TT 61 - 21982
U.S.R. LITERATURE ON AIR POLLUTION AND
RELATED OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES
VOLUME 6
\-
B.S. Levine
Dept. of Comme
Washington, D.C
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PB 61-21982
~ A SURVEY
by
B. S. I©vine, Ph. D.
Distributed by
U. S DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
OFFICE OF TECHNICAL SERVICES
WASHINGTON 25, D. C.
-------
U.S.S.R. LITERATURE ON AIR POLLUTION
!D OCCUPATIONAL
NSEASES
A SURVEY
by
E. S. Levine, Ph. D.
U.S. Public Heolth Service
(Health, Education, and Welfare)
. Research Grantee -
Washington, D..C., U. S. A.
APRIL 1961
-------
Other trrnclp.tions, books r.nd surveys "by Dr. B. S. I.evir.e dealing
with U.S.S.H. air pollution control and related occupational diseases
?,vail?ble from U.S. Department of Commerce, Office of Technical Services,
\7ashington 25, D.C.
Sanitary Protection of Atmospheric Air,
Purification of Industrial Discharge
Gs.ses from Suspended Substances.
Limits of Allowable Concentrations of
Atmospheric Pollutants, Jtook 1.
Limits of Allowable Concentrations of •
Atmospheric Pollutants, Book 2.
Limits of Allowable Concentrations of -
Atmospheric Pollutants, Book 3.
Limits of Allowable Concentrations of
Atmospheric Pollutants, Book 4.
U.S.S.S. Literature on Air Pollution "..__'
and Related Occupational Diseases.
A Survey. Volume 1.
U.S.S.R. Literature on Air Pollution
and Related Occupational 1'iseases.
A Survey. Volume 2. '
U.S.S. rv. Literature on Atr Pollution
and Delated Occupational Diseases.
A Survey. Volume 3.
U.,S»S.R. I^erature on Aii Pollution
and ne-lated Occupcitional Diseases.
A Survey. Volume 4.
jiU.S.S.R. Literature on Air Pollution
Related Occupational _Diseases_. _________
Suryey. Volume 5«
f-The foliov/ing is available from Academic Press,
york 3 u.Y.
59-21092
59-21173
59-21174
59-21175
61-11148
60-21049
60-21188
60-21475
60-21913
S3. 00
52.75
S3. 00
S3. 00
S3. 50
£4.00
SA. 00
34.00
{Russian-English Medirr-1 Dictionarjr,
JBy Stanley Jablonsky.
^Edited by B. S. Levine.
61-11149" ' ' 03.50
Inc., Ill Fifth Avenue,
811.00
-ii-
-------
For comparison of metric and customary units from 1 to 10 see Handbook of
Chemistry and Physics published by the Chemical Rubber Publishing Co., 2310
Superior Ave., N.E., Cleveland, Ohio.
Inches and millimeters, inches and centimeters, feet and meters,
U.S. yards and meters, U.S. miles and kilometers - Page 2947
Square inches and square millimeter.;, square inches and square
centimeters, square feet and square meters, square yards and
square meters, square miles and square kilometers - Page 2948
Cubic inches and cubic millimeters, cubic inches and cubic
centimeters, cubic feet and cubic rasters, cubic yards and cubic
meters, acres and hectares - ' Page 2949
llilliliters and U.S. ounces, milliiiters and U.S. apothecaries'
drams, milliiiters and U.S. apothecaries' scruples, liters and
U.S. liquid quarts, liters and U.S. liquid gallons. (Computed
on the basis 1 liter = 1.000027 cubic decimeters). Page 2950
Liters and U.S. dry quarts, liters and U.S. pecks, decaliters
and U.S. pecK3, hectoliters and U.S. bushels, hectoliters per
hectare arid U.S. bushels per acre. (Computed on above basis). Page 2951
Other pertinent conversion tables are presented on succeeding pages.
RUSSIAN ALPHABET WITH TRANSLITERATION
A a a
B 6 b
B B v
r r g
A A d
E e e
>K w zh
3~3, ~_z
H H i
PI A I
K K k
n a \
MM m
H H n
O o o
n n p
p p
C c
T T
y y
$
X x
U u
Ml-
111 10
m m
t T>
bl u
b b
3 »
K) to
ft a
r
s
t
u
f
kh
ts
di-
sh
shch
mute hard M(?r
y
mute soft sicn
e
iu
ia"
-------
FOREWORD
The general plan of the present "Survey" Volume 6 is the same as the
plan of any of the proceeding volumes in that representation was given to
a variety of phases of air pollution studies. Items in the Table of 'Content
were supplemented by names of journals in which they appeared to enable
readers to determine, at a glance, whether or not the subject matter was
approached from the angle of greatest interest to them. A perusal of the
Table of Content, as now presented, will indicate to the reader that the
greatest weight of Volume 6 v;as given to papers published in the Russian
Journal of Applied Chemistry. Research students who are interested in the
application of Pavlovian perception physiology to certain phases of air
pollution investigations, such as liinits of allowable pollutant concentra-
tions, may find the Appendix, beginning with page 290, of special interest.
A new classification of industrial sanitary clearance zones appears
beginning1 with page 117 of this volume. This clearance zone classification
replaces the one which was presented in Volume 4 (O.T.S. No. 60-21913) be-
ginning with page 165. The new classification contains many important changes.
The 2000 m wide zones have oeen abolished, the 1000 m sanitary clearance zones
becoming the widest, width of other banitary clearance zones have been reduced
either accordingly or to some degree. In addition, certain types of manu-
facturing and processing industrial plants have bean taken out from their old
groupings and placed into other groups. All this is of considerable signif-
icance, since it reflects improvement, on the one ha#d, in the methods of
production, manufacturing and processing, and, on the other hand, in the
operation and efficiency of air and gas purifying installations. Readers
to whom the phase of sanitary clearance zones is of interest should make a
careful comparative study of the classification appearing in this volume
(page 117) with the classification which appeared in Volume 4, beginning with
page 165. . /
Several readers of the Survey "Books" and "Volumes" had written suggest- .
-irig-that metric measures be converted into American and English customary
measures. This would require a considerable amount" of time on the-part of
the undersigned._ Professional reference books have been published which
contain convenient conversion tables of a wide range, one such book is the
Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, issued by the Chemical Rubber Publishing
-iv-
-------
Co. A list of appropriate conversion tables, and pages on which they appear,
is presented in this Volume for the convenience of those who [night need such
a facility.
Readers of the more recent "Books" and "Volumes" of the Survey undoubt-
edly noticed that bibliographies of translated papers have been presented as
they.originally appeared in the Russian publications. One reason for doing
that was to save the valuable xime and expense transliteration would take.
It was also considered desirable, if not important, to enable readers to
learn the Cyrillic Russian alphabet, and to become proficient, or urge their
typists to become proficient, in trunsliterating such short items as Russian
titles, names and journals. For th& convenience of those who might wish to
do their own transliteration of selected Russian items of bibliography, a
Russian alphabet with transliteration is presented on the same page as the
list of measures' converting tables.
B. S. Levine, Ph.D. ' ~" "~~
3312 Northampton Street, N.W.,
Washington 15, D.C.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
By way of grateful acknowledgement each item in this collection is headed
by the original title (in translation), the name of the author or authors, in-
stitutional affiliation, and periodical or book from which the item was se-
lecte'd. " The.-volume, issue number, year of publication, and inclusive pages
are indicated for the convenience of.those who" may wish to consult the Russian
original, or may wish to make reference to same.
The material constituting the Appendix was taken from "Lectures on Condi-
tioned Reflexes. Twenty-Five 'Xoars of Objective Study of the Higher Nervous
Activity of Animals", by Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, M.D., translated by W. Hoarsley
Gantt, M.D., S. D. Liveright Publishing Corporation, New. York. To Dr. W.
Hoarsley Gantt of the Johns Hopkins Pavlovian Laboratory, "the undersigned is
duly grateful and takes the pleasure of expressing his thanks.
B. S. Levine, Ph.D.
3312 Northampton Street, N.W., ".
Washington 15, D.C.
-v-
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Contents.
Foreword
Section I. Experimental Studies in Air and Gas Purification of Gaseous and
Dust Pollutants by Adsorption and Absorption Methods.
Gas Flow Dispersion as a Means of Increasing Electrostatic
Precipitator Efficiency. I. E. Idel'chik. Koks i Khimiya. 1
Rate of Nitrogen Oxides Absorption by Alkaline Solutions and
by Nitric Acid. V. I. Atroshchenko and E. G. Sedashova.
Zhurnal Prikladnoi Khimii. 16
Bubbling Air Through Viscous Fluid. I. P. Levi and
0. B. Balandina.. Zhurnal Prikladnoi Khimii. 25
Effect of Hydrodynamic Conditions on Rate of Nitrogen Oxides
Absorption by Ca(OH)2 Solution, with the Aid of a Mechanical
Absorber under Semi-Industrial Conditions. S. N. Ganz.
Zhurnal Prikladnoi Khimii. . 39
Adsorption of Nitrogen Oxides by Aluniosilicates. S. N. Ganz.
Zhurnal Prikladnoi Khimii. - - . . 52
Hydrogen Sulfide Absorption by Sodium Arsenate Solution in a
Foam Apparatus. M. E. Posin, B. A. Kopylev and N. A. Petrova.
Zhurnal Prikladnoi Khimii. • 61
Rate of Hydrogen Sulfide Absorption by Sodium Arsenate Solutions.
M. I. Gerber, V. P. Teodorovich and A. D. Shusharina. Zhurnal
Prikladnoi Khimii. • 75
Effect of Foam Layer Thickness over Screen Shelf on Carbon
Dioxide Absorption by Alkaline Solution. M. E. Posin, B. A. Kopylev
and E. Ya. Tarat. Zhurnal Prikladnoi Khimii. ._ - . _... .. 79
Calculating the Phase Balance of Multi-Component Gas Mixtures.
I. G. Plit. Zhurnal Prikladnoi Khimii. 86
Experimental Utilization of Manganese Dioxide in Purifying Gases-
from Hydrogen Sulfide and Recovery of Elemental Sulfur.
Ya. Ya. Dodonov, L. ,T>. Borzova, V. S. Kolosova and
V. S. Pokaevskaya. Zhurnal Prikladnoi Khimii. . 91
Effect of Low SOp Concentrations on the Organism of Animals.
E. K. Lobova. In book: Vopr. Gigieny Atmosf. Vozdukha.
(An abstract). 96
"Wetting Agents Property to Catch Duat in a Dust Chamber.
S. Kb.. Zakieva and A. B. Taubman. Zhurnal Prikladnoi Khimii. 97
-vi-
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Section II. Sanitary Clearance Zone Studies. Regulations Pertaining -tjo
Location (Site), Planning and Construction of Industrial Production and
Processing Plants. New Classification of Industrial Clearance Zones.
Medical Examinations of Industrial Workers and Their Fitness To Engage'
in Certain Industrial Occupations.
Basic Data for the Determination of Sanitary Clearance Zone .
V/idths Around Peat Burning Electric Heat and Power Stations. -
N. Ya. Yanysheva. Gigiena i Sanitariya. . 101
Hygienic Basis for the Determination of Standard Sanitary
Clearance Zone Widths Around Gasoline Filling Stations.
Chjan Tssyu-chei. Gigiena i Sanitariya. • . _ 107
Sanitary Standards for Planning Industrial Production Plants.
ISP 101-51. Replacing GOST 1324-47. Field of Application and
Basic Requirements for General Planning. - 113
Sanitary Classification of Production and Processing Plants in
Relation to Sanitary Clearance Zones. 117
Sanitary Protection Zones in Meters for Regional and Factory
Electric Heat, Light and Power Stations and for Boiler Operated
Industrial Plants Having a Fuel Consumption of Three Tons or
More per Hour. A Table to go with Supplement 1. 130
Height of Smokestacks in Relation to Tons per Hour Fuel Consumption. 131
Limits of Allowable Concentrations of Poisonous Gases, Vapors
and Dust in the Air of Working Zones in Industrial Premises. 132
Limits of Allowable Concentration of Non-Toxic Dust in the Air
of Actual Working Locations of Industrial Production Premises. 134
Periodic Medical Examination of Workers Employed in Different
Industries. • 135
Lists of Contraindications which Prevent the Employment of Workers
in.Industries, in .which..Workers Undergo JPeriodic Medical Examinations. 1^9
Section III. Effect of Environmental Industrial Conditions on Immunity and
Other Physiological Processes. Experimental Studies. - - - -
The Effect of Industrial Poisons on the Immune-Biological State
of the Organism. I. G, Fridlyand. Gigiena i Sanitariya. 149
Effect of Chronic Low Concentration Sulfur Dioxide Poisoning on
-the Immune-Biological Reactivity of Rabbits. .V. K. Nayrqtskii;
Gigiena i Sanitariya. " '.' ' ~ ' ' ' 157
•Effect of Low-and High Surrpunding Air Temperature on. the. Immune—...
Biological Reactivity "61 "We" Animal _ Organism. ~1. A." Razdobud'ko". —""" ~~-
Gigiena Truda i Professional'nye Zabolevaniya. ~ - - - - 164-
The Effect of External Industrial Production Environment or the
Immune-Biological Reaction of the Organism. Effect of Chronic
Intoxication with Benzene and Its Nitro- and Aciino-Derivaiives
on the Immune-Biological Reaction of Rabbits. V. K. Navrotskii.
Gigiena Truda i Professional'nye Zabolevaniya. 173
-vii-
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Effect of Chronic Benzene Intoxication on the Phagocytic Activity
of Rabbits. A. P. Volkova. Gigiena i Sanitariya. 183
Air Temperature Effect on the Processes of Conversion and-
Detoxification of Aniline in the Animal Organism. Z. A. Volkova.
Gigiena Truda i Professional'nye Zabolevaniya. 188
Sanitary-Hygienic Labor Conditions in the Production of
Polymethylmetacrylate. S. E. Sandratskaya. Gigiena i Sanitariya. 197
Labor Hygiene Problems in the Use o^ Dichlorethane by the
Aviation Industry. I. V. Kozik. Gigiena Truda i Professional'nye
Zabolevaniya. 203
The Toxicity of Aromatic Hydrocarbons. Comparative Toxicity of
Some Aromatic Hydrocarbons. Some Problems of the Toxic-Hygienic
Properties of Aromatic Hydrocarbons. A. C. Faustov. Trudy
Voronezhskogo Meditsinskogo Instituta. (An abstract). 212
Section IV. Studies in Analytical Procedures.
The Effect of Colloids on the Accuracy of Photocolorimetric
Determinations. K. V. Flerov and B. V. Ozimov. Zhurnal
Prikladnoi Khimii. -• - " .214
Chromatographic Partitioning and Analysis of Methane Chloro-
Derivatives. D. A. Vyakhirev and L. D. Keshetnikova.
Zhurnal Prikladnoi Khimii. 221
Colorimetric Determination of Benzene Losses. F. P. Nikonyuk.
Koks i Khimaya. 226
Section V. Miscellaneous.
Safe Starting of Blast Furnaces. V.- T. Shumilova. Gigiena i
Sanitariya... _ __ ' 229
.Standards for Maximum Permissible Dust Concentrations in the
Air of Working Premise's. N. I. Sinetanin. Gigiena- i Sanitariya* 233..
Removal of Microorganisms from Air by the Filtration Method.
E. Yu. Zuikpva. Gigiena i Sanitariya. 235
Section VI. General and Didactic Papers.
Problems of Industrial Hygiene and Occupational Pathology in the
Practice of a Modern Physician. Z. I. Israel'son. Sovetskaya
"Meditsiha. "" "•' " • ~ 238
. Population Mortality in the U.S.S.R. and in Capitalist Countries.
A. M.'MerkOv. •' Gigiena "1" Sanitariya; ----.-=-- -.--.----.;-. ^-__.... ., _.. ,..,_ 247-
Industrial Sanitary Supervision. Editorial. Meditsinskii
Rabotnik. \ . 256
Soviet Health Protection Legislation Is Based on Scientific
Findings. D. V. Gorfin. Sovetskoye Zdravo-okhranenie. 258
-viii-
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Futile Efforts to Control Air Pollution in English and American
Cities. (A Survey of Foreign Literature). M. 3. Gol'dberg.
Gigiena i Sanitariya. 267
Problems in Planning and Building Cities and Protecting the Air
in England. K. G. Beryushev. Gigiena i Sanitariya. 276
Section VII. A Conference Report,
Urgent Problems in Industrial Hygiene of Women Y/orkers.
M. A. Petrov-Malakov. Vestnik Akadamii Meditsinskikh Nauk,
U.S.S.R. 285
Section VIII. Appendix.
I. P. Pavlov. Dialectical Materialism, Conditioned Reflexes and
Signal Systems. B. S. Levine. (Baaed on a series of excerpts from
I. P. Pavlov's book, translated by Dr. William Hoarsley Gantt, of
Johns Hopkins Pavlov Laboratory, published in 1925). 290
-IX-
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... .' Gas Flow Dispersion as a Means of Increasing
Electrostatic Precipitator Efficiency.
- • " -. - . . X. S. Idel'chik...
[Master of Technical Sciences, Staff Member of NIIOGAZ (Scientific-Research
Institute of.Gas Purification). Giprogazoochistka (Government Institute
for Designing Gas Purifying Installations)].
Ityks i Khimiya, No.. 1, 47-54, 1956.
Notations. • ~ .
Do - Diameter of the gas conduit. • ' " "
Dp - Diameter of the screen (work chamber).
f - Ratio of the "live" (openings) area in the screen to the entire
screen.
F, - Cross section area of the precipitator work chamber,'
J£
F - Cross section area of the gas (air) conduit.
P - Total "live" .(openings) screen~area.
opn ~ • - — ,_ _. .
F . - Cross section area of the gas stream."
, ctp
H - Distance from the (top) screen to the top of the work chamber.-
H - Distance between the screen and the center line (axis) of the gas
conduit. • ••--..
1 - Distance between the screens.
N - Number of screens.
P
N - Kinetic energy coefficient of the core of the constant mass of the
€1
""--"-.'.: (sas).';stream. • -*•
N - Ditto of the gas stream at its inflow into "the work chamber.
o
N , - Ditto of the gas stream between the end section of the gas conduit
otp . - .? . .... °
and the screen,
eo - Speed of the gas at given points.
co - Gas speed at opening into the work chamber.
o - - _ . ,
to - Maximum gas speed at opening into the work chamber.
•- "
to - Median gas speed across the work "chamber cross section.
cp
Z, . - Screen resistance coefficient limit.
Imt , " —
Z - Screen resistance coefficient,
s
Z - Optimum screen resistance coefficient,
s.opt *
Z ^ - Screen system resistance coefficient.
s.syst
-1-
-------
The eve.i :'. '.-vintution of gas flow through all the operating -.'.agents of
electrostatic precipitators constitutes the u.ost essential condition for the
effective and efficient operation of electrostatic precipitators. One of the
means by v;hich even distribution of the ^as can be attained is forced distri-
bution of tr.e ,L;as flow with the aid of resistors placed in front of the oper-
ating elements of the apparatus, and exerting an even effect over the entire
cross-section of the working chamber. Such resistors can be made of flat
screens, perforated metal plates, Raschig rings, chord type partitions, strips
of -cloth, etc. In the absence of experimental data, such resistance devices
(costly ncreens) were selected in the past haphazardly and not as the result
of rationally employed calculations.
This author studied the problems of forced distribution of gas flow
Cl, 2]; the data presented in the reports referred to presented the possi-
bility to determine with precision the type of the resistor screen most suited
for the even distribution of the gas flow over the entire cross section of
the work chamber of a given electrostatic precipitator. Calculations made
on the basis of such results proved that the old resistor screens installed
in the electrostatic precipitators used in the purification of coke gas from
suspended tar particles (see Fig. 1 - precipitator type C-140) could not
assure a sufficiently uniform distribution of gas flow rates. Replacement
of the old screens by screens selected on the basis
of rational calculations should increase considerably
the purification coefficient and result in a more
than twofold increase in the precipitator productivity.
The above considerations and the work conducted
at Giprogazoochistka (The Government Institute for
Designing Gas Purifying Installations) on the develop-
ment of a standard installation for the electro-
static purification of coke gases impelled this
author to make special-tests for. the.study of the
gas distribution in type C-140 electrostatic pre-
cipitators.
The following is a preliminary report on cal-
culations made for the determination of gas distri-
bution in"electrostatic precipitators and on the study"
Pig. 1. Electrostatic
precipitator for the
purification of coke
gas from tar.
1 - Screen.
-2-
-------
of the aerodynamics of an electrostatic precipitator model under laboratory
conditions, using air as a wcrkinB' aedium. The ruain purpose of the experi-
ments WL.S to determine the distribution of the air flow velocities over a
cross section corresponding to that at the gas intake openings of the tubular
electrodes of the electrostatic precipitator. To accomplish that it was
necessary only to construct ci nodel of the first section of the precipitator,
which consisted of the intake extension and the first part of the precipitator
work chamber without its electrodes (see Fig. 2). The model scale used V;E.S
a,-soo-
Fig. 2. Plan of the experimental
electrofilter model.
a - Lateral gas entry; b - Central
downward gas entry; c - Central
— upward, gas entry.
1:9.5- The re.tio of the cross
section area of the iiioael work
chamber F, to the cross section
area of its gas inflow opening
FQ was: F^ = 16.
Two ways of gas flow delivery
into the model \vere tested. One
with a lateral tas Delivery (see
Figo 2), the other with a central
(symmetrical) delivery through z.
downward directed inflow pipe
facing an umbrella-shaped deflector
at the end (see Fig. 2b). By-
means of theoretical calculations
it was determined [l] that the
magnitudes of•an optimum-resistance
"coefficient of a single screen.adequate for bringing about the distribution
of the gas flow over its entire area under given conditions of the field of
velocities in the gas flow before the screen^depended only on the ratio F./F ;
it can be e:tn<, ..'cd by a formula:
s.opt
where.
(1)
is an optimum screen resistance coefficient reduced to a ucdian velocity °i/.
in front of the screen;
-3-
-------
i r c « ^3'
cl K y £ ^^ ClV ^/
O £1 ^O
is the kinetic energy coefficient of the center (core) of the constant mass
flow which depends upon the condition of the field of velocities at the given
cross section.
The theoretical analysis and experimental results [2] show that flat
screens or perforated sheets can act as gas flow distributors in installa-
tions having limited EV/P ratios. However, in case of a lateral gas flow
into a rectangular apparatus«and with the resistor screen placed at a distance
H /D > 1.4 from the center line of the inflow opening (Pig. 2a)«the limiting
relation between the areas is:
\ 3
(2)
limit " o
! ,...3
where N = -=7-
' O J?
' "" C
is the coefficient of kinetic energy at the initial cross section of the gas
flow, that is, at the point of inflow.
In the case of central or symmetrical gas inflow.where the impact on the
resistor screen (2b) is direct«the ratio of the areas will be:
. : >L,-" '
\ o/ limit o
. Limiting area ratios imply-or presuppose corresponding.limiting screen
resistance coefficients [l and 2J» - • "
V2
limit .
In apparatus installations with area ratios EV/F > (FiYF ),. ., and of
single flat resistor screens, the resistance coefficients of which are higher
than those derived from formula (4), new gas velocity profile_distortions
arise at the sections back of the resistor scr.eehs-wb.ich'"make equalization- .-
of gas flow unattainable.
Determination of the fitness of individual flat resistor screens for"the
even distrioution of gas flow in electrostatic precipitators must be based
on specific values of N -and N-; such-values can be arrived at by analyzing
gl O ----_.-.._,_
-4-
-------
Pig. 3. Schematic
picture of gas flow
in the entering sec-
tion of the work
chamber having a
lateral inflow and
no resistance screen.
each of the Oas flow pictures after the
gas has entered the lateral and the central
symmetrical types of apparatus, as illus-
trated in Fig. 3,
The lateral gas inflow, in this case
the gas flow after entering the appara-
tus, continues to aove by its own inertia axis hori-
zontally until it encounters the opposite well of the
working chamber (a), as shown in Fig. 3; the impact of
the gas against the wall of the apparatus body causes
it to disperse along the walls of the working chamber
(c) partially in an upward direction and partially
horizontally along the lateral section of the walls
of the body of the apparatus (b) in a reverse direc-
tion to a point where this part of the gas flow was no
more in contact with the first section 0-0 along wall
C at the inflow position. Here the gas stream is divided again into 2 compo-
nents: one directed upward along wall C,' and the other sucked in by the in-
flowing gas creating an intermixing turbulence. Simultaneously, in the space
between the side walls of the apparatus body and the main stream of the gas
flow, there arises a horizontal circulatory (whirling) movement of the gas
flow. A similar gas circulation is formed below and above the inflowing gas
stream as illustrated in Fig. 3. The picture of gas flow is the same in all
apparatuses regardless of the cross section of their work chamber. However,
in the case of round-shaped work chambers the horizontal gas flow along the
walls is of greater inxensity. Therefore, the limiting relation (F./F )
jv 0 Xinil "L
must be higher than in the case of rectangular work chambers. The actual
value of this relation has not been established; however, its orientation
values can be calculated with the aid of the following approximation formula:
In the case under study the conditions for introducing air flow into the
apparatus were such that the field of velocities at cross section 0-0 \vere
practically uniform and it can be assumed that N - 1.0. Therefore:
-5-
-------
and according. to formula (4)s
Z .. . , = 25 N - 1 (5)
s. limit ' a wy
Along with the gas spreading effected by the chamber walls, a usual flow
spreading develops along the entire course of the- gas flow "beginning at the
inflow pointawhich causes the static gas to interu.ix in a turbulent manner
with the flowing gas £4] • This gas spreading is accompanied by a loss of
energy which can be accounted for by the introduction in formula (l) of
the value of N . Such complications normally arise in -she lateral entry types
Si
of apparatus; in such cases the value of N can be estimated only roughly.
a
Calculated with the aid of free flow generalizations [4] N was assigned
I/ a
a value of the order of 0.25. Accordingly, and on the basis of formula
and on the basis of formula (5)s
2s.limit - 25 * °'25 - 1 - 5.25
Thus, the optimum value of Z is considerably greater than the limit
s . opx
value Z ,. .. and, hence, in such a case a single flat resistor screen can-
not be used,' instead it becomes necessary to install a system of resistor
screens, or if a single resistor screen is used, additional resistance means
should be introduced^such as directional blades, panels, honeycomb screens,
etc. • ' ' - " .
The number of screens in the system can be determined with the aid of
the following formula:
. - , ...... (6)
limit
In the case under study:
>••£ 3
>-5«3
Because of a lack of space all intermediate calculations were omitted.
-6-
-------
The resistance coefficient of an individual screen in a system of screens
can be determined with the aid of the following formula proposed by this
author [l]t
2
Zs.syst - N - l - <16> ~ * - 5.4
This value of Z . correlates with the coefficient of the active area
s.syst . I
of the resistor screen perforations. -*
Pnnn
f = ^«0.56 - 5656
P
By slightly lowering the -requirements for the uniformity of field veloc-
ities the number of resistor screens in the apparatus can be limited to 2
(n = 2); the resistance coefficient of each screen can be determined with
the aid of formula:
z . k
s.sy&t ,-Q
_ t
in correspondence with which f ° 0.32 - 0.325.
The above considerations show that an even distribution of the gas flow
in the lateral gas entry type of apparatus can be attained with not less than
2 resistor screens, each having a resistance coefficient:
' .. Z.
_ . syst ....
Central symmetrical downflow gas delivery. In this case the gas flow
coming out of the delivery attachments meets an umbrella-shaped dpflector,
which forces the incoming gas stream to spread out in a horizontal direction;
carried by its own inertia it reaches the walls of the apparatus work chamber.
Here the gas stream is split into 2 uneven'parts. The major part of the gas'
—' The relation of the resistance coefficient of flat resistor screens to the
coefficient of the active area of the perforations is given by this author in
his book L1J as:
Zs = (1 + 0.707 /fTi - f)<
-7-
i
-------
Fig. 4. Schematic pic-
ture of the gas f lov; in
the entering section
of the work chamber
having a central inflow
and no resistance
, . screens.
1 - Pan-like stream;
2 - Ring>-like stream.
is directed upwards along the chamber walls.form-
ing a circular stream; the lower part moves down-
ward to the bottom in a circulatory movement, as
is illustrated in Pig. 4.
The movement of the gas stream^after it
leaves the space between the opening of the in-
flow attachment and the umbrella-shaped deflector
and until it reaches the work chamber'wallSjfol-
lows the laws for fan-type flow expansion [5];
after it begins to I'lov; upward it follows the
laws for ring-shaped movement, or in approximate
accordance with the laws for flat stream flows
£4] restricted on one side by a solid wall,,
The formation of a ring-shaped stream causes
the formation of reverse streams in the central
part of the apparatus due to the fact that it sucked in some adjacent gas from
the central part of the work chamber-which in turn caused an identical amount
.of gas to descend from the distant upper levels of the apparatus. In this
type of apparat- » the initial cross section F is an undefined value; there-
fore, the calculation of Z , by formula (l)«by substituting for P the
s. opt ' * o
same values as in apparatuses of lateral gas delivery, will be incorrect,. On
the other hand, in this case it is possible to determine with a high degree
of precision the area of stream F . before it spreads out over the resistor
-• .._...-. . .. ..... ... - ...... - r. ...... .... . .......
screen. Therefore, the determination of the resistance coefficient Z .
- - - _• . s.opt
can be made with the aid of formula (l) substituting F by a calculated value
for P , and N by N , (since in the small portion between the mouth of the
ctp a ctp
inflow pipe P . and the resistor screen there occur no losses of any con-
Cvp
sideration). Calculations made with the aid of formulas in the case of the
fan-shaped stream [53 (the part between the rini- of -the umbrella-shaped de-?
fleeter and the chamber '.vails) and of the ring-shaped stream [4] (the remain-
Ing space) "yielded "the "following values;"f6r •the~-t-est"ri:ibdel with-"a"-work cham- '
~ ..... - .. o 9
ber cross section of P, = 0.196 mi P . = 0.124 in and for N , = 4 -*• 5.
"" ctp • ctp
Substituting these values in formula (l):
Zs.opt = NctplP
- 1
-8-
-------
o - 11.5
The coefficient of the Active resistor screen area -..i-ich corresponds to
the above value is:
? = 0.36 - 0.38
Applying formula (3) to this type of gas entry apparatus, as previously
done in the case of the central syunetrical entry type, and taking appropriate
safety allowance, it can be seen, on the basis of formula (4), that the
value for Z . obtained is considerably lower than the limiting value, and
s.opt
consequently in this case the use of a single flat resistor screen with the
characteristics found for it —' would, suffice.
The above considerations show that a uniform distribution of the gas flow
in the apparatus with a central symmetrical downflow delivery of the gas, can
be attained with one resistor screen which has a resistance coefficient of
Z8.opt«11.5 (f~0.36). '
In cases of a substantial decrease or increase in the value of the resis-
tance coefficient of the screen, as compared with the theoretically calculated
one, there can be no assurance of even distribution of the gas flow velocities
past the screen. For example, with'too high values of Zg Q , i.e., with
lowered values of "f, the character of the field of gas velocities must become
directly opposite *to those which prevail in the absence of resistor screens,
i.e., the field of speeds, will become "reversed".
Tests were"mad"e for the determination-of -flow velocities ct various cross
section points in the model apparatus in front of the" electrodes; studies -..-ere
also made of the flow spectrum using silk threads. The results are illustrated
in Figs. 5 and 6 in the form of distribution curves of ditnensionless velocities
to/a) at separate cross section diameters (here o> = the speed tt a specific
cp
point, to = the average cross section velocity). An examination of the curves
CP - - -- - • - - - --;-.._
brought out the following:
„!—~-l. The spectraltdiagraias_-_fully confirm _t"he_ cc-urse" of gus - flow, distribu-
tion in the absence of gas resistor screens for the lateral inflow and central
1 / ..... o
U In fact, from formulas (3) and (4) we receive: Zs limit = (6.5) NaAo =
1* but in this particular case N = N = N . •= 1; and thus, Z . . = 41.
0, o c •* jP s • x .^*in v
-9-
-------
a
Screens
Fig. 5. Lateral
g
aB inflow. Composite diagram of velocity fields in cross
section past the resistance screen.
*^ *""^* t tf* *W V'^Bh ^ "t
a - Without the screen; b - One screen f - 0.3 (Zs - 18}; %/Do * -1*15
H/Dp « O.lS; c - Two screens fj_ « f£ - 0.3^ Hp/Do - 1.1; I/Dp « 0.16;
H/Dp « 0.32; d - Two screen_s f]_ « ?2 ^ °-^5 Hp/D0 » 1.1; l/Dp « 0.26;
H/Dp - 0.22; e - One screen f * 0.3; Hp/Dp « 1.1; H/Dp « 0.32 and a sys-
tem of laminae; f - Two screens fi - f£ = 0.3; Hj/Do - 1.1; 1/D^ « O.lo;
m 0.32 and a system of laminae.
P
-10-
-------
s
Fig. 5. Central downward fas inflow. , Composite diagram of velocity fields
in cross section past the^resistance screens.
a - Without screens; b - One screen f - 0.11 (Zp - 200); Hp/Do - 1.0;
H/Dp.. - 0.41; £ - One screen ? . 0.3 (Zp - 0.18); Hp/Do - 1.0; H/D^ = 0.41;
d -_0ne screen f - 0.35 (2p - 12.5); Hp/Do - 1.0; H/Dp . 0.41; e -__0ne screen
f = 0.35 (Zj> - 12.5); %Ap - 1.4; H/Bp . 0.32; f - One screen f » 0.25
(Zp - 12.5); Hp/Dp - 1.4; H/D£ = 0.84; g - One screen f - 0.42 (Zj, - ?);
HD/D0 - 1.0; H/5p - 0.41; b - *wo screens fi - 0.3, f2 - 0.35; Hp/60 - 1.0;
I/Dp .0.1; H/Dp - 0.41.
-11-
-------
symmetrical do\vn»vard inflow type of apparatus (see Pigs. 5a and 6a).
2. The installation in a lateral £as delivery type of apparatus of one
resistor screen with Z = 18 (f = 0.30) instead of 2 screens with computed
Q
coefficients Z = 15, fails to insure an even distribution of gas flow over
s
the entire cross section area of the work chamber. The characteristics of
uneven gas distri'bution are similar to those manifested in the absence of
resistor screens (see Figs. 5a and 6a).
3. The installation in a lateral gas delivery type of apparatus of 2
screens with a resistance coefficient approxiuating those theoretically
computed, i.e., Z = 18 at f = 0.30, effects a thorough, even gas
s.syst
velocity field throughout the entire work chamber cross section. The degree
of jas flow uniformity in this case is practically identical for between
screen distances of I/Do - 0.16 (Pig. 5b) and I/Do '= 0.26 (Fig. 5a).
4. A combination gas distributing system consisting of a system of
directing plates (Fig. 2a) and one resistor Z = 18 (f = 0.30), equalises
S
the gas flow to a high degree (Fig. 5<0 • However, the equalization would
be better if two resistor screens were incorporated.and omitting the direct-
ing plates.
5. The addition of a set of directing plates to 2 resistor screens
resulted in no worthwhile improvement in the even gas flow distribution in
the apparatus. However, the directional plates increased the stability of
the gas flow and diminished their torsional 'and slope-like deflections
(Fig. 5_a)...__ __ ___ _
6. The use"6f~a single screen having an excessive resistance, coefficient
such as Z ^ 200 as compared,with a low coefficient of the active screen area
^^ s
f = 0.11 in connection with a central symmetrical downflow type of delivery
sharply changes the whole picture of the ^as flow. In the absence of resistor
screens, maximum gas velocities may develop at the walls of the work chamber
accompanied by central hega-ti-ve velocities, or reversed flows (Fig. 6a); the
installation of a single resistor screen will shift the maximum gas flow
velocities toward the center_of the work "chamber and the reduced and the
negative velocities move toward the periphery (Fig. 6b). A similar set of
conditions has been observed by Mr. P. J. Kuleshov £3] in testing an electro-
""• ' ' .pitator type C-140 equipped with a resistor screen of an approxi-
. - - — .ar resistance" coefficient-.- This-author-explained [6] the particular
-12-
-------
ocreen
behavior of the gas flow observed by P. Ta. Kuleshov. The explanation was
b.ised on the fact that for the spread of a ring-shaped gas flow over a screen
i.'ith a high resistance coefficient, the flow must forcefully undergo a sharp
ch;inge of direction from the periphery of the apparatus to the center (Fig. 7).
This change in the direction of
the gas flow is retained by the stream-
lets into which the major gas flow
splits as it passes through the screen
perforations, so that in the end the
entire streac. is diverted from its
peripheral t;; a central direction,
thereby creating at some distance from
the screen a velocity profile with its
maximum at the center. In the case
under consideration this maximum veloc-
ity reaches the value (eo/to ) «- 4.2.
J ^ ' op max
It must be remembered that this flow
of the gas streat, from the periphery
toward the central region is enhanced
by the previously described tendency of
the circular type of gas flow to con-
verge toward the center even in the ab-
sence of a resistor screen.
7. .".ith the reduction in the
screen resistance coefficient, i.e.,
with the increase in the coefficient
Pig. ?• Schematic picture of the
t^as flow before and after passing
through a high resistance screen for
symmetrical downward gas inflow.
of its active area of perforations-the entire picture of gas flow velocity
distribution at first changes in direction of enhancement. Thus, as IT can
be seen from Fig. 6b, the installation of a screen with Z « 18 (f « 0.30),
the maximum of the gas velocities at the center acquires a lower value of
((o/(o ) = 3.0 - 3.3, which "is 30 - 40% below taat of the previous variant,
' cp max
./ith the installation of a screen having a resistance coefficient close to
the one computed, i.e., Z = 12 (f = 0.35)> the u:axi;r,u:i. e
o
to (co/cc ) ^2-2.2 (Fig. 6b, c, d, e), which is approximately
C]p Ipt-L^
thnt of a screen variani in which f » 0.11. Zcr.es of negative velocities dis-
velocity decre^L-.
below
-13-
-------
appear almost completely, the gas flow becomes stable, the torsion movement
is reduced to a minimum.
V/here the resistor screen is selected on the basis of theoretically com-
• puted results, further lowering of the screen resistance coefficient from the
computed value to Z = 7 (f = 0.42) creates unfavorable conditions in the ve-
5
locity field cross sectionally (Fig. 6). This changes the character of the
field of velocities causing them to approximate velocity fields of large Z
and small f. This character of the field of velocities results basically
from the previously described sucking-in action in the central or axial part
of the work chamber in front of the resistor screen. The relatively low
screen resistance shifts the gas flow from the periphery to the inner central
part of the section.
8. The installation of 2 resistor screens in an apparatus of central
symmetrical downflow gas delivery is superfluous. It results in no noteworthy
beneficial changes in the field of gas velocities accompanied with the effect
of a single screen selected on the basis of theoretical calculations (Fig. 6h).
9. Shifts of the gas flow direction past the resistor screen from the
.work chamber periphery to its center may be caused by slanting the gas movement
x in that direction. To prevent the appearance of such slanting gas movement
c effects and of the occurrence of "reverse" velocity fields —' it is necessary
to install a honeycomb screen above the regular resistor screen (Fig. 8).
Similar results may be achieved by
placing the screen supporting beams
crosswise in several'rows," directly over
the resistor screen.
Conclusions.
1. The optimum operative character-
Fig 8. Schematic drawing of a .± g Qf distributing resistor screens
rectifying resistance screen.- - -
1 - Flat screen; 2 - Honeycomb in electrostatic precipitators have been
_____ . __
,._;.= ?J.. , „ ,__..,.].:.! determined by experimentally verified
theoretical computations. For any given apparatus of lateral type of gas
"delivery having a ratio F^F = 16, best gas. distribution is achieved by in-
— ' For more information on this subject see £2.1 .
.-14-
-------
stalling 2 resistor screens with a resistance coefficient Z ea 18 (coefficient
8
of the active perforated area to the total screen area f c-j 0.30). The relative
distance between the screens should "be not less than 1 = 0.15 Do, and-between
the first screen and the axis of the gas delivery conduit H = 0.3 Do.
In central symmetrical downflow gas delivery, equipped with an umbrella-
shaped deflector, best distribution of gas velocities can be achieved with
the aid of one screen having a resistance coefficient Z = 11 - 12 (f = 0.35 -
S
0.36). The relative distance of the screen from the axis of the inflow open-
ing must be not less than H =0.9 Do.
2o Replacement in electrostatic precipitators of old screens of high
resistance coefficient Z ^ 200 (f = 0.11 - 0.12) by a theoretically computed
s
screen with Z = 11 - 12 (f = 0.35 - 0.36) lowers the maximum velocity of the
S
gas cross sectionally by approximately 50/£> correspondingly increases by more
than 100$ the productivity, and raises considerably the gas purification co-
efficient.
Bibliography.
1. H. E. HdejibiuK. .rHflpaaiJHieaaie
roc9HeproH3AaT, 1954.
2. H. E. HdeattiuK. K sscnepHMeirranbHofc -
reopHH rtpHKyAHTejibHofl paaaaqn notoica c nok-.i-iu.ia P
UICTOK. «Tenfl09HepreTHKa», 1955, Jft 8.
3. Fl. ft. Kyaeiuoe. Hcwi££OBOHHe aspOflHHBMKXii i
rpoiptuibTpa C-I40
H3A8T. 1954, BUn. XII.
4. l~. H. A6fKux>eu.
-------
Rate of Nitrogen Oxides Absorption by Alkaline Solutions and by Nitric
V. I. Atroshchenko and E. G. oed^s.-ova.
•
(Khar'kov Polytechnic Institute i.i:. V. I. Lenina).
Zhurnal Prikladnoi Khimii, Vol. 25, Fo. 11, 1143-1150, 1952.
Absorption of ni^ro^en oxides by alkaline solutions has gained wide ac-
ceptance in the nitric acid industry. The process loV/ered considerably the
cost of absorption, freed the capital ordinarily invested in construction
equipment and maintenance of absorption towers, and yielded nitrate fertilizer
as a by-product. Of equal importance is the concentrated nitric oxide ob-
tained in the conversion of the alkaline nitrites into nitrates from which
concentrated nitric acid can be produced by direct synthesis.
Many basic studies have been conducted in the U.S.3.R. dealing with the
problem of nitrogen oxides absorption by alkaline solutions by the present
authors [l - 5]> *>y Zhivotovskii [6] and by Perelman and Kantorovich [7] > and
with the conversion of alkaline nitrites into nitrates by Gogin and Lliniovich
[8, 9J> Zhivotovskii [10, llj; in this connection studies by Krichevskii and
Kantorovich [12] and Perelinan and Strakhova [13] established important and
»•
necessary constants. Of basic importance to the future expansion of the nitric
acid industry is the enlargement of the so-called alkaline departments, so
that greater volumes of nitrogen oxides could be absorbed, accompanied by a
corresponding reduction in the absorption of nitric acid. •'
It has. been known that the -absorption -of nitrogen oxides" "by water in the
production of nitric acid was accompanied by nitric acid decomposition and
a partial liberation of nitric oxide which had to be reoxidized repeatedly,
Absorption of nitrogen oxides by alkaline solutions prevented the decomposi-
tion of nitric acid and eliminated the extra steps of regaining the nitric
acid by repeated oxidation. Alkaline solutions absorbed not only NOp gas but
I-LO, [NO + N093 as well; the formation of the latter is accomplished in a
9m ' *J~ ™ *fc ---_ . . ,. „,-.._ ., ----- f _ . . ,
considerably shorter time than the formation of nitric oxide. It is pertinent •
to mention at this point that.N^O, (nitrogen trio'xide). or an equivalent mix-
— «*- <£ J t
ture of NO + N0« were absorbed by alkaline solutions most readily and more
rapidly than nitrogen dioxide. The nitrites formed in the process of alkaline
absorption were converted into nitrates according to the following equation:
3NaN02 + 2 HN03 -• 3NaN03 + H20 + 2NO
-16-
-------
The nitric acid formed as i by-product is returned to tlie initial ^ttge
of the -bsorption system; it can also be cjncentriited by centri fustian -nd
c-n be ujed in the manufacture jf concentrated nitric acid. Kitrogen oxides
are absorbed at present by solutions of Ca(OH)? instead of NaCO-,. Absorption
cf ni~ro0-en oxides by Ca(OH)? can produce highly concentrated Ca and N by-
products. The heretofore pievuiiing maximum absorption of nitro0en oxides
ranged between 5-7^5 absorption ,vith solutions of Ca(OH)? raised the waxicuc
(1)
to 25 -
On the basis of the above cited studies, these authors [5] computed the
slon reaction time and found that with a combination of acid and alkaline
absorption of nitrogen oxides there -..'as a miniiaun reaction tice for the entire
process and a minimum capacity for the absorption towers for each ratio be-
tween the degree of acid and alkaline absorption of nitrogen oxides".' '
Curves in Fig. 1 show that the maximum reaction rate, and consequently
the Liiniinum absorption volume, -jere attained when the nitric acid yield
amounted to 40 - 70£ and of nitrates 25 - 55$.
Curves in Fig. 1 are plots constructed on the basis of the following
corresponding reactions:
Nitric acid oxidation:
2NO -r 0- 2! 2NO_
Alkaline nitrites inversion:
NaN02 + N02 ^ NalTO-j + NO (2)
or 3NaN00 + 2 HNO,-- 3NaNO, .+- HJD >. 2KO...
C. J ~" J C.
Acid "absorption of nitrogen oxides:
3N00 + H00 -« 2HNO, + NO
and 2NO +• 0_ ^» 2N00
Oxidation of the nirogen oxides to
2NO + 0.502 ^ NO -r N02
Alkaline absorption of nitrogen'oxides:
. NO + N02-+ Na2C03 - 2NaNp2 + COg (5)
At a given ratio between acid and"
alkaline absorption of nitrogen oxides
under atmospheric pressure, the absorption
volume is reduced from 171 to 40 m per
'ton of ammonia oxidized in 24 hours.
Fi9. I. Function*! relation Between re-
action tine end absorption volue« on-the -
one hand and the ratio o«t«««n the re-
sulting nitric acid and sodiu» nitrate on
the other hand.
A6 - Tine in seconds; AD - Percent of
HN03; DC - Reaction volune In «*| BC -'
ABOunt of NaN03-
I - Curve of nitrogan oxide oxidation;
2 - Invereion curve; 3 - Curve of acid
absorption; >t - Curve of nitrogen oxide
oxidation in 2nd to*er; 5 - Curve of
alkaline absorption; 6 -Curve of jeneral
process - amounts of treated gas per ton
of aniKonia per day.
(3)
w
-(4)
-17-
-------
A different reaction tine ratio cay lu-ve to come into play if considera-
tion 'is to be given to the question of nitric oxide'formed as the result of
the inversion reaction:
3tfaNO_ + 2HNO, - 3lTaNO, + H_0 + 2NO (6)
c. j ~~ j d
for the purpose of obtaining concentrated nitrogen tetroxide without return-
ing it for reconversion into acid and salt.
With a total 95% absorption the degree of alkaline absorption of nitrogen
oxides must amount to 57$» as can be seen from equation (6), and the degree
of acid absorption must be 38$ (or in a 3:2 ratio). In all instances the
nitric oxide a&ounts to 2/3 of the nitrate salts. In this case the gas remains
in the towers 116 seconds and the absorption volume is 22 m per ton of ammonia
oxidized in 24 hours. In the case of simultaneous preparation of dilute nitric
acid, nitrate salts, and nitric oxide the changed time of the gas remaining
in the towers can be determined from curves in Pig. 2.
In connection with the complex processes which take place in the forma-
tion of nitric acid and alkaline nitrites from nitric oxide, these authors
made an experimental study of the relative velocity of the total nitric oxide
conversion (reactions 1, 3, 4 and 5) a"t different ratios between acid and
B
l>00
300
ZOO
too
we
151.0
56.55
3? 70
IMS
0
alkaline absorption. The apparatus
used in this study is illustrated
diagramatically in Fig. 3.
The absorption apparatus con-
sisted of 5 individual absorption
units (4)j performing as independent
horizontal tov;ers. Acid-or alkali
"100 80 $0 *0 0
Fig. 2. Functional relation between reaction tine
and Absorption volume on the one hend and the ratio
bet neon the resulting nitric acid and sodi'unTnf-
trateo on tho other hand «t simultaneous renovbl of
alkaline salts of nitric acid forced by the in-.
~. '"""""" version "reaction. "•—- -~-jr- ' "
AB - Time in oocendsj AD - Percent of HN03J DC -
Reset ion voluese in n3} 8C - Amount of NaN03>
I - Curve of nitrogen oxidea oxidation and nitro-
gen dioxide absorption i.i acid towrej 2 - Curve of
nitrogen oxide oxidation to Nj^O^j 3 - Curve of ni-
trogen oxides absorption in alkaline torero; k -
Curve of the general process - aeounts if treated
gas on the beois of I ton of aexeonia per day.
Aoount of resulting nitrogen oxide amounted to 2/3
of the produced NeN03«
Fig. 3. Plan of the installation employed in
studying tho rcte of nitrogen oxides absorption
at different acia and alkaline absorption
retec.
I - Ceo Eetcr for'ni tfogen oxide;- 'i --Flow
ootorj 3 - Constant air temperature chamber,
1* - Absorber apparetuoj 5 - Electric mo*or.
-18-
-------
\ias poured into each absorption unit and the absorption apparatus was rotated
with the aid of an electric motor until the absorption unit v;alls \vere wetted
"by the liquid. A eixture of a constant composition of air, nitrogen, and
nitric oxide were run into the first absorption unit and then into the others,
after which it was discharged into the atmosphere.
The volume of a single absorption unit was 110 ml, and the free volume
2
was 100 ml. The liquid-wetted surface of a single absorption unit was 100 cm .
The diameter of the absorption unit was 3.9 cm; with such a combination of
3 2
dimensions each m of the absorber had a surface area of 110 m . Ten ml of
acid or alkali were poured into each absorber unit. The nitric oxide liberated
during the experiment ranged between 800 ml with high degrees of absorption,
and 1200 ml with a low degree of absorption. The chosen ratio of the liquid
volume to the nitric oxide volume was such at which no marked changes could
take place in the concentration of the liquid, but which could increase the
accuracy of the analytical results. The gas volume was regulated so as to
obtain a mixture containing 10$ of NO, 9.5$ of 0-, and 81.5$ of N-. The
nitrous gases remained in the absorption apparatus 50 "to 300 seconds. The
absorption system was placed into a constant temperature chamber kept at 25 C.
During the first experiment, acid was poured into all the absorber units. In
subsequent experiments, in place of the acid, alkaline solutions were poured
first into one, then, into 2 absorbers, etc., beginning with the end of the
absorption apparatus,, thereby creating different ratios between the acid and
the alkaline absorption. The distribution of the acid concentration in g/li
ih'the absorption units was as follows: 1 «=> 6l0.3^--2 -_.536'.4j 3 - 358-9; 4 -
222.7 and 5 -~85.~5« The distribution of the NaOH concentration in g/li In the
absorption units wass 5 - 3286| 4 - 112; 3 - 177; 2 - 254.9 and 1 - 396.1.
Determination of the degree of absorption was attained by analyzing the
liquid phase for total acidity or alkalinity. The results were checked by
.several parallel experiments and also by gas analysis. Thus, this set-up
accorded with all the conditions of the technological process, with the ex-
.caption of ..tbe'Iineaiy,sas_^JLpcity,. which in the experimental tests was
several times "below th© OBQS prevailing under industrial^conditions.
Results of the esrpeslnjerr&s are.listed ia Table 1. Curves in Figs. 4»
5 and 6 are plots of data listed in Table 1} they illustrate the changes in
the absorption rate of nitrogen oxides corresponding to changes in the degree
of acid and alkaline absorption. " ~ -
-19-
-------
T A B L 2 1.
in the degree of nitrogen oxides -boorption in the absorbers at
different ratios bet-.veen acid and alkaline absorption, at different time-
duration of the £3S remaining in the absorbers and
at different rates of ~as -flow,,
(Temperature 25°; concentration of NO = 1056, and of 02 = 3.%;
T = absorption in seconds; a = percent of absorption).
Absorber :
HO. i
1
j 2
• 4.
•
•
i 4
Hate of i--as flow 114.6 (in cm /min) or 12.6 m
T
a
T
a
T
a
T
a
T
a
T
a
52.5
6,3
52.5
5.9
" 52.5
6.1
52.5
6.4
52.5
6.1
57.0
9L1
Rate
Kcid absorption
107.6 I64o0
30.1 49.2
107.6 I64c0
28.8 48.6
107.6
29.4
107.6"
30.4
112.7
80.9
164.0
48.3
'- 170.0 -
58.7
221.0
61.8
221.0
61.4
223.0
93.7
229.0
97.0
171.0 230.0
95.4 ' 99.5
115.0 172.0 ' 230.0
99oO 101.0 101.5
Alkaline absorption
of gas flow 344 (in cm /min) or 37.8 m
! 5
/hour
285.0
71.9
288.0
81.6
292.0
96.4
- 293.0
98.2
293oO
99.5
293.0
101.5
/hour
Acid absorption
T
a
T
a
T
a
T
a
T " "
a
T
"d ;;"
17*5
4.1
17c5
3o6
17.5 -
3.9
17-5
4.2
•17-5
3.7
I8c8
' 81:6 '
--" 35.6 -
21.6
35.6
21.0
- ' 35.6
20.2
35.5-
- 37.5
73.5
-• 54.3 -
40.6
54.3
40.5
54.3
39.7
56.1
" '"-"-72.7 .::
53.6
72.7
53.3
74.8
71.8
75-7
87.5
56.8 - 76.2 .
88.1 94.8
38.1 57.3 76.5
-•- - --94.1.' ' ' ' 98.1 - .;• 100.3 '
Alkaline absorption
62.3
93.1
. 70.5
94.5
84.9
95.0
91.1
95.5
96.7
95.8
100.3
-20-
-------
Rate of gas flow 688 (in cm /min) or 75.6 m /hour
Acid absorption
T
a
T
a
T
a
T
a
T
a
T
a
8.72
0.00
8.72
0.00
8.72
0.00
8.72
0.00
8.72
0.00
9.35
72.90. .
17.52
7.10
17.52
7.10
17.52
6.80
17.52
6.70
18.40
62.10
19.00
9.3. OQ_
26.9
29.3
26.9
29.1
26.9 •
28.4
27.5
56.2
28.1
78.6
28.6
96.1
36.3
44.6
36.3
43.9
36.§
58.3
37.3--
72.8
37.8
86.4
38.3
98.2
46.8
54.1
47.2
58.0-
47.5
67.0
47.8
81.3
48.5
88.1
49.0
99.3
Alkaline absorption
B
Fig. *». Degree of nitrogen ox-
idea absorption' at different
•cid and alkaline 'abeorption
retiOB at gas volunc rates of
12.6 •Vhour. Tespereture 25°,
concentration of nitrogen oxide
' 10%, oxygen 9.5*.
A - Percent of Kb cor pt I on; B -
Nuober of abBarbara.
I - Range of alkaline absorp-
tion) II - Range of acid ab-
oorpti on.
too
Fig. 5. Degree of nitrogen ox-
idea abaorption at different
•cid and alkal ina .absorption
rattoa at gae voluca ratea of
37.8 e3/hour. Other rtetationa
aaee aa in Fig. H.
B
Fig. 6. Degree of nitrogen ox-
idea abaorption at different
acid and alkaline abaorption .
ratioa at gaa volume rate* of
75.6 «-*/hour. Other notation*
aaa* aa in Fig. U.
Data in Table 1 show that the degree of nitro-
gen oxides absorption was determined largely by the
time the gas remained in the absorption unit, which,
in its turn determined the degree of NO oxidation, and in particular by the
linear velocity of the gas, by virtue of its effect on the degree of nitrogen
oxides absorption. Thus, an increase in the time the gas remained in the ab-
sorber units from 47 to 285 seconds^and a consequent reduction in the linear
gas velocity to 1/6 of the initial»resulted in an increase in the total nitric
acid yield from 54.1 to 71.9$. This indicated that a comparison of the rates
of nitrogen oxides absorption, as a function of the ratios of acid to alkaline
-21-
-------
absorption, must "be made at identical linear velocities. Replacement of acid
absorption "by alkaline sharply increased the absorption rate of the (higher)
nitrogen oxides. Thus^ at volume velocity of 12.6 m /hour, or 114.6 ml/min,
the total degree of the (higher) nitrogen oxides absorption in a nitric acid
absorption unit amounted to 71*9*. Replacement of the 5th acid absorption
unit by an alkaline increased the degree of absorption of the (high) nitrogen
oxides to 81.6$. Replacement of the acid solutions in the 5*^ an(* 4th ab-
sorption units by alkaline solutions increased the absorption degree of the
(higher) nitrogen oxides to 96.4$. Similar replacement in the 5"th, 4th and
3rd absorber units increased the absorption degree to 98. 2£, and similar
replacement in the 5^, 4th, 3rd and second units raised the absorption to
99.5*. . . ' ' '
When alkaline absorbing solutions alone were used, 99* of the (higher)
nitrogen oxides were absorbed in as few as 2 absorber units, as compared with
only 30* in the case of acid absorber solutions. Approximately the same ratio
in the rates of acid and alkaline absorption was noted at other gas flow
velocities. The fact that the difference in the absorption rates of the
(higher) nitrogen oxides by acid and alkaline solutions increased sharply
with the change from low to higher concentrations of the higher oxides is of
" s.
great significance in the absorption of (higher) nitrogen oxides by nitric
acid solutions. The reaction. time in the region of the low degree of absorp-
tion Can be determined approximately by the equation:
where T is the time in seconds; d the degree of absorption of the (higher)
nitrogen oxides; a is the lag in the absorption of the (higher) nitrogen
oxides after their oxidation in seconds; and K is the reaction velocity
constant. In absorption of the (higher) nitrogen oxides by NaOH solutions
the reaction time at high absorption degree can.be determined, approximately
from the equation:
""" ---— ..... - :
Data in Table 2 present the values of a and K for acid and alkaline ab-
sorption. In addition, the numerical value of a depends on the gas and acid
concentration. These data can be used for the determination of the relative
rate of nitric oxide conversion "into nitric acid and alkaline nitrites.
-22-
-------
TABLE 2.
Values of a and K at 25° C and
110 m2/m^ of specific inflow offset
surface area.
Gas flow :
volume raue:
m-yhour :
12.6
37.8
75.6
Absorber
a in :
seconds :
'40.0
17.5
15.0
HNO,
K '
0.00533
0.01392
0.02730
Absorber
NaOH
K
0.0412
0.0778
0.1193
A direct study was made of the
effect of specific gravity of the
alkaline absorber solution on the
change in volume of the absorption
apparatus; the results showed that
70$ absorption of the higher nitrogen
oxides required 5 absorbers; whereas
the same degree of nitrogen oxides
absorption by alkaline solution was
attained with one-half the absorber
solution volume of one unit.
At greater linear gas velocitv such as prevailed under industrial condi-
tions, the absorption rate of the higher nitrogen oxides is controlled by the
oxidation rate of nitric oxide. The latter rises with the increase in the
nitric oxide and oxygen concentration and rapidly declines at low gas concen-
trations. Under such conditions the reaction velocity is determined by the
speed of the nitrogen oxides dissolution in the liquid, as can be seen from
equation (7).
The functional relationships between
the rates of nitric oxide oxidation and
the absorption of the oxides of nitrogen
by nitric acid and by alkaline solutions
are plotted in the form of curves in Fig. 7.
For efficient absorption of nitrogen
oxides by solutions of nitric acid, the
nitric oxide must be oxidized to. the point
at which the 1KL concentration exceeded
0 20 W 60 80 100120 WW180 200 ZW B
Fig. 7. Ratio of rates of nitrogen ox-
ide and nitrogen oxides oxidation in
" olkalino and nitric acid Solutions.
'A - Troatoent in Jj B - Tine in seconds.
142- Corresponding degree of acid and
~elk»lino oDcor^tion at-g*s flow volume
rate of 12.6 nVhour} 3 & *4 - Ditto at
37.8 n>3/houn 5 4 6 - Ditto at 75.6
en /hour; 7 - Nitrogen oxide oxidation to
nitrogen dioxide; curvo 7 was constructed
on tho booio of -he course of tri-
raolocular onidation of nitrogen oxide
in a mixture containing 10$ NO in _
9.5% of 02.
the N0p nitric acid balance concentration.
For 47-5$ concentration of the acid in
the first absorber unit the nitrous gas
containing 10/5 NO arid 9.5$ 0_~must be" " " ~"
oxidized to the extent of 55$• Therefore,
prior to the gas oxidation in the initial
stage the acid may be reduced by the nitric
-oxide; and. only .v/hen ..the acid will
-23-
-------
have been reduced to 55$ will the NOg absorption by the acid become active
again. The time required to reach such degree of nitric oxide oxidation is
.»
the factor which determines the delay in the absorption of the nitrogen ox-
*
ides (value a). This also explains the low decree of nitrogen oxides ab-
sorption in the first absorber unit.
In alkaline absorption, on the other hand, the formed nitrogen dioxide
is absorbed together with an equivalent amount of nitric oxide. This fact is
responsible for the sharp increase in the absorption rate of the nitrogen cx-
ides in an alkaline absorber.
In nitrogen oxides absorption by nitric acid solutions, the process is
controlled in the initial stage by the rate of nitric oxide oxidation and
later by the absorption rate of nitrogen oxides and at the end of the process,
again, by the rate of nitric oxide oxidation, as indicated by the curves
depicted in Pig. 7.
The data presented above show that under the same conditions the absorp-
tion rate of nitrogen oxides by alkaline solutions is many times greater than
absorption rate attained with nitric acid solutions.
The basic data produced by this study show that with an increase in the
rate of alkaline absorption of nitrogen oxides and a corresponding decrease
in the rate of acid absorption, the reaction volumes will be lower than those
plotted in Pigs. 1 and 2. •'
Conclusions.
1. The results of the study demonstrated that a functional relation-
• "ship existed between .the degree ,pf nitrogen oxides absorption and the increase
in the specific gravity of alkaline absorbers, accompanied by a corresponding
reduction in the degree of nitric-acid absorption.
2. The results also established that at the combined production of
nitric acid and sodium nitrate by the method of increasing the degree of
nitrogen oxides absorption by alkaline solutions, the reaction volume can be
- reduced considerably.
--•""..- " ". ~ - " ; " Bibliography". -.-- - -.-- -.--:- _ .
Ill B. A T pome H no. TexHoaorHa SBOTHOA KHCBOTM. FocsHiaHaflaT (1949).—
.|2) S. Ai pomeBKo. V*p. XHH. a. 3. 215 (1935) H 10. 444 (1937). — (3} B. A TOo-
meano, )KnX, 2, 167 (1939). —(4) B. ArpomefiKO. JKXFI, /, 26 (1938).—
J6] B. Aip omen HO. Tp. XapM. XTM, 5. 75(1945) H 6,29 (1946V -[6] A. W HBOT DI-
CK Hfi, XHMdpofl. 3, 158 (1935). —17] nepe Jib nan K Jl. KaHTOpOBv *. Km
-& 3 (1940)—181 B. ForHB H M. MHHHOBHI, XxMCTpoft. 9, 2470 (1983).—
Igi M. MHHHOBHI, JKXFV3, 108 (1937). —110) A. «C H B or OBC tt H ft. «Xn. 20,
- ~ ~ 1221(1936). — [11] & )KHBOTO.BCKHft, XHMcrpoft, 7, 380(1934).-{12)M. KpaieBCKHl
•aiJl.K«HTOpOBHi. >KXn. 2. 139 (1935).-{131 C. FlepejikiiaHH B. Crpaioaa.
3KXI1. W, 28 (1938).
-24-
-------
Bubbling Air Through Viscous fluid.
I. P. Levi and 0. B. Balandina.
(The Middle Asian Polytechnic Institute).
Zhurnal Prikladnoy Khiwii, Vol. 30, No. 5r 1029-1039, 1957.
Determination of pressure drop in the bubbling process is necessary for
the hydraulic calculation of reactivation columns, bubole towers, bubble ab-
sorbers, gas purification scrubbers, distilling columns and other similar
apparatuses in the chemical and food industry. Hydrodynamics of bubble ap-
paratuses was studied by St£..bnikov C^> 2], RcU-iu [3], Zhavoronkov and Furmer
C4]> Usyukin and Axelrod C5]> Axelrod and Dil'man £6"- 9], Pozin, liukhlenov,
Tumarkina and Tarat [10], Aerov and Darovskikh [ll] and others, ibcperiments
of the above authors were conducted in relation to operation of bubble towers
or foam apparatuses with height of fluid layer often not exceeding 5 cm. The
following bubble systems were used: water-steam [1, 2], low-concentration
salt solutions-air £3.0], water-air [10, 7], ethyl "alcohol-air [7],- water —
nitrogen [9J» liquid air-air [53 > organic solvents-air [93 and other systems
of low viscosity in liquid phase. Because of the low liquid phase viscosity
due consideration was not given to viscosity effect on pressure drop in the
bubbling process, and many authors entirely disregarded viscosity in making
hydrodynamic calculations of bubbling processes. There are practically no
data on bubbling through thick viscous fluid layers.
In this paper_ results are presented of a btudy of air bubbling through
an aqueous glycerine solution layer of 1 to 80 centipoises viscosity and 0.3
to 70 cm thick, using a laboratory column; equations were derived for the
calculation of pressure drop developed in the process of bubbling at given
fluid viscosities. Glycerine solution was chosen for these experiments
because changes in viscosity occurring in this liquid phase within wide liudts
had a negligible effect on surface tension and specific gravity of the fluid
"The course of the .process'. ' At high rate gas feeding into the bubbler,
placed deep below the surface of the liquid phase, an emulsion is fojmed by
the rising gas bubbles, which accumulate over the bubbler. Under such cir-
cumstances the hydraulic resistance which the gas layer has to overcome
depends upon the hydrostatic pressure of the emulsion column and the hydro-
- -25-
-------
dynamic resistances created during the gas passing through the liquid phase
layer. The hydrostatic pressure is determined by the specific gravity of the
emulsion, which depends upon the degree of liquid saturation with the gas.
Saturation of the liquid with the gas reduces the specific gravity of the
emulsion and thereby decreases its hydrostatic pressure. But, an increase
in the saturation requires an increase in the gas supply rate, which, in turn,
creates increased hydrodynamic resistance. Thus, in the process of bubbling
hydrostatic pressure and hydrodynamic resistance act as functions of one
another: increase in hydrostatic pressure automatically leads to a decrease
in hydrodynamic resistance. Both factors act as functions of the fluid vis-
cosity \i, in kg/sec/m , and of the gas quantity supplied V, in m /sec, pro-
vided the thickness or height of fluid layer H in m, the fluid's specific
gravity y^ in kg/m , specific gravity of gas Y in kg/m , the diameter of
the bubbling column D in m, the diameter of the bubbler d in m, the fluid
volume in the column V-^ in m and the surface tension a in kg/m remained
constant .
A study of viscosity effect on the bubbling process at constant rate of
gas supply established that an increase in fluid viscosity increased hydro-
dynamic resistances, decreased. specific gravity of the gas emulsion and changed
the course of the bubbling process. Change in viscosity automatically results
from an increase in the hydrodynamic resistance, as can be seen from the fol-
lowing equation:
- _ —
where APg denotes" hydrodynamic resistance in kg/m , X denotes the friction
coefficient, 1 the distance of gas movement in m, d the bubble or gas jet
diameter in m, w the rate of the gas flow in m/sec, g. gravity acceleration
p
in in/sec . It is. known that X •=
-------
V- 'n
'
n 7~ ' d3~n ' (p - p) • g
b (2)
\vhere d stands for the "bubble diameter in m, p1 and p for the densities of
the fluid and gas in kg/sec2/ra , K and n are coefficients related to the rate
9
of bubble movement, v is the coefficient of kinematic viscosity in m /sec.
For the transitory stage and with Re = 25 to 350, according to Zrelov's
data [12], K = 10 * n/8 = 3.92, n = 1.5. Under such conditions equation (2)
assumes the following form:
' d1'5 ' (p - p) • g
Vs -
6-' 3.92 • vu° • p
On the basis of experimental data of previous investigators presented
by Ramm £3], the speed of rising gas bubbles d > 6 mm increases only slightly
\vith increase in the diameter and constitutes about 0.25 m/sec. Consequently,
with a certain approximation allowance, it can be accepted that w = const.
It was previously shown that o, = const, and p = const.; accordingly:
d = K ' 3A (4)
where K is a numerical coefficient of all the constant values: n, p., p, g
and others. For different diameters d, , d_ and different viscosities ji,, [i?
use can be made of the following equations:
. (5)
(6)
It was previously indicated that K, = Kg, hence:
Assuming that d = 1 cm and^u;- = 1 centipois, determinations -can- be made of
o .. .. J- j_- -..._.- ----- _ ..y . -------- _ .....
bubble diameters at n? = 10 centipoises, n, = 20 centipoises, etc. The -sizes
of gas bubbles, in relation to viscosity, calculated in accordance with
generalization (?) are presented below:
Viscosity in centipoises I 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Diameter of bubble - 1 2>l6 2>?2 3al 3>43 ^^ ^^ 4^
vin cmj _ — _^_________
.-27-
-------
Reynolds criterion in the case of "bubble movement of above values is >vithin
the limits of 150 - 250, which corresponds to stage III of the transitional
movement course.
The above calculation is only approximate since single bubble movement
does not exist even when gas is bubbled through fluid phases of very high
viscosity. However, this calculation demonstrates the increase in the bubble
diameter with increase in fluid viscosity, which can be clearly observed during
the tests; this actual increase in the size of bubbles is greater than indicated
by the values obtained according to equation (7).
Changes in the bubbling system created by increase in viscosity lead to
loss in kinetic energy of the gas jet in overcoming the increased hydrodynaudc
resistance. The general picture of changes appears as follows: ,in the initial
low viscous fluid a stream-like movement of gas is formed in the shape of a
clearly defined torch as shown in Pig. 1. The hydrodynamic resistance in the
case under consideration depends on the fluid viscosity; therefore, with the
increase of the latter,the rate of gas flow diminishes correspondingly while
its incoming volume remains constant; as a result?the cross section of the
torch-like or funnel-shaped gas stream increases, simultaneously minor indi-
vidual jets of the torch flow together and the torch-like formation begins to
break up into gas bubbles.
V/ith the increase in- the fluid viscosity the torch-like jet gradually
disintegrates and?at sufficiently high viscosity-it completely disappears,
transforming into large bubbles (Fig.
2). Consequently, as the fluid vis-
cosity increases the system of the bub-
bling process must become transformed
from the stream-to the bubble system.
This was substantiated by our .experi-
ments.
Charige"ih"the rate of"gas inflow- - -.
causes changes in hydrodynamic resistance,
in specific gravity of the gai™emulsion
and in the performance of the bubble
system. Specific gravity of the emulsion
is determined by the degree of fluid
.1 I Gas
Pig. 1. Gas
bubbling-through
low viscosity
fluid.
Pig. 2. Gas
bubbling through
high viscosity
fluid.
-28-
-------
saturation with gas, nhich increases with the increase in. rate of gas inflow.
The increase of hydrodynamic resistance depends upon the increase in the rate
of the gas flow in the medium. At constant viscosity the bubbling process
changes from a continuous stream into.a succession of bubbles as the gas
supply decreases, and vice versa. Hence, a change in the rate of gas inflow
must noticeably affect the hydrodynamic system of the bubbling process.
The suggested bubbling system characteristically presents 2 extreme
possibilities: bubbling through a low-viscosity fluid with a clearly defined
torch-like gas jet, and bubbling through a high-viscosity fluid with an almost
completely disintegrated jet and the formation' of single large gas bubbles.
It follows from the aforesaid that an increase in the fluid viscosity created
the following paradoxical conditions: an increase in the hydraulic resistance
as the gas flows through the fluid phase, and a decrease in the hydrostatic
pressure of the gas emulsion column over the bubbler due to the lowered specific
gravity of the emulsion. Depending upon the prevalence of one or the other of
these factors, the total hydraulic resistance in the process of bubbling, with
viscosity rising, may increase or decrease. The effect of viscosity becomes
more pronounced as the height or thickness of the fluid layer increases, which
is a consequence of the very nature of such forces, since their absolute value
increases with the increase in the surface and the path of their action.
<7ith low height (thickness) of the fluid layers the viscosity effect will
be considerable.
The proposed bubbling system points to some means of deriving equations
for the calculation of hydraulic resistance of bubbling apparatuses." The fol-
lowing is offered as a general equation:
AP = Ap, + Ap? + Ap, (8)
------ -„.— • __ A. w _ J
- - ." . .. .
where £p is the hydraulic resistance of a bubbling installation in kg/m ,
P
Ap.. hydraulic resistance of the bubbler screen in kg/m , £p9 resistance re-
•!•..- .... - o ^
suiting from the forces of surface tension in kg/m , Ap-j resistance of the
fluid layer in kg/m .
The value of ^p. is determined with the aid"" of~ the usual equation for the -
calculation of different types of partial resistance ["10, 13].
The nature of surface tension forces in relation to the systems under
study gives rise to the following equation:
" ~~~ AP2 =
-------
where o is surface tension in kg/in, n wet screen perimeter in m.
Evaluating the functional interrelations in equation (9) and with the
aid of the theory of differential values the following equation is derived:
AP2 - A * f (10)
where A is dimensionless coefficient.
Equation (10) has been verified by many authors £6, 10].
The value of Ap-> can b« derived from the following equations
AP3 - H ' yfl ' (k+ c) (11)
where k is a dimensionless coefficient which takes into account the effect of
viscosity on hydrodynanic resistance of the medium layer, c is a dimension-
less value, Ehich takes into account ths effect of fluid saturation with gas.
Other values remaining constant, fluid saturation with gas will depend
'on the gas volume passing through the fluid layer.
In this study the volume of gas (n) bubbled through the fluid ?hase is
derived with the aid of the following equationt ' ~ - - - -
n . ^±- I880 v m J (12)
sac
where V... ia tha volusa* of fluid passing over tha area of the bubbler screen F.
In the prosearfc stud^ i;t can be aasuraad that.i
V^ - H * P (13)
- ... .:_--,-/.,._:. . (W)
n is th© quantity of gas bubbled through the fluid phase, n_ is the initial
gas voluaa, B is the proportionality coefficient, k, is the experimental co-
efficient.
In detexssining th« valuo of coefficient k the fact should be taken into
consideration that in the babbling process the eff©et of viscosity on value
&P^ is imrariafely ooameotod diroctly with tha amount of'gas (n) bubbled through
the fluid phaM.
fha fuEOtioaal r©laticmeMp of the basic physical principle of the process
of bubbling caa bo ®ipffosicet by the following equations
k . *(n, v, g, D, d)
where v is the coefficient of the kinematic fluid viscosity in m /sec.
-30-
-------
If the functional relations of (15) are expressed in the form of an ex-
perimental equation:
k - A ' na * J ' g° ' De * dm (16)
and the differential values are substituted as shown below:
n r«««na M I I M I run6 • rvim fTr\
0 - Lsec] . —I . ~2 • W W W>
then it will follow that: _
0 - seca ' b - 2c ' M2* * C * e * « (18)
Assume that e •» 0 and m - 0. Then a * 3/2 c; b - -c/2. For the determination
of the interrelation between e and m, assume that a « Of b • Oj c » 0, in
which case e « -m. As a result.the following is derived:
A *
v°-5
introducing into the calculation the following m value:
. , V
m---~- I-^J
sec
n ~ V Lsec.
'fl
and designating it as the specific rate of gas inflow, then equation (19) will-
become as follows:
A • r^s* o.s\° • &? (2°)
vdy
• ^0-5
. Re
O
Y
where -- • — — : — . _ « . _ - •_ _ • Re
Re the dimensionless value, will be designated as the Reynolds bubbling
criterion. D/d *• G is the criterion of geometric similtude. To prove that
Re by the nature of physical values inherent to it- is analagous to Ref m must
Q) "J
be evaluated as shown below:
~-'-- Vsec *x ' F *
where w is the rate of gas movement over the entire surface area of the
e
bubbler screen in m/sec. Substituting the derived value of m the following
is obtained:
ff ' H1*5
-31-
-------
A comparison of Re value with the usual Re = w ' 1/r, where 1 is the length
of the flow stream to "be determined, discloses that H is the determining
dimensional factor in the bubbling process. and that the appearance of g is
predetermined "by the presence of a free rise of &as "bubbles. Hence, Re is
to a degree analagous to Re.
Substituting in equation (ll) the determined values for K and c and with
the aid of some simple conversions, the following equation can be derived:
A ' (Be)' ' G * B ' (23)
where AP^/H * Yfi = E is a dimensionless value characteristic 'of hydrodynaudc
turbulence in bubbling processes.
Finally, the following criterion type of equation is derived:
......... • j£
E . A ' ReC ' Ge + B ' (— >\ * (24)
O \&Q/
which holds true in cases where an increase in fluid viscosity lowers the
hydraulic resistance of layer &p^.
Next, an equation is derived for cases where an increase in fluid vis-
cosity increases the hydraulic resistance in the course of gas bubbling. In
this connection it should be noted that b = -c/2, a = 3/2 c, and hence, c =
-2b, a = -3b.
Substituting the determined coefficients in equation (16) the following
equation is obtained:
p
In equation (25) r " mJ/g = I/Re a. Consequently, the general form of
equation (ll) becomes:
.-2 No . rte . ,, . i u_\ A /2£\
Equation (26) .holds.true in cases where.the increase in fluid viscosity
increases the hydraulic resistance, of the_layer during the bubbling process.
Experimental part. The experimental part of the work was intended for
the clarification of the basic principles underlying the physical picture of
the bubbling process, and to check the derived equations.
-32-
-------
Pig. 3. Scheme of the bubblin^ apparatus.
Air was bubbled through a
layer, of glycerine in glass
cylinder (l) 6 cm in diameter
and 110 cm high (Fig. 3). The
air was forced into the cylinder
by a rotating blower (2) through
a buffer vessel (3), provided
with a valve (4) for air supply
regulation. ?roni the buffer
vessel (3) the air passed into
the gas meter (5), :-nd from there
into another buffer vessel (6), through a flat screen (7), of the bubbler, and
into the layer of fluid. Hydraulic resistance 4p of the bubbling installation
was registered manometrically (8).
