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U.S.S.R. LITERATURE ON AIR POLLUTION
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Volume 5
A SURVEY
by
B. S. Levine, Ph. D.
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U.S.S.R. LITERATURE ON AIR POLLUTION
AND RELATED OCCUPATIONAL
DISEASES
Volume 5
A SURVEY
by
B. S. Levine, Ph. D.
. u.s. Public Health Service
(Health, Education, and Welfare)
Research Grantee
Washington, D. C., U. S. A.
JANUARY 1961
-------
Other translations, books and surveys by Dr. B. S. Levine dealing
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Limits of Allowable Conoentrations of
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U.S.S.R. Literature on Air Pollution
and Related OooupationalDiseases.
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A C K NOW L ED GEM E N T.
By way of grateful acknowledgement each item in this volume is headed by
the original title in translation, the name of the author or authors, insti-
tutional affiliation, and periodical or book from which item was selected.
The volume, issue number, year of publication and inclusive pages are indi-
cated for the convenience of those who may wish to consult the Russian
original or make full reference to same.
B. S. Levine.
-iii-
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FOR E W 0 R D.
The organization of the material in Volume 5 follows the same plan as in
Volumes 3 and 4, a brief statement of which was presented in the Foreword to
O.T.S. No. 60-21475. It is based on the principle and concept b.1 which the
undersigned has been guided in conducting the survey of U.S.S.R. literature on
environmental, in this instance atmospheric and indoor, air pollution and means
of its sanitization. According to this concept, an environmental (atmospheric
or indoor air) pollutant isiany agent or factor which, if present in the en-
vironment above certain quantitative levels, elicits unfavorable temporary or
permanent shifts in the organism's functions which might interfere with its
normal activities, general well being, or feeling of ,comfort. According to'
this concept, such functional shifts may be the result of permanent non-revers-
ible histopathologic changes, of therapeutically correctable aberrations, and
of what is commonly called nuisances and annoyances. This includes such un-
favorable environmental factors as noises, and environmental conditions which
m~ cause excessive atmospheric vibration, excess of certain types ofatmos-
pheric radiation, insufficiency of actinic and other types of radiation and
ionization, essential to normal life, etc. In line with such a concept, this
volume contains items dealing with topics which, according to the concepts of"
some readers, should not have been covered by the survey.
As originally planned and tentatively announced, Volume 5 was supposed to
consist of nine sections. However, in the course of preparation of this volume
for photo-offsetting by the O.T.S., the undersigned received.some insistent
requests' for information on the basic principles of Pavlovian physiology of
conditioned and unconditioned reflexes. It was 'gratifying to receive such
requests, since it indicated a growing interest in the subject. After some
thought and consultation with research experts in the toxicological and phar-
macological phases of air pollution, the undersigned was convinced of the
desirability and advisability of conceeding to the requests. This could be
done only by assigning some topics which were to appear in sections VII, VIII
and IX of this Volume to Volume 6, which is well on the way of its organiza-
tion.
Pavlov's principles of the functioning of conditioned and unconditioned
reflexes are in their essence principles of the organism's adaptation to its
internal and external environmental affects by means ,of perceptive. awareness
or consciousness. As such, they 'appear, upon first consideration, jas simple
and obvious as life itself. However, when the undersigned began to express
in writing his mental pictures of Pavlovian physiology, especially as it related
to practical problems of some phases of air pollution, the realization forcibly
struck him that the task was not 'as simple as it appeared at first. Several
approaches were made, and the one which is presented as an introductory to this
Volume under the title "Basic Principles of Pavlovian Physiology. Conditioned
Reflexes and Signal Systems" wa's chosen as the m'ost appropriate initial presen-
tation. ,As is indicated in the last paragraph of the above titaled introduc-
tion, two or more installments may follow, if readers will so request.
B. S. Levine, Ph. D. .
3312 Northampton Street, N. W.
Washington 15, D~ c.
-iv-
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I N T ROD U C T ION.
Principles of Pavlovian Physiology.
Reflexes and Signal Systems.
B. S. Levine, Ph. D.
U.S. Public Health Service Research Grantee, U.S.S.R. Literature
on Air Pollution.
Basic
Conditioned
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was born in the Ryazan District of Russia, Sep-
tember 14, old style, in the year 1849. His father was a village priest.
Ivan Petrovich studied science in the University of Ryazan and medicine. at
the Military Medical Acade~ of St. ,Petersburg, now Leningrad. He was gradu-
ated in 1883, and went to Germany for two years to work under Ludwig and
Heidenhein~ Under Ludw~g and his assistant Heidenhein, Pavlov received the
impetus toward laboratory creativeness and new types of physiological proce-
duresand the particular field of physiology which made Ivan Petrovich a famous
scientist. Ludwig introduced into the service of 'physiology new apparatus and
methods which markedly affected the advance of physiology of that time, and
even of today. Ludwig was among the first to adopt the kymograph, . invented
by Thomas Young, for obtaining permanent records of arterial pressure varia-
tion and of respiratory movements. Ludwig designed the mercury blood pump
for his re~earches on blood and lymph gases, gas metabolism in living muscles,
the importance of oxidation-r~duction processes in the blood, etc; Ludwig
demonstrated that secretory glands, such, for instance, as the submaxillary,
were more'~han mere filters, and that their secretory action was the result of
chemical and thermal changes within the glands and in the blood circulating
through them. He demonstrated the existence of a new type of secretion-con-
trolling nerves, and showed that stimulation of such nerves elicited salivary
gland secretion in decapitated animals. Ludwig opposed the vitalistic concept
of life as strenuously in Germany as Jacques Loeb did,in ~he U.S.A. It is safe
to say that the basic purpose of Ludwigts work was to strengthen his anti-
vitalistic view and to prove that all lifets manifestations depended on forces
and natural laws much the same as those operating in the inorganic world;-
Jacques Loeb's thesis was even more extreme, since he aimed to prove that all
living things were chemical machines made of inert matter.
The year Pavlov was ~orn (1849), the founder of experimental physiology in
Russia, A. M. Filomafitskii, died. 'Filomafits~i was professor at Moscow Uni-
versity, and his writings illustrated the high level physiology reached in the
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forties of the 19th century.V. A. Basov, a surgeon in Filomafitskii's labo-
ratory, performed the first gastric fistula operation, which was of immense
significance to the study of digestion physiology, and which formed the founda-
tion of Pavlov's work in that field. At the end of the forties and the begin-
ning of the fifties A. N. Orlovskii, a Moscow physiologist and comparative
. .
anatomist of little renown, and a contemporary of Filomafitskii, jointly with
the famous Russian surgeon F. Inozemtsev studied the effect the nervous system
exerted.on nutrition of organisms, and disclosed the, so-called, trophic in-
fluence of the nervous system, to which Pavlov subsequently devoted much of
his work. In his student days at Moscow University I. M. Sechenov, Pavlov's
older contemporary studied the influence exerted by the nervous system on
tissue nutrition, previously initiated by Inozemtsev and Orlovskii; Sechenov
published a paper on the influence of the nervous system on nutrition of organs.
V. F. Ovsyanikov, one of Pavlov's teachers, discovered, in 1811, the
vaso-motor center in the central nervous system. Ovsyanikov's co-workers also
investigated the trophic effect of the nervous system during the initial days
of Pavlov's experiments. It should be mentioned that Pavlov was influenced by
S. P. Botkin, one of the outstanding Russian representatives of medicine of
the 19th century, in whose clinic Pavlov worked. Pavlov's idea of the leading
role played by the nervous system in all physiological processes, the idea of
nervism, came to fruition in Botkin's cli~ic.
Pavlov's theory of conditioned reflexes was a landmark in the development
of modern physiological thought and of natural science in Russia, where the
leading naturalists were combatting the dualism of matter and consciousness,
and attempted to establish the material foundation of physical processes and
the unity of matter and spirit, while the so-called idealists supported the
concept of non-material nature and immortality of the spirit, as opposed to
the material nature and mortality of the body.
In the sixties of the last century D. I. Pisarev, a popularizer of natural
science and materialism, advanced materialistic revolutionary democracy of
A. I. Hertseri, V. G. Belinskii, N.. A. Dobrolyubov, and especially of N. G.
Chernyshevskii; Pisarev extensively publicized the achievements of biological
sciences of his time, such as Darwinsim~ physiology, etc" His publications
. .
greatly influenced the development of Russian science. K. A. Timiryazev,
A. N. Bakh, N. A. Morozov and other outstanding riaturalists acknowledged Pisarev's
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beneficial influence.
In an autobiographical note Pavlov said:
"Influenced
by the literat~re of the sixties, and particularly by the writings of Pisarev,
the interest of Russia's intellectuals centered on natura] sciences, and many,
including myself, decided to devote themselves to this subject in the University".
Thus, it is seen that philosophical writings of Hertsen, Pisarev and Cherny-
shevskii played an important role in shaping the tradition of the Russian school
of physiology in. the fifties and sixties of the 19th century. The concepts
of I. M. Sechenov and of his pupil I. P. Pavlov were also influencedb,y the
above mentioned authors of liberal writing.
The basic similarity and historical link connecting the works of Sechenov
and of Pavlov consisted in that both attributed to the effect of environment a
leading role in shaping the course and direction of the complex processes of
physical activity, or, as Sechenov preferred to express it, to the conditions
of existence. According to Pavlov's theory of conditioned reflexes all mani-
festations of higher nervous activity were the result of a constant inter-
r~lation between the living organism and its environment in that they arose
under certain conditions of the organism's existence.
Sechenov's basic pos-
tulate that no organism could exist without its supporting external environment
had become an axiom; it was later rounded off by Pavlov's theory of conditioned
reflexes. Sechenov and Pavlov applied the objective physiological methods in
the study of complex biophysical phenomena. Prior to Sechenov and Pavlov in-
vestigators of nature were handicapped in t~eir attempts to study the then
called, spiritual activity; in the absence of objective methods of study, they
were hamstrung by the then prevailing philosophical dualism. Sechenov and
Pavlov were the first in Russia to free themselves of the dualistic concept,
adding experimental proof to the unity and interdependence of biophysical and
psychical phenomena.
Pavlov's laboratory technics and procedural approaches reflected the early
influences he experienced in the laboratories of Ludwig and his other teachers.
Likewise, Pavlov's and Sechenov's basic concepts of monism versus dualism (and
pluralism) and of materialism and mechanism versus vitalism or spirituality
of natural forces in the phenomena of life grew out of the prevailing philoso-
#
phies of such scientists as Descartes. Rene Descartes, the French philosopher
and man of science, was born in 1596 and died ~n 1650, or 199 years before
Pavlov was born. But the influence of his philosophical concepts was still in
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full force at the time Pavlov attained maturity. The views of A. I. Hertsen,
V. G. Belinskii, N. A. Dobrolyubov and of N. G. Chernyshevskii, as mentors of
Russian intellectuals and in particular of Russian scientists of Pavlov's time,
were basically reflections of the teachings of Descartes. Like Bacon, Descartes'
older contemporary, and like Spinoza, his younger contemporary, Descartes was
profOundly interested in using most appropriate methods for obtaining basic
knowledge by reason and not by the prevailing method of scholasticism. How-
ever, he did not have at his disposal means for direct experimental investiga-
tion, the results of which might have supported his concepts of such phenomena
as higher human mental or intellectual activities; instead, Descartes had to
speculate, which frequently led him to contradictory conclusions. Nevertheless,
Descartes' concept of reflexes, though over 200 years old, was close to the
ideas of Pavlov. In one of his early lectures on the functions of the cerebral
hemispheres Pavlov stated: "I will now discuss the concepts of reflexes in
physiology and of the instincts. My basic concept is similar to that of Des-
cartesefccording to this concept some neuro-apparatus communicates with an
agent of the external world or internal environment of the organism.
This impact
is then transformed into a nerve process, or a phenomenon of primary stimula-
tion.
The latter travels along the nerve fibers until it reaches the central
nervous system; from there it travels along the path of established connections
to the reference or working organs, where it is transformed into the process
specific to the cells of that organ. In this manner, any specific agent, obey-
ing physiological regularity, by reference becomes connected with the appro-
priate, or corresponding, activity of the organism, following the course of
. .
cause and effect." It should be added that the reflex activity concept of .
Descartes wa$ advanced in the latter part of the 18th century by the Czecho-
slovakian physiologist G. Prakhovskaya, and in the thirties of the 19th centuZ7
by M. Hall, originally from England and later from the U.S.A., and by I. Mueller
of Germa~.
Pavlov's theoZ7 of "higher nervous activity" crowned the persistent efforts
of Russian philosophers and naturalists io throw off the cbunterpoising of
spiritual and physical (dualistic) processes. This brought to a successful
. .
conclusion a definite stage in the development of science, which led from the
philosophical concepts of Radishchev, Belinskii, Hertsen and Chernyshevskii to
the ideas of Russian physiologists of the 19th and 20th centures.
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Two years before his death, in 1903, Sechenov published a revised edition
of his book "Elements of Thought"; simultaneously he published his book "Re-'
flexes of the Brain". The same year Pavlov presented his first report on'con-
,ditioned reflexes at the.International Medical Congress in Madrid. Pavlov
frankly admitted that Sechenov's "Reflexes of the Brain" influenced him during
his last year in the Ryazan Seminary and stimulated his work on the physiology
of the higher nervous activity, which later developed into the theory of con-
ditioned reflexeso This illustrated the varied nature of problems which came
to light in scientific work as the result of the historic influence of basic
generalizations of abstract thinkers and scientists of preceeding generations.
I. P. ,Pavlov and I. M. Sechenov were guided by the following basic pos-
tulates in their physiological experiments: an individual organism was an
intrinsic_part of nature, and all its life activities were continuous series
of interactions with the environment; according to Pavlov, this interaction
with the environment was activated or transformed into functional manifesta-
tions through the nervous system. The higher was the animal organism, the more
complex and the more fully was the affect of the nervous system reflected in
the pattern of the organism's reaction, which is to say, in the animal's ad-
justment to its environment. The primary, more e~ementary form of the organ-
ism's interaction with the environment was c 6ndi tioned by the organism's con-
tact with few external phenomena, which elicited specific activity on the part
of the organism. For instance, salivation upon the introduction of food into
the mouth, or eyes blinking upon strong light stimulation, etc. No specific
experience was re~uired for the activation of such reactions; they were innate
or inherited parts of the organism, as were the organs of the living body.
Such, reflexes Pavlov designated as "unconditioned reflexes", commonly referred
to as "instincts". The stimulation factors which brought these reflexes into
action Pavlov called "signals" or "signal systems". "Signal systems" related
to "unconditioned reflexes" Pavlov designated as the "signal system of the
lower level", or the "first signal syst em" . .
As a result of his numerous and varied investigations Pavlov conceived of
the brain activities as reactions to physical, biophysical, biochemical or
psychical signals which could be of external environment, or of internal origin,
residing in or emanating from the'organism per~. According to Pavlov, the
nature of the signal system, or the level of perception at which such systems,
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functioned, characterized the higher nervous activity of man. This led Pavlov
to the concept of a higher level, or "second signal system". As a general rule,
the "first signal system" functioned within the sphere of physical factors or
manifestations, while the "second signal system" functioned within the sphere
of social or other non-physical or abstract factors. All signals and central
and reflex responses to them functioned according to natural laws which regulated
the interactions between matter and energy.
Generally, the "second signal system" predominated in man and defined all
his activities and behavior. The "first signal system" in man was in a state
of inhibition and was at the command of the "second signal system"; the "first
signal system" cou ld free itself from the dominance of the" second signal
system" in sleep, in narcosis, or in some pathopsychical conditions. On the
other hand, the "second signal system", being of a higher ontogenetic level
of neuro-activity and phylogeneticaliy more recent, was easily affected by un-
favorable influences; hence, potent and prolonged stimulation was felt first
by the "second signal system". However, the interreactive relationship between
the generally dominant "second signal system" and its subordinate "first signal
system" differed markedly in different individuals; for instance, the dominance
of the "second" over the "first signal system" may not be obvious. in some in-
dividuals. In such cases, a ward, which is. a "signal ofsi~als" according to
Pavlov, and even more so, a combination of words, may exert a more forc~ful
impact on the central nervous system than the "primary or immediate signal"
or combination of such signals. Thus, the description of. a physical factor or
of an external or internal environment may elicit a more forceful reaction than
the primary factor.
Such variations in man's signal interreactions point to
the existence of different neuro-types, a fact which must be taken into con-
sideration in applying the principles of Pavlovian' physiology to practical
tests in the laboratory, or in the fieid, when investigating problems of limits
of allowable concentrations of given air pollutants.
We now have some concept of Pavlov's theory of unconditioned reflexes, of
the two signal systems, of the existence of different neurotypes of individuals.
I will present next a brief discussion of conditioned reflexes as they were
dealt with by Pavlov. Pavlov's discovery of conditioned reflexes, his descrip-
tion of new types of nervous connections with the conditions of life (uncondi-
tioned and conditioned reflex connections) represented an advanced step in the
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development of the theorY of reflex physiology. Since Descartes introduced
the reflex concept, a "reflex" had been regarded as the reaction of the ani-
, mal's organs, or of the whole organism,
anatomically established paths, Sechenov
experimentally solved t~e problem of the
to certain stimuli.
On the basis of
and Pavlov brought into light and
organism's connections bearing an
adaptive charactier, and emerging and disappearing during the development of
the organism in harmony with "conditions of existence". Pavlov demonstrated
that ,reflexes resulted from the'union of connections between two points of
stimulation in the brain, that they were not permanent and vanished, or became
extinguished, under ,natural or experimental conditions. Pavlov regarded the
conditioned, or temporary acquired reflexes, as innate faculties of the organ-
ism, or as its natural aramamentaria of adaptation to its dynamic environment.
Pavlov stated:
"The basic functions of the higher part of the central nervous
system are the conjoining of new and temporary connections between the external
phenomena and the functioning of the different organs, and the analysis, or
breaking into component elements by the organism of the external environmental
complex.
Such a mechanism was instrumental in establishing more delicate ad-
justments of the organism to the environment, that is, a more complete equi-
libri~ within the matter-energy system of the environment." Stated more
briefly, conditioned reflexes constituted the adaptive mechanism necessary
for the well being of the organism and of the species. (Note the influence of
Darwin's "Survival of the fittest").
The environmental factors which are of primary and direct concern to the
new-born organism, especially under mother's protection, are comparatively few
and simple; they are related to food, sound and vision perceptions, etc. They
are associated with .the lowest level of the "first signal system", f9r which
the innate, or inherited, "unconditioned reflexes" or the ,"instincts" may be
of adequate service for a time.
However, as the organism develops and the
reactive factors increase, the inexperienced organism is faced with the need
of new adaptations. The new environmental factors may be transient or of long
duration, they are never permanent; accordingly, the old adaptations must be
discarded, or extinguished, and new ones must be elicited. Such is the function
of conditioned reflexes of natural origin. Conditioned reflexes can also be
elicited or developed and obliterated, or extinguished, in the laboratory for
study purposes; they can be extinguished, released, relegated to the background
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temporarily and/or replaced by other conditioned reflexes, to be brought into
the foreground, that is to be released again, whenever naturally impelled or
experimentally expedient. Not such is the case with unconditioned reflexes.
Conditioned reflexes, created or elicited in the laboratory, can be de-
fined as neuro-mechanisms by which new stimuli are introduced £s substitutes
for the originally effective ones, in eliciting specific reactions and, ac-
cordingly, new responses as replacements for the originally aQe~uate .reactions-
to specific stimuli. Thus, the smell of food, instead of the food as such,
will stimulate the flow of saliva, or the sight of a stick will cause a shrink-
ing away from it because of the association with an accompanying unpleasant
or painful experience. Such conditioned reflexes can also be defined as modi-
fications of reflex behavior caused by changes in conditions under which a
specific behavior became manifest.
Land and Olmstead were of the opinion that
true reflexes were predetermined necessary responses of the organism'to given
stimuli. They maintained that if an experimentally created conditioned reflex,
which caused saliva to flow to the beat of the manronome, were a true reflex,
its effect should become manifest with the salivary receptors severed. How-
ever, this was not the case, since with the removal of the afferent connec-
tions from the salivary gland the conditioned reaction could no more be elicited;
, I
this pointed to the existance of a secondary neuro-mechanism non-existant in
true reflexes.
We are here concerned with conditioned reflexes as conceived
by Pavlov and now universally accepted by laboratory experimentalists; there-
fore, we will continue to regard such manifestations as true conditioned re-
flexes. The v~ewpointof Lang and Olmstead was here mentioned more for purposes
of general in~ormation and completeness of the presentation.
The prec~eding dicsussion can be interpretively summarized as follows:
even though the process of adaptation to external and internal environment
were explainable in simple mechanical terms, complex situations may arise which
by their very nature may cause block interference, inhibition hesitations, in-
direct substitutions, etc. Accordingly, changes for manifestations of patho-
genic physiology were great, indeed. Thus, Pavlov may be justly regarded as
the discoverer of the high~r nervous activity and the founder of pathological
physiology of the higher centers of the central nervous system. According to
Pavlov these higher centers performed the following functions:
1) Secure adapation and e~uilibration of the organism as a unit with the
external environment, and create the highest and most complex forms of its inter-
-xi i-
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re~ation with the surrounding world;
2) Regulate and correlate all physiological processes taking place in
the internal environment of the organism, of all vegetative and metabolic
functions; and
3) Integrate the fluent and fluctuating coordination of the total ex-
ternal and internal somatic and visceral-vegetative vital activity of the organ-
ism, that is, secure its most complex functional unity.
The three basic functions of the cerebral hemispheres are closely inter-
connected. Hence, in pathologic disturbances of the activity of the higher.
parts or centers of the central nervous system, it is difficult to assume a
totally isolated impairment of affection of anyone of these functions; normally,
such disturbances extend in varying degree in all three above described direc-
tions, concentrating mainly in one of them, and, therefore, capable of being
diagnosed within the sphere of influence of that basic central function. The
cortical activity effects a complex interaction of the highly mobile and
changeable reflections of the surrounding environment with the reflections of
. .
the organism's internal medium, that is, with the reception of all somatic
and viscero-vegetative (prioreceptive and interoceptive) stimuli entering the
cortex from .the skeleto-muscular apparatus and internal organs, and constituting
the principal basis of "self-perception".
In the course of such interaction the following takes place in the'cerebral
cortex:
a flowing development of new links, connections, associations, and the
like, between the external and internal affects, on the one hand, --and different
somatic and vegetative activities, on the other hand; there also arise inhibi-
tions of such connections when they no more comply, temporarily or permanently,
with the demands of the external and internal medium upon the nervous system.
The above described activity of the cerebrum is determined in animals biological-
ly; in man such determination (first signal system) is foremost of a social, or
abstract inferential innateness (second signal system). The study of changes
in the functions of the cerebral cortex, and in its interaction with the lower
sections of the brain, developing under the effects of noxious or morbid factors,
that is to say, changes which are observed under different pathologic condi~ions,
constitutes an important means of controlling the pathophysiology of the higher
centers of the central nervous system. Such morbid or noxious factors can be,.
and on occasion are, air pollutants of different types and concentrations.
-xiii-
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In this connection, it should be pointed out that, as previously described,
no cortical or subcortical affection ever remains absolutely, or even relatively,
isolated; on the contrary, it has a pronounced and durable ~amic effect on
the different parts and functional systems of the brain. This means that the
effect of a factor reacting on one perception system may be more conveniently
and more convincingly demonstrated or diagnosed by its reflex effect on some
other perception system. For instance, eye adaptation changes may prove to be
more sensitivie indexes of the effect 'of odor emanating substances than the
threshold of odor perception established with the aid of the olfactory system;
or shortening or lengthening of the latent period of motor reflex response may
offer more reliable indications of the effect of deleterious substances than
histopathologic or pharmacodynamic studies.
This Pavlovian, or rather modern, concept of the physiology of perception
opens before the research toxicologist, pharmacologists and investigator of
limits of allowable concentrations of certain pollutants, whet~~~ in air, in
. '".' ~ ..
water, or in food, a vast, fascinating, intellectually satisfying and fruitful
field of theoretically significant and practically applicable experimentation.
The procedure~ used in approaching problems of the above described essence,
the apparatuses and equipment employed, the manner of handling the experimental
animals or of the human test subjects, and, indeed, the very terminology used
in such studies, are different from anything the U.S.A. research student (or
teacher) of advanced physiology had been in contact with. It is not within
the scope of this paper to discuss or describe the details of such phases of
modern (Pavlovian) physiology; rather it is the hope of' this writer that the
paper will rouse the scientific curiosity of the pioneering young minds of our
American scientists, who will see the far-reaching possibilities of such research
studies, that they will enter this field of investigation with the traditional
zeal of true American initiative, and that the results of their labors will
constitute notable practical and theoretical advances in this promising realm
of perception physiology.
Depending upon the interest this preliminary paper will rouse among pertinent
research students and the desirability to continue the discussion of the above
~ubject, as may be indicated by forthcoming communcations addressed to this
writer, the subject will be pursued somewhat along the following lines: ad-
vances made in the Pavlovian concept of "higher nervous activity" since the
~xiv-
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death of Pavlov, and their significance to the determination; of limits of al-
lo'vable concentrations of deleterious. substances in air, water and food; and,
details of basic laboratory procedures now in use in the U.S.S.R. in connec-
tion with the practical application of so-called Pavlovian technics in the
study. of applied phases of perception physiology.
Sources:
Encyclopedia Britannica, Bol'shaya Russkaya Entsiklopedia, and
references therein cited.
B. S. Levine, Ph. D.
3312 Northampton Street, N. W.,
Washington 15, D. C.
-xv-
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Contents.
Foreword
Introduction
Section I.
HYgienic Evaluation.
Limits of Allowable Concentration.
Basic Data for the Hygienic Evaluation of Dust from Combustible
Shale. Kh. Ya. Yanes.
Hygienic Evaluation of Labor Conditions in the Manufacture of
Asbestos-Cement Roofing Slate and Pipes. K. K. Vrochinskii.
Sanitary-Chemical Characteristics of Silicon Organic Polymers,
with Special Reference to Polymethylsiloxamic Rubber.
E. A. Peregud and B. S. Boikina.
Hygienic Characteristics of Natural Soil Radioactivity.
V. N. Gus'kova and A. N. Bragina.
Hygienic Problems Connected with the Transportation of Radioactive
Isotopes. R. S. Kalinova.
Oxygen Blast Effect on Air in Electric Steel Smelting Mills.
R. A. Nishchii.
Hygienic Evaluation of the Ultraviolet Radiation in the Northwestern
Section of the Circumpolar Area. A. A. Generalov.
Work Hygiene and Health Condition of Persons Engaged in the
Manufacture of Hexachlorane Insecticides. Ye. N. Burkatskaya,
Z. V. Ivanova and Ye. P. Krasnyuk.
Carbon Monoxide Air Pollution in Shops Testing Machine and Tractor
Motors. A. K. Audere.
Limits of Allowable Concentration of Carbon Bisulfide in the
Atmospheric Air of Residential Areas. R. S. Hildenskiold.
Hygienic Evaluation of Aerosols Formed in the Manufacture of Hard
Alloys. Z. S. Kaplun and.N. V. Mesentseva.
Basic Hygienic Data for the Determination of Standard Limit of
Allowable Concentration of Methanol Vapor in Atmospheric Air.
Chjao Chjen-tsi. .
Basic Data for the Determination of Limit'of Allowable Concen-
tration of Hydrogen Sulfide in Atmospheric Air. Duan' Fyn-Djui.
Section II.
Pharmacological, Toxicological, Clinical.
An Experimental Study of the Effect of Ferrosilicon on the
Organism. R. V. Borisenkova.
Effect of 2-Chlorobutadiene-l,~ on Liver Glycogen and Pyruvic Acid
Content in the Blood of Laboratory Animals. S. V. Nikogosyan.
Histopathological and Histochemical Changes in the Organs of Rabbits
Prolonged Exposure to Carbon Monoxide, Sulfur Dioxide, and Their
Combination. Yu. D. Prokhorov and A. Ao Rogov.
-xvi-
iv
v
1
6
10
14
. 20
21
30
38
43
46
52
59
66
14
11
81
-------
Cliniqal Aspects, Pathogenesis and Prevention of Occupational
Nervous System Diseases in Foundr,y Cleaners Using Pneumatic Chisels.
M. G. Feinberg.
Diseases of the Upper Respirator,y Passages and of the Ear among
Workers of the Serpukhov Zanarskaya Spinning-Weaving Mill.
A. A. Kravchenko, A. E. Pasternak, R. M. Larchenko and L. I. Sokolova.
Obtaining a Constant Dust Concentration in a "Dynamic" Dust Chamber.
M. I. Erman.
Effect of Sulfur Dioxide on Vitamin C Balance in the Animal Organism.
Ao S. An.
Effect of Cement Dust on Respirator,y Organs.
and T. G. Osetinskii.
Clinical Aspects of Dichlorethane Poisoning.
M. M. Tarnopol'skaya
V. V. Salina.
Sequelae of Severe Carbon Monoxide Poisoning. I. A. Kirichinskaya.
Lowest Aniline Concentrations Affecting the Central Nervous System
of Rabbits. M. S. Zakabuninao
Effect of Volatile Substances and of Gases on the Higher Nervous
Activity of White Rats in the Course of Inhalation Exposure.
Zo E. Grigor'ev.
Distribution and Elimination of S35 in Animals after Inhalation of
Labeled Sulfuric Acid Aerosolo 00 G. Vasil'eva.
Section III.
Sanitization.
Prevention of Air Dustiness in Mineral Wool Manufacturing
Establishments. L. S. Rozanov, V. G. Matsak and I. S. Shereshevskaya.
Effectiveness of Measures Used in Decreasing Dust Generated by
Measuring Out and Mixing Particulate Materials. N~ I. Amelin.
Standardization of Air Current Velocity in Textile Manufac~uring
Plants. S. A. Klyugin and A. E. Malysheva.
Experimental Detoxification of Carbon Disulfide. A. L. Yudeles
and R. V. Bessarabova.
Air Conditioning of Operating Roomso. O. G. Shchukin.
Sanitization of Working Conditions in Cyanide Steel Production.
A. T. Grigor'eva, L. S. Shcherbakova and G. V. Patrina.
Practical Experience in Coal Mine Air Dust Abatement. D. K. Fedorov.
Section IV.
Ionization and Ultraviolet Radiation.
Air Ionization in Gymnasiums. M. A. Vytchikova.
Conference on Biological Action of Ultraviolet Radiation.
R. M. Dantsig.
Experimental Use of a Solar Ultraviolet Radiation Dosimeter.
N. A. Lebedev and B. A. Perov.
. -xvii-
81
94
98
102
108
113
115
119
125
130
131
143
148
156
160
162
166
113
111
181
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Section V.
3.4-Benzpyrene.
Detection of 3.4~Benzpyrenein Smoked and Partially-Smoked Sausages.
(Fluorescent-Spectral Analysis). N. D. Gorelova and P. P. Dikun.
The Carcinogenic Effect of Shale Fuel Soot on Vlhite Miceo
A. Yu. Vysamyae. .
Section VI.
Analytical.
Analytical Utilization of Hexanitrobydrazobenzene Formation Reactions.
A. I. Cherkesov and L. M. Kullberg.
Photocolorimetric Method for the Determination of Cyanogen in Gases.
A. M. Rozina, N. Mo Dankova, N. I. Amitina and E.. M. Rutshtein.
Photocolorimetric Determination of Hydrogen Sulfide in Finely
Purified Coke Gas. N. E. Neimark and N. E. Kogan.
An Installation for the Determination of Dust Concentration in Coke
Gases. T. P. Warshavsky, L. Kogan, E.D. Levin and N. S. Shevcheriko.
Duplicate Samples in Air Pollution Investigations in Industrial
Premises. E. V. Rykhter.
Linear-Colorimetric Method for the Determination of Carbon Dioxide
in Air. M. T. Lukina and G. L. Barodina.
Use of PGF-2 Gas Analyzer as a Universal Apparatus for the Rapid
Determination of Vapor-Gas-Air Mixtures Explosiveness. A. N. Baratov.
-xviii-
188
191
196
198
202
206
209
212
216
-------
Basic Data for the Hygienic Evaluation of Dust from Combustible Shale.
Kh. Ya. Yanes.
(Institute of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Academy of Sciences,
Esthonian S.S.R., Thallin).
Gigiena Truda i Professional'nye Zabolevaniya, Vol. 1. No.3, 20-23, 1957.
Shale fuel mining and combustible shale processing are among the leading
industries of the Esthonian S.S.R. As this industry has rapidly reached great
proportions, it brought to the forefront urgent problems connected with the
prevention of dust affections among workers employed in that industry. The
near Baltic combustible shale, the "cookersites", consist of 30 - 40% organic
kerogen, 60 - 70% other organic adm~ixtures and about 18% moisture. According
to Torpan the mineral fraction of shale contained 23.4% of Si02' of which 8.5%
is free and 14.9% combined Si02' the latter being silicates. Combustible
shale is used as fuel, as material for gas production, in the manufacture of
liquid fuel, etc. In the course of combustible shale processing in furances
of different design, ash is formed in large quantities. According to the data
of the clinical-biochemical laboratory of the Institute of Experimental and
Clinical Medicine of the Esthonian S.S.R. Academy of Sciences, the ash of com-
bustible 6hale contained 10.p - 15.~ of free Si02and 1] - 25% of silicates.
In 1953 - 1955 the present author studied the dust air pollution in cham-
ber furnace departments in 4 gas generating plants of the combustible shale
processing combine "Kokhla Yarve" and in "~ava-2", one of the large Esthonian
combustible shale mines. The chamber furnaces produce high caloried consumer
gas at 800 - 9000; shale oil is produced in the gas generators at 500 - 6000.
The raw shale is delivered to the processing departments by means of fabric
conveyors and skip hoists.
Before the mined shale is charged into the chamber
furnace or into the gas generator it is screened.
Workers who control the
motors by which the conveyors and the skip hoists are operated are exposed to
the effects of shale dust approximately 60% of the time; the dust concentra-
tion of the air inhaled by motor operators amounts to 42 mg/m3; similarly the
dust concentration of the air inhaled by the screening machine operators amounts
to 95 mg/m3. The dispersion composition was as follows: 5 ~ - 75%; 5 to 10 ~ -
20%, and over 10 ~ - 5%. Analysis established that the shale dust in the air
of the chamber furnace departments contained 5.1 - 7.8% of free Si02 and 7.2 -
7.9% of silicateso
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Loading of the shale into the chamber ovens and into the gas generators
constituted the most potent source of dust generating. Chamber oven charging
consumed 25% of the work time, but the dust density created during such opera-
tions amounted to 24 - 1211 mgfm3; charging the gas generator consumed 50 -
75% of the work time, and the dust density generated during such functions
amounted to 6 - 48 mgfm3.. During the generator poking the ash dust concentra-
tion rose to 6 - 115 mgfm3; during cleaning of the ring channels the ash dust
rose to 28 - 38 mgfm3. In the process of ash removing the workers were exposed
to dust concentrations of 95 - 2621 mgfm3. The shale dust and the ash were of
high dispersion: .up to 1 ~ - 85%; 1 to 5 ~ - 14%; 5 ~ or over - 1%. Removal
of the shale coke or clinkers from the chamber furnaces with the aid of ex-
tractors eonsumed 50% of the work time, and the dust concentration generated
by this process amounted to 200 - 900 mgfm3. In the underground mining' of com-
bustible shale the air dustiness was comparatively low. During the cutting
and loading, the drilling and cutting, the dust concentration did not exceed
10 mgfm3; some of the other mining operations created an air dust concentra-
tion of 6 - 28 mgfm3. Such comparatively low dust concentrations generated
during underground mining were thought to be due to the comparatively high
moisture content of the mined shale (18%) and to the 96 - 98% relative air
humidi ty .
The dust concentrations found in the air surrounding combustible shale
miners and processors acquire a special and urgent significance in light of
the latest clinico-roentgenological and patho-morphological finds, which clear-
ly indicate that shale miners and shale processors working in the combustible
shale basin of Esthonia showed signs of developing pulmonary pneumoconiosis.
S. M. Zalttsman examined 1200 shale miners clinically and roentgenologically
and found that 703% of them had incipient pneumoconiosis. He also examined
workers employed in shale processing industry and found that of 288 examined
workers 37 had shown symptoms of developing pneumoconiosis.
V. A. Kyung made a post-mortem histomorphologic study and found anodular
diffuse pulmonary fibrosis, a diffuse-sclerotic form .of silicosis, in persons
with long work records. Minute typical silicosis nodules were found in the
pulmonary lymphatic nodes. M. K. Dal (1935) studied the effect of combustible
shale dust of Weimar origin in the Leningrad region, using ,rabbits as the ex-
perimental animals. The test animals were exposed to a dust concentration of
35 'mgfm3 in an exposure chamber for 6.5 months.. He found that the animals de-
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veloped pulmonar.y dust foci, a fall in the number of er.ythrocytes, and in the
numbers of different types of white blood cells. No development of typical
con~ective tissue was observed in the lungs. However,. M. K. Dal's findings
cannot apply to dust of Esthonian combustible shale,since A. F. Dobr.yanskii
showed that the latter was of a different chemical composition. Analyzing
the above information, this author concluded that an independent study of the
effect of Esthonian combustible shale dust must be made to find answers to
some of the questions remaining open.
Experiments were performed with 42 test and 28 control white rats and 19
test and 19 control rabbits. Animals were exposed to dust inhalation in a
(dynamic) dust chamber for 4 hours daily over B months; they were kept under
observation for an additional 6 months after the termination of exposure to
the dust. Experiments were divided into 3 series: 1) shale dust in concentra-
tion of 355 mg/m3; 2) ditto in concentrations of 3 - 20 mg/m3, and 3) enriched
shale dust in concentration of 350 mg/m3. ~ior to using the enriched.shale
dust, 2/3 of its inorganic matter was removed to determine the part played by
the organic substances in the total shale dust effect on the organism~ . ThQ
chemical composition of the different dusts used in the experiments are shown
in percentages in the following Table.
A slight tendency to develop anemia was observed in the peripheral blood
of test animals exposed to the inhalation of high concentrations of the usua~
shale dust; the anemia appeared in the form
Chemical dust i Usual
composition' i dust
Organic
substances
Inorganic
substances
Quartz
K20.Al203.6Si02
Si~ in other
silicates
Al203
Fe203
CaO
C02 (min.)
MnO
K20
Na20
MgO
Fe52
S03
37.9
62.1
5.8
5.9
5.2
5.6
1.2
17.0
15.6
0.05
1.6
0.5
2.6
2.7
0.5
iEnriched
i dust
81.9
18.9
2.7
3.0
2.1
0.6
4.0
3.4
0.01
0.6
0.2
0.8
1.1
0.1
of a 2 - 5% fall in the hemoglobin and as
a reduction in the number of erythrocytes
by 300,000 cells. These changes persisted
to the end of the exposure. Similar changes
were observed in the animals exposed to the
inhalation of the enriched shale dust? where
the hemoglobin fell qy 3 - 6% and the er.yth-
rocytes were reduced by 500,000. A relative
increase in the number of lymphocytes (up
to 4.5%) was observed in rabbits exposed to
the inhalation of high concentrations of the
usual shale dust; the same was true of rats
which inhaled high concentrations of the
enriched shale dust. Animals subjected to
-3-
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the inhalation of high concentrations of shale dust manifested a 10 - 22.7.%
arrest in ~rowth.
Macroscopic post-mortem observations showed that animals exposed to 3
months inhalation of high concentrations of shale dust ~evelopeddark gr~
. .
pleural foci of accumulated dust. Pneumonic dust accumulation foci were seen
in 8 animals. In the histologic examination of the lungs, tissues were stained
by the van Gieson method; observations of white rat tissues showed the follow-
ing changes:beginning.with the 3rd month of exposure to the dust inhalation
there appeared well defined accumulations of coniophages and of dust particles;
in the interstitial tissue there app'eared an incompletely defined prolifera-
tion of lymphoid-histiocytic cells. On the 6 - 8th month of exposure, lung
changes in the test animals were more clearly defined, and the dust accumula-
tion foci were larger and appeared more frequently. Cell elements were com-
paratively few in the greater part of the minute dust foci. The proliferation
react~on of cellular elements was more expressed in the interalveolar septi.
In some pulmonary .lymphatic folliculi there appeared a focal reticulo-endothe-
lial cell hyperplasia and an accumulation of dust within and outside of the
cells. The observed changes in the lymphatic folliculi to some extent simu-
lated early changes in the lymphatic folliculi seen in experimental silicosis,
as described by R. M. Sklyanskii and P. P. Dvizhkov, A. S. Baryshnikov, G. A.
Neverov and M. N. Udilova, and others. Simultaneously, the interstitial tissue
showed signs of slight~?llagen fiber development, which appeared first in the
interalveolar septi, mostly close to the dust accumulation foci. Thickening
of the pleura and signs of moderate emphysema were observed in spots in some
animals.
Similar beginning fibrose pneumoconiosis was observed in animals "exposed
to 8 months of dust inhalation and sacrificed 4 - 6 months after exposure to
inhalation was discontinued; it was also seen in animals subjected to the in-
halation of the enriched shale dust. No substantial differences were found
between the effects of the usual and the enriched shale dusts, indicating that
the deleterious effect of combustible shale dusts on the organism was caused
not by the mineral constituents alone1 but by all components of the dust. It
was observed that experimental pneumoconiosis resulting from the effect of shale
dust progressed slowly and was not clearly expressed. Only phagocytic reactions
and slight dust deposition were observed in the lungs of the experimental ani-
mals following 8 months inhalation of low shale dust concentrations.
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Microscopic observations made with tissues and organs of 20 white rats ex-
posed to inhalation of high shale dust concentrations showed signs of pulmonary
inflammatory processes in the form of organic broncho-pneumonia. It is pos-
sible that these pulmonary inflammatory processes elicited changes in the com-
position of the peripheral blood and arrested the growth of the experimental
animals. The connection between pneumoconiosis processes and those frequently
seen in inflammatory pneumoconiosis (as described by Ya. L. Rapoport and R. M.
Sklyanskaya, K. J~tten and W. Eickhoff, and others) remained poorly defined.
A hygienic inspection of the working conditions, of changes in the test ani-
mal organisms caused by the shale dust inhalation, as well as analysis of the
clinical and morphological data emphatically pointed to the importance of the
sanitary-hygienic problem existing in the combustible shale industry.
Recently the laboratory research personnel of the Occupational Hygiene
Institute of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Acade~ of Sciences, Esthonian
S.S.R., developed a series of practical means to combat dustiness in plants of
the shale industry. For instance, a new above-ground sorting assembly was
built at mine "K¥ava-2"; the manual shale coke and clinker extractors used in
the "Kokhtla-Yarve" chamber furnaces were replaced in 1951 by type KS automatic
clinker extractors; this change resulted in a reduction in, the air dust concen-
tration to a level not exceeding that of the allowable limit; the ash-removing
room has been hermetically insulated to prevent dust from entering into other
r
work departments; a project has been developed for the rebuilding of the ven-
tilation system in IV and V gas generating departments; the method of fine
spray settling has been in extensive use. In addition, other changes have
been proposed for future construction of new gas generators in plants located
in Akhtma city of Esthonia.
Thus, the results of the present study, conducted at the sponsorship of
the Institute of Experimental and Glinical Medicine, Acade~ of Sciences,
Esthonian S.S.R., laid down the basis for up-to-date sanitary regulations
applicable to the construction and operative maintenance of shale gas plants.
These regulations were later accepted and ratified by the All-Union State
Sanitary Inspectorate.
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Bibliography.
6apYWHHKOB A. C., H'teBepOB r. A., YAHnoBa H. H. npo6n. Ty6., 1954,
.M 5, CTp. 57-60. - .ll an b M. K. BnHSlHHe nynH ropJOllHX cnaHueB Ha OpraH"'M oDIn-
. HYX ]l(HBOTHYX. I(as. MeA. .YPH., 1935, Ng 5, CTp. 640-647. - .ll 0 6 PSi" C K H Ii A. ..
fOplO'IHecnaHUY CCCP, n.-M., 1947. - 3 an bUM a H C. M. B KH.: Bonpocy rHrHeHY
'rJIYAa B cnaHueBoA npOMloIwneHROCTH 3CTORCKOA CCP, TannHB, C6. I, 1953, CTp. 27-40.-
,3 a .II bUM a H C. M. B KR.: BonpOcIoI rHrHeRY TPYAa B cnaHneBoA npOMloIwneRROCTH
3CTOHCKOA CCP, TannHH, 1955, C6. II, CTp. 129-141. --- K 10 H r B. A. 0 cnaHueBoM
CRnRK03e Y pa60QHx cnaHUesoro 6acceAHa 3CTOHCKOA CCP (Ha 3CTORCICON SISYKe, pe3IOMe
Ha PYCCKOM SlSYKe). HSBetTHSI AKueMHH HaYK 3cTOHCKOIl CCP, .1955, T. 4, M 2.
'crp. 291-299. - Pan 0 n 0 p T SI. n. H C K .II R H C K a 51 P. M. nBTOIIOrHqecKu 8H8TONHJI
"iIKCnepHMeHT&nbHoro CH./IHK08a KponHKOB. Apx. naTOn., 1952, HI 3, CTp. 69-73. - C K n R H-
C K a 51 P. M. R .ll B H. K 0 B n. n. 6JOnn. 3Kcn. 6Hon. H. MeA., 1952, T. 34, B. I, Nt 7,
CTp. 67-71. - Top n a H 6. K. ,!p. TannHHcK. nonRTeXH. HH-Ta, TaMRH, 1954, cepHR A.
.M 57, CTp. 22-31. - J 0 tt e n K. und E i C k h 0 f f W. naTOJIOrHqeCKRe HSMeHeR"iI
15 nerKRX npH BJJ.YXBHRH cH./IRNaRRTOBoA nynH. Archiv. fur Gewerbepatbologie und Gewer-
behygiene, 1944, Bd. 22, S. 223-232.
HYgienic Evaluation of Labor Conditions in the Manufacture of Asbestos-Cement
Roofing Slate and Pipes.
K. K. Vrochinskii.
(From the Yagotinsk Regional Sanitary-Epidemiological Station).
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 24, No.4, 79-81, 1957.
This author studied the sanitary-hygienic labor conditions prevailing in
a roofing slate plant to determine what measures could be recommended for safe-
guarding the health of the workers.
In the m~nufacture of roofing slate, asbestos is delivered from the ware-
house to the settling chambers of the pan-mill section by pneumatic conduits,
then loaded on wheelbarrows by shovels, weighed, wetted on the cement floor
beside the open pan-mills and loaded into these machines manually. After the
asbestos has been reduced to fibers in the pan-mills, it is transferred by
worm gear conveyer and by elevator into a hollander machine on the second floor,
where it is mixed with water and cement. Cement is delivered from dose-mea-
suring hoppers located above the hollander. The asbestos and cement mixture
prepared and maintained at 28 to 320 is first transferred into mixing machines
and then into pulp dehydrators, a thin l~er of the dehydrated mass is poured
over a revolving drum; after drying the sheet of raw roofing slate is taken
~6-
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,off the drum every 2 minutes. The water from the dehydrator containing some
asbestos~cement residue is then fed into the recovery section for purifi~ation.
The raw roofing slate sheets are cut by mechanical shears into sections which
, ,
are corrugated'by placing them manually between sp~cial metal fo~s. The cor-
rugated pieces are loaded on hand trucks in stacks of 100 and r~lled manually
" ,
into tunnel-like steam drying chambers, where they remain for 16 hours. The
unloading of the slate is also done manually at the other end of the drying
tunnel. The dry roofing slate is then stored'in the finished products store-
house next to a rail and side track.
Pipe manufacturing was initiated in this plant in 1954. In the manufac-
ture of pipes asbestos is brought from the warehouse in wheelbarrows to the
oucke~s of an automatic loader, which delivers it to the second floor for
moiste~ing in mechanical mixers. The moistened asbestos is then reduced to
fibers in closed disintegrators. Thin l~ers of homogenized,asbestos-cement
composition are laid over metal molds. The raw pipes are then sent to a pre-
liminary sorting and drying room for 10 to 14 hours. Final har~enipg of the
pipes is done in water tanks at 34 - 400 over a period of 72 hours; the water
is steam heated. The dry tubes are cut into sections on rotary machines.
Connecting sleeves and unions of different diameters are made in the same sec-
tion and by similar processes. Defective pipes are machined a second time
"after complete drying. The finished:pipes are then pressure tested at 16 atm.
and are loaded into railroad cars for delivery. All pipe transferring proc-
" "
esses, including the loading into railroad cars, are mechanized.
Analysis of the sanitary-hygienic aspects of the process clearly indicated
that the principal unhygienic factors in this manufacture were dustiness, high"
air tempe~ature and humiditY.kIntensity of dustiness was determined by the
gravimetric method. The so-called "industrial micro-climate" was studied with
the aid of a suction or ~ling psychrometer and a wing-type anemometer. 411
determinations were made at the workers breathing level. The investigation
disclosed high concentrations of asbestos dust and of cement dust in the air.
The dust came into the working quarters from points of unloading; concentra-
tions of cement dust amounted to 104 to 210 mg/m3, and of asbestos dust to 20 -
90 mg/m3. Dust suspended in the air of the heating machines section during
the prepara~ion of the cement-asbestos composition amounted to 50 - 56 mg/m3.
Particularly high dust concentrations were generated during dry-pipe machining,
sleeve and unio~ ~inishing, reaching 924 to 1032 mg/m3.' Special characteristics
-7-
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of the technological processes were as follows: in many sections the air tem-
perature wa~ 9 to 140 higher and the relative humidity 10 to 18% greater than
the maximum permissible limits set by Code N 101-54. This was particularly
true of the beating machines and recovery sections of the roofing slate and
pipe plants, and also of the production section of the roofing slate plant.
The meteorological conditions in the production sections of the pipe plant were
more favorable/because of its greater dimensions, which allowed approximately
30 m3 per person and also due to the local installation of efficient inflow
and exhaust ventilation.
The process of manual corrugation of the raw roofing slate and its un-
loading after drying belonged to the class-of "heavy labor". A temporary. ex-
. .
posure t~ a temperature up to 400 and humidity up to 95% during the loading
into or unloading from the drying chambers increased respiration rate by 5 to
8 movements, and increased pulse rate by 14 to 16 beats per minute.
The metal forms used in corrugation of the roofing slate were oiled, and
since the raw sheets contain alkali, occupational dermatitis was oftentimes
noted. . The workers wore burlap gloves as a precautionary measure. Unloading
and feeding of the cement into the conveyers was done manually until i955~
Consequently, air dustiness was high and reached 220 mg/m3 during car unload-
ing and up to 180 mg/m3 during emptying of the delivery carts into the eleva~
tor buckets. To protect the respiratory tract, workers were supplied with
mouth filters; these became clogged in a short time by the dense air-suspended
dust and were discarded by the workers. No dust catchers were installed at
points of intense dust generation. In 1955 cement loading was mechanized and
labor conditions at such points were improved. Thereafter, cement was unloaded
from the cars by a mechanical shovel, and then by means of a hoist it was trans.
ferred into the receiver of a worm conveyer; the latter brought the material
up to a belt conveyer which deposited the material into each of 5 storage tow-
ers. From these storage towers the cement material was moved periodically by
means of horizontal belt conveyers onto a reloading elevator and therefrom to
inciined conveyers which delivered the material to the shops. Suctiondust
removers were'installed at points where the cement was fed from the storage
towers to the conveyer, and also where it was fed to the elevator from the
conveyer. This measure reduced the air dust density only slightly, leaving a
residual concentration of 104 mg/m3 at the workers respiration. level, and .of.
65 mg/m3 in the location of the cement storage towers. The introduction of
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mechanical shovels for cement unloading from the cars had no beneficial effect
on the air dustiness, which remained at 110 to 115 mg/m3. The unloading men
used type PRB-l mouthpieces (partial masks).
Rate of morbidity in 1955, as compared with 1954, based on the number of
cases per 100 workers, showed a decrease of 34%, and a decrease of 29% if based
on the number of days lost because of incapacity to work.
All forms of diseases
showed a decrease, except pyogenous, traumatic and pneumonia. Pyogenous cases
showed an increase because of inadequate prophylaxis with regard to microtraumas,
and traumatic cases increased because of incomplete technical instructions and
violations of safety rules.
The number of pneumonia cases showed an increase
because of lingering illnesses with complications.
During a medical examina-
tion of workers in "dust" occupations, such as loaders, .hollanders and pan-
mill workers, there were discovered two cases of silicosis and one of silico-
tuberculosis. The diagnoses were confirmed roentgenographically. . In 1955 a
medical examination of workers assigned to the cement storage towers disclosed
two cases of suspected early silicosis. Catarrh of the upper respiratory tract,
bronchitis, angina and pyogenous diseases of the skin and of subcutaneous cel-
lular tissues were more frequent among workers in "dust" occupations than among
other workers.
Results of medical examinations in 1955 indicated that the incidence of
upper respiratory catarrh, angina, pyogenous infections and radiculitis was 2 -
3 times as high among workers employed in the roofing asbestos-cement slate
plant as among those employed in the pipe. making plant; correspondingly, in-
cidence of bronchitis was 6 times as high; with the exception of angina, the
above stated was equally true of workers employed in the dusty was well as the
lesser non-dusty processes of the two plants. A comparative analysis of the
data obtained leads to the following sanitary-hygienic recommendations:
For the roofing slate manufacturing plant:
a. Complete remodeling of the disintegrating machines and installa-
tion of enclosed roller crusher machines;
1.
b. Isolate the settling chamber with air-tight partitions;
c. Install inflow-exhaust ventilation in the roofing slate shop;
d. Isolate drying chambers with air-tight partitions;
e. Install a movable crane and mechanize the roofing slate corruga-
tion processo
-9-
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2. Install a pneumatic conduit in the roofing slate shop to reduce dusti-
ness during cement unloading from the cars, and feeding it into the storage
towers.
3.
Increase the suction capacity in the area of the cement storage
towers.
4. Complete the conveyer construction in the pipe plant fo~ the prelimi-
nary setting and rolling of pipes, and provide all rotary pipe, sleeve and
union cutters and finishers with on-the-spot ventilation.
5. In the hollander sections of both plants: make air-tight the con-
nection between the cement-feeding hopper and the hollanders with the aid of
a rubberized crimp-cloth hose; and change at regular 'intervals the canvas
which covers the hollanders.
Regular medical and X-ray examinations of the chest should be mandatory.
All workers should be under close observation of otolaryngologists and derma-
tologists.
Sanitary-Chemical Characteristics of Silicon Organic Polymers, with Special
Reference to Polymethylsiloxamic Rubbero .
E. A. Peregud and B. S. Boikina.
(Leningrad Scientific-Research Institute for Labor Hygiene and
Occupational Diseases).
Gigiena i Sanitariya,. Vol. 23, No.8, 66-68, 1958.
Advances in the chemistry of silicon organic compounds are closely con-
nected with the introduction into the industry of a new series of chemical
compounds, namely, the polyorganic siloxans, and with the introduction of new
technological processes. The synthesis and re-processing of a rubber-like
polymer, known as the polymethylsiloxamic or silicon rubber is one of the new
branches of chemical technology. The synthesis of this polymer is based on
the hydrolytic dissociation of dimethyldichlorsilane by water according to
the following equation:
-10-
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. [ CHa ]
n (CH3),siCl2+nH2~ -~i-O +2nHCl
CH, n
Under certain condensation conditions of oil products of hydrolysis, an
elastic gel is formed the properties of which are similar to those of non-
vulcanized natural rubber, and which has the following structure:
CHa CHa CHa
I I I
._--------- Si-O-Si-O-Si-O.---------
I I I
Clla CHa CHa
The determining factor in the hygienic evaluation of any highly polymerized
product is the presence of residual quantities of monomers or' volatile products
of a low polymerizatiori. During reprocessing of the polymers the latter pol-
lute the surrounding air. A suitable method of analysis was developed for the.
sanitary-chemical evaluation of the polymers.
One gram of the ground product is placed in ..a round-bottom flask, and 10
ml of ethyl alcohol is added; it is then cautiously heated for )0 minutes using
a reflux condenser, with the a~cohol:boiling gently. After cooling the alcohol
is poured off into a flask with a ground-to-fit stopper and a second portion
of alcohol is added. Extraction is made with three 10 ml aliquots of alcohol;
the first 2 extractions are combined, the third one is analyzed separately.
One ml of the extract, ) ml of water and 2 ml of sulfuric acid of 1.84 sp. gr.
are placed into a platinum crucible and heated gradually over a sandbath until
white vapor of SO) ceases to appear. The dry residue in the crucible is cal-
. cined; it is then mixed with 0.2 g KNaCO) and 1 ml of water. The walls of the
crucible are carefully washed with this alkaline solution; it is then evaporated
and the dry residue heated in a crucible in an electric furnace until the mix-
ture is completely melted. After cooling the mass. is lixiviated 3 times with.
5 ml of hot water, and transferred into a molybdenum glass flask. The solu-
tion is neutralized with 1 N H2S04 to a slightly acid litmus reaction, and,
depending upon the content of low-molecular substances in the polymer, is
diluted with water to 100'or 250 mI.
An aliquot of the solution, not exceeding 4 ml, is transferred into a
colorimetric test tube, 1 drop of 0.1 N solution of H2S04 is added, and the
content is treated simultaneously with the tubes of the standard scale. The
standard solution of Na2Si03 containing 0.01 of silicon per 1 m1 is poured in-
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to a number. of colorimetric test tubes in amounts corresponding tOg 0, 0.001,
0.002, 0.003, 0.004, 0.005, 0.006, 0.007, 0.008, 0.009 and 0.01 mg of silicon.
The volume in the standard tubes is brought up to 4 ml by adding water. This
is followed by the addition of 0.1 mI. of ammonium molybdate 1/ to each tube
of the standard set and to the tube containing the solution being analyzed;
. .
the test tubes are shaken and left stand for 5 minutes until the yellow silico-
molybdic complex is formed. Reduction of the yellow complex into the blue
heteropoly acid is accomplished by adding 1 ml of 5% tartaric acid and 0.1 ml
of a 1% solution of ascorbic acid. After 30 minutes the color intensity of
the sample is compared with the standard scale. A control test is made fol-
lowing the procedures used in processing the samples. The percentage of low
molecular compounds using the group (CH3)2SiO as the basis, is computed ac-
cording to the formula:
a .
X=
c . 2.64 . 2
V
where a is the amount of silicon in the matching standard expressed in fig;
2.64 is the calculation coefficient of silicon referred to the group (CH3)2SiO.
The percentage of (CH;)2SiO found in the third extract is taken into considera-
tion.
With the aid of the method described the content of low molecular silico-
organic compounds was determined in a number of silicon rubber samples.
The
results showed that the content of the latter was considerable, varying between
2.4 and 4.27%, and served as the basis for continued studies of the behavior
of such polymers under conditions of industrial production. At the present
time the silicon rubber, under the trade name of synthetic heat-resistant
rubber "SK-T", is used extensively in the rubber manufacturing industry. The
content of volatile silicon-organic compounds in this product, is considerable,
therefore, these authors undertook to study the possible air pollution in one
of the rubber manufacturing plants which processed "SIC-T"; particular attention
was paid to the effect of high temperatures. During the study of the process
o '
under a controlled temperature of 259 , atten~ion was attracted by the forma-
. .
tion of a thick white smoke the particles of which settled on the surface of
1/ 18.8 ml of ammonium molybdate is placed into a 250 ml volumetric flask,
diluted with water and 80 ml of 10 N H2S04 is gradually added and brought up
to the mark by adding water.
-12-
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the equipment in the form of a white powder-like substarice. Analysis of samples
of this condensate showed that it contained no carboniferous substances, but
con~isted of pure silicon dioxide, as shown in the accompanying table.
The data shown in the table prompted these
S 1 :.' S;02 =. Si02 th t d t th S 0 t t f
amp e.... . % in au ors 0 e ermine e i 2 con en 0 air sam-
in mg = found:
: : sample. pIes collected at different stages of the silicon
10.8 10.50 97.2 rubber processing. The results showed that the
5.0 . 5.20 104.0 air in the. constant temperature room contained
6.4 6.21 96.5 0.04, 0.16 and 0.03 mg/li of Si02; during the
removal of the finished product from the constant. temperature room the nearby.
air contained 0.09 and 0.04 mg/li of Si02; upon completion of the finished
product ~he Si02 content of the nearby air dropped to 0.02 mg/li of Si02' .
The analytical results clearly indicated that the treatment of silicon rubber
under high temperature was accompanied by a marked destruction of the product
and constituted a potential cause of silicosis among the workers. Since the
processing of silicon rubber was carried out at 2500, a comparatively low tem-
perature, it can be reasonably assumed that the fraction of theJ,ow molecular
compound was basically the one affected by the treatment temperature..
Results of observations related to the thermal resistance of poly-organic
siloxans agreed with those recorded in the literature. The investigation made
by K. A. Andrianov andN. N Sokolov, published in Khimicheskaya Promwshlennost,
1955, No.6, .p. 329, indicated that the polymethyldisiloxan, to which the polymers
presently investigated belonged, was susceptible to disintegration with a
splitting off of the radical CRy the more so the higher was the temperature.
The authors stated that at a temperature of 4000 the disintegration process
was so intense that the loss in weight of the product yielded exceeded the
theoretically possible loss, based on the splitting off of the methyl group
only. The excess loss in weight over the theoreticallycompu~ed, as indicated
by the data obtained in this study could be ascribed to the carrying away of
the silicon into the atmosphere together with the volatile products of oxida-
tion of the methyl groups. This important. factor in the interpretation of the
m~chanics of the thermal destruction of silicon rubber was not considered by
other investigators. The composition of the volatile products formed in the
process of the thermo-oxidizing destruction of polymethyl siloxan, cited by
the authors, is of outstanding importance. The authors had established that
the basic gaseous products of oxidation of the methyl groups were carbon monox-
-13-
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ide and formaldehydeo This fact substantiated once more the necessity of in-
s~ituting rigid hygienic control over the treatment of silicon-organic polymers. .
Conclusions.
1. During the processing of polymethyl siloxamic rubber at 2500 the air
became polluted with silicon dioxide created by the disintegration of the
po~erts low molecular silicon-organic componentso
20. Silicon dioxide and products of oxidation of methyl groupSJ namely,
'formaldehyde and carbon monoxide were liberated into the air during heat proc-
essing of polymethyl siloxan.
3. Results of the present investigation'bring into sharp focus the neces-
sity of maintaining an accurate chemical control over the air during the proc-
essing of silicon-organic polymers, especially under conditions of high temper-
ature.
4. Strict limits should be prescribed for maximal allowable content of
low molecular compounds and technological conditions should be outlined for
the prevention of polymer disintegration during the processing of silicon-
organic polymers.
Hygienic Characteristics of Natural Soil Radioactivity.
V. N. Gus'kova and A. N. Bragina.
(Institute of Radiation Hygiene, Ministry of Health, R.S.F.S.R.).
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 23, No. 10, 32-36, 1958.
A stu~ was made of different soil samples and of respective vegetation
collected from urban and suburban plots in and around the city of Leningrad
and in and around other cities and regions of the U.S.S.R. One soil sample
2
was collected from each 40 - 50 marea to a depth of 5 - 6 cm and 30 x 25
cm.
