance. This tar was tested on 10 mice over
. a period ot 12 months and consisted ot 150 applications. No changes were ob-.
served either during the period of applications or subsequent17, which m&7
have been due to the low mntent ot 3.4-benzP7r8ne.
The next series ot experiments consisted of testing three samples ot
tars, which were products ot solid fuel (coal) burning. Nineteen mice were
used as test animals.
Tar No.9, a product ot peat burning with a content ot 3.4-benzp7r8ne
greater than 0.01$, was tested on three male mice in 150 applioations within
a period ot 12 months. The first papillomas appeared at the time of the 90th
. .
application, and rapid17 proliferating malignant tumors appeared at the tim.
of the l10th application. B.1 the end of the experiment the three mice had
skin canoers which metastasized into the lymph nodes and the lungs.
Tar No. 10, a produot of coal burning, having a content of 3.4-benzp71'8ne
greater than 0.01%, was tested on three mice, two males and one female, in
150 applioations over a period of 13 months, inoluding a rest period ot one
month between the 89th and 90th application. No changes were observed during
-76-
-------
the entire period. of application. However, cne month later, one mouse died,
autops7 disolosed a large malignant tumor in one lung. The same tar was
tested on four mice in 100 applications wi thin a period of 8 months. One
mouse developed a large lung adenoma.
Tar lfo. 11, a produot of wood bQrning .i th a oontent ot 3.4-benzP7NJ1e
of approximatel;y 0.01%, was tested on nine mice, five males and tour females,
in 150 applications over a period of 13 months. Onl;y six mice survived at
the time the first changes were noted. First papillomas began to appear at
the time of the 80th application, and first cases of cancer of the skin were
observed at the time ot the 110th application. Four of the six IIdce developed
changes as tollowsl three mice had cancer of the skin and one mouse had a
papilloma.
The next group of substances investigated consisted of tars obtained
from atmospheric dust of three densel;ypopulated localities. The air pollut-
ants consisting of 9 different tars, were tested on 39 mice. subjected to 150
applications wi thin a period of 12 to 14 months. New malignant growths de-
veloped after the applications of tars Bo. 18 and No. 19. Tar No. 18, with
a content of 3.4-benzp,yrene of approximatel;y 0.005%, was tested on five mice
subjected to 150 applications within a period of 12 months. The autopsy on
two mice which died respeotivel;y 4.5 and 7.5 months after the last application
revealed malignant lung tumors. The rest of the mice showed no chanses.
Tar }Jo. 19, with a content of 3.4-benzp;yrene of approximatel;y 0.005%,
was tested on five mice in 150 applications over 12 months. Three months
later two mice died showing no changes. Five months after the last tar appli-
cation one more mouse died; a tumor was noted on its left front paw. Micro-
scopic examination showed the presence of a carcinosarcoma. One mouse devel-
oped papilloma of the skin 7 months after the last application and died 9
months later; one mouse showed no changes.
Application ot tars Ilos. 12, 15 and 16, with 3.4-benzpyrene content of
approximate17 0.003% developed remote isolated tumorlike changes 0017 in a
tew cases I one mouse of each group developed lung adenomas following the
application of tars No. 12 and No. 15; one mouse developed leukemia after the
application of tar No. 16. .
FiDal17, notwithstanding the prolonged applications of tars Nos. 13, 14,
17 and 20, each of which contained about 0.002% of 3.4-benzp;yrene, no tumors
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of ~ kind developed.
The following is a summar" of the results accompanied b.Y conclusions drawn
from them. With reference to the group of tars obtained from oil combustion
products it should'be noted that these tars, with rare exceptions, possessed
strong blastomogenic properties. In a large number of cases the.y elicited
malignant tumors of the skin at the site of applications. The metastases ot
the tumors into the lymph nodes and the lungs was proof of high malignancy.
Tar No.5 stands somewhat apart from the other tars of this group, and its
low activitYIIIq have been due to the negligible amount of 3.4-benzpyrene it
contained.
. The stu~ of tar No.9, a product of peat buming proved of particular
. .
interest. Previously published studies had no reference to the possible
blastomogenic properties of tars resulting from peat buming. The results of
this study proved beyond doubt that such tars possessed blastomogenic prope~
ties as was demonstrated by the fact that all test animals developed skin
cancers at the sites of the tar application; furthermore, all cancers thus
produced were also highly metastastic.
Tars No. 10 and No. lOa were products of burning anthracite.Contrar"
to previous data, the present experiments showed that these tars had low
carcinogenic properties despite the high content of 3.4-benzpyrene. Only two
of tbe seven test mice developed l~ cancers and no skin changes. The cause
of this remains obscure. It may be that the particular type of anthracite
had a bearing on the case; and it is also conceivable that the particular
combustion method may have been responsible for it.
. .
A tar obtained from wood ~ng was found to be highly active. In a
large number of cases it developed papillomas and skin cancers although, as
in the tars of peat origin, the action was delayed.
The tars obtained from atmospheric air pollutants in all cases possessed
weaker blastomogenic properties than those obtained directly from smoke
emissions.
Papillomas and lung cancers were observed only in rare cases, they oc-
curred more frequently than spontaneous tumors, which are characteristic of
mice of the strain used. One animal only had a carcinosarcoma. The low ac-
tivity of tars obtained from atmospheric dust ran parallel to the low content
of 3.4-benzpyrene in these tara; this became particularly apparent upon com-
-78-
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Table 1.
Number of animals wi th developed malignant growth in
relation to 3-4-benzpyrene content in the tars
r
3 4--bens-
No. of mice.
Mice wi th malignant growth
-
pyrene in; Experimenta Actual number I 16
%
- " . -.
Tars from smoke soot
0,010 38. 18
0,005 3 I
0,001-0,001 20 ..
Total 61 23 37,5
Atmospheric dust tar
0,005 17 , 3.
0,001-0,003 22 -
Total 39 3 7,7
1
Table 2.
No. of mice
I . Mice with malignant
. 3-4-benzpyrene, ~owth
1n% Experimental Actual : , oj,
I number
38 18 47
0,010
20 .. 20
0,005
42 ' 4 I 9,5 _-
0,001-8,003 ' I
.\ 100 26 26
Total
Over all data
-79-
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pariSOJ1 with tars obtained from various types of fuels. It is also possible
that tb8 tars obtained from fuels, in addition to 3.4-benzpyrene, contained
some other carcino~nic~ocarbons which mq be absent in a~mospherio dust.
~he possibili tt of decontamination of. carcinogenic hydrocarbons in atmospheric
air b.J such. processes as oxidation should be disoounted.
. The data presented in Table 2 strengthen the belief that. the number of
malignant tumors which developed in mice subjected to the applications' of
different tars, is to some extent related to the amount of j.4-benzpyrene
, .
contained in the tars.
Furthermore, ~n the ba~is of the results of experiments with test ani-
mals and of the speotral-fluorescence analysis of atmospheric pollutants, it
. ,
oan be stated "that 3.~benzpyrene,. a carcinogenic substance, is present in
, ,
. the air of certain towns.
. .
)fotel It is regrettable that the authors did not publish the data re-
lated to the control animals for all the series in whioh benzene was used as
the solvent. Such data would have made it possible to evaluate the results
. .
of their experiments with Jl!ice more reliab17. Ed.
Bibliograpq.
r e JI b llJ T e fI.H B. H.' H M 3 llJ (S H n. <1>. .n., K OHKOJlOfH'IecKOA X3p3KTepHCTIfK~
naClop3TOpHblX MblllJeA JlHHHH CCS7. BIOJlJleTeHh 3KcnepHMeHT3J1bHOA 6HOJlOrHH H Me.nHUHHbI,
T. XXIX, B. 5.- r y p IfH 0 B B. n., 30 p 3 B. A., M JI b H H 3 A. A. H III 3 CI 3.n n. M.;,
o co.nepJK3HHH nOJlHUHKJlH'IeCKHX 3pOMaTH'IeCKHX yrJleBo.nopo.nOB B 3arp5l3HeHH5IX 3TMocctJep-
Horo B03.nYX3 H B .nblMOBbiX Bbl6pocax, rHrHeHa H caHHTapHII, 1953, N2 2.-CoBpeMeHHble npo~
6JIeMbi OH'KOJIOrHH,T. VI (XIX), CepH5I B, 1951, N2 3 (6). H3.!l. HHOCTp3HHOA JlJiTep3Typbl,-
III a CI 1I.n n. . M.. O'lepKH 3KcnepHMe'fT3J1bHoi! OHKOJIOrHH, 1947. H3.n. AMH CCCP.
-80-
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A Comparative Study of Atmospheric Air Pollution with a Carcinogenic
. Substance (3,4-benzpyrene) in Irkutsk and Angarsk.
Ya. M. Grushko, P. P. Dilron,. L. M. Shabad, T. I. Rukavishnikova.,
L. M. Zak and 0. M. Vlasenko.
(From the Irkutsk Medical Institute, the Irkutsk Regional Sanitary-
Epidemiological Station and the Irkutsk Energy Administration.)
Gigiena i Sanitariya 23, No.4, pp. 7-10, 1958.
Irkutsk is one of the old cities which has no separate industrial and
residential sections.. Industrial manufacturing and production plants, boiler
operated and provided with smokestacks, are scattered indiscriminately through-
out the city confines. Angarsk, on the other hand, is one ~f the new social-
ist planned cities the construction of which was commenced in 1946. The city
was planned with a view to having all industrial production plants located
ceyond the city confines. TETs (Electric heat and power station) is the one
basic potential source of atmospheric air pollution; it is situated 3 km from
the city. The residential.~d administrative part of the city is separated
from the manufacturing section by a wide sanitary clearance zone planted with
trees and other vegetation. Most of the buildings are supplied with heat from
a central heat supply system. Both cities use Cheremkhovsk coal as fuel,
which contains 50% of volatile substances and 25 -,30% of ash; but the techno-
logical methods of coal combustion in the two cities differ greatly.
Most of the fuel consumed in Irkutsk is burned by boiler operated manu-
facturing and production plants and by residential heating installations at
comparatively low temperatures, which results in an extensive emission of soot
into the atmospheric air. Most of. the Irkutsk boiler operated plants have no
installations for the removal of ash from the discharge gases~ and where such in-
stallations exist they operate in only isolated production departments (TETs
No.2 in Irkutsk). Some electric heat and power stations and other operating
industrial plants equipped their smokestacks with jalousie type of ash re-
tainers of low efficienqy coefficients (0.3 - 0.5); as a result the atmospher-
ic air pollution is heavy. In addition, the Irkutsk smokestacks are of in-
sufficient height, as examplified b.1 the .30 m teight of the TETs No.2 smoke-
stack, which is insuffici~nt for proper dispersion of the discharged aerosols.
The city of Angarsk presents; a totally different picture with regard to
coal combustion technology. At the Angarsk electric heat station the coal is
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burned at 11000, which results in the production of the minimum amount ot
, ,
soot. The boilers are equipped with electrostatic precipitators of newest
construction, which remove 95% of the ash from the discharge gases, and the
smokestack of the station is 120 m high. All the above aid in sharply re-
ducing the atmospheric air pollutton.
, "
As was previously mentioned, all private homes and residen~iai establish-
ments of Angarsk receive their heat from a central heat supply system, except
for a few isolated individually constructed homes located at distant spots.
Since it is generally accepted that smoke discharges contain cancerogenic
hydrocarbons and in particular 3,4-benzpyrene, it was thought that the con-
" "
" tent of such substances in the atmospheric air of IrkUtsk and Angarsk may,
differ sharply~ To determine the correctness of such an assumption snow
samples were collected in 1956 at certain points in Irkutsk and in Angarsk
which contained sedi~ented industrial smoke fall-out; these were studied"
for their content of,3,4-benzpyrene. The snow was melted and filtered, and
the weight, of the material "retained by" the filters was determined. 'The tarry
, "
materials were extracted with benzene using a Soxlet apparatus. The tarry
" '
" "
extract was then subjected to chromatographic partitioning. The partitioned
fractions were then identified by fluorescent spectrophotograpby and quanti-
tative determinations made in instances in which 3,4-benzpyrene was present~
The analytical methods used in this stu~ were described-in detail in previous
communications.
Eleven samples were collected in Irkutsk, of which 10 were collected at
different points in the city proper' and one control sample outside of the city
" ,
confines 5000 m from the basic source of air pollutio:n.' Points at whioh snow
samples were collected and the analytical results are presented in Table 1. ,
As can be-seen from Table 1 most of the snow samples were oolleoted near ~e~
tric Station No.2 (TEl's No.2) and Eleotric Station of the Kuibishev Indus- "
trial Plant (TETs of plant), whioh were the two basic air pollution sources.
The greatest amount of dust per 1 m2 fell upon the snow at 200 m from theTETs
of the Kuibishev plant. As the distance from the Kuibishev plant inoreased,
the amount of dust per unit area diminished, but in an irregular manner. The
quantity of dust per 1 m2 at a distance of 5000 m (oontrol) was 31 times less
than at 200 m. There were some exoeptions to this: ' in isolated instances the
industrial fall-out at farthest points was heavier than at 200 m. This may
have been due to the existenoe of undeteoted and unaccounted secondary sources
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of atmospheric air pollution. Similar instances were encountered'inconnec-
tion with the study of the industrial fall-out in the vic.inity of Tm's No.2.
The quantity of 3,4-benzpyrene was ne>t directly related to the distance
from the source of pollution at which the snow sample was collected. This,
too, may have been due to the fact that at some points of the investigated
city territory certairi sources of'air pollution emitted a higher concentra-
. '
tion of 3,4-benzpyrene than did either TErs No., 2 or TErs of 'the Kuibishev
plant. Most probably boiler operated shops, institutions and residential
houses in which the coal 'was burned under less favorable conditions than in
the twoelectric~piants constituted the 'se90ndary air polluting sources re-
'sponsible for the above mentioned irregularity. Such 'an assumption serves to
explain the fact that in some living quarters, such as the building of'th~
Institute of Hygiene, the Zagoskinsstreet, the region of the boat station,
etc., the quanti~y of 3,4-benzpyrene was approximately the same and in some
instances even greater than in the TETs No.2 territory, regardless of the
. . .
fact that the amount of dust fall-out per unit area was considerably less.
It will be noted that the sample collected along the Ushakovka river bank
contained less 3,4-benzpyren~ than the control sample. This may have been due
to two reasons: insufficiently combusted fall-out material from the previ-
ously mentioned individually constructed homes located around the city periph-
ery may have been carried over to the point of the control collection, thus,
increasing the 3,4-benzpyrene concentration of the sample collected at that
. .
point; on the other hand, winds prevailing over the river banks may have Qlown
aw~ some of the snow with the sedimented industrial fall-out, thus reducing
the 3,4-benzpyrene content of samples.
Nine samples were collected in Angarsk.
ysis were the same as previously described.
results are presented in Table 2.
Methods of collection and of anal-
Points of collection and analytical
Results _listed in Table 2 show that of the 9 snow samples collected in
Angarsk 7 were taken in the industrial region located beyond the.boundry of
the residential part of the city, one was taken in the sanitary- clearance zone
between the location of the industrial combine and the city, and one sample
was taken in the center of the city. As can be seen from the Tabl~ no 3,4-
benzpyrene was found in the dust settled within the. confines of the city proper,
only an 1ndeterm1n~ble trace of it was found in the dust sample collected in the
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-------
TABLE 1.
1 :. Distance ot : Absol. quantities : Relative unit quantities
: Assumed source : sample co1-.1 ot f~ll-out per : using control test
Sample collecting point: of air : lecting point: 1 m2in 180 ~s : as one unit
1 pollution :from source of: Dust in 1 3,4-benzpy-: Dust : 3,4-
: : polluti.on I . g : rene inmg : : benzpyrene
-
Territor" of T~s No.2 TETs No~ 2 81.0 0.15. 13.0 4.0
Hygienic building TEl's No.2 1200 .39.6 0.15 6.2 4.0
Boat station TETs No.2 2000 46.8 0~51 7.3 14.0
Polyclinic TEl's of plant 200 198.0 0.74 31.0 20.0
Faotory creohe TEl's of plant 300 195.4 0.20 .29.0 3.5
Central market TETs of plant 1 -000 127.8 0.60 20.0 16.4
Yamskaya street TETs of plant 1 500 36.0 0.49 5.6 13.3
. ~ank of river Ushakovka TEl'S of plant 2 000 37.8 0.021 5.9 0.6
KrasnokazacbAYa street TEl's of plant 2 500 43.2 0.29 6.7 8.0
Zagoskinskaya street TETs of plant 3 000 50.4 0.12 7.9 3.3
Control sample collected
beyond oi ty l:iJA1ie TETs of plant 5 000 6.4 0.037 1.0 1.0
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-------
TABLE 2.
Sample Assumed_main Distance Fall out in 18'0
source of : from assumed- : days p~r 1 m2
collecting
point air pollu- pollution Dust in g : 3,4-benzpy-
tion : source in m : rene in mg
TEl's TEl's 109.8 0.014
Industrial region TEl's 50 417.6 0.036
Industrial region TEl's 200 115.2 0.180
Industrial region TEl's 500 381.6 0.108
Industrial region TEl's 1 000 - 205.2 0.054
Industrial region TEl's 3000 41.4 0.108
Industrial region TEl's 5000 88.2 0.036
Planted sanitary
clearance zone TEl's 1 000 10.8- Trace
City center -TEl's 4000 9.0 None
sanita:tj'clea.rance zone, whereas all dust samples collected in the region of
the industrial plants contained 3,4-benzpyrene in quantities varying between
0.014 - 0.180 mg per 1 m2 (accumulated over a period of 180 days). This con--
stitutes the fundamental point of interest of the present investiga~ion. The
results point to the fact that the emission into at~ospheric air o~ our citi~s
of carcinogenic substances produced by fuel burning can- be prevented by build-
ing future cities according to plans similar to the one of Angarsk. The re-
sults also indicate that the total of sanitary prophylactic measures insti-
tuted in the city of Angarsk proved ?dequate.for the protection of the atmos=
- -
pheric air- of the residential part of the city, especially as related to the
prevention of dissemination throughout the city of cancerogenic hydrocarbons.
The data presented in Table 2 show that all sampl~s collected in the
vicinity of the industrial plants at a distance of 500 m from the TETs con-
tained determinable quantities of 3,4-benzpyrene, that the sample obtained in
the sanitary clearance zone contained only an immeasurable trace of it and the
sample collected in the center of Angarsk had no demonstrable quantities of
3,4-behzj>yrene.. This may have been due to the fact t~~.t contrary to the orig-
inal assumption~ the T~s was not the basic source of 3,4-benzpyrene emission,
but that other-undetected emission foci m~ have been responsible for it to -
a greater degree. This assumption m~ apply generally to other similar situ-
ations.
The comparative study of the air pollution of the cities of Irkutsk and
of Angarsk points to-practical sanitary value of purification of atmospheric
-85-
-------
air of l~ge cities and of methods for the protection of cities' populations
from the effects of canc~rogenic substances which are believed to be formed
in the process of fuel combustion. (*)
Literature cited.
Gurinov, B. P., Zore, V. A., Il'ina, A. A.and Shabad, L. M. - Gigiena
i Sanitariya 1953, No.2, 10-15; Gurinov, B. P., Mashbits, F. D.,Shabad, L.
M. - Ditto 1954, No. 10, 12-16; Dikun, P. P., Shabad, L. M. and Norkin, V. L. -
Ditto 1956, No.1, 6-11; Dikun, P. P. - Voprosy Onkol., 1955, No.4, 34-8;
Dikun, P. P. - Ditto 24-9; Kotin, F., Falk, H., Mader, F. and Thomas M. - Arch.
Ind. Byg. 1954, Vol. 9, 1953-63; Waller, R. E. - Brit. J. Cancer, 1952, Vol. 6,
8-21.
(*) Editorial note: - The author's view on the prophylactic significance of
proper city planning with regard to sanitary protection of atmospheric air is
regarded as a sound one; however, we can not subscribe to the view-point ex-
pressed thatthe;difference in the conditions of Irkutsk and Angarsk as de-
scribed by the author are the sole factors responsible for the presence of
carcinogenic substances. Other factors, such as total populations, quantity
of fuel burned, presence of automotive traffic must also be taken into consid-
eration.
"-
-86-
-------
A Kethod far the Determination ot Natural Ra41oaotiv1t.J of Air Based on
Radon Fission Produots.
B7
I. I. Gusarov and V. K. ~apidevsk1i.
First Order of Lenin Kedioal I. II.Sechenoy Institute and Moscow
Engineering.Physios Institute.
Gig1ena i Sanitari7a, 25, No. 10, 10-16, 1958.
Radioactive aerosols in quantit7 sufficient for determination were col-
lected b.r the method of air aspiration. 1 to 3 m3 of air was aspirated at" a
rate of 70 - 90 Ii/miD throuib a 6.6 cm2 filter in & Zeitz holder. The pres-
sure drop was reoorded b;r a mercul"1 manometer.
The filter retention capacit7 was determined b.1 a-radiation intensit7 as
recorded b7 a B(P-349-2) sointillation (pulsed) counter and V. K. ]q!lopidevsk1i
diffusion chamber as per illustration. This diffusion chamber is rect&r18Ular
in shape. In the removable c()Yer of the
chamber (1) there is an aperture (2) oyer
which the material under stu~ is placed (3).
Nert to this aperture is an observation win-
dow (4). The metallio bottom (5) of the
chamber is cooled from below with d.r,y ice.
The inside of the chamber is lighted through
a side wall (6). Alcohol is used as the ac-
tive source of vapor. The alcohol ab-
sorbed by the filter paper (7) ascends to the limiting height of the paper
where it evapora~es and diffuses throughout the chamber. Close to the bottom
the alcohol vapor forms a sensitive layer, the supersaturation of which ex-
ceeds Sl' a point at which condensation sets in, and droplets form on the
ions. A rectifier is installed between the bottom of the chamber and an in-
side electrode, attached to the lid below the working aperture; differential
potentials of the order ot 800 - 1600 V extend trom this rectitie~. The po-
tential ot the bottom is negative. As a-particles emanate within the space
bounded b7 the inside eleotrode (8) the air becomes ionized. Under the ac-
tion ot the electric tield, the column ot tormed ions migrates towards the
bottom ot the chamber into the area where vapor supersaturation exceeds Sl.
1 J
7
8
of
Schematic cross section
of the diffusion chamber
-87-
-------
In th18 area .coDdensation of aloohol vapor takes pla~ on the positive ions
. . .
produclDc a track visible to the D&ked flTe.
.The ditf'usion chamber and. the scintillation (pulsed) COurl'ter 1Ii t~- a small
lWDiDophor. which bas no light t1'&l1BJD1tter register. (wi thin the limits of .
aqle 2w) 50% of the total activity of the iDt1D1tesimalq th1D preparation
of les8 than 2.5 em in diameter. This was. established -- comparative measure-
ID8Dts of the a;-active standard with kDo1m activity III8p1tudes in the d.1ttusioa
chamber with the aid of the scintillation (pulsed.) cOUIlter. Te8ts showed
that, ~ th . filter diameter of 2.9 cm"the effioienC7cf the. counter to :repon
a-particle activ1V &mounted to 45% of the total preparation aotivity, within
. .
the limits Qf 8 . 21r. With the help of the ditf'usion chamber it w.. cl1tticqlt
. to record more than 100 a-panicles per mimtte by the visual llethoel. Results.
obtained by the chamber method are ;man1f'.s"~ distinct aDd reliable, and the
apparatus is simple and easily manipulated. The merit of scintillation (puls84)
. . .
00101t8r P-349-2 is its wid, range of activit,.. reeorcl1Dc.
'en types of filters were tested. biological membrane filters :los. 2,
4, 5, clotl1filter FPP-15 (old type) aDd PPP-15 (D.81r tne), FPP-15 of double
.thickD8ss, FPA-l~, FPP-5, FPP-25 and D. The follow1Dc charaoteristice were
established for each filter tested UDder the oo~ tiw; of the investigation.
the hipast filtration rates, pressure drops at ditferent filtration rates
aDd the eoeftioientof non-retention or paas1Dc-through of the test substanoe.
1'01' the l.tter purpose two filters were placed iDto the hold8r and the ratio-
. aoti vit70f the two filters dete1'lDin8cl simultaneOusly 'but separately. The
re81llts of this stud7 are presented in Table 1. .
All makes of. membrime filters had . passiDs-throup 1Ddex of les8 than
0.1$, but their pressure drop W&8 high and the filtration rate low, up to 8
. 2
Ii/miD per 1 OlD. The FPP-15, J'PP-25, JlPA-15 filters possessed the highest.
filtration rate (up to 13 Ii/miD per 1 082) and the lowest pressure drop,
. but the7 P88sed-throup up to 8 - lOS of aotive aero80l. The Br and FPP-5
filters possessed sufficient17 hip filtration rate (up to li.5 Ii/miD per
1 _2), pass1Dg-throuBh coefficient of < o.a. The coeffioient of active
aerosol retention of th8FPP-15 filter w.s determined by usine three filters
at one time. Activ1 t7 of the third filter in all o&se. was negligible. The
old-type FPP-15 filter gave the highest passing-through .coefficient,whioh
&mounted to 15 - 20%. PueiDB-through ooefficients of diffennt filters of
-88-
-------
- Table 1.
. Some properties of filters used in the deterudnation
. of a-aoti vi ty in the air
-
Filter trade'
mark
1
..
:MF No': 2 . . . . . ...
MF No.4. . . . . .
14F Jf o. -5 . . . . . .
FPP~.5 .......
.]!F . .:. . . . . . .
FPA-15 . . . . . . .
Fe'P-15 New trade mark'
FPP-15 Old trade mark.
FPP-25'. ~ . . .'. . .'
. FPP-15 Double-thick
5
8
8,6-9
10,7-11,4
10,7-11,4
12,1-12.8
12,1-12,8
'2,1-12,8
12,1-12,8
12,1-12,8
J
2
r~
<0,1
<0,1
<0,1
<0,1
<0,1
-8,4
-8,2
-16,3
-8,1
<0,1
4
-
3-5
3-5
3-5.
-2,6
-1,8
-1,4
-1,7
-2.6
-2.4
-5,3
I 5
100
100
100
-100
-100
-100
-100
-125
-100
-250 .
1.- Filtration rate in li/min/cm2, 2 - Pressure drop in mm of
JPerCU17 I 3 - Perc~nt passing through, 4 - Weight cf filter in
. . ~/cur, 5 - Thickness cf filter in p
180-185
14D-145
110-120
45-50
45-50
10-15
10-15
10-15
1.D-i5
15-16
the same make varied with the rate cf filtration. Thus, the FPP-15 filter
at filtration rate of 0.05 li7m1D per 1 cm2 had a passiDg-through ooefficient
. .' 2
of less than 0.1S, while at the filtration rate of 10 - 12 li/min per 1 em
the passiDB-through coefficient was 8 - lac. The passinB-thrcugh ccefficienq
of the 5 to 10 Ii/miD per 1 em2 r~ varied only slightly.
. . Results of tests made with the aid of the diffusion chamber and the ten-
sion counter showed that the peroent of products of radon decomposition passing
through the FPP-15 filter was appronmately the same. Filtration time varia-
tions within the limits of 5 to 50 minutes, fluctuations in air temperature
. 0
within the range of -1 to +35 and changes in air humidit;y within the ranse
of 20 to .l~ had no effect on the pass1ng-through value of coefficients cf
filters FPP-15 an~ BP.
The autogenous absorption of a-radiation in the bodT of the filter
marke~ affected the precision of a-activity determinations. This depended
on the energ of the a-particles, the density of the filter, its .thickness
. .
and the distribution of the radioactive substance in the bodT of the filter.
. __I 2
The weight of, filters FP and BF varied between 1.5 and 2.5 Wf5I em. The range
. 2
of a-particles of radon decomposition products was from 3.5 to 7 msfcm .
. .
The ratio between the act~ vi ties of the upper Burtace and the under
surface of the filter characterizes the distribution of the' active particles
-89-
-------
throughout the thickness ot the tilter. Accordingly dete:rminations were made
ot the upper and under surface tilter activities; this was done by a repeat
determination ot the upper ti~ter surtace radioactivitJ. The l~st determina-
tion was made to establish the tall in the general radioactivity ot the tilter
during the testing period. It was noted that the distribution ot the radio-
activity throughout tilter FPP-15 in the majority ot cases was approximately
uDito:rm. In the case .ot tilters BF, the radioactivity distribution was some-
what irregular with the greater part ot the actiye substance tending to con-
centrate close to the upper surface ot the filter. In the oase of the membrane
tilters the radioactivity manitested a tendency to aocumulate in a thin l~er
over the upper surface of the til ter.. This was made apparent by the tollowing
tact: the radioactivity determination ot the under surface ot the filter
yielded the same result as the radioactivity dete:rmination of its upper sur-
face when it was covered by a clean unused tilter membrane, taking into ac-
count the general fall in radioactivity during the time ot making the second
dete:rmination.
Determinations were mad~ of the rate of autogenous absorption ot a-activity
of natural radioactive substanoes b.1 the filter material when radioactive
particles were evenly distributed throughout the material ot filter FPP-l5,
i.e., when the autoabsorption rate ranged between 15 - 20%. It became ap-
parent that in type BF tilter, in whioh the greatest mass of active particles
was accumulated close to the upper tilter surface, the determination error did
not exceed 10 - 15%. Such low error resulting from the autoabsorption by the
membrane tilter material can be disregarded. However~ it must be borne in
mind that the extent of radioactivity autoabsorption within the filter bo~
(material) ~ rise considerably with the increase in the dust content of the
air and with the consequent increase in the filter weight (in mB/cm2). Under
conditions of the tests herein reported air dustiness up to o.5ms1m3 had
practically no etfect on the degree of a-particles autoabsorption in the
filter body. The results of above tests on rates ot active aerosols passing
through different. tilters and of the active substance distribution in them
indicated that filters in which the active substance was more evenly dis-
tributed had a higher percentage of passing-through, and ~ versa, filters
in which the active substance was distributed most unevenly had a negligible
percentage ot passing-through, if any. The distribution of the active sub-
-90-
-------
stanoe throughout the depth of the filter layers aooords "i th an exponential
ratio derived from simultaneous determinations of the radioactivity of the
upper surfaoes of filters plaoed in suooessive order in the filter holders.ot
several set-ups. It was noted that the inorease in filtration time, all other
oonditions being equal, was aooompanied by .an inorease in the oount rate at
the upper surfaoe of the filter. Thus, the distribution of the radioaotive
substanoe throughout the body of the filter and its aotive aerosols passing-
through ooeffioient depended upon the properties of the filter, the filtra-
tion rate, the filtration duration and the air dust oonoentration.
The normal meteorologioal changes of temperature and humidity of the
air "had no noticeable effeot on the effioiena,r of the filters. Aocording to
Ch. Chen, degree of dispersion of the investigated aerosol system was a factor
of considerable importanoe in the mechanism of filtration.
It W8S determined with the aid of an eleotroscope that filters FPP-15,
FPP-25, FPP-5 and several biological membrane filters, carried a negative
electric charge, which was active even after a prolonged storage of the fil-
ters. The BF and FPA filters as a rule carried no electric charge, but they
became easily charged during changes in the electrical properties of the at-
mosphere as the result of friction or by ooming in contact with charged
'bodies. The filter charge influenoed the a-particle recording effectivenes.
of the diffusion ohamber. The electrical field created by the filters pre-
vented the ions formed by a-particles from migrating to the sensitized layer
of the ohamber thus noticeably lowering the effectiveness of a-partiolee
. .
reoording, as was established by oomparative determinations of the filter
aotivity in the diffUsion chamber and the pulsed oounter. The influence of
the filter's electric field can be eliminated by shielding it with a thin
foil. It was established that the filter charge beoame reduced as the ac-
cumulated radioactive substances beoame decomposed. Placing an a-active
substance on a clean charged filter brought about a discrepancy in the mea-
surement of activity as detel1l1ined by the diffusion chamber and by the pulsed
counter; later on the recording effectiveness of the diffUsion chamber in-
creased and the filter charge decreased. Ultimately the discrepancy between
the diffusion chamber and pulsed counter recordings completely disappeared.
A method was developed for the removal of the filter charge, by first
moistening the :BF filter in physiological solution and then drying it. Simi-
-91-
-------
lar treatment ot tilter PPP-15 tailed to remove its entire charge, and Us
electric tield had to be screened out by a: thin toil, which was equal17 et-
tective. Treatment ot the filters with p~siological saline in no WBJ af-
tected their filtration rate or the passing-through coefficient.
The calculation method used in this studT pe~tted differential deter-
minations of the activit1' of all short-life produots of radon decomposition
. in the air. !his calculation method was developed by 8. G. llalakhov and.
A. V. Xovda of the Institute of Applied Geop~sics of the Acad~ ot Sciences,
U.S.S.R. With the aid of the formulas. and calculation ,:tJ~ble~ presented b1'
. these authors a generalized equation was obtained which was used in calculat-
ing the isotope aotivity of the componentsot radon decomposition accumulated
on the filter in 5, 10, 20,30, 40 and 50 minutes.B1' the prooess ot varying
tiltrationrate.and accumulation time it was possible to. select optimal eOD-.
. .
d1tions tor activit1' measurement (within limits of 100 - 200 to 6000 disin-
tegrations per minute) at the shortest possible filtration time. This calcu-
lation method is applicable to ~ case ot nonequilibrated conditions of
short-iita products ot radon.disintegration in the air.
. .
The method of natural air radioactivit1' determination based on the prod-
ucts ot radon disintegration consists of the following stages: the air is
passed. through BF tilter with &2.9 em diameter (using a'Ze~t~ filter holder)
over 40 - 50 min. at a rate ot 70 ~ 75 Ii/min. Three minutes after the fil- .
. .
trationis completed a ten point disintegration curve is constructed on the
basis ot 3 millUte counts with 2 minute intermittent intervals. This is the
curve ot disintegration. Time in minutes is plotted along the abscissas
, .
e.g. - 4.5, 9.5, 14.5 minutes, etc. tro~ the time filtration ended, results
ot 3 minute determinations of filter disintegration activit1' corresponding to
the above time intervals (e.g., 3 - 6, 13 - 16) are plotted along the co-
ordinate. Three points are then selected, at 9.5, 24.5 and 39.5 minutes tram
the time tiltration ended tor the determination ot the time element on the
basis ot equal determiDation time for all cases. The activit1' values at these
pOints on the experimental17 constructed ourve - a, b and 0 -..are substituted
in the equations presented in Table 2 tor the corresponding accumulation time.
From these equations the number of radioaotive atomS BaA,. Ra» and RaC (Qm-
. .
. bolised oorrespond.iDB17. by:_:.I:, 7 and z) can be determined in the volume. ot . air
DUmer1oal17 equal to the filtration rate.
-92-
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Table 2
Determination ot radioaotive atoms RaA, BaB and RaC (x, 1 and 15) per volume of air equivalent to the flltratiou
rate over difterent acoumulatlnc intervals
-
I: Time in minutes Time in minutes
.~~ 10 20 ao
~ & 40 &0
0,0 1343a -+ 0 ,03372c-O, 04273b" O,04632a~ O,II64c-O,1474b O,Ia98a+o,36lec-O,445b O.24I1a~ 0.6067c-O, 7709b 0,337&. O,8397c-I,OIi2lb 0,41&+ 1,0359c-1 ,3/00
JC 0,002952 0,0135 0,0448 O,U786 0,1179
0, 1,~34
O,3475b" o ,OG924x-0,2045a 0,6391 b-(O ,3700+ 0 ,OI6M') I,0885b-(O,6404a+O, umx) 1,4048b-(O,826&+ O,4032x) 1,6272b-(G,9574af O,605x) 1 ,784b-(I,0497aJ.O,8/~)
, 0,03372 0,/164 0,35/8 0,6068 O,sag7 1,0359
a - (0,318Ix+ O,1114y) a - (0 , 503R.c ' O,2454y) a-(O,8215x.' O,5578y) a-(I,1442x~ O,8835y) a-(I, ,498'/JC-1 197y) a-(I,7595x+I,488/y)
. 0,3475 0,6391 1,0885 1,4048 1,6272 1,784
Botel lIeasuremsnts of deoomposition products filter activit1 over a 3 min. interval &8 taken from an experiment-
tal curv. construoted on the basi. of point. 95, 24.5 and 39.5 minut..
-93-
-------
For oalcul~tion of BaA, RaB ~d RaC aotivity in the air in C/11, the
values o'Qtainedfor x, 'y and z are substituted in equations I, II and III.
-------
Table 3 presents outlines of the general solution of equations I, II.and
III, when using different filter makes and taking into account factors p, Ie
and CID.
Results of determinations indicated that the general radioactivity ot
the atmosphe~c air, and its isotope composition constant~ fluctuated within
the -limits 10-13 0/11.
On November 10, 1951 air activity.wasl RaA - 1.8 % 10-14 O/li; RaB -
2.1 x 10-13 O/li; RaO - 2.1 % 10-13 O/li, RaOl - 2.1 % 10-13 O/li, i.e.
-13 / -13
2.28 % 10 0 Ii in «-aotivity and 4.8 x 10 in ~-activity.
Oonclusions.
1. The sointillation (pulsed) counter attachment to installation
B{P-349-2) and the diffusion ohamber proved well suited for the determination
of a-activity of filters. .
2. Results of tests showed that filter types BF and PPP-5 had a neg1i-
gi bly low ooefficient of passiDg'-through, an autoabsorption in the filter
body within the limits of 10 - 15% and a sufficiently high filtration rate.
In the case of filter type FPP-15 the total error due to passins-thr~ and
to autoabsorptionranged up to 30%. In utilizing membrane fi1tere the error
caused by the passins-through and selt-absorption could be ignored, but their
filtration rates were 1.4 - 1.5 times below those of filters BF and FPP-15.
. .
Filters of the PPF-25, FPP-15 type and all membrane filters carried an.
electrio charge which had no effeot on the oourse of filtration wi thin the
range of 8 -12 li/mtn per 1 cm2.
3. Oalculation methods, developed at the Institute of Applied Geo-
physics of .the AcadelV of Sciences, U.S.S.R., made possible the determination
of complete isotopic content of short-life products of radon decomposition in.
the air.
4. The diffusion chamber oan be utilized in practical hygienio-sani tar;y
dosimetric determinations; a) in determining Iowa-activity samples UDder
laborator.y conditions, in the standardization of a-active p~parations; in
checking the effectiveness of pulsed a-counters and other a-particle counters;
b) in the practical evaluation of small dimension portable devices; c) in
measuring natural radioactivity of atmospheric air.
-95-
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Aerosol Radioactivity of the Atmospheric Air.
By
A. Z. Belousov, Yu. V. Bovikov, V. F. Oreshko, and B. I. Polivoda.
Koscow Scientific-Research Institute of Sanitation and ~g1ene of the
R.S.F.S.R. Kinistr,y of Health.
Gig1ena i Sanitariya, Vol. 23, Bo. 10, 17-22, 1958.
Observations of atmospheric air radioactivity were conducted at 3 points
in the city and its surroundings. Air samples were taken 1.5 - 2.0 m above
the surface of the ground and studied for a and p activity in aerosols. Me-
teorological observations were conducted simul taneousl1. In the course of a
year 967 atmospherio air samples were examined. The results are presented in
Tables 1 and 2. Values for a and p radioactiv1 ty are listed by seasons and
months. As can be seen in Fig. 1 mcnthly variations in a and p values were
of the same order. . Average radioactive aerosol concentration variations in
. the suburban zone and in the oity did not exceed the limits of measurement
accurac;y. Thus, the average. concentration of p-active aerosols in the city
amounted to 2.41 x 10-13 e/li; and a-activs aerosols - 1.23 x 10-13 e/li; in
the suburban zone 'the values were correspondingly 2.54 x 10-13 and 1.6 x 10-13
e/li.
e/li
II-/p-II .
. /0.-" .
6.
1 J ~ I S I ,_, m n Q U ~ M" n" m n nu n n n ~n n
. . Days of the month .
Fig. 1. ~rves of radioactive aerosol concentration
changes 1n atmospheric air in the course of a month
1 - ~-active aerosol concentration changes; 2 - a-
active aerosol concentration changes
-96-
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Table 1.
Conoentrations of a- and ~-aotive aerosols in the atmospherio air at the sample oolleotlnr
points, aooording to months in 1957
No. of Concentration in C 11
samples Max~l minimal Average
Point . . . .
Month ,.all +:t II ~-aotive
10 0 0 0 0 ~-aotive a-active ~-active a-active a-active
cd ~ cd ~ aerosols aerosols aerosols aerosols aerosols aerosols
1 Q) I Q)
CQ,cd ~ cd
J
Maroh 9 8 5,55.10-13 . 4,05.10-13 0,573.10-13 0,376 . 10-13. 1,49. 10-13 1,13 . 10-13
~ril 9 9 4,86.10-13 3,14.10-/3 0,264.10-13 0.288. 10-13 1,61 . 10-13 1,09. IO~I~
ay 10 10 2,68.10-13 2,25.10-/3 0.382.10-13 0,428. 10-13 1,47. 10-13 1,085 . 10-13
~~y; 10 10 2,68.10-/3 1,34.10-/3 0,42.10-13 0,422 . 10-13 1,3. 10-13 O,1'3 . 10-/3
11 11 3,32.10-/3 0,51.10-13 0,21 . 10-13 3,73. 10-/3 1,42 . 10-!3
August 8 1,1.10-/3 3,06 . 10-/3
Be¥t~mber 9 0,89. ]0-13 -
0 0 er , 8 8 4,12.10-13 2,83.10-13 0,57.10-13 0,08 . 10-13 2,15. 10-/3 1,35. 10-/3
Average for 8 months 74 56 3,35.~ 10-/3 1,15. 10-13
2 ~ril 4 5 2.5.10-13 2,54.10-13 1,47 . 10-/3 1,42. 10-/3 1,94 . 10-/3 1,79. 10-/3
~he 13 ,12 4,65.10-/3 3,14.10-13 0,375 . 10-/3 0,243. 10-/3 2,23. 10-/3 1,59 . 1
-------
Concentrations of «- and ~-active aerosols in the atmospheric air of
a suburban area, aocording to months
No. of sam 18s'; . , ,- ..- Concentration in C/1i
I~:"'ac- «-ao-
: tive ,tive
I aera- aero-
sol 'sol
2126
23 29
17 J8
33 Zl
24 24
18 21
3 6
19 19
21 22
8 7
17 , 17
'11 11
2J5 m
Month and year
D~cember 1956
J,muar.y 1957
Februar,r 1957
March 1957
AaPri1 1957
~ 1957
, Jun. 1957
.tu~ 1957
4ugust 1957
S~ptemb.r 1957
,Optober 1957
,~ov.mber 1957
.Average for 12 months
Table 2.
" 14~i maJ Minimal " Average
,~-active' t «":acti~. ~~aoti ve I «-aotile ,~-act1ve" «-act1r.
laerosol aerosol, aerosol :aeroso, aerosol aeroso'
'.
7,15. 100U 4,9$~. 1()-.11 0,392. 10-11 0.176'- ID-11 2,72. 10-11 1 ,80. 1,&-:-1a
7.1. 10-13 4.47. 10-13 0,635' 10-13 0,42. 10-11 ,3,45. 10-11 2,22. 10-11
6,97, JO-I3 ..97. Jo-I3 0,388. Jo-I3 0,244. J0-1I 2,54 . 10-11 J .73. Jo-I3
, S,Q3. 1O-a1 3.58. 10-13 0,324' 10-18 O,J78. 10-11 J ,78 . 10-13 1,06,' 10-11
4,J8 IO-~ 3,14. 10-11 0,306. H)-II 0, J93. 10-11 1,29 ~ 10718 J.lI. 10-11
4,95. 100U 2;95. 10-11 0,54' 10:-11 0.195' 10-11 2,16" 10-11 J ,36. Jo-II
1,92 JO-u 1,28. I~II 0~95' Jo-II 0,189. 10-1' J ,48. Jo-I3 0,812. Jo-II
4.5. 10-13 3,04. Jo-I8 0,48. 10-13 0.25. Jo-I3 1,82 . 10-11 'J, J7 . 10-11
6,0. 10-13 4.3. Jo-I3 0,45. 10-18 o,~. 10-13 3, J2 . 10-11 J ,65 . 10-11
7,8. Jo-I3 4,8. 10-13 J,03' 10-13 0,96. 10-13 5,06 . Jo-II 3,3 .10-1.
7.4. 10-13 6,2. 10-13 0 4. io-I3 0,2 . 10-18,' 2,43 . 10-13 1,74. 10-11
'0 ,
8,M. 100n 3,33. 10-11 0,65. 10-11 0.36 . .10-11 2,61 . 10-13 J ,22 . 10-11
- - - - 2,54 . 10-13 1,6 . 10--11
-98-
-------
The oourse of radioactiv1't;y fluctuations in a- and ~-radiation during
individual months, as shown in Tables 1 and 2, manifested no noticeable regu-
larities. It appeared that natural radioactivit;y fluctuations occurred at
intervals shorter than one monthJ this is illustrated in Fig. 2, where hourl7
measurements in radioactivit;y are
presented on a 24-hour basis. The
causes of these radioactivity fluc-
tuations have not been olearl;y ex-
plained, and further research is
needed for their understanding. )(8-
teorologioal conditions, air humidit;y,
degres of air dustiness, etc. ~
play an important part. The effect
of. air dust oonoentration has been
determined. In Table 3 are presented
results of the evaluation of a and ~
aerosol radioactivit;y at various lev-
els of air dust conoentration whioh
C/li,
14xlO-14
lOxlO-14
5xlO-14
r-i
o
..
o
0\
r-I r-I r-I
o 0 0
'000
r-I r-I r-t r-I
O' 0 0 0
-- --
00 00
LC:\ \Q. ~ ~
r-Ir-I
r-MM.
r-I(\,I
o .,
3/18/1957 3/19/1957
Fig. 2. Radioaotive aerosol
concentration changes in at-
mospherio air during 24 hrs
1 - ~-aotive, 2 - a-active
aerosol ooncentrations
were determined gravimetrioall;y fol-
lowing the aspiration of a known vol-
ume of air through retention filters.
Data in Table 3 show that an increase
in air dust concentration was accom-
panied b.r a somewhat increased concentration of a- and ~-active aerosols.
Measuring ooncentrations of radioactive aerosols in the atmospheric air
was paralleled b.1 s;ystematic
determination of half-life
periods of radioactive sub-
stances. These determinations
Table 3.
Concentrations of dust and of a- and ~_ac-
tive aerosols in the atmospheric air
~st 'Av. concentration in elli
Sampltg conc3tn a-active I ~-active
point. mg/m., . aerosols ~ aerosols
1 Cne.ua 1,4' Hr-13 1,27'10-11 .
0,1-3 1,!Ho-13 1,9'10-13
2 OleA" 1,68'10-13 2,82'10-13
0,1-1 1,78'10-13 3,0'10-13
.3 Cne,lUol 0,65'10-13 1,15'10-13
0,1-1 1,01'10-13 1,8'1~13
-99-
refleoted the degree ot iso-
tope composition constana,r of
radioactive aerosols present
in the atmospheric air. Re-
suI ts of deteminations in
the cit;y and in the suburban
-------
zone are presented in Tables 4 - 5 according to months.
Table 4.
Half~life periods of a- and ~-active aerosols
in the atmospheric air at different collect-
ing points according to months in 1954
~.~ 1 2
- ~
......,... , Month
""'0 I
OPt 6
o 3 4 5
I :March' 32,1 32,2 '.rl 22,1
A.pril . 34,6, 32,1 25,1 23,3
J4ay 41,6 36:1 21,6 19,1
J.une 33,1 82,8 31.3 24,1
J.uly 34 34 24,7 21,8
.A.ugu at 38,6 14,8
Se~tember 34,1 13.6
Op ober 35,5 39,3 25.1 21,'
Av. for 8 Jlfos. 35,6 34,6 22,8 22,1
2 April 44 38 11,3 12,1
Play 36,1 38,1 11.1 16,1
J.une 38 34,3 12,5 10,1
July 32,9 34,8 11,9 12,9
August 35,6 34,2 8,16 11.52
~eptember 35,1 35,6 1,9 10,2
October 38,5 36.4 18,4 16,8
N.ovember 31,2 37,6 13 13,9
Av.. for 8 mos.
37,3 36,2 12,7
13
May'
J~ne
July
August
St'tptember
Oc.'lober
. November
Av. for 1 mos.
34 35.5 35.3 25,7 I
34,2 33,2 44,6 82,1
34 34,1 31,5 30,8
35,2 34,2 34.6 27
37,1 32.8 4,1; . ~,4
36,1 34,5 41 25,2
36,4 35,8 32 26,7
35,4 34,3 37,7 27,1
3
Av. of all col-
lection points
136,..1 35 \24,41 ~,7
1 ~ Av. half-life in minutes, 2 - Av. percent
of error in half-life determination, 3 - ~-ao-
tive aerosols; 4 - a-actiVe aerosols, 5 - ~-
active' aerosols; a-acti va aerosols
-100-
It was noted that
the half-life periods
changed little during
the course of a month in
either ~- or~-activity,
which points to a con-
stant isotope composi-
tion of atmospheric air
aerosols and indicates
that the measurements
were related to natural
radioactivity of the at-
mospheric air. Average
half-life within the' lim-
its of evaluation accura-
oy for ~-radiation amount-
ed to 36.1 min. in the
city and 34.4 min. in the
suburbs, and for ~-radia-
tion - 35 min. in the city
and in the suburbs.