The bubbler screen was made of a nickel plate-2.1 cm in diameter and 0.14
cm thick. Nineteen apertures 0.13 cm in diameter were distributed concentri-
cally. The tests were conducted with glycerine of 100,, 90, 80, 60, 40 and 2C&
by volume having the following corresponding viscosities: 80, 30, 10, 5> 2.5>
1.7 centipoises; pure water and aqueous hyposulfite solutions were used as the
diluents. The height (thickness) of the fluid layer in the bubbler was of the
following range: 0.3, 5> 15> 20, 50 and 70 cm. Rate of air flow through the
apertures of the bubbler screen was w = 2 to 16 m/sec. The glycerine sp. gr,
.was.determined pycnometrically. Solution viscosity was determined by the
Ostval'd viscbsimeter. Surface tension of glycerine solutions a was deter— •
rained by measuring the maximum pressure at the bubbles' breaking point in
Rebinder's apparatus; the data are presented below:
Concentration of glycerine ~~~~
solutions (in volume %} . •*
Surface tension (dyn/cm) 73.05 70.50 68.91 68.01 67.41 69.32 7P.03
Experiments were conducted in the following order: hydraulic resistance
of the.bubbler with a moist screen was determined first, then the resistance --
of the fluid layers of 0.3 cm - 5.10 cm and up to maximum 70 cm>tliickness was
established. Resistance of different layer heights JKSS determined for solu-
tions of same viscosity at air flow rates of 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14 and 16
m/sec. A series of experiments were conducted thereafter with glycerine of
higher~coricentration." ; • . — . - -- —--
-33-
-------
1600
ItOO
_Fij. »J. Total nydraulic
ro»istance (pressure drop)
of the bubbling cet-up in
relation to glycerine ao-
lution viscosity at • -
10 «/»ec.
A - Hydraulic resistance
(pressure drop) delta p in
on tater; B - Glycerine
solution viscosity ou in
cent! poises.
Layer thickness of bub-
bling fluid In cms I - 70|
2 - SO| 3 - 20; l» - 15}
. 5 - 5| 6 - 0.3.
Pressure drop curves were constructed with the
aid of the experimental data throughout the entire
bubbling installation (Ap) in relation to different
viscosities. Some of the curves .are presented in
Fig. 4; curves indicating changes in hydraulic re-
sistance of the fluid layers of different thickness
during the bubbling process (&p^) in relation to air
flow rate over the bubbler screen (w) are presented
in Figs. 5 and 6. Computed values of hydraulic re-
sistance of the fluid layer Ap->» are presented in
Tables 1 and 2. •
To facilitate the calculations, equation (24)
was converted to the following form:
kc
IS Tfl
A ' H • Y., * V-^r-z £s-p-J -r B
rfl
(27)
where m,
10
1 m /sec/m . Experimental values of coef-
ficients for equation (27) weret A « 0.1, B
c t. 0.25, k = 0.5.
Equation (26) was converted intot
1.2,
H
rfl
(28)
• where-the values of the. experimental coefficients were* A, = 2.30, b = 1/8,
Bj^ = 0.3, ^ = 1/3. -
Discussion of experimental results. The picture of the bubbling process
appeared as follows! the air passed unevenly through the screen mesh; it failed
to pass through some apertures and passed as a pulsating stream through others.
The pattern of operating apertures of the bubbler screen continually changed,
• pointing to a mode of chance operation. The character of the bubbling process
with a constant air supply depended on the fluid viscosity. With fluid vis-
cosity of 1 - 10 centipoises and an adequate air supply the gas penetrated the
fluid thickness as a churning turbulent stream; its further movement was of a
whirling type and in the upper section of the bubbling column a layer of foam
was formed. In reducing the rate of gas flow through the fluid of same vis-
cosity the spiral type of movement was more clearly outlined and its span in-
creased.
-------
TABLE 1.
Hydraulic resistance rates of a fluid layer of viscosity |i = 1 - 10 centi-
poises, computed with the aid of eguation (28) and obtained experimentally
(At \i = 1 centipoise y»- =» 1000 kg/nr'; at \n = 10 centipoises YJVI ™ 1200
•
u in i
centi-l * ln
poises Im/sec
e :
1
1
1
10
10
10
1
1
1
10
10
10
1
1
1
10
10
10
1
1
10
10
-1
4.0
6.0
10.0
4.0
6.0
10.0
4.0
8.0
12.0
4.0
-8.0
12.0
4.0
6.0
12.0
4.0
6.0
12.0
4.0
8.0
4.0
8.0
8.1
i
i E in
.
0.70
0.70
0.70
0.70
0.70
0.70
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.04
: ;
: m in
jl/seo
0.40
0.62
1.04
0.42
0.62
1.04
0.59
1.18
1.77
0.59
1.18
» 1.77
1.45
2.20
4.40
1.45
2.20
4.40
5-90
11.30
5.90
11.80
37.50
Re
o
t
36,500
19,850
9,250
12,700
6,870
3,220
21,100
7,670
4,240
7,340
2,660
'1,450
5,560
3,020
1,070
1,940.
1,040
368
687
242
236
84
42
: : :Experi-:Rela- :
B -0.251 0.33 |AP3 "imental 1 tive !
Re « « ->•» *i / & .. . • »
o • 0.33 :kg/m ;&P3 in terror t
lm ! I kg/m2 : in % :
0.073
0.084
0.104
0.093
0.110
0.134
0.082
0.108
0.123
0.108
0:139
0.164
0.116
0.135
0.175
0.151
0.176
0.228
0.127
0.260
0.254
0.329
0.390
0.40
0.35
0.29
0.40
0.96
0.29
0.36
0.28
0.25
0.25
0.36
0.28
0.26
0.23
0.18
0.26
0.23
.0.18
0.17
0.13
0.17
0.13
0.09
760
695
640
950
890
795
505
449
426
426
645
584
174
168
164-
229
225
220
45
45
58
64
44
690
680
620
840
860
870
500
520
455
455
610
600
180
190
170
230
240
1 210
58
50
75
70
40
+11.0
+ 1.0
+ 3.0
+13.0
+ 4.0
- 7.0
+ 0.5
-14.0
- 6.0
- 6.0
+ 7.0
- 3.0
- 3.0
-11.0
- 3.0
- 0.5
- 6.0
+ 8.0
-12.0
-10.0
-22.0
- 9.0
+10.0
£
0.98
0.98
0.89
1.00
1.02
1.04
1.00
1.04
.0.91
0.91
1.02
1.00
0.90
0.95
0.85
0.96
1.00
0.87
1.15"
1.00
1.25
1.17
1.10
In case of"high-viscosity fluids with n = 60 to 80 centipoises the stream-
like flow of the gas was disrupted at the surface of gas; outflow, the minor
*
flow streams combined forming large bubbles, the size of which increased with '
viscosity rise, and at nwyimm values reached 6 cm in diameter and more.
Thus, even the observed picture of the bubbling process (Figs. 1 and 2)
brought into evidence the considerable ,j>.tfeet ..which viscosity had on the proc-
ess-under study, since changes in other values, such as surface tension (o)
and fluid specific gravity (Y^T) were of insignificant magnitudes.
Th© quantitative effect of viscosity on hydraulic resistance during the
bubbling process is shown in Pig. 4, where curves Ap - (i manifest a clear
maximum with [i » 5 *° 10 centipoises. This maximum is noticeable in a very
-35-
-------
TABLE 2.
Hydraulic resistance rates of a fluid layer of viscosity ^ <=• 10 - 70 centi-
poises, computed with the aid of equation (27) and obtained experimentally.
H in
centi-
poises
w in
m/sec
H in
m
m in
I/sec
Re
a
: : tExperi-
Re °-25il.2m0-5i^3/n j»«rtal
o j ] kg/m2 |&p3 in
: : : : kg/m
Rela-
tive
error
in %
70
.70
70
10
10
10
70
70
70
70
10
10
10
10
70
70
7Ql/
10
10
10 .
7Qi/
7Ql/
7Ql/
--101/
•lOl/
IQl/
4
6
10
4
6
8
4
8
10
12
4
8
10
. 12
4
6
'12
4
6
12
4
8
12
4
8
12
0.70
0.70
0.70
0.70
0.70
0.70
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
..0.50
0.50
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05-
0.05
0.05
0.42
0.62
1.04
0.42
0.62
0.93
0.59
1.18
1.45
1.77
0.59
1.18
1.45
1.77
1.45
2.20
4.40
1.45
2.20
4.40
5.90
11.80
17.70
5.90
11.80
17.70
4,920
2,640
1,230
12,710
6,870
3,820
2,720
1,020
750
560
7,350
2,660
1,940
1,520
750
402
141
1,940
1,040
370
91
32
18
240
"~ 84
46
8.37
7.20
5-92
10.62
9.10
7.86
7.21
5.65
5.21
4.87
9.30
7.20
6.65
6.25
5.21
4.50
3.41
6.61
5-70
4.40
4.50
3.18
2.62
6.21 -
4.37
3.60
0.77
0.84
1.21
0.77
0.95
1.16
0.93
1.32
1.45
1.59
0.93
1.32
1.45
1.59
1.44
1.78
2.52
1.44
1.78
2.53
1.55
1.85
2.06
-- 1.55- -
' "1.85" ~
2.06
792
700
624
965 .
887
760
510
435
415
403
611
516
490
474
166
159
148
193
179
166
37
31
28
46
37
33
740
710
580
840
860
860
490
400
360
340
610
600
540
540
140
160
110
220
210
195
30
30
22
70
50
25
+ 7
- 1
+ 8
+15
+ 1
-12
+ 4
+ 9
+15
+17
0
-14
- 9
-13
+18
- 6
+34
-12
-15
-15
+23
+ 3
+28
-33
-26
+31
—' Calculations were made on the basis of A = 0.1, B = 1.0, k, » 0.25, o = 0.33.
deep layer; it almost disappears in layers of 5 cm and less in depth. Effect
of viscosity is particularly noticeable in Figs. 5 and. 6, which show that this
effect is inore clearly outlined with the increase in the depth~of~the fluid
layer. Increase in viscosity from 1 to 10 centipoises caused an increase in
hydraulic resistance of the layer (ApO 1.2 to 1.3 times (Fig. 5). Further vis-
cosity increase from 10 to 70 and 80 centipoises reduced the hydraulic resis-
tance 1.3 to 1.5 times (Fig. 6). In case of viscosity \i » 60 to 70 centipoises,
•
the value of &p, is considerably lower than the hydrostatic pressure of the
pure liquid column. - . -
-36-
-------
900
&0
*00
ft
Fig. 5. Hydraulic resistance
(precoure drop) of glycerine so-
lution of I - 10 centipoises vis-
coeity in relation to rate of air
passing through screen opening*.
A -Hydraulic resistance delta PJ
in em nsier) 6 - Plots of air flow
through soreen openings • in a/sec.
Thickness of fluid layer In cm I -
701 II - SO) Ml -20; IV - 5;
Glycerine solution viscosity in
centipoisest I - Ij 2 - 2.5; 3 -
5| >» - 10.
ISO
* 8 tt
Fig. 6. Hydraulic resistance
(pressure drop) of glycerine l«yer
of viscosity nu - 10-70 eon ti poises
in relation to rate of sir placing
through scr««n opening*.
A - Hydraulic resistance of fluid
layer in v» «ater| B - Re.** of sir
flow through screen opening* • »n
D/sec. Thidwes" of flvid ley or N
in c»< I - 70| II - 50; III - 20|
IV -5. Glycerine solution vSo-
cool ty in centipoises* I - 10$ 2 -
30| 3 - 50» 1 - 70.
Such, phenomena in
the viscous medium can
be explained by high
gas saturation of the
fluid whi^i leasers the
system's sp. gsr. which
iri turn cootsjolled the
hjrdxodjFasjnio j?esistanoe
in the layer. In low
viscosity solutions,
where ji o 1 to 10 c®ati-
pois©8 affid ^to fluid
siatusaticai with gas is
Icraer, the h^dsodysiaiaio
resistance of the sys-
tem prevails; in such
cases the
resistance was deter—
mimed ty the larger
of the .
gas etseam which
increases the hydraulic resistance (pressure drop) in the layer (fcPj) as vie*-
c^osity rise's.""" ~~" " " "-— " • - -
" Comparison of values calculated according to equation (28) with experi-
mental &P3 values, indicated (Table l) that in case of glycerine solutions with
1 to 10 centipoise viscosity, the calculated values of &>3 produced deviation
from experimental data within ±15$. In most cases such de 5 cm did not exceed ±756. In oases of fluid layer depth
H < 5 cm and specific air flow rate m > 6," the relative eineoa? in oalcalations
increa8ed_oonsidejrably. At the same time the processing, of. Pos&aBa [10]
mental data, where m - 25 to 100 with H - 1 to 5 cm, iBdicatsd that the &
values calculated according to equation (28) produced deviations of 10 to
from the experimental data. Thus, equation (28) can be used in tto calcular-
tion of &P3 within wide limits.
Comparison of calculated flpj values for glycerine solutions with p - 10 -
70 oentipoiees indicated (Table 2) tbat the relative error in using foasmila (27)
-37-
-------
was within ±15$ limit. Here the relative errors were determined for solutions
with }i = 20 to 70 centipoises and H = 15 to 70 cm. Deviations from experi-
mental data increased noticeably with the decrease in viscosity to p a 10
centipoises. Greater deviations of calculated and experimental Ap-j values
were observed with Re < 400, enabling to draw preliminary conclusion regard-
ing change in the bubbling system having Re values previously mentioned. More
accurate checking of experimental and calculated Ap, were obtained for this new
system with coefficients values in formula (27) of A = 0.1, B = 0.1, K = 0.25,
c = 0.33. However, here also, with small absolute deviations in the value of
the AP-, the relative error was within ±30$ limit, which may have been due to
the determining effect of the criterion of geometric sitailitude. In most cases
the effect of the criterion of geometric similitude is not great, which we con-
firmed in particular by Axelrod's £93 conclusions emphasizing a lack of notice-
able absorber geometric dimensions effect on bubbling hydrodynamics.
Consideration must be given to the fact that with H < 5 "to 10 cm layer
and extensive gas flow, the effect of foam on hydraulic resistance in the proc-
ess of bubbling begins to be noticeable; the resistance of the latter must be
ascribed to the surface tension a of the foam. Under conditions mentioned, i.e.,
in the presence of a relatively high resistance of foam proper, as shown by
Aselrod C9l» it may be necessary to introduce the n/o ratio into the equation
in calculating the value of Ap,. For layers of H > 10 cm, as indicated by-
previous calculations and experimental data, the effect of a may be ignored,
particularly since it- is taken .into, account as &p~ in determining total hydraulic
*"* • £*•*—• - • _
resistance (pressure drop) of the bubbling installation; derived.equations (27)
and (28) are suitable for such calculations.
Conclusions.
1. A bubbling through a fluid system is suggested with, n « 1 to 80 centi-
poises viscosity and layer height of H > 10 cm. It was -demonstrated that vis-
cosity was one of the most important factors affecting hydrodynamics of bubbling,
"particularly in ^sufficiently" deep" "layer.-"—- - ------ --=. .--....- -rYv" - /-'... . . .. ;..
2. Based on the theory of differential values and of empirical functional
interdependence an equation was derived for the determination of hydraulic resis-
tance in a bubbling system.
3. Experimental results demonstrated that the functional pictures of bubbling
through low-viscosity and high-viscosity fluids differed greatly. Hydraulic re-
-38-
-------
sistance of fluid layers (AP^) of different viscosities and specific air flows
were also determined. ' . ; . .
4* Experimental and computed fip^ values were compared. Results indicated
that computed values coincided satisfactorily with the conditions of the ex-
periments at H > 10 - 15 cm and with experimental results of other investigators.
Calculation error in most cases did not exceed ±l-5£«
Bibliography.
[11 B. H. C T a 6 H B K o B, Tp. BopoaewcKoro xmgHKo-rexH. HHCT., 3—4 (1939). —
(2J B. H. C T fi 6 B E K o B, XBM. KamBHOCTpoeBHo. 1, 6 (1938). — |3] B. M. P » M M.
AGcopSanoanue npoaeccu B xHMircecKOH npotninuieaBocm. M.—JI. (1951). — 14]
H.&L)KaBOpoHROB, H. 3. y p M e p, Kn«iopon. 5(1947). — |5J H. fl- V e »-
RHH, AReent-pon JI. C., KucJiopofl. 1 (1952). — |6J JI. C. AKceabpon,
B. B. # nausea, Kawiopofl, 6 (1952); / (1954).'— (7) JI. C.
(1955). — 1111 M. 3. AepoB, E. O. fl a p o B c K H x, XHM. npon., * <1957).—
|12] H. II. 3 pen OB, Tp. rajipaBJin-iecKOH ^atopatopHH BOflFEO. 4t M. (1955).—
|13J A. F. KacaiKHa. OCHOBIIUC npoi^eccu H annapaTU XHMIIMCCKOB TCXRoJiorun.
M. (1955). .
Effect of Hydrodynamic Conditions on Rate of Nitrogen Oxides Absorption by
Ca(OH) Solution, with the Aid of a Mechanical Absorber under
Semi-Industrial Conditions.
: -. . : . (Communication I). -
S. K. Ganz.
(Dnepropetrovsk Chemical Technological Institute).
Zhurnal Prikladnoi Khimii, Vol. 30, No. 9, 1311-1320, 1957.
The effect of hydrodynamic conditions .on the rate of nitrogen oxides ab-
sorption by a solution of Ca(OH)2 was studied with the aid of a rapidly rotat-
ing mechanical' absorber under semi-industrial conditions, using, industrial gas
from a nitric acid shop. —' Similar laboratory investigations were made at an
—'' The study was made with the active cooperation of B. 0. Ovcharenko, M. A.
Petrichenko and Yu. V. Yastrebov. M. A. Lokshin, S. B. Leibovich, A. S.
Kaigorodova and 0. V. Avilov participated in this work.
-39-
-------
earlier date £l]. The boricontal mechanical absorber of the semi-industrial
installation was 1.54 m long and 0.88 m in diameter. The absorber equalled
1m. A shaft with 4 attached perforated discs extended from end to end. Each
disc laad 14 paddles bent toward one another. The discs were attached to the
shaft so that their concave sides faced each other. Rapid rotation of the
shaft and of the attached discs created heavy foam layer and spray curtain.
Hitrous gas coming from & contact apparatus was cooled to 60 - 70 in a gas
cooling chamber} it then entered pipe 1 and was driven by fan 2 into absorber
3. The collector was equipped with a valve through which air was sucked into
the absorber. Such an arrangement made it possible to uix the gas with any
desired nitrogen oxides concentration.
The amount of gas entering the system was governed by a control gas valve
in pipe 1 located between the pipe and the contact apparatus. Precise ad-
justments could be made by a control sliding gas valve installed on a by-pass
pipe above fan 2. The amount of entering gas was determined by a membrane
manometer 4»
From the absorber the gas passed through separator 5> where it was freed
of liquid droplets} it was then discharged into the atmosphere through conduit
6. The Ca(QH)9 solution was prepared in a tank equipped with a mixer 7*
the talk the solution was measured out into a small circulating tank 8, into
/ Nitrous gas
Fig. 1. Plan of the semi-industrial installation. (Description in text),
-40-
-------
which were fed the alkalinized nitrite-nitrate solutions circulating through
the system. Each addition of Ca(OH)2 solution was.followed by the removal of
an equal volume of the alkaline, nitrite-nitrate solution,. The solution was
taken from tank 8 "by means of centrifugal pump 9 and fed into the absorber
from above. Whenever the solution in the absorber rose to 1/4 of its diameter,
it automatically drained back into tank 8 through level controlling flow pipe
10. The total volume of the liquid circulating in the system was 5 m • Samples
of gas to be analyzed were taken directly at the absorber outflow at points 11
and 12. Samples of liquid to be analyzed were taken at points 13 and 14, and
the pressure was measured in front and in back of the apparatus; it was recorded
by. manometers 15 and 16. Power consumption was determined by a control amp-
ermeter and voltmeter installed on panel 17.
Experimental part. The investigations made with the semi-industrial in-
stallation were conducted in 2 stages: l) a study of the effects of the sys-
tem's hydrodynamic, physical and chemical factors on the absorption rate; during
this study the installation was operating periodically for time intervals deter-
mined by the requirements of each test; the phases investigated were: the ef-
fect of the peripheral speed of the discs, the volume rate of gas flow, the
quantity of liquid in the absorber, the CaO and nitrite-nitrate salt concen-
trations in the solution, the degree of gas oxidation, etc.; 2) during the
second stage, the installation operated continually under one set of conditions,
selected on the basis of results obtained during the first stage of the in-»
vestigation; results of the second stage indicated that the process of nitrogen
• oxides absorption had to be based on a rationally (empirically) developed and
controlled technological procedure. The first study stage extended over ccore
than 1-1/2 months, and the second over more than 2-1/2 months. More than
3,000 analyses of the gaseous and liquid phases were made, which yielded suf-
ficent experimental data for the determination of optimal technological condi-
tions.
Effect of peripheral disc speed. Results of previous studies £1] showed"
that peripheral disc speed was a basic hydrodynamic factor which determined
the rate of the process. This factor was studied using the semi-industrial in-
stallation as follows: CaO concentration in the solution varied between 70 to
80 g/li, and the concentration of the nitrite-nitrate salts between 10 to 20
g/li, the volume rate of gas flow 400 m of gas per m of the absorber solution
per hour; the concentration of NO~+ N0_ in the"gas varied from 0.14$ to 4$> and
-41-
-------
SO
70
the degree of NO oxidation from 65 to 75$» depending upon the concentration of
nitrogen oxides and oxygen in the gas and upon the temperature. The following
peripheral disc speeds were tested: 14 - 15> 22-23, and 2? - 28 m/sec.
Changes in the peripheral disc speeds were attained by shifting interlocking
gears and motor pulleys. Power was transmitted by V-shaped belts.
Averages of experimental results are presented in Table 1; plots of the
data in the form of curves are shown in Pig. 2.
j • Under production conditions NO +
NOp concentrations in the gas are fre-
quently of a close range, as is the case,
for instance, in curve 1 for 0.14 -
0.3$ and in curve 2 for 0.6 - 0.8$, etc.
Corresponding data in Table 1 represent
averages of such close concentrations
along with the computed rates of ab-
sorption, the motive force and absorp-
tion coefficients. Deviations of in-
dividual points followed no regular
patterns, and it appeared as though
these deviations were the results of
some variations in the NO + NOp gas
concentrations and of some experimental
"erforsi'-"-"" ": -".""-: ~:
The experimental data were the re-
sults of .analyses of the gaseous and
liquid phases. CaO, Ca(NOp)p and Ca(NO,)p
concentrations were determined in the
_ liquid phase. Analysis for nitrogen ox-
ides was made by the calibrated flask
method,, tptal^nitrogen in the liquid phase was determined according to Devard,
and calcium nitrite was determined by titration with 0.1 N permanganate solu-
tion.
The absorption rate, i.e., productivity of the absorber unit reaction
volume expressed in kg of nitrogen per 1 m of the mechanical absorber per hour,
was determined by the following generalization:
eo
15
20
2S
30
Pig. 2. Changes in nitrogen oxides
absorption degree at peripheral disc
velocity w = 400 m^/kour at t a 60°
at nitrite-nitrate salts concentra-
tions 10 - 20 g/li.
A - Absorption degree in %; B -
Peripheral disc velocity in m/seo.
NO + N©2 concentrations in the gas
*s '4°2°6
-42-
-------
TABLE 1.
Changes in rate of absorption at different peripheral disc velocities and
•5 different NO + NC>2 concentrations' in the gas.
(w = 400 m /hour; t = 60 - 70°; CaO =70-80 g/li; Ca--nitrite-nitrate - 10 -
20 g/li; oxidation of NO » 60 - 68$)•
Peripheral
disc
velocity
V in
m/e«c
15
22
28
15
22
28
15
22
28
15
22
28
*N
}
)
•N
}
J
^
}
J
}
J
Average percent con- ;D
cent rat ion of : ,
NO * NO? at :a°S
Inflow : Outflow :
•• !
> &
*
0.700 {
1.200 {
^
\
t
3.750 \
G
v •
0
0
0
o
0
0
0
0
0
o
0
0
T
jioo
2 :
: in
.066
.048
.045
.190
.075
.060
.300
.100
.080
.870
.260
.205
28 ' w(
ss.
22.4
xee of :
orption:
a :
<«l
X|
-•?>!*
:
portent t
70.
78.
79.
73.
89.
91.
0
3
7
0
0
0
75.0
91.6
93.3
76.
93.
94 •
xl
8
0
!__
-«2>
Absorption
rate
G/v • T
8 • B (
22.4
in kq/
0,
0.
0.
2.
3.
3.
4.
5.
5.
14.
17.
!?•
Kg
*l ~ *2
« 100
•3/hr.
770
860
875
550
125
200
500 .
500
600
400
450
725
N2
: Absorption: Absorption
: motor : coef-
: force : ficient
: AP : K*r
)fo.oi
(*, - »2
J2.3 (9 «l/«2
-jG/delta p in
Ika/B^/hr/atn
: in at. *~"~ ••-'- —
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.00128
.00113
.00110
.00392
.00280
.00261
.00650
.00443
.00414
.01974
.01309
.01221
601
760
793
651
1115
1226
692
1241
1352
729
1332
1451
f->\
•100 3. . . Vi/
where x.. and x, are respectively-the initial and the final NO + NO- concentra-
1 ' _ ^, _. . * 3
tions in the gas in percentage," w is the volume rate of the gas flow iii m
per hour.
The absorption motive force was determined as the mean logarithmic dif-
ference of nitrogen oxides concentrations at the inflow and outflow. The
«
buoyancy of nitrogen oxides over the solution was assumed equal to zero.
atm. "
The absorption coefficient was determined according to the following
formula!
(2)
-43-
-------
Values of the absorption coefficients derived from equation (2) are listed
in Table 1 and are also plotted in Figs. 3 and 4.
Analysis of the data obtained leads to the conclusion that the degree of
nitrogen oxides absorption increased with an increase in the peripheral disc
velocity irrespective of the oxides concentration. However, such disc velocity
increase had its limit. During the initial increase of the peripheral disc
velocity the absorption rate increased rapidly, and the curves showed a steep
upward trend, particularly conspicuous with an increase of V to 20 - 23 m/seo.
tt
Later the upward rise diminished markedly with the continued increase in V ,
o **
and at V equalling 27 - 28 m/seo curves ran approximately parallel to the
D
abscissa.
Laboratory experiments in nitrogen oxides absorption by alkalies and other
absorbent agents conducted at rapid disc rotation rates disclosed the existence
of critical values for peripheral velocities, which, if exceeded, resulted in
decreased absorption rates. • It should be noted that the. absorption rate of
nitrogen oxides corresponding to V - 28 m/sec was only slightly higher than
o
the absorption rate corresponding to V =22-23 m/sec. The power consumed
O
by the rotation of the shaft with the discs [2] was proportional to the number
of revolutions to the 2.02 power. Therefore, the peripheral velocity V - 22
/ ' ^
m/sec was selected as the most expedient.
Curves in Fig. 2 show that with increase in the concentration of nitrogae
oxides in the gas, the curves which represented the HO + N0? concentrations
rose to-higher levels. It should be noted, however, that with an increase in
the peripheral disc velocity these curves tended to approach one another. Curve
. 1 was an exception, since it corresponded to an extremely low NO + HOp concen-
tration. This fact confirmed the conclusion.mentioned elsewhere £3] that the
effect of the NO + N02 concentration in the gas upon the absorption rate
slightly diminished under highly turbulent conditions.
The data listed disclosed that in low concentrations, such as 0.14 to 0.3S=?
the gas was comparatively well absorbed even under highly turbulent condition®.
The practical results obtained with many industrial installations disclosed
nitrogen oxides at concentrations lower than 0.3$ were absorbed slowly in the
regenerating towers, and virtually had not been absorbed in concentrations
ranging between 0.15 and O.l83», in the existing reaction volumes.
By applying the method of graphical analysis for formulating experimental
data £4j» it was found that the equation for determining partial values of the
-44-
-------
19 a er es a* at
Fig. 3* Nitrog*A csldsa Absorption coef-
ficient in relation to peripherel disc veloc
ity «t • - WO •'/hour, t 9** - 60* w*
nitrlte-ciitrete Mtt« ewicentretiM 10 -
A - Abcorptien coefficient in kg/»Vhr/ete|
B - HO + N(^ eeaoeatreticn in gie l
C - Coefficient* • es»d n in K - •
0 - Paripherel disc velocity in R/MCJ E -
fteele Vv •
HO * NO- oeneesttration in gee in |. I -
0^2» 2 - 6.7» 3 - l.2| H - 3.75.
Solid lire* - NO * EaL c*ncee)tr«tioi» In the
e««( (?pqg)rtio«el eciite* ooc0-dl»ste»| da^i-«Je
line vl »e«le eaerdinete*. Line* deter-
coefficient* • *»d ni 5 - n, l/«|
6 - », l/».
^ - 390 •
- 1130 *
absorption coefficient wast K - f (x, *
v ). It was also found that the gener-
• o
alized equation for the determination of
the absorption coefficient within the
limits of concentrations HO + 50« -
0.22 - 3.7555» and for peripheral disc
velocities ranging from 14 to 30 m/sec.
vast
~ (3)
Coefficient values m and n for each
value of i raere found in the curves shown
in Fig. 3.
Ey selecting two points on each curve
two equations can be derivedt
3,
- m
m
By substituting experimental values
for K. , v * and Z., v. and solving theee
equations, actual values for coefficients
m and n can be derived. In this manner
the following partial absorption ooef-
ficieiats were derived. ......... -
- 400* at x1 - 0.22*
- 2260; at x_ - 0.7?
- 1300 * Vv - 2640$ at x3 - 1.2$
' 3/v~ - 2920; at x, - 3.7535
(4)
(5)
(6)
1425
.
To obtain a general equation for the absorption coefficient, the fwaotioaal
relationship-between m » f,(z) and n » fpC^c) had to be established.
. The rectilinear functional relationships were recorded on a screen with
a reoeiprooal scale along the z axis and a uniform scale along the m and B
axis. This functional relationship is expressed by the formulass
-45-
-------
.-..(D
Since the modulus of the uniform scale (x) on the basis of which the
reciprocal scale was constructed (see Pig. 3) differed from the modulus of
the uniform scale for the second variable (a, b), the coefficients a and b
can be determined respectively as follows*
a, and b., are obtained similarly. Accordingly the following formulas are
derived:
m - 1490 - 241 * x"1
n . -(3080 - 590 * x""1)
The general absorption coefficient K = f(v , x) can be expressed in the
S S
form of the following equation:
K . (1490 - 241 * x"1) ' v °*333 + (590 ' x'1 - 3080) (8)
o o
This equation holds true -for w = 400 m3/hour, v =14-30 m/sec, x -
0.22 - 3.75$, Cfl =10-20 g/li of Ca nitrite-nitrate, CaO =70-80 g/li and
t =. 60 -.J0°. ________ .......... _ ............ _ ............ ............. _ ........ _
Values of K "computed' according to "equation (4) differed from those ob-
O •
tained experimentally by 3 to 4$, indicating a close similarity between the
computed and experimentally obtained values". • . ,.
Volume rate of gas flow effect on the absorption coefficient. The second
hydrodynamic factor controlling the rate of the process in the apparatus is
the volume rate of gas flow.- Assuming that the free" cross-section of the ab-
sorber was constant, the volume rate of gas flow would determine the linear
rate of gas flow and hence, with ~the~increase\iri the volume rate of gas flow', "
the linear rate of gas flow would also Increase. The experiments disclosed
that an initial increase in the volume rate of gas flow markedly increased the
absorption rate, since in this case the rate of gas flow increased the fluid-
turbulence.- The absorption rate increased to a definite maximum,, after which
a further increase in the volume rate of gas flow resulted in a decreased ab-
-46-
-------
sorption rate. The experiments revealed that an optimal hydrodynamie condition
in absorbers was reached at a linear gas flow rate ranging from 0.8 to 2.5
ro/sec.
Linear rates of gas flow exceeding 2.5 m/sec disturbed the effective hydro-
dynamic conditions by destroying the foam layer and causing the fine droplets
to coalesce into coarse aggregates, which fell out of the gaseous phase. This
resulted in a decreased surface contact between the phases and in the formation
of gas spurts breaking through the apparatus. The volume rate of gas flow
determined the contact duration between the phases and the consequent absorp-
tion degree. The interaction between these factors determined the apparatus
efficiency. For the determination of gas flow volume rate effect upon the
degree of absorption, the following constant conditions were selected: ' v of
the discs =22 m/sec, t of the gas = 60 - 70°, CaO =50-75 g/li and nitrite-
nitrate salts from 10 to 15 g/li. Separate series of experiments were carried
out with each of the following NO + NOp concentrations in the gas: 0.15 -
0.3, 0.7 - 0.9, 1.2 - 1.5 and up to 4$.
The volume rates of gas flow equal to
200, 300, 400 and 500 m /hour were tested
for each of the concentrations enumerated.
The data derived from these experiments
are plotted in Pig. 4. Each point in this
diagram was derived as the average of 2 or
3 analyses under the constant conditions
of the process.
The same data are listed in Table 2
as averages of computed gas concentra-~
tions. Averages of absorption rate (G),
motive force absorption (AP)> and ab-
.. sorption coefficient (K ) -were- computed
o
for these concentrations. These data were
• A
100-
90
80
70
'00
SOff
309
500
Fig. *4. Degree of nitrogen .oxides-absorption .
by Ca(OH)2 solution in relation to c,as volume
rate and NO 4- NOo concentration, v, - 23
— O i
n/s«c; t 3*8 -60°) CaO - 50 to 70
nitrite-nitrate salts 13 - 15 g/li.
A - Absorption in %t B - Gas volume rat* in
mVhour.
NO f N02 concentration in gaa in ft I - 0.15
to 0.3; 2 - 0.7 to 0.9; 3 - I.2 to 1.7;
>t - 3.5 to U.5.
used""in constructing the- curve sho:wn in :
Pig. 5 for K = f(w * x), where x is the
initial concentration of NO + N0« in the
gas.
According to~Fig. 4 the nitrogen ox--
ides absorption rate decreased gradually
-47-
-------
TABLE 2.
Changes in absorption rates at different gas volume rates and NO + NC>2 con-
centrations at vg = 22 m/sec; t « 60 to 70°; CaO = 60 to 70 g/li; Ca-nitrite-
nitratea 10 to 15 g/li.
:Average NO + N02 con-:
Gas volume: centrations in *
.
f
: Absorption: Absorption
*
rate : percent at :
: Inflow
w in : x,
nH/hour :
Outflow t
*2 lit
:
0 !
i percent:
:
JTttVW
G/v • T
In
kg/m3/hr
•
:
force
Ap
: In
: technical
: at.
: cient
1 Kg
:mg nitrogen
: m^/hr/atm
200
300 \
400 J
5OO
200
300 \
400 J
500
200
300 \
400 J
5OO
200
300 \
400 J
500
0.0450
0 225 ( °-°460
U"i° X 0.0470
0.0475
0.0800
0 800 J °-°920
°-800 I 0.0960
0.1000
0.0810
T y.R« I 0.1120
^^ 10.1350
0.1460
0.1200
4 / 0.2200
4'°°° X 0.2800
0.3400
80.1
79.5
79.1
78.9
90.0
88.5
88.0
87.5
94.4
92.3
90.7
89.9
97.0
94.5
93.0
91.5
0.456
0.671
0.890
1.109
1.800
2.655
3.520
4.375
3.423
5.017
6.575
8.150
9.700
14.175
18.600
22.875
0.001120
0.001130
0.001140
0.001142
0.003130
0.003280
0.003320
0.003370
0.004750
0.005230
0.005545
0.005687
0.011080
0.012840
0.014010
0.014800
402
595
782
971
567
810
1058
1298
720
959
1185
1433
876
1104
1328
1540
with an increase in the volume rate of gas
flow for all concentrations" of HO -r NO^.
Furthermore, the absorption of low NO + N00
c.
concentrations may be sufficiently complete
at high intensities of the reacting volumes.
The straight lines in Fig. 5 indicate
that the absorption coefficients increased
with the increase in volume rate of gas flow
and with -the increase in the NO + N0? con-
~IOO 200 300 MO 500t\>
Jrig. 5. Determination of coefficient of
NO t NO, efeeorptien of CalOH). solution
in relation to g&a voluao rate and NO -
N02 concentration. nitrogen/m per hour/atm.
A - Absorption coefficient in kg/erVhr/taeStn. otm.j B - Coefficient b at oeulo
' contration in g»B in J|-D - Gss voluoa rate-In a /hour.
NO -MO- coneentrction in gas in It I - 0.225{ 2 - 0.8; 3 - I .MS; 4 - >t.O} 5 - Chen^oo in b
coefficients, at screen ocele x - b^*^>
centration in the gas. • For con\renience the
absorption coefficients were given in kg
3
C - MO * HOg con-
-48-
-------
In deriving generalizations on the basis of the experimental data it was
established that £ - f (w) for different concentrations of nitrogen oxides can
be expressed as a linear function:
K - a * w + b (9)
Values of coefficients a and b were determined in Pig. 5 *>y the graphical
analysis method and formulas for the determination of partial values of the ab-
sorption coefficients were expressed as:
^ - 1.896 * w + 23; at ^ - 0.225* NO + NOg (10)
Kg - 2.410 * w + 93; at xg - 0.8$ NO + NOg (ll)
K^ - 2.376 * w + 245; at x3 . 1.45^ NO + NOg (12)
K. - 2.213 * w + 434; at x, - 4.0? NO + NOg (13)
A formula for the determination of the general absorption coefficient with
the limits x, - x. was derived by rectifying the curve of coefficient b changes
25
on the screen with the scales of x and b . The average of coefficient a was
assumed to be equal to 2.4. Consequently, the equation for the determination
of the general absorption coefficient is as follows:
» Kg = 2.4 * w + 115 * x (14)
This equation holds true for w = 200 - 500 m /hour, x » 0.3 - 4£, v -
22 - 23 m/seo, t = 60 - 70 , concentrations of nitrite-nitrate salts C_^ *>
8-15 g/li and CaO =50-80 g/li.
For NO + NOg concentrations lower than 0.3$ formula (14) shows deviations
up to 10 - 12$. For this reason it is better to use the following formula for
the determination of partial absorption coefficients in cases of Tow" NO •+' NOg
concentrations t
K = 1.9 * w + 23
In this case the difference between the experimental and the computed data did
not exceed 1.5£«
Optimal amount of liquid. The experiments showed that the ratio of liquid
volume to the volume capacity of the absorber was an important factor which
affected the absorption-rate.- TiVhen the amount of liquid was small its concen-
tration in the gas decreased, its agitating effect upon the system declined
and the contact area between the two phases decreased. Filling the apparatus
with liquid above the optimum .reduced the free volume of the apparatus, resulted
in excessive linear rates of gas flow and intensified strong stream flows which
-49-
-------
broke through the apparatus destroying the foam condition and discharging
greater quantities of the liquid from the apparatus.
The determination of optimal amounts of liquid which might create most
favorable hydrodynamic conditions in the apparatus was attained by a series
of experiments conducted under the following constant conditions: w - 400
m /hour; v = 23 m/sec; CaO =50-60 g/li; nitrite-nitrate salts from 10 to
B
20 g/li. The content of NO + NOg in the gas varied from 1 to 1.32$. The
amount of liquid varied between 50 and 200 li, or.6 to 24$ of the absorber
volume. A measured amount of liquid was poured into the apparatus and the
absorber was set into operation. After the predetermined conditions of opera-
tion were organized, samples of the gas and of the liquid were taken for
analysis at points of inflow and outflow of the absorber. Thereupon the gas
was turned off, the apparatus stopped, and the liquid measured.
Note: A constant amount of the liquid in the absorber was maintained at
a constant level by natural overflow circulation through a pipe connecting
the absorber and the separator.
The next experiment was repeatedly conducted under the same conditions
but with different volumes of liquid. The experimental data obtained are
plotted in Pig. 6.
The plots show that with an initial in-
crease in the fluid volume, all other condi-
tions remaining constant, the absorption rate
increased rapidly; it reached its maximum when
the absorber was 19 ^-21$ filled, thereafter -
the absorption rate began to decrease.
The total capacity of the absorber used
in the present experiments was 850 li and the
volume of fluid which assured the best techno-
logical performance, varied between 160 and
, 180 li, or 19""to 21$. .Similar data were ob-
c tained for absorbers with 55 to 70 li capacity.
80
70
SO
iff
11.7
17.65 20.6
SO
100
150
tool
Fig. 6. Degre* of nitrogen oxide* ab-
sorption in relation to voluao of
fluid in th* apparatus.
A - Abeerptian d»gr«« In J; B - Fluid
volue* In $ of ab«orb«r capacity;
C - Liters of fluid in th» apparatus.
In designing apparatuses of larger dimen-
sions and in determining volumes of the fluid
and the overflow height at the outflow point of
the absorber, the optimum content of the appa-
ratus should be determined on the basis of the
-50-
-------
data referred to above. The rate of the horizontal liquid movement had no ap-
preciable effect on the hydrodynamic conditions prevailing in the apparatus, .
since the flow rate of liquid transported by the discs in direction perpendicular
to the gas flow was thousands of times greater than its horizontal movement.
The direction of the liquid movement in relation to the gas flow had no ap-
preciable effect on the rate of the process due to the irreversibility of the
process. The investigation showed also that the number of discs to be in-
stalled on the absorber shaft can be computed with the aid of the following
formula:
100 1 C
where n is the number of discs on the absorber shaft and c, and Cp are respective
concentrations of nitrogen oxides at the inflow and outflow points of the appa-
ratus.
The highest absorption rate and the least power consumption were obtained
with 4 discs, each equipped with 14- to 16 paddles set at 15 to 17 . The dis-
tances between the discs were 0.6 - 0.7 of their diameters.
v Conclusions.
1. It was established that an increase in the peripheral velocity of the
discs up to the optimal value rapidly increased the absorption rate. A periph-
eral velocity above the optimal decreased the absorption rate. The peripheral
.velocity. .of the discs was the basic factor, which determined, the ..hydrodynamic
conditions in the apparatus and the rate of convection diffusion.
2. The volume rate of gas flow was the second important hydrodynamic
factor which determined the rate of the process. Increased volume rates of
gas flow to the optimal value rapidly increased the absorption rate; any further
increase in the volume rate of gas flow decreased the absorption rate.
..... 3-.-- The optimal liquid" volume in the apparatus was 19 to 21% of the volume
of the apparatus. The rate and the direction of the horizontal movement of
the liquid had no appreciable effect on the absorption .rate in irreversible " \
process."
4. It was established that the most rational installation was one in
which the absorber shaft was equipped with 4 discs spread at distances equiv-
alent to 0.6- - 0.-7 of- their diameters. - - -------
-51-
-------
Bibliography.
Ml C. H. r a H 3 n C. B. K p a B i B H c K a n, JKIIX, XXVIII, 2 (1955). —
[2] C. II. T a a a n M. A. JI o K m B B, Tp. ^Benponerp. sBMHKO-TcxBtwior. HBCT., /
(1955). — |3|C. H. Tan 3 H C. H. K a n T y p o B a. HtHX, XX VIII, 6 (1955).—
[4|C. H. T a B a. M. A. JI o K m B B B C. M. K a n T y p o B a, JKflX. XXVIII. 8
(195.ri). — |5| M. E. n os a B a H. II. M y x ;i e a o B, Tp. jlea. reiHcwior. nan. BM.
JleacoBera, 26 (1950). .
Adsorption of Nitrogen Oxides "by Alumosilicates.
Second Report.
S. N. Ganz.
(The Dnepropetrovsk Chemical Technological Institute).
Zhurn. Prikl. Khim., Vol. 31, No. 3, 360-368, 1958."
It was previously reported ClJ that powdered or granular alumosilicate
effectively adsorbed nitrogen oxides. This paper is a report of a more de-
tailed study of nitrogen oxides adsorption by alumosilicate at different NO +
NOp concentrations in the gas, degree of NO oxidation, volume flow rate and
moisture content.
Experimental part. The apparatus used is schematically depicted in Fig. 1.
Nitrogen oxide and air were supplied in given ratios into mixer 3, respectively
from gas meters 1 and 2. The air and NO volumes were measured by flowmeters 4.
Prior to mixing, the gas components were passed either through, vessels 5> which
were filled with concentrated sulfuric acid, to remove the moisture, or they
.jvere run directly into mixer 3 through side tubes 6, depending on the purpose
of the experiment. Gases which contained moisture were passed through bottles
5, filled for the purpose with distilled water heated to any required tempera-
- ture.-;—Mixers-were of different sizes9Since they also served as volume oxidizers.
Approximate NO oxidation degree was determined prior to adsorption on the basis
of mixer volume. Prom the mixer the gas mixture was admittted into the glass
adsorber 7, having a porous bottom 3, which supported adsorbent c. Prior to
beginning the experiment,! the gaa in the mixer was analyzed for .total nitrogen
oxides by the vacuumated flask method, also for the degree of HO oxidation. The
-52-
-------
I
1
J
i&^
1
u
:—=:
L
r
'' r— i!
i If i
To atmosphere
Fig. 1. Plan of the experimental device. (Details in text).
latter was determined by the iodometric method [2~\, passing the NCL through a
*$> KI solution contained in absorber flasks 8. After the adsorption, total
NO + NCL in the gas was also determined by the vacuumated flask method, and the
discharged nitrogen oxides were absorbed by a 1% NaOH solution contained in
vessels 9» an& FeSO. solution in vessel 10. Gas samples for analysis v^ere
taken at points 11; the gas pressure at points of entering and leaving the
system were recorded manometrically.
Alumosilicate utilized in the experiments consisted of orange or milk-
white spherical granules 3 mm in diameter. Uniform size of the granules was
obtained by gauge sifting. The adsorbent weighed 0.72 t/m , its free volume
was ea 0.38 m /m , and the mechanical compression strength was 90 kg Per granule.
The composition and the method of preparing the alumosilicate adsorbent were
briefly discussed elsewhere [3, 4].
An identical amount of the aluminum silicate, namely, 50 cm. was placed
into the adsorbent container for each of the tests. The adsorbent column was
27.5 cm high, and the initial weight was 35.8 g. The adsorbed nitrogen oxides
were computed according to formula!
-53-
-------
(VNO "*" VNO ' init. " ^VNO * VNO ^ fin.
G - —~ 22400 — Mav
where (V^- + V^Q ) ^ ^ are separately determined initial amounts of NO and
NOp at entering, expressed in cubic entimeters at standard pressure and tempera-
ture; (VJTQ + V.T0 ) fn same, at exit; M is the average molecular weight of
NO + NOp in the-gas in percent. Volume of adsorbed nitrogen oxides was deter-
mined by weighing the adsorbent on an analytical balance before and after ad-
sorption.
To determine the degree to which adsorption of nitrate oxides depended
upon the degree of NO oxidation, and to determine the catalytic effect of the
adsorbent upon the rate of NO oxidation, a small (50 cm ) and large (2270 cm )
oxidation volumes were used. Averages of data obtained under static adsorption
conditions in adsorption column 7 are shown below; in conaputingjthe results
were based on averages of experimental data obtained in connection with the
larger installation. ~_.. ,.,.. .... . _.. - •- - •
Results of investigations. The first series of experiments was devoted
to a study of the effect of nitrogen oxides concentration in the gas .the degree
of NO oxidation and the volume velocity of the gas on the degree and rate of
nitrogen oxides adsorption. Results are plotted in Figs. 2-5.
Curves :\n Pig. 2 show the adsorption degree of nitrogen oxides which
passed through the smaller oxidizing volume. As expected, the degree of NO
oxidation was reduced with the increase in the volume rate of gas flow, due
"to the 'shorter time the gas -remained- in the oxidizing flask. The following
data may
per hour:
•V — T
data may apply when volume rate of gas flow w = 1000 - 1150 -m /m of sorbent
Concentration of nitrogen Degree of NO oxidation
oxides in percent in percent
0.5 5-7
- 1.06 . 18 - 21. .
1.52 22 - 25
2.15 30-36
Data plotted in Pig. 2 show that with an increase in the nitrogen oxides
concentration in the gas, and rise in the degree of their oxidation, the rate
of nitrogen oxides adsorption also increased. An increase in the volume gas
flow rate in all cases lowered the nitrogen oxides adsorption consequent to
the shorter contact time between the gas and the adsorbent. At gas flow vol-
-54-
-------
ume rates up to 400 - 500 m /hour, the adsorption degree fell gradually as the
flow rate was reduced. With further increase in volume gas flow rate, the ad-
sorption curves descended more abruptly.
Adsorption rates for nitrogen oxides, computed on the basis of experimental
data shown in Pig, 2 are presented in Pig. 3. The data indicate that the unit
volume productivity of alumosilicate adsorbent increased with an increase in
the nitrogen oxides concentration in the gas
and in the volume gas flow rate. However,
the latter holds true only up to w = 600 =
900 m /hour. Continued increases in the
volumetric gas flow rate diminished the ad-
sorption rate, in other words, it lowered the
adsorbing unit capacity of the reacting ad-
sorbent per unit time. This holds true for
a sorbent which moved toward the flowing gas;
under such conditions the degree of adsorbent
saturation with nitrogen oxides did not exceed
60 - 6% of the equilibrium saturation. The
adsorption coefficients computed on the basis
of experimental data are shown in Pig. 4.
In computing the adsorption coefficients,
the motive force was assumed equal- to the
60U SOU. IUOU KOO
Fig. 2. Degree of nitrogen oxides ad-
sorption in rotation to gas flo« vol-
uoe r»te, NO + NO. concentration in
the gas and NO oxidation degree at t -
IB - 20°.
A - Degree of adsorption in 1| B -
Voluir* rate gas flow in p'/Kovir.
'Solid lines - Degree of adsorption;
Dotted lines - Degree of NO oxidation.
NO + N02 concentration in %t \ - 0,5;
2 - I.Od; 3 - 1.52; >4 - 2.15.
ZOO
Fig. 3. Rates of nitrogen oxides adsorption aith
aluminum silicate column oigrating against the gas
flow in relation to NO + NO? concentration and to
volutes gas rate flow at t - 18 - 20°.
A - Adsorption rate In kg/o>3/hour| B - Volun* gas
flon rate in B^/hour.
NO f NOg concentration in ft I - 0.5j 2 - 1.08)
3 - 1.52; "4 - 2.15.
1400,
1ZOO
mo
BOO
SOJ
•,00
B
G 200 <»00 600 800 WOO
Fig. I*. Coefficients of nitrogen oxioes adsorption
by alunosiIicate in rolbtion to voluoo gas flo«
rate and NO 4- N02 concentration at t - IB - 20°.
A - Adsorption coefficient in kg/n^/hour/atm.;
B - Volune gas fIon rate in s^/hour.
NO + N02 concentration in Ji I - 0.5; 'i - I.OB;
3 - 1.52; * - 2.15.
-55-
-------
mean-logarithmic. difference of the partial pressures of NO + NO. respectively
upon entering and leaving the apparatus. Fig. 4 indicates that the maximal
adsorption coefficient values corresponded to volume velocities of 600 - 700
m /hour. Consequently, utilization of gas flow volume velocities greater than
600 - 700 m /hour, in this particular case, would be unsuitable because of a
lowering "in the degree and coefficient of adsorption.
Pig. 5 shows the extent to which the
too Q._- ----- degree of nitrogen oxides adsorption de-
pended upon the same factors as was shown
for Pig. 2; however, in this case the gas
was passed through a large oxidizing vol-
80
70
10
a no
wo wo woo 1200
ume V = 2270 cm , and the degree of oxida-
tion- was considerably higher than in the
case shown in Pig. 2.
A study of Pig. 5 shows that the
curves representing the degree of NO oxida-
tion shown in broken lines were of a higher
level than those shown in Pig. 2, even
though the concentrations of nitrogen oxides
were approximately the same. Furthermore,
Fig. 5. Adsorption degree in relation to
voluos gas flow rate, NO f NOj concentration
and degree of NO oxidation at t - 2
-------
Thus, if w = 500 m /hour and NO + NO,, concentration in the gas is 1.1?,
then the rates of the two adsorbing processes can be expressed as the ratio:
Ig (l - 0.84) : Ig (l - 0.78) = 1.27, where 0.84 is the degree of nitrogen ox-
ides adsorption, with concentration of 1.3$ with the degree of NO oxidation
94% (see Fig. 5), and 0.78 is the degree of nitrogen oxides absorption of the
same concentration with the degree of NO oxidation equal to 34$o
Accordingly an increase in the degree of NO oxidation by 60% mill increase
the degree of adsorption by only 6%, and the process of adsorption will be ac-
celerated 1.27 times. Prom this example, which illustrates the generaly regu-
larity of the process, it can be concluded that the alumosilicate adsorbent
not only adsorbed nitrogen oxides, but at the same time acted as a catalyzer
of NO oxidation. This phenomenon is substantiated in greater detail in the
text below.
The values of the adsorption rates and of the adsorption coefficients
for nitrogen oxides were computed on the basis of the experimental data. The
values referred to are shown respectively in Figs. 6 and 7.
A comparative study of the data shown in Figs. 6 and 7 vdth those shown
in Figs. 3 and 4 indicates that with an increase in the degree of NO oxidation,
\
as shown in Figs. 6 and 7> the adsorption rate and the adsorption coefficient
values exceeded those seen at lower degree of NO oxidation. It can be con-
Fig. 6. Adsorption r«te in relation to voluae
gas flow r*t» and NO -f NtX^ concentration at
t - 22 - 23».
A - Adsorption rate in kg/a^/nour; B - Volume
g«> flow rate in aP/hour.
NO -f NO, ccnctntration iir.J: I -_l.lj
2 - 2.08| 3 - 2.»»»,
Fig. 7. Adsorption coefficient in relation to
voluae gas flow rate and NO \ iNO^ concentration.
A - Adsorption coefficients in kg/n^/hour/ate.;
B - Voluae ga« flow rate in e^/hour.
NO f NO^ concentration in 56; I - 1.1;
2 - 2.08} 3 - *.9l».
-57-
-------
eluded from this that the aluminum silicate adsorbed the higher nitrogen ox-
ides. -
The above applies to NO + N00 adsorption from a dry gas, i.e., a gas with
T £•
an approximate 8 g/m water vapor content. However, adsorption of NO + N0?
from a moist gas is of great practical interest. Therefore, air and NO enter-
ing the mixer -.vere first humidified in their respective flasks, as shown in
Fig. 1, at different temperatures, to saturate them with water vapor to a
desired degree. The temperature of the gas in this case varied between 23
and 26 ; such variation in the temperature had no pronounced effect on the
degree of NO oxidation, which, in this case remained between 93 and 94$. The
initial NO + N00 concentration in the gas was maintained within the limits of
£• i
1.25 and 1.28$, and the volume velocity of the gas flow w = 500 m /hour. The
results of these experiments are plotted in Fig. 8.
The plots show that the adsorption degree^and consequently the adsorption
rate«diminished with the increase in the water vapor content in the gas. The
adsorption rate diminished in an analogous manner with the rise in temperature.
V/ithin the limits of the temperature under investigation, namely, from 12 to
42 , the constancy of the following factors was maintained: w «= 500 ra /hour;
gas humidity = 3.1$, NO 4- NOp content in the gas = 1.35$; and the degree of
NO oxidation = 98 to 96$. Under these conditions the adsorption degree dimin-
ished from 97 "to 73$. The results of this investigation are depicted in Fig. 9«
Fig. "8. "Degree of nitrogen oxides adsorption in
relation to gas rcoiaturo content at NO -f NOg con;-
cent ration - 1.25 - 1.28$ and • - 500 •3/hour.
A - Dogree of adsorption in %} B - Gas «ei»ture
.. .. content in %} C - Gas eoistura in g/*3.
Fig. 9. Degree of nitrogen oxides adsorption in
relation to temper*ture,, NO 4 N<>2 concentration
NO oaidation - 98*1 • - 500 ra3/hour.
A - Degree of ndsorption in %;
B - Tenpemture in C-
-58-
-------
A comparison of curves shown in Figs. 8 and 9 indicates that an increase
in the gas humidity produced a greater negative effect upon the degree of
nitrogen oxides adsorption than the effect of temperature raised from 40 to
45 • The adsorption degree fell rapidly when temperature was raised above
55 to 60°.
Desorption of nitrogen oxides and regeneration of the adsorbent. Nitrogen
oxides were desorbed at 160 , 350 and 500 . The sorbent saturated with nitro-
gen oxides was placed into a closed quartz tube, which was first filled with
nitrogen gas of 99»9$ purity. The tube was then placed into an electrical
furnace, and the nitrogen gas, preheated in another electrical furnace to a
suitable temperature, was forced through the tube.
While passing through the adsorbent, the nitrogen gas became.saturated
with nitrogen oxides; upon leaving the furnace it was cooled in a condenser,
\vherefrom it was passed through tlie absorbing flasks. N0? was absorbed by a
5$ solution of potassium iodide in the first 3 flasks, and NO was absorbed by
a 10^-solution of FeSO. in the next 2 flasks.-—" ""._ ._ .
4 . """ -
Control analyses were made by absorbing the desorbed nitrogen oxides by
a 10$ solution of NaOH. The analysis of the absorbent solutions and subsequent
computations revealed that the degree of oxidation of the desorbed nitrogen
oxides was always higher than that prior to the adsorption.,
Computation of the time necessary for NO oxidation with 0.8 - 1.5? con-
centrations showed that in the presence of alumosilicate the rate of nitrogen
oxides oxidation, the
times respectively"." - -'-"" "_ :.";j:;~.. _...;.:'„..;;..;
Results of desorbed gas absorption with flaOH solution at 160 , disclosed -
that all nitrogen oxides adsorbed by the aluminum silicate were liberated in
the form of nitric acid fumes, since they entered into the following reaction
with the absorber:
NaOH + HN03 = NaMX + HgO
The second series of experiments was devoted to nitrogen oxidesrTiesorption--
with hot nitrose gases, since,-in the manufacture of nitric acid the utilized
heat required no additional financial outlay in transmitting the heat._ The re—
suits showed that the nitrose gases could be utilized effectively in the re-
generation of the alumosilicate at a temperature above 300 .
-59-
i
oxides oxidation, the humidity of which reached 18.5 g/m > increased 2 and 2.5
-------
Thus, at t o 500 and an assumed nitrose gas flow rate in the adsorption
column equal to 0.7 m/sec, 96 - 98$^regeneration of the adsorbent was attained
within 10 minutes. The adsorption and regeneration experiments were repeated,
. using the same adsorbent eight to ten times; it was observed that the adsorbing
capacity of the silicate was almost completely restored after regeneration.
The physical properties of the adsorbent and its mechanical firmness remained
^ unaffected. . ._.
Practical application of the mettroJ described and its expediency. The
investigation revealed that alumosilicate possessed considerable adsorbing
capacity, as shown by the fact that 1 kg
0.0306 kg of NO, at 2.5$ moisture content
capacity, as shown by the fact that 1 kg of the adsorbent at 20 adsorbed
3
Thus, for 90$ purification of 90,000 m /hour of gas, consisting of 0.8$
of NO + N0?, the required quantity of the adsorbent would be:
90.000 • 0.8 • 46 AR ,,,
100 . 22.4 • 0.0306 = 48'366 ^
Even with a 100$ adsorbent reserve the total quantity required would be
less 'than 100 t per hour. However, taking into account the fact that the ad-
sorbent can be regenerated and used 3 times in one hour the quantity of the
adsorbent required for continuous operation can be limited to 35 - 40 t.
The experimental data obtained in the adsorption column were checked in
a larger laboratory installation with a moving adsorbent in a triple-zone ap-
paratus. The apparatus was filled with the adsorbent up to 2 li capacity.
The regenerating adsorbent was fed through the .upper, part of the column with- •
the "discharged nitrose gas passing in a counterflow direction. After adsorp-
tion had been completed, the adsorbent was passed through special pipes to the
middle zone, through which a hot nitrose gas was passed coming from adjacent
contact apparatuses. In the process of desorption, the nitrose gas becomes
yJBnriched with nitrogen oxides; after leaving the desorption zone it is first
cooled and again used for adsorption. The regenerated adsorbent is passed
through special pipes into the lower zone where it is cooled by circulating
» cold air. Some -of this air containing nitrogen oxides is fed into absorption
towers to enrich the gas with oxygen.
For the determination of the technical and economical aspects of the
proposed method, the results yielded were compared with the analogous results
yielded by installation for the absorption of nitrogen oxides by 'a solution of"
Ca(OH),j. The economy effected by the proposed adsorption method was as follows:
-60-
-------
Reaction volumes were reduced to less than 1135.
Capital investment was reduced to less than 15«5$«
Consumption of metal was reduced to less than 8$.
Power consumption was reduced to less than 27$.
Conclusions.
1. Alumosilicate is a highly effective adsorber of nitrogen oxides and
can be regenerated to its original capacity. The combination of its great
adsorbing capacity with its mechanical firmness, wear and heat resistance
make'this adsorbent highly suitable for the adsorption of nitrogen oxides.
2. The alumosilicate adsorbent acts as a catalytic agent accelerating
the process of NO oxidation to nitric acid. .
3. The use of alumosilicate as an adsorbent offers the opportunity for
fine purification of gases from nitrogen oxides at lower capital investment
and lowered operation cost as compared with other existing methods.
Bibliography.
. |1] C. ». I' :i ii 3, JKll.X. XXXI. I, 138 (I9:>K).— |2i II. M. /K a n o p o u K o «.
VKXII, <", 410 (I'JJ'i).— |3| C. 11. Tii, //. I'OCTOII-
Te\ii.i.(.ir (lU.'iZ).— |4| I!. II. o Go pun. CiiuTi'Tii-ietRua a.iKiMLnu.iin;,iniuu j;ura^ujuTOp.
O6ji. HJ.I. .IJIT. I'piwiiLjii (I'.l'iS).
Hydrogen Sulfide Absorption by Sodium Arsenate Solution in a Foam Apparatus.
M. E. Posin, B. A. Kopylev and N. A. Petrova.
(The Lensovet Technological Institute, Leningrad).
Zhurn. Prikl. Khim., Vol. 31, No. 6, 849-859, 1958.
•The sodium aresenate method for the purification of gases from hydrogen
sulfide differs from other scrubber methods in that its ultimate products,
elementary sulfur and sodium thiosulfate, are of value industrially. Cycle
scrubber methods, such as the potash, soda and ethanolamine methods, produce
gaseous hydrogen sulfide, the conversion of which into sulfur or sulfuric
-61-
-------
acid incurs additional cost. On the other hand, the technological set-up of
the soda-arsenate metuod of gas purification is more complex and the equipment
used is-massive." The maintenance and operation of packed scrubbers up to 32 m
in height for hydrogen sulfide absorption requires considerable capital invest-
ment and high power consumption for pumping the solutions. The use of modern
efficient equipment for hydrogen sulfide absorption by soda-arsenate solution
should encourage the wide use of this method for freeing gases from sulfur on
a more economical basis. In this connection a study of conditions under which
such a process of hydrogen sulfide absorption may be made workable in a foam
apparatus, usually characterized by high efficiency, is of practical interest
£l]. Reports recorded in .the literature on investigations related to soda-
arsenate gas purification from hydrogen sulfide were concerned primarily with
the chemical principles of the processes £2 - 5] and with conditions which
caused disturbances in the practical application of this process.
The basic characteristics of scrubbers used in hydrogen sulfide absorp-
tion by -a soda-arsenate solution were described by Nusinov £6, 73* I& his ex-
periments Nusinov used a solution which contained 10 g/li As^O-i and 14 g/li
Na0CO,. The initial content of hydrogen sulfide in the gas amounted to 8 g/li
^
or 0.52$ by volume. With a spraying rate equal to 5.9 li/m of the gas, or an
excess of the reagent equal approximately to 25$ over the stoichiometric
amount, and the rate of gas flow in the cross-section of the packed section
equal to 0.55 m/sec, the total degree of purification was 94.5$» and the ab-
sorption coefficient,was,. 136 kg/m /hr/atm. The results of the experiment in-
dicated that the absorption coefficient was independent of the hydrogen sulfide
concentration and that the spraying rate was the deciding factor in attaining
the high rate and completeness "of the absorption. Nusinov also presented data
which defined the nature of changes in the degree of H S absorption and of the
absorption coefficient effected by the linear velocity of the gas flow. An
increased gas flow velocity over the open cross-section of the scrubber from
0.5 to 1.3 m/sec lowered the degree of absorption to S
-------
lished that the rate of hydrogen sulfide absorption depended only on the hydro-
gen ion concentration in the solution and the hydrogen sulfide concentration
in the gas. The hydrogen sulfide absorption by solutions having high pH is
very rapid. However, the solution quickly becomes exhausted because of the
rapid pH depletion. The presence of arsenic in the solution acted as a buffer,
retarding the fall in the pH.
Idtvinenko [9] demonstrated that the rate of hydrogen sulfide absorption
by a solution of soda or potassium, within the limits of partial pressures
equalling 0.02 to 0.03 atm, was expressed by an equation £lOj, which was ap-
plicable to processes, the rates of which were determined by the absorbent
concentration in the solution and by the partial pressure of the gas being
absorbed. In cases of low hydrogen sulfide pressure, particularly in those
below 0.02 - 0.03 atm, the rate of absorption depended upon the partial pres-
sure of hydrogen sulfide, and only to a minor degree upon the concentration
of the absorbent in the solution. The characteristics of the process of hydro-
gen sulfide absorption by a soda-arsenate solution in a scrubber cannot.be
applied mechanically to H_S absorption in a foam apparatus, due to the dis-
similarity of the hydrodynamic conditions responsible for the technological
differences. Results of work conducted for the determination of the degree and
of the hydrogen sulfide absorption coefficient by a soda-arsenate solution in
a foam apparatus are described below.
Experimental work.
The installation,, the experi-
mental methods and the, analytical
procedures. Pig. 1 is a schematic
drawing of the installation used in
the study of hydrogen sulfide ab-
sorption by soda-arsenate solution
in a foam apparatus.
A gas mixture of known composi-
tion was prepared in adxer 1. Nitro-
gen, hydrogen or carbon dioxide
Fig. I. Plan of installation for nydrOjMt aulfida
absorption »r> foa» apparatus. corning from gas cylinders and hydro-
I - Mixar; 2 - Gaa flo»»»t«r, 3 - Foa* apparatus} _
H - c.tchar, 5 - pr.asur. co.part.-tj 6 -Fluid £en sulfide generated in a Kip ap-
fl°":t!ri I rCT"r«fCV"" di""^'t;°"5 paratus were fed into mixer 1 through
8 - Hydraulic valve; 9 - Racaivtna flask; 10 - -
Msnoaatarj II - Tharsomtar; 12 ~ Gas sampling tubas.
-63-
-------
flowmeter 2. Prom the uixer the gas entered the foam apparatus 3 at a level
below the grate, from there it was passed through a spray eliminator and thence
into the atmosphere. The absorbent solution, heated to 35 - 38 , was fed into
the foam apparatus. The amount of fluid was regulated by means of flowmeter
6. Having passed through the apparatus, the foam fluid first passed through
an outflow and entered vessel 7» where the foam disintegrated, and then through
hydraulic valves 8 into collecting flask 9-
Several foam apparatus designs have been described previously Clj. A
schematic drawing of a laboratory set-up for the study of absorption apparatus
performance is shown in Pig. 2, which is self-explanatory.
The overflow elevation above the grate level, equal to 60 mm, determined
the height of the weir which retained the foam above the grate. The grate,
made of plastic vinyl, was 5 D™ thick and had perforations 2 mm in diameter
distributed at 5 nan between centers. The area of the perforated part of the
2
grate 0.0011 m is equal to the crose-
section of the apparatus and constituted
15.3$ of the area of the grate or screen.
The soda-arsenate solution was pre-
pared by dissolving arsenic trioxlde in a
solution of calcined soda at 70 - 80 .
Then, the solution was diluted with water
until it contained ~ 7 g/li of As2^3J *^~
drogen sulfide at 35 and air at 40 were
alternately passed through the solution
to convert the sodium arsenate into Ha-
thioarsenite and Na-thioarsenate. "Ripen-
ing* of the solution was determined by the
precipitation of sulfur following the al-
ternate passing of air through the solu-
tion; sodium thioralfate was then added
according to its content in industrial
solutions. In the course of the experi-
ment, the content of arsenic in the solu-
tion remained constant at about 6.5 g/li
As_0,. The thiosulfate increased from 200
Fig. 2. Laboratory Bad*I of • single
»croon-ch« If foM «pp«rotu*.
I - Above ocroon coluon MCtionoj 2 -
Below ocroon column tocti^na; 3 - Scrwonj
*l - Fluid inflow nipple; 5 - Ov«rf !••
c»tcfi bo*; 6 * Overflow nipplw} 7 -
•••to fluid outflow; b - Fluid inflow tubo|
9 - GO.O outflow tuboj 10 - Out lot to
•oj«o»>otoro for pro«wur« rocordinjj II -
Boor ing h**k.| 12 - Ruboor fkotonor.
-64-
-------
to 210 g/li. The pH value of the solution was approximately 8,0. When the
pH value diminished, particularly when the gas contained C0_, a corresponding
quantity of soda was added to the solution to maintain its pH at 8.0. It
should be noted in this connection that after one or two experiments the pH
value diminished by 0.1.
The solution used in the experiments was highly reactive; fully saturated
with hydrogen sulfide it absorbed nearly all the theoretically computed oxygen;
20 ml of a regenerated solution absorbed not more than 0.3 ml of oxygen.
Analysis of the solution and of the gas were made by the usual methods [7,
ll]. Gas samples were collected in vacuum flasks. The efficiency coefficient
of a single perforated screen-shelf apparatus, i.e., the degree of absorption,
and the rate and the absorption coefficient were determined by the hydrogen
sulfide content in a gas before and after its passage through the apparatus
[12, 13].
Results of the investigation. To determine the basic principles regulat-
ing the absorption of hydrogen sulfide by a soda-arsenate solution in a foam
apparatus and to determine the optimal conditions for
the process, tests were conducted at different rates
of gas flow through the cross-section of the appara-
tus and at different absorbent fluid flow intensities."
~By the term "intensity of flow of the fluid" is
meant the rate of fluid volume flowing over the ap-
paratus grate (or screen) to the width of the flowing
fluid, expressed 'in m /m/hour. The rate" of gas flow
ranged between 0.25 and 2.5 m/sec, which corresponded
*>
to variations in the gas volumes from 1.0 to 10.2
m /hour. The amount of fluid supplied ranged between
20 and 300 li/hour, which accorded with variations in
the. fluid flow from 0.67 to 10 m /m/hour, with the -
overflow width equal to 0.03 m. Changes in the rate
of hydrogen sulfide absorption, depending on mean
partial pressure,ranged between 0.0154 and 6.414
volume percent; data are shown in Fig. 3.
Experiments were conducted at linear flow rats
w = 1 m/sec through a total cross-section, and a liquid
0,001 0.002 0.003 O.OOH
Fig. 3. Rat* of hydrogan «ul-
fid« absorption in relation to
its parti«l pracaur* at fluid/
gaa volua* ratio 18.75 g/li.
A - Absorption rat* in
*g/«2/hrj D - Partial HgS
pr«saur« in atHf I in ear gaa
flo« rat* « In •/••c.
I - Ij 2 - 2.
-65-
-------
consumption equal to 75 li/hour, i.e., with an intensity i • 2.5 m /m/hour,
and also with w = 2 m/sec, and a fluid consumption equal to 150 li/hour, i.e.,
with i = 5 m /m/hour. The same ratio of fluid volumes and gas f » 18.75
li/m , was maintained throughout the 2 experimental series. Partial pressure
was computed as the arithmetical mean between the partial pressure of hydro-
gen sulfide "before entering and after leaving the apparatus.
It can be seen from Pig. 3 that the hydrogen sulfide absorption rate with-
in the range of the concentrations investigated was directly proportional to
its partial pressure p in a gas; this was in agreement with 'the theoretical
and experimental data obtained in absorption tests with other gases and. a low
concentration of the absorbed component. It follows that the absorption rate
2
of hydrogen sulfida by a soda-arsenate solution per 1m of the grate (screen)
area may be expressed by the following equation*
where g is a quantity of hydrogen sulfide absorbed in kg, S is the area of
2
the grate in m , T the time of absorption in hours, p the mean partial pressure
2
of hydrogen sulfide in a gas in atm, K the absorption coefficient per 1 m of
t\
the surface of the grate in kg/m /hour/atm. The. absorption coefficient K may
be computed by the above formula or determined from Pig. 4, since it is equal
to the tangent of the angle formed by the plotted straight line and the ab-
scissa. The values of K obtained from the experimental data fall in positions
along the straight line parallel to the absicissa in the coordinates K = C..,
- ........... . ... ----- ______ ____________ .. n
where C.. is the initial concentration of H^S.in
mo
1000
- -mo
»»i*^** *•• ^TJ "** w VAA W <4_»*A W dfebh«k W V**W *-*»•* v .JL. U, w .1. \Jl* %p/X *+f\
3000 ^___
M . —•(
lishing an independence of K from the partial
pressure of hydrogen sulfide in the gas.
JlKlgL ' ' ' . The value of the absorption coefficient 'de-
termined as the tangent of the straight line slope
in the coordinate system, the absorption rate of
0 . 0.1' _ cr":.^-.;.~?«!_::.:"partial pressure," for f - 18.75 .li/ml and jC"»_-t-'.-_.-
- - • _ o * "
Fi3. i». v.iue. of K .t different m/sec, approximated 2150 kg/m /hour/atm and for -
HoS concer»tration«> in the gas at o / oc/-v» i / 2 /, / , -, ...
f - 18.75 ii/«3. w = 2 m/sec «•>•> 2500 kg/m /hr/atm. Prom this equa-
A - AbMrption coefficient in tion which determined the functional relation of
kg/t /hr; B - H2S concentration
in 3*8 in vaiuoi percent; linew K to the efficiency coefficient of a one-shelf
gas flo* rate • in "/sec.
1-1)2-2. foam apparatus T) and the linear rate of gas flow
-66-
-------
30
10
10
0.1
0.3
0.0
B
Fig. 5. Scr
-------
Experimental results "of hydrogen sulfide absorption by soda-arsenate
solutions in a one-screen-shelf foam apparatus.
I0S concentration in the gas 0.3 volume percent. Height of weir 60 mm).
Rate of
gas flow
over en-
tire ap-
paratus
cross
section
Hate of
fluid
flow in
m^/m/hr
:., ., :Efficien-:
0 .. „ : Absorber : „ :
Ratio of :_..., :cy coef- : .,
, : fluid ex-: * . . : Absorp-
gas-to : • <*'• ficient ;,. .
5_, . , :cess in %i _ ., :tion rate
fluid : ., : of the : /Q .
- . rover the : . • : g/S in
volume in:., .. : apparatus:, '/ o/v
, . / i :theoreti-: ** :kg/m*/hr
li/m-5 : , : screen T) i**1 '
: cal : in b •
Absorption coef-
ficient K in
in/hour
i
kg/m2 of
screen
hr/atm
0.25 {
O 5O -1
W . J\J 1
-
O 75 •!
*•*• iJ 1
1 DO \
J. t\J\J 1
1 SO "I
.pu ^
r
2.00 \
0.67
1.34
2.50
5.00
0.67
1.34
2.50
5.00
0.67
1.34
2.50
5.00
0.57
1.34
2.50
5.00
7.50
10.00
1.34
• 2.50
5.00
7.50
1.34
2.50
5.00
20.00
40.00
75.00
150.00
10.00
20.00
37.50
75.00
~7.oo
13.30
25.00
50.00
5.00
10.00
18.75
37.50
56.25
75.00
~7.oo
- 12.50
25.00
37.50
5.00
9.38
18.75
420
940
1850-
3800
160
420
860
1830
80
240
550
1170
30
160
380
860
1330
1830
80
-" 210 -----
550
860
30
130
380
53.3
60.8
59.1
62.4
31.2
38.4
43.7
55.3
19.0
28.7
33.7
40.0
16.7 -
20.3
32.7
38.3
44.8
44.6
13.0
- 18.0
27.0
36.2
10.8
14.5
22.0
2.06
2.34
2.28
2.40
2.34
3.01
3.36
4.27
2.19
3.32
3.89
4.62
2.56
3.13
5.04
5.90
6.91
6.86
3.00
...-,4.15 —
6.22
8.30
3.28
4.51
6.76
650
783
756
814
665
868
1005
1375
567
805
1090
1350
656
810
1410
1700
2075
2065
750
,/ 1070 --
1680
2360
822
1130
1780
985
1185
1145
1235
1000
1315
1520
2085
860
1375
1640
2045
995
1230
2140
2580
3140
3130
1140
1620
2550
3580
1250
1710
2700
suited from a shorter contact time between the fluid and gaseous phases
and from a lower ratio of liquid and gas volumes. A rise in the value of f
at the same solution concentration increased the amount of the chemosorbent
reagent, and, according to the law of mass-reaction, should also accelerate
the chemical reaction. In experiments conducted at the same time at identical
liquid flow rates, the ratio f sharply changed due to increased linear rate of
gas flow. Thus, with i = 0.67 m /m/hour, the value of f, within 0.25 "to 2.5
m/sec range of w changed from 20 to 2 li/m . Even at maximum rate of fluid
-68-
-------
60
50
W
JO
10
'0
'SO
JO
<>0
JO
W
ro
B
0 t_ ?. J i, 5 6 7 '0
Fig. 7. Efficiency coefficient of apparatus in
relation to intensity i of fluid flo*.
A -Efficiency coefficient eta in %; B - Intensity
Linocr goo flow rate • in e/oeci I - 0.25; 2 -
0.5| 3 - 0.7Sj l» - 1.0} 5 - l.5| 6 - 2.0.
S 0.3 10 4.5 2.0 Z.i
Fig. 6. Efficiency coefficient of apparatus
screen-she If in rotation to linear gas flow
rat* ••
A - Efficiency coefficient eta in %} B - Linear
gas flo* rate • in a/sec.
Intensity i in ro3/hr» I - 0.67j 2 - l.3>4j
3 - 2.5{ <» - 5.0.
flow i = 5 mVni/hour» the ratio of fluid and gas volumes, with w = 2.5 m/sec,
was only 15 li/m^,~i.e., less than the optimum, which is ~ 18 - 20 li/m . Thus,
the results showed that for the same value of the fluid flow velocity the rate
of absorption increased with an increase in the linear rate, up to a definite
limit, which was approximately 1 m/sec.
An increase in the linear rate of gas How from 1.0 to 1.5 m/sec lowered
the absorption rate for the average velocities of the liquid flow to 1.34 arid
2.5 m /m/hour, and retarded the rise in the absorption rate with i = 5 m /m/hour
as compared with the increase within the interval w up to 1 m/sec. An increase
'invthe absorption rate' was observed within the 1.5 to 2.5 m/sec range of w, at-
-•_'"," "•* •* ,
- ~ • i = 1.34 and 2.5 m /m/hour, \vhich may have re-
sulted from shifts in the hydrodynamic system,
such as increased turbulence in the fluid flow,
increased height of the foam layer, etc. The
determination of the functional dependence of
the absorption rate.and of the efficiency coef- .
ficient of the perforated shelf (screen) upon
the linear rate o-f-gas flow, under conditions of
identical liquid and gas volume ratios, is of
importance. In the case under consideration
changes in the linear rate of gas flow were ac-
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 ZS
Fig. b. Rote of hydrogen sulfida
aboorption in relation to w.