Extra soil samples measuring 5 x 5 x 5 cm were collected for radiometric
analysis; they were freed of vegetation and roots, and ground in an agate mortar
prior to making the radiometric measurements. In some cases the top soil layer,
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0.8 to 1 cm in depth, was tested radiometrically with the grass growing over
it. The top soil layers were dried, ground and placed into special containers.
Such test samples represented a surface of 16 x 16 cm and a depth of about 1
cm. The special containers were made of heavy durable paper shaped like test
tubes, having a diameter equal to the outside diameter of the counter. The
height of the special test tubes was determined by the type of counter used.
The height of the soil column placed into the special test tube was 8
cm. The total volume of a special test tube was 143 cm3.
6-activity of the prepared soil samples was determined with the aid of
type AS-2 cylindrical-shaped counters, which were placed into a lead housing
in a vertical position, glass side down. Before making the count the housing
was closed with a lid. The counting procedure was accomplished with the aid
of standard installations type B-1 or B-2, using a voltage corresponding to
the tension at the operational point of the specific count; such tension was
determined beforehand for each of the counters.
Determination of absolute soil radioactivity was made by comparing the
results with the radioactivity of a standard soil sample. The standard soil
sample was prepared by introducing into it an exact amount of radioactive
potassium sulfate, that is, a precise amount of ~O. The use of ~O, or of
any other isotope, introduced an unavoidable error in the final determination.
Most frequently this erro~ was in the direction of a decreased soil radioactivity
value. Such data could represent actual soil radioactivity only if the basic
soil radioactivity resulted from the presence of ~O; for this reason quanti-
tative K determinations were made in some soil samples. Thirteen soil samples
were selected for analysis. Some samples had a low impulse count, ranging
from 42'to 45 per tube; some had a moderate impulse count, ranging from 67 to
72 per tube; and some had high impulse counts, which ranged from 110 to 131 per
tube. The weight of the different soil samples in the tubes was known; there-
fore, the ~O radioactivity was computed in 6 of the soil samples, and the re-
sults were compared with the total number of impulses given off by the soil
samples.
As a result of these computations it was found that only a part of the
total soil radioactivity belonged to ~o, namely: from 20 to 4Q%for soils
from the Murmansk area, and from 61 to 76% for soils collected at points scat-
tered over the Leningrad area.
a-radioactivity counts of the soil samples
were made by means of type M8-4 glass counters using the same type of test
-15-
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T AB L E 1.
Number of 0° impulses in the soil per minute per tube.
I Act i ~ i ty of :
Percent 0 . Nunber
I : K in I Calculated
Sample I Grams of of K I hi ght Weight sample of : number of
collecting: soi I : deter8ined I of K of KilO I according : iml'ulses :i"'8ulses of
arel& in tubes ."peri- in gra8s in grams to .Gusev per min. II .
I I I : : I :K per min.
I mentally : :(Q = 6.28 x I . per tube : per tube
rlO~ curie)
Murlllansk 71 0.90 0.69 0.825 x 10...&f 0.52 x 10-9 112 17
Murmansk 50 0.59 0.30 0.36 x 10....&f 0.23 x 10-9 115 8
Siverskaya 123 1.66 2.011 2.113 x 10""" I .52 x 10-9 67 51
Siverskaya 100 1.78 1.78 2.12 x 10"'" 1.33'x 10-9 72 114
Pavlov.k 129 1.88 2.112 2.88 x 10....&f 1.81 x 10-9 110 60
Pav lovsk 100 1.67 1.67 1.99 x I 1.25 x 10-9 131 112
tube.
However, it was not possible to determine the absolute a-radiation
values. Therefore, quantitative a-radiation determinations were derived from
the ratio of a:~ per identical unit of time. For the determination of radio-
activity in the grass, the latter was dried and ashed and 0.2 g of the ash
used in the radiation determinations, employing special types of small alumi-
num trays.
During the year 1957, 175 soil samples were collected from different lo-
calities. In addition to radiometric analyses, 24 soil samples were analyzed
chemically, 5 of which were analyzed by the hydrochloric acid extraction method.
Some of the results were as follows: the pH of aqueous solutions varied from
6.2 to 8.45, and of salt solutions from 6.2 to 7.9. The basic part of soil
consisted of 54.67 to 83.77% of Si02' with sesquioxides of A1203 + Fe203
ranging from 6.49 to 29.38%. Other indicators were of insignificant values.
For instance, P205 varied from 0.5 to 2.5%; CaO from 0.61 to 6.69%; MgO from
0.1 to 2.39%. Absorbed K, calculated as K20 was determined by the method of
Peive and ranged between 0.27 to 26.6 mg per 100 g of soil.
Radioactivity values for ~pe Leningrad area soils and for soils of some
other cities are shown in Tabl~ 2.. The'data in Table 2 show that ~-radio-
activity of soil samples collected in different sections of Leningrad, varied
from 1160 to 1350 mC/km2 of soil for 0°. The radioactivity of soil samples
from the cities of Thallin, Vorkuta and Slantsy, was close to that of the Lenin-
grad so'il ,and varied between 1020 and 1530 mC/km2 of soil for K40.
-16-
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TABLE
2.
Radioactivity of 6 em thick top soil layer (1957).
Sampl~, collecting area Impulses per minute :K40 activity: .~ ratio
per km2 : in mC/km2 :y.
Leningrad regions 2.21 x 1010 - 2.55 x 1010 1160 - 13 50 1:4 - 1:5
Leningrad suburbia 2.21 x 1010 - 3.12 x 1010 1160 - 1640 1:4 - 1:7
Leningrad suburbia 10 4.17 x 1010 1860 - 2180 1:6 - 1:7
3.54 x 10 -
Rarelsk peninsula, gran- 9.45 x 1010 5000 1:4
ite, between 2 lakes
Shale soil 10 1180 1:5
2.24 x 10,
Vorkuta 1.93 x 10io 1020 1:4
Tha11in 2.9 x 1010 1530 1:5
Murmansk (outskirts) 1.09 x 1010 570 1:8
The results of analyses of samples obtained in the suburbs of Leningrad
and also in the Leningrad area showed that in a total of 61 samples the radio-
activity was within the limits of 1160 and 1640 mC/km2 of soil for ~O.
A higher radioactivity was noted in 3 suburban locations. In 2 of them
it ranged f~om 1869 to 2180 mC/km2, and in the third, the sample taken from a
granite base between 2 lakes, a high radioactivity was noted which equalled
5000 mC/km2 for x40. The analysis of grass take~ from the same plot revealed
an equally high radioactivity.
The intensity of a-radiation in the soil samples was always 1/4 to 1/8 of
the ~-radiation intensity.
Thus, the observed data indicated that at a depth of 5 to 6 em natural
soil radioactivity ranged between 1160 and 1640 mC/km2 for ~O in most of the
samples. Individual soil radioactivity determinations were made in a number
of samples for the top soil layer up to 1 em deep, and for layers 5 to 6 em
deep. The determinations were made concurrently. The results are listed in
Table 3.
It can be seen from the data in Table 3 that the radioactivity of the upper
soil layer of 1 em thick was greater than in the lower layer in nearly all
parallel samples. In some cases the diffe~ence exceeded the radioactivity of
the soil proper by 2 to 3 times. Results of radioactivity determinations of
the grass are listed in Table 4. The data indicate that radioactivity of grass
samples collected at different'plots differed considerably.
-17-
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TABLE
3.
Soil radioactivity.
Sample
collecting
area
Leningrad (Central
recreation park)
Preozersk region
Pu~hkin city park
Pushkin 9ity park
,
Siverskaya
Murmansk outskirts
Murmansk outskirts
Subsurface layer
Impulsas: K4U :
per km2 i activity in i
per min. : mC per km2 :
Surface layer
Impulses: K40
per km2 i activity in
per min. i mC per km2
2.1 x 1010 1129 4.52 x 1010 2381
3.-28 x 1010 1628 4.48 x 1010 2368 ~'
5.25 x 1010 2115 5.43 x 1010 2868
4.1 x 1010 2146 10 2621
4..91 x 10
1093 x 1010 1018 5.8 x 1010 3011
1.51 x 1010 196 3.8 x 1010 2011
1.31 x 1010 121 3.8 x 1010 2011
TABLE
4.
Grass blanket ~-radioactivity per gram of ash.
Sample collecting area
Petrokrepost
Near a lake over granite
Preozersk, near highway
Pavlovsk
Pushkin city
Leningrad, central
recreation park
Siverskay:a
Thallin, outskirts
Murmansk, outskirts
In the meadow, parallel
to highway
Time of
collection
: Number of :
. - ~ .
: samples:
Impulses per
gram of ash
July 1951
July 1951
July 1951
August 1951
August 1951
August 1951
September 1951
September 1951
September 1951
October 1951
4
1
4
3
3
1
2
2
4
31 - 63
539
24 - 132
24 - 68
85 - 105
68
104 - 133
48
248 - 184
14 - 392
10
Special additional observations were made on the small capacity dumps for
solid radioac~ive waste products. These dumps were located outside the city
. .
limits far from populated centers. . The dump "pits" were constructed in com-
pliance with existing regulations. The soil samples were collected 2 weeks
before the construction of the "pit"', and 1 year after. it had been filled.
Since the study was confined to individual plots of limited size, the results
are expressed in impulses per 1 m2 of the surface. The results are shown in
Table 5. .
-18-
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TABLE
5.
Characteristics of dumping grounds for solid radioactive waste products.
Sample
collecting area
Time of
collection
: Impulses per
i min. per m2
i f3-radiation
y:~ ratio
Dumping grounds
Dumping grounds
Dumping grounds
Dumping grounds
Before dumping began
Septe~ber 1956
September 1956
September 1956
September' 1956
19,600
26,950
23,400
26,600
1:5 - 1:6
1:6
1:4
1:6
One year after covering
On the road leading to September '1957 22,050 1:6 - 1:7
the dump
In the surrounding September 1957 21,700 1:4 - 1:5
free space'
To the right of the dump Se:ptember 1957 29,750 1:4
To the left of the dump September 1957 39,200 1:3
Close to the dump September 1957 105,350 1:4
Close to the dump Septembe+ 1957 9,100,00P
Close to the dump September 1957 '57,750 1:3
Close to the dump September 1957 5,600,000
It can be see~ from Table 5 that the radioactivity of soil samples taken
from the plot on which the dUmp was located before the "pit" was filled with
radioactive waste products ranged between 19,600 and 26,950 impulses per 1 m2.
One year after the "pit" was filled samples Nos. 5 and 6, taken outside the
confines of the dump plot, showed nearly the' same results, the impulses ranging
from 21,700 to 22,050 per 1 m2. The radioactivity of the "pit" filling proper
varied between 29,750 and 39,200 impulses per 1 m2, or slightly in excess of
the above values, but still of no significance. Considerable contamination
was discovered in the implediate vicinity of the dump. Two of four collected
samples showed 5,600,000 to 9,100,000 impulses per 1 m2, the other 2 samples
showed considerably less, namely from 57,750 to 105,350 impulses per 1 m2. The
results indicated that soil of isolated sections in the vicinity of the solid
radioactive waste dump was strongly contaminated. Therefore, it is suggested
that after a "pit" had been "filled" with radioactive substances a thorough
inspection of the territory surrounding the dump should be made mandatory.
Conclusions.
1. Radioactivity of soil samples obtained from different sections of
Leningrad in 1957 and studied for ~-radiation ranged between 2.21 x 1010 to
-19-
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2.55 x 1010 impulses km2. This corresponded to a range of from 1160 to 1350,
or, on the average, 1272 mC/km2for ~O. Nearly the same activity, namely from
1020 to 1530, or, on the average, 1287 mC/km2, was recorded for the soils from
Thallin, Vorkuta, Slantsy, and other cities.
2. The radioactivity of soil samples collected during the same period out
of town in the majority of cases ranged between 1160 and 1640. Exceptions were
shown by several samples; one sample, taken from a granite base, had a ~-radio-
activity equal to 5000 mC/km2.
30 The ratio of a:~ radioactivities was 1:5 in
urban areas; the ratio range wa~ 1:4 to 1:8 for soil
urban areas.
soil samples collected in
samples collected in sub-
4. Radioactivity of x40 constituted 20 - 76% of the total soil radio-
activity.
50 Results of observations related to the construction and operation of
one of the "dumps" for solid radioactive waste products prompted the suggestion.
that after the radioactive substance "pits" were "filled" a careful inspection
of the entire surrounding territory should be made mandatory.
Bibliography.
Polyanov, Yu. A., Germogenova, N. S. Pochvovedenie, 1956, No.8, 57.
Chulkov, P. M., Kurchatov, L. N., and others. Pochvovedenie, 1957, No.4, 280
Bryant, F. J., Chamberlain, A. C., and others. J.- Nuclear Energ., 1957, Vol.
6, No. 1/2, p. 22.
Hygienic Problems Connected with the Transportation of Radioactive Isotopes.
R. S. Kalinova.
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 23, No. 10, 41-45, 19580
Increasing attention has .been devoted recently ~o sanitary regulations
related to transporting radioactive isotopes; however, this problem has not
been sufficiently emphasized in current technical literature. Two basic re-
-20-
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quirements have been in force in atomic centers. in England, where radioactive
isotopes are originally packed: packing must be done by an airti~ht process,
and adequate provision must be made to prevent radiation penetration. Rail-
roads in England accept isotopes. from the Hartwell Center in first and second
class types of packing. Radiation from any point on the surface of first-class
packing must not exceed 10 mr in 24 hours, i.e., 0.11 ~r/se6; radiation of the
second~class packing may exceed 10 mr in 24 hours, but must not exceed 100 mr
in 8 hours, i.e., it can be greater than 0.11 ~r/sec, but must not exceed 3.41
~r/sec. Isotopes in first-class packing do not have to be separated from other
baggage carried on passenger trains, while those in second-class packing must
be kept at a distance of not less than 1.2 m from other freight in passenger
trains.
According to the isotope catalogue published by the French Commissariat
for Atomic Energy, the railroads may accept radioactive substances the radia-
tion of which amounts to 80 mr in 8 hours, i.e., 2.14 ~r/sec, at a distance of
1 meter, and 200 mr per hour, i.e., 55.5 ~r/sec, at the surface of the packageo
In the U.S.S.R. radioa~~ive substances are accepted for transportation in rail-
of 0.5 m from the
packed according to the first and second transport categories
of v-rays not exceeding 0.1 ~r/sec, or 2 ~r/sec at a distance
package.
road mail cars if
having radiations
No clear comparison of the data just mentioned can be made due to the fact
that intensity of penetrating radiation is in reference to different distances:
at the container surface in England, at the container surface and at a distance
of 1 meter in France, and at a distance of 0.5 meters in the U.S.S.R. How-
ever, it should be noted that the acceptable v-radiation intensity from pack-
ages containing radioactive isotopes in France is greater than those in England
and in the U.S.S.R.
In Hartwell, England, the radiation limit for the transportation of radio-
active substances in autotrucks, as measured at the driver's or passenger's
seat, must not exceed 100 mr in 8 hours, i.e., not greater than 3.41 ~r/sec,
and the permissible radiation from the outside surface of a transporting auto-
mobile must be below 200 mr/hour, i.e., less than 5505 ~r/sec. Similar radia-
tion intensities are accepted also by the French Commissariat for Atomic Energy.
The established limit of radiation in the U.S.S.R. at a distance of 0.5 m is .
from 20 to 40 ~r/sec, from a shipment of packages to be transported; it must
not exceed ~ - 2 ~r/sec at the driverts seat. According to the standards of
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the Hartwell Center the radiation intensity r~achingthe driver m~ amount to
0.1 r in an 8-hour work day; this is twice the maximum radiation intensity per-
mitted in .the U.S.S.R., which is 0.05 r per8-hour working day.
The maximum permissible radiation for transporting radioactive substances
in passenger or transport planes was set in Englan~ at 10 mr/hour, or 2.17
~r/sec, at a distance of 1 meter from the container. English regulations per-
mit long distance transportation of isotopes radiating y-rays in quantities not
to exceed 300 mC, when c~rried near the tips of the wings in standard 0Qntainers
. not provided with convenient lead shields. The maximum quantity of a substance
emitting y-rays, packed in a single container for transportation in a passenger
or transport plane, must not exceed 2pOO mC. No quantitative limitations for
substances emitting a- or ~-particles are provided in the regulations, con-
sequently, one plane may load such great quantities of ra4ioactive substances
as to constitute a formidable danger in case of an accident.
The proposed European agreement related to international transportation
of dangerous cargo, DOFOG, specifies the maximal permissible quantities of
radioactive substances which should be housed in one container. For solid non-
crumbling radioactive substances the maximum is 10,000 mC, i.e., 10 C per pack-
age. For powdered, liquid and gaseous substances the maximum is 2,000 mC.
~organ is of the opinion that no more than 2 C of radium, polonium, plutonium
or other highly radioactive substances giving more than lOll disintegrations
per second should be transported in a single package. The preceeding discus~
sion clearly_in~cates that there exist no uniform regulations controlling the
quantity of isotopes transported. Strict regulations specifying the maximal
quantities accepted for transP9rtation in one package, and also for various
kinds of transportatipn must be instituted without delay.
Considerable attention is devoted in current reports to the contamination
of external package surfaces with radioactive substances. Morgan expressed the
opinion that the contamination shall not be appreciable, i.e., it shall not ex-
2
ceed 500 disintegrations per minute from a surface of 100 em for a-radiation,
and approximately 10,000 ~-particles per minute from a surface of 150 cm2 for
~-active substances. In the proposed European agreement on international trans-
portation of dangerous freight, it is stipulated that there shall be no traces
of radioactive substances on ~he exterior of packages. From a hygienic view-
point the most suitable regulation would be one which might prevent the possi-
bility of contamination with radioactive substances by personnel engaged in
-22-
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the business of transportation, and also those who were occupationally connected
with the transportation.
. A hygienic evaluation of different types of transportation container~ used
in the U.S.S.R. was made by determining y-radiation at a distance of 0.5 meters
from the container)and of ~-radiation from the exterior of the packages; other
pertinent radiation determinations supplemented the study. The results.indi-
cated that at present radioactive isotopes were transpor~ed principally in con-
tainers of standard types. In the transportation of radioactive isotopes emit-
ting only a-particles,or ~-particles,two types of containers have been used:
AK, made of, carbolite, and ACh, ~sde of duralon plastic; for the transportation
of isotopes which in addition emitted V-rays, lea~ containers have been used,
such as types K3-20, 3-30,.KV-36-45, KV-90-100, cast iron containers KI, and
others.
Containers of AK and ACh types, not lead lined, furnish sufficient protec-
tion for isotopes such as p32, S35, C14, etc~ Small amounts of isotopes, which
in addition to ~-rays radiate also v-rays, such as I131 or Fe59, are transported
in the AK type of container with lead lining which reduces the outside y radia-
tion to 0.1 ~~/sec, or less. However, these containers have many shortcomings.
They lack durability, can not withstand outside impact,and their radioactive
surface contamination is difficult to wash away. The lead containers of types
Ks-20, 3-30, KV-36-45 and KV-9O-100, which are designed for the transportation
of radioactive isotopes emitting ~- and v-rays, furnish sufficient protection
in transporting most of the isotopes. Determinations were made of the intensity
of v-radiation from these containers loaded with the preparations. At a dis-
tance of 0.5 meters the radiation ranged between 0.1 ~r/sec and 3.5 ~r/sec in
most cases.
Records show that in some cases these containers were loaded with radio-
active substances in quantities greater than stipuJated, and tnat the y-radia-
tion at a distance of 0.5 meters exceeded the stipulated maximum. Such over-
loading is contrar,y to sanitar,y regulations}and exposes the personnel and out-
siders to excessive radiation. .
The principal types of containers used for transporting isotopes radiating
v-rays have the following shortcomings:
a. The external surface of the containers of types KV-36-45, KV-9D-IOO,
and Ks-20 becomes roughened, scratched and indented in the process of handling.
-23-
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b. The containers are apt to become misshapen en route, as the result of
careless handling, which may result in jamming the plugs and .making opening
the containers difficult and time consuming.
c. Moisture deposited on the surface of type 5-30 containers corrodes
the steel casings and the lid, requiring the use of special instruments to
open it, which results in undesirable prolonged direct contact of the working
personnel with the loaded container.
d.
It is difficult to wash away the radioactive contamination from these
containers.
Contamination of the outer surfaces of 13.4% of examined containers used
in isotope shipment varied from the basic value up to 5,000 ~-particles per
minute per 150 cm2 of surface. In other cases the contamination exceeded the
above indicated radiation intensities.
Containers returned by consumers showed contamination exceeding the origi-
nal. This canb& explained by the fact that the transport containers were
frequently used by the recipient establishment for the storage of radioactive
isotopes. As a rule, the isotope users did not avail themselves of the entire
quantity of isotopes at onetime, but removed a small portion at a time, the
radioactive substances may have been spilled over the external surface vi the
container. In cases of careless or improper packing, as with the aid of in-
appropriate tools, heavy hammering, or careless handling en route, may have
. .
damag~d the glass ampules containing a solution of radioactive isotopes, causing
the solution to leak out over the container surface.
For the protection of the transport personnel and to prevent the transport
facilities from becoming contaminated with radioactive substances, the transport
containers should be enclosed in light crates, paper or cardboard housing, wood
or metal boxes, etc. Containers loaded with radioactive substances should be
handled with special care through the entire journey. The use of heavy tools
for opening the containers must be prohibited, and the containers should never
be thrown around. Users should be duly cautioned that the transport container
must never be used for the purpose of storing the radioactive substances and
that the isotope material should be completely removed upon receipt of the ship-
ments. The user should examine the containers for contamination with radio-
active sUbstances',and should decontaminate them, if need be, before returning
them to the supplier. Packages containing, 'radioactive substances should be
-24-
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accepted by the transporting agency only when the following requirements were
met:
a. The intensity of v-radiation from the packages should not exceed the
values stipulated for the particular type of shipment.
b. Inside packing should "be such as to prevent any escape of the content.
c. The outer surfaces of packages shall be free from radioactive contam-
ination.
At present all packages ~ith radioactive substances scheduled for shipment
are subject to dosimetric examination at the place of origin, to determine "the
intensity of v-radiation escaping from the package,and any surface contamina-
tion. A label, stating the type and the serial number of the container, the
intensity of v-radiation at a distance of 0.5 meters and the date of the deter-
mination, must be attached to each package by the dosimetrist. A document
must aCQompany each package containing radioactive substances, describing char-
acteristics of the radioactive substance transported, such as general appearance,
color, etc., its quantity by weight, its specific activity, general activity
expressed in curies, and also the packing and shipping dates.
To determine the possible effect of:the ionizing radiation upon 28 members
of the service personnel, total dose irradiation determinat"ions were made by
means of photo-control over 6 months. Each attendant was given photo recording
cassettes which were developed for irradiation determinations every 12 days,
in accordance with the conventional method of photo-control. Persons u~der ob-
servation were engaged in the transportation of radioactive isotopes either in
automobiles over a radius of 50 to 60 km; or in passenger trains covering dif-
ferent distances. These persons came into direct contact with containers of
different types for 1 - 1/2 to 2 hours in one work day, when !eceiving, manually
loading, and carrying the packages ~rom the cars into the consumer buildings,
or when checking the labels. MU9h of the time was spent in traveling with the
shipment to its destination. As a rule, the accompanying attendant shared the
driver's compartment, where the v-radiation level usually did not exceed 1 ~r/sec,
rarely 2 ~r/sec. Some of the attendants under observation travelled with the.
shipments in passenger trains; the
\
not exoeed 5 ~r/sec, at a distance
monthly average irradiation for the
level of v-radiation of the shipments did
of 0.5 meters. It was established that the
majority of the attendants under observa-
tion ranged between 0.25 and 0.4 r, and the m~yimal monthly irradiation, which
Wa~ observed only in the case of 2 attendants over a period of 2 months, did
-25-
-------
not exceed 0.65 r.
No cases of excess irradiation were recorded throughout
the entire period of observation.
The results of the investigation indicated that the time was ripe for
the standardization of all transport containers in accordance with sanitary
requirements. The containers should be made of materials capable of providing
the required protection. Their outer surface must be smooth and easily de-
contaminated. The containers should be plug sealed or lid covered)sufficiently
tight to prevent moisture penetration into the container interior. The con-
tainers.must rest on a firm and stable base to prevent them from falling on the
side. The label should be distinctly and clearly marked and easily read at a
distance of 0.5 meters.
The intensity of y-radiation from individual packages should be strictly
stipulated in the sanitary regulations dealing with the transportation of radio-.
. active isotopes in such a manner as to prevent excess irradiation of the trans-
. .
portation pe~sonnel. The overall irradiation of the personnel working contin-
uously in the field of radioactive isotopes transportation should not exceed
. .
0.05 of the biological equivalent of one Roentgen unit per one working day, or
0.3 of the biological equivalent of one Roentgen unit per week as the gross
total of all activity. The dosimetric and sanitary controls over transporta-
tion conditions should be enforced. All personnel engaged in the transportation
of radioactive substances should be made thoroughly familiar with the regula-
tions of handling radioactive substances; they must be instructed in the action
to be taken incase of an accident. All persons engaged in isotope transporta-
tion should be supplied with a photo-cassette, or an individual dosimeter, and
should be given annual medical examinations.
Bibliography.
r y c e 8 H. r; CnpaaO'lHHK no paAdlOaXTHBHblM 'H3nY'leHHIIII H 3aUUlie. M., 1956.-
J{SOTonbi (KaTanor). MHH. XHM. npoy. CCCP, «ColOspeaX'I'Ha:.. M., 1957. - Handbook 01
Federal Regulations Applying to Transportation 01 Radioactive Materials, Washi~on.
1965. - M 0 r Jt a n K. Z. J. Appl. Phys., 1948, v. 19, p. 593-598. -: The Protection of
Workers Against lonising R~diations. Report submitted ro the Internationa) Conferenc~
on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy (Geneva) Aug., 1955. Geneva. .
-26-
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Oxygen Blast Effect on Air in Electric Steel Smelting Mills. 11
R. A. Nishchii.
(Municipal Sanitary-Epidemiological Station, Zlatoust).
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 24, No.2, 78-80, 1959.
Despite the fact that oxygen steel "smelting in electric furnaces has been
steadily increasing, its effect on the hygienic conditions connected with its
use has received scant attention.
The Zlatoust Metallurgical Plant has used the method of oxygen blast steel
smelting for nearly 2 years. During this period, the staff of the industrial-
sanitary laboratory studied labor conditions which prevailed in the electric
steel smelting mill. Studies of air in the mill were conducted during the use
of oxygen blast at various times during each of the 3 shifts and at different
seasons of the year. Air samples were analyzed for manganese vapor, dust, sul-
fur dioxide and carbon monoxide. The samples were taken at the operating
platform in front of 20-ton electric furnaces which were not equipped with ex-
haust fans; general mechanical ventilation has not been installed" in this mill.
Air samples were taken 5 m from the furnace "window" where the worker stood 1.5
m above the floor; samples were taken 30 - 15 minutes before starting the oxy-
gen blast and 15 - 30 minutes after. A total of 248 analyses were made.
Results of the investigation indicated that after the operation of the
oxygen blast, the concentration of the above mentioned pollutants in the air
of the mill increased, as a rule, 1.5 - 2.0 times. Comparison of air sample
analyses taken on the same day in the mill at approximately same air tempera-
ture is presented in Table 1.
Changes in the concentrations of the different pollutants followed a
characteristic course: the concentrations rose during the use of the oxygen
"and decreased shortly after the oxygen blast was shut off. Results of an in-
vestigation for manganese dioxide during one operational day are presented in
Table 2.
For purposes of control the air in the mill was also investigated or days
when oxygen blasts were not used. The results showed that concentrations of
air-suspended dust, manganese, carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide on such days
1/ Reported at the 1st Convention of Infectious Diseases Specialists, Epi-
demiologists and HYgienists of the Chelyabinsk Oblast, December 1957.
-27~
-------
Dates and meteorological
conditions
TABLE 1.
. Concentrations
.
.
. Admixtures Before After
. . .
. i . .
. oxygen blast!
studied . oxygen blast
.
.
11.1 mg/m3 3
Dust 30.0 mg/m
Manganese 0.0003 mg/li 0.0015 mg/li
dioxide
Carbon None 0.04 mg/li
monoxide
Sulfur 0.03 mg/li 0.05 mg/li
dioxide
Dust 3<5 mg/m3 3
15.0 mg/m
Manganese 0.001 mg/li 0.0021 mg/li
dioxide
Carbon 0.061 mg/li 0.150 mg/li
monoxide
Sulfur 0~02 mg/li 0.04 mg/li
dioxide
Dust 24.3mg/m3 . 3
59.9 mg/m
Manganese 0.00096 mg/li .0.0011 mg/li
dioxide
Carbon 0.05 mg/li 0.09 mg/li
monoxide
Sulfur 0.008 mg/li 0..015 mg/li
dioxide
TABLE 20
August 25, 1957, 12 o'clock
Air temperature 240
Air current 2 m/sec.
December 20, 1951, 14 o'clock
Air temperature 280
Air current 0.5 m/sec.
March 11, 1958, 11 o'clock
Air temperature 200
Air current 1 m/sec.
Time of air sampling
Production process
Concentration in mg/li
12 o'clock
12 o'clock,
12 o'clock,
13 o'clock,
13 o'clock,
13 o'clock,
14 0' clock,
25 minutes
45 minutes
10 minutes
35 minutes
55 minutes
20 minutes
During smelting
During smelting
Oxygen blast start
Oxygen blast operating
After oxygen blast
After oxygen blast
After oxygen blast
0.0010
0.0009
0.0012
0.0015
0.0021
0.0016
0.0012
were considerably lower than on d~s when the oxygen blasts were used.
bined data on conducted investigations are shown ~n Table 3.
The data point to a general increase in dust density and in gas pollutants
when the oxygen blast was used in electric furnaces, probably due to increased
combustion intensity per unit time of smelting steel products.
Com-
-28-
-------
TABLE
3.
Analysis of
admixtures
i Prior to oxygen blast
: Number of: Average
i analyses :concentration
: After oxygen blast
: Number of: Average
i analyses iconcentration
Dust
52 16.4 mg/m3 52 31 mg/m3
44 0.00095 mg/li 44 0.0017 mg/li
40 0.05 mg/li 40 0.09 mg/li
37 0.03 mg/li 37 0.05 mg/li
Manganese dioxide
Carbon monoxide
Sulfur dioxide
The majority' of electric furnaces in the U.S.S.R. metallurgical plants
are not equipped with localized exhaust fans, and combustion products result-
ing from the smelting process penetrate directly from the. fuxn~Qes.into the
different mill departmen~s through th~ charging window and through the elec-
trodes apertures. The results of this investigation emp~asize the imperative
need for equipping melting furnaces with localized ventilation.
The cause in the delay in installing on-the-spot dust-smoke-a~h-catching
equipment lies in most cases in the particular construction of the electric
furnaces, which prevent making permanent and airtight the attachment of the
waste product suction hood, due to the raising and changing of the electrodes
each time the furnace roof-arch was changed. In the journal "Electric Furnace
Steel Processing' of 1952, Vol. 10, p. 32-60, it was recommended that in cases,
such as were described before, hoods with folding tops should be installed
above the furnace. The operation of this type of hood, equipped with powerful
exhaust fans, requires that a reduced air pressure be maintained in the vicin-
ity of the furnace; the air pressure reduction must stay within limits which
would not interfere with the normal servicing of the furnace.
In the South Yorks plant in the U.S.A. most of the dust and gases dis-
charged from the 40-ton electric steel smelting furnace is carried off through
hoods by a 1275 m3/min exhaust fan into the smokestack b~ilt on top the mill
building (0. A. Mikhailov, Metallurgizdat, 1954). When necessary, the hood,
together with the furnace-roof arch, are raised above the furnace, after which
it is taken off and placed over a new furnace arch; the two are then replaced
over the furnace. In many other plants electric furnaces are equipped with
sin:.ilar installations. O. A. Mikhailov reports that in the "Timken Roller
Bearing" plant the local exhaust ventilation was fitted for electrodes, not
only at the apertures but also at the charging window of the electric furnace.
-29-
-------
Purification of the discharge air is done with the aid of filter bags and Cot-
trell filters.
Conclusions.
1. The use of oxygen blast in connection with electric furnace steel
. .
smelting increases the rate of combustion products discharge, which permeates
through the mill premises and causes general air pollution.
2. The problem of general air pollution can be solved in steel smelting
plants which do not use the oxygen blast method by making mandatory the in-
stallation of exhaust ventilation equipment at the. location of the smelting
furnace.
..'
3. In steel smelting plants in which the oxygen blast method has been
instituted air pollution should,be abated or eliminated by the ins~allation of
dust and smoke-catching equipment directly near the electric furnace.
Bibliography.
.- - .. ~-------
. _.
M H X a A JI 0 B O. A. npOH3BOJlCTBO 3J1eKTpOCraJlH C npHMeHeHHeM KHCJlOpOA8. M..
1954, 1.- Procee~ings of the electric furnace stee: conference. Pittsburgh, 19~2. v. 10.
,p.32-60. ...
Hygienic Evaluation of the Ultraviolet Radiation in the .Northwestern
Section of the Circumpolar Area.
A. A. Generalov.
(From the Kirov Military-Medical Acade~;-Order of Lenin).
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 24, No.4, 18-23, 1959.
. .
Solar energy with its most active biological component, ultraviolet radia-
tion, is one of the external environmental factors essential to the maintenance
of life activity in the human organism. There are no comprehensive data on,
ultraviolet radiation in the northern regions of the Soviet Union. Information
on ultraviolet radiation in northern latitudes found in reports by such foreign
authors as K. Buttner, F. Dannmeyer, W. Morikofer and T. E. Auren is incomplete
-30-
-------
and is presented in terms of comparative units, complicating their comparison
with values obtained in the southern regions.
In 1954 a scientific conference was held in Arkhangelsk, sponsored jointly
by the Institute of Biological Physics, Academy of Sciences, U.S.S.R., the
Institute of General a~d Community Hygiene, Academy of Medical Sciences,
U.S.S.R. 'and the Scientific Council at the Ministry of Health, U.S.S.R. The
conference dealt with the problem of compensating for the deficiency of ultra-
violet radiation in the high latitude regions of the U.S.S.R. Cognizance was
taken of the lack of information regarding the state of ultraviolet radiation
in these regions and it was resolved that a study of the subject be initiated.
This study was organized in Murmansk, situated at 690 northern latitude within
the northwestern sector of the circumpolar area of the U.S.S.R. For purposes
of comparison, observations were made in Len~ngrad, which is situated at 600
northern latitude, and in Gurzuf, situated at 44.50 northern latitude. The
observations in, Murmansk and Leningrad were made during the spring, summer and
autumn seasons of 1955 and 1956. Observations in Gurzuf were made in August
of 1955.
Total solar radiation was recorded with the aid of a therm~electric
receiver and the Yanishevskii pyranometer.
in the Leningrad MeteorolpgicalStation.
Ultraviolet radiation was measured by the photo-electric method using an
ultraviolet meter, designed by S. S. Prilezhaev, N. N. Shved and V. V. Nechaev,
Both instruments were calibrated
comprised of a radiant energy counter-integrator and a receiver, wh~ph con-
sisted of an antimony-cesium vacuum photo-element equipped with a UFS-2 filter
and Ulbrikht sphereo The spectral sensitivity of the antimony-cesium photo-
element was described by S. Yu~ Lukyanov. The relative and absolute spectral
sensitivities of the radiation receiver were determined with the aid of spectro-
photometer SF-4, monochromatic filters and a vacuum thermo-element. The radia-
tionreceiver enabled the evaluation of the emanation intensity of the ultra-
violet spectrum within the wave length region of 300 to 400 m~. The maximum
sensitivity of the emanation receiver coincided with the 365 m~ wave length.
The ultraviolet meter was calibrated in absolute energy units with the aid of
sun rays.
The calibration required the introduction of several conversion
factors the values of which differed with the height of the sun.
In this study
an average conversion factor was used, the value of which was verified by com-
paring readings of the ultraviolet meters with those of ultraviolet radiation
measured simultaneously by means of the thermo-electric receiver equipped with
-31-
-------
a filter and a photo-electric instrument of the Leningrad Institute of Radia-
tion Hygiene.
This measuring instrument had an average conversion factor which
was arrived at during its calibration with the aid of the A. N. Boiko quartz
monochromator.
The biological action of ultraviolet radiation was evaluated by the method
of threshold erythema formed on human skin by the readings of the ultraviolet
meter, which was calibrated in reduced units, i.e., in microers (microerythema\
units) per m2. The measuring device was calibrated by finding correction co-
efficients applicable to its readings by way of parallel measurements of the
ultraviolet illumination and the formation of threshold erythema at different
positions of the sun. The amount of U-V irradiation necessary for the produc-
. . t 2
tion 9f threshold erythema was taken as equal to 500 m~croer-m~nu es per cm ,
in accordance with the suggestion of W. W. Cobletz. Circumpolar meteorlogical
factors were also taken into account.
In the region under study at 690 northern latitude the polar day lasted
from May 26 to July 18, or 54 days, and the polar night from October 26 to
o
January 11, or 52 days. . Tpe maximum height of the sun at noon reached 44.3
in June; and at midnight during the polar day the sun descended not lower than
o
205. Erythema producing rays were present in the sunlight between March 15
and October 1, i.e., over a period of 6 1/2 months. In the second half of
March and September these rays were present only to a slight degree.
The basic
factors which characterized climate conditions in the northwestern sector of
the circumpolar region are listed in Table 1; the listed values are based on
results obtained by this author and on observations made at the meteorological
station in Murmansk.
A study of the data listed in Table 1 indicated that the
climate~of the circumpolar area was characterized by only a few clear days,
many overcast daysJand by a few hours of sunlight, by lasting precipitation
and low summer temperatures accompanied by cold winds. According to observa-
tions of many years )16 was the average number of clear days per'!year in the
circumpolar area, while in areas of southerly direction thi's number increased
to 39 in Leningrad, and to 81 in Gurzuf. '
The ratio of actual sunshine hours to the possible maximum during the time
of the study did not exceed 30% on an annual basis; it di~ not exceed 36% for
the month of June. It should be noted that during the month of June, 35 to 38%
of the sunshine hours.occurred between 0.00 and 9.00 o'clock, or during the
circumpolar night hourso It is only natural that the sun rays descending to
-32-
-------
the ground during the polar night hours could not be used for prophylactic
purposes by Arctic inhabitants, especially because of their negligible bio-
logical activity.
TABLE
1.
1954-1956 meteorological data at Murmansk observation point.
Meteorological factors 1954 1955 1956
Average annual temperature 1.30 1.20 1.00
Average summer temperature 14.90 13 .00 10.00
Number, of clear (average cloudy) days 18 15 28
Number of , cloudy d~s 220 179 193
Precipitous, cloudy and windy d~s 218 231 201
Average annual wind velocity in m/sec 6.1 5.7 5.3
Number of possible sunshine hours 4,380 4,380 4,380
annually
Number of actual sunshine hours 1,171 1,205 1,305
annually
Number of possible sunshine hours 720 720 720
in June
Number of actual sunshine hour~ 181 137 265
in June
Number of night sunshine hours of 70 49
polar days (from 0.00 to 9.00)
Because of the negative annuai radiation oalance there exist in the Arctic
areas of permanent frozen state)which markedly lower the temperature of t~e
layer of air immediately above ground. Total solar radiation in high northern
latitudes, on isolated clear d~s ~ reach high values. ' For instance, on the
26th of June 1955, which was a clear day, the intensity of solar radiation
upon a surface perpendicular to the solar rays reached 1.36 cal/cm2 per minute,
when the altitude of the sun was 44.3°. On a clear midnight (of a polar day)
it constituted 0.21 ca1/cm2 per minute when the sun was at an altitude of 2.50,
i.e., almost 6.5 times less. The diurnal amount of solar radiation during
clear summer days reached 1174 cal/cm2 on a surface perpendicular to the sun
r~s. The total solar radiation upon a horizontal surface during a 24~hour
period (of a polar d~) was 649 cal/cm2, and for dispersed radiation for the
same period it was 12909 cal/cm2.
During a 24-hour period of a clear day the dispersed radiation constituted
about 20% of the total solar radiation. This percentage was much greater, during
d~s with changing cloudiness, and considerably less during overcast d~s. On
-33-
-------
the 16th of June 1956, which was a day with changing cloudiness, the diurnal
amount of dispersed radiation was 224 cal/cm2, while on the 8th of July, which
was an overcast day, it did not exceed 84 cal/cm2, constituting only 31.5% of
- -
that observed on a day with changing cloudiness. Studies conducted in the
Arctic regions, Gurzuf and Leningrad indicated that appreciable amounts of
ultraviolet rays appeared from half to one and one-half hours before sunrise
and ended about the same time after sunset.
meal.
~;;;2Jmjn
2,1
"\
, "
....... ...........
........ r-
-
. - -' - - ' - ' -
2P
1.5
1.0
Il1
2 I 0..1 1 J ~
1'08 j t j-on of - sun
#u ju
Hours
ZZfAI
Hours
5 0'
2S.
4""
US
VZl
11~1
Fig. 1. Intensity of ultra-
violet radiation in a cir-
cumpplar region, April 28,
before and after sunrise.
The curve in Fig. 1 shows that even when
the sun was at zero altitude the dispersed
ultraviolet radiation reached 1 mil cal/cm2/min.
The results of the observations were in complete
agree~ent with the data furnished by F. Dann-
meyer who obtained 41 relative units of ultra-
violetradidtion for zero polar altitude, which
constituted 8% of the radiation recorded by him
at 500 solar height. Data in-Table 2 indicate
that the intensity of ultraviolet radiation upon
a surface perpendicular to the sun rays was less
for high northern than for southern latitudes.
TABLE
2.
Observation dates
i Observation
i point
August 1, 2, 3, 1955
July 19, 1955
June 15, 1956
Gurzuf
Leningrad
Murmansk
.
.
.
.
i 10° !
Position of sun
200 i 300 i 400 i 500
i 600 i 640
6
4
2
56
33
33
29
44
45
42
20
11
15
52
54
51
- The intensity of ultraviolet radiation expressed as a-fraction of total
solar radiation upon a surface perpendicular to sun rays constituted 4.6% with
the sun at 640 on a summer day in Gurzuf, but only 4% on the same day with the
sun at 44.30 in the Arctic. Data obtained by the authors with reference to
the south were confirmed by observations made in Yevpatoriya, where the ultra-
violet radiation during the summer constituted 5% of the total radiation, ac-
cording to A. N. Boiko. Fig. 2 depicts the magnitudes of solar and dispersed
'\: -.
ultraviolet radiation and its dependence upon the time of day. It also indi-
: r ~ . . ' .
- -,
cates ~~at a powerful ultraviole; r~diat~on fell upon a surface perpendicular
o
-34-
-------
II cal.
cll2/raln
100
go
80
10
10
SO
4/J
JO
20
10
(J Z 4 6 8 /0 Il/~ 16 /8 20 22211
Hours
1
~ ""
1 "'
I ..........
\. 1\
}/ J 1\
:/. ...... ....... .\.
..oI~ """' .""
i--" .:::!I....
Fig. 2. Course of disperaed and .
solar ultraviolet radiation on a
clear day in July in 8 circum-
polar region.
I - On 8 perpendicular surface.
sky and solar radiation; 2 - On
a horizontal surface. sky and
sol ar rad i at ion; 3 - sky rad ia-
tion on a horizontal surface.
to the sun rays and from the sq. During the summer
it reached 80 mil.cal/cm2/min at noon. The total
ultraviolet radiation upon a horizontal surface at
the same time did not exceed 60 mil. cal/cm2/min,
while the dispersed ultraviolet radiation consti-
tuted 30 mil. cal/cm2/min. The mean monthly diurnal
values of ultraviolet radiation upon a horizontal
surface were as follows in cal/cm2: for April 22,
for May 24, for June ~5, for July 23, and for Oc-
tober 40
The above data indicate that mean diurnal values'
of ultraviolet radiation during individual months
of spring and summer differed only slightly. The
relatively greater amounts of ultraviolet radiation
during the spring months were consequent to a greater transparency of the air,
numerous clear days, and to the presence of highly reflective snow blankets.
It should be noted that large amounts of totai sun and of ultraviolet radia-
tion are rare in the Arctic, because of heavy overhanging clouds in the lower
stratum. For instance, the actual amount of ultraviolet radiation on a hori-
zontal surface for the month of June constituted only 60% of the pos~ble
maximum. The average time required for obtaining threshold er.ythema under
total ultraviolet radiation upon a horizontal surface during clear aummer days
and the noon-time altitude of the sun was 91 minutes in the Arctic, 65 minutes
in Leningrad, and 22 minutes in Gurzuf. Under the action of only the. dispersed
radiation upon a horizontal surface in the Arctic, erythema was produced in
148 minutes. Perpendicular exposure to solar radiation on a cl~ar summer noon
in the Arctic required only 55 minute~ for the production of skin erythema.
Threshold er.ythema time determined by this author in the southern regions co-
incided with those obtained by L. A. Kunichev in Sochi, which is situated at
43034' northern latitude, with the data-obtained by I. A. Sivtsov in Gurzuf,
and also with the data obtained by W. W. Cobletz in Washington, D.C., which is
situated at 38.90 of northern latitude. About noon-time during the summer the
respective periods required for the production of threshold er.ythema on human
skin were: 20 to 24 min. in Sochi, 18 to 20 min. in Gurzuf and 15 to 20 min.
in Washington, D.C.
-35-
-------
IIC 83th.
CII
12
I
,
I ~
J 21\
/' r...
j J f\ 1\
./ r-..
il f\~
1\
J \
10
6
,
1
o 2 4 6 6 '0 12 I~ 16 14 20 2Z 24
Hours
Fig. 3. Course of 8Icy and 80-
lar erythe.atous radiation up-
on a horizontal and a perpen-
dicular surface during a clear
c I rculDpo lar day.
I - On a perpendicular surface.
2 - Total radiation on a hori-
zontal surface. 3 - dlapersed
radiation on a horizontal
surface.
The diurnal curve of irradiation effecting
erYthema, constructed with the aid of an ultra-
violet meter graduated in erythema units, is shown
in Fig. 3, which shows erythema-producing irradia-
tion on a clear summer noon in the Arctic to be as
follows:
for combined .radiation from the sun and
the sky upon a surface perpendicular to the sun
rays - 9.5 mker/cm2; for combined radiation from
the sun and the sky upon a horizontal surface -
5.6 mker/cm2; for radiation from the ,s~ only -
3.6 mker/cm2. The erythema irradiation from total
dispersed radiation constitutes 60 to 65%. Erythema-
producing radiation onto a horizontal surface during
clear summer days reached in Gurzuf 7350 mker min/cm2,
or a 14.7 biological dose; in Leningrad - 3712 mker
min/cm2, or a 7.4 biological dose, and in the Arctic -
2928 mker min/cm2, or a 5.8 biological dose.
The mean diurnal amounts of erythema-producing doses in the Arctic,estab-
lished on the basis of continuous measurements,were as follows: in April 2.1
biologica~ doses; in May 2.9 biological doses; in June 3.2 biological doses,
and in July 2.9 biodoses. The maximum amount of erythema-producing doses from
the total radiation upon a horizontal surface was observed on a clear day, the
15th of June 1956, and amounted to 6.1 biological doses; the minimum was ob-
served on the 9th of June 1956, and amounted to only one-half of a biological
dose, i.e~, 12 times less. The number of erythema-producing doses upon a hori-
zontal surface per hour during the light part of a 24-hour period in the Arctic
were: 0.128 in April, 0.129 in May, 0.135 in June, and 0.12 in July.
On the basis of constructed curves representing the course of erythema-
producing radiation for the spring and summer months, this author computed the
time during which the inhabitants of the Arctic should remain in the open air
to obtain the necessary prophylactic one eighth erythema-producing dose of
ultraviolet radiation. It amounted to 23 minutes at mid-day and to 110 minutes
in the morning or evening during the months.of April and September. Correspond-
ingly, these periods of time were 17 minutes and 100 minutes during May and
August, and 16 and 80 minutes during June and July.
-36-
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Conclusions.
1. Ultraviolet radiation intensity and diurnal amounts meeting various
surfaces was less in far northern than in southern latitudes.
2.
The biological action of the northern sun was 2 to 4 times weaker
than of the southern sun.
30 The unfavorable meteorological factors in the Arctic markedly lowered
ultraviolet radiation and limited the chances of utilizing its beneficial
properties by the inhabitants of the northern regions.
4. Despite the unfavorable climatic conditions, the actual amount of
ultraviolet radiation falling upon the ground in the Arctic during the summer,
and partly during the spring and autumn, was considerable and possessed clearly
expressed biological effectso.
5. During the summer, and partly during the spring and autumn, and under
the usual conditions of life and work, the inhabitants of the north can satisfy
the needs of the organism for an adequate prophylactic dose of ultraviolet rays
by remaining in the open air for a comparatively short time.
6. Because of the total absence of natural ultraviolet radiation in high
northern latitudes, and also because of the reduced amount of the natural
ultraviolet radiations during the summer as compared with locations in the
middle and southern latitudes, there arise~ a need during the winter period
to compensate this radiation deficiency by artificially irradiating the popu-
lation in photariums, or by incorporating ultraviolet radiation into the
artificial sources bf light~
Bibliography.
Boll K 0 A. H. B KH.: YnbTpacllKoneToBoe H3nYQeHHe H rHrHeHa. M., 1950,
<'Tp. 55-62. - K Y H H Q e B JI. A. Bonp. kypopTOn., cIIH3HOf. K neq. ctIH3KynbT., 1956-
N!! 3, CTJ). 34-37. - JI Y K b II HOB C. 10. ~OTo~neMeHTbI. M.-JI., 1948. - C K p.
U 0 a H.. A. Te3HCbl .110M. 12-11 H8)"1Ko-npSKTHQec:KOA KOHcllepeHuHH apneA KPblMCKOA
rpynnbl CaHaTOpHeB H JIOMOB OTJlblXa MHH-Ba o60poHbI CCCP. ~nTa. 1957, q-p. 37.-
Au r e n T. E. Geografiska .Annaler, 1929, v. II, p.257-267. - B ii t t n e r K.
Physikalische Bioklirnatologie. Leipzig., 1938. - Cob I e n t z W. W. J. Opt. Soc. Am..
1946, v. 36; 194b, v. 36, p. 72-76.- Cob Ie n t.z W. W., S t a.i r R., Hog y e J. M. J.
Res. Bur. Standards 1932, v. 8, p. 759-778. - Dan n m.t' y erE. Strahlentherap:e,
1930, Bd. 35, S. 607-611.. - M 6 r i k 0 fer W. B KH.: Traite de climatologie biologique.
et medicale. Paris, 1934, v. 1, p. 127-204.
-31-
-------
Work Hygiene and Health Condition of Persons Engaged in the Manufacture
of Hexachlorane Insectic~des.
Ye. N. Burkatskaya, Z. V. Ivanova and Ye. P. Krasnyuk.
(From the ~ev Institute of Labor Hygiene and Occupational Diseases).
Gigiena i Sardtariya, Vol. 24, No.5, 17-22, 1959.
Hexachlorane is an effective substance for the control of insects in-
jurious to farm crops, for the extermination of disease-carrying insects and
of household parasites.
It has been established that if proper precautionary .
measures are not taken, hexachlorane can be deleterious to the health of those
who work ~~th it. Contact wit~ hexachlorane in industrial establishments dif-
fers from contact with it in agriculture. In factories and shops the work is
done indoors 8 hours daily five days a week.
Reports were found in foreign literature of individual cases of hexachlorane
poisoning under industrial conditions (Horton, R.,.Karel, L., and Chadwick, L.,
Frankone, M. and Chena, W.). However, such reports contained no data regarding
the prevailing working conditions of workers health in plants manufacturing
and processing hexachlorane. The present authors studied the sanitary-hygienic
conditions which prevailed at the Dubensk Plant for the Processing of Medicinal
Raw Materials of the U.S.S.R. Ministry of Health, where hexachlorane was used
in the preparation of insecticides. A thorough investigation was made of the
technological process used in the preparation of the products, of the hexa-
chlorane concentration in the air, and on the workers' skin; the study also
included medical examinations of individual groups of workers.
The technology of hexachlorane emul$ion preparation consists in the fol-
lowing manufacturing operations: the barrels containing the hexachlorane are
hauled into the plant from the poisonous chemicals storehouse; the barrels are
opened and the compressed hexachlorane is dumped on the stone floor, repHlver-
ized with ~he ~~d of shovels, poured into kraft-paper bags, and sent up by
elevator to the second floor. Here the hexachlorane is weighed and conveyed
by hand cart t.o the reactor partly filled with whi te spirit; 200 - 300 kg of
hexachlorane are then gradually loaded into the reactor with constant agitation,
and the mixture is heated to 60 - 800 until a saturated solution is formed.
The saturated hexachlorane solution is pumped from this reactor into the mixer,
which contains a 25% aqueous suifite solution, and is heated to 60 - 800 with
constant automatic mixing until a coarsely dispersed emulsion is formed. The
-38-
-------
emulsion is then run by gravity into a colloid mill on the first floor, and
the mixture is thoroughly homogenized; while still.hot the mixture is poure~.
into 200 liter barrels, which are left undisturbed for 24 hours to cool and
thicken; the barrels are then refilled, sealed and stored. The entire process
is accomplished in 60- 70 minutes, and in the course of an 8-hour shift is
repeated 8 times, producing. a total of 2 - 3 tons of the emulsion.
Hexachlorane sticks are prepared from a melted mixture of 30% paraffin
and 10% hexachlorane. .The. melti~g is usually done in 400 liter. cast-iron re-
action kettles, enameled inside.. The papaffin is melted first, and the hexa-
chlorane is added gradually with constant stirring, bringing the temperature
up to 80 - 900, until a uniform mass has formed; it is .then jacket water-cooled
to 50 - 600; while .still fluid the melted mass is unloaded through a valve
into barrels or boxes and stored at 20 - 300 in a constant temperature room,
where the solidified mass is pressed into cylindrical sticks or "candles"
about 12 cm long, wrapped in wax or parchment paper, placed into a ~pecial
box and packed 100 boxes to a case or carton.-
The above-described processes of preparation of hexachlorane and of the
so-called "candles" have many shortcomings. The hexachlorane crushing is done
manually in a highly primitive manner, which fills the pr~paration room air
with dust and gas. The reactors are also loaded manually: the powdered mate"';
rial is poured out of the kraft-paper bag into the pan, and the apparatus is
loaded with the aid of hand shovels, expos~ng the worker to the direct effect
of the poisonous substance. After homogenization in the colloid mill the hexa-
chlorane emulsion is poured into metal kegs, which remain in the production
department for 24 hours. In chilling, the emulsion releases large amounts of
hexachlorane vapor into the surrounding air. While the barrels are being
filled, usually manually, using pails, the emulsion spills over the clothing
and the exposed areas of the skin, through which the hexachlorane can be ab-
sorbed into the organism and cause intoxication.
In the preparation of .the sticks, or "'Candles" the material is pressed
through a suitable mold in the shape of a continuous heavy wire and is cut
into sections by hand; in doing this the workers must bend low over the table,
thereby exposing themselves to the inhalation of hexachlorane vapor.
The ventilating installations at the various operating locations were
highly ineffective. Cases were observed in which personal safety rules were
violated: the workers did not wear the right clothes; wearing protective
-39-
-------
glasses, respirators, or gloves was not enforced.
Work clothes were laundered
in the shower rooms, frequently while other workers were bathing.
Air samples were taken for the hygienic evaluation of work conditions at
various stages at the level of respiration by the silicagel aspiration method.
Hexachlorane was determined by the method developed at the Kiev Institute of
Industrial Hygiene and Occupational Diseases by V. P. Vendt and T. A. Lebedeva.
Analysis of 25 collected samples showed that the air in the production
departments contained a considerable amount of hexachlorane. Thus, while the
paraffin and hexachlorane ~ass was being melted in the section where the hexa-
. .
chlorane sticks were prepared,. the concentration of hexachlorane in the air
amounted to 0.05 - 0.11 mg/li in the unit where the sticks were prepared with
the aid of the screw-type press, and where the finished "candles" were wrapped
and packed, the hexachlorane concentration in the air reached 0.005 - 0.034
mg/li. In the shop where the raw mat~rial was prepared, the hexachlorane con-
centration was 0.021 mg/li. High hexachlorane concentrations were found in
the section where the emulsion was prepared (0.001 - 0.021 mg/li), as well as
in the raw material storage section, in the laborator,y and in the shower room
(Table 1).
TABLE
1.
Hexachlorane-concentration in the air atdit'ferent working points.
L
~~ection of the plant
Air sample collection
Exact point
: A" : Hexachlorane
. ~r ..
:t : concentration
i amp. i in mg/li
250 0.005
210 0.002
26.50 0.015
280 0.0013
26.50 0.0012
23.50 0.0081
270 0.01
210 0.005
220 0.034
220 0.002
220 0.00088
2'4'.50 0.003 c-
Raw mat~rial storage house
Emulsion preparation room
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Section of '''stick" or
'''candle'' making'
It " "
"
"
It
"
"
Plant control laboratory
Lunch'room .
Laundry and women's shower
room
('
At the point of storage
At the colloid mill; at
. operator's space
Ditto. At time of raw
materXal loading
Ditto. At time of hexa-
chiorane emulsion dis-
charge
In the production depart-
ment, between 1st and
2nd shifts
At position of operator
Di tto
At cutter's position
At packer's position
Inside the laboratory
Inside of lunchroom
L
Inside
r
-40-
-------
In addition to investigating the air for the presence of hexachlorane,
analyses were made of skin and hand washings and of other parts of the body
of workers engaged in the different operations~ The results showed that con-
siderable hexachlorane was deposited on the workers"unprotected skin; depend-
.2.
ing upon the process performed it ranged from 0.009 to. 2.9 mg per em of skin
(Table 2). In view of the good solubility of hexachlorane in fats and its
ability to penetrate into the organism through unbroken skin, it can be as-
sumed that hexachlorane poisoning can occur as a result of inhalation or skin
penetration.
TABLE
2.
Hexachlorane on.skin of workers.
. :Skin:Hexachlorane
.
Type of work performed Trade ~part of skin studied~areai mg/ cm2
:used: of skin
Melting the hexachlorane Fingers. and right
for the preparation of Operator 100 0.018
sticks or "candles" hand palm
Cutting the candle~ Cutter D'itto 25 0.16
Cutting the candles Cutter Ditto 36 0.20
Candles paper wrapping Packer Right hand fingers 36 0.21
Packing into cartons Packer Fingers and palms 250 0.09
of both hands
Preparatory handling of Laborer Right hand fingers 25 0.23
raw material
Preliminary emulsion Operator Di tto 25 0.40
lJreparation
After filling the re- Operator Ditto 5 2.90
actor with hexachlorane
During reactor qperation Operator Skin of chest. No 25 0.05
protective clothes
Pouring eIPulsion into Laborer Right hand fingers 4 2.18
kegs
Pouring emulsion into Laborer Ditto 4 1.02
kegs
The study of work conditions was accompanied by a medical examination of
the employees (30 males an~ 2~ females, mostly 20 to 25 years of age, who had
been working at the plant for 3 months to 1 years). These included the fol-
lowing: equipment or machine operators and their helpers, workers in raw
material preparation, skilled workmen and t~eir helpers, loaders, packers, dif-
ferentrepair men, crate builders, and laboratory and laundry workers. The
workers frequently complained of headaches in the frontoparietal re6ion, Qiz-
-41-
)
<..>
-------
ziness, dyspepsia in the form of nausea, hypersalivation and heartburn. Less
frequently the subjects under examination complained of epigastric pain in the
right subcostal region, pain in the region of the heart, palpitation of the
heart, Shortness of breath, paresthesia in the extremities, sometimes accom-
panied by muscular tremors. Anamnesis revealed repeated nasal hemorrhages and
an inpreased frequency of acute catarrh of the upper respiratory tract.
Many--of the workers were emaciated. Examination of internal organs showed
that many of the workers had enlarged livers tender to the touch. There were
many cases of nervous system disturbance; depression and complete absence of
the corneal reflex were noted in 27 workers. Often there was disturbed sensi-
tivity of the distal type, mostly in the innervation area of the ulnar nerve.
~remor of the tongue and intention tremor during the finger-nose test were ob-
served in 25 persons. Disturbances of the vegetative nervous system in the
£ormof arterial hypertension were seen in 1/3 of the examined workers and as
unsteadiness in the Romberg position, hyperhydrosis and hypothermia of the
extremities. Twelve workers had signs of hypochromic anemia. Leukocyte changes
were observed more often as leukopenia in 16 persons, as shift to the left in
22 persons, eosinopenia in 26 persons and slight lymphocytosis in some. Eleven
persons had a low thrombocyte count. Intensity in the manifestation of the
above symptoms increased with the duration of the work record.
Thus, increased frequency in liver changes, disturbed nervous system and
blood morphology was ;roportional to the total work record and the pollutant
concentration in. the air of the workroom.
The following recommendations are offered for the sanitary-hygienic im-
provement of working conditions in the production and processing of hexachlorane:
. .
10 Mechanization and air-tightening of the following processes: hexa-
chlorane pulverization, loading into reactors, emulsion pouring, and cutting,
wrapping, and packing of the "candles".
2. Discontinue the practice of storing the prepared emulsion in the prep-
aration room; emulsion in the barrels should be moved into special storage rooms
provided with effective ventilation for cooling and setting.
3. The final products should be stored in specially constructed store-
rooms.
4~ Proper on-the-spot and general ventilation should be installed, and
correct use of ventilating equipment should be assured through frequent checking.
-42-
-------
5. All _prospective employees should be medically examined every 6 months.
6. Compulsory strict observance of personal hygiene by the workers should
be enforced, especially regarding the change of work clothing.
1. Install mechanical laundry and drier for work clothing.
8. -Institute a thorough inspection of the rooms; the floors and walls
- -
should be washed with a 2% solution of washing soda.
Bibliography.
BoryweBcKHH C. }\\., BYPK3UKaSi E. H.fHr. H caH., 1951, N9 4, CTp. 3()-
34. - B Y P K aUK aRE. H. TaM )\K e. Te3liCbI .llOKJI.
nepBoH BcecolO3HoH HaY'IHOH KOHq,epeHUHH .:0 rHrliellC H TOKCHKOJlOrHH liHceKToq,YHrHUH.
,ltOB. KHeB, ,1957, CTp. 24-26. - Bell,lt T B. n., J] e 6 e,lt e BaT. A. Onpe.lleJleHHe MaJlblX
KOJlH'IeCTB xJlOpOpraHH'IeCKHX HHceKTH"II.llOB (aJlb.llpHHa, reKC3XJJOpaH3, renT3XJlOpa, J/.HJlb-
JlE!.IH3, .lI..lI.T, XJlOpTeH3, XJlOpq,eH3. XJlOpHH.ll3H3 II "tVHPCYJlbq,OU3T3) B B03.llyxe. KHeB.
