63-11570                                       Price $4.00
  U.S.S.R. LITERATURE ON  AIR POLLUTION
       AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONAL
                     DISEASES

                      Volume 8
                      A SURVEY
                         by
                    B. S. Levine, Ph. D.

        INTRODUCTION BY ARTHUR C. STERN, ASSISTANT CHIEF  /
         DIVISION OF AIR POLLUTION,  PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE
         DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
                      Distributed by
              U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
                OFFICE OF TECHNICAL SERVICES
                    WASHINGTON 25, D. C.

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U. S. S. R. LITERATURE ON AIR POLLUTION
  AND RELATED OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES


               VOLUME 8
               A SURVEY

                   by

           B.  S. Levine, Ph. D.

        Washington, D. C.,  U.  S. A.

                   1963
        This survey was supported by
       PHS Research Grant AP—00176

             Awarded by the
   Division of Air Pollution, U. S.  P. H. S.


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       Other translations,  books and  surveys by Dr. B.  S.  Levine  dealing
with  U.S.S.R.  air and water  pollution control and related occupational
diseases  available from  U.S.  Department  of Commerce,  Office  of  Technical
Services,  Washington  25,  D.  C.
SANITARY PROTECTION OF ATMOSPHERIC AIR,
PURIFICATION  OF INMSTRIAL DISCHARGE
GASES FROM SUSPENIEI SUISTANCES.                 59-2i092

LIMITS OF ALLOWAILE CONCENTRATIONS OF
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTANTS, BOOK  i.                  59-2H73

LIMITS OF ALLOW* LE CONCENTRATIONS OF
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTANTS, BOOK  2.                  59-2n74

LIMITS OF ALLOWABLE CONCENTRATIONS OF
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTANTS, BOOK  3.                  59-2H75

LIMITS OF ALLOWAILE CONCENTRATIONS OF
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTANTS, BOOK  4.                  6i-iil48

LIMITS OF ALLOWABLE CONCENTRATIONS OF
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTANTS, BOOK  5.                  62-M605

U.S.S.R. LITERATURE ON AIR POLLUTION
ANI RELATEI OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES.
A SURVEY. VOLUME)i.                            60-2I049

U.S.S.R. LITERATURE ON AIR POLLUTION
ANI RELATEI OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES.
A SURVEY. VOLUME 2.                            60-21188

U.S.S.R. LITERATURE ON AIR POLLUTION
ANI RELATEI OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES.
A SURVEY. VOLUME 3,                            60-2i475

U.S.S.R. LITERATURE ON AIR POLLUTION
ANI RELATE* OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES.
A SURVEY. VOLUME 4.                            60-21913

U.S.S.R. LITERATURE ON AIR POLLUTION
ANI RELATEI OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES.
A SURVEY. VOLUME 5.                            6i-ni49

U.S.S.R. LITERATURE ON AIR POLLUTION
ANI RELATEI OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES.
A SURVEY. VOLUME 6.                         PB  6i-2i928

U.S.S.R. LITERATURE ON AIR POLLUTION
ANI RELATEI OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES.
A SURVEY. VOLUME 7.                            62-ni03

U.S.S.R. LITERATURE ON WATER  SUPPLY
ANI POLLUTION CONTROL*
A SURVEY. VOLUME t.                            6i-3i60i

U.S.S.R. LITERATURE on WATER  SUPPLY
ANI POLLUTION CONTROL.
A SURVEY. VOLUME 2.                            6i-3i60i-2

U.S.S.R. LITERATURE ON WATER  SUPPLY
ANI POLLUTION CONTROL.
A SURVEY. VOLUME 3.                            6i-3i60i-3
i53 PP.


135 PP.


163 PP.


146 PP.


(23 PP.


134 PP.



210 PP.



260 PP.



262 PP.



281 PP.



2l9 PP.



299 PP.



336 PP.



233 PP.



249 PP.



248 PP.
3.00


2.75


3.00


3.00


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2.75




3.50



4.00



4.00



4.00



3.50



4.00



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3.50



4.00



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                                                 -11-

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For comparison of metric and customary unitd from 1 to 10  see Handbook  of  Chem-
istry and Physics published by tbe Chemical Rubber Publishing Co., 2310 Superior
Avenue, N.E., Cleveland, Ohio.

Inches and millimeters, inches and centimeters, feet and n.eters,
U.S. yards and meters, U.S. miles and Kilometers -                    Page 2947

Square inches and square millimeters, square inches and square
centimeters, square feet and square meters, square yards and
square meters, square miles and square kilometers -                   Page 2948

Cubic inches and cubic millimeters, cubic inches and cubic
centimeters, cubic feet and cubic meters, cubic yards and  cubic
meters, acres and hectares -                                          Page 2949

Milliliters and U.S. ounces, milliliters and U.S. apothecaries'
drams, milliliters and U.S. apothecaries' scruples, liters and
U.S. liquid quarts, liters and U.S. liquid gallons.  (Computed
on the basis 1 liter = 1.000027 cubic decimeters).                    Page 2950

Liters and U.S. dry quarts, liters and U.S. pecks, decaliters
and U.S. pecks, hectoliters and U.S. bushels, hectoliters per
hectare and U.S. bushels per acre.  (Computed or. above basis).        Page 2951

Other pertinent oonversion tables are presented on succeeding pa.ges.

                    RUSSIAN ALPHABET WITH TRANSLITERATION.


              AaAa                    PpRr
              E 6   B b                    CcSs
              B B   V v                    T  T  T t
              TrGg                    YyUu
              JljlDd                    <£  $  F f
              EeEe                    XxKhkh
              tf JK   Zh zh                  U  u,  Ts ts
              3 3   Z z                    M  M  Ch ch
              Mull                    III  ui  Sh sh
              M ii   I i                    m  m  Shch shch
              K K   K k                    bl  H  Y y
              JI ji   L 1                    B  fc  Mute soft sound
              M M   M m                    3  3  E e
              H H   N n                    10  ro  lu iu or  Yu yu
              0 o   0 o                    H  a  la ia or  Ya ya
              n n   p P
                                      -iii-

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                  U.S.S.R. LITERATURE ON AIR POLLUTION
                        AND RELATED OCCUPATIONAL
                                DISEASES
                              INTRODUCTION
      It is timely that another volume of Dr. Levine's translations
of USSR literature on air pollution and related occupational diseases
appear so soon after the visits of the USSR Air Pollution Mission to
the United States (January 16 - February 15, 1963) and the U. S.
Environmental Health Mission to the USSR (September 7 - October 9, 1962).
To no small degree, the earlier volumes in this series set the stage
for this exchange of missions by showing Americans that there was much
to see and learn about air pollution and occupational health in the
Soviet Union and by showing Soviet physicians and scientists in this
field the professional respect accorded their work by their American
counterparts 0

      Of the fifty-six translations in this volume, the first sixteen
are USSR Standard Methods for the quantitative determination of con-
taminants in the air of industrial premises and include those con-
taminants most commonly measured in the air of American industrial
plants.  These methods should therefore be of great interest to American
Industrial Hygienists.  The two concluding translations in the volume
are also of specific occupational health interest since they set forth
the most recent standards for allowable concentrations of air-borne
contaminants in workrooms and the standard for noise level in residences.
Other of the papers relate to occupational hazards in plants quenching
coke and manufacturing synthetic fibres, to carbon monoxide concentrations
in dwellings, and to toxicological studies of a new insecticide-fungicide
(Mercurane).  Thus, there is much in this volume for those concerned with
occupational diseases.

      This volume includes the List of Allowable Concentrations of Pollu-
tants in the Air of Populated Areas of the U.S.S.R. approved February 14,
1961 and a supplement to that list dated April 13, 1962.  This list super-
cedes earlier lists.  Half of the remainder of the translations involve
air quality measurements in the U.S.S.R.  The typical paper in this
category gives measurements of one or two contaminants from an industrial
process at different distances from the plant which is their source.  The
plants reported are steam power plants; aluminum and magnesium reduction
plants; chemical plants manufacturing acids, alcohols, sulfides, fluorides
and pyrophosphates; cement, carbon black, fertilizer, rayon, drying oil
and thermometer plants; open pit coal mines, and coke ovens.  Eight of
these papers also discuss the response of people living different
distances from the plant and one discusses the response of experimental
animals exposed at these locations.  The other papers on air quality
                                  -iv-

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report geographical and temporal variation of measurements of suspended
or settled particulate matter, SC^, CO, benzpyrene or bacteria, in
several Soviet cities - Moscow, Leningrad, Rostov-on-Don, Kalinin,
Vilna, Kaunas and a few others.  The twenty-five papers reporting air
quality measurements are of interest because they provide insight into
air quality levels in the USSR and Soviet procedures in assessing air
pollution problems.  However, they offer little data that can be
readily put to use in solving American problems.

      Dr. Levine's earlier volumes of translations have led us to
expect that USSR laboratory studies to establish allowable concentra-
tions of pollutants preferably challenge humans rather than animals
as the experimental population.  This volume lives up to that expecta-
tion.  Five laboratory studies report human threshold response to
pollutants (NO, CS2> Cl and HC1 simultaneously, and CO); one labora-
tory study involves animal exposure (802).  These are the research
papers of greatest utility to us because the data are directly appli-
cable to the problem of setting limits for these gases in the air of
American cities.

      The volume is completed by a paper on emissions from a gas burning
power plant, one on an electronic particle counter, a research review
and several papers on analytical methodology.

      Dr. Levine continues to be our principal avenue of access to
the voluminous Soviet literature on air pollution and occupational
health.  We wish him good health to continue to serve this useful
function for years to come.  I am honored to have been asked by him
to provide this introduction.
                                Arthur C. Stern, Assistant Chief
                                Division of Air Pollution
                                Public Health Service
                                Department of Health, Education, and
                                  Welfare
                                 -V-

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                  ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    By way of grateful acknowledgement each item in this volume is
headed by the original title in translation, name of the author or authors,
institutional affiliation and periodical or book from -vhich the item was
taken.  The volume,  issue number,  year of publication,  and the inclusive
pages are indicated for the convenience of those who may wish to consult
the Russian original publication, or may wish to make reference to same
in their own papers.
     I wish to express my grateful appreciation to Mr. Vernon G.  MacKenzie,
Chief of the Division of Air Pollution of the Public Health Service for
placing at my disposal the original papers which appear in translation
in part 5 of this volume.  These were brought by Mr. NacKenzie to the
U.  S. A. from fJie U0 S0 S. R., which he  had recently  visited as an official
P.H. S. representative. I also express my thanks to Mr0 Arthur C. Stern
for the introduction he had written to this volume and for the personal
warm good wishes,,
                                             B.  So Levine, Ph. D.
3312 Northampton Street, N. W.
Washington 15, D. C.
                                -vi-

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                          FOREWORD

     In this volume are incorporated official methods for the determination
of deleterious substances in the air of working premises for sanitary con-
trol purposes, selections from a collection of studies on problems in the
hygiene of atmospheric air conducted at the Leningrad Institute of Radiation
Hygiene, selected papers from "Uchenye Zapiski" (Scientific Records),
No. 6, dealing with hygienic problems of planning,  building and protecting
the  atmospheric air of new settlements, six selected papers from Gigiena
i Sanitariya,  the official  U. S. S. R. sanitary-hygienic journal (1960-61),
lists of officially approved limits of allowable atmospheric air pollutants,
and regulations controlling noises in communal living quarters.  The lists
were brought to the U. S. A. from the U. S. S. R. by Mr. Vernon G. MacKenzie,
Chief of the Division of Air Pollution, U. S. Public Health Service,  and made
available to the undersigned for translation and incorporation into this
volume.  Unlike the plan of the proceeding seven survey volumes, the mat-
erial incorporated in this volume was groupped according to the sources
from which the papers had been selected rather than according to the nature
of the subject matter they contained.  For this reason the present volume
was organized in five parts instead of sections.
                                               B. S.  Levine,  Ph. D.
3312 Northampton Street, N.W.
Washington 15, D. C.
                                   -vii-

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                             CONTENTS
Introduction

Foreword
                                Part One                             1
Quantitative Determination of Ammonia in the Air
Name of author not indicated                                         2

Quantitative Determination of Sulfur Dioxide in the Air
Name of author not indicated                                         3

Quantitative Determination of Hydrogen Sulfide in the Air
Name of author not indicated                                         8

Quantitative Determination of Carbon Bisulfide Vapor in the Air
Name of author not indicated                                        11

Quantitative Determination of Hydrogen Cyanide in the Air
Name of author not indicated                                        15
Quantitative Determination of Carbon Monoxide in the Air
Name of author not indicated                                        19

Quantitative Determination of Mercury Vapor in the Air
Name of author not indicated                                        30

Quantitative Determination of Lead and Its Compounds in the Air
Name of author not indicated                                        34

Quantitative Determination of Chromic Anhydride (Chromium
trioxide, CrO^) and Salts of Chromic Acid in the Air
Name of author not indicated                                        38

Quantitative Determination of Manganese Compounds in the Air
Name of author not indicated                                        41

Quantitative Determination of Aniline Vapor in the Air
Name of author not indicated                                        44

Quantitative Determination of Benzene in the Air
Name of author not indicated                                        47
Quantitative Determination of Phenol in the Air
Name of author not indicated                                        52

Quantitative Determination of Formaldehyde in the Air
Name of author not indicated                                        55

Quantitative Determination of Methyl Alcohol Vapor in the Air
Name of author not indicated                                        59

Quantitative Determination of Tetraethyl Lead in Gasoline of
Different Trade Marks and in Kerosene
Name of author not indicated                                        64
                                    -Vlil-

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                                  Part Two                         7Q

Advances in Air Hygiene Investigations Conducted in 1951 - 1957
at the Institute of Radiation Hygiene.  N. M. Tomson.               71

Effect of Low Sulfur Dioxide Concentrations on the Animal
Organism.  E. K. Lobova.                                            79

Concentration of Tarry Substances in the Atmospheric Air
in the Vicinity of an Industrial Coke-Gas Plant.  E. N. Bondareva.  89

Discharges of Boiler Operated (Coal Burning) Plants Converted
to Gas Burning.  S. P. Nikolaev and S. A. Dymshits.                 93

Atmospheric Air Pollution by Oil-Drying Plant Discharges.
V. A. Yas'kova.                                                     96
Hygienic Evaluation of Low Concentrations of Nitrogen Oxides
Present in Atmospheric Air.  E. N. Bondareva.                       98
The Acid-Alkaline Reaction of Settling Dust.  N. M. Tomson         102

Acid-Alkaline Reactions of Suspended Dust Collected by the
Aspiration Method.  Z. V. Dubrovina.                               105

Effect of Discharges of a Cement Plant on the Population's
Health.  Z, V. Dubrovina, S. P. Nikolaev, and N. M. Tomson.        110
Hygienic Evaluation of Atmospheric Air Pollution in the Vicinity
of the Industrial Plant "Krasnyi Khimik".  E. N. Bondareva and
V. A. Yas'kova.                                                    115
Atmospheric Air Dustiness in Inhabited Sections of an Industrial
Region.  S. P. Nikolaev.                                           119
Bacterial Population of Air Surrounding Typical Living Quarters
in an Industrial Region.  K. I. Turzhetskii.                       125
Comparative Study of Filters Used in the Aspiration Method
for the Determination of Suspended Dust.  V. M. Komi 1 ova,
S. P. Nikolaev, and N. M. Tomson.                                  129

Sanitization of Atmospheric Air Polluted by an Aluminum Plant
Discharges.  N. M. Tomzon, Z. V. Dubrovina, and E. N. Bondareva.   136
Effect of Viscose Production Discharges on the Health of
Inhabitants.  N. M. Tomson, Z. V. Dubrovina, and M. I. Grigor'eva. 140
                                 Part Three                        145

Cancerogenic Substances in the Atmospheric Air with a View to
Cancer Prevention.  B. P. Gurinov.                                 146

Experimental Basis for the Determination of Maximal Allowable
Single Carbon Bisulfide Concentration in Atmospheric Air.
R. S. Gil'denskjol'd.                                              153

Experimental Basis for the Determination of Allowable Concen-
trations of Chlorine and HC1 gas Simultaneously Present in
Atmospheric Air.  V. M. Styazhkin.                                 158
                                     -ix-

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Hygienic Aspects of Atmospheric Air Pollution in the City of
Gubakhi and its Effect on the Population's Health.  B. K. Baikov
and V. P. Melekhina.                                               164

Atmospheric Air Pollutants Discharged by the Shebekinskii
Synthetic Acids and Alcohols Producing Combine.
P. I. Dubrovskaya                                                  169

Atmospheric Air Pollution in Lithuanian Cities.  P. N. Zhilin.     174

Moscow Atmospheric Air Pollution During 1948 - 1958.
M. K. Kharakhinov.                                                 180

Data Related to Sanitary Clearance Zone Surrounding the
Klinsk Thermometer Plant.  V. P. Melekhina.                        184

Hygienic Data Related to Sanitary Clearance Zones for
Korkinsk Open Coal Pits.  B. K. Baikov.                            188
Pollution of Atmospheric Air in the Vicinity of Chimney
Gas and Hot Air Oven Soot Producing Plants.  N. P. Gordynya.       191

Natural Ultraviolet Radiation Under Different Conditions
of Atmospheric Air Pollution.  B. V. Rikhter.                      195

An Improved Gas Pipette for Long Interval Air Sample
Collection.  R. S. Gil'denskiol'd and S. B. Eting.                 204

A Study of Carbon Monoxide Concentrations in the Air of
Living Dwellings and Its Effect on the Organism.
S. F. Sorokina.                                                    20?
Atmospheric Air Dustiness of Kalinin and City Street
Eye Traumatism.  E. P. Nagorova.                                   214

Rostov-on-Don Atmospheric Air Pollution with Auto-Traffic
Exhaust Carbon Monoxide.  L. G. Milokostova and
K. A. Prokopenko.                                                  215
                                Part Pour                          218

Cases of Phenol Vapor Poisoning During Coke Slaking
with Phenol Water.  V. I. Petrov.                                  219

A Study of Atmospheric Air Pollution by Discharges from
Synthetic Fatty Acids and Alcohol Producing Industries.
P. I. Dubrovskaya.                                                 222
Toxilogical Properties of Mercurane — A New Insecto-
fungicide.  V. Ya. Belashov.                                       22?

Photoelectric Counting of Organic and Inorganic Aerosol
Particles.  V. S. Kitneko, Yu. P. Safronov, S. I. Kudryavtsev,
R. I. Elman, B. F. Fedorov, N. I. Pushchin, and A. A. Fedorovich   232

Sanitary Protection of Air in Vinnitsa.  M. B. Belaga and
P. N. Maystruk.                                                    241

Problems of Improving Working Conditions in the Chemical
Fiber Industry.  V. D.  Krantsfel'd                                247
                                    -x-

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                                Part Five                                254

Limits of Allowable Concentrations of Deleterious Substances
in the Atmospheric Air of Populated Areas.  Name of author
not indicated.                                                           255

Supplement to "Limits of Allowable Concentration of
Deleterious Substances in Atmospheric Air of Populated
Areas".  Name of author not indicated.                                   25?

New Standards of Allowable Concentrations of Toxic Gases,
Vapors, and Dust in the Air of Working Premises.
Z. 3. Smelyanskii and I. P. Ulandva.                                     258
Sanitary Norms of Allowable Noise Levels in Living Premises.
M. Nikitin.                                                              2?1
                                       -xi-

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                 PART   ONE
Specifications for the Determination of Harmful Substances
                     in the Air
         State Publishers of Medical Literature
                  Medgiz - 1960 - Moscow
                Krivokolennyi Pereulok,  12
                          -1-

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              Quantitative Determination of Ammonia in the Air

     Approved by the USSR Chief State Sanitary Inspector V. M.  Zhdanov,
                         May 7, 1958, No. 122-1/199

     The method is applicable to the determination of ammonia in the air
of industrial premises for sanitary control purposes.
                                 I.  General
     1.  The method is based on the fact that in the presence of ammonia
Nessler's reagent forms dimercuric ammonium iodide which imparts to the
solution a yellowish-brown color.
     2.  The sensitivity of the method is 1 y Pei> colorimetric volume.
     3.  Salts of ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, aldehyde and some amines of the
aliphatic order interfere with the specificity of the determination.
     4.  The limit of allowable concentration of ammonia in the air according
to regulation No. 279-59, adopted January 10, 1959 is 0.02 mg/li.
                         II.  Reagents and Apparatus
     5.  Reagents and solutions required:
     Nessler's reagent, prepared according to GOST 4517-48.
     Ammonium Chloride, c.p. prepared according to GOST 3773-47.
     Sulfuric acid, c.p. prepared according to GOST 4204-48, 0.01 N. solution.
     Distilled water, NH/1" - free, prepared as follows:  Add 5 ml 10$ sulfuric
acid to 1 li of distilled water and redistill.  Discard the first 100 - 200 ml;
check the remainder of the distillate with Nessler's reagent for the presence
of NH * ion.
     No. 1 standard stock solution containing 1 mg of ammonia per ml is
prepared as follows: dissolve 0.7868 g of ammonium chloride in 25 ml of dis-
tilled water in a volumetric flash.  The No. 1 standard stock solution is used
for the preparation of two working standard solutions, Nos. 2 and 3.
     Standard solution No. 2 should contain 100 Y/ml and is prepared as
follows:  Place 10 ml of standard stock solution No. 1 into a 100 ml volu-
metric flash and add distilled water to the mark.
     Standard solution No. 3 should contain 10 Y/ml$ i* is prepared by
placing 1 ml of No. 1 standard stock solution into a 100 ml volumetric flask
and adding distilled water to the mark.
                                    -2-

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      6.  Dishes  and  other  equipment.
      Petri absorbers as shown in Figure 1.
     Flat-bottom colorimetric cups made of colorless
glass, 120 mm high and 13 mm inside diameter.
     Pipettes 1, 2, 5, 10 ml as per COST 1770-51.
     Microburette, 2 ml, as per COST 1770-51.
     Flasks, volumetric, 250 and 100 ml, as per
COST 1770-51.
     Bottles, reagent, of white and dark colors.
     Aspirator or dust suction pump.
     Flowmeter up to 2 li min. capacity.
     Rubber tubing, pinchcocks, and clamps.

                        III.  Air Sample Collecting
      m.
Fig. 1. Petri
    Absorber
     7.  Ammonia is aspirated through two Petri absorbers at the rate of
1 li/min.j each absorber should contain 10 ml of 0.01 N. sulfuric acid.
     If the concentration of ammonia in the air is close to the limit of
allowable concentration, then it becomes necessary to pass through the
absorbers between 1 - 2 li of the air.  If the ammonia concentration in the
air is below the limit of allowable concentration, then a correspondently
greater volume of air should be aspirated thru the Petri absorbers.
                         IV.  Analytical Procedure
     8.  Content of each absorber is analyzed individually as follows:
Take 5 ml °f the solution from each Petri absorber and place into colorimetric
tubes.  Simultaneously prepare a standard series as described in the table
below.  Add to all test tubes and to the standard scale 0.5 ml of Nessler's
reagent; shake the tubes for five minutes and compare with the standard table..
      Compute the quantity of ammonia  in mg/li of  air  (X) using the formula
belowt
                                X-GV1
                                     v  vb  .1000
 in which  0-  represents gammas  of ammonia  in the tested volume taken from the
 first Petri  absorber;
          V - represents ml  of  the  sample  taken for analysis.
          V,  - represents ml of the sample in the first Petri absorber.
                                     — 4—

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         1/1000 - is the coefficient of y conversion to ml.
         V  - is li of air
          o  .
taken for analysis, reduced to normal
pressure and temperature according to the formula belowi
                                  V,  273 P
                                   X
                             V6 " 1273 +
in which V. - represents li of air taken for analysis.
           v
         t - is the air temperature at the point of sample collecting.
         P - is the barometric pressure in mm mercury.
     In calculating V  use can be made of the table of coefficients for
different temperatures and pressures.  In adjusting volume V^ to standard
temperature and pressure multiply its value by the corresponding coefficient.

                              Standard Scale
TUIE NUMIER
ML OF AMMONIA
SOLN. NO. 3.
ML OF AMMONIA
SOLN. NO. 2
ML OF 0.01 N.
60LN. OF SUL-
FURIC ACII
AMMONIA IN Y
1
— '
—
5,0
— •
a
0,1
— '
4,9
1,0
s.
0,2
—
4,8
2.0
4
0,3.
— -
4,7
3,0
5
0.4
—
4.6
4,0
6
0,5
—
4.5
5,0
7
0.6
. —
4.4
6.0
8
0,7
—
4.3
7,0
9
0.8
•—
4,2
8.0
10
0.9
—
4,1
9,0
.11
—
0.1
4.9
10.0
12
—
0.2
4,8
20,0
13
—
0,3
4.7
30,0
M
—
0,4
4.6
40.0
IS
—
0,5
4.5
60.0
     Ammonia concentration in the second Petri absorber is determined by the
above described procedure.  Final concentration of ammonia in the air is
determined by adding the results obtained for absorbers, Nos. 1 and 2.
   NOTES:  1.  If preliminary tests indicated that a single scale series would
suffice, then the scale prepared from solution No. 2 or from solution No. 3
alone can be used.
     2.  Colorimetric comparison can be made using a universal photometer or
a photocolorimeter equipped with a blue filter.
     3.  Air sample collecting can be done with any of the absorbers depicted
in Figures 1, 2, or 3.  (See following pages).
                                     -4-

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     4.  In the absence of HgCl, Nessler's reagent can be prepared using
    .  The reagent is prepared as follows:  Dissolve 10 g of Hgl, in 10 ml
of water by thorough grinding in a mortar.  Pour into a dark glass flask,
rinse the mortar with a small volume of water and add to the flask 5 g of KI.
Dissolve 20 g of NaOH in 10 ml of distilled water, cool and add to the same
flask.  Bring volume up to 100 ml in a volumetric flask using distilled water;
leave standing in the dark for several days to allow excess of salts of mer-
cury to settle to the bottom of the flask; pour the clear supernatent fluid
into a clean dark colored bottle and store in the dark.
             Quantitative Determination of Sulfur Dioxide in the Air
     Approved by the USSR Chief State Sanitary Inspector V. M. Zhdanov,
                         May 7, 1958, No. 122-1/199
     The method is applicable to the determination of sulfur dioxide in the
air of industrial premises for sanitary control purposes.
                                I. General
     1.  By this method sulfur dioxide is oxidized to sulfurio acid, and the
latter determined as lead sulfate in water-alcohol medium.
     2.  The sensitivity of the method is 2 y SOg per analyzed solution volume.
     3.  Hydrogen sulfide interferes with the determination.
     4.  The limit of allowable SO,, concentration in the air is 0.01 mg/li
according to regulation No. 2?9~59 approved January 10,  1959*
                        II.  Reagents and Apparatus
     5.  Reagents and solutions required!
     Lead nitrate, 10$ solution, prepared according to COST 4236-46.  Dissolve
10 g of lead nitrate in 100 ml of water; filter twice thru the same double
thickness filter paper.
     HNOp 1% solution, prepared by using COST 4461-48 nitric acid of 1.340
sp.gr.
                                     -5-

-------
     Alcoholic solution of lead nitrate.  Add 0.8 ml of 1% nitric acid and
80 ml of ethylol to 20 ml of 10% aqueous lead nitrate solution; shake well
and store.  Solution should be free from turbidity.
     All reagents and the distilled water must be sulfate ion-free.
     Potassium chlorate of GOST 4235-48 purity; 3$ solution prepared from
recrystallized salt.
     Ethylol, 96° redistilled according to GOST 5962-5.
     Potassium sulfate of GOST 4145-48 purity.
Standard stock solution No. 1 should contain 100 Y/ml of S02, it is prepared
by dissolving 0.272 g of KgSO. in 1 li of distilled water.  Prepare standard
solution No. 2 by diluting stock solution No. 1 with the potassium chlorate
solution in 1:10 ratio; 1 ml of this solution contains 10 y of SO-.
     6.  Dishes and other equipment:                          i_   •   •    i
     Absorbers as depicted in Figure 1 or Figure 2.
     Colorimetric flat bottom cups made of colorless glass,
120 mm high and 15 mm inside diameter.
     Pipettes, 5 and 10 ml divided into 0.05 and 0.1 ml,
according to GOST 1770-51.
     Pipettes, 1 ml divided into 0.01 ml according to
GOST 1770-51.  Flasks, volumetric, 1000 and 100 ml
according to GOST 1770-51.
     Reagent bottles.
     Aspirators.
     Rubber tubing,  clamps and pinchcocks.
                                                              ISO
                         III.  Air Sample Collecting
Fig. 2. Absorber
with porous filter
       plate
     7;  Sulfur dioxide is absorbed by aspirating air through two consecu-
tively connected absorbers such as are shown in Figures 1 or 2; place into
each absorber 5 ml of the potassium chlorate solution.  Rate of air aspiration
should not exceed 25 li/hr.  Between 2 - 3 li of air should be aspirated,
depending upon the estimated concentration of S02 in the air,
                        IV»  Analytical Procedure
     8.  Analyze content of each absorber separately.  Make colorimetric
determination by placing into the colorimetric tubes 5 ml of the alcoholic
                                     -6-

-------
 lead nitrate solution and 2 ml of the sample solution;  Shake thoroughly.
 Simultaneously prepare a standard scale as shown in the table below.
               Standard Scale
STANOARI NO*
ML OF ALC. SOLN.
OF LEA*
NITRATE
ML OF POTASSIUM
80LFATE SOLN.
NO. 2
ML OF 3$ KCL
SOLN.
603 IN Y
0

5


0


0-
'

5


0.2

1,8
2.0
a

5


0.3

1.7
3.0
3

5


0,45

1.55
4.5
4

5


0.7

1.3
7.0
5

5


1,0

1.0
10,0
6

5


1.5

0,5
15.0
T

5


2.0

0.0
20.0
                                                           Shake all tubes
                                                      thoroughly and allow to
                                                      rest 10 - 15 min. Com-
                                                      pare turbidities against
                                                      a black background.  The
                                                      control tube must be
                                                      free from turbidity.
                                                      Compute ml of  sulfur
                                                      dioxide per 1 li of air
                                                      (X) using the formula
below.
                                    G- V,
                                    V VQ 1000
In which G - represents gammas of sulfur dioxide in the first absorber
         V - represents ml of sample solution taken for analysis from the
first absorber.
         V^ - represents ml of absorber solution in the first absorber.
         1/1000 - is the coefficient of conversion of y "to ml.
         V  - represents li of air taken for analysis, adjusted to standard
conditions of temperature and pressure according to the following formula.
                                    V.  273 P
                                o '(273 + t) 760
In which V. represents li of air taken for analysis
          t - represents air temperature at the point of sample collecting.
          P - represents the barometric pressure in mm of mercury.
     In calculating V  use can be made of the table of coefficients for
different temperatures and pressures.  In adjusting V. to standard temperature
and pressure, its value is multiplied by the corresponding coefficient.
     Determine sulfur dioxide concentration in the second absorber by the
above described procedure.  Determine final concentration of sulfur dioxide
in the air by adding the results obtained for each of the two absorbers.
                                       -7-

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            Quantitative Determination of Hydrogen Sulfide in the Air
     Approved by the USSR Chief State Sanitary Inspector, V. M. Zhdanov,
                         May 7, 1958, No. 122-1/194.
     The method is applicable to the determination of hydrogen sulfide in
the air of industrial premises for sanitary control purposes.
                               I. General
     1.  The method is based on the fact that hydrogen sulfide is absorbed
from the air by sodium arsenite dissolved in a solution of ammonium carbonate.
A stable ammonium sulfate sol is formed which is converted to a silver sulfate
sol by the addition of silver nitrate; the silver sulfate sol is rapidly
reduced to silver sulfide, imparting to the solution a yellowish-brown color,
the intensity of which varies with the amount of silver sulfide in solution.
     2.  The sensitivity of the method is 2y in the analyzed volume.  Hydrogen
sulfide and sodium sulfide become rapidly oxidized in solution; therefore,
sodium thiosulfate should be used in preparing the standard scale.  In the
presence of silver nitrate sodium thiosulfate forms silver thiosulfate which
rapidly breaks down to silver sulfide in acid solution.
     The color of silver sulfide solutions formed from sodium thiosulfate is
identical with the color of silver sulfide solution formed from silver sulfate
sol.
     3.  The method is specific for hydrogen sulfide.
     4.  The limit of allowable H»S concentration in the air was set at 0.01
mg/li and approved by No. 279-59,  January 10,  1959.
                         II.  Reagents and Apparatus
     5.  Reagents and solutions requiredt
     Ammonium carbonate of GOST 3770-47 specifications.
     Sodium arsenite of analytical purity.  Sulfuric acid 1.82 - 1.83 sp. gr.
as per GOST 4204-48.  Silver nitrate of GOST 1277-401 specifications, 1%
solution in dilute sulfuric acid.   Sodium thiosulfate of GOST -4215-48 speci-
fications,  0.1 N.  solution.
     Starch,  soluble,  1% solution.
     Water, distilled.
     Prepare absorber solution as follows:  dissolve 5 g of ammonium carbonate