A - Rate of HoS absorption in
kg/o^ of Bcre«n/hoyrj 6 - Linear .
gas flo» rato in »/»ec.
Intonoity i in e3/n/hour« I -
0.67'j 2 - l.3>»i 3 - 2.5; U - 5.0.
-69-
-------
0.5 1.0 '.5
Fig. 9. Ratea of hydro-
gen sulfide absorption in
relation to • at oifferent
v«luoc of f.
A - R«te pf H2S eosorption
in kg/*2 of ecr«en/hr| B -
Linear ge« flo« rate • in
•/sec.
Values of f in li/ain:
I - 5j 2 - 10) 3 - 20j >4-
UO; 5 - 75.
to
50
to
30
to
'10
05 1.0 15 2.0
Fig. 10. Efficiency coef-
ficient in relation to « at
constant value of f.
A - Efficiency coefficient
in %f B - Linear gas flow
rate in n/aec.
Value of f in li/B3« I - 5}
2 - 10; 3 - 20} <» - MOj
5 - 75."
companied by changes in the amount of liquid supplied
into the apparatus which caused the rate of liquid flow
to change correspondingly.
Curves in Pig. 9 show that the absorption rate
for a constant value of f, increased in proportion
to the linear rate of gas flow. The straight line
curves of this functional relation at different f
values are determined by the constancy of the absorb-
ing power of the solution, while their slopes are
determined by the absorbing capacity of the solution
and by the hydrodynamic conditions prevailing at
various fluid and gas volume ratios. The increase
in the absorption rate caused by an increase in w was
insignificant for low f values, but at f = 20 li/m
the absorption rate caused by an increase in w rose
rapidly. A further increase in f up to 40 and 75
li/m continued to effect an increase in the absorp-
tion rate; however, tnis increase can not compensate
for the increased power consumption in pumping the
large quantities of liquid and the increased pressure
drop of the apparatus.
Changes in the efficiency coefficient of a single
perforated shelf of the apparatus in its functional
relation to w at different- values of f are illustrated
in Pig. 10. ^. •
A comparison of the data shown in Pigs. 6 and 10
indicated that an increasing linear gas flow rate at
a constant fluid to gas volume ratio, decreased the
efficiency coefficient at a considerably slower rate
than at a constant rate of fluid flow. Thus, with w
within the 0.5 to 1.5 m/sec range,-and f = 20 li/m ,...
the efficiency coefficient decreased ~ 1.7 times, while with f «= 40 li/m it
decreased ~ 1.2 times. At the same time, with w within the range of 0.05 to
1.5 m/sec, and i = 1.34 m /m/hour, the efficiency coefficient diminished —3.2
times; with i =• 2.5 m /m/hour, it diminished ~3 times. This fact can be ex.-
1
-70-
-------
plained "by the shift in the absorption rat'e resulting from the -change in the
linear gas flow as a function of the constancy of the liquid gas volume ratio,
or of the rate of liquid flow. However, the characteristics of the absorption
process are best determined by the absorption coefficient and not by the ab-
sorption rate.
It was previously shown that the value of the hydrogen sulfide absorption
coefficient within the range of its concentration in the gas, with f = 18.75
li/m and w = const, was constant. Therefore, to establish optimal conditions
for the performance of a foam apparatus it is necessary to determine the values
of K within a'wider range of the linear rates of gas flow as well as the fluid
flow rates.
. Curves in Pig. 11 show that with i = 5 m /m/hour, K increased rapidly with
w within the limits of 0.25 to 1 m/sec, -and, thereafter, it remained practi-
cally constant. For other f values coefficient K first increased and then de-
creased. This fact pointed to differences in the importance of the resistance
of the gaseous and the liquid phases [15] in the process of hydrogen sulfide
absorption in relation to the conditions nder which the process was carried
out. Thus, the resistance of the liquid phase may be disregarded only at i =
5 m /m/hour, and in this case, even though the absorption rate increased
slightly with w > 1 m/sec, it increased steadily throughout the entire -range
of linear gas flow rates from 0.25 *° 2 m/sec. 7/ith the velocity of liquid
flow equal to 2.5 m /m/hour, the resistance of the liquid phase showed a marked
effect-upon the absorption process and, as a consequence, the absorption-co-- •
- - - _. . efficient increased with the increase in w only up to
~1 m/seci When the intensity of the'fluid flow de-
creased to 1.34 m /m/hour,- the absorption rate was
determined basically by the liquid phase resistance.
In this case,, the absorption coefficient increased
with the increase in w up to 0.75"- '6.85 m/sec only.
With constant liquid and gas ..volume rati.os, the ab-
.. sorption coefficient increased steadily with an in-
o:r 'to 1.5 10
Fig. it. K in rotation to.«. crease in the linear rate of gas flow, in correspon-
A - K values in a/hour; B -
Linoor gas fioo roto * in dence with the value of f.
ra/soc.
Intensity i in Q /ra,
i - o.67j 2 - i.3>»} 3 - 2.50| increased rapidly with the increase in w, and with
4 — SeO*
The results showed that the absorption coefficient
-71-
-------
tsoo
2000
1500
1000
500
0 0.5 W 1.5 2.0
Fig. 12. K in re I »t ion to
• at constant values of f.
A - Values of K in a/hour;
B - Linear gas flow rate *
in a/sec.
Values of f in li/B3. I -
5} 2 - 10; 3 - 20) >« - 50)
5-75.
1*
3.3
3.1
3.1
3.0
..19
U
W f.1
IB 1.S 20
Fig. 13. K in relation to « in
logarithaic syt-ten of coordinates.
A - Values of- log K) B - Valuaa of
log «.
Values of f In Il/o3, I _ 5) 2 -
10} 3 - 20) \t — >»0| 5_- 75. _
f o 20 - 75 li/m . A decrease in the ratio of f to
10 and 5 li/m resulted in a slower increase in the
absorption coefficient v;ith an increased rate of gas
flow. This fact can be explained by the dissimilar
hydrodynamic complex of. conditions prevailing in the
gas-liquid system, which, in turn, determined the
degree of turbulence in different currents and the
contributory resistance of the liquid phase.
Pig. 13 shows K as a function of w in a loga-
rithmic system of coordinates. It also shows that
the construction of the function K = q>(w) in loga-
rithmic coordinates produced straight line curves of
different slopes as functions of the liquid-gas volume
ratio. The above points to the fact that, with f
being constant, the shift in the absorption coefficient
controlled by the linear rate of gas flow in a
foam apparatus can be expressed by the formula
K = a . w . The values of n, determined by the
tangent of the straight lines slope in Pig. 13,
are equal tot
0.33 at f = 5 and 10 li/m3
0.5 at f = 20 li/m3
and 0.625-at Z =40 and 75 li/m3
The above data show -that the resistance
of the fluid phase played an important part in
the process of hydrogen sulfide absorption by .
a soda-arsenate solution in a foam apparatus. •
Furthermore, the resistance of the liquid phase,
as a part of the total resistance to absorption,
depended upon the liquid and gas. yo.lume..ratio.
The smaller was the ratio, i.e.,.the less "the" ~~-
excess of the absorber over the. st_qichiometric amount, the greater was the
resistance of the liquid phase. However, the absorber capacity, especially
with f = 20 li/m , was high, and under the study conditions, i.e., under low
partial hydrogen sulfide pressures^the absorption intensity was. practically
. -72-
-------
determined only "by the partial gas pressure. At the same time, the rate and
the absorption coefficient depended considerably upon the hydrodynamic condi-
tions prevailing in the foam apparatus.
The absorption coefficient in a foam apparatus was several times 10
greater than in a scrubber. It was previously stated that the coefficient of
H?S absorption in a scrubber apparatus did not exceed 100 kg/m /hour/atm.
under conditions of industrial production. The respective values for the
coefficient of hydrogen sulfide absorption obtained in a foam apparatus with
f = 18.75 li/m3 were:
• . O
2150 kg/m /hour/atm, at w = 1 m/sec, and
p
2500 to 2700 kg/m /hour/atm, at w = 2 m/sec.
n O
Even at f = 20 li/m and w =5 0.5 m/sec, K = 868 kg/m /hour/atm.
A distance of 0.5 m between the perforated shelves of the foam apparatus
assured its normal operation. The results showed that gas purification from
hydrogen sulfide by means of soda-arsenate solution can be accomplished in a
foam apparatus much more efficiently than in a scrubber apparatus, as shown
below:
with w = 0.5 m/sec - 17 times more efficient
w o 1 m/sec - 40 times more efficient .
w = 2 m/sec = 50 times more efficient
Conclusions.
1. During the study of hydrogen sulfide absorption by a soda-arsenate
solution-in a foam .-apparatus, it.-was established._that within the investigated
range of ELS concentration in a gas, i.e., up to approximately 4$ by volume,
and with constant liquid-gas volume ratios and constant linear rates of gas
flow, the absorption coefficient and the efficiency coefficient of. a single
perforated shelf (screen) of the apparatus were independent of the hydrogen
sulfide concentration in the gas.
2. Depending on the rate of liquid flow the efficiency coefficient of a
single perforated shelf (screen) of the apparatus dropped by 55 "to 6$% at gas
flow rate of 0.25 m/sec, and by 10 to 20$ at gas~flow rate" equal to 2 m/sec.
3. With a constant liquid-gas volume ratio the rate and the absorption
coefficient changed in proportion to the change"in the" linear rate of gas flow.
4. With low liquid-gas volume ratios, such as f => 5 ~ 10 li/m ^ and
within the 1 to 2 m/hour range^the absorption coefficient increased 1.2 to
-73-
-------
1.4 times at a progression proportional to the 0.33 power of the rate of gas
flow.
5. With high liquid-gas volume ratios the absorption coefficient, within
the range of 0.5 to 1.5 m/sec, increased 2 tiues at f = 20 li/m , and 2.5
times at f = 40 li/m , or progressions proportional to the 0.5 power and 0.66
power of the rate of gas flow.
6. The values of the absorption coefficient, obtained for hydrogen sul-
fide absorption in a foam apparatus (for example at f = 18 to 20 li/m ) were
many times greater than the values obtained for absorption in a scrubber ap- •
paratus.
7. Installation of foam apparatus requires several times less space than
scrubber installation.
Bibliography.
[1 ] M. E. n o a H H, H. II. M y x ji e a o B, E. C. T y M a p K H B a, 3. H. T a p a T.
FleBHUH rnocoO oGpaGofKH raaoB H JKBAKOCTCH. rocxHMBaaar (1955). — [2] C. T. A p o-
B o B. Ccpa. HsB/ieseaBe HB npoMunL,ieauux or6pocHux raaoa. Mora any prnaaar (1940). —
13| H. 11. E r o p o B, M. M. fl H H T p a e B, A. J\. 3 M ic o B. OIHCTKB or cepu KOKCO-
Ba/ii.uoro H .ipyrnx ropioiRx raaoa. MoTa^jiypmaAaT (1950). — [41 K. H. Ill a 6 a a R B,
3 M. M n x c ji b c o a, JKXH, 9, 13 (1932) — [5] H. A. G o 1 m e r. Ind. Eng. Ch.,
26, 2, 130 (1934). — (6J T. O. H y c H H o B, WXO. 23, 1420 (1936). — I?) F. O. H y-
c H H o B H A. II. A H a p H e H o B. MumbHKOBUH apon&cc raaooiHCTKH. OHTH (1937).
— [8] A. C. K p e a A e n b, >KXn, 4, 288 (1937). — (9) M. C. JI a T B B B e H K o.
JKIIX, XXV, 7. 696 (1952). — |10J M. E. n o 3 B H. )K11X, XIX, 1201, 1319 (l'946);
XXI, 802(1948). — lll|C. M. To Ji n H «, A. E. C T p a x o B a, 3JI, 4—5, 503 (1946).
— [12| M. E. 11 oa H a, JKRX, XX V, 10, 1032 <1952). — |13] M. E. II o 3 B a,
B. A. K o u u Ji e B, r. B. t> e .n b H e B K o, Tp. JIT11 HM. JleucoBera, 38, TocxeMBaAar
(1956). — [14] M. E. n o 3 H a, B. A. K o n u a e B. 7K1IX, XXX, 3, 362 (1957). —
. [15J M. E. n o 3 H H, B. A. K o n u ji e B, >KHX, XXXI, 3, 387 (1958).
-74-
-------
Rate of Hydrogen Sulfide Absorption by Sodium Arsenate Solutions.
M. I. Gerber, V. P. Teodorovich and A. D. Shusharina0
(Leningrad Scientific-Research Institute for Oil Refining and Synthetic
Liquid Fuel Production).
Zhurn. Prikl. Khim., Vol. 31, No. 11, 1624-162?, 1958.
The purpose of this study was to determine the mechanism of hydrogen
sulfide absorption by sodium arsenate solutions under conditions simulating
those in industry. The following series of experiments were conducted to
determine the effect of different factors on the absorption rate0 The tech-
nique of the experiment and the synthesis of the oxy-arsenate solutions were
described in previous publications £l, 2j. ,
Experimental part. Absorption of hydrogen sulfide by a solution contain-
ing a mixture of Na2HAsS30 and Na?HAsSp02. The atomic ratio of sulfur to
arsenic in industrial sodium arsenate solutions after regeneration is approx-
imately 2.5. Therefore, a mixture of Na_HAsS^O and Na0HAsS_0 was prepared
having a 2.48 ratio of S to As. The experimental data of hydrogen sulfide ab-
sorption by such a solution are shown in Table 1.
TABLE 1.
Effect of solution pH on hydrogen sulfide absorption rate by a solution
of Na2HAsS20 and Na2HAsS202. Ratio of S:As in g at 2.48; temperature
40°; As concentration = 0.05 6/1i-
"
Solution composition
*
Per cent
hydrogen
sulfide in
the gas
»
. -. ^ — ....
Solution pH
Initial
After
3 min
•
Ml of
absorber
in 3 min
Time in
minutes
during
which S:As
ratio in-
creased
by 0.5
ii a Q-t-uvs* HQ j Q v . j. ^ T i» «* wa
*- <- • ^rO X • P b
Sa2HA8S2.48°1.52
Na2HA8S2.48°1.52 * W
f .UU
4.45
4.65
•LY*-'"
8.2
7.2
7.05
6-55
• uov j
26.3
30.9 ' -
r^
16
-18
As was mentioned in the preceding report [2], the addition of alkali re-
tarded the rate of oxygen substitution by sulfur. However, the addition of
sulfuric acid had practically no effect upon the rate of absorption under
-75-
-------
study. This may be explained by the fact that a lowering in the pH value ac-
celerated the reaction rate; it must be remembered, however, that there are
other factors which lower the concentration of HS ions in the solution, and,
as a consequence, retard the absorption rate. It is also possible that a lower
degree of hydrolysis of NapHAsS^O salt, as compared with that of Na_HAsS_09
nay be such a factor. Investigation of hydrogen sulfide absorption by
Na_HAsS-jO solutions was conducted along 2 lines: the partial pressure of
hydrogen sulfide was varied in one series of experiments, while the concen-
tration of sodium oxythioarsenate was varied in the other series. The ex-
periments were conducted at 20 .
TABLE 2.
Rate of hydrogen sulfide absorption by the Na2HAsS30 + l^SCfy solution in
relation to partial hydrogen sulfide pressures in the gas at 20°.
Concentration of As in solution = 0.05
Percent of
hydrogen
sulfide
in the gas
Solution pH
Initial
After 3
minutes
Ml of hydrogen sulfide
absorbed in 3 minutes
In
physical
solution
AS tne
result of
rapid
chemical
reaction
Total
Time in
minutes
during
which S:As
ratio rose
by 0.5
2.1
5.0
10.0
•-• • - IS 0
7.30
7.25
7.30
7 "to
7.20
6.85
• 6.60
6/ie
• lrJ— • •
5.4
12.9
25.8
\f{ 7
3.3
11.0
21.3
•J< 7
JO « / •-
8.7
23.9
47.1
7c /
I j»t
242
138
115
. ~ 7 .. ' " ' - TABLE 3.
Rate of hydrogen sulfide absorption by Na2HAsS30 + 1^304 solution
at 20° in relation to solution concentration.
•
SolutiorvjPercent
•
concen- : of
tration i hydrogen
in : sulfide"
/ * • »
raol/li : in gas
:
_ - „ rHydrogen sulfide absorbed in 3
P „ . . : .-minutes in -standardized ml -
Initial
•
*
After .: ... .In .
3 " sphysical
minutes' : solution
•
As the
r esu.lt, of .
""•rapid--"- •
- chemical
reaction
--Total--
Time in
' minutes
during
which S:As
ratio rose
by Oo5
0,026
0.051
0.079
0.105
5.0
5.0
5.0
5oO
7.30
7.25
7.30
7.25
6.55
6.85
6.90
7.20
12«9
12.9
12.9
12.9
5,5
11.0
" I5o5
21.5
I8o4
23 09
2804
34.4
93
138
119
135
. -76-
-------
The results obtained, shown in Tables 2 and 3, indicated that the rate
of hydrogen sulfide absorption by 0.05 nol. solution of Na?HAsS,0 in the first
and second stages of the process was directly proportional to the concentra-
tion of hydrogen sulfide in the gaseous phase and also to the concentration
of the sorbent. The temperature effect upon the absorption rate is shown in
Table 4.
TABLE 4.
Effect of temperature on rate of hydrogen sulfide absorption
by solution of Na2HAs04 * I^SO/.
As concentration in solution = 0.045 g/li.
Temperature
in C°
Percent of
hydrogen
sulfide
Solution pH
Initial
After 3
minutes
Hydrogen
sulfide
absorbed in
3 minutes
in ml
Time in
minutes
during which
5: As ratio
rose by 0.5
20
40
50
15.6
16.8
15.5
6.9
6.9 ' '
6.9
6.35
6.35
-
58.0
40.7
44.5
55
24
14
Results of the experimental hydrogen sulfide absorption by NapHAsO. so-
lution at various temperatures, recorded in Table 4, indicate that the rate
of oxygen substitution by sulfur greatly depended upon temperature. For in-
stance, the time required for saturation of NapHAsO. with hydrogen sulfide to
the point at which the-ratio of sulfur to arsenia equalled 0.5 was twice as
long at 20° as it was at 40°.
Hydrogen sulfide absorption by Na2HAs04 with intermittent feeding of hy-
drogen sulfide into the reaction vat. The mechanism of hydrogen sulfide ab-
sorption by a solution of sodium oxythioarsenate was described in a previous
publication £2]- The conclusions arrived at were verified by the following
experiments: continuous determinations of pH values of the solution were made
.during, the. experiment, while the hydrogen sulfide feeding into-.the reaction
vat was temporarily discontinued. The experiment was conducted in the follow-
"ing manner: - - - •- —- • . _
Hydrogen sulfide absorption by 0.05 mol NapHAsO. solution was investigated
at pH = 8.5 and \1% of hydrogen sulfide content in the gas. The pH was deter-
mined in~~the course of hydrogen'sulfide absorption."" The ~pH"value of "the solu-
tions fell in the course of time as in the case of preceding experiments.
-77-
-------
After a certain lapse of time, hydrogen sulfide feeding was discontinued and
the vat was brought to rest, but the pH determinations were continued. The
results showed that the pH was gradually increasing. Thereupon, the hydrogen
sulfide feeding was resumed, the vessel again set into motion and the experi-
ment was continued. Curves for this experiment are presented in the follow-
ing Graph.
The curves indicate that at the
time the experiment was discontinued and
the feeding of hydrogen sulfide into the
solution '.vas stopped, a low level re-
action persisted between the hydrosulfide
and the sodium oxythioarsenate, as re-
vealed by a continually, increasing pH
of the solution. Hydrogen sulfide was
gradually absorbed from the gaseous phase,
causing a degree of rarification within
the vessel. After the motor was started
again and the flow of hydrogen sulfide
was resumed, the dissolution of hydrogen
sulfide and the formation of sodium hypo-
wo
Rate of hydrogen sulfide absorption
and pH value in relation to experi-
ment duration at periodic addition
of H2S into the reaction chamber.
A - pH values; B - H2S content in
ml H2S/min; C - Time in minutes.
sulfite commenced anew, and the process continued, accompanied by immediate
high rate hydrogen sulfide absorption.
The results of the experiment strengthened the previous assumption re-
garding the chemical reactions which took place in the process of hydrogen sul-
fide absorption by the solutions under investigation. Furthermore, the re-
sults of the experiment demonstrated the expediency of prolonging the contact
between the sodium arsenate solution and the absorber, since, under such condi-
tions the alkaline capacity of the absorber and its chemical reactive capacity
for arsenic were utilized more effectively.
•---- . .;._. 1 _:_-.--..-- ..- .- .Conclusions.
1. The reaction rate of sulfur substitution"for oxygen in sodium oxy-
thioarsenate, i.e., the third stage, depends, on the partial pressure of hydro-
gen sulfide in a gas, on the pH of the. solution, and on its temperature.
2. The expediency of prolonging the presence of sodium arsenate solution
in the absorber has been experimentally proved.
-78-
-------
Effect of Foam Layer Thickness over Screen Shelf on Carbon Dioxide
Absorption "by Alkaline Solution.
M. E. Posin, B. A, Kopylev and E. Ya. Tarat.
(Leningrad Lensoviet Technological Institute).
Zhurnal Prikladnoi Khimii, Vol. 32, No. 5, 1004-1010, 1959.
Hydrodynamic conditions which develop in the treatment of a gas-fluid
system in a screen-shelf type absorption apparatus are determined by linear •
rate of the gas flow, the quantity of fluid over the screen, the total area of
the screen perforations, and the physical properties of the system components.
In its turn, the hydrodynamic regime (the complex of hydrodynamic conditions)
determines the degree of flow turbulence, and, hence, the intensity of heat
and mass (volume) transfer. The combination of hydrodynamic conditions, which
produce complete foaming of the layer of absorber fluid passing over the support-
ing screen are analyzed below. _ -.- -
The"assumption -prevailed in the -past Clj that the height of foam layer H
and the hydraulic resistance AP of the foam over the supporting screen charac-
terized the hydrodynamic behavior of the absorber apparatus? e The functional
dependence of H and ^p on such determining parameters as rate of gas flow w,
intensity or force of the fluid current i, height of the weir overflow h ,
specific gravity of the fluid Y.pi an<^ viscosity \i has been discussed in pre-
viously published reports C2 - 5]« The influence of H on the rate of heat
transfer as well as mass transfer in different gas fluid systems, predominently
for easily soluble"gases [2, '6, 73> .was thoroughly analyzed in-those, reports.
Below are given values for H and Ap when air of different C0_ content was passed
through NaOH solution; the resulting rate of CO^ absorption was then compared
with thses values.
Experimental ^procedure. —' Experiments on carbon dioxide absorption by a
foam layer of sodium hydroxide solution were conducted using an apparatus
schematically"~~±llustrated in Fig. 1.- It consisted of a glass column, with d -
36 mm, divided into 2 parts by a horizontal vinyl plastic screen: the total
2
area of the screjen perforations was 0.001 m ,_which was the equivalent of the
apparatus cross-section.
—'• L. Ya. Tereshchenko and P. M. Karaseva participated in the experimental \vork.
-79-
-------
(at* outf|«»
*Spill-o»«r
Pig. 1. Laboratory model of foam apparatus with weirs of different heights.
1 - Gas outflow pipe? 2 - Opening to pressure taking; 3 - Above screen-shelf
part; 4 - Overflow boxes; 5 - Fluid inflow pipe; 6 - Bearing hooks; 7 - Flange;
8 - Screen shelf; 9 - Washer; 10 - Rubber fastener; 11 - Gas inflow pipe; 12 -
Gas inflow nipple; 13 - Below screen-shelf section; 14 - Spill over pipe.
-80-
-------
The diameter of the screen openings was 2 mm wide and the distance between
centers was 5 nun; accordingly the area of the perforation equalled 11% of the
total screen area, or S = 17$. Four overflow boxes were installed above the
screen 50 mm apart, beginning with the screen level for foam diversion. During
the experiment one box was connected with the foam disintegrator, while the
others were stoppered. Thus, by changing the weir level h and feeding dif-
w
ferent quantities of fluid into the glass column, i.e., changing the flow rate,
the height of foam H was changed from 100 to 400 mm at a given rate w of gas
flow in the apparatus. The flow intensity was taken with reference to the
diameter of the overflow box; it was expressed in m /hour. With an overflow
box diameter of 20 mm, the fluid supply Q = 20 li/hr which corresponded to
fluid flow intensity of i = 1 m /m per hour. This apparatus was used in pre-
vious laboratory installations for carbonization of soda solutions, as described
in reference C8]> i* was equipped with an additional gas and sodium hydroxide
solution heater. Absorption of carbonic acid from air samples was conducted
with 3 N NaOH solution; the C0_ concentration was ojbjand the gas and absorber
fluid temperature was approximately 60 . The analytical procedure was the
same as described elsewhere £8]. .
In measuring the height (thickness) of the foam layer H, the spray above
the upper level of gas-fluid system was not taken into account. The Ap value
was determined by subtracting the resistance of the dry or'non-active section
of the screen from the total hydraulic resistance (pressure drop) of the appa-
ratus screen shelf. Averages of several tests were used in evaluating the
experimental results. COQ absorption indicators, absorption coefficient K in
2
relation to 1 m of the screen, and efficiency coefficient of one shelf T) were
computed with the aid of analytical data of a gaseous phase using formulas
presented elsewhere £93. K was computed assuming that the pressure balance of
COp over solution NaOH was zero.
Experimental results. Preliminary tests established jthat conditions of
foam formation in an apparatus of small diameter were the same as in the stan-
n
dard. model of 75 cm cross section7area^(Fig.v 2)_X23j. and_Jthat the change in
~COp~concentration in the purified gas up- to 15$ did not affect the foam forma-
tion. NaOH solution foaming was studied while air was passed through 3 N NaOH
at 18 to 80. . ..The tests were conducted with gas flow rates w between 0.5 and
3.5 m/sec and height of initial fluid layer\h between 20 and 100 mm.
-81-
-------
fctt
ozs
an
020
016
0.12
aos
B
i 2 3
.Fig. 2. Foam formation in air-water system
at 18°.
A - Foam height H in m; B - Gas flow rate w
through entire apparatus section in m/sec.
I - Experimental data in standard model
screen 5/2 at So = 12.856; II - Experimental
data in model d = 36 mm and screen 5/2 at
S0 = 17.056.
* * «atf*
I 2 3
Fig. 3. Foam formation in system air, 3 N
NaOH at 60° and with screen 5/2.
A-- Foam height H in m; B - Rate of gas .. .
flow w through entire apparatus section in
m/sec.
-82-
Poam f ormation in jTaOH solu-
tion. Fig. 3 indicates that the
plot of relation between foam
layer thickness H and w at dif-
ferent values of h assumed the
o
form of a series of straight lines
according to equation (l):
H = 0.25w(hQ + 0.1) + 2hQ (l)
It was found that equation
(l) applied within a sufficiently
\vide range for w from 0.5 to 3.5
m/sec, and for h from 0.02 to
0.1 m. H slightly increased
(Fig. 4) as the temperature rose.
Curves in Fig. 5 indicate
that with a constant rate of gas
the hydraulic resistance of the
foam layer increased in propor-
tion to its thickness, which
behaved as a direct function of
h ." The straight lines in Fig.
5 run parallel to one another.
The "specific.gravity" of the
foam and its hydraulic resistance
were inversely proportional to
the rate of gas flow in the ap-
paratus; with an increased rate
of gas flow, a foam layer of equal
depth (height) «as produced from
a smaller volume of fluid, that
is, a lower h , than would be
.the case with lower gas flow rate.
Therefore, the curves indicating
the functional relation between
Ap"and H" sKbw by their positions
-------
JO?
£50
200
SO
80
Fig. 4. Foam height in relation to
temperature with screen 5/2; w = 2.0
m/sec; i = 5 m^/m/hr; hw = 100 mm.
A - Foam height H in'mm; B - Tem-
perature in C°.
NaOH solution concentration in
g equiv/li: 1-1.0; 2-3.0.
that an increase in the linear velocity
of the gas lowered the position of the
curves. The general empirical equation
for the computation of ,^p in the system
examined is as follows:
£P = 400H - 20w + 30(mm water) (2)
The functional relationship between
the absorption coefficient and^ also the
158
100
50
01
0.3
efficiency coefficient of the apparatus
screen oa the foam layer
thickness (height). It is
known £l, 2] that the foam
layer height H created over
the screen of the apparatus
was one of the basic in-
dicators of the foam system
which determined the value.
of the absorption coeffi-
cient and the efficiency of
the absorption process, i.e.,
the coefficient of the
screen efficiency, or per-
-4-B
Fig. 5. Hydraulic resistance (pressure drop) of
foam in relation to its height at 60°, screen
5/2 and 3 N NaOH.
. A - Foam resistance &p in mm water; B - Foam formance.
height H in mmV " " ' " ' .-•---.-_— -•;.— •.-.,.- •- -
r, „, , . ' . i Curves in Fig. 6 pre-
Gas flow rate in apparatus w in m/sec:
1 - 0.5; 2 - 1.0; 3 - 2.0; 4-3.0. sent the functional relation
2
between absorption coefficient K as applied to 1 m of the apparatus screen and
the value.of H at different values of w. " Change in H when w = const, was at-
tained by changing the weir height and the amount of fluid fed into the appa-
ratus. As can be seen from Fige 6, coefficient of C0? absorption with a solu-
tion of NaOH at the given rate of gas flow was proportional to the foam layer
height within the experimental limits-of variation. The equation for-the com-
putation of K in relation to H and w is presented "below:
K = 200w(H -f 2) + 2400H (3)
The degree of the foam layer turbulence can be evaluated to some extent by
its hydraulic resistance AP. In its turn this value can serve as an orientation
-83-
-------
11500
1000
1500
WOO
500
01
03
B
..Fig. 6. Coefficient of carbon dioxide absorption in relation to foam height
at 60°, screen 5/2, 3 N NaOH solution, 6% carbon dioxide in gas.
A - Absorption coefficient K in kg/m^/hour/m^; B - Foam height H in m.
Ratio of gas flow w in apparatus in m/sec: 1 - 0.5; 2 -.1.0; 3 - 2.0; 4 - 3.0.
2000
500
60
Fig.. 7. Coefficient of car-
--~ bon -dioxide absorption in
relation to hydraulic foam -
resistance at 66°, 3 N NaOH
solution-,—6% carbon dioxide -
in gas.
A - Absorption coefficient K
in mg/m2/hr x kg/m->; B -
Foam resistance AP in mm water.
Rate of gas flow w in apparatus
in m/secs 1 - 0.5; 2 - 1.0;
3 - 2.0; 4 - 3.0.
criterion for the estimation of the intensity
of apparatus .performance.
Curves in Fig. 7 present comparative
values of K and of AP at different foam heights
above the screen. The connection between them
at different w values form straight line curves,
and - . - -. .- - - -- .--.--.-
K - 6.75AP + 580w - 260 (4)
This indicates that the absorption rate
in the foam apparatus was directly proportional
to the amount of energy consumed in the forma-
tion -of the foam system.
Ah "equation "for "the determination of the
efficiency coefficient of C0_ absorption with
an alkaline solution and given height of ab-
sorber foam layer can be derived [9] with the
aid of the following generality:
2K
2v + K
(5)
-84-
-------
where v is the velocity of the inert (unabsorbed) gas in in/hour.
For gas containing 6% CO
2'
v = 3600 w(l - 0.06) „ 3400w
from whichs
2K
11 6800w + K
By substituting in equation (7) value K from equation shown in (3) we
obtain: -
12H
(6)
(7)
12H
+ w(H + 2) •
-f w(H + 36)
(8)
30
K>
B
fl*
at g.2 0.3
Fig. 8. Degree of carbon dioxide absorption
(efficiency coefficient) in relation to •
foam height at 60°, 3 N NaOH solution, 6%
carbon dioxide in gas.
A - Degree of absorption (efficiency coef-
.. ficient).j) in %\ B.- Foam height H in m..
Rate of gas flow w in - apparatus: 1.-.0.5?
2 - 1.0; 3 - 2.0; 4 - 3.0.
Conclusions.
Curves in Fig. 8 present
the function of K in relation
to H calculated according to
equation (8) for different
rates of gas flow in the ap-
paratus. Experimental data,
that is points on the curve,
closely coincide with the
theoretically derived curves.
Equation (3) is an empir-
ical one, and its application
as well as-the application of
equation (8) can be resorted
to.only under conditions anal-
ogous to those described above.
1. The efficiency coefficient of one screen of a foam absorber apparatus
during absorption of carbon dioxide with 3 N BaOH solution at 60° varied within
the limits of 0.15 -^-0.5- for rates of gas flow between 0.5 and 3.0 m/sec.
2. The carbon dioxide absorption coefficient fluctuated within the limits
of 500 - 2500 depending on the rate of—gas flow and the quantity of fluid flow- -
ing over the screen. ---
3. Under the conditions of the present experiments, that is with 3 N solu-
tion of NaOH, 6% concentration of C0_ in the gas, temperature of 60°, the ab-
sorption .c.oefficient varied.in. proportion .to. the, foam layer height, which
-85-
-------
fluctuated with the fiven linear gas flow rate and the correlated fluid volume
flowing over the screen of the apparatus.
4. Use of the foam system of carbon dioxide absorption from gases by
sodium hydroxide solutions proved to be effective; it resulted in a highly
intensive process of absorption and consequently, it can be employed effective-
ly in connection with small size absorbers.
Bibliography.
U) M. E. n o a B a. H. II. M y x n e B o a a 3. H. T a p a T. SUIX. JTTX.
1. « (4857). - [2J M. E n 0 a . H. ft. II. M y x n c a o B. E fi. T y af. p it« . a.
3. H. T a p a T. Hemma cnotoS o6pa6o?KE rasos a janffiKocroi. rocxHtsnaRaT (1955). —
|3| M. E. n o a a H. H. II. M y x n e n o a, E. C. T y M a p K • H & • 3. H. T a p a T
7KIIX. XZW, 1,13 (1954).-UlM.E. H o 8 H E, nfll. ifyxaeaoo. JIAHdOCP
HOBOH capsH. 2. 2, 393 (1953). — |5) M. E. II o a m B, E. C. T y M a p M • aa. ^OX.
X* K//JL1170' •i80 (»W - I«l M. E. n o o . a, H. n. M vx a 9^ o* " 3?. ^Ta^
P o T, max, KXX, 2, 293 (1957). — 17) M. E. H o a H a H &. H. T a p a », HCI1X,
i/. 9. 1332 (1958). - 181 M-E. II o > « B, B. A. KoouneB » 3. ft. Tapar
. XSX, 5, 674 (1957). - [9] M. E. n o B * H, WIIX, JTZ V, 10, 1032 (1952f!
Calculating the Phase Balance of Multi-Component Gas Mixtures.
I. G. Plit.
.(Dnepropetrovsk Chemical and Technological Institute).'"
Zhurnal Prikladnoi Kblmii, Vol. 32, No. 11, 2405-2409, 1959.
No records have been found in the literature presenting experimental data
on the subject of multi-component mixture system balance. This is the reason
why performance analysis of industrial installations used in processing carbo-
hydrate gas mixtures is accomplished in "most instances by the calculation meth-
od. In such calculations extensive use is made of the so-called phase balance
constants; with the aid of such constants simple determinations are made of
the dewpoint, boiling point, quantity and composition of condensates formed
in the processes of uniflow and counterflow gaseous mixture condensation.
Phase balance constants have been used also in determining the size of con-
densation stripping and rectification columns £l]. The calculation is based .
on the well-known laws of Raul (PA - XA x P°) and of Dalton (PA » yA x P) from
-86- '
-------
which, in the case of idaal mixtures, the following equation can be derived
which coordinates (connects) the phase compositions:
A A A .
in which K is the "balance of the phase,' in the case of ideal mixtures such
balance depends upon the temperature and the total mixture pressure.
In the case of actual (practical) mixtures the pressure of saturated
vapor of component A over a solution (P.) is determined not only by the tem-
perature, but also by the correction for the 'deviation from ideal gas laws,
which is the coefficient of compressibility. The opinion has also been ex-
pressed [2] that with an increased total pressure over the liquid mixture
mirror (surface), the pressure of the saturated component vapor depended also
upon the total pressure. The factors mentioned are taken into account in the
following equation [2]:
„ fa
** — &
fP
in which ff, is the volatility of the pure fluid at temperature and total pres-
sure at balance, fp is the volatility of the vapor.
Taking into consideration the complexity and difficulty of f ~, and fp de-
termination for many substances under practical computation conditions, it ap-
peared more convenient to determine the constants of phase balance by the es-
tablished practical procedure, or in extreme cases, by the method of highly
qualified calculation taking the volatility correction into consideration.
Numerical values of such constants can be found in sp'ecial references •
[3] in the form of corresponding curves in relation to temperature and total
pressure. However, it is known that in most cases such curves did not cover .
all possible values of temperature and pressure, not even those which occurred
in processing mixtures of gaseous hydrocarbons. Such a situation limits to a
considerable degree the calculation possibilities and creates the need for the
systematization. and coordination of the existing experimental and calculation
data. JTof"thV purpose "6f_vderivihg general regularity trends connected with phase
balance constants.
The pressure of a pure component saturated vapor over a liquid (P.) prac-
A
tically covers the effect of 2 factors of the phase constant, namely, tempera-
ture and the nature of. the_ .substance. .. Where the process temperature is con-
. " • -87-
-------
stant, the effect of the substance nature in this relationship can probably be
expressed not only through corresponding changes in the saturated vapor pres-
sure, but by any other physical parameter.
Prom the viewpoint of possible generalizations of the results for the
purpose at hand, it is more convenient to use, for example, the critical pres-
sure of the substance (P ) and substituting for P its equivalent P
cr
cr'
as
shown by the following equation:
= const P - * ^ P
Furthermore, considering that the pressure ratio P/P can be assumed to be
identical with actual pressure P1, the functional interrelation can be expressed
by the following formula:
K_ ' e f I
T.t = const \P«>
in which the effect of the substance nature and of the total gas mixture pres-
sure at t = const, is determined by the value of P'. It is known that the
reduced pressure represents a generalized parameter, accordingly the above
expressed functional relationship is of a universal nature. For the checking
and final determination of the function character a curve is constructed ex-
pressing the functional relationship between the phase balance constant and the
reduced pressure P* at constant temperature in all instances cited in the lit-
erature (0). In connection with the above, use is made of all the available
practical-data for such hydrocarbons as methane, ethylene,' propy.lene, .ethane,
propane and butane. Such a curve is presented in Fig. 1, in which values of
the constants at Q = 1 are plotted along the coordinate and actual reduced
pressure is plotted along the abscissa.
-2
f
v-7
as
2.0
B
Fig. 1. Functional relationship between phase equilibrium constants (A) and
artificially reduced pressure (B) at reduced temperature (0) equal 1.
1 - Methane; 2 - Ethylenej 3 - Propylene; 4 - Ethane; 5 - Propane;
6 - Butane; 7 - Carbon Monoxide; 8 - Nitrogen.
-88-
-------
The curve in Fig. 1 confirms the actual existence of universal functional
relationships between K and P', in other words, the phase balance constants for
different hydrocarbons at different reduced parameters have identical values.
Deviations at isolated points from the universal regularity are insignificant
and accidental.
Data found in the literature related to nitrogen and carbon monoxide con-
stants were also processed. However, due to: the lack at wide intervals of
reliable pressure and temperature data, only a few points could be determined;
such points were in close agreement with points of observation for all hydro-
carbons, insofar as basic regularity was concerned at £ = !•
Less gratifying results were obtained with carbon monoxide at reduced
temperature and with 9 less than 0.8$and for nitrogen with 9 greater than 1.2,
despite the fact that at other sections of the curve the coincidence of the
results was a satisfactory one. This seems to confirm the fact that tha ac-
curacy of values found in the literature for the above-mentioned constants [4]
was not sufficiently high at all intervals of study. • . - -
Pigs. 2 and 3 present curves of functional K and P1 relationships at dif-
ferent reduced temperatures for a number of approved substances. All confirm
the fact that for all values of 9 the K and P' functional relationship was a
monotypical one; this in turn, makes possible the bringing out of certain
general regularity characteristics
of phase balance constants. It can
be seen that at P1 greater than 2
or at general gas mixture pressure
P greater them 2Pcr the phase bal-
ance constant is practically in-
dependent of the reduced pressure
and that with the rise in the pres-
sure it remained constant. . There-
fore, the utilization of the pres-
sure factor for the intensification
of the condensation process was
limited by a maximum, and the ap-
plication of pressures exceeding
2P would serve no beneficial
cr
purpose. Under such conditions a
1.S
2.0
Pig. 2. Functional relationship between
phase equilibrium constants (A) and
artificially reduced pressure (B).
Reduced temperature (0): I - 0.7?
II - 0.8? IH - 1.2.
-89-
-------
—J
«-*
0.5
1.0
f.f
Z.O
-B
Pig. 3. Functional relationship "between
phase equilibrium constants (A) and
artificially reduced pressure (B) at
reduced temperature (0) equal 1.3.
1 - Methane; 2 - Ethylene; 3 - Propane;
'4 - Carbon monoxide.
reduction in the phase balance
constant can be obtained only by
lowering the temperature.
The general picture is much
the same in the region where P1 is
either equal to or less than 0.1.
Here the constant value practically
tends to approach infinity and an
increase in the process efficiency
can be obtained by lowering con-
siderably the condensation tempera-
ture.
The described characteristics (properties) are only qualitative. For the
quantitative expression of such changes it is necessary to'resort to certain .
analytical equations which can be derived by taking into consideration certain
general functional interrelations. By the method of logarithmic curve plotting,
that is, by the straight-line method of 'plotting the following equation is
obtained:
lg K - Ig a - 0.785 lg P1
in which a is the coefficient, the value of which
depends upon the reduced temperature and with Q =
1, and a = 0.95. In order to bring out the nature
of function a = f(0), curves were constructed, as
shown in Fig.-4, on the basis, of data, taken from
Figs. 1. - 3, representing functional relationships
between phase balance constants and reduced temper-
ature at different assumed pressures. The loga-
rithmic or straight-line presentation of the curves
n Qc
established that a = 0.95 * Q ' » and consequently
and finally: "
lg K = lg 0.95 + 2.85.lg fiL:-_Q.785.lg pt (2)
Fig. 4. Functional rela- "^.uation (2) is a universal or generalized one and
tionship between phase * •
equilibrium constant (A) can be used in the preliminary or orientation de-
and reduced temperature (Q) termination of phase balance constants at different
Artificially reduced pres-
sure P: 1 - 0.15; 2 - 0.2; conditions of actual processes and for different
3 - 0.5} 4 - 1.0"; 5 - 2.-0;- practicaiiy encountered gas phase mixtures.
-90-
05 08 10 1.2
-------
Experimental Utilization of Manganese Dioxide in Purifying Gases from
Hydrogen Sulfide and Recovery of Elemental Sulfur.
Ya. Ya. Dodonov, L. D. Borzova, V. S. Kolosova and V. S. Pokaevskaya.
(N. G. Chemyshevskii Saratovsk State University).
Zhurnal Prikladnoi Khimii, Vol. 32, No. 11, 2373-2377, 1959.
Many methods for the purification of gases from hydrogen sulfide have been
described in the literature. The most widely used are based either on the oxi-
dation of hydrogen sulfide to elemental sulfur [l - 6], or on the neutraliza-
tion of hydrogen sulfide by substances possessing basic properties £2, 3f 7 -
9]. The use of manganese dioxide in the purification of gases from hydrogen
sulfide was first proposed in 1931 [10]. However, the proposed method appar-
ently passed unnoticed, since no evidence was found in the literature of any
progressive work along this line. Studies made by Chagunav in purification
of gases from sulfur by manganese compounds Cll]> were made without any refer-
ence to the regeneration and repeated use of the manganese substances.
These authors developed a method for the utilization of manganese dioxide
in the purification of gases of hydrogen sulfide, accompanied by recovery of
elemental sulfur in a continuous process. Experiments were performed with man-
ganese dioxide which contained less than 0.95$ of MnO, less than 5-78$ of
MnJ),, and less than 80.07? of MnO-. The quantity of MnOg, calculated on the
basis of "active oxygen11, ranged between 74.70 and 87.02$. The set-up used
is shown schematically in the following Figure; it consists of a generator
which received hydrogen sulfide from a 10$ solution of sodium sulfide and
hydrochloric acid (l), a mixer of hydrogen sulfide and" nitrogen or other gas
(2), a reaction column with MnO_ (3), Drexel containers with solutions of
cadmium acetate (4), manometers (5), flowmeters (6), air blower (7) and a
gasmeter. (8)... In studying .the process, of .hydrogen sulfide oxidation, with pure
MnO_ the latter was placed into the reaction column in experiments Nos. 1-7}
-the -JSnO^ was applied -to -the carrier (vehicle) in tests Nos. 8 and 9> i* was
used in water suspension in tests Nos. 10 and 11. In the cases of the latter
use was made of 2 bubbling apparatuses instead of the reaction column. The
finely ground MnO_ water suspension was placed into bubblers equipped with
magnetic mixers. Results of the tests are listed in Table 1. The data in
Table 1 indicate that the outcome of the reaction MnOg + 2 H^S H InS •«• 2H20 + S
-91-
-------
Schematic drawing of the apparatus used in hydrogen sulfide oxidation by
manganese dioxide. Explanation in text.
TABLE 1.
Results of hydrogen sulfide oxidation by manganese dioxide.
No.
Absorber
Mn02
H2
mass composition
,. : Slaked:.. , . ,
0 : ,. : Vehicle
t lime :
* •
t ttate : H2S : Time
:of gas: content I of gas
: flow : in : flow
: in jorigi- : in
: ml/rain inal ffass min.
MnC>2 oxidized
H?S in g
*
Theo- sExperi-
reticalimental
»
Oxida-
tion
in %
1
2
3
8
9
10
11
35.0
10.0
30.0
4.0
4.0
35.0
4.0
_
—
—
12.0
12.0
350.0
340.0
_
_
—
0.1
0.1
5.0
0.1
—
_
-
125.6 of
chamotte
125.6 of
chamotte
-
-
31.4
36.2
34.4
50.0
12.0
21.0
10.7
0.30
0.52
0.38
0.32
0.34
0.11
0.46
2110
314
1896
180
930
931
112
20.44
6.40
19.20
2.72
2.72
20.44
2.72
19-96
5.88
19.20
2.72
2.60
2.29
0.55
97.85
91.90
100.00
100.00
95.58
11.20
20.22
differed with each of the methods used. Lowest percent of hydrogen sulfide oxi-
dation occurred in the experiments performed with the HnO? suspension in water.
Lowering the thickness of the absorber layer and increasing the gas pas3L.ce
rate and tne content of hydrogen sulfide ir. the final rrxs, reduced the percent
of gas oxidation to a slight degree only. On•the oth^r nand, the use of carriers
or vehicles produced positive effects on the process of gas purification from
hydrogen sulfide. The formed manganese sulfide was oxidised by the air oxygen
-------
according to the following reaction: MnS + 1/2 0_ + H^O tf Mn(OH)p + S. The
sulfur was extracted with dichlorethane or trichlorethylene by the Snxlet
method; the solvent was then distilled off using superheated steam; for this
purpose a particular set-up was used which consisted of a steam producer,
steam superheater, a reaction column and a sulfur receiver provided with a
cooling apparatus. The results are presented in Table 2. Data in this Table
show that both methods produced complete sulfur separation. Tests indicated
that the sulfur thus obtained was of adequate purity.
TABLE 2.
Results of sulfur separation from'products of manganese sulfide
oxidation by air oxygen.
lesij .Lnitia-L
No. substance
"
P "\ Manganese f
2 J dioxide I
Manganese
'. dioxide in
refractory
clay
Extraction method
Trichlorethylene
Steam
Steam
: Theoretically :
: computed amount :
jof free sulfur in:
:g on the basis of:
:hydrogen sulfide :
2.20
5.02
18.79
4.67 .
Amount of
separated sulfur
In g In %
'
2.13 96.82
5.05 100.50
18.57 98.83
4.35 93.14
It was now necessary to determine the economic practicability of manganese
dioxide utilization in. practice .by.the so-called "dry" method of hydrogen sul-
fide purification. Hence, a study was made of the most economical process of,
manganese dioxide regeneration, in connection with the continuous method of
gas purification. Regeneration of manganese dioxide by air-oxygen progressed
at a slow rate and with considerable difficulty. The products obtained from
such oxidation possessed low hydrogen sulfide oxidizing properties, as shown
by the fact that activity of manganese dioxide thus regenerated did not ex-
ceed 32 - 36$. However, further studies of manganese dioxide regeneration ~'~"
showed that the simultaneous introduction of chlorine gas and steam hastened
the process of manganese oxidation and increased its value as an active oxi-
dizer. Slaked lime was added to the solution to create a state of alkalinity
for the purpose of reducing loss of manganese by washing out water-soluble
divalent manganese salts. Experiments for the purification of gases from
-93-
-------
hydrogen sulfide and succeeding regeneration of the spent manganese dioxide
and its repeated utilization in the continuous cycle were performed as fol-
lows: a known weight of manganese dioxide was introduced into the set-up
shown in the schematic drawing; the gas containing the hydrogen sulfide was
then passed through it until the manganese dioxide was completely reduced.
After complete oxidation by the atmospheric air, the sulfur was extracted
with trichlorethylene. Before starting cycle II, a mixture was prepared
consisting of 30$ slaked lime and 705? of the products resulting from manga-
nese sulfide air oxidation which was arbitrarily designated as "manganese
dioxide". The final product was then chlorine treated by the steam heat
process. The latter treatment raised the potency of the manganese dioxide
(activity) from 30.81 to 8l<,53$. Similar chlorine steam heat .treatment was
applied to the products in cycles II and III for the re-utilization of man-
ganese dioxide in gas purification from hydrogen sulfide. Oxidizing agents
other than chlorine were tested in a similar manner, but yielded no positive
results.
The summary results obtained by the use of manganese dioxide in the puri-
fication of gases from H-S are presented in Table 3. The data in that Table
lead to the conclusion that the introduction of 30$ by weight of slaked lime
completely eliminated the loss of manganese; the reaction between H^S and
MnOp in experimental cycles I, II and III proceeded to completion, as was
shown by the fact that 100$ of the sulfur was regained; the steam-chlorine
heat treatment resulted in an increase in the potency of the manganese di-
oxide "activity" to 75 - 85$ of utilization.
Conclusions.
1. Studies of the process of gas purification from hydrogen sulfide by
means of manganese dioxide showed that the oxidation-reduction reaction be-
tween hydrogen sulfide and manganese dioxide proceeded to completion. The
reaction product, sulfur, was extracted by chloro-organic solvents with the
aid of superheated steam; 1 kg of manganese dioxide having an MnO_ "activity"
of 83.11$ per cycle oxidized 760.9 g of hydrogen sulfide and produced 737.7
g of elemental sulfur. "
2. Conditions were established for practically complete regeneration
of manganese dioxide. It was shown that steam-chlorine heat treatment en-
hanced the oxidizing potency of manganese dioxide after it had reacted with
-94-
-------
TABLE 3.
Total yield
from the use of manganese dioxide in the purification
of gas from hydrogen sulfide.
? Cycle I
Absorber mass
composition
Original
Mn02
80? Mn02
Ca(OH)2
70? Mn02
Ca(OH)2
50? Mn02
Ca(OH)2
70? Mn02
Ca(OH)2
70? Mn02
Ca(OH)2
70? Mn02
Ca(OH)2
Mn02
+ 20?
+ 30?
+ 50?
+ 30?
+ 30?
* 30?
Content
of
"active"
Mn02 in
percent
83.11
83.11
83.11
83.11
83.11
83.11
83.11
83.11
Sul^r. ! "Active"
FS* * ::Mn02 con- -
of theo- : . *. . Oa
. . , , : tent at
reticallv:
, : end of
calcu— t
lated :
^
100
100
100
100
* 100
100
100
m
30.91
33.96
38.70
36.05
38.70 .
37.27
37.27
Treatment I
cidizing of
agent "active"
99.47
87.72
76.25
Chlo-
' rine 81.53
74.03
81.53
Air 40.25
Oxygen 42.67
Percent
of lost
In02
1.25
35.22
9.31
0.00
2.23
0.00
5.40
4.17
Cycle II
Absorber mass
composition
Original
Mn02
80? Mn02
Ca(OH)2
70? Mn09
r*~f-na\ •
Mn02
+ 20? -
+ 30?
Sulfur
yield ?
- of theo-
retically
calcu-
lated
-—
100
—
: Sulfur
jyield .in
: ?; loss
: not ac—
: counted
: for
^
64.78
— _..
Treatment II Cycle
Sulfur :
III
Sulfur
"Active" „ - yield ? jyield in
Mn02 con- Jan/oss Of theo- : ?; loss
tent in in , retically 1 not ac-
percent , : . ,
percent calcu- j counted
^
85.62
"~ ~" '*'j-*- ' . -— . t .-
.
— .— _ .
lated :
^ ^
53.40 100
- . - _ _
for
•»
46.60
.....
—
50? Mn02 -f 50?
Ca(OH)2
70? Mn02 + 30?
Ca(OH)2
70? Mn02 + 30?
- Ca(OH)2-~ .
70? Mn02 + 30?
Ca(OH)2
100
100.00
74.23
1.55
100
98.45
-95-
-------
hydrogen sulfide and air oxygen. The addition of slaked lime was instru-
mental in totally preventing the .loss.pf.-.inanganese.
^L^o^lt-i-" ••-'.- •: -.-, 'Bibliography.- - s- ' .
. . vi. i *•'**',, »^ .-. •« , t
[1J P. O. H y c m H o B. Meroflu naBJioieHHH cepu B3 npouutunoHBUx raaos. Poc-
SHMTOXB3AOT, M.—JI. (1933). — |2] H. M. E r o p o B a up. OMRCTKB or ccpu KOKCOB.'IJIB-
EOro n Apymx roptoinx raaoa. THTM, M. (1950). — |3] A. C. C M B p a o B. Tpau-
cnopr a xpaaeHBC raaoa. rocTonrexHaflaT, M.—JI. (1950). — 14] Y. Hopton, Gas J.,
25^,4428, 111 B4429, 158(1948). — |5| . <- •
of 0.48 mg/m for 4 hours daily over a period of 144 days caused some animals
to lose weight, lowered the spleen dehydrase activity by 50 - 56% and the same
of the_ liver, lung, heart, and kidney tissues. Activity of cholinesterase
of tissues of the spleen, liver, intestinal mucosa, lungs, heart, and brain
were-also reduced. -Ho determinations, were made-for .the effect .of. S02 on..the
blood. There was a tendency to lowered vitamin C content in the kidney,
liver tissues-and in the intestinal mucosa. At" 0.1 mg/m concentration of—-
SO,, animal exposure for 5 hours daily over 165 days there was a slight ten-
dency., on the part of carbonhydrase to fall below normal activity. Such shifts
were of short duration and reversible. Recommendations: complete absorption
-96-
-------
of SO^ from flue gases before they are discharged into the atmospheric air,
so that the SO,, concentration in the atmospheric air should not exceed 0.03
mg/ia aa in the case of H?S.
Wetting Agents Property to Catch Dust in a Dust Chamber.
S. Kh. Zakieva and A. B. Taubman.
(Institute of Physical Chemistry, Academy of Sciences, U.S.S.R.).
Zhurn. Prikl. Khim., Vol. 32, No. 4, 797-800, 1959.
Lleasures to prevent silicosis and anthracosis, i.e., the pathologic ef-
fects of quartz and coal mining, consist in the main of a wide use of water,
such as drilling blast holes \.'ith washing, sprinkling, water "curtains", and
similar raethods. The dust catching capacity of water can be increased by
adding certain wetting agents which increase the capacity of water to engulf
particulates. Substances with lower surface tension, such as sulfonol (a
Russian trade name), OP-7, OP-10, DB and others [l] belong to the group of
wetting agents. Addition of such substances in practice indicated that re-
sidual- air dustiness..in. mines may be reduced to one-half or one-third; in
many instances-[2] it was actually reduced to the'level required~by~sanitary
regulations. Therefore, physical and chemical analyses and comparative evalu-
*
ations of the effectiveness of various wetting agents are of importance.
Taubman and Nikitina [3] made a thorough study of many wetting agents by
the "drop method" to determine the capacityr of individual drops to entrap
particles of suspended dust. They were able to interrelate the dust capacity
of wetting agents with their composition, chemical structure, degree of dust
dispersion and many other pertinent factors C4Q.- -"-'-• - -. -•-•_.- -.-. -•_- _ -
The present report describes experimental tests made with '.vetting agent
*" •*---.___. -^
solutions using a laboratory dust chamber of 1 m capacity, which is schemati-
cally presented in Fig. 1.
-97-
-------
r.
1
L-,
f
4.
*
a
r
I J. ' .,"?. nitrogwi
U
it
1 1
JO ami
^~^l
-_"..
^^
tank
-S
^XJJI
These tents are of particular
value, since they were performed
under conditions similar to those
prevailing in industrial dust
catching by means of water spray,
especially of dust suspended in
mine air. The results should be
of greater practical value than
those obtained by the laboratory
drop apparatus used by Taubman and
Nikitina.
'.There solutions of wetting
agents were used instead of plain
water C5]» harmless silico-organic
particles were formed in the spray-
containing air through the evaporation of the wetting agent solutions which
distorted counts made for the evaluation of dustiness, yielding- misleading
information regarding the dust-catching capacity of the solutions tested.
Furthermore, the gravimetric count cannot be used when tests are made in a
chamber, since an air sample containing a sufficient amount of dust would
cause a considerable decrease of the dust concentration in the chamber.
Therefore, a special method was developed for the determination of the dust
catching capacity of water and of wetting agent solutions, based on turbidity
caused by the suspension of the dust collected in the process of liquid spray-
ing. The relative effective dust catching capacity (E) was determined from
the ratio between the turbidity of the dust collected by the solution of a
wetting agent H and the turbidity of dust suspension collected by water
Wet
Fig. I. Plan of in*ttll*tion u»«d in the a*t«r>ink-
tian of dust catching pro^rty of **tting *g*nt so-
lution* in » dust ch«»b«r.
I - Duct chi*b*r; '{ - Du»t di»(/«rv»rj 3 - R«eeiv*r*;
M - Blo»«rj 5 - Forced *f"~«y nozzlvj 6 - T«nn con-
tcining w«t*r or «ttmd *g«nt »otution; 7 - Opening
to tank filling; i), 9, 10 - V«lv»»j 11 - tt»no>*t*r}
12 - Fiucet, 13 - Ho*«; |l( - Dr«ir.
E m
wa
The dust concentration in the chamber changes continually during the ex-
periment due to settling of coarse dust particles; therefore, measurements
were begun after 7 to 8 minutes, when the heavy particle settling stopped and
the concentration of suspended particles could be considered constant for
purposes of study. —
-98-
-------
Curves shown in Pig. 2 represent rate
of quartz dust settling and indicate that
the initial concentration under the experi-
mental conditions was 2.5 - 3.0 x 10 of
particles per cm . Determinations of the
initial dustiness in the dust chamber were
made by the count method using &n electron
ultramicroscope VDK [6], Samples were
taken approximately at mid height of the
/ 200 p - 9.9$. •
Substances under investigation were dust from the Baleiskii deposit, which
contained approximately 60$ of SiO_, and coal dust from the Yasinovka Donbass
mine, the particle sizes of this dust were approximately 10 |i or less.
One g of quartz dust or 3 g of coal dust were placed into a dust diffuser,
built for this study. Approximately one minute before the experiment was
initiated, a fan was started in the chamber to maintain uniform dust distribu-
tion. The dust under study was then gradually forced out of the diffuser by
the operating blower. The diffuser was then removed from the chamber, its
opening was plugged, and the fan was turned off. The dust was allowed to
settle undisturbed for about 7 minutes; then, either water or a wetting agent
solution-was sprayed in under'pressure of 3 atmospheres. As-the sprayer was
set into operation, the receptacle lids were opened by means of an outside
attachment, and an air sample was taken over a period of one minute. The
suspension collected in 4 receptacles was transferred into a volumetric flask.
In the experiments with pure water spray, a stabilizer, which was the wetting
agent being tested, was introduced into the suspension.. Parallel control ex-..
periments were conducted to determine the correction factor accounting for
freely settling dust. The turbidities of the suspension obtained were measured
with an "KMP" nephelometer.
The following Table shows the results obtained with quartz dust and
with coal dust in determining the dust catching capacity of solutions of a
-99-
-------
Dust catching capacity.of.
wetting agent RAS-Na in
relation to concentration.
Wetting agent:
c one ent rat i on j E
in percent :
0 (water)
0.25
0.50
1.00
1.00
M :
wa:
~ M , i
wt :
loOO
1.3? \
1.67 I
1.85
2.22
Dust
type
a
70
Si)
•as
10 C
Fig. 3. Dust catching
capacity of RAS-Na wetting
agent solution in relation
to concentration.
E - Dust" catching capacity;"
C — Wetting agent concen-
tration in %', a - Surface -
tension in erg/cnj2.
new wetting agent known as "RAS-Na", synthe-
sized in the Oil Institute, Academy of
Sciences, U.S.S.R. [7],
The curve in Pig. 3 represents the
functional relation of the dust catching
capacity (E) of RAS-Na solutions to the con-
centrations of the v.otting agent using quartz
dust. The dash line represents the isotherm
of the dynamic surface tension for same so-
lutions corresponding to the time of droplet
(T) formation equal to 2 seconds [8].
The results agree with data obtained by the
trickling apparatus and lead to the conclusion
that the procedure described herein and the use
of a dust chamber for the evaluation of the dust
collecting capacity of wetting agent solutions
which lower surface tension constitute a con-
venient semi-industrial method for use in select-
ing effective wetting agents.
Conclusions.
1. A special method was developed based on
-the use of a laboratory dust chamber for the •
evaluation of dust catching capacity of wetting
agent solutions with a lower surface tension,
particularly in their application to the abatement of deleterious silicon and
anthracite dusts.
2. The value of a new synthetic wetting agent known as RAS-Na in catching
silicosis and anthracosis producing dusts has been established by this method.
- Bibliography ~..
Ill JI M B a p o H. npoAanaKTHKa cnnHKoaa H aurpaKoaa npH ropiiux paapaGor-
KBX Vr.icTcxBaaaT (1954). — [2J JI. H. B a p o H. Bopb6a c CHJIBKOSOM, 2. Ha«. AH
CCC'P 71 (1955). — 13] A. B. T a y 6 M a H H C. A. H n K H T H a a. Eopi>6a c CHJIHKO-
30M, 2. lisa. AH CCCF (1955). - |4] A. B. T a y 6 * a u a C. A. H H K H T H Bi a, flAH
CCCP 110 cm 816 (1956). — 15J C. A. H H K H t a H a, A. B. T a y 6 u a a HC. X. 3 a-
K BC B a 'Bop'b6a c c«i.KO8oi. 3. Ma«. AH CCCP (1957). - |6] B. B. fle p HP.i H H
P. fl. B n a c e u K o. Bopt6a c CHJIHKOSOM, 2. Maa. AH CCCP, ^2J (1955). —
171 A ft JI a p H H, IIpoMbicnoBaH Koonepaiwn, /, 25 (1957); M. A. T e H M a H,
A HJlapHH, B. B. DlaeepcoH HP. A.
-------
Basic Data for the Determination of .Sanitary Clearance Zone Widths Around
Feat Burning Electric Heat and Power Stations.
N. Ya. Yanysheva.
(The F. P. Erisman Moscow Scientific-Research Institute of Sanitation
and Hygiene, Ministry of Health of the U.S.S.R.).
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 24, No. 9, 6-10, 1959.
It has been estimated that 60$ of the world's peat supply was within the
boundaries of the U.S.S.R. Some of the largest U.S.S.R. electric heat and
power stations burned peat. It has also been estimated that at the end of the
fifth Five-Year Plan the U.S.S.R. will generate 25$ of the world's electric
energy. The effect of such an amount of peat burned by electric heat and power
plants will be seriously reflected in increased atmospheric air pollution with
fly ash and other pollutants resulting from burning the anticipated quantities
of peat.- Peat as a fuel is characterized by low ash content. Top-layer peat
contains 2 - 456 of ash, the intermediate layers contain 4 - 6$ of ash, and the
lower layers of peat contain 6 - 18$ of ash. Sulfur content of peat varies
between 0.1 and 0.2$ in the top layer variety and between 0.3 and 0.5$ and
rarely up to 1.0$ in the lower layered peat. K. G. Beryushev was the first
to study atmospheric air pollution by discharges coming from peat burning
electric heat and power stations. Using the sedimentation method Beryushev
established signs of atmospheric air pollution within a 2 km area from the
source of the discharge.
The purpose of the present study was to secure data for the revision of
the sanitary clearance zone regulation GOST H 101-54, applicable to electric
heat and power stations which used peat as fuel. Studies were conducted in
the environs of four separately located electricity generating stationst 3
stations were located in the Moscow, and one in the Ivanovsk regions. The
stations burned 50, 90, 200 and 250 tons of peat per hour; they were equipped
with jalousie ash catchers and with cyclone ash abaters which operated at
50 - 65$ effectiveness, "with the smokestacks ranging between 30 - 60 .m. height.
The study was limited to the estimation of atmospheric air pollution with dust
and with S0_. Five-hundred and twenty-three air samples were collected by the
aspiration method in the path of the smoke flume at distances between 100 to
2500 meters from the point of discharge.. .Simultaneously .studies were made of
-101-
-------
the amounts of ash and SO actually emitted into the atmosphere by the electric
stations. The procedure was as follows: at the time the aspiration air samples
were collected, records were made of the number of operating boilers, their
charge or loading capacity, the rate of fuel consumption, the fuel composition
and the ash catcher operation. Supplemental study results and other pertinent
data are listed in Table 1. It should be added at this point that the methods
of fuel combustion used by the electric heat and power stations under investiga-
tion were different. Electric heat and power stations Nos. A and B burned a
mixture consisting of 60>2 milled and 40$ lump peat, station C burned milled
peat exclusively, and station D burned lump peat exclusively. Atmospheric air
pollution data (dust and SO ) are listed in Table 2.
TABLE 1.
Properties of the fuel and of the emissions into atmospheric air.
Electric heat and
Indexes
:
Peat consumption in tons
per hour
Peat ash content in
percent
Efficiency coefficient
of flue gases purifica-
tion in percent
Ash emission in tons
per hour.
Sulfur .content in percent
S02 emission in tons
per hour
Smokestack height
in m "
A
250
62
5-3
0.3
1.5
40
• •
: B :
: :
200
9
4 boilers 50 .
5 boilers no
purification
8
------ .-- -..0.3 1. --.-
1.1
7 stacks 40
2 stacks 60
power plants
C
90
9
60
3
.0.3
0.5
30
1 D
•
50
i f\
10
65
0.5
- 0.3...
0.3
30
' The hygienic evaluation of data related to atmospheric air pollution and
to width of sanitary clearance zones was based on a comparison of the actual
maximal single concentrations with the limits of allowable concentrations
adopted in the U.S.S.R. for dust _(0.5_mg/m ) and S02 (0.5 mg/nr). Of equal
weight and importance were the answers to a list of questions given to local
residents which in this case were in close correspondence with the results of
the analytical laboratory findings. Answers given by residents at a radial
distance of 1500 m from electric stations A and B presented a suitable example
-102-
-------
T A B L E 2.
3 .
Maximal dust and sulfur dioxide concentrations in mg/m in atmospheric air
in the surroundings of the electric heat and power plants.
Meters
from
plant
100
300
500
1,000
1,500
Electric heat and power stations
A
•
Dust :
»
•
_
-
9.55
3.31
1.47
SO,
2
„
-
2.1
1.8
1.5
T
B
Dust 1
17
12
4
2
A B L
•
•m
.0
.3
.0
.0
E S
S00
2
im
1.6
1.6
1.2
0.8
3
G
Dust :!
:
-
3.
2.
1.
0.
AND
<»
ILJ
26
89
00
68
4.
SO
. —
2.
0.
0.
0.
M
60
45
39
32
D
Dust :
1.70
0.40
0.18
None
found
—
sb_
2
0.8
0.6
None
found
None
found
-
Answers to. questions by residents in surroundings ..of plants A and B in percent,
:„ : Air smokiness noted
:No. ;
Meters from: ... : : : : :
* of * * * * *
electric : :Gener-: Fre- :Infre- :,T :„.
T .:per-: -,-, : .-, f .-, :None:Strong
power plant •. : ally :quently:quently: : &
:sons:
: :
:„ ... , :Smoky:
: Soiled : •, '-^ ^
:.,. : and :Damaged
:linens :, . : ?
Weak 1 and !<^ty|vegeta-
:clothes:
:win- : tion
:dov;s
200-300
500-600
1,200-1,500
. T
200-300
500-600
1,200-1,500
101
100
92
99
95
94
100.
100.
92.
-----
100.
100.
91o
0
0
0
_-_—
0
0
5
71.
--..-.
100.
96.
8.
0
-
—
"
0
8
5
Plant. A
18.0
— —
1.1
Plant B """
_ _
2.1 - -
91.5 8.5
93.0
100.0
19.8
-— -
100.0
66.4
1.1
7.0
-
80.2
- -- -
_
33.6
89.3
100.0
100.0
99.8
_-. -_. „
100.0
100.0
36.2
98.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
72.3
99.0
100.0
99.8
100.0
95.0
1.1
of the above mentioned correspondence; the answers are listed in Tables 3 and
4. The answers given by the residents indicated that the smokestack discharges
seriously affected the general living conditTbns'of 'the population residing
1500 meters from electric stations A and B. This was basically due to the fact
that the flue gas purification equipment operated at low efficiency, and the
smokestacks were of insufficient height on the one band, and on the other hand
the sanitary clearance zones between the stations and the populated areas were
of insufficient width.
-103-
-------
Electric station A burned-250 tons of peat per hour; the peat contained
8$ of ash; the ash catching installations operated at 62£ efficiency, and the
height of the smokestack was 40 meters. Accordingly, the smokestack discharged
into the atmospheric air 5.3 tons of ash every hour. According to the data
listed in Table 2 the sanitary clearance zone should have been more than 2500
m wide, since even at a distance of 2500 m from station A the S0_ concentra-
tion in the atmospheric air-was.3 times the required limit of its allowable
concentration. Examination disclosed that the actual width of the existing
clearance zones was approximately 200 m and that it was not possible to in-
crease its width under the prevailing localization of populated areas; the only
isay in which this particular sanitary problem could be solved, would be by
raising the ash-removing efficiency of the gas purifying equipment to 97 - 98$.
Electric station B burned 200 tons of peat per hour; -the ash content of
the-peat was 9$» the station operated on 9 boilers, of which only 4 were equipped
with ash-catching installations. As a result, this station emitted through its
smokestacks of 40 - 60 m high 8 tons of ash per hour. At 2500 m from this
station the maximal dust concentration exceeded by 4 times the maximal single
allowable concentration; the SO. concentration at 2500 m from the station ex-
ceeded by 1,6 times the maximal single allowable atmospheric air concentration.
Accordingly, the width of the sanitary clearance zone surrounding station B
should be 2500 m. Here, again, the existence of populated areas makes widening
of the present sanitary clearance zone practically impossible, and, as in the
case of station A, the sanitary problem could be solved only by riasing the
total flue gas purification to 91f» " ~ "
Statical C turned 90 tons of peat per hour; the ash content of the fuel was
-------
Simple calculation indicated that flue gas purification from ash in this in-
stance should be increased to not less than 90$.
The electric heat and power stations under present study had ash abating
facilities which removed not ciore than 50 - 65% of flue gas ashes, and their
smokestacks were of insufficient height (30 - 60 m). Regulation N 101-54 con-
tains no specifications for sanitary clearance zones for plants similar to the
above. For the comparative evaluation of the results obtained calculations
were made for the determination of dust concentrations which would remain if
75 ~ 90$ of the ash were removed, and if the smokestacks were 100 - 120 m high;
and which would accord with requirements stipulated in regulation N 101-54.
The calculation formula was based on actual dust concentrations found in the
atmospheric air surrounding the investigated stations. In Table 5 data are
presented related to dust concentrations calculated on the basis of degree of
discharge purification, with the aid of the following formula:
K (1 - T) )
v
-------
trations at different distances from smokestacks of different heights. Such
data are presented in Table 6.
TABLE 6.
Computed dust concentrations in mg/m with smokestacks 100 - 120 m high.
Meters
from
power
plant
300
500
1,000
2,500
:
: Correction
: coefficient
•
At 75$ dust catching^ :
Electric heat
B i
•
•
9.5 0.71
2.5 1.95
1.5 1.07
1.2 0.67
C :
»
0.21
0.72
0.40
0.34
D :
0.29
0.05
—
-
At 90$ dust
catching
and power stations
A i
•
•
.
1.00
0.60
0.33
B :
•
*
0.25
0.68
0.47
0.25
C
0.08
0.28
0.20
0.16
: D
•
»
0.011
0.020
-
-
Conclusions.
1. An electric heat and power station which burned hourly 250 tons of
peat containing 10$ of ash, and which was equipped with 90$ ash abating in-
stallations and had smokestacks 100 - 120 m high, discharged into the atmos-
perhic air 1.4 tons of ash. In such cases the calculated width of sanitary
clearance zones should be not less than 1000 m, indicating that the officially
adopted width of 500 m was inadequate; this was verified by the fact that at
500 m from the smokestacks the maximal.dust concentration was in excess of the
allowable maximal concentration.
2. An electric heat and power station which burned hourly 200 tons of
peat containing 10$ of ash, and which was equipped with 75$ ash abating in-
stallations and had smokestacks of 100 - 120 m high, discharged into the at-""
mospheric air 2.7 tons of ash hourly. According to regulation N 101-54 such
a plant should be separated from populated localities by a sanitary clearance
zone 500 m wide. However, results of calculations indicated that the width
of the sanitary clearance zone should be mor.e than 2500 m. Under similar con-
ditions and with flue gas purification amounting to 90$ of ash removal the
volume "of ash discharged" into the atmospheric'air -would amount to-1.1 tons .per _
hour. Here again, the required 500 m wide sanitary clearance zone prescribed
by N 101-54 was inadequate and should be revised to 1000 m.
3. An electric heat and power station which burned hourly 90 tons of peat
containing 10$ of ash, and which was equipped with 75$ ash-removing equipment,
discharged into the atmospheric air 1.7 tons of ash hourly through high smoke-
-106-
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stacks; according to the results of the proposed computation the sanitary clear-
ance zone in such cases should be not less than 1000 m wide, instead' of 500 m
as recommended by regulation N 101-54. At 90# ash removal such a station will
still discharge into the atmospheric air 0.7 tons of ash hourly; here, again,
the 300 m clearance zone prescribed by regulation N 101-54 is sadly inadequate.
4. An electric heat and power station which burned hourly 50 tons of peat
containing 10>b of ash, and which was equipped with 755> ash-removing equipment
discharged into the atmospheric air 0.5 tons of ash per hour. Calculation by
the method previously outlined indicated that the 300 m wide sanitary clear-
ance zone prescribed by regulation N 101-54 was indadequate.
Bibliography.
B e p 10 w e H K. I LJ KH.: CGopiniK ipyjOB HayMHO-HCCTiea. HH-TB KOMvyHa.ibHOft
lamiTapHii H riimei.u. M.. 10.19, T. 3, crp l.'<3. — F y p H H o a B. I"!., fl 11 u ui e B a H. H4
TopflOH A. B. MiKlmpMCiiiioiiiiuM OioneTOHb MOCKOBCK. HayjHO-HCCJieji. HH-ia caiimapHH
H rHr M.. 11J58, .N? I4--I5, erp. 35 — fl c p r a M e B H. B., P y p H H o B B. Fl. B KH.:
OtHCTKa npoMLJUJ.-ictiuux uij6pocoH B .-iTMOC(J»ppy. M., 1953, B. I. crp. 54. — 3ono-
i H ii H. F., IU y x e p C. M. OmciKa AUMOBUX rasoa. M.—Jfl. 1948. — Cnpaeo'iimK no
Topjjy. M.—Jl.. 1954.
Hygienic Basis for the Determination of Standard Sanitary Clearance Zone
Widths Around Gasoline Pilling Stations.
.-Chjan T-ssyu-chei.
(From the Department of Community Hygiene, the Leningrad
Sanitary-Hygienic Medical Institute).
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 24, No. 10, 17-21, 1959.
In accordance with the decision of the.XXI Conference of the KPSS (Commu-
nist Party of the U.S.S.R.) freight autotransport is to be increased to 1.9
times its present capacity, and passenger autotransport is to be increased to
3 times its. present capacity"during the 1959 - 19^5 Seven-Year1Plan. This
brings into sharp focus the problems of air pollution with auto discharge gases
and of automobile discharge noise as threats to the health and comfort of.city
dwellers. In this connection the gasoline supply stations will become more
-107-
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potent points of congregation of freight and passenger automobiles, of con-
centrated air pollution with gasoline vapor and of exhaust explosion noises.
This places into the forefront the urgent problem of creating sanitary clear-
ance zones between gasoline filling stations and living quarters.
The purpose of the present investigation was to determine the degree and
extent of atmospheric air pollution and of noise around gasoline supply sta-
tions which could yield a rational and scientific basis for the adoption of
sanitary-hygienic clearance zones. For this purpose 1038 air samples were
collected, 591 of which were analyzed for carbon monoxide content, and 447
for content of gasoline vapor. By means of noise recorder 634 determinations
were made of intensity and distribution of noise in the proximity of gas supply
stations. A specially prepared questionnaire was distributed among 223 per-
sons. Analyses were made of the blood of 50 gasoline station women attendants;
the photometric method of Ezheneeskii was used for the determination of hemo-
globin percent and number of erythrocytes. The survey extended through the -
summer and~ winter months of 1957 ~ 1958. Points of investigation were Lenin-
grad gasoline filling stations of different tank capacity and of different
locations. Carbon monoxide was determined in air samples collected at 6 such
gasoline.stations, and gasoline vapor content in air samples collected at 5
gasoline stations; noise intensity was determined at 4 gasoline stations. Until
August of 1957 all gasoline stations under investigation, with the exception
of station No. 9> supplied ethylated gasoline; after August 1957» as a rule,
all stations supplied second-grade gasoline coming from Eastern crude oil dis-
"tilleriesi For the determination of carbon monoxide "content and gasoline.vapor,
air samples were collected in direct proximity of the gasoline pumps and at 25,
50, 75 and 100 m away; the same was true of noise intensity determinations;
samples of air were also collected and noise determinations were made in the
working premises of the women gasoline station attendants and in residences
located 21 - 90 n» from the gasoline filling stations. _ ....