1. 06. - K a RHO B H 'I B. A., H e 'I a e BaT. - A., P Y C C K Ii X A. A. B KH.: MaTepHaJlbl no
JlOn~OCaM rHrHeHbI TpY.lla H KJlHHIlKH npoq,eccHollaJlbllblX 60Jle3Heii. fOPbKHii, 1956. c6. 5,
CTP, 52-57. - K pac H 10 K E. n. Te3HcbI .llOK,l. nepllOli I3cecolO3Holi HaY'!H. KOHq,epeHUHII
1t0 rHrHeHe R TOKCHKO,10rHH HHceKToYHrH1lH.llOB. KlteB, 1957, CTp. 63-65. - C II MO'
Be H K 0- A. C. 3.llpaBooxp. BeJlopycc., 1958, Ng 2, CTp. 66. - ill Y JJ bra A. 11. KJlHH. Melt..
1957, N9 5, CTp. 139-142. - F ran con e M. P., C hen a W. Arch. Industr. Hyg., 1950.
.v. I, p. 590.-Horton R. G., Karel L. a. Chadwick L E Science 1948 v 107
p. 246-247. . .. , ,. ,
Carbon Monoxide Air Pollution in Shops Testing Machine and Tractor Motorso
A. Ko Audere.
(Department of HYgiene, Ri~a Medical Institute).
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 24, No.5, 19-80, 1959.
Nine shops of the Machine and Tractor Stations were inspected during the
years 1956 and 1951; 6 were built according to standard plans No. 1658 and
1662, and 3 were housed in old buildings reconditioned for the purpose. Twenty
air samples were obtained in the working areas at workers inhalation level in
the motor testing division. Results of analyses showed that the air in the
motor testing shops built according to the standard plans and in those located
in old reconditioned buildings contained a relatively high concentration of
carbon monoxide during the testing of different types of motors.
-43-
-------
Standard plans No. 1658 and No. 1662 specify that forced-draft ventilation
for the removal of the exhaust gases from the premises must be installed. Ac-
cording to plan No. 1658 the Siguldskii shop of the Machine and Tractor Station
should have installed a 4-blade fan of TsAGI No.6 design in the motor testing
section to supply fresh air at the rate of 4080 m3/hour (see sketch). Accord-
ing to the plan, the incoming fresh air
must be heated during the cold season.
The exhaust air from the testing section
... ;"....--,
Teati"Q$ectio"
'::D-::-
I~
1,90' 1.00
,:;---
~
J
Intake and exhaust ventilation in
the Siguldsk Machine and Tractor
Station shop.
1 and 3 - Ventilating fans; 2 - A
four-inch smoke pipe.
must.be put into motion by a suitable
size 4-blade fan through a metal conduit
and 4 jalousie screens installed at the
upper level of the shop. The regulations
specified that the noxious gases coming
directly from the exhaust of the tested
motors must be removed from the shop by
means of a flexible hose attached to the
exhaust pipe of the motor and discharged
directly into the atmosphere. The regu-
lations also specify that the hourly rate
of air renewal must be 36 times the volume of the premises.
However, in the
motor testing divison of the Siguldskii shop inspected by the author only a
general exhaust ventilation was installed with a capacity of 2160.9 m3/hour,
equivalent to an exchange of the air 21 times per hour. No special provision
was made for inflow of fresh air. The fire conduit was not utilized for the
removal of the exhaust gases.
Results of analyses of carbon monoxide in the air of the motor testing
section with the exhaust ventilation in operation was as follows: after 5
minutes testing of a NATI tractor motor a concentration of 0.45 mg/li of carbon
monoxide; after 10 minutes testing, the concentration reached 1.34 mg/li; after
20 minutes testing type 2 tractor motor under the same conditions, the concen-
tration of carbon monoxide was 0.11 mg/li. Thus, it was demonstrated that the
exhaust fan alone was inadequate to reduce the concentration of carbon monoxide
within the working premises to the tolerance limit.
In shops of Machine and Tractor Stations where the exhaust gases from motors
were diverted into special gas-flues, com~a~atively low concentrations of carbon
monoxide were recorded; under these conditions, the concentrations remained low
-44-
-------
4
during protracted motor tests. For instance, in the motor testing section of
the Elgavskaya Machine and Tractor Station, after a 45 minute test of the motor
of tractor DT-54, the concentration of carbon monoxide was only 0.029 mg/li.
In 1957, in the Yelgavsk~a Machine and Tractor Station' a conduit of a larger
diameter, equipped with an exhaust fan, was installed replacing a chimney.
This arrangement created a local air suction of the exhaust gases directly
from the exhaust pipes of the motors. A sheet iron pipe 10 cm in diameter,
which was a part of the assembly, was placed over the exhaust pipe of the
motor. At a height of 1.5 m this pipe was inserted into a larger pipe having
a diameter of 30 cm, near the end of which an exhaust fan was installed having
a capacity 1500 m3/hour. The total exhaust discharge from the motor of a DT-54
type tractor was 450 m3/hour. -
A check of the concentration of carbon monoxide in the motor testing sec-
tion after replacing the old smoke pipe by local exhaust conduit disclosed that
after a 40-minute testing of a DT-54 tractor motor, the concentration of carbon
monoxide was only 0.005 mg/li, or below the limit of tolerance.
Conclusions.
1.
The content of carbon monoxide 1n the air of working premises of the
motor testing department exceeded the limit of tolerance.
2.- General exhaust ventilation installed in motor testing departments ac-
r
cording to plan No. 1658 was inadequate for the purpose of lowering concentra-
tions of carbon monoxide to the limit of tolerance in working premises.
3. Local forced exhaust ventilation alone installed directly at the ex-
haust pipe of the tested motor reduced the concentration of carbon monoxide
to the limit of tolerance and below it.
-45-
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Limits of Allowable Concentration of Carbon~isulfide in the Atmospheric
Air of Residential Areas.
R. S. Hildenskiold.
(F. F. Erisman Moscow Scientific-Re,search Institute of Sanitation and
Hygiene, Health Ministry, R.S.F.S.a.).
, Gi~ena i Sanitariya, Vol. 24, No.6, 3-8, 1959.
In 1952 the Committee on Limits of Allowable Concentrations of Atmospheric
Pollutants suggested for the first time, standards of maximum permissible carbon
bisulfide concentrations in the atmospheric air of residential areas (0.5 mg/m3
maximum single and 0.15 mg/m3average 24-hour concentration). Practicalap-
plication of these standards proved that they were too high. Thus,: in studying
, ,
carbon bisulfide pollution of the air around artificial viscose fiber plants,
it was found that concentrations of the order of maximum permissible single
concentration existed only in the 500 m zone, while, according to investigators~
the specific disagreeable odor of this substance was sensed 2000 m away and
beyondo Therefore, this author was assigned the task of checking the correct-
ness of the previously accepted maximum permissible carbon bisulfide concen-
tration in the atmospheric air.
Carbon bisulfide is widely used in the chemical industry as a solvent of
rubber, phosphorus, sulfur, fats, oils, waxes, resins, in the production of
carbon tetrachloride, in the manufacture of water-resistant glue, optical glass,
etc. However, its consumption in these processes is not extensive, and its
emission into the atmosphere is slight. The basic sources of atmospheric air
pollution with carbon bisulfide are carbon bisulfide plants and artificial
viscose fiber plants which emit large quantities of this substance ~ the
ventilation system without previous purification. Depending on the production
volume} contemporary viscose plants are discharging daily into the atmosphere
. .
from 105 to 40 tons of carbon bisulfide. The volume of ventilation discharges
amounts to millions of cubic meters per hour, while the carbon bisulfide content
in them ranges between 20 - 240 mg/m3, which up to the present made the venti-
lation air purification diffi~ult.
In May 1958 the Plenum of the TsK KPSS' (Central Committee of the Communist
Party of the Soviet Union) and the Office of Control Allotments for the devel-
opment of the U.S.S.R. economy during 1959-1965, provided for more than a four-
fold increase in artificial and synthetic fiber production. Since the problem
-46-
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of exhaust gas purification from the viscose plants has not been solved, an
increase of the total carbon bisulfide discharge into the atmospheric air can
be expected in the near future. In this connection the present author studied
the zonal distribution of atmospheric air pollution with carbon bisulfide by
an artificial viscose fiber combine at distances of 150, 500, 1000, 1500, 2000,
2500 and 3000 m. ,The plant emitted daily up to 4 tons of carbon bisulfide.
The exhaust gases were discharged through many outlets at levels not exceeding
25 m from the ground. Air samples were taken on the lee side of the plant and
were analyzed ,by procedures recommended by the Committee'on Maximum Permis$ibls
Concentrations of Atmospheric Pollutants, described by A. L. Khritinina (1940).
The sensitivity of the method amounts to 0.0005 mg/2 mI. The concentrations
were determined photoelectrocolorimetrically (trade-mark M-l) according to the
calibration curve. The results of the analysis are presented in Table 1.
TABLE
10
Maximal and average concentrations of carbon
bisulfide in the air at indicated distances.
D' t :Number : CS' / 3 :
,~s antce i of ! 2 ~n mg m , i Odor conditions
~n me ers: :M' :
: samples: ax~mal:Average:
Up to 150
500
1,000
1, 500
2,000
2,500
3,000
80
13
56
34
48
23
28
1.20
0.64
0.40
0.18.
0.18
0.08
0.03
0.21 Intense and steady
0.19 Intense and steady "
o 09 Intense when windy
. otherwise weak
0.01 Weak and steady
0.06 Weak when windy
0.03 Not perceptible
0.01 Not perceptible
Air samples with
carbon bisulfide con-
centrations below the
sensitivity limit of the
method were found only at
a 3000 m distance (11 of
28 samples). Excesses
over the earlier accepted
maximum permissible sin-
gle concentration were
observed in the 150 and
500 m zopes, but the odor
of carbon bisulfide was
perceived in the 2000 m zone.
The toxic effect of carbon bisulfide was studied extensively in the U.S.S.R.
and abroad. Foreign author~ (Quarell, H., 1931; Weist, H. J.,1951; Weise,
w. D., 1933; Patty, F. A., 1949) discussed mainly the problem of chronic effect
, on the human and animal organism of carbon bisulfide vapors in (high) concen-
trations, of the order of hundreds and thousands of milligrams per 1 m3. In
det~rmining the maximum permissible carbon bisulfide concentration in the at-
mospheric airl particular attention should be paid to Soviet Union reports by
M. A., Kazakevich (1954), E. A. Drogichina (1953), A. A. Model' (1956) and others,
who pointed out that changes in the higher nervous activity became manifest in
-41-
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the early stages of carbon bisulfide intoxication. In evaluating the hygienic
sig~ificance of carbon bisulfide concentrations found in the atmospheric air,
this author used the methods of CS2 odor threshold perception and of threshold
reflex effect on the functional state of the cerebral cortex/as indicated by
changes in optical chronaxy and in adaptation to darkness, as prescribed by
the Committee on Maximum Permissible 9oncentrations of Atmospheric Pollutants. 11
According to F. D. Shikhvarger (1950) the odor perception threshold con-
centration of carbon bisulfide was 1 mg/m3; according to K. G. Beryushev (1952)
. 3
the threshold CS2 odor concent~ation was 0.5 mg/m. The present author tested
15 persons of 17 - 29 years of age, making a total of 256 determinations. The
result~ of such a study established that the threshold concentration of CS2
odor perception fluctuated between 0.05 and 0.2 mg/m3. For 4 highly sensitive
persons the 0.05 mg/m3 concentration was still perceptible and the 0.04 mg/m3
concentration non-perceptible, constituting the sub-threshold concentration.
The reflex action threshold concentration of carbon bisulfide was determined
by the method of optical chron~ using the 1949 model of the GIF chronaximeter.
TABLE
20
i Number of . Carbon bisulfide in mg/~
.
.
Initials . Clearly Minimum . Maximum
iObservations .
. .
. inon-perceptible
: perceptible perceptible
A. N. 20 0.54. 0.06 0.05
A. Ao 15 0.54 0.10 0.06
A. T. 20 0.20 0.05 0.04
B. I. 18 0.40 0.06 0.05
B. v. 20 0.54 0.20 0.10
v. S. 11 0.60 0.20 0.10
E. v. 12 0.10 0.06
Zh. Yu. 11 0.60 0.20 0.10
Ko E. 20 0.20 0.05 0.04
L. Z. 11 0.40 0.10 0.06
Lo L. 18 0.54 0.20 0.10
M. A. 20 0.60 0.05 0.04
N. v. 20 0.40 0.20 0.10
T. I. 20 0.60 0.20 0.10
Yu. P. 20 0.40 0.05 0.04
11 V. A. Ryazanov. Maximum Permissible Concentrations of Atmospheric Pollutants.
Issue In, 1957, p. 1240 . (Translated by B.S. Levine and published by Office
of Technical Services of the U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington 25, D.C.
Catalogue Number 59-21175).
-48-
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Investigations were conducted on 3 persons below 30 years of age. , The
odor perception threshold was different for each and equalled 0.1, 0.06 and
0.05 mg/m3. The first 8 days the test subjects were trained by inhaling pure
air, then by determining the ,rheobase and chropaxy during inhalation of dif-
ferent carbon bisulfide concentrations. Investigations were conducted with
5 concentrations - 0.5, 0.1, 0.05, 0.04 a~d 0.03 mg/m3.. Carbon bisulfide was
administered on the 6th minute of determination; readings were taken every 3
minutes, before and after (during 18 minutes) the carbon bisulfide inhalation
for a period of 18 minutes. Occasionally administration of carbon bisulfide
was alternated with fresh air inhalation to eliminate formation of a condi-
tioned reflex response to the conditions surrounding the tests.
On the basis of statistical analyses of variables it was concluded that
in 2 persons observed the lowest carbon bisulfide concentration causing signif-
icant chronaxy prolongation equalled 0.04, mg/m3, i. e., slightly below the odor
perception threshold for highly sensitive persons. In one woman the threshold
reflex response coincided with the threshold of odor perception and equalled
0.05 mg/m3. Data on one of the observed persons are graphically presented in
Fig. 1. Statistically reliable upward changes in rheobase were effected in all
3 observed persons by 0.1 mg/m3 carbon bisulfide concentrations, and higher.
4" Measurements of eye
4~ sensitivity to light were
4u conducted with an ADM adapt-
8,1/
4'"
4.
411
UI
-------
trations of 0.5, 0.1, 0.05, 0.04 and 0.03 mg/m3 were carried out on 3 persons.
The carbon bisulfide threshold of odor perception in 2 equalled 0.1 and in one
0.05 mg/m3. During the first few days determinations were made of the normal
(initial) curve of the individual's adaptation to darkness. Administration of
a predetermined carbon bisulfide concentration took place on the 15th minute
of adaptation. Readings were taken during the first 40 minutes at 10 minute
intervals over a period of 20 minutes.
The character of change in sensitivity to light of the darkness-adapted
. .
eye during brief inhalations of different carbon bisulfide concentrations was
. .
different for each of the 3 persons observed. Thus, in test subject Ch. all
concentrations caused lowering of light sensitivity, the lowering in sensi-
tivity being more pronounced with higher CS2 concentrations.' In te~t subject
S. higher carbon bisulfide concentrations (0.5 mg/m3) lowered the sensitivity,
while low concentrations raised it considerably. When light sensitivity caused
by higher concentra~ions was reduced, 0.05 - 0.04 mg/m3 concentrations caused
in test subject St. short-lasting'lowering of eye sensitivity with a return to
normal on the 40th minute of adaptation. Statistically reliable changes in
light ~en~itivity in all observed persons occurred a~ 0.04 mg/m3 and higher
concentrations. Lower concentrations cauS€d-no changes iri the curve of adap-
tation to darkness (Fig. 2).
s:: 1.~"'c1r1
'M Illl~'OO " ,~ -
.p '!otJoo " \
~ 1.'01l00 ,'\
'M. "
rl m .'..;j I :00/)0 I . \
.p Q) ffJ0{10Q j I \
'M > . I \
>'M 9IJilPI r---'
'M.p SilOOIl \
.p ro
'M rl :,JODI j \
. m Q) uPQ(JO J' "'...
s:: ~. "'... c.
Q) ,','(101 ..... .
CI) iDOOP J
~[ --.-.-.
IPOOI -'-''''''
fPPPI . . .......-.-. tI.
. . -'{m.
. 1,8J (Pi !l,J1j Q./ Il,f .
Pure air
Q)
~
Carbon bisulfide in mg/m3
Fig. 2.. :Etre sensitivity to light at dif-
ferQnt 9arbon bisulfide concentrations on
the twentieth minute of adaptation.
Curves represent reactions of different
test persons.
On the basis of the results, it
should be pointed out that the re-
ceptors of the olfactory analyzer
were affected by carbon bisulfide
concentrations considerably below
those accepted earlier as maximum
permissible single concentrations
for atmospheric air; such CS2 con-
centrations caused short-lasting
functional changes originating in
the central nervot,ls system. Accord-
ing to the results discussed aboveJ
0.05 mg/m3 was the threshold con-
centration of C~2 odor perception,
and 0.04 mg/m3 was the threshold
concentration of optical chronaxy
-50-
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reflex effect and of adaptation to darkness for CS2. On this basis it was
concluded that the maximum permissible single carbon bisulfide concentration
in atmospheric air should not exceed 0.03 mg/m3.
In June 1951 the Committee on Determination of Limits of Allowable Con-
centrations of Atmospheric Pollutants reconsidered, on the basis of above
. .
suggestions, the previously accepted norms of carbon bisulfide concentration
in community air. On July 21, 1951, the Chief State Sanitary Inspector of the
U.S.S.R. approved 0.03 mg/m3 as the maximum permissible single CS2 concentra-
tion and 0.01 mg/m3 as the average daily CS2 concen~r~tion.
Conclusions.
1. Atmospheric air in the environs of an artificial viscose fiber plant
was being polluted constatnly by carbon bisulfide in 0.03 mg/m3 concentrations
even at 3000 m from the plant.
2. The carbon bisulfide odor perception threshold for highly sensitive
persons was 0.05 mg/m3; the non-perceptive (sub-threshold) concentration was
0.04 mg/m3..
3. The threshold of carbon bisulfide reflex effect,determined by optical
chronaxy measurements/was 0.04 mgjm3. The sub-threshold concentration was
0.03 mg/m3.
4. The threshold of CS2 reflex effect on the functional state of the
cerebral cortex,as determined by the adaptometric method,was on the same level
of 0.04 mg/m3. .
5. .On the basis of the above results,it was suggested that 0.03 mg/m3 be
adopted as the maximum permissible single carbon bisulfide concentration in
atmospheric air of residential ~istricts, because it was below the threshold
of odor perception.and. of reflex effects.
60 Results .of laboratory tests conducted with human subjectsJand of field
pollution surveys conducted at different distant zones from the viscose fiber
plant,led to the conclusion that a sanitary clearance (or protection) zone 2000
meters wide must be instituted around the artificial viscose fiber plant, which
~aily discharged into the atmosphere 4 tons of carbon bisulfide. In the absence
of purifying installations/the sanitary clearance zones should be not less than
3000 m wide.
1. Sanitary agencies must ~emand the speediest adoption of effective meth-
ods for the removal of carbon bisulfide from ventilation air discharged by
- -51-'
-------
artificial viscose fiber plants; this should improve the quality of atmospheric
air which surrounds the plants and enable to decrease the width of the sanitary
clearance zone.
Bibliography.
i> e p to UJ e 8 K. r. C60PHRK p360T HH-Ta 11M. 3pHCM3Ha M.. 1\':\5. !J. 5 --6, CTp. 6-..
18. . - 0 It }K P. B Kit.: npel1enbltO llOIP{CTHMUe KOIII\eHTp:1IUIH :lHIOCCPHhlX JarpR3Hc-
HHIi. M., 1952, 8. 1, CTp. 63.-67. - r a II 3 T H. H. HHCKlle ~Ia-
~epHaJlhl CallHTaplloro Hit-Ta ItM. 3pHCMaHa. M., 1951. N2 3--4, CTp. 8<1--90.-]1 p 0 r H-
q" H a 3. A. TOKcH4ecKHe 3Huerf!aJlOMIICJlOIIOIIRHenpIITbf .1I.!JToperf!- ,1 "CC. M., 1953. ..-
K a 3 It K f' 8 H'I M. A. TpYllhi AMH CCCP. - 1954, T. 31. CTp. 71\--.88. -- X r 11 T It It n-
BaA. n. RcecolO3HhlH IIHCTHTYT KOM:.IYH. caH. It I'ftr., 1940, 'i6. --We i seW.. Archiv r.
Gewl'rbepatol.. 1933, Bd. 4, S. 219. -- We is t H. J., Arhiv r. Gewerbepatol.. 1957.
Bd.15, S. 542-552.
Hygienic Evaluation of Aerosols Formed in the Manufacture of Hard Alloys.
Z. S. Kaplun and N. V. Mesentseva.
(From the Department of Labor Hygiene of the I. M. Sechenov First
Moscow Order of Lenin Medical Institute).
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 24, No.6, 16-22, 1959.
The hard alloy industry is an important branch of the U.S.S.R. national
economy. The extensive introduction of hard alloys into the Soviet industry
stiwulatedthe development of a variety of manufactured articles on a broad
scale and with considerable precision. The use of hard alloys for weld coating
or weld edging of rapidly wearing out parts of equipment has greatly increased
their durability and has resulted in considerable savings in materials and
time used in their preparation.
The basis of the hard alloys is a mixture of carbides of high-melting
. metals, such as tungsten and titanium with cobalt as a cementing metal. -The
basic raw materials for the preparation of tungsten-cobalt and titanium-tung-
sten-cobalt alloys are powdered tungsten trioxide, titanium dioxide, cobaltic
oxide, and carbon black. The initial stage in the technological process is
the preparation of the furnace charge, made of tungsten trioxide and carbon
black. Reduction of-this pharge in electrographite furnaces at 15000 yields
-52-
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powdered metallic tungsten. The latter is mixed with carbon black in proper
proportion and is roasted in furnaces at. high temperature. The resulting tung-
sten carbide is pulverized in ball mills and passed through a vibrating sifter.
Titanium-tungsten-cobalt alloys of high hardness are obtained by mixing
the tungsten carbide with carbon black (soot) and with titanium dioxide'and
roasting the mixture in furnaces at 20000. Simultaneously a metallic cobalt
powder is obtained by roastingcobaltic oxide in a Kuznetsov furnace at 6000.
The metallic cobalt is passed through a vibrating sifter and is added to the
. -. .
powdered tungsten carbide or to tungsten carbide mixed with titanium carbideo
This mixture, moistened with alcohol, is ground in a ball mill. After the
alcohol has peen evaporated, the mixture is again si~ted. The~owdered alloys
are then compressed in hydraulic and automatic presses into whatever shape. or
form their future use may indicate. Compression can be facilitated by adding
to the powdered alloy gasoline-rubber cement. The compressed f~rms are dried
and mechanically processed. Lastly, the molded items are sintered in elec~
tric ovens. A detailed descri.ption of this technological process may be found
in the book by V. S. Rakovskii and N. R. Anders:. "Fundamentals of the Produc-
tion of Hard Alloys'!.
In the manufacture of hard alloys, aerosols of tungsten and of its com-
pounds, titanium, cobalt, and also of mixtures of these metals, may be formed
accompanied by an evolution of considerable heat and carbon monoxide. The
p~esence in the air of fine particles of the metals and their alloys was clear-
ly discernible at all stages of the production of the alloys, as shown by
Table 1. In the course of tungsten carbide preparation highest air dustiness
was observed at points of loading and unloading the ball mills and during mix-
ing of the metallic tungsten with the carbon black. During these processes,
the dust concentration at times reached 106 mg/m3 (see Table 1). In the depart-
ment where the titanium-tungsten-cobalt alloys were produced, the air dust co~-
centration reached 55 mg/m3 at the time the gondolas were loaded with a mixture
of tung,stencarbide, titanium dioxide and carbon black for roasting (Table 2).
The metallic cobalt dust was generated mostly dur~ng the sifting process.
The air-suspende~ dust at practically all points of hard alloys production
contained tungsten carbide, titanium carbide, and metallic cobalt. Dust of
greatest concentration was observedHin the departments where the ground mixtures
were granulated (Table 3). Air dust was studied by the gravimetric method
supplemented by chemical analysis to determine the cobalt content of the col-
-53-
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TABLE
10
Air dust content at different stages of tungsten carbide making.
Place of job performance
:
l Dust
: Dust in mg/mJ'
composi tion 1 Minimum i M.aximum i Average
Charging and discharging ball
mills for grinding tungsten W03 and soot. 20.0 83.3 26.6
anhydride with lamp black
Loading and unlbading of com-
bustion boats in reduc~ng W03' Wand soot 10.0 42.2 18.0
the tungsten
Loading and unloading ball
mills for grinding tungsten Wand soot 33.3 . 106.6 50.0
anhydride with lamp black
Loading and unloading of com-
bustion boats in carboniza- W, soot and WC . 1303 47.0 15.0 .
tion process
Screening a W 12.6 63.3 44.4
b WC 8.6 42.2 2l.
TABLE 2.
Air dust content at different operations in the making of
titanium-tungsten carbide.
Place of job performance
.
.
~ Dust
: Dust. in mg/m1
composition i . .
. Minimum iMaximum i Average
: : :
. .
Charging 'and. discharging ball
mills for grinding of final WC, Ti02~ soot 20.0 33.3 25.0
mixture
Loading combustion boats WC, Ti02' soot 30.8 55.6 42.2
Unloading combustion boats TiC, WC 5.3 15.2 9.0
Screening TiC, WC 20.3 53.2 40.2
lected dust samples. 11 Data listed in Table 3 show that the cobalt content
of the dust mixture released into the air in the majority of operations ex-
ceeded by several times the 0.5 mg/m3 concentration proposedby.the Dzerzhinskiy
Regional-Health and Epidemiology Station of Moscow and the Depar~ment ofLab~r
.11 The analyses were performed by B. I. Gurvitz and V. I. Obraztsova, chemists
of the Dzerzhins~i Regional Health and Epidemiology Station of Moscow, by the
method of B. I. Gurvitz.
-54-
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TABLE
3.
Dust content in the air at different stages of tungsten-cobalt
hard alloy making.
.
.
Department i
i
Place of job
performance
: Dust : -Dust inmg/m,j : Carbon
: composi- i .. : .: : in
:.. t.;on :M~~um:Marimum:Average: 1m3
..&. : : : : m@:
Mixing
118
71
Screening after mixing WC
Screening before gran-
ulating and granu- WC
lating
and Co
19
80
Granulating
and Co
29
42
Wet grinding Mixing process
Combustion boats
Wet grinding cleaning
Compression Automatic presses
In sorting room
186
108
57
WC and Co
90
112
WC and Co
10
3
10
WC and Co
WC and Co
24
17
10.4
13
Sorti~
1.75
1.01
0.388
1.23
0.28
0.27
Hygiene of the I. M. Sechenov First Moscow Order of Lenin Medical Institute as
the maximum permissi 1;>le Umi t. 11
To determine what effect such air dust concentrations as were previously
mentioned might have on the state of health of the workers, a statistical stu~
was made of the results of periodic medical examinations of 283 individuals
who were regularly working under dusty conditions; they were. divided into 2
groups: 1) those who were in contact only with tungsten and its compounds,
and 2) those who were exposed to the action of mixed dusts (carbide of tung-
sten and cobalt). Among the 36 workers of the first group the changes were
limited to the respiratory organs. X-ray examinations showed 4 workers had
initial signs of diffuse pneumosclerosis. Stu~ of the 247 workers of the
second group showed that the primary complaints were, loss of appetite, nausea,
coughing, and impaired odor perception. Medical examinations of 117 persons
revealed disease of the upper respiratory tract, 35 were diagnosed. as having
chronic bronchitis, and 33 showed signs of incipient pneumos~lerosis. \ large
percentage of the workers had hypotension and blood picture changeso
Olfactometric investigations indicated that hyposmia; and in some indi-
yidual cases anosmia,w~re found on 1, among workers of the second group. .Planned
1/ Proposed New Sanitary Standards for Projected Industrial Production Plants
to ReplaceN-101-54. See Survey, Vol. 2, O.T.S., U.S. Department of Commerce,
Catalogue Number 60-21188.
-55-
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experimental studies were conducted to establish the etiologic part pl~ed by
tungsten, titanium, and cobalt/individually, and in combination/in the devel-
opment of the pathological changes among workers. These authors demonstrated
that cobalt was the most toxic of the metals contained in the mixture. Its
action varied, manifesting itself as changes in the nervous system, digestive
organs, the blood, etc. The pathologic pulmonary changes were expressed as a
well developed diffuse sclerosis, sclerosis of the peribronchial and peri-
vascular tissue (Z. S. Kaplun, 1957), etc. The dust of tungsten and of its
compounds and of titanium carbide, administered intratracheally to rats in
. .
50 mg doses gave rise mostly to changes in the respiratory organs: a prolifera-
tive ,reaction of the pulmonary tissue and perivascular changes differing in
degree of severity from the effects produced by cobalt (N. V. Mezentseva, 1957).
The purpose of the present study was to determine the effect of,dust con-'
taining a mixture of carbides of tungsten, titanium and metallic cobalt, since
the majority of the workers in this industry were not subjected to the action
of individual pure dust, but to dust of mixed composition. Experiments were
performed with white rats, which were administere~ intratracheally dust.mix-
tures of 3 kinds: the first contained S% of cobalt and 92% of tungsten; the
second contained 15% of cobalt 'and S5% of tungsten, and the third,contained
S% of cobalt, 14% of titanium, and 7S% of tungsten. Hereafter, the mixtures
. will be designated briefly ~y their industrial terminology (according to their
percent of cobalt content): WOoS' WOo15 and WTi140oS. These mixtures were
chosen for study because they were the initial materials from which hard alloys
. '
of various types were prepared in the industry under investigation.
The experiments were conducted in 4 series/using 100 rats. Each rat of
the first series received 5 mg (Note: ,This appears to be a t~ographical error;
it is most likely that it should have been 50 mg. B,.S.L.) of the mixed dust.
This dose was selected for comparison with results obtained in the study of the
fibrogenic effect of quartz-containing dust. In view of the fact that all rats.
of the first series died on the 1st or 2nd d~ after the dust administration,
the rats of the second series were given the mixture in a dose of 25 mg. How-
ever, most of the animals used in this series also died. Animals of the third
and fourth series received 15 and 10 mg of the mixed dust respectively. Each
series of the rats were divided into 3.subgroups, which were administered-WOoS'
WOo15 and WTi~4CoS dust mixtures respectively. Histologic examinations of
tissues of rats of the first series revealed in their lungs markedly thickened
-56-
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interalveolar septi, fused in spots and forming dense areas of air-free homogenous
tissue. The septiwere.thickened due to marked hyperemia and to cellular in-
filtration by lymphoid histiocytes. In the air-free areas, there were many
unimbedded dust accumulations. The lumens of the bronchi contained much mucus
and dust. The liver revealed pronounced hyperemia; as well as a granular-lumpy
degeneration of the hepatic cells. The kidneys showed a lumpy degeneration of
the cells. of the convolute~ tubules, descending canaliculi and plethora of the
glomeruli arid of the canalicular system.
In a second series of e~periments 5 rats, which" were given the WOol5 mix-
ture, died. Two rats of the subgroups which received the WOoa and WTil400a
mixture also died. In the fourth series of 13 rats, which were administered
the WOol5 mixture, 5 rats died within 2 - 3 ~s. In the subgroup of rats
which rec~ived WOoa"and WTi140oa' all the animals survived through the entire
observation period. Thus, the results of the experiments indicated that the
absolutely lethal dose of the WOo15 mixture for rats was 25 mg, while the lethal
dose of the WOoa and:WTii40oa mixtures was 50 mg. The minimum lethal dose of
the WOol5 mixture can be taken as 10 mg; that of the WOoa ~nd of WTi1400a was
10 mg and 15 mg respectively.
The chronic effect of the mixtures In question was studied by administer-
ing them intratracheally to rats in doses of 10 mg. Animals were observed over
periods of 6 and a months, after which they were sacrificed. The anatomico-
pathologic examinations of the organs showed that most pronounced changes oc~
curred in the lungs. After administration of the WOoa mixture, the following
changes were discovered in the rats' lungs: at the sites of accumulation of
dust particles there were extensive areas of lung tissue consolidation by
lymphoid cells, as well as histiocytes and fibroblasts; around the medium and
small bronchi, massive lymphatic accumulations, hypertrophy of bronchial mucosa.
An adenomatous development of the bronchial mucosa accompanied by the formation
. of papillomas was clearly observed (Fig. 1). The vascular walls were altered,
and showed signs of plasmorrhagia; around the small and medium vessels there was
an excessive amount of connective tissue. There were signs of pronounced
hyperemia of the liver and kidneys. After administration of the WOo15 mixture
,similar changes were observed with more pronounced adenomatous proliferation.
Areas of adenomatous degeneration were iriterwoven with delicate connective
tissue fib~rs(Fig. 2). In addition to. the above-mentioned changes, the
WTi1400a mixture gave "rise to diffuse sclerosis of the pulmonary tissue (Fig. 3).
.,
~57-
-------
The chronic effect of the dust mixtures in question manifested itself'as changes
of the same character as those produced by metallic cobalt, but of greater
severity.
The above indicates that the simultaneous effect of tungsten and cobalt
was intensified by the action of the latter, which was probably due to an in-
creased cobalt solubility in the presence of tungsten. To verify this assump-
tion, a comparative study was made of the solubility of metallic cobalt in the
pure form and in the presence of tungsten. For this purpose 100 mg of powdered
metallic cobalt was mixed with 1250 mg of the WCoS mixture, and 666 mg of the
WCo15 mixture. The solvent was 0.3% hydrochloric acid solution, in which the
solubility of metallic cobalt was highest (G. M. Parkhomenko). The results
listed'in,Table 4 show that the solubility of metallic cobalt was increased
considerably by the presence of tungsten, which gives some support to the above
assumption.
TABLE
4.
Solubility of cobalt powders
and of mixtures containing
cobalt in 0.3% of HCl during
24-hour exposure.
Nature of
powder
!Mg of Co
Co£ gone
: into
isolution
:
iMg of
I in mg
Metallic Co
WC08 mixture
WCo15 mixture
3
13
15
100
100
100
Conclusions.
1.
The principal substances which af~
feet the health of workers engaged in the
preparation of hard alloys appear to be the
aerosols of tungsten, titanium and cobalt,
which are discharged into the air at the dif-
ferent stages of the alloys production.
2. Most of the air-suspended dusts col-
lected at the different hard alloy production
processes contained tungsten carbide and metal-
lic cobalt lor carbides of tungsten and titanium
and metallic cobalt.
3. In view of the high toxicity of the air-suspended dust mixtures, formed
in the course of the manufacture of hard alloys, it is imperative that dust-
abating or dust eliminating measures be introduced in plants producing hard
alloys.
4. Mixed dust containing carbides of tungsten, titanium and cobalt must
be evaluated on the basis of the most toxic component,which in the case under
study, was cobalt. In the majority of cases cobalt content of the mixed air-
suspended aerosols in the industry in question exceeded the proposed maximum
allowable concentration of 0.5 mg/m3; because of the high Co content the mixed
air-suspended dust should not exceed 2 mg/m3.
-5S-
-------
50
There is reas.on to suppose that in the studied mixtures synergism
played an important
was enhanced by the
for the development
lutants.
role, as was shown by the fact that the toxicity of cobalt
presence of tungsten; therefore, there is imperative need
of special sanitary-hygienic standards for mixed air pol-
6.
Mandatory Order No. 136 of 1931 regarding periodic medical examinations
of workers engaged in crushing, grinding and screening of tungsten, cobalt and
their compounds should be amended to include workers engaged in other operations
accompanied by the discharge into the atmosphere of dust mixtures containing
these metals,such as the preparation and compounding of the mixtures, granu-
lation, pressing, etc.
Bibliography.
- r y p B II 11. 5. 11. Pe!jJepaTbI HaY'IH.-npaKTlI'I. pa6u1 MOCK. fOp. CaHIIT.-3nn,'l. CTaHUIIH
!9~2-1954 ff., M., 1956, CTp. 101-103.- H cae B H. c., C M ~ JI q H C K II It 3. 6., X 0 11. H-
HOB JI. K. II .D.p. fHr,. TpYJla H npo4>. 3a60JleBaHHSI. 1957, J'/'g 4, C1'p. 3-11. - K a n-
.1 y H 3. C. Ll.BeT. MeT., 1957, N~ 9, CTp. .12-48.-M c" C Hue B a I-i. B. rHf. II caH., 1957,
.'If~ 4. CTp. 25-29. - M H pc K II It M. H. Pe!fJepaTbI HaY'IH.-npaKTII'I patiOT MocK. rop. caH.-
',tnIU. craHLlHII.1952-1954 n. At, 19:>1;, np. 53--..fi7.. .MofIlJlell,'K
-------
manufacturing industries. The 1959 - 1965 seven-year plan for the economic
development of the U.S.S.R. provides for extensive developments in industries
which use large quantities of methanol in their production and manufacturing
processes. Therefore, it becomes imperative that a study be made of the ef-
fect of low concentrations of methanol vapor on man and animals/in order that
its allowable concentration in the atmospheric air can be established with
precision and definiteness, and also in order that proper measures be insti-
tuted, where need be, for the sanitization of general surroundings, and espe-
cially working conditions.
A survey of the literature showed that the toxic effect of methanol-vapor
had not been thoroughly investigated. Such data as have been found related to
the effect of high concentrations of- methanol vapor. (A.A. .Kevorktyan, N. V~
Lazarev, V. A. Levitskii, N. D. Rozenbaum, Treon, and others). It is particu-
larly true with regard to the chronic effect of experimental exposure to low
methanol vapor concentrations; no data were found in the literature relative
to the extent and degree of methanol vapor present in the air at different
proximities of pertinent production and manufacturing plants. The purpose of
this investigation was to fill in the void created by the lack of such informa-
tion.
Methanol in atmospheric air, and under conditions of the planned experiments/
r
was determined by the method of R. Fabre and R. Truhaut; the method is specific
and is based on the oxidation of methanol to formaldehyde by potassium perman-
ganate in the' presence of phosphoric acid, which produces a reddish-violet color
upon heating in a medium of sulfuric acid. The sensitivity of the method is
0.004 mg in 2 mI. The first part of the investigation was conducted for the
purpose of establishing the threshold of methanol odor perceptiun by the pro-
cedure recommended by the Committee on Limits of Allowable Concentrations (V. A.
Ryazanov, K. A. Bushtueva and Yu. V. Novikov). (Translation by B. S. Levine,
Book No.3, Limits of Allowable Concentrations of Atmospheric Pollutants, 1957,
O.T.S. No. 59-21175, pages 96-128). The results showed that the lowest per-
ceptible concentrations of methanol ranged between 4.3 and 11 mg/m3, as can
be seen from the data listed in Table 1. The next step in the investigation
was for the purpose of determining the effect of low methanol concentrations
on reflex changes in eye sensitivity to light. Fifty-nine tests were made on
3 selected persons. Pure air/and air containing different concentrations of
methanol vapor,were passed through the nose tubes on the 15th minute after
-60-
-------
TABLE
1.
Methanol odor threshold
perception in mg/m3.
dark adaptation for a period of 5 minutes.
The following methanol vapor in air con-
centrations were used: 1,..8 - 2.4, 3.3 -
3.7, 4.3 - 4.7 and 5.7 - 6.5 mg/m3. Sev-
: Minimal :Maxima1 non-
Initia1si perceptible i perceptible
i concentrationi concentration
era1 tests,were made with each concentra-
tion. The d~ta, plotted in Fig. 1, show
that inhalation of methanol in concentra-
tions of 10.8- 2.4 mg/m3 had no effect
T. M.
Yu. L..
A. P.
Ko A.
M. V.
Yu. A.
E. Io
V. A.
G. Lo
F. Zho
Ch. Tso
A. G.
E. F.
,r vvv
f6000
flooo
48000
HOOO
~OOOQ
'IE J 0' 000
-'lOOO
llUOO
MUUU
70 (7(70
/$O(7U
7000
1000
'-000
.,
403
4.3
5.0
5.0
5.0
500
7.0
.8.0
.800
8.0
8.0
11.0
1100
307
307
4.0
400
400
4.0
5.0
7.0
700
700
7.0
1005
10.5
on the course of dark adaptation, i.e.,
the effect was the same as of pure air
used in the control tests.
The threshold of methanol effect on
reflex activity, as evidenced by changes
in the optical analyzer sensitivity to
light in most sensitive persons, was at
the level of 3.3 mg/m3, and the threshold
.-..j---:-,,-"'-
/" - -,,--- J
: \ .~-_:-:-:' -;~~..!-._._.;-._.-.-
/ /,<"., --,-- ,,-
//...".\/, ,,-..-'--"-"s
,'/.;,' ../0. ~.--
I. ,'/ \ -,-
'f,'. ,-,-
l."'/ -
.' /
//./
v'
of non-reactivity was at
the level of 2.4 mg/m3.
A stu~ was also made
of the chronic effect
of methanol vapor on the
animal organism.
Ex-
N
. If
2tl
lj
JO
4U
SU
periments were performed
with 3 groups, each con-
sisting of 10 white rats.
t
II
Rats of 2 groups wer$
placed into the exposure
chamber daily, except
off-days, for 12 hours
Time in minutes
Figo 10 Changes in eye sensitivity to light in
Madam T. M. over 3 months; rats of
1 - Pure air inhalation; 2 - Methanol 1.8 - 2.4 mg/m~
/ 3 I 3 the third group were kept
3 - Ditto 3.3 - 3.7 mg m ; 4 - Ditto 4.3 - 4.7 mg m.J
5 - Ditto 5.7 - 6.5 mg/m3. as controls. The average
methanol vapor concentration to which rats of group 1 were exposed over 3 months
was 1.77 (taken as 108 mg/m3), which is below the threshold of methanol odor per-
ception and below its effect on reflex activity, as indicated by changes in eye
sensitivity to light; the average methanol vapor concentration to which rats of
-61-
-------
group 2 were exposed over 3 months was 50 mg/m3, which corresponded to the limit
of allowable concentration of methanol vapor in the air of working premises.
During the period of exposures records were kept of the rats' general con-
dition, their weight, daily chronaxy changes (using the chronaximeter of the
Experimental Machine Shops of the Physiotherapy Institute), changes in the ex-
tensor and flexor muscles of the hind leg tibia of the rats, as manifested by
response to stimulation of the corresponding nerve trunks. Exposure to. the
methanol vapor was begun after training to accustom the rats to the conditions
surrounding the tests. On the day following the last exposure all rats were
well, active and gained weight. No symptoms were discerned indicative of un-
favorable methanol vapor effects on the central nervous system. Under the con-
ditions of the experiments, methanol vapor had no unfavorable effect on the
growth of the experimental rats. Curves in section (2) of Fig. 2 represent
a plots of average re-
sults of rats of group
~ ~ 0.0/5
S::::1.
o
~.~ Q.OliJ
(.)
0. 005
~.~ 0.0/5
S::::1.
~. s:: 0.010
.s:!'M
(.)
0.00'
tJ,015 .
~ ~ 0.020
s:: ::1. 0015
o .
~.~
(.) o./)/()
11.005
",,------------ -~---- --"-- -------- --- -~
'--..~
z
~ 5 6 . 7 8 J II) II 12
Observation time in weeks
11
IJ 16 17 I~
J
"..
. ---------------------~-----------~---
-----------
z
!
t 5 , 7 8 9 10 II 12 IJ 16
Observation time in weeks
c
17 18
2 J f. of 6 7 8 J 10 11 11 1.1 16 17 /8
Observation time in weeks
Fig. 2. Effect of methanol on average motor
chronaxy in ratso 3
a - Control; b - Average concentration 1.11 mg/m ;
c - Average concentr~tion 49.11 mg/m3 (Exposure 12
hours daily for 6 months); 1 - extensors; 2 - flexors.
-62-
2.
It can be seen that
1
beginning approximately
with the 1th, and par-
ticularly 8th, week the
chronaxy values of the
extensors and flexors
2
were closely approaching
each other, signifying
that the normal time
relationship between the
2 reflex responses was
definitely disturbed.
Toward the end of the
experimental exposure
period the 2 chronaxy
curves showed a tendency
to go apart, returning
to the normal course,
yet never reaching the
original ratio value.
Such a phenomenon has
-------
been observed frequently under the effects of unfavorable factors as the result
of development of compensating processes.
As exposures to the unfavorable fac-
tors continuedJthe compensatory state was frequently replaced by a returned de-
compensation state, and the chronaxy curve became wavy. Such changes were seen
frequently and in a most pronounced manner in isolated cases. Thus, a most
typical chronaxy curve, of the type under description, was given by rat No.6
of group 2, as seen in Fig. 3. Beginning with the 2nd week of exposure to
fl,1J4
1
methanol inhalation the extensor
and flexor chronaxy curves began to
P. OJJ
~
~
OM
0.0.10
manifest the effects just described.
The changes in the normal chronaxy
value relationship became even more
~ tl1l2.f
tl DIll
a
~ Q.OIJ'~ ,
(,) f
pronounced.
On the sixth, seventh
0.010
and tenth weeks the chronaxy time
'relation~hips of the 2 muscle antago-
nists became reversed, othe~vise
I/O/JJ
1 1 J , J 6 1 8 i 10 II /2 IJ
Observation time in weeks
retaining, by and large, a time ratio
Fig. 3. Effect of methanol on motor relationship slightly exceeding unity.
chronaxy in rat 6 of group 20 Chronaxy time relationships return to
1 ~ extensors; 2 - flexors. normal during the periods of rats'
recovery. Changes in the rheobase values of rats of group 1 showed no noteworthy
regularity, and in rats of group 2 these changes were insignificant.
Histologic studies showed the following: 3 months after the initiation of
exposures, signs of irritation of the mucosa of the trachea and of the bronchi
began to appear in rats of group 2 in the form of catarrhs, catarrhal desquama-
tion of the trachea, bronchitis; signs appeared of hyperplasia of the t~~cheal
. \
submucosal glands, and slight lymphoid infiltrations; the indications were that
the changes in the trachea were more pronounced than in the bronchi and in the
lung .tissue. There was an occasional swelling and hypertrophy in some pulmonary
arteries, especially in rat No.6, and negligible degenerative changes in the
liver, as shown by the uneven staining of the nuclei and by the granularity of
the protoplasm. Neurons of the brain cortex stained by the Golgi method showed
clear-cut deformation of the dendrites and disappearance of the prickle elements.
Changes in the apical dendrites of the pyramidal cells were pronouncedo No
visible changes were recorded in the internal organs of rats of group 10 The
Golgi stain brought into evidence infrequent, but clearly discernible, dendrite
-63-
-------
deformation in the neurons of rat No.3 of group 1.
No changes were observed
'either in the internal organs or in the brain cortex of the control rats.
Thus,
the histomorphologic changes here recorded ran parallel to the results of the
chronaximetric studies.
It can be concluded from the above results that 1.5 mg/m3 of methanol can
be recommended as the maximal single limit of allowable concentration; such a
methanol concentration is below the 2.4 mg/m3 maximal methanol concentration
which produced no effect on eye sensitivity to light, and is less than 50% of
the 3.3 mg/m3 threshold concentration of methanol affecting this function. This
concentration is below the threshold of methanol odor perception of most sensi-
tive persons; it is also below the maximal concentration of methanol which had
no effect on motor chronaxy of the exposed rats.
The following is a discussion of results obtained during a survey of air
in the vicinity of some industrial enterprises. The results listed in Table 2
show that all air samples' collected at 50 m from a plant producing formaldehyde
cont~i~ed methanol in excess of 1.5 mg/m3, and air samples collected 100 m from
the plant contained less than 1.5 mg/m3 of methanol. On the other hand, results
listed in Table 3 show that of 50 samples collected 100 m from a biomycine pro-
ducing plant 15, or 30%, contained methanol in excess of the .limit of allowable
concentration. It was not until air samples began to be collected at 250 m from
the plant that the CH3CH concentration fell below 1.5 mg/m3. Irregularities
encountered in the distribution of the methanol concentration in the air sur-
rounding the biomycine plant can be explained by the fact that the waste products
dump, located within the grounds of the plant, was an open one.
The air in the proxim-
TABLE
2.
ity of the manufacturing and
production plants investi-
Methanol in atmospheric air on the lee side of the
formaldehyde plant. Methanol discharge
1.2 tons/day.
Meters from:Number: Concentration :Number of tests
pollution ~ of i in mg/m3 iexceeding limit
source :tests :~aximal:Average: of 1.5 mg/m3
gated was polluted not only
with methanol vapor, but also
with formaldehyde, acetic
esters, etc., all of a thresh-
50 44 5.41 3.20 44
100 8 1.35 0.96 0
250 41 1.46 0.39 0
500 21 0.27 0.18 0
1,000 20 0.30 0.16 o.
-64-
old effect below that of
methanol.
Therefor~, it is
suggested that the width of
the sanitary clearance zone
-------
TABLE
3.
should be in accordance
with that required for
Methanol in atmospheric air on the lee side of the
biomycine plant. Methanol discharge
0055 tons/day. .
formaldehydes and acetates.
There is every reason to
believe that future pro-
duction and manufacturing
Meters from:Number: Concentration :Number of tests
pollution i of i in mg/m} iexceeding limit
source :tests :Maximal:Average: of 1.5 mg/m3
50
100
250
26
50
24
2.39
2.41
0.66
1.40
1.08
0.20
-'-'-.
9
15
o
plants of the type investi-
gated will be more exten-
sive and of far greater pro-
ductivity, and will be nec-
essarily accompanied by proportionately increased quantities of discharged air
pollutants, and especially of methanol. It is hoped that the data herein pre-
sented might prove of value in developing and adopting preventive sanitary
measures and controls applicable to the type and size of prospective industrial
plants.
Conclusions.
1. The threshold of methanol odor perception rests at the 4.3 mg/m3 level,
and the maximal non-perceived concentration is 3.7 mg/m3.
20 The threshold of methanol vapor reflex action on eye sensitivity to
light rests at the 3.3 mg/m3 level.
3. The chronic effect of methanol vapor following 12 hours daily exposure
for 3 months in 50 mg/m3 concentration ,elicited in the experimental animals
changes in motor chronaxy/as shown by changes in the time relationships of ex-
tensor and flexor chronaxies. Chronic inhalation exposure to methanol in 1.8
mg/m3 concentration had no effect on either motor chronaxy or the rheobase of
animals.
40 It is suggested that methanol concentration of 1.5 mg/m3 be adopted as
the maximal single allowable concentration of methanol in atmospheric air.
5.
The installation of appropriate and efficient gas purifying equipment
in production and manufacturing plants which emit ~ethanol into the atmospheric
air should be made mandatory. Waste products which contain methanol should be
kept in tightly closed reservoirs or suitable large containers; they should be
hauled away from the plant grounds at the earliest possible time.
-65-
-------
Bibliography.
K e BOp K b R H A. A. H IIp. BCeCOI03H. COBew. no Bonpocy KJlIfHIfKH npoeJIecc. OTpaa-
neHHA. TeJlfcbI 1l0KJlaAOB, 1940, CTp. 20. - n a 3 ape A H. B. B KH.: XHMH4ecKH BpellHbl8
Bl'WetTB8 B npOMblWJJl'HHOCTH. M.-n.. 1951, 4. I. CTp. 211.-n e B H U K H ii B. A. rHrHeHa
TPYl13. Doc06He AJUI cTYlleHT08 H opal/eA. M.-n., 1936, CTp. 179.- Po 3 e H 6 a Y M H. IX-
rHf. If 3AOpOBbe, 1941, M 2, CTp. 1. - P R 3 a HOB B. A., 6 y W T yell a K. A., H 0 fill-
EO B 10. 8. 8 xu.: DpeAeJlbHO .AonYCTKMble Ko~eHTpauHH aTMoc4>epH~x 3arpR3HeHHL
M., 1957, B. 3, cT)). 115. - F 8 b r e It, T run aut It Arch. mal. prof., 1955, T. 16.
p. 369. - T reo n T. F., Tr. MethYl alcohol industrial hygiene and toxicology in
two volumes volume II. New York - London, 1949, p. 831-842.
Basic Data for the Determination of Limit of Allowable Concentration of
Hydrogen Sulfide in Atmospheric Air.
Duan I Fyn-Djui.
(Department of Community Hygiene of the Central Institute of
Post Graduate Medicine).
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 24, No. 10, 12-17, 1959.
"
Industrial production and manufacturing plants are the foremost causes
of air pollution with hydrogen sulfide; this applies particularly to plants
producing viscose, plants distilling and processing crude oil, the chemical
manufacturing industry, and the tanning industry. Future developments in the
production of synthetic fibers, the supply and processing of sulfur-rich crude
oil, the manufacture of sulfur dyes, and many other chemical materials and
articles will undoubtedly result in an increased emission of hydrogen sulfide
into the atmospheric air.
This makes the study of atmospheric air pollution
with hydrogen sulfide an urgent and important one. Therefore, this author
undertook the task of collecting additional information and experimental data
which might form a rational and scientific basis for a more precise determina-
tion of the limit of allowable concentration of hydrogen sulfide in atmospheric
airo
The present investigation was conducted along the following channels:'
determination of the threshold of hydrogen sulfide odor perception, determina-
tion of the reflex effect of hydrogen sulfide on the functional state of the
-66-
-------
cerebral cortex, determination of the chronic effect of low doses of hydrogen
sulfide on animals under experimental conditions, determination of hydrogen
sulfide content in the atmospheric air of Moscow by means of 24-hour sample
studies, and a study of the dye industry as a potential source of air pollution
with hydrogen sulfide.
Twelve persons were used in the determination of the threshold of hydrogen
sulfide odor perception. The results of the study are listed in Table 1. The
data in that Table show that the threshold of hydrogen sulfide odor perception
ranged between 0.012 and 0.03 mg/m3. Three persons were used in the study of
the effect of low concentrations
of hydrogen sulfide on the reflex
TABLE
1.
Threshold of hydrogen sulfid3
odor perception.
! Number! Concentration in mg/mj
I . t. 1: of : M.. :M'
n~ ~a s: b. : ~n~mum : ax~mum non-
:0 serva-: t'bl : t'bl
: t. :percep ~ e:percep ~ e
. ~ons . . .
Ch. I. 28 0~014 0.012
S. G. 30 0.012 0.010
A. P. 35 0.012 0.010
E. F. 30 0.030 0.019
M. V. 25 0.012 0.010
A. G. 28 0.014 0.012
K. A. 22 0.014 0.012
S. N. 20 0.019 0.015
K. D. 28 0.014 0.012
T. A. 30 0.014 0.011
M. E. 24 0.019 0.015
F. Zh. 35 ' 0.012 0.010
response, as manifested by changes
in eye sensitivity to light.
Tests were alternated between
fresh air and air containing
hydrogen sulfide on the 15th
minute of adaptation to darkness.
Test subjects inhaled hydrogen
sulfide for 5 mintues. The re-
suIts of tests for dark adapta-
tion are plotted in the form of
curves in Fig. 1. The results
show that inhalation of air con-
taining 0.008 mg/m3 of hydrogen
sulfide had no effect on the curve
of changes in eye sensitivity to light. Following the inhalation of air con-
taining 0.010 mg/m3 of hydrogen sulfide, ~ye sensitivity to li5ht increased on
the 20th minute. Ra~sing the hydrogen sulfide content to 0.013 mg/m3 enhanced
the eye sensitivity to light. The reliability of the data obtained with either
0.010 or 0.013 mg/m3 of hydrogen, sulfide was verified statistically. Thus,
the threshold of hydrogen sulfide reflex effect, determined by the above meth-
od, was at 0.~10'mg/m3.
The chronic effect of small doses of hydrogen sulfide was studied with
the use of 30 young white male rats weighing 60 - 90 g. Twenty rats vlere used
in the experimental tests, and 10 were used as controls. The experimental
test rats were divided into 2 groups. Rats were exposed to the effect of the
-67-
-------
.liOO
Jl Jt'O
O~
.p >
oM
~.p
.p m
or-i r-I
> Q) rn I 750(}
or-i ~ .p
~ s::: °8 11.~0(}
~ or-i ~ 17 JO/I
Q).p
rn,.q
QO
Q) 0.-1
~r-I
J2JO(J
II JOO
7JOO
lJOil
.p
~ il(J(JO
..-1 2(J(J(JO
r-I U,)
.p
O .r-i !S(J!J(J
.p s:::
~ It. (J!JO
.~
.p Q) NOOt!
0.-1 >
> 'r:-!
'M .p ,'?(JOO
.p m
OM r-I I{J(JUJ
U,) Q)
s::: H 8(JtJ(J
Q)
U,) s:::
..-1 oJJl'
Q)
~ 40L'O
1000
#0
.JD 61
J6DI»
o Q) JIIJDD
.p >
'M
~.p 11000
.p ctl
oM r-I IUDt!
> Q) rn
0.-1 H .p
.p ..-1 16POO
oM s::: s:::
U,) oM ~ 15fl00
s:::
Q).p
rn,.Q /1000
QO
Q) 'M IDIlD
~r-I
2000
It! IJ J/J
olD 3P 60
Time in minutes
,r-__,..... J
,~ ......>..::
,/ ",- 4
, "
, ;,'
I ",-
, ...
I.,'"
1/ . I
! ."""-'-i
/'/:/ .,/./
I ~:!
, /
I : /
I: ",.
I:
, :
/: /.0
/ 'i
I: .
1:0
U
/
/0..
/8.--
.~~ ~
o .5 III 1.5 (',7 IJ j() 4£'
Time in minutes
j:/
Time in minutes
Fig. 1. Changes in eye sensitivity
to light after inhalation of dif-
ferent hydrogen sulfide
concentrations. 3
1 - Pure air; 2 - H2S 0.008 mg/m ;
3 ~ 0.010 mg/m3; 4 - 0.013 mi/m3.
4C
hydrogen sulfide-containing air for 12
hours daily over 3 months, exclusive of
off-days. Group 1 was exposed to in-
halation of air containing 0.02 mg/m3,
and group 2 to air containing 10 mg/m3.
Rats were weighed before the initiation
of the exposures, fortnightly during the exposures, and after exposure was
discontinued. No changes in the weight of rats belonging to group 1 were
noted throughout the'entire experimental period; the weight of rats of group
2 fell below the weight of the control rats. The obvious conclusion was that
0.020 mg/m3 of hydrogen sulfide had no unfavorable effect on the weight of the
rats, while a concentration of 10 mg/m3 in some way interfered with the ani-
mals' gain in weight.
Motor chronaxy and rheobase were checked on all rats once a week.
For
that the average normal chronaxy of each group was determined before the ini-
tiation of the exposures. The results obtained are recorded as plots in Fig.
2. The plotted data indicate that in the rats of the control group the ex-
tensor chronaxy exceeded the flexor chronaxy during the entire experimental
period, which is normal under normal conditions.
Data related to changes in motor chronaxy of rats of group 1 are plotted
as curves in the middle graph. The curves show that extensor and flexor
-68-
...
-------
I%.
:::t.
s::
..-1
0,020
0,01.5
0.010
0. Oil.)
,,-~----------------- 1
---.---/
t(
ctl
s::
o
~
.s::
o
o 1 2 .J 4 of 5 7 8 .9 10 II 12 15 17
Time in weeks
Recovery
period
IX.
:::t.
s::
..-1
0,020
o.O/J
t(
ctl
s::
o
~
.s::
o
0.0/0
O,OOJ
o 1 1 .J 4 of 5 7 8 9 10 /1 12 /5 /7
Time in weeks
Recovery
period
IX.
:::t.
s::
..-1
0.020
0.01.5
~
s::
o
~
.s::
o
,----....,
2
0.010
0. 005
,
'w
o I 2 .J " .5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 15 11
Time in weeks
Recovery
period
Fig. 2. Changes in average motor
chronaxy in rats.
To~ curves - Control group; Middle
curves- - Group 1; Bottom curves -
Group 2; 1 - flexor; 2 - extensor.
chronaxy changes followed practically
similar courses, and that beginning
with the third week and up to the 6th
week the changes in extensor and flexor
chronaxy were practically identical;
beginning with the 8th week and up to
the end of the experimental period the
2 curves assumed the same juxtaposition
they occupied before the 3rd week.
Changes in extensor and flexor motor
chronaxy were more pronounced in rats
of group 2 exposed to the inhalation
of air containing 10 mg/m3 of hydrogen
sulfide, as can be seen from curves in
the lower section of Fig. 2. A rever-
sal in the extensor and flexor chronaxies,
as compared with the control, appeared
on the 3rd week of exposure; with slight
deviations it lasted up to the 6th week,
when the general juxtaposition of the
2 curves, though somewhat wavy in its
course, was the same as in the upper
section of Fig. 2, or in the control
group. A. Lapik (1936) and A. N.
Magnitskii (1931) demonstrated that
the extensor and flexor chronaxy
fluctuations were the result of
cerebral cortex effect, and that they
were indications of changes in the functional state of the brain cortex. Based
on the above finding, it .can be concluded that chronic inhalation of air con-
taining hydrogen sulfide in concentrations of 0.02 - 10mg/m3, as described
above, produced changes in the functional state of the experimental rats.
Morphologic studies of changes in the internal organs of the experimental
animals were made in 2 rats of each group. The results indicated that exposure
to hydrogen sulfide concentrations of 10 rug/m3 produced slightly irritated
-69-
-------
mucosa of the tracheas and of the bronchi; in the case of rats inhaling 0.02
mg/m3 of hydrogen sulfide these manifestations were less pronounced, p~obably
due to the fact that it was approaching the threshold cpncentration. Sections
of the brain cortex of group 2 rats were stained by the Golgi method, micro-
scopic examination showed the presence of normal dendrites, prickle dendrites,
also dendrites with frequently visible thickenings and swollen dendrites. No
morphologic changes were observed in the rats of group 1. Based on the re-
sults obtained with all the experimental procedures above described, this
author concluded that 0.008 mg/m3 of hydrogen sulfide constituted the limit
of allowable single concentration of hydrogen sulfide. This concentration is
2.5 times below the concentration used in the chronic experiments (0~02 mg/m3)
which produced only slight pathologic changes; therefore, 0.008 mg/m3 can also
, .
be recommended as the limit of allowable average 24-hour concentration.
Three hundred and four average 24-hour air samples were collected at various
points in the center of Moscow throughout the year for the determination of , the
extent and degree of hydrogen sulfide pollution of the air. Analysis indicated
that all samples contained hydrogen sulfide, that the maximum concentration was
0.0092 mg/m3, and average 0.0029 mgjm3. :Highest hydrogen sulfide concentrations
in the air, as shown in Table 2, were found during the cold months of the year.
The data presented in Table 2 show that hydrogen sulfide air pollution in Moscow
was practically negligible. Results of a general survey also pointed to the
fact that hydrogen sulfide pollution of the air of a modern large city, such
as Moscow, was due to industrial emissions and not to the decomposition of or-
ganic matter. Had it been otherwise, there certainly could have been no in-
crease in the concentration of hydrogen sulfide during the winter months.
TABLE
2.
Average 24-hour concentration of hydrogen sulfide in atmospheric air
at Ploshchad Vosstaniya, center of Moscow.