The atmospheric air.
mSJ' contain products of
radon decomposition suc~
as RaA, RaB, RaC, RaC!,
of which BaA and RaCl
emit ~-radiation with a
half-life of 3.05 min.
and 1.6 x 10-4 sec. The
higher half-life value in
the case of ~-radiation
, indicated that RaB was the
main isotope which con-
centrated on the filter
-------
Table 5.
Month~ half-life periods of a- and p-active aero-
sols in suburban atmospheric air at
sample collecting zcne
AV. half-life AYt errof or h~f-
J.n ininutes IJ. e det n n 0
Time of study
~-actilea-actile ~-actiIe i-actiye
eroso s aeroso s eroso s eroso s
. . 1
D.ecember 1956 29,4 32,2 20 12,6
J.anuary 1957 31,4 31,8 14,4 10,9
February 1957 33,4 33,4 16,7 11,2
March 1957 31,8 33,4 21,2 13,4
A-pril i~3t 34,4 34,4 23,5 14,6
May 37 37 17,2 12,8
June 1957 40 31 16,6 12
July 1957 33,6 36 19,9 12,9
August 1957 32,9 36,2 13,9 10,8.
Se~t&mber19~t 36,S 36,4 9 7,11
Oc ober 19 34,9 36,6 20,3 12,6
November 1957 31,4 35,4 15,9 13,3
AT. for 12 mos. 34,4 35 17,4 12
and that it decomposed during the determination in the following order.
1 1
RaB~ RaC ~RaC , while control11ng the subsequent decomposition of RaC .
Values higher than those characteristic for RaB halt-life in ~-radiation
indicated the presence in the atmospherio air of isotopes not genetical~
associated with radon and having longer half-lite, as for example, ThBl with
a half-life of 10.64 hours.
Conclusions.
1. A systematic studT was made by the aspiration method ot the natural
cit,y and suburban 4- and ~-radioactivity emitted b.1 radon decomposition prod-
ucts.
2. City and suburban in.tens1ties of radioactivity emitted by shorl-lived.
isotopes were as follows: city average for ~radiation was 2.4 x 10-13 C/li
and 1.23 x 10-13 C/11 for a-radiation; corresponding averages in the suburbs
were 2.54 x 10-13 and 1.6 x 10-13 C/li. The differences between the city
and suburban radiation values are wi thin the 11mi ts of experimental error;
for all practical purposes the radiation intensities in the city and suburban
air were the same.
-101-
-------
3. Air radioactivit,y constant~ fluctuated over an extended period of
time as well as within 24 hours. The fluctuation range st~ed within narrow
limits and may have been caused by changes in the meteorological conditions.
4. Increase in air dust concentration was paralleled by an increase in
atmospheric air aerosol radioactivity.
5. Changes in the isotope composition of atmospheric air aerosols were
slight and the average half-life of radioactive aerosols for «-active and p-
radiation ranged between 34 - 36 min.
Bibliography.
B a C R .II . e BaA. A., K p y r JI R K 0 B a U. n. B KH.: Te3HCY l1OKJl8J10B H BY~
HHIt Ha BceCOI03H. H:;Y'IH. KOtlcp. nt> Bonp. rHr. B03.ayxa. M., 1955, CTp. 94-95. - r e 4 e 0-
H ~ B n. 11. ATOMHaJI 9HeprHII. 1957, T. 2, N'3. CTp. 260-271. - A b rib atM., Po u r a.
.iher J. Compt. !end. Acad. Sc. 1953. v.237, p. 1233-1235.-Eisenbud M..
H a r ley J. H. SCIence. 1956,v. 124, N. 3215, p. 251. -l e j u e n e J. Connais!. home.
1955, N. 6-7, p. 49-04. - The Hazards to Men of Nuclear and Alliej RadiaUCJIIL
London. 1956. . .
Determination of Natural Radioactive Aerosols in Atmospheric Air.
By
A. S. Zykova, V. A. Schast~, G. P. Efremova.
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 23, No. 10, 62-64, 1958.
In determining active aerosols in atmospheric air it is necessar.y to
take into account the activity of naturally occurring aerosols. It is known,
that natural radioactive gases of radon, thoron, actinon in negligible quan-
tities and products of their decomposition are present in the air. Primar,y
gases as such ~ not be connected with aerosols and can be present in the
air as individual atoms, but 60 - 85% of the products of their decomposition
are connected with aerosols. Considerable data related to air radioactivity
were gathered by E. K. Fedorov and V. I. Baranov. Such data indicated that
the radon concentration in the l~er of atmosphere close to the earth flue-
-102-
-------
tuated between 0.05 x 10-13 aDd 5 x 10-13 while the thoron content was 0.5 x
10-13 C/li. Fractional analyses of radon decomposition products colleoted on
filters in the Moscow area indicated that their content on Karch 1, 1952
amounted tOI BaA. 1.53 x 10-13 C/li, RaB . 0.058 x 10-13 C/li, RaC . 0.19 x
10-13 C/li. On Karch 9, 19521 RaA. 1.2 x 10-13 C/li, RaB . 0.1 x 10-13 C/li,
RaC . 0.6 x 10-13 C/li. No other data were found in the literature on concen-
trations of natural radioactive aerosols in atmospheri~ air.
Investigations were made of concentrations of natural radioactive aerosols
at 4 points - at distances ot 125, 100, 90 and 45 laD from Moscow along a radius
extending in a south-wester17 direotion. Air samples were collected by the
aspiration method usin« FPP-15 type filters. Aspirators were installed 1.5 m
above the ground and the filter. had a surface of 12.5 cm2. The time needed
tor the collection of the sample varied between 10 - 20 and up to 30 - 60 min-
utes. The rate of air aspiration varied from 8 to 14.5 li/min/cm2. Samples
were brought to the radiometric laborator,r 10 - 15 minutes atter the ter.miDa-
tion of sample collection. The filters were not chemically treated to allow
rapid radiometric determinations. Sixty-eight samples were collected. 13-
activity in the filter was determined with the aid of an JIS'1'-17 counter, (1-
activit7 determinations were made using scintillation (impulse) attaChment
P-349-2.
The results indicated that radioactive aerosols collected on filters de-
composed rapidl7. Therefore, decomposition curves were plotted and half-life
periods determined for several samples. Deoomposition curves showed that the
average half-life period of 13- and (I-active samples amounted to 35 minutes.
The half-life periods coincided approximately with those recorded in the lit-
erature. ForeilD scientists at the Geneva Conference reported the halt-life
period for natural (I-active aerosols as 30 minutes.
E. C. Tsivoglou, H. E. qer and D. A. Holiday presented several values of
half-life periods of natural radioactive aerosols. Thus, for one (I-active
sample the half-life period was 45 minutes after a time lag of one hour; it
then. decreased to 28.5 minutes. The authors pointed out that in a non-uniform
mixture of radon and its derivatives the a-activity on the filter could de-
crease considerably during the first 10 minutes of the analysis, after which
it remained at constant level for 20 - 30 minutes, and then decomposed with a
half-life period of 40 minutes. This observation is of importance as it is
-103-
-------
difficult to assume that a oomplete 'balance ex1sted in the atmosphere between
deoomposition produots of radon and thoron, the deoomposition products of
actinon being of insignificant values. In practioe it was not posd ble to
determine the decomposition of samples earlier than 15 minutes atter the
samples were colleoted and the persistenoe of the above mentioned level oould
have been overlooked.
In estimating the reduoed number of filter impulses per minute to the end
.
of sample colleoting the formula shown below was used in preference to taking
into aooount the oomplex charaoter of the deoomposition curve.
Nt'" Nt .e~" ,
where .0 - number of imp/miB at the end of sample colleotion; It - counted
number of imp/JIlin, ).. 0.~~3 (miD-lh t - time in minutes between the begimU.Dg
of deteminationa and end of semple collection, e . natural lopri thm base.
Suck approximation results in an error not exoeeding 20%.
The aotiv1t7 of filters at the end of sample oo11eotion was oalculated
according to formulas used in the oomputation of absolute aotivit7. Correc-
tions for altitu~e of col1eotion points were as fo1low81 for ~-aotiV8 samples
~ . 0.094, for (I-aotive samples ~ . 0.38. These oorrections according to
Petrzhak and Bak tables were ~l . 0.35 for ~activ1t7 and ~2 . 0.15 for (1-
activ1t7.
Effeotiveness of scintillation (impulse) attachment determined according
to the Plutonium standard amounted to 50%.
In calculating speoifio activit7 in the air oonsideration should be given
the faot that decomposition takes place on the filter durinc the aspiration
process, simultaneous17 with the activit7 accumulation. The decomposition
and col1eotion can be determined a8 fo1lowsl it the aerosol concentration in
the air is Q C/1i, then sedimentation on the t11ter per minute will be Q.V.
K
(1 . 100) C, where V . speed of air aspiration over the entiresurtace of the
filter in 11/mn, K. ooefficient of sample passing through the t1lter in per-
cent as shown in Table 1. If the air was drawn durinc tl JIlin, then the ac-
tiv1t7 on the filter at the end of sample colleotion .ill bel
-1"
A4I-Q-v.(I- I~).l-; (C),
where A . the decomposition constant of a given radioaotive aerosol. The
volume of filtered air was adjusted to standard temperature and pressure.
-104-
-------
Table 1.
Passing-through coefficient for filter
type FPP-15
Airaspira-
tion ra~e
Li/min/cm2Icm/sec
Passil]g-t};lroygh
.coeff'. 1n io
~-act. a-act.
aeros. aeros.
8
11-13
14
133
183-217
242
10
20
9
11
13
FPP-l,- filters do not re-
tain the aerosols completely,
particular17 at high aspiration
rate. Therefore, it was neces-
sary to determine the coefficient
of filter penetrability b.r a.pi-
rating air through two successive
fil tere. The res~l ts are pre-
sented in Table 1.
Calculatio~ of specific a-
activity of aerosols in the air were made without taking into account the ab-
sorption of a-partioles b.r the filter material or the increased effectiveness
of scintillating (impulse) units as compared with the effectiveness of the
plutonium standard. Control oalculations of these phenomena were made ac-
oording to F. K. Levochkints formula. As a consequence the results were
higher b.r 25% than those of the control. Thus, the accuracy of the obtained
specific activity ~f natural radioactive aerosols was adequate for dosimetrio
determinations.
Table 2.
Specific cancentrations of natural radio-
active aerosols in the Moscow region
Specific ae~osol activity
2 ~ I~~ Qp.10-13C/11. Qa.lo-13c/u
Ct-t g fOg. .. . ~ I .
a 0 12i:a ~ I H ,. ; ~ H I Q)
:>4 ~ 10 or1 1 ~ ~ 'M ~I:>
~.
-------
Bibliography.
~ 0 . . .. p.. 8. B. . Ap. Hllle,eaKe 81tTXlHOCTH .mUdD.. CSeta- H' ra..........,.'
..... Mo. 1963. - r y C e I H. r. BIOI.:- 'TPYAW DO IIpKMellelUUD pllUO....1IIiU QOT0408
. lleAHUH"~. .~.. 1953. CTp. 12-36. - 3 011 0 T Y 1 811 I P. SI.. n e 10. 1(." e. IC -B X8.:
aUllcw ceXUHOHHWX JlOK.uA08 BcecolDlHOA ItOH4lepeHIl-R !to lIe1Ra8HCXOl' Pluonor...
l'1IuleHH'ItCKU c.et(UJl8. M.. 1956. etp. 30. - n e:T p. I K K. A.. 6 I II: M. A. >KYPH. Te.".
.H311." 1955. T. 25. M .. crp. 636. - T s 1 v 0 If 1 0 II E. c.. Are r H: E.. H 0 1 I d I Y D.'"
NIIC_~.. 1153, .. 11. p. .
. .'~ tYfll"'''
The Determination of Natural Aerosol Radioactivit7 of Atmospherio Air.
B7
A. Z. Belousov, Yu. V. Novikov, V. F. Oreshko and B. I. PoliVOda.(l)
Moscow Scientific-Research Institute of Sanitation and Hygiene
imeni F. F. Erisman, at the 141nistrJ of Health, R.S.F.S.R.
Gigiena i Sanitari7a, Vol. 23, No. 10, 64-69, 1958.
The stu~ of natural radioactivit7 of atmospheric air caused b.J short-
lived isotope. received insufficient attention. This is not as it should be,
since natural radioactivit7 caused b.1 short-lived isotopes oftentimes attains
intensities exceeding those caused b.1 longo-lived isotopes. The fact should
also be taken into consideration that during atom and hydrOgen bomb explosions
quantities of short-lived isotopes are generated which increases the radio-
activit7 of the atmosphere. This adds to the importance of the stucq of radio-
activit7 of atmospheric air caused b.1 short-lived isotopes from the scientifio
and practical viewpoints. Moreover, s7stematic observations of atmospherio
radioactiv1t7 generated b.1 short-lived isotopes help to obtain a more precise
knowledge of the degree of air pollution b.1 long-lived isotopes and m&7 lead
to the development of finer methods for their concentration determination,
and for the evaluation of their sani tar;y-hygienio significance.
Of the methods for the determination of short-lived radioactive aer.osols
found in the literature, the one of V. I. Baranov deserves special attention.
(1) The article is printed for discussion purposes.
Editors.
-106-
.-. - .
-------
Baranov determined atmospheric radioactivity b.f w~ of precipitating the hard
products of emanation decomposition on negatively charged wire; the activated
wire was wound over a drum which was then placed in the ionizing chamber of
an electrometer. J. Harley determined the products of radon decolpposit10n b.f
aspirating the air through paper filter and subsequently measuring the accu-
mulated a-activity with the aid of a scintillating (pulsed) counter. O. Haxel
utilized filter paper impregnated with asbestos or amber resin. Filters thus
prepared absorbed radioactive products of emanation decomposition. Changes
in the filter activity in relation to time permitted Huel to stu~ the nature
of the radioactive substances present.
In these investigations the aspiration method was used for the collection
of air samples. The sample collecting apparatus consisted of a special filter
holder, flowmeter for the standardization of the rate of air aspiration and a
Gub1dn pump. Eve17 precaution was taken to make the aspiration system ai1'-
tight at all points.
Two samples were collected simultaneously, one for ~-active and one for
a-active aerosol determinations. Cloth filter FPP-15 was used because its
pressure drop at the air flow rate of 0.05 Ii/miD per 1 cm2 was 1.5 ! 0.2 mm
ot water. The coefficient of aerosols passing-through at the above aspiration
rate did not exceed 0.1%. The cloth was hydrophilic, acid and alkali resis-
tant, but cils and crganic solvents affected it; the oloth withstood a maximum
temperature of 500 C. The filter had a gauze lining.
A filter 40 mm in diameter was placed in the holder and tightly fastened
in place by a special screw and the loaded hclder attached to the flowmeter.
After aspirating through a given quantity of air, the holder was disassembled,
the filter carefully removed and its radioactivity determined. ~-radioactivity
of the filter was determined with the aid of end-window counter T-25-BFL with
mica thickness of 2 mg/cm2 in the case of installation B; the a-activity was
determined by a scintillation (pulsed) attachment of the universal radiometer
"Ties". The diameter of the end-windcw counter was 25 mm, and the diameter of
the active filter surface was 20 mm; the diameter of the luminophore of the
"Tiss" radiometer e.ttachment was 35 mm. It would have been better if a-activity
dete:rminations could be made with the more perfect pulsed attachment P-349-2
and B-2 set-up.
-107-
-------
For the determination of the volume of air to be aspirated through a fil-
ter to obtain the required precision of measurements, a series of tests were
carried out to establish the intensity of the filter activity after the aspi-
ration of different volumes of air at a constant aspiration rate. The results
are listed in the following Table.
Relative error in measuring filter
activity in relation to volume of
aspirated air
~I 3 I 4 I
5
60
60
60
60
60
600
1200
1800
3000
6000
1500
4250
5700
7200
21200
&,8
2,7
2,13
1,75
0,8
10
20
31)
50
100
I - Aspiration rate in li/min; 2 -
Aspiration time. in minutes; 3 - To-
tal volume of air used; 4 -Total
number of filter impulses; 5 -Rel-
ative errors in measuring fil-
ter activity in %
After.each test the filter activit7
was determined with an end-window counter
in a lead housing. The overall numbers
of impulses emitted by the filter from
the start of the determination to the
point of the original pure filter ac-
tivity are presented in the Table.
The values in the Table show that
with the increase in the volume of as-
pirated air the number of radioactive
particles r~se and the magnitude of
error decreased. The Table does not
show the relationship between the vol-
ume of aspirated air and the number of
impulses recorded by the filter. This
was due to the fact that the determinations were not made simultaneously, but
after a period of several ~s in the course of which changes in atmospheric
radioactivity have taken place. Nevertheless, on the basis of the data gath-
ered, it appeared possible to limit the volume of aspirated air to 1800.-
3000 Ii \Vhich reduced the determination error to 2% and the air aspiration
time to 30 - 50 min at 60 li/min aspiration rate. In subsequent investige:t"1ons
2500 - 3000 li of air were aspirated for each determination.
For the determination of optimal air aspiration rate through the filter
three sets of tests were made in which duplicate samples were collected simul-
taneous~: in test No.1 at air aspiration rates of 15.9 and 6.37 li/min/cm2;
in test No.2 at rates of 15.9 and 22.2 li/min/cm2; and in test No.3 at aspi-
ration rates of 15.9 and 28.6 li/min/cm2. Analysis of each pair of samples
was made simultaneously. According to the data obtained the optimal aspira-
.tion rate ranged between 6.37 and 22.2 li/min/cm2. This indicated that at
. aspiration rate of 28.6 li/min/cm2, the radioactive aerosols passed through
-108-
-------
the filter. On the basis of the above results an aspiration rate of 15.9
li/min/cm2 was decided upon for subsequent determinations, under the test con-
di tions of the present study; this corresponded to a 50 li/min/cm2 aspiration
rate through a filter with a pressure drop of 795 mm of water.
The question of the coefficient of radioactive aerosol passing-through
of the filter at the aspiration rate used in this investigation was a matter
of equal concern. The aspiration rate data previously presented indicated that
the coefficient of aerosol passing-through cloth filter FPP-15 did not exceed
0.1% at aspiration rate of 0.05 li/min/cm2. ~o check on the 'P~,~s~ng-through
coefficient under the conditions of air sample" collections under study, a
special series of tests was carried out. The two filters employed were placed~
into a holder and the air aspira.ted through the ',filters as usual. Measure-
ments of filter activity were determined simultaneously in two type B set-ups.
At the Chosen aspiration rate of 15.9 li/min/cm2 5~7% of the a~rosol passed
through the filter. Taking into consideration the f~ct that the precision of
radiometric determinations usually did not exceed an ana,logous value and that
during the collection of samples radioactive decomposition substances accumu-
lated simultaneously, it did not appear purposeful to increase greatly the time
of sample collection b.1 reducing the aspiration rate below 15.9 li/min/cm2,
and in all subsequent tests activity determinations were made at the adopted
aspiration rate.
The determination of filter activity after aspirating the air under in-
vestigation makes possible the determination of the activity intensity of
radioactive atoms present on the filter at the time of the determination,
whiCh generally does not accord with the number of active atoms present in
the air under investigation; this is due to the fact that' in the process of
sample collection accumulation and decomposition of radioactive isotopes take
place simultaneously.
If the concentration of radioactive isotopes in the air under stuqy is
assumed to be constant, then at a constant rate of air aspiration, the rate
of radioactive isotope accumulation on the filter, after accounting for the
rate of the isotope decomposition, will be equal to
A.v
where q - ~- the rate of radioactive isotope accumulation in atom/min.
dN
--q->JJ
dt
(1)
-109-
-------
~ - rat. of isotope deoomposition in atom/min.
.1 - air rad1oaotivit;r in atom/min/li.
A - oonstant ot the rat. of radioaotivit;r deoomposition.
. 'Yo - aspiration rat. in li/min.
B;r integratinc equation (1) from 0 to t pelda
t
-At ( At
If . e J q.. . dt
o
(2)
or
If - .9- (1-. -At)
A
(3)
N
B
K, .,------}!
. I:
K -----1- I
~ Nm.1 I. D
N ohan. ----~ '-TK
t "
t I ,
. I I "
t. ."
t I ".
I I ....
II '-
Idt ....-- ,.
i-I ,--..._--- . t m:1.n
tf1.n. t, .
II
Fig. 1. Accumulation and decomposition of radioactive
substances on the filter
OA - Curve of radioelements accumulation on the filter during
the interval of sample taking to.n' AC - Deoomposition curve at
end of sample taking; OB - Straight-line curve of radioelements
accumulation on the filter if decomposition had notoocurred,
N - quantit.1 of radioelements on the filter accumulated in the
time of sample taking to,n.' Nl - Radioelement accumulation On
the filter if decomposit10n had not occurred, deltaNm -quanti-
t.1 of decomposed radioaotive isotopes in time delta t; N chan.-
quantit.1 of radioactive elements at time tl' to.n. - time of
air sample taking, delta t - time interval between end of air
sample collection and beginning of determ:1.nation,
tl - time when determination. began.
Equation (3) is graphical1;r represented as locus OA in Fig. 1. Here If
s;,ymbolizes the number of radioactive atoms accumulated on the filter in the
sample oollection time t. Assuming that during the sample collection time
the radioactive aerosols had not undergone decomposition, then their accumu-
lation should proceed in accordance with the equation of the straight line
10CU8 em, and at time t would equal 11. However, thi8 is not the case,
c.n.
-110-
-------
since isotope decomposition takes place simultaneously, the quanti t7 of radio-
active aerosols will be represented not b7 point Bl but by point B. The qUaD-
tit7 of radioactive atoms B accumulated on the filter at time t when the col-
lection 1Ias ended, can be determined by establishing the complete decomposi-
tion ot the accumulated substance 1Ihich will progress according to curve AC.
For the calculation ot q it is necessary first to dete1'Dline experimen-
tally the values ot. and A. For this the filte1:" is placed into a measuring
deVice and the curve ot complete decomposition plotted as presented by curve
AC of fig. 1 and by the curve in Pig. 2. The constant ot A and the value ot
Ii are determined by taking the following into consideration: the decomposi-
tion curve presented in Fi«. 2 does not accord with curve AC in Fig. 1 due to
the tact that trom the time To.n. the sample collection 1Ias ended to the time
t begiJmi.Dg ot its determination a time interval tl - t . b t, has elapsed
o.n.
dur1Qg which decomposition ot radioactive isotopes toOk place but was not
recorded. AccordiDgly, the experimental curve presented in Fig. 2 is identi-
cal to section DC ot curve AC in Fig. 1 and . - chaD in Fig. 1 18 le8s than the
sought value ot . by increment ~1Im.
HaviDg determined the value ot 11 han by applying experimental curve in
Fig. 2, 11 is tound trom the tOllowingC equation. (1)
11 . B chaneAAt (4)
The values ot 11 iA
equation (4), and COD-
sequently ot. q in equa-
tion (3), can be 'oalcu-
lated only it the value
ot the decomposition OOD~
stant A i8 known. The
latter can be determined
trom the equatioD'
A . 0.693
Tof
The period ot halt-
lite Tct caD be determined
m AssumiDg that one decomposition corresponds to one atom and UDder the
simple decomposition soh.e, also to one impulse.
JI/IJIJ
J61JO -------------------..-,------
#Ilf/.4
- SO ItIIJ ./60 t min.
Fig. 2. Curve ot absolute radioelement -
decomposition on the filter
-111-
(5)
-------
grap)l1calq by plcn'UDg ~he ourve ot tuDotioDal relationship between the ' ,
10gari'thID of rad1oac~i vi V chaDges in the til ter and the time aocording ~o
cene:raliza~ion In ¥ .. (t) as shown 1D fiB. 3, tak:1Dg values tor ¥
tNJD the n;per1aental curie pre8ented. in Fig., 2, at correspondiDg'time inter-
val..
Baving detem1nsd ~he experimental value ot 1 trom equaticm (5) and the
value' ot I' trom equa~io. (4), the value ot q 'can be derived from equation (3h
it tollow8 trom the above that
In
q . -1t
l-e
1D which t, the time of air sample taJdDc . t The "alue ot A i8 thea de-
. o.n.
A "
termined tro~ the, e~uation q . r 'YO bT substitut1Dc the equi val_t ot A ao-
q.111m .
oordiac to equation A - 0 . General13 spea1d.Dg equation (3) i8 appl1-
'91 miD/Ii
cable to pses ot pol71aotope ccaposition. In . 1DB~an08s . ot a pol71aotope COlD-
position of radioaotive substance., a condition mos~ probable for atmospherio
air, thi. equation can be applied without further oomplioatio.. when the values
of half-deoomposition perioda of isotopes are olose. ~h1. was established. bT
resul ~a ot over 200 teata UDder the oond.i tions ot the present s~ud1'. &tpe:r1-
mental d.a~a in .emi-lopri thmio coordiDates preaented. in Pic. 3. showed that
the 't\motiODal relationship In A~ - . (t) close13 t~llOWed a at'raight line
(6)
auNe.
Ia the above outlined oalculation 8ethod. ot atmospherio air rad.1oaotivit;y
it was .ece...q to tab 1I1~0 acOOUD~ the ettici8D07 ,ot ~he l118alNring device.
8IQlo;yed 111 de,em:1n1na tilter activit7' tor the oODYereion of air rad.ioao-
ti.1'7 ~ Carie., it waa neceasar.T ~o know the oour.e of Zadtoaotive isotopes
d.isin~egratiOD 1D the ataospheJio air.
Untortaateq, the i.otope cCliposit10n of atmospheric air waa iuutfioient-
17 investipted. aDd the' oalculationa had to be mac1e eitAer in acoozrdaDoe wita
a tODlUla reo{ ~ -Ddecl iA a haDdbook or b;y comparing the activities ot in"e...
tigat8d til tera with SOll8 .t&Dd.ar4. StaDdarcl Bo. 6 wa. adopted. for the de-
~.miDation ot oountlDc accurao;y in ~-radiatiOD, aDd S~anc1a%d Bo. 5 (s;r90 +
90 . + '
T, ) wi~h a -, 20S error w.. used in ~h. case of I-rad1atiOD. ,In the lat~er
-112-
-------
case the specific activit7 of A (tD'C/li) was determined us1Dg the tollowiag
. sp
formulas
A. A C/li
sp X x 2.22 x 1012
(1)
where X . Jr .:tn. . the efficieuOJ' of the counting apparatus. The detena1Dat~on
of specific activ1v tD C/li by "&7 at calculation can be .m8cie accord1~ 110
the wel1-knOWJ1 fOlDlla (8) in whioh the corrections required tor ab80lute
(precise) measurement are taken tDto aocount.
A . A
sp K x CD x . x e x b x r 60 x 3.1 x 1010
where Asp. specifio aotiv1t7 of radioactive aero80ls in C/li,
A . the number of impulses per miD. per li, '
.. eorreotion for the value ot the relati.e so11d angle,
X . correotion ooeffioient. of absorption by the air and mica ot :the
end-window cOUDt er,
8 . correotion for the selt-attenuation tD the thicknes. of the
preparation,
e . efficienC7 of the count er,
r . deoomposition course correction;
60 . conversion of minutes to seconds,
b . correction for reveree dispersion,
3.1 x 1010 . number of decomposition per 1 C.
(8)
IQ
fllJ
,t min.
111/
Correotion for the
value of relative soli4-
angle (e) is taken f'rea
the table cOI8pIte4 'b7
L A. Petrshak and M. A.
Bak. The etf'ioi8DC7 ot
the eJJd-window counter
(I) tor P-particle. equa18
1. The value of the ab-
sorption coefficient oor-
reotion faotor X dependa
on the mica thicknes8 ot
the eDd-wiDdow counter
!. d II
n-
dt
~-
J
4
J
Z
J
Q 10
T ... 32 min.
Fig~ '3. Straight-line curve on a semilQgari~~o
soa1ederive fram experimenta1IT plotted point8.
Cf equals 32 minutes .
and on the energ of the
-113-
-------
talling particles and their geometry factors. COlJ.sequently, the calculation
of the absorption ooefficient correction faotor implies the knowledge of the
half attenuation l~er. Acco~ to A. Reid this factor of correction can
be determined with the following formulal
- 0.693 teft
X . e 6 i/2
where tett . (t + 1.293 h) &
t . thicknes8 of counter intake window in mg/em2.
h . distance from the specimeter to the counter ~dmission window
in em.
1.293 . air density in mgjcm3.
. 1.293 h . thickness of the air layer in mgfcm2.
& . multiplier, depending on the value of solid angl,e (m), de-
. '
,termined trom the graph by R. F. Reid' S bookl Poluchenie i
Opredelenie MecheDl11'kh (Sbornik Statei) Moscow, 1948, pp.
103-131.
The auto ,attenuation coefficient can be determined experimentally. If
the thiCkness ot the specimen is known (in mclcm2), then th~ coeffioient s
is deter.mined as follows: the count ot a thin preparation of a given isotope
is determined first, then an inactive tiller of required thicknes8 is added
to the preparation and the count rate determined again. Coefficient swill
represent the ratio of the two determined oount rates.
To reduce the correction factor ot reverse dispersion b use is made of
small plates of material having a low atomio weight and a thin base layer.
In the present investigations the fillers were measured on an aluminum plate
having an assumed coeffioient of reverse dispersion of 1.25. The correction
for the decomposition course (r) is assumed to be 1.
The method under discussion has been used over an extended period of'
time in making regular determinations of the natural aerosol radioactivity
of ' the atmospherio air. The data obtained indicated that with the aid ot
this method it was possible to obtain satisfactory results in determining the
oontent ot short-lived aerosols in the atmosphere up to the order of 10-14
C/li.
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Bibliography.
5. p. 8 0 8 B. H. B IDL: Jp. HB-Ta 4IRSIIKII . KpRCTLUOrpat. M.. 19CZ5..... 4. .-
neT P . 8 IC K. A.. 5 8 IC M. A. )KypR. TeD. 4!RSUXII, 1955, T. 25. ,. 4,. ~. ~3.';-
P e... A. ~. B IDI.: Oonyrmtae . onpeAeJleHHe Me..eRIIIX 8TQM08 (c60pHHX naniA). M:.
1948, CTp. 103-131. - H.ar Ie y J. H. Nucleonics, 1953, N. 7, p. 12-15. ~ H 8 i e 1 O.
Ztschr. aneew. Phys., J.953, Bd. 5, N. 7. S. 241-242.
.DoerJmua ~I 187 r.
The Determination ot.Radioactivity in Atmospheric Dust.
B7
B. )I. Tomson.
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 23, No. 10, 69-70, 1958.
For the determination ot radioactivity in the air, samples are collected
b1 the sedimentation or aspiration method. Sedimented dust is used mai~
tor the determination ot the long-lived B-radiators, which are ot great sani-
tar.y-hygienio signiticance beoause they accumulate in the soil and indirectly
attect man through the consumption products ot plant and animal origin.
Dust samples are usually collected in special containers such as jars,
dishes and also on sticlq paper. Properties ot settled dust can also be de-
termined in rain water and in snow whioh covers the ground. The collection
ot air dust samples into jars over a 3o-da1' period serves the purpose ot pre-
liminar.y intormation and requires only one day per month. Jars 15 em in di-
ameter and 20 em high, made ot stainless steel, duralumin or glass were used
in this stuQy. The jars were placed in ditterent cit.f sections on roots ot
houses ot equal height, and in open spaces on top ot poles 3 m high. The
root method ot collecting air dust samples is to be preterred because ot the
presence in the lower layers ot the air ot dust raised by passing vehicles.
Compared with an open horizontal surtace a jar collects 3 - 5 times as much
dust, a tact which must be taken into consideration in the oalculation ot
the tinal results.
Sedimentation samp~es were collected in Leningrad at ten points.
The
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mean index of ~-activit7 tor 7 montha in the tadustrial areas was 7.3 z 10-9;
C/.2, in residential areas - 6 x 10-9 and in the park zone - 3.2 :I: 10-9 C/.2.
Specific activit7 in the industrial areas wae 0.16 :I: 10-9 C/g, in residential
areas - 0.32 :I: 10-9 and in the park: zone - 0.5 :I: 10-9 C/g of dust. The low
level of dust activit7 in, industrial areas can be explained bT the prevalence
ot coarse dust, while in the parks the tine dust sedimented frOll the upper
layers ot the atmosphere predominated. The month to month changes in activity
were parallel in all three areas, which pointed to a cODmon source ot Ions'-
lived activity as well ae to the unimportance of local diffUsion souroes ot
radioactive substances. The average activity of settled dust in June amounted
to 4.1 :I: 10-9 C/.2, in August to 5.3 and in September to 7.4 C/m2, atter
whioh a decrease was observed. '
For a more detailed study of settled dust radioactivit7, the samples
were collected over a period of 24 hours into 50 x 50 em glass dishes 10 em
high. To enhance the trapping ot the radioactive substances nitric acid so-
lution of carrier-salta was poured into the-'dJ,sh; - barium was used for biDding
strontium, sodium tor binding rubidium and cesium, ianthanum for binding rare
earths and iron as a universal oarrier, as suggested by A. A. Karpov, A. 1'.
Pasarevskii and V. P. Shamov. The carrier elements were introduced into the
dish in amounts ot one mg and then diluted with distilled water up to one
tourth of the dish oapacit7.
Atter 24 hours the contents of the dish was poured into an evaporated
dish, tirst evaporated to dr,yness and then incinerated in a muftle fUrnace
o '
,at 400. The ash residue ,was weighed, the specifio l~lite J-aotivit1 de-
termined by' an end-window counter. ' Such activity ranged between 0.04 and
28.3 :I: 10-9 C/m2 with an average ot 1.9 x 10-9 C/m2. JIax1mum tall-out of
radioactivit7 was recorded in September. Inoreased activiv was noted on
ra1~ days, particularly during thunderstorms.
The dish method required considerable time and labor; therefore, it was
substi tuted by' the more convenient method of sticJq screens. In this method
40 x 40 cm sheets of paper were coated with a thin l~er of vaseline or a
sticJq substance composed ot equal parts ot castor oil and rosin. Atter a
, ,
1 - 3 dqa exposure the sticky paper was tolded, incinerated and J-activity
of the ashes determined. Z. V. Dubrovina processed 51 samples of sticlq ,
paper and obtained the tollowing results: lowest activit7-8li1Cnuf~8cl.to 0.2 x
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10~*, highest to 5.3 x 10 , and average to 1.9 x 10~* C/m .
For determination of total winter season activity of settled dust, snow
samples were collected from undisturbed snow surfaces. Using this method
V. Z. Tas'kova collected 16 three-month snow samples and found the following
—9 —Q
range of activity! lowest activity was 0.3 x 10 , highest - 10.2 x 10 7
—9 / 2
and average - 5.7 x 10 ' C/m .
Dust samples were collected hy the aspiration method using synthetic
fiber filters of FFP-15 model. Two types of filter holders were used for
the collection of samples: a plastic funnel where the aspirated air ap-
proached the exposed filter at 90 , and a plastic case, where the aspirated
air came in contact with the exposed filter at an oblique angle. (See the
illustration).
The plastic case consisted of two
parts, the filter holder and the lid.
The intake opening was on the aide, di-
rectly above the filter} its length was
1/3 of its circumference and its width
was 2 am. The outflow opening was on
the side opposite to the intake. The
Filter holder for oblique air cross-section of the discharge tube was
slightly larger than the area of the in-
flow aperture; such an arrangement effected even distribution of the dust
over the filter. The narrow intake created turbulence which lifted the finer
dust particles from the filter, a fact which can be ignored for practical
purposes.
Air samples were aspirated for 30 *dnut«» at the rate of 100 li/min, or
for 60 minutes at the rate of 20 li/min. The first determination of the fil-
ter activity was made after 20 minutes, the second after 4 hours, and a third
after 4 days, using an end-window counter for the determination of ^-activity
and a scintillation (pulsed) counter for the determination of a-activity.
The results obtained in impulses per minute were converted into absolute data
(in C/e) using the well-known formulas. The average of 256 tests made over
a period of six months was 0.5 - 0.7 x 10* C/e for a-radiation and 1.6 x
10~13 C/e for p-radiation.
The aspiration method served mainly for the determination of short-lived
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(I-activity. For the. determination of long-lived a-activity the air had to
be aspirated for maZV' hours and even dqs to accumulate a quantity sufficient
for analysis.
Results of the air dust radioactivity determinations showed that in or-
der to obtain as near a complete picture as possible it was necessary' to use
a complex of sample collecting methods. Results obtained by one ~ethod could
not be converted into data obtained by other methods due to different sample
collection conditions. Therefore, the results of activity determinations
made by different methods had to be examined concomitantly on a parallel basis.
Bibliograp~.
50 q K ape B B. tt. H D.p. H3MepeHHe aKTHBHocreA HCTOQHHKOB 6era- H raMMa-H3.IIY-
'leltHA. M.. 1953. - r e 11 e 0 HOB JI. H. ArOMHali 3HeprHII, 1957, Nt 3, CTp. 260-271.-
H. T a He 0 H r. JI. YcneXH XHMHH. 1956, B. 12. CTp. 1428 - 1445.
n0CTJlWl8 15111 II1S8 r.
All-Union Conference on Methods for the Determination of Small Quanti ties
of Radioaotive Substances in the External Environment.
B7
If. r. Galan1n.
Gigiena i Sanitari7a, Vol. 23, No. 10,87-88, 1958.
Aoonterenoe on methods for measuring small radioactivities and on ra-
diation ~giene was held February 11 to 14 at the Ineti tuteof Radiation
. ~giene in Leni~ad sponsored by the R.S.r .S.R. Ministry of Health. !Ian1'
problems were discUssed related to the radioactive contamination of the bio-
sphere and bio-substrates which are of present dq practical importance in
\
connection with continuing atomic and ~drog8n weapon tests. Participating
in the conference were representatives of lIIaD1' medical organizations and of
, '
institutes of'the Acade~ of Scienoes of the U.S.S.R. and of the Radio Tech-
nique and E1eotronios Committee of the Council of Ministers of the U.S.S.R.,
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such as the Institute of Radiation Iqg1ene, Radium Institute at the AcadelQ'
of Sciences of the U.S.S.R., the P. P. Erisman Institute, the Institute of
Physiology of the AcadelQ' of Sciences of the U.S.S.R., etc.
N. F. Galanin reported on the importance of the dosimetric control to
the protection of public health from ionizing radiation. The speaker de-
scribed the importance of radiation ~g1ene at present and presented a re-
view of interesting information on the magnitude of radiation doses under
various conditions.
V. P. Shamov reported on general methodological problems of radiation
of small activity and discussed different potentialities; sensitivity thresh-
olds of different radiation research methods were examined. It was shown
that gas-d1scbarge and scintillation (pulsed) counters were the best methods
for determining small radioactivity. The ionizing chamber method operated
well only under high pollution conditions. The reporter described in detail
the most favorable conditions for the determination of 4- and ~-activities
and of the V-r~s and neutron currents. Examined also were the generalprob-
lems of dete~ing very soft ~-rays, and radioactivity of living bio-objects,
etc. Future possibilities of scintillation (pulsed) counter use for the de-
termination of low radioactivities were also pointed out. Yu. S. Belle, L. R.
Romanov, E. P. Storozhenko, statf members of the Institute of Radiation Iq-
giene, reported on the dosimetric mobile p~sio-chem1cal laborator,r organized
by the. Institute. The laborator,r had most modern equipment which permits the
determination ot 4- and ~-activ1ties and of V-r~s without a preliminar,r
chemical analysis.
L. I. Zlobin, A. N. Pisarevkeii, V. P. Shamov and E. L. Shapiro reported
on methods for the determination of small activities of V-rays (up to 3 x
-11 ) ().
10 C using a wide-channel scintillation pulsed spectrometer. Inter-
esting information was presented b.r D. G. Fleishman and L. C. Sh~nd~he~an.
They were the first in the U.S.S.R. to obtain scintillating gels on a ple~-
glass base, of importance in measuring radioactivity of bio-substrates. The
same authors proposed a simple method for the continuous recording during low
activity determinations. They also presented a report on the determination
of the activity of different materials to serve as parts for scintillation
(pulsed) counters, essential to the determination of impulse activity. The
determination of C14 has been inoreasing in importance. V. I. Erofeeva and
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A. I. RulD7antseva reported on the preparation of specimens for carbon deter-
minations. I. E. Starik, V. P. Shamov, B. I. Raevsk1i, Xh. A. Ar.slanov and
A. P. Zharkov reported on the determination ot small quantities of 014 and
ottritiwa by the method of single and tally scintillation counters usiDg
liquid deteotors.
The presence ot strontium-90 in the bio-sphere represents great danger.
The reports by '1'. P. Jlakarova, D. I. Ivanova, ~. A. Pavlova, V. P. Shvedov,
A. A. Karpov, B. S. Shvydko, L. A. Teplykh, A. I. Mikhailova, M. I. Zhilk1na
and G. V. Yakovleva dealt with the isolation ot strontium-90 trom water and
soil. In addition, A. A. rarpov and others presented determination results
ot strontiwa-90 content in the bio-sphere of the Leningrad region.
A. A. Karpov and E. B. Bondareva reported on the determination ot at-
mospheric dust radioaotivity by the sedimentation method over a period ot
6 - 7 months. Beginning with September the authors observed adeorease in
integral activit7 in 24-hour samples. A similar report was presented by
L. E. Mukhin and S. V. Smirnova.Data on prognosis ot possible pollution of
th~ earth surfaoe, obtained through calculations, were presented b;y A. I.
Gedeonov, E. P. Anku4.1nov, V. A. Blinov and V. P. Shvedov. A. Z. Belousov,
Yu. V. Bovikov, V. ". Orenshko, B. I. Polivod, G. V. Gorshkov, V. A. Zybin,
V. I. Katsapov, V. M. Ka~ov, B. M. Tomson, Z. V. Dubrovina, A. S. Zykova,
V. A. SOhasl11'i, 8nc1. G. P. Ef'remova reported on studies ot methods for and
determinations otradioaotive aerosols. The methods proposed were based on
the determination ot aerosols collected on special filters b;y air aspiration.
V. A. Schast~ reported on the determination of argon in surtace lqers ot
the soil. L. M. Aret'eva, L. M. J4ikhailov, and A. D. 'l'urkin desoribed their
experiments in measuring ~-aotive gases with the help of an end-window counter
in a special chamber.
Reports ot V. S. Agranat, G. D. Lebedeva, M. M. Saurov,.and A. A. By-
link1na dealt with studies ot absorption b;y living organisms ot radioactive
isotopes, suoh as strontium-90, P.o 1 onium, trom soil and water. The abl1it7
ot living organisms to accumulate some ot the isotopes, strontium-90 in par-
tioular, presented the possibilit7 of successfully utiliziDg this propert7
tor the control and purification ot water reservoirs.
V. )If. Gus'kova, A. )If. BragiDa, V. M. Ii1pr.yanova, E. S. Romanova and
S. II. Drachev reported em their studies relatecl to the qgienio si8Dif'ioanoe
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of natural rad1oactivi~ of water and of soil; some of their reports dealt
with the so-called supplementa17 pollution of water and air. The authors
discussed in detail methods of sample collection.
B. P. Soltitskii, I. P. Fadeev, A. I. Shatir and P. R. Vainshtein spoke
of the levels of radioactivit7 in construction materials and of the air in-
side residences; the7 discussed methods applicable to. the determination of
such radioactiviv levels. Reports .ere presented by Yu. IC. ICudritski1,
V. P. ICo~ova, A. I. PisarevsJdi, E. L. Shapiro and A. G. ICostritsa on
bio-substrate radioact1viv, and V. V. IColesnikov, E. ,. Romanovskqa and
L. I. Yazeva reported on the radioactivi V of food products. The common
factor in these reports was the determination of natural x40 substrate radio-
activit7. Determinations were made of the natUral activity of animal blood
and practical methods were presented for such determinations.
A. G. ICostritsa reported brief17 on his attempts to determine what con-
nection, if ~,existed between the natural radioactivity of the blood and
some pathologic states of the organism.
K&n1' of the reports eli01 ted li ve17 discussions during which posi ti ve
and negative aspects of proposed methods were clarified.
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'1'h& DetermiD&tion ot 3.4-:8enzp~ene in Products Occurring in the
llaDufacture ot Synthetio Liquid Fuel.
B7
P. P. Dilam.
From the Institute of Onkologr, Aoad~ ot Kedical,Soiences.of U.S.S.R.
Vopro87 Onkolo«ii, Vol. 4, 289-291, 1958.
The produotion. of synthetic liquid fuel duriDg the post-war period in
the U.S.S.R. and in foreip countries, notab17 in the U.S.A. has rapi~ in-
creased. The number of persons connected with t~e manufacture of liquid
fuel and of the users of the primar,y and secondar;y products has inoreased.
Therefore, the possible blaatomogenic properties of liquid fuel and of its
derivatives were investigated.
It is belieyed that the raw materials used in the production of syn-
thetic liquid fuel either possess oarcinogenetic properties, or aoquire such
properties duriDg their heat processiDg, such as ookiJl&, semi-coking, oraok-
ing, etc. This creates a oompelliDg reason for the stu~ of this problem.
The production of IJ7Dthetic liquid fuel consists of the oonversion of low
grade oombustible raw materials, such as resins, tars, mazut, crackiDg resi-
dues, pitch, lignites, coal, shales, etc. into high grade gasoline, diesel
fuel, etc. Liquid fuel is produced b7 two types of technological processes I
a) b7 destructive qdrogenation of a fine17 pulverized coal - qdrogenatioD-
oil paste or of some other such product, and b) b7 the Fisher-Tropsha process
in which the coal is first converted into a gas mixture of carbon monoxide
and qdrogen and the liquid fuel products synthesized from them.
Destructive qdr~eD&tion is the basic process b7 which synthetic liquid
fuel is produoed directq from raw materials. In this process the pr1mar;y
raw material is subjeoted to the action of high pressure and temperature in
the presence of qdrogen and a suitable cataq'tic agent. As a result of
this process, the high molecular componeJ11;s of the initial fuel are reduced
to hydrocarbons of lower molecular weipt as was shown b1 I. K. Goikhrakh
and .. :8. PiJV'agin in 1954.
, Synthetic liquid fuels produced in the U.S.S.R. have not been tested for
, .
their blastomogenic properties and no indirect evidence has been presented
pohtiDB to the presence or absence of such properties. W. C. Hueper's is
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the only foreign report which came to the attention. of this author, whioh
deals with products manufactured b,r.similar industries in other countries.
Hueper used mice and rats in testiDg the effects of synthetio liquid :ruel
produoed by eaoh of. the two processes previously mentioned. fhe produot ob-
tained b.1 the bydrogenation prooess was separated into three fractions by
centrifugation. centrifugal residue, a heavy oil, and a light oil. All fraC-
tions produced malignant tumors in 32 - 35% of the test animals.
The product obtained by the Fisher-Tropshamethod also consisted of
three fractions. a) reaction water, whioh contained water insoluble compound;
b) light oil and 0) heavy oil. Results of tests with 375 mice showed no
positive blastomogenio skin effects. However, some evidence of hepatoma de-
velopment appeared on the internal organs. Hueper's experiment a]. procedures
have been most generally used in studies such as are here discussed. How-
ever, in Dl8n1' instances carcinogenetic properties may be brought into evidence
by other methods. For example, the fluorescence-spectral analysis may be
used for the detection .of carcinogenetic polynuclear aromatic bydrocarbons
in the products under stu~. The fluorescence spectrum of the produots or
of their fractions reveals the presence of certain known carcinogenetic bJdro-
carbons, thus establishing the possible carcinogenetic properties of the
product. Carcinogenetic properties caused by the presence of po~uclear
aromatic bydrocarbons, as a rule, are observed in products obtained b,r means
of high temperature tuel processing. Synthetic tuel is the product of high
temperature processil]g, and can be checked for carcinogenic properties by the
fluorescent-spectral method.
The present paper deals with the results of fluorescent-spectral analyses
of a series of the primar,r, intermediate, and final products in the U.S.S.R.
manufacture of synthetic liquid tuels b,y the bydrogenation method. The ana-
lytical procedure was as follows: One gram of the test material was dis~
solved in 15 - 20 m1 of petrolic ether. Highl7 viscous products, such as
coal paste, petroleum residue, etc., not easily soluble in petrolic ether
were first dissolved in 2 - 3 m1 of benzene, and then diluted with a spec-
ified volume of petrolic ether, which was accompanied by the fo:rmation of a
. .
heavy precipitate, the latter was removed with the aid of a Buchner tunnel
filter. The filtrate was passed through a' colUJllll of alnmillUJD oxide; the ad-
sorbed substanoes were eluted with a mixture of petrelic ether and benzene.
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The passing of the substanoes through the column was followed with the aid
of a luminesoent light. The fluoresoent speotra of the ohromatograph1callT
partitioned fraotions were photographed for permanent recording of the pres-
ence of oarcinogenic substances. From the conoentration of3.4-benspyrene
found in the partitioned fraction the total content of 3.4-benspyrene in the
product was calculated. Details of the methods for the chromatographic par-
titioning of the original substance, for the qualitative detection of 3.4-
benzpyrene and for the determination of its concentration are described in
special reports b7 P. P. DUron, 1955.