'Results of air sample analyWs showed that the intensity of atmospheric
air pollution with carbon monoxide and with gasoline vapor varied directly with
the number of automotive vehicles being serviced, and also with the'amount of -
gasoline being dispensed; it was inversely proportional to the distance from
the gasoline pumps. Data in Table 1 show that at a distance of 50 m from
gasoline filling stations Nos. '7> 10, 16 and 23 the highest carbon monoxide
-108-
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concentration exceeded the limit of allowable CO concentration (6 mg/zn ) in
atmospheric air. At a distance of 75 m from the largest gasoline station
No. 23 the highest CO concentration was 9 nig/m and the lowest 4 mg/m . Low-
est concentrations of CO in the air in the proximity of gasoline station No.
10 was observed at a time when the number of automobiles were comparatively
few. Carbon monoxide concentrations in the air at all points of observation
were 1.5 as high during the cold of winter months as during the warm summer
months, probably due to slower spread of the exhaust gases at Ipw temperatures.
In the working premises of the women gasoline station attendants CO con-
centration in the air ranged between 4-34 mg/m , with an average of 12 mg/m .
The CO concentration exceeded the limit of allowable concentration for air of
working premises (30 mg/m5) in only 2 of 35 samples. . The content of CO in the
air of residences automatically equipped with (natural) gas supply, and which
were located 21 - 69 m from a gasoline supply station, ranged between 4-29
mg/m . When natural gas was being burned in the kitchen the CO in the air rose
to 60.-.158 mg/m . Conditions of this type interfered with the reliable deter-
mination of the effect of gasoline supply stations on indoor residential air.
Concentrations of gasoline vapor in the air in proximity of gasoline stations
are listed in Table 2.
The data in Table 2 show that at 50 m from gasoline stations Nos. 7f 10,
22 and 23 the highest gasoline vapor concentration exceeded the maximal allow-
able concentration of 5 mg/m adopted for stations which distribute gasoline
distilled from Eastern crude oil (S. N. Kosourov).. ..In the vicinity of the
largest gasoline station No. 23 the concentration of gasoline vapor in the air
was 5 mg/m , or the equivalent of the allowable limit of concentration, in
samples collected 75 m from the gasoline pump. In this vicinity the concentra-
tion of gasoline vapor in the air was at all points greater in the summer
months than in the winter months. This may have been due to the more intensive
evaporation of- the gasoline at the higher summer temperatures". The intensity
of gasoline odor at the gasoline pumps could be designated as strong, at 25 -
50 meters from the pump and in the direction of the prevailing wind .the odor,
on a comparative basis, was designated as weak; it was barely perceptible at
50 m, and in the case of the larger stations occasionally even at 75 m from
the pump (stations 7 and 23).
-109-
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TABLES
AND 2.
Distribution of carbon monoxide and of gasoline vapor in the atmospheric air
of gasoline stations surroundings.
Gaso-
1 -i V>Q
une
tion
No.
No.
of
sam-
ples
Concentration of carbon monoxide or :
gasoline vapor in mg/m^ lril^^f
Dir.ectly at : At a distance of ' tomo
gasoline pump : 25 meters : 50 meters : , . ,
Mini- :Maxi-:Aver-:Mini-:Maxi-: Aver- :Mini-:Maxi~: Aver-: 1 ,
,:,: •: , : , : :.,:,: : per hour
mal : mal : age : mal : mal : age : mal : mal : age :
Carbon monoxide
No. 23
No. 7
No. 22
No. 9
No. 'lp
No. 16
97
97
92
52
77
19
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
6.0
178
158
141
142
114
78
24.3
25.5
31.3
32.1
20.9
33,0
4
4
4
4
4
6
204
146
136
260
152
186
39.3
30.7
40.7
53.2
26.7
53.9
4
4
4
4
4
7
32
12
6
6
9
8
10.0
6.9
5.0
4.7
6.3
7.5
50
31
34
• 41
25
-
Gasoline vapor
No. 23
No. 7
No. 22
No. 9
No. 10
80
72
95
33 .
48
5.0
13.0
5.0
4.0
5.5
89
129
49
96
49
26.7
52.9
18.1
31.6
17.4
3
3
3
5
3
19
21
31
18
9
8.1
7.5
7.9
9.2
6.1
3
3
4
3
4
12
11
10
4
8
5.6
5.4
5.4
3.5
5.3
3,272
2,050
2,123
2,688
1,654
Gasoline concentrations in the air of the working premises of the women
station attendants ranged between 11 - 94 mg/m with an average of 36.8 mg/m .
Thus, the maximal concentration of 94 mg/m did not exceed the 100 mg/m maxi-
•mal-allowable concentration for the_indoor air. of_working premises (R. L. Shur).
Concentrations of gasoline vapor in the air of residences located in the vicin-
ity of the gasoline stations ranged between 13 - 32 mg/m , 21 to 60 m from the
gasoline pump.
The noise intensity in the proximities of gasoline filling stations ranged
between 42 - 52
-------
TABLE 3.
Zone of noise distribution around gasoline stations.
Gasoline
station
No.
Number of
determina-
tions
Sound loudness in "phones"
Directly at : At a distance of
gasoline pump : 56 nieters
Mini- :Maxi- : Aver- JMini- :Maxi- : Aver-
, : , : : .. : , i
mal : mal : age : mal : mal : age
100 meters
Mini-:Maxi-:Aver-
mal : mal : age
No.
No.
No.
No.
23
7
10
22
88
55
48
. 20
71
70
79
71
88
89
88
84
78
76
81
75
55
52
50
52
74
69
75
6540,000 per mm , with an average before beginning work of .
4,420,000 and after work of 4,460,000 per mm . Replies to questionnaires
distributed among the women gasoline station attendants came from 50 persons.
The answers indicated that 39 had no complaints to register and 11 complained
.of headaches, vertigo, tachycardia, restless sleep, general malaise, weakness
in the lower extremities, etc. Replies from nearby residents.indicated that
the basic mass of population residing 20 - 90 m from the gasoline pumps and
occupying dwellings, the windows of which faced the gasoline stations, stren-
uously complained of noise annoyance, headaches, restless sleep, inability to
relax and perception of the unpleasant odor of gasoline. On the basis of the
replies coming from the general population, it can be admitted that atmospheric
air pollution with gasoline vapor, auto exhaust gases and, in. addition, the
prevailing noise, extended over~a radial "distance"of 70 - 90 m from the gasoline
stations..
Conclusions.
1. Gasoline supply stations are foci of noise creation and distribution
and of atmospheric air pollution with gasoline vapor and automobile exhaust
-111-
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gases. The degree of atmospheric air pollution and the noise intensity in the
proximity of gasoline stations depend upon the number of automobiles served,
the volume.of gasoline dispensed, and, consequently, with the number of gaso-
line pumping installations. - ".
2. Carbon monoxide pollution of the air extended over 75 ni from the gaso-
line stations; its concentration in the atmospheric air at such points reached
9 mg/m . ' .
3. Gasoline vapor air pollution extended over a distance of 75 m from the
gasoline stations; its concentration at such points reached a maximum of 5 mg/m .
4. Noise generated by the automotive transport extended over a distance
of 100 m from the gasoline station; its intensity at such distant points ex-
ceeded the noise intensity determined in close proximity of the gasoline stations.
5. Based on the observations, analyses and other data above recorded the
following is proposed: that the width of sanitary clearance zones be adopted in
accordance with the size of the station and the amount of gasoline dispensed;
- - . . 3
larger gasoline stations with 3 pumps and 50 m gasoline tanks and dispensing
over 3000 li/hour of gasoline should be surrounded by a sanitary clearance zone
of not less than 100 m wide; stations having 2 pumps and 50 m gasoline tanks
and dispensing 1500 - 3000 li/hour of gasoline should have a sanitary clearance
zone of not less than 75 meters wide; smaller gasoline stations, such as have
one pump and'a storage tank of 15 m capacity and dispensing leas than 1500
li/hour of gasoline should have a sanitary clearance zone of not less than 50
m wide. • "
Bibliography. - -
BoJifccoH 3. F. Eopbdc c BumionHUMR rasa-MH aBTOTpaHcnopra. M., 1937.—
Ha»i epos H. O. PHP. H COM., 1958, J6 2, crp. 8. — Koco y p OB C. H. B KH.: Hpe-
aeRt>HO AonycTHMue KOHuetrrpauHH aTMoctpeptibix aarpoaneHHA. M., 1955, n. 2, crp. 92.—
Jl hi K o B a A. C. SarpniHeHne soaayxa ropoACKHx yjixu oxHCbio yr/iepoaa H ee Bpeano*
iwiHHHHe. AHCC. KBHA. Jl., 1953. — HaBsiHJtccKHfl T. Jl. VMeiiHe o uiytte. Jl.. 1948. —
PasBHOD B. A. CaHHTBpHaa oxpaHs aruoapepHoro Bcmyxa. M., 1954. — Ulan*
K, H. Bonpocu ropoACKoro tuytia H 6opb6u c HHM Jl., 1939.
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The following material was taken from ."A Collection of L'ost Important
Official Items Related to Sanitary and Anti-Epidemiological (Prophylactic)
Problems. An Aid to the State Sanitary Inspector-Physician and Physician-
Epidemiologist", under the general editorship of the Chief State Sanitary
Inspector of the U.S.S.R.j Professor T. E. Boldyrev. and the Chief of the
Uain Sanitary-Epidemiologic Administration of the U.S.S.R. Llinistry of Health,
Professor V. M. Zhdanov. Third Edition, supplemented and revised in three
volumes. Volume two. State Publishers of Medical Literature, Medgiz, 1953,
Moscow. Part four, Industrial Sanitation. Chapter I. Preliminary Inspec-
tion. I. Sanitary Standards for Planning Industrial Enterprises. ISP 101-51.
(Replacing GOST 1324-47). (Compendium).
I. Field of application.
1. The present "Norms" (standards) apply to planning of new, improving
and rebuilding of existing industrial enterprises.
In the instances of special.enterprises characterized by inherent factors
of harm to health (chemical and the like), supplemental sanitary requirements
are effectuated by means of special norms (standards) according to the nature
of the industrial enterprises, which were developed by appropriate ministries
in coordination with the All-Union State Sanitary Inspectorate.
Y/ith the approval of the appropriate organs of the Ail-Union State Sani-
tary Inspectorate certain deviations from the present standards of sanitary
requirements may be granted in special instances of rebuilding industrial
enterprises as well;_as_ in planning new,--small industrial enterprises;,
II. Basic requirements for general planning.
2o The site of the industrial enterprise, of "the nearby residential
settlement, the water supply source and manner of sewage disposal must accord
with the regulations of the organs of the All-Union State Sanitary Inspec-
torate and organs of other pertinent State Regulating Organizations.
3o The conditions prevailing in the territory of the planned industrial
enterprise must accord with the sanitary requirements as regards atmospheric
'precipitation, drainage, direct sunshine, natural ventilation, level of ground
water and possibility to institute effective anti-malarial measures.
4o In assigning sites for different industrial enterprises in any given
locality, production plants must be grouped in such a manner as to obviate
-113- .
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the possibility of unfavorable effects of one production plant on another.
5. Plans for the erection of industrial enterprises (production plants)
must include provision for the protection of the health of inhabitants through
the installation of such devices as dust catchers and dust abaters, gas puri-
fiers, noise absorbers, conduit and other equipment hermatization, by-product
recovery, etc.
6. The site of industrial enterprises, or industrial production complexes,
which produce such harmful effects as deleterious gases, smoke, soot, dust,
unpleasant odors, noise, etc., must be selected by taking into consideration
the location of the nearest leeward residential settlement with regard to
prevailing winds, and to separate the plant or the complex from the boundary
of such settlement by appropriate sanitary clearance zones.
Note 1. Prevailing direction of winds is determined by a several-years
average of wind "rosette" (pattern) during the warm season of the year.
Note 2. The sanitary protection (clearance) zone is defined as a terri-
tory (belt) between the industrial plant buildings, storage houses and other
installations which emitted or discharged industrially produced nuisances and
deleterious substances, and residential, therapeutic and prophylactic stations,
recreational institutes or buildings housing other similar organizations.
7. Based on the industrial discharges created and emitted by industrial
plants, and taking into consideration technological measures adopted for the
purification of deleterious emissions into the atmospheric air, industrial
"production and "processing enterprises have been classed into five groups ac-
cording to Supplement 1: |
Class I requiring a sanitary clearance zone 1000 m wide.
Class II requiring a sanitary clearance zone 500 m wide.
Class III requiring a sanitary clearance zone 300 m wide.
Class IV requiring a sanitary clearance zone 100 m wide.
Class V requiring a sanitary clearance zone 50 m wide.
Note 1. The sanitary clearance zone can be widened at the demand or by
order of the All-Union State Sanitary Inspectorate to not more than twice
the stipulated width in the following special cases: a) where it was not
feasible or possible to reduce the harmful discharged substances into the
atmospheric air by any of the presently developed technical means to a con-
centration compatible with the protection of the health of surrounding popu-
lation; b) in the case of residential foci located leeward in relation to the
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production plant or combine which emitted the deleterious substances into, the
atmospheric air.
Note 2. The width of sanitary clearance zones next to production plants
not specifically mentioned in the supplement must be the same as for produc-
tion and processing plants most closely related to them.
Note 3. The sanitary clearance zone regulation does not apply to produc-
tion and processing plants which are free from any type of harmful emissions
or discharges,
8. Organs of the Ail-Union State Sanitary Inspectorate can authorize a
reduction in the width of sanitary clearance zones as specified under item 7»
if in their opinion the emission-purifying installations of any plant, combine
or complex are of high purifying efficiency, are operated and maintained
properly so that the concentrations of atmospherically emitted harmful sub-
stances did not exceed prescribed maxima, thereby protecting the health and
well-being of the population of the surrounding residential area.
9. In modernizing and reconstructing such commercial enterprises, as
means of transport-communications or heat and power electric stations, located
within the boundaries of populated settlements, the width of sanitary clear-
ance zones should be determined by the consent of and in agreement with the
appropriate organs of the All-Union State Sanitary Inspectorate.
10. Location of the following is permitted on the grounds of sanitary
clearance zones between residential settlements and industrial manufacturing
and processing enterprises which emit into the atmosphere deleterious sub-
stances": production and industrial processing plants of lower degree of
harmful discharges, provided that the distance "fcr-jween them and the nearest
residential settlement was in compliance „with the prescribed classification.
The following may also be located within a sanitary clearance zone:
fire departments, bath houses, public laundries, guard houses, public garages,
certain storage facilities, service and administration buildings, trade
houses, dining rooms, polyclinics, etc., dwellings for emergency and general
servicing personnel.- - -_- — - '--—_- -
The general plan of the industrial production and processing enterprises
niust include a well-considered plan for execution and maintenance of the re-
quired sanitary clearance zone, the adequate planting of appropriate trees,
shrubs and other green plants, and any anticipated legally permissible utili-
zation of the proposed required clearance zone.
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11. The erection of residence buildings on the site or within the grounds
of a commercial production plant is forbidden. This applies to proposed as
well as to presently existing plants.
12. In making general or basic plans for new commercial production or
processing plants the following regulations must be taken into consideration
as basic and mandatory:
a) Buildings must be erected with due regard to direction of most
effective light and direction of prevailing wind (as defined in item 6), so
as to assure most favorable conditions of natural light and ventilation;
b) Such buildings of the general production or processing combine
or complex, which house departments which emit into the atmospheric air harm-
ful substances, must be located in relation to buildings which house other
production departments in such a way as to enable the prevailing winds to
carry the emission away from them and not towards them.
c) In line with regulation (b) buildings housing production depart-
ments which emit harmful gases, dust, or other deleterious substances should
be located in groups observing the principle expressed in (b).
d) Ample and appropriate provision should be made beforehand for
the removal of waste products, such as slag, ash, etc. from the plant grounds;
where the volume of such end products is not voluminous temporary storage
on the plant grounds may be permitted at an appropriately chosen section of
the plant grounds.
e) Sewage and industrial-effluent-purification .buildings may be
located on the production or processing'plants* -grounds. --
f) Clearances between buildings which house unusually noisy produc-
tion departments of the level of 90 decibels, and living quarters of emergency
and other service personnel should be not less than 100 m.
13. Breaks or clearances between different sections of a production or
processing industrial building can be best attained by resorting to the R
-(ff-shaped) or fTl (comb-shaped), type of building, ;in which, case the. follow-
ing regulations must be observed: '' "~ "~~ ••:-• "
a) The longitudinal axes of the space breaks must be built in con-
formity with certain stipulations in relation to the prevailing winds.
b) The width of the space breaks or clearances must be not less
than one-half of the height of the building walls," arid "in no "case should it
be less than 15 m, as is shown in the following drawing; in cases where
-116-
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deleterious or harmful emissions are involved the minimum width of the space
or clearance between the wings of the building may be reduced to 12 m.
14. Where it is technologically expedient or desirable to erect the
production or processing plant in the shape of a closed rectangle, the folow-
ing regulations must be observed:
a) The shortest side of the inside clearance-space rectangle must
measure not less than, or it must exceed twice the height of the highest
point of thie inclosing walls."" / " " ~ ." -'-"-
b) The inclosed air space must be subject to adequate ventilation.
SUPPLEMENT 1.
SANITARY CLASSIFICATION OF PRODUCTION AND PROCESSING PLANTS
IN RELATION TO SANITARY CLEARANCE ZONES.
Chemical Industry Plants.
Class I requiring a sanitary clearance zone 1000 meters wide.
1. Production of bound nitrogen" and nitrogenous mineral fertilizers.
2. Production of nitric and other acids, the manufacture of which is ac-
companied by the discharge of oxides of nitrogen.
3. Production of intermediate products of aniline dyes industry, e.g.,
aniline, nitrobenzene, nitroaniline, chlorobenzene, phenol, with total
production exceeding 1000 tons per year.
4. " Production of intermediate products of naphthalene and anthracene series
(p-naphthol, peracid, anthraquinone, phthalic anhydride, etc.), exceed-
ing 2000 tons per year.
5. Production of iron bromide. - - "
6. Production of sulfite paper and cellulose sulfate (pulp).
7. Production of illuminating, water and generator gas in amounts exceed-
ing 5000 cubic meters.
8, Production of sodium hydroxide by the electrolytic method.
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9. Production "of calcium carbide.
10. Production of artificial viscose fibers and cellophane.
11. Production of concentrated mineral fertilizers.
12. Production of oils and solvents (benzene, toluene, xylene, naphthol,
phenol, cresol, anthracene, phenanthrene, acridine, carbazole).
13. Production of arsenic and its inorganic compounds.
14. Production of natural gas in excess of 5000 cubic meters per hour.
15. Production of processed petroleum containing more than 0.5/> by weight
of sulfur of high content of volatile hydrocarbons.
16. Production of picric acid.
17. Production of hydrofluoric acid and cryolite.
18. Production of coal concentrates.
19. Production of bituminous shale.
20. Production of mercury.
21. Production of soot.
22.'- Production of su If uric acid, oleum and sulfur dioxide.
23.' Production of carbon bisulfide. .- .
24. Production of hydrochloric acid.
2^. Production of superphosphates, in sulfuric acid plants.
26. Production of nitrogenous fertilizers, such as aminophosphates.
27. Production of yellow and white phosphorus.
28. Production of chlorine.
29. Production of chlorinated and hydrochlorinated hydrocarbons, in excess
of 1 ton of chlorine in 24 hours.
- "Class-II requiring'a sanitary clearance zone 500 meters wid'e.
30. Production of ammonia.
31. Production of natural gas.
32. Production of organic sulfur dyes, such as sulfur black.
33. Production of hydrocyanic acid.
34° Production of synthetic camphor, oils, cellulose, etc. -•-, - -
35» Production of beryllium, thallium and niobium.
36. Production of generator gas from coal or peat in quantities of 25SOQO
to 50>000 cubic meters per hour.
37» • Production of processed natural tars and their residues.
38. Production of calcined soda by the ammonia process in excess of 400,000
tons per year.
39. Production of synthetic rubber.
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40. Production of organic reagents.
41. Production of plastics, plastic masses, cellulose esters, etc.
42. Production of rare metals by the chlorination process.
.43. Production of barium chloride by the hydrogen sulfide method.
44« Production of superphosphate without the aid of sulfuric acid, and with
the aid of volatile fluorides.
45. Production of saturated technical fats by non-electrolytic hydrogen.
46. Production of fluorides, hydrofluoric acid excepted.
47• Production of synthetic drugs and Pharmaceuticals.
48. Production of chlorine, not exceeding 1 ton per day.
49. Production of distilled petroleum, containing less than 0.556 by weight
of sulfur and of low content of volatile hydrocarbons.
50. Production of peat processed chemicals. .
51. Production of chromic anhydride and chromic acid salts.
52. Production of leather substitutes requiring the use of highly volatile
solvents.
53. Production of essential oils (complex). . .
54. Production of organic solvents for synthetic products, such as alcohol,
ether, etc. and crude oil gases in excess of 5000 m^ per hour.
55« Production of aniline dyes intermediates, such as aniline, nitrobenzene,
nitroaniline, chlorobenzene, nitrochlorobenzene, phenol, etc., not ex-
ceeding 1000 tons per year.
56. Production of naphthalene and anthracene intermediates, such as p-naph-
thol, peracids, anthraquinone, phthalic anhydride, etc., not in excess
of 2000 tons per year.
57« Production of sulfur dyes not to exceed 4000 tons per year.
58. Production of all indigo dyes.
59. Production of experimental aniline dyes not to exceed 2000 tons per year
and other allied manufacturing processes not to exceed 1000 tons per
year.
60. Production of processed asbestos fibers.
Class III requiring a sanitary clearance zone 300 meters wide.
61. Production of bitumen and other chemical materials prepared from coal
tar, petroleum and conifers (petroleum asphalt and the like).
62. Production of tar, methanol, acetic acid, turpentine, oils, etc. from
wood by destructive distillation.
63. Production of fats by the contact process.
64. Production of calcined soda by ammonia process not exceeding 400,000
tons per year.
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65. Production of sodium hydroxide according to Lewis "by the caustic lime
process.
66. Production of salts of inorganic acids (salts of arsenic, phosphorus
and chromium excepted).
67. Production of petroleum gas in volumes of 1000 to 5000 cubic meters per
hour, and generator gas in quantities of 5000 to 25,000 cubic meters
per hour.
68. Production of nicotine.
69. Production of plastic material and plastics, celluloid, bakelite,
chlorovinyl, etc.
70. Production of textile and paper products by impregnation and pressure
and/or rolling in with resins, not exceeding 100 tons per year.
71. Production of mineral dyes.
72. Production of regenerated rubber and gum.
73. Production of gum and ebonite. .
74. Production of phenolic aldehyde and other artificial resins not exceed-
ing 300 tons per year.
75. Production of chemically processed ores for the production of salts of
antimony, bismuth, lithium, etc.
76. Production of synthetic camphor by process of isomerization.
77. Production of synthetic rubber by the alcohol method.
78. Production of mineral fertilizer mixtures.
79- Production of coal products for electric industries, e.g., brushes',
electrodes.
80. Production of phenol aldehyde and other artificial resins, less than
300 tons per year.
81. Production of vulcanized rubber with carbon" bisulfide.
Class IV requiring a sanitary clearance zone 100 meters wide.
82. Production of paper from treated cellulose and" rags.
83. Production of galalith and other protein resins, aminoplasts, etc.
84. Production of glycerol.
85." "Production 'of generator "gas from coal and'peat 'not exceeding 5000 cubic
meters per hour.
86.' "Production of -synthetic-fibers -by- acetates-ammonia- process.'- --". • •• "- •'-•
87. Production of lead pencils. "-"-...
88. Production of soaps on a large'scale.
89. Production of resins, alcohol, typographical lacquers for rubber in-
dustry, insulation material, etc.
90. Production of oil varnish. •
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91. Production of organic jreparations.
92. Processing ores of rare i.ietals (molybdenum, tungsten and cobalt salts).
93. Production of products from paper and textiles by pressure rolling
with resins, not exceeding 100 tons per year.
94. Production of hydrogenated fats electrolytically.
95. Production of salt (NaCl).
96. Production of potassium s^lts for pharmaceutical purposes, such as
potassium'chloride, sulfate, potash.
97. Natural rubber processing. "
98.' Production of liquid mineral fertilizers.
99' Production of saccharin and vanillin.
100. Production of petroleum to-as not exceeding 1000 cubic meters per hour.
Class V requiring a sanitary clearance zone 50 meters wide.
101. Production of alkaloid and galenic preparations.
102. Production of natural mineral dyes (chalk,- ocher, red ocher, etc.).
103. Production of inorganic reagents without use of chlorine.
104. Production of paper from waste materials as' well as from finished cel-
lulose and rags, not bleached.
105. Production of vulcanised rubber without use of carbon disulfide.
106. Production of carbon dioxide and dry ice.
107. Production of artificial pearls."
108. Mechanical working up of compressed masses (compositions).
109. Production of perfumes and perfumed goods.
110. Production of hydrogen.and._oxygen in pressure-tanks. - •
111. Production of photochemical materials (films and plates).
112o Production of carbonic acid-containing mineral fertilizers.
113. Production of tannin extracts. - - • •
114. Places (localities) where cisterns are cleaned.
115.- Production of matches.- —----- -- • --
Metal Processing -and- Machine—Construction. Industry.
Class I requiring a sanitary clearance zone 1000 meters wide.*
116. Production of magnesium by the chlorination process.
117. Secondary processing of non-ferrous metals (in amounts over 3000 tons
per year).
118. Production of coke.
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119. Production of pig iron in "blast furnaces having over 1500 cubic meters
capacity.
120. Production of non-ferrous metals (smelting) directly from ores or con-
centrates (zinc, lead, tin, nickel).
121. Production of aluminum by electrolysis of fused aluminum salts (oxides).
Class II requiring a sanitary clearance zone 500 meters wide.
122. Production of agglomerated iron or processing non-ferrous metal ores.
123. Production of magnesium (except "by chlorination process, compare 116).
124. Production of non-ferrous metals in quantities 1000 - 3000 tons per
year.
125.. Production of non-ferrous metals (secondary processing) in quantities
up to 3000 tons per year.
126. Production of pig iron in blast furnaces of over 500 to 1500 cubic
meters capacity.
12?. Production of steel by Martin and converter process in quantities over
1,000,000 tons per year.
128. Production of ground Thomas slag. --- -"-'-' " " ~
129. Production of pig iron in quantities over 20,000 tons per year.
130. Production of antimony by the pyrometallic process.
131. Production of zinc, copper, nickel and cobalt by electrolysis of water
solutions.'
132. Production of iron alloys.
Class III requiring a sanitary clearance zone 300 meters wide.
13,3.,, Production of supply depots for airplanes_whose motors are equipped
with mufflers which produce in the protective zone no.more than 70 tons.
134. Metal enrichment without using high temperatures.
135o Production of storage batteries (larger works) on a large scale.
136. Production of non-ferrous metals (secondary processing) in quantities
up to 1000 tons per year.
137. Production of pig iron in blast furnaces of less than 500 cubic meters
capacity. " • - - - - " . - -.
138. Production of steel by Martin and converter process in quantities under
1,000,000 tons per-year. - - .-._- .,- . - -
139. Production of pig iron in foundries for quantities of 5>000 to 20,000
tons per year.
.140. Production of non-ferrous metals in quantities of 100 to 2000 tons per
year.
141. Production of lead-coated or rubber-insulated cables.
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Class IV requiring a sanitary clearance zone 100 meters wide.
142. Production of non-insulated cables.
143. Production of boilers.
144. Production of engines and equipment for electric industries (dynamos,
transformers, etc.) having small foundries and other heat emanating
145. Production of processed pig iron and steel up to 10,000 tons per year
and of ferrous casting up to 100 tons per year.
146. Production of mercury-containing apparatus (mercury rectifiers, ther-
mometers, lamps, etc.).
147« Production of electro— steel.
148. Production of antimony "by electrolysis.
Class V requiring a sanitary clearance zone 50 nieters wide.
149» Thermal working up of metals except foundries.
150. Production of storage batteries on a small scale.
151. Production of implements for electrotechnical industry, as electro-
lamps, searchlights (spotlights), '.etc.
152. Production of hard alloys and difficult fusible metals.
Production of Ores and Minerals.
j
Class I requiring a sanitary clearance zone 1000 meters wide.
153. Production of petroleum (crude oil) containing more than 0.5% by weight
of sulfur or with high content of volatile hydrocarbons.
Class II requiring a sanitary clearance zone 500 'meters wide.
154. Production of bituminous shales" -" -~ • •-"--" •- •
155« Production of coal, anthracite and brown coal (lignite).
156. Production of iron ores, and quarrying stones by blasting.
157« Production of phosphorite, apatites*and quartz without chemical proc-
essing.
158. Production of lead, arsenic and manganese ores.
Class III requiring'a sanitary clearance zone-300 meters wide.
* ,
159. Production of petroleum (crude oil) containing less than 0.556 of sulfur
and with low content of volatile hydrocarbons.
160. Production of dolomite, magnesite, asbestos, gondron (soft asphalt) and
asphalt.
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161. Production of metal and metalloid (non metallic) ores in the open, ex-
cept lead, arsenic and manganese ores.
162. Production of "briquettes from coal and peat.
Class IV requiring a sanitary -clearance zone 100 meters wide.
163. Production of metal and metalloid (non metallic) ores underground, ex-
cept lead, arsenic and manganese ores.
164. Production of peat by the milling process. _
165. Production of rock salt.
Building (Construction) Industry.
Class I requiring a sanitary clearance zone 1000 meters wide.
166. Production of Portland and Puzzuolana blast furnace cement over 150,000
tons per year. '
Class II requiring a sanitary clearance zone 500 meters wide.
167. Production of Portland and Puzzuolana cement up to 150,000 tons per year
(blast furnace).
168. Production of lime, magnesite and dolomite by burning in shaft furnaces.
Class III requiring a sanitary clearance zone 300 meters wide.
169. Production of local cements (roman, gypsum, slag cement, etc.) in
quantities up to 5000 tons per year.
170. Production of alabaster and asphalt concrete.
171. Production of glass wool.
172-.- Production of tar board and rubberoids~; •—'•• -• —-J - --•
Class IV requiring a sanitary clearance zone 100 meters wide.
173. Production of asbestos cement and slate.
174. Production of artificial stones and concrete products.
175. Stone foundries.
176. - Production of bricks (red a'nd silicate)"." =~~~."~ • ' " " ~ '
177. Production of hard tile, ceramic and other firewood products.
178. Production of glass.^ „" ~"~ . .. "„ ." "
179» Production of building materials (from electric heat and power station
end products).
180. Production of cement elevators and other equipment used in handling
dust producing materials.
"l8T.~ Production of porcelain and fine pottery p'rbductsT
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Class V requiring a sanitary clearance zone 50 maters wide.
182. Production of rocks without blasting and of products resulting from
processing of natural stones.
183. Production of gypsum products.
184. Production of hard fiber plates (kamyshite, solomite, differentas,
fibrolite, etc.).
185. Production of clay products. ' .
'iVood Processing Industry.
Class II requiring a sanitary clearance zone 500 meters wide.
186. Production of wood charcoal (retort process excepted).
Class III requiring a sanitary clearance zone 300 meters wide.
187. Wood preservation by impregnation. -
Class IV requiring a sanitary clearance zone 100 meters wide.
188. Production of wood wool (fibers).
189. Production of wood charcoal by retort process.
190. Sawmills, production of building framework, moulding and standardized
house parts.
191. Production of ships '(large wooden ships).
192. Production of cartwrights.
Class V requiring a sanitary clearance zone 50 meterb wide.
193. Production of products from wood wool (fibers).
194. Production of products from bast fibers.
195. Production of wooden rafts, furniture, inlaid floors (parquetry), wooden
boxes, etc.
196. Production of cooper's tools from staye wood.
197. Preserving wood,by.impregnation or. coating with solutions (arsenic
solutions excluded).
. 198_.-r_.§hip;_-bu_ildi_n_gL_(smaller wooden ships).;. . .-/-•_.:,.-• 'r-. -.-.-.---•-•;•.- -•-• -
Textile Industry.
Class II requiring a sanitary clearance zone 500 meters wide.
199. Production of textile fabrics, impregnating with chemicals or carbon
disulfide. - ' - - — - -
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Class III requiring a sanitary clearance zone 300 meters wide.
200. Plants performing continuous impregnation of textiles, paper with
lacquers made of asphalt rosins, bakelite or other rosins for use in
the electro-industry, with a yearly production over 300 tons.
201. Establishments undertaking preliminary processing of natural fibers
(linen, cotton, hemp, etc.-).
202. Plants performing continuous impregnation of textiles or paper with
lacquers made of rosins,, asphalt rosins, bakelite and other rosins
up to 300 tons per year.
203. Plants impregnating and processing textile fabrics by chemical means,
except carbon disulfide, e.g., by dermatite, granitol, etc.
Class IV requiring a sanitary clearance zone 100 meters wide.
204. Production of coto bark articles.
205. Boiling and unwinding silk cocoons.
206. .Production of silk and cord lace.
207. Production of mixed textile fabrics.-
208. Bleaching, dyeing and finishing establishments..
209. Production of cotton, linen and wool, yarn spinning, bleaching and
dyeing.
Class V requiring a sanitary clearance zone 50 meters wide.
210. Production of cotton, linen and wool yarn (spinning) (no bleaching or
dyeing).
211. Production of jersey wearing apparel and stockings.
212. Production of carpets and artificial.fur. goods.
Plants Processing Animal Products.
Class I requiring a sanitary clearance zone 1000 meters wide.
213. Production of glue, stock processing including hides, wastes, ground
bones, etc.
214. Production""of technical grade gelatin"from bones, glue, hides, leather
scraps, etc., stored out of doors.
-215.- -Plants utilizing.animal."carcases, fish, etc. for the production of
fat, animal fodder, fertilizer, etc. --.".- ... " " .
Class II requiring a sanitary clearance zone 500.meters wide.
216. Plants for charring and grinding of bones.
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Class III requiring a sanitary clearance zone 300 meters wide.
217. Plants processing and dyeing raw animal skins and pelts, sheepskins,
furs, preparation of raw and morocco leather, etc.
218. Production of raw hides'("tanneries, manufacture of. sole leather, calf
leather, etc.).
219. Wool-washing plants.
220. Production of technical grade fats in quantities over 30 tons per year.
221. Plants for storage of wet preserved raw hides (over 200 items).
Class IV requiring a sanitary clearance zone 100 meters wide.
222." Plants which prepare animal fodder from food wastes.
223. Pelting plants.
224. Production of quality grade gelatin from fresh bones, stored only for
a short time in refrigerators.
225. Production of artificial leather.
226. Production of technical grade fats in quantities up to 30 tons per year.
227. Production of skeletons and instruction material from animal carcases.
228. Plants processing hair, bristles, feathers, hoofs, etc.
' Class V requiring a sanitary clearance zone 50 meters wide.
229. Production of shoes.
230. Production of patent leather.
231. Production of objects from' bones.
232. Production of brushes from hair and bristles.
233". ""Pelting workshops. ;../;" ~ \. ~: " "".". "-.-• - --'--!. - '-
234. Plants for storage of wet preserved raw hides (under 200 items).
235. Production of gut-strings (cat gut).
Plants Producing Foods and Flavoring Materials.
Class II requiring a sanitary clearance zone 500 meters wide.
236. Cattle stockyards for more than 1000 head.
237. Slaughter houses.
238. Pat rendering (sea animal fat).
239. Intestine cleaning (gut preparation).
240. Railroad cattle car yards.
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Class III requiring a sanitary clearance zone 300 meters wide.
241. Production of "beet sugar.
242. Stockyards for cattle up to 1000 head.
243. Slaughter houses for small cattle and poultry.
244* Fish processing.
Class IV requiring a sanitary clearance zone 100 meters wide.
245» Production of albumin.
246. Production of alcohol.
247» Mills, grain peeling (husking) and various food factories.
248. Meat combines and meat refrigerators (three-day supply of living
cattle).
249- Coffee roasting plants.
250. Processing vegetable oils.
251. Production of margarine.
252. Fruits and vegetables processing (drying, salting, fermenting, etc.).
253. Production of dextrin, glucose and syrup.
254. Production of cheese.
255. Production of fish fillets and preserved fish.
256. Production of starch and potato flour.
257. Tobacco processing (sweating).
Class V requiring a sanitary clearance zone 50 meters wide.
258. Breweries.- "~~_" '_ _~ ',',-'_ .'.'_ ."'"."""„ ".--.. - . ...
259. Canneries.
260. Granaries.
261. Sugar refineries.
262. Macaroni factories.
263. Fish smoking plants.
264. Dairies (milk, butter and other dairy products).
265. Sausage factories producing more than 3 tons a shift.
266. Confectionary goods, large plants. . :
267. Bakeries.
268. Food and provision production.
269. Vinegar distilleries.
270. Refrigeration plants over 600 tons.
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Sanitary-Technical Equipment and Installations for Community Use.
Class I requiring a sanitary clearance zone 1000 meters wide.
271. Unassorted garbage dumps for liquid and solid household waste,
272. Areas fertilized with night-soil.
273. Ground sewage filters.
Class II requiring a sanitary clearance zone 500 meters wide.
274. Public rubbish dumping and burning places.
275« Sewage filtration stations (up to 5000 cubic meters per hour).
276. Supervised assorted rubbish and garbage dumps.
277. Animal burial places.
Class III requiring a sanitary clearance zone 300 meters wide.
"~' • • , , v
278. Compost fields.
279. Garbage sterilization and processing (rendered safe).
280. Sewage irrigated fields for agricultural use.
28l. Septic tanks, air filter, sedimentation tanks, etc.
282. Temporary garbage and trash unloading centers.
283. Purification plants.
284. Cemeteries.
285* Main depots for commercial raw materials.
286. Thermal hatching installations.
' Class IV requiring a sanitary clearance zone-100 meters wide.
287. Places for temporary storage of commercial raw materials not to be
processed.
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'< Table to go with Supplement 1.
Sanitary Protection Zones in Meters for Regional and Factory Electric Heat, Light and Power Stations and
for Boiler Operated Industrial Plants Having a Fuel Consumption of Three Tons or More per Hour.
i • Boiler
j operated
: industrial
percent o
percent on
as fired "basis
at,aters
: : Over
J3 - | 12.5
:12.5:up to
I i 25
Electric heat, light and power stations
At 1% ash abatement
At 90$ ash abatement
: Over : Over
- I 12.«v 25
Rate of coal consumption in tons per hour
Over : Over
50
. . Over
j - j ^.j 25 50 I 100 : 200
12.5sup to up to up to !up to :up to
I 25 i 50 J 100 : 200 i 300
jtion in tons per hour
: : Over : Over : Over : Over : Over
:3 - : 12.5 j 25 j 50 : 100 : 200
!l2.5sup to sup to :up to tup to sup to
i ; 25 : 50 : 100 : 200 i 300
Up to 10
Over 10 up to 15 "
Over 15 up to 20|j;''
Over 20 up to 25 ij
Over 25 up to 30 -\
Over 30 up to 45
100
100
100
300
300
500
300
300
500
500
500
1,000
100
100
100
100
100
300
100
300;
1
300
300
300!
500
300
500
500
500
' 500
1,000
500
500.
500
1,000
1,000
1,000
500
500
1,000
1,000
1,000
yosi
500
1,000
1,000
VGSI
VGSI
VGSI
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
300
300
100
300
300
300
300
300
300
300
300
300
500
500
500
500
500
500
1,000
1,000
500
500
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
Note 1. VGSI (All-Union State Sanitary Inspectorate).
Note 2. Electric heat, light and power stations must make provision for reliable and uninterrupted removal
of the ash from the ash catchers and of the boiler slag.
i' i
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Height of smokestacks.
Average daily fuel
consumption in
tons per hour
:Smokestack
•
: height
:in meters
Supplemental instructions
Up to 5
Prom 5 up to 15
Prom 15 up to 50
Prom 50 up to 100
Prom 100 up to 200
Over 200
30
45
60
80
100
120
a) For fuel of low ash content (reduced ash
content less than 5$ per 1000 large cal/kg)
the smokestack height should be as follows:
at fuel consumption from 5 "to 100 tons per
hour the smokestack height should "be 60
meters; at fuel consumption of 100 to 200
tons per hour the smokestack height should
"be 80 meters.
If located within a radius of 200 meters
from nearby boiler operated plant building
rising to a height of 15 meters the minimal
height of the smokestack must be 45 meters.
Notes: Electric heat, power and light stations burning fuel of high sulfur
content (such as lower Moscow coal) at the rate of 100 or more tons per hour
and which are located in an area of populated sections must have installations
for the purification of flue gases from oxides of sulfur which in each case
must be agreed upon and approved by the All-Union State Sanitary Inspectorate.
Sanitary clearance zones for electric heat, power and light stations must ac-
cord with paragraph 9 of the present standards ("Norms").
The instructions listed in this table do not apply to boiler operated plants
which use wood and gas for fuel; widths of sanitary clearance zones for such
plants are. determined by the type and nature of the industrial manufacturing
or processing procedures.
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(Supplement 2 deals with sanitary regulations pertaining to industrial sewage
disposal and will be presented in full in one of the forthcoming volumes).
SUPPLEMENT 3.
Limits of Allowable Concentrations of Poisonous Gases, Vapors and Dust in the
Air of Working Zones in Industrial Premises.
Substance : mg/li
. •
. Acrolein 0.002
Ammonia 0.02
Acetone 0.2
Aniline, toluidine, xylidine 0.005
Benzidine, dianizilene, a- and p-naphthalainine 0.001
Gasoline, white spirits, ligroine, kerosene, crude oil in
terms of C 0.3
Benzene 0.1
Decaline, tetraline 0.1
Divinyl, pseudobutylene 0.1
Di- and trinitro compounds of benzene and its homologues -
(dinitrobenzene, trinitrotoluol, etc .7. ^.. 0.001
Xylol 0.1
Manganese and its compounds, on the basis of Mn02 0.0003
4 Hydrogen arsenide 0.0003
Arsenical and arsenious anhydrides 0.0003
Unsaturated alcohol of fatty acids (allylic, crotylic, etc.) 0.002
Nitro- and dinitrochloro compounds of benzene (nitrochloro-
benzene, dinitrochlorobenzene, etc.) 0.001
Nitro- compounds of benzene and their homologues, nitrobenzene,
nitrotoluol, etc 0.005
Oxides of nitrogen, in terms of #203.... 0.005
Zinc oxide .-................ - 0.005
Carbon monoxide !/. ...1 ...Y.V. .V.-7;-.................. 0.03-. --
Metallic mercury ;........... 0.00001
Lead and its inorganic compounds, lead sulfide excluded 0.00001
Lead sulfate 0.0005
Selenium anhydride. 0.0003
Sulfuric acid and sulfuric anhydride 0.002
Sulfurous anhydride (802) 0.02
Hydrogen sulfid'e 0.01 .
Carbon bisulfide '...'....'..'..... 0.01
—' . V/here wo_rk. .time in an atmosphere containing this pollutant does not extend
beyond one hour the limit of allowable concentration of carbon monoxide may
be raised to 0.05 rog/li; where such work time does not exceed one-half hour,
the carbon monoxide concentration in the air may be 0.1 mg/li; where work
under such conditions does not extend beyond 15 - 20 minutes the CO concen-
tration of the air may be raised to 0.2 mg/li. Rest periods of not less than
2 hours must be enforced where workers must be repeatedly subjected to high
CO air concentrations.
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Substance . I mg/li
Turpentine 0.3
Solvent naphtha 0.1
Alcohols:
Amyl 0.1
Butyl 0.2
Methyl 0.05
Propyl 0.2
Ethyl ...*.--. 1.0
Bichloride of mercury • 0.0001
Tobacco and tea dust 0.003
Toluol 0.1
Phenol 0.005
Formaldehyde 0.005
Phosphoric anhydride 0.001
Phosphorus, yellow 0.00003
Hydrogen phosphide. , 0.0003
Hydrogen fluoride. 0.001
Salts of hydrophosphoric acid 0.001
Chlorobenzene 0.05
Chlorinated hydrocarbons:
Dichlorethane - .. „, 0.05
Trichlorethylene 0.05
Carbon tetrachloride 0.05
Hydrogen chloride arid hydrochloric acid..... 0.01
Chromic anhydride, chromates and bichromates 0.0001
Chldronapthalene and chlorophenyl • 0.001
Chlorine ' 0.001
Hydrogen cyanide and salts of hydrocyanic acid, on the basis
of HCN 0.0003
Ethyl (diethyl) ether 0.3
Acetic acid esters (acetates):
Methyl acetate................ ........;... V.7........." 0.1.
- Ethyl acetate..-.;^......./...... ....... 0.2
Propyl acetate 0.2
Butyl acetate 0.2
Amyl acetate. ._. '..... 0.1
Note 1. The standards (norms) for limits of allowable concentrations
of deleterious vapors, gases and dust are obligatory (compulsory) only for
actual working locations. By the term actual working locations is meant
points of uninterrupted or intermittent presence of workers who perform
functions of observation or of actual production processes. Where industrial
production processes occur at different points of the work premises all such
points fall under the above designation of actual working locations, which
includes the entirety of the work premises.
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Note 2. Where work under conditions of polluted air in the work premises
is of short duration, and in isolated instances, where the norm of the pollutant
concentrations indicated in the table can not be attained, the responsible
authority (Minister) of the appropriate Ministry, having previously secured
the consent of the All-Union State Sanitary Inspectorate, may allow certain
deviations from the required concentration norms.
Note 3. Where va'pors of several solvents, such as benzene and its homo-
logues, alcohols, esters of acetic acid, etc. are emitted into tee air simul-
taneously, especially in the case of sulfuric and sulfurous anhydrides (SOU
and SO ), hydrochlorides, hydrogen fluoride, etc., which cause eye irritation,
or oxides of nitrogen and CO, the total ventilation turnover must be calculated
on the basis of the volume summation required for the dilution of each of the
solvent vapors, each of the irritating gases and of the CO individually to the
required standard concentration in the air. This regulation applies to in-
stances of simultaneous presence in the air of several gases or vapors other
than those above enumerated, in order that maximum permissible air ventilation
may be secured.
Note 4. In the case of poisonous substances not specifically mentioned
in Supplement 3, and in instances of combined effect of such poisonous pollut-
ants, limits of allowable concentrations of such substances in the air must be
prescribed by the Ail-Union State Sanitary Inspectorate.
4. - •
Limits "of "Allowable Concentration"df Non-Toxic Dust in the Air of Actual
Y/orking Locations of Industrial Production Premises.
1. Limits of allowable concentrations of non-toxic dust in the air of
work zones of industrial manufacturing premises must not
-------
3. In special cases, where the prescribed norms for allowable air pol-
lutant concentrations can not be attained, even as defined in above paragraphs
1 and 2, the pertinent Ministry with the approval and consent of the All-Union
State Sanitary Inspectorate may permit certain deviations from the standards
(norms) indicated in paragraph 1 of Supplement 4.
SANITARY-HYGIENIC LABOR PROTECTION REGULATIONS.
Item 27. Periodic Medical Examination of Workers.
A. Prom the order of U.S.S.R. Ministry of Health Protection No. 443,
dated 17th June, 1949-
I. Establish compulsory preliminary periodic medical examinations
of workers of the following industries in agreement and coordination with
VTsSPS:
No.
Name of production and occupation
Time of periodic
examination of
workers
1
2
3
4
7
8
-9
10
11
Mining, lead carbonate ores
Mining, other lead ores
Processing lead ores
Lead ore smelting:
a
b
a) Lead smelting, agglomeration, refining
Crushing, grinding, mixing ores, work at
purification installations
Smelting, pouring, rolling, pressing of lead-
containing alloys __. .. ;_
Application of lead lining in the mechanical
processing of items
Repairing sections of coolers.on-locomotives which
have tank condensators
Manufacture of dry lead paints (all kinds)
Production of ground lead paints
Production of lead accumulators:
a) Oiling and cleaning of lead plates,
... . grinding .and.paste-preparation.
b) Smelting, lead pouring, shaping and other
processes involved in accumulator
manufacture
Manufacture and application of.glazing material
and of enamel-containing lead
Painters occupation requiring constant-use of--
lead paints
Once semiannually
Once annually
Once semiannually
Once quarterly
Once semiannually
Once semiannually
Once semiannually
Once annually
Once quarterly
Once semiannually
Once quarterly
Once annually
Once semiannually
Once semiannually
-135r.
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Ho.
Name of production and occupation
t Time of periodic
: examination of
workers
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Work with stereotype and in type foundries
Correction and adjustment in closed pitch
Schoope processing vsith lead .
Lead soldering with hydrogen flame
Production of tetraethyl lead and ethyl fluid
Mixing ethyl fluid with other fuels
Work with ethylated benzene (all types)
Smelting, purification,' filtration, distribution,
Once annually
Once semiannually
Once quarterly
Once quarterly
Once annually
Once quarterly
Once semiannually
and other production processes involved in
obtaining mercury from ores
20 Extracting gold from ores with the aid of
mercury compounds
21 Production of mercury thermometers and other
physical apparatus:
a) Work with mercury outside of hoods
b) Work with sealed or open mercury under
hoods
22 Making of pharmaceutical mercury preparations
23 Production of ethyl mercuric phosphate and
mercuric diethyl, preparation of glues con-
taining such substances
24 Working in electric heat and power stations in
connection with mercury rectifiers
25 Working with mercury pumps _
26 Working in laboratories with mercury apparatus
and other equipment
27 Grinding manganese and its compounds and applying
the powdered substances
28 Soldering inside closed tanks with the aid of
coated electrodes, containing manganese
29 Smelting steel containing over 10$ of manganese
_3(> Production of chromic acid and its salts
31 Production and application of compounds "of a'rsenia
32 Production of yellow and red phosphorus, working
with yellow" phosphorus
33 Crushing, grinding, and sifting tungsten and cobalt
34 -Production of hydrofluoric acid and of fluoride
salts .(inclu
-------
No.
Name of production and occupation
Time of periodic
examination of
workers
Wood impregnation with substances containing
fluorine compounds
35 Electrolytic preparation of aluminum and zinc
36 Electrolytic preparation of chlorine
3? Preparation and use of chloride solutions in
sulfate-cellulose plants
38 Preparation and use of carbon bisulfide
39 Preparation of viscose silk
40 Obtaining sulfur-rich crude oil and natural gas,
processing sulfur-rich crude oil (includes
skilled workers, operators and their assistants,
volume recorders, machinists, lubricators,
mechanics, etc.)
41 Obtaining of ozokerites, buryta and gumbrine
42 Preparation of aromatic hydrocarbons froa crude •-•
oil products; selective purification of- •------ —
lubricants, paraffin production, soot,
pyrolucites
43 Refining of crude oil and of gases from hydrogen
sulfide, manufacture of inhibitors, hydrogen,
catalyzers, production of ozokerites by extrac-
tion, benzene alkylation
44 Preparation and filtration of sodium arsenite
solutions
45 Cleaning of crude oil carrying tankers, cisterns
"_'" and reservoirs., .cistern valve repair
46 Catching of coking products from coking furnaces,
distillation of coal tar and rectifying of
aromatic hydrocarbons, naphthalene, anthracene
in coking plants
47 Production and use of coal tar, pitch, shale tars.
Impregnation of railroad ties with compounds
containing oil of cresole
48 Production and use of chlorinated and brominated—
hydrocarbons of the fatty series
49 Production and use of chlorinated naphthalenes
and diphenols
50 Production and processing of synthetic rubber
51 Production of benzene, toluol and chlorobenzene.
Use of benzene as a solvent. Use of
chlorobenzene.
Once semiannually
Once semiannually
Once annually
Once semiannually
Once semiannually
Once semiannually
Once annually
Once semiannually
Once semiannually
Once annually
Once semiannually
Once semiannually
Once semiannually
Once annually
Once semiannually
Once semiannually
Once semiannually
Once semiannually
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No.
Name of production and occupation
Time of periodic
examination of
workers
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
59a
60
61
6.2
63
64
65
66
67
68
Use of toluol and xylol as solvents
Preparation and use of amino-, nitro- and chloro-
derivatives of benzene and its homologues, phenol
and its compounds
Production of benzidine, dianizidine, toluidine,
a- and p-naphthalamine
Aniline dyes in textile plants
Pur dyeing with ursol dyes
Production and use of methyl spirit (methylol)
Production of nicotine
Ore minings
a) Drillers, miners, timberers, coal and rock
loaders, etc.
b) Other underground workers
Ore crushing in coal enrichment plants
Workers in mine passages of Coal and rock beds
containing not less than 10$ of quartz
Polishing and coating of porcelain and glazed
items
Production and use of glass wool, felt and wool
Production of refractory (fireproof).articles:
a) Dinas articles (refractory silica)
b) Chamotte articles (fire clay) containing
quartz - — _^
Sandblast polishing of foundry articles
Mining and processing asbestos
Mining of radioactive ores. Production and use
of radium and radioactive substances
Workers in X-ray rooms and laboratories
Workers using currents of ultra high frequency
Supplemented January 18, 1952 by, the following:
1 Production and use of trinitrotoluol
2 Production and use of tetryl
3 Production of fulmonate of mercury
4 Production and use of tetranitromsthane
5 Production and use of azide of lead
6 Production of nitroglycerol products
Once annually
Once semiannually
Once quarterly
Once annually
Once annually
Once annually
Once annually
Once semiannually
Once annually
Once semiannually
Once semiannually
Once annually
Once semiannually
Once semiannually
Once annually
Once semiannually
Once semiannually
Once quarterly
Once semiannually
Once semiannually-
Once semiannually
Once annually
Once semiannually
Once semiannually
Once semiannually
Once annually
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SUPPLEMENT 2.
- *
Li=>ts of Contraindications -.vhich Prevent the Employment of workers in
Industries in which Workers Undergo Periodic Medical Examinations.
(Only Specific Contradindications Are Included in the Lists).
(In addition attention must "be paid to other general contraindications to
the employment of sorters undergoing periodic medical examinations).
List 1. Lead and its organic compounds.
1. All blood diseases and secondary anemias (Hb less than 60$).
2. Clinically detectable liver diseases.
3. Nephrites, nephroses, and nephroscleronias.
4. Hypertonic diseases.
5. Bndarteritis. .
6. Clinically detectable cardiosclerosis, aortosclerosis, and arterio-
sclerosis. • • -
7. Coronary diseases.
8. Ulcers of the stomach and the duodenum.
9. Clinically detectable chronic colitis and enterocolitis.
10. Active forms of pulmonary tuberculosis.
11. All organic diseases of the central nervous system.
12. Chronic and relapsing diseases of the peripheral nervous system.
13. Diseases of the optic nerve and the retina.
14. Epilepsy.
15. Psychic diseases.
16. Clinically detectable endocrine and vegetative diseasesT
List 2. Ethylated gasoline. - -
1. All organic diseases of the central nervous system.
2. Epilepsy.
3. Clinically detectable neurotic states.
4. Psychic diseases including those of recurrent stages."~
5. All psychopathic_diseases...
6. Clinically detectable endocrine and vegetative diseases.""" ~
7. Clinically detectable affections of the labyrinth.
8. Anosmia.
9. Clinically detectable liver diseases.
10. Nephrites, nephroses, and nephrosclerpmas.
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11. Arterial hypotonicity.
12. Eczema of the hands.
For motorists working in motor testing add:
13. Persistent loss of hearing even in one ear (whisper at less than 3 m),
otosclerosis, chronic purulent otitis.
List 3. Tetraethyl lead and ethylic fluid.
1. Organic diseases of the central nervous system.
2. Epilepsy.
3. Clinically detectable neurotic states.
4. Psychic diseases including those of recurrent stages. •
5. All psychopathic diseases.
6. Narcomania, including chronic alcoholism.
7. Endocrine and vegetative diseases.
8. Clinically detectable affections of the labyrinth.
9. Clinically detectable liver diseases.
10. Nephrites, nephroses, and nephroscleromas. •
11. Arterial hyper- and hypotonia.
12.' All diseases of respiratory organs and of the cardiovascular system
which contraindicate the use of gas masks.
13. Hyposmia.
14. All forms of eczema regardless of localization.
List 4. Mercury and its compounds.
1. Chronic or frequently recurring gingivitis, stomatitis and alveolar
pyorrhea. " ' "
2. Chronic colitis.
3. Clinically detectable liver diseases.
4. Nephrites, nephroses, and nephroscleroses.
5. Organic.diseases of the central nervous system.
6. Clinically detectable neurotic states.
7.. Psychic diseases including- those,of. recurring.. S-tages.,.^. __.
8. Psychopathic diseases. "r"
9. Clinically detectable endocrine and vegetative-diseases.
List 3. Manganese.
1. Organic diseases of the central nervous system..—
2. Psychic diseases.
' . -140-
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3. Psychopathic diseases.
4. Clinically detectable endocrine and vegetative diseases.
5. Clinically detectable liver diseases.
6. Nephrites, nephroses, and nephroscleroses.
7. Active forms of pulmonary tuberculosis.
8. Bronchitis, emphysema, pneumosclerosis, bronchial asthma, and recurrent
pneumonia. . : - •
List 6. Chromic acid and its salts.
1. Atrophic rhinitis, ozena, nasal sychosis; diseases of the nasal accessory
frequently becoming acute; clinically detectable nasal septum deviation.
2. Chronic laryngitis, frequently becoming acute, laryngeal stenosis.
3. Tuberculosis, scleroma and swelling in the upper respiratory tract.
4. Clinically detectable bronchitis, pulmonary emphysema and pneumosclerosis.
5. Bronchial asthma.
6. Presence of any form of eczema during examination or in anamnesis.
List 7» Inorganic arsenic compounds.
1. Atrophic rhinitis, ozena, nasal sychosis. Diseases of the nasal acces-
sory sinuses frequently becoming acute. Clinically detectable nasal
septum deviation.
2. Chronic laryngitis, frequently becoming acute. ' ' - - - •
3. Tuberculosis, scleroma and swelling in the upper respiratory tract.
4. Organic diseases of the central nervous system.
-5-.- -Clinically- detectable, chronic bronchitis. ._ Brpnchial asthma.
6. Chronic enterocolitis and colitis. '
7. Clinically detectable liver disease.
8. Nephrites, nephroses, and nephroscleroses. . .
9. All blood diseases. Secondary anemia (Hb less than 60$).
10. Chronic and recurring diseases of the peripheral nervous system.
11. Eczema of the face and hands. " " "
12. Chronic inflammatory conjunctivitis, inflammation of the cornea, of the
salivary ducts and -of the palpibra. . ~--- .---.-.- . .. 7 ... .. _.
' List 8. Vapors of yellow phosphorus.
1. Diseases of the jaw, dental'caries, periostitis and periodontitis, not
cured.
2. Chronic gingivitis. Alveolar pyorrhea. . ,,
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3. Diseases of the bones, incompletely healed fractures, osteomyelitis.
4. Clinically detectable catarrhs of the upper respiratory tracts.
5« Chronic bronchitis, clinically detectable pulmonary emphysema, pneumo-
f . sclerosis, bronchial asthma.
6. Liver diseases.
7. Nephrites, nephroses, and nephroscleroses.
v8. All blood diseases, secondary anemia (Hb below 60£).
9. General emaciation.
10. Clinically detectable metabolic diseases (obesity, diabetes).
List 9. Cobalt.
1. Atrophic rhinitis, ozena, nasal sychosis. Diseases of the nasal acces-
sory sinuses frequently becoming acute. Clinically detectable nasal
septum deviation.
2. Tuberculosis, scleroma and edemas of the upper respiratory tracts.
3. Chronic bronchitis, pneumosclerosis,_ pulmonary emphysema, bronchial
asthma. - — ~ _.
4. Active forms of pulmonary tuberculosis.
5. Chronic inflammatory conjunctivitis, inflammation of the cornea, of the
salivary ducts and of the palpibra.
List 10. Fluorine and its compounds.
1. Atrophic rhinitis, ozena, nasal sychosis. Diseases of the nasal acces-
sory sinuses frequently becoming acute. Clinically detectable nasal
septum deviation.
2. - Chronic laryngitis frequently becoming acute, laryngeal stenosis of the
esophagus. --;-~- - - - : .__. ~ ._1~.__'~
3. Tuberculosis, scleroses and edemas of the upper respiratory tracts.
4. Chronic bronchitis, clinically detectable pneumosclerosis, pulmonary
emphysema and bronchial asthma.
+ 5. Active forms of pulmonary tuberculosis.
6. Bone diseases.'
7. Chronic inflammatory conjunctivitis, inflammation of the cornea, of the
salivary ducts and of the palpibraT*"I_~V ,
List 11. Sulfurio anhydride (sulfurio acid aerosol).
1. Atrophic rhinitis, ozena, nasal sychosis. Diseases of the nasal acces-
sory sinuses, frequently becoming acute. Clinically detectable nasal
septum deviation. Clinically detectable hyposmia.
2. Chronic laryngitis, frequently becoming acute.
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3. Tuberculosis, scleromas and edemas of the upper respiratory tracts.
4. Chronic bronchitis, clinically detectable emphysema and pneumosclerosis.
Bronchial asthma. • •
5. Active form of pulmonary tuberculosis.
6. Chronic inflammation of the conjunctiva, the cornea, the salivary ducts
and the palpibra.
7. Eczema of the face and hands.
List 12. Chlorine, ^bromine.
1. Atrophic rhinitis, ozena, nasal sychosis. Diseases of the nasal acces-
sory sinuses frequently becoming acute. Clinically detectable nasal
septum deviation.
2. Chronic laryngitis, frequently becoming acute. Manifestations of
esophageal sclerosis.
3. Tuberculosis, scleroma and edemas of the upper respiratory tracts.
4. Clinically detectable hyposmia.
5. Chronic bronchitis, pneumosclerosis, pulmonary emphysema, bronchial
asthma.
6. All diseases of the respiratory organs and of the cardiovascular system
. which contraindicate the use of gas masks.
7. Active forms of pulmonary tuberculosis.
8. Chronic inflammation of the conjunctiva, cornea, salivary ducts and the
palpibra.
List 13. Carbon bisulfide.
1. Organic diseases of the central nervous system.
2, Chronic and-recurring diseases of the-peripheral nervous system. -
3. Diseases of the optic nerve and of the retina.
4. Epilepsy.
5. Clinically detectable' neurotic states.
6. Psychic diseases including those of recurrent stages.
7. Psychopathic diseases. * '
8. Clinically detectable endocrine and vegetative diseases." °
9. Clinically detectable liver diseases. .... . _;
List 14. Hydrogen sulfide. ' ~"
1. Organic diseases of the central nervous system.
2. Epilepsy.
3. Clinically detectable states of neuroses. . ~- - ._. .
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4. Psychic diseases.
5» Clinically detectable endocrine and vegetative diseases.
6. Atrophic rhinitis, ozena; diseases of the nasal accessory sinuses, fre-
quently becoming acute.
7. Chronic laryngitis, frequently becoming acute. Manifestations of
esophageal sclerosis.
8. Tuberculosis, scleromas arid edemas of the upper respiratory tracts.
9» Chronic.bronchitis, bronchial asthma.
10. All diseases of the organs of the respiratory tract and of ine cardio-
vascular system contraindicating the use of gas masks.
11. Chronic inflammation of the conjunctiva, cornea, salivary ducts and
palpibra.
List 15« Crude oil, gasoline, white spirit, kerosene, mazut
(crude oil residue), lubricating materials.
•1.' Atrophic rhinitis, ozena, nasal sychosis. Diseases of the nasal acces-
sory sinuses frequently becoming acute. Clinically detectable nasal
septum deviation.
2. Chronic laryngitis frequently becoming acute. Lanifestations of
esophageal sclerosis.
3. Tuberculosis, scleroma and edemas of the upper respiratory tracts.
4* Clinically detectable hyposmia.
5. All diseases of respiratory organs and cardiovascular systems contra-"
indicating the use of gas masks.
6. Chronic bronchitis, bronchial asthma.
7._ Organic diseases of the central nervous system. .
8. Epilepsy.
9. Clinically detectable neurotic .state.s. ~ " - -
10. Psychic diseases.
11. Clinically detectable endocrine and vegetative diseases.
12. Chronic inflammation of the conjunctiva, cornea, salivary ducts and the
palpibra.
For those who are engaged in cleaning crude oil cracking stills add:
13. Seborrhea complicated by different .forms of_"acne;-;:_z-r;:~'r..^.:; ;^r. :
List 16. Methylic alcohol. ' " - - - -
1. Organic diseases of the central nervous system.
2. Clinically detectable endocrine and•vegetative diseases.
3. Chronic alcoholism.
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4. Diseases of the optic nerve and the retina.
5. Clinically detectable liver diseases..
6. Nephrites, nephroses, and nephroscleroses.
List 17. Chlorinated and brominated hydrocarbons. -
1. Organic diseases of the central nervous system.
2. Epilepsy. • '
3. Clinically detectable states of neuroses.
4. Psychic diseases.
5. Clinically detectable endocrine and vegetative diseases.
6. Clinically detectable liver diseases.
7. Nephrites and nephroscleroses.
8. Organic myocardites.
9. Atrophic rhinitis, ozena, nasal sychosis. Diseases of the nasal acces-
sory sinuses frequently becoming acute. Clinically detectable nasal
septum deviation. • ' .
10. Chronic laryngitis frequently becoming acute. Manifestations.of
esophageal stenosis.
11. Tuberculosis, scleroma, and edemas of the upper respiratory tracts.
12. Clinically detectable hyposmia.
13. Clinically detectable bronchitis and bronchial asthma.
14. Chronic inflammation of the conjunctiva, cornea, salivary ducts and the
palpibra.
15. Acute clinical seborrhea complicated with acne.
"_ ~ ' List 18. Products of coal distillation! - -
benzene, toluol, phenol, pyridinet etc. _.. '.:.' :_r"..:_..
_1. Atrophic rhinitis, ozena, nasal sychosis. Diseases of the nasal acces-
sory sinuses frequently becoming acute. Clinically detectable nasal
septum deviation. ~ "
2. Chronic laryngitis frequently becoming acute. Manifestations of
esophageal stenosis. ...
3. Tuberculosis, scleroma and edemas of the upper respiratory tracts.
..4. Clinically detectableL.hyppsn4a._-_ .... __ "-""
5. Chronic bronchitis and bronchial asthma. *~" -
6. All diseases of respiratory organs and cardiovascular system contrain-
dicating the use of gas masks.
7. All blood diseases and secondary anemia (Hb below 60jQ.
8. All forms of hemorfhagic diathesis..
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9. Clinically detectable liver diseases.
10. Nephrites, nephroses, and nephroscleroses.
11. Organic diseases of the central nervous system.
12. Epilepsy.
13. Clinically detectable states of neuroses.
14o Psychic diseases.
15. Clinically detectable endocrine and vegetative diseases.
16. Chronic conjunctivitis, and chronic inflammation of the cornea, salivary
ducts and the palpibra.
For those who work with anthracite, naphthalene and other substances which
possess photodynamic activity, add:
17. Diseases of the skin, accompanied by increased sensitivity to light, such,
for example, as solar eczema and solar scabies, etc.
•»
List 19o Benzene, toluol, xylol.
1. Organic diseases of the central nervous system.
2. Epilepsy. - - -
3* Clinically detectable states of neuroses.
4. Psychic diseases.
5. All blood diseases and secondary anemia (Hb below 60$).
6. All forms of hemorrhagic diathesis.
7. Clinically detectable liver diseases. .
8. Nephrites, nephroses, and nephroscleroses.
List 20. Amino- and nitro-compounds of benzene and phenol.
1. All blood diseases and secondary anemia (Hb below 60$).
.2. Clinically detectable liver diseases.
3. Organic diseases of the central nervous system.
4. Epilepsy.
5. Psychic diseases.
6. Clinically detectable endocrine and vegetative diseases.
(a) For those who work with amino-compounds and in particular with benzene,
ansidine, naphthylamine and captax which cause diseases of .the urinary pas-..
sages, and for those (b) who work with chlorobenzene add List No. 16.
List 21. Nicotine. ...._.
1. Clinically expressed endocrine and vegetative diseases.
2. All diseases of the cardiovascular system.
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3. Gastric and duodenal ulcers.
4. Clinically expressed gastritis, arid spastic colitis.
5. Temporary amaurosis causing limited field of vision.
Idst 22. Ursol.
1. Clinically visible catarrh of the upper respiratory tract.
2. Chronic bronchitis, bronchial asthma, pulmonary emphysema frequently
becoming acute.
3. Presence of any form of eczema and allergic dermatitis, inclusive of
those in anamnesis.
List 23. Pitch and schist (shale).
1. Photosensitive skin diseases (solar eczema, solar scabies, etc.).
2. Chronic conjunctivitis, and chronic inflammation of the cornea, salivary
ducts and the palpibra.
List 24. Roentgen rays.
1. All blood diseases-and .secondary anemia (Hb below 6056).
2, Sex gland diseases and disturbances of menstrual-ovarian cycles.
3. Skin cancer at any site and precancerous diseases.
4. Clinically detectable endocrine and vegetative disturbances.
List 25. Radioactive substances.
^
1. All blood diseases and secondary anemia (Hb below 60?).
2. All organic diseases of the central nervous system.
3. Clinically detectable endocrine and vegetative diseases.
4. Bone diseases.'" .---""•_"- •-- .-. .-. - . . ... ....
5. Skin cancer at any site and precancerous diseases.
List 26. Ultra high frequency currents.
1, All blood diseases and secondary anemia (Hb below 60/C).
2. Active pulmonary tuberculosis.
3. Organic diseases"of the nervous system, progressive (disseminated scle-
rosis, syringomyelitis, cerebro-spinal syphilis, tuberculosis of the
spine, etc.).
4. Clinically detectable endocrine and vegetative diseases (Basedow's
disease, Addison's disease, etc.).
5. Clinically detectable angiotrophoneurosis, etc. (Reno's disease, trophic
o ulcer, sclerodermia, etc.).
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List 27. Free silicon dioxide, asbestos.
1. Any form of pulmonary tuberculosis (presence of petrification is not to
be regarded as a positive indicator).
2. Extrapulmonary tuberculosis (glands, sex glands, bones, etc.).
3. Diseases of the upper respiratory tracts and bronchitis. Clinically
detectable nasal septum deviation, labored nasal breathing, atrophic
rhinitis, frequently occurring chronic laryngitis, chronic inflammation
of the accessory nasal sinuses, neoplasms in the upper respiratory
tracts, cicatricial adhesions of the upper respiratory tracts, labored
breathing (general), chronic bronchitis, bronchial asthma, bronchi-
ectasis.
4. Non-tubercular pulmonary diseases (pneumosclerosis, pulmonary emphysema).
5. Diseases of the diaphragm^
6. Organic diseases of the cardiovascular system (heart failure, organic
myocarditis, clinically detectable arteriosclerosis, hypertonic
diseases).
Note: Detection of any of the above diseases in the course of periodic
medical examinations of the employed should indicate the need for the worker's
transfer to another occupation. In doing this each case should be decided
upon by taking into consideration time record of employment, general resis-
tance to the effects of conditions of present employment, gravity of affection,
degree of compensation, sanitary-hygienic conditions of employment, and other
pertinent factors.
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The Effect of Industrial Poisons on the Immune-Biological
State of the Organism.
I. G. Fridlyand.
(Department of Occupational Diseases and Labor Hygiene, Leningrad
Institute of Post-Graduate Medicine).
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 24, No. 8, 55-61, 1959.
It has been known for a long time that, some industrial.poisons lowered
the general resistance of the organism to certain diseases, eliciting effects
in addition to their basic property of producing characteristic changes in
individual organs or systems. This was noticed in particular in such diseases
as the grippe, angina, pneumonia, tuberculosis, observed in some groups of
workers connected with such toxic substances as lead and its inorganic com-
pounds, tetraethyl lead, benzene, fluorides, etc.; these diseases occur com-
paratively frequently and follow a rather grave and at times specific course
of development. It should be noted in this connection that similar affections
have been encountered recently among certain sections of the country's in-
.habitants who were exposed to the effects of industrial discharges and atmos-
pheric air pollutants with sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, fluorides, lead
and its compounds, etc. The importance of such factors to the conservation
of public health should not be underestimated. There is no doubt that under
certain conditions situations, such as are described above, may cause a con-
siderable lowering in the body resistance to diseases and thereby increase
population morbidity. It should also be noted that results of clinical ob-
servations and clinical statistical data coincided with the results of many
experimental toxicological studies. Thus, Mattei established in 1896 that
following the inhalation of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide
and other poisons, animals manifested a considerably lowered resistance to
infection, and animals,normally.resistant, to certain infections lost their
natural immunity. Susceptibility to infections ran parallel to the duration
and intensity of the -effect of toxic-substances. - Pigeons-normally-possessing
natural immunity to anthrax were easily infected with this agent after they
have been intoxicated with alcohol or oxides of nitrogen.
E. Ronzani reported the results of his experiments in 1908. As far back
as 50 years ago he was able to show, as a result of chronic experiments, that
many toxic substances, such as fluorides, oxides of nitrogen, acinonia, etc.,
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lowered the defense powers of the organism against such diseases as typhoid
fever, anthrax, tuberculosis and-other diseases. With the then limited bac-
teriological techniques Ronzani was able to prove that animals subjected to
the effects of the indicated poisons lost resistance against many infectious
diseases;, he was able to show that the course of normally light infections
assumed a grave character after intoxication with the substances mentioned.
The Ukrainian Institute of Labor Medicine, now known as the Ukrainian
Institute of Labor Hygiene and Occupational Diseases, located in Khar'kov,
published some important results of experiments conducted in 1926 - 1928.
Workers of that Institute, such as Ya. L. Sakhnovskii, L. L. Kandyba and
Sh. G. Perlina, E. V. Davydova, clearly demonstrated the deleterious effects
of lead poisoning and of carbon monoxide, in acute experiments, on animal re-
sistance against typhoid and paratyphoid B. bacilli and of staphylococcal in-
fections. Animals intoxicated with carbon monoxide lost approximately 2/3 of
their' resistance to tetanus toxin. Cats subjected to acute intoxication with
carbon monoxide temporarily lost their normal resistance against streptococcal
infection. A. T. Aldanazarov demonstrated that lead poisoning sharply reduced
'the defense and adaptability.mechanism of the organism, as a result of which
animals suffering from inflammation of the lungs and the intestinal tract per-
ished in a considerably shorter time. Reports appearing in the literature
indicate that animals subjected to the inhalation of manganese dioxide de-
veloped a greater susceptbility to experimental pneumococcal pneumonia. Nu-
merous publications have also appeared which indicate that chronic intoxica-
tion with benzene lowered the resistance of animals.against many infections,
notably pneumonia and tuberculosis. The question of the mechanism which under-
lies such loss of resistance to infections is .a subject of great theoretical
and utmost practical importance.
At this point no detailed account will be presented of the complex prob-
lems with which the general immunity confronts the investigator. Attention
must be called to the fact that immune—biological, reactivity of the organism
is controlled by general physiological principles,'"and that" the" "state of the
nervous system is ajfactor of considerable importance in general immunogenesis
and in specific immunity manifestation. In this connection attention is called
to the dissertation of P. 0. Ivanov "On -the Effect of Poisons on the Organism
in Relation to Different-States of the Nervous System!1, _which was published
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in 1901. On the "basis of his experiments "this author concluded that in in-
stances where the organism firmly withstood the effect of different deleterious
factors, including chemical effects, the state of the nervous system played
an important part. Conclusions of this nature, which in some instances have\
"been arrived at as far back as 60 years ago, have been recently confirmed in
I. P. Pavlov's laboratory by such of his students as Yu. P. Fi-olov, A. G.
Ivanov-Smolenskii and others. These authors studied the effect of the state
of the central nervous system on the onset, the course and the outcome of some
chemical poisonings using different physiological methods; all came to prac-
tically the same conclusions, the most important of which, in relation to the
subject under present discussion, was the fact that poisons such as acetone,
carbon monoxide, cyanide, alcohol, etc. produced functional cortical distur-
bances; such disturbances weakened the cerebral cortical activity to a point
at which it lost its original capability to prevent the development of patho-
logic processesjincluding those- of an infectious character, as was shown by
M. K. Petrova.
It is now possible to formulate the basic principles arid specific proc-
esses which are responsible for the lowered immunologic reactivity of the or-
ganism resulting from some industrial poisonings. It is well known that an
anti-infection (infection-resistant) immunity can be hereditary, an individu-
ally acquired means of adaptation'which resist the entrance into the organism
of microbes and viruses, their proliferation and the deleterious effects of
their products of---elimination.- Such means of adaptation yar .barriers ,are .pre-
sented by: l) the skin and the mucosae, 2) inflammation, phagocytosis, the
reticulo-endothelial system, 3) the lymphatic tissue barrier functions, 4)
humoral factors, and 5) "the organism's cell reactivity (L. A. Zil'ber). There
is reason to believe that to a greater or lesser degree each of the barriers
can be disturbed by the effects of given poisons. However, in practice such
functions were relegated to phagocytosis and to some humoral immunity factors.
._.-_--.!. I,..Mechnikov was the first to call attention to the important part
played by phagocytosis in general immunity. Many sYudies have been made since
that time which broadened the knowledge regarding the role played by leucocytes
in the complex defense mechanism of higher organisms. G. K. Khrushchev showed
that in addition to the defense functions of phagocytosis and chemical break-
down of invading bodies, .the blood platelets played an important part in the
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processes of regeneration. In this connection the unfavorable effects of
poison-producing leukopenia are of great significance. It has also been
shown that toxic substances may under certain conditions reduce the number
of leucocytes. Thus, I. I. Mechnikov noted a considerable reduction in the
number of white blood cells in the blood of rabbits administered lethal doses
of arseneous acid. Recent clinical experience with cases of industrial poi-
soning points to the possibility of leukopenia resulting from the chronic ef-
fect of benzene, fluorides, mercury, manganese, tetraethyl lead and many other
deleterious chemical substances. The leukopenia produced in the organism by
such substances leads to a reduction in the phagocytosis phase of the organ-
ism's defense against infection directly and indirectly by weakening one link
in the general chain of the organism's defense mechanism.
Thus, the phagocytic property of leucocytes is lowered by certain toxic
substances. A. M. Bezredka lowered the phagocytic function of leucocytes.by
injecting guinea pigs with carmine; the guinea pigs were then administered
arseneous sulfide in doses which normally produced no deleterious effect. In
this case, however, all the guinea pigs died. W. and J. Taliaferro exposed
experimental animals to the effect of mustard gas and thereby reduced their
phagocytic activity. Aub and his co-workers, L. L." Kandyba and Sh. G. Perlina,
I. P. Petrov and others found that lead and its compounds also depressed the
phagocytic activity of leukocytes. A. T. Aldanazarov found that lead acetate
affected unfavorably the opsono-phagocytic activity and depressed the macro—
phagic absorption system and its related functions. Similar results were ob-
tained by L. L. Kandyba "and Sh. G. Perlina with manganese chloride, and by
S. S. Dinkelis with tungstic mine dust. S. I. Ashbel and his co-workers noted
a lowered phagocytic index in worker patients who had clearly developed'prieumo-
sclerosis of chemo-toxic etiology and in worker patients suffering from grave
intoxication with tetraethyl lead and trinitrotoluol. Paradoxically, in
light lead intoxication the phagocytic'index rose to higher levels. Thus,
different toxic substances can affect phagocytosis mostly in the direction of
lowered potency thereby weakening one of the most important defense barriers
of the organism. '
In addition to the above discussed phases of the phagocytic defense of
the organism the humoral immunity factors are also of considerable importance.