Months i Number i H2S in mgjm3
: of :
: tests: Maximal Minimal Average
February, March, April 80 0.0091 0.0036 0.0010
May, June, July 82 0.0065 0.0020 0.0004
August, September, October 63 0.0010 0.0023 0.0005 '
November, December, January 19 0.0092 0.0030 , 0.0010
-10-
-------
The next study was made in the vicinity of the Dorogornilovsk Chemical ~anu-
facturing Plant in which departments 4, 5 and 11 produced sulfur dyes, and de-
partment 16 produced captax (mercaptobenzothiazole rubber accelerator). These
sections were basically responsible for the hydrogen sulfide discharges into
the atmospheric air. The hydrogen sulfide generated in the processes of manu-
facture of the above-mentioned sections were passed through monotype purifying
equipment, which consisted of a gas catcher, a scrubber and a column. The gas
catcher was water sprayed, while the scrubber and the column were sprayed by
25% NaOH. The hydrogen sulfide was bound according to the reaction 2NaOH +
H2S = Na2S + 2H20. The sodium sulfide thus formed. was returned to appropriate
production departments. The wetting of the column and of the scrubber with NaOH
was accomplished by recirculation until the NaOH concentration reached 2%.
system of gas purification in sections 4 and 5 is schematically presented in
Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. First purification installa-
tion in departments Nos. 4 and 5.
1 - Hydrogen sulfide outflow pipe;
2 - Trap; 3 - Scrubber; 4 - Column;
5 ~ Recirculator; 6 - Boiler.
TABLE
The
Air samples were collected at 3
pertinent points for the determination
of performance efficiency of the puri-
fying installations. The data obtained,
listed in Table 3, show that the ef-
ficiency of the purification equipment
depended upon the concentration of
alkali and that the H2S residual in the
air was still considerable. Section No.
16 of the plant discharged hydrogen sul-
fide into the atmospheric air at certain
periods of time.
Such discharges were
3.
Hydrogen sulfide concentration in departing gas and purification ,coefficient
of installations in departments Nos. 4 and 5.
.
.
.
i
NaOH i n ~ i Before
I '
''': scrubber
Hydrogen sulfide. : : : :General coeffi-
-9/183 E 'Purification E P. t E Purification Edent purifica-
. . ereen . f f" t. d' t . f II
! After !coefficient in ~:hydro9en sulfide :coe IClen In,.: ~on,o. ~ pu-
! scrubber: afte... scrubber: after coluran : after coluran !rtfYln9 Instal-
:: : : : lations in t&
5 - 6 0.6 0.32 5506 0.28 12.5 60.0
18 4.0 0.88 18.0 0.54 38.1 86.5
18 102 0:225 11.0 0.188 16.5 84.4
-11-
-------
found past the purifying equipment and contained 32 - 40 g/m. Emissions oc-
curred 7 to 8 times a day and lasted 40 - 45 minutes. The gas purifying equip-
ment used in this section consisted of kettles,or vats/filled with NaOH; the
H2S-polluted air was passed through such alkaline s91utions forming layers of
bubbles, thus acting in a sense,. as foam type absorbers. An investigation was
also made of the air pollution with hydrogen sulfide in the immediate proximity
of the plant. One hundred and sixty two samples were collected on the lee side.
. Analysis showed that, regardless of the above-mentioned gas purifying equipment,
hydrogen sulfide was generally found in the air even at a distance as great
as 1,250 m from the source of emission in concentrations exceeding the allowable
limit, as can be seen from the data presented in Table 4.
TABLE
4.
Atmospheric air pollution with hydrogen sulfide at different distances
from source of pollution.
Distance
in
meters
.
.
i Total
i number oI'
i tests
:
: Number of
i samples with
: concentrations
i exceeding.
: 0.008 mgJm3
i Maximal i Minimal
ihydrogen sulfideihydrogen sulfide
i concentrat3on i concentration
i in mg/m ~ in mg/m3
100 16 16 0.166 0.116
200 12 12 0.058 0.035
300 17 17 0.059 0.039
400 24 23 0.040 0.026
500 26 22 0.035 0.020
750 25 24 0.026 0.015
1,000 25 21 0.022 0.014
1,250 11 3 0.011 0.005
Conclusions.
1. The limit of hydrogen sulfide odor perception was between 0.012 and
0.03 mg/m3.
20 The threshold of hydrogen sulfide reflex effect on eye sensitivity
to light was at 0.01 mg/m3.
30 Exposure of rats to 10 mg/m3.concentration of hydrogen sulfide under
chronic experimental conditions for 12 hours daily over 3 months produced
changes in the functional state of the central nervous system, ~rritated the
mucosa of the tracheas and bronchi and incited morphologic changes in the brain
cortex. Hydrogen sulfide concentrations of 0.02 mg/m3, under similar experi-
-72-
-------
mental conditions, produced .only slight or negligible changes iri the functional
state of the central nervous system and barely perceptible irritation. of the
mucosa of tracheas and bronchi.
4. Results of this investigation indicated that the limit of allowable
concentrations of hydrogen sulfide in the atmospheric air were too high and
had to be reconsidered with a view to lowering same.
50 '<~ the basis of the above studies this author proposes 0.008 mg/m3
as the maximal single and also the 24-hour avera~ concentration of hydrogen
sulfide in the atmospheric air.
60 Air pollution investigations conducted in the center of Moscow at dif-
ferent dista~cesfrom the source of hydrogen sulfide ~ischarge showed that the
atmospheric air of Moscow (and possibly of similar large cities) constantly
contained hydrogen sulfide in concentrations ranging between 0.0092 - 0.0005
mgjm3, with the highest concentration predominating during the cold months of
the yearo
10 Results of air studies conducted in close proximity of a plant manu-
facturing dyestuffs showed that the air contained high concentrations of hydro-
gen sulfide, despite the fact t~t the plant had some type of gas purifying
equipment. Even at a distance of 1250 m from the source of gas emission the
concentration of hydrogen sulfide in the air exceeded the allowable limit.
8. It is suggested that manuf~cturing plants, such as have been under
investigation, should be located outside the city limits, in addition such
plants should be mandatorily equipp~d with high efficiency gas purifying equip-
mento
-13-
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.An Experimental Study of the Effect of Ferrosilicon on the Organism. Y
R. V. Borisenkovao
(Department of Labor Hygiene, 1st Moscow Order of Lenin Medical Institute).
Gigiena i Sanitariya, No.5, 23-26, 19540
According ~o Sanitary.Code NSP-lOl-5l dusts which ~roduce no discernible
symptoms of ill effect are classed as "non-toxic" and are treated accordingly
from the sani tary-bygienic viewpoint..' It is known that dust containing silicon
dioxide inhaled for a long time elicited the development of sclerosis of the
lungs and of many other organs, known as silicosis. Extensive experimental and
. .
clinical studies conducted recently in the Soviet Union indicated that silicon
dioxide was not the only cause of pulmonary fibrous-sclerotic processes. It
was demonstrated that inhalation of dust containing silicates such as olivine,
nepheline, etc~ resulted in the development of pathological processes resem-
bling silicosis (M. A. Kovnatskii, L.E. Gom, A. I. Kornits, and others).
On the other hand, experimental studies indicated that aluminum', dust was also
capable of causing pulmonary nodular sclerotic changes (E. N. Gor9denskaya).
It is not yet known how many and exactly which substances are capable of pro-
ducing this', effect. Numerous data in the literature point to similar effects
produced by pure silicon and by silicon metallic alloyso It is not known
definitely whether prolonged exposure to dust of alloys containing high per-
centage of silicon, such, for example, as ferrosilicon, might have an effect
similar to that of silicon dioxide.
The solution of this problem becomes of great sanitary-hygienic importance
by virtue of the wide industrial use of ferrosilicon alloys containing 12 to
95% of silicon in the manufacture of high quality steel, in the process of
coating high grade electrodes, in ferroalloys, etc. During such manufacturing
processes and operations the dust of a given alloy becomes suspended in the
air of the workrooms, thus affecting the workers health. Studies of sanitary
working conditions revealed that same operations in ferro-alloy plants,such as
the finishing, packing, loading,. etc., were accompanied by the dispersion of
high concentrations of coarse ferrosilicon dust in the air. Ferrosilicon aero-
sol is formed in metallurgical plants in the process of crushing the raw material
-and particularly in the alloy grinding in the fine ball mills.
Y Histologic photographs 1, 2, 3,4 and 5 could not be reproduced creditably.
-74-
-------
Prerequisite to the solution of problems pertaining to the improvement of
working conditions in ferrosilicon operations are, first, the determinat.ion of
the permissible ferrosilicon dust concentration in the air, and second, a knowl-
edg~ of the effect of this substance on the organism. Therefor~-, this author
undertook to. establish the physiological effect of ferrosilicon dust when it
entered the organism through the respiratory tract and to compare the toxicity
of the dust of ferrosilicon alloys and of their components.- To accomplish this,
. .
a 45% ferrosilicon alloy was chosen for the study, as the most widely used in
industry. The tests were conducted with white rats. Ferrosilicon dust, with
95% of the particles less than 2~ in diameter,was used in the experiments;
0.6 ml-of physiolgical saline cohtaining 40 - 45.mg of the dust was administered
intratracheally to each rat. Two months later some of the rats were administered
a second similar dose of the alloy dust. Other series of rats werea~inistered
ferric oxide dust in identical procedures. In choosing 40 mg of th~ dust as the
administered dose the author was guided by the work of E. N. Gorodenskaya with
aluminum dust, also administered intratracheally.
Experiments were performed with 35 rats; ferrosilicon dust was administered
to 20 and ferric oxide to 15 rats. The an~mals were under observation for 4
months; they were then killed by severing the neurci-vascular bundle, and the
internal organs were studied histologically. After the first and second ad-
ministration of ferrosilicon and ferric oxide the rats appeared outwa~dly
healthy. Morphologic examination of the animal organs presented a uniform
picture of changes. Records of some rats were as follows:
Rat No. 30. Weight 278 g. Killed 4 months after intratracheal instil-
lation of 40 mg of 45% ferrosilicon dust. General examination of bot~ lU118s .
showed dark areas, especially in the lower sections. Around these sections
slight thickening was noted. The lower. right lobe was completely airfree.
The bifurcate glands were compressed and darkly pigmented. No visible changes
were found in liver, kidneys, heart and spleen. In ma~ areas the -thickened.-
lung septi showed the presence of considerable deposits of black pigmentation,
surrounded by a growth of new connective tissue, but no nodule formation was
noted. Alveolar structure was obliterated in spots, accompanied by the appearance
of new connective tissue areas, and thickened confluent interalveolar septi.
Peribronchial changes in form of acute septum thickeni118, cellular infiltrates,
surrounded the bronchi, and symptoms of beginning bronchial defonnation. .
-75-
-------
Stained preparations showed thickening of connective tissue fibers in the
alveolar septi. No changes were found in the liver, kidney, heart or spleen.
Rat Noo 41. Weight 274 g. Forty mg of ferric oxide dust was instilled
twice; killed 4 months after the first instillation of the dust. Macroscopic
- -
analysis showed that the lungs-were of greyish-pink- color and air filled. The
areas surrounding the bronchi appeared indurated; lungs contained a fo~,
b16o~ fluid. No pathologic changes were found in other organs. Microscopic
examination revealed nuclear thickening of alveolar-sept1 in the lungs and
- -
peribronchial infiltrates of the ,lymphoid elements. There was a moderate
chronic intermediate. pneumonia. - No pathologic changes were found in other
organs. Most other records presented similar pictures.
Thus, an examination of the lungs after intratracheal instillation of
40 mg of ferrosilicon dust showed the presence of thickened alveolar septi,
in some spots considerable depositions of black pigmentation (apparently the
substanceadministered)/surrounded by a growth of new connective tissue. How-
ever, no nodular formation, such as is seen in silicosis, was noted. Surround-
ing the bronchi were doncentrations of lymphoid and plasmic cells and the bronchi
were deformed in part. In the thickened spots and around the bronchi tender
connective fibers were detected with the aid of a special stain. In nearly all
cases the changes-were most pronounced in the lower sections of the lobes.
Repeated administration of ferrosilicon produced more acute changes. Rats
which received ferric oxide twice developed mild nuclear thickening of the
alveolar septi in the lungs and peribronchial round-cell infiltrates. No
pathologic changes were detected in other organs. -
A comparison of the data obtained led to the assumption that the changes
in the lungs after ferrosilicon administration resembled the symptoms-of
chronic intermediate and peribronchial -sclerosis. The presence of connective
tissue fibers in the .thickened spots, as well as deformation of vessels and
bronchi indicated that the developing process was irreversible.' At the same
time ferric oxide in similar doses caused considerabll less profound changes,
also of the chronic intermediate sclerosis type. Apparently, the action of
silicon in the alloy predominated, as shown by the fact that the effect of
ferrosilicon was considerably greater than the effect of ferric oxide. It is
possible that the silicon
resulted in the formation
became freed from the alloy in part, which may have
of some other (complex) substance possessing the
the above effects.
properties which produced
-76-
-------
Conclusions.
10 A stu~ of work conditions in plants producing and using ferro-
alloys pointed to the possibility that some processes and operations were ac-
companied by the formation of ferrosilicon aerosol. The dust concentration can
be considerable, depending upon the type and character of
effective operation of sanitary-technical installations.
4 ~ in diameter predominated.
2. Results of experimental
silicon and of ferric oxide dust
the processes and the
Particles less than
studies of the comparative toxicity of ferro-
administered intratracheally to rats indicated
that the 2 types of dusts acted differently on the organism, as was described
in the preceding paragraphs.
3. "The results of this investigation lead to the belief that the pathogenic
action of ferrosilicon dust was more pronounced than that of iron dust. This
should be taken into consideration in determining its limit of allowable con-
centration in the air.
Effect of 2-Chlorobutadiene-l,3 on Liver Glycogen and Pyruvic Acid Content
in the Blood of Laboratory Animals.
S. V. Nikogosyan.
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 24, No. 2, 32~34, 1959.
Chloropren~ or 2-chlorobutadiene is a new, and relatively little-studied
substance. It is employed in the synthetic rubber industry and in a variety
of industries which use synthetic rubber. Literature contains only a few
reports on the effects of 2-chlorobutadiene on the organism (V. V. Zakusov,
1936; A. M. Troitskaya-Andreyeva, 1936; E. N. Levina, 1940, 1948; B. G. Bel'-
kovich, 1940; Oettingen et al., 1936, and others). Studies made by this
author showed that experimental ~ogs manifested a fall in the blood sugar
level, a change in the normal course of the hyperglycemic curve, an intensified
insulin effect and weakened adrenalin effect on the blood sugar level (S. V.
-11-
-------
Nikogosyan, 1954). These .findings suggest that 2-chlorobutadiene disturbed
the i~tracellular carbohydrates hydrolysis and probably decreased the organism's
sugar reserve.
These points had to be verified. Hence, the present stu~, the purpose
of which was to determine the effect of 2-chlorobutadiene on liver glycogen
content and on pyruvic acid blood content. Experiments were copducted with
25 rabbits. Thirteen were used as test animals and 12 as controls. Both
groups consisted of rabbits of same weight, sex and age, and were kept under
identical conditions. The animals were exposed to inhalation 4 hours daily
over a 4-month period. The animals were placed into an exposure chamber, the
air of wl:lich contained .0.1 mg/li of the chloroprene which was gradually in-
creased to 0.5 - 0.6 mg/li.
Liver glycogen of all rabbits was determined at the same time. The ani-
mals were decapitated, the abdominal cavity opened and a portion of the anterior
lobe of the liver removed for analysis. Liver glycogen was determined Qy the
method of Good, Kramer and Somogyi (1932).
.The results showed that the liver glycogen of rabbits of the control group
ranged between 2.11 - 5.39, with an average of 3.12%; in the rabbits exposed
to the inhalation of the poison, liver glycogen dropped to lower levels,so
that in 11 rabbits it ranged from 0033 to 1.92% (averaging 1.31) and from 2.05
. .
to 2.2% in the remaining two. Thus, the results confirmed the fact that 2-
chlorobutadiene affected one of the important indexes of carbohydrate metab-
olism, the liver glycogen, by reducing it to considerably lower levels. Deter-
minations were also made of pyruvic acid content in the blood of 2 dogs by the
b~Bulfite methodo
Throughout the experimental period the dogs were maintained on controlled
rations: each morning they received a gruel of 100 g of pearl barley; they
were then exposed to the poison, after which they received the major part of
the daily ration, a mixed meal. The dogs were placed in the exposure chamber
4 hours daily; exposure began with 0.5 mg/li and, as the tests progressed,
the concentrations of the chloroprene were gradually redu~edto 0.1 mg/li.
Normal values of pyruvic acid in the dogs' blood were determined in advance.
During the entire period of exposure blood pyruvic acid. determinations. were
made daily at intervals of 1 - 2 days. Pyruvic acid determinations were 'con-
. .
tinued after the poisoning had been terminated until the pyruvic acid.level
. .
returned to the normal level. In ever,y instance, the blood pyruvic acid was
...78- .
-------
determined 4 hours after the morning feeding.
The data obtained are presented
in Table 10 Pyruvic acid determinations made during the entire period of ex-
posure to the poison varied considerably; therefore, the data were reported in
groups of 2 periods in Table 10 The data of the first period are mean values
for the first 2 weeks of exposure, _and the data of the second period are mean
values obtained after the second exposure period.
TA:BLE
1.
Fyruvic acid content in the blood of dogs exposed to 2-chlorobutadiene
inhalation (in percent averages).
.
.
°
i Prior to poison
: effect
Dog!
No. :Py .
: D : ruv~c
: ays: . d
: : ac~
: observed: - t t
: :con en
.
.
o
o
.
o
°
i First period
i D : Pyruvic
i ays i- acid
: observed: t t
: :con en
At the time of poison effect
i Second period
i D : Pyruvic
i b-ays ds acid
:0 serve: t t
: :con en
: Fyruvic acid
i content after
i discontinuation
E of exposure
:' First Next
°
: ten five -
! days days
7
8
10
10
2.7
2.8
15
16
2.8
2.9
45
44
3.8
3.5
3.6
3.4
2.88
2;75
The data in Table 1 show that during the first period of exposure to the
inhalation of chloroprene the blood pyruvic"acid was 2.8 mg% for dog No.7
and 2.9 mg% for dog 'No.8, Le., the same as before the inhalation. During
the second period of exposure the pyruvic acid in the animals' blood rose to
4.0 - 4.25mg%- in the-last days of this period, averaging 3.8 mg% in dog No.
7 lor the entire period, and 3.5 mg% in dog No.8. The data in this Table
also show that following the cessation of exposure to the poison the blood
pyruvic acid level returned to normal within 2 weeks.
The rise in 'the blood pyruvic acid level in the dogs during exposure to
2-chlorobutadiene pointed to a disturbance in the normal process of intl"acel-
lular carbohydrates hydrolysis (metabolism).
The breakdown-of pyruvic acid
in the brganism is achieved normally through the activity of carboxylase~of
which vitamin :Bl is a component. A deficiency of the latter in the organism
weakened the activity of carboxylase resulting in an increase in the amount
of pyruvic acid in the blood.
In view of the important role vitamin Bl played, in the intermediate break-
. + ". .
down of carbohydrates, this author studied the action of 2-chlorobutadiene on
the blood pyruvic acid level following the administration of vitaminBlo The
-79-
-------
latter was given to the animals in a 1 mg dose with the morning ration. The
experiments were conducted with 3 dogs (Nos. 1 and R after a 1 month interval
and No.9).
In the course of this series of experiments changes in the pyruvic acid
blood content during exposure to 2-chlorobutadiene followed the same course
as in the first series of experiments. The results of both sets of experiments
are presented in Table 2.
.TABLE
2.
Pyruvic acid content in the blood of dogs administered vitamin Bl and
exposed to 2-chlorobutadiene inhalation (in percent averages).
.
.
.
! Prior to poison
: effect
Dog i
No. : Py'
: D : ruVJ.c
: ays: . d
: : "aCl
: observed: t t
: : con en
.
.
.
.
i
i First period
! D : Pyruvic
: ays: . d
: : acJ.
: observed: t t
: :con en
. .
: Second period
.
.
!. :~vic
: Days: . d
: : acJ.
: observed: t t
: : con en .
: Pyruvic acid
i content after
i discontinuation
i of exposure
: First Next
i five five
! days days
At the time of poison effect
1
8
9
10.
10
10
2.8
2.8
2.1
21
26
23
2.9
2.8
2.8
39
41
44
3.2 3.01 2.8
3.3 3.1 2.8
3.2 3.1 2.8
acid in the blood of the.
Data in Table 2 show that the amount of pYruvic
. r
dogs which received vitamin Bl also increased, but to a lesser degree .thanin
the previous experiments. In addition, the amount of pyruvic acid in the blood
returned. to the normal level comparatively faster after exposure to the chI oro-
prene was discontinued. Thus, administration of vitamin ~l to the test ani-
mals reduced the degree of blood pyruvic acid.rise caused by exposure to 2-
chlorobutadiene and shortened the period of its return to the normal level to
almost half.
Results of the present stu~, together with the findings of previous in-
vestigations indicated that 2-chlorobutadiene disturbed the processes of intra-
cellular carbohydrate metabolism, the regulation of this metabolism in the
organism, and the liver glycogen function.
Conclusions.
1. Exposure of rabbits to inhalation of chlorobutadiene reduced consid-
erably the glycogen content of the liver.
-80-
-------
2. Exposure of dogs to inhalation of chlorobutadiene was followed by an
increase in the blood content of pYrUvic acid; administration of vitamin Bl
slightly counteracted this effecto
Bibliography.
Ben b K 0 B H q 5. r. B KH,: - K.~RKKKo-rHMleHKqeC~Ke HCCnel10118KHII no TOKCII'Ie-
CKKN BeWe<:TBaM, npHNeHlleMbiM B -HOBIIIX npOH3B0I1CTBftX. - n., 1940, CTp. 114. - 3 8KY-
C08 B. B. B KH.: 3KcnepHNeHTanbHble Hcc.r.eI10BIIHHII no npOMblwneKHblM IIA8M. n...
1936, CTp- 114-126. - neB H H a 3. H B KH.: KJlHHHKo.rHrHeHH'IecKHe IIccne110B8KK..
no TOKCH'IeCKHM BeweCTBaM, npHMeHlleMbiN II HOBbiX npOK3B0l1CTBax. n., 1940..
CTp. 84-113- - 0 H. II< e. B KH.' HCCne110BaHHII B 06J18CTH npo"blwneHHoA TOKCKKono-
fRK. n., 1948, CTp. 95-110. - H H K 0 roe II H C. B. HeKoTopble 118HHble 0 UHAHK"
2-xnop6yr8l1HeHa Ha yrJlfBOD.Hblli 06MeH B opraHK3Me II
-------
feet on tissue respiration. On the other hand, A. A. Kevorkyan (1955), N. S.
Pravdin (1949), and A. M. Rashevskaya (1952) believe that CO produced hypoxemia
and in addition blocked tissue respiration by forming a complex with the
respiration enzyme. This view was strengthened by the findings of Cesaro ~
ale (1956), who noted a lowering in oxidase and peroxidase activities in chronic
CO poisoning.
With respect to acute and chronic S02 poisoning most investigators are in-
clined to believe that it acted as an irritant of the upper respirator,y pas-
sages, the lungs, ahd hemopoietic organs (1. Ye. Levin, 1934), and also.as a.
depressant of tissue oxidation-reduction processes (I. V. Sidorenkov, 1951).
In the opinion of some investigators the impairment of tissue respiration oc-
curred as the result of a lowered alkaline reserve (AR) and of acidosis devel-
opment (M. M. Nikulin, et aI, 1934). Evidence of depressed tissue respiration
was presented by M. I. Kuzhman and I.V. Sidorenkov (1955) who found an in-
creased pyruvic acid concentration in the blood of S02-poisonedanimals. This
could be regarded as indirect evidence of a disturbance in the tricarboxylic-
acid oxidation-reduction cycle of the tissues. None of the reports found in
the literature shed any light on the problem of the combined effects of CO and
S02. For this reason the present authors made a study of the morphological
and histochemical changes in tissue respiration .produced experimentally in dif-
ferent rabbit organs after prolonged exposure to CO, S02 and combinations of
the two.
The procedure. Eleven r~bbits of same sex and age, with an average weight
of 2500 g, were exposed for 13 weeks to the inhalation of CO in concentrations
of 0.2 and 0.4 mg/li and of S02 in a concentration of O.2mg/I~; other rabbits
were similarly exposed to mixtures of the 2 gases. in concentrations of 0.2 and
002 mg/li and 0.4 and 0.2 mg/li correspondingly. The animals were exposed
daily for 3. hours in special gas chambers.Th~ee rabbits served as controls.
At the end of the experiments the animals were sacrificed b~ electrocution;
their brains, hearts, livers., kidneys, and lungs were fixed in Carnoy's fluid.
Small blocks were embedded in paraffin, sectioned and stained witheosih-
hemato:xylin and picrofuchsine. Some of the sections were. tested with para-
nitrobromacetophenone for free sulfhydr,yl groups. In addition, fresh-frozen
heart, liver and kidney sections were tested by the Shelton neotetrazolium
- .-
histochemical reaction for the ~r~sence of succinic-acid dehydrogenase.
-~82-
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Histopathological changes. After prolonged exposure to 0.2' mg/li of 502'
the myocardium showed the presence of edematous muscle fibers, which contained
small eosinop~ilic granules in the myoplasm; the capillaries were enlarged and
, '
distended with blood; perivascular hermorrhages were numerous. After'prolonged
exposure to 0.2 and 0.4 mg/li of CO, plasmorrhagia and hemorrhages appeared
even more pronounced. In addition to the changes mentioned above, inhalation
of mixtures of' CO' and 502 gave rise to small basophilic areas, readily stained
by the Van Gieson method. The liver of rabbits exposed to the inhalation of
502 revealed granular dystrophy of the hepatic cells, Small infiitrates of ' round
cells and fibroblasts, primarily ~roundthe vessels arid bile ducts, and dis-
tention of-the Kupffercells. A pronounced perivascular edema was noted, es-
pecial~ when different CO concentrations were added to the same 502 concen-
tration.
Mod~rately dystrophic changes were noted in the epithelium or the con-
voluted canaliCuli of the kidneys in rabbits exposed to the inhalation of CO
and 502 ind~vidually; the effects were of profounder severity when the 2 gases
were combined. In addition, the kidneys, like the other organs, revealed
vascular involvement such as, hemorrhages, plasmorrhagia, perivascu),q,r-edema.'
. . .' . .
and inicrofocal'infiltration of the interstitial tissue by ro~nd cells and
histiocytes, especially in rabbit,s exposed to 502 combined with CO. The brain
of rabbits exposed to CO inhalation exhibited severe edema of the tissue. In-
halation of a combination of the 2 gases produced:predominantly perivascular
. , .
edema and a slight proliferation of the glial elements.
In the lungs 502 gave rise principally to plethora of the vessels ,and the
capillaries and a thickening of the interalveolar septias the result of pro-
li£eration of the cells of the alveolar epithelium. Exposure of rabbits to
the inhalation of CO gave rise foremost to vascular involvement in the form
of ruptures of the blood vessel walls accompanied by hemorrhages, plasma im-
pregnation,' extensive edema and desquamation of the bronchi. , The same 502
concentration combined with different CO concentrations produced the same' ef-
fects but to a more moderate degree.
In rabbits exposed to the inhalation of
502 alone and in combination with CO, the amount of fuchsinophilic collagen
in the blood vessel walls, the wall of the bile ducts, of the bronchi and in
the interstitial tissue of all organs/was considerably reduced.
Histochemical changes. The activity of the sulfhydryl, groups was affected
only slightly, with tp,e exception of those of the brain tissues, where it show-(;cr-
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-------
1-
a rather considerable drop, especially in
the case of rabbits exposed to the inhalation
of air containing 0.4 mg/li of CO and 0.2
mg/li of 502.
Pronounced changes were noted in the
activity of succinic dehydrogenase of the
tissues ,as was demonstrated by the results
of histochemical studies. Under normal con-
ditions the activity of this enzyme in the
different parenchymal organs was variable.
Its highest activity was in the myocardium,
where blue diformazone was formed as the
Fig. 1. Succinic dehydrogenase
activity in heart muscles. result of the neotetrazolium reaction, and
a - In normal rabbit; b - After lowest in the 1" h d f
prolonged effect of 0.4 mg/li ~ver,w ere re mono ormazan
of CO; c - After prolonged ef- was formed. After exposure to 0.2 mg/li of
feet of 0.2 ~g/li of 502; d - t" "t "
After prolonged effect of 0.2 CO, the succinic dehydrogenase ac ~v~ y ~n-
mg/li of CO and 0.2 mg/li 502. creased slightly, while following prolonged
inhalation of 502 alone or in combination with CO, it began to drop appreciably.
The greatest inhibition of succinic dehydrogenase activity was noted in rabbits
exposed to the action of a mixture of CO and 502 in 0.4 and 0.2 mg/li concen-
trations respectively (Figs. 1, 2 and 3).
_.~---_.-
c -
-84-
-------
a
1
b
d
Fig. 3. Succinic dehydrogenase activity in the liver.
a - In normal rabbit; b - After prolonged effect vf 0.4 mg/li of CO;
c - After prolonged effect of 0.2 mg/li of S~; d - After prolonged effect
of 0.4 mg/li of CO and 0.2 mB/li of 802.
In the following Table the normal
given an arbitrary value of 8+ for the
the liver; affected tissues were given
activity of the oxidizing enzyme is
heart, 6+ for the kidneys and 4+ for
plus values on a comparative basis.
Activity of succinic dehydrogenase in organs after the effects of CO and 502"
Gas mixture composition Heart Kidneys : Liver
:
.
..
Pure air 11111 j II It 1111 ++++
CO (0.2 mg/li). HIII.HI Itllltt +++++
502 (0.2 mg/li)' 111111 ... +++++ +++
502 + CO (0.2 + 0.2 mg/li) 1I111II +++++ +++
502 + CO (0.2 + 0.4 mg/li) 11111" ++++ ++
.'
No shifts were noted in the localization of the succinic dehydrogenase
as the result of the above-mentioned exposures; however, the inhibition in
the activity of the enzyme was more pronounced in the vascular walls than in
other tissues.
~
The histopathological picture of the organs of rabbits exposed to CO and
802 inhalations was essentially indicativ~ of the changes described by other
investigators, i.e., oxygen hunger of the different tissues, and especial~
-85-
-------
of the brain vessels. It is possible that the permeability of the brain vessels
was increased as the result of disturbed oxidation-reduction processes in the
- -
walls of the brain vessels. Thi.s supposition finds support in the fact that a
change was noted in their connective tissue base (aweakeningof,the fuchsino-
philic property of the collagen fibers) in an earlier study.
The dystrophic changes in the parenchymal organs may also indicate an in-
, hibitionin the oxidation-reduction processes. The manifested depression in
the activity of the SH group in the brain and in succinic dehydrogenase activity
- .
in all the parenchymal organs in rabbits exposed to SOi and to a mixture of
802 and CO also support, to a degree, the assuIDptio? that the gas~s studied
were not only toxic to the blood but also directly depressed tissue respira-
tion. The fact that CO in 0.2 mg/li concentration did not depress dehydrogenase
(anaerobic) oxidation but rather intensified it, can be explained on the basis
of a compensatory process, since other investig~tors .(Cesaro et. al) showed
. that the activity of oxidase and peroxidase was depressed in carbon monoxide
poisoning/and that. the cytochrome system was also blocked (D. G. Devyatka,
1951), which are symptoms of an aerobic phase of oxidation.
Conclusions.
10 Prolonged exposure of'rabbits to carbon monoxide, sulf\1r dioXide,
and mixtures of the 2 gases: produced dystrophic changes in the parenchymal
organs and increased the permeability of vascular walls.
2. Carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, .and their combinations inhibited
the activity of free SH groups in the braIn, but not in any of the other organs.
3. Prolonged exposure of rabbits to the inhalation of air containing
0.2 mg/li of CO enhanced the activity of succinic dehydrogenase in themyo-
cardium, the liver, and the-kidneys.
4. The addition of an 'equivalent concentration of carbqnmonoxide.to'
a given concentration of sulfur dioxide: depressed considerably the activity
of succinic dehydrog~nase in. the parenchymal organs.
Bibliography.
J1 <' I' H T K i! It. L B "H.: X:'(1iHI'I(,':K:!H U";,:ljYI.l.:PO:,1I2fl IIHTOKCII!(aUI:H. J1bBOb, '1957, .
<1(>. 122--I:V2. -- E ,1'(' If"; on C'( Hi; K. <1>., II <' it C a x U'B 114 11. 'M. Tpy,~bl II MaT(~pHanbi
~t;p'aIfI!LI(Qr() 1111-I:a 1131U.OOI'. II nIl'. TPYlii. X:JPbKOIJ, 1928, B. 6, CTp. 3So--aS.'1.- Ke-
P- 11 P K HilA. A. J1poq;P\'C:IJOHa,~I,HbI(, I'','j''P1JTIiKCH!W.1h1. MHHCK, 1955, CTr. 130-- 14~.-
!\:\iil(M.aH M. 11., CIf;JOpeHK0B 11 H. Tpvltbl IfKa.~()IJCK. Mell. HH-Ta, 1955, B. 4,
<:Tp :ZI--64. n- JI <'-B H H H. - E. TI')',lL1 .:lCHIIBrpilJ.C!;oro HII-Ta no lI: .-\. N.. G ran a t a A., S,3 I. t taG:, Acta hlsto-
chern., 1956, Bd. 3, S. 104--IC8 - - G II a r; n () A., r II S coM.. I-oha rned., 1956, v. 39,
p. 604--G09.
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C1inioa1 Aspeots, Pathogenesis and. Prevention of Oocupationa1 Nervous System
Diseases in Foundr,y Cleaners ~sing Pneumatic Chisels. .
M. G. Feinberg.
(NeUrology Department of the 6th Hospital and the Medioa1-Sanitation
Department of the Lugansk Locomotive Faotory "OotoberRevo1ution").
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 24, No.6, 35-40, 1959.
It has been known that some industrial production prooesses caused vege-
tative disorders in the .area of the upper extremities. Reports have appeared
which desoribed vasou1ar and trophio disturbanoes, perception disorders,
paresthesia and pain in workers of different occupations, and especially ~n
workers who operated pneumatic tools. E. Ts. Andreeva-Galanina and co-workers,
and L. ~. GratsiaJiskayahave been studying the effect of vibration on the
worker's organism; they described different forms of occupational pathology
generally known as "vegetative vibration neuritis". The present report de-
scribes the results of examinations of a large group of foundry cleaners in
metal-processing mills of the Lugansk Locomotive Plant "October Revolution".
The job of foundr,y cleaner is one of the most important occupations in
the metallurgical ~ndustr,y. The modern foundry cleaner operates a pneumatic
chisel in trimming, chipping and finishing the metal cast.~he foundry cleaner
employs a pneumatic chisel which operates at the rate of 1100 to 1900 strokes
per minute of 8 to 12 kg intensity (pressure). The casts to be cleaned are
. .
usually made of steel, pig iron or non-ferrous alloys. In the course of cast
cleaning the foundry worker is exposed to the following phases of his occupa-
tion, which can affect the organism by eliciting occupational pathologic con-
di tions:
1.
Vibration, qy:transmission from the operating chisel through the hands
and arms to the entire body.
2. Pressure, friction and impacts exerted over the skin of the workers'
palms and fingers.
3. Great tension of the upper extremity musc~es needed to hold the chisel
in the necessar,y working position.
40 Overheating of the left hand by the chisel which becomes heated in the
process of cast cleaning.
Medical examination disclosed that ioo of 230 foundry cleaners had dif-
ferent trophic, vasomotor and secretor,y disturbances; disorders of muscular
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force (energy) and of perceptibility we~e discovered which were classified as
occ~pational .vegetative neuritis. Nearly half of the examined workers complained
of pain in the wrists, numbness, and creeping sensation in the forearm and over
the wrist surface. In some workers these sensations appeared at night; the
workers complained that t~ey ~ad to get out of bed and swing their arms vigor-
ously and rub them to alleviate the pain and the numbness. About one third
-of the foundry cleaners complained of sirigle fingers or the entire wrist tum-
ing pal~; especially under the effects of cold, such as immersion in cold
water or exposure to winter air. Similar complaints were described by V. I.
Emdin, E. A. Vigdorchik, L. N. Gratzianskaya, E. A. Drogichina and ?thers ~~
connection with workers of the shoe manufacturing industry and milkers.
In addition J2 workers complained of spasms of the fingers upon fist
making. In fact, a peculiar < state of tonic tension in hand muscles was seen
in some workers after muscle contraction. It took some workers 15 - 20 minutes
before they could straighten out their fingers. Repeated.opening and closing
of the wrist reduced the intensity of the spastic effects, thus resembling
classical ~otonia described by M. I. Astvatsaturov (1933). Percentages of
patients having vegetative neuritis according to individual symptoms were as .
follows: pains in 44%, paresthesia in 24%, manifest angiospasm in 28%,. lowering
of muscular strength in 48%, trophic disorders in 20%, disturbed perceptibility
in 70%, muscular atrophy in 8%, joint affections in 20%, general vegetative
disorders in 8%. According to .the above data a lowered muscular strength was
observed in almost half of thewbrkers, affecting the upper extremities, mainly
the wrists. Dynamometer determinations showed that the foundry cleaners aver-
aged 30 and 25 kg instead of 50 and 40 kg in the controls of similar ages for
the right and left arms respectively.
Trophic disorders were 'Seen in 20% of patients, mostly in the form of
- .
obliterated finger prints, malformation and thickening of the fingers, and
finger nail cloudiness with',longitudinal streaks. Dry skin, and at times the
tendency of wrists to perspire, suggested functional -secretory disorder.
Tremor of fingers was noted frequently, particularly of the .left wrist. Vas-
cular dieorders were observed in one third of examined persons: wrists were
. .
C7¬ic, skin temperature on hands was lowered, the capillaries of the finger
nail matrix'were pale. Submerging wrists into cold water turned some of the
- -
some cases the entire wrist turned pale, resembling Reyne
tiD88re pale and in
811BP~omcomplex.
-88-
-------
Twenty percent of the exawined workers showed clear-cut joint changes in
the form of inteZ1'halangeal joint!'!, arthritis ~~~QrlDat.ion~; J.D. 6-0me CaS.!:H:t. ther~
was mild osteoporosis of the phalanxes detected upon X-ray examination. Dis-
turbed sensitivity was the.more frequent symptom of the described disease.
Disorders in the peripheral sensitivity were observed in 70% of patients with
vegetative neuritis. The spread of these disorders varied. Decrease in sensi-
tivity to pain or tempera~ure was not limited to the innervation zones of the
peripheral nerves~ but covered a considerably larger area, spreading to the
entire extremity and even to segments of the chest and face. The neuritis
type of sensitivity was observed in '60 patients, plexitis type in 24, and
segmentary type in 16 patients. Tactile sensitivity was less affected than
sensitivity to pain and temperature.
Sensitivity disorders of the neuritis type corresponded more frequently
with the ulnar and median nerve zone innervation and involved both hands.
Sensitivity disorders of plexitis and segmentary type were observed mainly
on the left side. Usually in persons with long working records there was
a diminished sensitivity of different manifestations, beginning with hypolgesia
and up to complete analgesia in distal parts. The intensity and distribution
of the sensitivity affections increased with the work time recordo No exten-
sive distribution of disordered sensitivity was detected in persons with 1 to
3 years work records; extensive distribution of such ,disorders was seen in
persons with 7 to 10 years records. Hyperasthesia and hyperalgesia were noted
frequently among-those who used. the pneumatic chiseionly ~ to 4 months.
Angioneurotic disorders were found in foundry cleaners mostly at the end of
the second work year.
Many authors who studied occupational diseases of the vegetative neurosis
type (S. Z. XostYUKova and others) are of the opinion that this disease was
strictly localized and limited to the spot at which the tool was pressing
against, such as the palm and the finger tips. On the other hand E. Ts.
Andreeva-Galanina and L. N. Gratzianskaya, as a result of their studies.
concluded that the treatment of changes originating in the organism as the
result of locally applied vibrations as a localized affection was irrational
and erroneous. In analyzing clinical data and the state of some physiological
.functions of the organism, these authors concluded that the organism responded
to local vibratory irritation by a general total reaction. Thus, A. M. Var-
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shaver and N. A. Gladyreviskii examined 70 such patients and found a tendency
to hypertonia due to an arterial spasm in the form of a fixed reflex. Eight
percent of foundry cleaners manifested vegetative symptoms, including increased
mechanical muscular irritabilit~, tremor of fingers, sweating, headaches, diz-
ziness, anisocoria and anisoreflexia. (I find no such terms in Dorland's 22nd
edition.
B.S.L.).
. In studying the clinical aspects of occupational diseases of the nervous
system many authors concentrated on the pathogenesis of vibrator,y vegetative
neuritis. Vibratory pathogenesis results in a state of chronic irritation
with such symptoms as aches, paresthesia, hyperhydrosis, tremor and also
hypastesia, hypalgesia, atrophy and cyonosis, symptoms of partial blocking
of the somatic and vegetative innervation systems. A. M. Varshav~r and N. A.
Vigdorchik suggested that vibration affected the contraction elements of the
capillaries. M. Mikhel spoke of the exhaustion of capillary nerve elements
which resulted in the stimulation of vasomotor centers.
G. I. Markelov as- .
sociated the mechanism of "angioneuroses" with irritation of perivascular'
vegetative plexuses. E. Ts. Andreeva-~alanina ascribed sensitivity disorders
occurring in the workers to "fatigue" of receptors. L. N:. Gratzianskaya ex-
, .
pressed the opinion that at the base of pathogenesis of the neuritis present~
under discussion there lie 2 mechanisms: direct damaging effect of an occupa-
r
tional character to peripheral nerve ends and fibers, and to the sensory
vegetative reflexes.
The frequently encountered sensitivity disorders, atrophies, general
vegetative disturbances, described by L. N. Gratzianskaya, K. G. Dav,ydenkova,
V. I. Frenkel' can be explained only by the reflex mechanism. However, the
above expressed theories can not explain many vegetative neurites~ their
lability, the relation to the duration of vibratory action and the occasion-
ally occurring,complete reversibility of sensitivity disorders. As recently
as in 1954, 1955 mention was made of the possibility of the parabiotic char-
acter of spinal cord injury in case of vibratory diseases. This author also
attempted to explain pathogenesis of vibratory neuritis in the light of N. E.
Vvedenskii's concept of parabiosis and functio~al tissue lability. N. E.
Vvedenskii was of the opinion that each stimulating agent acting on a nerve
as a chronic irritant generated in the nerve a parabiotic focus; when this
condition fully developed the nerve temporarily lost its functional properties
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of stimulability and conductivity. The parabiotic section is characterized by
lowered lability. Disorders of nerve functions in traumas inflicted by chemi-
cal, electrical and thermal agents, are as a rule of a parabiotic nature
(N. E. Vvedenskii, D. G. Kvasov, P. Semenov). M. N. Berezina's investigations
also revealed that in different traumas of man's nerve trunks 1he local path-
ological process was of a parabiotic character.
In the course of the foundry cleaners' work, the nervous system is af-
fected by mechanical, thermal and vibratory factors. This leads to the devel-
opment of parabiotic processes, at first in the peripheral nervous system,
then to reduced conductivity and, lastly, to functional lability of nerves
in the limbs. Clinically it is expressed as a lowering in the sensitivity
and increase in muscular chronaxy~ Simultaneously the peripheral vascular-
nervous apparatus still under the effect of the deleterious occupational
factor, 'passed through a series of phases described by N. E. Vvedenskii, and
among them - the paradoxical phase. For example, in individual foundry
cleaners the manifested spasm of the blood vessels of a finger or of the
entire wrist vessels came into evidence considerably faster upon immersion
into cold water than upon the applications of ice; in healthy persons water
at 3 - 40 caused only a slight paling of the wrist, whereas in foundry cleaners
it produced a definite spasm of the blood vessels.
The presence of a paradoxical phase in the function of the cutaneous
sympathetic apparatus lowers considerably the hydrophilic capacity of the
skin (A. V. Triumfov). In 16 persons tested by the Maclure method a lower
hydrophilic skin capacity was clearly observed. An important peculiarity of
parabiotic stimulation is its ability to become intensified under the in-
fluence of incoming impulse.
The stronger and the more frequent were the
incoming stimulations, the more they intensified the parabiotic state and
impeded further conductivity~ This peculiarity of parabiotic stimulation
explains the increase in the spread and intensity of sensitivity disorders
in persons with longer worK records. The parabiotic state is reversible.
Therefore, the sensitivity in foundr.y cleaners can be restored to a consid-
erable degree by vacation, changing occupation, or by suitable therapeutic
treatment.
The above explanations of the nature of the foundry cleaners' ocpupa-
tional disease are based on assumptions and should be checked by well-planned
experim~ntal procedu~eso There are only few tractates in the literature on
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the treatment of occupational vegetative neuriti8 b,y such authors as L. N.
Gratzians~a and V. G. Artamonova, who treated s~ch patients with inject10ns
of novocaine, vitamin B,nicotinic acid (L. N. Gratzianskaya), paraffin and
diphacy1 (V. G. Artamonova). In the treatment of the patients the present
author began with the assumption of the parabiotic nature of the pathological
process. N. E. Vvedenskii, and his co-workers, S. E. Rudashevskii and
PrigoniiikovHshQwed that the application of heat, direct current, anode, or
a weak str.ychnine solution to ~ nerve.~ a parabiotic state increased its
physiological lability (sensitivity) and enhanced its conductivity.
For the treatment of vibrator.y.neurttis .in foundry cleaners this author
used, with good results, longitudinal galvanization and ionophoresis with
novocaine and potassium iodide supplemented by paraffin application. Among
the modes of med~cina1 ~herapy the use of pro serine and dibazo1 11 injections
proved effective, which, as is known, enhanced the nerve impulse conductivi1y
in nerves and synapses. In the course of treatment of severe cases the pa~.
. .
tients were given leave. from work,and in light cases were transf~rred. ~empo- -
rarily to other jobs. The above treatment was administered to 15 patients.
. .'
Improvement as a result of the treatment and rest was manifest in restored
sensitivity, increased muscular strength, lesser severity of vascular dis-
orders. Best results were achieved in 10 workers with work experience up to
7 years who had sensitivity disorders of the neuritis and plexitis type. Less
manifest was the effect in the remaining 5 persons who worked at-their jobs
for more than 10 years and whose sensitivity disorders were of the segmentar.y
type 0
Investigation regarding the age of foundry cleaners in all workshops and
. ~ --
of the total time spent by them in this special field indicated t~~~ t4~i~.
work records averaged 10 - 12 years. Most workers with such experience apply
. .
. -
for a transfer to other jobs, not connected with the use of pneumatic tools.
This is due to the fact, that many of them develop a pain syndrome, angio-
spasm, making work in this specialized field impossible. Thus, this branch
of metal processing industr.y loses trained workers with high labor produc-
tivity. In this connection the problem of prophylactic and of proper regula-
tion of foundry cleaners' work are of particular importance.
11 Dibazol was prescribed: 0~005 - 0.01 twice a d~, proserine (0.1% solution)
15 hypodermic injections of 1 mI.
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A most important requirement in regard to prophylaxis of vibration diseases
is the timely repair and maintenance in good working condition of the pneumatic
tools. For this purpose workers should be instructed to check the tools before
starting work; each worker should be provided with the" same chisel; tools
should be lubricated with mineral oil not less than 2 - 3 times a day to re-
duce vibration. No less important is the quality of protective mittens.
These must be made of sufficiently durable material of the kind which would
act as a cushion for the absorption of the vibration and impactso
Special body exercises to improve the blood supply to the upper extremi-
ties should be prescribed for between work periods. As another important
prophylactic. measure workers should be .assigned temporarily to cleaning and
finishing non-ferrous soft metal castso
Due tQ insufficient familiarity of physicians with the disease under
present discussion no regular occupational examinations of foundry cleaners
has been practiced; such examinations would "result in the tiruely detection of
early symptoms of vibratory disease; accordingly/treatment could be started
early and grave consequences could be prevented. Therefore, this author sug-
gests that foundry metal cast cleaning by the pneumatic method be added, at
the earliest opportunity, to the list of occupations which require mandatory
periodic medical examinations of workers employed in such occupations.
Bibliography~
A H JJ. pee ~ a - r a JI a H H RaE. U,. BR6paU.HH Ha npoH3BoJJ.cTBe. n., 1947. - 0 H II
]I( e. BJl6paLlHH H ee 3HalJeHHe B rHrHeHe TpYJJ.a. n., 1956. - B a ii H 1lI T e ii H 3. M. COBp.
BpalJ. >iHnaKTHKa 3a60neBaHHH PYK Y JJ.OHpOK.
M., 1957. - P Y.1I. a 1lI e B C K H if C. E. H n pH roo H H H K 0 B H. E. KnHHHKo-H3HonorH'
lJCCKOC HCcne.1l.0BaHHe II nelJCHHe napaJlHlJeif. n.. 1953. - 3 M JJ. II"H B. H. Ka3aHcK. Me.1.
>KYPH., 1936, N~ I, CTp. 22-26.
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Diseases of the Upper Respiratory Passages and of the Ear among Workers of
the Serpukhov Zanarskaya Spinning-Weaving Millo
A. A. Kravchenko, A. E. Pasternak, R. M. Larchenko and L. I. Sokolovao
(The Vladimirskii Moscow Obla~t Scientific-Research Clinical Institute of the
F. F. Erisman Moscow Scientific-Research Institute of Sanitation and Hygiene).
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 24, No.6, 48-51, 1959.
The Zanarskaya textile ,spinning and weaving mill had a high morbidity rate
for many years past; for example/in 1953 it was 1315 work disability days per
100 workers, and in 1954 it was 1284. +n 1955 the morbidity rate went down,
but still amounted to 117 cases and 997 days per 100 workers. On the basis
of such data the morbidity frequency was 26% and the number of days lost 33%
above those recorded in the textile spinning and weaving mill "Krasnyi Tekstilt-
shchik", located in the same town.
A detailed study of the morbidity rate among workers of the Zanarskaya
spinning~weaving mill over a 2-year period showed a high percentage of sick
workers: 72.6% in 1954 and 64.2% in 1955,on the basis of avera~e yearly em-
ployment. The stuQy further indicated that in 1954 the repeater group (4 times
a year and more) amounted to 12.9% of all sick cases and accounted for over
one-third (34.6%) of all days absent.
With regard to individual disease, highest rate of morbidity with temporary
loss of work capacity among the workers of the Zanarskaya spinning and weaving
mill was caused by the grippe and by acute,catarrhal conditions of the upper
respiratory tract/which amounted to 24.5% in 1955, of which 21% were acute
catarrh of the upper respiratory tract. These and angina accounted for one-
third (33.9%) of all cases of morbidity. High morbidity rate among wo~kers
according to specific diseases was as follows: in 1955, 10 cases and 56 days
per 100 workers; in 1956, 1809% a. catarrhalis; 74.8% a.follicularis; 27%
lacunar angina and 3.6% a. phlegmonose. Angina of a different type was, found
predominantly among workers 20 - 40 years old. Absenteeism averaged 3 - 5
days. A considerable number of angina patients suffered from some type of
metatonsillar affection. Repeated long sick absenteeism due to angina oc-
curred mostly between October and March. Such sick leave repeaters were put
under dispensary observation as a prophylactic policy; of the therapeutic
measures the following can be mentioned: oral hygiene, dental corrections"
tonsilectomy, nasal breathing restoration, etc., accompanied by suitable im-
. .
provement in working' and living conditions.
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Acute catarrhs of the upper respiratory tract occupied the first
place in the morbidity picture among workers of the Zanarskaya spinning and
weaving mill. The true etiology of these affections is still unknown. Accord-
ing to N. F. Gamaleya and P. P. Sakharov they were of vixus origin, others
think that their etiology was bacterial. Common colds played an important
role in the pathogenesis of acute catarrhs of the respiratory tract, particu-
larly in persons with unstable thermoregulation. It is possible that the
persistently prevailing temperature of 23 - 280 and 65 - 52% relative humidity
in the spinning and weaving workshops,and 23 - 28% temperature and 70 - 75%
relative humidity in the weaving/shops created in the workers a susceptaoility
to colds, particularly during the period of sharp atmospheric air temperature
changes 0
High dust concentration in the air of the preparatory workshops of a spin-
ning mill caused chronic affection of the upper respiratory tract; when aggra-
vated such conditions were frequently diagnosed as acute catarrhal conditions
of the upper respiratory tract. Considerable bacterial air contamination was
noted during the forced-air cleaning of the carding drums and in the preparatory
workshops, particularly in the sorting rooms where raw cotton was sorted into
grades. . The bacterial air count was from 56,000 to 288,000 bacteria 'per 1 m3
of air (E. P. Ponomareva, 1957).
In 1956 an attempt w~s made to detect early diseases/which required dis-
pensary observation,byotorhinolaryngologic polyclinical examinations of 458
workers; 48 of the workers were women employed in the sorting and picking
room, 368 came from the carding and roving rooms, and 42 from the weaving
department. Number of workers according to ages were as fol~ows: under 20
years of age - 28; 21 to 30 - 183; 31 to 40 - 106; 41 to 50 - 139 and 51 to
60 - 2. Most of the workers were women. Years at jobs:- up to 5 years - 79;
6 to 10 - 127; 11 to 20- 75, and over 20 years - 177 workerso
Medical examinations disclosed 70 persons with symptoms of thyrotoxicosis.
Of the 70 women;40had I - II degree struma, with hyperthYreosis, thyrotoxicosis
and vegetative symptoms; in 30 women an etiological connection was established
between thYrotoxicosis and chronic tonsilitis. Thyrotoxicosis patients were
placed under dispensary
were treated surgically
United Hospital. Seven
observation. Patients with thyroid gland affections
at MONIKI and at the ear department of the Serpukhov
patients with chronic tonsilitis were given ~~arded
antibiotic treatment.
, -
OtorhinolarYngological examinations revealed 47 patients
-95-
-------
with chronic tonsilitis, 42 with chronic rhinopharyngolaryngitis, of which 14
had atrophic rhinopharyngitis (all worked in the sorting-beating workshop).
Among 458 workers of the Zanarskaya spinning-weaving mill atrophic rhino-
pharyngitis was detec.ted in 14, or 3%; in the "Krasnyi Tekstil'shchik" mill,
located in the same town, the number of workers with atrophic rhinopharyngitis
was 37 of 102, or 36%. Workers of the latter mil~ also had a higher percent-
age of chronic diseases of the upper respiratory tract (49% as against 19.5%
among workers of the Zanarskaya mill). This can be explained by the fact that
the cotton processed in the Zanarskaya mill consisted of higher grades, the
low-grade cotton (No.5 and 6) amounting only to 2.7% of the raw material
processed in 1955; the air dustiness was below the maximum permissible stan-
dards set for preparatory-spinning workshops. This was also due to the fact.
that the continuous dust-free method of cotton sorting and beating was insti-
tuted in this plant in 1948/and to the effectively functioning local exhaust
ventilation installed at the feeding-mixers of the sorting-beating aggregate,
~nd to the installation in the sorting department of an intake air ventilation
and air humidifier.
Auditory
ployed in the
M. P. Vol'fon
neuritis was discovered in 27 spinning mill women who were em-
roving and similar sections for the past 10 - 20 - 25 years.
established that the noise in the carding workshops reached
88 - 101 decibels; its spectrum at the carding machines ranged from 270 to
4310 Hertz, lliaximum amplitude of 3040 Hertz. The noise spectrum at the roving
~ machine fluctuated between 270 and 6000 Hertz, maximum amplitudes - 2150, 3040,
5120 Hertz.
The effect of high noise intensity and frequency explains the oc-
currence of occupational auditory- neuritis among the examined workerso
Ad-
hesive otitis media was found in 47 women workers, and chronic suppurative
epitympanitis was found in 7 women.
department.
Dispensary service for workers in spinning and weaving mills was continued
during 1957 with 1012 persons under observation; of these 472, or 46.6% mani~
fested rhinolaryngological changes. Otorhinolaryngological diseases were re- ,
vealed in 5308% of workers in the preparatory department, in 44.1% in the spin-
ning workshop of the spinning mill and in 51.3% in the weaving workshop. Among
The latter were referred to the surgical
the administrative and supervisory personnel otorhinolaryngological changes
were found in 27.3%. Age groups were as follows: up to 20 years - 48 cases;
-96-
-------
21 to 30 - 161; 31 to 40 - 97; 41 to 50 - 116; and from 51 to 60 - 50 cases.
Twenty-eight workers had acute rhinitis and laryngitis; most of them were from
the preparation and spinning workshops.
Chronic hypertrophic rhinitis and pharyngitis were .detected in 31 workers.
Subatrophic rhinopharyngitis was found in 78 workers 'of whom 54 were from the
preparation and spinning workshops of the spinning mill. In 1957 the predom-
inant number of .workers had subatrophic rhinopharyngitis; in 1956 the picture
changed to atrophic rhinitis. Apparently the introduction of masks and of
close dispensary service for the workers played a positive role in the im-
provement of the condition of the workers' upper respiratory tract. Ninety-
six persons had auditory neuritis; 66 of them worked in the weaving workshop.
Age groups were:
20 to 30 years - 3 cases; 31 to 40 - 15; 41 to 50 - 47; 40
of the latter age group worked on automatic looms; each woman operated 18 to
24 looms. The noise level in these workshops was 96 - 98 decibels with high
frequency noise predominating.
Most of the workers had an average form of the otic affection (according
to Tomkin), the most outstanding of which was lowered perception of high
sounds which predominated over the low sounds. The degree of diminishing
perception decreased in the direction of lower sounds. Osseous conductivity
in all workers of this group was limited.
The.general investigation indicated the need for improved medical sanitary
services for the workers.
The 1956 and 1957 efforts to improve the otorhinolaryngologic service in
the plant yielded positive results; however, further improvement was still
necessary in the quality of medical assistance by opening an otorhinolaryngo-
l05~c division in the Semashko main hospital, by increasing the unit work of
the workshop and district physicians, by installing a stationary inhalatorium,
etc. Periodic otorhinolaryngological examinations, introduction of prophy-
lactic and therapeutic measures,would considerably facilitate the tasJ- ~f re-
ducing,morbidity in the plant under ~tudy.
Bibliography.
6 p a H JI 0 B C K Hit M: M. Bpa'!. .IleJlO, 1929, N~ 19, CTp. 1205-1207. -- Bon b It>
l 0 H M. n. I1H. c1>. 3pHC-
MaHa, 1957, N~ 6-7, CTp. 52-56. - Map IU a K M. E. B KH.: np06M\!bI IIMMYHHTeTa II
'punna. M., 1950, CTp. 184. .-- C a x a po B n. n. Te3HcbI .IlOKJI,jJI0R 5-ii HaV'~HOH ceCC1l1t
lleHTpaJlbHoro HaY'IHO-Hcc.le.'lOB3Te.1bcKoro HHcTHTYTa OTO'pJiHO-JlapIfHro'lorHH, M., 1949..
CTp. 10-12. - C H pOT H H H H H. H. H .rI e 6 e II e B a O. n. npC.6MMa rpHnna H OCTpblX
Y.i:TapOR BepXHHX JlblXaTe,lbHblX nyTeit Te3. .10KJI., M, 1952, CTp. 55-;)6. -. ill e p e IU (f"D.
C K H ii II. A. OCHOBbi 3H.IlOKpHHOJlOrHII. M., 1936, erp. 326. -- 3 n IU T P ;'j H c1>. r., M a JI o.
... Y>t\ c1>. c1>.. C eMalllKO 3. A., neTepcoHO.Ii.,.l1po6b1l1JeBCKali A. 11. II
r 0 pile II a A. B. K 3THOJlOrHil Ii naToreHe3Y npocrYAHblx (ce30HHb/x) KarapoB llblxa~
rE'JlbHblX nyreit. M., 1948, CTp. 219-229. .
-97-
-------
Obtaining a Constant Dust Concentration in a "Dynamic" Dust Chamber.
M. I. Erman.
(The Krivoirog Institute of Labor Hygiene and Occupational Diseases).
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 24, No.7, 75-77, 1959.
Dust chambers are frequently used in animal experimentation in hygienic
research institutions. This author used the dynamic dust chamber and 'dust
distributor designed by Engineer A. L. Satanovskii and constructed in tne
experimental machine and tool shop of the Kiev Institute of Labor Hygiene
and Occupational Diseases. The chamber consists of several "stories", 'each
housing 4 animals, such as rabbits or cats; each individual chamber section
can be operated independently. The principal chambers can be built to con-
sist of several "stories" to house 4, 8, 12 and"16 experimental animals. In
its assembled state the dust chamber is a cylinder of 0.6 m inner diameter.
equipped with 2 upper and lower cones. The chamber is of airtight construc-
tion. The experimental animals are placed into cages firmly held in special
cage adapters ~istributed along the cylindrical chamber wall. 'Each sectional
chamber is provided with a special observation window and a traphole for
cleaning and other purposes.
,
Fig. I. a~hematic drawing of the dust supplying
. "' ,,--' apparatu8.
I - Opening for" dust loading; 2 - Outflow of air-
dust mixture; 3 - Oust repelling con88; II - Body
of the dust supplier; S - Metallic screen. 6-
'Pre8sure chamber; 7 - Connecting pipe for duet
transmitting from the compression chamber.
Until recently the dust was sup-
plied into the chamber by means of a
worm conveyor; this method of dust
supply and 'distribution possessed
some shortcomings, chief among which
was the uneven distribution of the
dust and the occasional lump formation.
The method proposed by this writer ia
based on the principle of dust "aera-
tion" or "blow-in".
The dust supply
and distributor, shown in Fig. 1, is
a hollow glass cylinder having a metal
screen as -j, ts 'botto!?; the,screen h~,s
40 1 mm2 openings; directly below the
screen is a pressure chamber into
which compressed air is entered when-
-98-
-------
ever so required. The upper part of the cylinder is closed by a 'lid having
2 openings, one for the delivery of dust at any desired point, and the other.
for the su~ply of the stock dust. The lid is also equipped with dust reflect-
ing cones, as shown in the drawing in Fig. 1; the cones act as even dust dis-
perserso The compressed air entering the pressure chamber passes through the
metallic screen and through a layer of dust dispersing it through the exposure
chamber; the required dust density is attained by controlling the rate of com-
'pressed air inflow, that is the quantity of dust per unit time. The air is
supplied with the aid of compressor type 0-16.
The dust supply and distributors previously used failed to insure an even
and constant dust density within the exposure cnamber: the suspended dust began
to settle at the very beginning of the tests, and toward the end the dust con-
centration was at a minimum. This was largely caused by the partial caking of
the dust layer, by plugged screen openings and other defective factors. To
prevent this from occurring, it was necessary to shake the dust distributor
at given time intervals; this was attained by attaching the distributor to the
compressor head; as the compressor vibrated the dust distributor vibrated with
it shaking the dust loose. The air coming from the compressor was cleansed by
installing a 2-stage filtering system shown in Fig. 2 between the compressor
and the dust distributor. The combination of the vibrating dust supply
and distributor and the
3 f
o
D '
-
1 t
.