                                    -8-

-------
in  100 ml  of distilled water.  Add 2 g  of  sodium arsenatej after the  solution
clears transfer into a 1  li volumetric  flask and add distilled water  to the
mark.
     Silver nitrate, 1% solutions  Dissolve 1 g of silver nitrate in  90 ml
of  distilled water, and while mixing carefully add 10 ml of sulfuric  acid.
If  upon standing a silver sulfate precipitate is formed, remove it by filtra-
tion.
     Prepare standard solution No. 1, containing 100 Y/ml of hydrogen sulfide
as  follows:  Place 3 ml of 0.1 N. solution of sodium thiosulfate into a 100 ml
volumetric flask, add distilled water to the mark and mix.  This solution
will keep for 10 days.
     Prepare standard solution No. 2, containing 10 f/ml of hydrogen  sulfide,
from standard solution No. 1 by diluting it 1:10 with distilled water.  This
solution will keep from 1 to 2 days.
     6.  Dishes and other equipment:
     Absorber, as shown in figures 1, 2, or 3.
     Plat-bottom colorimetric cups 120 ml  high and
15 mm inside diameter made of clear glass.
     Pipettes, 5 and 10 ml of GOST 1770-57 specifications.
     Pipettes, 1 ml divided into 0.01 ml,  of GOST 1770-51
specifications.
     Flasks, volumetric 100 and 1000 ml, of GOST 1770-51
specifications.  Beakers,  chemical, 200 ml, of GOST
3184-46 specifications.  Flasks, glass of GOST 3184-46
specifications.
     Droppers of NKTP 4017 specifications.
     Bottles,  reagent.
     Aspirator or air blower with flowmeter;  rubber tubing,
clamps and pinchcocks.
Fig. 3.
Rykhter absor-
         ber.
                         III.  Air Sample Collecting
     7.  Aspirate the air through the absorber solution at the rate of
15 - 20 li/hr using two consecutively connected absorbers, such as shown in
Figure 1. } or at the rate of 30 to 40 li/hr, using absorbers shown in Figures
2 or 3.  Each absorber should contain 10 ml of the absorber solution.  Two -
                                     -9-

-------
three li of air are sufficient for the determination of the limit of allow-
able concentration of hydrogen sulfide in the air.
                         IV.  Analytical Procedure
     8.  Analyze solution of each absorber separately.  For the analysis of
the content in the first absorber take 1 and 5 ml of the solution; take
5 ml of the solution from the second absorber.  Where 1 ml of the tested
solution is used, it should be diluted to 5 ml by the addition of 4 ml of
fresh absorber solution.
     Simultaneously prepare the standard scale as shown in the table below.
                               Standard Scale
TUIE NUMIER
ML OF STAN1ARI
SOLN. NO. 2
(lOy HgS/ML)
Ml OF SOLN. NO. 1.
(lOO Y HgS/ML)

ML OF AISORIER
SOLN.
H2s IN Y
0


—


—

5
0
1


0.2


—

4.8
2
2


0.3


—

4.7
3
3


0.4


— *

4.6
4
4


0.5


—

4,5
5
5


0,6


— •

4,4
6
6


0.7


—

4.3
7
7


0.6


—

4.2
8
t


0.9


—

4.1
9
9


1,0


-"

4.0
10
10


—


0.2

4,8
20
II


—


0,3

4.7
30
12


' —


0,4

4,«
40
     Add 1 drop of the starch solution and 1 drop of the silver nitrate solu-
tion to all test tubes containing the samples and the standard scale, and
determine colorimetrically after 5 minutes.
     Calculate hydrogen sulfide in ml/li of air (X) using the following for-
mula:
                                  G V,
                                  V VQ 1000
in which G - represents gammas of hydrogen sulfide present in the volume of
analyzed sample in the first absorbers.
         V - represents ml used in the determination;
         V, - ml of solution in the first absorber;
                                    -10-

-------
         1/1000 - is the coefficient of Y conversion to ml.
                                                x
         VQ  - is li of air taken for analysis after adjusting to standard
temperature and atmospheric pressure according to the equation below:
                                   V. 273 P
                               V    *
                                   (273 + t; 760
in which the V. - represents li of air taken for analysis;
              P - represents the barometric pressure in mm of mercury at the
point of sample collecting.
              t - represents the air temperature at the point of air sample
collecting.
     Air volume can be adjusted to standard temperature and atmospheric
pressure by multiplying the value of V.  by a corresponding coefficient taken
from a table of coefficients prepared for the purpose.
     Quantitative Determination of Carbon Bisulfide Vapor in the Air

     Approved by the USSR Chief State Sanitary Inspector,  V. M.  Zhdanov,
                         May 7, 1958, No. 122-1/201
     The method is applicable to the determination of carbon bisulfide  in
the air of industrial premises for sanitary control purposes.
                                I. General
     1.  The method is based on the fact that in the presence of copper
acetate carbon bisulfide reacts with diethylamine or with  piperidine  to form
dithiocarbamate of copper which has a yellow-brown color.
     2.  The sensitivity of the method is 0.5 Y Per analyzed solution volume.
     3.  The method is non-specific in the presence of hydrogen  sulfide or
thiocetic acid.
     4.  The limit of allowable concentration of carbon bisulfide gas in  the
air was set at 0.01 mg/li by regulation No.  279~59 issued  January 10, 1959*
                         II.  Reagents and Apparatus
     5.  Reagents and solutions required:
                                   -11-

-------
     Lead acetate  of GOST  5852-51  specifications, 0.05$  solution  in alcohol,
freshly prepared.
     Carton bisulfide,  synthetic of GOST 1541-42 specifications,  redistilled,
of b. p. 46°.
     Diethylamine  or piperidine, of 55.5° and  108° b. p. respectively;  1.5$
freshly prepared alcoholic solution.
     Ethylol, redistilled  according to GOST 592-51 specifications.
     Standard stock solution of carbon bisulfide No. 1, prepared  as follows!
Place 20 ml of 1.5$ alcoholic solution of diethylamine or piperidine into a
25 ml volumetric flask, stopper and weigh on analytical balance;  add 1-2
drops of carbon bisulfide  and weigh again; the difference between the two
weights is the weight of the carbon bisulfide; add 1.5$ alcoholic solution of
diethylamine or of piperidine to the mark; stopper and mix well.
     Standard carbon bisulfide solution No. 2 of 10 Y/ml °f carbon bisulfide;
prepare by diluting standard stock solution No. 1 with 1.5$ of alcoholic
solution of diethylamine or piperidine as required.
     Methyl red of appropriate intensity can be used instead of carbon bisul-
fide solutions; it is prepared as follows: weigh exactly 0.05 g of methyl red
of GOST 5853-51 specification and place into a 100 ml volumetric  flask.  Add
2 ml of freshly prepared 5$ NaOH free of color and shake; add distilled water
to the 100 ml mark and  shake thoroughly.  Take 1.8 ml of the prepared solution
and place into another  100 ml volumetric flask; add 0.1 N. NaOH to the 100 ml
mark.  One nil of this solution is equivalent to 10 y of carbon bisulfide.
When using methyl red,  prepare a standard scale grading up to 20 y °f carbon
bisulfide.  At concentrations exceeding 20 Y "the color produced by carbon
bisulfide and methyl red differs sufficiently to render the comparison unsuit-
able.
     6.  Dishes and other equipment:
     Absorbers, such as shown in Figures 1 and 2.
     Colorimetric flat bottom cups, 120 mm high and 15 mm inside diameter,
made of clear colorless glass.
     Pipettes,  3, 5, and 10 ml,  also 1 ml divided into 0.01 ml, of GOST 1770-51
specifications.
     Flask,  volumetric,  25, 50 and 100 ml,  of GOST 1770-51 specifications.
                                     -12-

-------
     Aspirators or air blowers with flowmeters.
     Rubber tubing, clamps and pinchcooks.
                        III...  Air Sample Collecting
     Aspirate the air through 2 consecutively connected absorbers, such as
shown in Figures 1 and 2, at the rate of 30 li/hr; absorbers should contain
10 ml of 1.5$ of alcoholic solution of diethylamine or piperidine.  Absorbers
must be submerged into ice water while the air samples are collected.
     If the tested air contained carbon bisulfide in concentration close to
the allowable limit, aspirate only 2 - 3 li of the air.
                         IV.  Analytical Procedure
     8.  Analyze content of each absorber separately.  Make colorimetric
determination as follows:  take 1 and 5 ml from absorber No. 1 and 5 ml from
absorber No. 2 and place into separate colorimetric cups properly marked.
     Add to the colorimetric tube containing 1 ml of the tested solution
4 ml of fresh absorber solution.  Replace volume for volume any solution that
has evaporated from the absorbers in the course of air aspiration with 1.5$
of alcoholic solution of diethylamine or piperidine.
     Simultaneously prepare standard scale according to the following table.
                              Standard Scale
TUIE NimiER
ML OF STANIARO SOLN. i-
(lOYCSj/ML)
ML OF AI60RIER SOLD.
cs2 IN Y
0

0
5
0
i

0,05
4.95
0,5
2

0.1
4.9
1'
3

0,2
4,8
2
4

0.3
4.7
3
6

0.4
4.6
4
6

0.5
4.5
5
7

0.6
4.4
6
8

0,7
4.3
7
9

0.8
4.2
8
10

0.9
4.1
9
11

1.0
4.0
10
                           Artificial Standard Scale
TUIE MHHIER
ML OF METHYL REI
(iOY"t)
ML OF O.L N. AQUEOUS
NAOH SOLN.
CS2 ill V
0
0

5
0
i
0,05

4,95
0,5
2
0,1

4,9
1
3
0,2

4,8
2
4
0,3

4.7
3
5
0,4

4.6
4
6
0.5

4,5
5
r
0,6

4,4
6
8
'0.7

4,3
7
9
0.8

4,2
8
10
0,9

4,1
9
11
1.0

4.0
10
                                     -13-

-------
     Add 0.5 ml of 0.05$ of alcohol solution of lead acetate to all tubes,
shake for five minutes and compare colorimetrically.
     The standard scale prepared with methyl red can be used up to a certain
carbon bisulfide concentration, as was previously indicated.  The methyl
red scale can be prepared as shown in the table above.
     Calculate the carbon bisulfide concentration in mg/li of air (X) using
the following formula:
                              .   GV1
                                  V VQ 1000
in which G - represents gammas of carbon bisulfide in the analyzed sample
volume taken from the first absorber.
         V - represents ml taken for analysis.
         V, - represents 'ml of the tested solution.
         1/1000 - is the coefficient of y conversion to ml.
         V  - represents li of air taken' for analysis and adjusted to
standard conditions of temperature and barometric pressure according to the
following formula:
                               V
     V  273 P
o " (273 + t) 760
In which V. - represents li of air taken for analysis}
         t -  represents the temperature of air at the point of sample
collecting;
          P - represents barometric pressure in mm of mercury, at the point
of sample collecting.
     Determine carbon bisulfide concentration in the second absorber by the
above described procedure.  Determine final concentration of carbon bisulfide
in the air by adding results obtained for each of the two absorbers.
     NOTE:  Hydrogen sulfide interfered with the determination of carbon
bisulfide, due to the fact that in the presence of lead acetate it formed a
colored solution.  Where the simultaneous presence in the air of hydrogen sul-
fide is suspected the tested air should be passed through I or 2 absorbers
each containing 10 ml of 0.2$ of sodium arsenite in ammonium carbonate
solution, before final aspiration.  Hydrogen sulfide is completely absorbed
by sodium arsenite in ammonium carbonate solution, while carbon bisulfide
                                     -14-

-------
passes through such a solution without "being absorbed.
     Thus, the method of differential absorption makes possible the separate
determination of hydrogen sulfide and carbon bisulfide simultaneously present
in the air.
     Volume V  can be derived by using temperature and atmospheric coefficients
shown in appropriate tables.  In adjusting the volume to standard temperature
and pressure multiply V, by the corresponding correction coefficient.
           Quantitative Determination of Hydrogen Cyanide in the Air
     Approved by the USSR Chief State Sanitary Inspector, V. 14. Zhdanov,
                     September 30, 1959, No. 122-1/325

     The method is applicable to the determination of hydrocyanic gas in
the air of industrial premises for sanitary control purposes.
                               I.  General
     1.  In alkaline medium and in the presence of sodium tetrathionate at
50 - 55  hydrocyanic acid and its salts form sodium thiocyanide.  In the
presence of iron chloride the latter forms iron thiocyanide which possesses
red or yellowish-red color.
     Hydrogen cyanide concentration is determined colorimetrically by the
intensity of the iron thiocyanide solution.
     2.  The sensitivity of the method is 2y per colorimetric volume.
     3.  The presence of acetates, sulfides and sulfites interferes with the
determination.
     4.  The limit of allowable concentration of hydrogen cyanide in the  air
was set at 0.0003 mg/li according to regulation No.  279-59,  January 10,  1959.
                        II.  Reagents and Apparatus
     5.  Reagents and solutions required:
     Sodium hydroxide 0.1 N. solution of COST 4328-48 specifications.
     Ammonium thiocyanide of GOST 3768^47 specifications.
                                     -15-

-------
     Silver nitrate, 0003 N. solution, of 1277-41 specifications.
     Nitric acid, 4 N. solution of GOST 4461-48 specifications.
     Ferric ammonium sulfate (ferric ammonium alum), 4$ solution, of
GOST 4205-48 specifications.
     Ammonia, 10% solution, of GOST 3760-47 specifications.
     Ethylol, redistilled, of GOST 5962-51 specifications.
     Sodium thiosulfate, of GOST 4215-48 specifications.
     Distilled water.
     Prepare No. 1 standard stock solution of ammonium thiocyanide as follows:
dissolve 2 g of ammonium thiocyanide in 1 li of distilled water.
     Determine the exact content of ammonium thiocyanide in the solution by
titration with 0.03 N. solution of silver nitrate, using 40% solution of
iron ammonium alum as the indicator.
     Prepare No. 2 standard solution of ammonium thiocyanide by diluting stan-
dard stock solution No. 1 so that 1 ml will contain 20 y of ammonium thio-
cyanide.
     Prepare the iron chloride solution by dissolving 55 S °f *ne reagent in
1 li of distilled water.  Add 0.5 ml of concentrated nitric acid for each
li of the solution.
     Prepare sodium tetrathionate from sodium thiosulfate and crystalline
iodine as follows:  thoroughly grind 15 g of sodium thiosulfate and 9 g of
sublimated iodine in a mortar.
     Add a few drops of water and grind to complete homogeneity} add 10 - 15
ml of ethylol to precipitate the formed sodium tetrathionate} filter off the
liquid using a Buchner filter and vacuum suction.
     Wash the dry precipitate on the filter with 0.5 - 1.0 ml of alcohol
until no trace of iodine remains.  The precipitated sodium tetrathionate should
be of a pale creamy color; air dry and use for the preparation of a 1% solution.
Kept in the dark this solution can be used for 7 or 10 days.  If a precipitate
forms in the solution discard it and make a new preparation.
     6.  Dishes and other equipment:
     Absorbers such as are shown in Figures 1,  2 or 3.
     Flat bottom colorimetric tubes of colorless glass, 120 mm high, and
15 mm inside diameter.
                                   -16-

-------
     Pipettes, 5 mm^ divided  in^o O.i  or 0.05 ml,  of  GOST  1770-51  specifications.
     Pipettes, 1 ml, divided  into 0.01 ml,  of GOST 1770-51 specifications.
     Burettes,'50 ml, of GOST 1770-51  specifications.
     Cylinder graduates, 100  ml, of GOST 1770-51 specifications.
     Flasks, volumetric, 1000.and.,100  ml, of GOST  1770-51  specifications.
     Reagent bottles
     Thermometer, chemical, up to -100°, of  GOST 215-41 specifications;
     Mortar, porcelain, of GOST 900-41 specifications.
     Flasks, conical, (Erlenmeyer)-, 250 ml, of GOST 3184-46  specifications.
     Funnel, Buchner medium size.
     Waterbath.   <     •'.••..
     Aspirators or air-blowers with flowmeter.
     Rubber tubing, clamps'-and pinchcocks  :      -  -
                         III. ' Air Sample Collecting
     7.  Aspirate the air at  the rate  of 25 li/hr  through  the consecutive
absorbers each containing 5 ml of;0.1  N. solution  of NaOH.' '
    : If .the hydrocyanide. rconcentration in the air  is close to the  limit of
allowable concentration, aspirate only 15 - 20 li  of-air.              ••••
                       IV.  The Analytical Procedure
   ,8..  In making the analysis place  into  the colorimetric  tube 3.5 ml of the
sample; simultaneously prepare the standard scale, as shown,in the table below.
TtflE HOMIER
HI Of NH4 SCN SOU.
No. 2
O.i N. NAOH SOLI.

HCN III y
1
0
3,5
0

2
0,19
3.31
2.0

3
0.24
3.26
2,6

4
0,31
3,19
3.4

s
0.41
3.09
4.4

6
0,53
2.97
5.7

7
0.69
2.81
7.4

8
0,90
2,60
9.6

D
1.17
2.33
12.5

10
1,52
1,98
16.3

II
2.13
1.37
21,2

12
2.77
0.73
27.5

     Place into all tubes 0.15 ml of 10$  solution of ammonia  and 0.5 ml  of
the sodium tetrathionate solution.  Mix well and heat for 5 minutes on a
waterbath at 50 - 55°} cool to room temperature.  Do not raise  the tempera-
ture above 55  to avoid decomposition of  the sodium tetrathionate.  After
cooling add to all the tubes 1 ml of 4 N. solution of nitric  acid, 0.2 ml  of
                                    r-17-

-------
iron chloride, mix and compare colorimetrically at once.  The color of iron
thiocyanide will keep for 10 to 13 minutes.
     Calculate the hydrogen cyanide concentration in mg/li of air (X) with
the aid of the following foroulai
                                   0 V,
                               X -
                                   V V  1000
                                      o               .
In which G - represents gammas of hydrogen cyanide in the analyzed sample
volume}
         V - represents ml used in the analysis}
         V. - represents ml of the air sample}
         1/1000 - is the coefficient of Y conversion to ml}
         V  - represents li of air adjusted to normal temperature and
barometric pressure, according to the equation shown below.

                               V  - Vt  273 p
                                o
                                    C273 * t; 760
In which V^ - represents li of air aspirated for analysis.
         P  - represents the barometric pressure in mm of mercury at the
point of sample taking}
         t - represents the air at the point of sample taking}
         V, - can be easily determined by multiplying the value of V^ by the
appropriate temperature correction factor found in a suitable correction
coefficient table.
                                   -18-

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           Quantitative Determination of Carbon Monoxide in the Air
      Approved by the USSR Chief State Sanitary Inspector, V. M.  Zhdanov,
       .   . •   .  .         ..May ,7, 1958, No.  122-1/195
      The method is applicable  to the  determination of carbon monoxide  in  the
 air of industrial premises for sanitary control purposes.
                                I.   General
      1.   The method is based on the fact that  carbon  monoxide  is oxidized by
 iodic anhydride according to the following equation:               •
                             5CO + I2o5 - 5C02  + I2
 The carbon dioxide formed is absorbed by a solution of barium  hydroxide
 according to the following equation.
     .......                B_a(QH)2 + C02-.  BaC03 +  HgO .      .          ..•-.-.
      Excess  of barium hydroxide is titrated with hydrochloric  acid.
     ,2.   The sensitivity of the method is  1.4  Y in the sample  volume under
 study. -•-"•'•'.-
      3.   The limit of allowable CO concentration in the air differs with  the
 duration of  the polluted air inhalation, as shown  in  the table below.
                                                        Repeated  subjection  to
                                                   the inhalation of high  car-
                                                   bon monoxide.concentrations
                                                   in  the working premises may
                                                   be  permitted at intermittent
 intervals as specified in: regulation  Ho. 279-59 approved January 10, 1959»
                         II.  Reagents and  Apparatus
:      4.   Reagents,  solutions and other materials.
      Iodic anhydride (iodine pentpxide), of 3775-47,,or.iodic  acid of.     .
 COST 4213-46 specifications..                         ,
      Barium  chloride,  of GOST  4108-48.specifications.                       ,
      Barium  hydroxide,  0.01 N.  solution, of COST 4107-48 specifications.
      Hygroscopic cotton,  fat free,  of GOST 5556-50 specifications.
      Glass wool.
      Distilled water.
IURATION OF EXPOSURE
CO COMEJITRATIORIIN HI/LI
• ',
0,03
I
0,05
•/•
0.1
V.-V,
0.2
                                      -19-

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     Potassium iodide, of GOST 4232-48 specifications.
     Hydrochloric acid, 0.01 N. solution, of GOST 3118-46 specifications.
     Sulfuric acid, 1.820-1.835 sp. gr., of GOST 4204-48 specifications.
     Sodium hydroxide, of GOST 4328-48 specifications.
     Copper filings, electrolytic.
     Granulated pumice, washed and calcined.
     Bthylol, redistilled, of GOST 5962-51 specifications.
     Silicagel, of GOST 3956-51 specifications, calcined at a temperature not
exceeding 400°.
     Phenolphthalein, of GOST 5850-51 specifications.
     Prepare the 0.01 N. barium hydroxide solution with distilled water.
Close the flask containing the prepared barium hydroxide solution with a
two-hole stopper; insert a glass siphon extending to the bottom of the flask
through one hole; insert a short glass tube into the other stopper hole to
extend just below the stopper; connect its outside upper end with a drying
and purifying apparatus filled with soda lime.  Shut off the purifying tubes
by tightening the pinchcocks at each end .of the purifying apparatus.  (See
Fig. 4)*   Place into the flask the desired volume of 1% aqueous solution of
                        barium chloride and 4.0 - 4.5 g of Ba(OH)2, which is
                        in excess of the calculated amount, to allow for the
                        barium carbonate frequently present in the barium
                        hydroxide;  Shake the flask several times through the
                        day and leave rest until the barium hydroxide settles
                        to the bottom of the flask; siphon off the clear
                        solution into  another bottle the air of which has
                        been replaced by carbon dioxide-free air using the
                        purifying set shown in Fig. 4.  Determine the barium
                        hydroxide titre with the aid of a standardized 0.01 N.
solution of hydro-chloric acid.  Prepare the latter as described in any text
book of analytical chemistry, taking the necessary precautions to prevent
contact between the Ba(OH)2 solution and air containing CO,,.  Two ml of the
barium hydroxide should consume 2 ml of the 0.01 N. hydrochloric acid.
     Dissolve 0.5 g of phenolphethalein in 100 ml of ethylol and add 50 ml
of water.
     Prepare granulated iodic anhydride (iodine pentoxide) as follows»
Fig. 4.  Purifying
   apparatus.
                                     -20-

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place powdered iodic anhydride into a porcelain dish, moisten with distilled
water and evaporate over a waterbath, while stirring constantly with a glass
rod.  As the water gradually evaporates iodic anhydride granules of 2 - 3 nan
will form.  Place 8 - 10 g of the granulated iodic anhydride into a V-shaped
tube connected with the apparatus for the determination of the carbon monoxide.
Prior to making the determination, COg-free air is heated to 140 - 150 , is
forced through a Y-shaped tube until all traces of COp and of moisture have
been removed.  Heat the COp-free air to 180 - 200° and force it through the
entire system for 2 hours.  The iodic anhydride is now ready for use in the
analytical procedure.  Iodic anhydride prepared from iodic acid is rendered
granular as described above, poured into the V-shaped tube and heated in the
furnace to 230 - 240° while constantly forcing the air through the tube for
2-3 hours to drive off all free iodine and moisture.  Check the oxidizing
property of the iodic anhydride with the aid of air samples containing known
concentrations of carbon monoxide.  Methods used in such procedures are de-
scribed by M. V. Alekseeva e_t al in a book entitled, "Determination of
Harmful Substances in the Air of Industrial Premises - Goskhimizdat, M. 1954,
Page 213.
     Prepare electrolytic copper as followsi  wash 8 - 10 g of copper filings
with ether to remove all dust; dry the filings at room temperature and place
into a V-shaped tube of 2 - 3 mm inside diameter; plug the tube with glass
wool and place into the furnace at a temperature not exceeding 100°, all the
while forcing carbon monoxide-free air through it for 20 - 30 min.
                  Pig.  5.  Apparatus for CO oxidation
                                    -21-

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     5.  Dishes and other equipment:
     Apparatus for carbon monoxide oxidation to carbon dioxide, as shown
in Pig. 5.
     Aspirator, 5 - 10 li capacity.
     Bottles, 1 - 2 li capacity with two-hole stopper and glass tubes as
previously described and as shown in Pig. 6, equipped with rubber tubing,
glass rods and pinchcocks.
     Rubber bulbs.
     Bottle to hold the barium hydroxide solution, arranged as shown in
Pig. 7.
     Box
     Pinchcocks
     Inside rubber part of a football
     Droppers, of NETP 4017 specifications
     Micrometric screw for the pneumatic burette
     Microabsorbers, as shown in Pig. 8
                                           II
    Pig. 6. Air  Sample
    collecting bottle for
    CO determination.
Pig. 7. Apparatus
 for BaOH solution.
     Microburette,  as  shown  in Pig. 9-
     Microscrewcock
     Bicycle  pump
     Purifying assembly,  as  shown  in Pig. 4
Pig. 8. Microabsorber
                                    -22-

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     Microabsorber stand, as shown in Fig. 10
     Absorbers, as shown in Pig. 1
     Pipettes, 2 ml divided into 0.01 1, of GOST 1770-51
    Pig. 9.  Shilov mioroburette
Fig. 10.  Microabsorber fastened
    to its base
     Mercury manometer
     Thermocouple up to 250°
     Cylinder graduates, 1 li capacity, of GOST 1770-51 specifications
     Porcelain dishes, of GOST 900-41 specifications
     Triple air purifying assembly, as shown in Pig. 4.
     The first tube receiving the air is filled with HgSO, saturated pumice;
add 10 - 20 ml of concentrated sulfuric acid and close it.  Draw off excess
of sulfuric acid the following day.
     Pill the second tube with %OH or with KOH and the third tube with
silicagel.
     Place small wads of cotton at the bottom of each tube to prevent the
material from getting into the connections.
     Place some hygroscopic cotton in the upper part of the tube containing
the silicagel, from which the air will flow continually into the microabsorber
to trap any dust originally contained in the examined air.
     Connect the three tubes with rubber tubing and fasten to a wooden stand
as shown in Fig. 4.  Connect the bottom bulb of the first tube to the left
by means of a rubber tube to the lower empty aspirator bottle.  Place the
second aspirator filled with water at a level above that of the empty bottle
to create air pressure.  Attach a small diameter rubber tube equipped with a
                                     -23-

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micropinchcock to the third tube.
     Set up the pneumatic microburette as follows:  use a 2 ml pipette of
smallest possible diameter divided into   0.01 ml the lower part of which is
drawn out into a capillary.  Any appropriate tube can be used for the purpose,
provided its length is 30 - 70 mm, and the inside diameter 0.1 mm.  Connect
the upper opening of the pipette to a rubber bulb by a rubber tubing of suit-
able diameter; place the rubber bulb in a position whereby the slightest turn
of the microscrew will exert pressure upon the bulb forcing out a small
volume of air.  (See Pig. .9).  By gradually turning the screw down and com-
pressing the rubber balloon the entire air can be forced out.  The capillary
end of the burette is then immersed into the titration solution,  and the micro-
screw turned up again, to create a vacuum in the microburette, thus, filling
it with the titration solution to any desired point.  In performing this
manipulation care must be exercised to prevent the formation of air bubbles.
The carbon monoxide oxidation apparatus is mounted on .a board shown in Pig. 5}
2 air purifying tubes are attached to the back of the toard as indicated in
Fig. 5 by the dotted lines.  The first tube is filled with sulfuric acid-
saturated pumice, as previously described.  The second tube is filled with NaOH
or KOH, also as previously described.  To the front side of the board attach
a manometer in the place indicated on the board by (9).  Attach 4 U-shaped
tubes as indicated by (5) in Pig. 5} the U-shaped tubes must be 200 mm long and
13 mm inside diameter.  The upper ends of the tubes are drawn out to 8 mm  and
are interconnected by means of appropriate U-shaped tubes indicated by (3) in
Pig. 4.
     Pill the first two U-shaped tubes with small lumps of NaOH or KOH,  and
the third U-shaped tube with silicagel$ fill the fourth tube, the one to "the
right, two-thirds with NaOH and one-third with hygroscopic cotton.  These
tubes must be completely filled.  A fifth U-shaped tube, 140 mm high and 7 mm
in.diameter, is filled with granulated iodic anhydride.  Place this tube (6)
into an electrically heated 150 x 150 x 30 mm compartment (l) equipped with a
flowmeter.  Heat the compartment to 120 - 130° as registered by a thermometer
(8) to effect oxidation of the carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide.  The
liberated iodine is trapped by the electrolytic copper or by the  crystalline
potassium iodide contained in the abosrber (7), which must be shielded from
                                     -24-

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sunlight.  Replace the yellow colored potassium iodide as required.
     Interconnect all tubes by rubber tubing as shown in Fig. 5.  Check .for
possible leakage before setting the apparatus in operation.  In doing this
connect the long tube of bottle (12) by means of rubber tubing with the siphon
inserted into a water-filled cylinder graduate placed above the upper level of
the mounting.  Place the cylinder firmly on a shelf to prevent it from falling
over.  When pinchcocks (14 and 15) are opened, some water will run from the
cylinder into bottle 12, which will create a gas pressure.  If all parts of the
apparatus are hermetically interconnected water in bottle (12) will come to a
stationary level.
     Connect the short tube of the bottle with the apparatus by releasing
pinchcock (13) but leaving pinchcock (ll) on the rubber tube (10) closed,
which connects absorber apparatus (7) with the microabsorber.  A slight amount
of water will enter bottle (12) from the elevated cylinder graduate, and,  if
the set up is leak-proof the water level in bottle (12) will remain constant.
In the presence of leaky points the water level in bottle (12) will continue
to rise.  Connect the short tube of bottle (12) with the apparatus and release
pinchcock (13) while pinchcock (ll) on rubber tube (10) remains1.closed.  Again,
a small amount of water will run into bottle (12) reaching a stationary level
if the apparatus is free from leaky points.  If the level in bottle (12) con-
tinues to rise, no matter how slowly, the apparatus is not hermetically sealed.
Exact point of leakage must be detected by checking individual sections of the
apparatus as previously described, or by moistening all joints with a thick
solution of soap and looking for the formation of soap bubbles.  Correct
detected leakage points and check the entire apparatus again, as previously
described.
     Assemble the setup for the preparation of barium hydroxide solution as
follows:  Use a 2 - 3 li capacity bottle equipped with a two hole rubber
stopper as shown in Fig. 7.  Insert into one hole a C^Cl- tube filled with
soda lime to absorb carbonic acid contained in the airj insert into the other
stopper hole a siphon connecting the solution bottle with a burette used for
filling the microabsorber; protect the upper opening of the microburette with a
CaCl^ tube filled with soda lime.   The microburette must be equipped with a
three-way stopcock and a side tube which is connected with the siphon.  Other
details of the assembly can be inferred from the drawing presented in Fig.  4.

                                    -25-

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                         III.  Air Sample Collecting
     Collect air  samples using a tightly sealed 1 - 2 li capacity bottle
filled with water.  Install the bottle at the point of sample collection.
Gradually  siphon  out the water leaving 20 - 30 ml; as the water is siphoned,
it is replaced by the sampled air; stopper the bottle tightly with a glass
rod or a pinchcock.  Transport the bottle containing the air sample to the
laboratory, and analyze at once or within 3-4 days, making sure that the
bottle was safely sealed.
     Air samples  can also be collected using leak-proof football casings
by pumping the air into them.  The football casing must be washed thoroughly
by filling and emptying it several times with the sampled air.  Air samples
thus collected should not be stored for longer than 2-3 days.  Transfer the
air sample into a glass container as follows:  equip glass bottle of suit-
able capacity with a two-hole stopper, a short tube and a long siphon as shown
in Pig. 71 connect the rubber football bag containing the air sample with the
short tube and release the pinchcockj open the long end of the siphon; as the
water is siphoned out of the bottle it is replaced by the air contained in the
inner football casing.  Any other suitable method can be used for transferring
the air sample from the football using the glass bottle.
                         IV.  Analytical Procedure
     Determine the equivalence of the barium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid
solution before starting the analysis.  Pill the microabsorbers with the
barium hydroxide  solution avoiding contamination with C02.  Force COp-free
air through the absorber for 60 seconds.  Run 2 ml of the barium hydroxide
solution and 1 drop of phenolphthalein into the microabsorbers avoiding contact
with the C02.
     Regulate the air flow to prevent absorber solution from being blown over
or sprayed over into the wider section of the microabsorber.  Run the absorber
solution into the first microabsorber, and connect it with the second microab-
sorber.  While continuing the flow of the CO^-free air,  fill the second micro-
absorber with the barium hydroxide solution,  and connect with the CaClp tube
containing soda lime, as shown in Pig. 10.   Rinse the pneumatic microburette
with 0.01 N. solution of hydrochloric acid,  fill with 2 ml of the acid, and
                                     -26-

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 titrate  the barium hydroxide solution in an atmosphere  of CO-free  air; titrate
 the  content of the second microabsorber first.  Establish the titration end
 point  against  a white background  at  the complete disappearance of  the solution
 color.   At  the end of the titration  dry the tip of the  burette with a piece of
 clean  filter paper.  According  to the specifications of barium hydroxide and
 hydrochloric acid  solution preparation 2 ml of the barium hydroxide solution
 should be equivalent to 2 ml  of the  hydrochloric acid solution.  Duplicate
 titration results  should  not  differ  by more than 0.01 ml  of the hydrochloric
 acid solution.  Make control  test  to check  the purity and cleanliness of the
 apparatus,  using CO-free  air.
     Note:   If difficulties are encountered in obtaining  CO-free air, the CO
 in the air  should  be oxidized to  CCL by any appropriate method, such, for
 instance as the Ip^S  method.
     Use CO-free air in determining  the apparatus purity  and in forcing out
 C0_  from the apparatus.    Pill  the bottle prepared for  the collection of the
 air  sample  with CO-free air,  then connect by means of a short rubber tube with
 the  CO oxidizing apparatus.   Connect the long tube of the bottle with the
 siphon of the  cylinder graduate which is filled with water. ' Test  the bottle
 and  apparatus  for  leaks as previously described.
     In making the control test heat  the  electric oven or furnace to 120 - 150°.
 Then fill the  apparatus with  400 ml  of  CO-free air for 15 - 20 minutes with
 all pinchcocks  released;  close pinchcock (ll) (See Pig. 5) of rubber tube (10)
 and  carefully note the water  level in the cylinder graduate or bottle contain-
 ing the CO-free air.  Connect the free  end  of the rubber tubing with the
     t  •
microabsorbers, each containing 2 ml  of the barium hydroxide solution.  Release
 the pinchcock and pass 500 ml of CO-free air through the apparatus for
 40 - 50 min.  Close all pinchcocks,  and disconnect the microabsorbers contain-
 ing the barium hydroxide solution from the apparatus,  connect with the air
purification system and titrate with hydrochloric acid solution in a CO-free
 atmosphere.   The barium hydroxide solution titre determined during testing the
apparatus purity is always lower than the direct solution titre.   The titre
drop should not exceed 0.01 - 0.02 ml of hydrochloric ,acid.  If the purity of
the apparatus was found inadequate, it should be washed once more by forcing
CO-free air through it.   The control test must be made  on the day of analysis.
                                    -27-

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After the control test has been performed. satisfactorily analysis of the air
sample is started.  The procedure is identical with the one described for
checking the apparatus purity.  Connect the bottle containing the air sample
with the apparatus via the short tube.  Connect the long tube of the bottle
with the siphon of the graduate cylinder.  Check the apparatus for leaks as
previously described.  Temperature of the electric heating chamber must not
exceed 120 - 150°.
     Within a period of 15 to 20 min. fill the apparatus with 400 ml of the air
with all pinchcocks released.  Close pinchcock (ll) on rubber tube (10)
attached to absorber (7) and carefully note the water levels in the graduate
cylinder and in the bottle containing the air sample.  Connect the two absor-
bers, each containing 2 ml of barium hydroxide solution, with the open end
of the apparatus rubber tubes successively.  Connect with the apparatus by
a procedure similar to the one used in the control test, that is connect the
narrow end of the first microabsorber with the rubber tube, which is in turn
connected with the apparatus.  Connect microabsorber No. 1 with microabsorber
No. 2 (See Fig. 10) which is connected with a Cacl2 tube filled with soda lime.
Now, release pinchcock (ll) (See Fig. 5) and force 500 ml of the air sample
through the absorbers over 40 - 50 minutes.  Close all the pinchcocks, and
disconnect the microabsorbers containing the barium hydroxide solution from
the apparatus and connect with the purifying system, as shown in Fig. 4*
Titrate the content of microabsorber No. 2 with hydrochloric acid solution in
a CO-free atmosphere.  Hydrochloric acid volumes consumed in titrating the
barium hydroxide solution in each of the absorbers are added.
     Compute CO in mg per 1 li of air (X) using the following formula!
                                   0.14 K (V,-V)
in which V, - represents ml of 0.01 N. solution of hydrochloric acid consumed
in the titration of 4 ml of barium hydroxide solution by passing CO-free air
through the apparatus;
                                                            •
          V - represents ml of 0.01 N. solution of hydrochloric acid consumed
in titrating 4 ml of barium hydroxide solution after passing the sample air
through the apparatus;
                                      -28-

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         0.14 - is the mg of CO equivalent of 1 ml standardized 0.01 N.
solution of hydrochloric acid;
            K - represents the correction coefficient for the adjustment of the
HC1 solution to exactly 0.01 N.
           V  - represents ml of air adjusted to standard temperature and
atmospheric pressure using the formula below.