These factors of immunity determine the bactericidal properties of blood, ex-
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udates and transudates in animals and man. As far back as 50 years ago
Ronzani noted a lowered "bactericidal function in the lungs in relation to
Bac. prodigiosus in cases of chronic poisoning with hydrogen fluoride, am-
monia and oxides of nitrogen.
Results of experiments and clinical observations found in the literature
present evidence of the relation existing between the effects of some indus-
trial poisons and the fall in the bactericidal potency of blood serum. Thus,
Ys. D. Sakhnovskii found that the bactericidal potency of fresh blood serum
of workers connected with different phases of the lead industry was reduced
considerably in its effects of typhoid and paratyphoid B bacilli which he
considers as a constant and reliable symptom of lead poisoning. This was
verified in experiments with rabbits. T. N. Ablina also found lowered bac-
tericidal potency in the blood of animals experimentally exposed to fluorine-
containing apatite dust. Many other investigators found that the bactericidal
potency was considerably reduced in animals having inflammatory processes
complicated by acute benzene intoxication. It has been established in the
past that immuno-bactericidal properties of the organism are determined to
a large extent by the presence of active antibodies, substances which are
generated in the process of serum globulin synthesis; this is equally true
of animals having natural or acquired immunity. It is now generally well
accepted that many deleterious chemical substances impeded the process of
antibody formation. Results of chronic animal poisoning with fluorides, sul-
fur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, benzene conducted by many different investi-
gators manifested .different types of lowered production of"antibodies such as
agglutinin, hemolysins, bacteriolysins, precipitines, etc. This was equally
true of specific antibodies generated in animals immunized to specific in-
fections. S. I. Ashbel and co-workers used,the loffe test and other biologi-
cal indexes in studying the state of immuno-biological defense of normal and
sick workers who were exposed to the effect of lead, tetraethyl lead, tri-
nitrotoluol, etc.} they came to the Conclusion that the rate of antibody - - .
generation in many of these workers was considerably depressed. Of particular
interest is that phase of their work which showed that the rise in the agglu-
tination titre was more gradual but reached higher levels after anti-typhoid
vaccination in workers engaged in different chemical industries, as compared
with workers otherwise employed.
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I. D. Gabovich and Ya. I. Mel'nik in their experiments with rabbits and
rats found that fluorine impeded the development of antibodies even when ad-
ministered in comparatively low doses. Z. K. Makashev concluded, on the basis
of results of his experiments, that the titre of such immune bodies as agglu-
tinins, hemolysins and precipiiins were sharply lowered in the blood of immu-
nized rabbits in lead poisoning. It should be pointed out that following
stimulation by antigens the titre of immune bodies in the above animals at
first rose, never reaching the original level, and then rapidly fell again.
Finally mention should be made of the important observations made during
the post-war years at the Department of Labor Hygiene of the Khar'kov Institute
of Post-Graduate Medicine, 'by V. K. Navrotskii and others; these investigators
paid particular attention to changes in immune—biological reactivity in the
incipient stages of chronic intoxication; they worked with benzene, aniline,
nitrobenzene, dichlorethane, carbon tetrachloride, lead and tetraethyl lead;
as indexes of depressed or enhanced immune—biological reactions they used the
agglutination titre after typhoid vaccine immunization. Their results showed
that all the above-mentioned poisons depressed the agglutination titre. On
the other hand, poisoning with nitrobenzene, dichlorethane, carbon tetrachloride
and tetraethyl lead produced no such effects (elicited no such reactions).
V. K. Navrotskii concluded that immune—biological reactivity is depressed
most by vagotropic poisons.
The above-cited experiments once more confirm the opinions variously
expressed regarding the .deleterious effects exerted by chemical poisons "bri
the humoral phase f immunity. There is, however, another group of body
defense barriers consisting of the skin, the mucosae, lymphatic tissues, etc.
Each of these barriers^and in particular the tissues^can be variously dis-
turbed or weakened by some industrial poisons. Mention can be made in this
connection of the defense functions of the skin and mucosae as mechanical
barriers to the penetration of most microorganisms. In addition^these bar-
riers also possess bactericidal potency. In .this connection consideration..., r. .:
should be- given to the possibility of many deleterious chemical substanc'es
to damage the skin or the mucosae and thereby break down their function as
bacterial penetration barriers* such changes can be of a functional nature
or they can be of the nature of permanent anatomical damage. Previous in-
vestigations pointed to the considerable importance played by the above-
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mentioned factors and it is suggested that in-practical evaluation of
chemical effects these factors should not be ignored. No specific recomen-
dation can "be made at this point in connection with the breakdown of the
above-mentioned defense barriers, since this phase of the organism's defense
mechanism has been studied comparatively little.
It should be emphasized at this point that in the sum total of the bar-
riers' action as a phase of antibacterial immunity they manifest a variety of
mechanisms of which one may be of a synergistic character. Of particular im-
portance in this respect are antibodies which change the microbes in the di-
rection of involution, lowered virulence, and susceptibility to phagocytosis.
The presence in immune serums of such antibodies as the opsonins and tropins
renders the microorganisms more susceptible to phagocytosis by leucocytes and
by cells of the reticulo-endothelial system. Vice versa, deleterious effect
of many toxic substances on the development of antibodies must be evaluated
not only from the viewpoint of their direct effect as agents lowering organic
immunity, but also from the viewpoint of their disturbing the organism's de-
fense function, which results in a lowered effectiveness of phagocytosis.
The importance of different chemical substances in lowering the resis-
tance of organisms varies with different infections. It has been noted
that in the case of infection with organisms to which the particular animal
body is highly susceptible, that is, where the infecting agent proved to be
highly virulent the part played by all the previously mentionedjsecondary
factors lose their significance. The situation is reversed in cases where
the microorganism is less virulent and .the. host is more resistant. In such
instances the state of the orga.iism^as determined by different external and
secondary factors^becomes of. great importance. Many investigators, 'notably
L. A. Zil'ber, showed that natural immunity to saprophytes can be weakened
or broken down by inoculation with large doses of microorganisms.
In connection with the above attention is called -to the results of L. L.
Kandyba who elicited clearly-defined.differences in the reactions in carbon
monoxide-intoxisated cats to higher arid lower 'dose7 inoculations with strepto-
cocQi__and staphylococci. In the case of massive inoculations with strepto-
cocci this author noted no difference in the course of the resultant infec- -
tion in the control and in the carbon monoxide-intoxicated cats. Control
cats, inoculated with low doses of the. streptococci, resisted the development
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of the infection; carbon monoxide-intoxicated cats, inoculated with similar
doses, developed a typical streptococcal infection. Similar results were
obtained with Staphylococcua aureus.
The state of the organism prior to the chemical infection determines the
course and outcome of the intoxication and consequently of all the immune—
biological sequellae as well as the effect of any particular concentration
of the poison. Thus, I. E. Levin of the Leningrad Institute of Labor Hygiene
and Occupational Diseases demonstrated the following: rabbits previously
inoculated with tubercule bacilli were exposed to sulfur dioxide; control
rabbits were inoculated with similar doses of tubercule bacilli but were not
exposed to the sulfur dioxide gas. Clinical observation indicated that tuber-
culosis developed in the sulfur dioxide-poisoned rabbits inoculated with con-
siderably lower doses of tubercule microorganisms; at the same time the ef-
fects produced by sulfur dioxide, such as broncho-epithelial proliferation
and alveolar-epithelial metoplasia were more highly developed in the sulfur
dioxide-poisoned rabbits. - •
The above-cited experimental results are in complete agreement with anal-
ogous clinical observation, all of which point to the certain highly delete-
rious effects of even low concentrations of toxic substances on the immuno-
biological reaction of persons having active pathologic infections. In such
instances the mutually enhancing effect of the primary infection and the
chemical poisoning appear even at such concentrations of the poison which
appear to have no effect on normally healthy persons.
Thus, where the pathogenic factor is clearly defined arid where the :inr-.-••
'dustrial \vorking conditions are unsatisfactory as regards possible intoxica-
tion the manifold individual reactions to the unfavorable factors tend to
disappear. Vice versa, differences in the individual reactions become more
pronounced where the virulence of the infecting agent is low or where the ,
effect of- the chemical poison is -limited to low doses or concentrations.
Under the present-day production conditions intoxication with low doses or
'low concentrations of the-toxic agent are-encountered most-frequently. There-
fore, the problem of chronic effects of toxic substances under industrial
conditions in general and on the immuno-biolo-rical reaction of the organism
in particular become of particular importance.
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Ajiflanasapoa A. T. Tpyjiu HH-ra KpaesoB naroJionui AH Kaaaxcxoft CCP. '
1956, T. 4. crp. 42—49. — A ui G e A b C. H.. FjieaepODa H. H., CioJineuKaa H. P..
X i! n b P. P., JI a ui e n K o H. C., II o c T H H K o o a T. 5. Teswcu AOKflaAOB na uaymHoA
CCCCMII FopbKOBcxoro Mii-ra nimcHU rpyna 21—25 HIOHS 1948 r. MSA. HH-TB, 1948.—
BpeAHbie Bcuiccroa B npoMuuiJieiiHOCTH. JI., 1954. q. 2, ctp. 488—489.— Fa60BUI P. £..
Mcjibii HK JI. H. Bpaq. O.UIQ, 1951. As 12. cr6. 1119—1122. — J3. a B waoaa 3. B. B KM.:
npoMuuiJietuibic «uw. XapbKoa. 1923, crp. 130—137. — AKHKCJIIIC C. C. B KH.: Bopb6»
c CMfliiKOJOM. M., 1955. T. 2, crp. 348—357. — SapOAOBCKHft FI. O. FIpofoeMa peaic-
TUBHOCTH B yMGiiHH 06 HH0CKUHU H HMMyiinTeTe. M., 1950. — 3n;ib6ep JI. A. OCHOBU
MMMyiiCMioni. M., 1958. — 11 B a n o D II. A. O fleficreiiH HAOB Ha opranH3M B sasnatMOCTH
or pas^HMiioro cocroninia Hcpniiofi CIICTGMU. RHCC. AOXT. CFIB, 1901.—H s a H o B-C M o-
JiencKHfi A. F. CtacpKH naTO(pii3iio^orHH sucuiefl Hcpoaofi AcnrejibHOCTn. M., 1952.
crp. 144—1GO.— KaHflbiCa JI. JI. B KH.: FIpoMbim^eiiHue RAW. XapbKoa, 1928,
crp. 138—146. — KaHAuOa JI. JI.. FI e pji H H a. 111. F. Tpyau H Maiepiia^n y«opa-HHCK.
roc. HH-ia paCoieA M&aHUHHbi. Xapucos. 1926. B. 3. crp. 104—122. — Ke^biu O. OCuiaa
npOMbiuiJieHiiafl niniena H npoi}>c«xiiona^bHaji namnorHa. M.—JI., 1926, crp. 123.—
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T. 8, crp. 85—S3.—Manage B K. K. Tpyau HH-TB KpaenoA naTonorHii AH Kaaaxcxofi
CCP. AjiMa-Aja. 1956. T. 4, crp. 34—41. —MCMHHKOB H. H. HeBoenpmMimiBocTb B HH-
<|>eKmioiiHux CO^CJHHX. M., 1947, crp. 489—494. — HaBpouiciiii B. K. Teaticu AOKA.
13-ro Bcccoioaiioro ci>e3Jia ruriicnHCTOB, 9nnaeMHO^oroB. MiiKpoGno^oron u HH^CKUHOHHCTOB.
M., 1956. KH. 1, cip. 145—147.— FIcrpoB H. P. B KH.: Flpoxiwuj.'TeHHasi nw^b n 6opb6a
c HCH. JI., 1933, t. I. crp. 96—104. — FlerpOBa M. K. O POJIH (pyHKUHOiia^wio ocJia6~
JICHHOH KQPU ro,noBHoro Mosra B BO3MiiKHOoeHHH paMHiHux narojioni'iecxux npoucccoa
B opraimawe. JI., 1946, crp. 41—42. — C a XH OBCKH u H. fl. Tpyau H MarepHaJiw
VxpaHHCxorn roc. HH-ra paCo'ieft MenimHHbi. XapbKOB, 1926, B. 3, crp. 92—103.— OpHfl-
J7 H H A H. F. O Tax H33UB3CMOM HCCneUIKpHMCCKOM AcACTOHil IlpOMUUJJieHHblX HAOB. M-,
1957. — Opo^OB K). FI. Bbicuian iiepBHaH AeHranbHOcib npH TOKCHKoaax. M.. 1944.—
X p y in o B F. K. Po/ib JICI'IKOUIITOB KPODH B BOCcranoBHTeJibHbix npouccca.x B TKBHSIX.
M. — JI., 1945. — Aub J. C. Lead Poisoning. Baltimore, 1926.—-R o n za n i E. Arch. f.
Hyg.. 1908. Bd. 67. S. 237—366. — I d e rn. Ibid. 1909. Bd. 70. S. 217—269. —Ta 1 i a-
f e r r 6 W. H.. T a 1 i a f e r ro L. G. J. Infect. DisH 1948. v. 82. p. 5—30.
Effect of Chronic Low Concentration Sulfur Dioxide Poisoning on the
Immune-Biological,Reactivity pf Rabbits.i"'--'..""
V. K. Navrotskii.
(Department of Labor Hygiene, Khar'kov Institute of Post-Graduate Medicine).
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 24, No. 8, 21-25, 1959.
Results of recent-investigations conclusively indicated that sulfur di-
oxide was a "local and also "a general toxic substance.- This brings into the
foreground many important sanitary-hygienic problems, such as the determina-
tion of threshold and limit of allowable SO- concentrations under chronic S0_
intoxication conditions. Of equal importance is the problem of the effect
of SOp on the organism's immunological reactivity and its value as a physio-
logical indicator of the general functional state of the organism in chronic
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S0_ poisoning; the problem is also related directly to the frequently ob-
served increased rate of morbidity among workers exposed to the effects of
so2.
In the present studies rabbits were used as the experimental animals.
They were exposed to 0.018 - 0.022 mg/li of SO for 2 hours daily over 5.5
to 8.5 months. Thirty rabbits were divided into 3 groups of 10 rabbits each.
Rabbits of group 1 were Immunized with typhoid vaccine only; rabbits of groap
2 were preliminarily exposed to S0_ for 1 month and were then immunized; rab-
bits of group 3 were immunized during the course of exposure to SOp. In all
cases animals were injected intravenously 3 times with typhoid vaccine con-
taining 1.5 millyards of microorganisms as follows: first injection 0,5 ml
of the vaccine; 2nd and 3rd injections were of 0.8 ml. Agglutination titre
developed after the injection and the blood complement titre were used as
indexes of the immune—biological reaction. Records were kept of the follow-
ing: blood morphology; blood protein fractions, determined electrophoretically;
acetylcholine and cholinesterase activity. Analytical determinations were
made every 10 days. The results of determinations are listed in Table 1.
The data in Table 1 show that chronic poisoning with sulfur dioxide in allow-
able concentrations elicited acute depression of agglutinin formation. The
fall in agglutination titre in rabbits of the 2nd group which were exposed to
SO^ for 1 month prior to the vaccine injection was 4-8 times as great as in
TABLE . 1.
Average values of maximal agglutination titres after immuhizatibn iri~
control and exposed1 animals. ~ •-•
Factors
observed
First ( control )_group:
Observa-r :Agglutina-j
tions :tion titre:
Second group
Observa- : Agglutina-
tions :tion titre
Third jjroup
Observa- :Agglutina-
tions ition titre
Original.
control
data
After ex-
posure. •
1st immu-
nization
2nd immu-
nization
3rd immu-
nization
.. ..._.
~_J ~_-
10
10
10
1:70
" IT
1:8,700
1:24,500
1:-17,400_.. ..
18 ""
18 '"
10
10 -
10
T:'80 "
1:80
1x1,770
1:3,270
1:3,680
'18
r " _M~ '
10
10
10
- 1:70
..•1".~~.%LJ -
1:7,960
1:4,380
1:2,980
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the control group| it was 5 - 6 times as great in the rabbits of group 3,
which were immunized during the course of exposure to SO^. It should be
noted in this connection that the fall in the agglutination titre in the
latter case began to appear after the second vaccine injection. Exposure to
sulfur dioxide considerably shortened the period of high agglutination titre
persistence, as can be seen from the data listed in Table 2. Persistence of
high agglutination titre in the rabbits of the second group was cut to 1/3
to 1/4 of the control; in the rabbits of the third group it was cut to 1/2 to
1/3 of the controls.
Results of changes in the blood' complement titre, as an indicator of the
state of immuno-biological activ-
ity is shown in Table 3. The data
indicate that blood complement
titre was only slightly, if at
all, affected by the experimental
procedures used, probably due to
the fact that from the viewpoint
of evolution it is the oldest
index of body immunity or resis-
tance.
•
Average values of blood complement titration.
TABLE 2.
After duration of high agglutination
titre persistence in days.
• : First :
Immunization; (control) :
: group :
First
Second
Third
44
66
108
Second : Third
group : group
•
14
18
28
-
39
34
34
TABLE
3,
Factors
observed
First (
Observ
tions
** "
control) i^rouja:
: Blood :
: complement :
: titre :
- -- ^ — f
Second
Observa-.
tions
• - • - -•
group
Blood
complement
titre
Third
Observa-
tions .
group
: Blood
: complement
! .titre
Original
control
.data
. After ex-
posure
- 1st immu—
nization
2nd immu-
nization
3rd immu-
nization
20
^
— 59— -
69
87
0.082
^
0.107 ""- -'- •-*--•
0.093
0.089
18
31
30
35
37
0.106
0.095
: 0.078
0.104
0.106
18
^
'•"• ::^;-- •--•
33
32
0.075
_
0.088
0.105-
0.102
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Changes in the morphological blood picture of animals of all groups
ranged within the limits of normal fluctuations." Control animals which were
subjected to vaccine injections only showed practically no changes in the
erythrocyte picture, the leucocytes rose from 8,300 to 10,000. Rabbits of
the second series which were exposed to S0« prior to immunization showed a
hemoglobin fall from 57 to 53#, erythrocyte number fell from 4,400,000 to .
4,200,000 and the leucocytes dropped from 11,280 to 8,700. Rabbits of the
third group showed the following blood changes: hemoglobin fell from 60 to
58$, erythrocytes from 4,750,000 to 4,360,000, while the number of leucocytes
remained unchanged. The results indicate that blood morphology constitutes
an insufficiently sensitive index of S02 effect in the concentrations under
study.
Changes in blood protein fractions are shown in Table 4. In the rabbits
of group 1, or the control group, total protein, albumin and globulin fell to
a slight degree after the first and second vaccine injections. This lowered
the value of the albumin/globulin coefficient. Following the third vaccine in-
jection total proteins and both fractions returned to the original levels. In
the rabbits of group 2 blood changes were limited to the serum globulin section
which was lowered somewhat after the first and second vaccine injections.
Blood picture changes in the rabbits of group 3 were insignificant: only a
TABLE 4.
Average values in mg/6* of blood protein fractions.
» First (control)'fit-cup j Second group j Third flroup
t till Alb/ I i i i t Alb/ t i : i t Alb/
Fictoro :NuxbcrsTot»l t t t glob sNuabcrxTotml s t t glob iNinbenTetal i i , glob
ob- sof ob-ipro- sAlbu-«G lob-icoof- tof ob-ipro- lAlbu-tGlob-tcoof-* sof ob-ipro- t Albu-iGlob-,coef-
served >serv«-tt*in tains tulinsi fi- jacrve-italn gains >ulin»i fi- toorv«-it«in toins julino: fi-
;toons i » ' i seicnt uticna t g s tcient ttions t i i :cipnt
Original
control 20 7.36 4.20 3.16 1.33 18 6.31. 3.1*1 2.90 1.20 18 6.10 2.93 3.17 0.90
d»ta .
AfUr _
«»po8ur*-.r--.--v....r.~,:a ...~rl-- "--.IT^rl.-_.»:__ 6.00 3.27.2.73 1.20 -
-jet i«- _~" '~-l:~.~:...~"~ ~ "• •" - - "- -=: '- :~ " - v- ----- -
Bunizc- 58 6.17 3.U8 2.99 1.17 30 6.32 3.25 3.07 1.06 45 6.15 3.22 3.03 1.08
.tion
2nd im- ' '" " :
auniz.- 70 6.2l| 3.28 2.96 1.07 35 6.36 3.34 3.02 I.IO ~ 33 6.08 3.24 2.8U 1.10
tion
3rd i»-
ounii*- 93 . 7.17 4.26 2.91 1.43 37 6.10 3.31 2.79 1.20 32 6.33 3.19 3.14 I.01
tion ~ " Ui:
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very slight increase in the arbumin was seen at the end of the immunization.
Generally speaking, changes in the blood protein fractions were insignificant
and followed no specific or regular course. As was recorded in connection with
previous investigations, blood protein fractions changed almost imperceptibly
in cases of more clearly expressed poisoning with a regular tendency to shift
in the direction of increased globulin. Interesting shifts in the globulin
fraction occurred in the course of immunization which are shown in Table 5«
No correlation was discerned between the globulin concentration and agglutina-
tion titre after immunization in the healthy or control rabbits; regardless of
the slight rise in agglutination after the second and third vaccine injections,
the y-globulins remained unchanged. A slight increase in the Y-globulin con-
centration was observed following the immunization of rabbits in group 2 and
after the third vaccine injection in rabbits of group 3.
Average values in
TABLE 5.
of protein globulin fractions..
Factors
observed
First (control)
group
a- : p- : Y-
gl obu- : gl obu- : gl obu-
lin : lin : lin
Second group
a- : p-
gl obu-: globu-
lin : lin
V^
globu-
lin
Third group
a-
globu-
lin
P- : Y-
gl obu-: globu-
lin : lin
Original con-
trol data
After exposure
immunization •
Second
immunization
Third
immunization
0.87
-
0.68
0.89
0.82
0.81
-
0.77
0.64
-0.64-
1
1
1
1
.48
-
.53
.43
.45
0.90
0.92
-1.03-
0.95
0.84
0.83
0.63
0.59 -
0.65
0.58
1
1
1
1
1
.17
.18
.35...
.37
.37
1.08
-
0.90 ;
0.79
0.86
1.41
-
0.65
0.62
0.64
1.48
-
1.48
1.43
1.67
Data related to the accumulation of acetylcholine in the blood and blood
cholinesterase average activity are listed in Table 6. The data show that
acetylcholine accumulated in the blood and that cholinesterase activity rose
in a parallel- manner; this must be regarded as an index of the state of humoral
compensation, which to a degree reflects the state of functional balance of the
two divisions of the vegetative nervous system. The significance of blood
acetylcholine in industrial poisoning and its role in immuno-genesis were dis-
cussed by this author in a paper entitled "Effect of Chronic Benzene Intoxica-
tion, etc.", which appeared in Gigiena Truda i Professional'nye Zabolevaniya,
No. 2, 1957.
-161-
-------
TABLE 6.
Percent of cases with positive acetylcholine and average
cholinesterase activity values.
Factors
observed
First (control group)
Acetyl-
choline
Cholin-
esterase
activity
Second group
Acetyl-
choline
Cholin-
esterase
activity
Third group
Acetyl-
choline
Cholin-
esterase
activity
Original
control
data
After
exposure
1st immu-
nization
2nd immu-
nization
3rd immu-
nization
- - -
0
—
0
45
83 .
TABLE
30.56
•
30.56
46.35
57.65
7.
0
0
0
0
73
-
22.71
29.72
27.48
27.96
66.61
The
0.0
—
0.0
14.2
100.0
27.65
w
32.76
41.62
80.20
results obtained in th
Agglutination titres. \
Days after
revaccina-
tion
Rabbits
First :Second : Third jFourth
* * •
10
20
1:80
1:160
1:160
1:320
1:80
1:160
1:160
1:160
investigation further prove that
sulfur dioxide is a general toxin.
Its effects are stable and of long
duration. Two months after ex-
posure 4 of the rabbits were given
a supplemental intravenous injec-
tion .of 0.8 ml of the typhoid
vaccine. The results of agglutination titre are shown in Table 7« Substan-
tially, the rabbits failed to react to the antigen injections, that is, they
were non-reactive. Of considerable interest is the fact that S0? inhibited
immuno-biological reactivity to a greater extent than such toxic substances as
carbon tetrachloride and dichlorethane, the first of which produced similar
results at-4 rag/li and the second at--2 mg/li concentrations. The mechanism'
of sulfur dioxide action is" of considerable importance. According to I. V.
Sidorenkov and V. A. Litkens, SO depressed enzymic processes, and, as a con- •
sequence, disturbed general metabolism. The facts presented by these authors
are incontrovertible. It can be reasonably assumed that SO^ circulated in the
blood and dissolved in the blood plasma became converted to HpSO. which in turn
depressed general metabolism. However, this does not explain certain specific
-162-
-------
SO properties. The previously mentioned carbon tetrachloride and especially
dichlorethane impeded the effects of enzymes and the course of general me-
. *
tabolism to a greater extent than sulfur dioxide; however, these toxic sub-
stances fail to inhibit immuno-biological reactivity. The highly irritating
properties of sulfur dioxide undoubtedly play a significant role in regard
to effects on immune—biological reactivity. It can be reasonably assumed
that this gasjbecoming dissolved in the blood and circulated through the
organism^came in contact with the interoceptors, strongly irritated them
and thereby elicited most intensive reflex response of the type which dis-
turbed the basic enzyme processes and general metabolism, which resulted in
acute depression of immuno-biolo£ical reactivity. (Notation by the editor of
Gigiena i Sanitariya: "The last assumption does not necessarily follow from
the previously stated positions of the author and, therefore, is a type of
apriori supposition of. the author".).
Regardless of the true nature or mechanism of sulfuric acid action, the
fact remains that this gas manifests general toxic activity and cannot be
regarded as indifferent to the organism in concentrations as low as 0.02 mg/li;
therefore, the limit of allowable S02 concentration in the air of working
premises must be brought down to a lower level. N. P. Issev, Z. B. Snelyanskii
and others proposed that the limit of allowable concentration for sulfur di-
oxide be set at 0.005 mg/lij this author is of the opinion that such a proposi-
tion is ill-founded. Results of the above-reported investigations of sulfur
dioxide effect on immune—biological activity prompt this author to direct the
attention of practicing physicians to the need of investigating the role played
by low concentrations of this gas in the total morbidity among workers.
Bibliography.
%
E JicBKoacKB A K, 4>.. neficaxoBH-j M. M TpyflM R xaTepiia/ifai VKpavmcxoro
omronarES. 1926. B. 6. crp. 380—385. — Hc a e B H. C. CM e«« HCKR A 3. 6..
71. K. a cp. Fur. rpyaa a npwp. as&tasBaHUi, 1957. N» 4. crp. 3—II.—
B. A. Tar. n «aa.. 196& /* 8. crp. 15-«19.—J!HTK e«c B. A.. Ca«-
A. B. B SH.: Bonpocu raniem* Tpyjia. npo4>eocHCm., naron. H TOESCHCOH. s npoMunu.
oasst, 1955. crp. 160—172. — CaaopeHKOB M. B. TCSHCM 2-ro BCCCOKWHOTO
cooesncEoa no eoapocssi nposamuneiucofl TOBCKKCWJorHrt. M.. 1952, crp. J4—15. — Crepe-
xoe« H. H. B SB.: Bonpwcu rHt-Henu rpyaa. npoJieccHoa. tiatoa. H TOKCHXCMI..B_npoMuui-
CoepflflODCsofi a6a. CoepAaoKK. 1955. cip. 173—178.
-163-
-------
Effect of Low and High Surrounding Air Temperature on the Imnuno-Biological
Reactivity of the Animal Organism.
M. A. Razdobud'ko.
(institute of Post-Graduate Medicine, Khar'kov).
Gigiena Truda i Professional'nye Zabolevaniya, Vol. 2, No. 4, 23-30, 1958.
External environmental factors, and among them high and low temperatures,
play an important part in the organism's changes in its reactivity. Under
certain conditions cooling of the organism lowered its immune-biological prop-
erties and made it susceptible to infection. S. P. Fel'dman demonstrated that
many microorganisms of the nasal mucosa which under normal conditions acted
as simple saprophytes (such for instance as toxic staphylococcus, Priedlander's
diplobacillus and mucoid streptococcus) became highly virulent and elicited
purulent processes following cooling of the.body. The intratracheal injection
of staphylococcal cultures into rabbits followed by body cooling developed
febrile conditions. Similar inoculation of rabbits by P. M. Khaletskaya under
normal conditions produced no febrile conditions. V. A. Kozlov also demon-
strated that cooling of mice lowered their resistance to tetanus infection.
On the other hand evidence existed in the literature which showed that organ-
isms subjected to hypothermy manifested an increased resistance to certain
diseases processes. Thus, rats subjected to hypothermy followed by burns did
not develop any inflammatory processes, as was shown by E. V. Maistrakh.
AvG. Bukhtiyarov showed that cats subjected to -hypothermy developed no hetero=.
transfusion shock. E. V. Maistrakh showed that rabbits subjected to hypo-
thermy developed no allergic reaction of the Schwartzanan type.
Generally, all biological processes proceeded at a reduced rate at lower
body temperatures; this is especially true of metabolic processes, blood cir-
culation, respiration, conductivity and nerve stimulability,, Something aldn
to the above has been noted in hibernating animals. The method of hypothermy
lias also been used in surgical .practice... ..Changes, in the reactivity of the
.organism under the effect of surrounding air temperature, other than those
leading to hypothermy, have not received the deserved attention, and much
remains to be explained. In certain phases of the coal, building, peat, ship-
building, lumber manufacturing, etc. workers are exposed to low surrounding
air temperatures. In this connection it becomes impo"rtarit"to determine the
-164-
-------
effect of low temperatures on the immune-biological reactivity in instances
which exclude the possibility of hypothermy development.
It has "been known that low external air temperature, as well as high
temperature, affected the organism's resistance. A survey of the literature
indicated that conclusions arrived at by those who investigated the effect of
high temperature on the course of infectious processes and on the rate of anti-
body formation were contradictory. K. A. Fride, Schwartzman and Galanova
pointed out that a rise in the surrounding air temperature affected unfavor-
ably the course of experimental recurrent typhus in rats. The authors ex-
pressed the opinion that the unfavorable effect of animals overheating de-
pended not upon the depressed defense'mechanism of the organism (since in-
creased temperature frequently produced a rise in the titre of spirochetal
antibodies), but was the result of a disturbance in the hemato-encephalitic
barrier. V. D. Akhnazarova, and others showed that high temperature lowered
the resistance of rabbits to dysenteric toxin. Equally contradictory results
were obtained by those who studied the effect of elevated temperatures on
the formation and content of antibodies. Most of the investigators believe
that higher surrounding air temperature stimulated antibody formation; among
such investigators are M. K. Ebert, P. N. Kosyakov and N. N. Zhukov. Other
investigators, notably L. M. Karmanova, found that higher temperatures had
no effect on antibody formation. Contradictory results were also obtained by
those who investigated the effect of high temperature on the complement titre.
Thus, I^yudke observed that high'temperatures tended to increase the complement
titre; K. A. Pride, Schwartzman and Galanova found that higher temperatures
raised the complement titre in 35? of their experiments, had no effect in 43?,
and lowered the•complement titre in 22%. . The reason for the contradictory
conclusions may be found in the fact that the authors above referred to failed
to take into account the degree of animals adaptability to higher temperatures
under different periods of adaptation processes.
: The purpose of .the investigation herein reported on was the determination
of effects of low and high air temperatures,"which had not disturbed "the
thermoregulation mechanism, on the immune—biological reactivity of animals.
The effect of low temperatures on the immune-biological reactivity was con-
ducted with animals kept at surrounding air temperature of - 5 to -f 5 through-
'out the"period of experimentation. Experiments were performed with 4 groups
of 10 rabbits each. Group I - animals of this group were immunized and cooled
-165-
-------
simultaneously) group II - animals of this group were cooled first then im-
munized while still under hypothermia conditions; group ITI - animals of this
group were simultaneously cooled and triple Immunized at 7 day intervals;
.this triple immunization differed from the triple immunization of animals in
groups I and II in that second and third immunizations were made at the time
when the agglutination titre fell to the original level; group IV, control
group - animals of this group were immunized and kept in a room at 18 - 20°.
In the experiments designed for the determination of high surrounding
air temperatures on the immune-biological reactivity of rabbits the latter
were placed in a chamber at a temperature ranging between 36-38 . Daily
exposure lasted 5 .hours; remaining hours of the day animals were.kept under
conditions similar to those of the controls. Tests were made with 30 rabbits
which were divided into 3 equal groups. Rabbits of group I were simultaneously
superheated and.immunized; rabbits of group II were subjected to superheating
for 3 months; they were then immunized jmd the process of superheating con-
tinued. Animals of group III constituted the controls; they were immunized
and kept under normal conditions of surrounding air temperature. Immuniza-
tion was performed with typhoid fever vaccine containing 1.5 millyard of micro-
organisms using the London strain Ho. 62 of abdominal typhoid bacilli; rabbits
were injected first with 0.5, second with 0.8 and third with 0.8 ml of the
vaccine. Changes in the immuno-biological reactivity of the organism were
evaluated on the basis of agglutination and complement titres. Physiological
interpretation of the results obtained was made with the aid of blood acetyl-
choline, cholinesterase activity, blood protein fractions, blood morphology,
body temperature, and electrical skin resistance. Tests were made every 7th
day up to the time of agglutination titre return to the original level.
. In the experiments conducted for the determination of low temperature
offeet, as shown in Table 1, the maximal agglutination titre occurred on the
7th day after the first immunization and the titre was the same as in the con-
trol animals. Maximal agglutination titre after the second injection was
also observed on the 7th day, the same as in the control animals; however,
the agglutination titre was at a considerably lower level. The change ap-
pearing in the agglutination titra after $he third Immunization was a,slight
one.
A slight rise in the agglutination titre was observed in rabbits of group
II, which were subjected to hypothermy fox 1 month prior to immunization.' In
-166-
-------
TABLE 1.
Average maximal agglutination titre values in animals subjected to cooling.
Factors
observed
Original
1st im-
munization
2nd la-
mum, zat ion
3rd im-
munization
•
•
•
•
•
:Ho.
: of
* *w^"1l^
Sffi&lS
9
9
9
9
: of
|days
20
9
9
9
Can't T*ol
Agglutination
titre
. 1:1020*44
1:18,2040*5573
m*l857
l:27,306o±12,770
m±4257
1:19,3420*8958
m*2986
: Simultaneous cooling and
:
•No. :
: of :
• o n^«i* *
• •
15
15
11
10
immunization
•
of 1
•
days:
36
15
11
10
Agglutination
titre
1:1410*74
1:11,0930*6177
m*l62
l:1590o±949
mt287
l:672o±223
: Differ-
: ence
: relia-
bility
1.21
6.03
6.25
: Preliminary cooling and
: immunization
Factors
observed
..
Original
1st im-
munization
2nd im- -
munization
3rd im-
munization
•No.
! of
jani-
22
22
12
9
!NO. \
: nf :
: or :
[days]
44
22
12
9
Agglutina-j ence
tion titreir-elia-
ibility
1: 2l8o*150
m*22
1:6690*271 9a
l:640o±345 < 0<
mfclOl 6'26
I:640o±2l3 , 0
mfc71 6-2
: Simultaneous cooling and
triple
: immunization at 7 day intervals
-iNo.
: of
• •
• * •
: rt-p :
l^-ldaysl
:mals:^ :
9
8
8
8
18
8
8
8
Agglutination
titre
1:1910*96
m*22
tDiffer-
: ence
{relia-
Ibility
I:28,l60o*12,000 ,. .,
m*4284 2*U
I:l6,794o±5942
m*2285
I:8533o±24l3
• mtlo05
2.18
3.5
rabbits of group III a slight agglutination titre was noted after the first
and second immunizations; the rise was about the same in the control animals;
following the third immunization the agglutination titre amounted to 1*8500
as compared with 1:19,300 in the controls. Conditions of hypothermy had only
a slight effect on the complement titre of the 3 groups of experimental rab-
bits.
Cooling reduced the animals1 body temperature to some extent; the average
body temperature of the experimental animals amounted to 38.5 and of the con-
-167-
-------
trols to 39 . Electrical skin resistance increased in all rabbits of the 3
experimental groups, notably so in rabbits of group II.
Blood studies indicated a considerable lowering in the number of instances
manifesting blood acetlycholine and a lowered blood cholinesterase activity in
all the experimental animals. On the other hand, blood acetylcholine was
found and a 100$ rise, in cholinesterase activity was observed in all rabbits
of the control group. Results are shown in Table 2.
TABLE 2.
Percent of positive acetylcholine in relation to the total number
of studies and average values of cholinesterase activity
in the animals following their cooling.
Factors
observed
- •
Controls
Acety 1- ! Cholin-
choline: esterase
I. t : Simultaneous
Simultaneous : Preliminary : cooling and
cooling and : cooling and : triple immuni-
immunization : immunization jzation at 7-d.ay
: : intervals
Acety l-:Cholin- : Acety l-:Cholin- : Acety 1-sChplin-
i choline : esterase : choline : esterase : choline : esterase
Original
1st immu-
, nization
2nd immu-
nization
3rd immu-
nization
. o
0
66
100
27.3
35.0
40.0
54.0
0
18
16
11
33
38
24
. 20
0
30
20
16
33
23
22
20 .
0
-
50
25
42
37
• Experiments with the effect of -high--temperatures indicated that the ag- .
glutination titre dropped to-lower levels in rabbits simultaneously immunized
and subjected to the effects of higher surrounding air temperatures. Rabbits
kept at higher temperature conditions for 30 days prior to immunization had
the same agglutination titre as did the control rabbits. With the increase in
the time of higher temperature effects, that is, between the first and third
immunization, the agglutination titre rose" as'"showri by the data listed in
Table 3.
The activity-of the process can be conveniently ^described as follows: " "-
duration of high agglutination titre between the first and third immunization
fell to lower levels in rabbits of group I; the agglutination titre retained
its high level between the first and third immunization for a longer time in
rabbits of group II, although the level was not quite as high as in the control
group, as is shown by the data presented in Table 4.
-168-
-------
TABLE 3. . I
Average maximal agglutination titre values in animals exposed to elevated temperatures,
;
Factors
observed
No.,
ani-
malsi
No. I
day B:
Agglutination
titre
' : i
Simultaneous heating and : Preliminary heating t
immunization : immunization
No. *„ : :Differ-:No. :„ i
,, sNo. : . . .. .. : : _ :No. . , .. ,.
of s f : Agglutination : ence : of : f Agglutination
ani~5daysi titre !*elia- !ani-ida.vB titre
mals:day8: Ability :mals:day8
md
Differ-
ence
relia-
bility
1-J
ON
Original
1st immu-
nization
2nd immu-
nization
3rd immu-
nization
m
w
0
3
O
cf
P1
0
0
H-
,3
1
M
P
cf
0
P-
|
£+
P1
0
0
O
cf
0
0
3
0
ITJ
£
0
3
cf
p
M
P-
P
cf
P
f« ^
)f rabbits kept at
surrounding air tern
•O M
0 0
4 *
P
cf . 0
C H
4 _
0 ' p^
CO H-
*** ffi)
t*
9,
9
—4. .
^T
H-
§.
co ;
O '
4 •!
H-i
1
cf ,
0 ;
oY
M
o.
O
P-.
0 '
O I
H •
*O
o
M
O,
^;
!
,
\ 20'
9
9
9
0
0
p-
H-
cf
P-
0
Of
O
O
•8
o
cf*
o
H-
B
Hj>
H^
P
1
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vise noteworthy cha
3
1
m
s
0
S
P
r
1:1020444
mtlO !
1:18,204045573
mtl857
1:27,3060412,770
m44257
1:19,342048958
0*2986
1*4
aeraturea. No regu
M
4
0
4
O
cf
P*
0
7
«
Lowered as the resu
co higher surroundi
3 f^
C*J cf
P 0
f* ^^
h^
D
*^ -^
cf
O
P*
H-
&
0
Body temperatu
H
0
o
M)
0
3
0
?'
cf
0
cf
P
f-J
H-
co
cf
0
P-
H-
3
^3
p
o-
M
0
VJ1
•
attained normal val
c,
0
CO
«••
P
CD
H-
CO
CO
O
3
IH
H
•b
B
cf
P
3
H-
H
P
cf
H'
O
3
cf
tJ*
0
-^
uere enhanced in ra
^*
o-
H-
cf
CO
o
H>
CR:
4
0
*i^
3.02
5.15
4.31
tion and cholineste
4
P
CO
0
p
0
cf
H-
H-
4
8
•0
H
P
O
0
cf
O
0
H-
3
0
P
O
{J
|
C
V—*
«?
10
10
10
9
H)
0
M
M
cf
0
(-•
i
S
M
0
t
M
CO
H'
3
H
.P
S
H-
cf
CO
O
H)
the first immunizat
H-
§
<•
P
3
P-
cf
p1
0
3
20
10
10
9
zholinei accumulatio
3
4
o
CO
0
s.
cf
O
H
Dholinesterase acti
^
H*
*i*
P
3
P
O
0
cf
M
1: 760445
m±10
1:11,947044827
m±l609
1:16,640044957
. m4l770
1:18,432044095
m4l365
ct-
O
&
p
co
H-
3
!
c
cf
5-
p
cf
H-
§
cf
H-
cf
0
zholine accumulatio
3
•tj
P
4
P
M
M
0
M
0
P-
Dholinesterase acti
<
v-
cf
«
2.55
2.32
0.28
temperature had no
0
H>
H»
0
o
cf
O
3
cf
n-
0
Elevated surro
c
3
Lj<
M
0)
&
4
-------
. , • • TABLE 4.
Average, persistence in days of high agglutination titres in animals exposed to elevated temperatures.
Controls
Simultaneous heating and
Preliminary heating and
|
Factors |N<
observed * <
!a,
: !mi
3. «„ :
if » °* ! Duration of i
ii-L J titre level
alstttaysi . :
i
of » * :
malsiday i
mmunization
Duration of
titre level
piffer-i
: enoe i
jrelia-
tbil'ity
No.
of
ani-
mals
No
of
days
immunization
Duration of
titre level
jDiffer-
t enoe
{relia-
bility
Original
1st immu-
nization
2nd immu-
nization
3rd immu-
nization
cf
CD
P-
CD
4
CD
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m
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o
3
o
4
H-
H-
C*f*
H-
§
H'
3
cf
CD
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p-
ef
p-
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H-
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9
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H-
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10 60
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P
ef
O
M
CD
O
ef
4
H-
M
23.7o±3
mil
17.7ot2
m±0.7
32o±3
•d
P
a
H-
ef
1
i
ef
H-
§
u*
1
5
•j
CD
nervous sys
ef
g
•d
M
i
p-
§
H-
1
O
4
ef
ef
O
ef
p-
CD
4
CO
ef
r
ef
ff
CD
•d
1
•d
P
ef
CD
ef
H-
O
ZdrodoveUdji
«•
•
w
'?
fl
o
ef
P
H-
M
ef
a
CO
p
4
o
1
1
0
»«
•
hej
•
5.16
7.71
5.70
the vegetat
H-
CD
3
CD
rvou
o
w
m
ef
ef
8"
*d
P
ef
P*
ef
H-
0
1
O
H-
§
O
Hj
10
10
10
9
pressed or
H-
1
g:
ef
CD
P-
g*
O
ef
H-
O
H>
0
ef
H-
ef
CO
ef
4
I
tr
•d
&
P
tf
ef
O
P
20
60
35
36
a
o
®
ef
&
O
M
&"
CD
1
O
p-
o
M-
CD
CO
ef
CD
hj
P)
D
0
I6.3c.b4
mfcl
25.5o±6
mt2
340*2
m±0.8 .
The results
1
P
H-
g
P>
s-
ef
P1
CD
CO
ef
e
Of
^c^
increased i
p
&
ft
H-
§
•d
o
CD
CO
CO
CD
0)
•
I
CO
*
CO
ef
g
ef
S
n
g1
CD
ef
0
ef
ff
O
(hypothermy
v^
§
ef
CD
0
I
4
P
3
CD
| depressing
CD
CD
ef
B
a
p*
4
o
o
^•J
p>
o
1
CD
0"
CD
P
£
CD
ef
O
ef
V
CD
7.47
3.36
5.20
1
ef
1
ef
P
ef
^
I
<
CD
S1
CO
o
4
M*
C7*
CD
S
H-
CO
ef
CD
*d
&
g
3
O
i^
ef
P1
CD
*d
4
CD
T
-------
TABLE 5.
Percent of positive acetylcholine in relation to the total number of studies
and average values of cholinesterase activity in the animals following their
exposure to elevated temperatures.
Factors
observed
Controls
m
o to
a
• -H
O C
525 0)
Original 6
1st immu— /-
nization
2nd immu— /-
nization
3rd immu- g
nization
CO
O i~i
*^
• ^3
fe "S
6
6
9
11
rH C
•^3 |— | ^^
Q) O
O JH £«
0
0
66
100
X! co
O CD
Simultaneous heating Preliminary heating
and immunization and immunization
: : Q : : CD
co to ; i CD • i o> ^ s t_, ^ ' * : I > -H • -r« h OcfllO^j >»-H -iHh
B TJ : -P •-! m ! r-< CD H! ^* •*> rH ^, : rH CD
• -H • 3 5 CD O *O+> • iH s • 3 o c : ° -£ o^ac.^ro
S3 a) tsa>- !z a* • >3S ™ <5O-H"OCD
27. 10 10 0 32 6 12 0 24
35 10 20 50 46 6 10 19 27
40 10 20 15 31 6 18 48 34
54 10 20 21 34 6 12 53 37
parasympathetic nervous system. Reference should also be. made., to the. studies
of B. L. Palant, K. I. Germanov, N. P. Efimova and L. V. Kalugina, V. A.
Strigina and others, who demonstrated that, in cerebral cortical inhibition,
formation of antibodies was sharply depressed; under conditions of stimulated
cerebral cortex rate of antibody formation was considerably enhanced.
The results of the experiments herein reported showed that transfer of
the animals from lower surrounding air temperatures to 18 - 20 ., or normal
temperature^gradually raised the animals immuno-biological reactivity over
15 to 30 days, after "which it returned to the normal level; in the case of
animals intoxicated by industrial poisons the drop in immuno-biological re-
activity failed to return to the normal level even after 30 days recovery as
was shosm by V. K. Navrotskii. This illustrated the essence in the differences
of adaptation to cold and to high surrounding air temperatures. Analysis of
the data obtained in this investigation, particularly as related to higher
surrounding air temperatures, pointed to the fact that simultaneous tempera-
ture increase and .immunization resulted in a fall in rabbits' immuno-biological
reactivity. Maintaining rabbits under conditions of surrounding higher air
temperatures, which did not cause hyperthermy, seems to have no connection
with disturbance in the thermoregulatory mechanism and in hyperthermy; never-
theless, it manifested characteristics of high intensity thermoregulation
activity, the purpose of which was to maintain normal body temperature. Pol-
-171-
-------
lowing the first immunization the thermoregulation activity was of a lower in-
tensity. This period of immunization was accompanied by a high (normal) ag-
glutination titre. Later, the thermoregulation mechanism had undergone a rise
and the agglutination titre fell to considerably lower levels. In instances
of prolonged body superheating the immune-biological reactivity of the organism
may rise as a reflection of adaptation; this was clearly indicated by the re-
sults of experiments conducted with rabbits of group II.
Heat seemed to act as an inhibitory agent on the activity of the nervous
system and of the cerebral cortex. A reduction in the acetylcholine accumula-
tion in experimental rabbits of group I even during immunization confirmed the
inhibiting effect of high temperature on.the nervous system. It seemed that
inhibition in the nervous activity was the cause of reduced imsnino-biological
activity in rabbits of group I kept at higher surrounding air temperature.
The results obtained with rabbits preliminarily subjected to high temperature
followed by immunization and again by prolonged maintaining of such animals
at high air temperature, showed considerable adaptation on the part of the
rabbits to external environmental conditions. The adaptation on the part of
the rabbits to high surrounding air temperature was manifested by the fact
that the agglutination titre in rabbits of series II after their immunization
attained levels equivalent to those of the control animals. Data obtained on
changes in acetylcholine accumulation and cholinesterase activity also pointed
to the ability of the rabbits to physiologically adapt themselves to the ef-
fects, of external air temperatures ranging between" 36 and 38 ..As animals
were allowed to remain for longer periods of time under conditions of higher
surrounding air temperature the acetylcholine accumulation and cholinesterase
activity increased under the effects of the third immunization^rising to levels
approximating those of the control animals.
Conclusions.
- - 1. Low surrounding air temperatures ranging between -5 and +5 inhibited
or depressed immuno-biological activity. .
2. Heat, or high air temperature arrested or inhibited the immune-biological
activity of the organism; the ability of the organism to adapt itself to higher
surrounding air temperature plays an important part in the normalization of the
organism's immuno-biological activity. . ~ '
-172-
-------
Bibliography.
AxHasapoea B. R. JKypn. MHKpo6Hcwi.. snuneMiKwi. H HMMyHoCHon.. 1956. M 2,
crp. 76—78. — By XT Hup OB A. P. B KH.: MexamiaMu namnorHqecxHx peaKUHft. Jl..
1952. B. 21-25, crp. 282—295.—TepManoB H. H. JKypa. mwcpofiiKwi.. arwAeMHOJL
B HMnyHc6tiKypH. MHKpofiiicwi., snufleMHOJJ, H HMMymXtaon., 1935, T. 14.
N. 5. crp 753—769. — K o 3 Ji o B B. A. B KB.: MexamuMtt na-rrwior. peattOHfl. Jl.t 1950.
B. 16—20, crp. 81—85.—KOCHKOB n. H.. K yKOB-Bepext HHKOB H. H. JKypH-
traKpo6Hcwi. H HMMjrno6HOfl., 1933, T. 11, J* 2, crp. 225—229. — Maflcrpax E. B.
B KH.: npodnewH peaxTHBHOcrH H uioEa. M., 1952, crp. 171—173. — HaepoaKRft B. K.
B KH.: Tea. AOIUI. 13 BcecotoaH. nesna rar.. snuaeunoa., umrpoSHtwi.. Jl., 1956, T. 1^
crp. 145—147.—IlaaaHT B. Jl. 5XypH. MHKpo6Ho;i., anHaeuHan. H HMMyuofiHcuL. 1954,
J^S 3, crp. 89. — CaxHOBCKHft H. A.. Kapueea H. B. B KH.: HsMeHCHae a opr«-
Hnatse npn fleflcrBi?a ^yiHcrofi sHepriiN H npn OXAQKACHRH. XapbKOB, 1940, crp. 7—29r
30—44,—C T p H r H H B. A., >KypH. MHKpo6Hon., anHAeMHon. H HtuMyHofaon., 1953,
f& 12, crp. 19—21. — 3>e.nbAt3aH C. II. BCCTH. oropHHanapKHrwi.. 1948^ M 6,
c?p. 42—46. — pHfle K. A., 36epr M. K. XCypH. »nKpo0Hon.. anHAeMRon. B HM-
mrHo6n 12, crp. 3—13. — 36epr M. K. Kypn. MHspoCHO^., snuaenHcwi. it
nuByBo6H(wi., 1941, N» 12. crp. 96—100.
The Effect of External Industrial Production Environment on the Immuno-
Biological Reaction of the Organism. Communication 1. Effect of Chronic
Intoxication vdth Benzene and Its Nitro- and Amino-Derivatives on
the Immune-Biological Reaction of Rabbits.
V. K. Navrotskii.
(Department of Labor Hygiene, Khar'kov Institute of Post-Graduate Medicine).
Gigiena Truda i Professional'nye Zabolevaniya, Vol. 1, No. 2, 12-18, 1957-
It is a well established fact now that the reactivity of the organism
plays a substantial part in the onset and course of pathologic processes. Many
varied factors of the external industrial production medium, physical and chemi-
caiymay have a great"effect on the change in the organism's reactions and, • •
hence, in the origin and course of diseases._ Unfortunately, this problem, KG
important to morbidity feducTioh, which would also reduce loss of time~ahd"~:
productivity among industrial workers, has not been studied extensively enough.
The present studies were designed for the clarification of the nature and cause
of reactivity changes in the human organism resulting from (elicited by) chemi-
cal factors prevailing in external industrial production environment. In ac-
-173-
-------
cordance with present-day prevailing views these authors regard immuno-biologic
reactivity as a general physiological organism re&ctivity subject to physico-
chemical laws and which can serve as a potent index of the specific organism
resistance and of the general state of the organism's function.
A review of foreign and especially of U.S.S.R. literature disclosed a
number of publications related to the study of external environment effects
on immune—biological indexes and on the course of infectious diseases. 0. P.
Sharovatov and £. I. Andreeva studied the effect of high temperature and E. B.
Kurlyandskaya studied the effect of infrared rays on the state of allergy in
animals. Karmanova studied the formation of antibodies under the effect of
high air temperature and Fride, Shvartsman and Gal'nova studied the course of
recurrent fever under similar conditions. Many authors^such as A. E. Tsvetkova
and P. B. Prigorovskii, G. H. Ermilova, E. I. Ponomareva and A. V.. Kirilova,
and others studied the effect of ultraviolet radiation on antibody formation.
G. M. Ermilova, I. B. Mints, E. I. Ponomareva, and others also studied the ef-
fect of Roentgen and ultraviolet rays on antibody formation. Ya. P. Sakhnovskii,
E. B. Davydova, Sh. G. Perlina, L. A. Kandyba, G. A. lonkin and M. N. Khanin,
Ya. I. Mel'nik and R. D. Gabovich, Meloni, and others, studied the effect of
lead, carbon monoxide, chlorine, fluorine and other chemical substances which
occur as industrial poisons on the organism's immuno-biological reactivity."
The above investigators studied the -affect of external factors on the organism's
immuno-biological reactivity under different conditions using different methods
of approach,.-different procedures of investigation, and frequently, obtained
contradictory results. Investigations were mostly conducted under chronic con-
ditions of grave lead intoxication and of grave acute carbon monoxide intoxica-
tion, which were of no practical value. The studies herein reported on were
conducted under conditions of incipient stages of chronic intoxication, since
a general survey indicated that frank chronic poisoning, especially of extreme
gravity, recently has been seen under industrial conditions on rare occasions
only.
Rabbits were injected subcutaneously daily"with 0735 g/kg~of" benzene,' 0.15 "
g/kg of aniline and 0.15 g/kg of nitrobenzene. Animals received triple typhoid
fever vaccinations: they were injected the first time intravenously with 0.5 '
ml of the vaccine which contained 1 million up to 1 1/2 billion microorganisms;
and the second and third times.they received_0.8 ml of the vaccine. The second
and third injections were made at intervals indicated by stability in the ag-
'. -174-
-------
glutination rise. Three groups of 12 rabbits each were used for each of the
poisonous substances tested. The first, or control, group received no injec-
tions of any of the poisonous substances; rabbits of the second group were in-
jected with the vaccine after receiving the subcutaneous administration of the
poisonous substances; rabbits of the third group were vaccinated and injected
with the poisonous substances simultaneously. The following studies were made
with the blood of each rabbit: blood morphology, agglutination titre, complement
titre; blood protein fractions, acetylcholine and cholinesterase activity.
These studies were made on a so-called dynamic basis, that is, every 10th day
throughout the course of the investigation.
Blood morphological studies served as indicators of intoxication degree.
i
Only results of final blood enzyme changes have been presented here. No changes
were observed in the red or white blood elements of the control animals, that
is, immunized but receiving no poison injections. Rabbits injected with ben-
zene followed by immunization showed no red blood changes 10 months later, but
the leucocytes dropped from 7,730 to 5*400, pointing to an incipient stage of
poisoning. Rabbits immunized and poisoned with benzene simultaneously showed
considerably graver blood picture signs 9 months later: hemoglobin dropped from
55 to 42$, erytbrocytes from 4,515*000 to 3,800,000 and the leucocytes from
9,520 to 2,750. . Rabbits of groups 2 and 3 poisoned with aniline presented the
following blood picture 8 to 9 months after intoxication: hemoglobin dropped
from 60 to 50#, number of erythrocytes from14,845*000 to 4,250,000 and number of
leucocytes from 10,270 to 8,100.. . It. should be:noted at.-this ppi.nt that .in the
above-mentioned animals blood changes were as follows 6 months after intoxica-
tion: number of red blood cells negligible changes, number of leucocytes in
one case increased from 8,270 to 11,300 and in another case from 9,100 to 15,100.
Thus, it can be stated that the chronic stage of poisoning was of a light form
with the exception of one series of animals receiving benzene injections. The
effect of poison injections on the blood protein fractions will be discussed
later. The effect of chronic benzene poisoning and of its amino- and nitro-
derivatives on the agglutination titre are shown in Table 1. The data in the"
Table.show that average values of maximal agglutination titre following immu-
nization of the poisoned animals were at considerably lower levels in animals
of both groups. The results also indicate that the poisonous effects of ben-
zene were less pronounced than the effects of its derivatives. The agglutina-
-175-
-------
Nature of
analytical
results
TABLE 1.
Average maximal agglutination titres after normal immunization
and after successive poisoning.
s ,T , :„ . ,:. ., . . ,: Nitrobenzene
: Normal :Benzene poisonedtAniline poisoned: . ,
: * : _ : poisoned
:Average: :Average: :Average: :Average
:in days: :in days: jin days: :in days
Average jof max-:Average jof max-:Average jof max-:Average jof max-
maximal : imal :maximal : imal :maximal : imal :maximal : imal
titres : titre : titres : titre : titres : titre : titres : titre
t • * • • • •
jpersis-: jpersis-: jpersis-: jpersis-
: tence : : tence : : tence J : tence
I. Preliminary poisoning followed "by successive immunization.
1:135 - 1:120 - 1:60 - 1:230
>
Af*8r . - - 1:200 - 1:250 - 1:240
poisoning
After'1st '~ -- . .. .
immuni- 1:15,360 55 1:2,900 - 1:15,300 16 1:20,800 28
zation
After 2nd
immuni- 1:42,660 76 1:11,910 • 88 1:16,000 24 1:850
zation . -
After 3rd • .
immuni- 1:30,780 54 1:21,540 89 1:10,240 15 1:640
zation
II. Simultaneous poisoning and immunization.
„
f\—4 ~1 ~,n~\ " "
uriginai
values
After- 1st
immuni-
zation
After 2nd
immuni-
zation
After 3rd
immuni-
zation
- .- . T ----- — ,
- - - - 1:25Q
- 1:270
.-_... .......... 1*9,500
...
- - 1:17,600
- "1:166
- 1:12,600
56 1:9,800
57 1:14,590
" .---1:160
18 1:17,680
60 1:8,700
-
40 1:750
—
29
12
-
Note: Number of animals in each test ranged "between 10 and 12. Hence, average
maximal agglutination titre was computed accordingly.
-176-
-------
tion titre of group 1 rabbits injected with "benzene was 1.5 to 5 times lower
than in the control group, and in the rabbits of the second group it was 2 to
50 times lower than in the control group; however, the duration of the rise
in titre was practically the same in the second group and by 12 to 35 days
longer in the rabbits of the first group. The lower titre values in the second
group of rabbits may have been due to higher degrees of intoxication as in-
dicated by the blood changes.
The agglutination titres after the second immunization of animals intoxi-
cated with aniline were of lower value in rabbits of both series by 2 to 4
times as compared with the controls; in this case the duration of. agglutination
rise in rabbits of the first group was also considerably shortened. A sharp
drop in the titre even to the point of complete nonreactivity was observed after
the second immunization in animals which were poisoned with nitrobenzene; in
this case the duration of the titre rise was also sharply reduced. The results^
thus^show that the 3 poisons depressed the organism's immune—biological reac-
tivity and that the 2 benzene derivatives were more toxic than benzene itself.
Complement titres, as a rule, are stable blood indexes; however, in chronic
poisoning with benzene and its 2 derivatives a considerable titre lowering was
observed. It was not as pronounced in the case of benzene and aniline^as can
be seen from the data in Table 2.
Average albumin-globulin coefficients are shown in Table 3. The data in
that Table show that the albumin-globulin coefficient remained practically normal
jifter immunization, indicating that-the protein- fract-ion values were not af-
fecte'd. In rabbits of groups 2 and 3 the albumin-globulin coefficient dropped
»
considerably; this was accompanied by a lowering in the total protein content
and in the albumin fraction; in the rabbits of group 2 the globulin fraction
remained unchanged; in rabbits of group 3 the albumins were reduced and the
globulins slightly increased. " '
In rabbits poisoned with aniline the albumin-globulin coefficient changed
only slightly in groups 2 and 3; this was accompanied by slight changes in the
blood protein fractions; the total protein content remained unchanged. Rabbits
intoxicated with nitrobenzene manifested practically the same type of blood
pictures. In rabbits immunized and nitrobenzene poisoned simultaneously the
albumin-globulin coefficient was slightly increased accompanied by a partial
drop in the total protein and in the globulin~fractronT~ " " ~ "
-177-
-------
TABLE 2.
Average blood complement titres in normal and poisoned experimental animals.
: „ -, T> • o : , • -i • • o J Nitrobenzene
: Normal Benzene poisoned : Aniline poisoned : . ,
Tia+mnn nr ? : s poisoned
1T^.^ : Average Average :.
analytical: , , :„
results !C°mplr C0mplr I
: nent ment :
: titres titres :
* Avftrftifp * * Av^T*£i^ifi *
Poisoning: ,° : Poisoning: ,6 : Poisoning
. . • : compie— : • . . : compxe^ * • . .
:ime in : , :time in " : . :time in
: ment : . , : ment : , ,
moni/as : ... : months : ,., : months
: titres : : titres :
Preliminary poisoning followed by immunization.
original /^ i o f\ T n
i . w. 1<1 VJ. J.J.
results
After
poisoning. ^
After 1st
immuni- 0.12 0.12
zation
After 2nd
immuni- 0.11 0.13
zation
After 3rd
immuni- 0.12 0.15
zation
0.15 - 0.083
0.20 6 0.030 3
•* - ,
1 - - 0.100 4
2 - 0.150 5
3 - 0.200 6
Note: Average complement titration values were computed on the basis of 102
control tests and on the basia of 36 - 42 tests of poisoned animals.
TABLE '3.
Average albumin-globulin coefficient values for non-poisoned immunized and
poisoned and immunized experimental animals.
Nature of analyses
Normal
Benzene : Aniline :Nitrobenzene
poisoned : poisoned ; poisoned
I. Preliminary poisoning followed by immunization.
Original results 1.6 . 2.1 . ' l.?0
After p.Qispning - 1.4 1.75
After-first-immunization ------1.5~ ---" --• •- ~^~-I"." _-™7.1-.60~Jl'^-'
After second immunization — 1.8 • - 1.6 ^ . 1.65
After third immunization 1.5 1.6 1.58
II.
Original results
After first immunization
After second immunization
After third immunization
Simultaneous poisoning and immunization.
2.6 .1.70
1.77
1.8 1.50
2.0 1.60
1.4
1.3
,1.4
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.4
1.6
1.6
-178-
-------
It has been known for some time that ratios between blood protein fractions
were of no specific significance, and appeared,in a variety of diseases and
occupational or industrial poisonings. As a rule, in such cases a considerable
shift has been observed in the direction of the globulin fraction with a simul-
taneous drop in the albumins. However, such changes were only seen in cases
of clearly defined poisoning. Such phenomena have not been observed in the
rabbits under the present study. Consequently, there was no reason to expect
considerable changes in the albumin-globulin coefficient accompanied by in-
crease in the globulin content. It should be noted at this point that the
correlation between values of agglutination titres and total globulin fractions
have not been observed in the cases under study. It is possible that such a
correlation might have been detected in connection with the a-globulins or the
so-called immune-globulins. This phase is at present under study.
In all cases under present study, including the controls or normal iihmu-
nization an accumulation of acetylcholine in the blood was observed accompanied
by changes in cholinesterase activity, as indicated by the data presented in
Table 4. A slight accumulation of acetylcholine was observed during normal
rabbit immunization in some instances; acetylcholine was more frequently found
in larger quantities in rabbits subjected to poisoning and immunization. In-
crease in cholinesterase activity ran parallel to acetylcholine accumulation.
Acetylcholine accumulation- in blood in many diseases and in practically
all industrial cases of poisoning led to the assumption of the existence of a
particular type, possibly acetylcholine, defense function. In this connection
it appeared interesting, if not important, to determine" the'part played by
acetylcholine in agglutinin formation under the conditions of the presently
described experiment, especially in view of the fact that evidence in the
literature pointed to the positive role played by acetylcholine in immuno-
genesis, as iwas shown by P. P. Zdrodovskii, M. D. Poltseva and others. After
.the third immunization, when the agglutination titre dropped, the rabbits re-
ceived daily subcutaneous injections of 0.05 ™g of acetylcholine in 1 ml of
solution on 6 successive days;, their agglutination titres w.ei;e ~de~termined;over
a long period of time; the data are presented in Table 5- The results show
that in the doses administered acetyleholine enhanced the agglutination titre
considerably in the previously inoculated control as well as in the previously
poisoned and inoculated rabbits; it also prolonged the duration period of the
enhanced titre. As was to have been expected, the rise in titre and prolonged"
-179-
-------
TABLE 4. '. ' '
Acetylcholine and average blood cholinesterase activity intensity in percent
of acetylcholine hydrolysis during the period of the experiment after
immunization alone and after poisoning and immunization.
„ , :_ . ,:, .,. . ,: Nitrobenzene
Normal tBenzens poisoned:Aniline poisoned: . ,
: : : jpoisoned
Type of
analytical
results
% of blood
acetylcho-
line posi-
tive cases
: : id I I to .
CD >» « O O -H CD
I ra -P : o JG o> co
CtO-Hti-HOOcO
•HM>.,OI-IP.O
rH CD -H t >»
O-P-f> ; t|-t +> CD CD
jacoo • o CD c >
o CD ca : o -H -H
:^§. to r-t +>
•^ 1 1 CQ
CD >» : O O -H CD
1 CO -P ; O A M W
C CO -H ;r-t 0 O CO
-HM> j^rHftO
r-l fl> -H : >>
O -«J -H JtM +> CD CD
,£! W 0 : 0 Q) C >
O CD CO • O -H -H
••?& 05 rH -P
ITi \ \ CQ
CD >» ; O O -H CD
B m -p • o ^ m co
C Cfl -H «rH 0 0 Cfl
•H ^t > ;^> iH p, 0
i-H CD -H • 5>>
O -f -f» I'M -p CD CD
jqcoo :oa>c>
O
-------
TABLE 5.
Effect of ecetylcholine on the titre of agglutinin.
•
•
1
Time of analysis
•
: Highest
No. I agglutinin
of : level
ani-j after 3rd
mals { immuniza-
: tion
•
•
•
•
Immunization only 7 1:82,000
Ditto 50 1:10,240
Ditto 54 1:40,960
Ditto 56 1:20,480
Aniline poisoning and 5 Ij40 g6Q
nimnlt.anfiniis •immiini wat.i e>n * * ''
: Original : M . , : Persistence
: - . . . : Maxima.!.
: agglutinin: . .. .
:,eo , . : agglutinin
: level oe- :,BO , ,>.
: : level after
: fore : . .. ,
: , , , :acetylchc—
jacetylcho-: * -
I line ad- : line *d
: . . , : ministra-
:ministra- : . .
: . . : tion
: tion :
in months of
highest
. agglutinin
level after
acetylcholine
administra-
tion
1:320 1:20,480 3.0
1:2560 1:10,240 8.5
1:5120 1:40,960 8.5
1:1280 1:20,480 6.0
1:160 1:5120 2.5
Preliminary aniline-poi
spning followed by
immunization
Benzene poisoning and
simultaneous immunization
91
47
1:82,000
1:20,480
1:160
1:160
1:5120
1:10,240
1.0
8.5
Ditto
Rabbits not immunized
nor poisoned . " • •'
Ditto
45 1:40,960 1:320
80
1:160
1:320
20 days
(rabbit died
1:10,240 at agglutina-
tion titre
1:320)
1:640-
1:640
•lowing the drop in the agglutinin titre after the third immunization, rabbits
were subcutaneously injected on 5 successive days with 1 ml of 0.1$ of adrenalin.
No rise in agglutinin titre was observed. The results justify the conclusion
regarding the role playgd^byj acetylcholine in immunogenes'is and of the part
played by the parasympathetic nervous section of the vegetative nervous system.
It appears that the role played by_s.cetylcholine was related to changes in the
functional state of the cerebral cortex, as was shown by many authors, notably
Volkova, Mikhel'son, and others, who showed that acetylcholine in small doses
.'enhanced the processes of stimulation, and in large doses arrested them. It
has been known for some time that a state of stimulation of cerebral cortex
-181-
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was beneficial to the formation of immune bodies; it is, therefore, readily
understandable why in the presence of acetylcholine, which acts as a defense
agent, generation and accumulation of antibodies should be of a moderate de-
gree. The results of the investigations here described can be summarized as
follows: benzene and its amino- and nitre—derivatives depressed immunc—bic-
logical reactions in animals in chronic and incipient stages of intoxication;
the amino- and nitre-benzenes proved more active in this respect than was the
primary benzene.
Bibliography.
Han u.\ Osi a 3 G. l\ KH.: n;>ovnij.ieHHbir PSU. MKHCI. vr.n-po.ia. caSHen. cepMK-
rrwii :.-.:„ X.-.m.K'ns I9*2S. rrp. '.30- U7.- F. pmi'.iona E. M. FlmriNOpeBs E. H..
K«|> H A.ion'n A. B. K..popmv n "ilna I:. V»., M !• u u H H. 3 KK : 'npoG^eyu ^iiaHOTepaniiH H Kypopio.iorHH. CBCPA-
j\- '.•• • 19-Sr. i'-p 202- 210.— 3 ipoiOBCK H 15 n. O.. FIpoO.ieMU pcaKTHBHUcra
a yufiiHii ofi H!«p':Kiutr i; HMMymucTC. V... I950--MonxHH F. A., XantiH M. H.
,Pi-iT>i. MI-- j.-»r>!«w . j-iH,aeMiio>i.. n.ipa-jiiTtXi.. S930. T. 12. n. 3—4. crp. ?54—266.--
K a H a u f> ?. Jl A . R u p .T n H a 111. l~. Ii KS.: Hcc.irflo.'aHim no ciiHiuonoMy orpaB.ie-
RHKJ Xa?i.":n. l'.i2C. crp. 104—12!. — K ;i p M a HOB a .T. M. XypH. MrfKpofiHor.., snu.Te-
MHO.I ii iiMMvHaOiK>x 1'KC). T. 15. B. 5. cfji. 7S3— 7-VJ.-•- M en b h H K 91. H., r a GO-
BUM P Ii Qpim. .wio. i«J5l. J* 12. v-rp. 1119—M22. — M H x CJ» tec n M. 51. B KH.:
"IcvHru ,!•>-:injou oonetUdHHH no nonpocaM .rrtMHic^xtiS nepeAasH iiopeMoro HMnyAtca.—
Me Ion i <«. A. IfcV'i? mod Iv.X. v. 47. >fe 1—2. p. TO fil.— .MnKuianoaa THf.
•ipvna 11 II-XH Ccjoiiu-.iiocTii. 1937. ?* 3. crp. 70- -71.— T\v p .T M H a III. F. Bpai. .MHO.
10^1, .V; 5 6, crp. 2S"/—258. — Flonuoaa M. Jl. Te3HCM &OK.iaaOB MoiioroBCKoro
i:aymio-!:crfl?;ic[iaTe.ibcxoio HHCTHty.-a bax::ini u cuanpoTOK iitoroBoft HayMKOft KCK4>epeH-
IIMM. Mn.noTOn, 1053. rrp. 45—45. — C a x HO BC K H ft 91. Jl. B KH.: HccJiejtouaBHa no
coHHUomiMy OTpan.-icHHKl. XaptKOB. 1926. crp. S2--103.— 4> p H a e K. A., Ulaapu-
M n n Jl A . P a i a H o B a I!. B. )KypH. MHKPOSHOJI . 9i:nacMiiu^. u KMMyHO<$HC.i. 1935.
i 15. n. 3. CTp. 345- --1,S6.-- Ky p-i« HAC K a * 3. B. r»».n.n. ancnepHM. CHOJI. H MCAHU.
1?38. T. 6, B. ~. cTp. 544— 546". - «J> p « a .1 H b A VI. F. COB. apai. wypH. "939. N* 10.'
crp. 557—.r>66 — O a 5K e. C6onm;K Hay-iHux pafior na roan O-rcMeCTBCHHoB BOfiHU
Jl»-HHHrpa;itKitiH rp\na H i:poi}i3a6oJieBaHHfi, Jl., 1945. crp. 145—154.—
X B n .11. n H it K a a Fl. H. TyOfpKy.ica .IOIKMX y CHHHUOBUX paGoMHX. Tpyuu JIeHM
-------
Effect of Chronic Benzene Intoxication on the Fhagocytic Activity of Babbits.
A. P. Volkova.
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 24, No. 1, 80-82, 1959.
Lower morbidity among workers in industrial enterprises is one of the urgent
tasks of Soviet public health. It is quite well known that rate of morbidity
was closely related to unfavorable working conditions. Therefore, pertinent
data were collected on wprkers who were exposed to the effect of benzene in
artificial leather producing plants in Leningrad. Much production time was
lost due to the occurrence of the grippe, angina, and tuberculosis among workers
exposed to chronic benzene intoxication (0. E. Olimpiev). The effect of a
number of chemical substances, such as lead, chlorine, fluorine, carbon mon-
oxide, and benzene on the immuno-biological reactivity was studied by many
Russian and.foreign authors (Ya. D. Sakhnovskii, Sh. G. Perlina, L. L. Kandyba,
G. A. lonkin, and M. N. Khanin, Ya. I. Mel*nik, and P. D. Gabovich, V. K.
NavrotskLi, and others). The experimental studies of J. Hektoen indicated
that in benzene intoxication the resistance to infection in the experimental
animals was lowered, and arrested infections became active. Thus, there is
reason to suppose that benzene intoxication lowered the resistance of the body
to infection. However, this problem has not been studied sufficiently.
This work is devoted to the study of the effect of chronic benzene in-
toxication on the phagocytic activity in rabbits, inasmuch as the latter is
an important factor in the body's defense against .infection. . The ..second stage
of the work constituted an investigation of phagocytic activity in the blood
of workers poisoned by benzene vapors.*.""""" ";*
Experiments consisted of 4 series of rabbits which were used because their
blood easily underwent typical changes under the effect of benzene. A total of
28 animals were used, of which 8 served as controls. Concentrations of benzene
most frequently encountered under actual working conditions (0»5j-0«2» 0.05,
-0.02 mg/li) were used in.the.experimental exposures by the dynamic method, that
is 3 hours daily for 3 months. Throughout" 'the "duration "of the" experiment the
benzene concentration in the air in the exposure room was controlled. Benzene
was determined by the method of T. N. Kozlyaeba and I. G. Vorokhobin.
Phagocytic activity in the rabbits was determined by the generally accepted
method of G. E. Platonov. A 1.5 billion suspension of a 3-day-old culture of
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Friedman's bacillus was taken as the.object for phagocytosis. The phagocytic
index was determined in the smear on the basis of 100 neutrophile count. The
number of microorganisms phagocytosed by one neutrophile (phagocytic number),
was also taken into account. Besides the phagocytic activity blood of the ani-
mals was analyzed for the hemoglobin content, number of erythrocytes, leucocytes,
thrombocytes, reticulocytes, as well as the differential leucocyte count.
Weight and behavior of the animals were recorded. The initiator control5
levels of all the indices were determined before each series of experiments.
Typical benzene intoxication resulted following a 3-month daily exposure
to benzene vapor. Deepest change was observed in animals which inhaled benzene
in concentration of 0.5 mg/li. A lowered phagocytic activity appeared first on
the third week of exposure. Before the beginning of the experiment the average
phagocytic index of the animals, was 53$; at the end of the 13th week of exposure
it dropped to 15$ (see Fig.). In many rabbits only 7 of 100 neutrophiles showed
signs of phagocytosis at
Recovery period
Beginning
of. exposure
6 6
of the experi-
ments. The number of
phagocytosed microorgan-
isms also dropped; by the
end of the exposure the
average number of phago-
cytosed microorganisms
s e 7 9 a to it 12 oiiiswnu 1920212223 Per neutrophile dropped
•' 0.5 -g/li --—0.05 "9/1 •
«| 0.2 ag/li —-~>-C
321 0123
;..«..•_ Control
1 — End of ex—
~" posure
Phagocytic activity of leucocytes
(averages of 28 rabbits).
-from 10 to 2 - 3. At
the same time, no changes
whatsoever in phagocytic
activity were observed in
the control animals.
Benzene intoxication with 0.5 mg/li concentration produced leucopenia, -
anemi_a,_thrombopenia,_and reticulocytosis. Thus,-the.hemoglobin dropped from
54 to 45$> "the number of erythrocytes ^rom 4»500,000 to.54>000 and~ "the number
of reticulocytes increased from 6.1 to 18$. Neutrophilosis followed by lympho-
cytosis and monopenia were determined from a study of the leucocytic formula.
A pre-existing anisocytosis had undergone qualitative changes.
The experimental animals lagged behind the controls, in weight,..and .manifested
changes in their behavior by the end of the experiment; they became sluggish
-184-
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and slow-moving. There were cases in which the course of the benzene intoxica-
tion was complicated by the presence of pus in the organism due to infected
swelling of the paws. Despite high concentrations of benzene which usually
depressed hemogenesis in noninfected animals, leucocytosis counts of 15,000 -
17>000 were observed in the infected animals. At the same time, comparatively
high hemoglobin concentrations and erythrocytosis were also noted. Leucopenia,
characteristic to benzene intoxication, appeared only at the beginning of the
9th week of exposure. At the same time the fall in phagocytic activity observed
in the infected animals was more pronounced than in the non-infected ones: in
the non-infected animals 15 of 100 neutrophiles showed phagocytosis; only 12
of 100 neutrophiles of the infected animals showed signs of phagocytosis.
Therefore, it can be assumed that the presence of purulent processes in the
body changed the reaction to the effects of benzene by eliciting a leucocytosis
instead of a leucopenia. Thus, benzene vapor inhalation in 0.5 mg/li concen-
>
tration caused a typical benzene intoxication accompanied by a sharp depression
of phagocytic activity of'the animals; these changes appeared earlier than other
blood changes.