AnalTses were made of l3produots listed below:
I. Primar;y materials used in the production of synthetic liquid fuel:
1) coal paste from Cheremkhovsld.i coal, 2) heav,r Cheremkhovsk1i coal tar,
3) dephenolized fraction of Cher8mkhovsld.i tar having a boiling point of
3200, 4) mazut (black: oil) from direct crude oil distillation and. 5) an ex-
tract of highly refined petrolic oil;
II. Products of ~drogenation of Cheremkhovsk1i coal: 6) ~drogenation
sludge from coal paste, 1) hydrogenation products of coal (gidrure), 8) light
coal oil fraction up to 210°, 9) medium ooal oil fraction of 2100 - 320°;
III. Iq'clrogenation products from Cheremkhovsk1i tar: 10) tar sludB.8,
11) medium oil;.
IV. Fractions of the vapor-phase ~drogenation: fractions 12) 1200 -
240° and 13) 2600 - 320°.
The presence of 3.4-benzpyrene was detected in heav,r Cheremkhovskii tar
and in the petroleum residue. Its concentration in the tar was appronmate17
0.001$. lio 3.4-benzpyrene was noted in other primary materials, in the prod-
ucts of hydrogenation or in the ~drogenation products of origina1l1 negative
pr1mar;y materials; of particular importance was the fact that 3.4-benzpyrene
was not found in the hydrQgenation produots of those primary materials which
were origina1l1 positive for 3.4-benzp;yrene. The absence of the carcino-
genetic pol1a.rclic hydrocarbons 3.4-benzpyrene in the produots derived from
raw materials which orig1nal11 contained 3.4-benswrenewas not surprising
when the processes of destructive ~drogenation were taken into consideration.
Indeed, as has been noted previous17, during such prooesses of hydrogenation,
complex molecules break down into simple ones, and hydrogen unites with un-
saturated bonds forming saturated compounds. The carcinogenetic aromatic
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~drocarbons "re complex unsaturated compounds, the molecules ot which con-
sist ot 5 to 6 benzene rings. In the process ot ~drogenation the complex
ring compounds most probably break up 1Dto similar compounds accompanied by
hldrogenation whiCh satisties the unsaturated bonds toll owed ty loss ot the
carcinogenetic properties. This assumption does ,not apply to the other proc-
ess ot high temperature production ot synthetic fuel.
The method employed in the present invest18ation was desisned tor the
detection ot 3.4-benspyrene as the ,representative carcinogenetic tactor of
pOlynuolear,aromatic hydrocarbons. Results ot investigations by this method
tully &Br8e with theoretical assumptions that 3.4-benzpyrene and probably
the other carcinogenetio substances ot this type were not newq formed durina
the production of synthetio liquid fuel, but were destroyed, if originally
contained in the primar,y material. It must be borne in mind that these con-
clusions apply only to the 3.4-benzpyrene types of carcinogenetio substancef
the results ot this investigation did not exolude the possibilit7 of the
fomation ot carcinogenio substances ot different ohemical structures.
It should also be noted that the reBUl ts obtained by Hueper were not
in contradiction to the results here reported. The carcinogenic properties
ot the products ot synthetic liquid tuel production discovered by Bueper mq
have reBUl ted trom a particular type ot manufacturing process in which poq-
nuclear aromatic qdrooarbons were not involvedf thq JIJB.7 have been the con-
sequence ot certain technologio differenoes characteristio ot .Amerioan pro-
duction, or they mq have been due to certain properties ot American raw ma-
terials. Bevertheless, the results obtained by Hueper and those reported
here point to the conclusion that the product. of U.S.S.R. processes ot S111-
thetio liquid tuel produotion tros domestic raw materials should be checked
for the presenee ot carciDogenic factors by ma1ri ng appropriate animal tests.
Bibliograpq.
f 0 if x p a x H.' M. II' n II II SI r II H , H. 5,. X II~IIIIJ II TCXIIO.lOfHR HCKyccToeHHoro
>KH!lKorO TOnJilloa. focTOnTexll3/I
-------
The Detection of 3.4-Benzpyrene in Some Species of Smoked Fish.
(Fluorescence-Spectral Analysis).
B7
D. I. Gore 1 ova and P. P. Dikun.
The Oncological Institute, Academy of Medical Sciences, U.S.S.R.
Voprosy Onkologii, 4, Bo. 4, 398-405, 1958.
Attempts to detect the presence of oarcinogenic substances in smoked
products 'b7 direct analysis or animal experimentation invariably failed in
the past (5, 6, 7). Recently, however, a group of Czechoslovakian investi-
gatorsfound 3.4-benzp7Nne in some smoked products (4). Voitelovich and his
assooiates (1) made a stu~ of the frequenC7 with which malignant growths oc-
curred among two groups of the population of the same region in Latvian S.S.R.
.The results showed that the frequenC7 with which cancer of the digestive traot
oocurred in the group of residents whose diet included fish, especially smoked
fish, m~ times exceeded the frequenC7 with which similar .malipancies oc-
curred in the group of residents who ate fish only on rare oocasions. At the
same time oanoer of the 11181111D&Z'7 gland, of the ovaries, and o~ the uterus oc-
curred among the women of both groups with equal frequenC7. The results
pointed to a possible presence of carcinogenic substances in the ingested
smolted products. To prove or disprove the above p08sibilit7 a careful inves-
tigation was undertaken of the presenoe of 3.4-benzP7r8ne in smoked fish oo~
monl7 used in the U.S.S.R.
The diet of the littoral population of Latvia along the Baltic Sea Coast
oftentimes 'cOnsisted of locally caught smoked fish, especially of salaka (a
variety of sprat), smoked b;y the hot process at a temperature of 80 to 1000 C
in industrial smokehouses scattered along the shore, or in private smokehouses.
Time of smoking nomally extended over 1 1/2 hours. The inner walls of the
smokehouses become covered with a heavy lqer of soot up to 2 centimeters in
thickness. Sorapings from smokehouse walls were analyzed by the method pre-
viously described (2, 3). The results are shown .in Table 1.
The data in the following Table show that 3.4-benzp7r8n~ was present in
all the sarapings taken from industrial and private smokehouses. Analysis of
the smoked fish followed closely .the procedure described b,y the. Czechoslovakia
investigators (4). The fish SkiD and scales were removed first; organs which
-126-
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TABLE
1.
3.4-benzpyrene oontent in soot scrapings from the walls cf smoke houses.
Designation of samples
: Content of
!~-benz:pyrene
i y g of :
Isora~ingsl In %
Soot sorapings from inside walls of smoke houses
Ragutsiemsk, Bigontsiemsk, and Lampezhtsiemsk
fish processing plants
Same from a domestic smoke house, L. Ya.
Same from a domestic smoke house, L. II.
Same trom a domestic smoke house, IC. II.
Same f~pm a domestio smoke house, IC. Ya.
Same from a domestio smoke house, IC. A.
1 - 2
2
4
4
6
10
0.0001-0.02
0.0002
0.0004
0.0004
0.0006
0.0010
were in direot contact with the. smoke, such as the head and tail were out off
next. Aocordingly the material for analysis was of two types - the skin,
head, and tail, whioh were in direct contact with the smoke, and the skinless
fish body proper, whioh was not in direot contaot with the smoke. For refer-
ence brevity they were labeled "external parts" and "inside parts" oorrespond-
ingly. Except for a few speoia1 instances the "external" and "inside" speci-
mens were analyzed separately.
In the next step the fish was subjected to saponification. In some in-
stanoes the "external" material was saponified as suoh,f while in other in-
stances the material was first extracted with benzene, which was then dis-
tilled off, and the residue saponified. Similarly, the "inside" material was
ei ther passed through a meat grinder and saponified directly, or a fraction
of it was extraoted with benzene, which was driven off, and the residue sa-
ponified. Results obtained b.1 the two saponification procedures were ver.1
close; therefore, the benzene extraction method was subsequently disoontinued.
Saponification was acoomplished by boiling the samples in a water-alcohol so-
lution of ICOB for one-half to one hour, until the sample beoame completely
homogenized, except for the large bones which settled to the bottom. One
liter of 96% etq1 alcohol and 100 g KOB.dissolved in 200 m1 of water was
used per one kg of the test material. Following the saponification theho-
mogenized mass was diJ,uted to twice the original volume with water, cooled
-127-
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to room temperature, and the unsaponified portion extraoted four times at
roam temperature with ethyl alcohol in a 1:3 ratio. The saponified material
was discarded, the four ether extract portions combined, washed with water
acidified with hydrochloric acid, and dehydrated over desiccated sodium sul-
phate. The ether was then distilled off, leaving an unaaponif,iable residue.
The unsaponifiable fraction of the "external" material was subjected to
chromatographic partitioning, the fraction of the "inside" sample was sapon-
ified as above described a second time, which reduced the unsaponifiable
fraction by 50%. In certain cases cholesterol was precipitated from the un-
saponifiable residue b,y digitonin, which facilitated the chromatographic
partitioning of the residue.
Chromatographic partitioning was made with a 50 g column of aluminum
oxide. The unsaponifiable fraction dissolved in 30 - 50 ml of benzene was
adsorbed b,y the aluminum oxide column. The adsorbed material was eluted from
the column under negative pressure with pure benzene, to the pOint of total
disappearance of the substances which, if present, produced a violet-blue
fluorescence. Continued chromatographic partitioning for purification pur-
poses reduced the weight of the unsaponifiable fraction to 1/5 and 1/7 of its
original weight. The benzene of the last purification step was distilled off,
and the chromatographic fractionation of the purified unsaponifiable fraction,
the fluorescence-spectral detection ot 3.4-benzpyrene, and the determination
of its concentration were made according to the method previous~ described
(2, 3). All necessary precautions were taken to prevent extraneous fluores-
cent contamination which might be mistaken for the fluorescence of 3.4-benz-
pyrene, all- the reagents and solvents were checked for the absence of flu-
orescence; reagents or solvents which fluoresced were thorough~ purified.
Table 2 shows the results of hot smoked samples of salalca, a Baltic
variety of sprat, procured from industrial smokehouses along the Latvian-
coast. 3.4-benzp,yrene was detected in all the samples; its content varied
from 3.3 to 6.7 Y per 1 kg of fish. The greater part of the benzpyrene was
found in those tissues which came in direct contact with the smoke in the
process of smoking. However, from 14 to 33% of 3.4-benzpyrene penetrated
into the inner tissues.
The results of the ana~ses of fish smoked in private smokehouses are
presented in Table 3.
-128-
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Table 2.
3,4-benzpyrene content in oommeroial sprat smoked by the
hot smoke prooess
Fish Treatment ':\. 4-benz'D:.vrene cpntent,
pr~~s8- Sample Wt before in y in y y 70 or 1:
plant part in chromate- in per per side I
graphio whole kg kg whole
g study samplel fis]: fish
Engursk Inside 335
-------
Table 3.
3,-4-benzpyrene content in fish of domestic smoking (Eng.) .
Sample
Hot
smoked
sprat
Cold
smoked
sprat
Cold
smoked
white
fish
,Treatment
f before
Sample ,Wt. i chromato-
part in graphic
, study
ou e sa-
ponification
Extern. 1000 Direct sa-
parts 'ponification
7.4
1..7,
5.'2
26.0
21.0 21.0
Inside
2210, Double sa-
ponification
720 . .
Direct 'sa-
onifi catio
38
1.6
3.4
6.7
Extern.
arts
Inside
131 ' Single sa-
ponifi cation
5.1
3.7
Extern.
parts
400
Analysis
not
sucoessfu1
11.0 Y, or 26% with 38%, or even 5.2 Y with 6.7.Y, unless it oan be shown by
statistioal analysis that the difference between the two is insignificant.
B.S.L.). The results presented in oolumns 6 of Tables 2 and 3 point to the
possibility that more 3.4-benzpyrene penetrated the fish skin under condi-
tions of cold smoking.
Tests for 3.4-benzpyrene were made on specimens of six large varieties
of fish by the above described procedure. Four of the six specimens were
received from the Aral'sk City Fish Combine. All six were prooessed by the
cold smoking method. To dete~ne the depth of 3.4-benzpyrene penetration,
the roe and entrails of same fish specimens were separated for special analy-
sis. All the results are listed in Table 4.
To evaluate the effeot of the fish scale on the penetration of 3.4-benz-
pyrene into the inner tissues of the fish, parallel analyses were made of
two samples of the same species of smoked fish; one sample was split open to
allow the smoke to come in direct oontact with the flesh of the fish; the
other fish was smoked intaot. Suoh parallel analyses were made on the Golden
Shiner and the Rutilus. Barbel was smoked split, but not open. Pelecus and
ChalcalburnUs were smoked whole.
-130-
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Table 4.
Analytical results of samples from Aral'sk city
Sample Treatment ~.4-benzpyrene oontent
Sample IWt. before .ln y peJ: y J& of
part lin ~ chromato- entil"4 kg 01 per inside
graphic samplt gi vel kg .whol~
study in y part Pish fish
D.omesti- Inside 49A Saponified Traces of 3,4-benzpy.
cally . Extern. 67~ Saponified 3,4-benzpyrene positiv
smokeb .Roe & in indeterminately law
bream inside 445 Saponified concentration
3,4-benzpyrene negate
Commerc Inside P30C Saponified 3,4-benzpyrene posit.
cold digitonin in indeterminately low
smoke~ treated concentration
bream 2 Extern. 073 Twice sapon-
ified, digi-
tonin trtd 2.6 2.4 - -
Cold Inside )155 Double Sapone
smoked digi ton. trtcJ 1.4 0.6
bream Extern. l3C Saponified, 1.7 26
cut up ~giton. trtd 4.0 3.5
Cold Inside )llC Twi 09 sapon-
smoked ified, digit Spoilt analysis
roach onin trtd.
Extern. 300 Twice sapone 14.3 11.0 - ~
Cold Inside 84E Twi ce sapone
smoked digi t. trtd. 6.1 3.3
roach Extern. &.215 Twice sapon- 7.5 26
cut up ified 17.1 14.0
Cold Inside )231 Twice sapone 3,4- benzpyrene posit.
smoked digitonin in indeterminately low
Pelecus treated ooncentration
Extern. 187 Twice sapon- 4.6 I 3.8 f - f
ified -
Cold Inside 95C Saponified, 3,4-benzpyrene posit.
smoked digitonin in indeterminately low
Chalca1 treated concentration
bumus Erlern. 000 Saponified 4~5.' 4.5 j - . t -
Roe, in-
sides 26<; Sat>onified Traces of 3 4-benzt>:v.
Cold Inside 91C Saponified,
smoked digi t~ trtd.. 7.0 2.5
barbel Extern l8C Saponified, 2.0 87
cu t up ~git. .trtd. 1.0 0.8
~~. Parallel tests yielded similar results
2 . All other samples were also commercially obtained
-131-
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In addition to the two samples of bream procured from commercial smoke- .
houses in Aral'sk City, two more samples of this fish were obtained which were
smoked whole domestically. The least amount of 3.4-benzPY'rene was detected in
the last two samples, as shown in Table 4. Its presence was established only
in the "external" part in quantities too low for quantitative determination.
A barely detectable amount of 3.4-benzpYrene penetrated the fish scale coat.
Ho 3.4-benzpyrene was detected in the roe and entrails. It should be noted
that the qualitative and quantitative analyses differed greatly and that 3.4-
benzpyrene was reliably detected qualitatively in mere traces, below the
minimum necessary for its quantitative determination.
Whole fish smoked by the cold process in commercial smokehouses had a
higher content of 3.4-benzpyrene. It was noted that the samples of split
bream, Rutihzs, Pe1e.cus and Cha1ca1burnus contained in the outer parts from
2.4 to 11 y of 3.4-benzpyrene per 1 kg of the test sample. While in the inner
parts of these test samples 3.4-benzpyrene could not be determined quantita-
tively even though qualitatively its presence was reliably established. Traces
of 3.4-benzpyrene were deteoted in the roe and entrails of test sample No.3.
A comparison of the results obtained with smoked whole and split fish pre-
sented some points of interest. In the latter case the quantity of 3.4-benz-
pyrene was sufficient to be determined quantitatively. Its content in the
inner parts of the bream and Rutilus amounted to 26% of the total sample,
while in the Barbel it rose to 87%. On the other hand, in the outer parts
of split or whole fish the content of 3.4-benzpyrene was about the same. It
apP$ared that fish scales effectively prevent 3.4-benzpyrene from penetrating
into the flesh of a fiSh.
In some cases the smokehouses were equipped with special smoke generating
apparatus. A sample of soot was taken from the smoke pipe leading from the
smoke generator to the smokehouse; another sample was taken directly from the
wall of the smokehouse in a plant of the Liepaya City Fish Combine, which in
part used special smoke generators. The results of the analyses of fish
smoked by both processes are listed in Tables 5 and 6.
The data presented in Tab1es 5 and 6 indicated that the use of smoke
generators did not prevent the fo:rmation of 3.4-benzpyrene, nor did it pre-
clude its penetration into the inner part of smoked fish. On the contrary,
. .
analytical results obtained with samples of cod and sprat smoked b.1 this
-132-
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TABLE
5.
Analytical results of soot taken from a smoke ~nerator.
Designation of sample
: Content ot
f --!t!- benzpyrene
: ~.
I y g o~ ! In %
: scrapiDgs :
Soot scrap1ngs from inside walls of smoke pipe
leading from smoke generator to .smokehouse
Soot scrap1ngs from walls of smokehouse
4
2
0.0004
0.0002
method showed that they contained several times more 3.4-benzpyrene t~
those processed by the old hot smoking methods.
Conclusions.
1. Smoke used for processing fish contained 3.4-benzpyrene, which,
together with other substances contained in the smoke, w~re deposited on the
walls of smokehouses and on the surface of the processed products.
2. It was shown that 3.4-benzpyrene penetrated into the inner part of
the fish. The penetration of 3.4-benzp;rrene into the inner part of a fish
was most manifest in fish not covered with heavy fish scales, and in split
fish, in which the contact between the flesh of the fish and the smoke was
direct. In the case of the sprat, smoked ~ the hot or cold processes, 33 to
38% of the total 3.4-benzpyrene contained in the fish penetrated into the
flesh. In the case of the bream or split Rutilus, 26% of 3.4-benzpyrene
penetrated into the flesh. In the case of the split Barbel up to 87% ot
3.4-benzp;yrene penetrated into the flesh.
3. Heavy fish scales effectively prevented the 3.4-benzpyrene from
penetrating into the flesh of fish. . In cases of smoked whole bream, Rutilus,
Peleous and Chalcalburnus, which are covered with heavy scales, the 3.4-benz-
pyrena content of the flesh was many times less than its content in the same
types of fish processed after splitting.
4. The results of the investigation indicated that the content of 3.4-
benzpyrene in smoked fish did not depen~ solely on the process by which it
was smoked, whether cold or hot, or whether the smoke came from. openly burned
wood or from special smoke generators.
-133-
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Table 6.
Analytical results ~f samples of fish processed b,y the
Leningrad Fish Combine with smoke ooming from
special smoke generators
Treatment 3,4-benzpyrene content
Sample Wt. before In y per y % of
Sample part in chromate- entire .kg of per inside.
.graphiO sample given kg whole
g . study in y part fi sh. fish
Sprat, hot Inside 3500 Twice sap on- 3,4-benzpyrene positive
smoked by ified in indeterminately low
old type concentration
smoking Erlern. 950 BenB. erid.,
method saponified 35.0 31.0 - -
Sprat, hot nside t>350 Saponified 16.1 6.9
smoked by 50.C 11
new smoke I!Jxtern. 100 Benz. extd.,
generator saponified 134.0 196.<
process
Rock1ing, nside\.L 500 Saponified 3.6 2.'4
hot- smoked 21.0 5
by old Extern. 000 Benz. extd.,
smoking saponified 64.0 64.0
method
,
Rockling, Inside 320 Saponified 4.1 3.1
hot smokea Extern, 900 Benz. extd., . 5J.3 4
using new saponified i1l4.3 121.0
smoke gen. f
1) In the case of rock1ings the fish was, cut up before smoking
by either the old or new methods which oaused the smoke to
come in direct contact with the meat of the fish; in m&king
analysis the meat in direct contact with the smoke was care-
fully removed and classed as "External part". "Inside part"
refers to meat not in direct contaot with smoke; it is not
to be confused with "Insides" which refers to entrails only.
Bibliograp~.
I. B 0 ii T:I:I 0 B Ii 'I 3. A., 1111 K Y II 11. n., 11 bl Map c K II H 11.10. If UI a 6 a.1. 11. M.
BOllp. 011 KO:J. , T. 3, N23, 351, 1957.
2. 11 If K Y II n. [1. Bonp. OIlKO,l., T. [, N2 4, 34, 1955..
3. 1111 K Y II n. n. Sonp. OIlKOo'., T. I, .1\"2 5, 24, 1955. - -
4. D 0 b e sM., [lop P K., Sui a J, Ceskoslovenska onkologia, t. I, .\1'2 3-4, 254,
[954. .
5. SuI man E., Sui man F. Cancer Research, 6, 366, 1946.
6. r: ark G. Zritschr. fiir Krebsforsch., 56, 583, 1950.
7. S c h !1'1. ii hiD., Rei t erA., Zeitschr. fur Krebsforsch., 59, 397, 19;>3.
-134-
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A Stu~ of Air Pollution with 3.4-Benzpyrene in the Viciniv of an
Old Pitch-Coke Plant.
B7
P. P. DikuD and I. I. Bikberg.
ODkological Institute, Academ;r of Medical Sciences, U.S.S.R.
Vopr08Y Onkolog1i, 4, Bo. 6, 669-614, 1958.
Reoent Soviet and foreign oncological and ~gienic 11 terature indicates
that polluted air in industrial citie8 contained cancerogenio substances,
particular13 3.4-benzwrene (1, 2, 3, 6). In this paper are reponed re-
sulte of a stuq of 3.4-benzp71"ene pollution in the atmospheric air in the
vioinity of a pitch-coke plant. The samples were collected by' I. I. Jlikberg
of the Kakeyevka Jlunicipal Sanitar,y-Epidemiological Station. P. P. D1kun made
the ana13ses by' his fluorescent-spectral method (4, 5). This is the first of
a se:ies of reports on a detailed sanitar.r-~g1enio investigation of atmos-
pherio air near a pitch-coke plant made in 1954 - 1955 b;y local health or-
ganizations in Jlakeyevka, a oity of the Don Basin. The chief source of pol-
lution in the area was the pitch-coke department in a coke chemical plant.
The plant was built more than 50 years ago, was of obsolete construction and
had no dust-collectiDg equipment, it emitted ID&IV pollutants, and the air dust
concentration in its vicinity was heav,y. This enabled these authors to col-
lect considerable data OD 3.4-benzpyr8ne pollution under exceptiona117 appro-
priate conditions. Anal7sea were made of three sets of samples collected in
the area of the pi tch-ooke plant at dif'ferent times, different distances, and
in different directions from the plant I Set 1 consisted of 6 samples of dust
sweepings; set 2 consisted of 4 sedimentation dust samples, and set 3 COD-
sisted of 3 aspiration samples. Descriptions of the samples and of the ana-
lytical results are presented in Tables 1, 2 and 3.
Results obtained with the 6 samples of the sweepings are presented in
Table 1. The first 4 samples contained 2.8 to 5.5% of tarry substances ex-
tracted by' benzenel all tarr;y extracts contained 9 - 13 mg/g, or 0.9 - 1.3%
of benzpyrene. There is reason to believe that these extracts were in fact
fine particles of pitch whioh normal17 contained 1.5 of 3.4-benzpyrene.
The high 3.4-benzp;yren8 conoentration in the 4 dust samples undoubtedl7
_a8 due to the presence of tarr.y substances. In 3 of the samples the content
-135-
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TABLE
1.
Results 'ot dust anaqses.
Nature ot sample
I I Tar
I Date ot I t.
I . con eD~
sample I in dust
I takiDg I in %
I Content ot 3~-b8Dzpyrene
I Iri dust tar I In dust
I mgfg I . I ms!g I
f ot,ID%1 ot IID%
I tar I I dust I
Dust collected tram 1Daide
window surfaoes and sill.
ot the water pump house
100 m trom the plant
Dust collected tram inside
window surfaces and sill.
ot water pump house 100 m
trom the plant
Dust collected from inside
window surfaces and sills
ot pump house 100 . tro.
the plant
Dust collected trom 1Dside
window surtaces ot water
pump house
Dust collected from surface.
ot bricks stored CD the
plant grounds
Dust collected trom surtace.
ot bricks stored on the
plant grounds
August
1954
August
1954
August
1954
.August
1954
23/VIII
1955
6/IX
1955
4.2
12
1.2
1.3
0.9
1.2
0.'
0.05
3.7
13
0.5
0.05
5.5
9
0.5
0.05.
2.8
12
0.3
0.03
Concn.
low
Conon.
low
0.03
0.003
0.09
0.009
of 3.4-benzpp-ene amounted to 0.5 mg/g, or 0.05%. The 4th sample consisted
ot glass sw.epiDgs am contained less tar and also les8 3.4-beDZpy:rene. The
5th and 6th samples contained much less tarrr .substances; upon evaporation ot
the solvent, the residue did not so114117, but retained a semifluid cODsis-
tenC7; these. sample. contained 0.003% to 0.009% ot 3.4-benzwrene, whioh is
. .
le.s than in the other samples, but which _st be regarded as high. ADaqsis
ot the data presented in Table 1 'brbgs into evidence the tact that the samples
oollected Outside and inside the pitch-ooke plant contained high percentages
of 3.4-benzpyrene.
Table 2 presents anaqtioal rBsul ts ot 4 natura1l7 sedimented du.t samples
oollected into exposed wide mouth jars placed at ditterent points, distances,
and directions from the plant; 2 sample. came f'Z'OJD the area immed1ateq &4-
. -136-
-------
TABLE
2.
ADal7tical results of sedimentation samples collected in special
wide mouth jars.
Sample I I . . Contentot
LocatiQl) ot Date ot . Time ot . "
. . : 3.~beDZ~ene
.0. I sample colleotion . :
I collection . exposure i rDB/g of : JUg m2 in
. . . :
. . dust : 24 hrs
. .
1 On plant grounds 23-26/VIII 0..03
1955 4 dqs 0.003% 38
2 On plant grounds 5-7/n &.03
1955 3 dqs O.OO3.~ 21
3. Hospital grounds 23-25/VIII 0.25
750 m from plant 1955 3. dqs 0.125~ 936
4 Hospital grounds 5-7/I:x. 0.04
750 Ja trom plant 1955 3 dqs 0.004$ 8
jacent to the pitch-coke fUrnaoes; both contained large amounts of blaCk
flutf7 dust. One hundred g of dust" settled after 4 days in a jar about 16 em
in diameter. Calculated on this basis the amount of dust settling in 24 hours
2
on 1 m would amount to more than 1 kg. On the basis of a sample collected
between September 5th and 7th the rate of dust settling was 630 g per m2"tn
24 hours. Both samples contained 0.03 DIg of 3.4-benzpyrene per g of dust,
or 0.003%. Calculations made on the basis of the above data indicate that
during the period of August 23rd to 26th an average of 38" DIg ot 3.4-benzpyrene
2 "
fell per m per~; the average for the period of September 5th to 7th was
2 "
21 rDB per m per~.
Two other sedimentation samples were collected on the grounds of a hos-
pital abcut 750 m from the plant, where the dust settling rates were 750 g
2
and 200 g respeotive17 per m per day. The 3.4-benzpyrene content d1f'fered
considerab17 in the samples. Samples collected during September 5th to 7th
yielded approximate17 the same results as samples collected on the grounds of
the plant; samples oollected on the hospital grounds August 23rd to 25th had
more 3.4-benzpyrene than 8D7 of the others; they contained 8.5% of tarr.r sub-
stanoes,which in turn oontained 1.5~ 3.4-benzpyrene. Accordingly, the 3.4-
benzpyrene content in the dUst was about 0.13%. Calculated on this basis an
average of 936 rDB ot 3..4-benzpyrene fell per m2 per dq on the hospital grounds.
The cUfference in the rate of dust sedimentation was due probably to differ-
-137-
-------
ences .in wind directicn prevailing during the collection peri0d8. DuriDc
!upst 23rd tc 25th the. hcspi tal grounds were in an UDUSUal17 vulnerable.
position in this respect. Results ot anal7ses ot the 4 sedimentation samples.
showed that an exceptional17 large amount ot 3.4-bemswrene settled. from the
. 2
air in the region ot the p1tch-coke plant. It was 10 times greater per ..
per dq than the quanti t7 talling. over a period ot 6 months in Len1Dgn.d (3) J
it was 1000 times greater durinB Au&u~t 23 - 25 on the hospital grOUDds. The
result. also showed that 3.4-bemsp;yrene was carried in the air over cODBic1er-
able distances trom the points ot emissioD.
The third set ct samples -as collected. 'b7 air aspiration b;r A. S. Dun.
and V. P. 'l'urov, using an industrial tne ot til te1'-V8ntiiator ot 100 .3 per
. .
hour capacit7. Three samples ot dust were thus collected., representiDBap-
proximate17 100 .3 ot air. Results ot the anaqses are presented 1D Table 3.
The samples were colleoted on difterent dal& in the latter part ot Augast 1955
throup the aspiration ot 100 .3 ot air. The 1st sample contlLined 82 g, the
2nd sample oontained 9.5 g and the third 37 g ot dust. !he tar content also
varied, on17 a trace was tound in the tirst two samples and about 1.5% in the
third. The 3.4-bensp;yrene concentration in the 1st sample _as 0.0007%, in the
second - 0.002S and in the third 0.115%. In this set ot sample. concentratioDB
ot 3.4-benzp;yrel18 could. be demonstrated directl7 in the air. Each.3 ot as-
pirated air contained. an average ot 0.005 mg in the tirst, 0.002 DIg in the
. second, and 0.4 mg ot 3.4-benspyrene in the third sample. In this set, as in
the preceding one, markecll7 divergent results were obtained, probabl;y due to
TABLE
3.
~ical results ot aspirated samples.
S 1 I Location ot I
~ el sample I
o. ccllection I
Date ot I
ccllection
I
. Total I Total
aspirated w-isht ot
air in I dust in
.3 sample
I inlt
I Content ot
.3.4-beup~e
I mg/g ot I ms/. ot
I dust I air
1 Plant grounds Aupst 22- 100 82 0.007 0.005
24, 1955 O.~
2 Plant grounds Aupst 27, 100 9.5 0.02 0.002
1955 O.~
3 Plant grotmds August 30, 100 37 1.15.. 0.4
. 1955 O.ll,s
-138-
-------
the fact that the 'direction in which the emission traveled at the time ot sample
collection was different, as well as due to certain technological difference. ot
processing. Bevertheless, ana1ytical results of the 3 sets of aspiration sam-
pIes brought out the fact that the air in the vicinit7 of the pitch-coke plant
contained concentrations ot 3.4-benzwrene which at ,times were 100 and even
1000 times as great as in some large industrial cities.
Later, the government ordered that the pitch f'urnace be equipped with spe-
cial devices to bring about more complete burning of the exhaust gases, thereb.r
stopping or abating future pollution of the air. In the fall of 1957, after
the fumace. were overhauled, tests were made to dete1'll1ine the effectiveness
of the changes. At the request ct the Chiet State Sanitar,y Inspection ot the
U.S.S.R., S. B. nmina, of the Insitute of General and Coaaunal Iqgiene, col-
lected the tcllowing. 1 sample of dust sweepings between windows in a school
building 900 to 1000 m from the plant, 5 samples of washings from outer window
panes in difterent buildings, and 4 aspirated air samples. All samples were
tested tor 3.4-benzp~ene. The dust sweepings contained 0.0003% ot 3.4-benz-
wreDeJ washings from the window panes and the aspiration samples collected
Karch 24, 25, 28 and 29 cf 1957 at various distances from the plant contained
undeterminable traces of the carcinogenic substance. In addition I. I. B1kberB
collected materials trom 4500 m3 air aspirated di1'8ct17 on the plant grC\D1ds
using the same t7Pe of aspirator emplO)"ed in 1955. A total of 11.3 B ot dust
contained 0.186 DI8 ot 3.4-benzwrene, or 0.016%. Bence, each m3 of air con-
tained 2.5 DIg of pollutants of which approximate17 0.0004 DIg per .3 W&8 3.4-
benzp~ene.
A compari. son ot pollution before and atter the plant W&8 moderniz~d shows
that 3.4-benzpyrene content ot sweepings collected between the inside and st01'm
windows before the plant was modemized (cf. Table 1) was 100 times greater
than after the improvements were installed. (0.03 to 0.05% as spinst 0.OOO3S).
Dust ccllected in 1955 from the bricks stored cn the plant grounds contained
10 times a8 IIIDch 3.4-benzp~ene as the dust collected between the windows in
1957 (0.003 to 0.009% against 0.0003%). This was a marked reduction ot 3.4-
benzwrene content in the air. The fact that window pane washings gave nep-
tive or trace te8t8 for 3.4-benzp~ene demonstrated the significant reduction
in air pollution attained b.r the plant combustion modernization. This is tar-
ther confirmed b.r a ComparisOD of anal7ses of aspiration samples. Table 3
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shows that tens ot gr&lR8ot pollutants were oolleoted by aspirati~ 100 .3 ot
air in 1955J atter theintroduotion ot the improvements aspiration samples ot
15 to 45 '1113 ot air contained' only' traoes ot pollutants. Comparison ot aJJalTt-
ioal results ot I. I. Bikber«'s samples collected in 1957 with samples simi-
larly' colleoted in 1955 also show a substantial reduotion in total pollution'
(95, 370 and. 820 mg per .3 in 1955 as against 2..5 DIg in 1957) and in 3.4-benz-
P11'ene (0.002, 0.005, 0.400 mg per .3 in 1955 as against 0.0004 mg in 1957).
Thus, results ot the 1957 investigation revealed that pollution ot the air in
the vicini t7 ot the pi tch-coke plant decreased sharply' atter the coke furnaces
were modernized.
Note - In distilliDg ott the solvent (benzene) trom the extraot, no spe-
cial steps were taken to standardize the oonditions ot distillation; it i.
oonoeivable that a certain amount ot benzene and other sl1ght17 volatile oom-
ponents mq have remained in the tars ot seme samples J this mq help to ex-
plain the ditterences in peroentages ot tarr,y substances tound 111 the dust
s8ll1p1es.
Bib1iograpq.
I. r v pit H 0 II O. fl., 30 p3 B. A., H JI b H II'" A. A. H III a 6 a 11 n. .\\. THrlfelta II.
CilHlnaplHI, 2, 10-1i.i. IY.'):~. ""
2. r y p'H H U Ii Ii. II.. ,\\ alii 0 It II 11. H [II a (j a.1 .1. ,\\. [;lnlcilil II .::l1I1I1apHIi.
iil. 12-16, 1054
3. il H Ii Y It ..11. II., Lll a (j a.1 :1. M. H II 0 I' I; It 11 B.:I. r"rHell.; H caillllil!>HH, I,
(;-11, I%G. .
4. .JII K Y II 11. fl. Bonp. OHKO,1., 4, 34 -38, ID.').">.
,5 1l H K Y H fl. II. BUll!>. OHK""I., 5, 24-""2~1. 1~);,.,=-,
(j. K 0 I ill P., F a I k 1-1., Mad C r P. and' I it v I!J a s ,~\. ,\rch . Industr. flyg..
v. 9, 2,. 153-IG3, 1954. . .
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The Presence of. Carcinogenio Substances, and of 3.4-Benzpyrene in Particular,
in the D1v1ronment of Kan.
B7
L. )I. Shabad.
Institute of Oncology, AcadelV of Medical Sciences of the U.S.S.R., Leningrad.
Vopros.y Onkologi1, Vol. 5, !lo. 3, 271-275, 1959.
In the face of the variet7 of viewpoints regarding the etiology and path-
ogenesis of neoplasms, one fact remains certain, name17 that chemical sub-
stances can cause tumors. Such substances have been classed as caroinogenic
or, better 7et, blastomogenic substances. The great number of such compounds
and their variet7 indicate that the;y are not specific stimulating carcinogenic
agents. However, the close connection between their effeots and their chemi-
oal structure, the direot relation between effect and the dose of the sub-
stance, the speoifio oourse of their aotion, in particular the prolonged la-
tent period, the specific succession of onooming stages, etc., point to a
relative specifioit7 of these compounds. Their speoificit7 is relative also
in the sense that the effeot of their action depends on the organism as a
whole, and to a considerable degree on the general regulating s7stems, such
as the nervous and endocrine s7stems, on the state of the different phases ot
the organism's metabolism, etc.
The abilit7 to produoe experimental tumors in different organs and tis-
sues b7 blastomogenic substanoes, presented the opportuni t7 to make a detailed
stu~ ot the origin and development of blastomata. Results of numerous ex-
periments on the development of a variet7 of cancers carried out in the labo-
rato17 ot the Institute ot Oncolo87 in Leningrad b7 a number of investigators
indicated that four distinct phaseswers dist1nsuishable in the development
ot all canoers.
I. Irregular diffuse p1'8tumor ~erplasia.
U. Pocal proliterations, the preoancer stage proper.
III. The so-called benisn tumors.
IV. Malignant tumors.
AI though the morphologioal ohanges mq be difterent in different organs
and IDa7 depend on a number of oontributing taotors, the ba810 charaoteristios
. .
ot the prooess were identical in all cases. The enumerated stases ot devel-
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opment progressed trom on8 into another 1Jithout sharp demarcationf the devel-
opment JDaT become temporariq arrested at a:as one ot the phases, or the arrest
mq become pe1'lDanent and not attain the cancer phase.
Tumors acquire spec1tic canoer characteristics gradualq in the process
ot development. This applies not onq to the morphological characteristics,
but also to the patho-p~siologioal, biochemioal and immrmological charaote:r-
istics. It is the op1D.1on ot this ,author that the gradual development ot can-
cers trom the det1D.1 te precaDCer changes speake against the mutation theory ot
cancer development.
The mechan1.81D8 ot the action ot blastomogenic substances ar,e unique and
ditteJ" trom the mechanisms ot action ot most stimulating agents. For instance,
oarcinogenio h1drocarbons suppress the intlalllllation and distort the course ot
the intlBlllDatory reaction, as was shown by the experimental' morphological in-
vestigations ot Yu., II. Vasiliev. 1fumerous experiments carried out by' B. I.
Jlonastyrskaya (19), o. G. Prokotieva (23), and other associates in the labo-
ratory indicated that intlammatian was not a contributing tactor in cancer
development and was not a necessa17 link in the chain ot symptoms leading to
cancer; in other words, int18lllD&tion had no precanoerous signiticance. In
the mechanism ot action ot carcinogenic substances on an organism,tirm union
ot the oarcinogenic substances with the albumen appears to be a tactor ot con-
siderable importance. The results ot strictq chemical experiments by' E.
Miller and J. lIiller (33) and others clearq brought that out. As tar back
as 1940 T. A. Korosteleva, an assooiate ot the Institute ot'OncologJ, prepared
compounds ot orthoaminoazotoluol with the albumins ot bovine and equine serum,
and subsequent17 with the albumins ot human serum. The derived azoproteins
possessed antigenic properties as indicated by' immunoprecipitation reactions
(16). In 1951 T. A. Korosteleva detected the presence ot antigen by' the method
ot immunoprecipitation anap~laxis with desensitization ot the liver ot mice
and rats injected with orthoaminoazotoluol (17). A considerable portion ot
the antigens identified in the course ot teeding carcinogenic substances to
animals proved to be products ot the union ot carcinogenic substanoes with
albumin. It was also tound that antigens ot the hepatoma type gradualq a~
cumulated in the liver one month att,r the initiation of the orthoaminoazo-
toluol.
Changes taking place in the antigenic composition ot liver tissue in the
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presence of a carcinogenic substance, reflect the changes that mq be detecte4
by the biochemical methods only with great difficulty. It i8 still difficult
to ascertain whether or not changes in albumin, consequent to their union with
carcinogenic substances, lead to the dismemberment from the albumin molecule
of a factor which regulates growth and differentiation, or leads to the ao-
cumulation in the tissues of a plus-factor which induced malignana,v. In either
case the elements which were modified by the effect of the carcinogenio sub-
stances and whioh possessed new antigenio properties mq serve as the ~tr1%
for the moulding of modified products which subsequently mq become trans-
formed into elements insutficient17 controlled or not controlled at all, in
their continued process of multiplication. This type of pathological elements
of tissue origin which possessed antigenic properties and the abili t1' to re-
produce, mq be of the nature of endogenous virusesJ as such they ma;y serve
as the foundation for the concept of the virus origin of cancers. The author
of this paper is of the opinion that evidence i. total17 lacking in 8Up~ort
ot the existence of. exogenous tumo~producing viruses. .
It has been pointed out that benzene extracts from human liver caused
tumors in mice. Extracts from tissues of cancer patients induced trom 2 1/2
to 4 times more tumors than extracts taken from middle-aged persons who died
ot other diseases. These observations were verified b,y ~ laboratories in
different countries. Recently this was found to be true of leukemia. M. O.
Raushenbakh showed (24) that the introduction into mice of benzene extracts
from the spleen, liver, ~h nodes, blood, etc., of people who died fram
leukemia elicited this disease in some cases, while different types of cancer
developed in other cases. It was shown recently in the laboratory of the In-
stitute of Oncology in Leningrad that aqueous salt extracts from cancer tis-
sues of man could produce blastomogenic effects in mice (5). This was p~
ticular17 true of some sarcomas and of leukemia (1 - 3).
The concept of endogenous blastomogenic substances is based on the re-
sults of experiments with extracts and on numerous observations of canoers
&rising as the result of disturbed hormonal DalanceJ this was verified b1'
th@ investigations of Lacassape, Lipshuts, Gardner, Geshiokter and others
(26~217 29 "" 32), IWd by studies made in the laborato17 of the Institute of
Oncolog,r in Len~d OD art1ficial:Qr produced cancers of the lIIAmmJ:lt'7 gland
(22-a), the cervix of the uterus and of the corpus uteri (14, 22), ovary (20),
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, and kidneys of male .hamsters (21), etc. In this respect, most indicative were
the investigations made by V. P. IConoplev (15h IConopl$V was the first to pro-
duoe oancers in the seminal vesticles of mice and in the prostate and livsr of
male rats, by prolonged alterna~e injection of synestrol and testosterone.
However, in the origin of tumors of man endogenous as well as exogenous blasto-
mogenic agents may plq equally important roles. In connection with this a'
discussion of some cancerogenic carboh1'drates and of 3.4-benzpyrene in par-
ticular ~ be apropos. Prolonged studies of occupational cancers and numer-
ous experiments with animals fimly established that 3.4-benzpyrene was a .
pctent carcinogenic agent which possessed the potentiality of producing can-
cer in man. This emphasizes the impcrtance of detecting 3.4-benzpytene in
the environment of man as a possible cancer preventive measure. Spectral-
fluorescent analysis, especially as improved by P. P. DUron and which in-
cludes chromatographic analysis place detection of 3 .4-be~zpyrene on a firm
toot~. "
Beginning in 1949 and working in cooperation with hygienists this author
carried out a series of air pollution studies in different cities of the
U.S.S.R., such as. Moscow, Leningrad, Ivanov, Groznyi, Riga, ICalinin, Irkutsk
and others. Similar to the findings of Waller in England (35) and of Kotin
in the U.S.A. (28), 3.4-benzpyrene as an air pollutant was found in the air
of the U.S.S.R. cities just mentioned, but in slightq lower concentrations.
The inhalation of3.4-benzpyrene may be one of the causes of lung cancer in
man. Among the sources of the 3.4-benzpyrene, which pollutes the air, the
most important are smoke from chimneys of industrial establishments and of
residential heating plants and automobile exhausts. The amount of the 3.4-
, ,
benzPYrene in the air depends largeq on the nature of the fuel and on the
efficiency of combustion; the more perfect the combustion, the. less is the
atmospheric pollution.
Measures introduced to improve tuel combustion may considerably lower
the amount of benzpyrene in the air. For instance, in the, vicinity of an
obsolete coking plant in the city of Makievka situated in Donbass, the air
, ,
pollution with 3.4-benzpyrene was particularly heavy and in some instances
exceeded similar pollution of the Leningrad air by ~ thousand times. Rec-
ommended improvements in the design and construction of the coking ovens were
introduced; as a result the 3.4-benzpyrene in the air fell to a level below
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that of LeDingrad.
A stu~ of comparative air pollution in Irkutsk and Angarsk, two c11;ies
in Siberia, situated c1cse to cne another, revealed a substantial difference
in the condition of the air. In the old ci t1' of Irkutsk, where the houses-
were heated b)r burning coal in imperfect, 1nd1Yidual tu1"l2&ces or fire boxes
of small boilers, ~ where the industrial establishments were widely scattered
throughout the c11;1', the air was heavily polluted with 3.4-benzp7rSne.
On the other hand, the ci t1' of Angarsk was built about a decade ago ae-
cording to an up-to-date plan. The industrial establishments were constructed
in an area separated fram the residential section b,y green san1tar,r protective
zones 2 to 3 kilometers wide, the methods of fuel combustion in the industrial
establishments was near11' perfect, smokestacks were equipped with efficient
smoke-abating devices, hot water heat for the residential section of the cit1'
came from a central heating station, as a resu1~ the atmospheric air of the
cit1 of Angarsk contained a m_1n1mum_of 3.4-benzpyrene. The testing of snow
samples showed that even in the most polluted section of Angarsk the fall-out
of 3.4-benzpyrene was on11' 0.03 JIg per 1 m2 for six months, which was approxi-
mately seven times less than in the garden-park section of Leningrad. In
some sections of Angarsk, no 3.4-benzpyrene was detected. The .data indicated
that appropriate measures can considerab11' decrease, or even prevent, pollution
of the atmospheric air with 3.4-benzpyrene.
Since 3.4-benzpyrene was contained in smoke, thought was often given to
its presence in certain smoked foodstuffs.
Several 1'earS ago, J. Sula of Czechoslovakia and his associates (34) dis- .
covered. 3.4-benzpyrene in smoked meat and fish. In 1957 the author of this
paper and his co-workera discovered (6) a frequent occurrence of cancer of
the gastre-intestinal tract &mons the population of fishiDB villages situated
alons the shore of the :Baltic Sea in Latvia; the frequeDC7 of pstre-intestinal
cancer was 3 to 4 times as great as &mons the residents of a nearb,y control
area. A spectral-fluorescent ana11'sis disclosed (7) the presence of 3 to 10 y
of 3.4-benz:wrene/kg of locally consumed smoked fish, one-third of which pene-
trated through the fish scales and skin into the flesh of the fish. Analogous
data were obtained in this laboratory ..i th smoked sausages which contained
from 2 to 5 y of 3.4-benzwrene per kg.
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The amount of 3.4-benzpyrene in smoked foodstuffs ~ be considerab~
reduced or even prevented by changing the technology of the food smoking.
For instance, according to the investigation oarr).ed out in this laborator,r,
smoked foodstuffs prepared by the use of so-called "smoking" liquids developed
b7 I. I. Lapshin (18) in most cases contained no 3.4-benzpyrene, or 3.4-benz-
pyrena was found in amounts ten or twenty times less than in the smoked food-
stuffs prepared by the old conventional methods. This proves that proph1'lactic
measures can be introduced whioh would considerably reduce the amount of 3.4-
benzpyrene taken in with different types of smoked food.
All the aforesaid illustrates that the stu~ of carcinogenic substanoes
considerabl;y broadened the concept of the etiology and pathogenesis ct malig-
nant tumors and points, to the means for their prevention in the following two
W81'81 1) ear17' diagnosis and. elimination ot a precanoerous condition, and
2) prevention of tumor formaticn by clearing the environment of man of carcino-
genio agents.
Bibliograph1'.
I 6 e pro n b u B. M. C6. Bonpocbl OHKonorHH, T; 7, 1954 -
i 6 e pro n b ~ B. M. 61On. 3Kcn. 6Hon. H Mell., T. 37, B. 3 1954.
3: 6 e pro n b ~ B. M. 61Onn. 3Kcn. 6HO.". H MeD.., B. 3. T. 38, 1954.
4. B a C H JI be B 10. M. -Borrp. onKO.'I., T. 1. N2 I, 1955. III 11 M
5. B 0." b ct> con H. H., .l1. 51 .1 b K 0 BaA. M., K 0 p 0 C T e.1 e BaT. A., a 6 a .D.. .
Bonp. OHKOJl., T. 3, N2 5, 1957. 11 10 III 6 11 M
6. B 0 H T 3 JI 08 'PI 3. M., .l1. H K Y H n. n., !I. bI Map c K II H . " a a J1 ."
Bonp OHKO.'IOmH., T. 3. N2 3. 1957. "" 1958
7 r 0 . e JI 0 B a H. .l1... .l1. H K Y H n. n. Bonp. OOIKOJI., T. 4, ~'v 4, .
8' r p H M .l1. H K Y H n n III a 6 a D. 11 M. . P V K a B H ill H H K 0 BaT. H...
. 3.~ ~U;t M., . B ~'~ C eM K 0 O. 'M. ''r.JU'. H. C/llHHT.: N2' 4. 1958.
9. r Y pHil 0 B 6. n., 30 p 3 B. A., 11 JI b H II a A. A.. ill a fi a 11 11. M. rHr. H canHT.,
10 ~2y~' H 1:~~ 6. n., Maw 611 ~ <1>. .l1.., III a 6 aD. 11. M. fHr. H canllT:, N2 10, 1954.
11' .l1..H K Y H n. n. p-0np. OHKOJl., T. I, N2 4 H 5, 1955.
12: JJ. H K.Y H n. n..f!i II K 6 e p r 11. Ii. Bonp. OHKOJI., T. 4, N2 6, 1958.