                           ^."t
                                  (273 + t)760
in which V  - represents li of air taken for analysis;
          t - is the temperature of the premises where the sample is analyzed;
          P - represents the atmospheric pressure in mm of mercury;
          p - represents the reading of the apparatus manometer.
     In calculating V  use can be made of temperature and pressure coefficient
(K) found in tables, in which case Vt « VQ x K
     Note 1.  If CO concentration exceeds 0.04 mg/li, the apparatus should be
thoroughly flushed with CO-free air, and a check test made to determine the
apparatus purity.
     Note 2.  After each determination the microabsorbers should be washed
with tap water, thoroughly brushed, and followed by a rinse in distilled water
and placed in the drying oven.  Heavily soiled microabsorbers or absorbers which
remain soiled after washing and brushing as above described should be submerged
in 5 - 10$ of hydrochloric acid for several hours.  They should then be thor-
oughly rinsed with distilled water, steamed and dried as above described.
Tested air containing 2% or more of COp,  should be passed through a tube
containing lumps of NaOH before it is forced through the collection apparatus.
                                  -29-

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            Quantitative Determination of Mercury Vapor in the Air

     Approved by the USSR Chief State Sanitary Inspector,  V.  M.  Zhdanov,
                         May 7, 1958, No. 122-1/196.

     The method is applicable to the determination of mercury vapor in the
air of industrial premises for sanitary control purposes.
                                I.  General
     1.  The method is based on the fact that formation of CuI.Hglp in
solution is accompanied by the development  of a red color.  This compound
becomes mixed with the simultaneously formed copper iodide and in the presence
of mercury also formed a colorless substance.  (The formula for mercuric  cuprous
iodide is given in the Sixth edition of Merck's index as HgI2.2CuI. B.S.L.).
     2.  The sensitivity of the method is 0.3 y °f mercury in the analyzed
volume.
     3.  The reaction is nonspecific in the presence of mercuric chloride and
organic mercury compounds.
     4.  The limit of allowable concentration of mercury in the air was set
at 0.00001 mg/li by regulation No. 279-59,  January 10, 1959.
                         II.  Reagents and  Apparatus
     5.  Reagents and solutions required.
     Iodine, crystalline, of GOST 4159-48 specifications.
     Iodine, 0.1 N. solution.
     Sodium sulfite, of GOST 429-41 specifications.
     Potassium iodide, of GOST 4232-48 specifications.
     Mercuric chloride, of GOST 4519-48 specifications, or
     Mercuric iodide, of GOST 3206-46 specifications.
     Copper chloride, 1% solution, of GOST  4267-48 specifications,  or
     Copper sulfate 10$ solution, of GOST 4165-48 specifications.
     Sodium thiosulfate 0.1 N. solution, of GOST 4215-48 specifications
     Starch 0.5$ solution
     Distilled water
     Hydrochloric acid, 10$ solution, of GOST 3118-46 solutions.
     Prepare the absorber solution as follows:  dissolve 2.5  g of pure sublimated
                                      -30-

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iodine and 30 g  of potassium  iodide  in a  small volume  of water in a  1 li
volumetric flask; shake  and add  distilled water to the  1000 ml mark.
     Prepare 2.5 - 3.0 N.  sodium sulfite  solution from  a saturated solution
at low temperature;  check  normality  iodometrically.
     Place into  a glass  flask 35 - 40 ml  of 0.1 N. iodine solution,  1 ml of
10$ hydrochloric acid and  1 ml of the saturated clear  sodium sulfite solution)
mix for about 2-3  min. and  titrate back excess of iodine with a 0.1 N.
sodium thiosulfate solution with starch as the indicator.  Simultaneously
titrate 35 - 40  ml of 0.1  N.  sodium thiosulfate solution and determine the
difference in titration  results;  the latter represents  the amount of 0.1 N.
sodium iodide solution consumed  by 1 ml of the sodium sulfite.  1 ml of the
2.5 - 3.0 N. sodium  sulfite solution should be consumed by 25 - 30 ml of
0.1 N. iodine solution.
     Prepare the "composite"  or  combined  solution as follows!
     Place into  a. cylinder graduate a given volume of 1% lead chloride
solution or 10$  lead sulfate  solution;  add 5 volumes of 2.5 - 3.0 N. sodium
sulfite gradually and with constant stirring and mix with a glass rod until
the formed precipitate completely dissolves.  Pour some of this solution into
a graduate burette for use in the analysis.  Prepare the "composite" solution
immediately before making  the analysis.
     Standard solution No. 1  contains 100 Y/m^ °^ mercury; it is prepared by
using 0.0135 g of mercuric chloride of 0.0226 g of mercuric iodide dissolved
in a small volume of absorber solution; after thoroughly shaking add absorber
solution to a total  of 100 ml.  Hg concentration of standard solution No. 2
is 1 Y/ml» it is prepared  by diluting standard solution No. 1 with distilled
water in lilOO proportion.
     6.  Dishes and  other  equipment:
     Absorbers,   such as-  shown in Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 11.
     Centrifuge tubes, 10  ml
     Pipettes,  5 and 10 ml, divided in 0.01 ml, of COST 1770-51 specifications
     Burettes,  50 and 100  ml,  of GOST 1770-51 specifications.
     Cylinders graduates,  25 and 100 ml,  of GOST 1770-51 specifications.
     Flasks,  volumetric,  100 and 1000 ml, of GOST 1770-51 specifications
     Reagent bottles
     Aspirators or air blowers with flowmeters
                                    -31-

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     Rubber tubing, clamps and pinchcocks.
                         III.  Air Sample Collecting
     7.  Aspirate the air at the rate of 2 li/min through
2 consecutively connected absorbers, No. 1 and No. 2, each
containing 10 ml of the absorber solution.  Absorber type
No. 11 can be used if preferred, in which case the air
should be aspirated at the rate of 10 li/min., or absorber
type No. 3 can be used and the air aspirated at the rate
of 4 - 5 li/min.  If preliminary testing indicated that the
concentration of mercury vapor in the air was close to the
0.00001 mg/li allowable concentration limit not less than
60 li of the air should be aspirated through the absorbing
solution.
  -JCD
Pig. 11. Gernert
  absorber.
                      IV.  The Analytical Procedure
     8.  Analyze content of each absorber separately.  Pour absorber solution
into a 10 ml cylinder graduate.  Rinse the glass absorber with a small volume
of water and pour into the same cylinder graduate.  Make the volume up to
10 ml with fresh absorber solution.  Take 5 ml of the solution from each 10 ml
cylinder graduate and place in separate centrifuge tubes; at the same time
prepare the standard scale as shown in the following tablet
                                                          Add 1 ml of the
                                                     "composite" solution to
                                                     all tubes; shake well but
                                                     cautiously and leave stand
                                                     for 5-10 min. to complete
precipitation of the CuIHglp (or HgI2.2CuI according to Merck's index, B.S.L.).
     Compare precipitates in the centrifuge tubes colorimetrically.  If the
analytical procedure was carried out correctly the supernatant fluid in the
centrifuge tube should be clear.
     It is essential that the "composite" solution used in the analytical
procedure be used in the preparation of the standard scale.
     Compute mg/li mercury content in the air (X) using the following formula:
TUIE NO.
80LN. NO. 2, ML
AtSORIER SOLUTION,
ML
MERCURY IN Y
'
0
5
0
2
0.3
4.7
0.3
3
0.5
4,5
0,5
4
0.75
4.25
0,75
V
1,0
4,0
1.0
6
1.5
3,5
1.5
7
2.0
3.0
2.0
8
2.5
2.5
2.5
9
3.0
2.0
3.0
                                     -32-

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                              x-gvi
                                  V V  1000
                               .0                     .
In which G - represents gammas of mercury in the first absorber;
         V, - represents ml of solution in the first absorber;
         V - represents ml of solution taken for analysis from the first
absorber;
      1/1000 - is the coefficient used in converting y into ml;
         VQ - represents li of air taken for analysis after adjusting to
standard temperature and atmospheric pressure using the following formulat
                                    Vt 273 P
                               Vo " (273 + t; 760
In which V. - represents li of air aspirated for analysis;
         P - is the barometric pressure in mm of mercury;
         t - is the temperature of the air at the point of sample taking;
         V  - can be computed by multiplying the value of V.  by the
temperature and pressure correction coefficient taken from appropriate table
of coefficients.  The amount of mercury in the second absorber is computed
exactly as for the first absorber;  final result is expressed as the sum of
the two values.                   .
                                     -33-

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      Quantitative Determination of Lead and Its Compounds in the Air
     Approved by USSR Chief State Sanitary Inspector,  V.  M.  Zhdanov,
                     September 30,  1959,  No.  122-1/326

     The method is applicable to the determination of  lead and its compounds
in the air of industrial premises for sanitary control purposes.
                                I.  General
     1.  The method is based on the fact  that degree of turbidity  formed by
the interaction between lead ions and potassium chromate increased with the
increase in the lead ion concentrations}  comparison is made with the  aid of
a standard scale.
     2.  Sensitivity of the method is 1 Y °f  lead in the analyzed  solution
volume.
     3.  The method is not specific in the presence of barium salts.
     4.  The limit of allowable concentration of lead and its compounds in the
air was set at 0.01 mg/  by regulation No. 279-59 issued January 10,  1959*
                         II.  Reagents and Apparatus
     5.  Reagents and solutions required:
     Lead nitrate, of GOST 4236-48 specifications.
     Standard stock solution should contain 1 mg of lead per 1 ml; prepare as
follows:  dissolve 0.1598 g of recrystallized lead nitrate in a 100 ml volumet-
ric flask using a 3$ ammonium acetate solution.
     The final, or working standard solution  should contain 10 Y °f lead per
1 ml; prepare it immediately before the analysis by placing 1 ml of stock
standard solution No. 1 into a 100 ml volumetric flask and add 3$  ammonium
acetate solution to the 100 ml mark.
     Sulfuric acid, diluted 1:2 of GOST 4204-48 specifications.
     Nitric acids, diluted It2, of GOST 4461-48 specifications.
     A 5»1 mixture of the above mentioned dilute solutions of sulfuric and
nitric acids.
     Ammonium acetate 3# solution, pH 6.6 - 6.8, of GOST 3117-51.
     Potassium chromate, 1% solution, of GOST 4459-48 specifications.
     Distilled water.
                                     -34-

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                    Fig. 12.  Metallic holder for paper and
                             other filter types.
     Filter paper,  ash-free or perchlorvinyl fiber filters.
     All reagents and filter papers must be lead free.
          6.  Dishes and other equipment:
     Plexiglass or metallic adapters,  such as are shown in Figs.  12 or 13«
     Muffle furnace.
     Sandbath.
     Electric aspirator.
     Flowmeter up to 25 li/min.
     Assortment of rubber tubing.
     Clamps and screw-type pinchcocks.
     Porcelain dishes, 5-6 cm. in diameter, or porcelain crucible 3 - 4 cm
diameter, of COST 900-41 specifications.
     Crucible tongs.
     Test tube stand.
     Pipettes, 5 ml divided into 0.1 ml, of GOST 1770-51 specifications.
     Pipettes, 2 ml, divided into 0.01 ml, of GOST 1770-51 specifications.
                                     -35-

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                   Fig. 13.  Plexiglass holder for paper and
                           other filter types.
     Tubes, colorimetric, marked at 1 - 2 ml.
     Tubes, colorimetric, marked at 5 and 10 ml.
     Reagent bottles.
                         III.  Air Sample Collecting
     7.  Aspirate the air sample through ash-free and lead-free filter paper,
or through lead-free perchlorvinyl fiber filters placed into an adapter such
as is shown in Figs. 12 or 13.  Rate of air aspiration - 20 li/min.
     If preliminary analysis indicated that lead content in the air was close
to the allowable concentration limit (0.00001 mg/li), aspirate not less than
500 li of the air.     :
                       IV.  The Analytical Procedure
     8.  Remove the paper or perchlorvinyl filter from the adapter and place
into a porcelain dish or crucible, moistened with 1 - 2 ml of the H^SO. and
HNO, mixture and heat over a sandbath until a solid residue is formed.  Place
the porcelain dish or crucible into the muffle furnace,  previously brought to
450 - 550° as recorded by a thermocouple.  Do not allow temperature to rise
above 550  to prevent volatilization of the lead sulfate.  At the end of the
incineration cover the porcelain dish or crucible with a lid and remove from
                                      -36-

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the muffle  furnace with crucible tongs.
     Wait for the  crucible and the dish to cool to room temperature  and  add
4 - 6 ml of 3$ ammonium acetate until the ash is completely dissolved.
Carefully pour the ash solution into a centrifuge tube and centrifuge lightly,
or allow the precipitate to settle by gravity to the bottom of the tube.  The
supernatant should be clear and colorless.  Remove 2 - 5 ml of this  solution
with a graduated pipette and place into a colorimetric tube; prepare the
standard scale simultaneously as shown in Tables 1 and 2.  The latter table
should be used in  cases of high lead concentration in the air.
     Add to all  tubes 0.1 ml of 1$ potassium chromate solution, mix and  leave
stand for 15  - 20  min.  and compare colorimetrically against a dark background.
                                                 Table 1
                Standard scale for the determination of lead
TUIE RO.
8TANIARI SOLUTION
CONTAINING
tO Ml
HI OF 3j£ AMMONIUM
ACETATE SOLUTION
LEAI IN
0

0
2
0
1

0.10
1,90
1.0
2

0,15
1,85
1.5
3

0.20
1,80
2.0
4

0,25
1,75
2.5
s

0,30
1,70
3.0
                                                      Table 2
                       TUIE NO.
                  STANIARI SOLUTION
                  CONTAIN IN*
                      10   Ml
                  ML OF 3$ AMMONIUM
                  ACETATE SOLUTION

                   LEAI III
0
0
5
0
I
0,4
4.6
4
2
0,6
4.4
6
3
0,8
4.2
8
4
1,0
4,0
10
S
1.5
3,5
15
     Compute lead concentration  in mg/m  of air (X) using the following
formula!
                                    V V
                                     -37-

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in which V, - represents total ml of the  sample?
         V  - represents ml of the sample taken for  the determination;
         G  - represents gammas of lead Y found in the sample volume analyzed)
         VQ - represents li of air taken  for analysis after adjusting to
standard temperature and atmospheric pressure using  the following formulat
                              v  . Vt 273 P
                               o
                                   (273 + t)  760
in which V, - represents li of air taken for  analysis;
         P  - represents atmospheric pressure in mm of mercury;
         t  - represents the air temperature  at  the point  of  sample collecting;
         VQ - can also be computed by multiplying the value of V. by the
appropriate temperature and pressure correction  coefficient taken from g
suitable correction coefficient table.
         Quantitative Determination of Chromic Anhydride (Chromium
              trioxide,  CrOg) and Salts of Chromic Acid in the Air
     Approved by USSR Chief State Sanitary Inspector,  V. M.  Zhdanov,
                    September 30, 1959,  No.  122-1/327

     The method is applicable to the determination  of  chromic anhydride and
salts of chromic acid in the air of industrial  premises for  sanitary control
purposes.
                               I.  General
     1.  The method is based on the appearance  of a red color resulting from
the reaction between solutions of chromic acid  or its  salts  and diphenylcarba-
zide, the intensity of which varied directly with the  concentration of chromic
acid or its salts in solution.
                                                             «
      2.  The sensitivity of the method is 1 y  in the  analyzed solution volume,
      3.  The method is not specific.   The presence of more  than one mg of iron
or of more than 8 mg of molybdenum in 10 ml  of  the  solution  interfered with
the determination.  The presence of manganese did not  interfere with the
                                   -38-

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determination.
     4.  The limit of allowable chromic anhydride concentration  in the air
was set at 0.1 mg/m  by regulation No. 279-59» issued January  10, 1959-
                        II.  Reagents and Apparatus
     5.  Reagents and solutions required:
     Ethylol (ethyl alcohol), of GOST 5962-51 specifications.
     Glacial acetic acid, of GOST 61-51 specifications.
     Diphenylcarbazide, of GOST 5859-51 specifications.
     Dissolve 1 g of diphenylcarbazide in 20 ml of glacial acetic acid and
add 200 ml of 96£ ethylol.
     Potassium dichromate of GOST 4220-48 specifications.
     Prepare standard potassium dichromate solution containing 10y of chromtic
anhydride per 1 ml as follows:  Place 0.1471 g of potassium dichromate into
a 100 ml volumetric flask; add a small amount of distilled water; shake until
dissolved, and add distilled water to the 100 ml mark.  Place  2 ml of this
solution into a. 200 ml volumetric flask and add distilled water to the 200 ml
mark.  One ml of the prepared solution should contain 10 Y °f  chromic anhydride.
     6.  Dishes and other equipment:
     Electrically operated aspirators.
     Flowmeter up to 20 li/min.
     Metallic or plexiglass adapter, such as shown in Pigs. 12 and 13.
     Volumetric flasks, 100 and 200 ml, of GOST 1770-51 specifications.
     Porcelain dish, 100 ml capacity, of GOST 300-41 specifications.
     Cylinder graduates, 15 ml capacity, of GOST 1770-51 specifications.
     Pipettes, 10 ml and 1 ml, divided correspondingly into 0.1 and 0.01 ml,
of GOST 1770-51 specifications
     Flat-bottom colorimetric tubes of colorless glass, 120 mm high and 15 mm
inside diameter.
                              Standard Scale
Table 1
TttlE HO.
8TANMRI SOLD., lOY HI
NL OF •ISTILLEI WATER
CR03 IN Y
0
0
10,0
0
I
0.10
9.90
1
s
0.20
9,80
2
3
0.30
9.70
3
4
0.40
9,60
4
5
0.50
9,50
5
6
0,60
9,40
6
7
0,70
9.30
7
8
0.80
9.20
8
fl
0,90
9,10
9
10
1,00
9,00
10
                                    -39-

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                                                       Table  2
TttlE NO.
6TANIAR* SOLN.
CONTAima
10 YM CRO
IISTIUEI WATER

CR03 IH y
0

0

10
0
0

0

10
0
1

0.2

9,8
2
«

0,4

9,6
4
a

0,8

9.4
6
4

0,8

9,2
8
6

1.0

9,0
10
     Reagent bottles, of GOST 4300
     Thermometer, 0 to 100°, of GOST 215-41
                         III.  Sample Collecting
       7.  Aspirate the air at the rate of 10 li/min.  through a paper or
perchlorvinyl fiber filter housed in an adapter as depicted in Pigs. 12 or 13,
The determination of the limit of allowable chromic acid in the air requires
the aspiration of not less than 100 li of the tested air.
                        IV.  Analytical Procedure
     8.  Having aspirated the air sample carefully transfer the filter from
the adapter to a porcelain dish; add 3 separate 5 ml portions of distilled
water heated to 80 - 90°«  Draw off each 5 ml portion of the distilled water
by vacuum suction.  Place the wash water portions into a 15 ml graduated
cylinder and add distilled water to the 15 ml mark.  Mix thoroughly.
     Place 1 and 5 ml portions of this solution  into colorimetric tubes and
add distilled water to each tube to the 10 ml mark.  Prepare the standard
scale simultaneously as shown in Table 1.  Add 1 ml of the diphenylcarbazide
solution to each of the tests and standard scale tubes and determine chromium
concentration in the air sample photocolorimetrically, using a green light
filter at a distance of 30 mm.  Prepare a standard calibration curve with the
aid of a standard scale solution indicated in Table 2.  Compute amount of
chromic anhydride in mg per 1 nr of air (X) using the following formulat
                                  G V
                              Y      •*•
                              A " V V
                                     o
in which G - represents gammas of chromic anhydride in the analyzed volume}
                                     -40-

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         V - represents ml of test solution taken for the analysis)
         V.- represents ml of the total volume of the test solution)
         VQ- represents li of air taken for analysis and adjusted to standard
temperature and atmospheric pressure using the following formula:
                                   V.  273 P
                              V
                               o   (273 + t) 760
in which V.  - represents li of air    aspirated for analysis;
         P   - represents barometric pressure in mm mercury at the point of
sample collecting;
          t -  represents the temperature of air at the point of sample
collecting. VQ can also be computed by multiplying V^ by temperature and
pressure correction coefficient taken from a suitable table of correction
coefficients.
       Quantitative Determination of Manganese Compounds in the Air
     Approved by USSR Chief State Sanitary Inspector, P. M. Zhdanov,
                    September 30, 1959, No. 122-1/328.
     The method is applicable to the determination of manganese in the air of
industrial premises for sanitary control purposes.
                               I. General
     1.  The method is based on the property of manganese compounds to oxidize
to manganic acid (HJ/InO,) with the aid of ammonium persulfate in  the presence
of silver nitrates as the catalyzer, producing a color intensity     which in-
creased with the increase in the concentration of manganese in  solution.   Final
determination is made colorimetrically with the aid of a standard scale.   The
method is suited to the determination of salts of manganese and its many  oxy-
compounds.
     2.  Iron in  concentration not exceeding the concentration of manganese
has no effect on the determination,  but chromium interferes with  the deter-
mination of manganese by this method.
                                     -41-

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     4.  The limit of allowable concentration of manganese and its compounds
    le air was se
January- 10, 1959.
in the air was set at 0.3 mg/m  in terms of MnO_ "by regulation No. 279-59 issued
                         II.  Reagents and Apparatus
     5.  Reagents and solutions required;
     Sulfuric acid, 1:20 dilution, of COST 4204-48 specifications;
     Oxalic acid, freshly prepared 8$ solution, of GOST 5873-51 specifications;
     A mixture of 1.85 sp- £?• sulfuric acid and 8$ oxalic acid in equal
proportions, freshly prepared.
     Silver nitrate, 1% solution, of COST 1277-41 specifications;
     Ammonium persulfate, of GOSH 3766-47 specifications;
     Prepare stock solution containing 100 y of Mn per 1 ml by dissolving
0.1251 g of manganese sulfate in 250 ml of 1:20 sulfuric acid;
     Prepare standard solution containing 10 y of manganese per ml by diluting
the standard stock solution with the 1:20    sulfuric acid in 1:10 ratio;
that is, make a 1:10 solution;
     6.  Dishes and other equipment:
     Plexiglass or metallic adapter, as shown in Figs. 12 and 13.
     Suction pump or an air blower;
     Flowmeter up to 20 li/min.
     Sandbath;
     Porcelain crucibles No. 5, of GOST 900-41 specifications;
     Crucible tongs;
     Flasks volumetric,  100 and 200 ml, of GOST 1770-51 specifications;
     Flat bottom colorimetric tubes of clear colorless glass, 120 mm high and
15 mm inside diameter;
     Pipettes, 5 and 10 ml, marked correspondingly at 0.01 and 0.05 ml of
GOST 1770-51 specifications;
     Pipettes, 1 ml, divided into 0.01 ml, of GOST 1770-51 specifications;
     Ash-free paper or perchlorvinyl fiber filters;
     Rubber tubing,  pinchcocks and reagent bottles.
                              III.  Air Sample Collecting
     7.  Place paper or perchlorvinyl filter into the adapter and aspirate
                                      -42-

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 the air at the rate of 10 li/min;  use adapter shown in Figs.  12 or 13.
      The manganese concentration in the air is close to the allowable limit,
 aspirate not less than 100 li of the air.                     .
                         IV.   Analytical Procedure
      8.  Having aspirated the air as described above carefully remove the
 filter from the adapter and transfer it to a porcelain crucible and incinerate
 in a muffle furnace (temperature not indicated).   When the furnace has  cooled
 to room temperature remove the crucible and add 2 ml of the sulfuric oxalic
 acids mixture; evaporate to dryness over a sandbath} cool and dissolve  the
 residue in 20 ml of 1:20 sulfuric acid{ pour the  final solution into a  wide
 mouth tube, centrifuge,  or allow to settle to the appearance  of a clear
 supernatant fluid.   Now, take 1 and 5 ml of the clear supernatant solution
 and place into two separate colorimetric tubes.  Add It20 sulfuric aoid to
 the tube containing the  one ml sample to make a 5 ml volume.   Simultaneously
 prepare the standard set as shown on the table below.   Add 0.1 ml of 1%
 silver nitrate solution  and 0.03 g of ammonium persulfate to  all the tubes.
 Mix,  submerge into a waterbath at  80° for  five minutes,  cool  and compare
 colorimetrically.
                                Standard Scale

TUIE MO.
1
MNS04 SOLN. CON-
TAIN! N«
iOY M
ML OF i:20
SULFUR 1C ACII
H» IN Y

0


0

5
0

I


0,1

4.9
1,0

J


0.2

4,8
2,0

8


0.3

4-7
3.0

4


0,45

4.55
4,5

5


0,7

4.3
7.0

6


1.0

4.0
10.0

7


1.5

3.5
15.0

•


2,0

3,0
20,0

•


3.0

2,0
300
     Compute mg of manganese dioxide per m  of air (X) using the following
formula*
                                 G V, 1.58
                                    ~                    •
     In which G - represents gammas of manganese present in the analyzed sample
volume;
              V - represents ml of the sample taken for analysis!
                                       -43-

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        1.58 - is the coefficient of manganese conversion into manganese
dioxide;
          V. - represents ml of solution in the absorber;
            »
          V - represents li of air in li taken for analysis, adjusted to
standard temperature and barometric pressure by the following formula!
                                   V.  273 P
                              V  o  *
                               o   (273 + t) ?60
in which V. - represents li of air aspirated for analysis;
          P - represents barometric pressure in mm of mercury;
          t - represents the temperature of air at the point of sample taking;
       •  V  - can be calculated conveniently by multiplying the value of V^
by the appropriate temperature and pressure correction coefficient found in
the suitable table of correction coefficients.
           Quantitative Determination of Aniline Vapor in the Air
     Approved by USSR Chief State Sanitary Inspector, V. M.  Zhdanov,
                     May 7, 1958, No. 122-1/193.
     The method is applicable to the determination of aniline vapor in the
air of industrial premises for sanitary control purposes.
                               I.  General
     1.  The method is based on the property of aniline to become oxidized to
indophenol by active chlorine in the presence of phenol.  As a result of such
reaction the solution acquires a sky blue color, the intensity of which in-
creases with the increase in the aniline concentration in the solution.
     2.  The sensitivity of the method is 1 y of aniline in the solution
volume analyzed.                            '
     3.  The method is not specific in the presence of ammonia, para-anisidine,
paraphenylenediamine, and toluidine.
     4.  The limit of allowable aniline vapor concentration in the air was set
at 0.005 mg/li by regulation No. 279-59,  issued January 10j  1959.
                                    -44-

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                         II.  Reagents and Apparatus
     5.  Reagents and solutions required!
     Freshly distilled aniline of 1.84° b, p., of GOST. specifications 5819-51.
     This reagent must be kept in dark glass bottles.  Prepare the standard
stock solution of aniline as follows:  use a 25 - 30 ml glass ground stoppered
bottle} place into it 10 - 15 ml of 0.01 N. solution of sulfuric acid and
weigh on analytical balance; add 2 - 3 drops of aniline and weigh again.  The
difference between the two weights is the weight of the aniline.  Now, add
0.01 N. sulfuric acid to the volumetric mark.  Close the flask with a ground-
to-fit glass stopper and shake well.  Compute the aniline contained in 1 ml
of the solution; use this solution for the preparation of standard working
solution No. 1 by diluting it with 0.01 N. sulfuric acid so that 1 ml will
contain 100 y of "tbe aniline; prepare standard working solution No. 2 from
standard working solution No. 1 by diluting it Is 10; 1 ml of the latter will
contain 10 y of aniline per ml.
     Sulfuric acid, 0.01 N. solution, of GOST 4204-48 specifications;
     Sodium hydroxide, 0.01 N. and 2% solution of GOST 4328-48.
     Phenol, 3$ solution, prepared from freshly distilled colorless phenol,
of GOST 6417-52.
     Chloramine-T, 4$ solution, freshly distilled; prepare by dissolving in
water at 30 - 50 ; filter.  Dry chloramine contains not less than 205? of
active chlorine.
     6.  Dishes and other equipment]
     Absorbers,  equipped with No. 1 glass filter, as shown in Pig. 2;
     Flajj bottom colorimetric tubes, made of clear colorless glass, 120 mm high
and 15 mm inside diameter, marked at 5 and 10 ml.
     Pipettes, 5 and 10 ml, divided into 0.1 ml, of GOST 1770-51.
     Pipettes, 1 ml, divided into 0.01 ml, of GOST 1770-51.
     Flasks, volumetric,  25 and 50 ml, of GOST 1770-51.
     Reagent bottles;
     Aspirator or air blower;
     Flowmeter up to 5 li/min.
     Flask,  Wurtz, of GOST 3184-46.
     Ice-box or refrigerator.
                                     -45-

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     Thermometer, of GOST 215-41.
     Rubber tubing and pinchcocks.
                         III.  Air Sample Collecting
     7.  Absorb the aniline vapor by aspirating the air through 2 consecutively
connected absorbers, such as shown in Fig. 1, or one absorber, such as shown
in Pig. 2, equipped with No. 1 glass filter; place into the absorber 10 ml of
0.01 N. sulfuric acid.  Aspirate the air at the rate of 30 li/hr.  If the air
is judged to contain aniline vapor close to the limit of allowable concentra-
tion (0.005 mg/li aspirate only 1 li of the air.  The air sample can be
collected by the vacuum method into a bottle of 1 li capacity, as follows!
Place 10 ml of 0.01 N. sulfuric acid into the bottle; open the pinchoock for
1-2 min. and close it* Having collected the air sample leave the container
stand for 2-3 hrs. with occasional shaking to bring about complete absorp-
tion of the aniline and to moisten  the bottle walls.
                         IV.  Analytical Procedure
     Remove 1 and 5 ml of the aniline solution from the absorber or from
the bottle and place into 2 colorimetric tubes .   Add 4 ml of fresh absorber
solution to the tube containing 1 ml of the aniline solution.  Simultaneously
prepare the standard set as shown in the table below»
                              Cj-f. o r\
TNIE NO.
ML OF CTANIARt
COIN. MO. 2
ML OF STANIAR*
SOL II . NO. 1
ML OF O.L N. SOLN.
OF SULFURI6
ACII
ANILINE IN Y
0
0
—

5,0
0
t
0,1
—

4,9
1
t
0,3
—

4,7
3
3
0,5
—

4.5
5
4
0,7
—

4.3
7
5
0,9
—

4.1
9
6
—
0,1

4.9
10
7
—
0,2

4,8
20
6
—
0.3

4.7
30
8
—
0.4

4.6
40
     Add 0.5 ml of 0.1 N. NaOH solution to all tubes and shake.  Now add
1 ml of 4% chloramine solution, 1 ml of 3$ phenol solution and 0.5 ml of 25$
NaOH solution to all tubes and shake.
     Within 15 - 20 min. the color will develop in all tubes, after which
                                     -46-