-8
Fig. 2. Sch.~atic dra.ing' of dyst chamber installation.
I - Dust chamber. 2 - Mixer, 3 - Ventilating fan, 4 - Compressor,
5 - Expansion bottle; 6 - Ada~ter filled with activated charcoal;
7 - Regulator of air flow into the dyst supplier; 8 - Dust 8yppi ier.
9 - Dust supplying tybe. Arrow. indicate direction of .air flow.
-99-
2-stage filter system
helped to prevent the
clumping of the dust and
the clogging of the screen
openings, thereby creating
conditions favorable to
the maintenance of uniform
concentrations of sus-
pended dust.
The rate of
air flow into the dust sup~
plying chamber and the quan-
tity of dust supplied into
the exposure chamber were
regulated by a special valve
-------
(7) shown in Fig. 2. ;The panel attached to the valve had a scale which indi-
cated how far the valve had to be opened to attain any desired rate of dust
supply, and hence any desired concentration.
The problem of even dust distribution in the chamber, that is per given
cubic capacity, was solved empirically by trial and error procedure. By chang-
ing the position of the dust-supplying tube in the upper and lower cones, the
. .
dust concentration could be varied at different levels of the chamber. The
even distribution of the dust in the chamber was attained by preliminary mix-
ing of the dust with the air supplied to the chamber; the preliminary mixing
was accomplished by mixer (2) shown in the graph of Fig. 2. The air circula-
tion in the dust chamber was maintained by suction fan (3). The operating
system of the exposure chamber can be easily comprehended from the legend ac-
companying the schematic drawing in Fig. 2. It presents the system as it has
been used by this author. The rate of the air passing through the dust chamber,
was determined on the basis of the specific gravity, dispersity and sedimenta-
tion rate of iron ore dust used in the author's experiments. It has been known
generally that if the rate of dust sedimentation exceeded that of the downward
air current, then the dust fell out of suspension at a rate determined by .
Stoke's formula, which in a modi~ied form is as follows: V = 3 . 10~5 d2y
m/sec, in which V is the sedimentation rate in m/sec, d is the particle diam-
eter in ~ and y is the volume weight of the dust ing/cm3. The dispersion
composition of the dust used is shown in Table 1. It was determined by the
A. S. Serenko and A. V. Zhidik method described in Zavodskaya Laboratoriya,
1956, No. 10, p. 1204. The data in Table 1 show that 96.4% of the dust par-
t~cles had a'diameter of 4.2~. Dust of such dispersity was obtained by grind-
ing iron ore in the laboratory ball mill, type 40-ML, followed by mechanical
sifting. The dust was then dried and stored in a desiccator.
TABLE
1.
Dust dispersion composition.
Particle
diameters in J.l
: 1.4 - :
: 2.8 :
2.8- : 4.2 - i 5.6- i
4.2 i 5.6 : 7.0 i
7.0 - :
8.4 :
8~4 -
9.8
O.L
Content in %
o -
1.4
72
19.8
4.6
2.2
0.6
0.4
Knowing the dust dispersity and its specific gravity, the sedimentation
rate determined by Stokes formula was 0.1 m/sec. Hence, the rate of air flow
) ,-. . -100-
-------
1J.'ABLE
2.
Dust content in the chamber through the day.
Time: On
. h : e
~n ours:
~ Two
iThreeiFour
!Five
:
~ Six
Dust 3
in mg/m
86
81
81
82
19
11
TABLE
3.
Dust content in the chamber through one week.
Days of : 1st i 2nd i
the week: : :
3rd I
4th'i
5th i 6th
Dust 3
in mg/m
86
83
81
85
11
19
TABLE
4.
Dust content in the chamber through 1 month.
Weeks of
the month
iSecond
i Third iFourth
i First
Du,st 3
in mg/m
19
84
82
88
TABLE
in the chamber had to be main-
tained at this rate; this was
attained by ~sing a special suc-
tion fan STD-3 and an air vent
of appropriate diameter.
The
gravimetric method was used in
checking the dust concentration
in the chamber.
At first air
samples were taken at different
points in the exposure chamber
every hour throughout the day.
After conditions have been sta-
bilized and checked for 1 week,
air samples were taken once daily,
and later once weekly. Results
of determinations are shown in
Tables 2, 3, 4 and 5. Once the
desired dust concentration had
been established, its constancy
stayed within variation limits
of ~ 10%. It was possible to
Dispersion composition of suspended dust.
5.,
Particle
diameters in IJ.
: 1.4 - :
: 2.8 :
2.8 - : 4~2 - . 5 6 -.. 1.0 - : 8.4 -
4.2 i 5.6 ~ 7.0 ~ 8.4 i 9.2
o -
1.4
15.2
Content in %
19.4
3.4
0.8
'0.4
0.2
0.6
conduct experiments with a large group of animals (white mice in this case)
by placing 2 specially prepared cages into each exposure compartment; the cages
were divided, into separate compartments to house individual animals. The
system of dust chamber operation herein described met all the requirements of
properly conducted experimental dust exposure studies.
-101-
-------
Effect of Sulfur Dioxide on Vitamin C Balance. in the Animal Organism.
A. S. An.
(The Kirghiz Republic Sanitary-Epidemiol~gical Station).
Gigiena i Sani tariya, Vol. 25, No.3, 34-40, 1960.
The general toxic effects of sulfur dioxide have been well determined.
It has been shown that sulfur dioxide passed from the lungs into the blood.
where it combined with the thiamine, rendering it inactive and, thereby, dis-
turbing the processes of carbohydrate and of protein metabolism. A. A. Titaev,
Z. S. Gershenovich and also A. I. Minkina established that thiamine impeded
the oxidation of ascorbic acid/affecting its balance in the organism. Accord-
ingly, the purpose of this study was to determine the vitamin C balance in the
animal organism suffering from sulfur dioxide intoxication.
Vitamin C was determined by the micrometric method of Farmer and Abt, as
modified by' the State Control Vitamin Station of the U. S.S.R. Ministry of.
Health, which reduce~ the quantity of blood required for analysis to 0.3-
0.5 mI. Animals were exposed to sulfu~ dioxide in a special gas chamber of
153 Ii capacity. An air mixing fan was attached uio the ceiling of the. chamber.
Blood vitamin C determinations were made at the end of 3 hours exposure and
after exposure of considerable duration.
Vitamin C content in the blood of rabbits exposed to 0.4 mg/li ofS02
for 3 hours showed a considerable drop within 18 hours, as is shown in Tabie
1. EXPosure of rabbits to similar S02 concentrations for a period of 6 hou~~
TAB LEI. 4 days in succession produced opposite
effects: the vitamin C content during
the first 3 days following exposure ex-
ceeded the original level, it then
Blood vitamin C in mg%.in rabbits
exposed for 3 hours to 0.4 mg/li
of 502. (18 hours after exposure).
Rabbit:
No. :
Before
exposure
:18 hours after
: exposure
sharply dropped during the next 4 days
then again gradually rose to the orig-
inal level, as shown in Table 2. Four
1 0.80 0 44
2 0.74 0:56 rabbits of the second group were exposed
3 0.74 0.48\ to 802 concentrations of 0.4 mg/li for
6 hours on 9 successive days. The results of blood analyses are shown in
Table 3. According to A. A. Titaeva the drop in ascorbic acid content in the
blood of rabbits exposed to 802 for a short time was the result of its enzymic
-102-
-------
TABLE
2.
Blood vitamin a in mgJ, in rabbits after 6 hours exposure to '0.5 mg/Ii of
sulfur dioxide on 4 successive days. .
Rabbit
No.
. .
i Before i
: exposure:
. .
. .
1
5
1
2
3
0.88
0.81
0.80
1.40
1.20
1.04
1019
1.19
1.51
2
0.93
0.93
0.80
TABLE
Days after exposure
3
.
4 .i
.
.
.
..
.
.
9
6
1
0.32
0.40
0.32
0.18
0.33
0.25
0.68
0.12
0.12
0.12
0.19
0.12
0.31
0.44
0.31
3.
Blood vitamin a in mgJ, in rabbits after exposure to 0.4 mg/li of sulfur
dioxide 6 hours daily on 9 consecutive days.
Rabbit! Before!
. .
No. i exposure i
. .
1
2
4
5
6
1
2.24
1..95
1.84
2.20
0.10
0.10
0.88
0.80
1. 79
1.12
1.60
1.84
1.12
1.12
1.04
1.28
3
4
D~ys after exposure
5
l5
10 i
15
0.65
0.51
0.46
0.51
12 i
8
0.16
0.11
0.16
0.11
0.48
0.21
0.12
0.21
0.69 0.12
0.44 0.55
0.30 0.48
0.50 0.12
0.43
0.28
0.10
0.13
0.19
0.66
0.12
0.19
oxidation accompanied by a reduction in the content of thiamine acting as an
ascorbic acid antioxidizing agent. Such an explanation cannot apply to cases
of prolonged exposure of rabbits to S02' as shown in TablBs 2 and 3: the
ascorbic acid concentration in the blood during the first days following ex-
posure rose to levels considerably exceeding the original; thereafter, it
sharply dropped. Return of the ascorbic acid level to the original occurred
on the 12 - 15th day after exposure. A survey of the literature disclose~
the c9mplete absence of direct data related to this problem, while any in-
direct information was of a contradictory nature. B. A. Lavrov and B. I.
Yanovskaya were of the opinion that Bl hypovitaminosis enhanced the rate of
vitamin a biosynthesis in the organism of white rats. The authors considered
this phenomenon as a defense reaction against excessive consumption of ascorbic
acid in the organism of white rats,as a compensation for vitamin Bl deficiency.
The assumption (hypothesis) has also been advanced regarding the existence of
bound ascprbic acid present in plant and animal tissues in the form of a
vitamin a-protein complexo
-103-
-------
B. M. Sumtsov studied the properties of bound ascorbic acid and found it
to be the most stable form of vitamin 0, resistant to oxidizers, as shown by
, '
the fact that it did notdecolorize 2,6-dichlorophenolindophenoljand that it
did not react with silver nitrate and phosphotungstic acid. He also showed
that the se,cond component of bound, ascorbic acid was not a protein. Sumtsov
expressed the opinion that the function of ascorbic acid was to prevent the
, ' ,
oxidation of vitamin O. He further noted that the splitting process of
ascorbic acid proceeded at a higher rate in aqueous solutions and even more
rapidly in acidified solutions.- He was of the opinion that complete hydrolysis
depended not upon the type of acid but on the ,H~ion concentration. I. V.
Sidorenkova was also of the opinion that sulfur dioxide combined with blood
. -. .
thiamine thereby reducing its ,concentration. Under such conditions vitamin
C of the blood should be sharply reduced due to its rapid oxidation.
This
the present author noted'in his- short-time exposure tests. However, results
of vitamin C an~lysis in the blood of rabbits,following prolonged exposure to
S02,were contradictory to the above concepts. In the light ~f the above dis-
cussion 2 possible assum~tions (hypotheses) can be made: either such vitamin
C increase was the result of enhanced vit'amin C biosynthesis in the rabbits
organism, as was indicated by B. A.Lavrov and B. I. Yanovskaya, or such in-
crease in vitamin 0 was the result 'of bound ascorbic acid hydrolysis in the
animal organism, as proposed by B. M. Stimtsov. To solve this problem/S02 ex- -
posure experiments were conducted with guinea pigs, which, as is well known,
lack the capacity to synthesi~e their own- ascorbic acid and depend upon its
supply ih the food rations. The first group consisted of 4 male guinea pigs
weighing on the average 150 g. Preliminary tests were made- of the blood of
3 guinea -pigs for the content- of vitamin C, following which they were exposed
to 0.4 mg/li concentration of S02 for a period of 6 hours. One guinea pig
was kept as the control. On the 2nd and 3rd day after the exposure~ tests'
were made for the blood vitamin-Ccontent in the control and test animals;
the results showed a sharp drop in thevitaminC content in the blood of the
exposed test a-nimals, and a practically unaffected concentration in the blood
of the control guinea pig, as shown in Table 4. '
A' comparison of the results of this experiment with the results of short'
duration exposure of' rabbits' shows them to be practically identical qualita-'
tively; the fall in the vitamin 0 concentration was of a greater magnitude
in the latter caseo
-104-
-------
T A, B LE
4.
Another ,grou~, .of 8 gJ.li~ea" ; ':
, pigs wa~ ,divid,ed in,to su~groups"
,of 4., Guin,ea ~~gs Nos., 1, ,2, 3
arid 4 received,subcutaneo\ls in~
Blood vitamin C in :mg%'in guinea pi'gs '
exposed for 6 hours to 0.4 mg/li of ~02~ '
Gu' i B f iAfter exposure:
,~nea : ' e ore:, '24 : ,48 : Remarks,
p~g No.:exposure: h ': hours...:,
: : ours:
jections of 5 mg vitami~Bl 5
. . : . ~
, days prior to the expo6ure~'and
duri~ the exposure; guinea :pigs
5, 6, ,7 and:,,8 of the, 2nd: sub,"'; ,
grO\lP received no vitamin Bl"
,All 8 guinea _pigs were."expoeed '
. '"
. , . ~ - . . . '. .
to O.~ mg/li of S02 for.5.,hour:-period8 on 3"succe!3sive d~6~, It was noted:
that following exposure al.l ,guineq pigs showed signs of n~~al mucou~~ f:?ecretion,
and rasping respiration. Vi tamin C an.alyses wer,e DJ9.de wi t~; the blopd. of all
the gu~nea pigs on 9 s,:!ccessive days. , Res\,ll:t;s ~re shown i~' Table 5'~:' The data
, .
presented in;that Tab+e show,no sharp d.rop in the blood vit~min C qf guinea'
, pigs which ' received vi tamil'l, Bl preliminary to and. during th:'eexposures.~ where-
as vitamin C conte.nt fell sharply i~ the. blood of guinea p~gs which ,received.
no thial)1ine ei thi3r pr~or to pr dUJ?in~, the exposures. Vitamin C .content 'in
the, blood of bothguine,a. pig sub-groups returned to identical levels on the
9th ",day. followir:g exposure.,
1
2
3
4
0.39
0.45
. 0.45
'0.50
0~33
0~16 ,
0.'11
0.11
0.44
0.22
0.16
,0.16
Contr'ol
. ~posed
Exposed
Exposed. '
TAB L, E, 5 .
Blo'od vi ti:unin C in mg%in guinea pigs after administration of vitamin. Bl.
. and exposure to sulfur di onde.
".t...::
: ~ : After exposure .
.
Guine~ iB~fore i 24 . 48 . 3 . 5 . 7 . 9 ! 'Vi t~in
. . . . .
pig No.iexposurei . i . . .
hours . hours days i days . days . days iBl in ml
. . .
. .
. . . .
after . after after after : after . after
. : .
. . , . .
1 ,0.39 0.37 0.49 0.42 0.42 0.34 0~33 5
2 0.45 0 .. 4,3 , 0.43 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.40 5 ..
3 0.39. 0.37 0.43 0.30 0.23 0.24 0.26 5
4 0.52 0~43 0.35 O~24' 0.23" 0.27 0.26 5'
5 0.45 0.74 0.24., 0.12 -0.12 0.17 0..23
6 0.39 0.63 0.18 0.06 0.06 0.14 0.20
0'~45 0'~63' 0.088 ' 0'.23
7 ". 0.24 0.12 0.14 ;..
8 0.39, '0.68 0.35, 0.18 ,0.18 0.24 0.26
Ei~h~ guinea pigs were subjected to'prol~nged S02exposures witho~t the
administration of vitamin Bl. The results were identical with those of the
-105-' '
-------
preceding experi~ent: on the 4th day after exposure to 0.8 mg/li concentra-
tion of S02 for 5 hours on 4 successive days the vitamin C content in the
blood of all 8 guinea pigs considerably increased, as. is shown in Table 6.
The protective effect of vitamin Bl on the level of vitamin C in the blood
T' A B L E 6. of guinea pigs exposed to S02 inhalation was tested
as follows: 5 mg of thiamine were injected int.o
guine'a pigs Nos. 1, 2 and 3, which were then ex-
posed to the inhalation of 0.4 mg/li concentration
of S02' for a period of J hours; guinea pigs Nos..
4, 5, 6 and 1 were similarly exposed to the inhala.-
tion of 0.4 mg/li of S02 haVing received thiamine
injections. Results of analyses of their bloods
are listed in Table 1. It is "thus, seen that the.
blood vitamin C sharply fell to lower levels in the
guinea pigs which received no thiamine injections;
this was not observed in the guinea pigs which were
admini stered the protective thiamine.,
On the basis of the above. results
Blood vitamin C' in. rngj;
in guinea pigs. exposed
four 4 days to. 0.8' mg/Ii
of sulfuT di oxide .'
Guinea: Before: After
pig. Noiexposurei exposure
1
2
J
4
5
6
T
8
0.48.
0..52
0.41
0.48
0.44'
0.41
0.52
0~41
1.06
0.9.J
0.80.
0.80
0.80
0.69
0.80
0.80
. TAB' L E.
1..
experiments were conducted for the possible
development of methods for the' prevention
of vitamin C disturbance in the organism
foll'owing exposure to S02 inhalation. The
Guinea: Before: After :Vitamin
pig Noi'exposureiexposureiiBl in ml procedure. was as follows: each of 6 guinea
pigs was administered 50 mg of ascorbic
acid; they were then exposed to the inhala-
tion of 0.4: mg/Ii Of S02for a period of
J hours; 2 guinea pigs, which' were also ad-
ministe'red 50 mg of ascorbic acid,werenot
subjected to S02 inhalation and were kept
as controls. Prior to the exposure to the S02atmosphere and after, all 8
guinea pigs were bled for analysis;. following the first exposure all guinea
pigs received a supplemental injection of 50 mg of vitamin C, and their bloodS
were analyzed the day following for vitamin C content. R suIts of all: analyses'
are listed in Table 8. Interpretation of the results listed in Table 8 brings
Blood vitamin C' in rngj; in guinea
pigs after administration of
vitamin Bi and exposure to.S02.
1
'2
J
4.
5
6
1
0.46
0.40.
0.40
0.46
0.52
0.40
0.32
0~40
0.32
0.32
0.13'
0.19
0.19
0.19
5
5
5'
out the fact that. the preliminary administration of ascorbic acid presents
-106-
-------
T ,A BL E
8.
Vitamin C in mg% in guinea pig blood.
:After exposure: After
Guinea! and 50 mg ! exPosure
pig No.! ~t~in C. h5/VIIh6/VII
,:adm~n~strat~on: :
1 0.71 0.48 0.76
2 0.80 0.60 0.71
3 0.76 0.60 0.76
4 0.76 0.80 0.80
5 0.71 0.43 0.80
6 0.65 0.43 0.76
7 0.80 0.64 0.76'
8 o. 71 o. 71 1.04,
itself as an effective means for the
prevention of any sharp fall in the
blood vitamin C during the animal's
exposure to 802 inhalation, and that
a supplemental vitamin C administration,
as above described, brought about a
rapid return of the ascorbic acid in
the blood to its original level.
Conclusions.
1. Inhalation of 502 brought
about a fall in blood vitamin C
content.
2.
The extent of reduction in blood vitamin C depended upon the duration
of exposure to and the concentration of the 802.
3. Short duration exposure to S02 inhalation was followed by a sharp
drop in blood vitamin C levels. Prolonged exposures to S02 inhalation re-
sulted in a, preliminary rise in the ascorbic acid content of the blood, suc-
ceeded by a sharp fall.
4. Results of experiments with guinea pigs, which did not synthesize
vitamin C showed that the immediate rise in the concentration of blood vitamin
C following the inhalation of high S02 concentrations was not the result of
enhanced ascorbic acid biosynthesis by the organism. It can be assumed that
the splitting of bound ascorbic acid may have been responsible for it.
5. The administration of vitamin Bl (thiamine), or of ascorbic acid
(vitamin C), prevented the fall of the ascorbic acid level in the blood normally'
caused by exposure to the inhalation of S02 in the air.
Bibliography.
r e p ui,e HOB Htf 3. C., M H H K H H a A. H. BHOXHMHR, 1951, T. 16. M I, CTP, 36.-'
naB p 0 BB. A., Sf Ii 0 B C K aRB. H. Te3HcbI .a.OKn. VIII BcecolO3J1oro C"be3.a.a cIIH3Hono.
rOB, 6HOXHMHKOB. cIIapMaKonoroB, M., 1955, CTp. 363. - C H.a. 0 p e H K 0 B H. B. <1>apMa-
Kon. H TOKCHKon.. 1950. Ng 3 ,CTp. 5. - C Y M U 0 B B. M. BHOXHMHR, 1950, T. 15. 1'<2' 2,'
np. 112. - T H T a e B A. A. TaM >Ke, 1948, T. 13, N~ 3, CTp. 197.
-107-
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Effect of Cement Dust on Respiratory Organs."
, M. M. Tarn()pollskaya and T'. G. Osetinskii.
-~ . . .' .,-
(The Ukrainian Central Institute of Labor Hygiene.,and Occupatio~al D~seases).
, '
Sovets~a Meditsina, Vol~ 21, No.8, 90-94, 1951.
'. A-V . . '", '. "
, Dust is the main deleterious factor in the cemen~ industry. ,Cement is
manufactured as, follows: m~rl ,(natural mixture of li~estone a'ndclay) is
quarried from local deposits and calcined; the clinkers resulting from the'
, ,
.. . ..
calcining, together with added blast furnace slag and gypsum, are ground in
ball mills of the milIi'ng department. The f~nishedcement1lcontainsCaoup
to 50%, boundSi02 up to 30%'; it also contain,s Al203,Fe203' Mn" ~ ~~d ~3~
Clinker and blast furnace slag contains the same chemical substances as enumer-
ated abo;te;' the silicon "dioxide found in bothconsti tuents is bfthe bound
type. The chemical composition qf marl is:' CaC03 (65 - 85%), A1203' Si02~'
MgO, Fe20y S£02 in free state can be fOtlnd 'in mari in quantities up to 5%.
The processes through which the raw materials pass before becoming 'the finished
cement are accompanied by dust formation 'during the grinding of the materials.
The cement milling department is 'particularly dusty . The conditions for "
the formation, liberation and dispersion of the dust are due to the c'omplete
absen~e of moisture in the material d~ring its transportation~ Intensive dust
formation' is observed ~n places where ~he raw material is spread over- the c'on-
--- .. -- -~_._---.
- y~or belt and dropped from the belt onto the elevator. This is' viciated by
the fact that the elevator bert--'i's in motion when the ground cement reaches it.
. . 6- . -
Much dust is 'form'ed when the storage towers are being fi lIed and when the cement
is 'i~aC!ed~i~to railroad cars; the air of the premises through which the lO,aded
conveyorbeIts'pass is intensely dusty. Cement dust is' characterized by high
, ,
dispersion. ~ighty five - ninety five percent of the total cement dust par-
ticles are 0.5 to 2 ~ in size.
In studying t~e ,effect of cement dust on t~~rganis~, a,largegroup of
cement p!ant workers were clinically examined; 56.2% of them were men and 43.8%
women; 65.4% were under 40 years of age and 34~6% were 40'years of age and
older. About, 30% of them worked over 10 years, about 10% over 20 years. Most
workers complained of pain and heaviness in the chest and of periodic coughing
1/ Portland cement, grade 500.
-108- '
-------
spel~s. . Co~:plaints c.~e also fr,om yo~g workers wi t~ s,hort work records~ There
were fr~quent complaints of nose-bleeding, sp~ntaneous, ~swell as caused bY
trying to remove concretions ,with use of fingers, of difficulties in breathing
through the nose, hoarseness, etc.
'. ,
N. A. Vidgorchik, G~. S., Trambitskii, Ya. T'emkin, A. A. Po~arov;~ M. G. Shub
mention the irTi~ating effect of cement dust on the upper ~espiratory ~ract.
Dense concrements and cement coatings were noted frequently in workers from
dusty work sections. Dust deposits were detected not only in the nasal cavity,
but also on the pharynx; the tonsils, the larynx, the vocal cord.s~ and in areas
under the cords. Nasal septum fissures were noted in 30.9% of the examined
workers; perforations of the nasal,septum were seen in 3 persons, or 0.9% of
all'persons examined; frequency of upper respiratory tract changes increased
with the work time record, and thea~rophic forms exceed~d the hypertrophic
type. Changes in upper respiratory ~ract were more frequent when large amounts
of cement dust were inhaled. 'Perforatio~s of the nasal septum were found in
workers with over 3D-year work records, who were exposed to the action of hot
dust.
Considerable changes in the upper respiratory tract and prevalence of dry
, ,
and atrophic processes over hypertrophic were noted not only in workers of,the
cement industry, but also among 'the population of nearb,y residential areas. ,
Many of the workers showed the following pulmonary changes: barrel-typepul-
. .
monary sounds, partial immobility of lung edges, shallow breathing; in some
workers crepitant rales were heard in the mid-sections, the posterior and
sYmmetrical sections, more often in the. intercostal spaces. Emphysema was'
noted in 38% of examined men and in 12% of the women. Frequency of emphysema
development increased with the length of the work record. , In the 30 - 49 year-
old group eff~ct of old age wa~ eliminated b,y excluding 5O-year-o.ld workers
, . .
from this phase of the study; in workers with work records up to 10 years the
number of emphysema cases was doubled. Degree of air dustiness also affected
the frequency of emphysema occurrence.
According to Tareev's data development of pulmonary ,emphysema m~ be
closely associated with a disturbance in the neu~o regulation of the function-
ing of the entire bron~ho-pulmonary syst.em, which originated via relfex ef-
fects in the adjoining organs, and from the re~eptor areas of the respiratory,
tract, and also as the result of disturbed central nervous activity. Apparent-
-109- .
-------
ly, the vicarious dil~iation of alveoli caused by atelectasis of a part of the
alveoli caused by the dust deposited in the iriteralveolar sspttim, should be
regarded as the cause of emphysema development in workers of the cement industry.
B. E. Votchal and G. Bibikov are. of the opinion that disturbances in bronchial
passages in most cases lead to the development of chronic pulmonary emphysema.
Cement absorbs 30%.water, which affects its transparency. The rate of cement
setting and hardening is affected by temperature, the process slows down at
lower temperatures and is enhanced at higher temperatures. Hardened cement
lumps were seen in the nasal cavity; the phar.ynx was at times almost completely
filled with hardened cement. The possibility that such hardenings can form in.
the lungs and in the bronchi can not be excluded. Disturbances in bronchial
passages oter many years could thus affect the emphysema development.
Not enough light has been shed in literature on the question of pneumo~
coniosis in cement industry workers.
Yushk.evich dett"'cted pneumoconiosis in
its X-ray description was not given.
A. S. Vishnevskii,
13% of a group of
M. G. Shub qalled
D. D. Yablokov, K. K.
cement workers, but
attention to the pres-
ence of fibrous strands and spreading roots is cases of pneumoconiosis among
cement workers. L. Gardner examined 2278 workers employed in the cement in-
dustry and discovered linear non-nodular fibrosis in 17.5%. The present authors
found a somewhat lower percentage of alveolar fibrosis; in some workers the
connective tissue picture was pronounced. Fibrosis had the character of a fine
reticulum, and was usually located
to the right, and sometimes at the
with fibrosis was 19 years.
Here are excerpts from 2 patients' clinical histories:
Patient K., aged 39, fireman, with 19 years experience in a cement plant.
Presented no particular complaints, with the exception of an occasional dr,y
cough. No recollection of past disease. Cement coating over nasal septum.
Mucous membrane dr,y.. The posterior pharynx wall hyperemic and covered with
lumpy mucus.. Vocal cords hyperemic, the pseudo-cords were dense. Lungs:
pulmonary sounds and mobility of edges satisfactory. .In the lower posterior
. .
sections harsh, shallow respiration/and in the lower sections and intercostal
spaces, moist rales.. Heart: tones are clear, pulsation 72 per minute, rhythrndc.
Arterial pressure 125/50 mID of mercury. Pulmonary capacity 2600 cm3. . Respira-
tory'deiay upon inhalation 40 seconds. Blood: Hb 72%; f;lrythrocytss4,540;,000;
in the mid-section of both lungs, more often
roots. The average work record of workers
-no-
-------
leucocytes 4900; eosinophiles 0.5%; po lynuc1 eai<,oJ0% ; segmen~ed 54.5%; l~pho-
cytes 39%; mononuclear 6%; color index 0.8;.6edimentation rate 20mm per ho~;
blood ,coagulation 3 minutes; bleeding time 1-1/2 minutes, thrombocytes 3i7,OOo..
X-ray pictur~ of lungs: emphysema, on the right, fibrous alveolate forma-
tion in the II.,..d - .IiI:-~~ and- I.v~th ",1.nter,costal spaces, 4P to the frontal axillary
line; on the left in the II-d - III-d intercostal space fibrosis is less pro-
nounced; roots: on the left a conglomerate of calcified glands 2 x 2.5 cm in
, ,
size and a few smaller ones; on the right several small petrified glands.
Diaphragm - normal.
Diagnosis: dry rhinitis, chronic laryngitis,
'no blood circulation disturbance.
emphysema, pulmonary fibrosis,
, Patient S., aged 43~ engineer (fireman) of cement plant's shaft furances~
work record 23 years. Had typhoid in 1916, malaria in 1933, pneUmonia in 1934
and 1949. Complained of shortness of breath at light physical ,exertion, dry-
ness in the nose, lowered odor perception, bloody nasal discharge containing
hardened cement concretions.
Examination disclosed: cement deposits on nasal septum and the middle
nasal conchas; inferiorconchas atrophic with wide canals. The rear pharynx
wall hypere!Ilic, the sublingual gland enlarged. ~ Lungs: hollow barrel sounds,
, , .
mobility 1 - 2 cm on each side. Respiration harsh, Shallow ~ lower sections.
Dispersed dry rales. Crepitant,rales in the intercostal' area. Heart diameter,
enlarged by 3 cm, tones muffled, accent on 2nd tone of pulm9nary artery. PUlsa-
tion 48 beats per minute, rhythmical, arterial pressure 105/70 mm of mercury.
, '
Liver felt 2 cm below arCus-cpstarum, tender. Vital capacity of lungs at rest
. 3" -"- 3 . ".' J .,'
5000 cm , after ~~ertion3~00 em , 3 minutes later 4200 om.. Duration of
respiratory delay 40 seconds, after exertion 18 seconds.
Roentgenoscopy of chest: increased empbymatous transparency of the lungs,
petrification on the right above the diaphragm; no ,foci on the left. Hilus
pattern normai. ,~iaphragm mobility satisfactor,y. Heart 'enlarged to the left.
Pulsation rhythmic, sluggis~. Vessels normal.
B~ood: Hb 75%; erYthrocytes 4,570,000; color' index 0.82; leucocytes 5250;
eosinophiles 1%; ~egmente~ 65%; polynuclear. 4%; . lymphocytes 28%; monocytes 2%;
sedimentation rate 20 mm/hour. Blood coagulation according to Burker 3-1/4
minutes, bleeding time (according to Duke) 30 seconds. . Blood calcium 8.4 IDftI,..
Diagnosis: pulmonary emphysema, pneumosclerosis, consi4~rably pronounced myo-
cardial dystrophy, HI atrophic rhinitis.
-111-
-------
The above case histories are similar to those of other patients examined
by these authors. The qase histories indicate that the lung changes, as
revealed by X-rays, represented a moderate interstitial fibrosis w~thout edem-
atous manifestations. Thus, the cement dust which contained 5i02 a~~o caused
the development of pneumoconiosis. In this case pneumoco~iosis differed from.
silicosis in that it produced no nodular forms and its pro~ess was slow.
The present a~thors found it difficult. to classify such pneumoconiosis accord-
. .
ing to the existing silicosis classification. It is felt that a different
classificat10n~hould be introduced for th~type of pneumoqoniosis found among
workers of 1;he cement industry. Th1,1s, workers with marginal, weakly pronounced
emphysema, chroniq bronchitis and frequent aggravations and fibrosis, peri~
bronchitis, and perivasculitis should be clas~ed as "incipient pneumoconiosis";
pati~nts with pronounced emphysema, with bilateral reti~ular fibrosis detectable
by X-ray predominantly in the mid-lung sections should be classed as having
"stage I pneumoconiosis":; pat~ents wi th sharp~~ pronounced. emphysema with con-
siderably reduqed functions of inhalatio~ ~esp~ration, deficient blood circu-
lat.ion and diffusereticul~r fibrosis should be classed as having "stage II
pneumQconiosis".
Th~ presence of tubercular infection should be regarded~s an indicator
of unfavorab+e course ofpn~umoconios1s~ The questionof~terrelation between
silicosis and tuberculosis ha~ bee~ stu4ied exhaustivel~/and the connection
between the 2 prQcesses has been established in the pa~t~ It is known that the
penetration of quartz-containing dust lowered the body resista~ce to,tubercular
infection (M. K. Dal', E. I. Do~rolyubov, L.. Gardner and others) ~ Pulmonary
tuberculos~s among workers exposed to the action of cement dust occurred at no
higher frequency than among the surrounding i~abitants, and it ran a mild and
ben~gn course.
CO~9J,usions.
.1. Cement dust caused considerable changes in the upper respiratory tract.
2. Cement dust fOrmed concrements and coated the nasal mucosa; this made
nasal respirat.ion difficult, created mucous membrane trauma, . and nose bleeding.
3. Atrophic changes in the nasal mucous membrane, pharynx and larynx
predominated among cement industry workers.
4. Prolonged periods of work in the cement industry led to the formation
of pulmonary fibro~is (cement pneumoconiosis) of limited localization and equal-
ly limited progressive development.
-112-
-------
5.
Pulmonary emphysema should be regarded as an early symptom of incipient
cement pneumoconiosis.
Clinical Aspects of Dichlorethane Poisoning.
V. V.Salina.
(From 'the Orenburg Medical Institute and the Dzershinsk Regional Hospital).
Sovet. Meditsina, Vol. 22, No. 10, 132-133, 1958.
Dichlorethane, or ethylene chloride (C2H4C12),iS a colorless liquid; it
is a good fat solvent and is used widely in industry, in agriculture, and for
everyday purposes. Such wide and varied use of dichlorethane raises the
possibility of poisoning through inhalation of its vapor under industrial
conditions, or by being taken internally. Descriptions of past'dichlorethane
poisoning cases are rather superficial and inadequate, particularly as regards
the effect on the cardiovascular system.
This author had the opportunity to examine 2 patients who had accidentally
ingested about 30 - 40 ml of dichlorethane. The first stage of poisoning fol-
lowed the same course in both cases. One to one-and-one-half hours after in-
gestion of the dichlorethane the patients experienced nausea and vomiting,
first of food, then of bile, abdominal pains, vertigo, marked weakness, mental
confusion. The p~tients were hospitalized within 1 - 2 hours after the first
symptoms of intoxication. They were in a generally poor condition, were mentally
confused and profoundly lethargic; their skin was pale, pupils contracted,
heart beats were dull with bradycardia (60 per min.) accompanied by a moderate,
hypotension (arterial pressure 100/50 to 105/60 mm Hg). No pulmonary abnormal-
ities were noted. The abdomen was slightly distended, soft and tender over
the entire area.
Liver and spleen were not palpable.
Repeated emesis and
diarrhea were noted. Upon admission the temperature of one patient was normal,
and of the other 31.10.
-113-
-------
After therapy had been instituted, such as gastric lavage, glucose and
saline infusion, camphor injections, etc., their condition,improved slightly,
especially their state of consciousness. Beginning with the next day, the
disease ran a different course in each patient.
The condition of patient K., 21 years of age,
became satisfactory. The,
o
next day the emesis and diarrhea ceased; the temperature rose to 38 on 3 suc-
cessive days, during which time a slight dry cough was noted, accompanied b,y
limited dry rales in the lungs. Fluoroscopy disclosed no changes, but a slight
hyperemia was noted on the posterior pharyngo-laryngeal wall. For 4 d~s the
patient exhibited severe bradycardia (43 - 45 beats per minute) and dullness
"
of the sounds. The EKG revealed sinus bradycardia, which disappeared together
with the dullness of the sounds by the end of the patient's stay in the
hospital~ No pathological hepatic changes were noted, the blood bilirubin
level was normal, and the urobilin test in the urine was negative. Slight
albuminuria (0.026%) was noted during the first d~s, with microhematuria-
and slight cylindruria, whichu di sa:ppeared within a few d.?\Ys. No blood chaagee
were noted. After 6 d~s, the patient was discharged in good condition.
The illness ran a considerably more severe course in the second patient,
37 years of age. Repeated emesis and nausea persisted for '5 days, accompanied
by abdominal pain, and occasional loose stools. Severe weakness, drowsiness,
and vertigo lasted 17 day.s. Icterus developed on the 4th day, its severity
increased up to the 11th day of the illness. At the same time the liver out-
line became palpable extending upward beyond the normal limit. Urinalyais
showed a slight albuminuria, hematuria and cylindruria; bilirubin test was
positive. There was a leucocytosis (13,500) wi,thout an increase in the ESRJ
and a direct acceleration of the Hemans-van-den-Bergh reaction with a bilirubin
level of 2.14 mg%. The icterus disappeared b,y the end of the 3rd week of the
illness. For 3 weeks,beginning with the 2nd day, tachycardia was noted (96 -
104 beats per minute), which persisted despite the icterus and the almost,normal
temperature; the heart sounds were dull and a hypotension developed (i60)'50
. .
, 'mm Hg).', The EKG showed sinus tachycardia, T3 inversion, and a low T2. After
3 weeks, the EKG and arterial pressure became normal.
Thus, the course the disease ran in the second patient-was characterized
by the development of toxic hepatits and persistent cardiovascular changes.
The anamnesis revealed no factors which could be causing the more severe course
-114-
-------
of the intoxication as compared with the first patient, who had ingested the
same dose of dich1orethane.
Thus, it it seen that the first period of dich10rethane effect was char-
acterized largely by symptoms of irritation of the gastro-intestina1 tract
and of the upper respiratory passages, and involvement of the central nervous
system, including the autonomic functions. This also explains the. bradycardia
in both patients .during the first 24 hours. Later, during the sub-acute period,
the parenchYmal organs became involved ,to a degree which did not always cor-
respond to the amount of dich10rethane ingested. During this period, in addi-
tion to liver and kidney involvement, most often mentioned in the literature,
~ocardium may also become involved, as indicated by the EKG changes in the
. ,
,second patient. During this period tachycardia appeared asa result of the
myocardial involvement; it persisted for a long time even in the presence of
icterus.
Bibliography.
r n a 3'0 B a 0. H. OrpaBneiliu( Ii . nepBI!ii' nOMoWb npH HHX. M., 1952. - n 51 JI H.
K 0 a C. H. OrpaBJIeHHJI HAoXHMHKaTaMH H nepBaH nOMOWb npH HliX. I{HwHHeB, 1957.-':'
nepa8J1 nOMOWb . npH npOMblwneHHblX OTpaBneHHHX. nOA peA. H. H. CaBHUKoro. n.,
1952. - n p a B A H H H. C. MeTOAHKa uanoA TOKCHKonorHH npOMblwneHHblx HAOB. M..
1947. - C 0 C HOB H K H" Sf. KnHIIH'IeCK8J1 CHMnTOMaTHKa H nepB3JI nOMOWb npH npo4Jec.
CHOII8JIbHblX OTpaBneHHJlX. M., 1955.
Sequelae of Severe Carbon Monoxide Poisoning.
I. A. Kirichinskayao
(The A. A. Bogomo1ets Kiev Order of Red Banner Labor Medical Institute).
Sovet. Meditsina, Vol. 22, No. 11, 152-154, 1958.
Carbon monoxide poisoning is one. of the common industrial and household
intoxications. It is characterized by acute impairment of the central nervous
system functions, caused Qy carboxyhemoglobin formation and by disturbed brain
cell oxygen metabolism. A number of investigators (0. Gilula, L. S.Gbrsheleva,
z. E. Grigor'yev, Kobert, Pitr, and others) believe that carbon ~noxide also
-115-
-------
binds the cell protoplas~. iChanges in higher nervous activity during poison-
ing with small doses of carbon monoxide (0.05 - 0.06 mg/li) lead to the assump-
tion that CO acted directly on the central nervous system.
Brain vessel changes injcarbon monoxide poisoning have been studied by
,
V. M. Slonimskaya, I. O. Gilula, A. M. Grinshtein and N. A. Popova, and others.
They noted plethora, dilatation and stasis in the small brain vessels, punctate
hemorrhages and hemorrhages per dispedesin, desquamation of the epithelium of.
vascular walls, impairment of vascular wall permeability, accompanied by peri-
vascular and pericellular edema. The localization of the pathological process
varied. In addition to symmetrical necrobiotic foci in the subcortical ganglia
and subthalamic reBion,\classical signs of CO intoxication (P. E. Snesarevand
others), degenerative changes were also noted in the cerebral \cortex (Poursines,
Alliezland Toga).
The clinical neurological picture of CO intoxication assumed different
forms: mono- and hemiplegia, extrapyramidal changes, ~ncephalites, neurites
(B. N. Mantkovskii, V. M. Slonimskaya), less comonly polyneuritis (G. S. Mar-
golin and K. F. Kanareikin). Isolated instances of disturbed vision during
CO poisoning (0. Ya. Sosnovik), involvement of the labyrinth and vestibular
apparatus (N. F. Popov) and pronounced trophic disoders (Yu. M. Orienko and
M. M. Tarnopol'~kaya; L. A. Rabinovich) were noted by the authors whose names
. are given parenthetically.
This author had seen a case of severe CO poisoning
which terminated fatally. The peculiar clini~~l picture accompanied by devel-
opment of psychosis noted in one patierit presented some interest, since it has
been observed only rarely in such intoxications.
Patient D., 58 years of age, 10/24/1955, lay down to sleep at 11 P.M.
The following morning he was found unconscious, some incompletely burned coal
was seen in the stove. He was taken to the hospital, where he was bled (250
ml) and kept for 4 hours on artificial respiration, camphor and oxygen. He
regained consciousness on 10/26. Subsequently, his condition improved rapidly,
he was discharged on 10/30 and returned to work on 11/5.
On 11/13/ after some unpieas~nti experience at work/he wrote a letter to
his wife in which sQme apparently meaningl~ss words or phrases were repeated
frequently. During the next 2 days his co-workers noted peculiarities in his
behavior:
he became morose and gave irrelevant answers to questions.
On 11/17
he was admitted to the neurological ward of the October Revolution Hospital.
-116-
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Upon admission he appeared inhibited, remained immobile, lying down with
his hands under his head and his face turned toward the wall, and.offered no
replies to questions. He rarely complied with the physician's requests, e.g.,
to show his teeth. His movements were stereotype:, frequently he raised his
hand to his face and examined it/or picked at ~is blanket. He refused to let
the physician examine him, crowded under the blanket/and rejected food.
Neurological findings: pupils regular, satisfactory reaction to light and
convergence; eyeballs moved through their full range; no changes were noted in
the optic fundi.
The tonus of the right hand and both legs was somewhat heighten~d; he
had difficulty to straighten his legs, which were flexed at the knee-joints.
There was no cervical rigidity. The extremities had adequate muscular strength.
The right hand was clenched into a fist most of the time, the grasping phenom-
e~on,was pronounced and symptoms of a rostellar reflex on the right; bilateral
Marinesco-Radovici symptom. Tendon reflexes were more active in the right
hand than in the left; patellar reflexes were also more active.2n the right
side. Bilateral clonus of the feet, more pronounced on the right side. In~
constant Babinski sign bilaterally, more expressed on the right. Active ab-
dominal reflexes. Urinalysis norma!. Blood: leucocytosis (14,500) with
lymphopenia (17%); erythrocyte sedimentation 4 rom hour. EKG showed marked
myocardiosclerosis and indications of coronary insufficiency. Arterial pres-
sure 130/85 rom Hg.
On the second day the patient ~howed signs of confusion and perseveration.
During the days that followed the inhibition increased. The patient became
silent, retired into negativism and rejected food. The neurological picture
included an increase in the rigidity of the lower limbs and an increased
somnolence; the patellar and axillary reflexes were more markedly inhibited.
On 11/24, the temperature rose to 38.40, and the patient became unconscious.
Bronchopneumonia.set in. During the days that followed the tonus of the ex-
tremities decreased, and the grasping phenomenon disappeared. The shortness
of breath and cardiac weakness steadily increased. On 11/28 pulmonary edema
~
developed accompanied by high fever; death followed shortly.
Patho-anatomical investigation: the aortic intima had many sclerotic
patches. The lower lobes of both lungs were atelectatic, and sections of the
posterior parts revealed small confluent foci of pneumonia of grayish-red
-117-
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color. The heart was enlarged cross-sectionally, the ll~ocardium was dull and
flaccid and of a grayish-pink color. Punctiform hemorrhages were found under
the epicardium and endocardium. The coronary arteries were sclerosed and
their lumens were stenosed.
The dura matter was moderately taut.
The pia
matter was moderately plethoric. The arteries at the base of the brain showed
occasional sclero~ic patches. The substance of the brain was edematous. The
subcortical nodes revealed small sporadic foci of softening. The brain picture
was clear at all points. Liquid blood was found in the sinuses of the dura
matter. Microscopic changes appeared in the form of hyperemia of the smallest
vessels and severe perivascular and pericellular edema of the cerebral sub-
stance, with deformation of the vascular walls as a result of impairment of
their tonicity and extravasations.
Perivasal infiltrates were noted in some
regions, accompanied by degenerative cellular changes. These changes in the
?rain were accompanied by hyperemic manifestations in the internal organs.
In the case just described the victim was in an atmosphere containing CO
for about 12 hours; the severe carbon monoxide poisoning of the middle-aged
male first followed a favorable course: during 5 days of hospitalization his
condition improved to such an extent that he was sent home and allowed to return
to work after 4 days. Nine days later he began to manifest mental changes
which necessitated his confinement to a psychiatric hospital. Objectively he
exhibited an akinetic syndrome with symptoms of diffuse damage of the cerebral
vessels.
The bright interval in the course of carbon monoxide poisoning between
of prognostic im~ortance.
poisoning symptoms, and the appearance of the'
cerebral impairments/described by Sibelius was
It was usually observed in elderly persons who had
the ~isappearance of acute
grosser and more permanent
distinct vascular changes, which as a rule, aggravated the prognosis.
The mental disturbances that arose during the later period of intoxica-
- -
tion following the brighter interval, appeared to have been the results of
. -
vascular pathology. The impairment of blood vessel penetrability in CO poison-
ing often leads to the development of bronchopneumonia, as in the case under
consideration, and in the observations of Yu. M. Orienko and M. M. Tarnopol'-
skaya, S. M. Rotershtein, and others. Pneumonia in elderly persons is not
readily amenable to therapy and often ends fatally.
-118-
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The present case indicates the need for prolonged observation of persons
who have had carbon monoxide poisoning and such persons should be hospitalized
for not less than a month after-the intoxication.
Bibliography.
B ere p A. M. KnHll. Me.ll., 1938, Nt 6, CTp. 721. -:- r H .II Y .II a O. OI«:H.II. lyrJle.
uuldl 1a aI1.'KII Aoro HII 11I!H'tpanbHY Mf'ptJOIIY Ctl~MY. Xallll.l., 1931. - r 0 p_DI e .II e.
II II Jl C. cllilpMllkoJl. II tOlttlUlon., 1944. M 5, C'l'p. 47. - r p II r 0 fit e a 3. 3. TIIM' "'e.
195&, .M 6,~p. M. - r II H H 6 e p r A. 8. Knlllt. MeA.. 1948, M 2. C'tp. 67. ",:,,"'f piUS-
W T. A II A. M., non 01811 H. A. 8 KJt.~ npOMLlI1J./leflKWe uw, XapllltOII. 1928. e'rp. M.--
MallllKolltXHA 6. H. 8 Kif.: TpYJl.hI kJlHIf. Itepll. 6one3lfeA Kite.. 1'. 111101'8' .ye08.
~paCfeit, 1928, T. 1. C'tp. 355. - M II pro .II H" r. C.. K alII II e A It If R . K. $. 1U1IH.
lIe.l1., 1935, Hi 8, CTp. 242. - 0 P JI eH K'O 10. M., Tap II () n a 11.. tIC. R 'M. M. XIIPYP-
r~, 1940,' M 6, t'l'p. 49. - non 0 II. tf. cfI. BetTY. O1'OpllllonapMIIrOJr., 1938, 16 5,
C'tJI: 47L -P II 61111 0 II H" n. A. OPTOlte./l. Tp1l1lM81'OJ1. If bpOTelllp.,' 1955.. M 3.
"po 88; - P 01 epm te A II C. M. B KII. ~ 1py JttI oftopOliHoA p~y6. cttcltK TypItMeII.
Hayq. MeA. 06w; H rocnHT. COBeT3 HK 3I1pas. TCCP. 1942, CTp. 278.-CII0..M-
~ It II II B. M., Mo c It II II e u {:. n. 8 101.: HII~UHM H IffI'I'OKtlfl[aIlNB'.lttpIHOil tllC'1'ftOll.
'Kllell, 1936, crp. 257. - C 0 ~ H 0 II Hit H. Si. 4IapIUKOot. . toKtIlKOJI.. '1948, Hi 2,
eorp. 81. - C H e ca II e II n. ~. C08. HeBpohaTOJI., nCIIIIHBTp. II nCIIXotMt., 1934, f. III,
8. 9, e'tp. 17. - QI P II .11118 H A H. r. KnHH. welt., 1947, Hi 8, e'tp. &4. - X 1111 "I'll 8.. u-
K 14 It 'T. 51. 8 KtI.: HepBHo-nclfXH'ICCIt"! !l8l5oneaaHIII BoeHHoro BpeMeJtll. n., 1945,
l"tp. H~. - 'Ie pen 811 0 118 r. H. 8 kH.: .TPY.l1I' AMH CCCP. 1964,'t. 81, tTP. 162.-
qepltee A. H., MeJlbIlIlX0811 B. CP. 8 XII.: 11'Y.I1.. II MaTep. )tltp-. IIH.T8 118TOJ1otHH
II' r1lr1l1!!l1ll TPYlI!. XaphltOB, 1928,. 8. 6, crp. 1. - H s Q Y. It, C he ft r Y. t., BI'81n,
1938, Y. 61, p. 384. - Poll Ie h K. PsychlBtt. u. Neural., 1929, 8d. 70, S. 839: Bd. 11.
S. 82. -:- Pour sin e s Y., A 11 i e ~ J.. 102. M.. Rev. neural.. 1956, v. 94, p. 131.-
SI bell US C.. Mschr. Psychlatr.. Nt'urol.. 1905, 8d. 18. !tSl. Heft, S. 39.
Lowest Aniline Concentrations Affecting the Central Nervous System of Rabbits.
M. S. Zakabunina.
(Toxicological Laboratory of the Leningrad Institute of Labor Hygiene
and Occupational Diseases).
Farmakologiya i Toksikologiya, Vol. 18, No.3, 41-45, 1955.
The purpose of this study was to determine lowest aniline concentrations
which might affect the central nervous system of rabbits. The question of
possible methemoglobin formation in the blood of rabbits and cats exposed to
the action of low aniline concentrations was studied at the same time.
The
physiological effects of aniline have been extensively investigated, but no
reports were found in the literature on lowest detectable concentrations of
aniline affecting laboratory animals, and studies of the basic toxic properties
-119-
-------
of aniline yielded contradictory results.
Some authors, notably Hamilton,
Korsunskii, KUrschmann, Duvoir, classed aniline with thehemotropio poisons,
and ~he changes in the nervous system as the result of oxygen starvation caused
by methemoglobin formation. Other authors, namely N. P. Kravkov, S. M. Genkin,
A. N. Magnitskii, V. A. Muzheev, were of the opinion that aniline as a poison
also had a direct effect on the nervous system.
In view of the above, this author undertook to determine aniline concen-
trations which affecte~ the central nervous system and concentrations which
lead to the formation of methemoglobin. Seven rabbits of the first series of
tests were exposed to the inhalation of aniline vapor. A preliminary study
of the 895 Ii exposure chamber technic indicated that aniline run into the
chamber reached its maximum concentration. in 2 hours and that the concentr~-
tion persisted close to that level for 4 - 6 hours.
The aniline concentra-
tion in the chamber air was determined by Alekseeva's chemical me~hod before
each experimental rabbit exposure. Contact of the rabbit skin with the aniline
vapor was obviated by keeping the test animal outside the chamber and inserting
its head into an opening in the wall of the chamber containing the.aniline
vapo~air mixture. Air-vapor leakage was prevented with the aid of appropriate
obturators. Minimum concentrations affecting the central nervous system were
determined by Lyublina's method (1948) by measuring the time of muscular reflex
tension development and the muscular force exerted during the flexor reflex.
Experiments were performed in duplicate. Control tests indicated that the
technical factors as such had no effect on the reflex indexes used in this
study (see Fig. 1, a). 1/
Prior to determining threshold concentrations, control tests were made to
establish control or normal index values. Average results of 4 last determina~
tions made before connecting the rabbit with the aniline vapor containing cham-
ber were taken as the initial or normal level. Results obtain~d during the
rabbits' inhalation of aniline vapors were compared with the control level,
which was assigned the value of 100%. Double the highest concentrations which
effeoted no changes in the f~exor reflex response was. considered as the minimum
effective aniline vapor concentration (see Fig. 1, b). The results indicated
. .
1/ Since it is impossible to calculate average figures obtained in tests with
different rabbits, only individual typical curves are given in this article.
-120-
-------
that the minimum effective aniline ~oncentrations for rabbits were 0.02 - 0.04
mg/li (Fig. 1, c; Table 1).
'%
/10
100
gO
- -r-a' r: Con~'~~i
-~--
~\.. .) ,~
'\ '/ ~=~I : ~)<\ I.. .~('
" ~,
. -, b -. 0,01.M%
#\ ~j~~ ~"/I\ .A
7 ~ J \ i \, I', V ~'
\ )
,
-
.
lGO
./SO
'40
/30
120
/10
100
gO
110
1-1-
I
~
\
- - ---
c I ~
I
l\
l'
o.02.M~ jf-
I
1\/
I
d
0'{)I MZ/n J
II
J
I
, ,
,
...
\ .
,
, '
\. ,\ /.\ 1-;'"
'\ '
I-JI-/\ ,
I- ~'\ '/-...'
~
,
-.
. "-
..
-
o 10 20 30 40
o I();O 30 40
Fig. 1. Solid line - Changes in the rate of muscle reflex tension develop-
ment; Dash line - Changes in the magnitude of reflex muscle strain, in (a)
control and in (b, c, d) following the inhalatioo of aniline vapor..
Experiments a, band c were performed .~th rabbit 10. 12. Arrow pointing
downward marks the. beginning and. the arrow pointing upward marks the end of
aniline vapor inhalation. Heavy horizon~al solid lines mark the average
initial level. Time is in minutes.
TABLE
1.
Changes in the characteristics of the flexor reflex upon the inhalation of
. aniline vapor threshold concentrations.
.
.
.
.
i ~ ~
. . .
Rabbit~RabbitiWe~ghti
: : 1n :
No. : sex: :
: :grams ;
! ! !
Minimal active
concentration
in mg/li
Aniline
i : Changes in reflex
i Changes in the imuscle strain in % of
Irate of develop- i initial values; on
: ment of muscle :basis of % ratios of
iref1ex ~e~s~on ini averages, of 4 ~a~t
: % of J.nJ.tJ.a1 :dtns. durwg am.hne
i values ;inhalation to the av-
: :erage initial values
Rabbits
8 Female 2,150 0.02 +26 + 4
10 Male 2, 200 0.02 +13 +22
11 Female 2,100 0.02 +20 +24
12 Male' 2,200 0.02 +25 -15
52 Male 2,450 0.03 +34 +11
60 Female 2,500 0.03 +19 + 9
38 Female 3 ,600 0.04 +33 + 6
-121-
-------
Curves in Fig. 1 and data in Table 1 show that after 40 minutes of aniline
vapor inhalation in the indicated threshold concentrations an increase in the
stimulability of the central nervous system became manifest during the flexor
reflex response, as a rise in the speed of the muscular reflex tension devel-
opment by 13- 34%, and as enhanced muscular reflex force by 9 - 24% as com-
pared with the control level of 100%.
The high speed development of muscular reflex tension noticeably in-
creased toward the end of 40-minute inhalation of aniline vapor. The values
remained high for another 5 - 15, and at times 20 minutes after the animals'
inhalation exposure, and then returned to the original level.
The muscular reflex force manifested no such regular changes as the speed
in the development of muscular reflex tension; however, in most cases it was
increased toward the end of the experiments as compared with the original level.
In some tests the muscular reflex force was equivalent to the original level
or fell below it. Concentrations double or three times the threshold more
often led to clearer change manifestations in the flexor reflex indexes, such
as a considerable speed increase in the development of muscular reflex tension
and muscular refiex force. In addition these changes appeared with greater
rapidity than with threshold concentrations (see Fig. 2). On the basis of the
experimental results, it can be assumed that prolonged exposure may lower the
value of threshold concentrations.
'0/0
II
-
a b
.- I
1l.04.1f2M
..... -~ I {lOti "'2M
II J \. 1\
. !! I ~ /1\ 1\ - -
I- , \.
,1 J " \' " I~
-
- - i'. /~\ I II '\ [7
I '
I \ -
II ~. r'.I/ \, \, j If)I\. ' I""
, " \17 ' I- \ "-II
"",,'
"1
170
./6'0
150
.140
IJO
,120
110
JOO
..90
.80
70
o 10 20 .10 40 0 10. 20 .10 40
Fig. 2. Solid line - Changes in the rate of muscle reflex tension develop-
ment; Dash line - Changes in the magnitude of reflex muscle. strain, in (a)
rabbit No. 12 at double and in (b) rabbit No.8 at triple the aniline vapor
threshold concentrations.' Other notations same as in Fig. 1.
-122- .
-------
In this connection the second series of tests was conducted with an 8-hour
exposure and concentrations several times below those which constituted thresh-
old concentrations during a 40-minute exposure. The study procedure was some-
what differ~nt. A study was made first of the flexor reflex reactions, te~t-
ing them 6 - 8 times at 5-minute intervals using 2 rabbits for duplicate de-
terminatiqns. One rabbit was then set aside and the other was placed into,
the chamber containing aniline vapor, the concentration of which was deter-
mined by chemical analysis after 2, 6 and 8 hours; the average of the analyses
was taken as the representative concentration of exposure. Neither the con-
trol nor the test rabbit received any food during the 8-hour test. After 8
hours both rabbits were again tested for flexor reflex response determinations
as previously described.
%
IZO
flO
100
!l0
8Q
-
Control
'\ J '''I ~
A 8 hrs - I
'I --
- ) 1-- - ,
tl.OO/iN%
l~ j\. -
"
,8 hrs
.-, )~
rr '
.
:
'140
;30
120
110
100
.90
80
o IP 20 .10
o 10 20 .10
Fig. 3. Solid line - Changes in the rate
of muscle reflex tension development;
Dash line;" Changes in the magnitude of
reflex muscle strain before and after 8
hours exposure to aniline vapor in the
control experiments. Heavy horizontal
lines mark average initial level. Other
notations same as in Fig. 1.
Changes in the adapted in4exes
, .
of the flexor reflex manifestations
were similar to those ,of the first
test series at the end of exposure
(see Fig. 3). The results showed
that 0.004 - 0.006 mg/li of aniline
vapor could be accepted as thresh-,
old concentrations showing that ef-
fective concentrations with an 8-
hour exposure were 5 - 6 times
below those of 4D-minute exposure.
In connection with some tests
of both series quantitative det~r-
minations were made for methemo-
globin and Heinz's bodies before
and after evaluating the flexor re-
flex manifestations. Methemoglobin
was determined with the aid of a
universal photometer sensitive to
1.68%. No methemoglobin formation
or the presence of Heinz's bodies could be demonstrated in the blood of the
rabbits exposed to the inhalation of the aniline vapor.
The process of methemo-
globin formation was investigated in 2 cats which inhaled aniline vapor in
-123-
-------
c.oncentrations up to 0.06 mg/li during 40 minutes and 0.008 mg/li during an
8-hour period. No methemoglobin was detected in the blood of these cats.
Thus, the results of the tests and observations indicated that iow con-
centrations of aniline acted on the central nervous system long be£ore methemo-
globin began to make its appearance.
Conclusions.
10 The lowest aniline vapor concentrations affecting the central nervous
system of rabbits/determined by the conditioned reflex methods described in
the test, amounted to 0.02 - 0.04 rD8/li following 40 minutes exposure, and to.
0.004 - 0.006 mg/li following an 8-hour exposure. At such ~niline concentra-
tions the development of reflex muscular tension was speeded up, and the mus-
cular reflex effect in some instances was increased.
2. No blood methemoglobin formation could be discerned in rabbits and
cats after 4o-minute or 8-hour exposure to the above mentioned and even some-
what higher aniline vapor concentrations.
3. Low concentrations of aniline vapor affected the central nervous
system first.
Bibliography.
. AneKcee8a M. B., AHAPOIlOB 6. E., rYPB.. C. C.. )l(HTKOB8 A. C.,
OnpeAeneHHe BPeAHYX 8ell{ecT8 . aotIAyxe npOif3BOACTBeII." nolltJ8,eBHA, 111.-.11., 1949,
CTp. 198-301. - r e H K K H C. M., KnHRHIC8 OTpaaneHHI aMH.l.oeoe_ae"'''H.M 18rIpOCoeA.I-
HeHRln. 6eH3O/Ja, M.-JI., 1940.-r 0 p R JI. 3., ~ap.alDll. . 1'081:,,0.11. 1'51, T. )(,IV,
M 4, CTJI. 31-40. - JlIO 6 n H H 8 E. M., C60PHHK pa60T 'IIOIrCJI1fOII. n86op. n_HI'p.
Haytlll.-lICCAeA. &H-Ta rRf. TpyU R nPocI>3a60neB8HHA, 8. S, n., 19411, nr. .sl~-
MarHllluoftA A. H, 6nHR3Ba A. M. H Bep3Hn08a O. B., TpYAW Ikec. K8-1a
9lCcnepHIi. ileA., T. I, B.. 2, n., 1934, CTp. 137-138.-M Y )I( e ee B. A., )l(YPH. 9KcnepKIl.
MeA., 1~, T. II, B. 1-2, CTp. 250-253. - Cur sch man n, Vi,erteljahrsscluift f. affent!.
Gesundheltspflege, B~. 43, 42, 225 (1911). -I)u vo i r, P~. Journ. of. Ind. Hyg. 8. Fox.,
II, 8, 1929. - Ham I I ton A., Pe
-------
Effect of Volatile Substances and of Gases on the Higher Nervous Activity
of White Rats in the Course of Inhalation Exposure.
z. E. Grigor'evo
(The Leningrad State Scientific-Research Institute of Labor Hygiene
and Occupational Diseases).