13 .l1. H K Y H n. n., III a 6 a J1 11. M. r'Hr. H CamlHT., N2 I, 1956.
14:KJleIlHuK,HA H.'C. 3KcllepllMeHTaJlbHblH paK weHKH MaTKlI, ManrH3, 1944.
15. KOBO nJle B H. n. C6. Bonpocbl OHKOJlOI'HH, T. 7; 1954, -
16. K 0 p 0 C T e.1 e B a .1'. A. Apx. 6HO.1. na}'K, T. 50, NL 3, 194~. .
17 K 0 0 C T e ,1 t' BaT. A. 6IOJI.1. ::'Kcn. 6HOJI. II Me.a., T. 32, NL 3, 1951.
18: 11 a ~ ill H H 11. H., III Y ill n a HOB n. 11. Te3. D.OK.'\. BY30B H HaY'InO-HCCJleD.. Hn-TOB'
MH'ilHCTepCTB3 TOprOBJIH' CCCP; M., 1958..
19. M 0 Hac T bI P C K 3 Sf 6. H. C6. BOlfpOCbl OHKQ.'J~rJi,j{, T. I, 1949.
20 He 'I a e B a 11. .l1.. Bon-p. OIlKo..1., T. 2, N2 2 II.' 4, 1956.'
21: no JI bK H HaP 11. Boop. OHKOJl., T. 5, N2.2, 1959.
22. nil u r 0 >K II If a E 11 /ADX. naTOJl.. .T. 11. oN!!' 3. ~949.. .
.22-a n pH r 0 >K H H a E. .11. Apx. naron., T. 13. N2 -, 1951. .
23 n po K 0 4> b ~ B a O. r. C6. BonpocbI OHKOJlOrllU, T. 5, 1952.
24' Pay ill e n 6a x j\\. O. 3Kc.nepHMe.HTaJlbHOe HccneJ10BaHlle JleilK030B, .\\r,.arH3, 1959.
?5' ill a 6 a.J. 11. ."-t BonpocbI OHKOJl., T. 3, N2 4. 1957. - 11 .195-
'26: Gar d n e r W. Advances in 'Cancer Research, v. I, 19;)3; PYCCK. nepeB.. H, ~.
27. <.i c s h i C k t ere. Diseases of the Breast, 1945.
28. K 0 l i n P. Cancer' Re:;carch, V. 16, .\~ 5. 1956.
.29. Lac ass a g II eA. . C. R. Biologie, v. 1.14, 1933.
30. Lac ass a g n e A. C. R. Bio10gie, v. 115, 1934. .
31. Lac ass a g n.e A. Amer. J. Cancer, v. 27, Ng 2,. 1930. . .
32 Lis C hut z J\. Ster.oid Homeostasis, HypophysIs and Tumorogenesls, HeUer, 1957:
33: M i) I erE., Mill c I' J. Advances iq Cancer Research, \'. I, 1953; PYCCK. nepeB., I1Jl.
1955.. . , 1 ) 1~. 3 4 1954'.
34. SuI a: J. et co!. Ceskoslovenska oncologw (Neop asma . OJ. " ,,2- -. .
35. Wall erR. Brit. J. Cancer, \'. 6, N~ I. 1952. .
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A Stucq of the Possible Blastomogenio Properties of Some Substances
Resul Ung from the Product'ion ot Synthetio Liqw,d hel.
B;y
A. T. II1ronova.
Institute of Oncologr, Acad~ of Medical Sc~ences, U.S.S.R.
VoPros7 Onkolog, Vol. 5, No.5, 534-539, 1959.
In 1958 P. P. Dikun (1) published the results of his fluorescent-spectral
stucq of some prod~ots cODnected with the manufacture of synthetio liquid fuel.
'b7 the ~ogeDation Division of the All-Union Scientific-Research Institute
of the U.S.S.R. Oil Industr.y. The pr1mar.y materials included some substanoes
derived from three kinds of raw materialsl coal, ooal tar and oil produots,
and some 'b7-produots of ~drogenation. Five pr1mar.y materials and seven types
of synthetic liquid fuel were tested for 3.4-benzp7rene, it was present in two
of the material., name17 in the heav,y Cheremkhovsk tar aDd in the mazout resi-
due of direot oil distillation. The oontent of 3.4-benl5})71"ene in the tar
amounted to 0.005% and in the mazout to 0.001$. No 3.4-benzwrene was deteote~
in other primar.y material. or in the f1D1shed synthetic products.
With the particular anal7tical procedure used DiltuD W&8 able to establish
the presence ot 3.4-benzp71"8ne in onl7 two types of the pr1mar.y material.
This doe8 not exolude the possibilit7 that other carcinogenio entities m1gbt
have been found in the same and other types of pr1mar.y materials qy an
anal7tioal prooedure based. on difterent prinoiples, or b7 biologioal tests
on laborator.y animals. .
.Suoh tests were made b.T Hueper (4, 5) with ~drogenation products of
Amerioan ori!in. He applied the produots in l~ers of d1f'terent thickne8s to
the skin of mioe and also injected them intramuscular17 into mioe and rats.
In Buepar's experiments in 1953 new growth appeared in 15, or 47% of the mioe
which survived at the time of the appearance of the first tumor, 35% of the
appearing tumors were malipant. Following subcutaneous injection of the test
material8, 15 or 18% of the mice, and 18, or 32% of the rats developed mali&,-
nant tumors. Hueper oonoluded. that the produots ot liquid fuel synthesized
b.T the proce88 ot Beriu8 p08ses8e~ carcinogenio properties. The results ot
his exteneiye studie8 in 1956 substantiated the conclusions he arrived at
1n 1953.
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!he. produots of sJDthetio liquid fuel _manufao~~ed in the U.S.S.R. han
not been tested b" the method of animal applioation for possible blastomogeDio
properties. However, it was pointed out. b" Z. E. Grigoriev (2), who studied.
the problems of labor ~g1ene in plants manufacturing s7Dthetic liquid fuel,
that in the process of manufacturing the workers oame into direot contact with .
tare contiDUal~, and that the air ot such shops contained considerable quan-
tit~e. of coal duat aDd aemi-cOke dust.
:Below are reported results ot experimental teat. of animals with the pri-
III&i7 and finished product a of the manufacture ot sJDthetio liquid fuel. Si-
mul taneous1y the test samples of the materials use.d were ana17zed. b" p. P.
Dikun (1), b" his fluoresoent-speotral method.
I. PriD1ar7 substance.:
1. Heavy Cheremkhovsk tar.
2. Direot distillation residual mazout.
3. Extract of selective purified petroleum oils.
4. Coal paste from the Cheremkhovsk coal mine.
5. Dephenolized traotion of Cheremkhovsk tar.
II. Finished ~drogenation products:
6. Resins from the Cheremkhovsk tar ~drogenation.
. .
7. Medium oil from the qdrogenation of Cheremkhovsk tar at
temperature up to 3100 C.
8. Coal "gidr.1ure".
9. Resins fram 00&1 paste ~drogeD&tion.
10. Medium coal oil (2100 - 3200 C.).
11. Fraction of the vapor-phase ~drogeDation (1200 -- 2400 C.).
12. Fraction of the vapor-phase ~drogenation (2600 - 3200 C.).
!'hiOt and viscous test samples, such as samples 1 to 4 and 9, were d1-
luted with benzene in the proportion of 10 g of the tested produot and 2.5 g
of benzene; the fluid test samples of high toxicity were mixed with auntlower-
seed oil in the same proportion.
A total .of 587 two-months old mice were used in the &%perimant, ustQg
fram 40 to 50 animala for each sample. One small drop of the test material
waa applied t"ioe a week to the interscapular area of the mice. Atter the
third or fourth application alopecia of varyi.ng degree developed in the major-
it7 of the animala. In the mice treated "ith the primar.r products the alopecia
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-------
... enensive, the skin was hard, crusty ai1d cracked. Simultaneous f'alling
ou~ of' the old and the appearance of' new f'ur was o'bserved throughout the pe-
riod of' application at the test substances. Treatment of' the ald.n with the
f'inal s,ynthetic product produ~ed limited aiopeci~. The tests consisted of'
50 applications, af'ter whioh the mice were kept under careful observation up
to th~ time of' their natural death. The dead animals were preserved in 10%
f'ormalde~e and histologic examinations made of' sections of the skin parts
to which the test substances were applied and of the pathologically aff'ected
organs. The mice used in these experiments belonged to the brown colored
strain SS57 of' low cancer susceptibili~y and to strain D, which was the result
of' a oross betweep strains of' S57 and SS75' developed by A. M. Dyad 'kova; the
new strain D also possessed a low capoer susceptibility.
Mice of strain A, bred in the laborato17, as a rule developed no skin
oanoer, but lung adenomas were recorded in 23% of' the cases. '0.4% of the
brown colored mice of strain SS57 developed skin cancers, and 2.3% developed
lung cancers. Synthetic oil products in which 3.4-benzpyrene was found b.r
spectral analysis, suoh as samples No.1 and No.2 produoed skin oancers at
the site of application 12 to 14 months after the start of the experiments,
as can be seen from the data presented in Table "I. Of the three cases of' skin
oancer caused by the application of' Cheremkhovsk tar, two were squamous cell
carcinomas and one a spindle-cell sarcoma. Of the six cases of skin oancer
caused b.r the application of' mazout, two were squamous cell carcinomas and
four were papillomas. In addition to the skin cancers, seven of the mice
treated with Cheremkhovsk tar and twelve of the mice treated with mazout de-
veloped lung adenomas. All the oanoers mentioned developed in mice of' strain
A. The development of malig.nantskin tumors at the sites of applioation in
14 to 15% of strain A mice pointed to the caroinogenic nature of the analyzed
produots, sinoe mice of the strain A, as a rule, developed no spontaneous oan-
cers. Results of' the biologioal tests of the two substanoes under investiga-
tion substantiated the oonolusion" of P. P. Dikun regarding their carcinogenio
properties deteoted b.r fluoresoent-spectral analysis. Tests with samples No.
3 and No.4 yielded the f'ollowing results: 6 mice treated with sample No.3
and 3 mice treated with sample No.4 developed skin cancers at the sites of
application, as shown by the results listed in Table 1. Histologically, all
nine oancers were squamous oell caroinomas. In addition, one of' the mice
-149-
-------
Produot
Ife
"1
'e.ta, with Pri8a17 products 1I88d in lIIaJrID&,' s7Dthetio liquid tuel
l\JUJiiber' of dead mioe and of ma11snancie. month.
after befdnning; of test.
I I , I
. . I:I ! 7 I a .( () ' 4 :1 I 50 j
.j I : -,- I
' I
. ' I -.- .... -.' I 1 --. --- '.1 I
. ,. - ~I
! I I ' : I \
. . -.- .... - .. .. -' . - J
I j I ') 1 ;1 I i I i I
. . - I - .-, .- I --
I i I I I
! I I ,
--- -.. --., -.. .. .. d..... --, -..- -
I !
G 7 i 4 5 :-1 .1.( I 47 j
i - I
- .1 -- - - -_ ..- .) !
I 0) I I 4U
- - ; - I - -- ' .( ' J
I 2 ~I I i 12
- - I -- ! . I
I I i
I ' I
! ;
::I I ' 10 .') ::1 I :',0
- ...- I ! }
- I 2 '2 -- -- I - 6 :-Ifi
- - .) I I - I --- 4
,
i '
I '
I
a I 4 :1 :1 .) 4 I 1 ! 49 .1
I -... - - -.-- 1 -- :-! ! 25
- -- -" - I '2 I I .( )
- - -" - ..- I - t I
I
i
a I 2 5 - 3 I 8 3 4 3 I
- - - - - .- - - ::I - -
- - -- I - - - - -- - I
Beaul" .
1- ;1 ; 4-6
ieA mioe'. .
, D. cancer.
11 sarooma
aq adenoma
..
.~ .-.-.- -.-... ..-
..
I
E' mice., .. 0 . . (j ; I
2 . 11 eucer. Q . . l' I -
. , '1111110111& '. I -
: &iIt1n,. noma'. . I
. . --- -
3
~: &1108'0 -.
. kin oanoer.
ad~iloma.;
I
i i
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= I~: I ~ I
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,
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L]1Qg adenoma " ~ . -
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, .
.
7 -- R I !.-, 10 111-12
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, I
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o a to 181
, mioe
25. 26 ma1181;
,
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- -
'able 1. .
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oano. ben.)
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:-1 :!.7 lIer I n
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i
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-150-
-------
treated with sample No.4 developed a peritoneal cancer of the type of reticula-
sarcoma. The appearance of skin cancers in 12 to 16% of the mice treated with
the different samples proved convincingly that these products possessed clearly
defined blastomogenic properties. The results of the tests also showed that
the two primary substances tested possessed blastomogenic properties, even
though no 3.4-benzpyrene was detected in them by the method of fluorescent-
spectral analysis. None of the mice treated with sample No.5 developed skin
cancer. One mouse developed a reticular cell sarcoma in the area of the peri-
toneum, which may have been spontaneous. Based on the evidence of the results
this product cannot be regarded as possessing carcinogenic properties.
It should be noted that of the 18 skin cancers developed following the
application of this group of substances, ten occurred in mice of strain A,
in which, as was previously stated, spontaneous skin cancer seldom, if ever,
appeared. Six cancers, or 9% of all cancers', appeared in 0.46% of mice SS57
brown. In addition to the skin cancers the application of the pr1ma17 mate-
rials to twenty-six mice of strain A and four mice of strain SS57 elicited
the development of multiple coarse and fine lung adenomas 15 to 25 months
after application was discontinued. The percent of lung cancer among these
mice, bred in the laborator,y of the Institute, exceeded the percent of skin
canoer elicited b,y the application of samples No.1 and No.2 individually.
This strengthens the conclusions previously arrived at regarding th~ blastoma-
genic properties of the tested products. Among the five primar,y tested prod-
ucts only product No.5 manifested no carcinogenio properties.
Results of this stu~ with seven products of hydrogenation are listed in
Table 2. The results of the investigation of the resinous tar residue, i.e.,
produot No.6, were as, follows: two mioe of strain A developed squamous cell
oornified oarcinomas at the site of application nine months after the beginning
of the experiment. Of' the four lung cancers three were adenomas and one a
squamous cell lung carcinoma. The -results of tests with the medium 011, a
product of Cheremkbovsk tar hydrogenation (sample No. 7)"were as followst a
squamous cell skin carcinoma developed in one male of strain A 21 months after
the skin applications were discontinued. In addition, lung adenomas developed
in 6 mice, hepatoma in one mouse and a squamous cell carcinoma of the stomach
with metastases into the retroperitoneal lymph nodes in one mouse.
Skin cancers which developed following the application of products No.6
-151-
-------
Prod-
uot
No.
10
11
Ta'l. I.
T..t. . with .n4 produot. ot e;ynth.tio liquid fu.l II&i1Utaoture'
Result.
-
--."
0.
Dead mi o. . . . . . . .
Skino.noer ~ . . . . .
~unga~enoma . . . . .
Lung oanoer . . . . ...
7
£ead mioe . . .
kin o&noer ..
ung adenoma .
~patoma I . . .
stOmaOll-oanoer
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
.6
~ead. mioe . . ... .
kin oanoer . . . .
u~ adenoma. . . .
ntra-abdom. growth
. .
. .
. .
. .
..-
9
Dead mioe . . . . . . .
Lung adenoma. .. . . .
Lung adeno-oaroiDoma..
Dead mioe . . . . . .
Lung adeno-oaroinoma.
Dead mi oe . . . .'...
~ng adeno-oaroinoma.
12
Dead mice. . . . . .
Lung adenoma. .. .
Lung adeno-oaroinoma.
Raber of dead mio. and ot _ligneoi.. _nth.
att.r '.ginDing of t.et.
-
1-3
16
--
. .-
.n
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1 '
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.
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.
.
'27
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:10
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-152-
6
-
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-
-------
and No.7 in six mice, as above desoribed, represented ten percent of the mioe
which lived at the time of the appearance of the first oancer, thi8 and the
large number of different types of canoer ob.erved in the intemal orsan8
should serve as a wamiDg against the 1nd1sor1m1nate aDd careless use of these
products, since the tests proved that thq poesessed carcinogenio properties,
albeit ot a mild degree.
The applications of coal "gidrure" elicited the development'of a papilloma
at t>.1e site of application in one mouse two months atter the application was
started. Twelve months trom the start of the experiment the mouse died. Hi.-
tological17 the growth was a 'sarco-carcin08a ot the skin. Autopsies made on
other dead mice disclosed one case of lUDg adenama and one case of abdominal
hemangio-endothelioma.The onq cancer whioh developed in the course of this
experiment at the application site was one which appeared too earq to have
been caused bf the substances tested. lfo increase was observed in the number
of cancers developed at pOints remote from application sites. These results
seem to suggest that coal "gidrure" was a non-caroinogell.1c substance. The
resul1;s ot applications of the last four final syDthetio products, i.e., prcd-
ucts Bos. 9, 10, 11 8I1d 12, were as tcllows: no skin oancers were noted, onl;y
lung adenomas and adenocarcinOmas were observed in 10 of 14 cases in mioe of
strain A, cancers of this type frequentq appeared spontaneously in the lUDgS
of mice of strain A. The conclusion must be drawn that the last four final
syDthetic products were not carcinogenic.
, In evaluating the possible carcinogenic properties of the products ot
s;ynthetio liquid :ruel e:um1ned, attention was concentrated on the cancers de-
veloped at the application sites and on the results of p~sical examination.
However, the appearance of cancers at other sites could not be disregarded,
since it is known that the application of ~ carcinogenic substances to the
skin frequentl;y resulted in the development ot remote tumors, inoluding can-
cers of the internal organs. It was observed that in a small percentage of
cases in this series of experiments, mioe ot strain 5557 brown developed can-
oers ot the mamma17 glands. However, these cancers appeared spontaneousq
with an -~
-------
Conclusions.
Four of the five primary products tested caused skin cancer development
at the site of application in 12 to 16% of the miceJ this justifies the con-
clusion that thesubst~ces possessed mild, but definite carcinogenic prop-
erties. AmODg the seven final synthetic products of ~drogenation, two mani-
fested slight blastomogenic properties; no carcinogenic properties were de-
tectedin five products of this group.
The conclusion regarding positive carcinogenic properties possessed by
two primary materials, namely, the heavy Cheremkhovsk tar and the mazout from
direct distillation, originally arrived at on the basis of 3.4-benzpyrene
presence in these produots, as indicated b.1 fluorescent-spectral analysis,
was confirmed b.1 the results of tests with animals. The biological tests also
established the blastomogenic properties. of four additional substances which
gave negative fluorescent-spectral tests, indicating that carcinogenic sub-
stances other than those which yield a positive 3.4-benzpyrene test ~ be
present in the substances investigated.
Results of comparative studies of primary with final products involved
in the synthesis of liquid fuel indicated that carcinogenicity disappeared or
abated to a marked degree in the course of processing. From the teohnological
viewpoint this fact in understandable, since the manufacture of synthetic
liquid fuel is based on destl'Uctive ~drogenation, in the course of which
the complex unsaturated chemical oompounds are transformed into simple satu-
rated ~carbons, and the carcinogenic oompounds, which are polynuclear
aromatic ~drocarbons, undergo ~drolytic destruotion.
The method of investigation used by this author differed in some respects
trom Bueper's method; nevertheless, the results can be compared with the re-
sults obtained b.1 the American investigator. Bueper studied on~ the final
synthetic products ot liquid tuel production and found that seven ot his nine
tractions possessed carcinogenio properties. The present investigation showed
that in only two ot seven cases individual cancers developed at the site of
applications, and that no carcinogenio properties were deteoted in the rest
. .
ot the tested products. The results ot the oomparative analysis appear to
indicate that the U.S.S.R. substances involved in the manutacture ot synthetio
liquid fuel possessed caroinogenic properties ot a considerably lower potency
or intensity than similar U.S.A. Substances. Such difterences cannot be ex-
-154-
-------
plained on the basis of differenoes in the technique of investigation. I't
appears probable that these differences were due 'to the intrinsic difference
in the nature of the raw materials used or the differences in the technological
~lufacturing process or both.
Bibliograp}v.
1. 11 R K'1H n. n. Bonp. OHKOJl., 3, 1958.
2. r p H r u'r b e B 3. 3. .l10KTOpCKaA AHce. ABTopecilepaT, 1956.
3. llll A b K 0 BaA. M. II r e n b W TeA H. B. Ii. Bonp. OHKO.1.. 2, 1955.
4. Hue per W. C. Arch. 'Ind. Hyg. and Occup. Med.. 8, 307, 1953.
5. Hue per W. C. Ind. Med.. and Sur g., 39, 2197. 1956.
Polargraphio Determination of Strontium.
B7
Ii. M. Selivanova and G. A. Zubova.
Kendeleev Chemical-Technological Institute, Moscow.
Zhurnal Anali ticheskoi Xhimii, Vol. XII, No.4, 466-468, 1957.
The polarographic determination of strontium has been made in water so-
lutions of 0.001 )( concentration or less (1 - 3), or in alcohol and alcohol-
wa'ter solution (4). Under suCh 'conditions the ~RTimA of voltage curves are
iDsignifican't and the necessity for using surface-aotive substances is eltm-
tnated. However, in performing a chemical analysis, as well as in determining
the water solubility of certain not readi~ soluble s~rontium compounds, it
beoame neoessar,r to deal with water solutions of concentrations greater than
0.001 M. The addition of alcohol to such solutions is undesirable since the
latter lowers the amplitude of the polarographio wave of strontium.
Below are described conditions for the polarographic determination of
strontium in solutions of its salts at concentrations higher than 0.001 ]4,
and without the addition of alcohol. The work was carried out with the aid
of a recording. polarograph, Odessa 6, the galvanometer of which had an os-
cillation period "of. 5.8 see, Rw - 2.56...Cl. and Rcrit - 644!l. Individual
-155-
-------
curves weN ohecked 'b7 a sa-a "Geolosorasvedka" polarograph ot 1954 make.
The vOltace ot the storap batt81'7 . 3.5 v. Polarograplq of the solutions
. . + 0
wa. performed in a themostat at 2~ 0.2. The rate of mercu17 trick1iDg was.
1.9 seo, at 0 v. Ana~ses were conducted priDoipal~ with solutions of stron-
tium chloride. The strontiwa half-wave potential - 2.10 v.
The results of the early- experiments indicated that i~ the presence ot
lithium chloride or tetraetlql ammonium iodide, the maxima of the polarographic
strontium curves appeared at SrC12 concentration - 0.001 JI. These mATima in-
creasedwi th the increase in the strontium concentration. At marlmum points
of strontium polarographio curves values ot current limits were not direct~
proportional to the conoentration of strontium in the solution. The addition
of tetraetlql ammonium iodicle as an inert electroly-'te lowered the current
limi t as compared with the addition of 11 thium chloride, as can be seen in
Table 1.
TABLB
1.
Thi. indicated that in the.
case of strontium there appeared
the polarographically- well-known
chanBe in the magnitude of the
current 11m! t caused by a change
of the condition ot the medium
(5). In the attempt to depres8
the ~Tiq of the polarographic
curves of strontium a stud7 was
made ot the effects of theaddi-
J'unotional relation between current
limi t and medium used.
0.0005
0.001
0.005
0.01
i Id values at S . 1/50
I . LiOl G.l. 1- (- O.l)I
I 0205 ~
2.99
5.85
26.00
41.6
2.99
7.80
48.10
109.20
SrCl~ in
mIl Ii
tion ot some surface-active
agents, by-' adding 1 drop at a time of 1$ solution ot gelatin, methTl red, phe-
nolphthalein and ~apr. The results showsd that the addition ot phenol-
phthalein and. ot me~l red had no ettect on the IIIATim" of the polaroB%'&Phio
curves of strontium even atter the addition of 30 drop.. The addition of gela-
tin alone proved to be ettective, as can be seentrom Figures 1 and 2.
Figures 1 and 2 present polarographio curves ot strontium obtained atter
the addition of different amounts of gelatin to the Sr012 solution in the
presence ot lithium salts and ot tetraet~l ammonium. It was demonstrated
that the amount ot gelatin required for the depression ot the curve m~~i~a
increased with the increase in the concentration of strontium. 'In both in-
-156-
-------
~
Fig. 1.' Depressed maxima of
po1aregraphio strontium curves
- 20 ~ 0.005~ SrC12 in 0.1 N
NL(02He)4~' S = 1/500
Gelatin added: 1 - 5 drops,
2 - 8 drops, 3 - 10 drops.
Fig. 2. Depressed maxima of
polarographic strontium curVes
- 20 m1 0.005 M Sr012 in 0.1 N
Li01,S = 1/500 .
Gelatin added: 1 - None, 2 - 2
drops, 3 - 5 drops
stances waves appeared at the time of depression of the maxima, the amplitudes
of which made possible the determination of the quantitative content of stron-
tium in solution with a sufficient degree of precision. A proportional rela-
tionship between the va1uee of the current limit and the concentration of etron-
tium was manifest in all cases. This fact was substantiated b,y the constant
value of X in the equation Id . X.c, within the limits of error in data, as
presented in Table 2.
TABLE
2.
Functional relation between current limit values and
strontium solution concentration.
c.l03*
. Average : LIJC.103
Id i :
I Id I
32.5; 32.5 32.5 .3.63
49.4; 49.5; 49.4 48.1** 3.63
63.7; 65.0 64.4 3.6~
95.7; 96.2 96.9 **
0.00892
0.01325
0.01785
0.02677
c - g of Sr 2+
in the form of Sr012 in 20 m1 of solution.
seem to be wrong, but they are as given in the
Note by B.S.L.
original
*
**
These averages
Russian text.
The effect of the strontium salt anion on the polarographic strontium
curves was studied next. The curves obtained for the equimo1ar solutions of
-157-
-------
SrS04' SrC12' Sr(B03)2' SrSe04 and Sr(C2H302)2 in the presenoe ot LiCl and in
the presenoe ot LN(C2H5)4]Ishowed that in all oases the amplitude ot the po-
larographio waves ot strontium were of the same magnitude, exoept tor Sr(B03)2'
in whioh oase the wave amplitudes were twioe as high. The amplitude ot the
wave ot this salt depended on the oonoentration ot both ions whioh enter into
its oonstitution, sinoe the reduotion potentials ot the N03 ion and ot the
strontium ion in 0.1 N solution of LiC1 or of LN(C2H5)4]I was identioal (6).
Consequently, in the quantitative determination of strontium in the form
of different oompounds by the polarographio method, both, strontium ohloride
and strontium aoetate oan be used in the preparation ot the standard solutions.
Cono1usions.
This paper presents a desoription of the polarographio determination of
strontium in the aqueous solutions of its salts at 0.001 K oonoentrations.
. 1.
2.
Bibliograp~.
Phil. Kg. 15, 303, 1923.
Berezio~, C. Colleot. Czeohos10v. Chem. Commun., No.1,
3.
4.
5.
6.
Heyrovs~, J.
Heyrovs~, J.,
19, 1929.
Straumanis, M., Dravnioks, A. Z. Anal. Chem. 120, 168, 1940.
Zlotowski, J., Xo1thoft, J. M. J. Am. Chem. Soo., 120, 168, 1940.
Kr,rukova, T.A. Zh. Fiz. Khim., 13, 693, 1939.
IColtgot, I. 14. and Lingeyn, D. Polarograp~, M., 1948.
-158-
-------
The Determination of Strontium in Ores by Keans of Flame Spectrophotometry.
By
N. S. Poluektov, M. P. Ilikonova, Te. A. Leyderman, and G. S. Lauer.
Ukrainian Branch of the State Rare Yetals Scientifio Research
Institute, Odessa.
Journal of AnalYtical Chemistry, Vol. XII, No.6, 699-703, 1957.
Due to the close similarity betweell: the p~sio-ohem1cal properties ot
strontium and caloium, there are no simple chemical methods for the quanti ta-
tive determination of Sr in ores. The method noW in general use i. based on
the separation of the nitrates b.7 . mixture of alcohol and ether (1). The
method is tediously complicated and lacks precision, particularly it the stron-
tium content is low; the preliminary step consist. ot a tilDe-oonsuming sepa-
ration of strontium from other metals and converting it into a mixture of
nitrates.
Recently the method of flame photometry has been used in the. detemina-'
tion of strontium and other alkali earth metals. ThispriDoiple ot chemioal
analysis led to the development of rapid prooedures for the detemination of
Sr in water (2, 3), cement (4), onde coated cathodes (5, 6), etc. (7, 8).
Therefore, the possibility of appl;y1ng the principle of flame photometry to
.' .
determtDing the presence of Sr in ores was investigated.
The apparatus. A flame spectrophotometer built on the principle of
monochromator UK-2 (9, 10); an adapter with a photomultiplier FEU-19, the
outer end of which is connected to a refleoting galvanometer; an air-aoetylen.
burner fastened in front of the entering s11 t, a burner connected to an atom-
izer and an acetylene torch. The apparatus is illustrated in Fig. 1.
The suitability of the apparatus for the determination of Sr in orell was
tested by trying to establish its procedural sensitivity and speoificit;y in
relation to Sr. Operat~ the photoDDlltip11er tube at 1800 v raised the sen-
sitivit;y of the strontium determination procedure to 0.1 - 0.07 y/ml, re-
sulting in a one division galva~ome~er indicator deflection at a strontium
concentration of 0.07 - 0.1 y/ml. Use was made of strontium resonance line
460.7 m.a&. The width of the entering and outgoing slits was 0.1 DIm. The ra-
diation of the flame at such wave-length is equivalent to ~ 6 y/ml of stron-
tium.
-159-
-------
Fig. 1. General view of flame spectrophotometer
tnii.lt 6n the principle of monochromator YM-2
To establish the specificity of the procedure as applied to the deter-
mination of strontium, the apparatus was adjusted to the point of most favor-
able separation of the Sr line 460.7 BH» and the readings obtained with Sr
and other metal salts were compared. Under such conditions the concentration
of salts of metals other than Sr had to be many times greater than the con-
centration of strontium salts to record readings of the same magnitude. The
numerical values obtained for the ratios of these concentrations, that is the
"specificity factors" were as follows: 11,000 for calcium and barium, 8,500
in the presence of sodium and 2,600 in the presence of potassium. This in-
dicated that the apparatus was well suited to the determination of strontium.
The determination of strontium based on its molecular band 670 nip was not as
specific.
Bnission characteristics of strontium. The locus of strontium emission
intensity in relation to its concentration in solution up to 100 y/ml is a
straight line, as shown in Fig. 2.
Strontium emission intensity varies with the presence in the same solu-
tion of different substances. Nitric, hydrochloric and sulfuric and other
acids, as well as some other substances, lower the luminescence of strontium
in the flame in various degrees, while acetic acid increases it, as can be
seen from the curves in Fig. 3.
-160-
-------
Joo
The particularly high quenching
property of phosphoric acid has been
previously recorded in the literature
(12, 13). Among the metals aluminum
possesses the property of quenching
the radiation intensity of strontium.
Table 1 presents data for calcium and
a series of other metals possessing
Fig. 2." Functional relation between similar properties. The quenching et-
460.7 q1 stron~ium emanation. inten: - feet of calcium in concentration of
sityand its solution concen~ration. 25 - 100 v/ml CaO on the intensity of
radiation emission of strontium in concentration of 50 - 100 y/m1 srO is gen-
erally slight, increasing b.f 3 to 4 percent only; this effect can be elimi-
nated b.f adding to the solution ammonium chloride up to 0.5 }4 concentration.
In the presence of an excess of calcium salts the intensity of strontium ra-
diation becomes reduced; at 30 mg/ml of CaO concentration this reducing ef-
fect comes to a stop, as is shown in Fig. 4.
/
50
IJO'S
C~COOH
1.0
11 M
10
20
3D CaOIll/1Ib
liD
HNOJ
g)
10
JO
10
Hl~
-- ---
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 3. Functional relation between 100 y/ml strontium em-
anation intensity and concentration of added acetic, nitric,
hydrochloric, bromic and of sulfuric acids (the latter
in 1 N nitric acid)
Fig. 4. Functional relation between 50 y/ml strontiu~ em-
anation intensity and concentrations of added potassium
nitrate in 0.5 N nitric acid
-161-
-------
On the basis of the above determined ratios it was possible to develop
two prooedures for the determination of Sr present in ores in oonoentrations
varying from low to high.
Table 1.
Changes in radiation intensity of strontium at 460.1 mp and of oa1oium
at 422.1 mp and Sr and.Ca oonoentrations of 100 Y/ml, in the presenoe
of other metals
S a 1 t
added
1 .
: Added metal
i oonoentration
i in %
..
I Emanation intensity in %
i
i Sr ! Ca
. .
None. . . . . . . . . 100.0 100.0
Aluminum nitrate . . . 1.5 10.1 15.0
Aluminum nitrate . . . 3.5 0.0 2.2
Eerillium nitrate . . 2.0 40.5 52.5
Ammonium vanadate . . 2.2 20.0 35.6
Eismuth nitrate . . . 5.0 88.0 85.0
Iron ohloride. . . . 2.5 81.0 94.0
Thorium nitrate . . . 10.0 59.0 52.5
Titanium ohloride . . 1.0 32.1 18.0
Uranium nitrate . . . 2.0 60.0 59.0
Chromium nitrate. . . 5.0(Cr203) 96.5 68.0
The determination of strontium in hi~
Table 2.
---'
1 "
Staf~.m!° n., y per m1 ..
Ca I Sr Ca I Sr
- - 0 0
0,25 1,25 5 25
0,5 2,5 10 50
1,0 5,0 20 100
1,5 7,5 30 150
2,0 10 I 40 200
2,5 12,5 50 250
oonoentration in oarbonate-sulfate minerals.
The prooedure oonsists of the following steps:
The sample is fused with potassium and sodium
oarbonates and the oarbonates of oaloium and
strontium isolated by dissolving in ~droohlo-
rio aoid; aluminum hydroxide and other seoon-
dar7 elements are removed b,y preoipitation with
ammonia 9 the clear solution is then studied
photomet!"ical~. One hundred mg of the ore is
tused with 3 grams of potassium and sodium oarbonates in a platinum oruoib1e,
leaohed with hot water, the p~ecipitated oarbonates are filtered off, rinsed
on the filter with an 0.5% solution of. soda" Without unfolding the filter
the deposit is washed off into a beaker with a small quantity of water and
the preoipitate dissolved in 25 ml 5 11 hydrochlorio aoid; the filter paper
1s then again rinsed off with water into the main volume of the solution"
-162-
-------
The whole is then neutnli.ea with oonoentratea _cm1a in the presenoe ot
one or two drops ot metql o~ 'to the appearaDoe ot a 1'el108. Then 5 .
~drooh1orioaoid is add84. one drop at a time until the solution turne piDJItf
it i8 then again neutralized with 1110 solution of ammonia until the ;yellow
color reappears. 'l'h. solution 18 then heated to ooasulate the qdrox1de8.
Atter oooling, the solution is tr&D8terred into a 250 ml volumetrio flask
and tilled to the mark with distilled water. The sedimented material is
tiltered oft on a ch7 paper tilter, and the tiltrate ana11'zed photometrical17
with the apparatus adjusted to strontium (line 460. 7 ~) with the aid ot the
standard solutions. The 8taDdard solution8 mq oontain calcium, in which
oase, after having determined the strontiua, oaloium content of the sample
oan be determined in the same solution b;y malri I\g another photometric deter-
minat10n with the apparatus readjustea to oaloiwa line 422.7 11111' the standard..
solution used tor this purpose is prepared b;y mixing the standard solutions
ot caloium aDd strontium (1 mg,IlDl) with 25 IDl ot aumonium chloride solution
bringing the volume to 50 ml with water.
The stock ot standard 1 )( soluUon ot ammonium chloride is prepared b;y
carefUl17 neutralizing 50 m15 B hydrochloric acid with ammonia and diluting
the solution to 250 1Dl. The standard stock solutions of calcium and ot stron-
tium chloride are prepared b;y dissolving separatel;y 250 mg ot calcium carbon-
ate and 168 mg strontium carbonate in 10 m1 ot 5 If of ~ochloric acid. The
solution is caretul17 neutralized, to avoid exces8, with ammonia using m~tql
orange as the indioator and poured into a 100 m1 volumetric flask, which is
then tilled to the mark.
In mil-1M ~ the determination, readings are compared with two staDdarcl 80-
lutions g1 v1ng higher and lower values. Then readings are taken anew in re-
verse. order and the average is computed. F1nal rewl t is obtained b1' graph-
ioal interpolation. The determined content of Ca or of .8r; expressed in Y/ml
and divided b;y 4, will express the anal;ytical results in percent. The method
checked in the presence of caloium aDd strontium carbonates aDd sultates, as
. .
!3hown in Table 3, indicates that these elements oan be determined with an aV"-
erage relative precision ot 3 to 5%.
DetermiJiation of low strontium content. The described method makes pos-
sible. the dete:rmination ot strontium concentrations as low as decimal parts
of one peroent. For the determination ot strontium in thousandths ot one per-
-163-
-------
Table 3.
Composition in % vfml of 801ii.." Detn. %
Ratio Actual Fou,nd in
, SrlCa I -
SrCO. I SrSO. I CaCO. I CaSO..2H.O Sr I Ca Sr Ca Sr I Ca
I 97 15,4 +2,1 -4,0
80 - 20 - (j ~ 1 95 16
78 - - 22 5:1 83 17,3 82 17,2 -1,2 -0,6
50 - 25 25 1,5: 1 5!:1,5 31,6 61 33 +4,0 +2,3
- 81,5 - 18,5 9:1 81,5 8,6 81 9,4 -0,6 +9,3
- :33 . - 67 1.:1 31,6 31,2 34 31 +7,6 -06
- !JO - 10 19: 1 172 9,2 176 10,2 +2,3 +10:9
- 94 - 6 30:1 180 5,6 183 5,0 +4,5 -10 8
- II - 89 1 : 4 21 83 20,5 80 -2,5 ---:3 ' 6
2 - - i 97,5 1 : 1 4,8 91 5 88 +4,2 -3:3
- ,;\
ror
cent, larger test samples must. be used and solutions of higher concentrations
must be prepared. The interference of calcium, which mq be present in dif-
.ferent quantities, can be eliminated b.1 adding to the sample an excess of
calcium salt8, using a 30 ms/ml concentration. One gram of the sample is
~jj~dl.i th 6 g of a mixture of potassium and sodium carbonates in a platinum
crucible and leached with distilled water. The sedimented carbonates are
filtered off using a dense ash-free filter, rinsed with an 0.5% solution of
sodium oarbonate and twice with distilled water. The sediment is washed off
the filter into a beaker with distilled water and dissolved in 25 m1 of 5 N
nitrio acid. The solution is then heated to near boi1:ing, and iron, aluminum,
manganese and other metals precipitated out by adding a solution of ammonia,
free from carbon dioxide, one drop at a time, to the point of complete coag-
ulation of the sediment, the sedime.ut is separated b.1 f11 tration, washed with
a 2% solution of ammonium nitrate, and discarded, repeated precipitation with
ammonia should be resorted to if the sediment is voluminous. The solution is
then evaporated to approximately 40 ml, transferred to a 50 m1 volumetrio
flask and filled to the mark with water. Prior to making photometrio readings,
the solution is mixed with an equal volume of 1 N nitrio acid conta~
Ca(N03)2 equivalent to 60 mg/ml of OaO. .
Photanetric readings are compared with standard solutions containing
respective17 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50 and too vim! of srO. The stook solution is
prepared fir8t, it should coDtain 1 mgfml srO, then 0.6408 g SrC12.6B20 i8
dissolved in a 20% solution of ammonium nitrate; using the 20% solution of
aimnoilium nitrate BSidilutent.- standai-d solutions are prepared containing
-l~
-------
respective~ 2, 4, 10, 20, 40, 100 and 200 y/ml of 81'0. :Before final deter-
minations are made, the above standard solutions are diluted to twice the
volume with a solution containing 60 mg/ml of CaO in 1 B nitric acid, (107 g
of CaC03 is dissolved in 5 N nitric acid, and an excess of it is added to
200 ml and diluted with water to 1 liter).
Final computation is made by the method described in a preceding para-
graph. The 81'0 content of one y/ml of the solution corresponds to 0.01% in
the sample.
Table 4.
The analytical proc~
dure was checked by the
method of 8rO addition as
shown in Table 4.
Two varients of the
method of determining stron-
tium in ores by means of
flame spectrophotometr.y have
been described. The first variant is sui table for large amounts and the second
for small amounts (0.1 - 0.001 percent) of strontium. A flame spectrophoto-
meter is used, which consists of a monochromator ~2, a pho~omultiplier tube
and a galvanometer. The determination is carried out with the apparatus ad-
justed to line 460.7 IDf& in an air-acetylene flame. The procedure oonsists in
decomposing the sample by tusing it with potassium and sodium carbonates for
the separation of the sulfates and removi12g interfering elements, such as alu-
minum, by preoipitating with ammonia. Calcium interference can be eliminated
by the photomet17 of solutions with ammonium chloride during the determination
of large quanti ties of strontium, and by adding 30 m&/ml of CaO into the ret-
erence solutions and the solutions to be ana~zed during the determination ot
small quantities ot strontium.
48rO Ave. I Added Found srO in y Iml
ot . I
in soln.' SrO y/MJI Total: Added
5,9 5,85 10 15,8 10,0
5,8 iO 15,4 9,6
40 40 50 89 49,0
40 50 91 51,0
21 21 25 45 24,0
21 25 46 25,0
6,9 7,0 10 17 10,0
7,2 I 10 17 10,0
8umm&17 .
Fqun
'r/ml
ore
-165-
-------
Bibliography.
1. rBnne6paB'~'..a......I! JIeB~enb r., Bp.aiT T. A. 8.. rotJINaH ~.If.;
ITpaKTUqeCKOO PYKOBO~CTBO DO aeOpraHUqeCKOMY aUMU3Y, M., 1.957, cTp.637.
2. S m al e s A., Analyst, 76,348 (1951).
3. C how. T., Tho m p son T., Anal. Chern., 27, 18 (1955).
4. D i a m 0 n d J., Anal. Chem., 27.,913 (1956). .
5. G erg e 1 Y G., Va r a diP., Magyar Ke~. Folyoirat, 61,182 (1955).
6. H e g e d ii sA., Mill n e r T., Pun gorE., Magyar J
-------
The Etfeot ot AlUll1nam Dust OD the .&ailll.' Orgurl.-.,
--
.. G. Iftftcmi and. I. S. OSt1"OY8bp.
haD the Laborato%7 or 'the Ukra1D18 Inatl tu'te ot Labor ~g1eH
and Occupat10Jial ])1....... '
G18i8Da 1 8ani'tariJ'a, .0. 4, 21-27, 1950.
!he pa'thosen1o, c1Uded aDd. propb;'laet1c up.ci8 ot .1110081. have beg
studied 'erlen81ve~, but RIch :rema1Jl8 uUnon. !hiS 18 parUcu1arq true' ot
the ettect a1U111im1m duet 1Bhalatlem and. ot prop~lac'tl0 _allUres to be reo-
OJIIIIIende4. Demv, Robeson aM IrriD ot CU1&4a pub118hed the1r findiD68 fd
i936-1931 which showed. tha't tJr.e duet ot I118ta1110 alnmi muD deoreased. the 801,,-
b1H.t7 ot qU&ns dust' and 1III.p84ed the etrect ot s111- on the lungs 18 ex-
perimental animal.. On the ba81a or thi., these authcms reCOllB.endecl 1D 1943
, ,
lDlialatlem ot a1um1mun duet tor the preventlon or 81110081a. Later Robe.. '
, '
&180 suggested. almniftWII du.t iDhalatlon tor the treat_Dot ot sl11c0818 18
workers. !he lack ot eutf'le1811t c1inloal observa't1on on pe:r.0D8 lDha1iDg alu-
m1Imm makes such sugge8tlons tor the treatment ot 81110081. lll-tOUDded.
Added. 1;0 this 1s the taot that lt 18 imposslb1e to prepare an accurate dose
tor such treatment ot 811100818. Assum1Dg that IS ot' a;mnimvn dU8t added to
il11100n prevented the diffuslon ot the latter, lt 1s stl11 alao.t 18poaslb1e
to estab11sh sclentltlcalq the exact a1umhmtftdosap requlred tor the pre-
ventlon and. treatment ot s1110081.. lI'1nal17, the statement ot the C"fI...M1iD
authors :regardiDg the non-tonc1t7 ot a1nmi J!WD dust to the Afti ..." aDd. human
orBBhisms needs to be checked c8retul~.
It has been proposed: .th&i the deoreue in s11100n d1ttu81OD in the 111J1B8
1n the presence ot lIeta1l10 a1umimm dust depended on the tormatlon ot a 001-
lolcla1 :film ot alnm"'DI Qdrorlde over the BUrtaoe ot the.l1100B pari1e18s.
ID Gardner's expe:riraer1t8 _ta111c a1U11inum W&8 'les8 etrect1ve than lts plat-
1110\18 )qdronde. hr Iftaten 8ftectl nUS8 1 t 1. DSce88U7 that abej "\1IiIi
)ijdronde aDd .11100D be 1D intimate eoiitact aDd. 1n th8 88M ceU.GudD8i'.
uPiriaent. d....tnMc1 that the a"'"iatratlQD of alua1- ~de 18
81ilc081. cout1t1atea iBocIIQ)lete "reaiMat, Ilia" ailS.coda contiDiI84 -ia 1".
, , .
4n81opDint. Doa~ ~ th8 eltectiftl18.8 of 81.rh'.., tnd1i8at iu
-161-
-------
been expressed reoent17 in Amerioa and other countries' by" suoh authors as
Lanza and Berri. It can be- stated generally that the treatment ot silio08is,
. .
as recommended by the Canadian authors, was not in accord wi th basic prinoi-
ples ot pharmacology. . It has been known tor some time that aluminum intro-
duoed iDtravenous17 or suboutan.ous17 produced severe toxic etteots, causiDg
para17sis ot the nervous s1'8t- and ot the heart ot 1118111JD&1sJ above symptcms
were acoompanied by sbald1'\g ot the head, convulsions, decreased seneiti vi ty
and sJllptoms ot a progressive para17sis ot the central nervous system. In-'
jected into the animals suboutaneou817 or intravenous17 al_iftUDl-'s elimi-
nated by" the kidneys and by the intestines. (D. Rossiiskii). Skvortsov also
noted a slow development ot the same pathological changes in aluminum intoxi-
cation.
In practical medioine aluminum preparations are used as astringen~s J the
. .
aot1011 ot astriDgents is based on the ,oontraotioa ot the tissues resultiDB
trom the union of alum:$.DUII with the bo~ protein and the cOl18equent tormation
ot solid oolloidal oompounds which is equivalent to preoipi tation or 0088'1-
lation. In cas8s ot more aotive etteots protein denaturation mq also take
place (Skvortsov). The possibility can not be excluded that altJminwn, in-
troduoed into the animal organism, reacted with the component parts ot the.
. tissUe liquid and ot the blood plasma and produc.d preoipi tat ion, contraction
and coagulationot. the bodT protein. This W&8 oontirmed by Yager in his
studies ot the. cOlloidal chemical action ot aluminum iOI18 causingproteiis to
ooagUlate in the tissue liquid. IndicatioDB exist whioh point to outb1"eaka'
ot tuberculosis in persol18 whose lungs .ere affected by alumiDWD inhalatiODJ'
this was complicated by spontaneous pneumothorax among workers employed in .
the altJmi mmt processing industrt (Goreleveldi and Calq h' Thus, the aeed tor
. a more thorough etucb" ot the ettect or metallio alum1DU1D dust on the .orguiBD1,
in the . light ot the statemeat8 ot DeDIV', RobesOD and Irwin, is an urgent one,
indeed. .
The purpose ot this stu~ was to determine by means of experiments. OIl
, .
white rats and rabbits the ettect produced, by alumimim dust. The tollowiDg
methodsot Mlmii,'stration were 'used, 1) introduction into the trachea ot alu-
IlliDUIB dustsuspeDded in pqsiologioal saltsolutiODJ2) intravenous admillis-
tration ot the s... BUBpension, 'Un 3) ~osure ot t~ A~i_ls to ~t iD- .
halaticms in aspeoial ~ber. The intratra.eal aethod was used with rats
-168-
-------
and the intravenous with rabbits; both animal species were subjected to cham-
ber dust inhalations. Experiments were performed with 54 nits and 30 rabbits.
The same type of finely ground aluminum was used in all tests as was recom-
mended for use in therapeutic treatment. Particles did not exceed 2 p in
diameter. Preliminary tests were performed on the rats by introducing metal-
lic aluminum suspension in a physiological solution intratracheally. Tor this,
0.01 g of aluminum dust was suspended in 3 ml of physiological solution; the
suspension was well shaken and 0.2 ml drawn into a syringe. All ingredients
and equipment were appropriately sterilised.
Results of preliminary experiment presented a clear picture of specific
pathological changes in the lungs) the concept of nontoxloity of aluminum
dust to the organism was rejected forthwith. In a rat killed 3 months after
the injection of 0.0003 g of aluminum dust multiple round-shaped dark islets
developed at the termini of the bronchial branchings, as shown in Fig. 1.