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they are compared colorimetrically.
     Compute Mg of aniline per 1 11 of air (x) by the following formula*
                               „   °  Vl
                                   V V  1000
                                      o
in which G - represents gammas of aniline in the analyzed sample volume;
         V - represents ml of the sample used in the analysis;
         V,- represents ml of the total sample;
    1/1000 - is the factor of y conversion to mg.
         V  - represents li of air used in the analysis, adjusted to standard
temperature and atmospheric pressure using the following formula!
                                   vt 273 P
                              Vo = (273 + t) 760
in which V.  - represents li of air used in the analysis;
          t - represents the air temperature at the point of sample taking;
          P - represents the barometric pressure in mm of mercury.
          V  can be computed by multiplying V, by the temperature and pressure
correction coefficient obtained from a suitable correction coefficients table.
               Quantitative Determination of Benzene in the Air
     Approved by USSR Chief State Sanitary Inspector,  V. M.  Zhdanov,
                     May 7, 1958, No. 122-1/198.
     The method is applicable to the determination of benzene vapor in the air
of industrial premises for sanitary control purposes.
                                I.  General
     1.  By this method benzene is nitrated to dinitrobenzene, and the latter
determined colorimetrically in alkaline ether-acetone  solution.  The  intensity
of the developed characteristic violet color increases with  the increase in
the dinitrobenzene concentration in solution.
      2.  The sensitivity of the method is 2 Y in the  analyzed solution volume.
      3.  The method is not specific in the presence of nitrobenzene,  ohloro-
                                    -47-

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benzene, toluol, xylol, and other aromatic hydrocarbons.
     Butylacetate, amylacetate, acetone, and butyl alcohol in quantities lees
than 2 mg had no effect on the colorimetric determination| in high concentra-
tions they affect the color reaction.
     4.  The limit of allowable concentration of benzene vapor in the air was
set at 0.05 mg/li by regulation No. 2?9-59» issued January 10, 1959.
                         II.  Reagents and Apparatus
     5.  Reagents and solutions required.
     Benzene, redistilled, of 80  b. p.
     Sulfuric acid, sp. gr. 1.82 - 1.84, of GOST 4204-48.
     Ammonium nitrate, dried at 80°, of GOST 3?6l-47.
     NaOH, 40$ solution, use supernatant solution after 12 hours settling, of
GOST 4328-48.
     Acetone, of GOST 2603-44.
     Ether, pure, anesthetic.
     Prepare the nitration mixture as follows:  dissolve 10 g ammonium nitrate
in 100 ml sulfuric acid of sp. gr. not below 1.82.
     Prepare the ether-acetone mixture by mixing 30 ml of anesthetic ether with
70 ml of acetone.  Keep mixture in tightly stoppered dark glass bottle and
store in dark room.                                              .
     Prepare standard benzene solution for use with the nitration mixture as
follows:  place 10 - 15 ml of the nitration mixture into a 50 ml volumetric
flask, stopper tightly and weigh on analytical balance; add 1 drop of benzene
and weigh again.  The difference represents the weight of the added benzene
drop.  Shake the mixture carefully and leave rest for 4 hours to allow the
benzene to become nitrated to dinitrobenzene.  Carefully add 5 ml of water by
slowly running it down the flask wall; add nitrating mixture to the 50 ml mark.
Calculate the content of benzene per 1 ml of the final solution.
     Use the standard stock nitrating mixture for the preparation of working
standard solution No. 1, which should contain 50 Y of benzene per ml, and working
solution No. 2, which should contain 25 Y of benzene per ml.
     6.  Dishes and other equipment:
     Polezhaev absorber, small size, as shown in Fig. 14 and a 0.5 or 1.0 li
bottle with ground-to-fit glass stopper equipped with a stopcock.
                                      -48-

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     Colorimetric tubes with ground-to-fit glass stoppers, 120 mm high and
13 mm inside diameter}
     Microburettes, 1 ml divided into 0.01 ml, of GOST 1770-51.
     Burettes, 25 ml capacity, of GOST 1770-51.
     Micropipettes 1 ml, divided into 0.1 and 0.05 ml of GOST 1770-51.
     Pipettes, 5 and 10 ml, divided into 0.05 and 0.1 ml, of GOST 1770-51.
     Volumetric flasks, 25 and 50 ml, of GOST 1770-51.
     Separating funnels, 50 and 100 ml, of GOST 10054-39.
     Reagent bottles.
     Aspirator.
     Vacuum pump.
     Manometer.
    ^Rubber tubing and pinchcocks.
                         III.  Air Sample Collecting
     7*  Air samples can be collected in two ways: l) by aspiration and 2) by
vacuum suction.
     l) Aspirate 3 li of the air to be analyzed at the rate of 10 li/hr through
two consecutively connected aspirators, as shown in Fig. 14, each aspirator
containing 2 ml of the nitration mixture.  If the air to be analyzed is collected
at the point where benzene vapor is being eliminated, aspirate not more than
0.5 or 1.0 li of the air.
     2)  Vacuumize a tightly stoppered glass container of 0.5 - 1*0 li capacity
containing 8 ml of the nitration mixture.  Release the pinchcock for 1-2 min.
at the point of air sample collecting and close it again.  Leave the flask rest
for 1-2 hrs. occasionally shaking it to rinse the bottle walls and to hasten
the absorption of the benzene vapor.
     Use the vacuum method of air sample collection where spray painting is
done, and in all instances in which benzene aerosol is present in the air.
                         IV.  Analytical Procedure
     8.  Analyze the contents of the two absorbers together.
     Place 16 ml of distilled water into a separating funnel, pour in the used
nitration mixtures from the two absorbers, rinsing each absorber with 4 ml of
water, which is also poured into the separating funnel.  Place 4 ml of the
                                        -49-

-------
nitration mixture into another separating funnel and add 4 ml  of water.  Add
10 ml of ether and shake for 3 minutes.  Leave rest until the  funnel  content
becomes clearly separated} carefully open the funnel stopcock  and remove the
lower liquid layer; add to the ether layer 10 ml of water and  shake}  carefully
remove the wash water and, without delay, pour the ether layer from the funnel
into a tube equipped with a ground-to-fit glass stopper.  Place 3 ml  of the
ether solution into a colorimetric tube containing 7 nil of acetone, add 1 ml
of 40$ NaOH and shake vigorously for 2 min.} leave rest for 20 min.,  and
compare colorimetrically with a standard scale prepared as shown in the table
below, under conditions identical with those prevailing during the preparation
of the test sample.  This is accomplished as followsi place 12 ml of  distilled
water into each of two separating funnels; place into one of the funnels 2 ml
of benzene solution No. 2 containing 25 Y/ml, and into the other funnel 2 ml
of benzene solution No. 1 containing 50 Y/ml«  Add 10 ml of ether to  each
funnel and shake for 3 rdn.  Leave rest until solutions become well separated;
carefully pour off the lower layer, and wash the ether with 10 ml of  water.
Allow to separate, and remove the wash water.   Now, pour the  content of each
funnel through the neck into a 25 ml volumetric flask, using a long-stemmed
funnel.  Dissolve the ether extracts in acetone and make up the content of each
volumetric flask to 25 ml.  Use benzene solutions A and B containing  correspond-
ingly 2 and 4 Y/ml«  Now> prepare the standard scale according to the following
table.
                             St a ncLard SnaJ
TUIE NO. i °
Ml OF STANtARI
SOLD. A
HL OF STANMRI
60LN. B
HL OF ETHER-ACETONE
MIXTURE
MI OF 40# NAOH
SOLUTION

0,0

—

10,0
1

1,0

—

2

1,5

—

9.0; 8.5
3

2,25

	 .

7,75
4

3,5

—

6.5
5

5,0

•-

5.0
6
.
—

3,75

6.25
r •

—

5.0

5,0
8

—

7.5

2.5

AM 1 ML TO EACH TUIE
          IENZENE IN'
                           0,0
2.0
3,0
4.5
70
10.0
15,0
20.0
                                                       30,0
                                     -50-

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     Determine ml of benzene per li of air (X) with the aid of the following
formula«
                           .   "    V V  1000
                                      o
in which G - represents gammas of benzene in the analyzed sample volume.,
         V,- represents ml of ether used in extracting the dinitrobenzene.
         V - represents ml of ether extract used in the analysis.
         V - represents the volume of aspirated air used in the analysis,
adjusted to standard temperature and air pressure.
      1/1000- is the coefficient of y conversion to mg.
     In the case of air samples collected by the vacuum method only half of
the sample (4 ml) was used in the analysis; therefore, results obtained as
above described must be multiplied by two.
     Adjust air volume (VQ) to standard temperature and atmospheric pressure
according to the following formula:
                                  V.  273 P
                             v  . -4	,	
                              o    (273 + t) ?60
in which V  - represents li of.air collected for analysis and adjusted to
standard temperature and pressure;
         V,  - represents li of air used in the analysis.
          t
          t - represents the air temperature at the point of sample collating.
          P - represents the barometric pressure in mm of mercury.
     Make final adjustment of the air sample volume collected by the vacuum
method using the following formula:
                                   Vt 273  (P-p)
                              Vo '"  (273 + t) 760
in which V  - represents li of the aspirated air adjusted to normal temperature
and pressure;
         V,  - represents li capacity of the bottle into which the air was
collected;
          t - represents the air temperature at the point of sample collecting;
          P - represents the barometric pressure in mm of mercury;
          p - represents residual pressure in the vacuumized bottle.
                                     -51-

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        V^ can also be calculated by multiplying V- by a corresponding
coefficient of temperature and pressure correction.
              Quantitative Determination of Phenol in the Air
     Approved by USSR Chief State Sanitary Inspector, V. M. Zhdanov,
                     September 30, 1959, No. 122-1/329.

     The method is applicable to the determination of phenol in the air of
industrial premises for sanitary control purposes.
                                I.  General
     1.  In the presence of sulfuric acid phenol reacts with nitric acid at
80 - 100  to form nitro-compounds.  Upon the addition of excess of ammonia the
latter develops a yellow color, the intensity of which is proportional to the
phenol concentration.
     2.  The sensitivity of the method is 4 Y of phenol in the colorimetrically
compared volume.
     3.  Cresols interfere with the determination.
     4.  Limit of allowable phenol concentration in the air was set at
0.005 mg/li by regulation No. 279-59, issued January 10, 1959*
                         II.  Reagents and Apparatus
     5.  Reagents and solutions required:
     Phenol, of GOST 6417-52;
   .  Sulfurio acid, 255? solution, of GOST 4204-48|
     NaOH, 0.1 N. solution, of GOST 5328-48;
     Sodium nitrite, 0.5


-------
has completely dissolved add distilled water to the 50 ml mark.  Shake well.
Calculate amount of phenol per ml of the solution.
     Use the phenol stock solution No. 1 for the preparation of standard
working phenol solutions No. 2, which should contain 40 y °? phenol per ml,
and standard solution No. 3 which should contain 160 y of phenol per ml,
     6.  Dishes and other equipment requiredt
     Absorbers, such as shown in Figs. 1 and 2.      ..
     Cylinder graduates, 100 ml capacity, of COST 1770-51.
     Color-free clear colorimetrio glass tubes, 150 mm high and 15 mm inside
diameter.                                                                   >
     Pipettes, 5 ml, divided into 0.05 and 0.01 ml, of OOSP 1770-51.
     Pipettes, 1 ml, divided into 0.01 ml, of COST 1770-51.
     Volumetric flasks, 50 and 100 ml, of GOST 1770-51.                     .
     Reagent bottles.
     Waterbath.
     Aspirator or air blower.
     Plowmeter up to 1 li/min.
     Rubber tubing and pinchcocks.
                              III.  Air Sample Collecting.
     7.  Force the air through the aspirator containing 5 ol of 0.1 N. NaOH
solution at the rate of 0.5 li/min.
     If the phenol concentration in the air is judged to be close to the limit
of allowable concentration, aspirate not less than 10 li of air.       '
                               IV.  Analytical Procedure
     Place 2 ml of the aspirated sample into the oolorimetrio tube; simultane-
ously prepare the standard solution according to the table below,
      Now,  place  0.1 ml of 25% sulfuric acid solution and  1 ml  of 0.5£ of
 sodium nitrite solution into all  tubes.   Shake well and heat over  boiling
 waterbath  for  5  min.   Cool;  add 10$ of ammonia to make a  volume of 5  °1  and
 compare  colorimetrically  with the standard  scale.
                                     -53-

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                                 Standard Scale
TMȣ NO*
ML OF
PHENOL SOLN.N0.2
ML OF STANMRi
PHENOL 60LN.
NO. 3
HI OF O.I N
NAOH SOLN.
PHENOL
IN
Y
i

—

2
0
2

0,1

1.9
4.0
3

0,13
—
1.87
5,2
4
1
0,16
— .
1,84
6.4
5

0,21
—
1,79
8,4
6

0,27
—
1,73
10,8
7

0,36
—
1,64
14,4
8

0,46
• —
1,54
18.4
9

0,60
— .
1.40
24,0
10

0,78
—
1,22
31,2
II

1,02
—
0,98
40,8
13

—
0,37
1.63
59,2
13

—
0.43
1.57
68,8
14

—
0.62
1,38
99.2
     Compute quantity of phenol vapor in mg per li of air (X) using the
following formula:
                                   G V,
                                   V .Y0 1000
in which G - represents gammas of phenol in the analyzed sample volume;
         V - represents ml of the sample used in the analysis}
        V, - represents ml of the total test solution;
   1/1000  - is the coefficient of y conversion to ml;
        V  - represents li of air used in the analysis, adjusted to
standard temperature and atmospheric pressure by the following formula!
                                   Vt 273 P
                              'o   (273 + tj 760
in which V. - represents li of air used in the analysis;
          P - represents air pressure in mm mercury;
          t - represents air temperature at the point of sample collecting;
         VQ - V. x k, in which k represents the temperature and atmospheric
pressure correction coefficient.  The latter can -be taken from an appropriate
table of correction coefficients.
                                     -54-

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            Quantitative Determination of Formaldehyde in the Air
     Approved by USSR Chief State Sanitary Inspector, V. M. Zhdanov,
                     May 7, 1958, No. 122-1/202.
     The method is applicable to the determination of formaldehyde in the air
of industrial premises for sanitary control purposes.
                                I'.  General
     1.  The method is based on the reaction taking place between formaldehyde
and fuchsin sulfate in acid medium.
     2.  Sensitivity of the method is 2 y of formaldehyde per colorimetric
volume.
     3.  Other aldehydes in concentrations of 300 y< or less per colorimetric
volume do not interfere with the determination.  All aldehydes react with
fuchsin sulfate to form a rose-violet color.  In the presence of less than
300 Y aldehydes other than formaldehyde develop a rose-violet color which
gradually fades out.  The color developed by formaldehyde and fuchsin sulfate
does not fade out but turns into a rose-violet color in acid medium, gradually
changing to blue-violet.
     4.  Limit of allowable concentration of formaldehyde in the air was set
at 0.005 mg/li by regulation No. 279-59, issued January 10, 1959.
                              II.  Reagents and Apparatus
     5.  Reagents and solutions required:
     H2S04, 1:2 and 1:3 dilutions, of GOST 4204-48.
     Hydrochloric acid, 10$ solution, of GOST 3118-46.
     NaOH,  20$ solution, of GOST 4328-48.
     Crystalline iodine, 0.1 N. solution, of GOST 4159-58.
     Sodium thiosulfate, 0.1 N. solution, of GOST 4215-48.
     Starch, ;0.5# solution.
     Distilled water.
     Formalin, technical, synthetic, 1$ solution, of determined formalin
content, of GOST 1625-54.
     Basic fuchsin for the preparation of the fuchsin sulfate reagent.
     Determine the amount of formaldehyde in the 15? formalin solution as follows:
place 1 ml of 1% formalin into a 200 ml volumetric flask) add 10 ml of distilled
                                     -55-

-------
water; add 10 ml of 0.1 N. solution of iodine, u^ing a burette; add 20$
NaOH solution, drop by drop, to the appearance of a permanent light yellow
color; leave stand for 10 min.  Add 1 ml of 10$ hydrochloric acid to the point
of complete iodine liberation and titrate with 0.1 N. solution of sodium
thiosulfate.  Add the starch indicator when the titrated solution acquires a
light yellow color.
     Make a preliminary control titration of 10 ml of the 0.1 N. iodine solu-
tion.  The difference between the amount of sodium thiosulfate consumed by
the control titration and by the titration of the formalin solution represents
the amount of iodine consumed by the oxidation of the formaldehyde.
     Calculate the amount of formaldehyde in mg/ml of the test solution (X)
using the following formula:
                              X . (a-a-^ k 1.5
in which a - represents ml of 0.1 N. sodium thiosulfate solution consumed.in
the iodine solution titrationj
        a, - represents ml of 0.1 N. sodium thiosulfate solution consumed in
the titration of iodine excess;
       1.5 - represents ml of formaldehyde equivalent to 1 ml of 0.1 N. sodium
thiosulfate solution;
         K - is the correction coefficient of the 0.1 N. sodium thiosulfate
solution.
     Prepare standard formaldehyde solution No. 1 of 2 mg/ml concentration from
a 1% formaldehyde solution by appropriate dilution.
     Prepare standard formaldehyde solution No. 2 of 10 f/ml concentration by
appropriate dilution of standard solution No. 1.  This solution will keep for
1 week;
     Prepare sulfurous .acid solution of known SO- concentration per ml as
follows:  insert a dropping funnel into a Wurtz flask; connect the outlet tube
of the flask to an absorber apparatus; connect the apparatus to a right angle
tube, the free end of which is inserted into the Wurtz flask; place some dis-
tilled water into the absorber and the Wurtz flask; place some sodium or po-
tassium sulfite into the Wurtz flask;  place a 1:2 dilution of sulfuric acid
into the dropping funnel.  Turn the dropping funnel stopcock carefully and run
the sulfuric acid into the Wurtz bottle a drop at a time.  SOg will begin to
                                      -56-

-------
generate at  a rate  corresponding to the  amount  of  sulfuric acid  added.  The
rate  of SOp  generating can be hastened by  slightly heating the Wurtz bottle.
      To determine the sulfuric acid concentration, saturate the  water with
SOp}  place 1 ml of  the sulfuric acid solution into a flask containing 5 ml of
water and add 1 ml  of 10? solution of hydrochloric acid; titrate with 0.1 N.
iodine solution.  This will determine the  approximate amount of  iodine required
for the titration of 1 ml sulfuric acid.   A second titration can then be made
for the precise determination.  By means of a burette run into a flask 0.1 N.
of iodine solution  in excess of the previously determined amount by 2 - 3 ml.
Add 1 ml of  10$ hydrochloric solution and  1 ml of the sulfuric acid solution.
Shake and titrate excess of 0.1 N. iodine  solution with standard sodium thio-
sulfate.  Calculate the sulfurous acid and the corresponding SOp from the
amount of iodine consumed.  One ml of 0.1 N. iodine solution is  equivalent
to 3.2 mg of SOp.  Prepare the fuchsin sulfate reagent by diluting 0.1 g of
basic fuchsin in 100 ml of hot distilled water.  Filter the solution into a
dark glass bottle and cool.  Add sulfuric  acid solution to the bottle in an
amount equivalent to 300 mg of SOp, shake  and store in the dark.  A light
yellow color will develop within 24 hours  indicating that the solution was
ready for use.  Appearance of a rose or dark yellow color will indicate that
the solution was not fit for use,  due to the quality of fuchsin  employed.
     Check the reagent as follows:  place 0.2 ml of formaldehyde solution No. 2
into a colorimetric tube marked at 5 and 10 ml; add water to the 5 ml mark;
into another colorimetric tube add 5 ml of water* add to all tubes 1 ml of
1:3 dilution of sulfuric acid and 1 ml of the fuchsin sulfate reagent; leave
stand for 40 minutes.  Lack of bluish-violet color development in the first
tube as compared with the color developed in the control tube indicates that
the reagent was faulty.
     6.   Dishes and other equipment:
     Absorbers,  such as shown in Figs.  1, 2, and 3.
     Flat bottom colorimetric tubes of clear colorless glass,  120 mm high and
15 mm inside diameter.
     Pipettes,  1 ml, divided into 0.01 ml,  of GOST 1770-51.
     Burettes,  25 ml, of GOST 1770-51.
     Volumetric flasks,  100 ml,  GOST  1770-51.
                                    -57-

-------
     Flasks, concial, Erlenmeyer, 100 and 200 ml, of. COST 3184-46.
     Flasks, Wurtz, of GOST 3184-46.
     Dropping funnels, of GOST 10054-39.
     Aspirators.
     Rubber tubing and pinchcocks.
                         III.  Air Sample Collecting                       .
     7.Aspirate the air at the rate of 20 li/hr through 2 consecutively
connected absorbers, each containing 10 ml of distilled water (See Fig.l).
Air samples can also be collected using an absorber equipped with a glass
filter, as shown in Fig. 2, aspirating the air at the rate of 1 li/min.; air
samples can also be collected by means of a Rykhter apparatus, such as shown
in Fig. 3 passing the air at the rate of 2 -»3 li/min.
     In control-checking the limit of allowable formaldehyde concentration
in the air aspirate 5 li through the absorbers.      .
                         IV.  Analytical Procedure
     8.  Perform the analysis as follows:  take 1 and 5 ml samples from the
first., absorber and 5 ml from the second absorber and place into properly
marked colorimetric tubes; add 4 ml of distilled water to the tube containing
1 ml of the sample.  Simultaneously prepare the standard scale as shown in the
table below.
                Scale for the Determination of Formaldehyde
WE NO.
ML OF ST»NI»R»
FORMALICKY1E
80LN. RO. 2
ML OF IISTILLEI WATEB
FOBHAIIEHYIE IN
Y
•

-
0
5

0
2


0,2
4,8

2
3


0,25
4,75

2,5
4


0.3
4,7

3.0
5


0.4
4.6

4,0
6


0.5
4.5

5,0
7


0,6
4.4

6,0
8


0,7
4,3

7,0
9


0.8
4,2

8,0
10


0,9
4.1

9.0
II


1.0
4,0

10,0
18


1,5
3,5

15,0
u


2.0
3.0

20,0
      Add  1 ml  of  the fuchsin  sulfate reagent to  all tubes  and  shake.  Wait
 30 - 40 minutes and add  1 ml  of  It3 solution of  sulfuric acid,  and  compare
 colorimetrically.  Compute ml of formaldehyde per  li  of air  (X) using the
 following formulas
                                      -58-

-------
                              A   V V  1000
                                     o
in which G - represents gammas of formaldehyde in the analyzed volume of
the sample.
         V - represents ml .of the sample taken from the first absorber.
        V, - represents ml of the solution in the first absorber.
    1/1000 - is the coefficient of converting of y to ml.
        VQ - represents li of air used in the analysis, adjusted to standard
temperature and atmospheric pressure by the following formula»
                                   vt 273 P
                              Vo " (273 + t; 760
in which V. - represents li of air collected for analysis;
          t - represents air temperature at collection point;
          P - represents barometric pressure in mm mercury.
     Calculate amount of formaldehyde absorbed in the second absorber by the
same formula.  Add values obtained for absorbers No. 1 and No. 2,
         V   can also be determined byformula V  o V.  x K in which K is  the
correction coefficient for temperature and pressure found in appropriate
table.
       Quantitative Determination of Methyl Alcohol Vapor in the Air
     Approved by USSR Chief State Sanitary Inspector, V. M. Zhdanov,
                         7, 1958, No. 122-1/200.
     The method is applicable to the determination of methyl alcohol vapor in
the air of industrial premises for sanitary control purposes.
                               I.  General
     1.  The method is based on the fact that methyl alcohol is oxidized
formaldehyde by potassium permanganate in acid medium and the formaldehyde
determined by the fuchsin sulfate method.
     2.  Sensitivity of the method is 20 y per colorimetric volume.
                                     -59-

-------
     3.  The method  is not specific for methyl alcohol in the presence of other
organic compounds forming formaldehyde under similar reaction conditions.  The
presence of formaldehyde as such up to 0.1 mg does not interfere with the
determination..
     4.  The limit of allowable concentration of methyl alcohol vapor in the
air was set at 0.005 mg/li by regulation No. 279~59» approved January 10, 1959.
                              II.  Reagents and Apparatus
     5*  Reagents and solutions requiredi                           .
     Methyl alcohol, freshly distilled, of COST 6996-54.
     Sulfuric acid,  Ii3 and Ii2 dilutions, of GOST 4204-48.
     Potassium permanganate, 2Jt.solution, of COST 4527-48.
     Iodine, 0.1 N.  solution, of GOST 4159-48.
     Sodium thiosulfate, 0.1 N. solution, of GOST 4215-48.
     Hydrochloric acid, 5% solution, of GOST 3118-46.
     Starch, 0.5$ solution.
     Sodium sulfite  or potassium sulfite, saturated solution, of GOST 195-41
or 429-41.
     Distilled water.
     Prepare standard stock solution No. 1 of methyl alcohol as follows:
place 10 ml of distilled water into a volumetric flask, stopper and weigh on
an analytical balance.  Add 0.5 ml of methyl alcohol, stopper, and again weigh
on the analytical balance.  The difference between the two weights represents
the weight of the methyl alcohol.  Add distilled water to the 100 ml mark,
stopper and mix.  The weight of the methyl alcohol in the flask divided by
100 gives the amount of methyl alcohol per 1 ml of the solution.  The solution
will keep 1 to 2 months.
     Prepare standard methyl alcohol solution No. 2 containing 0.2 mg/ml by
appropriately diluting solution No. 1 with distilled water.  This solution
will keep for 7 days.
     Use basic fuchsin, of GOST 1728-52 for the preparation of the fuchsin
sulfate reagent.
     Prepare the sulfuric acid solution  as followst  place a dropping funnel,
inserted through a perforated rubber stopper, into a Wurtz flask, and connect
the side tube of the flask with an absorber; connect the absorber with a glass
                                     -60-

-------
 tube bent at right anglej  insert the free end into the flask.   Place some
 distilled water into the flask and into the absorber.   Place  some sodium or
 potassium sulfite  into the Wurtz flask.  Place 1*2 dilution of sulfuric acid
 into the  dropping  funnel.   Carefully open the stopcock of  the  dropping
 funnel  and gradually run the  sulfuric acid into  the Wurtz  flask.   If necessary
 accelerate the  rate of SOp generating by slightly  heating  the  Wurtz  flask.
      Determine  the sulfuric acid concentration in  the  solution as follows:
 saturate  some water with SOp  gas;  place 5 ml of  water  into a flask and add
 1  ml of the saturated sulfuric acid and 1 ml of  10$ hydrochloric  solution.
 Titrate with 0.1 N.  iodine solution.   This will  determine  the  appropriate
 amount  of iodine required  for the  titration of 1 ml of the sulfuric  acid
 solution.   Follow  this procedure by the second and more precise titration.  By
 means of  a burette run in  0.1 N. iodine solution into  a flask  in  amount  exceed-
 ing  the previously established amount  by 2— 3 ml|  add 1 ml of 1055 hydrochloric
 acid and  1 ml of the  tested sulfuric  acid,  mix and titrate excess of  0.1 N.
 iodine  solution with a standard solution of sodium thiosulfate.   Calculate the
 concentration of sulfuric  acid and  of  the  corresponding SOp from  the  amount of
 iodine  consumed in the  titration.
      One  ml  of 0.1 N.  iodine  is equivalent  to  3.2  mg S0_.
      Prepare  the fuchsin sulfate reagent by  dissolving 0.1 g of basic  fuchsin
 in 100  ml  of  distilled water.   Filter  into  a dark  glass container and  add an
 equal amount  of sulfuric acid calculated to  contain 300 mg of  SOp.  Shake
 and  store  overnight in  a dark place.   Development  of a  light yellow color
indicates  that the reagent was  properly  prepared and was suited for use.  Sol-
 utions  developing  a pink or dark yellow  color  should be discarded.  Kept in
 the  dark  the  solution  should  be good for several months.   Check the reagent
 as follows:   Place 0.2 ml  of  the formaldehyde  solution No. 2 (See  specifica-
 tion for  the  determination  of formaldehyde  concentration) into a  colorimetric
 tube  and  add  distilled water/to the 5  ml markj place 5 ml of water into another
 colorimetric  tube.   Add 1 ml  of 1:3 sulfuric acid  and  1 ml of the reagent
 tested  to  each tube.  If the  reagent is properly prepared a bluish-violet
 color should  develop in the first tube within  40 min.5 this color should
 differ  from the one developed in the control tube.
     Formaldehyde  solution No.  2 containing  10 Y/ml-
      6.  Dishes and other equipment:
                                       -61-

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     Absorbers, such as are shown.in Figs. 1, 2, and 3.
     Colorimetric flat bottom tubes of clear colorless glass, 120 mm high
and 15 mm inside diameter.
     Pipettes 5 and 10 ml, divided into 0.01 ml, of COST 1770-51.
     Burettes, 25 ml, of COST 1770-51.
     Volumetric flasks, 100 ml, of COST 1770-51.
     Wurtz flasks, of GOST 3184-46.
     Plat bottom flasks, 50 ml, of GOST 2184-46.
     Reagent bottles.
     Dropping funnels, of GOST 10054-39.
     Aspirator or air blower with flowmeter.
     Rubber tubing and pinchcocks.
                         III.  Air Sample Collecting.
     7.  Aspirate the air through two consecutively connected absorbers, each
containing 10 ml of distilled water, at the rate of 15 li/hr.  An absorber
as is shown in Fig. 2 can also be used provided the air is aspirated at the
rate of 1 li/min.  If the Rykhter apparatus is used, such as is shown in
Fig. 3, the air should be aspirated at the rate of 2 - 3 li/min.  When con-
trol-checking the limit of allowable methyl alcohol vapor concentration in
the air aspirate 5 li of the air.
                         IV.  Analytical Procedure.
     8.  Perform analysis as follows:  Take 1 and 5 ml portions of absorber
solution from the first absorber and 5 ml from the second absorber and place
into properly marked colorimetric tubes; add 4 ml of fresh absorber solution
to the colorimetric tube containing the 1 ml samples.
     Simultaneously prepare the standard set as shown in the table belowt

                Scale  for the  Determination of Methyl Alcohol
TttlE 10.
MU OF HETMYLOL SO«.N0.2
HI OF WATER
H« OP HETHVIOL
«
0
5.
0
a
0.1
4,9
0.02
3
0,15
4,85
0,03
4
0.2
4.8
0,04
6
0.25
4,75
0,05
6
0,3
4,7
0,06
T
0.35
4,65
0.07
8
0.4
4.6
0,08
9
0,45
4.55
0,09
to
0,5
4,5
0.1
II
1,0
4,0
0.2
                                     -62-

-------
     Add 1 ml of 1:3 solution of sulfuric acid into all tubes; add 0.5 ml of
the potassium permanganate solution; shake the tubes individually and leave
stand for 5 minutes for complete oxidation.  Add a drop at a time of potassium
sulfate to the first or control tube of the standard set while Shaking it,
then add excess of potassium permanganate to complete discoloration,  Add an
identical volume of potassium sulfite to all other tubes.  Shake tubes indiv-
idually.  Add to all tubes 1 ml of the fuchsin sulfate reagent, and shake
the tubes again.  The reaction will develop in 20 minutes in the tubes con-
taining 0.2 mg or more of methyl alcohol.  The color intensity will be too
great for colorimetric comparison if tubes are allowed to stand for 1 hour or
longer.  Experience indicated that after 30 to 40 min. the intensity of the
developed color was best for colorimetric determination.  Therefore, it is
suggested that colorimetric determination be made once after 20 and again after
40 minutes.
     Oxidation of methyl alcohol can proceed in part beyond the formaldehyde
stage, i.e., to C02; therefore, it is essential that the colorimetric deter-
mination be done under exactly the same conditions of time and volume for all
the tubes.
     Compute ml of methyl alcohol in 1 li of air (X) using the following for-
mula:
                               „   GV1
                               *   V VQ 1000

in which G - represents gammas of methyl alcohol in the sample volume analyzed.
         V - represents ml of the sample taken for analysis from the first
absorber.
        V, - represents ml of the sample in the first absorber.
     1/1000- is the conversion coefficient of y to ml.
        VQ - is li of air aspirated for analysis, reduced to standard tempera-
ture and atmospheric pressure according to formula
                                    V.  273 P
                               V     *
                                    (273 + tJ 760
in which V. - is li of air aspirated for analysis.
           u
          t - represents the air temperature at the point of sample collecting.
                                      -63-

-------
         P - represents the barometric pressure in mm of mercury.
     Calculate methyl alcohol retained by the second absorber the same as for
the first absorber and add the two values.
     V_ can also be computed by the formula VQ = V.  x K, in which K represents
the temperature and pressure correction coefficient, which can be found in an
appropriate table of correction coefficients.
        Quantitative Determination of Tetraethyl Lead in Gasoline _of
                 Different Trade Marks and in Kerosene
     Approved by USSR Chief State Sanitary Inspector,  V.M. Zhdanov,
                     September 30, 1959, No. 122-1/330.