Analogous changes in phagocytosis activity in the blood were observed in
the second series of experiments in the benzene vapor concentration of 0.2 mg/li.
However, they appeared later and were of lesser severity.
In 0.05 mg/li benzene concentration (the third series of experiments),
phagocytic.activity had markedly changed in a manner similar to the first 2
series. The phagocytic index fell from 55$ at the beginning of the experiment
to 2756 at-the 13th week of exposure (-see Pig.). The number of .microorganisms
phagocytosed by one neutrophile had also decreased from 8 - 10 at the begin-
ning of the experiment to 2 - 3 at the end of it. Leucocyte phagocytic activity
began the 5th week of exposure and preceded other changes in the blood, shown
as moderate leucopenia, aneuiia, thrombopenia and reticulocytosis. No changes
were observed in the leucocytic formula. The weight of the experimental ani-
mals did not differ from the weight of the control animals.
" . In, this series of experiments records were kept of the rate at which the
phagocytic activity was restored and the blood picture returned to normal after
exposure was discontinued.
Disturbed indices were restored in reverse order: the phagocytic function
of the leucocytes became normalized only 3 months after exposure had been dis-
continued; the indices of white blood, the thrombocytes and reticulocytes re-
, -185-
-------
turned to normal approximately after 2 months. Percentages of hemoglobin
content and the number of erythrocytes were restored the fastest. Consequent-
ly, at "benzene concentration equal to 0.05 ng/li poisoning is of a light form
accompanied by a decrease in phagocytic activity. Blood changes as in the
first 2 series, became manifested later than changes in phagocytic activity.
In view of the fact that in concentration corresponding to the allowable
limit, benzene vapor lowered phagocyte activity, a fourth series of experi-
ments was conducted at benzene vapor concentration of 0.02 mg/li. In this
series of experiments, phagocyte activity began to drop on the 8th week of
exposure and the phagocytic index fell to 35$ at the end of the 12th week
as against 52$ at the beginning of the experiment. No special changes were
noted in the blood, except for a slight leucocytosis (10,000 - 11,000), which
became manifest the 6th week of exposure and lasted throughout the entire ex-
periment. Apparently, the irritation phase of the hemopoietic organs appeared
at this benzene concentration.
When the experiments were concluded, animals of all series were killed
and their organs were pathologically and anatomically examined. . Animals of
the first and second series showed the following lung changes: multiple
punctate hemorrhages, measuring in spots 3 x 4.5 ™;, a bloody frothy liquid
exuded from the lung tissues; the liver was flabby and broke through easily
upon pressure; liver outlines were raggedy; stomach mucosa showed many punctate
hemorrhages, mostly in the area of the large curvature; there were multiple
punctate hemorrhages in the medullary and cortex layers of the kidneys; the
bone marrow of-the tibia wa's paler than "in the control animals. T$o special" "" .
changes were noted in the organs of the rabbits of the third and fourth series.
Conclusions.
1. Inhalation of benzene vapor in concentrations of 0.5» 0.2, 0.05 and
0.02 mg/li for 3 months changed the immune-biological reactivity of the organ-
ism; i.t,..decreased the phagocytic index and the phagocytic number,"
2. Exposure to benzene vapor of 0,5s 0»2 and 0.05 mg/li for 3.months
produced a. typical, picture of benzene poisoning in the experimental animals,
characterized by leucopenia, thrombopenia, anemia, and reticulocytosis. Slight
leucocytosis was observed in rabbits exposed to v-onzene fumes of 0.02 mg/li.
3. Changes in phagocytic activity began earlier than changes in the blood.
Because of the great sensitivity of this reaction its use as a diagnostic test
is suggested.
-186-
-------
4. The restoration of phagocytic activity progressed slowly. In ani-
mals exposed to concentration of 0.05 mg/li ttie phagocytic activity became
normalized only after 3 months.
5. The data received concerning the decrease of phagocytosis activity
in exposure to "benzene vapor concentration of 0.05 mg/li (which, at the present
time, is within the allowed limit) and even to a concentration of 0.02 mg/li
indicated that such concentrations were not harmful to the organism.
Above results can serve as a basis for a review of the existing limit
of allowable benzene vapor air concentration. The conclusions were verified
by subsequent studies of the imniuno—biological reactivity of men who worked
with benzene.
Bibliography. , .
HOHKRH T. A., XaHRH M. H. BPCTM. MHtcpofinrut., annjieMHoji.. napssirraa.,
1939. r 18. J^3—4. crp. 254—266. — K a 11 a u 6 a J\. J\. HepJiHi. a HI. F. B KM.: Hc-
ceeAOfatteiH no c&HHuoaoMy orpaiuieiiHio. Xapbxns. 1026, cip. 104—121. — Ko3«ae-
aa T. H. Bopoxo6nH H. f. B KM- Tpyaw BcecoKoii. iny>Kypn MHKpoCHon^
Bnnaft 3. crp. 9—16 — H a npouK H A B K. THC. rpyaa M npo*-
Oo6r«.. 1957. M 2. crp. 12-19. — H c p Ji H H a 111. P. BpoM. aeJio. 1931. M 5—6.
rrp 2S5—2S8. — CIXHOBCKHB H. A. B KII.: HccfleaoauHmi no cBMHuoaoMy orpae-
4SX XapucoB, 1926, crp. 92—103. — H e c t o en J. J. Inlec. Diseas., 1916,
IB. p. 69.
-187-
\
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Air- Temperature Effect on the Processes of Conversion and Detoxification
of Aniline in the Animal Organism.
Z. A. Volkova.'
•»{3 - ^
(.Institute of Labor Hygiene and Occupational Diseases, Academy of Medical
Sciences, U.S.S.R. and the Department of Industrial Hygiene,
Central Institute of Post-Graduate Medicine, Moscow).
Gigiena Truda i Professional*nye Zabolevaniya, Vol. 2, No. 4» 30-36, 1958.
Under practical industrial conditions workers (and others) are frequently
subjected to the simultaneous effects of several unfavorable factors, such,
for instance, as deleterious effects of chemical substances accompanied by
surrounding high temperature. The effect of surrounding air temperature on
the organism has been studied extensively in the past; however, the simulta-
neous effect of temperature and of different chemical substances on the human
organism has not received the deserved attention.
Reports in literature indicate that high external temperature in most
cases hastened and enhanced the appearance of intoxication symptoms and gen-
erally lowered the lethal dose of poison, although in isolated instances the
reverse effects have been observed. The mechanism of external temperature
effect on the course of toxic properties has not been studied sufficiently.
There is some reason to believe that changes in the action of chemical sub-
stances on the organism accompanied by temperature effects may be closely
connected with, elicited functional., shifts. . Thus.,.. a_ rise, in air temperature
elicited a dyspnea, as a result of which more of the gaseous or vaporized
substances can penetrata into the organism, which, in turn, may intensify
the toxic effect, as was shown by R. G. Leipes and by V. A. Solov'eva.
In explaining the toxicity of poisons in relation to external tempera-
ture some authors emphasized (laid more stress) upon the importance of ab-
sorption" (inhalation) and distribution of-the substances- in the -organism?•-•-
the importance of elimination was also given consideration, as wa-.s mentioned
by Gast, by Stbkihgef "and"by "othe'rs"; "Others' explained the "enhanced toxic
effect on the basis of changes in the reactivity of the organism caused by
external air temperature conditions. Such studies were conducted by L. I,
Levkovich, V. A. Pokrovskii, V. K. Navrotskii and S. N. Dubashinskaya, A. I,
Pakhomycheva, T. A. Kozlova, E. I. Korenevskaya, and others.-- - - -
-188-
-------
In 1889 Borovskii studied the elimination of mercury via the urine in
persons treated medically with mercury preparations; as a result of his ob-
servations he expressed the opinion that temperature may affect the part
played in the metabolic processes by chemical "substances which found their
way into the organism. The processes of poisons and especially industrial
poisons conversion and detoxification in the organism vary with t'ae chemical
and physico-chemical reactions which constitute total metabolism. Therefore,
it can be assumed that metabolic changes resulting from different causes and
in particular from temperature effects will affect the processes of certain
poison detoxification and thereby change the course of their action. Such
an assumption was previously advanced by Jacob!, and GUnther and Odoria, who
studied the effect of surrounding temperature on the course of intoxication.
It should be added at this point that studies of this nature were fern and
were not accompanied by chemical analysis and that no similar studies were
made in direct application to effects of occupational poisons. The present
author investigated the possible effect of air temperature on the rate of
poison conversion and detoxification in the organism, with particular ref-
erence to aniline which is widely used in industry. In the production of
aniline, dimethylaniline, diphenylaniline, and black aniline dye, workers
may be subjected to the simultaneous effects of the related chemicals and
increased temperature. Preliminary tests Here conducted for the determina-
tion of possible temperature effects on the course of aniline intoxication.
White mice 18 - 21 g were used in-these experiments. Reference is made
at this point to the work of Z. A. Khatskevich, Z. A. Voltova. Aniline was
administered subcutaneously, in preference to the method of inhalation or
absorption through the skin for the following reasons: at different tempera-
tures different quantities of the aniline inhaled or applied to the skin
might find their way into the organism as a result of changes in the respira-
tion rate and of the peripheral blood circulation, as was indicated by V0 A.
_Soloy»eva._.Aniline,^dissolved in oil was injected subcutaneously at the rate
of 15 mg per"mouse (0.05 ml of the oil solution); the mice were then placed
for-2 hours into chambers at following temperatures: 4°, 7-8°, 12°, 18°,
21 - 23°, 26°, 32 - 35°, 38 - 40° and 42°. Kice were then closely observed
for 2 hours and records kept of their general condition and behavior and of
the time of appearance of poisoning symptoms.' The mice were then placed into
-------
the vivarium kept at 18 - 19 -temperature. Record was kept of the number
of mice surviving at the end of the day. Results of the study clearly in-
dicated that there existed a correlation between the course of the aniline
intoxication in white mice and the surrounding temperature. At 26 the gen-
eral state of health of the intoxicated mice was of a light gravity and the
survival rate was greater. At higher or lower air temperature symptoms of
intoxication appeared sooner and survival rate was lower, and death occurred
at a shorter period of time. All mice injected with the aniline and kept at
4 and 42 perished, whereas 55$ of the mice kept at 26 survived. Results
'of the experiment are presented graphically in Fig. 1. Control mice, that
is, animals not injected
with aniline and kept at
any of the indicated temper-
atures survived indefinitely.
Thus, the effect of tempera-
ture changes on the course
of aniline intoxication has
been clearly established in
Temperature
§
80
10
60
SO
40
30
a
IB
a
•Hi
I
I
principle. In the next phase .
studies were made of the nature
of aniline conversion proc-
esses in the animal organism under different surrounding conditions.
Effect of air temperature on the processes of aniline conversion in the
Pig. 1. Survival in percent of white mice
poisoned with aniline at different surrounding
air temperatures.
organism. It has-been generally known that aniline became oxidized in'the"- -
organism to less 'toxic substances, such, for instance, as phenol, and pre-
dominantly paraminophenol. The latter combined with glucuronic and sulfuric
acids forming conjugated compounds,-in which form they were eliminated from
the organism via the urine. Numerous experiments performed in the patho-
physiological laboratory of the Institute of Labor Hygiene and Occupational
Diseases, Academy of Medical Sciencies, S.S.S.R. showed that following the
introduction of aniline .into-rabbits organism--.the greater part-of the con- •
jugated paraminophenol was eliminated via the urine within 24 hours after the
injection of the aniline. Paraminophenol was found only in trace amounts in
the urine collected after 24 hours. According to reports in the literature
the urinary tract constituted the basic route of aniline elimination. All
-190-
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other routes were of no substantial importance} accordingly, rate of aniline
conversion and detoxification Iwas judged on the "basis of paraminophenol elimi-
nation via the urine during the first 24 hours. It is the opinion of this
author that a study of the blood for the content of aniline and paraminophenol
might serve as an important supplemental source of information regarding the
rate of conversion and detoxification of aniline in the organism. The method
of blood study was as follows: rabbits received subcutaneous injections of
aniline and were placed immediately into chambers of different temperatures
for 2 hours. Each temperature set had control rabbits of both sexes and of
similar weight and fur color. The control rabbits were kept at 18-22 .
Aniline injections in most cases were intravenous at the rate of 100 mg/kgj
this procedure eliminated the previously mentioned possibility of external
temperature effects on the amount of poison which entered the organism. During
the 2 hours of exposure to different temperatures 30-minute records were kept
of the rectal rabbit temperatures. Two hours after the aniline injection and
in a number of cases 21 and 22 hours later blood samples were taken from the
marginal ear vein for the determination of aniline and paraminophenol. Urine
was tested for the total amount of paraminophenol eliminated in 24 hours.
Aniline determinations were made by the color reaction with phenol and sodium
hypochlorite; paraminophenol was determined by the color reaction with phenol
in the presence of chromic acid and ammonia, according to A. A. Rubanovskaya.
Generally, 20 to 30 seconds after the beginning of the aniline injection,:
which means practically during the aniline injection, fine convulsions in
"the form of fine tremor appeared over the entire body^ occasionally accompanied
by clonic twitching of the extremities. Following the aniline injection ani-
mals upright posture became unsteady and .shaky, some of them fell on their
sides due to the appearance of the above-mentioned clonic twitching of the
front or hind legs. Usually this condition lasted only 2 to 3 minutes. As
soon as such symptoms disappeared the animals were placed into the different
temperature chambers for 2 "hours. " ~" ~""~ ---,-„. .
Two series of experiments were conducted for the determination of air
temperature effect on the rate of aniline conversion. In the first series of
tests the rabbits were injected with the aniline and then placed in the ex-
perimental chamber at 34 - 37° which is approximately the temperature prevail-
ing in industries using aniline. Rabbits similarly injected with aniline and
-191-
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placed in a room having an air temperature of 18 - 22° were used as controls.
The condition of the poisoned rabbits kept at higher temperatures appeared to
be of a grave nature. It was noted that at the end of 2 hours, rabbits in-
jected with aniline and kept at 18 - 22 showed signs of recovery and began
to move about more freely; similarly injected rabbits kept at 34 - 37° ap-
peared to become progressively inert, their respiration became more frequent
and some of them salivated. Pour of the 26 rabbits kept at the higher temper-
ature died at different periods after the injection of the aniline during the
first 10 days; whereas 2 of the 20 control rabbits died at considerably later
periods.
Blood analysis showed the following results: 2 hours after the poison
injection most of the rabbits kept at the warmer temperature showed a higher
blood aniline concentration than did the control rabbits; the paraminophenol
concentration was lower in the blood of the animals kept at higher temperature
than in the controls. The ratio of blood aniline to blood paraminophenol
varied with the number of individual factors; therefore, it can be used only
as a provisional preliminary index in cases of aniline poisoning. On the
other hand the amount of paraminophenol eliminated with the urine in the
course of 24 hours can be used as a more reliable index of the rate of ani-
line conversion. It was noted that paraminophenol was eliminates with the
urine at a lower rate in most rabbits kept at the higher air temperature.
This Has indicated by the fact that the average 24-hour paraminophenol elimi-
nation with the urine amounted to 57*9 rag/kg, whereas it amounted to 46.7_mg/kg
in the rabbits kept at the higher temperature. In other words, the paramino-
phenol elimination was less by 19$. Results of these experiments are plotted
in block fora in Fig. 2. In this connection it should be noted that rabbits
sere injected with the aniliaa on the basis of kilograms of body weight and
that weight of animals and 24-hcur urine Elimination volume differed, there-
fore, final calculations of paraminophenol elimination were made on the basis ~
of kilograms of rabbit body weight. The data presented above indicate that
the rate of the injected poison eliminated by rabbits was lower at higher air*
temperature. This may be due to unfavorable changes in such functions which
are brought about in the living organism by increased surrounding temperature;
to facilitate its elimination conversion of aniline appears to be one of such
functions. According to reports found in the literature, .higher air tempera-
-192-
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tures impeded blood circulation
in internal organs, disturbed
the liver function, in particu-
lar the glycogenic and detoxifi-
cation functions which are close-
ly connected with liver function.
The oxidizing processes fell to
lower levels, a condition which
persisted for a time after sur-
rounding temperature had been
brought down to normal. Cellular
dehydrase and cytochromoxidase
activities, according to £. A.
Rozan, fell to lower levels in
the brain and liver, the latter
being the basic organs in which
aniline breakdown occurred (A. A.
jRubanovskaya, M. L. Beloborodova).
Surrounding air temperature
has been regarded as the most
important exogenic factor affect-
ing the rate of the organism's
~~ ~~~.. "' ~~ general metabolismj therefore, an
attempt was made to produce changes in the rate of aniline oxidation by changing
the surrounding air temperature. A second series of experiments was designed
to establish this possibility. The general course of experimental procedure
was the same, as above with the following exception: after having been injected
with aniline the rabbits were placed for 2 hours into a chamber at - 5 *° * 5 •
Aniline was administered eubcutaneously at the rate of 300 mg/kgy or it was in-
jected .into the marginal ear vein at the rate of 100 mg/kg in slightly w&xm
physiological solution. Rabbits similarly injected with the aniline and kept
at normal'room temperature served as controls. Results of the lower tempera-
ture experiments showed no noteworthy differences from the results obtained with
the elevated temperature experiments. Rabbits kept at a lower temperature
showed occasional signs of convulsions. One of the 22 poisoned rabbits kept
D7
Fig. 2. Effect of air temperature on the
rate of aniline conversion in the organism.
Blocks 1, 2, 3 - Blood aniline concentra-
tions in mg£ correspondingly of heated,
cooled and control rabbits; 4, 5» 6 - Blood
paraminophenol concentrations in mg£ corre-
spondingly of heated, cooled and control
rabbits| 7, 8, 9 - Urine paraminophenol
concentrations in mg/kg in heated, cooled
and control rabbits.
-193-
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at the lower temperature died at the end of 15 days. None of the control rab-
bits died.
Blood analyses were made 2 hours after the administration of aniline.
The results showed that the amount of aniline in the blood was lower in the
animals kept at below normal air temperature than in the corresponding con-
trols. Results of paraminophenol blood analysis were of the reverse order.
The paraminophenol in 24-hour urine of poisoned rabbits kept at temperatures
below normal was at a higher level than in corresponding controls. Thus, the
average in the case of rabbits kept at the lower temperature was 70.9 mg/kg j,
whereas in the controls it amounted to 54.4 mg/kg, a difference of 30$. The
results are plotted in block form. in Pig. 2.
Following subcutaneous aniline injection 80.8 mg/kg was eliminated with
the urine of poisoned rabbits kept at normal temperature, whereas 107.7
or 33$ more, was eliminated by poisoned rabbits kept at below normal air temper-
ature. The results indicate that a temperature of ± 5 enhanced the process
of aniline breakdown (conversion) in the organism. This author is of the
opinion that the above was due to the combination of physiological shifts
arising in animal organisms at moderately low temperatures, affecting basic
metabolism in general and carbohydrate metabolism in particular. A comparison
of the above cited results in the case of rabbits with the previously described
results obtained with white mice off hand appeared contradictory: in the case
of rabbits lower temperature seemed to enhance the physiological processes of
aniline detoxification,. while. .the reverse appeared to be true in experiments
with white mice." This can be explained by differences in physiological defense
functions of the 2 types of animals, particularly as regards their thermoreg-
ulatory and thermoresistant mechanisms;, the difference in aniline dosage ad-
ministration likewise may have played a part in the difference of results ob-
tained. It must be understood, however, that the intensity of physiological
detoxification of the poison used was far from being the only factor which
determined the course t>f intoxication. Apparently, in acute large dose in-
to"x"ication with the poisonous substance the" defense mechanism of "an organism - '•
is hard hit and weakened; in such_ cases the poison detoxification factor has •
no substantial significance and can not impede the rapid development of damage.
Vice versa in small dose intoxication the detoxification rate plays an impor-
tant' part. "" . ~~" ..... - . — _
-194-
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A survey of foreign literature indicated that attempts have been made to
determine the part played by body temperature in the effect of chemical sub-
stances on the organism and to equate the results with the law of Van't Hoff.
However, it would be too much to expect that in the interplay of many complex
processes, such as exist in an organism, any simple law could play as impor-
tant a part as it did in the case of non-living matter. In the experiments
herein reported body temperature of the animals was recorded every 30 minutes.
The results obtained indicated that the administration of aniline at 18 to 22
and at ± 5 air temperature were accompanied by hypothermy. The degree of
fall in body temperature varied with the individual animal, and bore no rela-
tion to changes in temperature between - 5 and + 22 . Quite the contrary, in
the case of higher temperatures, administration of aniline elicited hyper-
thermy. Data illustrating this are shown in Fig. 3. Analysis of the results
leads to the conclusion that aniline changed the organism's reactivity with
regard to temperature effects. In the results herein reported it was possible
to note a relationship between the rate of aniline conversion in rabbits !.__
organism and changes in the body temperature within the limits of 36 to 44 .
Hence, the results herein reported confirm the opinion expressed by investi-
gators who believed that the law of Van't Hoff did not apply to higher animals.
A
B
4T
%
Pig. 3. Changes in rabbits' body temperature.
A - In rabbits poisoned with aniline at 10 -.20° air
temperature; B -~At 34 - 37° (high) air temperature;
C - In rabbits poisoned with aniline and simultane-
ously exposed to 34 - 37° (elevated) air temperature.
-195-
-------
Conclusions.
1. Rise in temperature affected the rate of aniline detoxification in
rabbit s t a) the effect of temperature rise within the limits of 34 - 37°
impeded the processes of aniline conversion to paraminophenol and the elimina-
tion of the latter with the urine; b) moderate general cooling of rabbits at
temperatures between + 5 and - 5 enhanced such processes, that is, it aided
the organism in freeing itself of the poison.
2. Aniline intoxication, similar to aniline detoxification process in
the organism, followed different courses, depending upon the temperature con-
ditions of the surrounding air.
3. Aniline disturbed the thermoregulation of the animals used eliciting
hypothermy under normal air temperature conditions and hyperthermy under con-
ditions of elevated air temperature.
4. The data herein presented fail to discern any connection between the
rate of aniline conversion in the organism and body temperature within the
limits of 36 - 44°.
Bibliography.
B
tec P. r. Arch. Hyg, 8&S, ikS. 102, S, 91— 110.- H «*B p'o «it B.
cues C M. Ttsr. H COB.. 1231. J& 8. etp. 22— 23. — n« xoMuqea A. H,
BC T. A, Kopeaeocrsfi £. H. 0 KB.: XIII Bssttnoss. ci«aa mraeziEcroii. ssnue-
E2D®n., EampsSDan. n sc^tomconcrr. Tea. aoan. M_ 1958, ». I. crp. 16S— 1TO. — Flo-
epoecKisfi B. A. @ era.: C6. psc*). Dajnea. pa0or EeposeEsotoro ttt&. ms-n, 1548, '
T. 1^ B. 1. c?p. S4— S3. — P o s H H £. A. B EH.: Eosnco-KcgCKet Kefi. £«u. Haym. '
mfflrecffS. 10-». Tpyaa. JI^ 1853^ crp. 123— I2S.— Py
-------
Sanitary-Hygienic Labor Conditions in the Production of Polymethylmetaorylate.
S. E. Sandratskaya.
(First Moscow Order of Lenin Medical Institute I. M. Sechenova).
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 25, No. 7, 74-78, I960.
Polymethylmetacrylate is one of-the most extensively used present-day
plastics, obtained by polymerization; it is an organic glass, or plexiglass,
now widely used in many branches of industry. Organic acrylate glass has a
low specific gravity and is mechanically durable; its light transparency is
absolute and ultraviolet rays pass through it with ease; light and water do
not affect it unfavorably. Such properties make it fit for use in aviation,
in the radio industry, in machine-building, in the production of artificial
fibers, unbreakable eye-glasses, watch glasses and lenses, in dielectrics, In
architecture, in the building industry, and in the preparation of glues, lac-
quers, and paints. The property of the basic material, methylmetacrylate, to
co-polymerize with other monomers is responsible for its wide range of use.
Polymethylmetacrylate is produced by polymerizing methyl ester with a-
metacrylic acid (methylmetacrylate) with the aid of heat and in the presence
of peroxides in the shape of sheaves, in solution, and in emulsion. The sheaf
method yields finished products, sheets or lamina of Polymethylmetacrylate;
ester polymerization in organic solvents yields a variety of lacquers; the
emulsion method yields a powder-like polymer. In each case the finished prod-
.uct contains a residue which failed to undergo completion of the polymeriza-
tion. It has been universally" demonstrated that Polymethylmetacrylate produced
in the laboratory under careful supervision was free from traces of unreacted
monomers and possessed no toxic properties. Results of experimental implant-
ing of polymethylmetacrylate platelets in the soft tissues and in the brai,n
of animals indicated that acrylate. was the most indifferent plastic to the
organism. Therefore, it was possible to utilize acrylic plastics in differ-
ent phases of plastic surgery and in orthopedics: in cranio— and rhinoplasty,
in eye prothesis, in joint replacing, in bone defects, and in stomatology for
filling teeth because of the aseptic properties of the monomer. However, un-
like plastics obtained in the laboratory, many plastics produced under present-
day manufacturing conditions contain moaomer admixtures which constitute an
occult factor of potential danger. Hence, extreme caution should be used where
-197-
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workers coma in contact with the unfinished products and, in particular, with
press powders which invariably liberate monomer fumes. The toxic properties
of the polymethylmetacrylate base, toethylacrylate, were studied in 1940 by
L. Z. Ponomareva-Astrakhantseva, and later by Deichmann who determined the
toxic concentrations of this substance and observed degenerative changes and
multiple hemorrhages in the parenchyma of experimental animals. Results of
other experiments demonstrated that methylmetacrylate vapor irritated the
skin and mucous membranes, and also caused sarcoma development when scales
containing methylmetacrylate were implanted into soft tissues.
In 1952, B. D. Karpov of the Leningrad Sanitary-Hygienic Medical Insti-
tute showed that metaerylate vapor disturbed the stimulation and inhibition
processes of the upper portion of the central nervous system in experimental
animals and depressed unconditioned reflexes, vascular receptors, the respira-
tory center, and the tbs rmoregulation mechanism. Karpov also examined workers
engaged in the synthesis and polymerization of methymetacrylate surrounded by
air which contained 0.1 to 0.8 mg/li of methylmetacrylate. The workers com-
plained of general weakness, irritability, exhaustion, somnolence, headaches,
and loss of appetite. The symptoms increased toward the end of the shift.
Hypotoaiaiwith blood pressure fluctuations from 80/50 to 105/75 was detected
in 43$ of the workers. Pronounced symptoms of vegetative asthenia were ob-
served in accidental acute poisoning. As a result of the above mentioned
tests, B. D. Karpov suggested that 0.5 mg/li of methylmetacrylate vapor be
considered as the maTHmw" permissible concentration of methylmetacrylate in
the air of working premises.
Rasuits of toxicologic studies of primary mathyImetaerylate substances
and of the possible development of pathology through contact with them in-
dicated the need to examine the Moscow Balakirev button factory workers en-
gaged in processing polymethyImetaerylate accompanied by liberation into the
air of the working premises.of high quantities of monomer vapors.
The .raw material for making.buttons and other products came in the form
of polymethylmetacrylate platelets, sheets, and press powder. The j'Sflirylate —a.
sheets and plates were produced by the block method, and press powder by the
emulsion method. As a consequence the sheets and press powder contained ad-
mixtures of non-reacted monomers. Liberation of monomer dust into the sur-
rounding air was also one of the chief occupational hazards arising from
processing polymethyImetaorylato. •
-198- . .
-------
Different sizes of sheets and plates of the organic glass 0.5 - 5 cm thick
were sawed, stamped, machined, painted, and glued. During the sawing process,
in the absence of ventilation, 0.8 — 0.95 mg/li of methylmetacrylate dust was
liberated into the air; thereby exceeding the suggested maximum permissible
concentration 16 - 20 times. Recirculating ventilation in the stamping, ma-
chining, and lathe shops almost completely removed the dust from the air, and
obviated methylmetacrylate fume liberation into the shop air. .Dust concentra-
tions reached 1011 mg/m , that is, 100 times over the maximum permissible con-
centration in the drum shop, rahere buttons were polished in smajll drums con-
taining abrasives; this was particularly'true during loading and unloading of
the drums and of the open revolving screen sections. Despite th© presence of
recirculation ventilation, dust concentrations reached 40 mg/bi in th*» polish-
ing shop. The greater part of the work sas performed with tha aid of manually
operated machines. Bo monomer dust was liberated at any of the other stages
of organic glass processing.
Anothor method of manufacturing plastics consisted in compressing a mix-
turo of L-l polymethylmetaorylate powder com tailing benzoyl peroxide as the
catalyzer, with dibutyl phthalate and pigmentary and aliphatic dyes and met-
acrylic acid as the plasticizer. The addition to the latex powder of the
solvent nzathyIsietacrylate in 1:3 ratio produced upon mixing a thick cheese-
like mass which emitted a strong tester-like odor. The thick mass is out manu-
ally into suitable-size pieces and delivered to the press room. The ml Ting is
.done in a room below the press room; it is equipped with a stationary exhaust
fan. The monomer concentration in tha air of th® mixing department exceeded -
the prescribed limit of permissible concentration on the averag® ©f 38 tines;
the highest concentration exceeded the required standard 84 times. The area
in this department is comparatively small, so that some of the mass had to be
mixed in th® general room of the workshop, thus polluting the air of the work-
ing area with msthylmetacrylate fumes. Th® mass was pressed at 130 — 150
which resulted in partial decomposition of the polymer and in the liberation
of nethymetacryiate fumes to a concentration of 0.5 -"0.7 mg/li> which.ex-
ceeded the maximum permissible concentration by 10 - 14 times.
Thus, it can be seen that workers in the press workshop were exposed to
the effect of the monomer more than any other workers. Therefore, this was
selected as the starting point in the study of morbidities among the employed.
A comparative morbidity study was made during 1956 - 1958 of all factory em-
-199-
-------
ployees with the morbidity among workers in the lower press room. It was
found that the morbidity rate among the press room workers was higher "by 20$ and
work days lost by 10.5$ than among all factory workers; occurrence of bronchitis
was 3 times as frequent and hypotonic diseases only half as frequent, possibly
due to the hypotensive effect of esters. Such preliminary data pointed to the
need of a thorough inspection of shop workers; such an inspection was made at
lihe suggestion of the Sanitary-Hygienic Epidemiological Station of the Baumansk
rayon plant, during 1957 - 1958. The inspection was made cooperatively by
medical occupational specialists, pathologists-therapists, neuropathologists,
otorhinolaryngologists, and laboratory personnel.
Analysis of the data shovsed that the labor turnover in the lower press
workshop was considerable. Of 118 workers assigned to different sections, 38
.remained on the job no more than 6 months; therefore, morbidity data of this
group of workers were excluded from the statistical study. The remaining shop
workers were divided according to occupations as follows: 61 pressers, 8 mix-
ers, 5 rolling press workers, and 6 inspectors. Of the total number of workers,
5 (6.5$) were 19 years old or younger; ages of the other workers (6452) ranged
between 20 and 39 years. Thirty-five (43.5/0 worked from 6 months to 2 years,
28 (35JO from 2-5 years, 9 (11.550 from 5-10 years, and 8 (1050 more than
10 years. Most of the shopworkers were women.
Analysis of the inspection results showed the foilowingi of the total
number of 80 inspected workers, 42 (5252) manifested a low blood pressure rang-
ing from 80/50 to 110/65; 20 (25?) had diseases of the upper respiratory pas-
sages in the form of eubatrophic and atrophic rhinitis, nasopharyngitis, and .
laryngitis. A significant portion of the workers complained of headaches and
quiok exhaustion; houevar, pronounced functional changes in the nervous system
IB the form of vogeto-asthenic reactions cere seen in only 9 (11.552). In-
flaaaatica of the conjunctiva of varying degrees was detected in 47 (5930 •>
Analyses of the blood and urine revealed no essential deviations from
normal. The data obtained are evidence of the fact that, on the chole, changes
due to the effect of methylraetacrylate fumes on the organism, affeated tk« ~
jaervous system, mucous membranes of the upper respiratory passages, the ayes,
and the vascular receptors, ohich agreed with results recorded in the litera-
ture.
More than 100 air samples were collected in different factory shops and
. analyzed for the content of dust, formaldehyde, methyImetaerylate, and other
-200-
-------
toxic substances; this was done in 1956 - 1958 by the Industrial Section of the
laboratory of the Sanitary-Hygienic Epidemiological Station. The forllowing
Table shows data on the contamination of the air in working premises by methyl-
met aery late. The method, described in the manual, Determination of Harmful
Substances in the Air of Industrial Premises, by M. V. Alekseyeva, B. Ye.
Andronov, 3. S. Gurvits, and A. S. Zhitkova, was employed in determining the
presence of methylmetacrylate fumes in the air.
Content of methylmetacrylate fumes in the air at separate points of
the lower press workshop in 1956 - 1958
sampling
»
jtemp.
:
jNumber
: samples
•
•
Concentration:Times of in-
in mg/li : crease above
., : . : maximum
Max- sAver— : . ,,
t : permissible
xmum • a£T6 t . , *
: : concentration
installations
Large presses
Pouring presses
Mixing division
»•
Rollers
23°
21°
19°.
23°
8
2
7
1
2.5
0.2
4.2
0.4
1.25
0.1
1.8
0.4
25
2
38
- 50
- 4
- 84
8
raraiiei supply ana
exhaust ventilation
2 exhaust hoods;
intake from shop
Exhaust pipe
Neutral zone
(Receivers'
point)
18C
4 0.5 0.25
5-10 General intake pipe
. Satire.produc-
tion depart-
ment
22 1.56 0.76
- 30 General supply and
"" exhaust ventilation
On the basis of results obtained it was suggested to the factory manage-
ment that appropriate health measures be instituted in the most health-af-
feoting sections. At the present time, ventilation has been installed in
shops according to the plan approved by the Industrial Section of the Sani-
tary-Epidemiological Station; the exhaust ventilation has been remodeled and
intake air supply increased in the mixing rooms; rolling machines were moved
to separate rooms; an apparatus for mechanically mixing the polymethylmet-
acrylate powder is being tried and tested. As a result of such measures no
methylmetacrylate fumes could be detected in March 1959 by analyses of air
samples taken in the shop in general, at the large hot and small pour presses,
and in the mixing section (as can be seen from the Fig.).
-201-
-------
10
t. —
• o
> a.
I9S6 ISf? 1SSI ISS9
At the recommendation of the authori-
ties of the Sanitary-Epidemiological Station,
the usual vacation of a number of workers in
the lower press shop (machinists who handle
the hot presses, rollers, and inspectors)
was extended by 6 days. In addition, it was
suggested to the factory management and to
the manager of the Sanitary-Spidemiological
Station that a stationary inhalator be in-
stalled for the prophylaxis and treatment
of diseases of the upper respiratory pas-
sages prevalent among the factory workers.
Bibliography.
.'I a a :i p v B H B. (pea.). B KH.: BpeaHue eemecTBa u ripoMuumeiwocTM. SI.. 1954.
T. I. i-T|i. 493. 499. 502. 717. 72V. 727. — HerpoB T. C. HerpOBa JI. T. n^acTMaccu.
A\.• .1. 1953.--P e H.m M II. H. TeiHcu JOK.I. KOHipepeHUHii no npHMeneHHio nxacnne-
CKHX mace B vejHUMHt M.. 1954, crp. 4.--Henrichsen E., Jansen K., KroRh-
Poulscn W.. Acta Orthop. Scandinav., 1952, v. 22. p. 141. —La skin D. M.. Robin-
son I. B.. Wei nm a nn J. P.. Proc. Soc. Exper. Biol a. Med.. 1954, v. 87, p. 329.
Dynamics lof content of ««thyl««t«cryl«t«
fuae* in 'the air of the (win section* of
the loeer preo« shop fro* 1956 to 1959.
I - Mixing section; 2 - Large presses;
3 - Receivers' corking area*.
•Ventilation equipsant «fi» disnantled
in 1958.
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Labor Hygiene Problems in the Use of Dichlorethane by the Aviation Industry.
I. V. Kozik.
(Department of Industrial Hygiene, Central Institute of
Post-Graduate Medicine, Moscow).
Gigiena Truda i Professional'nye Zabolevaniya, Vol. 1, No. 1, 31-38, 1957.
This author studied the sanitary-hygienic labor conditions in an in-
dustrial plant where dichlorethane was used extensively as an organic cement
solvent. Investigations showed that the concentration of dichlorethane vapor
in the air persisted at 0.05 mg/li during 70 to 75$ of a single shift; ,it
fell to loser levels only intermittently; about 25 - 30$ of the time the
dichlorethane concentration ranged between 0.08 and 0.15 mg/li.
Medical examinations of women workers showed shifts in the functional
state of the central nervous system, basically in the form of disturbed motor
and weakened internal inhibition, also as disturbed states of the upper ex-
tremities motor apparatus manifested as lowered force and resistance. Dis-
turbances were also observed in the general state of health, usually observed
in dichlorethane poisoning, and of the neuro-muscular apparatus of the upper
extremities manifested as characteristic forms of work performance motions.
White mice were exposed to the effect of 0.05 - 0.01 mg/li of dichloreth-
ane followed by experimental investigation of changes in the higher nervous
activity and in the intraneuro connections.of the cerebral cortex; the latter
present earliest symptoms I and indexes of the organism's reaction to external
factors. Results of such observations led to the conclusion that 0.005 mg/li
of dichlorethane should be regarded as the limit of allowable concentration
of this air pollutant. Practical means for the sanitization of working con-
ditions in the plant under study (and in similar plants) have been developed
and formulated. Because of peculiar specific technological processes employed
in some departments of airplane building plants- many of the vats are made of
pliable material. The greater part of the workers producing the pliable tanks
"were" women cementers, tank makers" and producers of rubber parts. Prom" the ~- -
sanitary-hygienic point of view most important of the production phases were
the large surfaces ^hich were coated with dichlorethane-dissolved organic
cement; in this stage of pliable tank making the vaporization of the dichlor-
ethane into the air of the production premises was intense. From the viewpoint
. . -- ' . -203-
-------
of working technique the women workers performed a function limited to a
monotype body movement, accompanied by considerable muscular tension.
Results of 500 air analyses showed that intensity of dichlorethane
vaporization into the air differed at different times, causing short dura-
tion fluctuations in the dichlorethane concentration in the air. Highest
dichlorethane concentration, ranging between 0.08 - 0.158 mg/li, were ob-
served at the time the dichlorethane-dissolved cement was applied to the
rubber sheets. Such concentrations persisted for only 5-6 minutes, and at
the moment of the cement setting or drying, approximately 15 minutes, the
concentration dropped to 0.03 - 0.04 mg/li. The application of the dichlor-
ethane-dissolved cement was usually made during the first half of the shift;
during the second half the rubber sheets were attached and reinforcements
were applied. The concentration of dichlorethane in the air of the working
premises persisted at the 0.05 mg/li level or lower during the greater part
of the working shift. Washings from the surface of the workers' hands showed
2
a concentration of 0.001 - 0.002 mg/cm .
The technological processes involved in the type of work under considera-
tion require a temperature of 23°; however, the temperature prevailing in the'
working premises was 26-28 ; this augmented the dichlorethane vaporization
and increased its concentration in the air as shown by the results of 400
analyses of samples
Cement applica- ^Partial dry- Other opera-
tion, 20& of ing, 5 - 1C$ tions, 70 - 1%
.. /,. the time of the time
Mg/li -- -- -
of the time
o.ra
Jt?
.
OJ3
ff.rt
O.fff
6.09
O,08
.-6.0?-
6.OS
O.OS
O.04
0.03
~ 0,02
O,0t
o
Pig. 1. Dichlorethane concentrations at different
operations and their persistence in the course of a
work shift.
taken at 12 different
working points at dif-
ferent temperatures.
Thus, at air temperature
of 31 , at the point
where rubber sheets were
coated with the cement,
the dichlorethane con-
centration amounted to
0.145 mg/li; at 2?° if.
amounted to 0.094 mg/li;
and at 25 it amounted
to 0.080 mg/li.
-204-
-------
In the particular workroom where these observations were conducted the
rubber sheets were placed over flat tables in 4 rows, and the dichlorethane-
* • * * ..." • 4, • f t-
dissolved cement was spread over their surfaces; the metallic tanks were
placed near the tables. Ventilation in such working rooms, operated as fol-
lows: air was coming in from above and was exhausted through grated openings
in the floor along the alleys between the working tables. In the opinion of
this author such a ventilation system was rational for conditions prevailing
in the workrooms. The dichlorethane fumes which spread over the cement ap-
plication tables showed a tendency to cling to the table surfaces and did
not rise upward; this facilitated their being directed downward to the floor
gratings by the air coming from above and their being sucked into the floor
openings by the negative exhaust. Application of the dichlorethane-dissolved
cement to the metal tank surfaces farthest away from the exhaust channels
created a different sanitary-hygienic condition; here the vapors rose upward
and were distributed in all directions. During the cement application under
'• such conditions the jiichlprethane concentration rose to the order of lOths
of a milligram per li. As a general rule the dichlorethane vapor did not
spread far beyond the point of the. cement application, as can be seen from
the following: • , . , , .
" - At the table .of application ~ 0.110 mg/li
At-50 cm from the table . 0.094 mg/li
At 1 m from the table 0.054 mg/li
At 2.5 m from the table 0.03J, mg/li
. - . -.—- One m above .the floor - - . 0.16.0 mg/li
Two m above the floor -„ .T - - 0.024 "ing/li. ~
Three m above the floor • 0.006 mg/li
• The capacity of the ventilation system was not sufficient to remove the
entire dichlorethane vaporized during a single shift. The ventilation ef-
ficiency occasionally fell short of the required due to the fact that the
inflowing air constituted only 56$ of the exhaust air volume.
As was indicated above, in addition to the air pollution with dichlor-
ethane vapor, other purely physical factors added to the discomfort of the
women workers. Thus, rolling on the cement-applied rubber-sheet was ac-
complished by monotype motions during which the- roller handle was firmly
grasped. In working with the roller the cement worker performs 80 to 200
motions per minute throughout the day, amounting to a total of 8,000 rnove-
-205-
-------
ments a day. In the process of^applying the cement the women worker made
7 to 120 movements and in the course of the day 1,200 to 1,300. A dynamometer
"built into the roller handle recorded an exerted pressure amounting to 8 - 12
kg. Labor conditions in other workrooms of the plant were much the same.
In the department where the metallic forms -were disassembled and the rubber
coats were removed the dichlorethane 'concentration in the air reached 0.175 ~
0.210 mg/ii; this was due to the intense vapor elimination of the dichlor-
ethane originally adsorbed to or absorbed by 'the rubber.
The sanitary-hygienic evaluation of the effect of dichlorethane vapor
on the workers' organism was studied with the aid of the visual=motor reaction.
The apparatus used made possible determinations of simple reaction time, of
reaction time complicated by light differentiation, and by complex reaction
conversion determinations to lOOths of a second. Visual-motor reaction rate
studies were made at the beginning and at the end of a work day over 14 days;
studies included 2 groups of women workers - 17 cementers and 10 women of the
mechanical machinist department who were used as controls. Records were made
of each of the 3 above indicated reactions; the total of records thus made
amounted to 3,700. A comparative study of the average values of the 3 reac-
tion rates disclosed no noteworthy differences between the groups prior to
and after work: In the .case of the so-called complex reactions and their
conversion certain peculiarities were noted: the number of persons with
determination errors, the number of total errors and, consequently, the av-
erage of errors per test person differed in these 2"~groups. The -controls or
mechanical workers manifested no determination errors, whereas, the reverse
was the case in most of the rubber cement workers. In the case of the complex
conversion reaction 4 of 10 workers manifested determination errors only
towards the end of the day; on the other hand, 15 of-the 17 rubber cement
workers notably manifested errors of determination. .The average -of errors
manifested per rubber cement worker amounted* to 30$ as compared with 10$ in
the case of the control women mechanics. Errors which occurred in connection
with the complex conversion reactions indicated that the-balance and mobility
of the nerve processes were distrubed. Such disturbances may have been the
result of the development of defense inhibition. After some rest such condi-
tions disappeared and the 3 type reactions ran their normal course, free from
errors, at the beginning of a new work day. The above mentioned disturbances
-206-
-------
in the nerve reaction balance and mobility were more sharply expressed and
were manifested not only in the complex conversion reactions but in the light
differentiation complex reactions. In most workers of this type the distur-
bances persisted even after a rest period. It would seem,' therefore, that
more or less permanent disturbances occurred in the cortical processes of
the rubber cement workers manifested basically in the form of disturbed
mobility, weakened internal arrest Or inhibition elicited by the prolonged
dichlorethane vapor effect.
As was indicated above, the.women rubber cement workers had to perform
a considerable number of monotype, oft-repeated motions which called for
considerable muscular exertion. A study of the muscular force and endurance
among the rubber cement workers showed that .the average muscle power was
somewhat below that of the women mechanics, and that their endurance was ap-
proximately 5055 of the endurance of the women mechanics. It was noted that
the muscular force and work endurance among the women rubber cementers de-
creased with the increase in the duration of employment. The work endurance
increased towards the end of the day in the women mechanics whose work was
not accompanied by any considerable hand muscle exertion. The reverse was
the case in the women rubber cement workers regardless of the time of employ-
ment. Thus, the study brought into evidence clear-cut shifts in the func-
tional state of the motor apparatus of the upper extremities, which must
have been closely connected with the labor conditions.
. - _ ...The. next, phase,._of_ the_study included a survey of the general health of
the workers, and analysis of morbidity and loss of working time (according
to Form 3-l), for the period of 1951 - 1955 inclusive. The results of this
study show that the morbidity index among workers employed in the soft tank
department was higher than in any other department; the same was true of
the days lost due to incapacity to work. In the section of the soft tank
making morbidity due to gastro-intestinal diseases, neuritis, radiculitis,
etc. was greater than among workers of the factory as a whole through all
-the years studied, as is shown" by" the data presented in Table 1. — — - - -
A closer analysis of the morbidity rate and days lost due to incapacity
for 1954 - 1955 disclosed a frequent occurrence of gastro-intestinal, liver,
biliary apparatus, muscle, tendon and gangliar diseases, as can be seen in
Table 2. .
-207-
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TABLE 1.
:
:
t
\
Year:
•
Total morbidity
•
•
•
»
:
Acute gastro-
enteritis
Per 100
: Neuritis and
: radiculitis
workers
: Other diseases
Through-:
., :Through-:, ,,
the : ^ .? :In the
lout the :~" rr* rout the lln *he tout the :*" """ :out the .
: " " :section: . . :section: , . :section: , . :section
plant i ; plant ; ; plant ; ; plant -
1 f\Ct
1951
" T rtCO
1952
T OK ^
J-953
T nc>t
1954
T nccr
1955
Cases
Days
Cases
Days
Cases
'Days
Cases
Days
Cases
Days
120.2
995.8
124.0
960.9
135.6
1040.8
150.7
1175.9
127.6
978.4
159
1445
137
996
163
1236
191
1563
176
1462
.8
.5
.6
.0
.9
.5
.8
.2
.6
.4
5.1
19.3
4.2
15.1
14.4'
15.6
5.3
19.3
3.6
12.1
11.6
43.5
5.7
23.1
6.2
19.1
9.6
31.8
5.0
15.3
5.2
59.9
5.0
44.8
7.5
67.3
7.9
73.8
5.9
51.1
13
127
9
94
16
146
16
182
10
90
.0
.0
.7
.5
.5
.0
.7
.8
.3
.2
34.4
354.2
34.0
335.2
35.3
338 ..3
40.8
386.4
37.9
345.7
43.2
541.8
40.8
378.7
53.5
524.0
63.8
596.2
63.3
640.5
T A B L E 2.
jldver and biliaryj gastritis
: duct diseases : °
2 •
Year i
1954
1955
Chronic
jMuscular, tendon
gastritis: and gangliar
: affections
Per 100 workers
Cases _
21
24
: Days
251.5
290.0
: Cases
13
8
j Days
* . .
64.5
27.0
: Cases
6
3
: Days
45
14
: Cases :
48
8
Days
" 170
50
The occurrence of liver and biliary tract diseases can be regarded as the
result of specific dichlorethane toxic effect. Dyspeptic manifestations noted
in dichlorethane poisoning had been diagnosed frequently as gastritis. Such
diseases as myalgia, myocitis, myofasciculitis, tendovaginitis of the upper
extremities, etc.. may. , be the result .of__the .particular _ monotype motions used in
spreading and rolling on of the rubber cement . ' " ~ ' --•=>
Results obtained from statistical morbidity analysia_confinn the results
of special medical examinations of the general health conducted by physicians
of the. Department of Occupational Diseases of the Central Institute of- Post-
Graduate Medicine. Eighty- three women rubber" cement workers -were thus ex-
amined, with the following results: liver and bile tract diseases, 19 workers;
-208-
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state of neuroses in 13 workers; vegetative dystonia in 11 workers; -state of
asthenia in 5 workers; goiter (struma) and hyperthyriosis in 10 workers. Dis-
eases of the upper extremities motor apparatus such as neuromyalgia, myofas-
ciculitis, tendovaginitis, anginoneurosis, etc. were seen in 67.8£ of the ex-
amined workers. The results of the above described medical examinations lead
to the conclusion that prolonged effect of dichlore.thane vapor in concentra-
tions approaching the allowable limit or in concentrations slightly exceeding
the allowable limit elicited clear-cut changes in the function and general
condition of the liver, and the nervous system so characteristic of dichlor—
ethane poisoning. According to data found in the literature the presently
adopted limit of allowable dichlorethane concentration can not be regarded as
rationally founded; it was also noted that workers exposed to dichlorethane
concentrations approaching the allowable limits manifested clearly expressed
disturbances of general health. Results of supplemental investigations of the
higher nervous activity in rats exposed to dichlorethane concentrations of
0.05.- 0.01 mg/li 4 hours daily over 6 months confirmed the above observation.
Thus, it was established that dichlorethane in 0.05 mg/li concentration elicited
clear-cut changes in the conditioned reflex.activity several days after exposurd
without showing any clinical symptoms of intoxication. Changes in the condi-
tioned reflex activity of all animals appeared in the form of extended latent
period, weakening of the response reaction to bell ringing .and to light, reflex
falling out, differentiation disruption, and in the appearance of compensating
and"pa"ra~doxical phases. Animals exposed to 0.01 mg/li dichlprethane concentra-
tion also showed signs of disturbed conditioned reflex activity which appeared
3 months after exposure in a weaker form than in animals exposed to 0.05 mg/li
dichlorethane vapor. ... ....'".. ''
The disturbances in the conditioned reflex activity of the rats above
described reflect a lowered functional capacity of the nervous cells as a re-
sult of animal exposure to the effect of dichlorethane vapor which caused a
_weakening_in the process of active internal inhibition. Normalization of the
conditioned reflex activity of rats exposed to 0.05 mg/li of dichlorethane
vapor appeared 3 months after exposure to the vapor was discontinued} in rats
exposed to 0.01 mg/li of dichlorethane vapor normalization of conditioned re-
flex activity appeared 7-10 days after exposure discontinuation.
An attempt was made to establish possible connection between the functional
disturbances in the higher nervous activity of rats and the morphologic changes
- -209-
-------
in the brain cortex. In this connection a study was made of the interneural
association (bonds) which represent (constitute) the structural basis of the
most delicate processes of cortical activity. According to records found in
the literature disturbances in the interneural bonds are the earliest and most
sensitive indexes of the organism's reaction to external influences. (S. A.
Sukhanov, A. B. Zuradashvili, M. S. Tolgskaya, and others). In summary it
can be stated that exposure of rats to the inhalation of air containing 0.05
and 0.01 mg/li of dichlorethane caused disturbances in the interneural connec-
tions in the brain cortex which appeared in the form of changes in the proto-
plasmic processes of nerve cells. Such changes were of a reversible character
and disappeared after the conditioned reflex activity returned to normal, as
can be seen in Figs. 2 and 3.
Pig. 2.
Pig. 3.
In 0.01 mg/li concentration dichlorethane elicited ill-defined changes in
the conditioned reflex activity which appeared at the end of 3 months exposure
and which disappeared within 7 to 10 days after exposure, a relatively short
period of time. The disturbances in the interneural connections also disap-
^
peared in this short time; therefore, it is concluded that 0.01 mg/li con-
stituted a near threshold concentration. A comparison of the experimental re—
-210-
-------
suits with the results obtained from the study of morbidity and loss, of time
due to incapacity among workers employed in the production of the pliable
tanks clearly indicated that the presently adopted limit of dichlorethane
concentration in the air of working premises should be substantially lowered.
Conclusions.
lc It is recommended that the limit of allowable concentration of di-
chlorethane in the air of working premises should be lowered to 0.005 mg/li.
In view of the fact that it might be practically impossible to lower the di-
chlorethane concentration in the air of this type of working premises, it is
recommended that dichlorethane as a solvent be replaced by another less toxic
solvent.
2. In the interim, and on a temporary basis, rubber cement coating of the
rubber sheets should be done under a hood.
3. The volume of ventilation air supplied to the tank coating room should
be increased in accordance with the total dichlorethane vaporization. It is
recommended in particular that the rate of inflowing ventilation air be in-
creased and that the floor grates over the exhaust conduits be moved away from
the tanks.
4. The exhaust ventilation system should be reorganized so that dichlor-
ethane vapor would be removed more efficiently from the tank-making rooms and
especially from the points normally representing the workers' position. In
rearranging the exhaust ventilation system consideration should be given to
numerous factors, most important of which is the variable .use_of dichlorethane
in the course of the shift.
5. Those working inside the tanks should mandatorily wear respirators
and in addition fresh air should be constantly supplied.
6. The process of coating tank walls with rubber sheets should be mecha-
nized and the manual application be discontinued.
- - - - • % ~ -.-.-.— —_v
7. Measures should be taken to prevent disturbances of the neuro-tnuscular
apparatus of workers-upper extremities; to this end it is recommended that.
washrooms be installed next to the workrooms, and workers be taught to massage
their hands- and arms.
8. It should be recommended to the VTsSPS that, in view of the dangers
rahich accompany the manufacture of pliable tanks, as above indicated, the work
day in this industry be reduced to 6 hours.
-211- •
-------
Bibliography.
.<». 5Kra£a6HHJ?- Si- KJOIMHHKe orpaB-TCHMfl AHJuioparaiwM, BoeHHo-camrrapHoe ,
1941. N! 9. crp. 52— 54. — 6 p u JK H H . ,. HaTOMopipanoTH-iecKHe HSMeHOJHH BHyrpeH-
HHX opraHOB npH orpaBJCHHif AHXjioparaiioM qepes niuueeapitT&nbHue OVTH OapitiaKOA
ii TOKCHKon.. 1945. T. VIM. Ns 5. — & a B w AOB a T. H.. ICnHHHiecKHe Haftmuie-'
HHa Kan ocrpbiM orpaweHHeM AHXjioparaiioM. C6. nayquux pa6or sa roAbi OTeiecrBCH
soft Bofiiibi JleHHHrpaACKoro mjcTHTyra rarHeHU rpyAa H npotpsaoo.ieBaHHft JI. 1945
crp. 165— 167.— 4opoeeHKo M. n.. Jlo6aHOB A. A. Oas/iOB H H K BO-'
npocy iinra^nuHOHiioro AeflcTBHH AHx^op3TaHa. BoeHHO-MejmmiHCKHA wypnaji 1952
.\5 9, crp. 47— 49. — JI asa pea H. B.. O CH.IG iiapKOTHfecKoro aeficrBHs napoa xnop-'
saMemcHHux npoHSEOAHUX MeraHa. arana H smieHa. JKypna^ 3KcnepHMeHraflbHofl CHO-
.lorHH H MCAHUHHW, 1929, 33. 319. — /I a PHOHOB Jl. «!>.. K aonpocy o MHHH-
MaflbHbix TOKCHqecKKK KOHueirrpauHHx x.iopaaMemeHHbix ymeBOAOpojiOB npH xpOHHie-
CKHX orpaB/ieHHHX. C6. 3KcnepHMei:r;,Mbiibie 'HcaieAOBaHHH no npoMHiu^eHHbiM HABM
.leiiHHrpaACKHfl HHCTHTVT rnrHeHbi rpyAa H npcxp3a6o.neBaHHft. JI.. 1936 B XXV.—
P o 3 e H 6 a y M H. A-. flHWopaiaH KBK npOMbim/ieHHWft HA, THrHeHa H caHHTapxs 1947
N» 2, crp. 17. — Tp»6yx C. JI., IIJaxHOBCKaa C. B.. VviaHOBa H. n.. MaJiH-
noBCKan H. M., KpaHU(pe^bA B. J\., Bonpocu rHPHenu rpyAa npn npHMeweHWH
x,iopMpOBaHHbix yMeBOAOpOAOB, Haymiaa CCCCHH. nocB>imeHHaB 30-JierHio HHCTHTyra
,«rHCHu TpyAa H npO(J>3a6ojieBaHHft AMH CCCP 23—28 HonfipH 1953. Teancu AowiaAOB
crp. 81— 84. — LUreft H6ep r P. fi, Bonpocw nirHCHbi rpyAa B npoHSBOACrse CHHTO-'
a, FHrHewa H ca«HTapHH. 1956, Jfe I. crp. 50—53.
The Toxicity of Aromatic Hydrocarbons.
1 Comparative Toxicity of Some Aromatic Hydrocarbons.
2 Some Problems of the Toxic-Hygienic Properties of Aromatic Hydrocarbons.
(Abstract) ;
. A.' C. Paustov. '
Trudy Voronezh. Med..Inst., 351 247-255, 257-262,^1958.
_'• Tests were made by the method of acute experimental .intoxication of
"la^i7o^toi^l8." The results showed'that lethal doses of."benzene 'in mg/li "
were for mice 45 and for. rats 60; toluol, for mice 35 and for rats 50; ethylated
benzene, ocrrespondingly 50 and 70; for a-oiixture of xylol isomers, 55 and 75;
and for styrole, 45 and 55- Threshold doses in mg/li affecting the central
nervous system were: for benzene - 1.5| for toluol - 1.0; for ethylated ben-
zene -0.751 for-xylol iscmers , 0.75; .and for .styrole - 0.62; for diisopropyl-
benzene the dose was 0.62. Concentrations which caused the experimental anx-
" n^lTto"7aar-onlheir .sides-'were'for--mice: "benzene--, 15.?-tolupl-^ lOi-'ethylated
benzene - 15; xylol isomers -"2oT styrole - 10; ' DI^ for mice were: benzene -
30; toluol - 25; ethylated benzene - 35-5; xylol isomers -. 39; styrole - 34-5-
Toluol possessed the highest toxic'properties and styrole and diisopropylben-
zene the lowest, 'it was believed that the active toxicity of benzene in the
order of the hcmologues decreased from the higher to the lower homolo^es and
-212-
-------
that average toxicity at low concentration levels accorded more with the prin-
ciple of Richardson than at the levels- of lethal and narcotic concentrations.
Results of intragastric administration showed that absolute lethal doses were
in g/kg: for .benzene - 10; for toluol - 8; for ethylated benzene - 6; for
xylol isomers - 9 5 f°r styrole - 8 and for diisopropylbenzene - 10. Results
of tests with fresh "water fish of different species exposed for 24 hours showed
the following absolutely lethal concentrations in mg/li: benzene - 45 > toluol -
55 J ethylated benzene - 60 5 xylol isoiners - 55» and styrole - 45 • IB "the
latter case it appeared as if the hydrocarbon toxicity decreased with the in-
crease in the molecular weight and with lesser degree of solubility in water.
Results of organoleptic studies of water polluted with hydrocarbons indicated
that the' odor and taste intensity ran parallel to the molecular weight- and
that the practical threshold of water taste perception was below the odor
perception threshold. The practical threshold of taste and odor perception
of hydrocarbons in water were not very far apart; in mg/li concentrations
they were as follows: for benzene - 2.1 and 7.1; for toluol - 1.1 and 2.9;
for.ethylated benzene - 0.1 and 0.2; for xylol isomers - 0.6 and 0.8; for
styrole - 0.08 and 0.19; and for diisopropylbenzene - 0.25 and 0.25. It is
suggested that the present limits of allowable hydrocarbon concentrations in
the air of working premises \vere set at too high levels and that they should.
be revised and brought down to lower levels.
-213-
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The Effect of Colloids on the Accuracy of Photocolorimetric Determinations.
K. V. Plerov and B. V. Ozimov.
(Leningrad Institute of the Refrigeration and Dairy Industry).
Zhumal Prikladnoi Khimii, Vol. 25, No. 6, 634-639, 1952.
In this paper are presented results of a study made for the purpose of
determining the effect of small quantities of colloids on the accuracy of
photocolorimetric determinations. The authors were primarily concerned with
solutions which visually appeared as true solutions, that is, they appeared
as optically blank media but actually contained small quantities of colloids
which imparted to the medium a degree of optical activity. Our investigations
showed that the presence of small quantities of colloids produced considerable
optical distortion which was responsible for erroneous photocolorimetric de-
terminations. Investigators in the field of visual colorimetry proposed many
correction formulas for use in colorimetric determinations of colored colloid-
dispersed systems. Among such are formulas proposed by Nikitin, Slesarev,
Uspenskii and Shemyakin £l]> Inkier, Kobr [2], and others. However, none of
these authors' studied the effect of colloids on the accuracy of colorimetric
determination.'
Experimental part. The following non-ferrous salts were used which cover
the entire color spectrum, from the red to the violet: CoSCh.TH-O - red;
KgCrgO- - orange? KgCrO. - yellow? NiSO^.THgO - green? Cu(NO,)2.3H20 - blue?
and KCr(SO.)2.12H2Q - violet. The observing, investigator was first examined
for sensitivity to different colors? the photocolorimeter used in the in-
vestigation was similarly checked. The test for eye sensitivity to colors
was conducted as .follows: two identical test tubes were used; water was
poured into one of them and the different salts under investigation in 0.02
mol. was placed in the other. The colored salt solution was gradually diluted
to the point where the difference between the color of the water-containing
tube and the one containing the salt was no more perceptible. The comparison
between the 2 tubes was made visually with the aid of an Ozimov optical com-
pensator £3]. The same procedure was used in checking the colorimeter. The
Ozimov testing photocolorimeter £4] was used throughout the entire study.
Curves in Pig. 1 are plots of eye and photocolorimeter sensitivity to the
different spectral'colors. The points plotted were averages of several de-
-214-
-------
A
0.000032
0.00016
0.0006
aoo*
0.008
Q.OH
0.010
0.020
/ I 3 * 5 8 B
Fig. I. Limit of eye «nd
photocoloriraeter sensitivity
in relation to solution
concentration.
A - Molkr concentration of
oolution; B - Solutian color.
I - Vialet - KCr(SOj,)2-l2H20»
2 - Blue . Cu(N03)2.3H20;
3 - Green - NiSC^.TH^O} U -
Yello* - K2CrQ.l»} 5 - Or»nge -
KgCr^yj 6 - Red - CoSOl^./H^O.
I - Limit of - photometer sen-
sitivity; II -Li»it of eye
sensitivity .
furic acid solution; solutions of Cu(NO,)2.3H20,
terminations. The results show a close agreement
at all points "between the eye sensitivity and the
sensitivity of the selenium photoelement. . Some
discrepancies can be explained -"by the fact that
the colors of mineral salts did not possess the
characteristics of pure spectral colors. Highest
sensitivity was found in the interval of the yellow
and orange colors, "both for the eye and for the
selenium photoelement.
The above control study was followed by a
study of pure mineral salt solutions and of the
same solutions to which colloids were added. The
colloid-dispersion phase was attained with the aid
of BaClp. This was accomplished as follows: to
10 ml of the solution 1 or 2 drops of a solution
~of BaClp was added. Solutions of KCr(SO.).12H20,
HiSCL.TH-O and CoSO.^HgO were made in a
and
sul-
were made
in a
. solution. The BaCl2 solution was prepared so that 1 drop in the
presence of the SO. ion contained 6.77 Y BaSO. and 2 drops contained 13.54 Y
of BaSO . . Assuming that the solubility of BaSO. in 100 ml of water is equal
—4.
to. 2.4 x 10 g then the solubility of BaSO. in 10 ml of the solution was equal
to 2.4 Y« Accordingly, in 10 ml of the solution BaSO. in colloidal dispersion
resulting from the addition of 1 drop of the BaClp solution should contain
6.77 Y ~ 2.4 Y Q 4.37 Y> and from 2 drops it should have 13.54 Y - 2.4 Y =
11.4 Y« Denser dispersion concentrations of BaSO. were not considered suit-
able, since upon the addition of a third drop of the BaClg solution opalescence
appeared visible even to the naked eye, which made it unsuitable for photo-
colorimetric study. The purpose of this study was to establish the effect of ..
colloidal systems not visible-to the naked eye. To attain this light absorp- -
tion determinations were made for true solutions of the colored mineral salts.
with and without the addition- of BaSO.. Solution concentrations ranging be-
tween 0.004 and 0.04 mol. were used in this investigation.
l) In the red light region and with a solution of CoS0..7H20 (Pig. 2).
A pure CoS0..7BLO concentration within the range of 0.004 to 0.04 mol. yielded
-215-
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atm am no& aox aow
B
Pig. 2, Light absorption in
the region of red (CoSO^.T^O)
and green (NiS04.7H20) lights.
A - Galvanometer readings; B -
Molar per liter concentrations.
1 - Pure solution of CoSCfy.?!^;
same with added BaSO^.; 2 -
11.14 Y5 3 - 4.37 YJ 4 - Pure
NiSO/.T^O solution and with
added BaSCty; 5 - 4.37 Y5 6 -
11.14 Y-
a gradually increasing absorption of light
clearly depicted by the curve. A slight
addition of BaSO. sharply distorted the
curve. Maximum error upon the addition
of 4.37 Y of BaSO. amounted to +75$, the
addition of 11.14 Y of BaSO. raised the
error to 100$. Lowest error in the first
case was -10? and in the second case -2.5$>
as can be seen from Table 1. As the con-
centration of the color salt was increased
that is, as the density of uhe color in-
creased, the error decreased.
2) In the region of the green color
with a solution of NiSO.^HO (Fig. 2).
A solution of pure Ni.S0..7H_0 in the above
mentioned concentrations produced a less
pronounced rise in light absorption and,
therefore, the curve plotted had a considerably lower inclination slope.
Errors caused by the addition of BaSO. were of greater magnitude in the green
light region than in the red light region. Highest error occurred upon the
addition of 4.37 Y of BaSO, and was equal to +110$.
T A B LSI.
Precision of determinationliri.'relation to concentration
of CoS0..7H20 solution. " /
Test
No.
Molar concentration
CoS04.7H20
CoSO-.THgO +
4.37 Y BaS04
Computed :• tfound
:
Percent
of error
Molar
concentration
CoS04.7H20 +
11.14 Y BaSO.
Pound
Percent
of error
1-
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0.004
0.008
0.012
0.016
0.020
0.024
0.028
0.032 .
0.036
0.040
0.007
0.010
0.0165
0.017
0.023
0.025
0.030
•- "0.030
0.033
0.036
+75.0.
+25.0
+37.5
+5.5
+15.0
+4.1
+7.1
61
.3
-8.4
-10.0
- 0.008
-_• 0.013.
0.019
0,022
0.025
0.027
Oi032
- 0.035-
0.038
0.039
+100.0
~~:" ">62.5"
+58.1
+37.5
+25.0
+12.5
+14.2
+9.3
+5.5
-2.5
-216-
-------
TABLE 2.
Precision of determination in relation to concentration
of NiSO.THO solution.
Test
No.
Molar concentration
NiS04.7H20
Computed
NiS0..7H20 +
4.37 Y BaS04
Pound
Percent
of error
Molar
concentration
NiS04.7H20 +
11.14 Y BaS04
Found
Percent
of error
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0.004
o;oo8
0.012
0.016
0.020
0.024
0.028
0.032
0.036
0.040
0.0084
0.0128
0.0138
0.0204
0.0432
0.028
0.0284
0.036
0.039
0.042
+110.0
+60.0
+15.0
+27.5
+16.1
+16.5
+1.42
+12.5
+8.3
+5.0
0.014
0.020
0.022
0.024
0.032
0.034
0.036
0.040
0.042
0.042
+250.0
+150.0
+83.3
+50.0
+60.0
+41.6
+28.0
+25.0
+16.6
+16.6
50
30
aost now
P_ig. 3. Light absorption in.
the region of the blue light
3) In the region of the blue light, with
a solution of Cu(NO,)2.3H20 (Pig. 3). The curve
of light absorption in the case of Cu(KO,)2.3H20
occupied an intermediate position between the
2 previous curves. Highest error was recorded
B upon the addition of 4.37 Y BaS04 which was
equal to 50$, and upon the addition of 11.14 Y
' A - Galvanometer readings;.,
B - Molar per liter concen-
tion.
1 - Pure Cu(1103)2.3H20'solu-
tion and with added BaSO/;
2 - 4.37 Y5 3 - 11.14 Y.
of BaS04 it was equal to +125$• Correspond- "
ingly,.the lowest errors were +5$ and +16.6$
"(Table 3). -
4) In the region of the yellow light with
solution KjSr04 (Pig. 4). The outstanding
characteristic of the K-CrO. curve of light
absorption was its low slope which may have been due to the fact that yellow
.light possesses, a 'high, degree of permeability;-; %j| _and..selenium phptoelement
color sensitivity were highest in this spectral, region, which affected the
nature of the errors} unlike in the instances of the red and green lights,
errors in the yellow spectral region increased with concentration increases,
within the limits of 0.02 and' 0.028 mol. Highest error upon the addition of
4.37 Y of BaSO\ was +100$ at 0.02 mol. and at concentration 0.004 mol. the
-217-
-------
TABLE 3.
Precision of determination in relation to concentration
of Cu(NO,)2.3H20 solution.
>
Molar
Test
No. Cu(N03)2.3H
Computed
1 0.004
. 2 0.008
3 0.012
4 0.016
5 0.020
6 0.024
7 0.028
8 0.032
, 9 0.036
10 0.040
A
100
90
90
ro
60
50
w
30
w
to
o
3"'f
iy •*&•
/y ^^
ixj&*^'
'f...
.-*--^;"^
- /%-,2f^"* *"
^**p*<^
.. ._ . . . ,
concentration
:Cu(NOj .3^,0
0:
2 | 4. 7 Y a A
s Pound
0.006
• 0.012
0.015
0.019
0.024
0.026
0.031
0.035
0.038
0.042
A
V
gf5
9
^1
'2r""*"'ijr_^
7
. . B
• Molar
concentration
+ Percent Cu(NO-j)-.3HpO + Percent
of error ^^ y ^ of error
Pound
+50.0 0.009 +125.0
+50.0 0.014 +75.0
+25.0 0.018 +50.0
+18.7 0.024 +50.0
+20.0 0.026 +30.0
+8.3 0.030 +25.0
+10.7 0.034 +21.4
+9.3 0.041 +28.1
+5.5 0.042 +16.6
+5.0
error was +50$. The picture was much the
same when 11.14 Y °? BaSO. was added, in
which case the corresponding errors were
+75$ and +200$ (Table 4).
5) In the region of the orange color
with solution K-Cr-O (Pig. 4). This solu-
tion is characterized by a considerably
higher degree of light absorption, as is
evidenced by the greater slope of its
curve. The errors produced by the addi-
tion of colloids are of considerably lower
Pig. 4. Light absorption in the
region of the yellow (K2Cr04.) and
orange (K^C^O^) colors* ______
A - Galvanometer readings; B -
Molar per liter concentration.
1 - Pure KCr(S04).12H20 solution
and with BaSOA added; 2 - 4.37 Y>
3 - 11.14 YJ 4- Pure K^C^O^ so-
lution and with added 83804; 5 -
" 4.38 Y? 6 - 11-. 14 Y5 7-- P^e
K2Cr04 solution and with added
BaS04; 8 - 4.37 YJ 9 - 11.14 Y»
magnitude. Highest error upon the addi-
tion of 4.37 Y of"~BaSO. was"equal "to +24$
and with the addition of 11.14 Y of BaSO,
- ••---•-- =-...--•..--.. -_-......, . .,_,... _____;__ 4
"i't was equal to +37«5^. Lowest "errors
correspondingly were +8.3$ and +16.6$
(Table 5).
6) In the region of the violet color
with solution of KCr(SO/,)2.12H20 (Pig. 4).
The solution of this color-producing metal-
-218-
-------
TABLE 4.
Precision of determination in relation to concentration
of KCrO. solution.
Test
No.
Molar cc
W°t
Computed
ncentration
K^ +
4.37 Y BaS04
Found
Percent
of error
Molar
concentration
K2Cr04 +
11.14 Y BaSO.
Pound
Percent
of error
:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0.004
0.008
0.012
0.016
0.020
0.024
0.028
0.032
0.036
0.040
More
it
ti
it
ti
0.006
0.014
0.014
0.032
0.040
than 0.
it
ii
it
it
040
II
II
II
II
+50
+15
+16
+100
+100
.0
.0
.6
.0
.0
More
ii
it
ii
ti
n
it
0.007
0.028
0.036
than 0.
n
n
n
ii
n
n
040
n
n
n
n
n
n
+75.
+250.
+200.
0
0
0
lie salt has a considerable degree of light absorption. The concentrations
used in this experiment produced only 3 points as the basis for the light ab-
sorption curve. In this case the magnitude of errors was even lower than in
the case of the orange light as was shown by the fact that upon the addition
of 4.37 Y BaSQ. i* amounted to +20$ and +6.6$ (Table 5).
Photocolorimetric, determinations of optically active color solutions
should be made in the spectral regions in which highest light absorption
.occurs (red, orange, green, violet). The above .assertion is made in-the . .. .
TABLE 5.
Precision of determination in relation to concentration
of KCr^O.^ and KCr(SO.)2.12H20 solutions."
t
i Molar ceneen tret ion
i i
Toeti »K;
No.
1
2
3
•»
5
6
* K2Cr2°7~ *'*'
t t
I Computed t
0.001*
0.008
0.012
0.016
0.020
0.0?l(
i i Molar con- t s i i CoUr con- «
i i contration « » Molar concentration t i contration t
(Par- i
jjCrgOy and t cent »K.
iper- » «KI
?Cr^>7 and scant * KCr(SOu)5.i
.37 geRBB* i.of ill. 1*3 gaosc
BoSOu
Found
0.005
0.009
0.0125
0.018
0.022
0.026
terrori
i i
425.0
4-12.5
• fi.l
kf!2.5
+10.0
• 48.3
BaSO^
Found
0.055
0.010
O.OIU
0.020
0.021*
0.028
>ai of > I2H20 t1*
»%rror» *
, , CoQButsd i
f37^ 0.001*
+25.0 0.008
4-16.6 0.012
+25.0
420.0
J-16,6
12 H20 and>cent r
.37 gaeaoat of 'tl-J
BaSO^ i error*
Found i s
0.00»*8 . 420.0
0.0088 flO.O
0.0128 46.6
KCr(SOl))2« tper-
12 HzO and ,c.nt
1.1(3 garai
B«SOtj
Found
0.0056
o.ooye
0.01 1*0
18 ' of
'error
i
4»*0. 0
t?o.o
416.6
-219-
-------
form of a recommendation even though visual determinations could not be made
to support it. To make determinations in accordance with the above recommenda-
tion it is necessary that the work be conducted with reagents which possess
the atabve-mentioned colors. Under no circumstances shall recommendations be
made to make colorimetric determinations in the region of the yellow color,
due to the fact that errors of the highest degree occur in this region. It
was pointed out above that with increase in the color intensity of the solu-
tion^ that is, with the increase in the color reagent concentration, the error
decreased, consequently, in the case of optically active systems it becomes
necessary to work under a set of optimum conditions favorable to photocolori-
metric determinations. This is equally true when light filters are used. The
quality of colloid dispersion systems is affected by many factors such as ag-
gregation, temperature, hydrolysis, etc.; therefore, deviations from the ab-
sorption curve of pure colored mineral salt solutions follow the course of a
broken curve, indicating a degree of inconstancy.
Conclusions.
1. A study was made of the effect of colloid dispersion systems on the
photocolorimetric determination of colored mineral salt solutions covering the
>
entire light spectrum. The results showed that lowest errors occurred when
the solutions employed possessed a higher degree of light absorption, that is,
they were in the regions of the red, blue, and violet colors; conversely,
greatest errors occurred in the region of low light absorption such as the
region of yellow .light. ;; - -
2. In the presence of low concentrations of interfering colloids the
determination error is correspondingly lower as the concentration of the colloid
metallic salt increased.
3. In making colofimetric determinations of solutions herein dealt with
it is necessary first to establish optimal conditions in every individual case;
in other words-,—it is necessary to carefully choose the concentration in a
way that the error might tend to approach zero.
Bibliography. - ~~
,o, ^IJ/'KycnfH£,K^flt yq' 3an- Mry MM- JIoHOHOcoM. ixxi,. M. (1948).—
?lrn;Ko,i),ViB-/?- coxwy^'y. '
-------
Chromatographic Partitioning and Analysis of Methane Chloro Derivatives.
D. A. Vyakhirev and L. D. Reshetnikova.
Zhurnal Prikladnoi Khimii, Vol. 31, No. 5, 802-805, 1958.
The method of fractional redistillation (rectification) was most widely
used in the analysis of derivative mixtures containing CIUC1, CIUClp, CHC1,,
and CC1.. The methods are time-consuming and lack precision. Recently infra-
red methods and mass-spectroscopy £l, 3] have been proposed for the analysis
of mixtures of the above mentioned' derivatives. However, the methods are
highly complex and have not gained extensive practical recognition. Results
of studies herein reported indicated that the chromatrographic method pro-
posed by Zhukhovitskii and his collaborators C4j in 1951 possessed the prop-
erties of simplicity, rapidity and adequate sensitivity. This method has been
presently used in the determination of the content of simple hydrocarbons,
such as CH., C_H., CpHg, C,Hg, C^Hg, C.BL0, etc., in the air, in natural gases,
in cracking gases and in pyrolysis of crude oil products £4 - 9]« The method
is superior to the well known low temperature rectification method [10] be-
cause it is more accurate and less time-consuming.
Experimental part. The purpose of the experiment was to determine op-
timal partition parameters and to develop an analytical method applicable to
industrial control. Experiments were performed with a Chromatographic set-up
shown in Fig. 1. The system differed from
previously described.Chromatographic systems
£6 - 9] in that concentration and temperature
curves were recorded automatically by an at-
tached millivoltmeter SG-6 connected to the
gas analyzer by means of heat conductor GEUK-21
and CU-NI constantum thermocouple. Use was
"made"of "a double" thermocouple which made" pos-
sible temperature measurements with an accuracy
of ±1?. The thermocouple was disconnected
after optimum partition parameters were deter-
mined. Analysis was conducted as follows:
the solution of the liquid component was taken
up by a micropipe1rte~and deposited on the column
through the upper wide open end; it was dis-
Fig. I. Plan of the sent-automatic
chrooiatographic gas analyzer.