Farmakologiya i Toksikologiya, Vol. 18, No.4, 49-52, 19550
I. P. Pavlov's method of conditioned reflexes ds widely utilized in ex- .
perimental work by toxicological laboratories. However, this method has a
number of shortcomings which are inherent in the fact that inhalation exposures
are made in a special closed inhalation chamber, while tests for effect on
the conditioned reflexes are made in another chamber specially equipped for
this purpose. Transferring the animal from one chamber to another and chang-
ing experimental conditions in the course of the experiment may affect the
animal adversely and may lead to deviations in the conditioned reflex activity.
Under such conditions, the investigator can not observe the effect of a sub-
stance directly during the test/but at a later period. The signific~nce of
this shortcoming becomes greater with the increase i~ the interval between
the eLd of the inhalation exposure
flex test, depending also upon the
the test substance inhaled.
An attempt was made to evolve a method of experimental investigation which
would permit the development of conditioned reflexes and the inhalation ex-
posure in one chamber. For this purpose a tightly closing chamber waS built
which could be used simultaneously for the development of light, sound and
motor nutrition conditioned reflexes in rats)and for their exposure to the
inhalation of gas, vapor or dust under investigation.
The chamber was an 800 x 3.0 x 490 mm metal box having a
liters (Figs. 1 and 2). The front wall and the lid were made
and the beginning of the conditioned re-
rate with which the organism eliminated
capacity of 121
of heavy glass.
The remaining walls and the floor were.made of metal. Special provisions were
made for the collection of air samples, for the purification of the chamber
air, and for the running out of the chamber wash water, etc. The glass lid
had an opening for the introduction into the chamber of the substance under
study. A mirror was fixed on top of the lid which permitted observation of
the animal's behaVior in the chamber. Means for light and sound signals were
installed inside or outside of the chamber.
The chamber was divided into 2
--125-
-------
-«y
~;::;'#'#~h/
Fig 0 1.
Outside view of chamber.
~:;:',:' \:i~:<\~;:'"
\..\~~\.\\..\\(; :\\\ ,~
\, ,," ,;~
, \,\' ,', '.\', .',\ "\
\~~,\ \~ '\\\\'; '\, ' '\\, ,;" ~'.
Fig. 2.
Inside view of chamber.
parts by a folding screen,
which enabled to conduct tests
either in one or both sections
aimul taneously .
A platform was
built inside the chamber which
could be moved through a door
in the end wall of the chamber.
The platform consisted of 3
movable Bections and 2 station-
ary panels.
The movable sec-
tions were connected with a
chronometer which recorded the
time the animals had been confined in
The movable feed boxes
the chamber.
were installed at the ends of the plat-
form. The chamber was tightly closed.
Preliminary control tests were made to
determine the suitability of the cham-
ber to the purpose at hand.
Tests with individual rats were
conducted every morning.
Test records
contained the following information:
test number, date, hour, index number
of the given stimulation, duration of latent period in seconds, duration of
positive conditioned reflex from the beginning of conditioned stimulation to
the start of the motor reaction in seconds, duration of the reaction in sec-
onds, retardation or lack of reaction to differential stimulation, behavior
of the rat in the chamber in regard to mobility, appetite, etc.
Tests were made in stages as follows:
First stage:
development of positive motor-nutrition conditioned reflex
with red light. During the first days of the experiments the rats were placed
int0 the chamber where they remained immobile for a long ti~me (orientation
reflex); after that the rats slowly and cautiously began to move around in the
chamber. They soon found the feed box - but did not eat. Switching on of
light startled them and they hid in a corner. To enable the rats to become
-126-
-------
ac~limatized with thei~ new surroundings/they were left in the chambers over-
. ni~ht with the feed boxes filled. This brought about a sharp change in the
behavior of the rats. They began to move around freely, sniffing all the.
while, and 'when they came upon the feed tr?ughs/they grabbed the food con~
sisting of pieces of white. bread soaked in milk, ran off and ate it. Pre-
liminary experiments indicated that white bread pieces of 10 mm3 were suited
. .
for the development of conditioned motor-nutrition. reflexes.
Developmen.t of the positive conditioned motor-nutrition reflexes was
carried out by the "coincidence" metl1od, i. e., simultaneously with the ap-
plication of the conditioning stimulus the feed box was moved into view.
. .
Later on, when the conditioned reflexes developed in
. .
inforcerrient was delayed by 1 - 3 seconds. Intervals
light varied between 3 to 5 minutes.
the 'rats, the food re-
between stimulation by
Several "coincidence" red light tests with food reinforcement brought
about positive results. On the second day, when the. red light was switched
on, the rats ran to the feed trough and enhanced the effect of motor-nutrition.
reinforcement" During the following 15 days the positive conditioned reflex
to red light with food reinforcement was firmly fixed~ Eighty red light sig-
nals elicited a 100% positive reaction. Duration of the latent period equaled
0.5 - lsecon.d.
Second stage:
development of inhibition differentiation conditionedre-
-
flex to white light. Red light, reinforced by food, rfIPa.ined as the positive
conditioned reflex stimulant ::-, , ~,¥u. ternating with it at 15 seconds a white light
was introduced which was n.ot reinforced ~y food/for the development of in-
hibition differentiation response. Positive results were achieved after 14
tests, consisting of 296 conditioned inhibition stimulations.
Third stage: extinction and conversion of positive food conditioned re-
flexes into inhibition reflex response,and the latter into positive reflex
response. Extinction of positive conditioned reflexes was conducted inter-
mittently. Every 3 - 4 minutes the red lamp was switched on for 15 seconds
without food reinforcement. At first appearance of the. red signal the rats
ran to the feed box; pausing awhile but not receiving any reinforcement, the
rats slowly walked away from the feed troughf to return to it again. It was.
. . 1
observed that following the first test with no "reinforcement" after 50 min-
utes the conditioned red light stimulation was losing its primary significance.
-121-
-------
During following d~s the extinction of the conditioned reflex gained in iri~
tensity/and on the 9th day, after 53 non-reinforced red light signals, the
positive food conditioned reflex faded out to complete extinction. Immediately
after the extinction of the ~ositive conditioned reflex to red light; the
development of new positive food conditioned reflexes to white light was in-
i tiated again. At firs.t white light was switched on for 15 seconds "rein-
forced" by food, and 3 - 4 minutes later the red light was switched on for
15 seconds without food reinforcement~ Stimulation was alternated as follows:
during the test t~ white light was switched on 4 times, and the red light 3
times. Positive results were obtained 'on the sixth test. In response to the
white light signal the rats came running rapidly to the feed box,and in
response to the red light they reacted by a mere turn of the head toward the
light, but did not approach the feed box. During the following 20 d~s the
results obtained were firmly fixed, after which tests were initiated to deter-
mine the effect of benzine vapors on the central nervous system of rats~
Rapid extinction and change in conditioned reflex response iriaicated high
stimulability of the cortical processes in the experimental animals. Such
behavior of the test anima~ most prqbably was augmented by the preceding lengthy
training in developing the first motor-nutritional conditioned reflex, pre-
ceding the extinction.
Fourth stage: testing the effect of gasoline vapor on the higher nervous
activity of rats. Tests with inhalation of gasoline vapor were conducted on
rats of which 2 served as controls. The test rat was placed into the chamber.
Three to 4 minutes later the white light reinforced by food was switched on;
2 - 3 minutes later the red light was switched on wi~~out food reinforcement.
Then, a sheet of blotting paper saturated by a calculated amount of gasoline:
was introduced into the exposure chamber through a special opening. The gaso-
line concentration in the chamber WaS easily.determined. Intervals between
the white light signals were about 5 minutes, and the test lasted not more than
50 minutes. The rat's reaction to the first 2 signals,before gasoline ~~ala-
tionJserved as a control for the rat being tested. Changes in the response to
subsequent signals indicated the effect of gasoline ,vapor inhalation. A del~
in the latent period of reflex response exceeding 15 seconds was recorded as
a negative response. Each test rat was. subjected to 11 white light and 5 red
light conditioned stimulations, and to 54.gasoline vapor inhalation exposures
of different kinds of'gasoline.
"';128-
-------
Gasoline "Galosha"
0.25.g/li
I., -
,.J
I
I
. ,
::: :10
5'
u;
I:
c'
, .
:~s -II
... o~~6J1W~
U_--+
- . ,
-.- ~ ---- --- ----
Fig- 3. Disturbance of condi-
tioned refle. activity of rat
dur inS '(he inii.TirlJoA' "fv.par'
'...-- ofS&8cJI i ne'''IrG.'1 o8tii1f';' -,
White circle - White light
signal. Black circle - Red'
light signal. Left vertical
tangential I in. - Latent peri-
od in seconda. Right vertical
tangenti al I In. - Reaction
tilile in seconds. Five .In-
, ute pause bet.e~ slgnala.
Arrow below circle. .ark. the
ti.e of g&80llne vapor In-
troduction into chamber.
.J
'l'he . f 011 owing gasoline ,!L.we;J;'~,,"it ~ sted, ~- "c~~-".'
oil g,?-sol~ne trad~Fked "Galosha", catalytic:.cxack"" ..
ing gasoline't~adelIlarked "Gudri", synthetic gasoline
obtained by the so-called "synthin" process, and
hydrogenated coal gasoline~
The tests i~dicated that vapors of the above
gasolines in 0.25 mg/li concentration produced a
compensating phase and a slight increase inthelaten~
period of response and of the reaction time. 0~5
mg/li gasoline concentr?otionqconsidera~~y ,disturbed,
the conditioned reflex activity of the rat s: the, '
period of response and the reaction time were pro-
,longed, and at some'stages of ,the tests differentia-
"tion inhibition release made its appearance. The
higher the gasoline vapor concentration, the sooner
and profounder were the conditioned reflexes disturbed.
The 4 mg/li gasoline concentration caused differentia~
tion disturbances in 91.1% of all reflex test combina~
tions. The positive conditioned reflex response was
the most resistant. With 6 mg/li of gasoline vapor
90ncentration disturbed differentiation response and
positive conditioned reflex response were followed b.Y delayed inhibition.
The effect of carbon monoxide on the central nervous system was studied
in the same ohamber on another group of rats. The results indioated that 0.06 -
0.65 mg/li concentration of CO disturbed the conditioned reflex activity: at
first there"appeared a delay in the latent period of response aocompanied by .a
prolonged reaction time, diffused differentiation and also by phase manifesta-
tions and general diffused inhibition.
In this report on the study of the
effects of , gasoline vapor and of carbon
-
monoxide on the central nervous system of rats only some data are presented to
,illustrate the suitability of the chamber described for the recording of rats'
, '
conditi-oned reflex activity change~,,()n.a,dynam.ic basis while they are being
exposed to the inhalation.. of gases, vapors or suspended dust.
Conclusions.
1. The portable tightly closing chamber herein described makes possible
the development in rats of conditioned reflexes with food reinforcement and
. -129-
-------
the investigation of conditioned reflex activity changes directly during in-
halation exposure.
2. -The method wasapplied.to the determination of the minimum gasoline
and carbon monoxide concentration affecting the central nervous system; it
proved sufficiently sensitive in studying the action of other volatile chemi-
cal substances_used in-the different industries.
Distribution and Elimination of 535 in Animals after Inhalation of
Labeled Sulfuric Acid Aerosol.
O. G. Vasil'eva.
(Institute of Labor Hygiene and Occupational Diseases, Moscow).
Gigiena Truda i Professional'nye Zabol~vaniya, Vol. 1, No.3, 39-43, 1957.
-- .
Sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid aerosol are the most widely distributed
pollutants of air of industrial product~on and manufacturing premises. Most
investigators class sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid with substances which
possess irritating properties,-especially to the upper respiratory tract.
- -
Some authors, notably Shafranov, reported harmful effects produced by the 2
- -
substances"to the digestive organs. The deleterious effects are believed-to
be due to the acid burning produced by the sulfur dioxide which, upon settling
- -
within the mucosa, becomes converted to sulfuric acid. Authors who studied
the chronic effect of low doses of sulfur dioxide noted- enha~ced erythropoiesis
in the bone marrow (K. F. Elenevskii and I. M. Peisakhovich), increased n~b~r
of erythrocYtes and increased hemoglobin percent (Kionka),disturbed carbo-
- hydrate metabolism (M. M. Nikulina,~t al,I~ "V. - ~idorenkov), marked_shifts
in the carbohydrate and pigment subst:a:ricesin the liver, changes in the blood
colloids (N. P. Sterekhova), and a fall in blood carbohydrase activity (V. A.
Litkens and A. V. Sakhyn). It has been known for some time' that sulfur dioxi4e
lodging upon wet mucosa-became partly oxidized to sulfuric acid, and was ulti-
mately eliminate'd'. Via the urine as sulfate.
-130-
-------
Nevertheless, the question of the mechanism of" ~..\ toxic action of 502
remains basically unanswered, and practically no knowledge exists which might
explain the w~ in which 502 is converted to sulfuric acid aerosol in the air
of working premises. The purpose of the present study was to secure experi-
mental data which might throw light on the fate of sulfuric acid which entered
the living organism. Rats were used in the experiments. They were exposed
to the inhalation of S35-labeled sulfuric acid. Sixty-four rats were used in
6 sets of tests. The H2S3504 aerosol concentrations in the inhaled air were
. regulated by the rate of air bubbled through a known H2S3504 solution and ranged
between 0.008 and 0.017 mg/li. The specific activity of 1 liter of the inhaled
. air ranged between 5,300 and 93,000 imp/min. Rats w~re exposed to the effect
of the labeled sulfuric acid aerosol for 1 hour. The content of radioactive
S35 in the blood and in the organs was determined 30 minutes, 24,48 and 72
hours, and 5 and 10 days after the experimental exposure of the rats. S35
determinations were made using 0.1 ml of the blood serum. One thousand and
two hundred S35 counts were made by the thick layer method.
TABLE 1.
Radioactivity of organs in rats after inhaling H2S3504 for one hour.
. Specific organ and tissue activity in imp/min/g, after
.
.
Tissues :. 30 : 24 48 72 . 5 10
.
i minutes i .
hours hours hours . days days
.
.
Lungs 710 135 51 55 20. 20
Blood 580 104 47 40 14 16
Liver 532 85 44 ~6 16 0
Large intestine 385 1413 408 415 104 96
Bone marrow 333 508 370 440 50 34
Kidneys 262 180 157 84 17 28
Spleen 257 82 45 16 14 10
Heart 216 31 44 11 10 0
Small intestine 185 275 258 125 31 26
Urine 161 504 62 100 43 42
Stomach 61 340 207 152 25 24
Muscles 51 43 9 '0 10 14
Feces 18 2693 769 970 220 100
Brain 17 20 26 0 50 0
Averages of S35 content in organs of the white rats are shown in Table 1;
the averages ' represent tests made with the blood of 10 rats exposed to the ef..;.
fect of H2S3504 for one hour. The results are plotted in block form in Fig. 1.
The data clearly point to the fact that in the course of one hour inhalation,
-131-
-------
100
lUU
IUU
lOP
'00
«10
1(1(}
100
"'i l'
I
~
. .I: . ~ . c: ... c:
. ..., L. Int..tine L.
0 e 0 " e c: e
co e 0 c: e . e
c 0 >' e L. . . L.
::J C L. . CJ) e ... L. co
~ co ~ o. 0 . L. U. ::;) "" :c
co. ... . . ¥ '"
'" '" ~
~ IAfter 30 .in.
~ /After 21t hn.
~ .After 1t8 hr..
Fi&. I.
S35 of labeled sulfuric acid aerosol entered the blood stream~ the lungs,
and from there became distributed unevenly throughout the body organs. In
fact, even 30 minutes after the inhalation exposure, S35 was found in notable
quantities in the lungs, blood, liver, bone marrow and in the large intestines.
A comparatively small amount of the 535 was lost in the kidneys, the urine and
in the small intestine. A slight amount of S35 was found in the muscles, the
stomach, the brain and in the feces. It was noted that a considerable amount
of 535 was swallowed by the exposed rats and entered directly into the gastro-
intestinal tract; a considerable amount of the 535 was found in the large in-
testine. However, a comparison of the amount of S35 found in' the I stomach and
in the large intestine pointed to the fact that S35 entered t~e large intestine
not by way of the stomach: at. the time the count in the stomach registered
61 imp/min/g, it registered 385 imp/min/g in the large intestine. Therefore,
it would seem that the sulfuric acid conversion products w~re eliminated, not
only through the kidneys, but through the intestinal tract as well; it was
also noted that the sulfates began to be eliminated a few hours after the in-
halation exposure.
It is interesting to note that even in rats which inhaled air containing
low concentrations of labeled sulfuric acid aerosol, considerable spe'cific
activity was registered b,y the brain tissue 30 minutes after the inhalation
exposure. However, 24 hours after inhalation the 535 distribution picture
changed considerably: the content of 535 in the blood, lungs and liver fell
-132-
-------
considerably; at t?e same time the specific activity in the large intestine,
the small intestine and in the bone marrow increased. The 535 elimination
with the urine and feces assumed considerable proportions during the first
days after the rats' inhalation exposure; the radioactivity in the brain,
spleen, heart and muscles persisted at a low level. Two to 3 days..after the
inhalation the 535 distribution and the sulfate elimination underwent only
slight changes: the absolute quantities of 535 contained in the organs and
eliminated with the urine and feces fell to lower levels; however, compara-
tively large quantities of the 535 were found in the fec~~, large intestine
and in the bone marrow. The gFeater part of 535 was eliminated from the
organism during the first 2 - 3.days; on;I.y traces of it were detected on the
. .
5th day after inhalation exposure. Comparatively higher concentrations of
535 persisted in the large intestine and in the feces. The persistence of the
increased 535 concentrations in the feces indicated that the process of 535
elimination from the different organs was still in the active stage. The
curves in Fig. 2 depict the course of distribution and elimination of 535
during a period of 10 days.
Changes in the 535 content in the lungs, the blood ~nd the liver_r~-
parallel courses. During the first days the curvesj. of 535coJ;ltent sharpl;r
fell to lower levels; thereafter the fall became more gradual. As the 535
content in the lungs,
blood and liver fell con-
710
700.
650
600
SSO
SOO
/,50
/,00
350
300
150
200
:'50
100
50
30 21t ..e 72 5 day. 10' days
min. hr.. hr.. hr..
==- 1 ung8.==tllood==1 iver :::::::.....: bone marrow
-urine-feces
Fig. 2.
-133-
siderably, its elimination
with the urine and feces
increased in a fluctuating
wavelike manner, instead
of a gradual smooth-cruve
manner. The 535 content
in the bone marrow was high
during the first 3 days
after inhalation exposure.
The 535 content in the
feces was still consider-
ably above that in the or-
gans on the 5th day after
-------
inhalation exposure. The course followed by the sulfuric acid after it.
penetrated into the organism was studied by making detenDinations of specific
S35 activity in. the total proteins, protein fractions and in the tissues.
Proteins were precipitated with CC13COOH; they were then washed free of in-
organic S. Analysis showed that during the immediate hours after inhalation,
S35 was present in the lungs and in the blood in the form of sulfates. Dur-
ing the later post-exposure periods t~e S35 was found in the organs as a con-
stituent part of the protein molecule. Studies of this type will be continued
for the purpose of obtaining more precise qualitative and quantitative data
related to this phase of the investiga.t~on.
Analysis of the experimental data showed that during the inhalation of
sulfuric acid aerosol the products of its conve~sion were unevenly distributed
. .
among the tissues; based on the determined intensity of specific activity, the
. .
organs fell into 3 groups: (1) the lungs, blood, liver and bone marrow, which
were first to absorb the S35 in comparatively large amounts; (2) heart, stom-
ach, brain, small intestine, which absorbed less of the S35; (3) large intes-
tine and the kidneys, which eliminated the products of H2S3504 conversion.
S35 was absorbed by the lungs~ blood and liver practically simultaneously.
The persistence of sulfuric acid, or.of products of its conversion, may have
been the factors responsible for. the appearance of corresponding pathologic
changes. N. P. Sterekhova reported similar carbohydrate and pigment sub:
stance metabolic disturbances .in the liver. It is assumed that suchrmetabolic
liver disturbances were caused by the increase in the liver of sulfur-contain-
ing d~ubstances. It appears probable that further studies of the functional
. .
state of the liver in S02 and H2S04 intoxication will disclose other pathologic
liver changes suggestive of organic liver damage.
From the viewpoint of manifestations resulting from the resorptive action
of sulfuric acid, the increase in the S35 content in the brain was of partic-
ular interest. It appears likely that the enhanced erythropoiesis in the bone
marrow, the increased number of erythrocytes and of hemoglobin percent, etc.1
. - .
noted by many other investigators/may be directly related to the increase in
sulfur-containing substances observed by the present authors in the bone mar-
row. The experimental data previously presented indicated that the course
of sulfate elimination was a protracted and uneven one. It appeared clear
that even after a single one hour exposure to the inhalation of H2S3504 aere-
-134-
-------
sol the elimination of the excess sulfates extended over a long period of time.
, ,
Elimination began the moment the increased sulfur-containing substances entered
the blood stream; this was indicated by the increased S35 content in the large
intes~ine 30 minutes after exposure to the H2S04 aerosol inhalation. Sulfate
elimination is the fUnction of the intestinal tract and of the kidneys;' it
extended over 10 or more days, regardless of the fact that the H2S3504 con-
centration in the experiments under discussion ranged between 0.008 and 0.017
mg/lio
The slow rate of sulfate elimination in the presence of continuous ab-
sorption of H2S04 by the body organs can result in dangerous accumulations of
considerable quantities of sulfur-containing products in the organism. The
increased concentration of sulfates in the urine and in the feces may prove
of diagnostic significance; it should be taken intQ consideration in deter-
\
mining cases of S02 or H2S04 aerosol intoxication, or intoxication with sulfur-
containing products. The increase in sulfate content in the urine and/or in
the feces can be used as an adjunct in the differential diagnosis of acute
poisoning with irritating substances.
Conclusions.
10 Sulfuric acid aerosol rapidly penetrated into the blood stream fol-
lowing a single inhalation exposure of animals. The products of sulfuric acid
conversion were distributed by the blood into the body organs and tissues, in
which they persisted for 10 days or longero
20 Sulfur-containing products of sulfuric acid conversion were distributed
among the organs and tissues in an uneven manner. The.y were first localized
in the lungs, blood, liver and large intestine. During the early days 'after
inhalation exposure, the accumulation of sulfur-containing products progres-
sively increased in the large intestine, the feces and in the urine.
3. Labeled sulfur-containing sulfuric acid 'conversion products were
eliminated through the intestinal tract and through the kidney~.
40 The bone marrow absorbed considerable ~uantities of sulfur-containing
substances. S35 persisted in the bone marrow in considerable amounts for
several days after a single one hour exposure to H2S3~04 aerosol inhalation.
5. . Thedat~herein presented point to the possible resorption of sul-
furic acid aerosolo
-135-
-------
Bibliography.
Ene H e B C K H A K. CI>., n e A C 8 X 0 B H q 11., M. B KH.: npOMblwneHHble RAN, OKIiCb
yrnepOlta, CBHHel!, CepHHCThlA ra3. XapbKoB, 1928, CTp. 380-385. - n H T K e H C B. .\.,
C a K H bI H b A. B. BKH.: Bonpocbl rHrHeHbI TPYlla, npo4>eccHoHanbHoA naTOnOl'HH H TOK.
CHKonorHH B npOMblwneHHOCTH CBepltnOBCKOA 06nacTH. CBepltnOBCK, 1955, C'I'p. 160-172.-
HHKynJlHa M. M., reTM8H 1.1. JI,., MapronHHa H. M. B KH.: TpYJlbI neHHII-
rp8ltCKOrO HH-Ta npolJ>:ia60neBaHHii. n., 1934, T., 8, CTp. 89-93. - C H It 0 P e H K 0 B 11. B.
K Bonpocy 0 pe30p6THBHOM, lleAcTBHH cepHHCToro ra3a,)I(. lJ>apMaKon. H TOKCHKon.,
B. 3, T. XIlI, 1950, CTp. 5--8.- 0 H )K e. B KH.: Te3HcbI II BcecOJ03Horo cOBeu1aHHR
no BonpocaM npoMblwneHHOA TOKcHKonorHH. M., 1952, CTp. 14-15.-C T e p e x 0 B 8 H. n.
iB I':H.: BonpocbI rHrHeHbI' TPYlt8, npo4>eccHoHanbHoA n8TonorHH H TOKcHKonorHH B npo-
:MI.wLnewHoa.u CsepJtnoBcKoA 06n8cTH. CBepltJIOBCK, 1955, CTP. 173--178.
-136-
-------
Prevention of Air Dustiness in Mineral Wool Manufacturing Establishments.
L. S. Rozanov, V. G. Matsak and I. So' Shereshevskaya.
(The Moscow City Sanitary-Epidemiological Station).
Gigiena i Sanitariya, No.3, 14-18,1952.
Mineral wool was first manufactured in Russia in 1901 in the Beloretsk
Metallurgical Plant.
was commenced in 1933.
Mineral wool is used in filtering air, gases and liquids, in heat in-
sulation, in soundproofing, etc. It is produced from different molten minerals}
or their compounds,at temperatures up to 13000, by blowing through the molten
mass either superheated steam or compressed air under pressure of 8 atm. Three
Exten~ive production of mineral wool in the U.S.S.R.
varieties of mineral wool are manufactured, namely, mineral wool, slag wooi
and glass wool, depending upon the raw materials used. Each type of the min-
eral wool is used for the manufacture of a variety of consumer articles.
The raw materials are melted in water jacketed cupola furnaces. The min-
eral threads are blown from the molten mass into a special settling chamber
equipped with an automatically-unloading screen-type transporter. The mineral
wool layer is carried by the transporter out of the chamber, where it is wound
over rolls in the shape resembling a form of felt/and is manually removed from
the rolls at given time intervals.
The thickness of individual threads varies from 0.01 to 0.3 mm. Low grade
mineral wool contains solidified droplets of the molten substance in the form
of spherical "beads" or "tear drops", which failed to become drawn out into
threads. 0.5% by weight, or 2.4 kg per hour of mineral 'oil.,is added to the
steam for the production of more perfect threads or filaments; incidentally,
the added oil also helps to reduce the air dust concentration when the-threads
are removed from the transporter" we~ghed, packed or applied. The air pressure
inside the mineral thread receiving chamber must be maintained below atmospheric
pressure to prevent the dust from polluting the air of the entire production
department. Such air pollution was noted during one of the inspection tours.
. .,
The mineral threads adhere to the ceiling and to the machinery/forming
a heavy layer/which breaks up at intervals and falls to the floor}thereby
adding to the air pollution. The process of thread formation is completed
at a distance of 3 to 4 meters from the furnace opening. The usual length of
-137-
-------
the inspected chambers varied from 12 to 15 m, a distance requisite for uniform
mineral wool settling; before leaving the chamber the mineral wool is pressed.
together by means of a light roller. ,A blower, which forces out the mixture
of, air and steam is attached to the side of the chamber. The air thus forced
,
out may contain a high dust concentration.
Mineral wool dust strongly irritates the skin, the mucous membrane of the
larynx, the nose and eyes, produces a burning and itching of the skin, and
elicits pain in the nose and throat. Only few papers were found in the lit-
erature devoted to the study of the action of mineral wool dust. In 1935
. ,
Fairhall and others detected the presence o~ fine, almost ,imperceptible,
silicate particles in the bronchioles,and partly in the alveoli/and in the
connective tissue of cats' lungs after 2 months of such dust inhalation; tis-
sue reaction was slight.
In 1939 Thoenen reported that mineral wool dust developed a reaction in
the 'lungs resembling the reaction to asbestos, which could result in the forma-
tion of diffuse pulmonary fibrosis.
Three installations producing mineral wool in one plant,and one installa-
tion in another plant/were investigated by the authors. The raw material used
in both plants was marl, which contained 41 to 45% of silica.
Summarized data of many tests for air dustiness in one of the plants are
presented in Table 1.
TABLE
1.
Point of sample taking
: Dry mineral : Oiled mineral
i wool outlet i wool outlet
:N b : Concentration :N b : Concentration
: um er: . I 3 : um er: . / j
i f i J.n mg m i f i J.n mg m
. 0 . . 0 .
EsamplesEMaximal!AverageEsamples!Maximal!Average
: : : : : :
At the cupola furnace during 4 16.0 12.2 6 11.0 4.5
wool formation
At point of mineral wool 5 139_.3 74.4 13 59.0 17.6
chamber, outlet
At point of wool unloading 4 116 .0 38.6 16 24.6 10.5
At the weighing scales 4 103.9 59.2 5 1503 6.1
At point of packing 3 124.6 74.9 4 23.3 16.5
It should be noted that from 80 to 90% of the total mineral wool was
produced by the oil method. Highest dust concentrations were observed in the
-138-
-------
early samples. Subsequent samples taken after sanitary improvements have
been introduced showed lower concentrations of mineral wool dust. For in-
stance, during March 1949 the average dust concentration caused by the produc-
tion of oiled mineral threads was 23 mgjm3; in July and August of 1950 the
average dust concentration was reduced to 12 mgjm3; it was further reduced
to 11.9 mgjm3 by September-1950; no dust was found in air samples collected
subsequentlyo These results indicated convincingly that a reduction in the
air dust concentration was possible under certain operational conditions in
the wool settling chamber.
It should be further noted that air dustiness at the point of mineral
wool unloading varied with the specific chamber construction.
The lowest dust
concentration was obtained at installation No.2 which had a solid brick wall
between the point of mineral wool removal and the end of the wool deposit
chamber; all the dust was caught at the nearest side of the wall and did not
reach the point of mineral wool removal. It appears that such means of
protection yielded positive results. Data in Table 1 show that the highest
air dust concentration was found in sections of the plant which manufactured
dry mineral wool/and where the weighing and packing were not mechanized.
The condition of the air in another plant)which manufactured oiled cotton,
was considerably better hygienically.
TABLE
2.
Place of sample taking
: Oiled.-mineral wool outlet
!. . :. Average
Number of
: !concentration
i samples i in mg/m3
At cupola furnace during wool formation
At point of mineral wool chamber outlet
At point of mineral wool unloading
At center of production room
2
3
3
2
1.0
4.6
8.2
4.6
In the course of the present investigation the administrators of the
plants instituted some sanitary measures which yielded positive results, as
was shown by the fact that the average air dust concentration at all points
of observation fell to 104 mgjm3. .
An analysis of the dust made in 1949 showed that the sweepings contained
5 to 6% of silicic acid. The content of silicic acid in the air dust sampled
-139-
-------
in 1950 did not exceed 1%. However, the total amount of siicic acid in the
dust of air samples was as high as 30 and even 71%. A microscopic analysis
of dustfspontaneously settled op cover glasses/showed the particles to have
a specific spicular structure. They appeared as elongated glass threads of
different sizes having a pointed tip at one end and a small bulb-like forma-
tion at the other end. In addition to intact threads the preparation contained
numerous broken threads and fine shapeless, sharply edged particles, partic-
uiary abundant in the mineral wool manufactured by the oil-free process. The
dust particles in the air of an establishment manufacturing mineral wool ,by
the oil process were fewer than in the air surrounding the manufacture of dry
mineral WQolo The dispersity and the amount of dust settled in 30 minutes at
105 m from the point of wool unloading in one of the plants are shown in
Table 3.
TABLE
30
Position of
glass coat
.
.
i Type. of
! wool
.
: Dust i'
iparticles;
: settled:
;per 1 mm2i
Du-st'..dispeFMoo. ~ Ii-'
Under: 2.0.- : 4.0 - : 6.0-
: :
2.0 : 4.0 : 6.0 : 10.0
i Above
: 10.0
Horizontal
Vertical
Horizontal
Vertical
Dry
Dry
Oiled
Oiled
7,400
975
246
194
88.9%
29.9%
1805%
23 . 9%
407%
46.1%
28.8%
26.3%
0.9%
11.9%
13.5%
0.8%
5.1%
10.5%
12. 9%
4.7%
7.0%
28. 7%
36.9%
The data in the Table show that the number of particles up to 4.0 ~ in
the air surrounding the dry mineral wool manufacture constituted 76 to 93.6%
of the total number of particles in the freely settled dust~ similar sized
particles constituted only 47.3 to 50.2% of the dust freely settled in the
section of the oiled manufacture of the mineral woolo . It was found that the
number of dust particles suspended in the air was 5 to 30 times greater where
mineral wool was manufactured by the dry process than by the oil process; in
addition the dust particles created durkng the oil pr?cess wool manufacture
were. of considerably greater diameter and settled spontaneously more quickly..
It is obvious, therefore, that the dry process creates conditions less favor-
able from a sanitary viewpoint.
A study of the dispersity of the dust which
cover glass in another plant and of the particle
the same results. Determinations were also made
settled spontaneously on the
counts yielded approximately
for the content of hydro-
-140-
-------
carbons and sulfur dioxide in the air of the mineral wool manufacturing plants.
Summarized results are shown in Table 4.
TABLE
4.
Place of
sample collection
: Hydrocarbons :Carbon monoxide:Sulfur dioxide
. - . .
: :Average: :Average: : Average
: . . . . :
:Number !concen-iNumber iconcen-iNumber iconcen-
i of itration; of ;tration; of itration
: samples: in : samples: in : samples: in
i i mgJli ! I mgJli i I mgJli
Blast furnace platform 1 0.72 5 0.025 3 0.008
At blast furnace 6 0.67 6 0.015 3 0.005
At place of wool removal 4 0.27 1 0.014
.~
The data in Table 4 show that the carbon monoxide concentration at work-
ing points was considerably below the threshold value.
Air temperature in the furnace section exceeded the outside air tempera-
ture by 6 to 100 near the furnaces and by 10 to 150 near the charging plat-
,~orm. The forced air produced a loud noise at the furnaces. The high dust
concentration in the air of both plants was augmented by the lack of air
purifying equipment. Oniy one chamger was equipped with a 23,400 m3Jhour
exhaust pump which created air rarification adequate for the prevention 01
dust separation.
Medical examinations. of the shop workers in 1949 and 1950/including
chest X-~ays,failed to detect any cases of specific pulmonar,y pathologic con-
ditions. The workers of the plants manufacturing mineral wool were given.
special work clothes consisting of overalls, kerchiefs and mittens. At the
end of the work shift the special work clothes were placed in individual
lockers and the workers were instructed to take a hot shower.
While on the job the workers wore cotton and gauze gas masks. Those work-
ing in shops manufacturing dr,y mineral wool should wear goggles to protect
mucosa of the eyes from becoming irritated.
The following sanitar,y-hygienic recommendations were made:
1. Prohibit the manufacture of mineral wool by the dr,y process.
20 Develop a continuous automatic and tightly enclosed process of min-
eral wool ~anufacture,thereby, eliminating the steps of manual unloading,
reeling, weighing and packing.
,
-141-
-------
3. Reduce appropriately the volume of air ejected by the steam after
having determined:
a.
the optimal distance between the receiving pipe of the wool
deposit chamber and the point of the molten mineral atomizing;
b.
the optimal steam use;
c. the most suitable shape of the receiving pipe or nipple.
4. Exhaust the air below the conveyer which carries the wool from the
thread deposit chamber at a rate not less than 20,000 m3/hour.
5. Equip the thread-deposit chambers with pressure gauges.
6. Equip the point of mineral wool exit with air suction facilities
for dust removal and inclose it.
1.
Equip the shops with exhaust ventilation for the removal of hydro-
carbons.
8.
Install
weighing and packing equipment in one continuous line
with the chamber conveyer, ~nd replace
by an automatic process.
90 Organize the unloading section so as to prevent the accumulation of
dust on the ceiling, lighting fixtures, window sills,' or other similar pro-
manual removal of the mineral wool
jecti6ns.
10.
Provide workers with gas masks, protective work clothes and shower
Equip locker rooms with dust removing appliances for cleaning the
rooms.
protective work clothing.
11. Preliminary and periodical medical exauanations should be mandatory
for workers of plants manufacturing mineral wool.
-142-
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Effectiveness of Measures Used in Decreasing Dust Generated by Measuring
Out and Mixing Particulate Materials.
N. 10 Amelin.
(Zaporozhte Oblast Industrial-Sanitary Station).
Gigiena i Sanitariya, No. 10, 14-19, 1950.
The transportation and handling of coal dust materials are prominent
stages in the manufacture of electrodes. The largest amount of coal dust is
created when the dry materials spillover during the preparation of the charge
and during loading of the mixing machine. This work is don~ in the measur-
ing and mixing divisions, usually housed in one room vertically separated
only by a metal platform. Up to 50% by weight of the charge are minute coal
and coke particles up to 75 ~ in diameter; it is natural, therefore, that the
various operations of coal and coke processes should create a considerable
amount of air-suspended dust in the shops, particularly where the materials
are being measured out and loaded into the mixers. In the course of an hour
the measuring out division loads 5 cars with the fine dust, 16 cars with
coarse dust, and unloads 8 cars, while the ~ixing division loads and empties
the mixers 8 times. Thus, every 2 minutes an operation i~ completed which
....
raises a considerable amount of dust over a limi~~ area of the shop.
, ~.,."'.,.
The plan for the sanitary-hygienic improvement of the plant called for
dust reduction only by exhaust ventilation of the air of the measuring bins,
mixing machine bins, and of the mixers; this was carried out.
The plan did
not include the removal of hydrocarbon vapors from the mixers while the prepared
mass was being unloadedo The effectiveness of this ventilation was slight,
due to defective construction and leakage at conduit joints/and to the presence
of other sources of dust formation which could not be handled by the exhaust
venti,J.ators.
- ~~
~e industrial planning organization and the factory adQinistration were
unable to cope with the dust-elimination problem and engaged the cooperation
of the Zaporozhte Oblast Industrial-Sanitary Station in the attempt to improve
the conditions in this part of the plant. During the study of the technological
processes and working conditions in the measuring and mixing division, all
sources of dust, including the equipment not specified in the basic plan, were
thoroughly examined. The maximum amount of dust was produced during loading
of the measuring cars with the dry blast furnace charge "III", the dust par-
-143-
-------
J
Fig. l.
1 - Exhaust ventilation;
2 - Measuring (dose)
hopper; 3 - Canvas pipe;
4 - Dose delivery car.
I
I
ticles of which ranged up to 75 ~, and during the
loading of the measuring transfer cars with the
material from the measuring bins into the mixers.
Less dust was generated du~ing other operations,
such as loading of the
1
J
Fig. 2.
1 - Dose deliver,y car;
2 - Exhaust ventila-
tion; 3 - Mixing
machine hopper.
Fig. 3 0
1 - Exhaust
ventilation;
2 - Mixing
machine
hopper;
3 - Mixing
machine.
L
~
cars with coarse material
and unloading such charges
from the measuring cars
into the equipment.
Con-
siderable dust was raised
~hen it was swept off the
equipment and from the
working areas by ordinar,y
dr,y brooms or brushes.
Figs. 1, 2 and 3 show the
arrangement of the measur-
ing bin, measuring car and
mixing machine before the
improvements were introduced.
After a thorough study of all dust
sources in the working area of th~ measuring
and mixing divisions, the Regional Industrial-
Sanitar,y Station developed dust-abating
devices and proposed organizational measures
described below.
As shown in Figs. 4 and 5,
the devices were designed to remove dust
during unloading of the materials from the
measuring bin into the measuring car. and to
take care of the charge spill-over from the
measuring car into the bin of the mixer, the
...
processes that generated most of the dust.
The first problem was solved by means
of a movable telescopic inclosure between
the throat of the bin and the upper throat
(opening) of the measuring transport or
-144-
-------
Fig. 4.
Fig. 5.
delivery car; the dust-containing
air created during the unloading
of the transport car was blown out
3
by a fan at the rate of 250 m
per hour.
The second problem was solved
by a flexible hose which descended
into the loading opening of the
mixing machine bin; the other end
of the flexible hose was fastened
at the top of the measuring bin
and was manipulated with the aid
of a special lever. Such arrangement ensured adequate
sealing ut the place where spillover of the charge
mostly occurred. After the upper part of the mixer bin
was connected to the exhaust ventilator, dust was no longer noted in this
place (Fig., 5). In order to eliminate dust during cleaning, vacuum adapters
were connected with the ventilators for daily use as might be required.
Analyses were made of air samples collected at pertinent points while an
ordinary car was in operation. The results showed that there was 69 mg of
dust per m3; i.e., the same amount as for the entire room (67 mg/m3). Thus,
by using the new car/fitted out in the way described above, the hygienic con-
dition of the plant was substantially improved. Suggestions regarding dust
control in the mixing division pertained to more efficient ways of loading the
mixer with dry charges from its bin and to keeping the cover of the mixer
tightly shut with the suction ventilator in continuous operation.
Fig. 6 shows the construction of a charge conduit within which alternating
grooved blades are arranged lengthwise. The lower part of the conduit has a
valve which keeps bydrocarbon vapors from entering the conduit. The purpose
was to prevent vapor condensation from forming within the charge cpnduit and
the possibility of dust adhering to it. It was expected that this type of
conduit might reduce the rate of the descending charge more than the ordinary
conduit didJand thereby would eliminate'the immediate f~mation of dust and
the pressure increase in the mixer, which was- th~ main reason for the dust dis-
charge. Incidentally, it also decreased the amount of charge particles carried
away by the ventilating air, which constituted a worthwhile economic saving.
-145-
-------
An additional function of the exhaust ventilation was the complete removal of
hydrocarbon vapors, particularly when the cover of the mixer was lifted during
inspection or during the removal of the electrode mass from the machine.
The exhaust ventilation system originally installed according to the mas-
ter plan proved ineffective. It functioned only intermittently, since the
machine tilted when it was unloaded/and the air duct became disconnected; in
addition, when the cover of the mixer was open,the ventilator failed to remove
the hydrocarbon vapors. The Regional Industrial-Sanitary Station recognized
these defects in this type of mixer ventilation, illustrated in Figs. 6 and 7.
I
\.
ti'
Fig. 6.
/
, ,
Fig. 7.
Figs. 6 and 7 show, that where the cover edge came into contact with the
mixer, provision was made for a flange exhaust in the form of a 5 em wide slit.
Felt material in the form of a soft washer was used around the cover to ensure
maximum airtightness, an important factor in reducing the amount of charge par-
-146-
-------
ticles.carried away by the ventilating air. The other outer wall of the lateral
exhaust also had felt packing which permitted a small amount of air to be drawn
I
in from the outside. The rear part of the cover had a short slit-like opening
for the elimination of hydrocarbon vapors in the machine when the cover was
down. The ventilation conduit had 2 hinged joints and a telescopic conduit
which enabled the continuous operation of the ventilator when the cover was
open and when the machine was tilted. To enable the ventilator to remove the
hydrocarbon vapors, its exhaust capacity had to be increased to 1900 m3/hr,
which insured a minimum air flow of 0.5 m/sec in the wide part of the cover.
Capacity measurements of the modified ventilation system showed that
950 m3/hr of air could be exhausted with the cover down. In studying the
operation of the mixer equipped with the dust-removing attachment described
above, it was observed that only a slight amount of dust collected during dry
charge loadings (amount of dust in the air of the shop was 10 mg/m3, and 1906
mg/m3 in the mixer). The hydrocarbon vapors were not completely removed by
the experimental ventilator during unloading of the prepared material, due to
the inadequate capacity of the existing ventilation system. Determinations
showed that only 75% of the minimum volume of air needed was actually sucked
out of each machine.
Test loading of a mixer oven with the suction ventilator not functioning
revealed, upon visual examination, a marked decrease in the amount of removed
dust, as compared with a mixer not equipped with such devices, but with the
ventilator in operation. Furthermore, no dust collected here as soon as load-
ing stopped, whereas the machine without the dust-removing devices continued
to collect dust for another 1.5 to 2 minutes, until molten pitch was fed into
the machine.
The following changes in the work procedure were recommended: 1) feeding
the charge into the mixer from the bin, not from a measuring transport or
delivery car, by passing the charge through the bin with the lid open, and
2) suction (vacuum) cleaning of working areas.
Thus, the measures proposed by the Regional Industrial-Sanitar,y Station
related to tightness of joints, efficient loading of particulate materials,
and appropriately designed suction ventilation resulted in marked hygienic
improvements 0 Despite the fact that only a part of the proposed changes had
been instituted, the improvement in the sanitar,y-hygienic conditions of the
-147-
-------
plant was considerable; dust formation in the measuring division had been
completely eliminated; it was reduced by 900% in the mixing machines, bringing
the dust in the air of the workrooms in line with the All-Union State Standard
specificiations.
There are reasons to believe that upon the introduction of
the remaining proposed measures dust, as an occupational hazard, may be totally
eliminated in the measuring and mixing divisions of electrode plants.
The marked improvements in the sanitary-hygienic conditions of the plant
achieved by the measures described/convinced the management that dust elimina-
tion in their type of production was possible. Similar methods of dust abate-
ment had been introduced into the main divisions of a glass factory and of a
Zaporozhte plant manufacturing fire-resistant articles.
Standardization of Air Current Velocity in Textile Manufacturing Plants.
S. A. Klyugin and A. E. Malysheva.
(Institute of Labor Hygiene and Occupational Diseases, Academy of
Medical Sciences, U.S.S.R.).
Gigiena i Sanitariya, No.5, 22-28, 1952.
Sanitary Code NSP-IOl-51, in effect at the present time, regulates planning
of industrial enterprises and requires that standard temperature and relative
humidity be maintained in industrial manufacturing establishments; it cont~ins
no provision for the standardization of air current velocity in working premises.
The lack of regulations related to the speed of air currents resulted in con-
troversies among authorities of the Departments of Maintenance and the economic
bodies and the State Sanitary Inspection. The present authors believe that the
time is ripe for the revision of that section of code NSP-IOl-51 which regulates
such meteorological factors as temperature and humidity by the addition of
regulations related to speed of air currents. In this connection an exchange
of opinions on the subject, in the pages of "Gigiena i Sanitariya" is desirable.
Accordingly, this paper presents preliminar,y hygienic standards for factory air
-148-
-------
~rrents under different temperature conditions, as shown in Table 4.
The data
presented in Table 4 are in part the results of experiments performed in textile
manufacturing plants, and in part taken from previously published reports.
The highest rate of air mobility in work premises was observed in plants
using the "ductless" or the "active" system of ventilation; this resulted in
the adoption of these two systems by industrial manufacturing plants. There~
fore, these two systems of ventilation were made the subjects of the present
study. In evaluating the "ductless" and "active" systems of ventilation from
the hygienic viewpoint it was important to find answers tOlor solutions for,
the following three questions:
.'
1.
Vfuat rate of air mobility predominated in one or the other of the
ventilation systems?
20 ?fuat rate of air mobility was most appropriate for work quarters
under existing temperature and humidity conditions?
3. What rate of air mobility would interfere least, or not at all, with
the technology of the manufacturing process?
The principal factors governing rate of air mobility in industrial estab-
lishments are:
a. Kinetic energy of air currents entering the premises from ventilation
inlets, or from window openings duri ng aeration.
b.
The motion .of machine parts, of transmissions, and of drivihg belts.
c. Convection currents resulting from
surfaces of the technological equipment.
No aeration is used in the spinning and
contact of the air with heated
weaving shops of textile manu-
facturing plants/and no surfaces attain high temperatures. In such manufactur-
ing plants the study of air currents is relatively uncomplicated.
In the "ductless" system of ventilation the air is forced into the premises
from a special inlet in the wall in the form of a concentrated stream under
pressure.
As a rule, free air currents adhere to the nearest limiting surface
or surfaces; therefore, the inlet is' usually located close to the ceiling
which forces the air current to widen as it moves along the surface of the
ceiling, intermixing with the air of the work premises.
As the cross-section
of the air current gradually widens, the volume of the air in motion increases.
At the lower level of the work premises, that is at the inhalation level, a
counter current of air is encountered which consists of air drawn into the
-149-
-------
initial expanding air flow.
It was demonstrated that as soon as the supplied
air current filled about 40% of the shop's cross-section, the air currents
came into mutual pressure contact, and the expansion of the supplied air. cur-
rent ceased.
Fig. 1 is a schematic presentation of the air circulation in work premises
with high and low ceilings with identical amounts of supplied air. The schemes
of air currents presented in Fig. 1 show that distribution of the air current
along the premises depended
upon the cross section of the
J'&.
~:
~~ L -=-'3~ \
.5U.1
Reverse current
Fig. 1.
/C"
premises. Thus, a room, the
width of which was twice its
height and the length was
more than 8 ti~[jes, cannot be
ventilated to full efficiency
if the air was supplied from
Fn
one end of the room only.
Furthermore, since in narrow
rooms the space filled by the
counter current itlUst be less
than that in wide rooms, it
follows that the rate of flow of counter currents in narrow rooms must be
proportionally greater.
Computations for the length of the ventilated part of the room and for
the rate of air currents in the work zone of the room may be conveniently
made with the aid of the simple formulas given below. Machines and other
equipment block the work zone and, thus, reduce the actual height of the room.
Under such conditions the movement of air, as shown in Fig. 1, occurs only in
the upper part of the shop, while in the work zone the rate of alr flow is
decreased, and ventilation is impeded. Long passageways between rows of high
machines created accelerated air currents in the work zone. The ductless air
supply is characterized by the nearly total absence of temperature change in
the vertical direction.
According to experimental results of Engineer Sadovskaya the average
velocity of a counter-current, that is the rate of air flow in the work zone,
may be computed with the aid of the following formula:
-150-
-------
A correct determination of the permiss~ble limits of air flow rate within
the,work zone equipped with
only when all other factors
temperature, in particular,
different ventilation systems may be arrived at
of the "micro-climate" (indoor climate), the
are taken into account. Another important factor
is the laboriousness of the task performed. In cases of a higher air tempera-
ture and intense or hard work, higher rates of air currents are permissible,
while in cases of a lower temperature and light work the rates of air currents
should be decreasedo
Based on the experimental data related to the cooling effects of an air
flow rate observed in textile factories, the previously mentioned Table 4 of"
rates o~ air flow under different temperatures i~ offered for consideration.
If the workers are engaged in light work
and the temperature of the air is between
16 and 21°, then the permissible rate of air
flow should not, exceed 0.25 m/sec.
The correct selection of an adequate
TABLE
40
.
.
Work zone. air ~
temperature ~
22 - 23°
24 - 250
26 - 270
28 - 300
Allowable
air current
velocity
in m/sec
0.25 - 0.3,
0.4 - 006
0.7 - 1.0
1.1 - 1.3
Editor's Note.
article.
system of ventilation for 'any shop should be
based not only on conditions of heat assimila-
tion and gas dissolution, but it should provide
an appropriate rate of air flow within the
work zone.
Readers are asked to comment on the merits of this
-155-
-------
Experimental Detoxification of Carbon Disulfide.
A. L. Yudeles and R. V. Bessarabova.
(The Sverdlovsk Institute of Labor Hygiene and~ccupational Diseases).
Farmakologiya i TOksikologiya, Vol. 18, No.3, 50-52, 1955.
The toxic properties of carbon disulfide have been discussed in many
reports, but no methods have been proposed for its detoxification. The pres-
ent report is based on certain specific properties of carbon disulfide ac-
cording to which it may be classed with cortical narcotics. I. P. Pavlov,
in his artic.1eentitled "The Incompleteness of the Modern Pharmacological
Analysis of Drugs" wrote: "It is obvious that a given normal physiological
condition of the central nervous system was the resultant of a variety of
stimulations and inhibi t10ns in il1;S different sections. Therefore, any neuro-
logical drug, irrespect~ve of its particular mode of action, first of all
disturbed this dynamic equilibrium". Prompted by this consideration, the
authors tested the effect of novocain, of caffeine and of caffeine combined
with sodium broJ\lide, upon the course of carbon disulfide intoxication.
In contrast to cortical narcotics novocain blocked the process of stimu-
lation in the lower sections pf the central nervous system and in the peripheral
nerves, and in additipn raised the el~ctrical activity of the cortex, an ef-
feet which manifested its stimulating effect.
Novocain is a derivative of
para-aminobenzoic acid, which is a part of the vitamin Bl complex; it has
mild anesthetic properties. In the treatment of carbon disulfide intoxica-
tion with novocain and with para-aminobenzoic acid/the use of the latter, as
a means of early therapy and individual prophylaxis/should be resorted to in
proper prospective..
0.1 ml of carbon disulfide is definitely lethal to mice weighing approxi-
mately 20 g. Such a dose of carbon disulfide was dissolved in 0.2 ml of sun-
flowerseed oil and injected subcutaneously into mice. The acute toxic effect
of carbon disulfide appeared as pronounced excitation, convulsive jumping up,
increased respiration rate, superseded by an occasional shallow respiration;
later, the animals became drowsy, gradually sinking into a comatose state;
the animals died after 1 to 3 hours following the injection of the carbon di-
sulfideo
-156-
-------
where the temperature of the air varied from 24.5 to 26.50 and the rate of
air flow varied from 0.39 to 0.85 m/sec, the workers also appraised the
meteorological conditions as satisfactoT.1/and there were no complaints regard-
ing the rate of air flow.
The conditions in a fulling section of a cloth~anufacturing factory were
investigated during the month of February. The temperature of the airJat dif-
ferent points of the shop, varied from 200 to 240, with an average of 21.80.
. The lower temperatures were observed in the passageways adjacent to the win-
dows. The rate of air flow in the working zone of the shop was caused prin-
cipally by the ventilation. The considerable length of the' shop, combined
with the limited air space above the machines, had an unfavorable effect upon
the uniform distribution of the air current, which, was reduced to 0.2 m/sec
in the rear of the shop and was accompanied by a temperature rise to 250.
Strong counter currents up to 0.6 m/sec were formed in the passageways at the
sides of the shop where the air temperature was about 20 - 210. In the central
part of the shop the rate of air flow was about 0.2 - 0.3 m/sec, and the
temperature was about 21 - 220.
Assuming an average temperature equal to 21.80 and an average rate of
air flow equal to 0.3 m/sec, the workers were interrogated regarding the heat
sensed under these meteorologicai. conditions. The answers were as follows:
hot - 5%, warm - 8%, comfo~table - 57%, cool - 28%, and cold - 2%. The answer
"hot" came from workers stationed in the rear part of the shop where the temper-
~-
260; the answer "cool" and "cold" came from workers
It should be noted that 60% of the workers were
ature va~ied between 25 and
stationed near the windows.
conscious of the rate of air flow.
In instances in which workers sensed the
air flow, their evaluations of temperature sensations were "cool" and. "cold",
and there were no evaluations of "warm". However, when the air flow was not
sensed, there were evaluations of "warm" and "hot". Thus, whenever the air
flow was sensed, the answers shifted toward "cool" with no appreciable com-
plaints as to discomfort caused by the air flow.
The term "active" ventilation is applied to a ventilation system in which
the air is supplied to the upper level of a shop and therefrom descends down-
ward.through slit openings at a considerable speed, quickly reaching the work
space. The slit openings are installed over the passageways. Hence, the
maximum rate of air flow is along the passageways directly under the slit
-153-
-------
openings; it subsides somewhat toward the farther sections of the passageways.
The maximal rates of air flow in the work zone may be deterwined with. the aid
of a free air current. The characteristics of air circulation in a shop equipped
with a system of "active" ventilation are schematically presented in Fig. 2.
The meteorological condi-
tions under an "active" system
of ventilation in the spinning
shop of one of the factories
.'
r ~, -)
I ' " I
,;:.' . / / ". "" I
. '~/:::I (\" ,', I.,
,. " . ",'
. -" / I , ~>, III
"-~--'l ( II \ ... ""- j II
. -""'- .' .J
/ . "/.,-/. "/.' /
t1a ~.
Fig. 2.
were studied parallel with
the above described investiga-
tion. The air temperature in
the vicinity of the spinning
machines varied from 280 to
30050, with an average of 29.40 and a relative humidity of 39%.' The rate of
air flow along the passageway between the spinning machines was recorded as
0.34, 0.62, 0.41 and 0.33 m/sec. Workers' appraisals of the meteorological
conditions in the shop were contradictory: "warm" and "hot" - 58% and "sat-
sifactory" - 42%.
Under the condition of an ordinary dispersed air current the rate of air
flow within the work zone varied from 0.1 to 0.3 m/sec. Rates of air flow
from 0.1 to 0.5 m/ see w~re obserVed in the case of a "ductless".-ventilation
" r
system. In the case of an "active" system the rates of air flow in the work
zone varied between 0.3 and q!6 m/sec. Investig~tors of rates of air flow
in the spinning shops should take into account the fact that considerable air
currents maybe created by the swiftly rotating parts of the machines. The
. .
following rates of air flow were recorded in the passageways between spinning
machines.
TABLE 3.
Level of velocity . i-Chest " .
. Head' Side . " Back Legs
.. .
determination . .
. : .
.
. Air flow in ~/sec. 0.45 0.72 0.72 0.56 0.56
It is recommended that in determining the permissible limits of air flow
rates, the peculiarities of the technological processes of the equipment should
be taken into consideration.
-154-
-------
A correct determination of the permissible limits of air flow rate within
the. work zone equipped with different ventilation systems may be arrived at
only when all other factors of the "micro-climate" (indoor climate), the
temperature, in particular, are taken into account. Another important factor
is the laboriousness of the task performed. In cases of a higher air tempera-
ture and intense or hard work, higher rates of air currents are permissible,
while in cases of a lower temperature and light work the rates of air currents
should be decreasedo
Based on the experimental data related to the cooling effects of an air
flow rate observed in textile factories, the previously ~entioned Table 4 of"
rates o~ air flow under different temperatures i~ offered for consideration.
If the workers are engaged in light work
TABLE
40
.
.
Vlork zone. air i
temperature ~
22 - 230
24 - 250
26 - 210
28 -300
Allowable
air current
velocity
in m/sec
0.25 - 0.3.
0.4 - 006
0.1 - 1.0
1.1 - 1.3
Editor's Note.
arti cl e .
and the temperature of the air is between
16 and 210, then the permissible rate of air
flow should not. exceed 0.25 m/sec.
The correct selection of an adequate
system of ventilation for any shop should be
based not only on conditions of heat assimila-
tion and gas dissolution, but it should provide
an appropriate rate of air flow within the
Readers are asked to comment on the merits of this
work zone.
-155-
-------
Experimental Detoxification of Carbon Disulfide.
A. L. Yude1es and R.V. Bessarabova.
(The Sverd10vsk Institute of Labor Hygiene and ~ccupationa1 Diseases).
Farmako1ogiya i Toksiko1ogiya, Vol. 18, No.3, 50-52, 1955.
The toxic properties of carbon disulfide have been discussed in many
reports, but no methods have been proposed for its detoxification. The pres-
ent report is based on certain specific properties of carbon disulfide ac-
cording to which. it may be classed with cortical narcotics. I. P. Pavlov,
in his artic.1e 'entit1ed "The Incompleteness of the Modern Pharmacological
Analysis c>r Drugs" wrote: "It is obviouB that a given normal physiological
condition of the central. nervous system was the resultant of a variety of
stimUlations and inhibitionsin'i/ts different sections. 'Therefore, any neuro-
logical drug, irrespect~ve of its particular mode of action, first of all
.. . - .-
disturbed this dynamic equilibrIum". Prompted by this consideration, the
authors tested the effect of .novocain, of caffeine and of caffeine combined
with sodium broJ\:lide, upon the course of carbon disulfide intoxication.
In contrast to cortical narcotics novocain blocked the process of stimu-
lation in the lower sections pf the central nervous system and in the peripheral
nerves, and in additipn raised the el~ctrical activity of the cortex, an ef-
fect which manifested its stimulating effect. Novocain is a derivative of
para-aminobenzoic acid, which is a part of the vitamin B1 complex; it has
mild anesthetic properties. In the treatment of carbon disulfide intoxica-
tion with novocain and with para-aminobenzoic acid~the use of the latter,as
a means of early therapy and individual prophylaxis, should be resorted to in
proper prospective.'
0.1 m1 of carbon disulfide is definitely lethal to mice weighing approxi-
mately 20 g. Such a dose of carbon disulfide was dissolved in 0.2 ml' of sun-
flowerseed oil and injected subcutaneously into mice. The acute toxic effect
of carbon disulfide appeared as pronounced excitation, convulsive jumping up,
increased respiration rate,superseded by an occasional shallow respiration;
later, the animals became drowsy, gradually sinking into a comatose state;
the animals died after 1 to 3 hours following the injection of the carbon di-
sulfide 0
,"
, -
-156-
-------
A subcutaneous injection of 0.008 of novocain (?B~S.L.) in physiological
salt solution, administered to mice about 30 minutes prior ~o the injection
of carbon disulfide, produced marked changes in the manifestations of the acute
poisoning with carbon disulfide:
cramps and convulsive movements were not
observed, the animals were restlessly running from place to place, the accel-
erated respiration gradually changed into an infrequent and shallow one. The
animals sank into a state of drowsiness and died within 5 to 10 hours follow-
ing the injection of carbon disulfide. Data on survival duration are shown
in Table 1. The results of the invest~ation indicated that novoca~n prolonged
the survival time of mice injected with a lethal dose of carbon disulfide.
TABLE
1.
Effect of novocain in carbon disulfide poisoning.
Testi
No.i
Substance
administered
.~.Nu~;er~:
mice
Number of mice perished
1 hour i 2
hrs. i 3
hrs. i 5 hrs.
: 6 - 10
: hrs.
1
2
Carbon disulfide
Novocain and car-
bon disulfide
48
27
30
o
7
2
10
1
1
4
o
20
Carbon disulfide was administered to dogs intravenously in doses of 0.1
ml per 1 kg dissolved in 5 ml of sunflowerseed oil. Immediately after the
injection/the animals became restless, suffered from cramps, Irespiration
became labored qnd salivation copious; some animals urinated and defecated
involuntarily. After 20 to 25 minutes the acute symptoms disappeared and
the animals sank into a state of mild anesthesia. A dose of 0.2 mg of car-
bon disulfide per 1 kg, dissolved in 5 mg of sunflowerseed oil was introduced
subcutaneously; the toxic symptoms developed at a slower rate and in a less
pronounced manner.
The results of intravenous and subcutaneous injection of the' carbon di-
sulfide in doses mentioned had no appreciable effect on the blood sugar,
lactic acid, inorganic phosphorus, residual nitrogen, glutathione, lecithin
or cholesterin. In experiments with dogs marked symptoms of the toxic action
of carbon disulfide appeared in the form of neuromuscular irritability,
was determined chronaximetrical1y. The threshold theobase and chronaxy
for individual animals corresponded to magnitudes which effected barely
able contraction of the gastrocnemius. In addition to the toxic effects
which
values
notice-
-157-
-------
which followed immediately after the intravenous injection of carbon disulfide,
symptoms of neuromuscular hypoexcitability also appeared, characterized by
prolonged chronaxy and slightly variable rheobase. Preliminary awninistration
of 3 ml of a 25% novo cain in physiological solution ameliorated the general
toxic symptoms of carbon disulfide and prevented the appearance of neuro-
muscular hypoexcitability.
.f,Z6
I.U
. {J,,9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
Q4
0.3
0.2
0.'
___.originl1l
-.CS2
-'- Novocl1in and
CS2
- -
'-r-'--'--'--'--'--'
1.
~.... ----~~-
'f"- ........--
.\
I .
. "-
I '" --.-
....,..........,....
o .5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 fO 15 GO
Fig. 10 Chronaximetric curve of
results of intoxication with car-
bon disulfide following prelimi-
nary injection of novocain.
(Dog Tobik). .