     The method is applicable to the determination of small quantities of
tetraethyl lead in gasoline used as solvents and as automobile fuel",  and in..
kerosene.
                               I.  General
     1.  Tetraethyl lead is decomposed by iodine and the lead ion determined
as lead chrornate.
     2.  Sensitivity of the method is 1.56 Y of tetraethyl lead per analyzed
volume of the solution.
 "•••.•                  II.  Reagents and Apparatus
     3.  Crystalline iodine, of GOST 4159-48
     Sulfuric acid, of GOST 4204-48
     Ammonium acetate, 3$ solution, pH 6.6 - 6.8,  of GOST 3117.51.
     Lead nitrate,  of GOST 4236-48.
     Prepare standard stock solution containing 10 mg of lead per 1  ml as
follows:   dissolve 1.5984 g of recrystallized lead nitrate in 100 ml of water;
use a 100 ml volumetric flask.
     Prepare a standard solution, containing 10 y  °f lead per 1 ml,  as required
by appropriately diluting the standard stock solution before the determination.
                                     -64-

-------
     Potassium chromate, 3$ solution, of COST 4459-48.
     Distilled water.
     4.  Dishes and other equipment required:
     Muffle furnace.
     Waterbath.
     Sandbath.
     Porcelain dishes, 13 - 15 cm in diametej; of COST 900-41.
     Crucible porcelain, 7 - 8 cm in diameter, of GOS3?~900-41.
     Reagent bottles.
     Pipettes, 5 ml, divided 0.1 ml, of GOSX 1770-51.
     Graduate cylinders, 50 - 100 ml.
     Funnel, of 5 - 7 cm diameter.
     Colorimetric tubes, marked at 1 and 2 ml.
     Test tube stand.
     Ash-free filter paper.
                          III.  Analytical Procedure
     5.  Place 50 ml of filtered gasoline into a porcelain dish or crucible
and add a few crystals of iodine.  Evaporate to dryness over an electrically
heated boiling waterbath.  Dissolve the dry residue in 4 - 6 ml of 3?5 ammonium
acetate, centrifuge and leave standing.  Place 2.5 ml of the clear solution
into colorimetric tubes, and simultaneously prepare the standard scale according
to the table below: •
                                                    Add 3?  ammonium  acetate
                                                    solution to the  5 ml mark.
                                                    Add to  all tubes 0.1 ml  of
                                                    3$ potassium  chromate  solu-
                                                    tion, leave stand for  15 -
                                                    20 minutes and compare
                                                    nephelometrically against
                                                    a dark  background.
       6.   Occasionally  a dark tarry  residue will remain in  the dish  after  the
  gasoline  has  evaporated.  In such  cases evaporate  approximately  4/5 of the
  original  volume;  cool  and add to the  unevaporated  gasoline 3  - 5 ffll °f sulfuric
  acid sp.  gr.  1.82 -  1.84; carefully wash  down residue remaining  on  the walls
TMIE 10*
ML OF ST»NiAR»
SOLUTION
ML OF 3# AHMOIIHM
ACETATE
LEA* l« Y
1
_»
2
—
*
0.1
1,9
1.0
a
0.2
1.8
2.0
4
0.3
1,7
3,00
S
0.5
1.5
5,00
                                     -65-

-------
of the dish with the aid of sulfuric acid; heat over sandbath to complete
evaporation, avoiding active boiling.  Place the porcelain dish containing the
sample into the muffle furnace and ash at 450 - 550°.  Prevent temperature
from rising above 550  to avoid volatilization of some lead sulfate.  Cover
the porcelain dish after ashing, remove it from the muffle furnace.  Add
4 - 6 ml of 35? of ammonium acetate solution after dish has cooled; centrifuge
the final solution or leave stand until solution has cleared then determine
the lead as above described.
     Calculate tetraethyl lead in mg per 100 ml of the gasoline (X) using the
following formula.
                                 G 1.56 V  1
                               "     V 1000
in which G - represents gammas of lead in the solution volume analyzed.
      1.56 - is the coefficient of lead conversion to tetraethyl lead.
        V, - represents ml of the total sample.
         V - represents ml of the sample taken for analysis.
     1/1000- is the y to mg conversion coefficient.
                                     -66-

-------
                                                                                   SUPPLEMENT
                                              TAIll
OF COEFFICIENTS FOR  IIFFERENT COHIIIATIORS OF TEMPERATURE  All  PRESSURE TO IE MBLTIPLIEI IV VALVE
                          V, TO OITAIH voLiHe UIIER NORMAL  (STAHIARI)
                                            CONIITIOI8
TEMP.
II
c°
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
PRESSURE F II MM OF MERCURY
730
0.9432
0,9398
0.9365
0.9331
0,9298
0.9265
0,9233
0.9200
0,9168
0,9136
0,9104
0,9073
0,9041
0.9010
0.8979
0,8948
0.8918
0.8888
0,8858
0,8828
0.8798
0,8769
0,8739
0.8710
0,8681
0,8653
0.8624
0.8596
0.8568
0,8540
0,8512
0,8484
0,8457
0,8430
0,8403
0,8376
732
0.9458
0.9424
0,9390
0.9357
0.9324
0,9291
0.9258
0,9225
0.9193T
0.9161
0,9129
0.9097
0.9066
0.9035
0,9004
0.8973
0.8942
0,8912
0.8882
0,8852
0,8822
0,8793
0.8763
0,8734
0,8705
0.8676
0.8648
0,8619
0.8591
0,8563
0,8535
0,8508
0.8480
0.8453
. 0,8426
0,8399
734
0,9484
0,9450
0,9416
0,9383
0,9349
0,9316
0.9283
0.9251
0.9218
0.9186
0,9154
0.9122
0.9092
0.9059
0.9028
0,8997
0.8967
0,8936
0,8906
0,8876
0,8846
0.8817
0.8787
0,8758
0.8729
0,8700
0,8672
0,8643
0.8615
0,8587
0,8559
0,8531
0,8503
0,8476
0,8449
0.8422
736
0.9510
0.9476
0.9442
0.9408
0.9375
0.9341
0,9308
0.9276
0.9243
0,9211
:0,9179
0,9147
0,9116
0,9084
0,9053
0.9022
0.8991
0.8961
0.8930
0.8900
0,8870 '
0,8841
0,8811
0.8782
0,8753
0.8724
0,8695
0,8667
0.8638
0,8610
0,8582
0,8554
0,8526
0,8499
0,8472
0,8444
738
0,9536
0.9501
0,9467
0,9434
0.9400
0,9367
0.9334
0,9301
0.9269
0.9236
0.9204
0.9172
0.9140
0,9109
0,9078
0,9046
0,9016
0.8985
0.8955
0,8924
0.8894
0.8865
0.8835
0.8806
0,8776
0,8748
0,8719
0,8691
0,8662
0.8634
0,8605
0.8577
0.8549
0.8522
0.8495
0.8467
740
0.9561
0.9527
0.9493
0,9459
0,9426
0,9392
0,9359
0,9326
0.9294
0,9261
0.9229
0.9197
0.9165
0.9134
0,9102
0.9071
0.9040
0,9010
0.8979
0,8949
0,8919
0.8889
0,8859
0,8830
0,8800
0,8771
0.8742
0,8714
0,8685
0,8658
0,8629
0,8601
0.8573
0,8545
0,8518
0,8490
742
0,9587
0.9553
0.9518
0,9485
0,9451
0.9418
0.9384
0.9351
0.9319
0.9286
0.9254
0,9222
0.9190
. 0.9158
0.9127
0,9096
0.9065
0 9034
0,9003
0.8973
0,8943
0.8913
0,8883
0,8853
0,8824
0.8795
0,8766
0,8736
0.8709
0,8680
0.8652
0,8624
0.8596
0,8568
0,8541
0,8513
744
0,9613
0.9579
0.9544
0.9510
0.9477
0,9443
0.9410
0.9376
0,9344
0,9311
0.9279
0.9247
0.9215
0.9183
0.9151
0.9120
0.9089
0.9058
0,9028
0,8997
0.8967
0.8937
0.8907
0,8877
0,8848
0,8819
0,8790
0,8761
0,8732
0,8704
0.8675
0.8647
0,8619
0,8591
0.8564
0.8536
                                             -67-

-------
                                 CONTINUATION
TEMP.
'«••
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
PRESSURE P IN HH OF HERONRY
746
0,9639
0.9604
0,9570
0,9536
0.9502
0.9468
0,9435
0,9402
0,9369
0.9336
0,9304
0,9271
0,9239
0,9207
0.9176
0.9145
0,9113
0,9083
0,9052
0,9021
0,8991
0,8961
0,8901
0,8901
0,8872
0,8842
0,8813
0.8784
0.8756
0,8727
0,8699
0.8670
0.8642
0,8615
0,8587
0,8559
748
0.9665
0,9630
0,9596
0.9561
0.9528
0 ,9494
0,9460
0.9427
0.9394
0,9363
0,9329
0,9296
0,9264
0,9232
0.9200
0,9179
0,9138
0.9107
0,9076
0,9045
0,9015
0,8985
0.8955
0,8925
0.8895
0,8866
0.8837
0,8808
0.8779
0.8750
0.8722
0,8694
0,8665
0,8638
0.8610
0,8582
750
0.9691
0.9656
0,9621
0,9587
0.9553
0.9519
0,9486
0,9452
0,9419
0,9386
0,9354
0,9321
0,9289
0,9257
0,9225
0,9194
0,9162
0,9131
0,9100
0,9070
0,9039
0.9009
0,8949
0,8949
0,8919
0,8890
0,8861
0,8831
0,8803
0.8774
0.8745
0.8717
0.8689
0,8661
0,8633
0,8605
752
0,9717
0,9682
0,9647
0,9613
0,9578
0.9544
0,9511
0.9477
0,9444
0.9411
0.9378
0,9346
0.9314
0,9282
0,9250
0,9218
0,9187
0,9155
0.9125
0,9094
0.9063
0.9033
0.8973
0,8973
0,8943
0,8914
0.8884
0,8855
0.8826
0,8797
0,8768
0,8740
0,8712
0.8684
0,8656
0,8628
754
0.9742
0,9707
0.9673
0.9638
0.9604
0.9570
0.9536
0.9503
0.9469
0.9436
0.9404
0.9371
0.9339
0.9306
0.9275
0,9243
0,9211
0.9180
0,9149
0,9118
0,9087
0,9057
0,9027
0,8997
0,8967
0,8937
0,8908
0,8878
0,8850
0,8821
0,8792
0,8763
0,8735
0,8707
0.8679
0,8651
766
0.9768
0.9733
0,9698
0.9664
0.9629
0.9595
0,9562
0.9528
9.9495
0,9461
0.9428
0.9396
0,9363
0.9331
0,9299
0,9267
0.9236
0,9204
0.9173
0.9142
0,9112
0.9081
0.9051
0,9021
0,8990
0,8961
0,8931
0.8902
0.8873
0.8844
0,8815
0,8787
0.8758
0,8730
0,8702
0,8674
758
0.9794
0.9759
0,9724
0,9689
0,9655
0,9621
0.9587
0,9553
0.9520
0,9486
0,9453
0.9420
0,9388
0,9356
0.9324
0,9492
0.9260
0,9229
0,9197
0,9165
0.9135
0*9105
0.9074
0,9044
0.9014
0,8985
0,8955
0,8926
0,8897
0,8867
0,8839
0.8810
0,8781
0,8753
0,8725
0.8697
760
0.9820
0.9785
0.9750
0.9715
0,9680
0.9646
0.9612
0,9578
0.9545
0,9511
0,9478
0,9445
0,9413
0,9380
0,9348
0,9316
0.9285
0.9253
0.9222
0.9191
0.9160
0,9120
0,9099
0,9068
0.9038
0,9008
0.8979
0,8949
0,8920
0.8891
0,8862
0,8833
0,8804
0.8776
0,8748
0.8720
763
0,9846
0,9810
0.9775
0.9741
0.9706
0.9671
0.9637
0,9603
0,9570
0.9536
0.9503
0,9470
0.9438
0.9405
0.9373
0.9341
0.9309
0.9277
0.9246
0.9215
0.9184
0.9153
0,9122
0,9092
0,9062
0.9032
0.9002
0,8973
0,8943
0,8914
0,8885
0.8856
0.8828
0.8799
0.8771
0.8743
-68-

-------
                              CONTINUATION
TEMP.
IN
C°
5
6
7
8
9 ,
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
.26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
PRESSURE IN MM OF MERCIBY
764
0.9871
0.9836
0.9801
0.9766
0,9731
0,9697
0,9663
0.9629
0.9595
0.9561
0,9528
0,9495
0.9462
0.9430
0.9397
0,9365
0.9333
0.9302
0,9270
0,9239
0,9208
0,9177
0,9146
0.9116
0,9086
0,9056
0.9026
0,8986
0,8967
0.8938
0.8908
0,8880
0.8851
0,8822
0.8794
0,8766
766
0,9897
0,9862
0.9827
0,9792
0.9757
0,9722
0,9688
0.9R54
0.9620
0.9586
0.9553
0,9520
0,9487
0,9454
0.9422
0,9390
0.9359
0.9326
0.9294
0,9263
0.9232
0,9201
0,9170
0,9140
0,9109
0.9079
0,9050
0.9020
0,8990
0,8961
0,8932
0,8903
0.8874
0,8845
0,8817
0,8789
768
0,9923
0,9888
0,9852
0.9817
0,9782
0,9747
0,9713
0,9679
0,9645
0,9612
0.9578
0.9545
0,9512
0.9479
0.9447
0,9414
0,9382
0,9350
0,9319
0,9287
0,9256
0,9225
0,9194
0,9164
0,9133
0,9109
0,9073
0,9043
0.9014
0,8984
0,8955
0,9926
0,8897
0.8869
0,8840
0,8812
770
0.9949
0.9913
0.9878
0.9843
0.9807
0,9773
0,9739
0,9704
0,9670
0,9637
0,9603
0.9570
0.9537
0.9504
0.9471
0.9439
0.9407
0.9375
0.9343
0,9311
0,9280
0.9249
0.9218
0,9187
0,9157
0,9127
0.9097
0,9067
0,9037
0,9008
0,8978
0,8949
0,8920
0.8892
0.8863
0,8835
772
0,9975
0,9939
0,9904
0,9868
0.9833
0.9798
0,9764
0,9730
0,9695
0,9661
0.9628
0.9595
0,9561
0,9528
0,9496
0,9463
0.9431
0.9399
0,9367
n.9336
0,9304
0,9273
0,9242
0,9211
0,9181
0.9151
0,9121
0,9091
0,9061
0,9031
0,9002
0.8972
0.8943
0.8915
0.8886
0,8857
774
1,0001
0,9965
0.9929
0,9894
0.9859
0.9824
0.9789
0,9754
0.9720
0,9686
0.9653
0.9619
0,9586
0,9553
0,9520
0,9488
0,9455
0,9423
0,9391
0,9360
0,9328
0,9297
0,9266
0.9235
0,9205
0,9174 .
0,9144
0,9114
0,9084
0,9055
0.9025
0.8996
0.8967
0.8938
0,8909
0.8881
776
1.0026
0,9990
0,9955
0,9919
0.9884
0,9849
0,9814
0,9780
0,9745
0.9711
0.9678
0,9644
0.9611
0,9578
0,9545
0.9512
0.9480
0.9448
0.9416
0.9384
0.9352
0.9321
0.9290
0.9259
0.9228
0.9198
0.9168
0,9138
0.9108
0.9078
0,9048
0,9019
0.8990
0,8961
0,8932
0,8903
778
1,0051
1,0016
0,9980
0.9945
0,9910
0,9874
0.9839
0,9805
0,9771
0,9736
0.9703
0,9669
0,9636
0,9602
0,9569
0,9537
0,9504
0.9472
0,9440
0,9408
0.9377
0,9345
0,9314
0,9283
0,9252
0,9222
0,9191
0.9161
0.9131
0.9101
0.9072
0,9042
0,9013
0.8984
0.8955
0,8926
780
1,0078
1,0042
1,0006
0,9970
0,9935
0.9900
0.9865
0,9830
0.9796
0,9762
0,9728
0.9694
0.9661
0.9627
0.9594
0.9561
0.9529
0,9496
0.9464
0,9432
0.9401
0,9369
0,9938
0,9307
0.9276
0,9245
0,9215
0.9185
0.9154
0,9125
0.9092
0.9065
0,9036
0.9007
0,8978
0,8949
-69-

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           PART  T  W  O
             Selections from
   A Collection of Studies on Problems in
     the Hygiene of Atmospheric Air
Leningrad Institute of Radiation Hygiene

           N. M. Tomson,
              Editor
                 -70-

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      Advances in Air Hygiene Investigations Conducted in 1951 - 1957
                     at the Institute of Radiation Hygiene
                               N. H. Tomson
     The purpose of air hygiene studies is to establish basic means for the
protection of air purity; such means consist of changes in the technology of
production processes for the reduction or possible elimination of formation
and spread of deleterious wastes, of waste-catching equipment, of equipment
hermetization and of waste products recuperation.  Of equal importance are
proper selection of sites for the construction of industrial plants in the
proximity of populated areas, provision for sanitary clearance zones, or
green belts, and moving of some air polluting sources from populated regions
when the above recommended means of sanitization fail to attain the desired
hygienic ends.  In making plans for the future development of USSR national
economy serious consideration should be given to the translocation of air-
polluting plants from cities into appropriate locations.  At present electric,
heat, and power stations and gas producing plants are the most potent atmos-
pheric air pollutants) they should receive immediate attention.  This is being
currently accomplished by erecting extensive hydroelectric and other heat and
power stations at the sources of power generation or close to sources of fuel
supply.  The construction of extensive heat and power electric stations at a
minimum 20 - 30 km from city limits should result in closing the large number
of boiler-operated stations now located within the confined of populated areas.
Thus, in the city of Leningrad alone there exist upward to 5*000 such boiler-
operated plants; the closing of these should result in considerable purification
of the atmospheric air of that city.  The problem of atmospheric air sanitiza-
tion should be approached from the following three directions: a) determine
degree of air pollution by dust,  gases, and products of incomplete combustion
in different city sections and around large production plants; b) determine
effect of low concentrations of atmospheric air pollutants  on the organism by
studying changes in reflex reactions and general metabolic processes (and by
the introduced method of electroencephalography,B.S.L.); c) refine and perfect
analytical and other study procedures.
     This Institute studied the role played by large industrial production
enterprises in air pollution at the request of the USSR Ministry of Health
                                    -71-

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 and of the Leningrad City Sanitary-Epidemiological Station.  Results of the
 investigation served as the basis for planning and executing future sanitiza-
 tion undertakings on a national scale, which included moving of some indus-
 trial enterprises from populated regions.  Studies of the part played "by in-
 dividual production enterprises in atmospheric air pollution were paralleled
 by studies of effects on the organism of individual discharge components.
 Fifteen Leningrad regional sanitary-epidemiological stations participated in
 the study of the practical solution of the problem related to the prevention and
 control of city air pollution; each sanitary-epidemiological station determined
 the degree of air pollution in its own region;  the results served as the basis
 for the establishment of sound sanitary regulations.
      A study of the city's degree of dustiness  at 10 fixed city observation
 points was initiated in 1935.   Air dust studies were  conducted by the sedimen-
 tation method,  which in the opinion of the workers,  adequately reflected the
 city's state of air dust pollution.   The data are presented in Table 1.
                                                      Table 1
                         AVERAGE MONTHLY AMOUNT OF MST SETTLE! IN •/«
YEAR
1935
1936
1937
1938
1939
1940
1946
1947
1?48
1949
1950
1951
1952
19S3
1954
1956
1966
INIUSTRIAL
SECTIONS
46
56
49
65
61
60
52
86
110
118
125
89
73
58
57
76
76
RESIIENTIAL
SECTIONS
38
36
17
24
35
30
16
20
25
32
41
37
35
34
28
39
35
PARKS
9
8
9
12
10
8
7
8
12
19
26
21
22
13
18
13
22
     The gradual rise in Leningrad air dustiness, from 1946 to 1950, was caused
by the rebuilding and new development of industry and partially by the use (in
                                     -72-

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 1948) of  low  quality  Pechorsk coal in the place of Donets anthracite which
 resulted  in the discharge  into the air of products of incomplete combustion.
 The abatement in air  dustiness, which began in 1951,  resulted from the installa-
 tion of dust-catching filters in  large production plants and electric heat and
 power stations.  Arrest in further dust abatement during the following years
 was caused by the fact that most  large industrial plants purified their dis-
 charges only partially, while the consumption  of  low  grade  coal  had considerably
 increased.  This can be seen  from the  data  presented  in  Table 2.

                                                   Table  2
                COMPARATIVE AMOUNTS of SETTLES *»«T, »VRNE» «OAL,  AN*  «O«L
                                QUALITY, IN TERMS OF
YEAR
1940
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
AMOUNT OF
SETTLE*
TOTAL IH8T
100
196
150
135
106
104
137
136
151
AMOUNT OF
SETTLE! IU8T
PER TON OF
OOAL
100
195
139
120
93
88
98
96
104
AMOUNT OF
LOW 8RAIE
COAL
100
157
160
166
167
185
278
306
_
      Products of fuel combustion constitute the basic source of city air
 pollution:  fly ash,  SOg,  and products of incomplete combustion such as soot
 and tarry substances.   The considerable increase in dust settling during
 heating season points to its fuel origin, as can be seen from data presented
 in Table 3.    Suspended dust concentration, determined by the aspiration
 method,  and expressed in terms of mg/m  of air, basically reflects the effect
 of weather  conditions and can not be used as a dependable indicator of dust
 pollution degree.  The concentration of air suspended dust in rainy weather
 is generally low even during intense fly ash discharge.   In such cases the
 aspiration  method for the determination of air dust  density becomes practically
 valueless and such studies must be supplemented by the method of collecting-dust
 settled by  gravity as  shown  by the  data presented in Table 4.
     Studies  of the general  air pollution picture were supplemented by investi-
gations of  the intensity  and spread of  air dust  pollution by industrial
                                       -73-

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                                                    Table 3
                        •RAMS Of RUST SETTLER PER N MONTHLY IN 1956
MOST IP
JANUARY
FERRUARY
MAI OH
APRIL
HAY
JUNE
JBLY
AR6UST
SEPTEHIER
OCTOIER
•OVEHIER
IECEMIER
INRUSTRIAL
SECTIONS
71
63
139
108
64
76
70
37
39
77
74
118
RESIBENTIAL
8ECTIOR8
41
48
43
37
27
23
26 ,
27
28
33
34
52
PARKS
18
25
38
33
25
15
14
14
12
21
17
34
                        SHSPENRER IBST IN Mi/M  or  AIB
                                                         TAItE 4
MONTB
JANIARY
PEIRUARY
NARtH
APRIL
HAY
JiNI
JILT
AUOUST
8EPTEMIER
OCTOIEt
NOVEHIER
•eeCMRER
IUHIER OP
ANALYSES
26
47
71
61
70
48
65
65
63
2
12
12
AVERA9ES OF
SU8PENRER »«ST
0.19
0.23
0.46
0.95
0,55
0,80
0,49
0,49
0.31
0.25
0.15
0,19
MAXIMAL
AMOUNTS or
SOSPERRER IBST
0,52
1.20
1.80
3,10
2,02
3.24
231
2.11
2.03
030
0.40
0.40
discharges from individual plants,  such as viscose plants, hydroelectric  sta-
tions, coke-gas plants,  drying oil  plants, all located in territories adjacent
to a cement and a hydroelectric plant,  etc.  Air pollution studies in the
populated regions adjacent to  the viscose and carbon bisulfide plants were
conducted by E. K. Lobova  and  V.  Zh.  Yas'kova in cooperation with the Department
of Community and Occupational  Hygiene and the Health Protecting Organization of
the Leningrad Sanitary Hygienic Medical Institute.  Studies of the degree of
                                       -74-

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air pollution with carbon bisulfide conducted in 1952 were paralleled by
A. P. Oreshina's investigations of the organism's reaction to low carbon bisul-
fide concentrations using motor conditioned reflex effects as the indicator,
since carbon bisulfide has been known to affect the nervous system.
     A. F. Oreshina was able to show that certain carbon bisulfide concentra-
tions intensified the inhibition processes in the cerebral cortex and enhanced
the falling out of conditioned reflexes.  Experiments were performed with non-
selected white mice.  Animals with different types of neuro pattern reacted
differently to the effects of carbon bisulfide.  Some animals manifested en-
hanced inhibition processes, other animals manifested reactions of an unde-
finable character while many animals showed no reactions of any kind.  This
suggests that experiments with a group of selected neurosusceptible white
mice might yield more strikingly positive results.  However, experiments with
a group of animals consisting of different neuro types should be of greater
value, since under practical conditions one encounters individuals of all types
of neuro patterns, and seldom, if ever, individuals belonging to one type of
neuro pattern.
     Conditioned reflex studies were supplemented by studies of the effect of
carbon bisulfide on processes of growth and development.  Newly born mice,
presumably more sensitive in their reactions, were exposed to the same carbon
bisulfide concentrations as adult mice.  Results showed delayed growth and
arrested weight increase as compared with the control group, conclusively in-
dicating that the 0.5 mg/m  carbon bisulfide concentration, now regarded as
allowable, should be reduced.  In fact odor tests with carbon bisulfide vapor
showed that 0.03 mg/m  was its threshold odor perception, and it is recommended
that such a concentration be adopted as the allowable limit for carbon bisulfide
vapor in the air of sanitary clearance zones.  The odor perception method was
used in establishing the odor perception threshold for carbon bisulfide and
hydrogen sulfide simultaneously present in the air.  Results showed that the
simultaneous presence in the air of CSp and H_S vapors* each in concentration
of its allowable limit unfavorably affected the conditioned reflex activity of
animals chronically exposed to the inhalation of the vapors.  Results obtained
from the study of air pollution caused by individual industrial plants were
coordinated with results of tests^conducted for the determination of the
                                    -75-

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organism's reaction to the pollution components.  E. N. Bondareva investigated
the degree of air pollution with tarry substances discharged "by a coke-gas
plant; such substances contained heavy aromatic polynuclear hydrocarbons; she
also studied the air polluted by nitrogen oxides discharged by the Nevskii
Chemical Plant.  Simultaneously she investigated the effect of such pollutants
on the mechanism of eye adaptation to the dark, and found that even low con-
centrations notably affected the process of eye adaptation to the dark.
£. N. Bondareva and V. Z. Yas'kova exposed white rats for 3 months to the
atmospheric air in the vicinity of a chemical plant.  All test animals showed
a 65 - 68$ arrest in the normal rate of gaining weight and in their general
development as compared with the control animals.  Cholinesterase and vitamin
C determinations also showed serious shifts from the normal.
     Z. V. Dubrovina studied the effect of atmospheric air polluted by emission
of a cement plant on the health of the surrounding populations.  She found that
approximately 40$ of the inhaled cement dust was retained in the lungs.  In her
evaluation of the effect of cement dust inhalation Dubrovina used motor vascular
and respiratory reaction changes indicated by plethysmographic and pneumographic
records.  Results showed a reduced blood volume and the appearance of spontane-
ous waves.  Oxalic acid tests made in close proximity to the cement plant pointed
to an increase in the alkaline dust concentration.  The effect of inhaled alka-
line dust on mucosa of the upper respiratory tract was studied with the aid of
a semi-permeable glass electrode.  Shifts in the organism's reflex reactions
in response to the irritating effect of deleterious admixtures in the air were
used as preliminary indexes of threshold concentrations.  However, it is well
known that reflex reactions changed under the influence of different internal
and 'external conditions,  the effects of which are not easily determined, if
at all.  Therefore, a search was made for indexes obtainable by other methods
such as biochemical and general metabolic procedures.  E. K. Lobova studied
the effect of low S02 vapor concentrations on the organism in chronic experi-
ments, and used shifts in the functional activities of the animal organism, such
as biochemical and in particular enzyme reactions as indicators,  since it has
been known that sulfur dioxide penetrated into the blood stream via the respir-
atory organs, and that the gas persisted in the circulation.  SCU persistence
and accumulation in the blood stream may cause acidosis, which, in turn, may
                                     -76-

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elicit biochemical  shifts  in the blood and tissues affecting, dehydrase activity,
anaerobic cell respiration and carboanhydrase activity.
     The hygienic significance of products of incomplete fuel combustion as
city air pollutants was given considerable attention.  Products of incomplete
fuel comoustion are usually discharged by primitively constructed and in-
appropriately used  small or medium boiler-operated plants, which in Leningrad
burn approximately  60$ of  the total fuel consumption; next come autotransport
exhaust gases, especially  those emitted by diesel trucks and autobuses.
     In this connection S. P. Nikolaev studied the effect of small boiler-
operated plants on  air pollution in populated regions.  He analyzed the com~
position of discharge gases in smokestacks of coal and gas burning plants
before they reached the atmospheric air.  His results were published in
Gigiene i Sanitariya, No.  11, 1956.  E. N. Bondareva analyzed atmospheric air
for the content of tarry substances in a populated area adjacent to a coke-
chemical plant, using the  aspiration method of sample collecting and the lum-
inescent method of analysis.  Fly ash concentrations in atmospheric air were
determined with the aid of a dust filter described in Izvest. Akad. Nauk USSR,
Vol. 1, No. 4, 1952) which operated at 20 li/min. air flow rate and retained
about 96$ of dust particles of In or more in diameter.
     The USSR Ministry of Health requested that a parallel study be made of
dust pollution, density, and microbial population in the atmospheric air.
Such studies were conducted by K. I. Turzhetskii and E. I. Olen'eva.  The
results pointed to certain regularities existing between the two types of
pollutants, as is shown by the data presented in Tables 5> 6 and 7«  Generally,
the number of microorganisms changed in some correspondence with the suspended
dust concentration.  A comparison of the number of microorganisms with the
number of dust particles is presented in Table 6; results showed a greater
correlation between the two than in the ease of the gravimetric determination,
since the weight of the dust basically reflected the size of the particles,
whereas microorganisms were usually associated with the smaller and less
rapidly settling dust particles.   The number of microorganisms increased with
increase in the air of suspended soil dust,  stirred up by rapidly moving
transport vehicles,  especially in the industrial section.  This is clearly
shown by the data presented in Table 7*  It  should be noted that the micro-
                                    -77-

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                                                Table  5
                      AMOUNT OF SDSPENIEI IBST AMI NBHIER OF MICROORGANISMS
                  M8 OF 6USPENIEI
                  1UST PER M3 OF AIR
   IIHIERS OF SETTLE*
    MICROOR«ANI6MS
                                                      N8MIER OF AIR
                   0,085
                   0,150
                   0,320
      201
      214
      255
 777
 1100
 1056
                                                 TABLE «

                       ..UMIEHS OF IBST PARTICLES ANC OF MlCROOH«ANI8M8
               IUST PARTICLES
               PER t CM
NUMIERS OF SETTLE!
MICROORCANISMS
                                                     NUMBERS OF AIR
                    139
                    303
                    731
       102
       216
       270
 557
 699
1265
                                                             TABLE 7
                      IUST  AMI HICROIIAL BEN6ITIES IN THE AIR OF  INIBSTBIAL
                             ANI RESIIENTIAL SECTIONS ANB OF PARKS
LOCATION
S
b.
O
r
INMSTRIAL SECTIONS
RESIIENTIAL SECTIONS
PARKS
5
a
IK •<
• ae
X ui to.
Ul «. O
a OF SETTLE! ]
0,62
0,42
0,20
oc
Ul
*. •.«:
O Ul
H- ac
B Z
V)
u
U
oc
«_
0-
(f)
a
A
78
37
17
m
£ •
oe
Ul
a.
1 NUMtER OF j
| SETTLE! MICRO-I
447
359
127
I ORGANISMS 1
•c
ML
O
ec
UJ
™
ae
713
194
35
SUSPENIEI
MICROOR6ANISMS
1458
917
249
 organisms associated with the settled and suspended dusts differed in their
 species.  The  settled dust contained  mostly anaerobic and aerobic species,
 whereas the  suspended dust contained  mostly pigmented microorganisms and molds.
 The  effect of  pollutants  discharged into the air by the aluminum and viscose
 industrial plants on the  health of the  surrounding  population was studied in
 a preliminary  way by analyzing morbidity data collected in smoke  polluted and
 control regions.   Such data  were obtained from the  official files of respec-
 tively located clinics.   Data  thus obtained were statistically analyzed and
 correlated with age,  sex,  occupation, residence duration in the respective
regions,  etc.
                                       -78-

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     Determination of the effect on health of low atmospheric pollutant con-
centrations was rendered difficult by the fact that in most cases it was
impossible to determine the effects of individual components; this was further
viciated by the fact that slight shifts in the air composition from clean air
could not be easily detected, and also by the fact that response of the organism
to the effect of such low concentrations depended upon surrounding conditions.
Development of new approaches and means for determining shifts in reactions of
the organism will help to establish a rational basis for the formulation of
sanitary-hygienic codes and regulations leading to the abolition of causes of
air pollution and to the introduction of temporary basic limits of allowable
concentrations of deleterious substances, singly or combination, in the at-
mospheric air and to the development of sanitary clearance zones.
     Effect of Low Sulfur Dioxide Concentrations on the Animal Organism.
                                E.  K. Lobova.
     The purpose of this study was to check the limit of allowable sulfur
dioxide concentration adopted for atmospheric air of inhabited areas.  The
recent tempo of industrial development continually increases the rate of at-
mospheric air pollution in industrial centers with substances deleterious to
human health, and in particular with sulfur dioxide.  The community atmos-
pheric air in the proximity of the Leningrad First Hydroelectric Station,  the
Coke-Gas Plant,  the Neva Chemical Plant, and the Okhtensk Chemical Combine is
being polluted by different industrial gases among which sulfur dioxide is the
most important from the sanitary-hygienic viewpoint (E.  N. Bondareva, E. K.
Lobova, V. Z. Yas'kova).  The present limit of allowable sulfur dioxide con-
centration for community atmospheric air was set at 0.5  mg/m .
     A review of the literature indicated that the present knowledge regarding
the effect of sulfur dioxide on the human and animal organisms was inadequate.
I. V. Sidorenkov studied the effect of sulfur dioxide on general metabolism of
man and animals; the purpose of his studies was to determine which of the
                                    -79-

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"biochemical systems and reactions of the human organism suffered as a result
of sulfur dioxide poisoning and what were the principles of its mechanism of
action.  His preliminary results indicated that sulfur dioxide entered the
"blood stream in its original form, as shown by its presence in the "blood.  He
noted that entrance of sulfur dioxide into the organism elicited a hypergly-
cernia, which he regarded as the organism's response to the toxic effect of
sulfur dioxide.  He further observed that hyperglycemia developed regardless
of the route of sulfur dioxide entrance into the organism, and concluded that
the mechanism of sulfur dioxide toxic action was the same in all instances and
was "basically of a reflex nature.
     It is generally known that hypoxy was accompanied by hyperglycemia and
that hypoxy could be produced by the effect of sulfur dioxide on oxidative
tissue processes.  It is.also known that nerve tissue was most sensitive to
disturbances in the oxidative processes.  Taking these facts into consideration
I. V. Sidorenkov studied the effect of sulfur dioxide on the course of sugar
and oxygen metabolism in brain tissue In vivo and iri vitro.  Depressed oxida-
tive processes were observed in both instances.  Sidorenkov also investigated
the course of brain tissue dehydrase activity using the Tunberg method. . The
results led Sidorenkov to conclude that brain tissue respiration was inhibited
through the effect of sulfur dioxide on brain tissue dehydrase.  He also found
that sulfur dioxide acted as a reducing agent, and as such inhibited the
donator and. acceptor functions of lactic acid dehydrogenase.  V. A. Litkens
and V. A. Saknyn investigated the persistence of sulfur dioxide in the blood
depending upon concentration and duration of exposure.  Their observations were
made on animals under experimental conditions and on humans under industrial
conditions.  Results of the observations showed that inhalation of SOp dis-
turbed blood carboanhydrase activity and that the degree of the enzyme dis-
turbance correlated with the concentration of the sulfur dioxide inhaled,
and that the SOp content in the blood increased with the time of the human or
experimental animal exposure.  Litkens and Saknyn regarded the fall in
carobyanhydrase activity as a definite symptom of generalized sulfur dioxide
intoxication.  No references were found in the literature to studies related
to the effect of sulfur dioxide on cholinesterase activity, which acted as a
catalyzer in acetylcholine hydrolysis.  According to N. Ya. Mikhel'son
                                     -80-