The majority of the nodules were pierced by
fibrous bands and were considerably thickened
due to hyalinosis| defibrinated hyaliniced
vessels were seen frequently. It was noted
that metallic aluminum dust caused the ap-
pearance of fibrous induration with hyalinosis
not only at points of dust concentration, but
outside such foci as well. The complex post-
mortem picture observed following the prelim-
inary experiments pointed to the urgent need
for a continued and more searching investiga-
tion. In this connection the following ques-
tions arose: What early changes occurred in
the lung tissue following the inhalation of
aluminum dust? Which cells participated in
phagocytosis and to what extent? What was
the rate of the phagocytised dust? Did the
dust circulate with the lymph through the lungs to the regional lymphatic
glands? What was the pathogenesis of the fibroid reaction? Did aluminum dust
cause a general effect? If the effect was not general, which organs were af-
fected in addition to the lungs? The final question, and a very important one
Fig. 1, Aluminum dust between
islets of fibrous tissue in
the lungs of a rat sacrificed
3 months after intratracheal
injection
-169-
-------
tor protes8ioDal patholO81sts, w&eIBow were patholoc:1o chaDges O&\Ised .
alWDiDum related, to tbe Down tDe- ot pn8Wl10o~oai8? , .
Rats ot the seod serie. were exposed, to al1'JlliJ"UD dust 111 a Qhamber
. cla1q for 8 bours J ''tbe oo~entratiOD ot ~st in tbe' chamber ave~ 5,000.
~t, p&riioles . per 1 _3. Ibe ot~r gz'oup: of rats w.. ~ose~ for 3~lIdnuteB
cIa1q., In ~11,39 rats were1l101~ed 111 this 8.xper1men1i,. some rat~ !!~set
aside to dete~ethe period of ~Ii~ survival, otber ~ats were~~led 111
, two..t 41tterent, time intervals atter exposure to resulat.d ~Dhalatiop of
clust, or tbe7 were placed 1I1to oagesatter a tixed period ot exposure ~ tbe
clu.t' ohamber aDd :u..OX'itif?e4at difterent time intervals. .Atter 15 ~~ 8
. bour exposures to alum1.num dust, rats sbowed dust.tilled - alveolar f?~1:~~ and
dll&t-tilled alveolar. spaces, botJ1 were f'requentq packed with bla9k, dust,
rendering tbe nuclei indiatinsuishable. ~ensive ~hostases could be seen
wi'th ~oCTtes surrounding the vessels in the peri lobular septi and 111 tbe
alDUse.ot the lymphatic nodes. In the l~tter slight dust ao~lations were
observed 111 the disseminated ~tioular oells. In the rats killed atter 2 - 3
,months a marked tibrosis 1'&8 seen superimposed upon' siJIP.lar chan8es, fibrous
induration and partial displaoement ot the muscular tissue ot the bronchial
_alIa imd ti broua induration with qa11l10sis ot the vas,cular walls were pres-
'ent, oonsiderable stenosis ot tbeir lumens and tiprous induration ot the inter-
, .
,alveolar walls were obserVed 111 spots. Pron01m:ced acute changes~ere noted
in the rats exposed to dust inhalations in th4!l chamber 8 hours dai~ during 3
lIOJ1\uJ at tbe end ot the exposure'tbe rats were plaoed 1I1to o~sand sacri-
fioed 3 aonths and 6 mont. f1"Clli. the ~ginn1.11g ot the experiment.
Autopsies ot rata exposed to aluminum dust for 30 iDinutea over periods
of 1 - 2 IDOnths showed fibrous induration ot the pleura, interalveolar fi-
brosis aDd qalinosia ot tbe alveolar walls at points ot dust .c~latiOD
and fibrous induration with qaJ,inosis ot the vascular walls. Close to the
pleura there developed enensive peri lobular, interalveolar and perivascular
tibrosi8 and proliferatiOn ot the fibrous tissue between the ~scular bw1dles
in the bronchial ..lls" interstUial and perivascular fibrosis appeare~ at
the root' ot the .lJmphatio glands. and. small aCOWIUlations of dust were seen in
. ~he.1m1ses. Similar'ohanges and more pronounced tibrous reactions were ob-
served 111 the rat exposed to alum1.DWD dust tor 30 IIdnutes during 2 months and
killed one month later. Far beyond the limits ot dust accumulation 1;here de-
--170-
-------
..loped a coarse~ looped interstitial peribrori~hial tibrOsis with ~aliriosis
. and bronchiectasis; at points 'of dust accumulation the interalveolar septi
were thicltenedand ~al1nizedJ ocoasional~ ~l1nosi8 was accompanied. by
lumen obliteration.
!hus, in the rats which were exposed to dust in the chamber or were ~-
IDini,stered the dust intratracheal17, aluminum dust was absorbed by the cells
of the alveolar epithelium close to the interalveolar septi indicating that
large quanti ties of the dust penetrated into the lungs. Along with the above-
described s.ymptoms extensive ~hostases were observed during the first 15
days which interetered with the dust movement along the lymphatic vessels;
the latter were filled with dust cells and constricted in the alveolar lumens
. '
by thcaccumulation of the dust 'cells. Praotical17 no dust was seen in the
re8'1onal lymphatic nodes pointing to an obstructed lymph outflow by the re-
tention of large quantities of dust in the lungs. Particularly notewortM
, '
was the absence of inflammatory reactions and an almost complete absence of
pol7nuclear leucocytes, paralleled by signs of rapid fibrous induration fre-
quentq accompanied by hyalinosis of the supporting connective tissue of the
interalveolar septi and the vascular walls of the bronchi, the per1lobular
. septi of the pleura and by the homogenization of the ~ell proplasm. These
changes were seen not onl7 at points of dust accumulation, but far beyond
them. Solerosis oontinued to develop after the exposure to aluminum dust
was discontinued.
Twenty-two rabbits were similarly exposed to experimental dust inhalations
in the chamber; 14 of the rabbi ts .e~ exp~se~ for 8 hours and 8 for )0 min-
utes to the inhalation of dust concentrations averaging 5,000 particles per
1 om). In the first' 7 ~ 15 dqs active mobil~zation of ~gocytes occurred
in the lungs which enaul'fed ~he al1trnimuD dus1;. In the bronch~al lumens the
mucus oontained tres dust and some cells were dust-laden; there were isolated
groups ot alveoli with fibrous thickening of tlle septi, the edges of which
showed signs of focal macro-vescicular bullQUs emp~sema as shown in Pig. 2.
Proliferation and desquamation of the epithel~Qm were observed in the bronchi;
these together with the olumps of dust an4J1UP1erous dust-laden cells blocked
the lumens ot the small bronchi which resulte!i in the formation of extensive
arsas of atelectasis with a proliferation ot the alveolar epith.li~; the dust-
laden cells accumulated in the lumens of the stenotic alveoli. ' In animals ex-
posed to aluminum dust 1Dhalatipn for periods of ) - 5 months these changes
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were more pronounced.
The pathohystological changes in the lungs
of the rabbits differed from those observed in
the rats. The bronchial muoosa participated
in the course of the process; the blood plasma
protein and the serous exudates in the alve-
oli and bronchi have changed in the direction
of thickening, coagulation and hyalination,
as a consequence of the chemical action of
the aluminum dust. Easily soluble aluminum
quickly combined with the protein elements
causing their precipitation, coagulation and
thickening. This was substantiated by the
Fig. 2. Large-bubble emphysema absence of inflammatory reactions at points
lungs of a rat exposed in the ment of fibrosis with hyalinosis was not the
chamber to aluminum dust f*al»- re8ult of inflammation and consequent iafil-
tion for 3 months and sacri-
ficed 3 month* after removal tration or exudation.
from the chamber
Thfl la.^^^ changes described char-
acterized a unique pathological process of protein coagulation as a reaction
to the effect of aluminum. The sequential symptoms such as vascular and cap-
illary obstruction, obliteration of the interalveolar septi and the fibrous
degeneration of the vascular walls and of the bronchi lead to grave secondary
lung changes, which can be regarded as complications accompanying aluminosis.
The same is true of extensive lymphotases appearing in the early stages of
aluminosis and of an unusual type of pneumonia, which frequently caused the
death of the experimental animals. A gradual decrease in weight to the point
of caohexia was observed in 13 of 27 rats, they had an accelerated superficial
respiration which later became alow and intermittent. Autopsy and macro-
scopic examination revealed small foci of hemorrhagio pneumonia or tumor-like
"white" pneumonia, extending nearly over the entire lung and filling one half
of the thorax. It is to be expected that in the presence of such grave lung
changes caused by the physical and especially the chemical action of alu-
minum dust other organs should be affected to a greater or lesser degree,
Regardless of the method of aluminum penetration pathological changes of ac
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degree were observed Qiost f~equently in the kidneys and less often in- the heart
and other organs of the experimental animals; as a rule the interstitial tis-
sue suffered damage in all cases. Degenerative changes were less pronounced
in the parenchymatous organs and more marked in the kidneys.
Experiments with intravenous aluminum dust administration brought out
most conclusively t~e general effect of aluminum dust on different b~ organs
and systems. 0.05 g of-aluminum dust in 4 cm of physiological solution was
injected daily fo;r 20 days into the marginal ear vein of rabbits, malrl"B a
. .
total of 1.5 g of the aluminum dust. This produced grave changes in the or-
gans, progressing with time, in spite of the fact that the reticule-endothelial
cellB absorbed much of the dust. These 08lls had undergone changes similar to
thoBe previously de~cribed for lung phagocytes: the cell protoplasm solidified
and became fuchsinophilic; the reticule-endothelial cells coalesced and ac-
quired the appearance of polynuclear cells. It is reasonable to assume that
the induration of the interstitial tissue affected the functions of different
systems and organs. It should be emphasized that the interstitial tissue ,,&.
indurated in spots where no dust could be seen; this, together with the fact
that the process continued to develop after dust inhalation was discontinued,
pointed to the fact that aluminum dust affected the animal organism chemi-
oally. The extensive induration of the paraplastic substance effected by alu-
minum can be compared with disseminated sclerosis of old age. This is equally
true of the changes in the heart. It is a manifestation of early pathological
aging of the organism effected by the administered aluminum dust.
On the basis of the above discussed experimental tests with aluminum dust
it can be concluded that it is possible to obtain an early appearance (begin-
ning with the 15th day) .of pathological changes in the lungs and other organs
of rats and rabbits with ~ one of the methods of aluminum administration
herein described. Grave changes in the structure of the lung tissue and of
the bronchial walls; a wide interstitial fibrosis with hyalinosis in the lung
tissue, disseminated emphysema, bullous marginal emphysema and hemorrhages.
accompanied b.Y severe abscessed bronchiectasis, bronche-pneumonia and hemor-
rhagic pneumonias were componEllts of the tot-al pathologic picture.
The changes described as extensive fibrous induration and hyalinosis of
th* lung tissue are the result of the ch8lil1cal colloidal action of aluminum
.which brou&ht about the coaplation of the fluid tissue proteins, which is
.-1"13-
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the specific characteri8tic of this proces.. The pathological lung changes
, ,
which occur a8 the result of alWldnum dust administration are highq specifio
aDd constitute a new t1P8 of pneumoconiosi8, which is here designated as
aluminosis. '!'he results ot this stu~ retute the hypothesis that aluminum
is harmle8s to the anisal orBaniBID and that pneumoconiosis CaDnot be caused
in the absenoe of silicon, whioh ,up to the present appeared indisputabie.
'!'he eftect of aluminum was not limited to locai lung parenc~ inj\U7.
Some degree of fibrous iDduration aDd of hyalinosis was observed in the vas-
cular walls up to the point of fibrous lumen obliterationJ the same W&8 true
of the kidneys where such changes ranged from bareq noticeable induration of
the capillar,y walls ot the glomeruli and of the interstitial substance of the
conneoti ve tissue of the kidneys to localized wrinkling of the organ. !he
discover,y of small quantities of dust in the spleen and in the IWpffer cells'
of the liver indicate that it i8 possible for dust particles to disseminate
by w8:3' of the hematogen and to form aluminum ~drorlde in the tissue fluids.
Different degrees of fibrous degeneration were disoovered in the cardiao m...
branes, ~.ssels, spleen, liver and in the cerebral membranes.
The intravenous injeotion of alWldnum dust brought out most sharpq the
wid~q generalized nature of the pathologic change.. '!'he described change8
clearq indicated that in addition to looal pulmonary effects aluminum had a
general cheDiical effect on the animal organi8li1. It should De emphasized that
fibrous induration of the interstitial tissue of different organs developed
, within 15 - 20 day. of the aluminum administration and oontinued to progreS8
atter dust inhalation Was disoontinued.
The experiDiental resul is showed that I
1. Aluminosis produced by the administration of metallic aluminum dust
was a new form of pneumoOOniosi8, which must be classed as another occupational
dust disease.
2. The use of alumiriUm in preventive and therapeutic treatment ot sili-
cosi. requires a deeper &lid more extenei ve experimental and olinical stuq
condUcted on a broader basiiB, than has been done heretofore.
3. Careful supervi8icm over workere' health includiDg periodio lI8d1oal
examinatioDa should be 1n8tit1itec1 111 al\Ul1nwa pro08ssiJ18 plut..
4. Improv8118nt in teC1m1cal and' 88Il1tary anti-dust ".8U1'88 ...14 'be
bstened to assure the 8ueoesstUl ti.pt againet sil1oos1. ia the on ad.."..
, ,
Ud ~th8r duet matibg ~.. of in4u8tZ7. '
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The Qualit;y ot Atm08pheric Air in the Vic1n1t;y ot Petroleum Retinel'1 Plants.
L. I. Lo8', A. G. Sadi vnikova, R. ](. Soboleva and D. Ia. !urets.
Gig1ena i Sanitar1;ya, .0. 8, 1950, pp. 8-13.
The present stu~ extended over 1947 - 1949. Air samples tor the deter-
mination ot ~drocarbans were collected in special 100 - 200 ml pipettes. a;y-
drocarbons were determined b;r the combustion method and carbonic acid b;r the
:a.berg method. The s8J18itiv1t;y ot the method was 0.01 - 0.02 DIg ot carbon per
1 liter ot air. ~alitativ. hTdrogen sultide test8 were made with lead ace-
tate paper and quantitative b;r Ihrustaleva's silver nitrate method. A lIIA~nnUD
ot 1 liter ot air was aspirated through a microdrexell absorber. The sensi-
tivity ot Ihrusuleva's method was 0.0005 - 0.001 ms/l. (See note 1). Air
8amples were colleoted at production assemblies 3 - 4, 7 - 8, 45 and others
throughout the plant.
~. Samples were collected in 1Iarch, April, )Iq 1947 and in
1Iarch, September and October 1948, with the outside doors usual17 open. The
ventilatiJJg 878tem was in operation in Karoh 1947 and in September and Octo-
ber 1948, it was not in operation duriDg sample collection in April and Kq
1947 and in March 1948.
1fTdr0carbon content in mg e/li t. in the air ot one workroom.
OperatiDg
March 1947
September 1948
October 1948
VentilatiDg system
t
I'ot operating
0.68
0.13
0.16
April 1947
)Iq 1947
Karch 1948
0.21
0.98
0.05
The above table show8 that ventilation was inettective. Iqdrogen sul-
tide was tound in the workshop air on17 in some 8amples in concentratione up
to 0.002 mgfl. It should be noted thatgaepollution in the workshop air
was lower 111 1948 than in 1947 whether or not the ventilatiDg system was 111
operation. (Aver&88 0.062 JDB/l ot hTdrooarbons in 1947 as compared with 0.11
';1 111 1948).
(I'ote 1. The volume of air was insuftioient tor hTdrogen sultide deter-
IDination. This mq explain whT the authors tound no ~S in the majorit;y ot
their samples).
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Assemba 7 - 8. Air samples .were collected in Februa17, April,1Iq and
October 1947. Even with tb.eventilation Q'stem operating the air was strong-
17 polluted with gas. On17 one test in 10 was negative tor qdrocarbons, in
the positive tests, qdrocarbons varied tram 0.12 to 0.99 ms/l. ~drogen sul-
tidewas detected in three air samples in Februart and April ot 1947. This
demonstrated that in the rooms ot assemblies 7 - 8 the ventilation s7stem op-
erated at low etticien07.
Assembl:r 45. Air samples were ~ollected in October 1947 and September
1948. Results ot ana17ses revealed that the air was polluted b.r qdrocarboDS
and qdrogen sultide. All 12 samples contained qdrocarbons equivalent to
carbon ooncentrations ot 0.11 to 0.50 mgfl, 7 samples oontained ~S ranging
between 0.004 to 0.016 JlJ8/1. 1qd1'Ocarbons in the air ot one workshop equipped
with 'a ciroulating ventilation s7stem ranged between 0.18 - 0.23 mse/l i.n-
dioating the 1D&c1equa07 ot the oirculating ventilation. Average concentration
ot qdrocarbon in the air ot assemb17 7 - 8 in 1948 was 0.28 and 1947 0.48
msC/l. Results ot air samples collected in 1948 in other assemblies showed
presenoe ot qdrocarbons in concentrations below the allowable limits. This
mq have been due to the absence ot leakage in the production machine~ em-
pl07ed and some other undetermined taotors. Results ot ana17ses showed that
the degree ot workshop air pollution trequent17 was high despite the operatiDg
ventilation, occasional17 the ventilation increased the air pollution, onq
traces of ~S were tound in the air, due to the tact that the retined petro-
leum contained less than U ot sulfur. . The room temperature varied great~,
occasional17 reaching levels above the allowable norms. Due to other health
protecting measures instituted in 1948 sickness incidence amcmg the workers
decreased. Thus, it morbidit7 in 1947 is designated as 100, then in 1948 it
was 70.9. In 1948, as compared with 1947, the index ot woderma incidence
was 53, ot pneumonia 63 and ot industrial traumatism 671 etc. on. the above
basis ot comparison. Continued improvement in working conti tions should' fur-
ther decrease the rate ot morbidit7 among the workers. Ana17ses ot venti-
lated workshop air showed the tollowing.
Assembly 3 - 4. Air samples were collected in March - Ju17 1947 and Jan-
Ua17 - October 1948 at the outtlow ot shop-air and inflow ot outside air, aut-
o 0
door temperature ranged between -5 and +29. A total ot 21 air samples were
ana17zed. In 33.3% ot the 1947 samples, qdrocarbons were tound in conCeD-
-176-
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trations ot 0.08, 0.24, 0.42 and 0.52.asc/l and ot 1948 air samples 111 conCeD-
trations ot 0.07, 0.11 and 0.25 maC/1J traces ot qdrogen sultide were tound
in 3 samples. Emaust air samples were collected near the gas dischugiDs
installation located olose to the outdoor air 1I1take shatt a tew meters above
the groundJ ana:qtical results showed the toll owing qdrocarbcm concentratioD81
0.30, 0.57, 0.94, 1.08 and 1.24 maC/l.
Assemb~ 7 - 8. The tresh air intake 111 one ot the workrooma was ot the
same type as in. assemb17 3 - 4, the tan being located 11 meters above the
ground. Air samples were collected in the months ot A.pri1 to September 1947
and June to Ju17 1948. A. total ot 33 tests were made ot air samples oollected
in the tresh air intake shatt and in the air oondui ts with outside temperature
o 0
ranging between +15 to +33. ~drooarboJ1 in amounts exceeding the IDATiIlllJlll
allowable concentration was tound in 9 air samples. ~alitative qdrogen sul-
tide tests were positive in 3 samples. As in the case ot assembq 3 - 4, the
intake air contained qdrocarbons in oonoentrations ot 0.05 to 0.63 m&C/1; in
the same samples tests tor hydrogen sultide were taint17 to strong17 positive.
0nJ.y 2 samples were negative tor qdrooarbons.
AssemblY' 45. In one workroom the air was taken in through a. root air-
shatt by a centrifUgal ventilatorJ in other rooms the outdoor air W&S taken
in through wall airshatts. Air samples were taken at points ot intake and
outtlow in JIq to Bovember 1947 and September 1948, with temperatures var,ying
o 0
trom 4 to 29. A total ot 21 samples were taken. ~carbons were tound
in 12 - tram 0.21 to 1.07 msC/1 and in the others tram 0.02 to 0.19 msC/1J
same samples also contained 128.
Thus, the outdoor ventilation air oontained notable oonoentrations ot
qdrocarbons and some hydrogen sultide. The result. indioated that, whatever
the reasons, the outdoor ventilation air was itself polluted and not suited
tor the intended purpose. The atmospheric air on the plant grounds was studied
next; samples were collected at the oentral, north, south, east and west points
ot the territ017. Air samples were taken at 6 - 8 meters above the ground.
Bine series ot air tests were made in 1947 and 9 in 1948; bringing the total
number ot air samples tested to 90; on17 2 air samples ot the 18 collected
at the center ot the plant territor.y were negative tor qdrooarboDs; in all
other samples the ooncentration ranged tram 0.01 to 1.8 msC/l with the qdro-
gan sulfide reaction beiDg taint17 to strong17 positive. or 18 air samples
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collected in the north section of the plant grounds 15 contained ~ocarbol1S
in 0.02 to 1.16 msC/l concentrations; 4 of the 18 samples otthe south section
were negative for b7drocarbons. Concentration ot b7drocarbons raD88d from
0.03 to 1.07 mgC/l; tests tor H2S were negative. Four ot the 18 samples ot .
the east section were negative for b1'drocarbons; in the remaifti:Qg 14 the con-
tent of b7drocarbons varied trom 0.03 tc 0.27 mge/l; traces of b7droBen sul-
fide were found in 3 samples. In 17 of 18 samples of the west seotion ~dro-
carbon concentration ranged between 0.02 to 0.61 msC/l; ~8D sulfide was
found in 6 samples ranglY'lB.1n reaction from trace to etrongq positive.
Results of outdoor air anaqses indicated that at 6 - 8 111 from the plant
the air of the grounds was polluted ..ith ~carbons and to ~ slight degree.
with b7drogen sulfide; the greater DUmber of positive tests ..as obtained in
the oentral section ot the plant grounds. Oeneralq, such outdoor air pollu-
tion ..as of a lower intensity in 1948. Bo pattern of &IV' regularity oould be
discerned from anaqses 01' air samples ot the tive .plant territo%7 sections.
Air samples were then collected at different vertical levels (heights)
of the outdoor air. This was done for the purpose of determining the mos1;
sui table level (height) from which to draw ventilation air. Samples were col-
lected at heights up to 32 m above the grounds of a technioological installa-
tion. Air samples were also colleoted from the roof and at sections olose to
building surfaces. A total of 67 air samples were colleoted over an. extended
period in 1948. Sample. representing a simple vertical cross section ..ere
oolleoted at one ti_. 111 34 01' the 61 tests no ~ooarbol1S were detectedB
other tests ..ere positive for hydrocarbon in ooncentrations of 0.04 to 0.41
mgC/l. Jqdrooarbons were found in air samples taken at all heights; however,
at & height of 21 m it .&8 fQund in a smaller DWDber of tests and as & rulep
in low ooncentrations. Thus, the aver.. concentration of }qdrocarbons wat!
0.11 msC/l at levels of , to I) m atld at 23, 25 and 32 IR the ooncentratiOD£1
ranged bet.ea 0.02 and 0.04 msC/l. Ocoss1 onal 17 , depAndinB upon meteorologi-
cal oonditions, qdrooarbons were found at higher levels in concentratiOJW
ot 0.10 - 0.15 sse/I. ~ogen sulfide ..as deteoted quantitat1ve~ up to the
height of 17 m .ith ooncentrations ranging bet..een 0.001 and 0.002 fI8C/l, es-
pecial1T at the lower l.vel.; no bJdroB8D sulfide ..as detected at higher lev-
e18. . The air at 23, 25 and 32 II above the ground ..&s relative1T tree troll
pollution..i th )qdrogen sultide and on1T oocasionalq contained qdrocarbons.
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It is suggested', therefore, that ventilation air tor. work spaoe be takeD trom
outdoor air at leve18 above 1D41oated or bJ.gher.
ZoDal pollution ot the atmospherio air around the plant W&8 studied nen,
104 air samples were colleoted. at all direotiona aDd. at ditterent distances
up to 2,650 II trom the plant. The upper residential area W&8 situated at a
distanoe ot 500 II trom the plant northwesterq. Two points were chosen tor
stu~ ot the atmospheric air; air samples were col18cted at 1.5 and 2 m above
the ground. In all 29 air samples were 001180ted in this area, 15 samples in
JIq, June and Bovember 1947 and 14 in JaDUar7, lPebru&17 aDd June 1948_. . An ad-
di tional 10 samples were colleoted in JIq aDd June 1949 at distanoes ot 850,
1,150, 1,650 and 2,650 II trom the plant. ItrdrooarboDB .ere deteoted in ."1-
ativeq high oonoentrations in Ootober 1947 when prevailing south w1Dds were
blowing trom the plant in the direction ot the residential settlement. Bldro-
carbon .oonoentrations varied trom 0.17 to 0.36 msC/l, in 4 samples at the
high8r aDd lower air levels. Bo hldrooarbon8 or verT low oonoentrati0D8 were
deteoted when northwest aDd northeast w1Dds prevailed, raDgiDg as a rule tram
0.02 to 0.04 msC/l at distanoes tarther removed trom the plant. Ez:08pt tor
one sample which had. a 0.08 msC/l oonoentration, b1'drocarbons were not tOUDd.
at 1,650 m trom the plant.
The air ot one onmmnni t7 700 m to the southeast of the plant and ot an-
other 500 m to the southwest of the plant was studied next. Samples were
taken at 1.4 and 5 II above grOUDd.. Twent7 n1ne air samples were taken 1R all.
20 in JIq, June and Bovember ot 1947 and 9 in Janua17, Februa17 and June ot
1948. AD additional 8 air samples were oolleoted in the southeasterl¥ direc-
tion at 1,200, 1,300, 1,450, 1,650 and 1,850 II, OD t.o oocasions - 111 April
and JIq ot 1949, 10 air samples were oolleoted in the southwesterq direotion
at 900, 1,200, 1,700, 2,150 aDd 2,650 II from the plant on JIq 16 and 21, 1949.
110 b1'drocarbons were tound in 7 ot the ot'llllJl8~nit7 air samples, in the remainiJ1g
22 samples its oonoentration ranged betw.en 0.02 to 0.75 asC/1, the pollution
intensit7 in the lower and upper-air levels ,,&8 appro:dmateq the 8&11e. South-
8&8t and northwest ,,1Dds prevailed, blouD8 a"q trom the plant grounds on
~s when air samples were oolleoted. .0 signitioant differenoe was disoovered
between !qdrooarbon air conoentrations in 1947 and 1948.
In the air ot the residential area situated in the southeasterl;y direc-
tion oonoentrations.ot hldrooarbODS at 1,200 II were 0.05 and 0.10 msC/l during
April 16 andJlq 21, at distanoes ot 1,300 and 1,450 the ooncentration was
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0;.09 and 0.08 mge/l duriDg April "16 aDd JIq 21 and at distances, ot 1,650 and
1,850 m trom the plant DO ~drocar'b0D8 were detected.. or 10 air samples col";'
lected in the southwest settlement, qdrooarboJ18 were tound in 3 tests, at
900 aDd 1,200 m the concentration W&8 0.05 msC/l and at 2,150 m it W&8 0.02
mse/l. ThU8, ~cbocarboJ18 were tound in the southeast aDd southwest residen-
tial areas at 1,450 and 2,150 m trom the plant. Similar data were obtained.
with the atmospheric air in the residential areas to the west, northwest and
to the east ot the plan't. ~ogen sultide was not tound in ~. ot the 104
samples.
A subjective stud;y was made b7 question1ng 174 residen'ts ot the ditterent
commun1ty areas. Residents ot the south and eaat settlements noticed the odor
ot petroleum becomiDg stronger when the wiDd blew toward. the settlement. Ree-
identa ot the upper r8sideDtial area noticed the unpleasant odor onlT when
the w1Dd blew trom the plant in the area. In the sUllll1er all had noticed a
stronger odor ot petrcleWl in the air. they complained that it was not possi-
ble to open the windows or ventilators tor house air1DB. Residents ot the
south settlements complained ot metallic objects tarnishing. These authors
recomeDd that worJdDg ccnd! tions in the plant be improved aDd pollution ot
. the atmospheric air ot the'populated areas be decreased by inst1tutiDg the
tollow1Dg sani t&r7 measures. install equ1pmat tor the removal ot sulfur.
compounds trom the petroleum. enforce prevent10n ot gas leakage in lII&DUtac-
tur1DB process. sanitize surr()1I""1~ b7 plantiDg trees, shrubs and other
greene17.' The a ani t&17 clearance Bone ot 2 km established. b7 legislation
must be str1ct~ enforced.
Bote. Throughout this paper "msC/l" 1s a briet expression tor "~dro-
carbon oontent in tems ot DIg ot carbon per liter ot air".
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Experimental Studies of the Biological Effect of Industrial Dust in Relation
to the Methods Used.
By
E. V. Xhukhrin.
From the First Moscow Order of Lenin Medical Institute.
Gig1ena i Sanitar1ya, No.2, 29-32, 1952.
Procedures of experimental research on the effect of industrial dusts on
animals present ~ difficulties. Most dust types produce chronic effects
which can be elicited experimental17 only over long periods of time. Unlike
gases ani vapors, dusts are extremely difficult to introduce into the organ-
ism in definite doses through the organs of respiration. Unlike gaseous sub-
stances dusts can not be uniform17 suspended in the air because of their state
of semi-dispersion; it is even more difficult to maintain a constant stable
dust suspension throughout a required experimental period. Chambers of dif-
ferent designs h~ve been suggested for dust effect studies. Such chambers
require special equipment, considerable laborator,y space and their construc-
tion is costly. However, even with the use of special chambers it is dif-
ficult to maintain relative~y uniform dust concentrations for an extended pe-
riod of time; in addition, the animals moving about freely in the chambers
soon develop "protective reflexes", and decrease the inhalation of dust: they
gather in the least dust-laden parts of the chamber and hide their muzzles in
the fur, making it difficult to determine the quantity of dust inhaled by the
animals.
In our study of the effect of cr,ystalline and amorphous silicon dioxide
animals were exposed to dust inhalation individually. This method was wide17
used in the Department of Labor Hygiene of the First Moscow Order of Lenin
Medical Institute in stu~ing the effect of aerosols of rare metals and alloys.
Experience indicated that it was possible to determine the effect produced
upon the living organiam by different types of metallic dust. Sufficient ex-
perience has been gathered in the application of this method to recommend its
wider use. The basic characteristics of this method are briefly as follows:
A desired constant air dust concentration was created direct17 adjacent to the
nares of the experimental animals. This was accomplished by placing a glass
mask over the snout of an experimental animal through which the dust-laden air
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was inspired. It is essential that the animals be kept in a fixed position and
the mask be firml7 attached to insure uninterrupted inhalation of the d~st-pol-
luted air. Fig. I is a schematio presentation of the experimental set-up whioh
consists of the followingl a glass mask, atomizer, air-blower or aspirator,
flowmeters and the dust tube or adapter. Experience indicates what procedural
adaptations are most suited for different types of experimental animals. A
glass mask (1) can be made to fit any occasion. Thus, masks used on rats. were
smaller than masks used on rabbits. A glass tube is fused to each side of the
Fig. 1.
mask; the air-suspended dust coming from the dust distributor (2) enters the
inhalation mask and exits through the glass adapter (4). Thedust-containing
air can be drawn through the atomizer, . the mask, the adapter and the flow-
meters (1 and 5) by aspiration or b,y pressure. Flowmeter (5) registers the
air volume passing through the mask; flowmeter (1) is attaohed temporarily to
cheCk possible air leakage in the set-up. Registration by both flowmeters of
identical rates of air flow through the set-up, with clamp l 010s8d and. clamp
.!. open, indicates that the system is leakproof and that the mask is safely ad-
justed. Thereafter flowmeter (1) can be disconnected for as long as the es-
tablished experimental conditions remain unchanged. It is possible to conduct
tests on several animals simultaneously by attaching several assemblies b,y
means of suitable connecting tubes and using a motor of adequate power. If
5 - 6 or more animals are to be exposed at one time it is only necessary to
have as ~ masks and dust distributors; a separate adapter (allonge) should
be provided for each mask during the first set of experiments to test the
uniformity of the dust concentration. In this w~, it is possible to conduot
tests on control animals and, at the same time, to study the aerosol effect
on a group of animals. Such an arrangement enhances the validity of the fi-
nal resu1ta and of their comparative evaluation, since test conditions are
praotioally identical. With such a multiple set-up tests can be conducted
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with more than one type of dust or aerosol simultaneously and under identical
experimental conditions.
By manipulating valves.!. and :Eo and by changing the air flow into the dust
distribution chamber, it is possible to raise or lower the dust concentration.
Prior to making final tests each investigator must work out a set of"experi-
mental conditions best suited to the type of dust or aerosol under investi-
gation. By weighing the dust distributor at known time intervals, the quan-
ti ty of dust or aerosols used up can be determined gravimetrically. Similarly
the volume of air aspirated through can also be determined, finally, by divid-
ing the weight of the consumed dust or aerosol by the number of m3 of air as-
pirated through, the dust concentration can be arrived at. The concentration
constancy can be controlled by periodically weighing the adapter and atomizer.
The moisture of the air exhaled by the test animals may increase the weight
of the adapter. This can be considerably reduced by using glass wool instead
of cotton. The filters can be brought to constant weight by placing them in a
desiccator for 2 to 3 hours. Only when experiments extend over a long time or
where the humidity approaches 90% or more should the adapter be kept in the
- "
desiccator up to 24 hours. Practice showed that it was possible to attain any
required dust ooncentration; working with silicate dust, this author attained
dust oonoentrati"ons ran~ _between 10 to 100 mg/m3. In the studl' of toxicity
of rare metal dusts, concentrations were produoed ranging from a few milligrams
to "1 g per m3 of air. It should be noted that some dusts will agglomerate and
make uniform dust distribution impossible to attain. Such, for instance, is
the case with dust of amorphous silicon dioxide.
In such eventualities use should be made of the M. F. Bromley atomizer
shown in Fig. 2, manufactured by the All-Union Scientific Research Institute
of Labor Protection. The apparatus consists of flanged plate (A) about 300 DID
in diameter which is overlaid by evenly distributed dust. The dust is smoothed
by the edge of a narrow metallic lath run over the flanges of plate (A); the
azlG supporting the plate is provided with a worm gear (B) which rotates wheel
{C)v on eaoh side of the axle of the wheel there is a pinion (D). These pin-
ions move along two parallel and identical racks (E). The devioe is rotated
by & kymograph mechanism or by an electric motor through wheel (K) which also
serves as a third supporting point for plate (A), the two other points being
in contact with the rack and pinions. The dust is vacuum-sucked into ohamber
~183~
-------
(F). compressed air coming fram
nozzle (G) forces the dust into
mixing chamber (M), the open end
of whiCh is connected with a single
or multiple rubber tube attachment
for the performance of single or
multiple tests. Experience showed
that the constant rate at which
wheel LKJ rotated assured'an even
rate with which the plate moved
towards nozzle (G); this in turn assured a reliably constant air dust concen-
tration. The dust removed from the plates can be replaced whenever required
in prolonged experiments.
The M. V. Bromley dust distributor supplies a uniform air ~~st suspension.
This method of creating desired and constant air dust concentrations for toxi-
cological dust exposure experiments is much more complicated than the glass
type previously described. Investigators must determine for themselves the
, '
suitability of other types of apparatus for their special purpose. The cor-
rect choice of apparatus can be made easi~ after a certain amount of accumu-
lated experience. With the aid of the described apparatus and procedures the
author investigated the effect of crystalline and amorp~ous silicon dioxide
on experimental animals. Tests were also made with aerosols of molybdenum,
vanadium, dust of different inorganic compounds,- etc. Results in a11 cases
were reliably accurate. The methods here described for experimental testing
of the toxic effects of different dusts and aerosols are recommended for wide
use by toxicologists, pharmacologists, industrial hygienists and research
sani tari ana.
Compressed
air;"'"
-
A
-
-
---- .-' --:.. - -
-::::=.--
--==..---
---
Fig. 2.
-184-
-------
Effeot of Small Benzene Concentrations on Higher Nervous Activi't7
of Anima~s in Chronio EXperiments. .
By Yu. V. Novikov.
The Central Institute of Post Graduate .edicine.
G1g1ena i Sanitari7a, Bo. 2,1956, pp. 20 - 25.
. -
The determinatiQn of mA~mum allowable benz~ne concentration in atmospheric
air of populated areas presupposes knowledge of chronic effects of small concen-
trations on .the higher nervous activity of animals. Changes occurring in blood
morphology and in the hem~~oietic system are symptoms typical of the chronic ac-
tion of benzene. Some authors are of the opinion that these changes occur at a
later period and at benzene concentrations higher than those which affect the ner-
vous system actiMty. R. E. Rosentsvit maintained this viewpoint and believed
that the first symptoms of chronic benzene intoxication were functional distur-
bances of the central nervous system, which preceded changes appearing in the
blood. According to this author's observations neuro~c disturbances ma.:y
be the only clinicsl indications of chronic benzene intoxication. The majority
of scientists think that morphological blood changes were secondaty effects of
benzene poisoning and that earliest disturbances occurred in the central ner-
vous system, which regulated the activity of the hemopoietic system.
I. S. Tsitovich, R. I. Yaroslavskaya and I. K. Rozovsldi studied changes
in higher nervous aot! vi ty whioh developed in acute experimental benzene poi-
soning. Results of I. S. Tsitovich showed that exposure of dogs to benzene
ooncentrations of 3,000 - 5,500 mg/m3 injured the deeper nodes of the midbrain
. .
which resulted in looomotor atax1~, bo~ tremor and lowered bo~ temperature,
while the higher nervous activity remained unaffected. According to R. I.
Yaroslavskaya and I. M. Rozovsk1i the first s1DlPtom which appeared as a re-
~ult of exposure to benzene concentrations of 1,000 - 4,000 msfm3 was short-
sniDg of the latent period of reflex response. Exposures to benzene concen-
trations of 2,000 - 4,000 ms{m3 prolonged the. latent period of the motor oon-
_di tioned reflex response to bell-ringing .( strong stimulation) in white rats.
I. S. Tsitovioh's results are in contradiotion with those of R. I. Taro-
slavskaya and I. M. Rozovsldi who produce~ disturbances of the higher nervous.
activity in whits mice with approximately the same benzene concentrations.
This. contradiction ma.y be due to the fact that the authors worked with differ-
ent species of animals and used different methods of exposure.. No referenoes
-185-
-------
were found in Ii tera~re pertaining to chronic effects of small benzene con-
centrations on higher nervous activity of animals.
" To "fill this void, a new stu~ was made of the effect of small benzene
ooncentrations on higher nervous activity of mice by L. I. Kotlyarevskiy's
method. Groups of three types of conditioned retlexes were developed in the
experimental animals: two positive, (one strong arid one weak),and one negative.
The group pattern was as follows: 2 positive conditioned reflexes in response
to a bell (strong), 2 positive conditioned reflexes in response to a red light
(weak); 1 positive conditioned reflex in response to a bell (strong); 1 nega-
tive conditioned reflex in response" to a buzzer; two positive conditioned re-
flexes in response to a bell and 2 posi ti ve in response to a red light.
After this pattern of motor conditioned reflexes had been established teste
. were made to determine the animal's type of higher nervous activity by extending
differentiation t"O" 3 min. and by testing the effects of 24 hour starvation. The
average length. of latent period of the second arid third conditioned reflexes to
bell ringing was thus calculated; first and second reflexes to red light stimu~
lation and average length of conditioned motor nutritional reflex reaction were
calculated covering a period of ten dqs. The data thus obtained served as ref-
erence "points for the evaluation of" further changes in the conditioned reflex
activity of the experimental animals. After having determined the typological"
characteristics of the rats' h1gher nervous activi~y animals were separated in-
to groups according to higher nervous activity types. Final test groups con-
tained rats of eve17 neurotype.
Air was forced into the exposure Chamber by a Gubkin Petroleum Institute
blower. The blower was installed outside the laboratory building so that its
noise had no effect on the conditioned reflex activity of the experimental an-
imals. The air was fir~t passed through a column of silica-gel and activated
charcoal and then divided into two currents: one passing slowly throU8h an
S-shaped glass tube filled with pure " benzene, the other passing at a higher
rate through a series of glass tubes parallel to the S-shaped tube.. The rate
of each air flow was determined by a flow meter. The pure air and the benzene
vapor then entered a mixing chamber and therefrom into the exposure chamber""
The end of the glass tube through which the air from the l111%era entered into
the exposure chamber. extended down to 3 - 5 em above the floor of the" chamber.
Resul ts of air analyses indicated that the benzene vapor was evenly distrib-
-le6-
-------
'2U
rd 'OU
- a 8U
op a 50
'M I,IJ a
rd~zo.~
8'f"f 0
o H 80
J.t ~ 50
o ft.t 1,0
OP(DZO
o J.t 0
~
o '.l
~ ~. I ~ : :
~ .1.0 ,,'~ '1 II n
~ ~ ~ :~ , ! 'I : \ . :'::
(D OM b : ~ 10. I , 0 , , ~ : .
~ rd ,8 ", - ~.. ~ . , ~: \,.. ",.' IJ
...:I o~, - - ,~ " , , '. - I . \" -, I , ~. I ,. I' '.
~ 1.0 ., . t . , " - co.
QjO,6A . "
~~ A
2j79 f3 n ZI 15 19 XI 17 '2 45495' 5964 6673 788.187.9f 9SfOOffJI1ll6ffZ"6m fZ6ISOO4D1M3UtZ n ZZ"Z133
Days of exposure Recov'y
period
- - Bell - - - Light -. -. - Buzzer,"differeiitn.
Fig. . "1JuEffecOt"o-ofo b'enzenen'on"illgher--:iiervous. activi ty of rat
Average duration of latent period of conditioned reflex response to
A-A sound of bell, B-B flash of light. Average duration of motor
conditione~ response to a-a sound of bell, b-b flash of light
~a~ I " "
opaBU
:a ~ 60
s:: 'f"f '0
o 20
o H 0
J.t ~fO
0'+-460
op (D '0
o J.t 20
:::a 0 -. ~_. .-.-
'.6
. ',4
o 4,0
(D 3,6
op (fJ 3.2
~ s:: 2ft
$'M 2.4
CIS rd 2,0
H 0 1,6 5 ~..'"
'f"f 12 -.
J.t 06 -.;
(D , A
~ 0,4
o
t H 9 13 " Z' Z5 zg J3 37 4/ 45/.954 59 64 68 73 78 83 87 Sf 16 100 "" /06112"6 12111.6130 /at.t.sg
Days of exposure.
Bell - - - Light -. - ,. - ]3uzzer.- differentn.
Fig. 2. Effect of benzene on higher nervous activity of rat
No.5 of strong unbalailced neuropattern
Average duration of latent per10d or conditioned reflex response to
A-A sound of bell, B-B flash of l~ght. Average duration of motor
conditioned response to a-a sound of bell, b-b flash of light
.
.
1\
"
J I,
. 'I
II '1
" I I
II I I
II I I
I' I
I I I
o '( I J\
- f..J ~ I - It.-\
,'1 .'
" ~
,..
I
,
,
,
,
,
,
A ~.
,'\,A", .\A, "
..-- rf'- -4 -r- --
II" . J' \... \
,'I \ . '" ,
J
-187-
-------
u'ted throughout the exposure. chamber. The average ra'te ot air gas tlow 111 'the
exposure chamber 1Ias 25 li/miD.
,Air samples were 'taken a't the ou'ttlow, opening ot 'the exposure chambers aDd
inside 'the chambers a't 'the level ot 'the animals' prea'thiDg to.r 'the de'termination
of benzene concen'tration. I't varied within narrow ~'ts. ,Ac'tual averap beD-
zene concen'tra'tions ilJ each ot the, 1;wo exposure chambers used s1lll1UaneoUs1¥
were 64 msf.3 in one. and 13- riJB/.3 in 'the other. Six animals were exposed 'to the
ettec'ts ot 'the two benzene concen'trations six hours dai~ tor a period ot 5.5 '
.on'tha, Sundqs exoluded.' The capaoi't1' ot 'the exposure chambers was 0.1 .3.
. Exposure 'to benzene vapor concen'tra'tions .ot 64 mg/.3 tor 5.5 mon'tha pro-
duced changes in 'the conditioned retlex activit1' ot 'the white ra'ts, such as re-
lease ot ditteren'tial 1Dh1bi'tion, prolonga'tion ot 'the la'ten't period ot condi-
'tione~ retlex response 'to abell,disappearanoe ot mo'tor DU'tritional condi'tioned
retlex response to 11gh't s't1mulation in 'isolated cases, and the appearanoe ot
a compensating and paradoxical phase. Results obtained with rats 1Ios. 6, 5, 8,
and 13 are shown in Figs. 1" 2 and 3, the legends ot which are selt-explanatory.
A'ttention is called to 'the recuperation period ot rats 6 and 13.
Processes ot endogeneous inhibi'tion ot the experimental animals were 'the
. tirs't signs ot disturbance. A. G. Ivanov-8molenskii noted that general1¥ dis-
'turbances ot internal ac'tive iDh1bition appeared earliest and persisted lons-
8S't. According to I. P. Pavlov in'ternal active inhibition retlec'ted one ot the
chiet characteristics ot the cortical ac'ti vi't1' and was the mos't recen't evolu-
. .
tioD&17 torm ot ,inhibition; this apparent],y explains its particular insta),)llit1'
and suscep'tibilit;y to disturbance. CA. G. Ivanov-Smo1 enskii, "Essqs on Pa'tho-
pqsiology ot the Higher Vsrvous Acti vi t1'," Moscow, Kedgi'z, 1952, p. 157.) In
rats ot the first group of strong unbalanced and weak neuropattern ditteren'tial
1nh1 bi 'tion release usualq became manU'est during the tirst month ot exposure
(Fig. 2 and 3), in rat Jio. 6, (Fig. 1) C?f a strong tne ot higher nervous ao-
, . .
tivi t7 difterential iDhibi tion release appeared during the ear17 part ot the
. $8COnd month. Clsar-ou~ differential inhibition release set in b1' the middle
of the 2nd month in the first group (Pig.. ~ mild 3), and at the beginning ot
the fourth K!11on'th of exposure to benzene vapor :W ra~ Wo" 6 of. strong neuropat-
tem. InerealiJe of the latent period of @ond1tioned Nflex response 1;0 bell-
ringing occurred 1:o'V; the beginni"'g ot the tourth and. fif'th months in the animals
with ,s'trong unbalanced and weak higher nervous activit,. (Fig. 2 and 3), and in
'ra't 110. 6, of atroDg tiPe ot neuropa'ttern towards 'the middle of the fifth
, ~
-188-
-------
mon'th ot benzene in'tonca'tl~- (fig. 1).
The phase phenOIDenon in ra't 11'0. 6 ot 'the s1irong balanced 'type appeared in
one 'tes't onl1' at the end. ot the four1;h mon'th ot belUSene 1n'tox1ca'tl~ (Pig. 1,
128'th dq ot exposure), in animals ot other types of - hi.ghar nervous &ct1 v1 t7
phase phenomena appeared 6 'to 7 times during 'the 1&8't 'two MOn'ths ot 'the ohronic
experimen't (Pig. 2; 96th - 13Oth, 98th, 114'th, 124'th, 126'th,and 132Dd dq of
exposure to benzene.) 1't was also noted 'that cond11;1oned. reflex response 'to
red 1igh't was absen't in ra'ts of the weak 'type (Pig. 3, 8O'th, 96'th, 11Oth, 134'th,
and 137'th clq ot exposure). !he phase phenomenon appeared rela1iiveq rareq, .,-
proviDg that f'unc'tlonal ohanges of higher nervous ao'tlv1't7 of 'the exper1men'tal
animals were of thesub-apu'te form. IIi ra't .0. 60t stror:ag balanced 'type. (Pig.
1), recupera'tion of 'th~ higher cen'tral nervous cen'ters occurred on 'the 'third
clq, and ln rat 11'0. 13, of 'the weak neuro-'type, on- 'the22Dddq .atter.xposure.
was terminated, demons'tra't1r:agthat tunctlonal ohangesln oondltloned reflex ao-
'tlv1t7 of animals were reverslble and disappeared rapldq at'ter disoont1nua'tlon
of exposure. In chronio benzene intoxication 'the degree of hiper -oentral ne~
vous s7stem center d1s'turbaD~ depended upon the 'typological oharao'er1etl~8 of
the animal's hlgher nervous ac'tiv1't7J in the stror:ag balanced type these changes
. were less ma~ked 'than in rats of s'trong unbalanced and weak neuro-'types. Thls
- .
also applies to 'the recuperatlon course followed b7 condi'tloned reflex ac'tlv1't7.
Rats ot the second series, exposed to 13 mgfm3 benzene vapor concen'tra'tlon,
dld not show tuno'tlonal changes in the conditloned reflex ac'tiv1't7 wl'th 'the ex-
ceptlon of rats of s'trong unbalanced and ot weak types (Jros. 1, 10, 11) in which
'the frequenC7 ot differentlal 1Dhlbl tlon release lncrealled. .0 changes were
observed in 'the other rats. Record of. rat -.110. 8 is shown in Pig. 4~ This ra't
was ot the s'tror:ag unbalanoed neuropatterDJ in the course of exper1men'tal ex- .
posure its. differential 1Dh1b1't10n underwen't lDh1bi'tion release 17 'times, or
22.7%. Betore intoxioa't1on the peroen'tage ot iDh1bition release W&8 2o..c, or
appro:dmateq 'the same. Changes in the 1ntensi't7 ot oond1'tioned motor nu'tri-
'tlon reao'tion to bell-ri"gI"c and to red lightstimula'tlon in 'the firs't and
second serie8 of 'test8 deserve8 oareful attention. Figs. 1 to 4 show an lD-
orease in conditloned motor nu'trl'tion reaction to 'bell-r1ng1r:ag and red l1gh't
s't1mulation. during exposure to benzene vapors. This phenomenon was no't ~
equal JDaBDitude in both serie8 .and, as waaindioa'tecl,above, persisted during
'the res'toration period, despite 'the fac't 'that sips ot nervous actlv1t7 ot the
-189- -
-------
~~
:a ~
~.n
o
o H
Q)
""~
OCH
~Q)
o J..t
~
a
---!
n
., "
, \ "
.' . I '.
sp
4.6
. 4.l
o 38
Q) .