Vertical -Chronaxy in 0; Hori-
zontal - Time in minutes; Arrow
pointing up - Time of novocain
injection; Arrow pointing down -
Time of CS2 administration.
values in ~ome of the animalso
One hundred mg of sodium para-amino-
benzoate per kg awninistered to dogs 30
minutes before the introduction of carbon
disulfide, considerably lowered the dura-
tion of the toxic symptoms and effected
neuro-muscular hypoexcitability; some of
the exp~~imental animals manifested no
toxic symptoms.
Sodium benzoate, the structure of
which notably differed from that of
novocain, failed to act as an antidote
to carbon disulfide poisoning.
Prelimi-
nary intravenous injection of 0.015 g of
caffeine into dogs 15 minutes before
poisoning with carbon disulfide, con-
siderably lowered the general toxic ef-
fects of the poison; it led to a quick
restoration of neuro-muscular excitability
and brought the chronaxy to its original
The particular effect of caffeine emphasized
fect of carbon disulfide.
the significance of brain cortex stimulation in counteracting the toxic ef-
I. P. Pavlov pointed out that caffeine increased
the stimulability of cortical cells but did not increase their efficiency.
He placed particular emphasis on the dosage of caffeine, the method of its
administration, alone and in combination with other therapeutic agents. In
his book "Pavlov's Mediums", published March 21, 1934, Pavlov wrote: "Caffeine
combined with bromine in doses corresponding to the type of higher nervous
activity of an animal proved to be a successful therapeutic agent in cases of
different disturbances in the higher nervous activity". Pavlov explained it
by the fact that the increased dissimilation effected by caffeine was com-
-158- .
-------
1.0
0.9
0.8
tJ7
--- Original
- CS2
-.- Para_lIIinoben~oic acid
and CS2
{J. 6'
0.5
0. 4 f"'\
0.3 1'...__.
QZ . 1 .
. -:::s=:- .~.-:' . ----------~....
0.1 I . '- t .-"
. 0 5 10 1.7 1'0 25 JO if 40 45 50 5J 60
Fig. 2. Chronaximetric curve of
results of intoxication with car-
bon disulfide following prelimi-
nary injection of Na-para-amino-
benzoate (Dog Jack).
Vertical - Chron~ in 0; Hori-
zontal - Time in minutes; Arrow
pointing up - Time of Na-para-
aminobenzoate inject~on; Arrow
pointing down - Time of CS2
administration.
pensated for by the increased assimilation
. .
effected by bromine. The statement stimu-
lated further investigation into the
combined action of caffeine and sodium
bromide in experimental poisoning of white
mice with lethal doses of carbon disulfide.
1.2 mg of NaBr and 0.2 mg of caffeine
were introduced subcutaneously in succes-
sion into the same side of mice, 30 min-
utes before the subcutaneous injection of
carbon disulfide.
Observations revealed
that the acute toxic symptoms manifested
by the animals were mild and of short
duration. Vfuile the preliminary introduc-
tion of novocain prolonged the survival
time of the animals from 5 to 10 hours,
the injection of. caffeine in combination
with NaBr into 39 mice caused one animal
to survive a short time over 24 hours, 20 mice survived indefinitely and only
2 animals died soon after the intoxication. At the same time, only 2 of the
37 control aniffials survived the effect of the CS2' It follows that a combina-
tion of NaBr and caffeine was far more effective as an antidote to CS2 than
was novocain.
TABLE
2.
Test!
No.i
~Numberi
i ~f i
: ml.ce :
Substance
administered
1
2
Carbon disulfide
Sodium bromide,
caffeine and CS2
37
39
Number of mice perished
1 to 4 .
.:: 5 hours
hours
Survived
indef-
initely
.
.
.
i 24 hours i
26
7
7
5
2
1
2
26
The effect of the pharmacological agents investigated on the intoxication
of an organism by carbon disulfide indicated that the resistance of an organ-
ism to the toxic action of carbon disulfide, and probably to other industrial
poisons, may be increased by shifts in the stimulability and inhibition of
cerebral cortex in the direction of dynamic e~uilibrium.
Q
-159-
-------
The results of these investigations point to a way of solving the problem
of. early t1:1erapy and prevention of intoxications v>\i th poisons belonb>i.ng to
the type of cortical narcotics.
Bibliography.
n a 3 ape B H.. B., B KH.: HapKOTHKH . n 1940 CTJI 351 - r
HeBP?n~T. H nCHxHaTp., 1941, T. X, NI 6, ~TJI:' 7~il.-'H H ~'on leaB uM.a H.c K ~~B~~8~~'
B KH.. OJIbWa!! Me,!t. 9HUHKn., T. XXI, M., 1932, CTp. 451-455.''':'''' I( a 3 8 K ~ B H 'I M A '
I< KJlHHHKe XpOHH'IeCKOA HHTOKCHK8UHH cepoyrJIepO.ll.OM, B KH.: Te3HCli .I10KJI8AoB Hayq~
, c:ecClfH liH-T8 rHrHeHIi TpY;(8 H npocl>386on., M., 1951, CTP. 36-37, .
. Air Conditioning of Operating Rooms.
O. G. Shchukin.
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 23, No. 9, 59~60, 1958.
Air conditioning of hospitals, particularly operating rooms, is now an
urgent problem. In 1957 the International Conference on Heating, Ventila-
tionand Air Conditioning was held in the Paris Technical Institute of Con-
struction and Public Works.
The Conference noted that physicians and patients alike were exposed to
unfavorable conditions during long and complicated operations: heat, high
humidity, odors, frequent dangerous concentrations of ether, oxygen and
anesthetic gases. Hygienic conditions were often worsened by the fact that
some operating rooms had built-in observation and demonstration facilities.
And in many countries operating rooms were windowless, or were located in the
basement.
Correction of the above mentioned faults can be easily and conveniently
made due to the progress modern technology has achieved in the field of air
sanitation and air conditioning. Rendering air sterile is one of the problems
which has yet to be solved. There are several physical and chemical methods
for air sterilization. The chemical methods (essential oil, hypochlorites,
formalin, etc.) have not been too popular, owing to their weak bactericidal
-160-
-------
action, irritating odor, and corrosive effect on metals. Among the physical
methods the sterilization of air by heat is possible in principle, but it
carbonizes the dust. Cold has no sterlizing effect. With steam the microbes
settle on the walls'and multiply. Ultraviolet rays are strongly bactericidal,
but the spore formers and fungi survive in bumidity exceeding 60% and in the
presence in the air of dust particles. Electric currents failed to kill micro-
organisms. However, it is theoretically possible to arrest bacterial growth
by high tension electrostatic precipitators (filters). The ruain objection to
this method is the chance of settled dust and bacteria being carried out by
air currents.
Air sterilization methods recommended by foreign scientists for air con-
ditioning are based either on special types of filter paper or powerful ultra-
sonic filters. In their view, ultrasonic waves completely destroyed micro-
organisms.
This appears to be the most promising future lllethod.
However,
many phases of the general problem require further investigation.
An equally important problem in need of research is the one concerning
optimum parameters of the air in rooms/and establishment of minimum sanitary
standards for the supplied outside air. French eng~neers in particularl are
of the opinion that the hourly capacity of a conditioner IllUst be 5 times the
cubic room capacity, and that the air supply should be not less than 60% of
the total capacity to prevent the possibility of air-anesthetic gas explosion.
The distribution of conditioned air in a room is a complex problem. In
an operating room with a built-in observers' gallery good results can be
achieved by feeding the air vertically from the ceiling downward and along
the walls. Air should be removed through openings built in the 'upper and
lower parts of the walls, since the escaping vapors and gases have densities
differing from their original.
To date no authoritative specifications have been formulated for the
building of a model conditioner for operating rooms in the U.S.S.R. or abroad.
,-161-
-------
Sanitization of Working Conditions in Qyanide ~teel Production.
AD T. Grigor1eva, L. S. Shcherbakovaand G. V. Patrina.
(The Regional Sanitary-Epidemiological Station at the Chelyabinsk Tractor
Manufacturing Plant).
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 23, No. 11, 83-85, 19580
The cyanide process is widely used in increasing hardness and decreasing
wear of steel productso In the chemical-heat processing of surface layer
metal, saturation. with carbon and nitrogen is accomplished simultaneously.
Ordinarily cyanide salts of sodium, potassium and calcium are used for the
purpose in concentrations of 3 - 10%,or in concentrations of 95 - 100% in
combination with other non-cyanide salts.
In 1955 the Chelyabinsk tractor manufacturing plant
automatic appliances for high temperature cyanidation of
by means of live molten cyanide salts. Prior to the new
installed 2 new semi-
manufactured products
installations, vapors
of cyanide compounds were coming from the surface of vats, from the manufactured
articles, and from various apparatuses and penetrating into the work area.
For instance, where a vat was equipped with an exhaust inlet at its lower
levels, and where the rate of air flow in the work passages amounted to 0.8
m/sec, concentrations of hydrogen cyanide from 0.0035 to 0.0004 mg/li were
recorded at the level of respiration. Considerable amounts of cyanides were
also found in the water dripping from the finished products, despite the fact
that the parts were washed previously, first in hot and then in cold water.
. In addition, carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons were formed from the burn-
ing oil in the process of oil,hardening of the products and by the incomplete
fuel combustion. The cyanide salts, in powdered form, generated dust in the
processes of loading, weighing, etc. Upon completion of the cyanide treat-
~ent the manufactured articles were sandblast cleaned, which formed quartz-
containing dust. The dust concentration in the air of the sandblast chamber
ranged from 200 to 300 mgjm3.
The introduction of the semi-automatic equipment necessitated the changing
of some previously employed technological steps: the cyanation was carried
out at temperatures of 800 - 8800 in a molten mass consisting .of 8 - 10% of
NaCN, 60% of BaC12 and 30% of NaCl; tempering was done at 180 - 2300 in 90 -
95% melted KOH; washing was done in hot and cold running water. Passivation,
-162-
-------
-163-
-i.e.,
creating a thin film
of oxides on the surface of
the manufactured articles to
prevent corrosion was carried
out with the aid of a solu-
tion mixture of 2 - 5% N:aN02
and 0.8 - 1% of Na2C03.
Storage and sorting of the
cyanides was done in isolated
.
s;::.
o
..-i
-+"
11!
-d
0.-1
s::
11!
~
-+"
~
0.-1
f-t
.a
f-t
o
ft.i
sections, equipped with
specially built metal boxes
provided with exhaust venti-
lation; the drums were in-
stalled in the boxes as shown
in the accompanying sketch.
The technological equip-
ment of the semi-automatic
installation was completely
inclosed in tight housing
equipped with 3 exhaust fans.
The housing was provided with
openings for short-time equip-
ment manipulation; the open-
ings of minimum dimensions
-+"
s::
CD
8
Pi
..-i
g.
CD
o
..-i
-+"
11!
~
-+"
~
11!
I
0.-1
~
en
were equipped with automatic-
ally closing doors. The
rate of air passing through
the open front and back ends
of the housing, through
which the manufactured prod-
ucts were respectively loaded,
removed from the conveyer,
equalled about 2 m/sec at
worst. Each installation had
its independent ventilation
-------
1-
system with specia~ provision ma4e for uninterrupted operation in case of
emerg~ncy.
Exhaust from.' the box for s/toring and sorting the cyanides was by' means
of2 fans and air conduits from various sections of cyanide processing. The
rate'of air flow through the work openings of the box varied between 105 to
6 m/sec. At such high rate of flow the air carried off considerable amounts
of cyanide dust which settled on the roof of the building in the form of a
white powder, at distances up to 10 m from the ventilating shaft in the direc-
tion of the prevailing wind.
In addition to improving the
sura~,resulted in ecqnomicgains.
sanitary working conditions, the new mea-
The introduction of semi-automatic machin-
ery for ligh~-co1&r~d. 9y~ni~ation increased the productivity of the cyanida-
tion section by 4 or 5 times, dileto a smaller number of operations entailed
in the processing of the articles, whichwa.sc.arwd ,o.u.t . ~ 'half the number
of attendants; b.Y reduced incidence of workers' contact with the articles
subjected to cyanidation, the number of sick days was reduced. The manual
loading of the articles into vats, transferring them from one vat to another
and unloading them from the vats, was rep~aced by mechanized operations.
Automatic controls for temperature and processing time were installed.
Cyanidation of the manufactured articles was-combined with hardening in
alkalies. The single operation resulted in cleaner surfaces of the articles
and obviated the necessity of cleaning them by sandblasting. Furthermore,
r
hardening in alkalies effected neutralization, i.e., rendered harmless the
cyanide salts on the surface of the articles.
Construction of the housing equipped with local suction-exhaust inlets
gave good result-s, since neither at the open ends of the housing nor during
readjustments in ~ne performance of cyanationvats, which required opening
of the doors or the access-openings, was hydrogen cyanide detected at inhala-
tion levels. No cyanides were found in the wash water, which was due to ef- .
fective neutralization and washing of the final products. In the section of
storage and cyanide sorting the following concentrations ofReN were found
at the work opening of the box: 0.0001 mg/li with a 6 m/sec rate of air flow,'
and from 0.0004 to 0.0006 mg/li with a 1.; mfsec rate of air flow. The latter
exceeded the 0.0003 mg/li limit of tolerance. .
The results indicated that, while the new equipment solved the problems
related to the cyanidation process as such, the conditions of storage and
-164-
-------
sorting of the qyanides remained completely unsatisfactor,y fro~ the sanitar,y
viewpoint.
Therefore, it is proposed that:
1. In large mechanized shops having special
cyanide salts should be briqueted. This proposal
equipment, the powdered
was.referred to the Ministr,y
of Health, U.S.S.R.
2. For interception and neutralization of the cyanide dust in the air,
which was liberated into the atmosphere, it was proposed that a metallic
filter be installed constructed on the principle of the mud-filter, but
having its mesh filled with rusty iron shavings and sprinkled with an alkaline/
solution by means of a re-circulating pump. Such a filter was recommended by
the laboratory of the AlI-Un~on Scientific-Research Institute for Labor Pro-
tection, unQ.er the All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions in Gorkii.
30 Until the above conditions have been remedied, it is necessar,y to
equip the section of the cyanide storage and sorting with local exhausts
having an air flow rate not greater than 105 m/sec; the concentration of
. .
HON in the air should be reduced, so that it will not exceed the limit of'
tolerance.
4. To prevent the industrial dust from settling on the roof of buildings
and to prevent pollution of the atmospheric air with cyanide compounds, the
sanitary regulations related to the construction of the cyanidation and cyanide
sorting sections should provide for purification of the air emitted by the
t
ventilating equipment.
-165-
-------
Practical Experience in Coal Mine Air Dust Ab~tement.
D. K. Fedorov~
(Rostovugo11 Order of Lenin Mine Coal Com~1ne).
Gigiena i Sariitariya, Vol. 24, No.4, 24-29, 1955.
Measures for dust elimination and ~ll~ou~ prevention of si1iososis and
anthracosis are now being energetically and extensively instituted in the coal
mines of the Soviet_Union. Chronic effect of concentrated dust on ~he workers
is being reduced and in some instances eliminated by changing to the one-shift
. .
by automatizing many of the mining production processes, by
blasting and by introducing mechanized movable supports, and
. .
by strict contro1'of explosion work; these are all b.asic measures which con-
stitute organized'control of harmful mine dust effects.
work schedule,
remote control
Among specific control measures of dust prevention at shallow and medium
levels, wet drilling and spraying combined with properly orgarilzed ventila-
tion are the most effective. As a result of the introduction of~wet drilling,
'. \
spraying and intensified ventilation/air dustiness was lowered by 91% in the
Kazakhstan mines in 1945 - 1952. The introduction of jigging in drilling
blast holes with electric drills EBK-2M in Tomusinskaya pits No.5 - 6 resulted
. -
in dust elimination over the immediate work areas. In the Nesvetaev pits in
the Rostovugo1t works supplemental spraying during hoist crushing diminished
the air dustiness from 1460 to 80 mg/m3. Supplementing the existing ventila-
tion system in the same area by spraying, lowered the air dustiness by another
-6C>%. . .Supplemental spraying of the above-mentioned type also prevented the
once humidified dust from becoming suspended in the air during transportation
and reloading. Mere splashing of water over the mine walls or rocks failed
to prevent dust formation; such a procedure was a useless waste of water and
created unsanitary work conditions. Sprayers, which operated under pressure
of 4 atmospheres and produced a hi~hly dispersed water spray were able to
adhere to and wet the smalles~ dust particles/or to act as solid dustproof
water curtains. The conical and flat-jet sprayers of the NakNII system used
in the Donbass mines performed efficiently. Good results were produced also
by the RS ~prayers applied in slaking of gas-dust clouds. Simple spr~ers
of the shower~ead type, or other types similar to it, created a spr~ of in-
sufficient dispersion, therefore, did not attain the pequired results.
-166-
-------
Pure water spray precipitated up to 10 - 15% of dust contained in the
air. The dust-wetting capacity ~f water can be increased by the addition of
so-called wetting agents. The most widely used substance in the U.S.S.R. is
the DB wetting agent. It has no disagreeable odor and mixes well with water
in any concentration; best results were obtained with 100 to 500 g per 1 m3
of water. Where the spray water supply is centralized, a 5 - 10% solution
of the wetting agent is introduced into the dilution well or a discharge tank
in sufficient quantity to make the needed concentration (0.01 - 0.05%). The
procedure can be varied to suit conditions prevailing at any particular mine.
Wetting agents considerably increased the effectiveness of dust-catching and
at the same time decreased the consumption of spray water by 30 - 50%. Most
effective method for the use of the recommended wetting agent and its dosage
should be determined ~xperimentally.
In mines with centralized water.supply ~he most convenient and cheapest
way is to use the water supply system. It .is also possible to organize
localized spraying installations by using the mine water, if it contained
not more than 50 mg/li of suspended mineral matter, if its pH was not too
low and the coli titre did not exceed 300. The laborator,y control,~nd the
decision to use the mine. water for spraying, should rest with the members of
the sanitary inspection bo~. This, in fact, applies to the use of any source
. of water for mine dust abating purposes. In most instances mine water did
not satisfy the sanitary requirements and pad to be purified and disinfected.
Where the mine water supply is centralized and the water consumption was
considerable, its purification can be best accomplished above ground. Where
the water supply is local or sectional, the water purification can be ac-
complished on the spot by allowing it to settle and then chlorinating it in
special reservoirs.
Chlorination of mine water should be done according to. regulations ap-
plicable to drinking water. Concentrated calcium hypochlo~ite solution must
be prepared above ground and brought down in an. airtight container,such as
encased carboys or oak barrels. The dose of active chlorine to be added will
depend on the degree of water pollution and the length of the water supp~
pipes. Duration of active chlorine contact with water in the reservoir should
be not less than 30 minutes.
Chlorination installations should be located at
the mine entrance where the air current flows out of the mine together with
-161-
-------
air of the general mine ventilation system. For the purification of local
bodies of mine water the small automatically filling tanks KF-l, designed by
the Kizelovskii branch of the All-Union Scientific-Research Coal Institute,
are most popular in the mining industry (Fig. 1); they provide purification
. .
of water from mechanical admixtures and its chlorination and dosing of wetting
agent s 0
1
I
The small tank operates as follows:
compressed air enters the upper part of
the tank along the main-line (1) and
through the servomechanism (2); the
water; now under pressure, passes
through the gravel filter (3) built
into the tank and, passing through the
reverse valve (4) reaches the "consumer".
Fig. 1. Automatically operating With the withdrawal of water from the
tank KF-l tank the floating ball (5), connected
by rod and pulley with the transmitting element (6) drops; at a given point
of its drop the transmitter plunger shifts to the extreme right. Simultane-
ously, the compressed air enters from the main line to the server (transmitter),
moving the servomechanism slide valve to the extreme left; it comes out of
the ejector (1), creating in the tank a partial vacuum which causes the water
to enter the tank through the sieve piece (8). The reduced air pressure
closes the reverse valve (4), thereby disconnecting the water feed. The tank
is filled again, the ball float rises, the transmitter plunger shifts to the
extreme left as shown in the drawing, the slide valve of the servomechanism
shifts to the. right and the normal water supply to "consumers" is renewed.
For the use of wetting ag~nts or of calcium hypochlorite solution there
. is a special 1 liter tank (9). The tank operates at a turnover rate of 360
Ii and at a pressure of 5 atmospheres. The length of the apparatus is 1.6 m,
width 0.65 m, height 0.95 m, weight 295 kg. Experimental tests with KF-l
small tanks indicated their high operational capacities. It is regrettable
that their field of utilization is limited to mines using pressure energy and
to mines which have an extensively developed air-duct system.
At the request of so-called production innovators many mine operators
installed spraying systems of their own design. One such spraying outfit was
-168-
-------
built by the mechanics of the "Komsomol'skaya Pravda"
tratsit Demchenko Trust on top' of the EPM-l machine.
tion of the locally built spraying machine.
Fig. 2. Demchenko spray device
installed on machine EP.M-l.
mine of the Arteman-
Wig. 2 is an illustra-
The stabilizing weights,suspended
to the edges of the Em-I machine} have
been replaced by 2 tanks of 100 liter
capacity/each made of boiler steel~
The water from the tanks is fed into
the sprayers (3) with the help of a
vortex pump (2) attached to the machine
on the left side. One sprayer is at-
tached to the front of the machine,
the other above the transport car.
Water is run into the tanks before the
machine is set into operation by run-
ning water into the transport car and
transferring by a pump installation in the EPM-l machine.
Tests indicated
that the installation was simple, easy to operate and that it reduced air
dustiness during the ore loading by 87~5 - 90.0% or to 12.5 - 10.0% of the
control. A serious drawback in the great majority of such installations is
the fact that they are designed to use already prepared, i.e., purified
and chlorinated, water brought down in small transfer (delivery) cars to the
place of use. Such a procedure proved costly, .resulted in track congestion
and irregular water delivery; therefore, it should be regarded as a temporary
expedient.
At present the Rostovugol' works is preparing to introduce a movable in-
stallation for water purification in coal mines designed by engineers Kalash-
nikov and Fedorov (Fig. 3). Normal effective capacity of the installation
is 4 m3/hour, working pressure about 5 atmospheres, radius of operation up
to 105 km. The installation is constructed atop 3 mine (delivery) transfer
cars. In practice the installation can provide normal work over one level
during a simultaneous operation of 2 mine opening drifts. The water purifier
is installed in a special chamber, or some other available space, equipped
with on-the-spot" ventilation, the exhaust air of which leaves with the ge~eral
mine ventilation.
_L
-169-
-------
r
. .
1
'<
...
~
~
J
2
~
c:s
'"
---
s
-/7
/4 - ~ "
-~
--
~
Ie)
---
2000
-- ~.. - -- . '-'. .---
7S00
Fig. 3 .
Movable installation for water purification in mining.
The installation operates as follows: the mine water from dike or trench
(1) runs into settler (5) and through duct (12), is taken up by pump (10),
forces the water through pressure pipe-line into the filters (4); the filtered
water is then sent through the supply-line (2) to the points of "its use.
Part of the purified water passes along pipes (9) to be used in the prepara-
tion of the reagents .and to fill the reservoir with pure water~ The calcium
hypochlorite solution is prepared in small clos~d tanks (14). It is"expedient
to bring to the chamber from the surface a 15 - 20% calcium hypochlorite solu-
tion and to dilute it on the spot to the needed concentration (0.5%)~ The
hypochlorite solution is stored in and distributed from tank (13); the wetting
agent solution is stored in and distributed from tank (15). Both tanks are
. .
equipped with dose measuring faucets. vVhen wetting agents are not employed,
tank (15) is utilized for the same purpose as tank (14). Filters are washed
with water contained in reservoir (18) by removing same as needed through
pipe-line (11); filter washing is done with the aid of a wash pump not shown.
in the drawing; . through water pipe (1) the water. is brought to the lower part
of the filter. The reversed water flow carries the soiled water through water
pipe (3) and diverts it into the ditch (1) about 15 - 20 m below. The filters
are made of 600 rom pipe sections with low resistance slit drainage of special
design. The filter proper consists of 2 layers: a lower layer of coarse sand
or gravel siftings 2 - 5 rom in diameter and 300 rom thick, and an upper layer
of mountain sand of 1 - 2 rom size and 400 rom thick. Dirt-catching capacity of
-110-
-------
such a filter was about 1.5 kg/which provided a 3 - 8 hour filter-cycle, de-
pending on the degree and type of mine water pollution. In some instances
. .
mine water from higher levels could be used for spray p~rposes without pre-
liminary purification, as was the case in mine No.3 ot the Gukovugol' Trust..
The following spray systems are recommended: 1) for spraying of mine
. .
workings and mine masses, the NakNII type; 2) for dust abatement and gas set-
tling after explosive operations the RS or TON-4 sprayers in pits which use
pneumatic.drill~; 3) for water .curtains the flat~je~ MakNII sprayers.
Ventilation, especially when combined with spray curtains, is an effec-
tive means for suspended mine dust control.. From the sanitary point of view
lateral 'ventilation is the most appropriate for coal mines with the air moving
along the walls from the center shaft toward the ventilation outlet. Vii th
this type of ventilation the miners come into least contact with the dusty air
current. However, due to prevailing technical reasons, many coal mines are
. .
compelled to adopt a central ventilation syst"em. According to this system
the fresh air current having passed through mining shafts and passages of
formation levels becomes saturated with dust floating in the air and returns
over or under the formation levels to the center shaft. These passages are
usually used by the miners in their moving about, which brings them into un-
desirable contact with the dust-laden air currents. The amount of dust in
the outgoing air current ventilation dusts can be reduced by the installation
of spray curtain facilities.
Ventilation of dead-end mine workings in many cases cannot be efficiently
operated due to extensive drops in the mining levels; such level drops are
oftentimes extensive; this makes it necessary to provide a mechanical air
supply. The pressure type of local aeration is operated best when the venti-
lation pipes run under the shaft ceiling, and for the suction type along the
floor. The maximum distance from the end of the pipe to the front of the
mining spot proper should not exceed 10 m with the pressure method, and 2 m
with the suction method. A serious drawback of pressure ventilation of mine
openings is presented by ai~ pollution of the entire stretch of the open-
ing with the dust coming from near-charging areas. This drawback can be
eliminated by using the combined aeration and water curtain method (Fig. 4).
The dust-elminating effect of ventilation is achieved by decreasing the
concentration and removing the suspended dust from the mining area with an
-171-
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\ J
\
,
Fig. 4. Combination ventilation.
1 - Compressed air conduit; 2 - Ex-
haust air conduit; 3 - Water supply;
4 - Flat-flow sprinklers.
air current. Experimental results in-
dicated that 0.5 - 0.1 m/sec velocities
of air current were optimal for dead-
end mine workings.
The intensification of coal mining
and increase in dust formation connected
with the introduction of mechanization
require a considerable increase in the
rates of air supply for coal mine work
areas. However, the increase in air
supply is limited by the maximum per-
missible limits of air movement in relation to the mines1cross-section; there-
fore, the coal mine ventilation should be in coordination with the measures
which permit dust abatement at points of its origin by spraying, wet drilling,
sucking off of dusty&ir/and its subsequent purification, etc.
The reorientation of mining operations at present in progress in many
coal mines, particularly in the Donbass, has as its purpose the reorganiza-
tion of the scattered mine operations; the plan is to operate successively
individual levels, beds or bed groups, to change to working single mine sec-
tions, and to replace the system of continuous surface mining by the pillar
system. All this should improve mine ventilation conditions. An impor-
tant factor in improving effectiveness of ventilation is the supply to the
mines of pure, dust-free air. The dustiness of air supplied to the mine work-
ing areas must not exceed,O~2 mg/m3. 'Unfortunately, in practice this standard
is not always in effect due to wrong organization conditions and management
of the mine above ground, and. to inadequate sanitary supervision.
The present day mining technique reduced the number. of underground workers
exposed to harmful effects of rock and coal dust. By effecting the necessary
technical system of dust control in.the coal mining industry it will be possible
to reduce air dustiness to the levels required by sanitary-hygienic standards.
Bibliography.
S.. p 0 B R.. H. n~~1IU CBJlD038 R' mp.KOY 8p8 roplUirz p83paC5oTKax.
~ 19M.. - Bpelleuaa JlBCTpJItIUIH 00 CB83H88HRIO oceaweA y~a OWlH . 00.11-
.rot'O'~BWX.1I uape3JU1J(' BWp8Gorlt8X WUT, ooa~. DO IIIiUUI oeP«!,A.. npoll380J1CTBOM
8311"""110 p8001'. M.. )'rneftU3J18T, 1956.-)1( e n e3 H W x A. M~ r y c: e 8 H. B. W8XT'
HOe tTpOl\T.. 1958. M 7. np. 21S-:l9.::'" 3 .11( e B A. n., X eA 4181( C~ Sf: ~roJlb; 1957,
16w c: CllJIU030M . repY.Hc:xoA Ae..o-
~pa;'l'll'JeatoAPec:n)'~. M., 1957. - HeOTJlO1KHble 38J1Ia'lR paOorHBKo, y~oA opo-
..blwneUH
-------
Air Ionization in Gymnasiums.
M. A. Vytchikovao
(Department of Hygiene, Central Institute of Physical Culture).
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 24, No.1, 83-85, 1959.
The hygienic evaluation of air in living quarters is based princi-
pally on the determination of temperature, humidity, carbon dioxide and dust
concentrations and bacterial air population. In addition to the indexes
mentioned, the electrical properties of
f
of hygienic interest as factors affecting the state of the environment.
atmospheric and indoor air are
In-
door air ionization has been studied the least. This is particularly , true
of air ionization in enclosed gymnasiums, despite the fact that at the present
time these gymnasiums are numerous. This prompted this author to measure air
ionization in different gymnasiums of the gentral Institute of Physical Cul-
ture,accompanied by determinations of carbon dioxide content and by record-
ing the meteorlogicalconditions. Observations were made in each gymnasium
prior to the beginning exercises and upon their termination. Each specific
exercise lasted 1-1/2 hours, with a 20-minute intermission, during which
partial ventilating windows were opened, 1/ since the central ventilation
system was out of order.
The meteorolpgical observations and C02 determinations were made by the
usual methods. Ionization measurements were made by means of V. F~ Litvinov's
ion counter,designed for the determination of light ion concentrations.
sults.of:the observations are listed in Table 1.
The data in Table 1 show that the number of light ions was steadily
diminishing during physical exercises. The maximum decrease in the number
of light ions was observed after the first course of exercises. During sub-
sequent exercises/fluctuations in the number of ions were more moderate, and
in some instances a temporary ionization increase was recorded.
GenerallY,in the course of four series of exercises, each lasting 1-1/2
hours, the concentration of light ions in gymnasium No.1, having a cubic
capacity of 32 m3 per person, decreased from 483 to 232, amounting to 53% of
. .
the original, while in gymnasiums Nos. 2 and 3, each with a cubic capacity of
Re-
1/ Known in Russian as "fortochka".
-173-
-------
TABLE
10
Average results of gymnasium investigations.
Time of
investigation
: Temper- :R.l t'
: . ': e a 1ve
: . ature:h 'dit
: .' : um1 y
: 1n : '%
: .: 1.n
: degrees:
CO2 pro
mille
:Light ion:U' 1 .
: : n1po ar-
: concen- : 't
: t t . : 1 y co-
f ra 10n !efficient
:per 1 cm3: .
:Dry cata-:
:thermom- :
. .
: eter :
i cooling i
. 3
Gymnasium No.1 - capacity 32 m
Prior to 16.2 48 6.6 0.8 483 102
exercises
After 1st class 19.0 57 5.5 2.7 315 1.3
After 2nd class 17.5 77 502 206 234 1.3
After 3rd class 22.0 75 502 3.0 267 1.2
After 4th class 21.0 90 4.6 3.0 232 1.3
Gymnasium No. 2 - capacity 42 m3
Prior to 16.3 35 6.8 0.6. 536
exercises
After 1st class. 17.0 52 5.7 1.0 335
After 2nd class 20.0 82 4.8 1.0 469
After 3rd class 20.0 84 4.8 107 281
After 4th class 20.5 62 5.0 2.0 302
Gymnasium No. 3 - capacity 43 m3
Prior to 15.2 49 7.2 0.8 569
exercises
After 1st class 17.0 58 6.1 1.5 429
After 2nd class 19.0 63 5.9 1.8 422
After 3rd class 24.~O 95 5.2 1.9 355
After 4th class 20.0 95 5.3 1.8 315
1.7
1.5
1.3
1.1
1.2
1.1
1.2
1.2
1.0
1.1
3 't
air equivalent to 42 - 43 m per person, 1 decreased from 536 - 569 to 302 -
315, amounting to 55% of the original. In all cases the positive ions pre-
vailed; the coefficient of unipolarity varied in an ind~terminablemanner.
A comparison of the variations in the number of light ions with changes in
the meteorological conditions and the carbon dioxide content pointed to some
definite interrelation between these factors. It was noted that the number of
light ions was usually in
to the C02 concentration.
changes and the degree of
some inverse proportion to the relative humidity and
A parallelism was discerned between ionization
the catathermometer cooling. 11
1/ Regretfully the author makes no mention of the statistical reliability of
the recorded changes in the composition of the air, making his arguments less
convincing.
Ed.
-174-
-------
The results of observations made in special gymnasiums are listed. in
Table 2; the data show that changes in the degree of air ionization followed
a regular pattern during exercises. In an inclosed hall of lowest cubic
capacity, equalling only 21 m3 per person, a pronounced decrease in the con-
centration of light ions was observed. During the period of 3 hours exercise
in this hall, the number of light ions decreased from 502 to 234 per 1 cm3,
or to 46.6% of the original.
TABLE
2.
Average results of gymnasium investigations.
Time of
investigation
: Light ion:
~: Temperature ~CO pro milleiconcentrationi Unipolarity
i in degrees i 2 : per 1 cm3 ! coefficient
Fencing gymnasium - capacity 21 m3
Before exercises 15.5 0..8 502
After 1st cla,ss 17~0 1.2 369
After 2nd class 1605 2.0 234
Heavy athletics gymnasium - capacity 34 m3
Before exercises 16.0 0.9 603
After 1st class 16.6 1.1 502
After 2nd class 1605 1.2 535
After 3rd class 17.0 1.8 429
Wrestling gymnasium - capacity 63 3
m
Before exercises 16.0 0.8 535
After 1st class 17.0 1.2 401
After 2nd class 18.0 1.7 301
After 3rd class 15.0 1.0 267
After 4th class 18.0 1.1 281
Athletic games gymnasium - capacity 68 m3
Before exercises 18.8 1.7 402
After 1st class 20.0. 105 368
After 2nd class 21.0 2.0 401
After 3rd class 22.0 2.6 315
After 4th class 23.0 2.6 335
1.1
1.2
1.3
0.9
1.2
1.1
1.0
1.2
1.3
1.2
1.0
1.4
009
1.1
1.3
1.2
1.4
In a gymnasium where heavy athletic exercise was conducted the number of
light ions/prior to and during the exercises/markedly exceeded those found in
other gymnasiums. A higher concentration of light ions in this gymnasium may
be explained by the fact that it was located in a semi~basement. According to
-175-
-------
the observations of Korff and Pettersen, the higher air ionization in basements
was caused by the permeation of the ion-richer air res~ing over the soil.
The ion concentration in a wrestling gymnasium was the lowest, probably
due to the high dust concentration coming from t~e floor mats; the light ions,
by virtue of settling on dust particles, became transformed into heavy ions.
The number of light ions during a 6-hour period of exercises in this hall was
decreased from 535 to 281 per cm3, or down to 55% of the original.
In the gymnasium with largest cubic air content, equivalent to 68 m3
per person, the changes in the content of light ions were more moderate. .
Shifts in the ordinary course of ionization changes may be explained by
the presence of coincidental circumstances. For instance, a lower con centra-
tion of light ions in the wrestling gymnasium after the third exercise, as
compared with the concentration after the fourth exercise, can be explained
by the fact that in the first case the small ventilation windows, "fortochka':
remained open during the exercise periods, thus admitting into the hall less
ionized air. According to A. A. Minkh, the concentration of light ions in the
atmospheric air during winter was always lower than that in indoor air.
Measurements of the coefficient of unipolarity failed to detect any
regularity in its fluctuation throughout the instruction day. However, it
was noted that, with the exception of 2 cases, it stayed above unity.
The sanitary-hygienic condition of the air in the gymnasiums was deter-
mined by the usual methods. Comparing the results of measurements of ioniza-
tion with the sanitary condition of the air in the gymnasiums surveyed, it
can be stated that a poorer sanitary air condition was accompanied by a de-
creased number of light ions in the air, and that the greatest loss of light
ions was recorded in gymnasiums with the poorest sanitary air condition. It
seemed obvious that ionization was only one component of the complex of mete-
orological factor& which affected the state of well being of the sportsmen
and which, from a hygienic point of view, changed for the worse in the course
of exerciseso
Air ions should be regarded as physiologically important;: in this connec~
tion the study of indoor air ionization here reported suggests the possible
value of artificially maintaining an adequate amount of light negative ions.
In some. instances/proper means to attain that/have been adopted; however, this
problem cannot be regarded as solved, and further investigation is needed.
-176-
-------
Bibliography.
J1.. e c cay e p 11>. HOHII3HpOBaHliblii B03!lYX Hero 4>H3HOJlOrH'IeCKOe .leil(TBII '.
M.-n., 1932. - n e c f a 4> T E. 3. B KH.: BonpocbI rHrHCHbl B03Ayxa r.opollol H f)pt.
MblLUJlCHHblX UCHTpOB CCCP. C60PHHK TpYAOB HHeTIITYTa KOMMYH3J1bHOII mr\1PH!,!..' ;';\.
1939, T. 3, CTp. 125-127.-MHllx A. A. fHf. H caH., 1938, !fg, 2,~~p. 12-2.2:, 19~7,.
Ng 2, CTp. 12-17.-CnepaHcKIIH C. n. .altee. M., 1939.-'-::J="rcy W. :'C.1WC!Z.
mcd. Wschr., 1950, v. 80, S. 1387-1388. - K uno W u. K 0 r f f-P e t t ~ r sen. Llsehr. f.
Hygiene, 1915, Bd. ~O, H. 3, S. 485-504. - S c h 0 r erG. Schwelz. med. Wsehr.,
1952, v. 82, S. 350-354. - S pol v e r i niL. M. Ann. Sanit. Pub!., 1950, v.I. f. 5,
p. 1411-1447.
Conference on Biological Action of Ultraviolet Radiation~
N. M. Dantsig.
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 24, No.1, 86-81, 1959.
The sixth regulation session devoted to the study of "The Biological
Action of Ultraviolet Radiation" Has held in LeningTad June 2 - 6, 1958.
The conference was called jointly by the Institute of Biological Physics,
Academy of Sciencies, U.S.S.R., the Sysin Institute of General and Cormnunity
IIygiene, Academy of Medical Sciences, U.S.S.R., the Institute of Radiation
Hygiene, and the Lenin All-Union Agricultural Academy. The opening of this
conference coincided with the tenth anniversar.y of the first conference
devoted to the subject, called by the Academy of Sciences, U.S.S.R. and the
Academy of Medical Sciences, U.S.S.R. in Moscow, in 1948."Guests from the
Peoplg's Republic of China and the German Democratic Republic participated
in the work of the conference.
More than a hundred reports were delivered
at the conference which could be conveniently divided into three basic groups
as follows:
1.
Biological action of ultraviolet radiation.
The key-note report on
the subject "The Biological Mechanism of Ultraviolet Radiation" was read by
Prof. G. M. Frank, Corresponding Member of the Academy of Medical Sciences,
U.S.S.R. In this report, as well as in those delivered by Profs. A. P. Par-
fenov, G. S. Varshaver, O. M. Velchur and E. I. Pasynkov, new ~ata were
presented on the mechanism of the biological and physiological action of
-111- '
-------
,- -
radiation from the ultraviolet section of the spectrum upon the human and
animal organism. The subsequent reports furnished specific facts related to
various branches of the stu~, such as changes in many of the physiological
and biochemical reactions Qf an organismjinduced by ultraviolet radiation,
and also particularly related to protein metabolism, blood serum, enzymes,
carbohydrate-phosphate skin metabolism, skin photo-sensitivity, skin tempera-
ture, and a number of other systems and organs. The data convincingly showed
that only a careful study of the biochemical processes can open the way to an
understanding of the mechanism of ultraviolet radiation action upon biological
objects.
The conference emphasized the fac~ that first in order was the
participation by scientific-research institutes in the study of the problem
of biological effect of ultraviolet radiation and the expansion of general
theoretical investigations devoted to the study of the mechanism of ultra-
violet radiation.
2.
The use of solar and artificial ultraviolet radiation in medicine
and agriculture. A report entitled "Hygienic Characteristics of Natural
Ultraviolet Radiation" was delivered by Prof. N. F. Galatin, Corresponding
Member of the Academy of Medical Sciences, U.S.S.R. Subsequent reports were
devoted principally to subjects dealing with methods for the study of prop-
erties of the so-called "ultraviolet climate" at different geographical lati-
tudes, and the experimental application and dosimetry of solar ultraviolet
radiation in medical-prophylactic practice.
The conference noted with satisfaction that in recent years a systematic
study of the "ultraviolet climate" has been initiated in a number of newly
selected locations throughout the Soviet Union, and that fields of investiga-
tion related to natural ultraviolet radiation in its hygienic aspect had
been expanded. On the other hand, it was noted with regret that since these
observations had not been conducted on an agreed standardized basis and
programming, reliable comparative evaluation~could not be made/or valid
conclusions drawn.
The data disclosing substantial losses in natural ultraviolet radiation
in the southern cities attracted considerable attention, since no such losses
had been expected to occur in Tbilisi, Tashkent, and other similar cities.
It should be mentioned that some reports dealing with the bactericidal prop-
erties of solar ultraviolet radiation constituted excellent illustrations of
-178-
-------
environmental self-purification, a subject of compelling interest in applied
hygiene.
Some reports furnished data on ultraviolet irradiation of d:,ifferent age
and occupational population groups. This irradiatio~'was made in special
"photarias" equipped with irradiation facilities, such as the PRK lamps of
different intensities, or in residences and social institutions equipped with
so-called ultraviolet illumination, the light flow of which was enriched by
an ultravjolet.component from erythematous luminescent lamps. The data ex-
pressed th~ marked success attained in recent years in the field of hygienic
standards, dosage and spectral composition of irradiation, as well as the
conditions of ultraviolet i~radiation of the adolescent and adult segments
of the population.
Following that, reports were presented on the results obtained in the
field of "ultraviolet insufficiency" in the northern regions of the U.S.S.R.
and large industrial cities, and on the development of different methods for
the compensation and prevention of "ultraviolet insufficiency". It was con-
cluded that at the present time there were three recognized systems of ultra-
a.
radiation application:
Non-erythematous doses, used 'to prevent ultraviolet insufficiency.
Erythematous doses, used in solving a number of medical-prophylactic
violet
b.
problems.
c. Gradually increasing doses, used to increase the resistance of the
human organism.
Another group of reports was devoted to the subject of short wave ultra-
violet radiation utilization as an agent for disinfecting indoor air, water
treatment, and for the preservation of perishable products. These reports
stressed the fact that the most efficient method of disinfecting indoor air
in the presence of people was an indirect irradiation of the rooms by means
of EUV lamps equipped with screens, and the light flow of which was directed
upward.
An independent branch of this problem was the ultraviolet i~r~diati6n .
of farm animals in order to boost their productivity. The reports devoted to
this practical phase of ultraviolet irradiation-pointed to the efficacy of
ultraviolet irradiation of farm animals and of poultry, particularly thos.e of
the younger generations, and stressed the fact that this measure was of great
importance to the national economy.
-179-
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The third, and final, phase'of the conference dealt with the sources of
ultraviolet light and methods of application of ultraviolet radiation. The
advances in modern light engineering opened opportunities for the utiliza-
tion of new sources of ultraviolet radiation, the so-called erythematous,
tanning, bactericidal, and also the mercuric-tungsten solar light lamps,
all of which can be used for medical-prophylactic and hygienic purposes.
New measuring instruments satisfying scientific requirements were dem-
onstrated during the conference.
Among these were the so-called ultraviolet
meters and dosimeters constructed by the All-Union Scientific-Research In-
'stitute of Light Engineering, the Institute of ,Radio-~Engineering, and the
Electric~l Engineering, the Institute of Health ~esorts and Physical Therapy,
Georgian S.S.R. Also demonstrated was an instrument designed by W. Ergart
and W. Efkka, two German scientists. The principle of the instrument was in
. . .
. .
, .
the use of bacteriophage as the receiver for ultraviolet radiation.
The reports dealinR with measuring solar and artificial ultraviolet radia-
. ------.---
tion aroused considerable interest., Two measurei?~~unit systems for the
, ,
evaluation of ultraviolet radiation were recommended by the conf~rence:
a. The power units system)with a subdivision of the ultraviolet spectrum
bands into sections C, B, A, with corresponding limits of 200-280, 280-320,
320-380 m~, to be used in physical therapy and in'scientific investigations.
'b. The effective bactericidal and erythematous 'unit system for the
. .
- '
evaluation of bactericidal efficiency and oferythema~produ61ng equipment.
With reference to the medical-p+ophylactic practice, it was recommended
that degree of irradiation be determined on a flat surface, while irihygienic
practice and in measuring solar ultraviolet radiation the isphericalmeans was
to be used.
It was pointed out during the discussion of the above problems that the
, .
search for more perfect methods of ultraviolet radiation application to the
stimulation of physiological functions and enhancement of immunological re-
activity of the organism was among the problems of pressing importance.
It follows that the two branches ,of prophylatic application of ultra-
violet radiation, namely antiseptic, which is in essence a sanitization of
the environment by eliminating deleterious factors and stimulating and re-
inforcing the~reactivity of the organism to raise its immunological potential
and its resistance of temperature, effects, constituted the basis for health
-180-
-------
improving measures to prevent diseases and enhance the general wellbeing.
It is suggested that the conference make immediately available the experience
gained and introduce it into practice through scientific acheivements in this
,
field; the information should be popularized and made easily available to
the general population.
Experimental Use of a Solar Ultraviolet Radiation Dosimeter.
N. A. Lebedev and B. A. Perov.
(Department of Physics of the Frunze Pedagogic Institute in Crimea).
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 24, No.2, 11-15, 1959.
The general biological activity of solar ultraviolet radiation and its
effect on the organism and vital human activity, raise the important problem
of correct and reliable dosimetry of this band of the solar spectrum. Kobwl-
edge of the quantitative effect of natural ultraviolet radiation is of par-
ticular~i~ortance at health resorts where the dosages of sun baths, and of
ligh~ and air must be accurately determined. Present knowledge of the bio-
effects of this part of solar radiation and methods of its dose determination
fails to satis~y t1e requirements of its practical application, and lags
behind recent developments in medical climatology.
The present photo-chemical methods of measuring natural ultraviolet
radiation, such' as the oxalic acid and the lithopone methods possess many
serious shortcomings. It is generally recognized that the determination of
sun bath doese with the aid of Yanishovskii's "pyranometer", which, is based
on the number of calories emanated by the total solar radiation, yielded in-
consistent results.
Different methods for measuring ultraviolet solar radiation were tested
in Crimea, which resulted in the acceptance of the photometric method. Read-
ings of a selenium photocell, equipped with a Shott light filter, which passed
400 to 300 m~ radiation rays, were compared with readings of Boiko's qu~~z
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-------
monochromator. The curves of ultraviolet radiation intensities encountering
o '
a surface at 90 throughout the day, measured by the two methods, were very
close.
It was noted that a selenium photocell with a shot'i'iight filter was ap-
plicable to measuring direct sun radiation falling upon a perpendicular surface;
it could not be used in measuring total radiation of the sun and the sky upon
encounteringa horizontal surface because it did not follow the law of cosines.
To circumvent this shortcoming, the authors used a sphere equipped with a
background, the inn_ei'-surface of which was covered: with magnesium oxide placed
in front of the photocell. The application of diffused light decreased the
effect of ultraviolet radiation upon the light filters and insured conformity
with the law of cosines beginning with 150 position of the sun. Use was also
made of the integrator-dosimeter, an instrument for measuring ultraviolet
radiation. This instrument consisted of a receiver, integrator cell, ampli-
fier, and an impulse counter. The instrument is s~hem~ti~al1y presented in
the following drawing.
z
To receiving section,
To meter recorder
I
M
i l
Z21ly
--- lpz
(0000.0000°1
+
'STsB~ photoelementa
Plan of the dosimeter-integrator. .
1 -Receiving sec~ion; 2- Integrating system and intensifiers: L1 and L2
6C5 lamps; L3 and L4 Sts4C lamps; ~ MH-5 neon lamp; mA- milliampmeter;
C1, C2, C3 and C4 ~. condensers; R1, R2' R3 and R4 - resistances;
TPI and TP2 - transformers; PEl and PE2 - photoelements.,
Two variants of the receiver were developed.
The first receiver-variant
consisted of an STsV-4 photocell, a light filter of type UF8-2, and a screened
globe. The maximal sensitivity of this receiver corresponded to a wave length
of 365 m~. The second receiver:variant co~sisted of two globes with screens
-182-
-------
coated with a white pigment and 2 STsV-4 photocells. A globe coated with
magnesium oxide permitted the passage of the visible and the ultraviolet
rays, while a globe coated with zinc oxide permitted passage of light waves
longer than 390 m~. Measurements of the reflection coefficient in.the visible
part of the spectrum for MgO and ZnO showed that it was independent of the
r~s.wave length and of the numerical inequality for these pigments. The
light, reflected from the spheres in a diffused manner, fell upon the two
specially selected photocells, which had nearly identical spectral character-
istips and were installed according to a differential circuit. This circuit
was the same as.was used for the operation of a differential photometer except
that an integrating cell consisting of a cOJ;ldenser "C", a neon lamp, and a
resistance "R" was used instead of a galvanometer.
The principle underlying the operation of the receiver was based on the
difference in the reflecting power of magnesium oxide and of zinc oxide. Since
the reflection coefficients in the visible part of the 'spectrum were not equal
numerically, a diaphragm had to be constructed and used to equalize the flow
of light falling upon the photocells. The instrument was adjusted in the
sunlight with the aid of a BS-8 light filter, which permitted the passage of
light with wave lengths greater than 390~. The photo-currents generated
by the effect of the visible rays were equal, but their flow was in opposite
directions, therefore; the condenser "c" was not charged in the operating cir-
cuit. However, if the rays contained a component with wave length shorter
than 390 m~, the condenser became charged to the flash potential of the neon
lamp. At the moment of flash appearance a difference of potentials, which was
generated in the resistance "R", was transmitted to the amplifier; the anode
part of the amplifier circuit included an electric impulse counter, either of
type SEI-l or OV m/IOO.
The current was supplied to the photocells in the receiver from single
semi-oscillation kenotron rectifier. The instrument operated at 3 different
speeds: fast, medium and slow. These 3 rates changed the sensitivity of the
instrument in ratios of 1:2:4, depending upon the intensity of the ultraviolet
radiation. The intensity of the ultraviolet radiation was determined by the
frequency of the impulses per minute, while the number of impulses represented
the measure of energy, i.e., the dose which fell upon the photocells. Begin-
ning with 1954 such integrating dosimeters were used at therapeutic beaches
-183-
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and climatic verandas for the determination of definite doses for sunlight and
air baths in Gurzuf, then in Yalta, and'subsequentg in Yevpatoriya and a
number of, other resorts in the Crimea.
The graduated scale of integrating dosimeters for ultraviolet radiation
was based upon the biological reaction of organisms, i. e~, a sufficiency or
insufficienqy of solar radiation was determined by the outward effect of the
erythematous effect of the ultraviolet radiation. The erythematous equiva-
lent, taken as the ratio of the average biodose to the number of impulses
recorded on the counter, was applied to the integrator dosimeter on the basis
of a large number of comparisons with the biodosimetrical observations.
The individual biodoses, on the therapeutic beach in Gurzuf, were deter-
mined continually through all the seasons for the majority of the patients.
The conventional Gorbachev-Dalfing biodosimeter with 6 windows was used. The
time and the number of impulses on the counter were accurately recorded during
a gradual closing of the instrument windows. About 24 hours later, when the
erythematous reaction was determined, the individual biodose was determined
on the basis of time,
integrator dosimeter.
Sivtsov, corresponded
integrating dosimeter.
as well as on the basis of the recorded impulse by the
The mean erythematous effect, as established by I. A.
to 0.85 - 0.95 of the conditional biodose shown by the
A comparison of thebiodosimetric data with simulta-
neous observations of ultraviolet radiation recorded by the integrating
dosimeter, revealed that erythema was produced Qy the same amount of ultra-
violet radiation energy, i.e., it corresponded to the same number of impulses
recorded on the counter, when the alititude of the ,sun ranged from 35 to 650.
The constancy in the number of impulses recorded on the dosimeter that cor-
respond to the formation of erythema, notwithstanding the number of impulses
per minute, which were proportional to the intensity, substantiated the cor-
rectness of the instrument dosage and established a new energy equivalent of
the total ultraviolet radiation required for an erythematous reaction. Ac-
cording to preliminary computations, the approximate value of the equivalent
was 200 millicalorie/cm2. The time required for the formation of erythema
depended on the intensity of the ultraviolet radiation, which was a function
of the altitude of the sun above the horizon. This function can be expressed
in the following equation:
log T = 0.85 + 0~39
er s1nhe
-184-
-------
. .\
where: Ter is the avera'ge-~ime of er.ythema formation and he is the. sun alti-
tude above the.horizon. The numerous data obtained from measuring the ultra-
violet radiation' .by means of an integrating dosimeter, made it possible to
arrive at a series of generalizations.
Table 1 shows the mean values of the intensity of ultraviolet radiation
from the sun and the sky, and also radiation from the blue sky only, which
consisted of dispersed ultraviolet rays upon a horizontal surface, as well as
the required time for the formation of er.ythema, depending on the sun's alti~"
tude above the horizon. These mean values were.derivedfrom many solar radia-
tion observations; they represent the qualitative characteristics of the day-
time natural ultraviolet radiation, and were used in planning heliotherapy'
procedures and bringing about understanding of ~he ultraviolet system.
TABLE
1.
Position
.of sun.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Sun and skies
"Intensity
in millical
. ( cm2Jmin)
. 1l.3
22.2
42.6
69.0
87.0
97.1
102.3
(Su - Skt~:
Biodose i
time in i
min :
Skies (Sk)
Intensity
in millical
(cm2 min)
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. .
Sk
(Su + Sk)
in
percent
. 100.
20°
300
400
500
600
690
47
29
23
21
19
9.7
1605
29.8
44.8
53.0
55.4
56.4
86
78
70
65
61
57
55
An analysis of the data shown in Table 1 indicated that attending physi-
cians had a wide variety. of dosages to select for their.patients, taking into
account their state of health. The effect of the surrounding air upon a
patient taking sun baths of long duration, equivalent to one eighth of a bio-
dose, was more sparing in the summer morning hours than those taken closer to
noon time. With t~e sun's altitude at 450 the duration of ,the therapeutic
dose was substantially reduced and reached 'its minimum by noon. It should be
noted that in. the Crimea therewere 186 days, between March 20 and September
24, when the sun was at 450. FUrthermore, the effect of increased heat radia-
tion around noon should be carefully considered. The magnitude of the dis-
persed ultraviolet radiation which fell from the sky only, represented a. sizable
percentage of the totai radiation from the sun and the sky. Under a cloud-
less sky, the dispersion, according to the Releya Law, was inversely'propor-
-185- -
-------
tional to the fourth power of the wave
rays the more dispersed were the rays.
the study of the ultraviolet climate of
length, i.e., the shorter the waves qf
Integrating dosimeters were used in
a locality. The ,counters of the in-
struments recorded the ultraviolet radiation throughout the day.
The amount
of this radiation in impulses can be recorded in millicalories of biodoses
for any given period of time.
Table 2 shows the mean values of the increment of biodoses between the
sunrise and any predetermined altitude of the sun for the first half of the
day. The percentage of biodose from the sky only, even at the altitude of
the sun's culmination, constituted 56% of the total radiation per day. For
lesser altitudes of the sun above the horizon, this percentage increased more
TABLE
.2.
:Number of biodoses
Positioni Sun and: Sk"
f : k" : ~es
o sun: s ~es: (Sk)
:( Su + Sk):
: Sk
i(Sk + Su)
i in
: percent
200 0.63 0.55 81
300 1.51 1.30 83
400 2.90 2.24 11
500 5.40 3.66 68
600 9.10 5.95 61
690 15.00 8.40 56
TABLE 3.
rapidly, thus stressing the great
significance of the ultraviolet radia-
tion from the blue sky only. The
annual progress of ultraviolet bie-
doses was qharacterized by the data
shown in Table 3.
Table 3 shows the total number
of biodoses for each month of the
year.
2,500
From the average number of
biodoses a year the largest
portion fell in the sum-
mer months, among which
June and July occasionally
received more than 500
each, i.e., more than 20%
Month
!
i
. .
. .
~probabl,e~ '
. .
i Exceeding
;physiological
: :, minimum
iPer centiaccording to
: :N. F. Galanin
Number of biodoses
Actual
of the annual amount. '
January 68 19 28 5 For the month of December
February 116 34 29 8
March 260 104 40 26 an average of 12 biodoses,
April 498 229 46 51 or only 0.5% of the total
May 115 403 52 101
June 900 531 59 133 amount per annum/was
July 194 540 68 135, computed.
August 539 350 65 88
September 252 154 64 38 The ann~al amount of
October 130 62 48 15 biodoses constituted only
November 12 23 32 6
December 56 12 22 3 55% of the theoretically
For year 4,460 2,461 ',55 51
-186-
-------
possible maximum computed for a cloudless sky. Nevertheless, the average annual
amount of ultraviolet rays was 50 times greater than the physiologically required
minimum. The next important problem was the considerati6fi~tEe' 'solar . spectrum
heat band which constituted the larger portion of total solar energy. In addi-
tion to measuring the ultraviolet radiation, it was also necessary to know the
total solar radiation measured by means of the Yanishevkii "pyranometer". The
magnitude of solar heat rays intensities were used to determine the character-
istics of the thermal condition of the air in detecting the zones of comfort,
of cooling, and of overheating. Determination of the surrounding air thermal
constant, if made at the time a dose of ultraviolet r~s was prescribed, pre-
vented over-heating, over~cooling and other unfavorable conditions in heliother-
apy, which may occur as the result of improper evaluation of thermal conditions.
Conclusions.
1. Measurings by means of integrator-dosimeters, described herein, firmly
established a proportionality of the total ultraviolet radiation from the sun
and the sky upon a horizontal surface to the erythematous flow, for solar alti-
tudes ranging from 35 to 650 above the horizon.
2. The same amount of total ultraviolet radiation, namely about 2000
millicaloriesjcm2, was required for obtaining erythema, while the altitude of
the sun was within the limits just mentioned.
3. The time required for obtaining erythema for skin of average sensi-
tivity, depended on the intensity of the ultraviolet radiation. and the corre-
~ponding sun altitude above the horizon; it can be expressed by the following
equation:
where T
er
the horizon.
4. The practice of using dosimeters on therapeutic beaches at health re-
sorts in the Crimea was expedient and was instrumental in obtaining reliable
measurements for the biologically active part of the solar spectrum.
5. Administering natural ultraviolet radiation dosages, as practiced in
health resorts, promoted a wider application of the integrator-dosimeter in
health resorts, as well as future refinements in the technique of its use.
I
is the time for
log T = 0.85 + o~~
er s~ ~
erythema developing and hGJ is the
sun altitude above
Bibliography.
rail a Ii H Ii H. ell. nyqHCTaR ::meprHR H ee rHrHeHHqeCKOe 3HaqeHHe. n., 1952.-
r e H e pan 0 B A. A. rHr. H caH., 1956, Nq 10, CTp. 15-20. - K 0 H 11 paT b e B K. 51.
nyqHCTaR 3HeprHIi conHua. n., 1954. - n e 6 e 11 e B H. A., III 'I e p K 0 B H q Ii. n:.
"3B. KpblMcKoro ne!1. H!!-Ta. 19!i5, T. 21, CTp. 54-70.-Meiiep A.. 3eliTU 3.
YnbTpacpHoneTcBoe H3nY'leHHe. M., 1952. - T H X 0 B r. A., n: p y p H B. 11. I1ccne110Ba-
HHII OTpaJKa1'enbl'oii cnoco6HOCTH. M.-n., 1934, CTp. 69-94. - YnbTpacpHoJ1eToBoe
H3Jly..eHHe H rHrHeH8. M., 1950. -187-
-------
Detection of 3.4-Benzpyrene in Smoked. and Partially-Smoked Sausages.
(Fluorescent-Spectral Analysis).
N. D. Gorelova and P. P. Dikun.
(Institute of Onkology, A.M.~., U.S.S.R.).
Voprosy Onkologii, Vol. 4, No.4, 405-408, 1958.
Ou~ previous report 1/ contained information obtained during a fluorescent-
spectral investigation of certain types of smoked fish. The data indicated
that soot deposited on the walls of smokehouses and on the smoked products
contained 3.4-benzpyrene. This substance was found not only on the surface
of the smoked product, but also deep inside it.
This report pertains to the stu~ of smoked and semi-smoked sausages,
the smoking procedure of which was almost identical with that of fish smoking.
The purpose of this stu~ was the same as in the previous case. Stu~ methods
were almost identical in both cases. The skin of the sausages was examined
apart from the filling. The sausage filling was ground in a meat-grinder before
saponification. In some cases the sausage was cut into concentric layers of
a certain thickness and each layer was analyzed separately. Saponification
was made with 150 - 200 g KOH (depending on the fat content of the filling);
. otherwise the sausage analysis was the same as for smoked fish.
These authors investigated 4 samples of hard sausage, which were smoked
by electrical current of high voltage. The hard-smoked and semi-smoked sau-
sages were obtained from the l-st sausage plant of the "Lenmyaskombinat",
and those smoked with high voltage electric current were obtained from the
Moscow Meat-Processing Plant.
Hard-smoked sausages were smoked without previous cooking. Temperature
of the wood smoke was 15 - 180 C. Duration of smoking 4 - 5 days. Data in
Table 1 show that all analyzed samples of hard-smoked sausages contained 3.4-
benzpyrene. Its quantity fluctuated between 1.9 and 3.5% per 1 kg of sausage
(this is exactly as given in the original. B.S.L.); considerable 3.4-benz-
pyrene was found in the sausage skin; highest concentration was found in the
filling.
Semi-smoked sausages were cooked before smoking. Duration of smoking was
12 - 20 hours, with smoke temperature of 35 - 400 C; in addition/sausages were
11 Page 398 of this issue.
-188-
-------
TABLE
1.
3.4-Benzpyrene content in hard-smoked sausages.
Type of sample
Pork sausage, hard-smoked
Moscow sausage, hard-smoked
Special sausage, hard-smoked
Tambov sausage, hard-smoked
TABLE
i3.4-benzpyrene in y
~per 1 kg of sausage
i :In the:
iOn the:foll- iT t 1
: ki:J. :oa
. s n.. .
: : ~ng :
1.2
1.5
0.8
1.0
2.