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changes in the rate  of acetylcholine hydrolysis may result in profound, if
not  complete, disturbance  of brain function.  No-references were found in
the  literature to  studies  made  on the effect  of sulfur dioxide  on ascorbic
acid content in tissues  of -laboratory animals.
      The purpose of  the  study was to determine the effect of low sulfur
dioxide concentrations in  acute and chronic experiments on changes in some
                    1        "       •           '      .
biochemical processes controlling the functional state of the organism.
Attention was focused on dehydrase"associated with anaerobic cell respiration
and  carboanhydrase which acted as a catelyzer in gas metabolism; data were
also obtained on vitamin C content in tissues and blood of some organs of
white rats.  Acute experiments were performed with white rats exposed to
                           . \   i.   ..    .-•
SO,  concentration of 20  mg/m  for 4 hours.  N-101-54,set the limit of allow-
                           ••                                 -3
able concentration of S02  in the air of workrooms at 20 og/m .  In performing
the  experiments animals  were placed into a bell-shaped glass exposure chamber
of 17•7 li capacity, and the air containing the required SOp concentration was
flowing through this chamber at the rate .of 17 li/min.  Tests were performed
with 24 white male rats.   Of these, 13 rats,  weighing between 110 - 225 g»
were exposed to the gas-air inhalation for 4  hours; 11 rats, weighing between
90 - 255 g» were used as controls.  The concentration of SOg in the glass
exposure chamber was checked at appropriate intervals during the 4-hour exposure.
The  rats were then removed from the chamber and rapidly decapitated.
     Tissue dehydrase activity of different organs was tested by the Tunberg
method, as modified by A.  V. Drobintseva and  0. N. Goryacheva, based on the
rate of methylene blue discoloration expressed in minutes.  Dehydrase activity
is inversely proportional  to methylene blue discoloration time.  Thus, if x
denotes discoloration time, dehydrase activity will be expressed as 1/x,  or
more conveniently as.IOO/x (A. Ya. Boyarskii).  Cholinesterase activity in
different tissues was determined by the S. R. Zubkova micro method, and
T. V. Pravdich-Neminskaya, as modified by A.  V. Drobintseva and 0.  N. Goryacheva
for  tissues and by M. Ya. Mikhel'son for blood.  Blood carboanhydrase was
determined colorimetrically by the commonly adopted method of A. V. Drobintseva
and  0. N. Goryacheva.             ...
     Dehydrase activity  in liver,  kidney, heart,  brain,  and spleen tissues
of the experimental and  control animals was studied,  making 167 determinations
in the case of the experimental animals and 126 determinations in the case of

                                    -81-

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                                                Table  1
               EFFECT OF SULFUR RIOXIRI tF lEHVIRASI 4HIVITV II TIMyiS Of '
                 RATS, IK CORCEHTRATIOHS UP TO 20 HI/H3 AT 4 MODUS EXPOSURE
                                                             WHITE
AHRY9RASE ACTIVITY IR TERMS OF ARRITRARV >.
•HITS -
TISSUE if
fc »-
o <
BE —
ui X

a I-
ROMTROL
RATS

rf
*
£
RRAIR 30 0.17
KIRHEY8 29 0,40
LIVER 30 0.50
HEART 17 0.37
SPIES* 20 0.11

^
K
2
025
0.80
1.10
• 0,50
<«*

«
flB
U
«
0^0
052
0.64
0.44
M. 016
i«
* 5
•c •
w —
IE
a u
EXPOSER
RATS

.^
•
K
46 012
42 0,22
33 0.27
20 021
36 0,04

£
ti
2
028
074
051
076
0,15
y|

1C
III
.2
o — o
u s s
• ce 0
u x
> u m
ois 10
039 25
042 34
0,28 36
0,08 50
 the control animals.  The results are summarized in Table 1.   Spleen tissue
 dehydrase activity of the exposed rats fell to considerably lower  levels  as
 compared with those of the control rats.  Lower level activity  of  spleen  dehy-
 drase  was reduced by an average of 63.752 and the upper level by 28.6#, with an
 average  of 50$.   Statistical analysis showed that the averages  were  of sig-
 nificant magnitudes.  Heart, liver, and kidney tissue dehydrase activity  also
 fell to  lower levels.
     Similar studies were made in connection with oholinesterase activity of
 organ  tissues and of the blood.  Ninety one such tests were made with tissues
 of  13  exposed rats and 84 tests with the tissues of 11 control  rats.  Results
 are presented in Table 2.
     Data presented in Table 2 show a lowered cholinesterase activity in
 spleen,  kidney,  brain tissues and in the blood of the exposed rats.   The  fall
 was more pronounced in the cholinesterase activity of the small intestinal
 mucosa,  where lower level activity was reduced, by 41.7$,  upper  level  activity
 by  29$,  with an  average of 2S?,f3/£.
     In  the  second series of experiments tests were made  to  determine the
effect of the 0.5  mg/m  allowable limit  of sulfur dioxide concentration in
atmospheric  air  on shifts in some biochemical  processes of white rats.  Ten
rats were exposed  to  the  above  sulfur dioxide  concentration  4 hours daily for
114 days, and 10 rats  served as controls.   Hone  of the  rats  were older than
1.5 months.  The total  original weight of the  exposed rats was 885  g and of
                                     -82-

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                                 Table 2

EFFECT OF SULFUR IIOXUE ONtTISSttE AMI ILQOI CHOLINE8TERASE ACTIVITY
OF WHITE RAT6 IN CONCENTRATION OF 20 MS/IT1 ANI EXPOSURE OF 4 HOURS


ORCANS




CHOLINESTERASE ACTIVITY IN TERMS OF ML

J, <•
0
O K
OB *
Ut ~
s £
m t-
HEART 12
LIVER 12
SPLEEN 12
ILOOI 12
KIINEYS 12
IRA IN *
Mlf COS A OF
8M. INTEST. 12

OF
O.Ol N NAOH
CONTROL
RATS f.


I
r
0.9
03
13
0,18
0.8
2.0

2.4


E
r
3.0
2.8
4,8
03
2.0
5.2

6,8


uf
111
ui Aft
• s
o
O 1—
oe *
UJ —
C K
m t-


EXPOSEI
RATS


r
r
1.7 13 0.8
• U5 13 0.7
2.9 13 1.9
C.29 13 0.18
1.2 13 0,7
3.1 13 2,0

4.1 13 1.4


£
X
•<
r
2.7
2.2
4.4
0,4
2.0
3.6

43

Ul
<*
ot
UJ


SSm
• 3*
got M -J
Ul — 0
•J 1- K
05 >- ^
ui ui >- ae
<* K — o
•* — > u
B -1 —
Ul O ^ Ik
> * 0 0
« «• «
1.6 6.0
1.4 6.7
2,6 10.0
0,26 10.0
1.1 123
2,6 16.0

2,9 293
                                                           the control rats
                                                           832 g.  Test animals
                                                           were exposed to SOg
                                                           as previously de-
                                                           scribed; SOg concen-
                                                           tration checks were
                                                           made on 510 occasions;
                                                           the average value of
                                                           such tests was 0.48
                                                           mg/m  of sulfur
                                                           dioxide.  Weight of
                                                           the animals was
                                                           checked on 14 occasions.
                                                           At the end of inhala-
 '""tion exposure and prior
to  decapitation  animals of the  test group weighed a total of 3661.1 g and of
the control group 3777.8 g,  indicating that the gain in weight in animals of
the exposed group was  considerably arrested.  It should be noted that 1 of the
control rats died before decapitation.  At the end of rats' chronic exposure
to  0.50 mg/m   S0_ the  animals were decapitated and tissues of the liver,
kidneys, spleen, heart,  lungs,  brain and muscles tested for dehydrase, and of
the small intestinal mucosa  and the blood for cholinesterasa.  Intermediate
tests for peripheral blood cholinesterase activity were made between the 3rd
and 5"th months of continued  exposure to SOp.  Tests for tissue content of
ascorbic acid were made in a parallel manner by the method of K. Z. Tul'chinskii,
M.  M. Eidel'man, and F.  Ya.  Gordona.  Two hundred ninety-eight dehydrase tests
were made with the tissues of the  nine surviving controls and the 10 exposed
rats.  Results are listed in Table 3.  Data in the table show that lower level
of  spleen dehydrase activity was reduced in the exposed rats by 50$ values,
the upper.level  by 56$,  with an average of 54.6$.  Statistical analysis
verified as significant  the  average values of dehydrase activity loss in the
rats exposed to  an average SOp  concentration of 0.48 mg/m .  Muscle, liver,
lung, and heart  tissues  showed  a general reduction in their dehydrase activity;
the drop was of  lowest  magnitude in the kidney tissue.  Brain tissue dehydrase
                                  -83-

-------
                                                      Table 3
            EFFECT OF CHRORU EXPOSURE OF WHITE RATS TO 0.48 HQ/H  OF 8HLFIII MOXIIE
                    IAILY FOR 4 HOURS FOR 1.44 I AYS ON THE MHYIRA8I
                       CAPACITY OF IIFFERENT IOIY ORCAM
ORCANS

IERYIRASE ACTIVITY II ARIITRARY VIITS
lOO
£1
o •
u. —
0 1-
Ul —
a ui
CONTROL
RATS

r
£
K
r

M
W
1 OF »E-
H AT IONS
u £
SB:
u
a t-
EXPOSEI
RATS
rf
c

C
w
K
Ul
CE LOSS OF
RASE ACTIVITY •
OF CONTROL
si^
> w m
             IRAIH
             KIINEVS
             HEART
             LHN«S
             LIVER
             MUSCLES

             SPLEER
22  0.57  042  030   30   0^3  0^0  0^7   10.0
21  0.41  0.83  0,61   25   0.40  0.70  0.51   16.4
18  0,42   1,10  0,88   21
18  0,14   0.24  0,17   20
22  0,42   1.30  O.U   26
17  0.15   033  0,24   20
16  0,20   0,50  0,33   22
0.42  1,10  0.68  22.7
0,08  0,22  0,11  353
0,40  0,84  0,53  36,0
0,17  0,24  0.11  S4fl
0,10  0.22  0,15  54,6
proved the moat resistant  to the effect of chronic exposure to 0.5  mg/m
(in  actuality 0.48 mg/m  of sulfur dioxide.
     Fifty-six cholinesterase activity tests were made with the peripheral
blood  of the control animals and 46 tests with the peripheral blood of the
exposed animals.  Values  of the two sets of tests were practically  identical,
showing no significant  effects of 0.48 mg/m  of S02 vapor on the  cholinesterase
activity in the peripheral blood.  Results of  133 cholinesterase  activity
determinations in organ tissues of 10 chronically exposed and 9 control rats
are  listed in Table 4*  Similar cholinesterase activity tests with  tissues of
the  spleen showed a clear-cut tendency to reduction; cholinesterase activity
of kidney, small intestinal mucosa, lung, heart,  and brain tissues  fell only
slightly.
     Vitamin C content.was determined in the kidneys, small intestine mucosa,
adrenals,  and in the blood of 10 exposed and 9 control animals, in  a total of
171  tests, the results  of  which are presented  in Table 5.
     Results in Table 5 show that vitamin C content of the small  intestinal
muoosa,  of the kidneys  and the liver showed reduction.
     In a  third series  of  tests white rats were exposed to the continuous
effect  of  0.1 mg/m  sulfur dioxide.  At the end of the exposure determinations
were made  of the activity  of carboanhydrase, an enzyme which plays  an
                                       -84-

-------
                                                                      ' TAILE 4
                     HPPECT OP CHRONIC EXPOSURE  OF WHITE RATS TO 0.48 Mi/M3 or SNIPBR
                          iI OilIE 4 HOURS 1AIIY F6R 144 IAYS ON CROLIIESTERASI
                               ACTIVITY Of IIFFERENT IOIY ORCARS
1 .
1 ORIANS
CNOLI HESTER A8E ACTIVITY IN ML OF O.Ol N NA*H
,LS
• 0
NKNIER 0
TERMIHA1
CONTROL
RATS
r
m
x
MAXIM.
w
w
i S
• 0
•
OC »
w r
»• H
EXPOSE!
RATS
MINIM.
X
Ml
^
ee
Ul
AVERAIE LOSS OF
CNOLI HESTER A8E
ACTIVITY IH % Of
CORTROL
                SM. INTEST.
                 HNCOSA

                 • RAIN
                 SPLEEN
                 KIINEVS
                 LIVER
                 LUNM
                 HEART
9   1.95   3.65  2.68    10    2,10  3,00   2,54   8,6
9   1,23   1.83  1.50    10
9   1,20   2.85  2,20    10
9   0,60   1,38  0,90    10
9   0.88   1.56  1,12    10
9   0.93   1,58  1,20    10
9   0.95   135  1.50    10
1,10   2.10  1,40    7,0
1.20   2,60  1,70   23,0
0,55   1.00  0.80   10.0
0.85   1.48  1^0    -
0,85   1,45  1,10    83
1.20   2.30  1,40    7.0
                                                                     TAILE 5
                     EFFECT OF CHRONIC EXPOSURE OF WHITE RATS TO 0.43 M«/M3 OF
                     SULFUR IIOXIIE 4 HOURS IAILY FOR 144 IAY8 ON VITAMIN •
                             CONCENTRATION IN IIFFERENT IOIY ORCANS



ORCANS





VITAMIN C IH M« %


!• 3 COHTHOl
£- RATS
» «
m
5?
• 1C
C "U
9 t-
•

£

X

r
M

r
w
m
tu

«
m S


K m
Hi _
9 £
a M

EXPOSE!
RATS

£

r

£
K

C
•M
SE
LU

*
t

ii
-J O
0 e

5*

>
KIINEYS
LIVER
SM. INTEST.
MUCOSA
AIRENAL8
11001
18
18

18
9
18
4.5
7,8

7.8
883
2.0
63
10^

19.0
180.1
S3
5.75
9.10

11.60
12330
23
20
20

20
10
20
3.74
5.74

7.96
99.40
1.40
633
10,10

11,63
166,90
3.0
5.07
8^5

9,90
142.90
2,40
10
9

15
—
—
important part  in the organism's  gas metabolism.  Young male rats were exposed
to  the  inhalation of  0.1  mg/m  of sulfur dioxide 5  hours daily for 166 days in
an  exposure  chamber of 2.5 m   capacity and  gas-air  flow rate of  100  li/min.
                                              -85-

-------
Even distribution of the SOp in the chamber air was assured by installing a
rotation fan.  Under normal conditions of operation the gas-air mixture
should have been renewed 5 times in the course of the 5-houi exposure.
Unfortunately, prevailing technical conditions reduced the rate of gas-air
renewal in the exposure chamber to twice during the 3-hour exposure.  As a
result, analysis at the end of the 5-hour exposure showed that the chamber air
contained 6% of carbon dioxide, 3.0 mg/m  of ammonia and an occasional 80 -
90$ relative humidity with a temperature of 25 - 27 •  Control animals were
kept under similar conditions 10 - 12 hours daily.
     V. B. Koziner demonstrated that no connection existed between carboanhy-
drase activity and the limiting intensity of gas metabolism in man.  It was
gilso shown that acute hypoxy and twofold pulmonary ventilation had no note-
worthy .effect on carboanhydrase activity.  Pulmonary hyperventilation enhanced
the respiratory coefficient to 1.4 - 1.65 the carbon dioxide tension of the
organism was decreased, the urinary.pH shifted 2 units in the alkaline direc-
tion, but the carboanhydrase activity of the test animals remained unchanged.
In the course of the entire period of inhalation exposure the SOp concentration
in the exposure chamber was checked at given intervals.  Due to the fact that
SOp  was adsorbed by the animals' fur, by the walls of the chamber, and by the
higher chamber humidity,.more sulfur dioxide gas had to be delivered with the
air than original calculations had indicated.  In the course of 5 hours ex-
posure air samples taken for analysis amounted to 342; analytical average
amounted to 0.1 mg/m  of sulfur dioxide.  In the experiments under considera-
tion 2 groups of young rats were used, each consisting of 96 animals 1.5-2
months old.
     Animals of both groups were weighed 7 times in the course of the exposure.
Average weight per animal at the beginning of the experiment was 102,3 g  for
the test animals and 110.3 g for the control animals.   Weights of the animals
at the end of the exposure period were 324.6 and 345.8 g> correspondingly.
It appeared that exposure of the animals to 0.1 mg/m  of SOp had no unfavorable
effect on the development and gain in weight of the animals.  Check tests at
the beginning of the experiment showed that the average experimental error in
determining blood carboanhydrase activity did not exceed 6%.  Peripheral blood
carboanhydrase activity was determined in 35 test rats and 61 control rats on
                                     -86-

-------
the 41st day  of  chronic  exposure.  In both cases the average value was 2.8-fe
0.28 with a fluctuation  amplitude  of 2.0 - 3.6 for the test rats and 2.8±0.37
with fluctuation "between 2.1 - 3.8 for the control rats.  It must be concluded
that 40 days  continuous  exposure of rats to 0.1 mg/m  SO- concentration had
no unfavorable effect  on the activity of carboanhydrase.
     Blood carboanhydrase activity was then determined in 30 test and 38
control rats  on  the 112th day of inhalation exposure.  In this case average
carboanhydrase activity  values were correspondingly: 2.8±0.24 with fluctua-
tions between 2.0 - 3.3  in the test animals, and 3.2±0.38 with fluctuations
between 2.4 - 4.2 in the control animals.  Thus, blood carboanhydrase activity
tended to fall as a result of the  animals' exposure to the inhalation of
0.1 mg/m  of  sulfir dioxide.  Analysis showed that the values of fall in the
carboanhydrase activity  were significant statistically.
     Additional  blood  carboanhydrase activity tests were made between the
141st and 162nd  days of  exposure of 99 exposed and 64 control rats.  Average
carboanhydrase activity  in the test rats was 3.1±0.42 with fluctuations be-
tween 2.7 - 5.7  (in only 1 case) in the control animals.  The results pointed
to reduced blood carboanhydrase activity of the test animals between the 141st
and 162nd day.  Analysis indicated that the data obtained were of statistically
significant magnitudes.   Unfortunately, at the end of the 143rd day the exposure
had to be interrupted  for 3 days for technical reasons.  After that the exposure
was continued.  However,  prior to  beginning the 144th day of exposure blood
samples were  taken for the determination of carboanhydrase activity in 10 of
the test and  10  of the control rats.  This was done for purposes of control.
Results of such tests  showed no significant differences in the carboanhydrase
activity of the test and control rats (3.5i.db0.6 for the test animals and
3.6±0.29 for  the control  animals).   Such results showed the non-persistence
of carboanhydrase activity changes effected by low concentration chronic SOg
inhalation and that the  slight effect produced in the course of 150 days ex-
posure was reversible.
                              Conclusions.
     1.  It was demonstrated that inhalation of 20 mg/m  of sulfur dioxide
during a single 4-hour exposure elicited physiological shifts in the organism
of white rats; the same was true of the inhalation of 0.5 mg/m  and 0.1 mg/m ,
                                    -87-

-------
 which are the present limits of allowable SOp concentration in.community
 atmospheric air.
        a) Exposure of rats to the inhalation of 20.0 mg/m  sulfur dioxide
 lowered the activity of spleen tissue dehydrase by 50$.   Dehydrase activity
 of other organ tissues was reduced by 10 - 36$.  Cholinesterase activity of
 small intestinal mucosa was reduced in many instances by 29.3$ and in other
 organ tissues by 6 - 16$.                                                   .
        b) Chronic exposure of experimental animals to 0.5 nig/m  of SO,,
 lowered the activity of spleen tissue dehydrase by 54.6$; dehydrase activity
 fell in many instances to  90 - 46%,  and cholinesterase activity to 93 - 11%\
 such reduction in tissue enzymic activity was noted in most but not all organ
 tissues.  Vitamin C content in small intestinal mucosa,  liver, and kidneys fell
 by 9 - 15$.                                .                                 .
        c)  Chronic exposure of rats to 0.1 mg/m  of SOp  elicited short duration
 reversible shifts in carboanhydrase activity.
      2.  On the basis of the results it can be assumed that daily inhalation
 by indoor workers of air containing 20 mg/m  of SOp (N 101-54) over a period
 of years might seriously affect their health.
      Data found in the literature indicated that sulfur  dioxide gradually
 accumulated in the blood where it persisted for a long time.   In addition,
•rresults of the present study clearly indicated that inhalation of SOg in cer-
 tain concentrations seriously affected several enzyme systems  of the animal
 organism.  Evidence of this nature clearly indicated that exposure to 0.5 mg/m
 concentration of SOp for several years must have a serious effect on the
 general state and health of workers.
      It was demonstrated that inhalation of 0.1 mg/m  of sulfur dioxide de-
 pressed the  activity of erythrocyte  carboanhydrase  in white  rats and that
 0.5  mg/m  of sulfur dioxide lowered  the  activity of spleen dehydrase.   Such
 results can  be  taken as pointing to  the  possible connection  between carboanhy-
 drase  activity  and enzymes activities of the  respiration  system.
     3.  It  is  suggested that  smoke  gases be  completely freed from SOp  prior
 to their discharge into the atmospheric  air and  that  the  allowable concentra-
 tion of SOp  in  the atmospheric air shall not  exceed 0.03  mg/m .   The same
 should apply to hydrogen sulfide which,  like  sulfur dioxide,  has an inhibiting
                                      -88-

-------
 effect  on anaerobic cell  respiration as  was  shown by Ya.  R. Sabinskii.


                                      Bibliography.


                    1. BoHAapesa E. H., Jlo6oaa3a6(WieBaHHfi. CsepA-
                 JIOBCX, 1955.
                    6. C a a H H c x a A fl. P.  K sonpocy  o vexaflHSMe aeAciBHa ceposoAOpOAa.
                 4>apMaxojiorH»  H TOKCHKO^OPHH, Mi 4. TOM 11, 1948, Mocxaa, crp. 30—39.
                    7. CHAOpeHKOsH. B.  K  aonpocy  o  pesopfiTHBHOM AeActBHH cepnH-
                 croro  rasa. apnaKo^orHH H TOKCHKCWIOFHH,  1950. TOM. 13, M 3.
                    8. CuAopeHKOBH. B.  ZleActBHe cepuHctoro raaa ua OCMCH Bemecrs
                 B JKHBOTHOM OpraHH3M6. ABTOp6(pepaT AHCCCpTaUHW, F. MK3JIOB, 1952.
                    9.  Ty^biHHCKaH K. 3. AHiaroHH3M H ciineprHSM BHraMHHOB.  BHTJI-
                 MHHU  B  reopHH H flpaKTuxe,  peAaxrop A. A. UIMHAT, crp. 219, MocKBa, 1911.
                    10. MersepHKOB H. A. KapOoaHrHapasa  rxaHeA  rnasa B OHTorenese.
                 HSBCCTOH AxaAeMHH nayx OOCP, to 4, crp.  461, 1948.
                    11. SAAe^bMaH M. M., TopAOH  O.  fl. OnpeaeneHHe acKopfimoaoA
                 KHCAOTU  B  UeJIbHOA  KpOBH H OUCHKa HaChimCHHOCTH  BHT3MHHOM cC»; BpaieO-
                 HOC A&no, Mi 7, 1948, XapbKOB, crp. 565.
                    12. MeroAHqecKHe yxaaanHii no opraHHsauwH  caHHTapHoro KOHTpcwu sa
                 iHCTOToA arMocipepHoro sosAyxa HacwieHHhix MCCT. MearHs,  1952, Mocxaa.
                    13. CaHHTapnue  Hopnu  npoeKrapoBaHHa  npoMbiuuieHHUX  npeinpHamA
                 H101-54. Toe. HsaarMbCTBO  AHreparypu  no cipoHTMbCTBy H apxHiexrype,
                 MocxBa,  1954.
         Concentration of Tarry Substances in the Atmospheric Air in the

                        Vicinity of an Industrial Coke-Gas Plant

                                   E. N.  Bondareva.

      Atmospheric air of large cities is  polluted by dust,  soot, industrial

gases,  and other harmful admixtures}  the air  also  contains tarry  substances

which are the  products  of incomplete combustion of  coal,  turf,  shale, crude

oil,  lignine,  etc.   Such tarry pollutants are  discharged  into  the  atmospheric

air by  large industrial  plants and  electric heat and power stations?  however,

domestic  heating systems and  the autotransport contribute  substantially to

such atmospheric air pollution.   Air suspended tarry substances consist of
                                            -89-

-------
heavy polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons some of which possess carcinogenic
properties.  In 1930 Kinnuya and Higger produced cancer in mice by the con-
tinuous application of coal tar to the skin.  Later, Cook and his collaborators
working with coal tar. isolated 3,4-benzpyrene (^20^120^ wlaictl possessed par-
ticularly strong carcinogenic properties.  3,4-benzpyrene is a polyatomic
aromatic hydrocarbon made up of 5 benzene rings; its molecular weight is 252,
m.p. 179 > and b.p. between 500•- 510 .  At normal temperature 3,4-benzpyrene
appears in the forin of.yellow needle-shaped crystals soluble in benzene, al-
cohol, ether, and other organic solvents.  Like all aromatic hydrocarbons
benzpyrene is formed in the process of organic fuel combustion at 400 .
N. M. Torason, B. P. Gurinov, V. A. Zore, A. A. Il'in, and many others, found
3,4-benzpyrene in the atmospheric air.  Other investigators (Gurinov, Mashbits,
Shabad) confirmed the carcinogenic properties of tarry substances isolated
from atmospheric air.
     M. K. Petrova demonstrated that many unfavorable environmental conditions,
including carcinogenic substances, elicited the formation of malignant neo-
plasms in organisms afflicted by nervous system weakening and exhaustion.
Malignant neoplasms have developed following prolonged or frequently repeated
action of carcinogenic substances, particularly those which acted as skin and
mucosa irritants even in small quantities; the malignant neoplasm processes
developed either soon or a long time after the application of the carcinogenic
agent.
     The fact that city atmospheric air contained polynuclear aromatic hydro-
carbons possessing cgroenogenic properties caused environmental hygienists
to investigate the atmospheric air in the vicinity of the coke-chemical plant.
Coke gas contained 1.5 - 3? by volume of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons.
Concentration of tarry substances in the atmospheric air of the coke plant
region under investigation was determined by the following 2 methods:  aspira-
tion through an absorber containing organic solvents (The N. M. Tomson method),
and dust sedimentation followed by ether extraction.   A total of 173 atmos-
pheric air samples was collected by the aspiration method at 100 - 500 m from
the coke-chemical plant.  Twenty li of the air was aspirated in the course of
1 hour through a glass absorber containing 5 ml of non-fluorescent alcohol.
Quantitative determinations of tarry substances were made by luminescent analy-
                                     -90-

-------
sisuusing known solution concentrations  as the standard scale.  The air  of  a
control area was tested similarly.  Results are presented in Table 1.
                                                     Table 1
               CONCENTRATION OF TARRY SUISTANCE3 II  MC/M3 OF AIM AT tlFFERENT
                        11 STANCES FROM THE COKE-CAg PLANT
SAMPLE
COLLECTION
POUT
METERS
FROM THE
PLANT
TOTAL NBM-
• ER OF
SAMPLES
N0MIER
OF NEC-
ATI VE
6AHPLE8
CONCENTRATIONS IN MC/M
MAXIM.
MINIM.
AVERACES

VICINITY
CCRE-CA8


OF
PLANT

50-100
200
300
500
13
75
37
48
—
1
2
16
0.90
0.70
0,57
037
0.5
0.05
0,01
0,018
0,66
0.40
0.24
0.08
             CONTROL POINT
                                      ii    -
0.08  0,001
                                                               0,04
Data in  the  table show that the concentrations of tarry substances in the  air
surrounding  the  coke-chemical plant were  considerably above those in the
control  area.  Changes in atmospheric factors, in particular changes in the
velocity and direction of the wind, markedly influenced the distribution of  the
cancerous admixtures in the atmospheric air.  Thus,  at 300 m from the coke-
chemical plant and at wind velocity ot 5  -  6 m/sec., 2 air samples contained
0.34 - 0.3?  mg/m ,  which is equivalent to tarry substance concentrations
normally found in the atmospheric air 300 m from the coke-chemical plant.
     Dust  samples were collected at 3 points by the  usual method.  The control
point was  located in a residential section.   The total of air samples collected
by the dust  sedimentation method was 34.  Tarry substance concentrations are
shown in Table 2.  Data in Table 2 show that no notable difference was found
                                                           TAILC 2
                      CONCENTRATION OF TARRY 6NISTANCES IN SETTLE!  IN8T IN TNE
                      VICINITY OF THE COKE-CAS PLAIT INRINC 30  NAYS «F
TIME OF THE
YEAR
METERS FROM TNE PLANT
500 M
1000 M

CONTROL
POINT
0^9 037 038
Mim* 0.43 0.38 0.23
                   SIMMER
in the concentration of tarry substances in the  air during the winter and
summer months, pointing to the fact that the tarry substances were discharged
                                     -91-

-------
by  the same coke-chemical plant  and only partly by domestic heating systems.

The situation was  somewhat different at the  central point,  since the concen-

tration of tarry substances in the air during the winter months, when fuel was

used for heating purposes, was 50$ greater than during the  summer months,

when no fuel or only a slight amount of it was used for heating purposes.

      The presence  of 3,4-benzpyrene in the tarry substances of samples

collected in the vicinity of the coke-chemical plant was verified by spectral

analysis.  The effect .of 0.01 mg/m  tarry substances in the air on the  central

nervous system was studied by the adaptometric method.  Procedures followed

in  the preliminary preparation and final tests were described elsewhere.   Tests

were made on 3 volunteer subjects with concentrations of tarry substances  not

exceeding 0.001 mg/m .  Duration of the tests  was 50 - 70 minutes.  Results

showed a rise in eye sensitivity!to dark adaptation during  the early part  of

the tests, and a return to normal at approximately the 60th minute of observa-

tion.   Tests with  pure air inhalation produced no changes in the adaptation

curve,  indicating  that no conditioned reflexes were formed  in relation  to

prevailing environmental conditions.  Results  of the investigation led  to  the

conclusion that concentrations of tarry substances found in the air surrounding

the coke-chemical  plant exceeded those found in the air of  the control  area.

Such concentrations  of the tarry substances should be regarded as physiologi-

cally  unfavorable  and deleterious to the health of residents of the vicinity;

this was substantiated by the established fact  that a concentration of  tarry

substances as, low  as 0.001 mg/m  ,  ordinarily not  detected by odor perception,

produced shifts in the functional  state of the  central nervous system.