II) .1,4
..... 3.0 l; ,',
~ ~ 2.4 , ,,,' : \
Q).n Zp" ,
..... ,I (j \
'" 't:I 1,6 - - --
~ 0 1,2
oF:: 0,8 A
Q) Q4
~ 0
t.ST 9 rJ n 1J ZS Z9.D 11 4f ~ U $ 59 6' 68 13 78 8J 61 91!l6 1/11 f0611J6ff2 n6 fZ11Z5 130/JI, /39144 / P to 13 ZD jJ, zg "'-
Days of exposure Recov'y
period
- - - Light -. - . - Buzzer, differentn.
f I' .
, ~ , ~ .,
" II I I
I, ~, I
'" I I
, I '.' I . I
, '.' I I "I
:' r- J w,: :'
, \ I .\J" I
, .' '.'
~,J ..: ':
--' 'J.- J_-
,
, ,
, I
,\ ,: '."
J' I \: \: \
. . "
, \
: ,
I I
I
I
Bell
Fig. 3. Effect of benzene on higher nervous activity of rat
No. 13 of weak neuropattern
Average duration of latent period of conditioneareflex response to
A-A sound of bell, B-B flash of light. Average duration of motor
conditioped response to a-a sound of bell, b-b flash of light
--; . -'fflI
~mBO
....60 a
't:I~~
S::=.....ZO
g H 0
Q)60
J..t ~ 60
OCH4Q
1;~20'
::a 0
.
o .tZ
Q) 11
..... II) 2.'
J:: s::= zp
Q) on '6 '(j II
~ ;2 ~ t\- -- -
"'rd',\'. J
H 0 o,a "-- '-' ~ .I
on4,A .
J..t 0
~ 257 f3 ,,1) 15M
'\ ,.. ! I :\
1 -4i- ,-1 \
V tI \:
A
Bell
17 4UH!J 5459546813 78& 8191 96100fll'fOsnZnlf1.112U!DfJ4/J9N4/47tOlJ n 12'/1.
Days of exposure Recov'y
"Period
- $ - . - Buzzer, differentn.
- - - Light
Fig. 4. Effect of benzene on higher nervaa. activity of rat
No.8 of strong unbalanced neuropattern
Average duration of latent period of conditioned reflex response to
A-A sound of bell, B-B flash of light. Average duration of motor
conditioned response to a-a sound of bell, b-b flash of light
-190-
-------
.uper18eDtal aDi8als appearecl. This leads thi. author to believe that such per.-.
8i8teDo. of reflex iDt8Ds1t7 was basio&l17 a 07.cUc&l pheDomeDon aDd Dot the r.-
ault of bensene iDtoxicaticm.
SU111&r7 .
1. Chronio e~osure to 64 maI.3 of b8Dllene vapor ooncentration proclucecl
funotional changes iD coDd1tiODed reflex activ1v of white rats. These ohaDges
were most marked in an1JIals of weak' &,Dd stroDg unbalanced. tne of higher nervou
activ1t7.
2. In chronic intoxication with 13 msj.3 of 'beaene vapor no ohaIiBes 00-
ourred iD the activ1t7 of the cerebral cortex.
3.. Jiesults presented CaD s.rve as pqaiolOfJical basis for the adoption of
the limit of allowable benzene CoDoentratioD in atmospheric air.
Bllt1iopapq.
K 0 T nil p e B C K H A n. M., )l(YPH. BbiCW. RapBHOA AeRT.. HM. nasnoBa, 1951, T. I,
B. 5, CTp. 753-761. - Po 3 e HUB H T r. 3., PaHHII!! AHarHOCTHKa H TetleHHe XpOHHtle-
CKHX HHTOKCHKaUHA 6eusonOM (HsMcHeHH!! H~pBHOii CHCTeMbI), B KH.: TesHcbI AOM.
HaYQH. ceCCHH, nOCB!!W.. 30-neTHeA Ae!!TenbHOCTH HayqH.-Hccne.ll. HH-Ta rHl'HeRbi TPYA8
H npocJIsaOoneBaHHA, n., CTp. 156-157, 1954. - U H T 0 B H q M. C., B KH.: COopHHK
paOoT' no. TOKcHKonorHH, q. I, CTp. 37-66, POcToB-Ha-.l1oIlY, 1934. - 51 po C naB-
C K a!! P. M., Po 3 0 B C K HAM. M., B KH.: Te3HCbI .IlOKn. 2-ro BcecoiosHoro COBel1(aHHR
00 BonpocaM npoMblwneHHoA TOKcHKonorHH, CTp. 12-13, M., 1952.
The Effect of Titanium and Titanium Dioxide Aerosols.
B7
1.-
o. Ia. Mogilevskqa.
Department of Industrial BTg1ene, Sechenov First Moscow Order of
LeDin Institute of MediciDe.
Gigiena i Sanitar17a, No.3, 20-23, 1956.
The growth of production industries and the utilization of titanium and
titanium dioxides oonfronted industrial hygiene with the need to investigate
the possible harmfUl effects of titanium dust inhaled b.1 workers. Titanium
-191-
-------
belongs to ,the so-calledall07 metals inoreas1ngl7 used in the manufaoture of
hip-grade steel. It is also used in the non":'ferrous metallurgy in, the pro-
duction of aluminum, copper, manganese, nickel, and other a11078. Hardti t~
. .
tungsten all078 have been usedwidel7 in ~ modern cutting tools. Powdered
metallic titanium has also been used as a catal7zer in same 8;ynthetio prooesse8-
(Ya. II. Lipkes, )I. P. Slav1nsld.l).Titanium dioxide has been used in the mai1-
utaoture of fire-re8istant materials, rubber industries, and a8 a pipent in
the paint industrT.
Soviet and foreiBn literature on the effeot of titanium on the organism
, ,
present 9n17 few and oontrad1otorT. reports. The importanoe of the metal to
life, :remains unexplained. The content of Ti in the organism varies with the
tissues and can be as hip as 0..0081 mg 100 g of fresh substanoe. This
prompted V. I. Vernad.S1d.i to state that "titanium conoentration in the organ-
ism clear17 indicates that it was essential to the organism and that it must
be of importanoe to some of the living funotions". Even if true this does
. ,
not preolude possible harmful effects of the metal since the amount, state of
aggregation, and route of its entrance into the organism ms:r affect 1 ts na-
ture and intensit7 of action as is the case with oobalt, arsenic~ etc. A. O.
Voinar pointed out that the solubility ot titanium in blood serum, ascitio
and other bo~ fluids, was considerably' greater than in water.. Thus, when
ti tan1um or ti tan1um dioxide find their ws;s 1ato the organism the;J become
readil7 absorbed by ,the bo~ organs.
Results of the comparatively few animal Gxper1ments with titan1Um~ its
, .
dioxide, and 'several of its s8l ts are BODlGwha.t eontradictor.y. Riche and others!,
oi ted by A. O. Voinar, added 1 g of ti tamum c1 tntedaily to the diet of rats
tor 146 ~s without observing ~ pathological eftectso They obtained similar
results with guinea pigs9 cats and oth@r axdm&lso 'lToin~ also dGl30ribed a
case of &, man who took a Bingle dOliJs ot 460 ($ o~ 'i!;it~t))m d1oxid.~ with DO ~p-
parent ill effect. G. Fairhall express@d ths opinion that titani~ dioxide
had no efft3ct on experimental animalso Eli! 01 t0ci V.. Bla 1;]D.OfSQ Q:mm~J!u!,t:i!.cm and
X-r&ys of tJorkex-eI n lungs expost'Jd, to t1 '6aW.'tm d1c!d.dG cmst showed no p&tb.olcgie&l
S7D1Ptomse Bo:B. Koiransk1i observed that titanium dioxide used as a paint pi&""
ment prodtXoeti DO toxic effects..' Ie.. Be Lehmazm and Lo Herget who studiad the
effect of 'fi02 experimentally arr1 ved at a similar conclusioDe Lenei (ci te~
'b7 Jr. V. Lazarev) exposed 28 guinea pigs to the etfects ot '!'i02 aerosol for
-192-
-------
4 month8 which produced ti tan1asis in the experimental animals. The effects
of metallic titanium or its .dioxide aerosols still remain unexplained. Both
:types ot aerosol oocur in the manufaoture ot titanium, pigements, etc~ and a
deoisive inVestigation ot their physiologioal aotion is"ot practical s~i-
canoe. The investigation here reported was undertaken in response to requests
b.r several industrial plants and public health organizations.
The aerosol samples oonsisted ot diepersed particles, 85 to 87% ot whioh
had a diameter less than 2~. The aerosols were introduoed into the organism
by the blood-tree intratraoheal method ot te. B. Gorodenskii. The animals
were injeoted with a suspension ot 50mg ot dust in 1 ml ot p~siolog1oal sa-
liDe. Tests were made with 20 rats ot whioh fcur oontrols wereinjeoted with
pure physiological saline. Experiments were performed in 2 series: (1) i,ntra-
tracheal injeotion ot metallio titanium dust, and (2) intratracheal injection
ot "titanium dioxide dust. Throughout the duration of the experiments the ani-
mals remained healt~ and gained. weight. Six months later some of the rats
were killed, the rest were ~einjedted with 50 mg ot metallio titanium dust,
5 months later the test and oontrol animals were. killed. All animals inoluding
the controls were autopsied and none showed ~ maorosoopic organ pathologr.
Histologio examination showed no ohanges in the internal organs, exoept tor
minor round-cell inti 1 tration around the bronohi;" in the rats killed after 11
months suoh infiltration penetrated into the oonneotive tissue ~hioh was not
" .
observed in the rats ot single exposure. Histiooytio and lymphoid oells grouped
around dust partioles tixed in the lung tissue.." Bo nodular prooesses or inter-
stitial solerosis of the lungs were observed in the rats subjeoted to two tita-
nium dust exposures and saorifioed after 11 months. ~h nodules showed signs
of Q1perplasia and solerosis.
The follOWing are exoerpts trom the seoond experiment: Rat No. 13, young,
weighing 137 g, was i~jeoted June 12, 1953 with 1 ml suspension of 50 mg of
metallio titanium dust under ether anesthesia. Reinjeoted with the same dose
Bovember 17. Throughout the period of observation the rat was heal t~ and
gained weight. It was sacritioed Mq 3, 1954 when it weighed 420 g. Autopsy
showed nothing unusual in the internal organs.
Histological examination showed a soattered aocumulation of dust partioles
in the lungs surrounded b.r histiocytio and lymphoid oells, muoous membrane of
the bronohi was unohanged, round-oell and histiocytio infiltration of solerotio
-193-
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t1Pe; hyperplasia and sclerosis of the lymph nodules; no interstitial sclerosis.
was noted; scattered small focal thiCkening of the alveolar septi. Other organs
appeared nomal. Rats of the second series of experiments were injected with
a suspension of 50 DIg of titanium dioxide in 1 ml ofp1qsiological saline. As
.1nthe first series, the animals remained heal t1q throughout the period of the
experiments and gained weight. Some of the rats were killed after 6 months,
the others were similar~ reinjected. These animals also remained heal t1q and
were killed 11 months after the experiments were .int tiated..
Autopsy observations of the rats killed after 6 and 11 months showed no
macroscopic pathology of the internal organs.. Histological examinations re-
vealed marked' round-cell infiltration around the bronchi. These were massive
in the rats killed after 11 months and penetrated into the connective tissue.
Round-cell and bystiocytio reactions were noted ~round the dust particles fixed
in the lung tissue; a slight thiCkening of the alveolar septi and small emp1q-
sematous areas were observed in spots. Here, too, no nodular or interstitial
sclerosis was observed.
Excerpts fJ;'Om the records of the second series of experiments: Rat No.
18, young, weighing 102 g on June 12, 1953, was anesthetized and injected with
. .
1 ml suspension of 50 mg of titanium dioxide. The same dose was injected
November 17 . Throughout the experimental period the rat was healthy and gained
weight. It was sacrificed)(q 3, 1954, when it weighed 447 g. Autopsy showed
no macroscopic pathology of the internal organs. Histological examination
showed large accumulations of dust particles in the lung tissues surrounded
. .
b.1 round-cell. and hystiocytic infiltration; slight scattered thiCkening of
alveolarseptiJ small emphysematous areas; hyperplasia of the lymph nodules
around the bronchi; sclerosis to varying degrees; no interstitial sclerosis
was noted; lymph nodes showed no changes. . Thus, the results of both series
of experiments ,showed that aerosols of metallio titanium and titanium dioxide
dust produoed no patholog1c changes' in the lung tissue, even after two intra-
tracheal injections.of 50 mg of the dusts.
Changes observ~d were of the nature of local lymphatic apparatus reaotion
and proliferation of nodular lymph cells followed by slight sclerosis. L,m-
phoid and histiocytic cell groupings formed around the particles injected.
.0 pathological changes appeared in the animals throughout the entire obser-
vation period after a double injection of 50 g of metallic ti tan1um and ti-
tanium dioxid.e.
;"194-
-------
!be' results ~f the investigations here recorded pertain only. to Pa~1cU~
late titanium and not to titanium fumes. The latter h~ve .a higher degree of
dispersion and tissue pen~tration and ~ be more aotive physiologioally. It
" .
is hoped that the effeot of fumes may be studied in. the near. future.
ConoluBi1f3HKo-xIfMIf4ecKHc cBollcTBa ~.ryCMCHTOII,. CTp. 244-256,
M., 1952. - F II i r hall L. T., 1ndustri;~1 To~icology, p. 179,' Balhmore, 1949. -
L e h man n K. B. U.' Her get L., Chcmlker-Zettung, 1927, N. 82, S. 793-794.
-195-
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The Effect of Eenzene on the Organism at High Air Temperature.
Ey. T. A. Kos1ova.
(Department of General HYgiene of the N. M. Sechenov First Order of Lenin
, Medical Institute).
Gigiena i Sanitariya 22, No.4, 18-24 (1951).
A survey of the literature on the subjeot of benzene effect on the organ-
ism at high air temperature showed that insufficient attention was given this
phase of benzene, toxicology. Studies of the acute effects of 'Penzene and high
temperature on experimental animals were made by V. K. Navrotskii and S. M.
Dubinskaya. Many of our industrial ,production plant workers are exposed to
the simultaneous effects of benzene and high air temperature. F,qr this reason
this subject deserved more serious consideration. This problem was extensively
studied by this author.
The study was conducted over the years of 1953 - 1955 along two channels~
direct observations in one of our 1eatherette factories (the Nogin plant), and
experimental studies with laborator,y animals. Observations under direct fao-
tor,y conditions were conducted during the months of June, July and August,
when the temperature inside the work shops ranged between 28 - 42°, and again
during the months of December, Januar,y and Februar,y when the air temperature
of the work shops ranged between 20 - 28°.
The basic process in the preparation of leatherette consists in the ap-
plioation onto some textile fabric or paper of a benzene-dissolved nitro-p1as-
tio followed b.1 compression and drying in special chambers. This pre1iminar,y
process and the processes of first coat application and embossing are,aocom-
panied by the emanation of a considerable amount of heat. The benzene vapor
concentration in the air of the work rooms ranged between 0.05 to 1.2 mg/1i.
(See Table 1). The blood picture was the first to become affeoted in benzene
intoxioation, and the blood changes were usually of a speoifio character.
Therefore, a systematic study was made of the blood of the workers under o~
.servat1on.
The control group consisted of individuals who lived under local c1imatio
conditions free from benzene air pollution. The study covered blood piotures
of 213 workers. The results showed that during the summer months, when the ef-
fect of benzene vapor on the workers wa,s paralleled by high atmospheric temper-
-196-
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TA:BLE
1.
:Benzene vapor content in the air of production premises of the Bogin factor,y
during summer months.
Point of sample taking
:Benzene c oncent rat 1 on 'in mg/L
Summer Winter
Minimal UA~imAl Minimal Maximal
Mixer No.5
Mixer No.9
:Base application, machine
No.4
:Base application, machine
No.1
Calender press No.1
Calendar press No.3
Imperfects, Table No.2
Imperfects, Table No.4
0.35 0.80 0.20 0.60
0.35 0.55 0.25 0.47"
0.40 0.90 0.30 0.60
0.36 1.20 0.20. 0.80
0.10 0.40 0.08 0.20
0.08 0.25 0.05 0.15
0.05 0.15 0.05 0.08
0.08 0.25 0.05 0.12
ature, the number of workers having anemia~ of moderate intensity increased
(Hb. b.1 Sahli hemoglobinometer was 55% and erythrocyte count beiow 4,000,000/
mm3). The number of workers showing signs of early leucopenia, with leuco-
cytes below 5,OOO/mm3 also increased. In some workers the number of leuco-
cytes fell during the ,summer mont~ to 3,800 and of thrombocytes to BO,000/mm3,
pointing to the onset of a chronic state of benzene intoxication of I d~gree.
(See Table 2.)
The largest number of individuals with such symptoms was found among the
workers who prepared the "base" and of the first-coat applying departments,
where the air temperature reached 35 -420 and the benzene air concentration
was high. Two workers of the group under observation showed symptoms of chron-
ic benzene intoxication of II degree. A study was made of the blood pictures
of workers with special reference to duration of employment. The raeults showed
that the appearance of symptoms of benzene intoxication. of I degree became more~
f:!:'equent the longer the workers continued at their occupations. This observa-
tion became particularly manifest in the summer months among individuals with
5 = 10 years work records or longer. Changes in blood indexes of workers show-
ing symptoms of. chronic benzene poisoning took on graver a~pects during the
summer months; this applied particularly to the degree of disturbance in the
leucopoietic functions. During the summer months, when the temperature of the
air rose, workers complained more frequently of headaches, weakness, easy fat-
igability, vertigo, bleeding from the gums and nose, etc.; pulee beat and blood
=191=
-------
TABLE
2.
Condition of blood of workers employed in theleatherette ifactory.
Workers '.
group
: :
:No. . of: Air temper- :
:work- :ature in pro-:
: era iduction dept.:
: :
Leucocytes ": Thrombocyt~a
Below: Below 3;800 "r:Befow :Be10w 80,000
5,000 :No. of: % of r2OO,OOO:No.of: % of
per~ :work- :total: per :work- :total
1 IJIJIt" : era: : .1 mm3 : ers :
Production
181
20.9
20 - 280
Winter
season
28 - 420
Summer
season
94
18.2
148
38
33
152
104
164
59.1
108
51.4
.
. \
21
-
Cont ro1
20 - 280
Winter
season
28 - 420
Summer
season
3
2
4
2
pressure were uneven and the body and skin temperature became elevated to a
6'l'eater degree than usua_l under normal conditions.
Direct experimental studies were made with rabbits kept in experimental
chambers under conditions approximating those which prevailed in the ~ndustr,y
under consideration in so far aa benzene air concentration and temperature
conditions were concerned. The study was divided in~o three parts: 1) .test
of the effects of high temperatures (30 - 400) on the experimental animals;
2) tests of the effects of low benzene concentrations on the animals under
normal (16ca1 climatic) conditions at 200, and 3) tests of the simultaneous
effect of benzene vapor and high air temperature. Groups of. ten rabbits were
used in each set of tests and 0.1,0.3, and 0.6 mg/li benzene concentrations
were used as the most frequently occurring concentrations under practical con-
ditions of the industry under investigation.
~erimenta] animals were exposed to the effects of benzene in'a temper-
ature-regulated chamber for 2 hours daily over 3 ,months. Studies were made of
the effects of exposures on the neuro-mi.1scu1ar chrona:Q', the hemoglobin, the
. number of erythrocytes, thrombocytes, reticulocytes, ando(the differential
-198-
-------
leucocyte count. Records were kept of the weight, respiration and body tem-
perature of the animals. Prior to the initiation of the experiments. the pat-
tern of the normal physiological activity of the animals was established. The
results of experiments indicated that an air temperature of 300 by itself
brought about slight changes in the anillials nerve-muscle chron~, lowered
the viscosity of the blood, but no disturbances were observed of the rabbits'
thermoregulating processes. At a temperature of 40 - 500 the neuro-muscular
chronaxy was sharply increased at first, returning to its normal after 4 - 50
min. of exposure to such temperature. Similar observations were made b.1 E. B.
Babskii, Z. Ya. Baletskii, V. S. Brandgandler, A. D. Slonim, V. D. Turbaba,
. .
A. N. Magnitski1, I. S. Aleksandrov; they interpreted this as the result of
developing inhibition or arrest processes in the central nervous system. This
was substantiated b.1 the appearance of respirator.y depression which was ob-
served in four experiments after 2 hours of animals exposure to the elevated
temperature. The blood leucocytes became somewhat concentrated, the number of
lymphocytes somewhat increased and the reticulocytes increased b,y 12 - 15%.
Temperature elevation to 400 also affected the animals' processes of thermo-
regulation, as shown b.1 the fact that rabbits' body temperature rose to 40.80,
a shortness of breath and an increase in the respiration rate to 360 per min.
developed, the mucous membranes became cyanosed, the blood vessels became in-
filtrated and salivation and perspiration became excessive.
Benzene concentrations of 0.6 - 0.3 and 0.1 mg/li at normal air.temper-
ature created a state of intoxication the degree of which varied with the con-
centration, 0.6 mg/li effecting the gravest results, manifested in the devel-
opment of anemia, 1euco- and thrombopenias on the 8 - 9 day of benzene vapor
exposure; the neuro-muscular chron~ increased on the 6 - 7 day. of benzene
exposure. It fell to a level below the normal at the end of the benzene ex-
posure period. Exposure of rabbits to 0.1 mg/li of benzene for 13 weeks pro-
duced the following effects: irritation of the hemopoietic system which re-
sulted in the increase in indexes of the erythro- and leucocytes, as shown in
Graph 1. During 11 - 12 weeks of exposure the chron~ was shortened appar-
ently as the result of the central nervous stimulation, which benzene, as a
narcotic, usually effected during the first stage of intoxication. The effects
of rabbits' exposure to 0.3 mg/li of benzene under normal climatic conditions
in their intensity occupied a position intermediary between the effects of 0.6
-199-
-------
and 0.1 mg/li o£ benzene; this was especially true of changes in the neu~o-
muscular chron~ and in the blood picture. All rabbits exposed to the ef-
fects of benzene vapor under normal local climatic conditions developed a
hypothe~ varying in degree.with the benzene concentration.
Rabbits were then e~osed to the simultaneous effects of benze~e vapor
. .
and elevated air temperature. .The results showed that elevated air temperature
. .
augmented the effect of benzene vapor on the neuro-musoular chronaxy first.
Thus, the' inhalation of benzene in 0.6 mg/li concen~ration at 400 sharply
lengthened the chrona:q- at the very early days of exposure, returning to the
. .
normal level on the 5 - 6 week, as shown in Graph 2. Simultaneously all blood
indexes were considerably lowered. The inhalation of 0.3 and 0.1 mg/li con-
. . o'
centrations of benzene vapors at air temperature of 40 brought about a short-
ening of the period of the benzene stimulating effect and an earlier increase
in the intensity of the processes of inhibition of the central nervous system,
which was reflected in an increased chronaxy.. At 0.3 mg/li benzene concentra-
tion a 40% increase in chronaxy was observed on the 7th week as compared with
the 9th- week in rabbits inhaling the same benzene concentration at 200 air tem-
perature~ Inhalation by rabbits of 0.1 mg/li benzene at 400 air temperature
increased the chronaxy on the 9 ~ 10 week as compared with the 11 - 12 week
. . .
exposure to same benzene concentration at normal air temperature.
Thus, a shortening in the motor chronaxy was observed during the first
. .
period of exposure to the effects of benzene vapors; this was the result of
increase in the processes of stimulation of the central nervous system. Dur-
ing this period the hemopoietic system showed signs of hyperfunctioning which
was reflected in the increase in the erythro- and leucocyte indexes. As the
time of the organism's exposure to the effects of benzene was extended, the
second phase of intoxication appeared, characterized by increased inhibition
processes of the central nervous system and resulting in increased neuro-
mu'scular chronaxy. All blood indexes were lowered; and, the lower was the
benzene concentration in the air, the more prolonged was the period of stim-
ulating effect of benzene and less frank was the picture of the hemopoietic
system of depression. The ~uxilliary effects of elevated temperature on symp-
toms of benzene intoxication can be summarized as follows: the time of the
preliminary phase of benzene stimulation was shortened, and the enhanced cen-
tralnervous inhibition appeared sooner, as can be seen in Graph 2; the shifts
-200-
-------
(0' Leucocytes Thrombocytes
to'
9 in rJD3'
8 ~o
7 ~
6
, zy;
. f~O
, 50
o
2
+
Ii
8
iO )2..
Weeks ot
H6
in percent
6f
59
57
55
SJ
$I
..
- 0 2 4 6 8 m ~
exposure
10' in mm3
5,8 Erythrocytes
~~
~O
~,6
4.2
48
o 2 .. , 6 to :2 0 2 .~ (j 8 to t2
Weeks ot exposure
'reDll' I,(J" Conon. 'Qfl1t/n
- 1,0" 0,6 .
20' fl.' .
.--.. 20' 0.6 .
Fig. 1. Eftect ot 0.1 and 0.6 mgfli concentrations ot benzene
on rabbi t8 t. bloed pictures at ditterent air temperatures
f1f V . f1f V
Extensor muscles
0.22 /s
0./8 /3
0.11, /1
0.10 9
0.05 7
.D,Q2 ,
C
2
" 6 8 10 /2
Weeks ot e
Chronaq at temp.? 200
'tOo
-
Flexor muscles
0,/8 /3
0.11, 1/
r---,
I r~ ,
-- ~~ ~---- ~--
~-"' v ~_.
v
0.10 9
OP6 7
0.02 5
024 6 B m n
xposure
----Bheobase at temp.? 70'
.---. '. ~ - 40'
Fig. 2. Eftect ot 0.6 ms/li concentration ot benzene on
rabbi ts' neuro-am&cular chronu;,y at difterent air temps.
-201-
-------
in blood indexes were of &.profounder character in all rabbits, as was mani-
fest by a sharper drop in the indexes of erythrocytes and leucocytes and in
the leucocyte differential picture (increase in the immature and red shaped
pseudoeosinophiles, a more pronounced neutropenia and monopenia). Qualitative
changes were also observed in the blood of rabbits subjected to the simulta-
neous effects of benzene and elevated temperature: anysocytosis, toxic granu-
lation of pseudoeosinophiles and pycnosis of the lymphocyte nuclei. No such
changes were observed in the blood of rabbits inhaling benzene vapors in same
concentrations under normal (local climatic) conditions, as can be seen in
Graph 1.
On the 11 - 12 day of inhalation by rabbits of 0.1 mg/li of benzene vapors
at 400 air temperature there appeared signs of mild anemia, leucopenia and
thrombopenia; at an air temperature of 200 the hemopoietic function was de-
pressed. It can be assumed that changes in the morphological composition of
the blood were the result of a general reaction on the part of the-organism in
some way associated with a disturbance in the functional state of the central
nervous system following a developed hyperthermia. Disturbances in the proc-
esses of thermoregulation in experimental animals exposed to the effects of
benzene and elevated air temperature became manifest in the fom of sharp in-
crease in the body temperature, as compared with rabbits exposed to the ele-
vated air temperature alone. Disturbances in the processes of thermoregulation
were also expressed in the fom of grave signs of overheating, such as dyspnoea,
salivation, sweating, cyanosis of the mucosa and vascular infiltration. The
symptoms at 30° air temperature were intermediary between those at normal and
40°.
Conclusions.
1. A study was made of the state of health of workers employed at the
Nogin leatherette factory. At elevated air temperatures up to 400 the effects
of benzene vapor produced graver symptoms of intoxication than under lower air
temperature (20 - 280) and workers complained more frequently of headaches,
verti5~, easy bleeding, etc.
2. Under the conditions of the experiments the toxic effects
were somewhat augmented by elevation in the air temperature of the
. 0
chamber to 30 .
of benzene
exposure
-202-
-------
3. Raising the temperature of the exposure chamber to 400, which by
itself caused a disturbance in the thermoregulation, caused the symptoms of
benzene intoxication to take on graver aspects in experimental rabbits. The
increase in the gravity of intoxication appeared in the form of earlier onset
of toxic effects and more pronounced clinical symptoms than at 200 air tem-
p~rature.
4. The increase in benzene toxicity with increase in air temperature may
have been due to the effect which increased temperature exerted on the rate of
benzene permeation into tissues, its distribution rate and ~ate of toxicity
neutralization by the organism and effect of temperature on the functional
state of the nervous system (hyperthermic effect).
5. The simultaneous exposure of animals to benzene vapor and elevated
air temperature brought about a lowering in the resistance of the organism to
temperature effects as indicated by increased disturbance in the processes of
thermoregulation.
6. The so-called syn~rgystic effect of elevated air temperature on the
toxicity of benzene vapor to the organism has been establishsd. In this con-
nection there arises the possible need to. determine differential limits of
allowable benzene vapor concentrations in the air of industrial work rooms.
This may apply equally to other gaseous air pollutants.
-203-
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Pollution of Atmospheric Air with Carbon Monoxide in the Vicinity
of Ferro-Metallurgical Plants.
.N. N. Skvortsova
(Institute of General and -Community Hygiene Akad. Med. Sci. U.S.S.R.)
Gigiena i Sanitariya, 22, No. 12, 3-9, 1957.
Carbon monoxide is one of the most frequently encountered pollutants of
the atmospheric air of industrial cities. Z. G. Vol'fson in 1950 (Moscow,
Dissertation) and A. S. ~kov in 1953 (Leningrad, Dissertation) made a thor-
ough study of the pollution of atmospheric air of -industrial cities with car-
bon monoxide caused by automobile exhaust gases. The part played b.y ferrous
metallurgical emissions, which contain considerable quantities of carbon mon-
oxide, on the pollution of the air of industrial cities has not been studied
adequately. The rapid growth of the ferrous metallurgical industry impressed
upon this writer the urgent need for the study of the part played by that in-
dustry in city air pollution with carbon monoxide.
. For this purpose ferrous metallurgical plants were chosen which in ac-
. . (
cordance with our sanitary code should have had sanitary clearance zones of
Class II. As it were, no such clearance zones existed in that vicinity. The
primary source of CO emission in one of the plants was the open hearth furnace
department and in another plant the blast furnace department. Other depart-
ments such as the foundry, the rolling mills, the forging, the steam boiler
and others also emitted CO in the course of their operation but to a lesser
degree. The industrial gas emission occurred at a height of 45 - 60 meters
and contained 8 - 10% of CO in the gases coming from the open hearth furnace
and 30 - 40% in the gases coming from the blast furnaces. The following in-
vestigations were carried out on a parallel basis: a study of CO pollution
of atmospheric air in vicinities surrounding the two ferro-me~allurgica1
plants, and a medical survey of the general health of the school age children
who resided in those vicinities.
The atmospheric air study was conducted along the fOllowing lines:
1. 350 air samples were collected in the vicinity surrounding each of
the plants.
2. 175 air aamp1es were collected inside living quarters located close
to points at which atmospheric air samples were collected as mentioned above.
-204-
-------
3. 50 samples of atmospheric air and 30 samples of indoor air were
collected 'in a control se~tion which had no industriGl plaqts and which was
free from automotive traffic.
Accordingly, a total of 581 air samples were analyzed.
Carbon monoxide was determined by the method approved by GOST 5602-50-
5612-50. Accuracy, of the method in air volume~, as here used, was 0.005 mg.
Not less than 1000 ml of air were required for a single analysis. A simul-
taneous study was made of the velocity and direction of the wind, of the
temperature and relative humidity of the air. The study of vicinities sur-
rounding the plant operating open hearth furnaces extended from 1950 to 1952;
air samples were collected at 50, 100, 250 and 500 meters from the plant and
at a considerasle distance from t~e main highw~, at different seasons of the
year and different times of the day; one-hour and 24-hour samples were col-
lected. Samples were taken within and outside the smoke flume range. The
study of vicinities surrounding the plant operating blast furnaces were made
'in 1955. Air samples were collected within radii of 200 - 300, 400 - 500,
600 - 100, 800 - 900 and 1200 meters from the plant. This ferrO-metallurgical
plant constituted the only source of CO emicsion in the region of its location.
The results of atmospheric air analyses are presented in Tables 1 and 2.
TA:BLE
1.
Concentration of carbon monoxide in the atmospheric air in the vicinity
surrounding the plant operating open hearth furnaces.
Distance from: Number
plant in m. : of tests
Carbon monoxide concentration in mg/mj
Maximal Minimal Avera~e
50
100
250
500
12
86
12
11
165.2
111.6
128.8
84.0
5.6
5.6
5.6
5.6
32.0
29.1
26.8
23.1
The data presented in Tables 1 and 2 show that the maximal concentration
of CO in the vicinities of the two ferre-metallurgical plants varied with the
distance from the plants; 6eneraliy speaking it was 14 - 31 times as high as
the allowable single maximal concentration for atmospheric air, which is 6
mg/m3; the ,average CO concentration exceeded the allowable limit 3.8 - 18.6
times. Eighty-six and four tenths percent of the air samples collected within
500 meters of the plant employing the open hearth furnace process were CO
-205-
-------
TABLE
2.
Concentration of carbon monoxide in the atmospheric air in the vicinity
surrounding the plant operating blast furnaces.
Distance from: Number
plant in m. :of samples:
Carbon monoxide concentration in mg/mj
Maximal Minimal Average
200 - 300
400 - 500
600 - 700
800 - 900
1200
11
8
3
,23
4
134.4
182.4
89.6
190.4
134.4
16.8
72.8
19.6
5.6
33.6
63.1
112.5
53.2
54.0
68.6
positive; the CO concentration of 4r.3% of these exceeded the limit of allow-
able single dose concentration for atmospheric air; in 37.5% the CO concen-
tration exceeded the limit of concentration allowable for work rooms and shops
(30 mg/m3). Ninety-five and nine tenths percent of all samples collected at
a distance of 1200 meters from the plant employing the blast furnace process
were positive for CO; in 93.5% of these the CO concentration exceeded the
maximal single concentration allowable for atmospheric air, and in 79.2% the
CO concentration was above the limit of concentration alloweble for work rooms
and shops (30 mg/m3).
The frequency with which and the extent to which the air samples were CO
positive clearly pointed to the fact that air pollution by CO in the vicinity
of ferro-metallurgical plants was of a considerable magnitude and that it oc-
curred regularly. Vlhere the blast furnace operated plant was located the CO
atmospheric air pollution was especially heavy. The data presented in Tables
1 and 2 also clearly pointed to the fact that the air pollution with ,CO was
caused by gases emitted by the ferro-metallurgical plants. \Yberethe open
hearth furnace operated plant was located the average CO concentrations of air
samples collected within the range of the smoke flume was 5 - 8 times as great
as outside it. Data presented in Table 3 show that the CO concentration in
the air was somewhat lower at points farther removed from the emission source.
Concentrations of CO in the air within the smoke flume range of the ferr~
metallurgical plant which employed the blast furnace process reached 50.4 -
190.4 mg/m37 depending upon the distance, and outside the flume 0 - 16.8 mg/m3.
This plant emitted into the atmospheric air a total of 60 000 000 m3 of gases
per month. In the vicinity of the plant which used the open hearth furnace
process 60 one hour air samples were collected at 6, 10, 14, 18 and 23 o'clock
-206-
-------
TABLE
3.
Average
. 3
carbon monoxide concentrations in mg/m at different
from the direction of the smoke flume of the open
hearth furnace operated plant.
distances
Distance from
plant in m.
Average concentration of CO in mgf~
Wi thin' the range : Outside the ra.i1Be
of the smoke flume: of the smoke flume.
50
100
250
500
40.0
37.5
33.8
33.3
8.0
7.6
6.9
3.9
Negative air samples were included in the calculation of averages.
mostly within the smoke flume range. Highest CO air pollution was observed at
6, 14, and 23 o'clock which coincided with the particular course of technolog-
ical processes employed in this plant. Maximal 24 hour concentrations ranged
between 82 - 100 mg/m3 and average concentrations between 28 - 63.7 mg/m3.
Results of studies made at different seasons of the year showed that the av-
erage CO concentrations during the winter months were 3.3 times as high asd~
ing the summer months and 1.6 - 2.0 times as high as during the fall and
spring months. Similar observations were reported byB. P. Gurinov in 1949,
by Z. G. Vo1'fson in 1950, b.1 A. S. ~kova in 1953 and b.1 V. A. ~azanov in
1954.
Indoor air studies were made in living quarters most of which had no
domestic gas facilities and which were located 50, 100, 250 and 500 meters
from the plant using the open hearth furn&ce process. Simultaneous stuQy of
the atmospheric and indoor air indicated that the level of CO air pollution
in living quarters not supplied with natural gas facilities was higher at the
time when residences were within the smoke flume range at distances of 50, 250,
and 500 meters, as illustrated in Graph 1. Similar observations were made in
the natural gas-equipped residences which are represented at the 100 meter
mark in Graph 1. It was also observed that in the latter case, as in the case
of the non-gas-equipped residences, the indoor air CO concentration was 1.7
times as high when the residences were within the smoke flume. Simultaneous
studies of 24 hour samples of atmospheric and indoor air showed.a parallel
increase in the CO concentration, as can be seen from the data plotted in
Graph 2. CO concentrations in the indoor air of the non-gas-equipped resi-
-207-
-------
. 111
tra ""
6~ 10 ,.
oir ZIJ'
8 ~ 10
.f}
J1J
. m 100 150 100
Distanoe in meters
o Av. CO ooncn. wi thin
. range of smoke flume
.Ave CO conon. out of
. smoke flume range
Graph 1. Effect of smoke on
indoor air pollution b.1 CO.
rt\SQ .' ; . -:l JIl.4
~ . ~t~o8ph~O,:.
W40-J/P .
~
. 8 JO
.... .
... '.
~/I/
...
. S:::.
I (I) IQ
I 0
18 '
I , tJ. . .
8 .- I .. - ~1IJ . .u_~-1!.
j~..! Time 'of observation
Graph 2. Effect of atmospheric
air poll~ion on. indoor air
(24 hours ob~ervations)
( -208-
-------
dences located in the vicinity of the plant employing the blast fUrnace at
, distances between 800 - 1000 meters averaged 40.4 mg/m3'arid at a distance of
300 meters 71.8 mg/m3, with corresponding maximal concentrat:ions of 72.8 and
l75-~ .' "
It can be reliably concluded from the above that emissions from fene-
metallurgical pla~ts'contributed considerably to. the CO pollution not only of
atmospheric air but of air of living quarters as well.
. .
Evidence found in the literature indicated that the potential danger of
CO as a poison was .determined by its property to produce chronic effects in
small doses, as was reported b,y S. P. Vinogradov in 1928, A. A. ~bshin in
1931, H. Symansky in 1936" L. S. Gorshelev in 1940 and Yu. .~"Frolov tn"1944.
To obtain first hand information on this phase of the effect of industrially
emitted CO 515 girls aged between 10 and 16 years were divided into three
groups' as follows: 1) 20,2 girls who continually resided within a radius of
2.km from the ferro-metailurgical plant which used blastfumaces; 2) 165
. .
girls who continually resided within a radius of 1.5 km from the ferro-metal-
. .
lurgical plant which used open hearth furnaces; 3) 148 girls who continually
resided in a control section free from industrial air pollution. An average
of 67.5% of the girls'iived in! their corresponding areas from birth, the length
of -re~id.ence of the remaining'1?~15% ranged between 1 - 11 years. The girls
were examined in their corresponding schools which were situated 800 - 900
.
meters from the basic sources of the industrial emissions; it can.be seen,
that the schools were also located within the range of the smoke flume.
. ,
Determinations were made for carbo~hemoglobin, number of erythrocytes
and hemoglobin by the Sahli scale.. Carboxyhemoglobin determinations were
made by the photometric method of the Leningrad.Institute of Labor Hygiene and
. .
Occup&tional Diseases as reported by L. E. Gem in 1954. Subjective examina-
tion by the question method was also: made. The latter. disclosed that 24.2%
of the 165 girls living in the vicinity of the open hearth furnace operated
----
plant complained of headaches, vertigo, easy fatiguability, poor a~peti~e, etc!,.-
and that of the 202 girls wh9 resided in the vicinity of the blast furnace
operated plant sim~ilar complaints came from 58.9% of the school girls; only
8~8% of the ~48 girls of the control group registered similar complaints.
. .
The author is well aware of the.pitfalls ~hich analysis of replies to
medical questioning entails. However~ the difference between the percentages
of 24.2 - 58.9 of the industrial and 8.8 of the control groups was sufficient-
-209-
-------
ly great as to be significant and indicative of the chronic effects of ex-
posure to the effects of the industrial emissions. Photometric determina-
tions of the carboxyhemoglobin content of the girls' blood pointed strongly
to the chronic effects of the CO component as the responsible factor. In
the children of Group 1, who resided in the vicinity of the metallurgical
plant operated by the blast furnace process carboxyhemoglobin was found in
the blood more frequently and in higher concentrations than in the blood of
children of Group 2, who resided in the vicinity of the metallurgical plant
operated by the open hearth furnace process. Thus, in the first group no
carboxyhemoglobin waS found in the blood of 25 of. the 202 girls, or l2~5%,
and in the second group no carboxyhemoglobin WaS found in 28 of 165, or 17%
of the girls, while in the control gToUp no carboxyhemoglobin waS found in
92 of the 148, or 62% of the girls. Maximal carboxyhemoglobin found among
the girls of Group 1 was 24%, of aroup 2 - 17% and of th~ control group 7%.
In evaluating the above data consideration must be given to the fact
that the photometric method of carboxyhemoglobin determination oarries with
it an error of ! 2.0%. It must also be born in mind that L. E. Gornreported
in 1955, Gettler and Mattics in.1933, Grout (as cited by Tiunov) in 1955 that
the blood of city dwellers who may be expos~d to low concentration of CO
contained 6% of carboxyhemoglobin.. In addition Truffert reported in 1951, kohn-
"" .
Abrest in 1948, Malstrom and Sjostrand (as cited by Tiunov) in 1955 that the
organism produced endogenous CO which can result in a 4% carboxyhemoglobin.
Therefore, the data obtained in the present study can be evaluated best on
the basis of numbers of cases whose carboxyhemoglobin was above. 6%.
Only one such case waS found among the 148 control children; among the
children residing in the vicinity of the Dietallurgical plant using open hearth.
furnaces the number of girls whose carboxyhemoglobin exceede~ 6% amounted to .
42.4%, and among the children residing in the vicinity of the blast furnace
operated plants the percentage of such cases was as high as 50%. The results
of this type of statistical analysis are regarded as reliable and significant
and offer final proof that the CO component of the ferrous industry emissions
has a chronic effect on the organism expos€d .to its influence. It should be
reiterated at this point that the number of children with above described
complaints waS 2.7 - 6.7 tiwas as great in Groups 1 and 2 as the control group
and that their carboxyhemoglobin was correspondingly 5 - 9 times as high.
-210-
-------
The results of erythrocyte counts are presented'in'Table 4. In 28.3%
of the children of Group 1 the erythrocytes exceeded 5 000 000 per mm of
blood, in 1/3 of this group the erythrocyte count was as high as 5 500 000
and in isolated cases reached 6 900 000, the average being 5 900 000 ~ith an
average hemoglobin of 74%. In 45.8% of the children of Group 2 ~he erythro-
cyte count also exceeded 5 000 000, reaching a maximum of 6 000 000. The
average erythrocyte count in this case was 5 300 000 with an average hemoglo-
bin of 70%. According to data found in literature the erythrocyte count of
children of corresponding ages averaged 4 100 000 with a maximum of 5 000 000
(A. F. Tur in 1950 and V. I. Rabinovich and L. A. Muratova in 1935). It ap-
peared that as a result of atmospheric air pollution with CO children of the
two industrial vicinities showed a tendency towards erythrocytosis. Authors,
such as S. P. Vinogradov (1928), B. Zalkind (1929), H. Syroansky (1936), A. I.
Cherkes (1935), Z. G. Vol'fson (1950) and A. S. ~kova (1953) regard erythro-
cytosis as a specific symptom of CO poisoning.
TABLE
(...
Number of erythrocytes in children.
ErythrocYt e
in millions
Group 1 residing in
. the vicinity of the
blast furnace operat-
ed plant.
No. of
children
%
Group 2 residing in
the vicinity of the
open hearth furnace
operated plant
No. of
children .:
%
3.5 - 4.0
4.0 - 5.0
5.0 - 6.0
Over 6.0
Totals
22
122
51
6
201
10.9
60.7
25.3
3.0
100.0
o
80
75
o
164
o
54.2
45.8
o
100.0
The above presented data indicate that CO polluted air deleteriously af-
fected .the health of inhabitants. It is realized that the data presented ~re
insufficient for the full understanding of the effect which CO air pollution
may have on the health of the population; however, it is felt that the results
clearly point to the urgent need for the introduction of prophylactic means
for the sanitary purification of atmospheric air from CO pollution for the
health protection of inhabitants in general, and especially for the protection
of the health of children.
-211-
-------
Conclusions.
1. Ferro-metallurgical plants discharge into the atmosphere great
. .--
quantities of CO and are~llution factors of atmospheric air 'of
industrial cities and vill~es.
2. Studies of atmospheric air of vicinities surrounding ferro-metal-
lurgical plants showed that conoentrations of CO ranged between 5.6 - 190
mg/m3 and that in 78.8 - 93.5% of the samples. the CO concentration exc~eded
the allowable limit for maximal single concentrations for atmospheric air.
3 . Resul ts of simultaneous studies of .c'~tmos_P!i_~~~~~~ir and air of 11 ving
. ..
quarters showed that a parallelism existed between the CO concentrations of..
the two.
4. . The results of this stu~ indicated that industrial emissions which
contained CO possessed.the potentiality of.affecting unfavorably the health
. . '.." -
of the younger inhab~tants, as was evidenced by a high b10pd content of car-
bo:x;yhemoglobin and by a tendency on the part ofa large percent of the ob-
served children to develop erythrocytosis,accompanied by subjectiveco~
. .
plaints characteristic of CO poisoning.
5. The following corrective and prophylactic sanitar,y measures are rec-
ommended: 1) full utilization of the blast furnace gases after preliminar,y
purification from dust; 2) complete and safe sealing of all gas cond~its;
. 3)ferro-metallurgical plants operating on the open hearth furnace principle
. -
which are located in heavily populated regions and which have no sanitar,y
clearance zones should be moved to more suitable localities; 4) sanitar,y
clearance zones should be instituted around ferro-metallurgical plants which
operate on the basis of blast furnaces.
_._-- .-
nHTEPATYPA .
. B . II 0 r p 8.11 0 i C. n MOCK. ileA. .YPH., 1928, JIr9 2, CTJI. 23-29. ~
'c 0 R 3. r. 8JrBRHfle HI 8JtOpoBbe H.cen~iUJlOnHIIIX r830B 8Brorp8Hcnop~~~:
. UXT8'1eCne lIeponpBRTHR. J1Bc:c. M.,' I . r Y p 8 HOB B.' n.. B KH.: HHcllopM,'MeToA.
..Tep. 'Ue8Tp. H'YI(HO-liccneJt, C'HHT8P 0 BHCTHtyT8 HII. 3pRcM8Ha. M., 1949, HI 3--4,
CTp. 34-3&. - r 0 PH n. 3. .83ROJI. .YPH., 1955, T. 41; JIr9 I, crp. 112-116. - r op-
III e Jr.e 88 n. C. ..pMlltOJl. B TOKCHKOJI., 1944, T. .7, 16 5, CTp. 47-51. - 3 a JI K H H .II B.
Tp. . 1I'Te)). )'Itp. HR'Ta n8TOJ1. B rar. rpYA8. XapbKGB, 1928,. B. 6, CT::..f!i:29. - n JO-
CSY.UK A. A. r.r. 6e30n. H RaTon. TpYAa, 1931, HI I, crp. 32-35. . 0'B8 A. C.
3arpR~eH e B03Ayxa rOPOAC.XHX YJlHU. 0 KHCbIO yrnepoAa R ee SPUH RHKe. .llRCC.,
n., I. a CS H HOB H I( B. H., My paT 0 Ban. A. COB. neAH8Tp., 1935, HI 6,
crp. 7- . - P R 3 I HOB B.-A. C8HHTapHaa OXpaH8 nlloc4!epHoro BOUYxa. M., 1954:. -
T . Y K "B n. A. Ycn. COBp. 6Hon. 1956, T. 40, s. 3, CTp. 316-319. - T Y P A. 4>. reNa-
TOJIOfHR . AeTCKOJ'O B03paCT8. M., 1950. - 4> p 0 no B 10. n. BlIIcwaR HepBHaR' JIeRrenb-
BOCTb npH TOKCHlt038X. M., 1944. - q e p K e C A. H.. .ll Y H a e B C K a II M. 0., I< a .p'n e H-
It 0 1<. H. far. TJlYU a TeXH. 6e30D., 1935, M 2, crp. 13-24. - Get tie r A. 0., M a ~.
tic e M. P. J. Amer. Med. Assoc., 1933, v. 100, p. 92-97. - I< 0 h n - A h res t. Prests
detoxicologie. Paris, \948. - S Y man sky H. Neuere Erkenntnisse iiber die 8cute
and ehronische 1<0hlenoxydvergiftW1g, Leipzif;t. 1936. - T r u f fer t L. Arch. mal ad.
prof:, 1951, v. 12, p. 412-41~
-212-
-------
Effect of Smoke -Q~ City"Light.