2.1
2.0
1.1
1.8
3.3
3.5
1.9
2.8
3.4-Benzpyrene content in semi-smoked sausages.
_Type of sample
:3.4-benzpyrene in y
!per 1 kg of sausage
: : In the:
iOn the:foll- :T-t 1
: ki:J. :ca
. s n .. .
: : J.~ :
Kracov semi-smoked sausage 6
. Not an-
Poltava sem2-smoked sausage 1 d
a yze
TABLE
3.
4.5,
1.2'
10.5
3.4-Benzpyrene content in electrically
Smoked sausages.
Type of sample
Polish sausage
Ukrainian sausage
i3.4-benzpyrene in y
~per 1 :kg of sausage
i :In the:
iOn theifoll- iT t 1
: skin : ~ : 0 a
: : 1n~ :
3.5
2.2
1.0
0.8
4.5
3.0
sharply decreased the time of the smoking process.
exposed to a 1 - 2 hours
60 - 900 smoke during the
so-called "braising" proc-
ess. Thus, the total dura-
tion of semi-smoked sausage
contact wi th smoke was.
short, but the smoke tem-
perature was higher.
Data in Table 2 show
that the semi-smoked sau-
sages also contained 3.4-
benzpyrene.
It was found
in the skin and in the fill-
ing. The amount of 3.4-
benzpyrene in semi-smoked
sausages apparently was
nearly the same as in the
hard-smoked sausages.
It
was difficult to make more
definite and conclusive
statements due to the small
number of analyzed samples.
Smoking with electrical
current of high voltage was
a new process, still in an
experimental stage. Smok-
ing was done in smoke-filled
chambers in which the prod-
uct was exposed to high volt-
age electric fields. -This
Data in Table 3 show that
- sausage products smoked by the electric method also contained 3.4-benzpyrene,
in amounts approximating those obtained by the old smoking methods.
Data in Tables 1, 2 and 3 show that all kinds of analyzed sausage products
contained 3.4-benzpyrene on the skin and in the filling. However, the 3.4-
-189-
-------
benzpyrene distribution ~nside the filling depended (apparently) on the ~oking
method. To clarify this question, quantitative determinations of 3.4-benzpyrene
'were ma~e in different concentric layers of the filling.
TABLE
40
Extent of 3.4-benzpyrene penetration into the smoked sausages.
Type of sample
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
i
iSki
I' n
.
.
.
3.4-benzpyrene content
:In y per kg of filling
5 ' layer of given
! thickness
iIn ringiIn ring! B 1 !Fillingi From iDeeper
13-4 mm p-4 to ! -~l °:WP-4 mm 13-4 to ! than
! deep :9-11 mm:9 ! deep :9-11 mm!9-11 mm
In percent
Hard-smoked pork
sausage
Half-smokeg. Poltava
'sausag~ '. . -
giectr~c~~ly-smoked
Ukrainian~$ausage
70
38 14 13 4.2 107 1.0
None None None N one- None
'-y--J '-y--J
30 Trace 1.2 Trace
35
Data: in Table 4 show that 3.4-benzpyrene permeated mostly through the
skin and penetrated deepest in hard-smoked sausages. Only 39% of the benz-
pyrene was found in the skin of one of these sausages (hard-smoked pork sau-
sage) and 65% in the filling. In the Ukrainian electrically-smoked sausages,
70% of 3.4-benzpyrene was found in the skin and only 30% in the filling. An
analogous ratio was observed. also in the Cracow semi-smoked sausages: -6 V-in
. the skin and 4.5 y in the filling (Table 2); 3.4-benzpyrene which penetrated
through the sausage skin, as was to'be expected, concentrated mainly in the
layer next to the, skin. Thus, in the Poltava semi-smoked sausage all 3.4-
benzpyrene which penetrated through the skin was concentrated in a layer
, ,
3 .... 4 mm deep. None of Jtwas detected in the deeper layers. In the elec-
trically-smoked sausages 3.4-benzpyrene penetrated into the deep.er layers;
, ,
-
traces of it were detected 9 - 11 mm from the skin; in har&-smoked sausages
only about 13% of the total 3.4-benzpyrene was found at equivalent depth.
Resul~s of the present. investigation showed that hard-smoked sausages,
just as smoked fish, containe~3.4-benzpyrene. This substance penetrated
through the sausage skin and was found in the filling. In skinned sausages .-/"
, ,
the content of3.4-benzpyrene was 0.8 to 4.5 y per 1 kg by weight.
-190-
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The Carcinogenic Effect of Shale Fuel Soot"- -on W1i1te Mice.
A. Yu. Vysamyae.
(From the Inst-itute of Experimental and. Clinical Medicine,
Academy of Sciences, Esthonian S.S.R.). .
Voprosy Onkologii, Vol. 4, No.4, 408-411, 1958.
Shale fuel is used predominently in the Esthonian S.S.R., especially in
Thallin,-by general consumers-and different industrial manufacturing enter-
prises. According to A. Aarna and his collaborators CIJ shale fuel is rich
in mineral compounds, and its combustible fraction is rich in volatile compo-
nents. Because of the abundance of mineral compounds, shale fuel leaves a
residue of 45- 70% of ash upon burning. The ash rapidly accumulates, clogs
the furnaces, which results in incomplete combustion of the fuel. This, in
turn, leads to the formation of a comparatively large amount of products of
incomplete combustion, such as soot, tarry substances, carbon monoxide, and
other products, which pollute the atmospheric air C6J. E. P. Vagane C2J, of
the above named Insjitu~e;Jinvestigated the extent and degree of air pollu-
tion in the vicinity of the Esthonian shale basin and in the proximity of
abutting populated areas. The results of his investigation indicated that
the concentration of air dust (fly ash) exceeded the limit of allowable con-
centration. Vagane's studies indicated that emissions coming from the smoke-
stacks of industrial combines and electric heat and power stations and from
chimneys of residences were responsible for the pollution of air. Dust samples
.. .
werecolleoted by the sedimentation method in the proximity of a Thallinsk
eleotric heat and power station; analysis sho~ed that such dust contained 5 ~
10% of tarry substances; results of further analyses pointed to the presence
of 3.4-be~zpyren8 in such tarry substances 1:5J.
Literature dealing with the subject of3.4-benzpyrene oontainsoonvinoing
evidenoe, based on experiments with laboratory animals, that 3.4-benzpyrine ----
. .
- -
was a panoerogenio agent. The oanoerogenio properties of soot can be d.m.on~
strated best by applying benzene soot extraots suboutaneously or over the skin
surfaoe of the animals for a long period of time (4, 7, 8J. According to
reports found in the literature (4, 1J, the. intensit,y of cancerpgenio activ~ty
of soot, as shown by results of biological tests, ran parallel to its 3.4-
benzpyrene content. It was also shown that the amount of canoerogenic hydro-
-191-
-------
carbons in soot depended not on the particular~ype of fuel, but on the
degree of combustion (3J. No reports were found in the literature which
dealt with the cancerogenic properties of shale fuel, and, consequently, no.
data were available on the effect upon the organism of prolonged contact
with shale fuel soot. The need for a thorough investigation of this problem
is an urgent one, since the use of shale fuel is not limited to the Esthonian
S.S.H. In this paper results are presented'obtained from experiments with
animals conducted for the purpose of making a thorough investigation of the
cancerogenic properties of shale fuel soot.
Materials and methods. The soot used in the experiments was collected
from the lower part of a multicyclone installed near the smokestack of a
shale~burning boiler of the Thallinsk V. Kingisep cellulose and paper com-
bine. Data found in the literature C3] showed that the general composition
of shale fuel soot emitted through smo~estacks into the atmospheric air did
not differ from chimney soot. )3.4-benzpyrene was determined by the spectre-
fluoroscopic method; its concentration in the soot reached 0.0014%. The
. .
shale fuel soot was extracted~ith benzene; vaseline was added to the soot.
extract to give it bo~ consistency; analysis showed that 1.0 ml of the ex-
tract oontained 0.04 mg of 3.4-benzpyrene. Spectro-fluorescent analyses
were made by P. P. Dikun of the Institute of Oncology of the Academy of
Medical Scienci~s of the U.S.S.R.
Experiments were performed with 218 white mice. The benzene extract
of the shale fuel soot was applied to 100 mice twice every week for approxi-
mately 25 weeks, or 50 applications. Two drops of the extract was applied
to the skin between the scapulas with the aid of a glass rod. The experi-
ments extended over 5 months and 20 days, including the period of observa-
tion. . Eighteen control mice were treated in a manner described above with
2 drops of a mixture of benzene and vaseline. The basic control group con-
sisted of 100 white mice which received no treatment .of any kind. Records
were kept of the general condition of the animals and of any changes on the
skin which may have resulted from the treatments. All animals were kept
under observation up to the time of natural death. .. Dead animals were au-
topsied by the usual procedure; tissue samples were taken of the skin sec-
tions to which the soot extract was applied, of the heart, the liver, the
lungs, the spleen and the kidneys, and also of enlarged lymphatic nodes.
-192-
-------
Experimental results. Depilation was noted at the spots of the soot ex-
tract application after a few months. The first papillomas appeared after 31
applications in 2 mice at the points of soot extract application, that is at
the beginning of the 5th month. The number of neoplastic formations sharply
rose toward the end of the' experimental period, that is after all 50 soot ex-
tract applications. Of 11 surviving mice, cancerous developments were seen
in 33. Cancer growth developed in 23 mice on the average one month after the
last soot extract: application;' in some individual cases this occurred 2 - 3
months after the last soot extraQt application. Seventy-four of the 100 mice
lived 5 months from the 'beginning of. the experiments, of which 58, or 18%,
developed malignant growths. This was regarded as evidence prima facie of
the cancerogenic property of the soot extract.
Macro- and microscopic changes, which developed at the points of the
malignant growths, were similar to those usually observed in cases of develop-
?
ing malignancies. The numbers of sites of malignant growths, as shown by au-
topsies/were as follows: 1 per animal in 31 mice; 2 per ,anim~l in 14 mice;
3 per animal in 3 mice; 4 in 1 mouse; 5 in 1 mouse, and 6 per animal in 2
mice. In cases of multiple malignancy developments, the latter were histo-
logically different. Of 58 mice, 36, or 62.1% developed malignant growths,
of which 34 were squamous cell carcinomas and 2 cytoblastomas. In 11 mice,
or 28.3%,the growths were diagnosed as benign tumors, of which 10 were
papillomas and 1'papillomas with atypical epithelial proliferation. In 5
mice, or 8.6% I there developed clearly defined malignant and benign growths"
,and in addition an early stage of squamous cell carcinomas. Metastases de-
veloped in 9, or 25% of the mice, of which 8 were squamous cell carcinomas
and 1 a qytoblastoma. ' Metastases were also noted in mice in the axillar,y
lymphatic nodes of 8 mice, and in the pulmonar,y lymphatic node in 1 mouse.
According to the degree of keratinization (cornification) of the cancer
foci, squamous cell carcinomas can be divided into 2 groups: I} highly horni-
fied squamous cell carcinomas, of which there were 11 cases, and 2} slightly
hornified, of which there were 23 cases. No tissue necrosis was observed in
most of the highly hornified squamous cell carcinomas; tissue necrosis appeared
frequently in slightly hornified squamous cell carcinomas. In microscopically
diagnosed cytoblastomas the cancerous tissue consisted largely of spindle-
shaped cells free from hornification. The cancerous tissues bore no resemblence
to a~ t,ype of normal tissue, due to extremely high cellular differentiat~on.
'-193-
-------
Number of mice with malignancies developed as the result of shale fuel soot
extract application. (Based on microscopic tissue examinations).
:During 5 :
. .
: ,months:
. .
: and 20 :
i d"'vs of i
. -", .
: experi- :
i mental i
i period i
In months following
I
. . .' : . . .
. . . . . .
. . . : . : :
. . I :
. . : VIIIllI;'otal
II . III . IV V i VI VII
. . ! ~
. .
. .
. . : '
. . .
: : : : : .
: .
. .
Number of mice 29 14 19 22 9 3 2 1 1 100
perished
Wi th' tumor's: 2 8 11 18 8 2 2 1 58
a) Benign 2 5 6 4 17
b) Incipient 2 1 1 1 5
cancer
...EJ Malignant 1 10 13 7 2 2 "1 36
I"
Mortality rates among the experimental and control mice and the results
of study of the tissues and of the internal organs of the dead miceindioated
that the benzene extract of the shale fuel soot produced no toxic effects on
the organisms of the experimental animals. Spontaneous mammary gland adenomas
appeared in 3 of the control mice, with metastases into the lungs in 2 mice.
No malignant growths appeared in the 18 control mice treated with the vaseline"
and benzene mixture alone.
The results of the above experiments justify the conclusion that shale
fuel soot possessedblastomogenic properties in so far as the experimental
animals were concerned; this incidentally confirms the spectro-fluorescent
analytical results regarding the presence of 3.4-benzpyrene in shale fuel soot.
It appears reasonable to assume that contact with large quantities of such
soot over long periods of time can stimulate the development of blastomogenic
foci in the human organism, and that energetic measures should be taken to
prevent air pollution by shale fuel soot.
Conclusions.
1. Spectral-fluorescent analysis showed that 3.4-benzpyrene was present
in soot of shale fuel; benzene extract of such soot, applied to the skin,of
mice, or injected subcutaneously, produced malignant growths, indicating that
it possessed cancerogenic properties.
-194-
-------
2. Papillomas appeared 5 months after the application of the benzene soot
extract to the skin of the experimental.mice..
3. Most of the malignant formations resulting from the application of
.
the soot extract to the skin of the experimental mice were malignant epitheli-
omas, more often squamous cell carcinomas, occasionally cytoblastomas, which
frequently metastasized into the local and lUng !Ymphatic nodes~.
4. Benzene extract of the shale fuel soot appeared to be free of general
J
systemic toxic properties.
5.
The mixture of benzene and vaseline. used as the soot extract vehicle
had n~ blast~mogenicproperties.
6. Results of the investigations point to the urgent need of adopting
energet~c measures for the prevention of air con~amination with shale fuel
soot.
Bibliograp~.
t. A a r n a A., K a c k, Rei erA., 0 p i k I. Pol e v k i v i. 3CT. roc. H311-BO,
TaJJJJHH, 1954. .
2. R a r a I: e 3. n. 0 creneHH 3arpR311ellHR H Mepax oxpaHbI B0311yxa B .Hace.1eHllbiX nYHK-
Tax CJJaHlteBOrO 6acceiilla 3CTOIICKOH CCP. l3onp. rHr. TpYlla B CJJalllt. npOMblillJJ. 3CTOH-
cKoii. CCP, C6. II, 278-289, TaJJJllfl', 1955. . . .
3~ r Y p H HOB' B.. £1., :1 0 P 3 B. A., H.1 Lo II II a A. A. II ill a .J all JI. M., fHr.
H caHHTap., Hv 2, .10-16, 1953.
. 4: r Y p II II 0 B B. n., Mil ill 6 H It $. lI.., ill a 6 a.'l JI. M., fHr. II callHTap., Hv 10,
12-16, 1954. .
5. TOM C 0 H H. M. fHr. II CaHIIT., Ng 2, 8-12, 1950. .
6. TOM C 0 H H. M. H3B. AH 3CT. CCP, Ng 2, 286-288, 1953.
7. S t e in e r P. E. Cancer i{esearch, v. 14, ~2 2, 103-110, 1954.
8. S u I,n a n E., Sui mall F. Cancer Research, 6, 366-367, 1946.
-195-
-------
Analytical Utilization of Hexanitrohydrazobenzene Formation.Reactions.
A. I. Cherkesov and L. M. Kullberg.
N. G. Chernyshevskii Saratov University.
Zhurnal Analiticheskoy Khimi1, Vol. XI, No.1, 89-90, 1956.
Symmetrical hexanitrohydrazobenzene is formed under certain conditions
as the result of the reaction between trinitrochlorobenzene (picryl chloride)
and hydraz1ne, according to the following equation:
N02 NO.
202N -<=)- Cl + H2N - NH2 - Oli -(-)- NH -
N02 ~02
N02
/-"
-NH,,_/- NO. + 2HCl.
N02.
Acid salts of hexanitrohydrazobenzene with ammonium and with ions of
alkali metals form red solutions, while the intermediate salt solutions are
purple. On the basis of such color reactions these authors previously sug-
gested methods for the detection and quantitative determination of traces of
hydrazine and of potassium C2, 3J. Later studies of the reaction of hexa-
nitrohydrazobenzenefarmation indicatedthat,based on the above color reactions}
methods could be developed for the detection of some organic and non-organic
compounds.
~ Detection of trinitrochlorobenzene in the presence of mono- or dinitro-
chlorobenzene. The chemistry of the reaction can be expressed by the above
structural scheme; the procedural steps are as follows: a drop of 1% aqueous
solution of hydrazine sulfate, a drop of 5% aqueous solution of sodium bydrox~..
.ide and a drop of acetone solution of trinitrochlorobenzene are placed on filter
paper in. the given order, producing a pink color. No color is produced in the
absence of trinitrochlorobenzene. This procedure will detect 3 x 10-8 g in
1:430,000 dilution.
The simultaneous presence of comparatively large quantities of mono- or
dintrochlorobenzene does not interfere with the determination of the trinitro-
chlorobenzene. Thus, with a ratio of trinitrochlorobenzene and mono- or di-
nitrochlorobenzene (or their combination) of 1:1,000, i.e., in the presence of
0.1% trinitrochlorobenzene in the mixture, the reaction readily takes place.
-196-
-------
In the absence ofl trinitrochlorobenzene the color produced by the presence of
mono- or dinitrochlorobenzene is pale yellow.
~ Detection of trinitrophenol in the presence of mono- or dinitrophenols.
From the above it is clear that mono- or dinitrochlorobenzene did not react
with hydrazine sulfate and produced no pink or red colored substances. This
circumstance was utilized in developing a new method for the detection of
trinitrophenol (picric acid) in the presence of mono- or dinitrophenols. To
achieve this reaction, it was necessary to transform trinitrophenol into tri-
nitrochlorobenzene (picryl chloride); this reaction can be achieved by heating
picric acid (trinitrophenol) with pentachloride of phosphorus [4J.
"0. N02
- /-,
02N -<=)- 011 + Pr.15..... OIN -,,-(- Cl + POCls + HC\.
,,~ N~
To determine whether or not trinitrophenol was present in the mixture with
mono- or dinitrophenol, the following steps are taken~ a small quantity of
the mixture bein~ tested for trinitrophenol is placed into a micro-test tube,
J
a granule of pentachloride of phosphorus is added, and, after mixing, is
heated over the flame of a bunsen burner until the mass is fused. The walls
of the test tube must be heated to include the rising slightly foamy substance.
The mixture is cooled and 3 - 5 drops of water-free acetone is added and well
mixed. Using a capillary tube place successively on filter paper - a drop of
the prepared solution, a drop of 1% aqueous solution of hydrazine sulfate,
after which the paper is held over a glass jar containing concentrated ammonia.
A red color will appear. In the absence of trinitrophenol a yellow color is
produced under similar conditions. In the presence of large quantities of
trinitrophenol the color produced maY be bluish-purple. The reaction is
dependable when the mixture contains no less than 1% of trinitrophenol.
c) Detection' of pentachloride of phosphorus in the pre'sence of trichloride
of phosphorus. Preliminary tests established that under conditions of experi-
mental testing trichloride of phosphorus did not react with picric acid to
form trinitrochlorobenzene. This fact constituted the basis of a method for
the detection of pentachloride in the trichloride of phosphorus.
Three to 4 drops of trichloride of phosphorus, tested for the presence of
pentachloride of phosphorus, are placed into a conical micro-test tube, a gran-
ule of picric acid is added and heated over the flame of a bunsen burner to the
-197-
-------
'boiling point. During the heating process the test tube should be shaken to
bring the picric acid settled on the tube walls into reaction. The test tube
is cooled and 3 - 4,drops of water-free acetone are added. The solution is
tested as under lib"; a pinkish-purple
pentachloride of phosphorus the color
chloride content is comparatively low
color will appear. In the absence of
is eyllow. When the phosphorus penta-
(about 0.1%), the color is brownish-red.
Conclusions.
New qualitative reactions are suggested for the detection of trinitro-
chlorobenzene (picryl chloride) in the presence of mono- or dinitrochloroben-
zene, for trinitrophenol (picric acid) in the presence of mono- or dinitro-
phenols and for phosphorus pentachloride i~ the presence of trichloride of
phosphorus 0
Bibliography.
1. Lee In ann II.. G ran d m 0 u gin E., nero 41, 1295 (1908).
2. K Y n b 6 e p r JI. M. H q e p K e COB A. II.', iK. aRan. XHM. 6, 384 (1951).
3. q e p K e COB A. II., ABTope4>epaT ~Hcc,epTaLlHH, CapaToB, 1952.
, 4. J a C k son H., G a Z Z 0 I a 1. Alii. 23, 38'1 (1842).
Photocolorimetric Method for theDete~nation of O,yanogen in Gases.
A. M. Rozina, N. M. Dankova, N. I. Amitina and E. M. Rutshtein.
(The Zhdanov Coke-Chemical Plant).
Koks i Xhimiya, No.5, 45-46, 1951.
. - -. .
O,yanogen in coke gases is now determined by the methods of Ganda and
. '
UXhIN., The Ganda method is based on the absorption of the cyanogen from 'the
gas by a solution of alkali and ferric sulfate with the formation of soluble
K4LFe(CN)6] and insoluble Fe2(Fe(CN)6] ferrocyanides. The formed ~nsoluble
ferrocyanides are boiled in a solution of alkali until they become soluble.
The ferrocyanides are then titrated with a solution of zinc sulfate. The
UXhIN method is based on the absorption of the cyanogen by a solution of ferric
carbonate in a soda solution.
The hydr'ocyanide is caught in the form of sol-
-198-
-------
ub1e ferrocyanide and titrated with a solution of zinc sulfate, the same as
in the Ganda method. The Ganda method has been in use in all laboratories
of the Zhdanov Coke-Chemical Plants. Most important of the shortoomings of
this method is the time it takes for the performanoe Qf a oomplete analysis.
Thus, it requires 3 to 3.5 hours of boiling in alkaline solution to convert
the insoluble into soluble ferrooyanides. One must stand" by and stir the
boiling mixture to prevent loss by spraying, thereby losing 3 to 3.5 hours
of more productive work. In addition, the titration with zino sulfate solu-
tion is based on a color reaotion (a blue oolor at the junotion of the ferrio
chloride and the test sample); it is time-consuming, because of the need to
remove zinc ferrocyanide preqipitated in the process of titration; if the
precipitate" is not removed, a secondary color develops whioh interferes with
the titration.
A group of research workers in the Zhdanov plant laboratory developed a
new rapid photoclorimetric method for the determination of cyanogen in gas.
The method is based on the conversion of CN' into CNS' and on the"photocolori-
metric determination 6f the color intensity of the Fe(CNS)3 formed fram the
reaction between ions CNS' and Fe.... The cyanogen contained in the coke gas
is absorbed by approximately 4 N soluti"on of NaOH according tq equation HeN +
NaOH... NaCN + H20. The fonned NaCN is treated withammoniumpolysulfide" for
the formation of NaCNS according to the following:
NaCN"+ (NH4)2Sn ... NaCNS + (NH4)2Sn-l;
3NaCNS + FeC13 ~ 3NaCl + Fe(CNS)3
Analysis is made by the rapid method as follows: the tested gas is aspirated
through 2 successive Petri absorbers of 70 - 100 mlcapacity which contain 25
ml of approximatel~ 4 N solution of NaOH. The amount of gas aspirated is
gauged by a 5-liter aspirator. Between 3 - 3.5 1i of the gas is aspirated
through the NaOH solution in 30 minutes. The content of the 2 Petri absorbers
is poured into a 100 ml volumetric flask, and the flask is filled to the mark
with distilled water. The content in the 100 ml volumetric flask is thoroug~~
mixed, and 50 ml removed and poured into a 100 ml Erlenmeyer flask, and 0.2
ml of. ammonium polysulfidesolution and 5 ml of a 10% solution of cadmium chlo-
ride are added. The mixture is boiled for 2 minutes, cooled, filtered, the
Erlenmeyer flask rinsed with some distlled water, and the rinse solution added"
to the filtered ~olution. The olear filtrate is thentransferr.ed to a 100 ml
-199-
-------
volumetric flask, and 10 mI. of 58 - 60% HN03 added, again _cooied alld 5 ml of
10% solution of ferric chloride added. The content in the Erlenmeyer flask is
then mixed litnd distilled water added to the mark and again mixed. T!1e mixture.
is then allowed to rest for 30 minutes, after which the colorimetri~determina-
tion is made using a green light filter. A parallel control test is made
. .
. .
exactly as described above, leaving out the material containing the CNS.
Final reading is' obtained by subtracting the control reading from the test.
reading; the CNS content is determined with the aid of a calibration curve
presented in the following Figure. The final result can also be calculated
fl48, .
>:.
~
oM
ro
s:::
CD
'd
rl
c1J
o
"M
~
Pi
o
'.
fI}
Mgs of NH4CNS in sample
Calibration curve for the determi-
nation of eNS in the sample.
with the aid of equation:
HCN = a x 0.3~5 x 1000 x 2 mg/norm m~
. . norm
in which a symbolizes the content 'of
ammonium thiocyanate in the sample,
determined~iththe aid of the straight
line curve (in mg); 0.355 is the co- .
efficient of conversion of NH4CNS values,
and V is the gas volume in liters
norm .
reduced to normal pressure and tempera-
ture;norm m3 means m3 under normal .
temperature and pressure.
In case gas analysis has to be made between shifts, aspiration should be
made at the rate of 30 - 40 Ii per hour, using 2 Drexel absorbers, each con-
taining 125 ml of approximately 4 N NaOH solution. The volume of aspirated
gas is recorded by a gas meter. The 2 absorbers are then emptied into a 500
ml volumetric flask and diluted by adding distilled water to the mark. In
the determination, 10 ml of the diluted solution is mixed with 40 ml of 2 N
NaOHsolution. Further treatment of the sample is exactly as above described.
In the final computation, degree of dilution must be t~ken into consideration.
The standard solution is prepared as follows: use ammonium thiocyanate
well dried at 80 - 100°; carefully weigb:.out'l g and dissolve in a 1000 ml
volumetric flask. Into another volumetric flask of 100 ml place 20 ml of the
above solution and dilute by adding distilled wate~ to the mark. ~e ml of the
final dilution contains 0.2 mg of NH4CNS; it is used as the stock, or base solu-
tion, from which all standard scale dilutions are made. Use a 100 ml Erlenmeyer
. .
flask; add 25 ml of 4 N NaOH solution to each. of a series of tubes fopowedby
-200-
-------
the successive addition of 1, 2, 5, 7 and 10 ml of the NH4CNS stock sol~tion;
dilute by adding successive~ 25 ml of distilled water, followed by the addi- .
tion of 0.2 ml of the ammonium polysulfide solution and 5 ml of 10% CdC12 solu-
tion. Further treatment is exactly the same as described above for the treat-
ment of the gas samples. The calibration curve shown in the preceding drawing
can be easily prepared by a compAtent analyst without requiring any detailed de-
scription. The direction and type of the calibration curve should be checked
using the same colorimetrio cups, source of ligh~ light filter and the same.
reagente. The present authors made parallel tests by the Ganda method, using
a photocolorimeter. The results are listed in the Table below.
. . . i Deviations of photocolori-
. . Determination of c!anogen.
. .
. .
. . ! metric from Ganda
. .
. . in gas in g/m
Date . Order . determinations
I i .
.
. : Photocolori- . .
i Ganda method . :Absolute value: Percent
: :metric method : .
.
1956
3/V I 0.292 0.282 -0.010 - 3.4
4/V I 0.214 0.206 -0.008 - 3.7
6/V I 0.276 0.278 +0.002 + 0.7
6/V II 0.222 0.253 +0.031 +14.0
8/V I 0.422 0.408 -0.014 - 2.8
8/V II 0.415 0.440 +0.025 - 6.0
19/V I 0.369 0.352 -0.017 - 4.6
19/V II 0.286 0.289 +0.003 + 1.0
23/V I 0.341 0.344 +0.003 + 0.9
23/V II 0.254 0.260 +0.006 + 2.4
25/V I o. 244 0.238 -0.006 - 2.5
25/V II 0.223 0.228 +0.005 + 2.2
Conclusions.
10 The proposed photocolorimetric method for the dete~ination of cyanogen
in gas has the advantages of rapidity and precision, as compared with the Ganda
and UICb.IN tests.-
2. The photocolorimetric method proposed can be adjusted to serve as an
"express" method, results of which can be secured in 90 minutes including the
sample collection.
3. Check tests showed that differences between the results obtained by
the proposed colorimetric test and the Ganda tests were negligibleo
-201-
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Photocolorimetric Determination of Hydrogen Sulfide in
Finely Purified Coke Gas.
N. E. Neimark and N. E. Kogan.
(UXhIN) .
Koks i Khimiya, No.3, 38-40, 1958.
As the technic of coke gas purification steadily becomes finer, the need
arises for analytical methods by which increasingly lower concentrations of
undesirable admixtures, such, for instance, as hydrogen sulfide, could be
determined rapidly and with a high degree of precision. At present hydrogen
sulfide is determined volumetrically by the iodometric methodClJ. However,
by this method reliable results can be obtained only when the H2S concentra":
tion is approximately 2 g!lOO m3. With lower ~S concentrations the iodometric
method became less accurate. In addition, the method is time consuming mainly,
because it requires the aspiration of large volUmes. of gas. Lower H2S concen-
. '. I .
trations are more conveniently and more accurately determined by colorimetric
methods; in this connection the photocolorimetric procedure offers the advan-
tages of objectivity and greater accuracy.
Colorimetric analytical procedures can be classed into the following 2
. groups: 1) methods based on colloidal metal sulfide formation C2, 5J, and 2)
methods based on the formation of color-emanating compounds in the presence of
certain reagents (4, 6-l2J.The common shortcoming of the methods of the
first group is the rapid coagulation of sols and the consequent need to add
coagulation-preventing colloids, and also the need to eliminate the oxidative
effect of the air. The most suitable method of the second group is the one
which is based on the reaction taking place between hydrogen sulfide and di-
methyl-p-phenylenediamine in the presence of iron chloride which results in
the formation of methylene blue, and which is also specific and lasting. The
present authors used this reaction in the determination of low concentrations
of hydrogen sulfide in coke gas.
The procedures recommended in the literature for the determination of
hydrogen sulfide by methods based on the above mentioned reaction differ from
one another with regard to pH reaction and the amount or'reagent used. Prelim-
.. .
,. .
inary tests made by the. present authors indicated that changes in
within the limits of 0.6 - 1.4 N and changes in the concentration
the acidity
of the di-
-202-
-------
~ 0.''-
.p
.....
m
~
Q)
-------
TABLE 1. filtero From the values obtained
for the optical density', optical
Optical density after densities obtained in control
15 20 25 35 100
min. min. min. min. min. test (:Ln" the absence of hydrogen
0.2641 0.2641 0.2641 0.264: sulfide) are subtractedo The
0.3455 0.3406 0.3455 0.3431 straight line curve in Fig. 3
0.4841 0.4841 which passes through the co-
0.3533 0.3533 0.3533
0.2922 0.2944 0.2900 0.2900 ordinates point of origin, in-
dicates that the reaction here dealt with followed the law of Bear up to 0.035
mg of hydrogen sulfide in 50 ml of water. It should be emphasized at this
point that only freshly boiled'distilled water should be used in the prepara-
tion of all solutions to avoid oxidation.
The actual determination procedure is as follows: use 2 glass absorbers
equipped with bubbling tubes having perforations 1 rom in diameter; the absorbers
are previously filled with '10 ml of 2% lead acetate solution; aspirate the gas
at the rate of 20 - 40 Ii/hour. Continue aspiration until a turbidity is fo~ed
in the first absorber. The second absorber serves as the control. Add to the
first absorber 5 ml of the dimethyl-p-phenylenediamine solution, shake well and
pour into a 50 ml volumetric flask; wash the absorber and add the wash water
to the volumetric flask; the volume of liquid in the volumetric flask should be
approximately 35 ml; add 2 drops of the iron chloride solution, add water to
the mark, leave stand 15 minutes to allow maximum color development, and compare
GOlorimetrically. Find equivalents of hYdrogen sulfide from the calibrated
standard curve prepared as previously described, after having subtracted the
optical density value of the control test, that is the one which contained rio
hydrogen sulfide. Results of 9 tests are listed in Table 2.
It should be noted that absorption properties of the lead acetate solution
suited well the, purpose at hand. In all tests, including g~s samples aspirated
at the rate of 60 Ii/hour, the optical density of the solution in the second
glass ~bsorber (the control) never exceeded the optical density of t?e labora-
tory control tests (complete absence of hydrogen sulfide) indicating that all
the H2S was caught by the first absorber. The method is extremely simple,
results are easily duplicated, and it can be used for the determination of
minute amounts of hydrogen sulfide in coke gas. An additional advantage of
the test is the rapidity with which a complete determination can be made:
-204-
-------
TABLE
20
Experiment
number
: . First determination
. !Average ra;te: H2.~__- -
: Ii/hour': g/lcp m3
: Second determination
!Average rate: H2S 3
: Ii/hour : g/IOO m
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
39.0
12.0
25.5
25.0
20.0
33.0
24.0
24.5
27.0
28.0
24.0
60.0
28.0
24.0 .
30.0
26.0
.29.0
26.5
0.177
0.026
0.066
0.075
0.142
0.145
0.240
0.200
0.012
0.194
0.032
0.075
0.080
0.135
0.154
0.260
0.190
0.012
i Deviation
i g/IOO .m3
0.017
0.006
0.009
0.005
0.007
0.009
0.020
0.010
. 0.000
with an H2S yoncentration in the coke gas of 0.1 g/ICO m3 a complete determina-
. tion can be made in 1 hour, and with higher H2S; a complete determination can
be made in 30 m~nutes. These authors recommend that determinations of hydrogen
sulfide in coke gases be made b.y the colorimetric method based on the principles
herein dealt with and ~y the procedure herein describedo
Bibliography.
I. rOCT ,5580--56 «fit3 lVIIi. KOMMYlla,lhHu-6hlToBoro
IIOTpc6J1eHlln". MeToAbI IIcnLITaHllii.
2. E. Freiber. H. I(nren. 11/. Gierlinger. C:hf'rnischt's
Zcntralh:alt, 1954, N2 40, 9102. .
3--:~L B. A.1t'r\ceeBa. 6. E. ,~HapDH08, C. C. rYPiJIll4 II
A. L. )/(UT/,OUIl. OilpCaeJlt'Hlle Upe.lHbIX Bew.eCTU B BO::,lYXe
npOH3BOjJ,cmC'IIHMX IIOMeIl1t'Hllii, fOCxIIMH3J].aT, 19.')4, l'Tf1. 61.
4. If. M. KOPPHAWH. AHaJlll3 B0311yxa npOMblUI~'ellllblX
IIpellllp!,SIT.':'H, rOC:
-------
An Installation for the Determination of Dust Concentration in Coke Gases.
T. P. Warshavsky, L. Kogan, E. D. Levin and N. S. Shevchenko.
(Hagnitogorsk Metallurgical Plant).
Koks i Khimiya, No.8, 18-20, 1958.
The main obstacle in the way of adopting smokeless
in coke-chemical plants is the coal dust carry-off into
which increases the ash content of the coal tar. In an
extent of coal dust carry-off into the -gas
have been conducted with different methods
Methods for the determination of coal
charging of coke ovens
the gas storage tanks
attempt to lower the
storage tanks many experiments
of smokeless charging of coke ovens.
dust concentration in industrial
gases are described in the technical literature (see note at end of paper).
Thus far none of them could be used under practical conditions prevailing in
coke oven charging. The temperature of the coke gas ,in oven charging reaches
about 5000 C, and it contains considerable tar and dust. As the coke gas
passes through-the intake pipe/the tar in it condenses, and the dust separates
and settles on the inside pipe walls, clogging the intake pipe. This necessi-
tates the development of special procedures and methods for gas dust analyses
under the conditions which prevail during oven charging.
After many trials an -installat~on was designed which is schematically
illustrated in Fig. 1.
J .
2
,I
Fig. 1.- Plan of installation for the
determination of dust concentration
in coke gases.
fiml
I'
The outstanding characteristic
of this installation is its low
hydraulic resistance (pressure drop)
(of the order of 15 mm of Hg), and
the apparatus and the intake pipe
remain free of coal dust during the
entire time of coke oven charging.
The installation has the fol-
lowing parts: an intake pipe (1),
- made of stainless steel; a special
lid (2) over the intake pipe; a dust
catcher (3); a connecting pipe system
made of metal tubing of 23 mm inside di~eter; a container filled with calcium
chloride (4); a gas meter (5); a rotary blower of 40 li/min capacity (6). The
t -
-206-
-------
gas meter is equipped with a thermometer (7) and a mercur,y manometer (8) for
temperature and gas pressure registration, imperative for the correction of
calculated volume of gas taken during the test periods. A ~lowmeter (9) is
attached to the pressure line leading from the gas blower which records the
speed of the gas leaving the gas blower. The flow rate of the gas is kept
uniform by means of a pinch valve attached to the gas flow by-pass and which
is adjusted according to the flo\~eter readings.
Before starting the test, the intake pipe and the filter are cleared of
any coal dust accumulated during the previous test.
The dust-catching filter ~older (Fig. 2) is filled with 9 g of glass wool
between 2 metal screens perforated by 0.5 x 0.5 mm openings. The dust catcher
is sealed tightly by placing a suitable asbestos washer before its parts are
fastened together by means of bolts. The dust catch-filter is joined with
the pipe system as shown in Fig. 2. The installation is then tested for
tightness at all joints. After each test the installation pipe system is
freed of condensed tar and water with the aid of compressed air. The gas
blower is cleaned of tar with
(JDQ =-~
e:::=-~::..;
-,
~
'..
Fig. 2. Construction of filter-catcher.
I - Heat-resistant intake pipe; 2 -
Catcher flanges; 3 ~ Catcher bo~r 4 -
Screen and lid for wool filter holder;
5 -'Glass wool; 6 - Asbestos shim or
washer; 7 - Gas outlet. .
-207-
.~
benzene.
The dust concentration
in the coke gas is determined as
follows:
after removing the coke
from the oven and replacing the
oven doors, the steam injector is
set into operation and the stand-
pipe is covered by a special lid
having a receiver opening for the
intake pipe (see Fig. 1). The
moment the charging is started the
intake pipe is fitted into the
opening of the standpipe lid. The
gas blower is switched on before
starting the test, and the desired
suction Date established as shown
qy the flowmeter readings. In the
tests under stu~ the gas flow rate
at the mouth of the intake piJ>e is
-- ,
-------
kept equal to the gas flow rate at the oven standpipe, namely 3.46 m3/sec.
The constant rate of gas flow at the mouth of the intake pipe is maintained
with the aid of a gas blower by-pass.
. .
At the time the intake pipe is fitted into the receiver opening of the
standpipe, the reading of the gas meter is recorded, and at the time of oven
charging minute by minute records are made of the gas meter reading, the gas
temperature and of the vacuum, as shown by the.manometer. When the charging
.operation is finished, the intake pipe is removed and the gas blower is stopped.
Stopping the gas blower before the removal of the intake pipe from the lid of
. .
the standpipe may lead to clogging. The glass wool pads with the captured
dust are dried at 1050 C and weighed. The recorded gas meter, temperature
and gas pressure readings are reduced to standard (normal) conditions and the
volume of the gas passed through the gas blower is then computed. The average
dust concentration created by the coal charging operation is expressed as the
ratio between the desiccated dust and the computed gas volume which passed
. .
through the gas blower. For example, in one of the gas-dust analyses the
weight of the captured dry dust was 48.31 g and the total gas volume supplied
.--
by the blower was 162.9 liters; the coal charging was done by consecutively
emptying bunkers 3, 1 and 2. The average concentration of the coal dust in
the coke oven gas was:
48.31/162.9 = 0.296 g/li.
The results of dust-gas analysis made at different coke ovens were very
close, as shown by the data listed in the following Table. This was in striking
contrast with the results of G. M. Gordon and L. A. Peisakhov (see note at
end of report), which varied from the average by 300 - 400%. The data recorded
in the following Table varied from. the average within the limits of 23 - 25%.
Date of :
experimenti
1 :
Furnac.e
No. Y
Charge
moisture
in %
:% of 3-0 mm
i in ground
: char e
22jVIII 136 6.6
23/VIII 131 6.3
23jVIII 121 6.3
4/IX 135 6.6
4/IX 125 6.6
6/IX 144 6.1
6/IX 136 6.1
6/IX 126 6.7
~ The charge-load in all experiments
2 Average coal dust concentration in
92.9
93.0
93.0
92.3
92.3
93.7
93.7
93.7
amounted to
the gas was
0.242
0.312
0.262
0.363
0.227
0.293
0.417
0.364
16.5 m.
0.310 g/li.
-22.0
+0.8
-15.5
+17.0.
-21.'Q
-5.5
+35.0
+17.5
-208-
-------
It is known that the degree of coal dust concentration in the coke gas
created by the steam injector oven charging operation depended upon a variety
of factors: the cleanliness of the valves, the vacuum. created by the steam~
which in turn depends upon the cleanliness of the injector nozzle, the clean-
liness of the inside standpipe walls, the temperature of the oven chamber wall
at loading time, the arched vault space, the coal moisture content, etc.
By the propose~ method of the gas-dust analysis extensive studies can be
made of the enumerated factors in specific coke ovens for the purpose of
selecting the most appropriate method of coke oven charging.
Note: Book published by the ~etallurgizdat; in 1951: G. M. Gordon and L. A.
Peisakhov - Control of the Dust-Catching Installations.
Duplicate Samples in Air Pollution Investigations in Industrial Premises.
E. V. Rykhter.'
(Perm I Regional Sanitary-Epidemiological Station).
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. '24, No.4, 64-66, 1959.
In the article "Problems Related to Procedures Used in Practice of In-
dustrial-Sanitary Laboratories of Sanitary-Epidemiological Stations", ]j G.A.
Beilikhis and N. D. Rozova insistently recommend to "discontinue the taking
of duplicate samples, particularly since it cut by half the productivity of
industrial-sanitary laboratories". D. D. Novofastovskii Yagreed with G. A.
Beilikhis and N. D. Rozova's opinion for identical reasons. On the other
hand, S. S. Gurvitz J/ considered the above point of view an erroneous one
and warned that "discontinuation of duplicate sampling while using the ac-
cepted analytical methods meant reverting to non-adherence to adopted standards
Y GO ° ° Sanitariya, 1956, No. 7, p. 39.
1.g1.ena 1.
y Gigiena i Sani tariya, 1957, No. 8, p. 67.'
:v Gigiena i Sanitariya, 1957, No. 2, p. 80
-209-
-------
in the study of air under industrial conditions... It is well known that a
single test in analytical practice, i.e., experiment without a duplicate or
control, is inadequate' and frequently leads to erroneous results." However,
G. A. Beilikhis 11 held to his opinion and considered S. S. Gurvitz's rea-
soning unconvincing. The above opinions are diametrically 9Pposed to one
another; therefore, this author attempted to find a suitable solution to the
question by concrete examples which would clearly show when and where duplicate
samples may or may not be indicated.
When air samples are taken by the dynamic method, described in the paper
"Methods for Gas and Dust, Sample Taking in the Air of Industrial Buildings" y.
duplicate samples become unnecessary. In dynamic investigations samples may
be taken e'very 10 minutes through effective absorbers during an entire work
shift at one or more points simultaneously, and the number of samples collected
in the course of an 8-hour shift can amount to 96, or 144,if the air is
studied at 3 points simultaneously. Thus, in dynamic air pollution investiga-
, .
tions of industrial premises 48 samples are collected at each point in the
course of a work shift; assuming that one, or several will be in error, the
trend indicated by the entire set of analyses will be insignificantly affected,
, ,
if at all, by the assumed erroneous results. In such cases duplicate results
serve no useful purpose.
There seems to be no sense in taking duplicate samples for automatic
analyses with, specially built apparatus" as in the case of hydrogen arsenide,
which is determined by the automatic signalizing apparatus designed by the
Institute of Labor Hygiene and Occupational Diseases, A.M.S., U.S.S.R. and
the Central Tin Institute. Parallel samples should not be needed in dynamic'
ai~ inves~igations when using apparatuses of the Leningrad Labor Protection
, .
Institute:VTsSPS, which automatically determine concentrations of a number of
. ,
harmful substances qy the linear colorimetric method. Thus, in dynamic air
investigations'which use effective absorbers, or when air samples are taken
and analyz~d with the aid of special automatic apparatuses which eliminate
the possibility of subjective errors the practice of taking duplicate samples
can be discontinued.
1/ Gigiena i Sanitariya,
£I Gigiena i Sanitariya,
1958, No.8, p. 49.
1957, No.5, p. 73-75.
-210-
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However, it must be borne in mind that the majority of industrial-sanitary
laboratories of sanitary-epidemiological stations (as mentioned by G. A.
Beilikhis, N. D. Rozova and others), cannot conduct investigations by the
~namic method, due to lack of necessary equipment.
Most industrial-sanitary laboratories collect samples by the usual method
and will continue to do so for some years to come, and even under most f~vor-
able conditions only at a few points over the industrial premises; their
judgement regarding the sanitary-hygienic conditions of the air in work
premises will have to be based on the results of a limited number, say 4 -
9 air sample analyses. An absolute reliability of each analysis in necessary
when the number of samples is so small, and in such cases S. S. Gurvitz is
right when he insists on duplicate samples.
Duplicate tests yielding identical results regarding concentrations of
harmful substances in the air offer assurance of the correctness of the data
obtain~d~ In case of a discrepancy exceeding 20%,the cause of the discrepancy
must be established immediately; if this cannot be'done, the results should
be disregarded.
This author analyzed 280 duplicate dust and 280 gas air samples taken
at industrial premises and in coal mines. Sixty-four of the 280 duplicate
dust samples showed a discrepancy exceeding 20%. In most instances the reasons
for the discrepancies were established, and the results were corrected ac-
cordingly; about 12 samples had to be rejected. Thus, the duplicate sampling
procedure helped to make the correct decision regarding the 64,or 23% of the
dust samples tested. Discrepancies in the duplicate samples were caused by
the following: presence of large dust particles,. too large gravimetric doses,
spilling of dust during the drying process, too small gravimetric doses (con-
siderably less than 4 mg), incorrect pneumometer readings due to moisture
penetration, break in rubber tubes or leaky connections. Of the 280 duplicate
gas samples discrepancies in concentrations occurred in 42 samples, constitut-
ing 18.5%, of the tota~ number.
In the case of gas samples the chemist usually takes a portion of the
sample 'for analysis; if the discrepancy between the duplicate samples is too
great he has the opportunity to check his results by repeat analysis; hence
the value of duplicate samples. If the check.analyses yield the same dis-
crepant, results (difference exceeding 20%), then the likelihood is that 2
wrong samples were matched~ Results of analyses indicated that the most
-211-
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I
,
frequent errors were due to incorrect readings of pneumometers, flow over of
solution from the absorber into the pneumometer and rubber tubing, leaky stop-
pers which. cause a loss of part of ' the gas during the sample transportation,
uneven water outflow from the level pressure container in taking duplicate
samples for carbon monoxide determinations, etc.
The above examples indicate that taking duplicate
to checking the correctness of analytical results, and
when dealing with small numbers of samples.
samples is essential
therefore, is necessary
Linear-Colorimetric Method for the Determination of Carbon Dioxide in Air.
Mo T. Lukina and G. L. Barodina.
(K.D. Pamphilov Ural Scientific-Research Institute
. . for Community Management). .
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 24, No.8, 30-32, 1959.
This report is in essence a description of a linear-colorimetric method
for the determination of carbon dioxide in sewage system air.
The advantages
of this method over those used at present by the sanitary chemists are
speed of the analysis and the ease with which it can be used under the field
conditions even .at low air temperature, since the determining chemical re-
actions depend upon a solid absorber. The method is based on the color re-
action with carbon dioxide described by A. S. Salova, and which has been
used in France.
The basic principle of A. S. Salova's method is as follows:
it ,-has been
known that hydrazine-hydrate-N2H4.H20 was a good carbon dioxide absorber and
that it combined with basic fUchsin in solution to form an unstable colorless
compoundo Vfuen air containing carbon dioxide is.drawn through the colorless
solution, the original fuchsin color is restored in proportion to the carbon
dioxide concentration in the air. A. S. Salova used as her absorber medium
a 1:1 mixture of hydrazine-hydrate of 1.03 specific gravity and of 0.01% basic
-212-
-------
fuchsin solution in a water and alcohol mixture.
Results of preliminary
tests indicated that the determination of carbon dioxide in the air of sewage
systems by the linear-colorimetric method could be used advantageously under
all surrounding weather and 1; emperature conditions by the procedure herein
described.
Silicagel is saturated with the colorless hydrazine-hydrate and basic
fuchsin solution prepared as above described, and air containing carbon di-
oxide is passed through it; the color of the basic fuchsin is restored im-
parting to the silicagel a pink color. This is best done with silicagel
powder which is prepared as follows.
Silicagel is ground to a powder and is passed through sievesj ~nt~lthe -
particles of the final powder measure 0.15 - 0.25mm. The powder is then
treated with concentrated nitric acid, washed several times to the complete
removal of the nitricacid~_dried at 8000 and again passed through sieves to
remove particles larger than 0.15 - 0.25 mm. The powdered silicagel is then
saturated with the colorless hydrazine-hydrate-basic-fuchsin complex by a
.. .
procedure different from the one used by A. S. Salova: take 10 parts by
volume of an 0.1% alcoholic solution of basic fuchsin (Technical Specifica-
tion of the Ministry of the Chemical Industry No. 2756-51); add by the drop
method 3 parts by volume of concentrat.ed hydrazine-hydrate of 1.03 specific.
gravi ty (Govemmemt ::)tandard - GOffi'-5832-51); filter ana add one more part by
volume of the hydrazine-hydrate. For each gram of' silicagel powder add 1 ml
of the above solution; spread thinly over .(0.5 em) filter paper and dry,
first lightly with the aid of filter paper, and then by placing it in a
( .
desiccator at 370 C for 3 to 5 minutes with constant stirring. Place at
once into ampules and seal immediately. This powder will retain its in-
dicator properties for not less than 2 months.
Thi-ee days before the determinations are to be made, the test powder is
placed into glass tubes 2.5 - 2.8 mm in diameter and 90 mm long (see Fig. 1).
A thin layer of cotton is placed over each end of the column of the silicagel
in a tightly compressed manner, the end of the indicator tubes is covered
with tightly fitting aluminum caps, and the edges covered with sealing wax.
Prepare standard color compator series by passing air containing known
concentrations of carbon dioride through the indicator tube, using saturated
NaCl solution to create hydrostatic pressux.e on the CO2-containing air.
-213-
-------
.... n
s::
1 Q)
0 10
F-t
Q) 9
PI
s:: I
'M
s:: 7
o
'M
....
tt!
F-t 5
....
s:: "
Q)
o
s::
0
0
N
0 1
o
/ /
, ;'
'./ ./ :r
./ ~ /
/ /{
~ ~ ."
~' ,/ - -<
V /. ~ -
.-"
7 V -, ""'" "J "
/ v ,., rr
/ -
U ..;. ~
Fig. 1..
Indicator tube.
1 -Sealing wax;
2 - Aluminum
foil; 3 - A
fluffy wad; 4~
A layer of cot-
ton; 5 - The
powdered
indicator.
G
.1
Z
11/
10
40
70
~
\!:.J
s
8
7
,
S
.
J
Z
1
o
C02 scale.
Make parallel check tests using the VTI-l (All-Union
Heat-Technical Institute) apparatus. Before the analysis
is started the sealing wax and the aluminum caps are
~2l4-
removed from the indicator tube ends and the air passed
through the tubes for 3-1/2 minutes.
The results of the tests are plotted on coordinate paper as shown in
Fig. 2. The following air volumes were used: 50, 125 and 175 mI.
Best results were obtained with 125 ml of the C02-containing air. This
volume of air can be passed through the indicator tube with one stroke of
the bellows for the determination of C02 concentrations ranging between 0.5 ,
and 9.0%. On the basis of curve, 2, a scale of the carbon dioxide gas ,con-
centrations was prepared, as shown in Fig. 3.
so
GO
JO
Height of colored indicator in mm
Fig. 2. Graduated C02 'curves.
1 - 50 ml; 2 - 125 ml; 3 - 175 mI.
Average results of the check analyses are shown in the following Table.
This Table shows that the relative maximum error did not exceed 12.5% and
that the absolute analytical error did nqt exceed 0.32%. Results of the .1"
experiments indicatec;l that unsaturated hydrocarbons, gasoline vap.or a'hd small'.,
amounts of hydrogen sulfide affected neither the height nor the color in the
. . ! '
,indicators; however, when the concentration of hydrogen sulfide was 0.3 mg/li
or more the color of the column faded almost completely. From a practical
viewpoint this is of no importance because the maximum content of the hydrogen
sulfide in the air of the sewage system peverexceeded 0.07 mg/li.
-------
Average results of analyses for C02 in the airo
Percent of
C02
Colored
indicator
in !DIn
:1 !DIn of colored:
: . d. t :Absolute error
: ~n ~ca or : . CO
: . 1 : ~n 2
: equ~va ents .: t
: CO t': percen
:of ? percen :
:Relativ;e error
fin percent of
i analytical
: values
0.80
1.60
3.15
4.00
5.00
5.50
7.40
8.00
9.00'
8: 1
10 % 0
20: 2
25 :J: 0
30 :I: 2
36 :I: 2
47 :I: 1
52 :I: 2
57 :I: 1
0.10
0.16
0.15
0.16
0.16
0.15
-6.16
0.15
0.16
:1:0.10
:1:0.00
:1:0.30
:1:0. 00
:1:0.32
:1:0 . 30
:1:0.16
:1:0.30
:£:0.16
:l:12-,,~0
%0.00
:9.50
:J:O.OO
:J:6.20
:1:5.42
:J:2.16
:!:3.75
%1.80
Accordirtg to literature no other reducing gases were found in the sewage
system air.
Conclusions.
1.
The authors describe a linear-co1orimetricmethod for the .determina-
tion of C02 in the air of sewage systems ranging in concentration between 0.5
and 9.0%.
2. The presence of H2S in concentrations below 0.3 mg/1i did not inter-
fere with the C02 determinations by the method described.
Bibliography.
.n y 6 B III H H M. M. ct>H3HKO-XRMHq~He OCHOBbi COp6uHOHROA TeX1IHKH. M. - n.,
1935. -)I( H TKO BaA. C. 3KcnpeccHbie MeTOJ1b1 onpe.ll.eneHHII BpeJ1RblX ra30B H nap"u
. B B03J1yxe npoMblwneHHblx npeJ1l1pHIiTHit M.-n., 1946. - OnpeJ1MeHHe BpeJ1HblX BeweCT8
Ii B03.11.yxe npoH3B0J1CTBeHHblx nOMewelfHA. M., 1954. - ct> H JlII H C K a II E. .n.' TIpH60p An"
6b1CTporo onpeJ1MeHHII cepOB0J10p0J1a B B03J1yxe. n., 1949.
-215-
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- -
Use of PGF-2 Gas Analyzer asa Universal Appa~atus for the Rapid
Determination of Vapor-Gas-Air Mixtures Explosiveness.
A. N. :Baratov.
(Central Scientific-Research Institute for Fire Prevention).
Zhurn. Prikl. Khim~, Vol. 32, No.5, 1157-1159, 1959.
To insure safe working conditions in rooms-where combustible gases or
vapors accumulate it is essential to establish that the concentrations of
these gases or vapors in the air are below the explosive limits. - No universal
apparatus is available at present-by means. of which the explosive potentiali-
ties~nthe air of any room or space could be determined rapidly and with
certainty. All the devices presently used for the determination of the ex-
- . -
plosiveness of gas- vapor-air mixtures are essentially gas analyzers, by means
of which the concentrations of combustible gases or vapors in the air are
determined. Explosiveness is estimated by comparing obtained concentration
values with those accepted as limits ofexplosivenesso
Such devices and methods possess the following essential shortcomings:
10 Their application is limited to substances for which the devices
were calibrated.
20 No direct determinations of the explosiveness of surrounding gaseous
-- mixtures can be made with the aid of these devices, since their use is based
on the knowledge of the lower limit of explosive concentrations for the medium
under investigation.
3. The evaluation of explosiveness by means of the devices is subject
to probable 'errorsaS~:ls-j,ndicat'ed cY-"thep;reata.ivergence in the "limit val\les
arrived at by different investigators.
4. The results are unreliable, since determinations were made a con-
siderable time after sample collecting.
. 50 The devices can not be used in connection with substances, such as
high boiling point liquids and liquids of multi-fractional composition, due
to calibrating difficulties and the lack of data related to the specified
explosive limits of such substances.
60 The devices under discussion lacked universality and required pre-
vious knowledge of the specific substances contained in the air to be analyzed
in order that a suitably graduated gas analyzer m~ be selected.
-216-
-------
Of late the PGF type of gas analyzer has been most widely used to deter-
mine air explosiveness in industrial establishments. Essentially, this device
is a balanced Vfueatstone bridge. Two arms of the bridge are platinum coils
enclosed respectively in the measuring and comparator chambers, while the
other 2 arms are constant resistance devices. The air to be analyzed is ad-
mitted into the measuring chamber by means of a built-in piston pump, where
it is subjected to catalytic combustion; this raises the temperature in the
. .
measuring chamber and heats its coil. The temperature of the coil in the
comparator chamber stays constant since the chamber is insulated; as a con-
sequence the equilibrium of thebri~e is upset and the shif~ is recorded by
the bridge galvanometer. The electromotive force recorded by thegalyan9~e}er
is proportional to the concentration of the combustible component in the air
sample being analyzed.
It should be noted that the method just described is not free (jf the
shortcomings previously enumerated. However, an apparatus can be constructed
on the principle of the PGF gas analyzer, by" means 6$ which direct determina-
tions of the potential explosiveness of gas-vapor-air mixtures could be made.
This possibility resides in the fact that the combustion temperature of
a mixture containing combustible components in concentrations equalling the
lower explosive limits remained constant for all combustible gases and liquids.
The temperature developed in the combustion of a sample being analyzed with
the aid of a gas analyzer determined the content of a combustible component
in the sample; it can be assumed, therefore, that in the case of a combustible
mixture containing a combustible component in concentration equalling the
lower explosive limit, the instrument readings will be practically the same
for different vapors and gases.
The constant temperature value of a gas mixture combustion at the lower
explosive limit may be explained as follows: the lower explosive limit cor-
responds to the minimal combustible component concentration in the air, at
which a spontaneous flame spreading may be possible. The value of such con-
centration for most substances does not exceed 5% of the total mixture volume.
According to the laws of thermal explosion, attainment of the lower limit was
conditioned by the balance between the heat increase coming from the exothermic
oxidation process and the loss of heat ~~~g_fr9m the reaction zone. Since
this discussion is confined to low concentration combustible mixtures, it.-can
-211-
-------
be assumed that. heat losses under similar conditions and for similar mixtures
from a practical viewpoint would be determined by conditions of heat elimina-
tion through. the air medium, in other words, the losses of heat would be
identical.
Taking into consideration the previously mentioned condition limiting
a thermal explosion, it can be assumed that the heat producing capacity of
- -
these mixtures will also be identical per unit of volume. Therefore, the
- maximal thermal effect as well as the maximal combustion, temperature will
also be identical.
To confirm the correctness of 'the above statements the theoretical com-
bustion temperatures of a number of individual substances were computed for
concentrations in the air corresponding to those of the lower explosive limit.
The combustion temperatures of limiting composition mixtures are rel-
atively low; therefore, the dissociation of the combustion products was neg-
lected in these computations. The t~eo~etical combustion temperature was
determined for eachsu~stance in the presence of an excess of air. The re-
suIts of the computations were as follows.
A comparison of the computation resu~ts
substantiates the assumption of equal com-
Substance
..
:
.
.
.
:
Temperature
of combustion
in C
bustion temperatures for gas mixtures, the
compositionsl of whi~ were of lower explosive
limits. The maximal divergence among the
theoretical" combustion temperatures for sub-
stances enumerated in the Table varied be-
Methane 1646
.' Ethane 1644
Propane 1648
Hexane 1648
Ethanol 1650
'tween 0.24 and 0.4%.
The calibration curves constructed qy this author for the PG~ device ap-
plicable to different mixtures of vapors and gases are shown in the following
graph; they offer evidence in support of the correctness of the assumption
advanced in the present article, that readings of thePGF device remain con-
stant, and that the device was suitable for universal determination of the
explosiveness of a variety of gas-vapor-air mixtures having a low limit com-
position. The points plotted on the curves correspond to the volumeconcen-
trations of vapors and gases and are equal to 50% of their lower limit values.
A study of the graph shows that,despite the fact that the calibration
curves were constructed under various degrees of the platinum coil incandes-
'cence, the plotted points corresponded approximately to one and the same read-
-218-
-------
IJ .~J
35
.10
15
20 ~/ .
~;
f.5 .~'
... ,,/
(0 ... d
0.5
,
J sa
Calibration curves of PGF-2 gas analyzer.
A - Volume ~ of the gas; B - Apparatus readings.
I, II, III - Showing location of data fonaing
the basis of the curves.
I - Methane; 2 - £thy 101; 3 - Hydrogen; 4.-
Acetylene; 5 - Propane; 6 - Ethylene;.7 -'
Guoline 8-70; a - D;yriiyT~"- .
a, b, c - Data for lower limits of gasoline B-70
as recorded in different publications.
1
,
Z
,
'I
ing of the scale.
An exception-to this
regularity is shown by the points plotted
for gasoline B-70 and for etAylene which
were markedly displaced along the abscis-
sa from the mean value. This irregularity
was obviously caused by the fact that the
selected value of the lower limit' for gas-
6
oline B-70 was too low, and also because
the calibration curves were constructed
. under non-identical test conditions.
On the basis of the above, it can
be assumed that if the galvanometer scale
of a balanced Wheatstone bridge was in-
dexed to correspond with the readings of
the device obtained while testing a mix-
ture containing any combustible component in concentration equal to 50% of its
lower limit value, then, upon placing such a device in the atmosphere to be
tested and turning on the electric current, this device will show by direct
reading whether or not a dangerous explosive concentration existed in the air
under investigation.
The design and manufacture 'of such a device are greatly simplified by
eliminating the need for several calibration marks, and for graduating it fDr
separate substances. The device thus becomes universal, i.e., suitable for
any combustible component. The precision '6fsuch an instrument is greater,
because it eliminates the necessity of interpolating data related to lower ex-
plosive limits.
Conclusions.
1. The constanqy of combustion temperature of different gas-vapor-a1r
mixtures containing combustible components in concentrations corresponding to
their lower explosive limit was verified by analysis of heat explosions under
critical conditions, as well as by comparison with theoretical computations.
Based on the regularity formulated above, it is proposed to utilize the PGF-2
gas analyzer, in the form of the VZG explosion-free design as a universal
. .
device for the rapid detexmination of the explosiveness. of different vapor-
gas-air mixtures.
6pd 107733
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