                                 Bibliography.


               il. F y p H H o B B. II., 3 o  p e B. A., H Ji b H H a A. A.,  Ill a 6 a A JI. M.
            O coAepxaHHH' mwiHUHiuiimecKiix apomaTHiecKHX yrtieBOAOpOAOB B sarpaaHe-
            HHHX arMocAepHoro BO3Ayxa H  B AUMOBUX autipocax. Fm-HeHa  H caHHiapua,
            J* 2, 1963.
               2. T y p H H o B B. n., M a  ui 6 H u *. A.. Ill a <5 a A JI. M. HcuieaoBauna
            toacroMoreHHoro jefictBHo Hekoropux CMCWI, iKMiyqemiux H3 atMoopepHofl nunH •
            npji cXHraHHH pasjimmui BHAOB TOiuiHBa. rumena  H caHHrapHH. .Ms 10, 1964.
               3. T o u c o H H. M. MeroAHKa  4>JiioopecaeHTHan> cneKrpa^bHoro anaJiiaa
            HeKOTOpux  apoMaTHiecuHX  yrxeBOAOpoAOB.  HSBCCTHH AH 3cr. CCP,  1952,
            TOM .1, 16 3.
               4. TOMCOH H. iM.  npoAyKTU Heno^Horo  cropaHHR B BtUAyxe ropOAoa
            u HX rm-HeHHqecKoe snaqeHHe.  Pyxonncb HiHGPH, iJQ54.
               5. Ill  a 6 a A JI. M. HeKoropue naHHtie o C^acroMoreHHUx aeweciBax H HX
            3HaqeHHH  an* raraeHU. THraeHa H caHHiapHH, Nt 4, >1SS5.
               6. IIlHXBaptep *. fl. JIioMflHecaeHTHufl ueroA onpeAWieHHH CMMHCTUX
            semecTB B Boaayxe. SaBOAacaii \na6opaTOpH», J* 2, 196C.
                                      -92-

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        Discharges of Boiler Operated (Coal Burning) plants Converted
                               to Gas Burning
:'•"      •'   ' .   •-._''   .: .'- ... " •'•'•   •    '   ...;'.:.
                       S.  P. Nikolaev and S.  A. Dymshits
       The  use  of  smoke-free gas. as  fuel  has  many advantages over coal)  it
  is  technically convenient, financially  economical,  and constitutes a valuable
  means for the sanitary-hygienic, protection  of community atmospheric air.
  Beginning with 1959  - 1?6Q .many, industrial  and community plants and thousands
  of  small  coal burning heating plants within the cities have turned to  the use
  of  gas as fuel);  thus they ceased to,discharge into  the atmospheric air produd
  of  incomplete combustion of solid  and liquid fuel.  But the change from wood,
  coal,  and gas as fuel gave rise to. the  following questions: what in effect is
  the nature of combusted  gas,emissions?   are the discharges of  combusted gas
  really free from serious atmospheric air pollutants?.  No answers to these
  questions,were found in  literature. ,. Close  observation disclosed that  chambers
  converted,-from solid to  shale, gas  fuel  burning in many instances operated
  inefficiently with resulting3 incpmplete fuel combustion.  In 1951 the  Leningrad
  Scientific-Research  Institute of, the K. D.  Panfilov Academy of Community
  Economy investigated the efficiency.of  shale gas combustion chambers installed
  in  bathhouses, laundries,,hotels,  etc.-  Results showed that incomplete shale
  oil combustion ranging between-.19  -  36.2$ was the characteristic of all in-
  stallations.   Under  such conditions  incomplete gas  fuel combustion the dis-
,,  charges must  have contained carbon monoxide,, soot,  and tarry substances.  Shale
 ,gas contains  .mineral,.and organic sulfur.,compounds,  such as hydrogen sulfide,
  thiophene, mercaptans,v_.sulfides, and ;bisulfides which  generate sulfur  dioxide
  in  the process.of combustion,-hence  discharges coming  from chambers burning
  shale.gas contained  sulfur dioxide,  in  addition to  the usual products  of
  incomplete combustion.   . ?,;,  . ,   .   ,; -  :
       The.present studies were conducted in  cooperation with the "Lengaz"
  laboratory.   Under .observation were  6 .combustion chambers.   The chemical
  composition of the, gases ^discharged  by; each combustion chamber including the
  S02 and tarry substances,  was established periodically.   Simultaneously the
  gas was analyzed for its element composition,  caloric  value, HgS content,  and
  sp.  gr..  The  composition of shale  gas .and of the products of its combustion
  were determined  .by the standard methods for the analysis of natural and
                                      -93-

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artificial gas fuels, as specified by COST 5439-50.  H.S was determined by
the iodometric method, discharged 30^ by the nephelometric micro-method, tarry
substances by the luminescent method.  Quantitative determinations of discharge
gases formed by the combustion of 1 m  of shale gas were made with reference to
the element composition of the combusted gas and to the air excess coefficient
by means of the formulas employed in testing the performance of combustion
chambers..  Analysis of shale gas showed that its composition varied in combus-
tion components (C H , CO, Hp, CH.) and in the inert gases (CO , Q , Np).
This was illustrated by the fact that in the course of the investigation C02
in the shale gas ranged between 15.8 - 17.1#, C H  between 4.5 - 5.5#» 00
                                               n m                      c.
within the range of 0.6 - 1.0$, CO within the range of 8.1 - 11.0$, Hg between
20 - 25.7#, CH, between 14.8 - 17.4#, and Ng between 27.0 - 32.0^.  The sp. gr.
of the gas varied between 1.023 to 1.079*  Caloric capacity of shale gas
depended upon its element composition, ranging during the early part of the
day between 3234 - 3576 Cal/nm  and during the afternoon between 3178 - 3632
Cal/nm  of the gas.  The H2S content of the shale gas varied from day to day,
and during the entire period of observation ranged between 0.46 and 4.67 g/100
nm  of the gas.  Volume of discharge gases per 1 nm  of shale gas varied with
the combustion chamber, and in some cases from day to day.  The volume of
discharge gases depended upon the element composition of the combusted gas and,
on the excess air coefficient, all of which showed considerable variation.
     Nineteen discharge gas analyses were made in connection with the different
combustion chambers, 17 of which pointed to normal complete gas combustion, and
2 indicated incomplete combustion, amounting to 23.5? an&v25£ correspondingly.
In both cases CO, H~ and CH. were the products of incomplete combustion.  It
appears at first that incomplete gas combustion in chambers occurred rarely;
this impression had to be either verified or corrected.  Statistical analysis
of data collected by the Lengaz laboratory during the study of the combustion
chambers under observation showed that 6— 63£ of .incomplete fuel combustion
occurred in 12 - 56% of the chambers.  Such data show, on the one hand, that
incomplete fuel combustion in chambers burning gas occurred frequently, and,
on the other hand, that the need was Argent for complete elimination of
incomplete gas combustion.  Incomplete combustion may be caused by improper
construction of different parts of the combustion chambers, inappropriate size
                                     -94-

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or type of combustion chamber for the purpose at hand, changes in the
composition and pressure of the gas fuel, absence or inefficient performance
of apparatuses controlling the combustion chamber operation, lack of expert
knowledge on the part of the technical and service personnel and many other
causes.  S0« in the discharge gases ranged between 3.04 - 207.06 mg/nm  and
                                        7
tarry substances between 0 - 32.61'mg/nm .  In this connection it should be
noted that results of discharge gas analysis should not be relied upon as the
only criterion of degree of shale gas combustion, since tarry substances were
found in 55 of 63, or 81$, of discharge gas samples, pointing to the high
frequency of incomplete gas fuel combustion.  This apparent contradiction in
the data can be explained by the different sensitivity of the methods used
for the determination of each factor under consideration.
     A special study of the discharge gases for the determination of their
soot content showed that, under normal conditions of gas combustion, the soot
present in the discharge gases was in a high degree of dispersion and could
not be detected by the cotton filtration method.  The presence of a small
amount of highly dispersed soot can be demonstrated by the method of deposition
inside of a glass tube.  In gross cases of incomplete combustion soot may be
formed in quantities detected visually at their exit from the smokestack.  For
instance, according to the information supplied by the "lengaz" laboratory on
27 IX, 1957» heavy rolls of smoke were seen coming from the smokestack of a
bakery which used gas for its operations.  S. P. Nikolaev made a study of the
SO- and tarry substances content in the discharge gases emitted by the com-
bustion chamber of a bathhouse when it was coal operated.  A similar study was
made by the present writers of the combustion chamber operation of the same bath-
house after it had been converted to shale gas burning.  A comparative quanti-
tative study indicated that the concentration of SO- was 17 times less when
shale gas was used than during coal burning.  Similarly, the concentration of
tarry substances was 11 times less when gas was burned as against coal burning.
A similar comparative study of the S02 and tarry substances content in the
atmospheric air showed that the concentrations of SO- and tarry substances in
the discharge gases emitted by shale gas operated combustion chambers were
comparatively slight, approximating in most cases the maximal concentration
normally found in the atmospheric air of some industrial city regions.  The
                                      -95-

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concentration of tarry substances,  the number of incomplete combustion cases,
and the degree of incomplete combustion can be substantially reduced by the
installation of proper gas purifying equipment, by efficiently operating com-
bustion chambers, and by securing well-trained and experienced service
personnel.
     Generally speaking, the pollutants entering the atmospheric air with gas
discharges from gas burning combustion chambers present much less of a problem
to environmental sanitation and hygiene than similar discharges coming from a
coal operated combustion chamber.
         Atmospheric Air Pollution by Oil-Drying Plant Discharges

                              V. Z. Yas'kova.
     Atmospheric air of the nation's industrial regions is being polluted by
sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, tarry substances,  soot and dust,  and by
emission coming from oil-drying plants.  Among the products discharged by oil-
drying plants aldehydes are of greatest importance from the sanitary-hygienic
viewpoint.  Aldehydes belong to a large group of organic compounds  the molecule
of which has a carboxyl group, K - C <„, one valence of which is connected
with the radical and the other with hydrogen.  The physical properties of
aldehydes and their effects on the organism are largely determined by the
number of carbon atoms in the molecule.  The simplest of the aldehydes,  for-
maldehyde (HCHO), is a gas; on the other hand n-^butylaldehyde is a  fluid.  All
aldehydes have a double bond in the carboxyl group which reacted with organic
tissues.  In this respect acrylic aldehyde, commonly known as acrolein,  merits
special attention.  Acrolein is formed during fat and glycerol oxidation and is
found primarily in industrial branches where fat and glycerol are heated to
160 - 170° C., as in the production of oilcloth, linoleum, stearine, drying
oils, in the electrical industry, etc.
     Acrolein is a colorless fluid of high volatility having an odor of burnt
                                     -96-

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fat.  Acrolein vapor is twice as heavy as air; it is stable under normal
conditions, but becomes converted to formic and acetic acids in the presence
.of strong oxidizers..  lexicologically, acrolein is classed as a strongly .
irritating substance.  Brief inhalation of low acrolein vapor concentrations
elicited a throat scratching sensation, burning of the eyes, eye watering,
conjunctivitis, palpebral edema, etc.  Cases of chronic acrolein poisoning
have been observed under industrial conditions.  No reports have been found in
the literature on the content .and distribution of acrolein in the atmospheric
air.  The present author undertook to fill in this gap.           .
     The preparation of drying oils is accompanied by the formation of volatile
substances composed of fatty acids and aldehydes, with acrolein predominating.
Acrolein predominance in the air of the region under investigation was easily
detected by the odor.  Acrolein was discharged into the atmospheric air at the
second floor level of the plant under study via 3 vertical exhaust pipes 6 m
high.  Some acrolein entering the atmospheric air came from so-called unorganized
pollution, that is, from open windows and doors and from leaky joints, which
created acrolein air pollution at the level of man's respiration.  Ninety-eight
air samples were collected by the aspiration method; aldehyde was determined
colorimetrically by the fuchsin-sulfurous acid reaction.  Of the 98 air
samples 25 were collected inside of residences and 73 in the atmospheric air
(see table).  Average aldehyde concentration in the atmospheric air within a
radius of 400 m from the plant was the same as in the indoor air; at 500 m from
the plant aldehyde concentration in the indoor air was twice that of the
outdoor air.  Maximal aldehyde concentrations were gradually reduced with the
increase in the distance from the oil-drying plant, in the indoor as well as
outdoor air samples.  However, the aldehyde concentrations in the indoor samples
                                                  Table  1
                            ZONAL ALIENYIE IISTRIIUTIOH

SAMPLE COLLECTION POINT

MCVCBft
METER9
FROM
PLANT
ALIEHYIE
AVERAtE

ATMOSPHERIC AIR 200 7,44
INSIIE RESIDENCE 20° 8'44
ATMOSPHERIC AIR 400 7,5
INSIIE RESHENCE ^ 8,1
ATMOSPHERIC AIR 600 3,62
INSIIE RESIIENCB 500 4,12
IN MS/** OF
MAXIM.

37.4
32,0
24fi
16,0
4,12
4,12
AIR
MINIM.

0,32
1*37
0,64
4.12
0,04
4.12
                                     -97-

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were greater than in the outdoor samples.  This may have been due to the fact
that, like carbon bisulfide, chlorine, and sulfur dioxide,  aldehydes easily
penetrated into living quarters and tended to accumulate where ventilation was
poor, while in- open air the aldehyde concentrations became rarified by prevail-
ing winds.
     No official limit of allowable acrolein concentration has been adopted
for. atmospheric air; therefore, results of the present study have been compared
with the limit of allowable concentration of aldehydes in the air of workrooms.
It was found that average and maximal aldehyde concentrations present in atmos-
pheric air exceeded the indoor allowable limit by 100 - 1800$.  Such a concen-
tration of aldehydes in the atmospheric air should be regarded, as excessive.
It is recommended that an official limit of allowable aldehyde concentration in
atmospheric air be adopted as a sanitary-hygienic air and health protection.
  Note: This investigation was instrumental in moving the oil-drying section of
the plant under study to a more suitable location.
       Hygienic Evaluation of Low Concentrations of Nitrogen Oxides
                           Present in Atmospheric Air
                              E. N. Bondareva.
     Nitrogen oxides, as pollutants of atmospheric air in inhabited areas,
usually come from nitrogenous fertilizer plants, plants producing sulfuric acid,
explosives, from auto exhaust gases, etc.  Under normal conditions concentrations
of oxides of nitrogen in clean air amount to 0.0015 mg/m ,  and are supposedly
formed during thunderstorms.  Oxides of nitrogen trapped in the upper respiratory
tract caused slight irritation of the mucosa and seriously  affected pulmonary
tissues, frequently causing pulmonary edemas.  Oxides of nitrogen can also cause
fall of blood pressure, vascular dilatation, methemoglobin  formation and some
narcosis of the nervous system.  It is generally believed that the above systemic
changes resulted from the presence of nitrites formed in the blood.
     Despite the fact that most scientists agree on the nature of the toxicological
properties of nitrogen oxides,  the question of the limit of allowable oxides of

                                     -98-

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nitrogen concentrations in indoor and atmospheric air remains unresolved.
Thus, Bodwitch, Drinker, Hoggard, and Hamilton of the USA recommended 20 mg/m ,
while Elkins recommended 10 mg/m  as the limit of allowable nitrogen oxides
concentration.  USSR scientists believe that nitrogen oxides can produce serious
toxic effects in concentrations lower than above mentioned.  P. P. Vinokurov
and 3. N. Kosourov noted that the inhalation of nitrogen oxides in concentrations
producing no acute manifestations were responsible for the frequent occurrence
of bronchitis, emphysema, chronic gastro-intestinal disturbances and blood
changes.  The limit of allowable nitrogen oxides concentration in the air of
working premises was set in the USSR at 5.0 mg/m  and at 0.5 mg/m  for atmos-
pheric air.  The latter limit was empirically adopted as 1/10 of the indoor
limit and its validity has to be verified experimentally.
     It was previously noted that clean air contained oxides of nitrogen up to
0.0015 mg/m , but the concentration of oxides of nitrogen in the atmospheric
air of cities has never been determined experimentally.  All data found in the
literature relative to nitrogen oxides concentrations pertained to air of
industrial regions the plants of which emitted oxides of nitrogen.  Accordingly,
as the first step of this study, the present author undertook to establish
concentration of nitrogen oxides in the air of Leningrad and in the air sur-
rounding the Nevskii Chemical and Superphosphate Plant, located at the city
boundary.  The total of collected air samples was 109.  Quantitative nitrogen
oxides determinations were made microcolorimetrically by the Griss-Ilosvay
reaction.  Nitrogen oxides concentrations in the Leningrad atmospheric air
ranged between 0.0001 and 0.02 mg/m .  Maximal nitrogen oxides concentrations
were found in samples collected at a thoroughfare with intensive auto trans-
port, which is in agreement with data found in the literature (Vol'fson found
0.03 - 0.05 rng/li of oxides of nitrogen in automobile exhaust gases).  In the
air surrounding the Nevskii Chemical and Superphosphate Plant, which produced
sulfuric acid by the tower method, nitrogen oxide' concentrations were consid-
erably higher: at 500 m from the plant maximal single concentrations ranged
between 0.8 - 1.43 mg/m ,  and at a distance of 1,000 m the concentration was
0.2 mg/m .   This indicated that intense nitrogen oxide*concentrations did not
extend far from the plant and had no substantial effect on the city's general
living conditions.
                                     -99-

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     In the next stage of the investigation determinations were made of limits
of allowable nitrogen oxides concentration in the atmospheric air, paralleled
by studies of the effect of low nitrogen oxides concentrations on the human
organism.  It has been generally assumed that low intensity irritations usually
occurring in the external environment caused no noteworthy changes in the
organism.  This does not preclude the possible occurrence in the organism's
physiological reactions of shifts detectable adaptometrically, i.e., by testing
changes in eye sensitivity to dark adaptation.  This method is highly sensitive
and has been extensively used in industrial pathology in diagnosing occupational
or industrial poisoning, in clinical medicine, and in community hygiene for the
determination of limits of allowable concentrations of atmospheric air pollution
with sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid aerosol, as reported by P. I. Dubrovskaya
and K. A. Bushtueva.  The method was used in this Institute in 1955 for the
determination of the effect on the organism of low concentrations of tarry
substances; it also was sufficiently sensitive for the determination of the
central nervous system's functional state.  Stimulation of the trigeminal
nerve ends in the cerebral cortex created a stimulation focus which spread
(radiated) and enhanced the stimulabili'ty of the visual center and as a con-
sequence, eye sensitivity to light.  On the other hand, the stimulation focus
elicited as the result of trigeminal nerve end stimulation in accordance with
the law of negative induction can bring about inhibition of the visual center,
thereby lowering eye sensitivity to light.
     Tests were made with low nitrogen oxide concentrations, such as 0.15 UP to
1 mg/m , using adaptometer ADM on 5 persons with a total of 50 experiments.
All persons were given preliminary tests of several days for the determination
of the initial normal adaptation curve; this was followed by tests in which
air containing 0.15 - 0.5 mg/m  of nitrogen oxides was inhaled by the test
individuals.  The test procedure and apparatus used were described elsewhere.
Air delivered to the test persons nostrils was examined at intervals for nitro-
gen oxides content.  Test persons were unaware of the nature of air they were
made to inhale, especially since oxides of nitrogen were odorless.  Nitrogen
oxides concentration ranging between 0.15 - 0.3 mg/m  elicited no changes in
eye adaptation to darkness as indicated by the recording curve.  Raising the
concentration to 0.5 mg/m  resulted in a sharp rise in the adaptation curve.
Continued tests with the above nitrogen oxides concentrations for 2.5 - 3.0

                                     -100-

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months resulted in a slight drop in the adaptation curve, pointing to a probable
adjustment to the effect of oxides of nitrogen; such adjustment remained slight
or partial, never approaching the normal curve.  Inhalation of 1 mg/m  of
oxides of nitrogen caused the adaptation curve to rise at the beginning of some
tests, while in other tests the adaptation curve fell to lower levels; however,
regardless of the character the adaptation curve assuned during the first 20 -
30 minutes of the tests, it fell to lower levels after such period, failing
to return to normal even on the 60th minute of the test, that is, even at the
end of the test.
     The following series of experiments were performed with 0.5 mg/m  of the
oxides of nitrogen in 2 different procedures.  Experimental group 1: gas
inhalation followed by rest (no gas).  In this group the curve produced by gas
inhalation rose to above normal amplitude.  During one of the hour rest periods
the gas admixture was eliminated unbeknown to the test subjects.  Under such
conditions no rise was seen in the adaptation curve.  Experimental group 2'.
no gas inhalation - gas inhalation - no gas inhalation.  Inhalation of clean air
produced no rise in the adaptation curve, while the gas inhalation step was
accompanied by a slight rise in the adaptation curve.  Similar tests were
conducted during the third month with the patients inured to the effects of
the oxides of nitrogen.  Inhalation of pure air during the third step of this
experimental group produced no changes in the adaptation curve, that is, no
changes were seen in the character of the normal adaptation curve.  Results of
tests by the adaptometric method led to the conclusion that oxides of nitrogen
in concentrations ranging between 0.15 - 0.3 mg/m   produced no changes in the
adaptation curve, i.e., they had no effect on the functional state of the
cerebral cortex.  Nitrogen oxide concentration of 0.5 mg/m  produced a sharp
increase in eye sensitivity to light, while a 1 mg/m  concentration produced a
slight lowering of the adaptation curve 20 - 30 minutes after the experiment
was begun; the curve failed to return to normal even at the end of the experi-
mental period.  Thus, the results herein recorded indicated that the validity
of the present officially adopted limit of allowable nitrogen oxides concentra-
tion in the atmospheric air of the sanitary clearance zone should be reexamined
with a view to reducing it to 0.3 mg/m .
                                     -101-

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                The Acid-Alkaline Reaction of Settling Dust
                               N. li. Tomson.

     Common air dust is of alkaline reaction,  whereas gaseous air pollutants
such as S09, HC1, oxides of nitrogen, and others are of acid reaction; vapors
of ammonia, naturally are of alkaline reaction.  In the process of inhalation
respiratory organs are subjected to the effects of acid gases and alkaline
dusts; this may cause disturbances in the function of the ciliated epithelium
by creating shifts in the nearly neutral reaction of mucous membrances, which
normally range between pH 6.8 - 7.4.  Changes in the pH of mucous membranes
either to the alkaline or acid side effected by air pollutants slow down the
motility of epithelial cilia, and, according to A. P. Shmagin, frequently
arrest it completely.  At near neutral pH of the mucosa,  epithelial cilia make
around 25 movements per second which eliminates the dust and gas containing
mucus  at the rate of 15 mm per minute, as was shown by Groetz, Dalhamn, and
others.  On this basis mucus • is eliminated from the bronchi in approximately
30 minutes.  This shows that persistence of the normal mucosa pH was important
to the organism's protective adaptation.  Penetration of dust particles into
the lungs depended upon their size; it is known that only particles less than 5n
normally entered the lungs.  Some settling dust constituents which are insoluble
in perspiration and in skin oil can enter the organism through the intact skin.
The pH of the epidermis ranged between 4.9 - 6.2; changes in the skin reaction
produced by air pollutants produced skin irritation processes.
     The above summary of air pollutant effects on the physiological acid-
alkaline reaction suggested to the present writer to make a thorough study of
the range of acid-alkaline reactions of settling dust by the following 2
methods: by pH measurements and by titration with 1/10 N HC1.
     During 1954 - 1957» 38? samples of settled dust were checked for their
pH.  Results are shown in Table 1.  Data in the table show that the pH of the
387 dust samples ranged between 4.2 - 9«4.  In most instances the pH ranged
within the normal limits.  Dust samples collected in industrial regions were
predominantly of alkaline reaction, while dust collected in inhabited and park
sections were predominantly of acid reaction.   The average pH of dust samples
collected in the industrial region was 7.30,  in the inhabited regions 7.14, and
                                     -102-

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                                                 Table 1
                     ACI(-ALKALINE HEACTIUNfc OF METTLE* »NfcT IN TEHHtt OF  PH
PH
lust
SEC
4,2
4,4 1
4.6 1
4«8
5,0 1
5,2
5,4 _ 1
5,6 1
NUHIER OF TESTS .
sTttiAi RESismrm I
TION8 SECTIONS 1
1
1
1
2
1
—
2
1
5.8 4 5
6,0 5 6
6,2 6 12
6,4 6 16
6,6 10 11
6.8 16 16
7,0 16 16
7,2 21 16
7,4 13 18
7,6 (6 14
7,8 17 11
8,0 7 3
PARKS
_
—
1
1
3
2
1
3
2
4
6
8
8
7
12
7
5
2
3
2
8,2 3 5 —
8.4 "3 3 —
8,6 2 1 —
8.8 2 — —
9.0
9,2
9.4
— •
. —
1 —
—
—
—
                       TOTAL
                                 151
169
77
in the  park regions 6.56.   The reactions  shifted to  the alkaline side during

winter  months  and to the  acid side during the warm seasons.

                                                 Table 2

                            ACII-ALXALINE REACTION OF SETTLE* IUST IN PH
                                 IN SUMMER ANI  WINTER
SECTIONS
SUMMER
Wl NTER
. INIUSTBIAL 7,26 6.82
RESIIEHTIAl 7,08 6.77
PARKS 6,91 6.44
                                         -103-

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                                                    Table 3
                       HYtROSEN  ION CONCENTHATION OF IU6T  IN % ACCORIIH* TO
                                        SECTIONS
SECTIONS
PH
4V2 - £.6
ACII
6.8 - 7.4
NEUTRAL
7.6 - 9«4
ALKALI Nt
INIU6TRIAL *
.RESIIENTIAL '
PARKS "* 38,4 7.4
                                                    Table 4
                  ALKALINITY OF SETTLEI IU&T IN TERMS OF ML O.I NHCL

SECTIONS

ML OF HCL

2-4

4-6

6-8

8-10

10-12

12-14

14-15
INDUSTRIAL 7 31 24 9 8 3 1
RESIDENTIAL 28 36 18 4 3 — —
31 13 — ' — — — —
PARKS
      Data in Table  3 show that pH shifts to the  alkaline or acid side were
numerically the  same in the dust  collected in the  industrial region, whereas
in the inhabited regions 40% of the shifts were  in the acid direction, and
in the dust samples collected in  the park such shifts amounted  to 54.25?.
Alkalinity of settling dust was determined in 250  samples by titration with
0.1 N HC1.  Average alkalinity of dust  samples collected in the industrial
regions was 6.24, of dusts in the inhabited regions,  4.59, and  of the park
regions 2.92 ml  of  0.1 N HCl; the alkalinity was somewhat higher during winter
months.
      Results of  the present investigation indicated that the acid-alkaline
reaction of settling dust followed a definite pattern;  this should be taken
into  consideration  whencstudying  the physiological  effect.
                                 Bibliography.
                 1. UlHaruHa A. TI. MepiwTejibHoe flBHxeHHe. 1948. Mearas.
              c «?-,Pr,oetz ^ W< Essays on N16 Applied Physiology, of  the Nose. 1853,.
              Saint Louis.
               t u3' ,9°J.h1a'nn Tore. Mucous Flow and Ciliary Activity in the Trachea
              pi Healty Rats and Rats Exposed to Respiratory Irritant Case*. 1956, Stock-
              holm.
                                     -104-

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      Acid-Alkaline Reactions of Suspended Dust Collected by the
                              Aspiration Method
                              Z.  V. Dubrovina.

     The acid-alkaline reaction of dust should be taken into consideration
when making a thorough hygienic evaluation of the effect of inhaled dust on
the organism, in particular on the mucous membrane of the upper respiratory
tract.  Data found in literature  indicated that in addition to studying
general symptoms of damage caused to organs of respiration by dusts it was
also essential to take into account some purely specific effects.   There is
some indication that the acid-alkaline pH phase played an important role in
such specific dust effects.  Suspended dust samples for the determination of
acid-alkaline pH were collected by the aspiration method.
     According to data presented  by some investigators nearly 50%  of the
inhaled air-suspended dust was retained in the upper respiratory tract and in
the lungs.  A. P. Shmagina examined workers of a cetaent-slate plant and found
that 40 g of the suspended dust were deposited upon the mucous membranes of
the upper respiratory tract of the workers in the course of every  work day.
Under such conditions the acid-alkaline pH reaction may be of considerable
importance.  A. W. Proetz found that some diseases of the nasal mucous membrane
were accompanied by changes in the acid-alkaline reaction.  A. P.  Shmagina,
T. Dalhamn, and others, called attention to the importance of the  acid-alkaline
reaction of mucous membranes to the normal functioning of ciliated mucosae of
the respiratory tract.  No data were found in the literature related to methods
for the determination of dust pH.  Instead of using the method which determines
acid-alkaline reactions in terms  of pH the present author preferred to use the
more precise electrometric method.  Determinations were made with  quinhydrone
and glass electrodes, for which a special apparatus was assembled.
     The procedure was as follows: 2 mg of the cement or talc dust were weighed
in an hour glass and then washed down with 5 nil of distilled water into a glass
vessel for the pH determination;  2 minutes later hydroquinone was  added and the
platinum electrode submerged.  Results of pH determinations with the hydro-
quinone electrode showed that, all other conditions of the experiment being
equal, the pH values varied between 7.0 and 9.0 for the cement dust and between
                                    -105-

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6.0 and 8.0 for the  talc dust.   In addition the pH values of the solution also
varied: thus,  in the course of  3 minutes the pH fell by 1 unit in 8 experiments,
as for instance,  from pH 8.10 to pH 7.30, or from pH 7.55 to pH 6.60.  The
work of V. A.  Pchelin in 1955,  E. Mislovitser in 1932 and D. A. Rubinshtein in
1940 showed that  the hydroquinon'e electrode was not suited for pH determination
in solutions with a  pH above 8  or in heterogeneous systems, which dust solutions
in fact are.   Hydroquinone oxidized in alkaline solution, forming acid products,
which neutralized part of the solution's alkali, and shifted the results in the
direction of lower pH.  In making reaction determinations in solutions of low
dust concentration,  such as are dealt with in this study, any unfavorable
effect of the  hydroquinone method acquired considerable significance.  Accord-
ingly, it is recommended that the hydroquinone method should not be used for
pH determination in  dust.
     The glass electrode was used in all future pH determinations in cement
and talc dust.   pH values were  established for different dust concentrations,
different dilutions  and varieties of dust; studies were also made to determine
the effect of  time on the pH.  Tests were made with known quantities of dust
collected on hour glasses and on dusts collected by the aspiration method using
small glass cyclones.   pH determinations were also made on dust samples
collected by the  small glass cyclones in 2 city sections. (Table 1 and 2).
                                                       Table 1
                            RELATION IETWEEN PH AMI IUST CONCENTRATION
                         CEHENT IBST 6U8PENIEI  III 7 Ml OF IISTILLEI WATER
H« OF



IBST
NUHIER OF TESTS 1 PH
1 4
2 4
5 5
Sfi-9.4
9£_4,g
9,9—10^
                                                      Table 2
                          RELATION IETWEEN PH AMI 2 MS OF BUST SUSPENSION
                                   IN IISTILLEI WATER
ML OF IISTILLEI
WATER

NUHIER OF
TESTS

AVERA9I
rH

AVERACC
SQUARE
IEVIATION
7 6 9,70 0.1
15 9 9,05 02
                                      -106-

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 Under identical determination conditions the pH reaction depended upon the
/Sust concentration; for the cement dust the pH was inversely proportional to
 its concentration as shown by data in Table 1.  However, the proportion was
 not a simple one, as shown by the fact that a five-fold increase in the
 concentration shifted the pH in the alkaline direction from 8.9 and 9.9, or by
 1 unit.  Lower dust dilutions yielded higher pH values.  It was also found that
 usiny less than 5 ^1 of water proved inappropriate, since it took a minimum of
 7 ml to wash the dust off the walls of the glass cyclones and for securing a
 complete dust dilution.  pH measurements made for the determination of the
 effect of time,  for instance,  5 minutes, showed that the pH rose at the end of
 5 minutes by approximately 0.1 - 0.3 units.  Such pH variations were within the
 limits of experimental error.   Therefore,  it was assumed that pH changes within
 5 minutes after dilution (solution) were of constant magnitudes.  Data in
 Table 3 indicate that pH varied with the nature of the dust.
                                                       Table 3
                            RELATION IETWEEN PH AMI TYPE OF IUST
                                     USINt 2 M«

TYPE Of IUST

NUHIER Of
TESTS

PH AVERAOES


AVERACE
SQUARE
IEVIATION
CEMENT 9 9,05 0,2
TAC* 5 *» 0.2
STREET iUST 3 7><° °'16
      The following method was used in determining the pH of suspended dust
 collected by aspiration with small glass cyclones: the glass cyclones were
 washed thoroughly with a chromium solution; they were then submerged in dis-
 tilled water for not less than 24 hours, then dried under a hood or in a
 desiccator until their weight became constant.  Prior to sample collecting
 the glass cyclones were rinsed with water several times and the pH of the
 wash water was checked.  This was done until the pH of the wash water equalled
 that of distilled water, that is until the wash water reaction came close to
 neutral.  Dust samples were collected as usual, and the amount of dust was
 then determined gravimetrically.  The collected dust was then washed into a
 glass container using 7 ml of double distilled CO -free water.   In each case
 3 pH determinations were made,  and the final values established on the basis
                                    -107-

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of the average  of the 3.  Seven dust samples were  collected in the cement
work room.  Determination data are shown in Table  4.   Results indicated that
pH of dust  collected by the gravimetric method was the same as of suspended
dust collected  by the cyclone aspiration method.  (This seemingly generalized
                                                      Table 4
                           ACII ALKALINE REACTION Of  CEMENT IUST IN
                                  ASPIRATEI SAMPLES
EXTREME IUST
CONCENTRATIONS IN
HO IN SMALL'CtOUIS
NO. OF
TESTS
PH EXTREMES
AVERACE PH
FOR 2 M« OF
IUST SUSPENSION
                   1,4-2*
       9.4-10,3
                                                              9.7
 conclusion does not seem to accord with the data presented in Table 3 and 4;
 the  average of the 3 pH values  listed in Table 3 is pH 7-56, while  the average
 in Table 4, as indicated in the last  column, is 9«7> the difference between the
 two  values amounts to 2.14, and the  2 pH values can hardly be regarded as
 coincidental.  B.S.L.).  It was noted that in tests with cement  dust, where
 pH determinations were made 6 days or longer after collection, the  values of pH
 were below those expected.  For instance, for a 3 - 5 mS dust sample values
 obtained by delayed determinations ranged between pH J.60 - 8.25 instead of the
 expected pH 10.0.  Therefore, it was  concluded that in the case  of  cement dust
 pH determinations should be made as  soon as possible, and certainly not later
 than 24 hours after sample collection.
      Results of laboratory tests were verified by making pH determinations on
 dust samples collected in 2 regions  of the city in the proximity of the cement
 plant and in the residential section..  Results are presented in  Table 5«  Data
                                                      Table 5
                ACU-ALKALINE REACTION OF ATMOSPHERIC AIR ASPIRATEI IUST SAMPLES
SAMPLE
NUMIER
SAMPLE
COLLECTING
POINT
NUMIER
OF
TESTS
PH
EXTREMES
MS OF IUST
AVERAGES
FLUCTUATION
LIMITS
                     AT I00 M FROM
                     CEMENT PLANT
                     AT 500 M FROM
                     CEMENT PLANT
                     A RESIDENTIAL
                     SECTION
11
«.15-,12,40
 13    7.05—9.05
 9    5,50—7.70  <1
3.5
2fi
1.4-S.4
0.8-5.0
                                      -108-

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 in Table 5  show that the  dust collected in the proximity of the cement plant •
-was of strong alkaline reaction and  that the pH was reduced in dust samples
 collected 500 m from the  plant.  The pH of dust collected in  the residential
 section stayed within the neutral  zone; however,  since the dust samples
 collected in the residential section weighed less than 1 mg making a final  low
 dilution, acceptance of the above  statement as final should be made with reser-
 vations.                           .
                                  Conclusions.
      1.  A  method was developed for  the pH determination of suspended dust
 collected by the aspiration method;  pH determinations were made using glass
 electrodes.
      2.  It was demonstrated that  the hydroquinone electrode  could not be used
 in the present investigation.
      3.  It was found that dust pH varied with the type of dust, its concen-
 tration, dilution and time kept before the pH determination.
      4.  Dust samples collected in the proximity  of the cement plant had a
 high or alkaline pH.
                                  Bibliography.