By M. M. Fedorov.
(Zaporozh'~Institute of Pedagogy).
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 23, No.8, pp. 14-18 (1958).
In attempting to meet practical problems which arise in connection with
the determination of accessibility of natural light for residential buildings
consideration must be given to. factors other than existing radiation conditions:
it is equally necessar.y to study the light conditions of .the city as a whole.
Conditions of natural light, as a total complex, are composed of light of direct
sun rays and of the dispersed horizontal light. The smoke hanging over an in-
dustrial ci ty aff~Qtl;L the nat~ral light conditions of the city considerably.
Light energy striking the surface of solid or liquid aerosols becomes partially
dispersed or absorbed. The absorptive power of smoke and dust particles con- ,
siderably reduces the light which emanates from direct sun rays as well as the
dispersed light. Under certain circumstances the degree of such light absorp-
tion can be considerable.
"
In 1950 - 1953 a study was made of light conditions of the town of
Zaporozh'e by determining factors which affected total light absorption and
degree of dispersed light absorption. The s~udies_were made with the aid of
photoelectric luxometers equipped with selenium photoe1ements designed by the
U. S. S. R. Acade~ of Sciences. The luxoaeters were standardized at the In-
stitute of Physics a.t the Academy. The stadium "Locomotive" and the physical
training grounds of the Pedagogical Institute, located in the old section of the
town, constituted the basic .cEn:te~~- _of_o~s!r:v~ti?~s". where illiunlnation~!l~n-:-:..- -..
sity measurements were made systematically a.t 9, 12, and 4.o'clock. Another
observation point of illumination intensity was located on the 5Jrounds of the
steel plant Zaporozhstal. The control observation point ~f light intensity
was located in vill~ge Kushugum 25 kilometers from the factory grounds. ~l-
1umination determina.tions at these IJoints were made at the same hours of the .'
day. Linlited equipment and perso~~e1 prevented the inclusion of wore w~~e~y
distributed and more numerous points of illumination observations. However,
supplemental observations were made by the same personnel at a.n additional 1
points close to the grounds of the Zaporozhstal production plant. The per-
sonnel were given automobiles which enabled them to wake noon-day observations,
-213-
-------
Tab 1 e
Zaporozh'e diffuse illumination in kilolux
1 .
II III 1111 IIV I v I \'1 I VII ~ VIII IIX I x \ XI \. XII
9:00
12: 60
14: 00
0' clock. 6,8 10,7 20,r 30.3 32.1 30.4 32 30.3 24,2 14,2 8 2,1
" ~.2 15.3 21,1 36.8 39.3 38,6 36.4 32,2 27.3 18,2 12.2 7.6
.
" . 8,1 10,2 21.8 30.2 32.1 33.1 28,6 23.3 18,8 12,8 6,1 2,4
Zaporozhstal section, Main office
12:00 Olclock.\8,1j14,1119.21 31,1 137.7136.4132.6127.8124.6115,4112,1 I 6
LOSB in illumination in city section.
In kilolux
In percent
Average .
height of
sun in
degrees
at noon
2,8
15
2.1
15
1.1 1.2 1.9 5.7
12. 8 9 16
1.6
4
2.2
6
a.8
10
4,4 2,7
14 . 10
21,129 40.2 21,1
61,1
65,5 63,7 56,2 45,1
33.6 23,6 18.'
J::
'r-!
II
g . II
~~IQ
~r-4
J:: 0
.r-! .-. 14
~:Q
::: 18
H
8
1 1l Ul Ir I f1 fll i1ll II I Z1 11I
Months
Fig. 1. Annual horizontal diffuse light
il1~nation in the old Zaporozh'e Sec-
tion 1n the proximity of the steel plant.
(1950 - 1953).
1. Location of pedagogical institute;
2. Location of steel plant.
-214-
1,-
21
-------
usually in clear or slightly cloudy weather, with the clouds usually at the
horizon measuring 1 -2 points on the ten-point scale. Under such conditions
light changes were very gradual and illumination values obtained were con-
sidered as comparative. In taking dispersed light measureIIlents the
light-receiving'~art of the luxometer was shaded ~y a special screen. In
Table 1 are listed determinations of horizontal surface illulnination by dis-
persed light; values represent measurements made in 1950 - 1953.
The height of the sun over the horizon, atmospheric clarity, the shape
and number of clouds, the presence of snow on the ground, etc., all have an
effect on the intensity of natural light striking a horizontal surface.
The i~teraction between the factors mentioned determines the annual course of
noon-day illumination intensity as shown in Fig. 1. Minimum of such illumina-
tion was oQserved.in December coincident with the lowest position of the mid-
day sun; maximum was observed in May, although the April, June and July aver-
age illumination measurements approximated those of May. The height of the
midday sun during the summer months was greater than in May, but illumination
values were lower because of lesser cloudiness. Average illumination by dis-
persed skylight throughout the year in the region of the industrial plants was
below that of the region of the Pedagogical Institute, due to the fact that the
suspended dark particulate matter of the smoke absorbed much of the light and
also because the blackening of the snow reduced its albedo. Other factors
differed insignificantly/or they were identical in their effects on dispersed
illumination. Differences in illumination by lliidday diffused rays ranged
through the year between 4 and 6% in May and June, up to 21.2% in December,
with an ave~age of 13%.
A more detailed picture of loss in illumination due to smoke is presented
in Table 2 in which are listed average values of total illuwination as deter-
mined on su~ cloudless days by . the. automobile-using personnel in 1953. At
the same time illumination measurements were recorded at the basic observation
point, the "Locomotive" Stadium; and in March - June at vilh.ge Kushue:;um.
such illumination observations were made, it was noted on several occasions
that a considerable loss of ~llumination became manifest at observation points
1, 8 and 9 located in the immediate proximity of the slag and cinder dump of
the Zaporozhstal metailurgical plant. At such points the air was heavily pol-
luted with fine, dry slag dust brought up by the wind. Such air dust pollution
-:-il1.i1 e
was easily discernible from the smoke flume even from a considerable distance.
-215-
-------
T.ab1e
2 .
Average total illumination at different city points
around noon in ki101ux.
'KUj s~~ Light measurements in. Village,
General data ::l:-II 9 I 8 I 71 6 115 113 II,
January. . . . .'
February. . .'.,
Maroh . . . . . .
April. . . . . .
May.......,
June. . . . . .. I
Av. illumination
fo~ Jan. - June
I11umin'n in fad :
L9,c.9mot1, ye sta!i,.- I
Illum1na~10n lO$~
in peroent
Av. i11um'n' for
Maroh - June
Peroent of out
of town il1um'n
I11umin 'n loss
in peroent
Distanoe from
steel plant, Km
21,6 16,4
32,3 "26,3,
52,5 48,7 20,2*
59,8 56,9 44,7.
65,9' 62,1 53,6*
76,8 74,5 64,8
49,4 41
16,8 17,4 20,1
27,6 29,3 30,8
42,2* 39,6* 44,3
46,5. 48,2" 53,7
54,4 57,8 63,6
67,1 69,3 70,8
.16,6 18,6 19,2
26,8 29,9 30,8
40,4 44,8 46,1
49,6 51,8 52,4
54,2 56,4 63,7
66,5 69,,8 73,2
42,4 43,6 47,2 42,3 45,2 47,5
- 100 82 85 88 95 85 90 95
- 18 15 12 5 15 10 5
63,7 60,5 50;8 52,5 53,7 58,1 52,6 55,7 58,8
100
95
5
84
80
82
91
82
87
92
8
20
18
9
3
18
16
13
25
7
0,6
2
2,5
1,5
0,6
3
---...
'~ 0)R 0 -~lln
i . ~
a ~ ' n I 0 .yo; 0 -Thermoe1eotrio oenter
::s ~ 0 * 0 Produotion plants
'd I~: - ~, 0 -13 L ."Looomot1 vetl
, ...~/ / stadium
~I"'/ 0' .
, ~o O~ , ~~=~~ in factory
0% ~-~~
n 0 1.?'9 "~
<0 I '0
~ O.L
6p
Areas of illumination loss in Zaporozhsta1 vicinity.
Fig. 2.
-216-
-------
Data recorded in Table 2 show that the total illumin~tion in the region
of villages surrounding the met~llurgical plant grounds ~as lowered by the
smoke by 5 - 18% as com~ared with the total illumination Qf the old section
of the town; the total illuffiination of the latter, in turn, was lowered by 5%
as compared with the suburban total illumination; therefore, it can be stated
that total illumination of the factory villages ~as 8 - 20% below the total
illumination of the control observation points. These are only ~verage values~
It should be noted that shifts in the wind direction considerably affected
total illumination of any particular observation point or locality. In the
data presented in this report such effects were taken into consideration.
Some of the observation points located in the factory regions were under
the effects of industrial smoke of one wind direction or another.
Other points
were Dlore favorably located, in that certain ~ind directions brought in pure
air from the suburban regions; as a consequence total illumination of such
observ~tion points at such times equalled the total of the control illumina-
tion points.
Such, for instance, was the c~se at villa~e observ~tion point 11
when the wind direction was from the north-west eastwardly.
In the case of
the old section of the town pure air was brought in by ~inds of boutherly
and westerly direction, that is, frOIl) the Kakbovsk seato hi.ke Lenin.
Kakbovsk
bea stretches along the town of Zaporozh 'e over 200 kilorI1eters, being 40 kilo-
meters 'ivide at some points. However, in the case of northerly and ea.sterly
winds, total illumination loss in the old s0ction of town approxin~ted that of
the factory section.
As sho\'Jn in Table 2 averf~ge total illumination bore a close inverSE rela-
tion to the degree of annual dr pollution settled upon the ground enow. It
is suggested that in the study of problems related to the sanitary protection
of community air consideration be given to the importance of prevailing i1-
l~mination conditions.
Bibliography.
fanaHHH H. c%I. MeTeopon. H rHJl.pon., 1939, N2 4, CTp. 8-13.-.lIaHt\Hr H M.
B KH.: TpYJl.bI I-ii l3cecoJ03Hoii KOHcj>epeHI-IHH no eCTeCTBeHIIOMY OCBeu.(eJ'HIO. n. - M., 1'933,
B. 3, CTp. 11-17. - 0 H )K e. .fHr. ~ caH., 1939, N2 9. CTp. 8-13. - 0 H 3t e. B KH.: 3a-
rpll3HeHHe H CaMOO'lllu.(CIiHe BHeWHeH cpeJl.bI. M., 1949, CTp. 89-98. - 3 en e H K 0 B B A.
CBeToTexHHKa. 1935, N2 6. CTp. 10-16. - K a JI H T H H H. H. TaM 3te.1935,N26,cTp. 5-7.-
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M 4, I.:rp. ?-12.. -
-------
The Effect ot Ultraviolet Radiation on the Mineral and Nitrogen
Metabolism of Adolescents.
By
A. P. Shitskova and X. A. Kal1nina.
Division of Food ~g1ene, F. F. Erisman Moscow Scientific Research Institute
of Sanitation and Hygiene, Ministry of Health, R.S.F.S.R.
Gig1ena i Sanitariya, 23, No. 11, 37-43, 1958.
Sufficient data are now available on the effect of sunlight on man and
animals. N. F. Galanin, A. P. Zabaluveva, E. V. Donetskaya and T. 'A. Svider-
skaya, G. M. Frank, and others established that ultraviolet radiation of the
human organism produced complex processes in the skin in the reticulo-endo-
thelial and central nervous systems, enhanced the synthesis of vitamin D, in-
creased immunity, and stimulated metabolism in general. The intensity of
ultraviolet radiation of the sun vari&6 with the latitude and with the time of
d~ and year. According to N. F. Galanin about 70% of the ultraviolet radi-
ation emanated during the four spring-summer months, less in the autumn, and
almost none in the winter. Natural ultraviolet radiation of the sun in large
cities was reduced 20 to 30% by the dust suspended in the atmospheric air and
b.1 smoke and gases (N. F. Galanin, B. V. Richter). The organism needs a con-
siderable amount of ultraviolet radiation.
The insufficiency of natural radiation may be compensated by artificial
irradiation, si~ce it has been shown that ultraviolet radiation of artificial
origin w~s adequately active biologically in relation to man and animals. Ac-
cording to N. M. Dantsig, A. P. Zaba1uveva,Ya. E. Neishtadt, I. X. Ta1anova,
and A. F. Chernavina irradiation with ultraviolet rays of artificial origin
stimulated the synthesis of vitamin D. The conclusion related to phosphorus
and calcium metabolism was based on results obtained in biochemical studies
of the blood, especially in relation to inorganic calcium and phosphorus and
alkaline phosphotase activity, changes in capillary permeability, and the re-
sults of roentgenological studies of the long bones. The reports of these in-
vestigations presented no quantitative or qualitative data on nutritional
phases of 'the groups investigated and no data on the phosphorus-calcium balance
in the organism, despite the known fact that the normalization of P-Ca metab-
olism depended upon the Ca, P, Mg. protein, fat and vitamin content in the
-218-
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diet, ~s well as on their quantitative ratios.
It is generally recognized now that the diet of adults and, especially
of children in the collectives did not alw~s provide for the physiological
calcium needs of the organism. This dietar,y calcium deficiena.y is due to the
fact that most foods had a low content of calcium and that in most foods the
Ca was in poorly assimilable form. The importance of calcium to the normal
functioning of the central nervous system, to blood circulation, to the di-
gestion, blood coagulation, permeability of the cellular membranes, and to
the transmission of nerve impulses is well known. Calcium 1s also aplastic
material for the building of bone tissue. The need for calcium is particularly
marked in childhood and youth, two periods of general rapid growth and of
skeletal formation. Prolonged lack of calcium in the diet results in a sub-
stantial decrease in t~e total calcium content of the organism, which inevi-
tably affects the general health and physical development of children and of
adolescents.
For this reason research in the field of the prevention of calcium de-
ficiency is of immediate practical importance. For the past six years the
Division of Food Hygiene of the F. F. Erisman Moscow Scientific Research.In-
stitute of Sanitation and Hygiene, Ministr,y of Health, R.S.F.S.R., has been
studying the question of increasing the content of assimilable calcium in the
diet of children and adolescents hoping to find means for enhancing. the as-
similation by the growing organism of the calcium present in .their diets.. In
connection with this, during the years of 1951 - 1953 ohildren 8 to 10 years
old were fed several types of vegetables, the Ca content of which was secon-
dar.y only to that of milk, and the rate of the Ca assimilation was recorded.
The results of those dietary investigations showed that children fed diets
containing groats and such vegetables as carrots, white cabbage, sauerkraut,
and cauliflower easily assimilated the Ca contained in the vegetables. The
calcium balance and its retention rose considerably when a part of the groats
was replaced b,y vegetables,. particularly b,y cabbage and carrots. In 1954
children 10 and 11 years old were observed for the effect of vit~in D on the
balance of calcium and other minerals. The results showed that a 2Q-d~ (pro-
phylactic) feeding of a minimum dose of vitamin D2 (500 IU) to school-age
children promoted better utilization of calcium introduced with the food.
-219-
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The work here reported on was a logical continuation of earlier investi-
gations, which included the effect of vegetables and of ultraviolet irradiation
on mine~al, chiefly calcium, metabolism in children 15 to 17 years old. The
purpose of the study was to find biochemical means by which calcium deficiency
could be prevented. The youngsters were attending a trade school where they
were trained to repair agricultural machinery. Conditions at home and at school
were satisfaotory. The students were fed in accordance with dietary standards
approved in 1953. The caloric content and nutritional values of the approved
menu items and of the servings of the 1955 - 1956 academic year were determined
monthly on the basis of six-~ menus, the method developed in the Institute
of Nutrition A.M.S., U.S.S.R. The results are presented in Table 1.
TABLE
1.
Organic and mineral composition of the rations in trade schools.
Ration items Approved In menus Physiological
officialli distributed standards
Total proteins in g 86.32 95.11 119
Of which animal protein 27.14 25.21 72
Total fat in g 53.28 52.57 99
Of which animal fat 35.92 41.25 84
Carbohydrates in g 542.62 553.11 471
Large calories 3062.00 3148.00 3-340
Calcium in mg 642.00 722.00 1000
Phosphorus in mg 2223.00 1765.00 1500-2000
Data presented in Table 1 show that the school diet consisted of items
practically identical with the items of the approved list; however, the content
of proteins, fats (particularly animal fats) was considerably below the physi-
ological standards prescribed for adolescents. The calcium content was also
low - 600 to 700 mg - instead of the standard 1000 mg per day.
During the period of observation the youngsters (13) followed their usual
routine. They were irradiated with ultraviolet rays in the school's medical
center, using a PRX-2 mercury-quartz lamp without the reflector and an ultra-
v10letmeter designed by Engineer Sbklover of the All-Union Light Engineering
Institute; the exposure-dosa'was established on an individual basis by Gar-
bachev's dosimeter. The average erythema dose at a distance of 1 m from the
lamp was 2 minutes, or 262 my/min. The first exposure lasted 1 min - 1/2
erythema dose; students were irradiated every other day to a total of 20 ir-
-220-
-------
radiations. Exposure-dose was gradually increased up to 6 doses on the 20th
day. During the metabolism investigation 4 youths were placed on an experi-
mental diet, the items of which remained the same, as shown in Table 2, but
the menu was changed daiiy'. The meals were prepared individually, and items
were weighed separately for each youth. The meals were eaten avidly and there
were no leftovers. During the metabolism investigation account was also taken
of the fluid intake. It was determined that the dailyCa intake with the
water averaged 80 mg. Metabolism was investigated before and after ultra-
violet radiation. In both cases the observations lasted 10 days, of which 4
were pre-experimental. On days of investigation Ca and calories of the food
consumed were calculated, the urine and feces collected for the determination
of eliminated calcium, phosphows, magnesium and nitrogen. The data expressed
in averages are graphically presented in Figs. 1 - 4. Fig. 1 presents the
data on calcium metabolism in adolescents before and after ultraviolet radia-
ation. The data show that calcium consumption in the diet was practical~
the.same before ultraviolet radiation as after it, averaging 1117 mg per day.
The elimination of calcium, particularly with the feces, after irradiation
fell to 351 mg a day from 644 mg before irradiation. Accordingly, the calcium
balance rose from +394 to +397 mg a day and Ca retention from 34.9 to 62.4%.
Consequently, after ultraviolet irradiation the organism's ablli ty to retain
calcium contained in the diet increased marked~. On this basis it is sug-
gested that consideration be given to the use of ultraviolet radiation on
growing children.
TABLE
2.
Items included in the experimental ration in g.
Products : Grams : Products
. i
.
:
Meat 40 Flour
Sausages 80 Macaroni
Eggs 12.5 Cabbage, white
Cheese 10 Onions
Butter 30 Carrots
Suet, melted 10 Potatoes
Vegetable 011 10 Tomatoes
Milk 150 Dried fruit
Sugar 55 Bread, wheat
Groats 50 Bread, rye
-221-
Grams
17
40
600
30
100
100
17
35
200
500
-------
1.1
U
I
1.1
I'
-=:J ~otal calcium consum~d with food
c::::=:J Calcium eliminated \nth feges
- Calcium sliminated with ur1.ne
."" C:alcium ba] ance
u:
m 4l
~ {IT ,
tlDfI.i'
~" , "
.rl 8,1 ' '
S "-
::$
"8 o.i '
r-I
as,tI,Z
o ,0." ,
o
f i' " Ii i'
Ii:: i ~ ~
, t I J' ",
I; I; ; I~ I.
I ~ ; ;
D L P CAve.
Before u-v
irradiation
D
L C PAve.
After u-v
irradiation
Fig. 1. Calcium metabolism in youths 15 - 11 years old
~~otal phosphorus consumed with food
~Phosphorus elimination with feces
EREaPhosphorus elimination with urine
~ Phosphorus balance
2
lJ
m 1.8
S 1.7
~ 1.6
CIOI.5
1.4
~ I,}
'rl 1.2
1,1
m 1
~ 0.9
0,0.8
.Q 0.7
~D.6
o (/,S
..cI 0."
p... (/,J
Il.Z
41
~.. ,-
D t P 'S 'Ave.
Before u-v
irradiation
D I1 P S 'Ave.
After u-v
irradiation
Fig. 2. Phosphorus metabolism in youths 15 - 17 years old
-222-
-------
The course of phosphorus and magnesium metabolism, in adolescents were
a180 investigated to obtain a more detailed knowledge of changes in mineral
metabolism induced by ultraviolet irradiation. The data obtained in the study
of phosphorus metabolism in adolescents before and after ultraviolet irradi-
ation are graphically presented in Fig. 2. It Qan be seen that the phosphorus
balance rose after the irradiations from +382 to +690 mg per day even though
its intake with the food was the same. Elimination of phosphorus with the
feces fell from 498 to 354 mg per day and ~rom 800 to 603 mg per day with the
urine. Phosphorus retention rose from 22.2 to 41.9%. Data on magnesium me-
tabolism in adolescents before and after ultraviolet irradiation are graphi-
cally presented in Fig. 3, which shows that the magnesium balance after'u1tra-
violet irradiation rose from +88 to +117 per day due to decreased magnesium
excretion with the feces from 385 to 283 mg per day.
The results 9f the nitrogen metabolism study in adolescents before and
after ultraviolet irradiation are graphically presented in Fig. 4. The data
in that figure shOw that nitrogen intake with the food before and after ir-
radiation was the same, averaging 11.6 mg per day. After irradiation nitrogen
elimination with the feces and, in particular, with the urine fell from 11.21
to 9.8 mg per day. The increase in nitrogen retention from 26.2 to 32.1% due
to reduced elimination from the urine points to an activation of plastic
processes in adolescents after ultraviolet irradiation. This was also made
evident by the increase in positive nitrogen balance from +4.86 to +5.63 per
day.
Thus, the data obtained from the metabolism investigations show that pro-
p~lactic irradiation of adolescents stimulated metabolism. After irradiation
, the organism developed a much greater ability to uti)ize mineral elements in
food, especially calcium and nitrogen.
Conclusions.
1. Students in a trade school were fed in accordance with prevailing
U.S.S.R. standards, but the diet content of proteins, fats (especially animal)
and calcium was below the prescribed physiological standards.
2. Prophylactic irradiation of adolescents witb ultraviolet rays markedly
increased their ability to utilize the minerals and proteins contained in their
diets. Calcium retention after irradiation rose from 34.9 to 62.4%" phosphorus
from 22.2 to 41.9%, and nitrogen from 26.2 to 32.1%.
-223-
-------
-=:J Total magnesium consumed with food
~Magnesium eliminat~on with feces
FIlllllm MMagnes;um eliminatio~'wi th urine
. agnesJ.um balance
0.8
0.7
0.6'
It)
a
as 0.5
F-I .
~ 0.<# :
s:=
....
a o.J .
~
ori
It) o.Z
Q)
~D.t
~ .
I.
D
L P S Ave
Before u-v
irradiation
. .
D L P SAve
After u-v
irradiation
Fig. 3. Magnesium metabolism in youths 15 - 17 years old
~~otal nitrogen consumed with food
c=:::::J.Ni trogen elJ.minated with feces
-- Ni trogen eliminated with urine
rlfl'lJZll.J Ni trogen balance
11
18
19
111 18
a 17
as 16
F-I IS
~ 14
11
s:= 11
ori "
1Q
s:= 9
G) 8
~ 7.
F-I 6'
~ 5
.... "
~ J
Z
I
o
D L P SAve
Before u-v
irradiation
D L P SAve
After u-v
irradiation
Fig. 4 Nitrogen metabolism in youths 15 - 17 years old
-224-
-------
3. On the basis of the results of this investigation, it m~ be recom-
mended that the content of animal protein and fat be increased in the diets
of adolescents and that they be irradiated with ultraviolet r~s to enhance
their ability to assimilate mineral elements of their diet, especially calcium
and phosphorus.
Bibliograp~.
. r 8 JI 8 H H H H. CI>. 8 KH.: T~3HCbI 1l0KJI. H8VQHOli KOHclJepeHIlHH no BonpOC8M KOMMY-
)lanhHOA rHrHeHbI. n., 1949, crp. 13. -0 H )It e. YJlhTp8c1JHOJIeTOBoe H3J1YQeHHe H I"HrHeR8.
M., 1950, CTp. 134-141.-.n. 8 HUH r H. M. 8 KH.: Te3HCbI 1l0Kn8l1. H M8T. HaY'IHOrO co-
JleU18HHH no npHMeH. ynhTpacIJHG.'. H3nyqeH. B CBH3H C npro6.rl. ynhTpacIJHon. HellOtT. A.8
ApX8t:renbcKe, M., 1954, CTp. 16-18.-.n. 0 H e U K 8 H E: B. H C B H II e pc K aRT.
B KH.: YnbTp8c1JHOJIeTOBOe H3nYQeHHe H rHrHe!la. M., liJ50, CTp. 127-134.- 3 a 6 11-
:.n y e BaA. n. rHr. H C8H., 1951, .N'2 9, CTp. 11-16.- 0 H a JK e. 8 KH.: Te3HCbI 110KJI8JL
R M8T. HaYQHOrO COBl'U1aHHR no npHMeH. ynbTpacIJHon. H3JlYQ. B CBR3H C npolSn. ynbTpa-
~HOJI. HellOCT. R Apx8HrenbCKe, M., 1954, ~p. .28-30.- H e Ii U1 Tall T 51. 3. HOBbie HCTOII-
BHKH CBeT8 H HX l1eACTBHe H8 QenOBeK8. M., 1952.-T 8 n 8 HOB 8. H. K. 8 KH.: TesRCII
110Kn. H MaT. HaYQHOrO COBeU18HH:1 no npl'M. ynbTpacIJHon. H3nYQ. 8 CBR~H C npolSn. ynbtpa-
4»8011. Re110CT. B ApX8HrenbCKe. M., 1954, CTp. 11-13.
Pneumoconiosis in Children of Industrial Towns the Atmospheric Air of which
Was Polluted with Dust Containing Silicon.
By
N. Lupu and K. Vel1kan.
Therapeutic Institute at the Acad~ of Sciences of the
Romanian People's Republic.
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 23, No. 12, 10-13, 1958.
The purposs of this investigation was to determine whether dust discharged
in~o th& atmoeph@1"s 1n large amounts by some plants and which conta.ined silicon
d1@rlde was causing changes of the type of pneumoconiosis in persons living in
1;b,Q p~oximi tl' of such sources of pollution. The investigation was limited to
o:i1ildx'en who we~e comparatively free from 6uch complicating :!:l2,ctOZ1!! as tuber-
eulo~i8v chronic "tobacco poieon1ng and occupational intoxicationp which induce
xmlBonary reaction chengelSl and campl1catfJ theiaterpretation of thG X=~~
p1Qt.ure.
~22~
-------
Preliminary roentgenographic stucq of the lungs ot 19 children aged 3 - 8
years and of two adolescents, 14 and 16 years old made by V. P. Tsvetkov,
B. A. Tsybul'skii and A. P. Sapozhnikov in 1933 in the area of a large power
. station revealed a thickening of the radix pulmonis and proliferation ot the
surrcmnding fibrws tissue. In 1949 II. S. Goldberg examb1ed over 650 roent-
genograms on the basis of which he established the possibility of formation
of pre-silicosis symptoms in the lUD88 following several years exposure to high
concentrations of dust containing up to 22% of free silicon dioxide.
During the past winter we examined 800 school children 10 - 15 years old
liviD8 in four industrial centers. Two hundred children were selected from
each city; one hundred were born and lived continually in the area most heav-
ily polluted with dust; the other hundred were born and live continually in
least dust polluted areas. All the children underwent clinical and ~-~ ~
aminations. The studies were conducted in association with the Bucharest and
IQ.uzha Hygienic Institutes and with, the cooperation of M. Ratsiu, O. Zhen1shtya
and G.Pope. This paper presents a part of the investigation; the complete
report and details are presented in another paper.
The atmospheric air of city No.1 was polluted with industrial dust con-
taining silicon dioxide emitted by a cement plant. The radius ot the zone of
maximum pollution surrounding the plant was' ~pproxiDlately 500 m. The degree.
of pollution fluctuated depending on the wind direction within the limits ot
581.90 - 2842.84 g/m2 per year. The emitted dust contained 6.95% of.tree sil-
icon dioxide and 35.32.% of silicates. The control area was about 5 km aw~
from the plant in the direction opposite to that of the prevailing wind; the
degree of pollution fluctuated between 38.99 and 74.24 g/m2 per year. COD-
sequently, the contamination in this case was approximately 40 times less than
the maximum. The street dust of the control block contained 15.72% of free
silicon dioxide. The results of the X-ray examinations of childrens' lungs
are presented in the Table. Sample roentgenograms' shown in Figs. 1 and 2 of
the final report are not shown in this paper.
The atmospheric air ofoity No.2 was polluted with industrial dust
emitted by a cement plant and contained silicon dioxide. The radius of max-
imum air pollution was about 500 m. The degree of pollution in this zone
fluctuated between 352.24 and 2880 g/m2 per year. The dust contained 18.72%
of free silicon dioxide. The control ar~a was approximate1y5 laD from the'
-226-
.-
-------
Roentgenological findings in percent of children
~f cities Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4
- ---.... ...- N 0 f c i t y
. 0
. N04~ No. 2 , No.. 3 No.4"
Na ture of change :?G) r.4 .'C . rd . rd .
~G) ..... ~CD .-. -CD .....
.-.J:: ... Ms:: ... '-'J:: J.f '-'J:: J.f
.-.0 ~ Me ~ .-.0 ~ '-'0 ....
eN ~ ON J:: ON J::
~ 0 P-i Q Pi O .c:l.t 0
Diffuse pneumosclerosis 4 0 3 0 15 0 0 0
Other pleura and lung 15 5 29 22 30 17 44 12
ch~es
Norma lung picture 81 9!i 68 78 55 83 56 88
plant, in the direction opposite to that of the prevailing wind. Its pollution
fluctuated between 40.32 and 145.08 g/m2 per year, in other words the pollution
in this zone was approximately ~O times lower than the maximum. The street
dust in the control block contained 13.43% of free silicon dioxide. The re-
sults of the X-r~ examination, ot children's lungs are presented in the above
Table.
The atmospheric air of city No.3 was polluted with industrial dust emitted
by a metallurgical plant and contained silicon dioxide. The radius ot maximum
air pollution surrounding the plant was about 400 m. The pollution in this
zone fluctuated between 636.25 and 1596 g/m2 per year. The emitted dust con-
tained 24.35% of free silicon dioxide, 28.33% of silicates and 33.16% of ferric
oxide. The control area was approximately 5 km aw~ in the direction opposite
to the prevailing wind. The pollution in this area fluctuated between 22.93
and 98.35 g/m2 per year; in other words the pollution was 16 times below the
allowable maximum. The street dust in the control area contained 11.52% ot
free silicon dioxide. The results of the X-ray examination of children's lungs
are presented in the above Table and in Fig. 3 and 4 of the tinal, but not in
this brief report.
The atmospheric air of city No.4 was polluted with smoke from metallic-
chemical combines. The radius of the maximum air pollution surrounding the
plants was about 900 m. The pollution in this zone fluctuated within the
190.41 - 2935.82 g/m2 per year. The emitted smoke contained a large amount
of lead and. the content of free silicon dioxide amounted to 1 - 4%. The con-
trol area was located about 3 km from the source of pollution in the direction
opposite to that of the prevailing wind. The pollution in this area fluctuated
-221-
-------
between.300.02 and 625.44 gja2 per year.
and 8.5% of free silicon dioxide.
The results of the,X-ray examination of lungs are summarized in the above
Table. The results of the X-r~ examinations indioated that, in oities where
the atmospherio air was polluted with industrial dust containing silicon di-
oxide, diffuse weak~ expressed pneumosolerosis will be present in 10 - 15.
year old children born and raised in areas with most polluted air. Figs. 1,
2, 3 and 4 presented in the final report (not reproduced in this report) re-
semble lung roentgenograms of the pre-silicosis stage, or of silicosis I dsgree.
Lesions in the form of diffuse pneumosclerosis were found only in children
living in areas with maximum pollution of atmospheric air caused by dust con-
taining silicon dioxide; this fact pointed to a connection between the degree
of air dustiness and the development of lung fibrosis. The investigation also
indicated that the chemical composition of the inhaled particles was a con-
tributory factor. The highest percentage of diffuse pneumosclerosis cases
were found among children born and raised in areas of maximum air pollution,
in close proximity to smokestacks of metallurgical plants which discharged dust
containing 24.35% of free silicon dioxide, 28082% of silicates and 33.14% of
ferric oxide. The connection between the chemical composition of dust and the
pulmonary processes was confirmed by the fact that in city No.4 no pictures
of diffuse pneumosclerosis of the pneumoconiosis type were observed. In this
industrial city the amount of annual dust precipitation per 1 m2 was as high,
in areas of maximum pollution, as in cities No.1, 2 and 30 However, the con-
tent of silicon dioxide in this dust was 15 ~ 20 times below that in the duet
of the other cities. In the industrial center No.4 the prevailing substance
in the dust inhaled b,y the children was lead whioh was not retained by the
respiratory organs and apparently had no toxic effect on the respirator.y ap-
paratus.
Along with the concentration of dust and its ohemical oomposition a con=
tributing role in the development of diffuse pneumosc1erosis ~ be pl~ed by
acute and chronic lung diseases. On the basis of siaiistical data obtained as
a result of examination of 10,000 children up to 15 years of age who lived in
industrial centers, it was concluded that in the most contaminated areae of
industrial cities there were discovered annually 3032 times as many cases of
lung tuberculosis, 5.46 times as many cases of pneumonia, 3.12 of broncho-
pneumonia, 3.06 of bronchitis, suppurative processes, pleurosy and other pul-
The street dust also contained lead,
-228-
-------
monary diseases, and 5 times as many oases of influenzal oonditions as in the
control area. Residual changes traoeable with X-r~s and oaused by aoute and
ohronio, speoifio and non-speoifio pulmonary diseases into the oategory of
other pleura and lung ohanges were inoluded in this study. Pulmonary solerosis
looalized within the limits of one segment or one fraotion were also inoluded
in this oategory.
High morbidity in rickets, infeotious diseases, dystrophies, anemia, rheu-
matio diseases, otitis, tonsillitis, diseases of the digestive system were also
observed. As the result of above observations it oan be oonoluded that indus-
trial dust oontaining silioon dioxide may be the main etiologioal faotor of
diffUse lung fibrosis in ohildren, born and raised, in areas of maxtmum pollu-
tion of atmospherio air with suoh dust. Other faotors may pl~ a oontributing
role in the development of pulmonary solerosis, as for example, the toxio gases
emitted by the same souroes, the deorease of ultraviolet radiation and of sun-
shine intensity in general, oaused by suspended partioulate matter of indus-
trial origin. On the basis of above observations these authors olassed dif-
fuse pneumosolerosis oocurring in ohildren living in industrial oenters under
oonditions of dust pOlluted atmosphere oontaining silicon dioxide as non-oocu-
pational pneumooonioses. Under suoh oonditions it is reoommended that where
suoh oonditions existed speoifio prophylaotio measures be instituted at onoe
and that periodic X-r~ examinations be made, and that ohildren showing initial
stages of pulmonary fibrosis be moved to sater areas. The rest of the ohildren,
with normal lungs, should be regarded as being exposed to oontinuous ohronic
effeots of dust-like industrial waste. These children need more thorough med-
ioal oare, suitable treatment with tonios, enriohed nutrition and a long rest
in looalities with non-polluted air.
Bibliography.
f 0 JI b J1 6 e p r M. C. B ~H.: npeJ1eJlbHO ,-onycTHMfie KOHueHTpalUl1l I(ITMOCcllePHfiX
3!1rpH3HeHHA. M., 1952, CTp. 40-49. - 0 H )It e. fHr. H caH., 1957, N! 4, cT!>. 9-15.
U. BeT K ° B B. n., U. bI (i Y n .. C K H Ii E. A, Can O)lt H H K ° B A. n. I(JlHH. MeJ1., 1933,
N2 9-10, CT!>. .s8-465. - L up u . N. G., Vel i can C. Probleme de terapeutica. Bu.
curesti. 1955, N. 2. - L up u N. G., Vel i cap C. Pneumoconizele neprofesionale. Bucu.
resti. 1955.
-229- .
-------
The Role of Silioon Dioxide Aerosol Condensate in the Development of Silioosis.
By
A. G. Kogan and I. I. Lifshits.
From the Sanitary-Epidemiologioal Station of the Leningrad Neva Region.
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 23, No. 8, 63-66, 1959.
Most of the studies on the etiology, pathogenesis and 01inioa1 aspeots
of silicosis were made in industries where quartz'dust was formed through me-
ohanica1 grinding of quartz substances oontaining quartz wpioh produoed so-
oa1led aeroso1sJ in other methods of quartz prooessing heat is used whioh is
aooompaniedb,y the oondensation of saturated vapors forming so-oa11ed oon-
densate aerosols.
In 1937 Bruoe examined the workers in 2 plants where metal alloys with
silioon were produoed with the aid of an e1eotrio aro. This was aooompanied
b.1 the emission of silicon vapors into the air, whioh rapidly oxidized to
S102. In one of the plants the ooncentration of such dust in the air was high;
8 out of 19 workers had silioos1s, which developed after 4 years of work.
Gardner and King subjected animals to the inhalations of different types of
quartz dust inoluding oondensed silioon dioxide. Si1ioon dioxide dust was
also introduoed intratraoheally. Animals reoeiving large quantities of dust.
died within a short time, animals reoeiving smaller doses of dust, suoh as
10 - 20 mg, survived up to 10 months. They developed no oellu1ar or nodular
fibrosis. Aooording to'Ts. D. P1k (1946) "finely dispersed silioon oondensate
formed in the melting of quartz glass oaused silioosis". In 1953 M. N.
Krasnogors~a found no apparent oases of silicosis among quartz smelters
and glass blowers. At the Jubilee Session of the Leningrad Institute of Labor
Htgiene and 00cupationa1 Diseases in 1954 B. G. Veliohkovsk1i of the Sverdlovsk
Institute of Labor Htgiene reported on surveys the results of whioh pointed to
strong toxioity of silicon dioxide aerosol oondensate and to the oocurrenoe of
I degree silioosis among workers employed 6 years in ferro-smelting and of II
degree si1ioosis among workers with 9 years employment reoords. Gardner,
Ts. D. P~, M. N. Krasnogorskaya aJ:ld Be> G. Ve1iohkovsk1i found that silioon
dioxide condensate was amorphous. S. L.,Danishevsk1i failed to desoribe its
. .
struoture. The physioo-ohemioal state of silioon oxide oondensate may have
an important bearing on its physiologioa1 effeots on the organism as is the
-230-
-------
oase with or,ystal quartz and silioosis. A review of the literature shed no
light on the subjeot, and the physiologioal effeot of silioon oxide condensate
has not been explained. Hence, the study herein reported. Investigations were
oonduoted in 2 plants whioh were making and prooessing qu~rtz glass. In these
plants quartz glass was manufactured by melting crystal quartz in three ways:
in electrode blast, high-frequenqy and gas furnaoes; quartz glass was also re-
fined by the oxygen-hydrogen flame method. Eaoh melting method differed from
the others by the basio material used and the manufacturing prooess per !!,.
Transparent glass was produoed in gas furnaoes by melting small fraotions of
heat prooessed and orushed roCk orYstals. Vapors and gases formed in melting
quartz were emitted into the workroom air throughout the entire melting proc-
ess. The operator was standi-ng at a point 0.5 to 2 m from the furnaoe..
The original material consisted of orystal rook fragments whioh were melted
in vacuum oruoibles. After the melting was oompleted the vaouum was released
and the furnaoe opened, enabling the quartz vapor to escape into the workroom.
Enriohed quartz sand, oo~aining 9.6% of silioon oxide, was used as the elec-
trode fUrnaoe oharge. Vapors and gases formed during the melting esoaped into
the workroom through an opening in the furnaoe lid. All melting sections were
located in separate and isolated buildings where no other work was done. Ar-
tificial ventilation was installed in sections operating gas and high-frequenqy
furnaoes, supplying fresh air and removing the polluted air; in sections oper-
ating eleotrode furnaoes natural ventilation was in operation. The melting
point of quartz is 17130. However, due to the extremely high viscosity of
quartz its workable fluid state starts at 1800 - 19000; therefore, in the man-
ufaoture of quartz glass, there is a considerable loss of sili09n through
evaporation during quartz melting. In fire processing of quartz glass, its
blowing beoomes feasible only at 16000; at this temperature oonsiderable evap-
oration of quartz glass takes place which increases with the temperature rise.
Vapors of 5i02' generated in melting and processing, condense in the air in
the form of white flakes and settle on the equipment, walls and ceiling. In
the manufacture of quartz glass vapor of elementary silicon finds its way into
the workroom from the reducing processes, where it becomes rapidly oxidized to
5i020 Investigations made by these authors in 1955 and previous investigations
conducted by the Leningrad Institute of Labor Hygiene and Occupational Diseases
and by the Leningrad Institute of Labor Protection elicited the fact that the
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suspended dust ranged within the limits of 0.8 - 20.9 mg/m3, the lowest con-
centrations var,ying between 0.8 - 6.8 mg/m3 were recorded in 1955 as shown in
Table 1.
TABLE
1.
Content of silicon dioxide in the-air of the melting departments of
the Lomonosov quartz blowing plant. *
Point of sample collection
Content of silicon dioxide in mg/m3
.
1948 1952 . 1955
.
:
1.8 - 2.0 0.69 - 5.8 3.4 - 5.6
1.3 - 1.6 1.5 - 1.3 1.0 - 1.2
4.4 - 1.31
6.2 - 1.6 0.45 - 5.16
Quartz blowing shop
Location of high frequency
furnaces
Location of gas furnaces
Location of electrode
furnaces
* The content of silicon dioxide in the air was determined by the silicon-
molybdenum complex method.
The condensation of silicon vapors is a complicated process which depends
on a nUmber of factors, and in different iridustrial processes the aerosol sys-
tem exists in different physico-chemical states of dispersion. Therefore, in
determining the effect of silicon condensate on the organism in general, the
conditions under which this condensate forms in different manufacturing proc-
esses must be considered. The condensate at the level of workers' inhalation
formed under conditions of normal evaporation can not be regarded as identical
with the precipitated white flakes, which, under rapid cooling, settled on the
equipment, and on the vent~lating and air conduits. Condensate deposits set-
tled on the equipment were examined microscopically at -80 X magnification,
some dust camples were examined b.1 the double refraction method and 3 samples
were examined roentgenographically.
Condensate samples were collected from the surface of the terminal part
of the exhaust ventilator in the glass blowing shop of the Lomonosov plant;
the dust appeared as a light, smooth, fluffY powder. Microscopically the dust
particles appeared as large, flat, yellowish patelets of different forms mea-
suring approximately lOO~. Long threads were observed hanging down from the
edges of the air intake installations which were impregnated with particulates
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of 1 - 15 ~ in diameter. The sediment collected from the casings of the gas
furnaces of both plants was a ooarse powder, firm to the touch, of a bluish
tinge; it was interspersed with shi~ particles. Yellow platelets were seen
microscopically interspersed with large crystal fragments of different form
varying in size between 20 - 50~. Double refraotion examination revealed the
presence of two phases: many double refraoting quartz grains and some crystals
in whioh the double refraction phase was absent. Roentgenographic examination
of the oondensate showed the presence of ~-quartz. A condensate in the form
of a grayish powder accumulated over the press furnace in which the softening
and mouldil18 of the quartz glass were done at a temperature high enough to
oause some silicon vaporization, but which excluded the presenoe of the orig-
inal raw materials. Microscopic examination revealed that this condensate
consisted of fibrous flakes resembling the flakes previously described in con-
neotion with the examination of the condensate aooumulated over the slit open-
ings of the exhausts installed close to the glass blowers' work space. Roent-
genographic examination showed the presenoe of the non-orystalline phase.
The dust oovering the hood hanging over the high frequenoy furnace was in
the form of a firm powder. Microscopically the powder consisted of platelets
ranging in size 10 - 15 ~; it was permeated by minute dark graphite granules.
Crystallographically the basic mass of the material appeared as a gray powder
of particulates 2 - 4 ~ in size and which did not possess the property of double
refraotion; this basic mass was interspersed with some particulates of the same
high dispersion, but which possessed the property of double refraction.
On the basis of the above it was conoluded that condensates deposited on
the surfaces of the air circulating systems of different melting processes
differed structurally and in their degree of dispersion. Particles of the
original raw and of accessory materials were interspersed in the examined sed-
inJents collected from the operating machine surfaces. The dust layers firmly
adhered to the equipment surfaces, and shop air pollution could occur only as
the result of active air-currents. Under normal conditions of operation these
old deposits could not re-enter the workroom air. However, suoh may be the
case if and when exposed surfaces and insides of air conduits are swept or
otherwise cleaned in a dry state.
Air samples from the melting roams close to the gas furnaces in the
Lomonosov plant were examined ultramicroscopically; the following was observed:
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5,000 particles were suspended in the air at the position of the operator and
only 1,000 particles 2 m farther away. (Presumably per m3, but the original
paper failed to indicate the unit of air. ». S. L.) The radii of the ultra-
mioroscopic particles were 0.24 - 0.35 ~ and the diameters were 0.5 - 0.1 ~,
based on the rate of fall under the effect of gravity and calculated by the
Stokes and Cunningham formula. Thirty-one - 33% of the air-suspended particles
in air samples taken at the same points of the level of inhalation carried
electric charge when one furnace was in operation, 46 - 48% when two furnaces
operated simultaneously.
Of the workers examined medically 50 were selected who had records of 3 -
12 years work as glass workers; of these 28 were glass smelters and 22 were
glass blowers. All the smelters were males; 14 of the glass blowers were women.
Smelters
Quartz blowers
Total
1
6
1
22
14
36
5
2
1
Their ages are indicated in Table
2. About 50% of the workers had
been examined previously 1 - 4
times in the polyclinic or hos-
pital of the Leningrad Institute
of Labor HYgiene and Occupational
Diseases. As a rule workers with
symptoms suggestive of a~ disease
were referred to the Institute.
TA»LE
2.
Ages of workers examined.
Work as
: Up to: 26 - :' 41 yrs
: :
: 25 yrs : 40 yrs lor older
Most of the workers had no complaints; a few complained of shortness of breath,
easy fatiguability and headaches. The recard of physical examinations were in-
complete, a small number of the examined workers had a bandbox sound on percus-
sion and a slightly harsh or weak respiration. No relation was discerned between
the roentgenological changes and the length of work at this occupation. Fibrous
changes were found in the lungs of workers with work records of 3 - 12 years, as
shown in Table 3.
Some correlation was noted between the X-ray changes and the worker's age:
different fibrous changes and a denser pulmonar,y picture were seen in 5 of 1
workers over 40 years of age, and in 11 of 36 workers between 25 - 40 years of
age. Only in 2 of 25 workers under 25 years of age shadows could be seen at
the base of the lung and a denser picture at the root. Such general findings
were suggestive of the possibility that the fibrous changes seen in X-ray ex-
amination of the lungs may have been due to old age. In periodic medical ex-
aminations in 6 of the 50 workers symptoms of pulmonar.y diseases were seen which
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TABLE
3.
Results of roentgenologic examination.
Roentgenogram
Quartz blowers
Quartz mel ters
Density of lung picture and
different fibrous changes
Density of lung picture, fibrous
changes with nodular formations
Fibrous tubercular foci
Thickening of the apical and
interlobalpleura
No lung changes seen
Total
5 13
2 1
1 1
1 2
13 11
22 28
were not of occupational origin.
75% of the workers appeared to enjoy normal
health.
Nine quartz blowers and five smelters had been examined annually since
1951 at. the Institute's polyclinic. Results of such examinations showed no
progressive pathologic pulmonar,y changes; there were no indications that the
workers' general state of health had deteriorated. The medical examiners of
the Institute found no reason for assuming that the quartz dust produced ad-
verse physiological effects, and the workers were permitted to continue at
their occupation.
Throughout the existence of the plants no lung diseases were found among
smelters; occupational fibrosis of the lungs with nodular changes was diagnosed
in one female glass blower in 1958. This woman worked for 6 years as a quartz
blower, prior to that she worked as a glass blower for 22 years. Her complaints
and certain objective data were not suggestive of silicosis; in studying the
case more carefully the connection between quartz dust and the pulmonary con-
di tion of t-his worker became more doubtful.
Summary .
1. In the quartz glass manufacturing, the process of silicon smelting
is accompanied by the liberation into the room of silicon dioxide vapors
which rapidly undergo condensation in the air. The composition of vapors and
of condensates differed with the methods of quartz glass smelting and depended
on the original raw material and some other .conditions.
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2. Results of periodic medical examinations of a group of workers with
3 to 12 years of work records offered no conclusive evidence that occupational
pneumoconiosis developed in the workers, in spite of the fact that the quan-
tity of silicon oxide in the air of the workshops exoeeded the maximum allow-
able concentration. The above does not exolude the possibility that work at
quartz glass smelting and blowing over periods exoeeding 12 years might not
cause pneumoconiosis.