I - Hanostat (••nooeter); 2 - Flow
Deter; 3 - Glass tube containing CCInJ
l» - G»e analyser GEUK-2I; 5 - Auto-
matically recording oi11ivoltaeter;
6 - Gas burette; 7 -.Chrooatographic
co I won; 8 - Movable heating unit;
9 - Thernocouple.
-221-
-------
tributed. through the absorbent "by way of heat application and by passing a
current of nitrogen. The gaseous methyl chloride or the sample of the deriv-
ative gas was measured in a burette and placed into the column accordingly.
flhen the mixture under analysis reached the absorbent, the lower part of the
feeding unit was connected with the thermocouple. This was followed by
switching in the previously adjusted nitrogen flow, the movable mechanism
of the heating unit and of the automatic recorder. This point was regarded
as the beginning of the experiment. The ratio of the rate of the movable
unit (v) to the rate of flow of the nitrogen gas (z) was kept constant during
the experiment. However, it differed with each experiment. Upon leaving the
column the gas was directed into 2 chambers of the gas analyzer via the heat
conductor, while 2 other chambers were filled with nitrogen. The concentra-
tion of the analyzed mixture components were desorbed from the column by the
action of 2 factors, the nitrogen flow acting as the developer, and-the movable
temperature field of the heating unit; the concentration was recorded on a
movable tape by a millivoltmeter automatic recorder connected with the gas
analyzer. Simultaneously the temperature curve was recorded on the same tape
which made possible the measurement of the components' desorption temperature
by means of which the order of the separation from the column and the optimum
partition parameters could be established. The quantitative analysis was
made on the basis of the curve peaks as shown below. Silicagels ASK, ASM,
MSft? and activated charcoals AP-3, AG-2 and KAD were tested as the sorbents;
they were ground.to particle diameters.ranging between d = P«.?5..r °«.5 mm a*"1
. dried at 240° to constant weight. In addition silicagels ASK and MSM were
used upon the recommendation of Professor A. A. Zhukrovitskii after preliminary
treatment with concentrated hydrochloric aoid and washing with a solution of
KQH and distilled water,to obviate any possible catalytic influences. Several
sorbents were prepared the active principle of which is based on the so-called
steam phase partition chromatography £llj. -Use was also-made of kiselgur-
saturated with high molecular substances such as dibutylphthalate, nitroben-
zene," tetralene, sunfl owerseed"~bil and~medi~cated vaseline;•- Substances studied ~
were synthetic mixtures of chloromethane and gases produced during chlorina-
tion of methane. The primary substances used in the preparation of the synthetic
mixtures were carefully purified by fractional distillation.
The selection of optimal conditions in the partitioning of each of the
sorbents used was made by varying the following experimental parameters:
-222-
-------
ratio T) = v/a, the quantity of mixture placed into the column, the maximal
heating unit temperature, the ratios between the mixture components, etc.
Results of investigations showed that partitioning of a mixture of
chloromethanes containing 4 components attained different degrees with the
different sorbents tested. In the case of activated charcoal the CHC1-, and
CC1. decomposed with the elimination of HC1 and C1-, indicating that this
sorbent could not be used in the contemplated tests. Partial decomposition
also occurred on the untreated silicagels MSM, ASM and ASK. This excluded
the use of these 3 sorbents. Silicagels ASK and MSMytreated as previously
described^satisfactorily partitioned the substances tested to a degree (in-
completely). Tests were first made with CH-jCl then with a mixture of CH_C19
and CC1. and finally with CHOI,. Pig. 2 depicts a typical chromatogram of
a mixture of 4 synthetic components which was obtained with the use of purified
silicagel MSM. Practically complete partitioning was obtained by the chro-
matographic method using kiselgur, which is diatomaceous earth, saturated with
e
vaseline, as shown by the chromatogram depicted in Fig. 3. Analogous par-
titioning results were obtained with the same sorbent by the elution method,
which agrees with the data of Pamell and Spencer [12]]. It should be noted
at this point that the latter authors added stearic acid to the vaseline. In
the case of kiselgur saturated with vaseline the order of desorption was dif-
ferent, namely: l) CH,C1, 2) CHgCl-,
3) CHOI, and 4) CC1., counting from
the start of the experiment.
~. ...... . The content of each component in
the mixed sample tested was propor=
tional to the height of the correspond-
ing peaks in the chromatograms [4, 6].
The calibrated curves obtained for
each of"the 4 chloromethanes are not
presented for lack of space; suffi-
cient to "say"that they were all of
the nature of straight lines, which
verifies the statement that the "com-
ponent content was proportional to
- the height-of the peak. The suita-
bility of the proposed analytical
-223- . .
10
10
8
6
Fig* 2, •Chro«»xogre»-
of vapors of an ertf-
ficial *4-co»ponont
•ixtura part-M toned
on ailicagal MSM.
A - Tension in «Vj
6 - Tine in Minutes.
I - CH3CI; 2 - CH2CI2
-plus CCI|,| 3 - CHCI3-
T (anal I Uu) - Ten-
perature curve.
SO 60 ^6 20 0
Fig. 3. Chroa«t»gre» of
vapors of an artificial
^-component alxtur* par-
titioned on vaseline
treated kiselgur.
A - Tension in «Vj 8 -
Tine in minutes.
I - CHjCI; 2 - CHgClgi
3 - CHCI3j >» - CCIi,.
T (snail Uu) - Ten-
pareture curve.
-------
method was checked with the aid of the aforementioned straight-line graphs
constructed on the "basis of chromatograms obtained with different samples of
standard artificial mixtures. Data obtained with such check analyses using
HC1 and KOH treated MSM and kiselgur saturated with vaseline are shown in
Tables 1 and 2; in the Tables q, and q,, represent correspondingly the quan-
tity of a given component used in the analysis and the quantity determined
by the calibrated graph expressed in ml of vapor under normal conditions; g is
. the relative error of.the component determination in percent; a1 is the
volume rate of the nitrogen flow in ml/min; a is the linear rate of the ni-
trogen flow in cm/min; v is .the rate of the heating unit movement in cm/min.
The data in the Tables show that the average arithmetical error of chloro—
methane determination in the first case was in percent: CH^Cl - 1.64, CH?C1_ +
CC1. - 1.84, CHCl. - 1.9; in the second case: CH^Cl - 2.5, ^^ ~ 4*2'
TABLE 1.
. ... 0
Checking the method of analysis in which silicagel MSM
was used as the adsorbent.
Optimal partition parameters: a1 = 200, v = 0.8; T] =« 0.012.
ql
6.00
14.09
10.00
"4.48
6.48
7.38
CH3
! *2
6
14
9
"4
6
7
01
|
.2
.0
.9
.5
.7
.3
Checking
•
+3.30
-0.64
-1.00
+0.44 "
+3.40
-1.08
CH2C12 + CC14
ql
6.
10.
4.
"-4.
3.
3.
T
the method of
•
30
«2 !
6.40
50 10.70
33
90
47
15
A B L
4.50
4.96
3.50
3.20
E 2.
analysis in
kiselgur was used
Optimal partition
- -C
H3C1
t C
parameters:
13 m
.
6
+1.59
.-1.90
+3.90
+1.23
+0.86
+1.59
<1
1
1
- "- 0
1
1
CHC13
! :
.46
.38
-
.76
.54
.40
q2 1
1.50
1.33
-
0;76
1.51
1.38
6
+2.70
-3.60
—
-0
-1.95
-1.13
which vaseline treated
as the adsorbent.
a1 =
. ,
70, v -
CHC1.J
1.3;
T) = 0.
•
058.
CC14
.
*1 1 ^2 \ ^1 : ^2 : ^1 ! ^2 I I ^1 1 42 1
4.45
5.30
6.00
7.05
8.02
4.5
5.2
6.2
7.2
8.5
+1.1
-1.8
+3.3
+2.1
+4.3
3.80
4.18
2.36
3.80
4.60
4.0
4.2
2.5
4.0
4-4
+5.20
+0.47
+5.80
+5.20
-4.30
0.90
1.68
0.90
2.20
2.78
0.85
1.60
0.90
2.10
2.62
-5.5
-1.7
0.0
-5.0
-5-7
0.42
-
0.70
0.42
0.71
0.39
-
0.68
0.40
0.70
-7.1
-
-2.8
-4.7
-1.1
-224-
-------
CHCly- 4.2, CC1. - 4%. The quantities of the samples in the artificial fluid
mixture ranged from 0.005 to 0.2 ml; these are indeed small quantities and the
above indicated errors could be disregarded.
The above described chromatographio method for the differential determina-
tion of chloromethane is presently in use at one of the production plants for
the control of the processes of methane chlorination.
Conclusions.
The basic advantage of the chromatographic method to be used in connec-
tion with chloromethane analysis is the rapidity (20 - 40 minutes); it also
makes possible a differential determination in 0.005 - 0.2 ml of the fluid or
in 5 - 30 ml of the gaseous phase; the procedure is strictly objective, since
all records of analysis are made automatically in the form of chromatograms.
Bibliography.
' ItJ P, F. Drone, M. L. Drusirbcl, Aualyl. Cheai., M, U2o (1952). -
|2| R. I). B e r n s t e i n. C. P. C e 111 c 1 u k a. B. A" r o n d s, Analyt. Chem., 25,
139 (1953). — |3J C. E. K y 11 p H H H o n, P. B. ,1 w a r a u n a u n H, '1J. M. T n x o-
M H p o B, H. 11. T y u u H K H ii, 3J1, 22, 1182 (J9o3). — (4| A. A. /K y z u B u u K u ii.
B. A. C o K o a o B, O. M. 3 o .1 o T a p o B a . A. M. T y p K c a b T a y o, AAH
CCCP, 77, 433 (1951). — [5J A. A. JK y x. o B n u u n ii. A. M. T y p K c .1 b r a y C
HT. B. TeoprHOBcKaH, flAH CCCP, 92, 937 (19:i:j). - [0| H. M. T y p K i- .11. T a y 0.
Ii. n. Ill B a p u M a H, T. B. r c o p r H o u t. it a >i, O. Ii. 3 o .1 o T a p e D a it
A. H. K u p u M o B a, >K
-------
Colorimetric Determination of Benzene Losses.
F. P. Nikonyuk.
(The Kramatorsk Coke-Chemical Plant).
Koks i Khimiya, Ho. 2, 43-44, 1956.
The method herein recommended for the colorimetric determination of ben-
zene losses is based on the comparison of standard colors produced by a solu-
tion of CxHg in acetic acid with the color produced by benzene extracted from
a gas with the aid of acetic acid. In the studies colorimeter KM-1 of the
Leningrad Mechanical Technical Institute was used.
Sample collection. The coke gas was fit-rt freed of naphthalene, ammonia,
hydrogen sulfide, carbon monoxide. It was then run into a flask of a known
volume. Prior to running in the purified coke gas the air in the flask was
exhausted to 350 - 400 mm of mercury. The air pressure within the flask was
then equalized with the surrounding pressure as indicated by a water manometer.
Following this 2 ml of a 50$ acetic acid solution, 3 to 4 drops of hydrogen
peroxide, and 5 ml of a 10$ solution of nitric acid were added to the flask.
The flask was then agitated for 5 minutes, and 2 ml of a 40$ NaOH solution
added and again agitated for 5 minutes. The flask was then allowed to rest
for 10 minutes and distilled water added to make a total volume of 20 ml. It
was then placed into a colorimetric cup for final colorimetric determination.
... Preparation of the standard solution. Add 50_ml of. .acetic .acid to a 100
ml volumetric flask; weigh accurately "and add 0.1 ml of pure benzene; weigh
again and determine the weight of benzene by difference; add acetic acid to
the 100 ml mark. This is the standard benzene solution in acetic acid. It
should be prepared anew for each shift. Add 0.25 ml of HNO, and 3-4 drops
of hydrogen peroxide to 3 ml of the standard benzene solution and agitate. for
5 minutes. Add" 2 ml of 40$ KaOH and again shake for 5 "minutes. Leave stand
'for 10 minutes, add distilled water to make a total of 20 ml and place some
of it into another colorimetric. cup. The color Twill persist without change "
for the duration of a single shift. The concentration and light absorption
readings of the standard benzene solution serve as the basis for the deter-
mination of the tested solution according to formula:
__ , - -- - .... -, QJJ . . _ ---- ___
-226-
-------
in which C~ is the benzene concentration in the gas under study, C, is the
known concentration of "benzene in the standard acetic acid solution, HI is
the thickness of the reading column of the known solution, E- is the thickness
of colorimetric reading of the solution tested, V is the gas volume under
normal temperature and pressure conditions taken for analysis. Results of
tests made "by the recommended method are shown in Table 1. Experimental re-
sults indicated the closeness of readings obtained by the activated charcoal
and the colorimetric methods. Comparative data of actual tests made in
August 1955 are presented in Table 2.
TABLE 1.
Comparison of methods for the determination of benzene loss with return gas.
Pate
Shift
Cartridge
(patron)
benzene
loss in
g/hr/nH
Aspirator benzene loss by
in g/hr/m^
colorimeter
Analysis
1 1
2 I 3 j
4 j
5
12/vin
13/VIII
13/vin
14/VIII
15/vin
15/vin
i5/viii
16/VIII
16/VIII
16/VIII
17/viii
i7/vni
17/viii
18/VIII
i8/vin
III
I
II
III
I
II
III
I
II
III
I
II
III
I
II
2.37
2.42
2.45
1.98
1.98
2.49
2.41
2.21
2.27
- 2.35
2.28
2.15
2.05
2.32
2.16
2.47
2.43
2.40
2.02
1.98
2.35
2.49
2.29
2.16
2.42
2.29
1.98
2.04
2.30
2.15
2.42
2.42
2.31
1.98
2.02
2.33
2.47
2.19
2.23
2.32
2.23
2.06
2.07
2.34
2.15
2.48
2.48
2.41
1.97
2.00
2.36
2.52
2.33
2.19
.2.32,. .
2.30
2.02
2.07
2.39
2.08
2.49
2.44
2.40
2.02
2.02
2.40
2.43
2.28
2.16
. 2.27...
2.22
2.07
2.00
2.40
2.11
-
2.44
-
1.98
2.02
2.40
2.37
2.21
-
2.34
2.25
2.10
2.02
2.31
2.06
Conclusions.
1. The recommended method of analysis can be accomplished within 30 min-
utes and ftheref ore, can serve as a better control procedure under industrial
.production conditions. ^
2. The colorimetric method for the determination of benzene loss yielded
reproducible results.
3. The colorimetric method yielded results comparable with those yielded
by the activated charcoal method. -~
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T A B L E 2.
Benzene content in return gas in g/mm as determined colorimetrically
and "by the cartridge method.
Date
Shift
Determination method
Colorimetric
Single test
averages
Total shift
averages
Activated
charcoal
cartridge
Differences
between
activated
charcoal and
shift
averages
13/VIII
13/VIII
14/VIII
15/VIII
15/VIII
15/VIII
16/VIII
16/VIII
16/VIII
17/VIII
17/VIII
17/VIII
I
II '
III
I
II
III
I
II -
III
I
- II
III
2.37
2.37
1.92
2.06
2.34
2.44
2.28
2.22
2.35
2.18
2.10
2.11
2.44
2.39
1.99
2.01
2.32
2.43
2.25
,2.15. .
2.47
. 2.23
2.11
2.02
2.42
2.25
1.98
1.98
2.24
2.41
2.21
2.27
2.35
2.28
2.05
2.07
+0.02
+0.14
+0.01
+0.03
+0.08
+0.02
+0.04
-0.12
+0.12
-0.05
+0.06
-0.05
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Safe Starting of Blast .Furnaces.
.V. T. Shumilova.
(Prom the Zaporozhye Oblast Public Health-Epidemiologic Station).
Gigiena i Sanitariya, No. 2, 26-29, 1952. .
This paper presents the results of tests made with a system of safe
starting blast furnaces. The particular blast furnace under study had an
inside capacity of 1,300 m and was inclosed by an all-welded jacket which
made the furnace walls almost completely airtight. Conditions of smelting
processes were recorded automatically by special devices. A plan of pre-
cautionary measures was worked out in advance. Just before starting the
blast furnace and the gas purification equipment, provision was made for
round-the-clock vigilance of the plant's medical personnel and their assis-
tants; some were stationed at the workers' platforms in front of the furnace.
At the request of the regional industrial health officer the personnel of the
gas rescue station of the plant were stationed at points of suspected danger
from gas during the furnace starting. Laboratory tests were frequently made
at suspected gas danger points.
The next stage in the precautionary plan for the prevention of occupa-
tional (gas) poisoning was a clo'se study of the results checking the air-
tightness of the gas apparatuses and careful recording of the individual
operations in the daily record after preliminary inspection of the system.
Personal watching by the staff of the regional public health-epidemiologic
station over assembling and preparation of the blast furnace assured early
detection of faulty points in the construction of the furnace and made correc-
tions possible long before the furnace was set into operation. Twenty minutes
before the furnace was set into actual operation the gas rescue squad tested
all points of possible gas hazard and removed persons whose presence was not
required. The gas fitter, the blast furnace chief, and members the gas rescue
squad remained at. the furnace. Fifteen minutes after the furnace was started
the gas rescue" squad, "equipped with ECB-5 apparatuses and torches, began to
light up the gas in the tuyeres.
Previous experience with starting blast furnaces had shown that the blcw-
ing-in operation was the most crucial in the process, since the slag sealing
of the cracks in the brickwork of the furnace proceeded gradually, and during
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the first hours there was gas leakage through the furnace lining. The first
analyses showed that the carbon monoxide in the air waa only slightly in excess
of the may-innim allowable concentration. This was largely explained by the
good quality of the furnace brickwork and also by the all-welded furnace
jacket.
The prestarting period was completed satisfactorily, and no carbon mon-
oxide poisoning occurred. Chief points at which systematic laboratory testing
was done were the following: the location of the measuring-checking apparatus
at the work table and behind the control panel, the Cowper platform, the plat-
form at the cast-iron tap hole, the platforms at the upper and lower slag top
holes, and the skip hoist location. Records were kept of several other points
of possible gas danger and work at such points was permitted only in cases of
extreme emergency,and the workers had to wear appropriate masks. Simultaneously,
observations were made of the effects of wind direction and of the technological
process on the intensity of carbon monoxide pollution. It was important to
determine the correlation between these factors and the carbon monoxide con-
centrations at the operators' positions and in the region of the blast fur-
naces. Carbon monoxide determinations were made with the aid of a conducto-
metric apparatus.
Of the 384 air samples taken at the blast furnace operators' platform
94» or 24.7$«were negative for CO. A carbon monoxide concentration of 0.03 -
0.1~mg/li was found in 184 samples, or 47.9#J 0»1 - 0.5 mg/li in 103 (26.8$),
and more than 0.5 mg/li in only 2 samples. Air containing the highest CO
concentration was -found, in the tuyere (holes) apertures* Thus, 27 of 36 sam-
. pies collected in these locations contained carbon monoxide in excess of the
permissible limit. In 44 of 86 samples taken in the slag tap holes the carbon
• monoxide concentration was high. At the Cowper platform the carbon monoxide
concentration in 63 out of 89 samples was above the permissible limit. It
should be noted that the lowest carbon monoxide concentration was found in
the skip-hoist room, where carbon monoxide "was" found in only 1 sample in a
concentration of 0.1 mg/li. The other samples contained no CO, or its con-
centration did not exceed 0.03 mg/li. One-hundred-and-one air samples were
collected in the room containing the nieasuring-checking apparatus (or pyrom-
etfers). The results varied depending on the point of sample collecting.
As a result of measures taken for the prevention of poisoning, such as
removal of personnel from the gas-polluted zone, opening door, window ventila-
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tors and promptly informing the furnace department of points of suspected
hazard, as required by the office of industrial health supervision, no cases
of occupational poisoning were recorded.
In studying the degree of gas pollution at the operators' platforms, it
was found that the gas pollution was definitely less in the rooms containing
the measuring and control apparatus and in the skip-hoist room when the windows
were wide open. At operators' platforms near the slag tap holes, cast-iron
tap holes, and tuyere apertures, open windows had no effect on the carton mon-
oxide concentration in the air. The pollution of the air at the Cowper plat-
forms and in the casting yard at the slag and cast-iron tap holes and tuyeres
depended largely on the wind direction. Thus, when the wind was blowing from
the dust catchers, the carbon monoxide concentration increased, and when it
"blew from the mine yard, it dropped, as the data in the Table below clearly
indicate.
Place of sample collection
Percent of samples with high CO
concentrations
With wind coming
from mine 'yard
direction
With wind coming
from dust catchers
direction
At the Cowper platform 70.0 . 84.2.
At upper slag tap hole ' 61.4 100.0
At lower slag tap hole . 66.6 . 100.0
At pig iron tap hole 69.5 100.0
At the tuyeres 72.4 85.7
In the skip-hoist room ' 50.0 " 100.0 '
An analysis of the findings indicated that the carbon monoxide concen-
tration increased considerably during the tapping of the slag at all the points
under study, whereas the gas concentration remained constant when the.tap
holes were closed, and also before slag cast iron tapping. The gas pressure
in the blast furnace also affected the CO concentration at the operators'.
platforms. Thus, with a low pressure in the furnace, carbon monoxide was
discovered in- 54.2$ of samples taken in the checking-measuring apparatus
"room, and with high pressure, in 77°1$« With low pressure.carbon monoxide
was discovered in 70$ of the samples at the Cowper-platform and with high
pressure, in 79$» The same picture was observed at all other points at which
samples were_collected,
On the basis of the findings here presented, the industrial-health of-
fice^ of the regional public health-epidemiologic station recommended that
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for the prevention of occupational poisoning and maintenance of sanitary work
conditions at blast furnaces, the results of the study here presented should
he evaluated and the recommended measures for the safe starting of a new "blast
furnace should be heeded.
The results of the study also indicated that:
1. The walls (fences) of the foundry yard must be kept open to permit
maximum ventilation.
2. Ventilation must be provided on an on-the-spot basis to remove gas
from the tuyere apertures and slag tap holes.
3. Cooled air must be supplied to the furnace workers platforms through
appropriate air flow channels.' ' .
4. The construction of the platforms used for the removal cf blast fur-
nace dust should be modified to prevent the dust from being scattered over
the blast'furnace territory. .
5. Windows facing the casting yard and Cowper platforms should be closed
at the time blast furnace dust is being removed from the dust collectors.
6. Forced-draft ventilation should be installed in the space beneath
the bunkers (bins).
Changes in wind direction at different seasons of the year should be
observed and properly accounted for.
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Standards for Maximum Permissible Dust Concentrations in the
Air of Working Premises. 2/
N. I. Smetanin.
(Department of Labor Hygiene, Tashkent Medical Institute).
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 24, No. 12, 63-64, 1959.
A new and important document directed toward future improvement of sani-
tary-hygienic working conditions has contributed to U.S.S.R. public health
legislation in the field of occupational hygiene and sanitation. However,
some paragraphs dealing with regulations relative to dust in working premises
call for broader and more precise definition. Under actual production condi-
tions air in working premises may become contaminated with semi-dispersed aer-
osols. The size of dust particles in the air of working areas varies from
submicroscopical to micro- and macroscopical. When norms are established as
public health requirements, the term "dust" must be clearly defined. This
should be-done as a prerequisite when the permissible concentrations are
established for mixed dusts occurring in the air of textile, cotton cleaning,
jute, and like workshops.
Particulate matter suspended in the air of working premises of the above
mentioned industries does not fall under the conventional definition of the
term "dust". Air at workers1 breathing level contains solid particles, the
chemical composition and degree of dispersion of which are determined by the
following sources of origin: a) soil and loess dust, and b) organic dust from
raw cotton-_fibers, e.g., suspended particles of organic fibrous nature" sus-"
pended in the air of working areas in cotton cleaning plants of 0.5 - 1 cm or
more in diameter.
Studies of upper respiratory mucosa of workers in cotton cleaning plants
and special experiments with animals indicated that fibrous particles of 0.5 -
1 cm penetrated into the upper respiratory passages and bronchi. Large organ-
ic dust particles comprised 50$ of the total suspended dust. Finer dust par-
ticles are"of mineral origin and the admixture of organic substances contained
in them is not in excess of 5^«
—' Maximum Permissible Concentrations of Poisonous Gases, Vapors, and Dust in
the Air of Working Premises, approved by the Chief State Sanitary Inspector
of the U.S.S.R., "16 January 1959V No. 279^59.
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The silicon dioxide content in the dust of cotton cleaning plants differs
with the degree of dispersion of the suspended particles. Thus, if air dust sam-
ples collected "by standard methods contained 4-8$ free silicon dioxide, the
residual plant air dust content must not be aliened to exceed 4 mg/m as the
permissible may!mum. Dust fractions having particles of diameters 100 \i or less
(corresponding to the generally accepted definition of the term "dust") gener-
ally contain 16 - 32$ free silicon dioxide. In such a case, the maximum per-
missible dust content in the air of working premises must not exceed 2 mg/m .
In this connection it should be added that special studies indicated that dust
'fractions measuring 5 P and less in diameter, that is silico-organic fractions,
contained 8.5$ or less of free silicon dioxide. This raises the question, how
to determine maximum permissible air concentrations of dusts having a complex
chemical composition and containing large organic fibrous particles.
Analysis of dusts collected from the air by usual conventional methods
does not accord with the concept of "industrial dust" which ordinarily contains
large dust particles; one must use two methods on a parallel basis: l) the
standard method, and 2) a modified method proposed by this author which takes
into account only particles of 100 p and less in diameter. It seams logical
that future determinations of allowable dust concentrations in the air of shops
be approached from the viewpoint of too dust fractions: one in wiiieh. the.pax-
tides are 100 n in diameter; and a second fraction the particles of which are
less than 100 |i in diameter. Standard sanitary requirements for certain dusts
which contain large amounts of free SiO? and organic material depend upon the
chemical composition. Results obtained by the proposed method of air pollution
evaluation should offer a rational basis for the calculation of effective and
adequate ventilation systems and installations.
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Removal of Microorganisms from Air "by the Filtration Method.
E. Yu. Zuikova.
(The A. N. Sysin Institute of General and Communal Hygiene,
Academy of Medical Sciences of the U.S.S.R.).
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 24, No. 6, 72-73, 1959-
Filtration appears to be the simplest method for air purification from
microorganisms. Many authors described different methods of air filtration
such as gauze, lignin, cinder, cotton, glass wool and other material filters
which retain to different degrees air suspended microorganisms and viruses.
The present author made a comparative study of the filtering capacity of
U.S.S.R. filter type FP-5 and membrane filter No. 3. In the study herein
reported membrane filters used in water filtration were tested for their
suitability to purify air from suspended microorganisms. The filters were
first sterilized by boiling and were then dried; wet filters could not be
used because they proved to be practically impermeable to air. In deter-
mining the' effectiveness of each filter tested, 2 series of investigations
were made, each consisting of 20 individual tests. The first series was
conducted under a laboratory hood which contained natural airborne microflora
(the dust phase of bacterial aerosol). The second series was conducted in an
experimental chamber 250 li capacity into which, was dispersed 0.1 ml of a
culture of Bact. prodigiosum in saline solution. The bacterial suspension
contained 200 million of microorganisms per ml (the drop phase of bacterial
aerosol).- The bacterial aerosol of Bact'.' prodigiosum was in a fine state of
dispersion, since the individual aerosol droplets ranged between 2 and 10 \i
in diameter, ' .
The filtration effectiveness (efficiency) in both series was tested as
follows* air from the laboratory room, or from^the experimental chamber, was
aspirated through 2 filters in successive order: the first, or test filter,
was of type FP-5 or membrane filter No. 3; the second, or control filter, of
membrane No. 3. In this way the air was aspirated either through filter FP-5
and then through control membrane filter No. 3, or it was aspirated through
test filter membrane No. 3 and through the same type of control filter. The
control membrane filter No. 3 from either set-up was placed over the surface
of nutrient agar, incubated, and the number of developed bacteria counted as
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an indicator of the efficiency of the test filter. Simultaneously, determina-
tions were made of the normal "bacterial content in the air of each of the
chambers. Filtration properties of PP-5 and membrane filter No. 3 were tested
in each case on a parallel "basis throughout a working day. The number of
bacteria in the laboratory air examined varied between 600 and 3,500 per
m of air. The average was 1,500 per m of air; sarcina, white and lemon-
yellow staphylococci and gram positive sporo-bacilli predominated. The con-
centration of Bact. prodigiosum in the experimental chamber air ranged be-
tween 29,000 and 30,000 in 250 li.
Two control analyses were performed in connection with each test for the
determination of the total air-suspended bacteria in the laboratory or of the
dispersed Bact. prodigiosum in the experimental chamber; in addition duplicate
tests were made to determine the filter efficiency of PP-5 and of the membrane
filter No. 3. The results of the investigation established that filter type
PP-5 and membrane filter No. 3 retained the predominant part of the naturally-
suspended or artificially dispersed bacteria in the air, that is, in the dust
phase as well as in the bacterial aerosol drop phase. The bacterial retention
by filter type FP-5, in the case of the laboratory room, ranged between 99.81
and 100$, with an average of 99-97?. In the majority of cases it amounted to
99.9 and 100?. The bacterial retention capacity of the membrane filters was
equally high and ranged between 99.89 and 100?, with an average of 99.66?.
In the case of the experimental room, that is, in the case of the artificially
dispersed "bacteria,, the FP-5 "filter type retained 100?" of the bacteria in 19
of 20 tests; it amounted-to 99.995? in the 20th case. Thus", the average was
99«998?. Under similar conditions the membrane filter retained an average of
99.978? of the dispersed Bact. prodigiosum culture. Some differences in the
results obtained with the tests made in the open laboratory and in the ex-
perimental room may have been_due to isolated instances of membrane filter
contamination at the time of placing same over the agar medium; it was noted
that such contamination had been occurring .inadvertently. _.;_In filtering, air ,..,_,.
from the open laboratory if was impossible to differentiate accidental"con-
tamination from bacteria which may have passed through the first filter. This
was not the case with the aerosol drop phase of Bact. prodigiosum. since this
specific organism has never been found among the airborne bacteria of the
tested room.
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The filters studied possessed a high, degree retention of "bacterial aerosol
dust and drop phase contamination. A comparison of the bacterial retention
capacity of type FP-5 and- membrane No. 3 filters indicated that FP-5 filtration
was more convenient, simpler and more of an air volume could be passed through
it, because of its lower pressure drop (resistance to air permeability). Mem-
brane filters possessed a high degree of bacterial retention, but their pressure
drop (resistance to air permeability) was considerably greater. In addition
they were very fragile. On the basis of the above, filter type FP-5 is rec-
ommended for use in ventilation conduits and in air conditioning apparatuses
wherever air free from microorganisms is an essential requirement.
Conclusions.
10 Air filtration is the simplest method for the removal of air micro-
organisms. " .... "
2. The results of the present study showed that filter type FP-5 and
membrane filter No. 3 possessed high retention capacities for bacterial aerosol
dust as well as for bacterial drop phase aerosol. Filter type FP-5 retained
an average of 99.998 and the membrane filter 99.978$ of the Bact. prodigiosum
drop phase aerosol and the bacterial dust aerosol.
3. Filters type FP-5 are more conveniently and more simply utilized in
practice and are recommended as above indicated.
—r -..-„. ..... -_- ........... - Bibliography... ...... _ ........
cKHH C. M. Mea. paAHo.n., I9JV6. Jfe 5, crp. 84— 91. — K op» a H-
MenypKoBCKan H. 'BoeH.-cau. nivio, 1941, Wi 6 — 7. crp. 69 — 71. — M u ji n n-
c K a a FI. O. Tpyjibi UeHTpa-nbiioro AeaxtKpeKUHOHHoro HH-ta. M., 1947, B. 3, i-rp
IP— 23. - Pe3HHK H. B. Bpa-i. aejio, 1951, Kf 6. crp 533-538. — LtJ a $ H p A. M..
KoyaoB FI. A., H a n uj H 11 CK a n H. M. PHP. H can., 1953. Nfc 9, crp. 23--2H —
III a (Ji Hp A. H, riaiiiuHHCKafl H. M., CHHHUKKH A. A . Kn>aon H. A
it ap. TeaHcu AOK.I. nayui. KUHI)>. JlciiHHrpjjcKoro Haymi.-MCc.neaoiiaTc;ibCKoro caiiHTapno-
inrnciiMMecKoro HH-TB no HtoraM pjriot HHCTHTyia 33 1955. JI.. 1956, rrp. 42 -43.—
Albrecht J Arch. Hyg.. 1957. Bd 141. S 210- 'JI6 — Decke r H M..
GeileF. A, HarstadtJ. B a oth. J. Bad.. 1952. v. 63. p. 377— 383.— G o v t z A.
AW. J. Pub. 'Health, 1953. v. 43. p. 150— 15!>.--K'r u sc H GesundheifMngentcur, 1948.
Bd. 69. S. 199— 20l.-McDamel L. E.. LonK R- A. J. Appl Microb.. 1954, v.
2. p. 240— 242.— S e i f e r t H E., C a I I i s o n E. G. Air Condi! . Heat a. Veutilal .
. 1956, v. 53, N. 4, p. 72 --73— Sykes G.-. C-arler D. V. The stenlizalion . ol .air. J_
-- - - - Appl. Bacter., 1954. 17. 2, 286" 294 :.--.-.-*" --• ----
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Problems of Industrial IJygiene and Occupational Pathology in the
Practice of a Modern Physician.
Z. I. Israel*son.
(I. M. Sechenov First Order of Lenin Medical Institute).
Sovetskaya Meditsina, Vol. 23, No. 2, 6-12, 1959.
The prophylaxis in Soviet health conservation and protection constitutes
an important trend in the development of sanitation and hygiene. It is em-
phasized in the Party's program and expresses the aspirations and hopes of
most progressive members of the Russian medical profession. Positive health
prophylactic action was the characteristic aspect of the time. How, when the
efforts of the Soviet people (under the guidance of the Communist Party),
achieved great successes in the field of disease prevention, in death rate
reduction and in the fight for longevity, medical practice should "be placed
on an even more rational basis so that the high quality medical service given
to patients may be the result of a clear understanding of the importance of
pertinent environmental factors related to the etiology of diseases, without
which no serious work on prevention of diseases is possible. The thousands
of Soviet physicians, whose practice is the treatment of sick people, must
make prophylactic treatment an inseparable part of their practice.
The extent and character of environmental effects and working conditions
on a person are profound. They are first sources of health, physical potency
and many-sided harmonious development of man. To insure the proper and bene-
. ficial utilization of such effects is the most important task of prophylactic
medicine.
Millions of Soviet citizens are working in plants and factories equipped
with first-class technical facilities and millions are engaged in the produc-
tion of farm crops. Achievements of Soviet science and industrial technique
combined with untiring care for human welfare made working conditions con-
. siderably easier and healthier and safer, thus, lowering workers' morbidity
.arid accidental and traumatic injuries." This is confirmed by_.statistical re-
ports. The following are data on workers' morbidity in the large Fongauz
oil processing plant." If the number of disease 'cases in 1944 be designated
by the index number of 100, then in 1949 it was reduced to 82, in 1954 to ?1
.and. in 1956-to 58.. The occurrence of diagnosed diseases on the same index
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basis ran as follows: purulent skin diseases reduced from 10.1 in 1944 to
3.1 in 1956; acute gastrointestinal diseases were reduced accordingly from
16.1 to 1.6, and pneumonia from 2.6 to 0.6. Just as convincing are data on
the reduction of industrial traumatism in "Azovstal", one of the largest
metallurgical plants. In 1949 there were 9.8 cases of traumas and 133 work
days lost per 100 workers due to disability; in 1950 there were only 5.6
cases and 75.8 days lost, and in 1957 they were reduced to 3 cases and 47.4
days, according to N. Sementin and T. Terent'eva.
Nevertheless, the December Plenum of the TsK K.P.S.S. made mandatory
"further improvement in actual working and sanitary conditions of production
establishments, the elimination of causes resulting in traumatism and sickness
of workers on a broad national basis". The entire Soviet health protection
system should obligate itself to participate in attaining this national goal.
It is wrong to assume that only a certain part of our system of health pro-
tection, namely the institutions dealing with sanitary-epidemiological prob-
lems, should participate in this work. In every field of medical activity,
in clinics and rural medical districts, in.hospitals and polyclinics, in
dispensaries and medico—sanitary stations of industrial enterprises the ef-
fect of working conditions on a person's health should be well accounted for
as a requisite for the national realization of therapeutic-prophylactic mea-
sures. In some cases these measures may be directed toward the improvement
of working conditions, in some toward the achievement of higher degrees of
the organising s[resistance, to the effects of environmental factors, and in
others, toward forbidding persons highly" susceptible to the effect of certain
work conditions to be employed on jobs where such work conditions prevailed.
The uninterrupted process of scientific and technical development made it
possible to eliminate or considerably reduce the effects of series of envi-
ronmental factors on the workers, or to eliminate almost completely the oc-
currence of some occupational diseases. -There are no more grave cases-of
overheating, or so-called spastic or convulsive diseases; nystagmus cases
have become'infrequent among mine workers, etc. However, much more remains
tp be done for the complete liquidation of occupational afflictions. -
Much has been achieved technically which particularly affected labor
productivity, eased the toil of workers in many occupations and brought into
focus the question of finding means to prevent unfavorable effects of indus-
trial environmental factors. For example, extensive and extremely effective
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adaptation "by the coal industry of new and perfected machines, such as the
coal combines, which inimeasurably eased the miners' work; on the other hand,
it created the problem of possible effects on workers by the intensive dust
formation, vibration, noise, etc. P. I. Tal'yantsev in his dissertation
"Basic Problems of Labor Hygiene in Subterranean Mining Operations" (1958)
clearly indicated that during the operation of some types of coal combines
the dust concentration in the air reached 400 - 500 mg/m , the noise intensity
measured up to 100 - 104 decibels, and the vibration effects were considerable.
The questions with which medical and sanitary authorities are faced are:
what environmental and work factors require particular and immediate atten-
tion of physicians, what forms of occupational diseases should be considered
first? No attempt will be made to present all the possible factors in indus-
trial surroundings which can affect the health of workers where insufficient
attention is now being paid by engineers and physicians tc health protection
problems; only the most essential ones will be mentioned.
Industrial dust. ^The effect on the organism of industrial dusts have
been known to physicians for decades. Despite this and the fact that modern
industry had improved the sanitary and work facilitating phases of production,
cases suffering from intensive effects of dusts of different composition, in
particular, of dust containing free silicon dioxide, are met altogether too
frequently. Accordingly, silicosis, as an important lung disease caused by
dust, constitutes an acute problem in all industrial countries of the world.
In the. U.S.A. .about..six million persons are-workr.ng under dust conditions .
and becoiae pathologically affected by the dust; it is estimated that the
number of persons affected with silicosis was as high as one million (E. V.
Khukhrina). Considerable progress has been achieved ih the control of this
disease in mining industry of the U.S.S.R. However, the control measures
adopted up to the present against deleterious coal dust, including pure sili-
con dioxide dust, are totally inadequate for the rational protection of
workers against the injurious effects of industrial dusts. The increasing
occurrence of pulmonary dust disease is more threatening in the mining field
than in other fields of industry; in Sigland there are about 5>000 new cases
of pneuiooconiosis annually, more than 4,000 of which occur anong coal miners.
The Japanese scientific researcher S. Ishinizi reported that the 1955 - 1956
medical examination of 22,000 coal industry workers disclosed 12.1% -cases-of —
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pneumoconiosis. P. I. Tal*yantsev in his dissertation presented the results
of a polyclinic examination of miners who worked not less than 8 years in
mines under conditions of high air dustiness. Preliminary X-ray examinations
showed that about 25$ of them had to be classed as pneumoconiosis cases or
suspicious cases.
The high degree of unfavorable effect of asbestos dust has been clearly
established, as was the possibility of pneumoconiosis development under the
effect of dusts of other silicates such as, talcum, olivine, mica, fiber-
glass (M. A. Kovnatskii). It lias also been established that dust of shales
(S. M. Zal'tsman) and of many metals, in particular of aluminum (M. Ostrov-
skaya), of manganese ore, and dust (or rather smoke) generated by electro-
welding operations and containing highly dispersed ferric oxide, may also
lead to the development of pulmonary fibrosis. In examining 300 electro-
welders in Leningrad, A. A. Egunov noted a group of 143 men whose X-ray pic-
tures showed conditions resembling pneumoconiosis. Results of work conducted
by the Labor -Hygiene Department of the I. M. Sechenov First Order of Lenin
Medical Institute pointed to the possibility of a fibrogenous effect of dust
of such metals and their compounds as barium, tungsten, tantalum, etc; symp-
toms were also detected of pneumosclerosis of different gravity and of dif-
ferent stages of development in persons exposed to dust of vanadium, cadmium,
cobalt, etc. aerosols. Recent theories on malignant formations of occupation-
al origin emphasize the role of aerosols, particularly in regard to devel-
opment of lung cancer and cancer of the upper respiratory tract. This applies
particularly to the action of resinous substances as components of smoke
particles, the action of dust containing radioactive substances, and the ef-
fect of dusts of chromium compounds and of asbestos. An increasing number
of publications have appeared lately in the foreign literature on the role
of asbestos dust in lung cancer (D. C. Braun, T..D. Truan, E. Holstein, and
others). — . - - . . .. _ „„ . ..
All this points to the great importance of industrial dust as an envi-
ronmental factor capable-of affect ing-unfavorably -the health of workers.-- ' —
Toxic substances. Hundreds of thousands of inorganic and organic com-
pounds are manufactured and used in modern industrial plants and laboratories.
Their number |increases steadily. With developing technique the production
methods are_ improving, and the possibility of workers* health being affected
by toxic substances is on the decline in the Soviet factories. Nevertheless,
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in the process of future development of the chemical industry, called for
"by the May Plenum of the TsK, K.P.S.S., a realization of additional pro-
gressive occupational safety measures is under consideration. Indeed, many
processes and operations in the chemical industry are accompanied "by the
possibility of toxic vapors and-gases escaping into the atmospheric air in
the production of non-ferrous metallurgical products, in machine construc-
tion, in the atomic and vacuum industries, etc.; the escape of toxic sub-
stances and their deleterious effects are now under effective control. In-
troduction into industry of new types of raw materials, of new processing
methods, new equipment, which have not been hygienically evaluated present
new dangers from the possible effects of the new substances on the organism.
Among these substances are many old industrial toxic metals, such as, lead,
mercury, manganese; they should be watched intensely, because they are still
causing cases of chronic poisonings. It is very important to guard working
conditions in plants using the new highly valuable metals, such as beryllium,
cadmium, .vanadium, lithium, etc. It is of equal importance to guard working
conditions and the health of workers dealing with such organic solvents as
benzene, chloro—organic. compounds, etc. It is necessary to take into con-
sideration the possible effect on the organism of a number of monomers used
in the newly arisen industry of heavy organic synthesis and in the production
of plastics. Not of least importance is the possible intoxication during
contact with highly toxic poisonous chemicals, such as organic mercury com-
pounds, phosphorus, chlorine, used in agriculture^
Thus, it is the duty of every modern physician to possess basic knowl-
edge of the toxicology of industrial poisons and to assist sanitary control
agencies by recognizing initial manifestations (early symptoms) of intoxica-
tion.
In the attainment of uninterrupted work records of industrial employees
prevention of chronic intoxications and of latent symptoms produced by toxic
substances should play a primary role. The seriousness of the problem of
pnoumosclerosis development assumes graver aspects in workers with records --*
of many years of work under effects of so-called irritating gasaa^ as a con-
sequence of periodic exposure to lightjyet acute-intoxications, or as a con-
sequence of a prolonged exposure to low concentrations of such gases. Soviet
occupational"pathologist 3. I. Martsinkovskii,"and others, brought the im-
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portance of this problem in. the fight for workers* health into sharp focus.
Many modern products of chemical industry such as the monomers and sometimes
the polymers possess allergy-producing properties. Allergic conditions in
workers of the chemical industry might "be caused by high-molecular complete
antigens and, under certain circumstances, by semi-antigens having a simple
molecular structure and forming links with the proteins of the organism, as
is the case with phenol-cresol compounds, paraphenylene-diamine, etc.
Industrial vibration. Modern industry is increasingly employing machines,
equipment, devices and tools, the operation of which causes vibrations, that
is, oscillations transferred directly from the equipment and tools to the
bodies of workers, or the vibrations of the floor, foundation, etc. Vibra-
tion can be local, i.e., transferred directly to the hands or arms of the
workman, or general, oscillating the surfaces on which the worker is standing.
Some processes generate both general and local vibrations, as in work on
vibro-platforms of concrete plants. Soviet scientists, notably B. Ts. An-
dreeva-Galanina, L. N. Gratsianskaya, Z. M. Butkovskaya and others, studied .
the character and degree of pathologic effects of occupational vibrations.
Among the factors of importance were the frequency and amplitude of the cre-
ated periodic oscillations and characteristics of the pneumatic instruments
used.
The effect of vibration may produce a complex syndrome,now known as vibra-
tion disease. This disease is reminiscent of Reynaud's disease. It has
much in common with traumatic neuritis of infectious origin (spasm of periph-
eral vessels, loss of sensitivity, pain in the .wrists, numbness, etc.)., In
more clearly expressed cases there are also arterial bypotonia, bradycardia;
changes in electrocardiogram may appear in more clearly expressed cases.
Work with pneumatic instruments may cause changes in the osteo-muscular motor
apparatus. The timely recognition of early disturbances is of utmost im-
portance in order to effectively adapt therapeutic prophylactic methods and
to bring to the attention of authorities the importance of improving the
-production processes. .The high number of people exposed to the effects of
vibration places the problem of vibration1 disease "prevention in the fore-' '~-
front. 1. .... -..__._
High-frequency currents. Among the most important achievements of modern
science and technique are the widely used high-frequency currents in a wide
range of wave lengths. High-frequency currents are used in heating metals,
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soldering, drying, etc. The electric and magnetic fields generated when
high-frequency currents are used, affect the functional conditions of the
organism; the degree of effects depends upon the specific properties of the •
generators in use, and of the generated electromagnetic fields. Considerable
information has been accumulated as the result of studies related to workers'
health and to the physiological condition of the organism, relative to the
clear-cut manifestations of the effects of the short waves and of the less
obvious effects of the longer waves.
The Ukrainian Institute of Labor Hygiene studied 128 employees who worked
mainly on metal hardening with high-frequency currents; no symptoms were re-
vealed in 30 persons; others manifested different functional disturbances of
the nervous and cardiovascular systems (V. G. Piskunova, V. S. Androvskaya,
and others). Studies of the Institute of Labor Hygiene and Occupational Dis-
eases A.M.S., U.S.S.R. indicated that workers stationed within the action
zone of centimeters-long waves showed more clearly expressed asthenic condi-
tions with definite vascular-vegetative endocrine- changes (M. N. Sadchikova,
A. A. Orlova). According to results of foreign authors, workers of this cat-
egory might develop crystalline lens cloudiness or hemopoietic changes. These
disturbances were basically reversible. In view of the above the early di-
agnosis and timely application of therapeutic-prophylactic measures became
of particular importance.
t
Ionizing radiation. During the last decade the use of atomic energy for
peaceful purposes in the U.S.S.R. reached vast dimensions. The world's first
atomic electric power station" was built in the U.S.S.R^ Radioactive "s'ub-
stances are extensively used in different fields of national economy (metal-
lurgical, chemical, machine building, etc.). Isotopes-are being utilized
in geological explorations, in agriculture, in biological investigations, in
medicine, etc. Accordingly, persons engaged in a variety of occupations are
subject to considerable exposure .to a-,.0-, Y~rays attd neutron ionizing radia-
tion. The chances for the penetration into the organism of radioactive-dusts,
vapors and gas'es are potent in many occupations, thereby creating specific
conditions for active radiation effects. ' _
It is known that radiation of low intensity had no serious effects on
the living organisms, but in large doses it can cause specific diseases of
different degrees of gravity. Practically no acute cases of radiation dis-
ease had been observed among industrial workers} nevertheless, there is al-
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nays the possibility of chronic disease development as a result of exposure
to low radiation over a long period of time. The onset of such a disease is
not easily recognized; it is characterized "by a variety of complaints con-
nected with functional disturbances of the central nervous system and inter-
nal organs, such as weakness, fatiguability, headaches, loss of appetite,
high irritability, etc. This is followed by the appearance of other symptoms
which will not be described here. However, it should be strongly emphasized
that persons who by virtue of their occupations might be exposed to the ef-
fects of ionizing radiation should be kept under constant observation of com-
petent and experienced professional personnel. An early detection of shifts
in physiological indexes might be decisive in instituting measures for the
protection of the workers' health. Nobody questions the necessity to formu-
late and to enforce sanitary "Rules for Transportation, Storage and Pollow-Up
Work with Radioactive Substances", published in 1957 (G- M. Parkhomenko).
Work under conditions of assembly line production. Improvement of work
tools.and production methods is one of the requisites of technical progress
in socialist industry. It affects the character of the industrial process
and of the operations performed by the workers. At present assembly line
production is used extensively; if well organized it presents considerable
economic advantages. In this connection it should be recalled that special-
ized reports by Soviet physiologists, by the Party press ("Communist", 1958,
No. 10) emphasized the fact that "under present production procedures each
worker is engaged in one definite occupation within the..scope..of which he .
performs one-specific operation throughout the entire work day, month, year,
or many years; accordingly he exercises only one group of muscles the co-
ordination of which is controlled by specific nerve centers. This explains
why productivity follows a variable course throughout the working day: with
increased fatigue the productivity curve decreases". Many industrial ad-
ministrators look at this as a normal phenomenon and do not utilize the"per-
tinent means suggested by experienced practice in Soviet enterprises, namely
"decrease of conveyer speed at certain hours, 5-niinute breaks for physical
exercise, alternate work with rest periods" (D. Kaidalov). Statements of
this character emphasize the importance of medical supervision over work
processes organized along modern trends and the need for incessant watch-
fulness over the health of workers performing limited- specialized work func-"
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tions. Here, as in instances previously mentioned, early -diagnosis and timely
treatment of disease symptoms are of vital importance.
The significance of many new environmental factors in the etiology of
specific occupational diseases has been studied extensively. However, the
modern physician must not fail to consider that the specific characteristics
of conditions and organizational factors of occupational activities can and
do effect the development of general morbid conditions of different etiological
character. The possible effects of industrial occupational factors on the
development of the present-day widely spread diseases of the c^rdio-vascular
system should be taken into account seriously. In his recent report Professor
L. K. Khotsyanov specifically stated: "There is no doubt that widely differ-
ing industrial factors participated in eliciting and stimulating the develop-
ment of individual nosologic forms, and in particular in arterial, venous and
lymphatic vascular diseases. They may enhance the development of hypertonic
diseases"'.
Thus, modern (industrial) physicians are faced with the problem of cor-
rect understanding and interpreting the significance of individual factors
of the industrial environment and production organization in relation to the
etiology of occupational diseases and of the need to adopt necessary prophy-
lactic measures. Physicians of institutions for medical treatment, especial-
ly those' attached to industrial production plants, must make certain that:
1. The detection of early manifestations (symptoms) of occupational dis-
eases was based on the latest developments in diagnostic" medicine.
2. Therapeutic and prophylactic measures should be instituted at the
earliest possible stages of occupational diseases.'
3, Qualified medical supervision over the state of health of persons
working under industrial production conditions should be in effect at all
times, especially., where such conditions may be potential factors in the future
development of occupational diseases.
4. Bnployees™suffering from such..general conditions-,; as^chrpni-c disease -•
of the cardio-vascular, nervous, blood systems, and the like, should be as-
signed to jobs recommended for such persons by industrial physicians.
5. Total morbidity of a production plant or industry and its prevailing
diagnostic phases should be studied (analyzed) in relation to specific produc-
tion characteristics of the plant or industry.
, -246-
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Bibliography.
A a Apeeea-P a xaa H H a E. U, tfHOpamw n ee aHaieHHc a romeae rpyju. Jl.,
1956. — KafiaaflOB A- KoMMyHHcr. 1958. M 10, crp. 8. —KoeuaaKiU M. A.
CwuucaToabi. Jl, 1957. — MaJiHHCKaa H. H. PHI-, rpy.na H npo$. aafiancBOHiui. 1957,'
W& 1, crp. 14.—M a pu HHK os CK H fi 5. M. KJiHBHKa. narorenes H repanmj npo$ec-
cHOHORbaiu orpatwiemifi yayuja»omnwn rsaatui. M.—Jl., 1940. — JlapioiieuKo P. M.
PKT. . saCaneeaHH*. 1958, M I.
crp. 16. — CeMewTKH H., TepeHTbCBa T. Oxp. rpyaa H con. crpax., 1958.
1& 2, crp. 28. — Ta/ibHHuee PI. H. OcnoBHue sonpocu ntnieHU rpyaa B. nojuexubix
paCorax B tuaxrax FloflMocKOBH. yroabH. CacceAna. AsropeipepaT nncc. M., 1958. —
XOUSHOB Jl. K. PHP. H can., 1958. M 9. crp. 22. — XyxpHHa E. B. Pur. rpyaa H
npooHr a ya M. H. PHr. rpyaa a npoip.
saOojKBaaHa, 1957. M 5, crp. 25. — Braun D. C, Truan T. £>., Arch, of Industrial
Health., v. 17. 1958. N. 6.— Ho I stein E.. Grandriss der Arbeitsmedizin. Leipzig,
1958. — 1 s h i n i s h i S.. M i y a z a k i T., Zbl. f. Arbeitsmedizin. 1958. Bd. 8, S. 87.
Population Mortality in the U.S.S.R. and in Capitalist Countries.
A. M. Merkov.
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 24, No. 1, 59-65, 1959.
Total U.S.S.R. population.mortality in 1956 was 7.5 per 1000 compared
with the 1913 pre-revolutionary ratio of 30.2 per 1000, i.e., it decreased 4.3
times. The present total U.S.S.R. mortality appears to "be the lowest in the •
world. However, fall in the total population mortality alone presents only a .
partial picture of health advances in the U.S.S.R. This can be attained only
by a well organized statistical analysis of the aany aspects of total popula-
tion mortality in the U.S.S.R. and comparing the results of similar analyses
made in the capitalist countries. Mortality rates differ at different his-
toric periods. High mortality characterized the period of European feudalism,
resulting in a low population increase despite the high birth rate; the pri-
mary causes bf such high mortality"were:' irice~ssaht wars,""^frequent famines" "-'
and serious epidemics, such as the plague, cholera, smallpox, typhus, etc.
The Soviet demographer B. Ts. Urianis, specialist in European population
growth, estimated the death rates in the XV - XVII centures at 40 - 45 per
1000..of population. . ._-,,.
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The coming into being of industrial development, known as capitalism,
was accompanied "by rapid and pronounced deterioration of sanitary conditions
in populated areas. Tens of thousands of peasants and small craftsman lost
their usual means of livelihood and .flocked to the cities causing congestion;
water, air and soil became polluted with industrial wastes and in the absence
of the concept of labor legislation, working conditions were unbearable. As
a result morbidity was on the increase, epidemics continued, all of which led
to an increase in population mortality. Increasing epidemics endangered not
only the.health of the working class and the peasants, but of the so-called
ruling classes as well. "
"As soon as this was scientifically established," writes P. Engels, "the
humane bourgeois was impelled to initiate noble competition in caring for their
workers' health". —' As a result, a study of sanitary conditions in the popu-
lated areas and industrial enterprises was organized and, since sanitary-po-
lice measures were not sufficient for the control of epidemics, a series of
community sanitary health improvement measures were carried out in the XIX
century, which led to a decrease in morbidity due to epidemics. The decrease
in infectious diseases resulted in decreased population mortality in progres-
sive capitalistic countries. However, this mortality decrease did not take
place in the colonies held by the imperialistic countries, and even in the
large cities the mortality rate among the workers was considerably greater
than among members of the so-called bourgeoisie. .
Although in the XIX..century .the_death .rate in. the. principal. European
countries raas below that of the XV - XVII centuries, it still remained high,
amounting to 20 - 28 per 1000. Only at the end of the XIX and the beginning
of the XX century did the mortality in these countries begin to fall rapidly,
reaching at the beginning of the Second World War a relatively low level.
Mortality data in some of the European countries per.1000 persons of popula-
tion are presented in Table 1.
The considerable decrease in mortality indicated in Table 1 ^as mani-
fested only in the progressive, technically and economically developed capi-
talistic countries. In the backward capitalistic countries and in the colo-
nies high level mortality persisted." Thus, the death rate in the 1930.* 8
•=* F. Engels. Housing Problem, M. Gospolitizdat, 1954, p. 41.
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TABLE 1.
Population mortality in European countries.
•
Year : England
1841
1851
1861
1871
1881
1891
1901
1911
1915
1921
1926
1931
1936
1940
. 1945
1950
- 1850
- i860
- 1870
- 1880
- 1890
- 1900
- 1910
- 1914
- 1920
- 1925
- 1930
- 1935
- 1939
- 1944
- 1949-
- 1954.
1956
22.4
22.3
22.5
21.0
20.6
18.8
16.9
13.9
15.1
12.4
12.7
12.6
12.9
13.3
12.0
11.6-
11.7
*
j France
k
23.4
24.0
.23.7
23.7
22.1
21.5
19.4
18.6
19.2
17.2
16.9
15.7
15.4
17.9
~ 13.8-
12-.7 -
12.4
: Germany :
: (Prussia) :
28.6
28.6
27.4
27.2
25.2
22.3
18.8
16.7
19.4
13.2
11.8
11.2
11.8
12.2
11.2 (FPG)
- 10.5 (FPG)
11.0 (PPG)
Belgium
24.4
22.5
23.4
22.6
20.6
17.7
16.6
15.0
15.4
13.5
13.6
12.9
13.1
15.1 •
•13.5
12.2
12.6
in India, a British colony at that time, was 33 - 39> in Egypt 40 - 45> in
Chile 33 - 40, in Uruguay 20 - 25 and in Argentina 24 - 30 per 1000 of popu-
lation.
The lower mortality in the progressive capitalistic countries is partially
and in a sense only a seeming decrease. It is known that lower "birth rates
reduced mortality rate as compared with actual rates, and that the
birth rate "irTthe" progressive capitalistic countries has been falling since
the beginning of imperialism. Thus, the general mortality dropped in France
during the 1855 - 1939 period by 27.4$» in England during the same period by
47$, in Belgium by 23.7?. However, the drop in birth rate during the same
*
periods was: in France 41.2$, in England 48.1$, in Germany 47-2$, in Belgium
48.5$.- Consequently, the general mortality percentages under the circum-
stances, are actually too low; the^true population mortality level in progres-
sive capitalistic countries must be higher than presented in Table 1.
Mortality at the age of over one year slaows that during the indicated
period the death rate in France dropped not by 27.4$ but by 12.8$; in England
not by 48.1$, but only by 25.2$; in Germany not by 47.2$, but only by 25.7$5
in Belgium not by 48.5$> but by 9.7$ only. This decrease was caused basically
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"by the lower rate of death from infectious diseases, the control of which
was brought about by the personal interest of the bourgeoisie; at the same
time, the death rate caused by heart diseases, malignant neoformations,
cerebral hemorrhages, arteriosclerosis and a number of other non-infectious
diseases did not drop but increased.
Lower mortality among children is another cause of lower general mortal-
ity in capitalistic countries. To a certain degree it depends also on lower
birth rate and the small number of children per family. The lower mortality
among children was also the result of some measures directed specifically
toward preservation of children's life. The considerable drop in birth rate
in imperialistic countries, particularly at the end of the XIX and the begin-
ning of the XX century, raised the threat of loss of population and, as a
consequence, of the threat of diminishing numbers in the imperialistic armies.
(This is an outmoded argument of early socialism. B.S.L.). Aggravated im-
perialistic conflicts and intensive preparation for the First and later the
Second Y/orld War impelled the governments of imperialistic countries to pay
attention to this threat. Unable to stop the reduction in birth rate, stimu-
lated by basic character of the imperialistic era, the governments of such
countries begun to pay particular interest to lowering mortality among chil-
dren, in an attempt to maintain life of born children and thereby assure
their survival to the conscription age. Lloyd George eloquently expressed
these tendencies of the imperialistic bourgeoisie when he said once in Par-
liament :••- "Had we taken better care of "the nation's health, we could have in-
creased our military force by at least one million men".
Thus, the drop in total mortality, which took place as a result of anti-
epidemic measures, as well as the reduction in mortality among children were
not the consequence of humanitarian tendencies of the bourgeoisie, as described
by bourgeois statisticians and social hygienists, but the result of bourgeoi-
sie selfish interest to protect itself against infectious diseases, and main-
tain the necessary imperialistic armies. Sanitary-hygienic measures_ which
reduced general mortality were introduced largely in metropolitan territories
of imperialistic countries; they were not applied to populations of colonial
and semi-colonial countries in wuich mortality persisted at high levels. For
example, in 1941» the death rate in Hong-Kong was 37.4 per 1000; in Egypt in
1945, 27.7> in India, the "same year, 22.1; in Guatemala in 1947, 24.7, etc.
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In all these and many other countries the death rate was 2-3 times higher
than in the "basic imperialistic countries. Only in the U.S.S.R. and in peo-
ple's democracies was the reduction in mortality and increased longevity the
result of true concern of the state over the health of the population as a
whole. Mortality rate of pre-revolutionary tsarist Russia was the highest
.among advanced countries, as indicated "by the fact that in 1913 it was 30.2
per 1000. Development of capitalism on the "basis of feudal exploitation of
peasants contributed to the persistence of high mortality rate in pre-revolu-
tionary Russia. A slight reduction was noted at the "beginning of the XX
century, which was rapidly wiped away "by the first imperialistic war. War,
foreign intervention and the resulting economic collapse, aided "by famine,
greatly increased total mortality; only since 1923, the first year of normal
conditions, in the field of economic development which followed the liquidation
of famine and economic collapse, did the death rate in the U.S.S.R. drop sig-
nificantly "below the pre-war level and continued to drop since that time.
By 1926 mortality in the U.S.S.R. dropped to 20.3 per 1000, while the
population's longevity increased (in comparison with 1896 - 1897) ^7 H years
for men and by 14 years for women. In 1940 the death rate in the U.S.S.R.
dropped to 18.3 per 1000 of population. During the period of 1913 - 1940,
including the war and intervention years, death rate in the U.S.S.R. dropped
"by 40$, as compared with a .drop of 9$ during 1886 to 1913, a period of 2?
years. The U.S.S.R. superiority to capitalistic countries in mortality rate
jreduction can he judged by the fact that^ in relatively few years it has
achieved a death rate drop comparable to the one attained by the U.S.A.,
Japan and Prance in over 100 years, Sweden in 70 - 75 years, and England
in 60 years. The rapid tempo of mortality rate reduction in the U.S.S.R.
has not been equalled by any capitalistic country. This is clearly illus-
«
trated by the data listed in Table 2*
Death rate reduction in 1956, as compared with 1913, amounted to 31.9$
in the U.S.A., 18.2$ in England, 29.9$ in France, and 75.2$ in the U.S.S.R.
Total" mortality data have-an essential shortcoming:-- they- are expressed-in- - -
terms of 1000 persons of the total general population without consideration
of age and ses; numerically the latter differ in different countries, and in
the same country at different periods; leaving such factors out of considera-
tion conceivably can conceal important trends in death rate. Thus, with the
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TABLE 2. drop in the birth rate and an
Mortality drop in the U.S.S.R. and in some ^crease in the number of middle-
' capitalistic countries. aged persons the total mortality
indicator drops irrespective of
r . ; Mortality per 1000 population Q g lft ^ population,8 8an.
Country : ..... : q2_ : ,gi-6 . ^
i -1*-1-* i ^7 number of young children and
of usually highest mortality,
leads to a higher total mortality indicator, regardless of changes in the popu-
lation's sanitary life conditions. The most rational method of interpreting
mortality data should be based on age group analysis supplemented, if need be,
by an analysis of the total undifferentiated data.
Lack of published age group mortality data for the U.S.S.R. during re-
cent years, makes impossible the presentation of the mortality rate picture
as suggested above, and hence, no comparison can be made between the mortality
rate of the U.S.S.R. and capitalist countries. However, the advanced position
held by the U.S.S.R. with regard to mortality rates can be brought into focus
by different methods. One such method is a comparison of population mortality
rates for the age group of over one year without taking into consideration the
effects of birth rate characteristics of the countries studied, as is shown i
in Table 3, per-1000 of over one year of age, (See note at end of paper).
TABLE 3.
Mortality among those over one year old.
Tear:
1910
1925
1940
1950
1955
U.S.A. |
V
10.5
• 10.2
9.1
8.8
England
11.2
11.0
13"; 8
11.3
11.5
: Prance I
15.9
16.0
- "•' 17.8 r
11.9
11.7...
Sweden
12.4
11.0
-11.0
9.9*
9.2
: Germany ;
11.8
9.9 --
"-- Ilv8 -----
9-6 X TW
10.3 J ™
Italy :
15,2
- 14.2.
- -11*5 ' -
8.7 -
8.6
U.S.S.R.
19.9 (1913)
13.2 (1926)
"--'12; 9
7.7
5.7 (1956)
Table 3 indicates that before the First World War pre-revolutionary Rus-
sia had considerably higher mortality rates at the ag • of over one year than
the advanced capitalistic countries. In 1926 and 1940 the situation in this
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regard improved considerably, "but even then the general mortality rates in
the U.S.S.H. for the age group of over one year were higher than in many of
t
the advanced capitalistic countries.. In 1950 and 1956 the situation changed
drastically, and the mortality rates of the U.S.S.R. population for'the age
group of over one year dropped to a level lower, than in the advanced capital-
istic countries. Thus, the drop in the death rate in the U.S.S.R. was the
direct result of a realistic improvement in the sanitary-hygienic conditions
of the population and :not an indirect reflection of the fall in birth rate.
In addition to age group mortality statistics use is frequently made of
the so-called mortality coefficients of stationary population, the formula
for which is the reciprocal of average longevity times one thousand. Such
coefficients are based on longevity data (mortality tables). The average
longevity of population in England in 1954 was 67.6 years for men and 73.1
for women. Accordingly, the table coefficients of population mortality that
year in England were for men 1/67.6 x 1000 =14.8 and for women 1/73.1 x 1000
= 13.7» The values of these indicators are, as a rule, slightly higher than
the ordinary mortality rate indicators (in England the ordinary rate indicator
in 1954 was 11.3); this difference depends upon the characteristics inherent
in the calculation method and can be disregarded. It is no surprise that due
to a variety of computation methods mortality rate indicators should differ.
Therefore, ordinary mortality rate indicators' can not be compared with table
indicators; however, a comparison between mortality rate table indicators of
-different countries constitutesja valid, procedure. The advantage of such _
comparison rests in the fact that, as "in the case of standard mortality rate
indicators, the effect of population age groups is eliminated, enabling and
validating comparison of population mortality rate indicators of countries
whose population consists of different age groups. This also brings into
relief effect of sanitary-hygienic improvement of mortality rate indcators
independent of changes in the age "groupings of the-population. Comparison
of mortality rate table indicators of the population in the U.S.S.R. and in
other countries again brought out the fact that" the considerable and"rapid
drop in death rates in the U.S.S.R.^as compared with other countries-was in-
dependent of changes in the population age grouping, and that'it was the di-
rect result of the general improvement of sanitary life conditions.
Thus, designating 1900 mortality rate, or that of the nearest year, as
100, the 1955 indcators and those of the nearest year will be:
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Men Women
U.S.S.R.
England
Prance
Austria
Belgium
Finland
Germany
U.S.A.
49.2
65.2
71.0
61.1
73.2
71.3
77.6
71.8
47.9
65.5
70.2
59.4
72.7
66.2
76.7
70.1
Population mortality ta~ble indicators in the U.S.S.R. dropped more than
50$, i.e., considerably more than the corresponding indicators of the above
mentioned countries and, as mentioned before, this drop was the result of
changes in the population's age groups. In 1926 values of population mortality
table indicators in the U.S.S.R. even in the light of comparison with pre-
revolutionary values were still higher than in the advanced capitalistic
countries. However, in 1955 these indicators dropped to below that of analo-
-gous indicators in many._other countries. This meant that the longevity of the
U.S.S.R. population increased, as illustrated by the data,shown in Table 4.
TABLE 4 ^e atove indicated drop in
mortality rate was accompanied by
Longevity among U.S.S.R. population. . . - ,
an increase in average longevity
: Total : Including of the U'S-S-R- Population so that
Spopulation; Males tFemales in 1955 ~ 1956 it exceeded more than
1896 - 1897 32 31 33 twice average longevity of pre-revo-
1926-1927' 44- 42 . 47-- lutionary_Russia,_.and. 1-1/2 times
1J55 - 1-93 1_- PJ 22— average life expectancy in the
U.S.S.R. during 1926 - 1927. .
In summarizing, it can be stated that the U.S.S.R., with a birth rate
higher than in all leading capitalist countries, has a lower population mor-
.tality and an increased average survival expectancy. It was shown that the
above progressive., .population changes were the direct result of sanitary-
hygienic and general living conditions and not the indirect reflections, of
age group differences. . .
Note: Computation of population mortality indicators for the age jroup
of over one year has been carried out according to the method suggested by
S. A. Novosel'skii, i.e., according to approximate formula:
1000M - HP
"l " 1000 - H '
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where M is the total mortality.indicator; It, is the mortality indicator for
the age group of over one year; N is the "birth rate indicator; D the indicator
of child mortality. All the indicators, with the exception of child mortality
coefficient,are taken per 1000 persons, and the indicator of child mortality
is calculated per 1000 children born.
Bibliography.
flOCTH»eHHS COBCTCKOfl BJiaCTH 88 40* flCT B UHpax. M.. FocCTaTH3flaT. 1957.—
B u n c I e H. Le mouvtment nature! £e la population dans le monde de 1936 & 1936.
Paris, 1954. — Demography Yearbook (1949—1952).— Statistique Internationale du
mouvement de la population d'apres les registres d'etat civil. Resume retrospective
depu.s des S:at'stiques de I'etat civil jusqu'au 1905. Paris, 1907. — Summary ol inter-
national vital Statistics. 1937—1944. Washington. 1947.
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Industrial Sanitary Supervision.
Editorial.
Meditsinskii Rabotnik, 13 May 1956.
The Soviet State continuously devotes attention to the improvement of
labor conditions, safety measures and the cultural refinement of industrial
establishments. Great sums of money are allotted annually for these purposes.
It is sufficient t.o mention that on labor protection and safety measures
alone, more than 11 billion rubles were spent during the past 5 years. Pro-
gressive improvement in labor conditions, prevention of injuries and reduc-
tion in morbidity were emphatically considered as state problems of urgent
.importance in the decisions of the December Plenum of the Central Committee
of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. It was the duty of leaders of
commercial enterprises and professional organizations to make sure that safe
sanitary-hygienic conditions be mandatorily instituted in all industrial
departments. In this connection the role of hospitals and polyclinics, med-
ical-sanitary organizations, health stations and sanitary-epidemiological
stations was regarded of paramount importance.
Industrial-sanitary physicians were urged to assume the role of direct
.organizers -of extensive sanitation projects. The activities of such physicians
could be made rewarding and satisfying by working closely with appropriate
social organizations, by maintaining daily contact with polyclinics, hospitals,
sanitary-epidemiological stations, shop interns, -councils for' social insurance,
and safety engineers, active members of the trade union, Red Cross and Red
Crescent of the Moon Societies.
It should be noted tb^at wherever physicians fully exercised the authority
granted them, morbidity decreased and labor production increased. It is in
this manner that A. M. Kochenova, a physician at the Sanitary-Epidemiological
Station in the city .of PavTovskii Posad, 'organized her work. "In shops of dif-"
ferent enterprises she worked in cooperation with the shop interns, outlining
the sanitary measures and gradually solving the complex problems of public
welfare. "- • "
A. P. Flerovskii worked for nsarly 20 years in the "Sickle and Hammer"
plant in Moscow. Working in close cooperation with the plant administration
and the public, the hygienist made many contributions to the sanitary improve- -
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ment in the largest plants of the capital city. In the steel wire shop, where
rustproof wires were processed, an alkali hath was substituted for the lead-
* . *
hath at the suggestion of the physician, because the latter had a deleterious
effect on the health of the workers. Air conditioning was installed in over-
heated shops and the shower rooms in the open-hearth and rod-rolling shops
were completely rebuilt under the direct supervision of the physicians.
Persistence and precision in the realization of sanitary improvement
measures should characterise every hygienist. However, there are physicians
who perform their supervision in name only, and who prefer to take no note of
violators of the sanitary regulations. G. B. Maksimova, a physician at the
Sanitary-Epidemiological Station of the Proletarskii Region in Rostov-on-the-
Don, is such a physician. She failed to assume the initiative in instituting
health improving measures in the establishments under her supervision^ she
chose to disregard shortcomings and was tolerant toward persons who either
did not wish to, or could not put into practice plants outlined for the im-
provetnents of every-day labor conditions approved by the entire organization!.
As a result, medical examinations of workers in the leading branches of a
radiator manufacturing plant were rare. No X-ray films were taken over long
periods of time at the "Red Banner" factory. The authority of a sanitary
physician never comes automatically. It must be acquired by skillful organi-
zation of sanitary control and a concern for people's health and welfare.
A physician-hygienist should analyze and appraise all the facts within the
scope of his observation; he should study occupational diseases and contribute
to the furthering of the sanitary improvement of labor" conditions. •-•--.
M. A. Plesetskaya, a physician at the.Sanitary-Epidemiological Station of
the Leningradskii Region in Moscow, studied the effect of high temperature upon
the furnace attendants at the "Izolyator" plant. She reported on the results •
of her observations at a technical conference held at the plant and proposed
changes in the working-conditions for furnace .attendants. The proposed changes
were accepted. It is to be regretted that in a number of ministries of the
" Republic,'-as well"~as in "the regional and city divisions of-_th§-Health. Ministry,
—~n» , ,
the physician-hygienists are still underrated. It is for this reason that
many, and even some" very large enterprises, still have no industrial-sanitary
physicians.
The technical progress in industry and the wide use of radioactive isotopes
in various branches of the peoples' economy, confronted the hygienist with new
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and serious problems. The industrial physicians may find proper solutions
for these problems only with the participation of the scientific-research
establishments. The institutes of hygiene and sanitation, labor hygiene,
and departments of medicine in the higher, educational institutions were urged
to instruct all sanitary physicians in the knowledge of the newer and more
perfect methods of water and air analysis under all possible industrial condi-
tions. The rapid methods which enable a physician to make required analyses
directly in an industrial establishment without the assistance of chemists or
other laboratory personnel should be introduced more broadly. Sanitary phy-
sicians must be allowed to use modern apparatuses adapted to certain condi-
tions to determine the content of chemical substances in the environment.
Progressive refinement and improvement in labor conditions is one of the
most important problems of the State. The successful solution of this problem
calls for a concerted effort on the part of the members of trade unions and
the workers in public health services, but principally on the part of the
workers in the sanitary services, i.e., the industrial physicians.
Soviet Health. Protection Legislation Is Based on Scientific Findings.
D. V. Gorfin.
(The N. A. Semashko Institute of Health Protection Organization
and of History of Medicine).
Sovetskoye ZdravBBkhranenie, Vol. 17, No. 20, 24-30, 1958.
Medical and sanitary legislation of the U.S.S.R. plays an important role
in the protection of workers' health. Such legislation is based on the prin-
ciples of Soviet law, of which it is a constituent part", and for this reason
plays an equally important part in ttie protection and improvement of the popu-
lation's health and of the country as a whole. Soviet medical and sanitary
legislation has its roots in the basic national economic and cultural problems;
therefore, it reflects the medical and sanitary needs of the population; this,
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in turn, determines the content of the "basic legislative acts, which regulate
and control the activities of the Soviet health protecting organizations and
institutions. At the same time Soviet medical and sanitary legislation re-
flects the advanced practical experience gained in serving the population
and the basic achievements of Soviet and foreign medical science. In the
Soviet Union this finds its expression in the form of health and sanitation
standards, systems of rules and regulations related to established practical
therapeutic and prophylactic measures. Soviet medical legislation is based
on the Marxist-Leninist concept of the State, its problems and functions during
the period of building socialism and during the period of transition to the
communist society. Soviet medical legislation differed sharply from similar
legislation in non-socialist countries; the latter in principle aims to pre-
serve the social status quo.
The concept of prevailing prophylaxis and provision of free qualified
medical help to the population are alien to the medical and sanitary legisla-
tion of- foreign non-socialist countries. The 1946 health protection law
adopted by the laborite government of England was widely publicized as the
medical service of complete coverage; however, it did not meet the medical
needs of the working masses.
A new and extensive medical and sanitary legislation was enacted in the
Soviet Union recently which sharply differed from the legislation of most
foreign countries and of pre-revolutionary Russia. The Medical Code and its
constituent, the Code of Medical Police (Vol. XIII of the Code of Laws),
which existed in pre—revolutionary Russia, merely specified some primitve '
sanitary requirements related principally to the rank and file and applicable
mainly to the field of epidemic disease control'. The;standards of sanitary
protection of air, soil, food products, and organization of medical assistance,
contained in this .Code, were very general and devoid of basic principles.
Most of the standards and requirements included in that Code were\far below
the -JLevel. achieved by medical science of the twentieth century. The measures
provided by that Code were mostly in the nature of sanitary-polic© measures.
The question of necessary replacement of the obsolete Medical Code by a
new health-protecting Code was repeatedly placed on the agenda at conventions
of the Pirogov Medical Society, but all decisions and pleas reulsted in no
appropriate action. Even the Commission organized in 1912 under the chairman-
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ship of P. G. Rein for the revision of medical and sanitary legislation,
which in other respects performed significant tasks, was unable to secure
the modification of the old Code. Nor were any "basic changes introduced into
the medical and sanitary legislation in Russia after the February revolution
or during the existence of the provisional government. Health protection
laws "began to appear immediately after the Great October socialist revolu-
tion; they were aimed at the care and improvement of the health of the work-
ing people. The laws were directed at the prevention of spread of diseases,
particularly of infectious diseases, at the creation of sanitary working and
living conditions, at providing maximum easily available and free qualified
medical help, and measures for the improvement of the sanitary conditions in
populated areas including health education. Considerable importance v:as
ascribed to these laws, since they dealt with the basic conditions essential
to the successful building of socialism.