3. A more detailed stu~ of the phYsiological effect of silioon oxide
condensate aerosols should be undertaken on a basis of parallel comparison ot
the toxicity of suspended isodispersed aerosols and of disintegration and con-
. densation aerosols.
Occupationa~ Lung Diseases Caused by Prolonged Action of Cadmium Oxide Aerosol.
~
R. S. Vorob'eva.
I. M. Sechenov First Moscow Order of Lenin Medical Institute.
Arkhiv Patolog1i, Vol. 20, No.8, 25-28, 1958.
Results of studies by Soviet and foreign authors proved that the effect
of aerosols of some metals can lead to chronic occupational lung diseases.
Goldwater, MacMagon and Olken showed that granulomatosis and diffuse pulmonary
fibrosis could develop by the effect of beryllium compounds. V. P. Lukanin
and P. P. Dvizhkov showed that inhalation of biochromate dust could cause the
development of sclerosis not only of the lungs, but of ot~er internal organs
as well. M. G. Ivanova, I. S. Ostrovskaya, Zh. B. Nil'dibaeva and others de-
scribed nodular and diffuse pulmonary sclerosis induced by the inhalation of
metallic aluminum dust.
Other metals are widely used in present d~ industries, the sanitary-~-
gienic effects of which have not been studied sufficiently. Results of studies
b.r the Labor ~g1ene Department at the First Moscow Order of Lenin Medical In-
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stitute pointed to the possible cadmium aerosol formation in industries in
which cadmium was utilized in the manufacture of alkaline accumulators, alloye,
~tal coatings, dyes, etc. However, data on the clinical manifestations of
chronic cadmium intoxication are still lacking in Soviet literature, with the
exception of one report by E. I. Vasil'eva on the effect of cadmium on the up-
per respiratory organs. Problems related to chronic cadmium poisoning, and
especially to its s~tomatology, recently became the topics of lively discus-
sion in foreign literature. H. Elkins stated in his handbook "The Chemistry
of Industrial Toxicology" (1950), that there were reports on chronic cadmium
poisonir~, the results of which have not been definitely established. A simi-
lar opinion was held by other scientists, most notable among them are the Amer-
ican hygienists Prince, Hamilton and Hardy. On the other hand, Freeberg,
Baader, Barthelemy and Molina and others, as a result of their own observations
considered cadmium as a dangerous poison causing chronic intoxication with an
unfavorable prognosis.,
This report presents ~sults of observations and experiments on changes
in respiratory organs resulting from prolonged exposure to cadmium oxide aer-
osol. Cadmium oxide is used in the making of accumulators; the obervations
and investigations were made in an alkaline accumulator plant. The manufac-
turing of accumulators is accompanied by an emission into the air of several
production depart~ents of aerosols of cadmium oxide, cadmium-iron and nickel-
graphite mixtures. During the present stu~ the cadmium content in the air of
several departments ranged between 0.1 and 24 mg/m~. A group of women, not
over 44 years of age, whose anamnesis did not include diseases leading to
pneumosclerosis, were selected for examination. Medical examinations made by'
specialists disclosed some cases of pneumosclerosis. Chest X-r~s established
that 5 out of 18 persons had initial symptoms of a chronic disease identified
as a diffuse pneumosclerosis. * Those who had pneumosclerosis had been working
with cadmium for over 13 years. Complaints of respiratory disturbances were
few; shortness of breath during physical exertion was noted and sometimes a
dry cough or pain in the side. All X-rays showed a slight diffuse intensifi-
cation of lung outlines and of the radix pulmonis. The presence of pneuma-
* This diagnosis was made from X-ray pictures by K. P. Molokanov, M. D., Head
of the X-ray Department at the Institute of Labor Hygiene and Occupational
Diseases of the Academy of Medical Sciences, U.S..S.R.
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sclerosis in young persons in the absence of past histor,y of pneumosclerosis
-or other etiology was taken as pointing to the specific effect of dust on the
lungs. The workers of the plant were exposed to the action of several dust
types, namely, cadmium oxide, cadmium and iron and nickel and graphite mixtures.
This invalidated the determination of the exact etiology of the disease on the
basis of the patients, examination alone.
Experiments with an~ls were conducted by the method of intratracheal
dust administration; thetechn1que used assured uniformity of dust mixture,
composition and exact dosage. Forty-four white rats were divided into four
groups of 10 rats each, leaving, four rats as the control group. All groups
were kept under identical conditions; the rats were lightly anesthetized'and
the saline-suspended dust dosage atomized into the trachea. The weight and
. .
behavior of the animals were observed and recorded periodically; after 4, 6
and 8 months they were decapitated. The internal organs were macro- and micro-
analyzed. Histological preparations were examined and interpreted in associ-
ation with Prof. S.B. Veinberg, Head of the Pathoanatomical Department of
MONIla. The following types of dust were investigated: cadmium oxide, a
mixture of 70% cadmium oxide and 30% ferrous oxide, and a 4:1 nickel hydroxide
and graphite mixture. The first animal group served to determine the minimum
lethal dose of the cadmium and iron dust mixture, the amount of cadmium and
iron dust mixture constituting a safe experimental dose was determined next.
Animals of the second group received cadmium oxide' dust at the rate of 0.25/100
g of bo~ weight; rats. of the third group received the mixture of cadmium iron
dust at the rate of 0.35 mg per 100 g of body we1ght; rats of the fourth group
received nickel-graphite dust at the rate of 2 mg per 100 g of body weight,
because its content in the workshop air was about six times the content of the
cadmium-iron dust.
No observable extraneous diseases developed in the course of the experi-
ments and the animals were gaining weight; however, the rats treated with.cad-
mium oxide and cadmium-iron dust gained less weight than those treated with
nickel-graphite dust or the control animals. At the end of 8 months of ob-
servation some rats of the second and third groups ate less, became emaciated
and lost their hair; the rats treated with the nickel-graphite dust were
gaining weight at a normal rate and, in this respect, were not lagging behind
the control rats.
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Morphological analysis of the lungs of rats of the second and third groups,
which received respectively cadmium oxide and cadmium-iron dust, manifested
identical changes which were thought to have been due to cadmium oxide action.
Macroscopically the lungs of those animals appeared enlarged and showed symptoms
of emphysema. Between distended sections of pulmonary tissue were limited fluid
flooded foci of induration; upon sectioning they appeared of a grayish-pink col-
or crossed by whitish bands. Histological analysis of the lungs presented a
picture of active chronic pneumonia, hypertrophy of the connective tissue in
the interalveolar septi, i.e., changes of interstitial pneumonia type. The
vascular walls were thickened, sclerosed with frequent infiltrates around them.
Other sections showed signs of emphysema, bronchitis and perbronohial infil-
trates. Individual animals showed nodular development with a concentric dis-
tribution of connective tissue bundles resembling structurally silicotic nod-
ules, illustrated in Tig. 1. The nodules consisted of epitheloid cells and of
fibroblasts without a sign of hyalinization. In various spots around the
bronchi and lymphatic vessels as well as in alveoli were seen small amorphous
lumps of pigment caused apparently by the introduced cadmium. Symptoms of
hyperplasia were noted in lymph nodes.
Morphological changes seen at dif-
ferent intervals in rats of the second
and third groups differed only in the
degree of sclerotic reaction. After
four months examination the lungs mani-
fested early symptoms of pulmonary tis-
sue destruction with a slight develop-
ment of connective tissue. At the end
of 8 months the symptoms of pneumosole-
roais became more pronounced, as shown
in Pigs. 2 and 3.
The histologic examination of pul-
monary tissue in the rats which received
nickel-graphite dust showed no signs of
chronic pneumonia or pneumosclerosis.
Slight proliferative cellular reactions
with a partial growth of connective tis-
Pig. 1. Experiment with cadnn-
um-iron dust. Animals under
observation six months. Sur-
rounding the structureless mass
are seen nodes from concentri-
cally distributed fibro-blasts
and of bundles of mature con-
nective tissue. Picro-fuchsin
stain. 500X magnification.
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Fig. 2. Experiment with cadmi-
um-iron dust. Animals under
observation six months. Areas
of pneumosclerosis with thick-
ened strands of connective
tissue, Ficro-fuchsin stain,
SOX magnification.
Pig. 3. Experiment with cad-
mium oxide dust. Animals un-
der observation 8 months.
Picro-fuchsin stain.
sue were seen only in spots where the administered dusts accumulated.
Conclusions.
1. Results of the experimental investigation indicated that following
the intratracheal administration of cadmium oxide dust to white rats an inter-
stitial pneumonia developed which changed into pneumosclerosis; nodules of
of the epithelial cell type, and fibroblasts with subsequent sclerosis developed
occasionally.
2. The results of the experimental investigations lead to the assumption
that cases of pneumosclerosis seen during medical examination of workers ex-
posed to prolonged effect of cadmium oxide can he the result of cadmium dust
inhalation.
Bibliography.
BacH.ibeBa E. H., Tpysu IV Bcecoio:woro cbesaa oio-.napHHn.vioroB, M.,
1935, crp. 15—19. — H D a ii o B a M. P. H OcrposcKaH H. C., B KM.: PIneBMOKOiiHo:!.
K'HeB, 1954, cip. 30—48. — .'! y K a H rt H B. II. B KH.. TpyAU XI c-bcsaa repaneBTOB. M..
1932, crp. £4—89. — H H .1 h .1 H 6 a e B a }K. B., O IUHHHHU HHrajimiHH a.iioMHHiieBOH
nbi.in na opraun3M Me.noBCKa n JKHBOTHUX. AL'iopeipepai AHCC., A.TMa-Aia, 1'JSl —
Baader E., Industr. Med. a. Surg. 1952, v. XXI. p. 427—430. — B a r t h e I e m y P.M.
Mo line R. Journ. Ind. Hyg. a. Toxicol., 19-17, v. XXIX, N. 6, p. 301—311.—
El kins H.. The Chemistry of Industrial Toxicology, Baltimore, 1950. — E r i-
berg L., Acta med. scand., 195(1, \. CXXXX'III, p. 1 —124. — H a in i 1 t o n A. a.
Hardy H., Industrial Toxicology, New Jork, 1949.—Gold water M. L., Arch.
malad profess.. i(>51, t. V2, N. I. p. 10—21. — M a c M a g o n H. E., Olken H G..
Arch. Ind: Hyg. a. Occup. Med.. 1950, v. 1, N. 2, p. 81—90.
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Pathologic Changes in the Lungs Caused by Hot Air Inhalation.
B.1
I. M. Kharkhur1m and S. G. Vigalok (Chkalov).
Arkhiv Patolog1i Vol. 20, No.8, 29-31, 1958.
Bo reports were found in literature related to the study of morphological
changes developed in lung tissue as the result of hot air inha:ation. And yet
this problem may be of practical importance, since under present industrial
conditions cases ~ appear having burns of the respiratory tract and of the
lung tissue, as was indicated by Enuart, Miller and others.
Moritz, Henriques and McLean reported on their observations of the effect
of hot air inhalation on the respiratory organs; however, these'Buthors pre-
sented insufficient data on the morphological changes of the lung parenchyma.
The object of the present study was to determine in greater detail the patho-
logical changes which developed in the lungs of dogs subjected to experimental
inhalation of hot air. The latter was introduced into the lungs with the aid
of a camula inserted into a tracheal opening. The air temperature was raised
by means of an electric heat~rto 130 - 1350 ; it 1Ias forced into the respira-
tory passages for 3 - 4 minutes. The animals were sacrificed and autopsied at
intervals ranging from 5 minutes to 14 cUqs after the hot air inhalation. Seo-
tions for histological study were prepared from the lung tissue and from the
internal organs. Of 21 dogs 5 were used as controls; they inhaled air of nor-
mal temperature under conditions similar to those of the test dogs. Autopsies
of the dogs sacrificed during the first 2 cUqs after hot air inhalation showed
that the lung tissue was marked by a diffuse plethora of varying degree and
by large and small hemorrhages, which were also found in the pleura. Small
areas of atelectasis and of severe emp~sema were frequently observed. The
lungs were motley in appearance owing to multiple apoplexy of the lungs. The
mucous membrane of the respiratory tract was swollen and dull in appearance;
hemorrhagic fluid was observed in the lumen of the bronchi. Dogs examined 3
to 1 days later showed the presence of diffuse pneumonia in small foci prin-
cipally at the area close to the root of the lungs. In the 7 to 14 day in-
terval, coalescent broncho-pneumonia was present. Histologic examination of
the lungs revealed a variety of successive pathologic lesions. In the early
stages, ranging from 20 minutes to 48 hours, the changes in the lungs were
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manifested principally by circulatory disturbances of non-inflamaatory type.
Multiple small and large hemorrhages were visible against the background of
plethora of the lungs, and the structure of the lung parenchyma in these areas
was considerably affected. Edema surrounded the sites of hemorrhages. The
small lung bronchi were contracted in different parts of the lung tissue and
the lumens of the alveoli were constricted, which was caused by plethora and
by the separation of the interalveolar walls into fibers. In some fields, in
particular in the subcortical areas, atelectasis of the lung tissue was seen
alternating with sites where the lumen of the alveoli was distended and the
capillaries in the spaces collapsed; this was particularly true of the sub-
cortical areas. In the lumens of the small bronchi accumulations of serous
fluid were observed mixed with desquamated epithelioid and erythrocytic cells;
exudates with neutrophilic leucocytes were seen on occasion.
The bronchial mucosa was thickened, the epithelial cells were indis-
tinctly outlined, their interconnections were disturbed and many of the cells
were of the cast-off type. Pronounced and extensive wrinkling and desqua-
mation of the epithelial nuclei was observed in the large bronchi. In the
submucous layer of the bronchial wall moderate serous impregnation and severe
vascular dilatation were noted. After 3 to 4 days the changes in the lungs
described above were accompanied by additional histological changes, which
principally affected the vascular walls. Some branches of the pulmonary artery
were irregularly or evenly sclerotic with marked proliferation of the endo—
thelial cells. (Figs. 1 and 2).
Tig. 1
Pig. 2.
-242-
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Thus, in the pulmonary vessels acute proliferating en do- and perivascu-
. .
litis developed in spots. In different fields evenl1 thickened alveolar walls
.with fresh hemorrhages were .pbserved. Four to 1 ~s later the round cell and
leucocytic infiltration was observed in the passagewq of the bronchi. The
thickening of the peribronchial lqers was noted as well as the presenoe of
catarrhal and desquamative bronchitis and peribronohitis. During the same pe-
riod, and also during the 12 - 14 ~s interval, inflammatory processes de-
veloped in a number of cases; they took on the form of peribronchial and of
coalescent pneumonia localized at the root of the lung. These pneumonias were
of a catarrhal and catarrhal-hemorrhagic charaoter. In some cases emphysema
or diffuse purulent bronchitis were seen. In isolated cases, free from ex-
tensive pneumonia, circulator" disturbances in the lungs were not present in
the later stages, and the restoration of the normal structure.of the lung tis-
sue occurred. The changes described were not observed in the animals of the
control group. The morphologic~l changes in the other paracbymatous organs
were dystrophic; they were accompanied in the lungs b.1 severe functional dis-
turbances of t~e respiratory organs and of other systems, which was reflected
in their clinioa1 manifestations; the animals were listless, their respiration
rate and pulse increased and pneumonia developed, which ran a particularly
severe oourse with high t EII1perature, strong cough, leucocytosis, etc.
Summary .
The effect of hot, dry air inhalation on the morphological changes in
the lungs was studied experiu.entally on dogs. The lumen of respiratory tract
of the animals was filled by hot dry air (temperature 130 - 1350 C) for 3 - 4
minutes. This was done with a special apparatus through a tracheotomic open-
ing. In the first two dqs after the experimental hot air inhalation, the
changes in the lungs were characterized chiefly b.1 circulator" disturbances
non-inflammatory in origin. A persistent spasm of the bronchi was revealed
with disturbance of the mucous membrane. Sites of atelectasis of the lung
tissue alternating with emphysema were found. In the following 3.- 1 days
most cases manifested the above mentioned, more or less identical, changes,
and in addition, diffuse small foci of pneumonia developed. Specific changes
of the vascular walls (proliferative peri- and endovasculitis} were a180
noted. On the 8th - 14th dq8 the foliowing lesionsa~peared: peribronchitie
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and catarrha1-desquamating bronchitis and secondar,y coalescent progressive
'catarrha1-hemorrhagic and purulent pneumonia. This .as particularly true ot
the root of the lung.
In the absence of secondar,y pneumonia processes, recover,y of the normal
structure of the lung parenchyma appeared on the 12th - 14th day atter the
experiment. Pneumonia in the laborator,y animals followed a grave course with
profound functional disorders in the other systems of the organism.
:Bib1iograp~.
M 0 r i t z A. R., Hen r i que s F. P. Am. Journ. of Pathol.. 1945, v. XXI. N 1.-
En u art J. L., M i 1'1 e r D. W., Journ. of Amer. Medical Assoc., 1955, 158, N. 2,
p. 95-99.
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Clinical Aspects of Ethylated Gasoline Intoxication in Automobile Drivers. . .
By M. If. Sadchikova.
Institute of Industrial Hygiene and Oocupational Diseases, Acade~. of
Medical Sciences, U. S. S. R.
Sovetskaya Medits1na 21, No.4, 99-102, 1958.
Ethylated gasoline has been used increasingly in automotive transportation.
For this reason the diagnosis and clinical aspects of intoxication b.f this fuel,
occurring among automobile drivers, requires urgent attention. The toxicity of
ethylated gasoline.is due chiefly to the tetraethyl lead this fuel contains.
Despite the fact that the toxicology of tetraethyl lead has been thoroughly stud-
ied, the clinical aspects of chronic poisoning have not been clearly understood;
opinions on the toxicity of tetraethyl lead have been contradictory. Foreign
authors found no evidence of developing intoxication in workers in contact with
the gasoline (U. S. Bureau of Mines, the American Government Commission, R. Q.
Kehoe, F. Thamann, J.. Cholak, 1956; Q. Hamilton and H. C. Hardy, 1949; others).
On the other hand, observations of such Soviet authors as P. Mltnuk, I. G. Ravk1D,
E. A. Drogichina, A. A. Kevork'yan, A. B. Reznikov, M. A. Vasserman, E. P.
Yegorovskaya, E. N. Pomerantseva, G. A. Beilikhis, E. N. Marchenko, and others,
made during 1934 - 1955 indicated that prolonged contact with ethylated gasoline
caused the appearance of chronic intoxication symptoms similar to symptoms of
intoxication with small doses of pure tetraethyl lead. Chronic int.oxication
with tetraethyl lead has been observed occasionally in refuelers of airplanes,
workers in testing stations, gasoline mixers, attendants at airfields, etc.
The clinical syndrome presented a picture of marked asthenia and typical auto-
nomic nervous system disturbances: bradycardia, hypothermia, vascular hypo-
tonia, abnormal salivation, headaches, vertigo, undue fatigability, inter-
rupted sleep, nightmares, and emotional disturbances.
During World War II, I. G. Ravkin and A. B. Reznikov noted graver forms of
chronio poisoning by ethylated gasoline among mechanics engaged in testing and
repairing airplane motors. Some showed intoxication along with indications of
encephalopathy, including mental disorders. In recent years intoxication by
tetraethyl lead and its blends and b.f ethylated gasoline has occurred compara-
tively rarely. Ethylated gasoline used in motor transportation requires not
more than 1 ml of ethyl fluid per liter of pure gasoline; it is reasonable to
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assume, therefore, that drivers coming in oontaot with this type of fuel were
in no danger as long as th8,J observed the rules prescribed for personal hygiene
and satet7. In 1953 A. B. Reznikov found some pers.ons suffering from mild
acute and subacute intoxication; he had not seen an.y chronio oases. At the same
time the Leningrad Institute of Industrial ayg1ene and Occupational Diseases
has been diagnosing. "ethylated gasoline poisoning" rather frequently. The re-
sults of their observations were of interest to this author. Twenty-eight
.automotive vehicle drivers came to the clinic between 1950 and 1954. Half of
them had been in contact with the fuel for several months, others from one to
3 years, while 3 exceeded 5 years. In most of the 28 men examined the intoxi-
cation was not of grave charaoter, following a mild acute or subacute course.
. .
The toxic condi tiondeveloped in the workers chiefly because they swa 11 owe d-
. some ot the gasoline while clearing the gasoline feeding sys,tem by blowing
through it. Ten drivers .developed mild symptoms of chronio intoxication caused
by engine defects. The fuel system was not securely y.utight and permitted
tetraethyl lead fumes to permeate into the truck: cabin. Some patients failed
to comply with the rules of personal b;ygiene: they washed their hands in the
gasoline, kept rags saturated with it in the cabin, sometimes spilled it on
their clothes, etc. Most patients with mild acute or chronic etbylated gasO-
line intorl cat ion were clinically asthenic. They complained of continuous or
recurrent headaches, undue fatigability, and. vertigo. Some of them suffered
from emotional disturbances and a1most all slept poorly and had nightmares.
Neurologio eXA.mination showed that half of the patients had lively tendon
retl~e8 and SODle had fiDger tremors. The complex of autonomic nervous system
. .;
sJmPtoma oharaoteristi~ of tetraet~l lead intoxication inoluded bra~cardia,
h1Pothe~,b;yPotonia, etc. In the ~jority of the patients only isolated symp-
tOlQSof this "triad" were observed. Thus, 5 men had a morning tempe.rature of
35.0 - 35.3°; hypothe~ combined with moderate bra~cardia (pulse 56 - 60 per
minute) was observed in ~ men; . autonomic symptoms of clear-cut bra~cardia
with a pulse of 48 - 52 beats per minute, vascular hypotonia with arterial pres-
sure of 95/65 - 100/70 mm, and moderate hypothermia - was found in only 4 pa-
tients. Other autonomic symptoms manifested in many of the examined patients
were abnormal mechanical muscular irritability, heightened~local pilomotor re-
flex response and bypersalivation. Dermographic changes were noted in 14 pa-
tients; t~e vascular retlexwas overactive in most and in some it was weak.
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Intradermal injection of adrenalin and of histamine elicited dull response and
functional stress during examination of the static and occulocardiac reflexes.
Mental changes characteristic of extreme forms of ethylated gasoline poisoning,
such as hypnotic hallucinations, nightmares, fears, were observed mostly in
individuals with acute or subacute poisonings. Anamnesis showed that Bome of
the patients were heavy alcoholics, which exaggerated the severity of the psy-
chic disturbances. Internal organs appeared normal. None of the patients had
typical symptoms of lead poisoning: basophilic granular erythrocytes were ab-
sent, and there was no increase in the urinary porphyrin and only one-third of
the patients showed a leucocyte decrease from 5000 to 4200.
Observations indicated that personal idiosyncrasies and individual sensi-
tivity to the toxic effeot of ethylated gasoline changeable in the presence of
unfavorable factors, played an important part in the development of. chronic in-
toxication. Among the unfavorable. factors were physical and mental traumas,
alcoholism, infections, etc. Psychogenetic traits aggravated by alcoholism
not only .contributed to the development of the intoxication, but markedly af-
fected the clinical picture and the course of the intoxication. Mental distur-
bances which frequently appeared in such patients helped in prolonging the course
of intoxication. The mild forms of chronic intoxication observed in drivers
were generally reversible and ended in complete recovery. Most effective treat-
ment consisted of extended sleep combined with intravenous injection of a 40%
glucose solution, vitamins, pine baths, and other types of physiotherapy. Phys-
iological sleep was prolonged to 12 and 14 hours a day b.1 means of small doses
of barbiturates, such as luminal, medinal, sodium ~tal, administered in doses
of 0.05 to 0.2 g together with pyramidon once or twice a day. Some individuals
received graduated therapy. Over stimulation of the central nervous system
was calmed first b.Y sedatives after which sleep therapy was applied. In cases
.of marked autonomic disturbances intravenous injections of a 10% solution of
calcium chloride was prescribed. It was recommended that patients remaining
asthenic after treatment be transferred to other type of work for 2, 3, or 6
months. Patients with persistent intoxication were advised to have no further
contact with ethylated gasoline.
The following is an excerpt from a case history of a subacute course of
intoxication:
.0
Patient A, 24 years old, came to the clinic of the Institute of Indust~ial
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Hygiene and Occupational Diseases, Acade~ of Medical Sciences, U. S. S. R.,
in connection with residual symptoms of subacute intoxication b,y etbylated gas-
oline. He worked on a truck (GAZ - 51) and had been in contact with the tetra-
ethyl lead fuel for 2 months. When the fuel system became stopped up he blew
it clear with his mouth. Drops occasionally fell into his mouth, after which
he usually had a headache and dizziness for several hours. After swallowing
some gasoline in March of 1950, he became dizzy, had dull headaches, was easily
fatigued, anxious, slept poorly, had nightmares, and paresthesia, imagining
that a hair 'was lying in his mouth. He was treated in a local hospital for 10
d~s without success. Anamnesis was routine. When admitted to the Institute
clinic, he was suffering from general asthenia, light finger tremors with hands
outstretched, vigorous tendon reflexes, weak dermographia, abnormal pilomotor
reflex, vascular hypotonia (arterial pressure 95/60 mm), bradycardia (pulse 56 -
60 per minute); the histamine cutaneous test proceeded sluggishly; he suffered
from anxiety, impaired memory, fears, and hallucinations. The internal organs,
blood picture and chemistry and urine were normal. The patient was adminis-
tered the previously mentioned combined treatment. Physiological sleep ex-
tended over 10 or 12 hours daily supplemented b,y the administration of 0.2 g
. of medinal during the d~ and 0.1 g of luminal at night together with 0.3 g
of pyramidon. In addition patient was given intravenous injections of a 40%
glucose solution with thiamine and vitamin 0, and pine baths. Fears and hallu-
cinations disappeared on the 6th day. He recovered completely 3 weeks after
admission to the clinic. It was recommended that he avoid contact with etby-
lated gasoline for 3 to 6 months.
The following case history illustrates chronio intoxication with less pro-
nounced symptoms and no mental disorders I
Patient G., 26 years old, a driver, came to the clinic of the Institute of
Industrial ~giene and Occupational Diseases, Acade~ of Medical Sciences,
U. S. S. R., in connection with chronic intoxication by etbylated gasoline.
He had been in contact with it for 9 months while driving a truck, frequently
out of the city, when he had to fill up the tank using a pail. He often spilled
some of the fuel on his clothes and washed his hands in it. Anamnesis revealed
nothing unusual. During the past 2 months he suffered from persistent headaches,
undue fatigability, irritability, unpleasant sensations of having some foreign
substance on his tongue, lack of appetite, poor sleep. As a result of these
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symptoms he was sent to the clinic. When examined, he was asthenic; the ten-
don reflexes were lively; there were light finger tremors with hands outstretched,
faint dermographia, moderate bradycardia (pulse 56 - 60 per minute), periodic
vascular hypotonia, hypothe~ (morning temperature 35.2 - 35.30), sluggish re-
action to intradermal injection of histamine. Internal organs, blood and urine
were all normal. He was given combined therapy: intravenous injection of a
40% solution of glucose, vitamins, pine baths plus a double dose of 0.05 g of
luminal and 0.26 g of pyram1don. Almost at once the patient began to sleep 9
or 10 hours a day. After 3 weeks in the clinic his appetite improved, the gen-
eral weakness and abnormal irritability disappeared. He was discharged from
the clinic in a satisfactory condition with the recommendation that he avoid
contact with etbylated gasoline for 6 months.
These observations indicated that symptoms of mild acute or chronic in-
toxication by ethylated gasoline developed in drivers who handled this type of
fuel carelessly. The results were generally asthenia, some disturbance in the
autonomic nervous system, an~ the unusual forms of paresthesia typical of tetra-
ethyl lead intoxication. These disturbances were reversed under treatment in
a short time. Since the asthenic syndrome was often observed in a polyclinio
in diseases of various etiology, it appeared important that a differential di-
agnosis be made in all oases. Patients with almost imperoeptible "speoific"
tetraethyl lead symptoms in the autonomio nervous system and no indications of
mental disorder were the most difficult to diagnose. A oorreot diagnosis of
the early symptoms required that the oourse of the disease be oarefully evalu-
ated, that anamnesis and the hygienio oonditions of the patient's work be pains-
takingly examined. The problem was partioularly complioated when ethylated gas-
oline intoxication was found in an individual with a history of ohronic aloohol-
ism or traumatio encephalopathy. In suoh oases the oourse of therapy had to be
comprehensive. Asthenia was treated without delay b.Y intravenous injection of
gluoose combined with vitamins, pine baths, and prolonged sleep. The most im-
portant faotors in preventing tetraethyl lead intoxication were inspeotion of
the truoks, cheoking their performance and striot adherenoe to all presoribed
safety regulations for handling ethylated gasoline. As a result of this study
it is reoommended that greater effort be exerted during routine medical oheok-
up to detect early symptoms of poisoning by ethylated gasoline.
-24~-
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Bibliography.
5e.AJlRX1fC f. A., Mapqe..o E. H., TeTpU'I'1UCB1RI811 (II~RJIJ8nwKa 9'l'f)3B-
.IIeHHI)', M.. 1950.- 8 a C C e p .. a B M. A.. HeapoD. 11 DCRltH8Tp... 1941, ... 10, Nt 6,
CTp. 49-53..... E r 0 p 0 a C K 3.. E. n.. HeapoD. R nCHXH3TP.', 1941, Y. 10, C!p. ~.-I( e;
8 Op X loll B A. A.. B KII': npo4»eccHOB8JlbHye ueRpoTOXCllK08Y, MMHa, 1955, 'eTp. 7a-:.
86. - M 11& " B B K n., a 101.: npoMYWJlIHR8J1 TOKCHKOJIOrRlI, KJlRHRKI, I'IIFHeRa, 8pOctlR~
naK'l'HX8, M.~n., 1934, CTp. 13~148.-nollep8BueBIl E. H.,'KJlRR. Ilea.. -.l9~,
1'. .. Ni 8, CYp. '61,.....10....,. P 8 811: II H H. r.. a KtI.: Hep8JIo-IlGIWI'Iec:ue a,p)'UleJlHII
JI.p.H.OTlI.a.aneHIUI TeT'p.anHncaH.Jlj,!.OM, M., 1948, CTP. 5-101,
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The Central Bervous System and the Pharmaco-D,namics of Some
Vapor Forming Substances Inhaled with the Air.
BY A. Ye. Alexeyev.
Farmakolog1ya i Tox1logiya, Vol. 18, Bo. 6, 1955, pp. 22-24.
The central nervous system most probably plays an important role in the
penetration of some pharmacological agents through the alveolar membrane. This
author has not been able to find ~ reference to this subject in the literature
examined. For this reason an original study was undertaken the results of which
are reported herein. Frogs were used as cold-blooded and white rats as warm-
blooded animals. The stu~ was made by the method of heart-lung preparation re-
taining its connection with the central nervous system; therefore, the method
can be described as the hear't-lung-brain-preparation method. In the case of
frogs, the animals were etherized and the thoracic cavity opened; blood vessels
were ligatured in the following orders both cutaneous arteries, then both basal
arteries, interior vena cava and subclavian veins. In this way the pulmonai7 and
carotid arteries an4 the internal and erlemal jugular veins and the pulmonar.y
veins remained open; through them blood was supplied to the brain via a small
circuit. The posterior part of the frog's body was severed between the thoracic
and lumbar vertebrae. A tube was then inserted into the trachea connecting the
latter with a device for artificial respiration; heart contractions were regis-
tered k;ymographicalq. When a frog woke from narcosis, as was indicated by the
appearance of protective reflexes in the eyes, skin, etc. in response to a nee-
dle prick, the administration of the test substarices was begun. An intact frog
served as control; its heart action was registered according to Engel'man.
Tests were made with chloroform, formalin and paralde~e. Fifteen minutes
after 15 inhalations (see note 1) of chloroform vapor by the card1ac-pulmonar.y-
cerebral frog preparation characteristic narcotic heart function depression set
in. However, the heart did not stop beating as it usually did in all tests with
frog heart-lung preparations (see Farmakolog1ya i Toxilogiya 1951, No.5). Three
minutes after chloroform a~nistration the heart action was almost tully re-
stored, although the amplitude of the heart contractions remained somewhat b&-
low the original. Three minutes later 15 more inhalations of chloroform vapor
wereadmin1stered which stopped the heartbeats. It appeared that the central
nervous system reduced the toxic effect of chloroform. Blood volume in this case
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played an essential role. If it is assumed that the amount of blood in a heart-
lung-brain is double that in. the heart-lung, then doubling the dose of chloro-
form inhaled should stop the heart action in the heart-lung-brain preparation.
This was not the case: the heart in the heart-lung-brain preparation continued
to contract after 20 and after 30 inhalations of chloroform vapor. The blood,
. .
as was demonstrated elsewhere, (in the same issue as above) played the part not
only of the principal carrier of a givensubstanoe, but also as the medium which
substantially affected the pharmaco-QJnam1cs of substanoes penetrating from the
lungs into the blood. In the control tests with intact fro~, effects were ob-
served similar to those effected b,y chloroform in the heart-lung-brain prepara-
tion. Thirty seconds after 15 inhalations of formalin vapor the heart action
was significantly depressed. Then the heart functioning improved and approached
the normal level 5 - 6 minutes later. Administration of 10 chloroform vapor in-
halations "cut off" the central nervous system and the frog did not react to nee-
dle pricks. Two minutes later the administration of 15 formalin vapor inhala-
tions was repeated without producing any heart reaction. After ventilating the
lungs with pure air, 10 inhalations of chloroform vapor were administered.
In another test 15 formalin vapor inhalations were administered which caused
depressed heart action in a manner described above. Repeated administration of
30 formalin vapor inhalations produced no such effect and the heart action did
not change. In this case it could be assumed that the formalin vapor has been
inactivated b.y the alveolar membrane or b.y the central nervous system, or it
may have been the result of conditioning the organism, in particular the myocar-
dium, to the tested substance. Results of the test with an isolated heart
showed that no conditioning of the myocardium to threshold formalin doses had
occurred. This may have been due to the fact that the lung membrane changed
its activity to such a degree that formalin vapor in repeated doses failed to
affect the heart action to &n1 noticeable extent. It is probable that the first
irritation of the lung receptors b.1 small doses of formalin elicited a corre-
sponding reaction on the part of the lung membrane and of the heart and that
the formalin vapor penetrated into the blood. This was shown by a sharp de-
pression in heart action. Subsequently the nerve endings elicited no heart re-
action as though they were conditioned to formalin vapor. A rapid and energetio
heart reaction became manifest to 7 inhalations of chloroform vapor by the
heart-lung-brain preparation after prel1minar,y 30 inhalations of formalin vapor.
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Chloroform did not act s1milar~ on the heart-lung preparation.
the function of the central nervous system remained unaffected.
suIts were obtained in tests with the intact control frogs.
After 5 paraldehyde vapor inhalations administered to the heart-luns--brain
preparation a 1.5 min. depression was observed in the heart action. The prep-
aration quality was checked b.Y administering 7 chloroform vapor inhalations.
Fifteen seconds later a depression of ths heart action was noted, typical of
this type of narcosis; it was restored almost to normal in 7 minutes, as re-
gards frequency of heart contractions. Following this 5 more paraldehyde vapor
inhalations were administered which produced on the kymogram a typical curve of
this type of narcosis as was observed in tests with heart-lung preparations.
The tests performed on the control frogs were identical with those of the heart-
lung-brain frog preparations. -
Supplemental tests were performed with heart-lung preparation of a white
rat and of an intact white rat using an original I'rocedure. Tracheoto~ was
performed on the rat under ether narcosis and with artifioial resl'iration; the
thorax was opened b.1 an incision along the left side of the chest from the clav-
icle to the ensistemum. Then the thoracic aorta, - the interior vena cava and
the left subclavicle arter,y were ligated in succession. This operation complete-
~ excluded the large circulation system and directed the blood stream through
the coronary vessels. The peripheral ends of , the ligated blood vessels were cut
off; the lungs and the heart were separated with a blunt instrument from the sur-
rounding tissues, the traohea was cut off above the traoheal pipe and the prepa-
ration was removed from the thoracic cav1 ty. To prevent the preparation from
drying up and to establish a more rhythmic action, the heart-lung preparation
was spr~ed continuously with a warm (380) physiological solution.- The control
tests were oarried out on intaot rats in which the apex of the heart was ex-
posed. This was done b.Y cutting lightly along the fifth left;~te~co~tal_space
under light narcosis.
Results of tests with chloroform, formalin and paraldebyde corresponded
almost ful~ with the results of experiments with frog heart-lung preparations.
Results obtained in analogous tests made with rats heart-lung preparations were
similar to those made with intact frogs, except that vapor inhalations were more
Apparent~,
Analogous re-
numerous.
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Conclusions.
1. It was demonstrated that the central nervous system played an impor-
tant part in regulating and directing the lung membrane functioning in the in-
tact organism.
2. Severing the connection between the lung membrane and the central ner-
vous system substantially affected the pharmaco-~am1cs of some vapor forming
pharmacological substances inhaled with the air.
3. Volatile narcotics such as chloroform, and vapor forming substances
such as paraldehyde freely permeated through the lung membrane which changed
their pharmaco-dyanamic effects when the connection between the lungs and the
central nervous system remained intact.
Note No.1. The term "inhalation" as here used denotes artificial respi-
ration through forcing into the lungs of air containing known concentrations
of vapors of volatile substances.
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The Effect of Hydrogen Sulfide and of Sodium Sulfide on the Blood Sugar Level.
By
V. K. Zburzhinskii.
The Leningrad Sanitary-Hygienic Medical Institute.
Farmakol. i Toksikol. Vol. 21, No.4, 87-90, 1958.
Hydrogen sulfide constitutes an occupational hazard in many industries,
particularly in obtaining and processing of sulfur-rich petroleum. The effect
of B2S on various functions of the organism has not been sufficiently studied.
Knowledge of the effect of hydrogen sulfide and of sulfides in general on carbo-
hydrate metabolism is particularly scant and contradictory. According to
Kozhima (1933) and L. M. Model .!1.!! (1937) the subcutaneous and intra-peri-
toneal injection of hydrogen sulfide and of sodium sulfide solutions caused a
transient hyperglycemia. M. S. Rabinovich (1934) and M. A. B,yelogorsk1i (1947)
found that intravenous injection of ''J4atzestin'' water and hydrogen sulfide in-
halation elicited a fall in the blood sugar level.
An attempt was made to establish the mechanism of blood sugar level changes
after the inhalation of toxic concentrations of hydrogen sulfide. The ex-
periments were performed on decerebrated cats and on intact rabbits. The cats
were exposed to inhalation of hydrogen sulfide in 0.09% concentration b.1 volume
in a chamber where they moved about freely; the rabbits inhaled hydrogen sulfide
in 0.09% and 0.17% concentrations in a static,position. The animals inhaled the
air containing 0.09,% of hydrogen sulfide for 5 minutes, and air containing 0.17%
of hydrogen sulfide for 2 - 3 minutes. The sodium sulfide solution was injected
into the femoral vein in doses of 1 ~/kg twice at an interval of 30 seconds.
Blood was drawn from the femoral arteries in cats and from the marginal ear
veins in rabbits, and the sugar level was determined b.1 the Haggedorn-Jensen
method. In the stu~ of hydrogen and sodium sulfide effect on blood sugar three
sets of cats were injected intravenously with sodium sulfide and three sets of
rabbits were subjected to inhalation of hydrogen sulfide. The results are listed
in Tables 1, 2, and 3. The data in the Tables point to a definite rise in the
blood sugar level after the inhalation of B2S and after the injection of Na2S.
The sugar curves, as a rule, were of the same general type. The maximum sugar
increase usually occurred in 30 to 60 minutes after the administration of B2S
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and Na2S; this was followed by .a gradual fall in the blood sugar level. The
results of the above experiments showed that hydrogen sulfide can raise the
blood sugar level in normal as well as in decerebrated animals.
Table 1.
Effect of sodium sulfide on blood sugar con-
centration of decerebrated cats
Minutes
t N Original Max. chage: after
Exp. o. : in mg% : . in % .
exposure
1 233 +14.1 30
2 245 .+19.6 30
3 197 + 6.6 15
4 265 +13.9 30
5 162 +15.4 45
6 202 -11.8 60
7 232 + 9.5 30
Table 2.
Effect of hydrogen sulfide on blood sugar con-
oentration of decerebrated cats
E~t. No. . Original
~~ . in mg%
Max. change
: in % :
Minutes
after
exposure
1 183 +29.5 90
2 318 +12.9 60
3 188 +20.~ 60
4 312 + 1.6 90
5 177 +23.8 60
6 266 + 9.0 .60
7 351 - 3.1 60
8 193 +20.7 90
Results of the experiments with rabbits showed that hydrogen sulfide in
0.17% concentration caused a more pronounced hyperglycemia than in 0.09% con-
centration. The dosages of Na2S and the concentrations of H2S administered to
cats and rabbits produced a ~spnea which was most.intensive following the ad-
ministration of 0.17% of hydrogen sulfide. Hemans,!i.!! in 1931 and Winder
and Winder in 1933 showed that a ~spnea produced by ~S and Na2S could be due
to the stinulation of chemoreceptors of the synocarotid zones. A. A. Petro-
pavlovskaya, of S. V. Anicbkov's laboratory, showed that when the carotid chemo-
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receptors were stimulated by cyanides a reflex increase occurred in the ad-
renal gland function, leading to hyperglycemia.
Table 3.
Effect of hydrogen sulfide on blood sugar con-
centration in intact rabbits
H2S
Rabbit No. I con cn
in %
.
.
: Minutes.
.Original in I Max. change after
mg % in % exposure
1
0.09 143 +15.3 60
0.09 113 +10.6 30
0.17 98 +50.4 50
0.09 106 +35.8 20
0.17 108 +54.6 40
0.17 97 +48.3 30
0.17 120 +40.0 5
0.09 111 +26.2 15
0.09 110 +14.5 15
0.09 120 - 3.3 30
0.09 97 + 9.2 20
0.17 101 +38.6 30
0.09 162 +30.3 30
0.17 109 +69.7 30
0.09 118 +23.6 30
2
3
4
5
A comparison of the results of A. A. Petropavlovskaya with the. results
here reported raises the question of the possible connection between hydrogen
sulfide hyperglycemia and the reflexes of the glomi caroticum chemoreceptors.
In tr.ying to verify this assumption a mechanical bilateral denervation was
performed of the synocarotid zones on 6 cats, which were then subjected to
inhalation of 0.09% of hydrogen sulfide for 5 minutes. The sugar level dropped
in 2 experiments and it rose insignificantly in 4 experiments as shown in
Table 4. The fall in the hydrogen sulfide effect on blood sugar in the 2 cats
with the denervated synocarotid zones emphasizes the decisive role played by
the carotid chemoreceptors in the development of hydrogen sulfide hyperglycemia.
To determine the part pl~ed by the adrenal gland in hydrogen sulfide
hyperglycemia, cross removal was performed on each of the five cats of the
right glomus caroticum and the left adrenal gland. In 1954 E. S. Fedorchuck
studied the reflex effect of nicotin; the results of her experiments indicated
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t)at the above deson bed operation almost complete17 severed the reflex OGD-
Deotion between the chemoreceptor8 of the s1Docarotid BODeS and the adrenal
gluu. At10er the cross 1'8110'9&1 of the glomus caroticum and of the adrenal
gland. the cats were subjected to 1nh&1stiOJ) , of 0.09S qdrogen sulfide tor 5
m1Dutes. The results are listed 111 Table 5.
Table 4.
Etteot ot O.O~ of h7drogen sultide on blood
sugar oonoentration ot deeebrated cat8 with
denervated 8ynooarotidsone8
I Original I JIu. ohanse1 J41nute8
1b:p~. Ho. iD~ in ~ after
Expoliure
1 288 + 1.7 60
2 276 + 6.4 30
3 212 -10.4 30
4 267, + 4.9 60
5 256 + .3.1 90
6 188 .;. 8'.0 60
. Table 5.
Effeot of 0.0", h7d.rogen sulfide on blood
sugar oonoentration atter the removal of the
right oaroti4 boq ed the left adrenal gled
I ~glJia1 I JIu. ohange :Minutes
Bxpt. ]10. ..
in -6 111 ~ atter
ezpoeure
1 195 + 7.7 30
2 171 -12.8 30
3 219 + 5.0 60
4 199 - 6.5 60
5 277 - 2.2 60
The.results show that severing the basic reflex connections between. the
carotid oIwaorecepton.. and the adrenal gland almost canplete17 removed the
bJperg17cem1c etfect of hfdrogen sulfide. This observation indicates that
~ogen sultide ~erg17cem1a was caused primarily by the reflex stimulation
of the adrenal glands by the chemoreceptors of the glomi oaroticum (carotid
bodies). The a8sumption that the s7Dooarotid zone chemoreceptors plqed a
decisi ve role in the development of qdrogen sulfide qperg17cemia helps to
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expla1A . ~ contrad1ct1ou prea8Dtecl 117. the data. ot the pre~ 1Dvest1pt01"8.
App~q, one ot the 1DV8at1ptora. 8blof "of stereel ~s.and .~S in cloaea not
autt1c18Dt to cause the 81;1_11at1on ot the. carotid- cb-oreceptora &Del the cem-
aequ~tr1se in the blood. aupr l~.. Invea't1gators who emplQ78d larger. clo.es
ot y BDd 1f~S aaw the manitesteel carot1el sone retlexe. which iDducecl hner-
gqcc1a.
Conclus10D8.
1. The intemal aitmof":1.gtration of SodiWD ault1cle ~lic1ted a c1.Tapnea aDd
a rise 1n the blood sugar level.
2. The inhalation of }qdrogen. aulfide 1D cODOentrations C8Us1Dg q&pnea
brcusht about a rise 1n the blood sugar level.
3. The }qpergqcemic effect of )qdrogen ault1cle is the result of glC81 .
caroticum chemoreoeptor stimulation.
4. The reflex stimulation ot the adrenal glBDds. b7 the glami. oaroticaa
ch_oreceptors is the immediate cause of ~ sulfide hn»ergqcem1.a.
:B1'l1ograpq .
'fi e JI 0 r 0 p C K H 11 M. A. TPVllbi llarecTaHcKoro Me.!!.. HH-Ta, 1947, T. 3, crp. 375.-
MO,,1eJlb n. M., neoHTIIHa.T1. r." rYTMaH n. o. Bonp. KypOPTO.1l., 1937, N9 3,
. CTp. 55. - neT p 0 naB.1I 0 B C K a!l A. A. B KH.: ~apMal\o.1.' HOBbiX .1eK. cpellCTB, 1953;'
'CTp. 138.-P a 6 H HOB H q M. C. TpYAH roc. u.eHTp. MH-Ta KypOpTO.1IOtHH, 1934, T.' 6,
CTp. 79. - ~ e .II. 0 P q Y K E. C. 610.11.11. 9KcnepHM. 6HO.1I. H MeA., 1954, T. 37, Nt 6, CTp.7.:"-
Hey man s C., B 0 U C k a a e r t J. J. et D a u tr e ban deL. Arch. int. Pharmacodyn...
19~1, v. 40 (I), p. 54. -:- K 0 j i m a M. Ztschr. f. ges. ex per. Med., 1933, Bd. 91, S. 257.-
Win d ere. V. a. Win d e r H. O. Am. J. Physiol., 1933, v. 105, N. 2, p.. 37. ..
-259-
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APP..D"II
'!'h. -yi-1II.allowable cODcentratiGD8 ot 8D ai%' pOllutant to be u..4
tor ~B1en1c evaluatioD ot the air 1B populated. area..
Air pGllutant
~ 11."'_. ali..able
OOBoentrat~~-'.3 ~ . . ..
llaxillal I :verap
; B1Dgl. "24 hour .
I ooncentration .ooncentration
1. Aarole1B
2. . _1 acetate .
3~ Ar88Bio and it. 1Borganic compcnmd.8
. (a. A8~
4. Beuen. Bel18ol)
5. Beu1l18 a. c) .. ...
"6. JuVl acetate "
7. Cubcm d1aultide
8. CarboB .0D~d.
9. ChloriDe
10. Chloropren.
11. D1chlorethaDe
12. Du.t (Dcz.;.toxic) "
13. ~1: ac.tat. .
14. J'luorin8 and it. oompounc1a (ae .)
. 15. P01'lla14~e .
16. lfldropB chloride
17. Jqdropn 8Ult1de ."
18. Lead. aDd it. COIIpOW1~ (ae Pb)
19. Lea4 aultide
20. JIaDpn.B8 and its compcnmda (aB JIn)
21. ..rcurJ'
22. . .ethanol
23. ..t~l ao.t.t.
24. .i tropn onde.
25. Phenol
26. Pho8phoru. ~de
27. Soot.
28. Sulfuric 80id
29. Sulfur dioxide
30. V1~1 aoetate
0.3 0.1
0.1
0.003
.2.4 0.8
5.0 . 1.5
0.1
0.03 0.01
6.0 2.0
0.1 0.03
0.25 0.08
3.0 1.0
0.5 0.15
0.1
0.03 0.01
0.03' 0.012
0.05 0.015
0.03 0.01
... 0.0007
0.0017
0.03 0.01
0.0003
1.5 0.'
0.07
0.30 0.10
0.3 0.1
0.15 0.05
0.15 0.05
0.3 0.1
0.5 0.15
0.2
-260-
GPO 880181
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