The foundation of Soviet medical and sanitary legislation rests on prin-
ciples laid down by the Communist Party program and by the U.S.S.R. Constitu-
tion. The health laws define the basic aspects of health protection of workers
in a socialistic country: its national scope, qualified free medical service
to the entire population, intimate relationship between health protection and
the economic and cultural development, planned preventive Soviet medicine,
wide participation of all agencies concerned, economic organizations, trade
unions and communal activity in the realization of health protection measures.
.The development.of Soviet medical-sanitary legislation is .closely .associated
with the work of Soviet health protection "institutions and the achievements
of medical science. The imperative need to satisfy some requirements of the
•population for a variety of medical assistance and to institute suitable mea-
sures resulted in the issuance of government proclamations and decrees; such
action appeared particularly appropriate when there was need to define the
rights'and responsibilities" of some organizations empowered with 'authority.
The decrees dealt with the control of such diseases as: tuberculosis, malaria,
smallpox, typhus, typhoid fever, and various other infectious diseases, medi-'
cal help organizations, laws related to sanitary organization of the republic,
state sanitary inspection, sanitary protection of air and water supplies,
sanitary condition of populated areas, etc., and the protection of motherhood
and chiTdhoodY" ""A "series of laws dealt witlr the "improvement of the-quality of
-260-
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.
medical service for rural areas and specified certain standards established
"by scientific research. There is hardly a field of Soviet health protection
of any importance which is not covered by the medical and sanitary code of
laws.
The health protection during one period or another of the country's de-
velopment affected the character of the medical and sanitary legislation.
For example, during the years of civil war, of the intervention and of the
blockade, legislative acts were aimed at helping the front lines, at control-
ling epidemics, at maintaining sanitary conditions in the rear, and at pro-
tecting the health of children. Accordingly, laws of that period were directed
toward satisfying the country's basic needs in the field of health protection.
An analogous situation occurred during the Great Fatherland War. ' The neces-
sity to broaden preventive sanitary supervision during the years when con-
struction of many new industrial enterprises and new settlements was begun,
prompted the issuance of laws governing sanitary inspection and the broad
authority given state sanitary inspectors for the efficient performance of
their responsibilities; these laws also defined the functions of economic
organizations in the process of instituting sanitary requirements. In this
connection the achievements of medical science formed the basis for many
government decrees not only in relation to health protection, but also in
relation to problems of national economy; for example, the results of hygien-
ic research were thoroughly studied prior to issuing laws on provisional
standards and rules controlling the sanitary' cpndition of towns, villages,,
sovkhozesj schools and other institutions for children, public buildings,
etc., as well as in making timely provision to prevent pollution of air, . .
water, soil, etc.
Results of sanitary inspection of populated areas, of studies of popula-
. tion_morbidity and of measures for its prevention or decrease, formed the
basis for the issuance of corresponding laws. Legislative acts issued during
•tb'e"first7'decade.;-^»flth.e_ SovietVr.egime.. fo.r..the_ control and regulation of. stan- ,,
dards of sanitary protection of water reservoirs (chlorination, sanitary pro-
tection zones), sewage disposal, planning of cities and towns, etc., were
based on scientific research of different hygienic institutions. Systematic
investigations of atmospheric air, conducted in recent years in many cities,
established a number of trends with regard to the origin and spread of dif-
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ferent kinds of air pollution "by dust, smoke and harmful gases of industrial
origin, motor-transport exhaust, boiler room emissions, etc. Results of
investigations conducted under various meteorological and topographical con-
ditions helped to clarify the effect of above factors on the population's
health. Results of such investigations lead to the establishment of statutes
related to measures for the control of atmospheric air pollution, to the for-
mulation of hygienic requirements for the degree of industrial smoke and waste
gas purification, prior to their being discharged into the atmospheric air.
Intensive research carried out by hygienic institutes of Moscow, Lenin-
grad, Perm?, Gor'kii and in the Ukraine and in departments of hygiene in medi-
cal institutes played an important role in determining maximum permissible
concentrations in the air for many noxious chemical substances. Results of
such studies were instrumental in the formulation of sanitary requirements
which must be mandatorily provided for in the construction of new industrial
plants. Rules for sanitary conditions in populated areas were based on similar
studies. Many investigations were conducted with the participation of acade-
mies of architecture and municipal bodies. The SNK R.S.F.S.R. decree of April
14» 1932, "Measures for the Improvement of Sanitary Conditions in Cities", was
based on a series of .scientifically developed sanitary requirements, particu-
larly in regard to problems of water supply.
Results of scientific research on water hygiene and the sanitary pro-
tection of water reservoirs were carefully studied prior to issuing the decrees
of TsBC and SNK y.S.S.R. of April 17, 193? on the sanitary protection of water
reservoirs and sources of water supply; following that, legislation was enacted
on "Measures for the Elimination of the Pollution and for the Sanitary Protec-
tion of Sources of Water". These-laws contain hygienic standards and describe
means for the protection of water supply sources against sewage pollution.
The standards above referred to were based on the results of previous numerous
investigations of sanitary conditions'of rivers Volga, Dnieper, Amu Dar'ya,
and others; a number of.watejr reservoirs and canals, such as the Moscow-Volga,
Volga-Don,, jetc.; these investigations were "conducted" primarily tc determine
_the manner and extent of their pollution and the processes and degree of their
self-purification, and to find means for the elimination and prevention of
such pollution. The same can be said regarding the 1947 law related to these
problems. . .. ^ .
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Investigations in industrial toxicology led to legislation related to
maximum permissible concentrations of toxic industrial "by-products in the air
of industrial working premises. In this connection it should be noted, that
the maximum permissible concentrations of noxious substances established in
the U.S.S.R. were many times lower than in the U.S.A., where they amount to
0.03 mg/li for aniline, 0.012 mg/li for hydrogen cyanide and 1.29 mg/li for
acetone. —' In the U.S.S.R. they are correspondingly: 0.005, 0.0003, and
0.2 mg/li, i.e., six, forty and six-and-one-half times lower.
•
Results of scientific investigations in industrial hygiene were taken
into consideration in issuing the decrees which established hygienic standards
in industrial surroundings and work conditions in high-temperature workshops,
and a system of prophylactic measures for drinking fountains, ventilation of
premises, etc. Hygienic investigations also formed the basis of a series of
other legislative acts, for example, national standards (G09T) mandatory
throughout the Soviet Union. Some of these standards are of great scientific
and practical significance, as for example, the GOST 2874-54, approved January
14, 1954, regarding requirements in water'quality and means for its control.
Results of hygienic investigations in the field of community hygiene,
industrial and food sanitation formed the basis for the N 101-54 standard,
or the "Sanitary Standards for Industrial Enterprise Project", approved Novem-
ber 4, 1954 by the National Committee on Construction of the Council of Minis-
ters of the U.S.S.R. N 101-54 makes mandatory the inclusion of required sani-
.tary provisions in the plan of construction, such as sanitary-protection zones,
sanitary clearance between buildings, safe water supply, sewage"disposal, ~~-
sanitary facilities for individual industrial buildings and workshops, in-
cluding ventilation, maintenance, of correct temperature, humidity, heating,.
natural and artificial light; the same applies to private dwellings. N 101-54
contains rules governing the protection of public reservoirs against pollu-
tion with sewage water, the maximum permissible concentrations of toxic sub-
stances in industrial discharges, concentrations of vapors and dust in the
air of working" rooms of industrial production plants and maximum permissible
concentrations of non-toxic dust.
—' N. I. Grashchenko. Achievements of Soviet Medicine and Problems of Its
Further Development.
-263-
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The comprehensive scientific research going on in hygienic institutes
and departments related to water sanitation follows planned programs and
methods directed toward the solution of many practical sanitary problems,
particularly toward the attainment of a nation-wide safe water supply. Ex-
perimental clinical investigations carried out at the Obukh Institute, at
the Gor'kii Institute of Labor Hygiene, at medical and sanitary departments
and at the industrial-sanitary inspection service related to the effect of
tetraethyl lead on the organism, the mechanism of its poisonous action, in-
cluding sanitary-technical and prophylactic measures, were also taken into
consideration in the final adoption of standards and requirements for plants
producing or working with tetraethyl lead. Studies were conducted at. the
Leningrad and Moscow Labor Hygiene, and other institutes, related to the
clinical and prophylactic aspects of mercury vapor intoxication.
The developing science of hygiene made it possible to include into the
"Building Standards and Requirements", which control the construction of
buildings, a series of regulations related to standards_of natural and arti-
ficial light in industrial and public buildings. Achievements of medical
science formed the foundation of many other legislative acts containing a
wide variety of sanitary regulations and requirements on a broad national
scale. Among such are the "Sanitary Regulations for the Sanitary and Hygienic
Maintenance of Industrial Enterprises", issued June 9> 1951 and regulations
for the control of sanitary conditions in public eating places and sovkhoz
arid kolkhoz markets, sanitary regulations for industries producing or proc-
essing 'harmful.substances, etc.,, issued November 20, 1953.
Hygienic standards, developed by scientific institutes of hygiene related
to the construction of residences, hospitals, polyclinics, etc., were in-
cluded in sanitary hygienic codes and approved by the Architectural Committee
at the Council of Ministers of the U.S.S.R. Government decrees dealing with
the mandatory compliance with the National Sanitary Inspection of Building .
and Construction Plans for Populated Areas, production plants, sovkhozes,
drinking fountains, sewage discharges, etc., played an important role in the
application of scientific sanitary acheivements to the development of the
natural economy in the U.S.S.R.
Scientific investigations in the field of epidemiology and clinical as-
pects of infectious diseases contributed immeasurably to the development of
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practical epidemic control measures. This is particularly true of the control
of smallpox, malaria, typhoid fever, typhus, etc. Rules and regulations con-
tained in manuals issued "by the'Ministry of Health of the U.S.S.R. related to
the diagnosis, prophylaxis and treatment of infectious diseases, production of
vaccines, control of bacilli carriers, methods of active immunization, disin-
fection, duration of hospitalization and isolation periods, etc., contributed
considerably to the improvement of the country's sanitary-hygienic condition.
Standards of ambulatory and fixed centers of first aid to the population
and a considerable part of legislative acts were issued by the Ministry
of Health in the form of decrees, orders, instructions which controlled the
purely organizational aspects of national phases of hygiene, sanitation and
medicine. Such decrees and orders were based on the results of analyses of
practical experience and of series of scientific investigations. Thus, the
results of research studies carried out in the Moscow oblast in 1924 by P. I.
Kurkin, Ya. I. Nekrasov, S. I. Mikhailov, P. P. Sletov, I. V. Novokhatnyi,
and others —' proved of great practical help in organizing medical help in
the U.S.S.R. • ••
Investigations of the N. A. Semashko Institute of Health Protection
Organization and History of Medicine served as the basis for letters (cir-
culars) issued by the Ministry of Health of the U.S.S.R. January 28, 1954
dealing with the use of dispensary methods in municipal hospitals and medical-
sanitary departments, and for the letter (circular) of instructions issued
April 12, 1954, dealing with the administration of rural dispensaries, medi-
cal centers of workers* organizations, medical help for workers^ engaged in
building hydraulic power dams, workers -of the oil industry, etc. Many sci-
\
entific studies conducted at the health protection department of the Central
Institute of Post-Graduate Medicine and of many medical institutes, such as
Central Tuberculosis Institute, Institutes of Oncology, Central Pediatric
Institute, Venerological Institute, Neuropsychiatric Institute and other sci-
entific-research institutions provided scientific data for the development of
forms,! methods and.standards useful to the_practice of medicine,.which were
later officially adopted by the Ministry of Health, of the U.S.S.R.
Numerous mandatory legislative acts issued by the Ministry of Health
pertaining,to problems of prophylaxis of enteric infections, ricketsias,
•=/ Methodology of Standards in Developing Medical Help. M. 1930.
-26?-
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malaria, tuberculosis, droplet infection, zoonoses, and to the' use of disin-
fectants, were based on pertinent investigations of many scientific-hygiene
institutes, institutes of epidemiology and microbiology, clinical institutes
and clinics at medical schools. —' An important role in the scientific solu-
tion -of health problems, subject to regulation, was played by scientific sani-
tary-epidemiological and clinical conventions, as well as by scientific ses-
sions of the Academy of Medical Sciences of the U.S.S.R., whose decisions were
taken into consideration by the Ministry of Health of the U.S.S.R.; by the
decision of the 1947 ~ XII Convention of Hygienists, Epidemiologists and In-
fectious Diseases Specialists, on prophylactic inspection; by the decisions
of the Academy of Medical Sciences on problems of rural health protection
during its session in Krasnodar and Novosibirsk on problems of medical ser-
vice to workers of Stalingrad hydroconstruction, etc. The above mentioned
legislative acts aided in improving the sanitary conditions in populated areas,
raised the quality of medical service, lowered the rate of morbidity and im-
proved general health conditions. . - _,
Soviet legislation related to health protection is developing on a basis
parallel with the socialist national economy in the interests of working
people. It is based" on scientific principles developed by Soviet medical
science and accords wi"th the predominantly prophylactic trend of Soviet
health protection, and is up-to-date. The legislation regulates medical
service to the population in accordance with its needs. It is not only of
great importance "for further successful organization of the health protection
of U.S.S.R. population, but is also of great international value as a demon-
stration of health achievements which can be attained under a socialist
government such as exists in the U.S.S.R.
- Note by B.S.L.: In the last.paragraph, which has not been translated,
the author presents many suggestions for future sanitary, hygienic and medi-
cal legislation based on principles and to be directed along channels which
are 'in-essence'no different from the principles and channels, variously dealt
with in.the main body of this paper. •
—'Collection of Most Important Official Materials on Sanitary and Epidemic
Control Problems. Book 3. Medgiz, M. 1954.
-266-
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Putilw Efforts to Control Air Pollution in English and American Cities.
(A Survey of Foreign Literature).
M. S. Gol'dberg.
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Fo..ll, 48-52, 1950.
In recent years the English and American professional and public' press
has been issuing increasing numbers of articles on efforts to control air
pollution by smoke, dust, and noxious gases, thus testifying to the urgency
of the problem, which has evidently begun to threaten the health of bourgeois
residential areas. At the same time the foreign publications clearly reveal
the hopelessness of all attempts to solve the air pollution problem under
prevailing capitalist conditions.
Every year there appear in the press descriptions of the harm" caused by
air pollution, corrosion of metals, etc., and the need to combat such evil.
For many years past the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and
the Royal Institute of Public Health have been spending public funds on ob-
servations of air pollution of English cities, issuing voluminous annual re-
ports and monographs. They propose "possible future measures to alleviate
the situation inflicted on London by "smoke". —' A special report on the same
subject, "Proposals for the Control of Atmospheric 'Pollution in the Future"
was presented in 1948 at a smoke control conference in Wolverhampton. —' In
answer to an inquiry raised in the House of Commons, the Minister of Health
declared that "the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research had no
recent data showing substantial changes in atmospheric pollution by soot-and "
smoke in the country". —' .
In an address delivered at the annual conference of the Natural Society
for Smoke Abatement (Brighton, 1946) the prominent Labor leader H. Morrison
estimated the total quantity of fly-ash and ^unburned- coal emitted into the
atmosphere at 3 million tons, two-thirds of which did not settle owing to the
high dispersion of the particles. Such fly-ash kept the air in England con-
-' Regan, C. JY "The Air of London", -.Journal of the Royal Institute of Public
Health, December, !946.__,^
2 / _ ------...-•---.._. .
—' "Proposals for the Control of Atmospheric Pollution in the Future", Colliery
Guardian, 1?6: 196, 197, February 6, 1948.
=/ "Atmospheric'Pollution", Chemical-Trade Journal, 119: 554, November 8, 1946.
-267-
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stantly polluted, reduced the amount of light, and cut the farm crop yield "by
20 to 30S». Morrison appealed to the participants of the conference "to combat
it for the sake of the national economy" (i.e., to increase the profits of the
monopolists. M.G.). According to Monkhouse (1947), the total volume of sul-
furic acid emitted into the air of English cities was about 10 million tons a
year, nearly 60$ of which was attributed to industry, the remainder to home
furnaces. A satisfactory method of ridding gases of the acid has not been
found.
Press dispatches testify that air pollution in England was on the in-
crease. For example, the emission of soot in the industrial regions of Shef-
field and Rotterham increased six times between 1939 and 1944. The four Don-
Valley electric power stations, which discharged daily about 214 tons of sul-
furous anhydride into .the air constituted a source of' continuous complaints.
In Newcastle the Municipal Sanitary Committee of Newcastle noted that air
pollution in 1947 increased by 30$ as compared with 1946. The 1947 report of
the National Society for Smoke Abatement mentioned a substantiaT~inctease in"'
the number of complaints about fly-ashes.
Addressing the House of Commons on February 12, 1948, the Minister of
Fuel and Power declared that all new electric power stations would be using
the latest methods of preventing air pollution. —' These assurances made in
Parliament resulted in no positive action, as can be judged by press dispatches
on the state of gas purification in the major English power stations. For ex-
amE-l?> _in .December 1948, the Times published an open letter from two members
of Parliament in which they'complained about putting" into' operation in" London
the powerful Bankside oil-burning power station without installing sulfur-
absorbing equipment.. Another important London power station at Fulham was
still operating without ash-catchers, as a result, a representative of the
British Electrical Association had to receive a delegation of Londoners in
1949 who complained about extensive pollution of the air by fly-ash emitted
by this station and the delay in installing air pollution abating equipment. •=/
On May 9> 1949> Reeves directed the attention of Parliament to numerous com-
—'"Air Pollution by Coal Burning Power Stations. Hansard, House of Commons,
February 19, 1948, 447, 1323-1324.
2/
—' Fulham Grit Nuisance. Local deputation received by the Birtish Electrical
Association officials, Electrical Times, February 24, 1949, 115> 2pO.
-268-
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plaints by people living in the vicinity of the Greenwich power station about
fly-ash, eye injuries, and the harmful effect of the emissions on the health
of children attending a nearby school. —' - .
The Sheffield public health committee sent a resolution in April 1949 -"to
the British Electrical Association requesting that-steps be taken to halt
pollution of the air caused by fly-ash and sulfurous anhydride'emitted from
the Neapsend and Blackburn Meadows power stations. Fly-ash air pollution was
quadrupled as compared with 1932, while pollution by sulfurous anhydride was
56^ over that of 1932. At times pollution was so intense that people had to
wear eye protectors. . • •
On February 10, 1932, the House of Commons was promised that steps would
be taken against air pollution in the industrial regions of Stock. Ten years
later the House asked the Minister of Health when the promise would be.kept
and whether he intended to request information about pollution in the region.
Minister Beven replied to the first question by saying that the promise would
be kept when the legislative agenda permitted. He answered the second question
thus: "An investigation is now in progress and such measures will be .taken as
' 2/
are feasible with our current shortage of funds". —' Any comment on these
answers would be superfluous.
In recent years there have been a number of cases of fluorosis among the
people and cattle in the vicinity of aluminum and.other plants which' emitted
fluorides into the air. In 1946 there were poisonings in Lincolnshire, the
location of metallurgical works which operated open iron ore roasting hearths
accompanied" by emission.of silicon fluoride. The fluoride content in the urine
of affected animals amounted to 26 to 29 parts per million. The water of nearby
farms had a fluorine content of 0.5 parts per million, whereas the areas on
which the cattle fed in some places exceeded 2000 parts per million. An analysis
of the urine of 9 men showed 1.3 to 4.2 parts of fluorine per million. "It is
assumed," said the head of the investigation, "that the danger zone is no more
than 3 km wide." —' In-another articles on fluoride poisoning, the authors
pointed out that these catastrophes could be easily avoided lay roasting the ore
1* Atmospheric Pollution Bulletin 17, No. 6, September 1949.
•=/ Smoke Abatement. Hansard, House of Commons, February 5> 1948, 446, 312.
^ Journal of Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, 29: "40, March 1947.' '
.. -269-
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in closed hearths and "by purifying the emissions of fluorine5 however, ac-
cording to the authors "such methods of combatting atmospheric pollution by
fluorine compounds are at present infrequently used in England, due to the
lack of awareness of fluoride pois.oning danger. Actually, the reasons for
this are different. The 83rd annual report of the Chief Inspector for En-
terprises Deleterious to Health stated that these measures "would place a
heavy burden-on industry". In our opinion protection of the inviolability
of profits for the capitalistic masters is the real reason for the bourgeois
type of "supervision" over enterprises dangerous to health. The Chief In-
spector prefers to ignore completely the problems of air pollution by fluorides
emitted by. aluminum plants, despite the fact that these emissions were highly
concentrated and dangerous to the health of the population.
In 1949 severe poisonings occurred in Scotland by toxic aerosols (a mix-
ture of tar and fluoride fumes) emitted into the air by the big aluminum works
near Fort William. —' Cattle died, vegetation was ruined, etc. Despite the
incontrovertible claims of the suffering residents and the decision in their
favor by the immediate court, the court of appeals decided to defer the deci-
sion to close the plant in view of the fact that "more important public in-
terests were involved" and that representatives of the company gave oral prom-
ises that they would "effect with all possible speed the necessary changes
in the plant at Port William". Such court decisions made a mockery of the
famous English laws dealing with smoke "abatement" which so strongly support
the interests of the investors. It is not without reason that the authors
of the latest._textbook on public health for English sanitary inspectors urge
2/
them to act on the basis of" friendly contact with plant owners. —'"
English legislation dealing with control of air pollution is highly cir-
cumscribed. According to the latest law. on public health (1936), measures
to control industrial exhausts "do not apply .to the ore-mining industry if
such laws interfere with the efficiency of operation; nor dp such laws apply
to the extraction of metals from ores, smelting of minerals, roasting, puddling,
and rolling of iron and other metals, reprocessing" of."pig-iron, into wrought iron,
•=/ Industrial Pluorosis. Study of Hazard to Man and Animals near Port William,
Scotland. London, Med..Research Council, Memo No. 22, 1949*
•=/ W. M. Prazer and C. 0. Stallybrass, Edinburgh, 1946.
-270-
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or annealing, tempering, hardening, fdrging, reprocessing and carburization
of iron and other metals, if they prevent or impede any of these-processes. —'
Such interpretation of the law obviously gives industrialists the full right
to avoid taking any steps to.control their industrial discharges. The chap-
ter dealing with atmospheric pollution in the textbook referred to above
reveals the extreme backwardness, the blind alley, in which bourgeois air
. ;.
hygiene now finds itself. With such ramifications attached to the law,the
question of the effect of air pollutants on the human organism, standards of
permissible pollutant concentrations, principles of aerosol diffusion, sani-
tary protection zones between industries and residential areas, etc., or any
of the new developments with which Soviet air hygiene has enriched science
can not be seriously or effectively taken into consideration. The "lofty
level" of this "textbook" is revealed by the authors1 recommendation that
sanitary inspectors determine the intensity of smoke by the method of visual
comparison with the long discarded Ringelmann Charts.
One of the loudly acclaimed "achievements" of English bourgeois hygiene
is the attempt to create so-called "smokeless zones" where only gas, elec-
tricity, coke or other smokeless fuel may be used. The failure of such mea-
sures is emphasized by the "Protest of Bradford Against the Bill for Smoke
Abatement". &
At a session of the Chamber of Commerce, which took, place in Bradford,
one of the oldest textile centers of England, the secretary of the Association
"of Coal Merchants requested" the Chamb'er to 'back their protest against a bill
introduced in the corporation of Bradford which threatened the owners with
great losses. The speaker reported that should the bill be' enacted into law
it would affect the entire central region, meaning that plant owners would
either have to remodel the existing boilers or install new ones adapted to
burning smokeless fuel, which would entail heavy expenses. The Bradford As-
sociation of Owners and the Chamber of Commerce passed a resolution endorsing
.thercoal.merchants1, protest. _- - -_--.--:-:-_:: ~-^-~.- - ,-_ - .- _-—^
The commonest type of heating systems .in England is the overly obsolete
smoke-producing.coal-burning fireplace. A question was raised in the House - -
•=/ W. M. Prazer and C. 0. Stallybrass, Edinburgh, 1946.
2/ ~" -
-' Coal Merchant Shipping, November" 3~, 19.48. ~ - — :
-271-
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of Commons, in December 1948, on the intentions of the Prime Minister with
respect to issuing instructions to the appropriate ministers to carry out a
policy aiming at replacing the obsolete home fireplaces with better heating
equipment within a specific period of time. Mr. Attlee replied that "the
importance of effecting such replacement within a reasonable time was readily
admitted by the ministers concerned, but that this was a problem which could
only be solved over many years, depending, as it did, on many factors, such
as industrial capacity, policy of capital investments, and financial consid-
erations". -/
It should be added at this point that the requirements of the public
health law .of 1936 on abating smoke did not apply to private homes. Conse-
quently, regardless of any ordinances passed in various cities to create
"smokeless zones", the imperial law did not hold home owners responsible if
they did not wish to go to the expense of installing better heating facilities.
Such is the hopelessness of the problem of providing English cities with clean
air. "
The development of regional central heating in England is on a low level.
According to the Times, it was only in October 1946 that the Westminster Mu-
nicipal Council agreed in principle to supply heat from the Battersea power
station to homes in three streets, "the first attempt at localized central
heating in London". The conference on fuel utilization (1946) had good reason
for admitting that "the U.S.S.R. was the first in the world in the broad
.adoption of localized central heating11. On July 29, 1947-," Shinwell, Minister
of Fuel and Power, in answer to a query in the House of Commons on the mea-
sures taken by the government to develop localized central heating in the
country, mentioned a special committee "which has already approved plans which
were "being implemented in Armston,, Salsburg, and Bonny Ridge; 23 other plans
were in process of development in various inhabited areas, none of them at
_the point where operating costs and amount of fuel saved could be reliably
• '-'••-' • ~ " _ 2/
determined11 ." — ' Even this modest activity seemed excessive to the House of
Lords. A special committee, chosen by the House of Lords concluded its report
by stating that the plan adopted in London "should be limited to obtaining
•=/ Hansard, House of Commons, July 29, 1947.-
=1 Hansard, House of Commons, "July 29, 1947.
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heat from the Battersea station and should not serve as a precedent for gen-
eral application". In January 1948, the Illustrated London News-called lo-
calized central heating for some of the homes in Armston, Lancashire "the
first plan for regional central heating to be executed in England". In De-
cember of the same year, Minister of Health Beven told a session of Parliament
that he objected to a proposed bill empowering all local municipalities to
introduce centralized Cheating of homes on the grounds that it was still in the
experimental stage and implementation progress was impeded by inadequate re-
sources, particularly steel, which was needed for more urgent products. —'
An obstacle in the way of developing central district heating in England, as
may be seen from Fitzgerald's report to the 37th annual conference of the
National Association for District Heating, was the fierce struggle between
the various monopolies, -such as the coal companies struggling to hold their
markets against smokeless fuel competition and the two against the electric
heat and power stations.
The situation is no better in the" United States; There is no lack here
for possible legislative enactment since every state has its own legislative
body and various national associations, leagues, conferences on smoke abate-
ment, etc. However, the practical results are the same as in England. Press
reports indicate that atmospheric air pollution in the main industrial centers
of the country such as New York, Chicago, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, Cleveland,
etc. is steadily increasing. The irreconcilable contradictions inherent to
the capitalist system-are responsible for the chaos in building the main in-
dustrial centers and the 'gross violations of e-lementary hygienic requirements
in planning cities. Now that, as a result of indifference to hygienic re-
quirements, pollution has reached the point of threatening imposing homes
and villas, American city planners are vainly searching for ways of "restoring
the health" of cities, leaving untouched the capitalist basis of their society.
As an example mention can be made of the Conference on Prevention of Smoke
and Economy of Fuel. In a paper entitled "The 'Significance of Smoke-Control
-in City Planning", Olson pointed ©ut that "in Minneapolis, as in other cities,
the wealthier classes, and the industries were being forced to leave the cen- —
tral areas of the city due to extreme air pollution." —'
—' Atmospheric Pollution Bulletin, September, 1949*
•=/ Industrial Hygiene Digest, March, 1947.
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Pollution of city air "by exhausts from oil-heating systems "burning sul-
fur-rich crude oil was peculiar to America. The annual conference of the
American Association for Smoke Prevention in 1947 heard a report on the sub-
ject. The speaker stated in effect that theoretically smoke from oil turners
could be completely eliminated, "but that it would be impossible to effect the
necessary measures because of the conflicts among the various monopolies which
were not interested in the problems of public hygiene.
The lack of gas-cleaning equipment in the major oil refineries and other
industrial plants recently led to a sharp increase in air pollution in Los
Angeles, a leading industrial area in the U.S. The concentration of smog at
times was so great as to cause eye, nose and throat irritation. Lowered visi-
bility frequently hindered normal air communications, and at times even dis-
rupted automotive traffic. Topographic and meteorological conditions, un-
favorable for aerosol dissipation and the location of industries and resi-
dences in complete disregard of these factors were responsible for the in-
tense atmospheric pollution in the presence of high mountain ranges; tempera-
ture inversions usually occurred at 300 to 900 m; the prevailing southwesterly
and westerly winds carrying the pollutants from the industrial into the resi-
dential sections began immediately after sunrise and continued throughout the
day. The eyes, nose and throat became irritated during stagnant weather when
the base of the inversion fell to the ground level. The strongest lacrimation
often occurred when the air temperature was high and the relative humidity
.\vas. considerably below 100$, which did not prevent the formation" of smog ac- "
companied by low visibility. The author pointed out that in spite of numerous
investigations of pollution in Los Angeles, nothing was known about the dimen-
sions and composition of the particles in the dispersion phase of this aerosol,
the etiology of lacrimation, the effect of temperature and humidity on the
concentration and chemical composition of the smog. The author ascribed the
harmful effects to different sulfur compounds such as S00, SO^, H_S, aromatic
sulfo acids, the ammonium sulfite aerosol formed by the interaction of ammo-
nia emitted by the cracking plants with SOp and water vapors, the partial oxi-
dation products of the mercaptans, paraffinic and aromatic derivatives of .
sulfanic acid, etc.
During the past lp years the author of the article, Professor Johnstone
of the University of Illinois, a pioneer in the field of purification of in-
7274-
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dustrial gases from sulfur oxides, has worked out many sulfur purification
plans under laboratory conditions. However, capitalist America has not seen
fit to apply the results of his studies. They are not wanted "by the oil
monopolies which are receiving huge dividends without them. —' The struggle
against air pollution in Los Angeles has been going on for several decades.
A special committee set up in 1947 brought in scientists to solve the problem..
The result was a resolution that "implementation of severe compulsory mea-
sures might be difficult because: l) the specific causes of eaog formation
have not been fully elucidated; 2) standard methods of collecting and analyzing
smokes have not been developed; 3) the proposed measures for smoke abatement
have been frequently inefficient; 4) satisfying the demands of the people
without adequate scientific data could result in umsise and ineffectual deci-
sions". The author cautions against "excessive haste that would lead only to
half, measures" and sets great hopes on the results of new scientific research,
broad scientific and engineering consultation, and close contact with the owners
of smoke-producing enterprises (l M.G.). —' On October 1947 *^e New Tork Times
was compelled to admit that ''effective steps to control smoke in the U.S. have
thus far been hindered by the diversity of jurisdications in the country in
relation to air pollution in a country which consisted of 45 states with in-
dependent municipal administrations, and of the opposition of business con-
cerns confronted with the need to spend large sums of money to install gas-
cleaning equipment".
These facts, as reported by the capitalist^press, testify to the futility
of all attempts to solve the problem of clean city air under the conditions
of capitalism in contemporary England and America-.
—' Journal of Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, November, 1948.
2/
-' Atmospheric Pollution Bulletin, July 1949.
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Problems in Planning and Building Cities and Protecting the Air in England.
(U.S.S.R. Appraisal).
K. G. Beryushev.
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 23, No. 7, 72-79* 1958.
A Soviet delegation consisting of V. M. Zhdanov, S. M. Bessonov, and
K, G. Beryushev participated in the International Congress of the Royal So-
ciety of Public Health in Great Britain held in Folkestone in the spring of
1957* The program included a broad range of problems, chiefly city planning,
housing construction, hospital facilities, and air pollution. One of the tasks
of the U.S.S.R. delegation was to become familiar with the planning and con-
struction of new cities, new housing, and measures to provide sanitary pro-
tection for the atmospheric air in England. A second task was to acquaint
those participating in the Congress with measures employed in Soviet cities
for the protection of atmospheric air and with recent achievements in this
field. -•••-•..-,-'
The Soviet delegation also visited a number of scientific institutes,
different organizations, etc. Sir Charles, Deputy Minister of Health, Prof.
Bradley, Head of the Anti-Epidemic Department, Dr. S. Laff, Specialist in
Hygiene, and Dr. L. Crome, Chairman of VOKS were most cooperative in making
arrangements for the visits to these institutions (for which we are deeply
grateful). Several of the reports presented at the sessions of the Congress
'merit special attention. -In a report entitled."City. Planning and Location
of Industry", Peter Stock, Chairman of the Imperial Chemical Industry, ex-
pressed the view that once authorization was granted for the construction of
industrial enterprises, the planning and construction ought to be free from
preliminary and future demands and control, since such action would impede
the development of industries badly needed by the state. Demands upon in-
dustry to incorporate certain sanitary-hygienic measures could be presented
later. Persons who are., responsible for the development of industries should
participate in the committee engaged in drafting general city plans.
Stock's suggestion met with sharp disapproval. Engineers, sanitary phy-
sicians, and other congress members insisted on retaining the system of pre-
liminary examination of plans for the allocation of industrial manufacturing
plants and of presenting demands for "compliance with certain standard-condi-
-276-
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tionsj some members of the Conference voiced the opinion that standard re-
quirements for the allocation of industrial manufacturing plants be enacted
into law. . •
Two reports on housing were of particular interest: C. N. Craig, Chief
Scientist in the Department of Scientific Research, in his paper "The Cost of
Housing" cited economic data which supported the advisability of constructing
multi-story apartment houses instead of detached two-story homfas or cottages.
This report stimulated a lively discussion. Dr. Greffen C. Clayton from Don-
caster, Mr. Watts from Ashford, and others objected to the idea of basing hous-
ing solely on economic considerations. They contended that while economic
considerations were important the convenience of the people must a^so be taken
into account, especially in instances where economics conflicted with hygienic
requirements and with comfort. It is necessary to take cognizance of the re-
sults of a mass questionnaire which indicated that the English preferred de-
tached houses to multi-story apartments. Detached houses can be built at a
cost no higher than the units in multi-story buildings. Participants in the
discussion noted that the building of houses must be based on acceptable con-
ditions and decisions. In large cities, such as London, multi-story houses
of moderate height were allowable, -whereas, in small and average-size cities
two-story detached homes might be built in block formation so as to reduce
construction costs.
A report on "Slum Clearance" was presented by F. G. Brown, Chief Inspec-
tor of the Ministry of Housing and Local Government. He noted that the prob-
lem of enduring adequate housing is still in its early stages. The"word
"slums" first appeared in official documents and English legislation on
March 28, 1956,. in the law dealing with construction subsidies, and again
August 2, 1956, in the law dealing with "slum" clearance. The word "slums"
is currently applied to substandard homes which were to be demolished as
being no longer habitable.
. The law of 1954 dealing with rent and repair of homes indicated that
850>000 homes in England and Wales were recognized as substandard"and were
to be razed at the earliest poscible time. Local municipal authorities de-
termined that 375*000 homes should be razed and replaced during the next 5
years. If 75,000 of the 850,000 homes slated to be razed were demolished
"annually, the slum clearance project would take 11 years. However, this pro-
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posal has not been approved. The annual "bulletin of the Ministry of Housing
stated that in 1955 only 25>229 homes were to have been demolished or closed.
The outlook for 1956 was no "better. Thus, the hopes expressed for a rapid
'slum clearance were not realistic.
The Assistant to the Director of the Southeast Council of the Gas In-
dustry, I. D. C. Woodall, in his paper "Atmospheric Pollution and the Require-
ment of Smokeless Combustion of Fuel" emphasized that safeguarding the purity
of the air in the country was a national problem. The fuel and gas industries
must play a major role in executing the law of 1956 related to the prevention
of air pollution. Approximately half of all the smoke in England was produced
by home furnaces. Conversion to gas would help reduce such pollution. More
than 11 million houses have already been converted to gas heating. To supply
the population with coke, the speaker maintained, would require the recon-
struction and" modernization of coke units for 19 million tons of coal to be
replaced by coke. However, coke production in England was limited and it
could not provide for the total replacement of coal in home" furnaces and fire-
places; on the other hand, the production of gas from coal was more expensive
than the production of coke.
Central heating of homes and the resultant elimination of many smoke
emitting points has not progressed in English cities due to the people's lack
of interest, which is rooted in the tradition of fireplaces for home heating.
Furthermore, conversion of the existing heating units into a central system
is-time-consuming; it.would also present.technological and economic difficul-
ties. These were the considerations advanced by Woodall following the report
presented by the Soviet delegate K. G. Beryushev on the measures widely en-
acted by the Soviet Union to protect the atmospheric air. Thus, efforts to
safeguard the air in English cities must perforce continue to lag behind the
efforts of the U.S.S.R.
Information was received from the Sanitary Administration of the Ministry
of Health on air pollution and methods to control it. The'Deputy Director •
of the Central Scientific Station for Fuel, Mr. MacDougal and his scientific
staff acquainted the U.S.S.R. delegates with their work. It. seemed that
research was carried on without the participation of hygienic institutions
and sanitary physicians. Air pollution research was conducted at some 2500
observation points throughout England. Observations at many of the points
were made irregularly, and aJb some points only during fogs. These points
-2?8-
-------
are partially under the direction of local governments, partially under the
jurisdiction of industrial enterprises, on whose grounds the observation
points were located. Some of them were operated by volunteers. Neverthe-
less, all the data were collected, processed and published annually by the
Central Scientific Station for Fuel (A. Parker, Director).
The Central Station for Fuel is a major research organization with many
laboratories and semi-factory installations located in different buildings
over a wide area in the East End industrial regions of London. The basic
studies were devoted to developing and recommending methods, procedures and
equipment for better and more complete fuel combustion. Work was conducted
on the preliminary purification of coal from iron pyrites. Different methods
and devices were tested to free smoke emission from suspended particles. In
addition, several laboratories outlined and recommended methods of research
in atmospheric pollution, constructed and tested devices for the study of dust
and sulfur dioxide in the air. Dust is still collected, for the most part,
by the old but inadequate standard sedimentation method using a vessel resem-
...„—--..... Q
bling a rain gauge and the calculations were expressed in grams per m .
The aspiration method - drawing air through paper filters - was also in
use. The amount of dust (in mg/m ) was determined visually from a standard
scale by the black intensity of the filter. Use was also made of a reflec—
tometer, a more accurate device, which enabled the determination of the degree
of the filter paper blackness by measuring the intensity of the reflected
light and then referring to a special table of smoke concentration in the air,
•5 _ _ .. _ _ _ - •
expressed in~mg/m . . "J! . - -- -• -^ - - - -
There were no criteria for the hygienic evaluation of the data obtained,
nor were there standards for maximum permissible concentrations of pollutants
in the air. None of the hygienic specialists of the Ministry of Health or of
the workers in the Central Scientific Station were familiar with the hygienic
indexes of atmospheric pollution adopted in the Soviet Union. The U.S.S.R... - -
delegates presented them with pertinent, collections of papers by Soviet spe-
cialists. ' . -
Cazell's thermic precipitator for the determination of dust dispersion
properties was valueless. There was no research on air pollution in relation
to sanitary clearance zones around industrial establishments, to which Soviet
hygienists -.vere paying considerable attention. The English .regarded such in--
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vestigations as highly complicated due to difficulties involved in examining
emissions of individual enterprises and to the complexities involved in cal-
culating seteorolofcical factors. A study of an isolated electric power sta-
tion by setting up stationary points around it had "been initiated, "but as yet
no results have "been announced. There was no classification of industries on
the "basis of hygienic indexes in relation to widths of sanitary clearance
zones. ...
In order to reduce the dust concentration in the atmosphere, the Central
Station was working on and testing different kinds of dust extractors to free
flue gas of ashes emitted "by electric power stations. England was presently
using two-stage combination ash-catchers in the form of extractors and electro-
static filters, which operated at 96 to 98$ efficiency. Smoke purification
in small, boiler—operated plants was not required. Instead, a search is being
made for methods and procedures for better and more complete fuel combustion
by regulating the furnace air supply, overhauling the furnaces, etc. The
U.S.S.R. delegates commented that these measures did not eliminate ash-created
pollution, to which the scientists of the Station replied that installation
of ash-catchers for small boilers was not feasible.
In addition to dust studies, the Central Station and several observation
points make periodic determinations of sulfur dioxide air pollution. In this
connection use was made of a standard absorber containing a solution of hydro-
gen peroxide. A new automatic apparatus for experimental purposes, the "Ger-
man -automatic" -was being-tested at the station for the. continuous, .around-the-. .
clock study of sulfur dioxide.. This device proved more sensitive than the
American "Thomas autometer", which is able to determine concentrations begin-
ning-with one million and up. Preliminary purification of coal from iron
pyrites was recommended as a means for sulfur dioxide air pollution reduction.
The coal contained 1% sulfur after purification.
Experiments were conducted to free srnbke discharges- from sulfur dioxide-.
Ammonium sulfite was_obtained at the Nottingham electric power station by
passing flue gases through an ammonia solution. The Battersea-power statTbh ~"
in London, operating on coal, and the Bankside station, operating on fuel oil,
conducted experiments in freeing flue gases of sulfurous anhydride by means
of Thames water. Preliminary results did not justify a blanket recommendation
of any one method due to low efficiency and high cost.
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Taking into consideration the low efficiency of SO removing devices and
the lack of any prospect of such devices being adapted on a broad scale, the
Central Scientific Station was attempting to find means for the individual
and group protection of inhabitants against the harmful effect of this gas.
It mas proposed that in the event of abnormal amounts of sulfur dioxide in
the air, use should be made of individual "collars" which would liberate
ammonia fumes, and hospital wards should be sprayed with ammonia water. The
Central Station was designing masks for mass use. Persons suffering of car-
diovascular and respiratory diseases will, be supplied with such masks, gauze
and bandages during heavy fogs.
The activities of the health organization in the field of air pollution
protection were quite limited. The law of July 5» 1956, on reducing air pollu-
tion granted municipal governments and health organizations the-right to pro-
hibit filling the regions of a city with smoke. However, for all practical
purposes this authority cannot be used extensively because of the above-noted
shortage of coke. Preliminary hygienic inspection consisted in the city sani-
tary physicians sitting in during the municipal committee's consideration of
applications by industries for locations in the city.
Reference should also be made to the fact that the National Institute of
Medical Research was investigating illnesses related to air pollution. The
physicians were able to establish that the increase in bronchitic diseases
was due to the excessive concentration of sulfur dioxide in the air. It was
%
noted that northeastern Londoji had many cases of lung cancer, attributed to
smoke drifting into this part of the city from the industrial area. Research
was begun on the chronic effect of sulfur and sulfur dioxide on the human
organism. • .. " —
The U.S.S.R. delegates were able to obtain information on planning new
cities and mass house construction during a visit to the new town of Crowley,
a "suburb of Greater London, and during an inspection of -the rebuilt town of
Folkestone. Crowley is located some 40 to 50 km from the center of London,
"it is being built on the grounds of ~a~ small" village and adjacent free unin— -
*-—1»
habited land, partly covered by arbors. The town is being built according
to a plan proposed in 1947> and is intended to draw some industries from Lon-
don and to resettle their employees. . The Deputy Chief Administrator of the
town, Mr. G-oepel made arrangements which permitted the U.S.S.R. delegates to
inspect the town, obtain explanations and illustrative material,
-2fa*l-
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The town occupies an area of about 6000 acres; it is planned to accomodate
50,000 to 60,000 inhabitants. About'40,000 persons have already settled there.
Eighty percent of the present inhabitants work in the local industries, the
others are in business, schools, and service establishments. The local gov-
ernment did most of the construction, the industries only a part of itc A
feature of the planning of Crowley and of the other 12 new towns (Harlow,
Basledon, Steavhenge, etc.) is the system of breaking up the entire settled
area into small sections. Crowley has 9 such sections of 150 to 280. acres
each. Population density ranges from 60 to 110 persons per hectare; inhabi-
tants occupied chiefly two-story and occasionally three-story houses. The
center of each section had an elementary school for children 7 "to 11 years
old.- One secondary school for children 11 to 15 years old was generally
planned for 2 or 3 sections having a service radius of about 1 km. Six-acre
plots were reserved for such schools with an expected capacity of 600 children.
School buildings were one-story for the younger children, and two-story for
the- older ones.
Sections which for the most part had no apartment blocks featured pic-
turesque cul-de-sac approaches to groups of homes. The main roads dividing
the sections looked like park lanes lined with trees and shrubbery. In the
center of each section there was a building for public meetings. There were
few small shops supplying goods for everyday use. Home construction in the
sections was in a free style with open space ensuring adequate ventilation
and privacy. Most of the, buildings were facing the street and had landscaped
green strips 8, 10 or 15 m~wide'extending "from tiie" "Buildings' to the sidewalks.
Each apartment was assigned a small plot in the rear for gardening and other
uses. Each section or two adjacent sections had a park and large lawns suita-
ble for children's games, for school children, and for general relaxation.
The center of the town was encircled by a broad thoroughfare, parking places,
and gas stations. - - . . ,." '
In the non-residential areas industries were located having no objection-
able" anti-sanitary aspects;- they-produced electrical and electronic equipment,
printing, wood processing, food, etc. The minimum distance between the in-
dustrial and residential areas was 200 m and sometimes 600 in. The industrial
areas were separated from the highways by a broad strip of lawn and trees„
-The entire network of subterranean systems9such as central water supply pipes,
-------
sewer pipes, electric cables were preplanned and laid cut ovei the entire
area including sections already built up. The streets were well paved with
asphalt, concrete blocks, and granite chips. Qnpty tracts, set aside for
eventual construction in accordance with the city master plan, were temporarily
grass seeded. A typical ti7O-story house in Crowley has 4 to 6 apartments,
each having a first and second floor and a front and rear entrance. The
first floor has a foyer, living room, dining room (or a living-dining room
combined), kitchen, and a staircase leading from the foyer to the second
floor, which has 2 to 4 bedrooms, bath and toilet having windows to the out-
side, thus providing them with natural light.
The common type of 3—room apartment (living-dining room and 2 bedrooms)
2 2
has an average of 40 ic living space in addition to the 11 m kitchen and
other secondary areas; it is usually occupied by a family of 3 or 4. The
rooms are 2.5 m high which makes an unpleasant impression. All apartments
have cross ventilation. The sections-have small detached one-story houses
for old people to whom authorities may allot '2—room apartments with secondary
(service), areas. Homes are constructed of light brick. The inside walls are
covered with dry plaster. The windows are single glass pane frames. The warm
climate makes it possible to ventilate the houses by opening the windows.
There is no central heating. Only the living room has a fireplace. Before
retiring, the people warm their beds with heaters. Outwardly the Crowley row
houses are generally unattractive, monotonous, long structures with low win-
«
dows.
Plan for the rebuilding of "the small resort town of Folkestone also
.provides for separated sections. However, the houses are of better construc-
tion. Most of the houses have only two apartments; occasionally two-story
apartments are joined together in which case they will contain 5 to 6 apart-
ments. The houses are more appealing on the outside than the houses in
Crowley. The houses are fronted by wide-gardens (8 to 12 m) ornamentally-
landscaped with well-tended flowers or''shrub's'. ~ " ' '
Hew cottages in London were also inspected. After the war, whole areas
on the outskirts of the city were built .up by twcP-story, architecturally at-
tractive cottages. The houses are separated by open spaces the width being
about half the height of the houses. The houses are fronted by large lawns
and have small gardens in the rear. Entrances to the houses are not as con-
venient a_s they should be. One—car garages were attached to some of the
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houses and bad entrances directly from the street. The interior layout was
similar to the ones previously described, differing in that they have better '
trimming and higher ceilings (2.7 to 2.8 in). Some houses had central heating;
but the traditional fireplace was found in every living room.
In summary it must be emphasized that the measures to protect atmospheric
air in English cities are rather limited and local in scope. The research
of Soviet hygienists and the practical preventive inspection by Soviet phy-
sicians is more advanced and far more practical in the effort to control at-
mospheric pollution.
As fox the planning and construction of cities and housing, Soviet plan-
ners might well profit by studying the methods used in the new cities of En-
gland. Worth considering are: l) the system of sectional planning of resi-
dential areas with detached building of small, well-located homes; 2) setting
the building line of homes a considerable distance away from the sidewalks
and roads; 3) the large number of arbor and general landscaping in the sec-
tions, open breaks between houses, wide streets, and recreational areas; 4)
lower population density in the city blocks and sections; 5) construction of
all underground municipal systems before building was started, the roads well
paved; 6) strict adherence to the city master plan and no use of land except
as planned; 7) the basic idea of home construction is to provide a separate
apartment for each family; 8) each apartment to have cross ventilation and
insulation; 9) introduction of more advanced techniques to ensure proper
soundproof ing. .and. adequate heating. --« — - -
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Urgent Problems in Industrial Hygiene of Women Workers.
(A Report).
(Conference of the Scientific Council of the Institute of Obstetrics and
Gynecology of the U.S.S.R. Academy of Medical Sciences, in Cooperation with
the Committee on Problems and with Provincial Scientific Institutes).
Vestnik Akademii Meditsinskikh Nauk, U.S.S.R., Vol. 15, Ho. 7, 53-56, I960.
The Seven-Year Plan for the extension of U.S.S.R. national economy em-
phasizes the basic importance of a nation-wide prophylactic plan for the
prevention of disease. In this connection the effect which harmful industrial
emissions and dusts may have on the sex and reproductive systems of women
workers employed in the various branches of the national economy has become
of pressing importance. Harmful effects may arise in women workers when in-
dustries fail to provide necessary health-protecting and safety measures,
especially where the employed women coiae into contact with new chemical sub-
stances, the toxico.logical action of which has not been studied adequately.
The Scientific Council of the Institute of Obstetrics and Gynecology of the
Academy of Medical Sciences of the U.S.S.R. in cooperation with an investi-
gating committee and with representatives of provincial scientific institutes
met at a special conference to consider problems of hygiene in women's work-
ing conditions and to propose plans for the future expansion of pertinent
scientific research.
-The principal speaker on this problem, M. A. Petrov-Maslakov, called
attention to the necessity of studying as soon as possible problems concern-
ing the sanitary-hygienic and health aspects of women workers and the mode of
life which faced them as the new Seven-Tear Plan was unfolding. Workers in
the Institutes of Obstetrics and Gynecology of the Academy of Medical Sciences
of the U.S.S.R. and of the Ministry of Health of the R.S.P.S.ET, the Depart-
ments of. Obstetrics and Gynecology of the Ivanovsk Institute of Medicine, in
cooperation with hygiene institutes, studied the problems pertaining to work
"conditions,."gynecological.diseases, .and the_ sex_functionsr^of women engaged
in the textile and tobacco'industries*, and in factories using lead, benzene,
phosphorus, mercury, gasoline, as well as other harmful agents. Results of
such research established that one of the factors mentioned produced a defi-
nite syndrome of a distinct occupational disease; other disclosed factors
produced no such effect by themselves; however, they synergistically affected
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the course of different existing or incipient pathological processes. It has
been generally recognized that by virtue of many anatomical and physiological
peculiarities the organism of women was affected by adverse environmental (and
other) factors more directly and more profoundly than the organ!sn of men.
The introduction of mechanization and automation into the industry of
production and processing continues to attract increasing numbers of women to
participate in all branches of the national economy. On the other hand, the
introduction of many new synthetic uiaterials that have been put into produc-
tion and new sources of energy, particularly atomic, which came .into use,
carry the promise of increasing the deleterious effect of the many new in-
dustrial introductions on the reproductive system of women workers. This
emphasizes the need of intensive and thorough studies of ths effect of the
new production processes on the organism of women workers and of developing
appropriate- and effective prophylactic measures; in its turn, this requires
that research methods presently in practice be improved or changed so that
early symptoms of pathological processes could be more easily detected. Study
of possible harmful effects of working conditions on the female organism must
be made cooperatively by a group of specialists including occupational disease
pathologists and hygienists.
Detection of certain occupational hazards can be solved and prophylactic
and protective measures developed only through a thorough study of industrial
conditions, their sanitary and hygienic characteristics, accompanied by a full
determination of reactions arising in the organism.of working women. In this
connection Dr. E. S. Mirsagatov of Khar'kov, oho had extensive experience in
the gynecological care of women in different industrial enterprises, recom-
mended that prophylactic examinations of workers of all ages.be made at least
once a year, and that methods and forms presently used for recording morbidity
be revised. B. L. Shol'nikov of Stalinsk reported on the positive results
yielded by sanitation measures instituted during the current year in the ~
machine construction industry, emphasizing the dispensary system .as. the most
effective means for lowering gynecological morbidities. " . ._" : ~1~
Ye. I. Rodkevicha of Stalinsk reported on the occurrence of atrophic
changes in the sex organs of women workers in an aluminum plant, which she
thought were the result of the harmful effect of aluminum oxide. Ya. A.
Dul'tsin of Leningrad presented data on the effect of certain working condi-
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tions of gynecological pathology and on the reproductive system of women
workers in the viscose industry. The.data pointed to premature childbirth,
toxic states in the first, and especially in the second half of pregnancy
which occurred more frequently in women working in rooms, the air of which
had a high content of carbon "bisulfide. D. D. Frzhedetskii of Moscow reported
on several specific conditions prevailing at work in textile plants and the
effect of such conditions on the course of pregnancy. He recommended that
women workers with child should he assigned to appropriate processes and
machines according to the stage of pregnancy.
I. I. Klimets of Leningrad presented some clinical-statistifcal results
of experimental studies on the basis "of which he came to the conclusion that
industrial vibrations, to which textile workers were subjected in the course
of their work, could not be regarded with certainty as the cause of abortions.
However, he believed that industrial vibration contributed to the pathology
of the ovarian-imanstrual and reproductive system of predisposed women with
underdeveloped sex organs, with miscarriages and inflammations in anamnesis,
etCo Tiiaely discovery of such women, vigilant watch over them, and prompt
resort to appropriate prophylactic measures were recommended as the most ef-
fective means in reducing the percent of premature births among textile women
workers. I. D. Arist of Chelyabinsk pointed to the need for the development
of reconaoendatioiis pertaining to working conditions for women with gynecologi-
cal affections and for pregnant workers in the different production and proc-
essing industries. Ha reported on the unfavorable effect on pregnancy of
vibration to which women were exposed in heavy machine construction plants,
and recommended that pregnant women be released from work entailing vibrations
long before the onset of childbirth. K. V. Migai of Leningrad stated that
determination of the effect of heavy physical work on the health of women
workers constituted a pressing problem requiring immediate solution. Ya. S.
Elenitskii spoke in favor of creating a scientific center affiliated with the
Aca".e:Qy of Medical Sciences of the U.S.S.R. for the methodological direction
and supervision"of all"research in"the field of hygiene of women-workers.-
V. G. Khranov of Moscow called attention to the lack of scientific data
required for changing existing legislation related to industrial women workers,
and sv 3£estsd that such information be obtained &.s soon as possible. K. M.
"Bazhenov of Leningrad discussed the pressing need for organizing examining
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rooms for women in the large industrial plants independent of the existing
gynecological consulting rooms. Bastina of Leningrad presented data relative
to the harmful effect on the organism of present-day conditions in ship paint-
ing and particularly on women's sex organs. Ye. P. Maizel of Leningrad stated
that industrial physician-pathologists should initiate studies of the effect
of occupational hazards on female workers organism, and expressed the opinion
that obstetricians and gynecologists should be drawn into this work at least
as consultants. He was also of the opinion that maternity leave for women
workers in different occupations should not be of a single stereotype but
differentiated. P. A. Beloshapko also expressed the opinion that the problem
will find its solution only if specialists in different fields studied it
intensely under the guidance and direction of institutes of labor hygiene
and occupational pathology.
In the final resoltuion it was noted that the problem related to the ef-
fect of different deleterious occupational factors on the condition of the
sex organs and the reproductive system of women workers received scant atten-
tion in the past, while opportunities to employ women have been ever increasing
in different branches of the national economy. Public health bodies are facing
urgent problems in their efforts to determine the effect of specific occupa-
tions on female sex organs and the' need to create industrial and hygienic con-
ditions in industrial enterprises under which employed women would work with-
out injury or harm to their health and without damage to the health of their
progeny. The Scientific Council of the Institute of Obstetrics and Gynecology
of the Academy of Medical. ^Sciences of the U.SJ5.R. in cooperation with the
Investigation Commission recommended that the following measures be instituted
as soon as possible, in order that the discussed problems may be appropriately
and timely resolved:
1. To extend and intensify scientific efforts in the study of the effect
of occupations on women workers and on their sex system by conducting group
investigations cooperatively, so that concrete recommendations may be developed
for health measures for women workers in different occupations.
2. Special attention should be_ paid to the condition of the sex system
and the reproductive organs of women employed in chemical, textile, and machine
construction industries, and of women exposed over long periods of time to
small doses of penetrating (ionized) radiation, bearing in mind the plans
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proposed for the future development of new types of industry in the next
Seven-Year Plan.
3. The following steps should "be taken as soon as possible to improve
the medical care of women workers:
a) Industrial obstetrician-gynecologists should make a thorough study
of working conditions with reference to the appropriate re-allocation of
pregnant women and women who have gynecological affections;
b) The prophylactic phase of public health stations should be in-
tensified; women applicants should be carefully examined before being assigned
to special jobs, and should be thoroughly examined medically, regardless of
age, a't least once annually; the recommendation should become mandatory;
c) All women workers having gynecological diseases should be covered
by a complete dispensary and clinical history, so that they can be observed
systematically and necessary prophylaxis and treatment may be instituted
promptly, including correction of working equipment;
d) Efforts to prevent premature birth and still-birth should be
stepped up; a special report should be made of all workers predisposed to
abortion or those who have complicated obstetrical anamnesis;
e) Workers should be taught proper hygienic habits with the view to
effecting different forms of proper health education.
Reported by M. A. Petrov-Maslakov.
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I. P. Pavlov, Dialectical Materialsim, Conditioned Reflexes and Signal
Systems Based on a Series of Excerpts Taken from Pavlov's Book "Lectures on
Conditioned Reflexes. Twenty Years of Objective Study of Higher Nervous
Activity of Animals".
Selected and arranged into a continuous exposition as a supplement to the
introduction to Survey Volume 5, O.T.S. No. 61-11149.
B. S. Levine, Ph.D., Research Grantee, U.S. Public Health Service,
(Health, Education, and Welfare).
Despite the incessant efforts of members of the ruling political party of
the U.S.S.R. to include I. P. Pavlov into the realm of their socio-ideological
influence or bent of mind, Pavlov remained a free scientist with an open and
free mind to the last day of his life. He was a true and ardent exponent of
the non-vitalistic and monistic viewpoint prevailing during his time among
progressive bioscientists' to the same extent as were many of his predecessor!.-,
and contemporaries in Russia, Germany, France, England, the U.S.A., and other
countries. In none of his writings or lectures could one detect any indica-
tion of. Pavlov having been affected or impressed by the Hegelian /adjuncts of
philosophical thinking which Karl Marx adopted as the basic principles of his
interpretation of the dynamics of historical uoonpmics; nowhere in Pavlov's
lectures, or other writings, is there any reference to the concept of histori-
cal materialism or dialectical aateriali»m based on the trinity so sacred to
the ruling communists, |as the Thesis, Synthesis ajfid Antithesis. It was stated
by some of Pavlov's students, foreign as well as Russian, that Pavlov never
addressed hi» audiences by the salutation of "Comrade's" (Tovarishchi), but
always by the traditional Russian congenial and polite "Ladies and Gentlurceu",
or by it's equivalent 0 In support" of the above the .following excerpt from ore
of Pavlov's lectures is presented:
"It is clear that contemporary, so-called., vitalism, or shall we say,
aniiaima, confuses different ^points of viow of the naturalist find of tha phi-
losopher. All the accomplishments of v-he fo:-oi.»r have been founded en Ir-
.gatiorto' c:f;_Ctbjecta.Y5. .facts and ythe^TQi^aTjrb;^^.; ignpring. the av_>tvi of as-*
genes and final onuses. -The philosopher, personify if*. tihe highest hvnait
aspirations to ccordinyt •> or to synthesize, xhou#>i f rubles-sly ap to thi-- ^r,-.\~
ent, has ueen searching fox -?Ji answer to manifestations which conc^u marij
now, even the philosopher must create the totality by g^ing from the objecci\«
to the subjective. The naturali'st perceives life phenomena through the rneth-
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od, by means of which he strives to attain a basic lasting truth; to the
naturalist the concept cf a soul is a stumbling block and a factor which
delimits and arrests his courage to delve into depths attainable by his
analytical methods".
Occasionally, I. P. Pavlov indicated in his purely physiological lectures
that he was not unaware of the existence of certain, sociological manifesta-
tions. However, such awareness of Pavlov was of interest to him only to the
extent to which he could use it as an additional illustration of some point
related to his basic thesis of conditioned reflexes; it bore no relation to
the ill-defined and diffuse concept of dialectical materialism, as originally
advaneed by Karl Marx and later revised by V. I. Lenin, and others. This is
well illustrated by the following excerpt from one of I. P. Pavlov's lectures:
"All life is more than a realization of a single purpose, namely, the
preservation of life itself, the tireless labor of which may be called the
general instinct of life. This general instinct, or reflex, consists of a
number of separate instincts or reflexes. The greater part of these reflexes
are positive movement reflexes toward the conditions favorable to life, re-
flexes the object of which is to seize and appropriate such conditions for the
given organism, grasping and catching reflexes ... We again insist on the
necessity to describe and enumerate the elementary inborn reflexes in order
to gradually understand the whole conduct of the animal. .Without such clas-
sification we have only the usual empty conceptions and words; "the animal
forms and breaks habits, remembers, forgets, etc.", instead we arrive at a
scientific study of the complex activity of"life. There is no doubt that a
systematic study of the fund of inborn reactions of the animal will greatly
favor an.understanding of ourselves and the development in us of the ability
of self-guidance. It is clear that with the reflex of freedom there is also
the reflex of slavish submission. It is a well known fact that puppies and
small dogs often fall.on their backs in the presence of larger ones. This is
the surrendering of self to the wishes of the strong, the analogy of man's
"falling "on his kneesyor prone on b.is-face, the reflex of'."slavery. This has
*"* "^ . , ~ .
a use in life. The intentional passive attitude cf the weak which leads to
a natural decrease of~the aggressive action of the strong, whereas even an
ineffective resistance tends to increase the destructive ambition of the strong".
This is no expression of a fighting revolutionary reflex, such as the;
Bol'shevik wing of the Russian fighters for freedom inscribed on their banner
-291- . ' .
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before they took full, absolute, unilateral and monolithic possession of all
the privileges and facilities of a group governing not only Russia proper but
its, so-called, satellites as well. The Pavlovian concept of the "slavish
submission reflex" approaches more nearly the neo-Christian Tolstoyan and
Ghandian concepts of non-resistance to force or evil. Y/ith regard to reflexes
as such Pavlov stated:
11. . . here is a certain agent (external stimulation, B.S.L.) which calls
forth in living matter a definite reaction (reflex response B.S.L.). It is
a typical example of adaptation and fitness. Let us consider somewhat closer
the facts which play such an important part in present-day physiological
throught. What does such adaptation consist of? As we have seen, it was
nothing more than the exact coordination of the elements of a complex system,
and of their complexes, in relation to the external world. . . The external
world.perpetually calls out, on the one hand, conditioned reflexes, and, on
the other hand, continually suppresses them,.submerges them, through the action
of other vital phenomena. This rising and sinking of conditioned reflexes
responds at any given moment to the demand of the fundamental law of life —
equilibration with surrounding nature. This is accomplished and adjusted
through the different kinds of inhibition of the conditioned reflexes. . .
Prom our viewpoint all nervous activity of the animal could be considered as
reflex activity of one or two forms - the usual reflex, which, had been studied
previously for many decades, which we called an unconditioned reflex, and a
" second.,, new reflex which-embraces the entire remaining nervous activity, -and -
which we designate as the conditioned reflex. . . From the standpoint of ob-
jective research we hold that all the nervous activity (of the dog), without
reservation, is a reflex activity, a reaction of the animal to the external
world effected through the nervous system. In this reaction we can distinguish
two kinds of reflexes. The simple and well-knotm reflex, which we call "uncon-
ditioned", is one in which certain phenomena of the external world are asso-
ciated with-definite responses of the organism through a constant and un-
changing connection in the central nervous system. For example, if a mechan-
ical body impinges on the eyelid, or every time a foreign body enters the
larynx and irritates it, coughing results. From these old reflexes we can
differentiate a new group in which the connection of the external phenomena
with the responsive reaction of the organism is only of a temporary nature.
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This connection forms only under certain conditions, and disappears under
definite conditions. Thus, we distinguish between constant, and temporary re-
flexes. In this way we can comprehend and understand many complicated rela-
tions (of the dog) to the outside world as temporary reflexes."
"v . . Considering the phenomena more closely, I can not fail to see the
following distinction between these two kinds of reflexes: the unconditioned
reflexes, those properties of the substance to which saliva is physiologically
adapted act as the stimulus, for example, the hardness, the dryness, the
definite chemical properties, etc.; on the other hand, in the conditioned re-
flex, those properties which bear no direct relation to the physiological role
of the saliva, act as stimuli, for example, color, form, and the like. These
last properties receive their physiological importance as signals for the
first ones, i.e., for the essential properties. In their response one can
not but notice a more advanced and more delicate adaptation to the external
world. .. . The designation "reflex" which we have given to these complex
"nervbus "phenomena is entirely logical. The phenomena are always the result
of the stimulation of the peripheral endings of various centripetal nerves,
and this stimulation spreads through the centrifugal nerves to the salivary
glands (or other receptors, B.S.L.). ".'. . For the ".building up of conditioned
reflexes certain cortical connections from different specific receptors are
necessary, for instance, from the eye, the ear, the nose, the skin. There is
ground for assuming that the same is true for all other conditioned reflexes.
Thus, we have a right to state that the cerebral hemispheres are the organs
of conditioned reflexes.!'_ ". . . In different experiments by many workers
the fact was constantly met that the temporary reflexes occurred only in
presence of the whole or part of the hemispheres. Consequently, we may accept
without misgivings the statement that the most essential function of the hemi-
spheres is the elaboration of the conditioned reflexes, just as the main work
of the lower part of the nervous system is .concerned with the .simple, or, ac-
cording'to'jpur terminology, the unconditioned reflexes." —
"... The second mechanism belonging to the cerebral hemispheres is the
mechanism ef the, so-called, analyzerse In this case we started from the old
and well-known facts, somewhat changing the conception of them. We designate
as analyzer that apparatus the function of which is to break down the complex-
ity of the outer world into its separate elements or constituents; for example,
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the eye analyzer consists of the peripheral part of the retina, the optic
nerve, and the "brain cells in which this nerve ends. The union of all these
parts into one functional mechanism, called analyzer, has its justification,
because physiology at present has no data for an exact division of the work
of the analyzer ais_ ji whole. We can not assert that a certain part of its
function is performed lay the peripheral section, and other parts by the central
'end. . . Thus, the cerebral hemispheres, according to our understanding of
the matter, consist of a number of analyzers: of the eye, aar, skin, nose
and the mouth analyzers. An examination of these analyzers brought us to the
conclusion that their number must be increased, that beside the above cited
ones relating to external phenomena, to the outer world, there must be rec-
ognized in the cerebrum special analyzers the function of which it is to de-
compose the enormous complexity of the inner phenomena, which arise within
the^ organism itself. Certainly, not only an analysis of the external world
is important for the organism, but of same value is an ascending signalizing,
an analysis of everything happening within the organism itself. Besides the
external analyzers there must be internal analyzers. The most important of
these inner analyzers is the analyzer of movement, or the motor analyzer. It
is known that from all parts of the motor apparatus, from the joints and their
surfaces, from the tendons, ligaments, etc., there originate centripetal nerves
which signalize every movement, the exact details of the act of movement. All
these nerves unite above in the cells of the hemispheres. The most diverse
peripheral endings of these nerves, together -with the nerves themselves and
their terminal cells in the great hemispheres, form a special analyzer, which
.breaks down the complex, motor act into a large number of finest elements or
components, thereby attaining the multiplicity and exactness of our skeletal
movements".
"... The analyzer is a complex nervous mechanism which begins with the
external receiving apparatus and ending in the brain, now in its lower, now
in its higher sections; in the latter case it-is much more complex. The facts
on which the physiology is based, is that every principal apparatus is,nothing
more than a special transformer of a certain given external energy into a
nervous process. The following questions arise in this connection: what
processes are^involved in this transformation?. Which part of the activity
of the analyzer is to be attributed to the construction and process in the
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peripheral apparatus, and. which part to the construction and process in the
cerebral ending of the analyzer? What consecutive phases.does this analyzer
manifest, starting from its simplest and proceeding to its highest stages?
And finally, what are the general laws governing this analysis? In estab-
lishing a temporary connection between a given phenomenon of nature and an
organism, it is easy to determine to what extent the corresponding analyzer
of the animal.is able to break the external world into its simple elements".
"... Now, as to the work of the analyzers. These are nervous mecha-
nisms the function of which it is to decompose the complexity of the external
world into its elements, and. to receive these elements as well as all their
combinations. . . From all our experiments we can say that the cerebral hemi-
spheres represent a central.station of all analyzers, which may serve as do
the eye and ear analyzers for the analysis of the external world, or as the
motor analyzer for the analysis of the internal world, for example, movement.
(Many other analyzers still remain undiscovered, and the scope of their
analytical activity remains to be defined)." "... The basic activities of
the higher parts of the central nervous system are: first, the coupling or
linking of new temporary connections between certain external phenomena and
the functions of the different organs; and secondly, the decomposition of the
entire complexity of the external world into its units, briefly, the activity
of- a coupling or synthesizing mechanism and of an analyzing mechanism. Through
these two activities there are established exact and fine adjustments of the
animal._organism_to the outside ,wor.l.d,__or, in. other words, a complete-equilibra-
tion of the systems of energy and matter constituting the animal organism with
the system of energy and matter of the environment." "... The main point
of the nervous activity is located, I believe, in the receptor part of the
central station; at this point is to be found the impetus for the full develop-
.ment of the central nervous -system, realized in the central hemispheres of
the brain; because these constitute the basic-organ of that most perfect -
equilibrium with the external world which is incarnate in the higher animal
organism. The " centrifugal "p6"rtibri^of" the "reflex path is purely executive;
this latter apparatus conditions what- functional combinations will be formed
by the cells of one or another motor nerve".
In the paper on Pavlov published in Survey Volume. 5 of O.T.S. No. 61-11149
a brief discussion was presented on the processes of differentiation and in-
hibition. In connection with these phases of the central nervous activity
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Pavlov states: "The process of analysis and the process of differentiation
must "be presented thus: if our chosen special agent is "brought for the first
time into connection with a physiological function, then the stimulation called
out by tiiis agent, coming to certain point in the cortex, irradiates or spreads
over the corresponding receptor centers, and, thus, not only the single point
in the "brain and of the, given analyzer enters into definite connection, but
the entire analyzer, or ji greater or smaller part of it. And only later, owing
to the opposition of the inhibitory process, does the. field of stimulation-
influence become smaller, until at last an isolated action is obtained" . . .
"And further, if inhibition lies at the basis of the process of differentia-
tion, then it should be possible to reinforce, accumulate, and summate this
inhibition. How? By several successive repetitions of the differentiated
stimulus. . . (And) here is another fact following from this: if inhibition
lies at the base of differentiation, then the more difficult the task of dif-
ferentiation,, the greater will be the inhibition. It is obvious that it is
more difficult to distinguish between two tones differeing in pitch by only
one-eighth of a note than it is to distinguish between two tones differing
by two full note's. One may suppose that the intensity of the inhibition will
also differ. The more delicate the differentiation, the stronger will be the
inhibition, and vice versa".
"... There arises an interesting question: where does this inhibition,
which lies at the basis of differentiation, take place? Naturally, one thinks
that it develops in the corresponding analyzer, i.e., in that place where the
stimulations are analyzed. ... . ..(La..fact)I we have (other) experiments which
prove directly that the inhibition takes place in the analyzer of the differ-
ential stimulus. . . (It was shown in) foregoing reports (that) the nervous
processes in the highest part of the central nervous system constantly flow,
irradiate, and concentrate. This is the reason for believing that inhibitory
processes coming from &_ given analyzer may spread- over the entire hemisphere.
. . . When you behold a series__pf such facts (as were presented in the pre-
ceding paragraphs), I~believe you will arrive at the conception which for me .
is the__only true one. . . The study of reflex mechanism, which forms the basis
of the activity of the central nervous system,' ie here reduced in its essence
to a study of space relations, of the definition of paths along which the ex-
citation at first spreads, and .then concentrates. If this is so, then it is
comprehensible that a sure probability of mastering the subject in all its
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extent is given only by conceptions characterized "by space ideas. This is
the reason why it must be perfectly clear that it is impossible, by means of
physiological conceptions, to penetrate into the mechanism of these unusual
connections. You must be able, so to speak, to point to the seat where the
excitation process was at a given moment, and where it has gone. If you con-
ceive of these reactions as they are in reality, then you will understand the
truth and power of that science which we are indicating and developing, the
s.cience of conditioned reflexes. It has absolutely excluded from its domain
psychological conceptions, and has to do always only with objective facts,
facts existing in time and space."
. . . (In the course of our experimental investigations) "it became clear
that a definite agent in the outer world may condition the state of rest of
the animal and the suppression of the higher nervous activity affecting in the
same sure way, as other agents evoke, one or another manifestation of the ani-
mal's complex nervous functions. In other words, besides the different active
reflexes there is also a passive sleep reflex . . . The sleep reflex is only
one kind of inhibition of conditioned reflexes. Inhibition which is induced
by the sleep reflex is called by us general inhibition." I. P. Pavlov also
speaks of orienting or focusing reflex and many other reflexes. In fact, ac-
cording to Pavlov, every reaction to a stimulating effect is basically a re-
flex reaction, direct, or'Unconditioned, or indirect, or conditioned. General
inhibition, according to I. P. Pa'°^v, is in fact a complex property of central
neuro-reactivity. Pavlov states: "Three kinds of inhibition have been estab-
lished? simple inhibition, extinguishing inhibition," arid conditioned, inhi'bi-.:
tion, which as a group form external inhibition. . . There are (still other)
cases of internal inhibition. In new.experiments another importantiphase of
'the problem has become crystallized. Tt has been demonstrated that besides
stimulation and inhibition of stimulation there is often an inhibition of
inhibition, in other words, "dis-inhibition". It is not possible to assert
which of these three reflex manifestations is the most important. One can
merely state simply that the highest nervous activity, as it manifests itself
in the form of conditioned reflexes, consists of a continual change of these
three fundamental processes: excitation (stimulation), inhibition and disin-
: hibition. I now proceed with the second of these fundamental mechanisms, the
mechanism of the analyzer." . . . "Internal inhibition has its origin in the
mutual interrelation between new (conditioned) reflexes and the old (uncondi-
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tioned) reflexes "by means of which the conditioned reflex v/aa formed. This
type of inhibition always develops when the conditioned stimulus temporarily
or constantly (if constantly, then only under definite and specific conditions,
B.3.L.) is not accompanied "by the unconditioned stimulus with which it was
elaborated."
For the "better understanding of the principles which form the basis for
the utilization of Pavlovian methods of conditioned reflex studies to practical•
determination of limits of allowable air pollutant concentrations"(and other
toxic substances, mostly in gaseous or vapor form), the following excerpts are
presented: "Besides external inhibition there exists another group of inhibi-
tion phenomena the mechanism of which is quite different. The conditioned re-
flex, which is a temporary connection of some external, previously indifferent
agent, with a certain function of the organism, originates because the action
of this indifferent agent on the receptor surface of the animal repeatedly
coincides in time with the action of an already existing reflex stimulus of
one or another .activity. All our experiments have been performed in connec-
tion with the salivary gland, which, as you know, reacts to psychical stimula-
tion, using the old terminology, and consequently, is in constant complicated
relation to the external worlcj.. Food and other stimulating substances, enter-
ing into the mouth of the animal, elicit an unconditioned reflex; a conditioned
ref Lex, however, may be called out by any agent of the external world, if it
is capable of act?rig on any receiving surface of the_ organism. -It is clear
thalb ji preformed, reflex must exist as the^ basis of formation of the new reflex.
Now, if the -conditioned- stimulus-acts-' for some time alone","unaccompanied by_
the unconditioned stimulus, with the help.of which it had been formed, then
the action of the conditioned stimulus becomes weaker, in other words, it is
inhibited. . . Finally, the last type of inhibition. We take some indifferent
agent, having no marked effect on the animal and add this to a well elaborated
conditioned stimulus, not accompanying this combination of the two agents by
the unconditioned stimulus.(food,, for instance). The indifferent agent will
gradually become an inhibitor of the conditioned stimulus, i.e., the combina-
tion of th6 conditioned stimulus with the indifferent agent is always null,
although the combined stimulus used alone is as active as before. This phe-
nomenon we called conditioned inhibition. Here, too, we have an after effect
of the inhibition, just the same as we have described in the case of differ-
entiation of the stimuli." ".."..
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Research scientists who are engaged in the study of the physiological,
toxicological and pharmacological phases of air pollution may he interested
in the application of Pavlovian principles of conditioned reflex technics to
the practical determination of limits of allowable concentrations of certain
types of air pollutants. Their attention is called to the fact that the latent
period of conditioned reflex response to stimulation constitutes an important
index in evaluating the effect of a studied air pollutant on the organism's
state of neuro-mechanism. The latent period of response may be delayed or
shortened, accordingly as the pollutant depresses or enhances the reactivity
of the nerve apparatus which transmits the stimulation to the central points,
and/or depresses or exaggerates the rate of stimulation transmission to the
different receptor apparatuses. In this connection the following brief and
last excerpt from Pavlov's book is presented: (Under certain conditions)
"there is forced the, so-called, retarded or delayed conditioned reflex (re-
sponse) or latent excitation (of any given receptor). . . vYhat is the basis
for this latent stimulation? One might think that the stimulation did not
reach an intensity sufficient to produce an effect (due to the poisoning ef-
fect of the air pollutant on the i-sceptor and on the transmission neuro-mechar
nisms in the direction of deprss^on or oversensitization and overstimulation,
B.S.L.)* Certainly, this can and must be true, even though it does not ade-
quately answer the basic question. One can surmise that there may be an ap-
parent internal inhibition (or overstimulation through nerve sensitization)
which up.to a definite moment blocks the activity of the (pertinent) center,
(or"rendars.the center supersensitive to the stimulus) as manifested (by
changes in the latent periods of conditioned reflex response)."
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LIBRARY
Robert A. Taft Sarvt r" frr'--
4676 -Coivmira . ar, -s.-y •,,.,.;• „-,
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