                   1. Ill if a run a A. n. MepuaiwibHoe  AuuKeHxe. MCATHS, 1946.
                   2. FlqeJiHH B. A. HauepeHHe aKTHBHOCTH  BOuopOAHtu HOBOB.  rnjur-
                npoH, 1956.
                   3. MiicjioBHuep E.  OnpeaeJieHHe xoxiieHTpaiiHH  BOAOPOAHUX ROHOB
                B JKHAKOCTMX. OHTH, i!932.
                   4. PyfiHHiiiTeftH H. A. QmtmecKan XHMHH. HSA. AH CCCP. iHMO.
                   5. P r o e t z A. W. Essays  on the  Applied  Physiology of  the  Nose.
                St.-Louis, 1953.
                   6. D a I h a m n  T. Mucous flow and  Ciliary Activity in the Trachea of
                Healthy Rats and Rats, exposed to respiratory irritans  gases. Stockholm
                1966.
                   7. D o 11 M. The Glass electrode. New York,  1941.
                                       -109-

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      Effect of Discharges of a Cement Plant on the Population's Health.
              Z. V. Dubrovina, S. P. Nikolaev,  and N. M. Tomson.

     The cement plant was located in the city and was surrounded by other
industrial establishments and residences, some of which were located 100 m
from the cement plant.  The plant produced Portland cement which was prepared
by calcining a mixture of limestone, loam, and clay.  Analyses showed that
the mixture contained 63 - 8?# of CaO and 21 - 24$ of SiOg.  In addition, the
cement contained oxides of iron and aluminum and traces of fluorine and arsenic.
Regardless of the fact that fluorine and arsenic were present in the cement
in trace quantities their total added up to 700 kg per 1,000 tons of the final
product.  Cement ha.s a highly alkaline pH and is strongly hygroscopic.
     The plant discharged daily close to 80 tons of cement, coal dust, and
gases from the calcining ovens and drying drums.  Dust creating sources were
spread throughout the plant grounds.  The dust was discharged into the atmos-
pheric air through exhaust pipes or stacks at different heights from the
ground, some as high as 70 m, which caused the dust to become widely distrib-
uted.  Studies were made by collecting samples of air suspended and gravity
settled dust by determining degree of dispersion, and by ascertaining distances
to which the discharged plant dust was carried.  The following studies were
made for the determination of cement dust effect on the organism: a) degree of
cement dust retention in the lungs of man under laboratory and industrial
conditions, that is, in the plant's proximity;  b) inhabitants in the region
of the plant location were asked certain questions; c) statistical morbidity
studies were made among the cement plant workers; d) the effect of cement dust
inhalation on the vascular and respiratory systems of man was investigated.
     Air samples were collected within the range of the plant's stack flume
for gravimetric, count and dispersion determinations.  Concentration of sus-
pended dust in the air was determined by the aspiration method, using glass
cyclones and aspiration.rate of 19 li/min., for 20 minutes and 2-3 hours,
depending upon the dust concentration; particle counts and dispersion
composition determinations were made by the usual method.  Results are
presented in Table 1.
                                    -110-

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                                                 Table 1
                  IUST IENSITY IN THE AIR AROUNI THE CEMENT PtANT
METER FROM §UST '" IUST MR~
nETEH FHOH ^ T 1 CLE6 IN «» CENT OF IUST IISPER6ION
H«/M . CM3
CEMENT PLANT



.
*
M
4
111
j
a:
Ul
>
^
•
^
C
til
^
Ul

— ^
V

a.
•9
a.
o
A
a.
^j
4
a.

8
A
             PLANT
             SROUNI6
              500
              1000
              1500
83.27  16.05 9038  1600  16.7  18.7  23.7  32.9   8.0
 4.94  1.77 5280  J742  41,3  29.8  15.8  10,«   23
 3.48  1^3 4616  1610  48.4  31.5  11.9   7.3   0^
 2,29  0.90 2378  1076  62,8  21.1   8.2   6,1   1.8
      The gravimetric dust content in the air gradually  abated with increase in
 the distance from the plant.   At a 500 m radial zone the  average number of
 particles at first  increased  and then abated.  This was explained by the fact
 that the air in the territory of the plant contained 40#  of dust particles
 measuring >10ju  At 500  m from the plant the large particles  were reduced to
 13$; as the distance  from the plant increased the percentage  of  dust  particles
 of this size proportionally decreased.   Beyond the 500 m  zone the number of
 dust particles of <5M  in diameter increased to the point  of predominance;  such
 particles easily penetrated deep into the respiratory organs.  It appeared clear
 that the high dust  concentration on the  plant grounds represented the fraction
.consisting of large particles, which contributed substantially to the weight  of
 the  dust,  while dust particles passing through the slit  of Owens'  apparatus I
 measured not more  than 10^.  Accordingly,  the particle  count in air samples
 collected on the plant's territory  on the  average  was below the count in air
 samples  collected  at 500 m, and  even  1,000  m  from  the plant.
     Results of air sample analyses also showed that  average  dust intensity
within a radius of 500 m from the plant was 12  times  as  high as in the samples
collected in the residential region, 8 times  as great within  a radius of 1,000 m
and  6 times  as  great within a radius of 1,500 m from  the plant.  At 2,000 m
from the plant  dust  intensity fell to the level of the limit  of allowable con-
centration in atmospheric air.  Fractional, or  dispersion, analysis of the air
samples  showed  that  the number of fractions containing dust particles below IH
in diameter  rose from 16%, in  air samples collected on the plant  grounds, to
                                    -111-

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62%,  in  samples  collected at  1,500  m from the  plant,  while  the  number of dust
particles  10  - 50 n  in diameter' fell from 33$  to 6%.   Results of calcium
determinations in dust samples  taken at  different distances from the plant
are  shown  in  Table 2.   The data indicate that  the Ca  content in the dust
samples  decreased with increase of  the distance from  the plant, and that the

                                                   Table 2
                       CALCIUM COmNT OF IUST SAMPLES AT •IFFEBEUI
                           IISTANCES  FROM THE PLANT
METERS FROM THE PLANT
PERCENT OF CALCIUM
500
19.1
ICCO
16,3
l"PO
9,8
2000
7.9
2500
5,4
presence of plant discharges could still be detected at 2,000 - 2,500 m from
the plant.  Data obtained in 1938 on settled dust within the region of the
plant site showed that the Ca content of samples collected inside the plant
grounds amounted to 57 - 63$ as compared with 3 - 6% in other sections of the
city.  At 1,000 m from the plant the Ca content fell to 50$.  Amount of settled
dust throughout the city rose during the cold seasons of the year and fell
considerably during the warm seasons, indicating that most of the dust was
caused by domestic heating plants.  The reverse was observed on the plant grounds,
where the amount of settled dust was greater during the summer period, when the
plant worked at a higher capacity.
     Persons residing in the vicinity of the cement plant were asked questions
related to the effect of the cement plant's discharges on the sanitary-hygienic
state and on general living conditions.  Questions were presented to 194 persons
living at different distances from the plant.  Inhabitants complained of
intense air pollution with cement plant discharges, the inability of ventilating
their quarters, rapid and frequent dust pollution of house utilities, frequent
eye traumas, etc.  Similar complaints were registered by persons living 1.5 km
from the plant.  -Persons whose living quarters were located 500 m from the
cement plant registered the most emphatic and serious complaints, especially
as regards to their inability to ventilate their houses.  Studies were also
made of the degree of inhaled cement dust retention by the method of E. A.
Vigdorchik.  Analyses of dispersion  composition of the inhaled cement dust
showed 62$ of particles up to 1 n in diameter and 29$ of particles  of 1 -  2 \L
                                    -112-

-------
in diameter and 9$ of particles 3 - 5 n in diameter.  The results, thus, showed
that the greater part of the dust consisted of particles which easily pene-
trated deep into the respiratory organs.  More detailed analysis of the data
obtained from laboratory studies showed that retention within the organs of
respiration of dust particles <1 n in diameter amounted to 35$» of particles
1 - 2 n in diameter amounted to 41$, of particles 3 - 5 H in diameter amounted
to 73$, and of particles >5 n in diameter amounted to 97$.  Retained dust
amounted to 41.5$ of the total of inhaled dust.  Approximately identical
results were obtained with similar experiments under conditions prevailing
in the territory occupied by the plant and in sections closely abutting the
plant grounds.  V/ith an increase in the dust concentration of the inhaled air,
the percentage of particles retained by the respiratory tract also increased.
No such tests were made previously; therefore, the above findings had to be
verified.
     Usually studies of atmospheric cement dust effect on the population's
health begin with an analysis of morbidity among residents living in the
plant's vicinity.  In this instance other types of plants located in the same
vicinity emitted into the air deleterious substances, which undoubtedly added
to the effects of the cement dust.  Under such conditions morbidity analysis
would throw no light on the effects of the discharges of the cement plant alone.
It was thought that analysis of morbidity among workers of the cement plant
might be of substantial value.  Accordingly, 2,000 morbidity records of cement
plant workers were studied, covering a period of 5 years (1950 - 1954).
Results showed that the rate of general morbidity among workers of the cement
plant exceeded that found during the same period among workers of other
Leningrad production plants.  It must be mentioned that pulmonary tuberculosis
was excluded from this study.
     Vascular and respiratory systems are most directly, most frequently, and
most intensely affected by environmental influences; these systems are also
most sensitive to a number of irritants, accordingly states of the vascular and
respiratory systems were selected as indexes of cement dust effects on the
organism in general.  Reactions of the vascular system to unfavorable external
factors were recorded plethysmographically, using the arm water-air plethysmo-
graph.  Records were made by the usual kymographic methods.  Respiratory
                                    -113-

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reactions, were recorded by a rubber device placed on the chest and connected with
the kymograph recording point.  Tests were made in chambers of 10 m  capacity.
The subject, the investigator, and the recording apparatus were placed inside
the chamber.  Each test lasted 10 - 15 minutes including a period of 3 - 8
minutes of dust inhalation.  The following dust concentrations were tested:
0.5 to 1.0 rag/m , 1.0 to 3.0 mg/m , 3.0 to 6.0 mg/m  and 6.0 mg/m .  The
series consisted of 55 dust inhalations and 24 control tests, using 10 selected
persons.
     Of the 55 tested cases 44, or 80$, showed symptoms of vascular reaction of
a transient character; in 50$ of the cases the plethysmogram at first dropped
to lower the levels, returning to normal in most instances; plethysmograms of
the remaining 50$ were of a fluctuating wavy character.  The total plethysmogram
picture indicated that vascular reaction to cement dust inhalation began to
appear at 0.5 - 1.0 mg/m  dust density.  Respiration curves showed that the
first dust inhalations elicited an inspiration arrest of short duration and in
some cases respiration came to a short duration standstill gradually returning
to a shallow and finally normal respiration.
                        Conclusions and Suggestions.
     1.  Intensity of atmospheric air pollution with cement dust in the
vicinity of the cement plant exceeded the dust intensity found in the inhabited
region; it was 3-4 times as great as the limit of allowable dust concentra-
tion in atmospheric air.  This was equally true of total dust concentration and
of the number of particles per 1 cm .
     2.  Atmospheric air pollution with the cement plant discharges was
detected at 2,000 m from the plant.  It is suggested, therefore, that cement
plants of 270,000 tons annual capacity be separated by a 2,000 m sanitary
clearance zone.
     3.  Between 41 and 45$ of inhaled cement dust was deposited in the
respiratory organs; amount of dust deposited in the respiratory organs increased
with tne increase in dust pollution intensity.
     4.  Dust dispersion studies showed that 95$ of cement dust in the atmos-
pheric air consisted of particles 5 H in diameter; such particles easily
penetrated into the respiratory organs of man.
                                   -114-

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     5.  Medical examination of workers in the cement plant showed increased
frequency in the following morbid conditions: bronchitis,  gastritis,  gastric
and duodenal ulcers, diseases of the skin and of the hypodermis.
     6.  Appearance of vascular reaction began with inhalation of 0.5 - 1.0
mg/m  of cement dust concentrations.
     7.  Elimination or abatement of cement plant discharges into the atmos-
pheric air of inhabited localities can be attained by moving city plants into
regions outside the city limits, or by adopting sanitary-hygienic protective
meanst a) complete hermetization of all cement producing processes;  b) install
effective dust catching equipment at all points of dust generation and insure
their proper operation; c) replace (or convert) coal burning to gas burning
operations; d) increase the number and extent of park spaces containing trees,
shrubs, and other plant life.
       Hygienic Evaluation of Atmospheric Air Pollution in the Vicinity
                    of the Industrial Plant "Krasnyi Khimik"
                    E. N. Bondareva and V. Z.  Yas'kova.
     "Krasnyi Khimik" is one of the largest plants of the USSR chemical
industry which produces hydrochloric and sulfuric acids  and about 500 other
kinds of chemical reagents.  Some technological improvements have been recently
introduced in that plant.  However, inspection showed that  no improvement  had
been introduced in the acid producing departments still  equipped with old  and
worn out sanitary-hygienic installations; as a result there are many,  so-called,
organized discharges of sulfuric and hydrochloric acid aerosols.  The plant
was erected before the Revolution in a sparsely populated southeastern region
of Leningrad.  As the city population increased and residences were constructed
at a higher rate,  a situation was created which brought  the plant to within
100 m of inhabited sections with no provision for a sanitary clearance zone
or landscaping of any kind.
                                    -115-

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     The Atmospheric air was studied by collecting 264 single concentration
samples which were analyzed for concentrations of sulfuric acid aerosol, S0_,
and HC1.  Sulfur dioxide was the predominant atmospheric air pollutant in the
inhabited areas.  The unfavorable effect of SO. on the human organism has
been adequately described by many investigators.  The purpose of this study was
to accumulate basic data  for the determination of the limit of
allowable SO- concentration in community air.  It is also known that the loss
of S0_ in the production of sulfuric acid constituted a considerable loss of
raw material; therefore, every sulfuric acid producing plant is interested in
eliminating or reducing the extent of SO. loss.  The sulfuric acid producing
department of "Krasnyi Khimik" has been provided with tower absorbers equipped
with alkaline sprayers supposed to absorb 99«95# of the SO- in the form of
NaHSO..  Nevertheless, considerable loss of the sulfur gas occurred throughout
the sulfuric acid producing departments for lack of complete hermetization of
the processes.  Results of community air analyses are shown in Table 1.
                       3                             Table 1
                    MS/M OF SULFUR tlOXIIE IN THE ATMOSPHERIC AIR
                                   •KRASRYI KHIHIK"          •:


THE PLANT



NO* OF
TESTS


SULFUR tlOXIIE CONCENTRATION

MINIM.


op TO 300 M 31 0.2

MAXIM.



AVERAIES


% OF TESTS
EXCEED N<
ALLOWABLE
SO, CONCEN-
TRATION LIMITS
11.65 2.03 80
" " 500 M 58 0,2 5,0 1.05 65.5
" " 1000 M 9 0.1 13 0.83 60
Highest SO- concentrations were found  in the fall  samples,  particularly  in cold
cloudy weather and during foggy summer days.  All  air  samples  also  contained
sulfuric acid aerosol.  Under normal conditions  SO,, as  a product of incomplete
hard fuel combustion, was present  in community air in  concentrations ranging
between 0.007 - 0.6 mg/m , amounting to 1 - 3# of  the  S0_ content in the air.
Observations made under" industrial conditions showed that sulfuric  acid
irritated the mucosa  of the  conjunctiva and palpebra and of the  upper respira-
tory passages.
     M. V. Alekseeva  established the threshold of  H SO.  irritative  effect at
1 mg/m  .  Data showing  sulfuric acid concentration found in the  air surrounding
the "Krasnyi Khimik"  plant are shown in Table 2.   Sulfuric  acid  aerosol  con-
centration determinations were made by the differential  SO   and  H-SO. aerosol
                                     -116-

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                                                    Table 2
                  M6/H3 OF SULFURIC ACIB  IN THE VICINITY OF "KRASNYI KHIHIK"

METERS FROM POINT -
OF IISCHAR6E
200-300
' SULFURIC ACII CONCENTRATIONS

MINIM.

MAXIM.

AVERAGES
5,0 17^ 10.4
no 500 6,26 7,5 6,87
flo 1000 i5 5.0 4,06
                                                         TAILE 3
                 M«/M3 OF  NYIROCHLORIIE IN THE VICINITY OF "KRASNYI KNIHIK"
METERS
FROM
PLANT
NUMIER OF
TESTS
NO. OF
POSITIVE
SAMPLES
CONCENTRATIONS OF HYI ROCHLOHI IE
MINIM.
MAXIM.
AVERAGES
                  200
                  600
                  1000
31
24
16
19
15
 8
0.10
0,10
0,10
11,6
 0,72
1.14
0,31
0.27
procedure of Alekseeva  and Bushtueva (Se'e Limits of Allowable  Concentrations,
Book 2, O.T.S. 59-21174,  p. 98-99).  Sulfuric acid concentrations of all
samples collected at  1,000 m from the plant were 1,300$ times  above the limit
of allowable concentration.  Pollution of community atmospheric air with HC1,
converted in the air  into an aerosol, came from departments producing hydro-
chloric acid, superphosphate,  soda and other chlorides.  Maximal HC1 concen-
trations, 1-12 times  as great as the allowable concentration,  were found
only at 200 m from the  plant.   On the other hand, minimal concentrations were
found at 500 and 1,000  m  from the plant, always associated with S02 and sulfuric
acid aerosol, a combination which undoubtedly had a deleterious effect on the
health of the nearby  inhabitants.
     The next step consisted of a study of the effect of the plant's complex
discharge on the organism of man and animals.  Caged rats were placed within
300 and 500 m radii from  the plant along the path of the prevailing winds.
Control rats, similarly maintained, were placed at great distances from the
other known industrial  plants.   Test -.groups consisted of 10 young male rats
of idential weight and  age.  Weight observations were made over a period of
3 months; rats were then  sacrificed and determinations were made for Vitamin C,
and blood cholinesterase  activity.
                                     -117-

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     It has been known that slight irritations  occurring  in  the  environment
produced shifts in the organism's physiological reactions long before  any
morphological changes could be detected in the  organs  and tissues.   Blood
cholinesterase activity was determined by the amount of choline  and acetic acid
resulting from acetylcholine hydrolysis.  Normal  cholinesterase  activity is
of importance to the nervous system, since nerve  stimulation transmission
depended upon hydrolysis of the acetylcholine mediator.   Changes in blood
cholinesterase activity occured in febrile conditions  and in chronic infections
and as the result of drug effect, (especially of  toxic effect) on the  organism.
Cholinesterase activity was determined by the Michaelson  method  (no reference
given).
                                                Table  4
               ILOO» CHOLINE8TERA8E ACTIVITY IN EXPERIMENTAL AMI CONTROL
                      RATS EXPRESSEI AS ML OF 0.1 N NAOB
RAT tROOP
ACTIVITY
FLUCTUATION
AVERAU8
comets 0,60-0,80 0,70
•ROUP I 0,30-0,40 0.37
flROUP II 0,30—0,30 0,30
     Data in Table 4  show  that  cholinesterase  activity was reduced in rats of
group 1 to a greater  extent  than  in  rats  of  group 2 kept in closer proximity
to the plant.
     Effect of "Krasnyi Khimik" discharges on  vitamin metabolism was studied
next.  Vitamin C was  determined in the  liver,  kidneys and adrenals by the
Tul'chinskii method.   Results  showed that the test rats had a lower concen-
tration of vitamin C  in the  adrenals and  a slightly increased concentration in
the liver and kidneys.  Observations showed  that  rate of weight increase in
animals of group 2 kept in closer proximity  to the plant was reduced as shown
in Table 5«  Thus, results of the study showed that the complex discharge of
"Krasnyi Khimik" plant had a deleterious effect on  the  general  health  of the
experimental animals.
     The radical way to eliminate the plant's  discharges into the  community
atmospheric air and to stop their harmful effect  on the health  and general
living conditions of the population would be by moving  the  plant's acid produc-
ing departments to a considerable distance outside  the  city limits.  Practical

                                    -118-

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                                              Table 5
                    CHANGES IN AVERAGE WEI8HTS OF EXPERIMENTAL AN* CONTROL RAT6
RAT
GROUPS
WEIGHT
INITIAL
WE 1 6HT
CONTROL 40
CROUP 1 38
GROUP 1 1 3*
1
46
43
40
2 3
51 55
54 57
47 45
IN
4
62
64
54
GRAMS ACCORIING
5 '6
74 76
75 79
59 65
7
65
70
73
8
94
86
79
TO WEEKS
9
105
00
90
10
106
105
87
II
118
106
94
(2
127
112
105
considerations showed that such a step involved many complications and could
not be carried out at a reasonably early time.  Therefore, it is suggested:
first, that all production processes be made hermetically leak-proof; and second,
that all plant discharges be freed of deleterious components prior to their
emission into the community atmospheric air.
     Atmospheric Air Dustiness in Inhabited Sections of an Industrial Region
                              S. P. Nikolaev.

     This study of atmospheric air dustiness was conducted in two inhabited
sections of an industrial region characterized by different methods of building
construction.  One section, known as the Karl Marx section, represented the
pre-revolutionary system of dwelling organization characterized by enclosed,
so-called, well-like yards.  Living quarters were all  in one six-story building
equipped with a central boiler-operated heating system located in the house
basement.  Yard spaces were interconnected and paved with cobblestones.  The
other section, called Lesnoi, was located 900 m from the first; its buildings
were perimetrieally located with open spaces between 4 separated buildings, each
4 stories high; all living quarters were equipped with individual heating stoves.
The enclosed yard was sand covered, had a fountain in  the center and trees and
some shrubbery around the periphery.  Walks and drives were asphalt paved.  Air
studies were made simultaneously at 2 points of each section.  Point No. 1 was
                                      -119-

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located in a poorly aerated part of the yard, point Ho. 2 was located in a
part of the yard which was open to freely moving air0  Air dust determinations
were made:   l) by the aspiration method, 2) by the count method, 3) by the
method of sedimentation on adhesive glass for the study of dispersion degree,
and 4) by sedimentation in glass containers.  Observations were made between
10 - 16 o'clock and through the entire day (24 hrs) during the months of
February to October.  Analytical results presented in Table 1 show that
averages obtained by the count method became gradually lower with approach
of the warm months and began to increase again beginning with the month of
September - October, that is, with the onset of the heating season.
                                                       Table 1
                     AIR IUST IENSITY IN RESIIENTIAL SLOCKS OP THE INIUSTRIAL
SFCTinil •RUTH
MOUTHS

V 11111111
KARL MARX PROSPECT
IOST IN M6/M-3
MAXIM. 1 AV.
BUST PARTICLES
PER 1 CM
MAXIM.
AV.
p THF «1V

LESNOI PROSPECT
•UST IN MC/M^
MAXIM. AV.
IUST PARTICLES
PER CM3
MAXIM.
AV.
FEIROARY
MARCH
APRIL
MAY
JULY
SEPTEMIER
OCTOIER
1.12
0,65
0.13
0,57
0,46
0.37
0.36
0.88
0,37
0,07
0.41
0.38
0,25
0.25
10470
6300
1900
1960
1319
2595
2040
7719
2194
1463
1281
1002
1529
1599
0,16
0.18
0,29
0.32
0,31
0,13
—
0,10
0,12
0.22
0,15
0,20
0.12
—
2430
3320
2490
680
1614
1270
1770
1787
1322
1144
475
1005
854
1308
     Thus, the number of dust particles per 1 cm  in the Karl Marx section was
7719 in February, dropped to 1002 in June and again rose to 1529 in September.
Similarly, in the Lesnoi section the number of dust particles per 1 cm  was
1787 in February, dropped to 475 in May and again rose to 1308 in October.  No
such regularity was observed in the results obtained by the aspiration method.
This can be explained by the fact that the content of large particles in the
air, as determined by the aspiration method, depended largely upon air humidity,
rate and direction of winds and the presence of convection currents, etc.  On
the other hand, particles of fine dust, as determined by the count method, were
reasonably constant for each season of the year.  Results presented in Table 1
also indicate that air dustiness in the well-like closed-in yards was of
greater intensity than in the open yards of the second section.  Except for the
                                     -120-

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month of April, greatest difference was  observed during  the month of
February (8.8 times) and.minimal difference during the month  of  June  (1.9
times); maximal difference in the number of particles per volume (month of
June excluded) was observed during February (4.3 times)  and minimal difference
in the month of October  (1.2 times).
     Data obtained for each section during the  cold,  or  heating, season and
warm, or non-heating, season were in  agreement  with  data presented above, in
that dust concentrations were nearly  the same in corresponding periods, whereas
number of particles per  1 cm  was greater during the heating  season of the year,
2.4 times as great in the Karl Marx section and 1.7  times as  great in the
Lesnoi section.  Air dustiness in the Karl Marx section  was greater during the
heating period than in the Lesnoi section: 3  times as great  on the basis of
particle concentration and 2.3 times  as  great on the basis of particle numbers;
during the  non-heating period the corresponding numbers  were  2.2 and 1.7-
Undoubtedly, the open air ventilation of the  Lesnoi  section and the presence of
landscaping played an important  part  in  the  lower  dust  concentration as well
as number of particles per 1  cm  .  Atmospheric  air dustiness  was constant
through the day in either of  the sections.  This was due to several causes:
l) different work shifts in the  regional industrial enterprises, 2) uneven
consumption of fuel in the course of  the same shift, 3)  differences in length
of time during which house heating systems were used, 4) differences in
meteorological  conditions, etc.
      Changes  in air dust intensity  through the  day are shown in Table  2.  The

                                                         Table 2
                    PICTURE OF ATMOSPHERIC AID BUST IENSITY IN RESllENTIAL
                             BLOCKS OF THE  INIUSTRIAL SECTION
HOURS Of THE SAY
10-13
13—16
16—19
19-22
22—1
1-4
4—7
7-9
IUST IN M6/M
0,15
0,14
0,17
0,35
0,12
0,09
0.10
0,32
IUST PARTICLES
PER 1 CM3
1398
1167
1774
2123
1367
1249
1371
1651
                                      -121-

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 data show that air dustiness rose beginning with 16 o'clock, especially between
 19 and 22 o'clock in the evening and 7 and 9 o'clock in the morning.  Minimal
 air dust intensity was noted during the night hours.  Results of such observa-
 tions coincided completely with concentrations of soot in the air observed
 during the day, as was shown by V, A. Ryazanov in his book "Sanitary Protection
 of Atmospheric Air", published by Medgiz in 1954 (See 3. S. Levine's transla-
 tion, U. S. Dept. of Commerce, OTS- 60-21049, pp. 11-3?.
      Changes in air dustiness through the day typical of industrial regions
 also reflected dustiness occurring in the atmospheric air of city inhabited
 regions, due to the fact that the causes responsible for such changes were
 practically identical in both regions, and that discharges polluting the air
 of the industrial regions were carried by winds of different directions into
 the air of inhabited sections.  The data also indicated that 13 and 14$ of
              °                             T
 single concentrations exceeded the 0.5 mg/m  limit of allowable concentration
 and 66.7$ of air samples exceeded the 0.15 mg/m  allowable average 24-hour
 concentration.  The following seemingly paradoxical situation was occasionally
 noted: regardless of the fact that ventilation played a general positive role
 in both sections there were instances when free ventilation instead of reducing,
 in fact, increased the dust intensity of the better ventilated sections.  This
 was explained by the fact that openings connecting the yards with the street
 made the street dust, created by heavy traffic, accessible, to the inside of the
 yard.  In planning future settlement sections this fact should be taken into
 consideration.
                                                Table 3
              IUST IISPERSION COMPOSITION IN THE AIR OF RESIIENTIAL ILOCKS OF
                           THE INDUSTRIAL SECTION


KARL
t."PN


1IAMETER

-------
 explained why gravimetrically the dust concentration  in the air of the indus-
 trial region was  comparatively low.  On the other hand,  since particles of 5 M
 in diameter easily  penetrated deep into the respiratory passages, their impor-
 tance from a sanitary-hygienic viewpoint was greater.   Finally, the count
 method, which some  authors have discarded, in this instance supplemented the
 data obtained by  the  aspiration method.  This was due  to the fact that the slit
 of Owen's-I apparatus excluded only 2.5$ of the dust.
      The total picture  of atmospheric air pollution in the  inhabited sections
 is summarized in  Table  4.  In this table data presented in  the top line pertain
 to averages of settled  dust obtained in the city industrial regions; such data
 are presented for comparative purposes.
                                                       TAKE 4
                    •UST IN S/M^/MOHTN SETTLE! IN THE CITY INIUSTRIAL SECTIONS
                           AMI IN THE RESIIENTIAL ILOCKS UNIER
                                   OISERVATION
                                          MONTHS
                        |  II  | 111 |  IV  |  V  | VI |  VII | VIII  | IX  |  X | XI
                INIUSTRIAL .
                 SECTIONS  6329138.79108.21 63.66 76.26 69,82 36.59 38,7277.0474.50
                             546-24 307-23  ~  100-69 *18' W-28  86(7°
                LESNOI     79.33 111.76  79.55 94.38 67.28 40.18 36.78  51.30 40,28.46.44
                 PROSPECT
      Air dust intensity values  obtained by the aspiration and  count  methods
did  not  differ substantially from those obtained by the sedimentation method.
Data presented in Table 4 show  that  air dust intensity in the  Lesnoi region
was  lower than in the Karl Marx region.   Generally, air dust concentrations
indicated by the dust settling  method were within the limits of allowable
dust  pollution concentration in the  Lesnoi and Karl Marx sections during the
months corresponding to those observed  in the city commercial  regions; with
the  exception of March and April  the differences were practically insignificant
in the Karl  Marx section.  However,  during the same months the quantity  of
dust  obtained by the dust settling method in the Karl Marx section was corres-
pondingly 4  and 3 times as great  as  obtained in  the city industrial  regions.
      This can be easily explained on the  basis of monthly wind directions.
Thus, during the month of March westerly  winds predominated.  In addition
calm  weather was observed during  this month 155  times of 52? observations.
                                     -123-

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Increase in the amount of settled dust at this point was caused, on the one
hand, "by discharges coming from the coal operating plant (Russkii Dizel)
located westerly in the proximity of the observation point, and on the other
hand, by the voluminous discharge coming from the coal-operated domestic
heating plants which rapidly settled within a short radius during calm days.
Average velocity of the predominating northeasterly winds was 4.4 m/sec., which
exceeded the highest average velocity of winds blowing in other directions.
Therefore, it can be assumed that increase in the amount of dust settled in
the Karl Marx section during that month may have come from the discharges of
a group of industrial plants located on Chugunnaya Street located 900 - 1,000 m
northeasterly from the inhabited section.
                              Conclusions.
     1.  Atmospheric air dustiness varied in city inhabited sections with the
season of the year, being lower during the summer months and rising with the
heating season, which pointed to fuel as the basic origin of air dust.
     2.  Air dustiness in inhabited quarters varied during the day reflecting
the periodic operation of the region's industrial plants, and with the popula-
tion's mode of living.  Air dustiness manifested 2 maxima during the day: in
the evening between 19 and 22 o'clock, and in the morning between 7 and 9
o'clock; minimum air dustiness was noted during the night hours.
     3.  Air dustiness in the fenced-in yards was considerably higher than in
the open yards accessible to ventilation.
     4.  Average 24-hour dust concentration in living quarters exceeded the
0.15 mg/m  limit of allowable dust concentration.
     5.  Air dust in living quarters was characterized by a comparatively
high degree of dispersion; analyses showed that 97.5$ of the dust consisted of
particles <10 n in diameter, and only 2.5$ of particles >10 n in diameter.
     6.  Quantity of dust settled from the air of living quarters located in
the industrial regions generally exceeded the maximal averages noted in all
other industrial sections of the city.
                                     -124-

-------
       Bacterial Population of Air Surrounding Typical Living Quarters
                         in an Industrial Region
                             K. I. Turzhetskii
     The study of atmospheric air pollution conducted by 3.  P. Nikolaev in
two inhabited sections of an industrial city as described in the  proceeding
report was paralleled by a bacteriological investigation of  the air of the
same sections conducted by the present writer.  Air samples  were  collected
by the aspiration method using the Krotov apparatus and by the gravity settling
method using open Petri dishes.  Two Petri dishes containing nutrient agar
were placed inside the Krotov apparatus and 125 li of "the air aspirated over
each dish.  A similar volume of air was aspirated over 2 dishes containing
ferro-sulfite agar for the isolation of anaerobes.  The same types of agar
media were used in catching air bacteria by the gravity method.  Counts were
made of total number of bacteria, pigmented bacteria,  aerobic and anaerobic
spore-formers and of molds.
     Bacterial counts made by the aspiration method in the old (Karl Marx)
residential section during February,  March, and April showed that the total
number of air bacteria stayed consistently within the  limit  of 100 and 500
per ml with counts between 200 - 300 occurring most frequently.  As in the
preceeding investigation,  air samples were collected at 2 points.  Total
counts disclosed no significant numerical differences in the bacterial air
population of the 2 points.  On 2 occasions only was the total bacteriological
count per ml of air as high as 900 at collection point No. 1 (in  the corner of
the enclosed yard) while no such high count occurred among the samples
collected at point No. 2 located between 2 arches which served as the yard's
gates.
     Total bacterial count per ml of air collected in the old Karl Marx
section sharply rose during May and June.   Two of the samples collected at
point No. 1 had counts of 900 - 1,000 per ml, two of 1,000 - 2,000 and 2
exceeding 2,000.  Total counts of air samples collected at point  No. 2 were
lower, with an average of 1,576.   High bacterial counts were also found
among samples collected during September,  when the maximum at point 1 was
2,080 and at point No. 2,  1240.   The number of bacteria per  ml of air during
the month of October at point No. 2 did not exceed 500 and at point No.  1

                                     -125-

-------
 one sample had a count  of' 1,784<
      Thus, the total number  of bacteria in  air samples  collected at  point
 No.  1 was consistently  greater than at  point No.  2,  which may have been
 caused by prevailing air stagnancy  at that  point.   Counts of air samples
 collected by the aspiration  method  in the newer residential section  (Lesnoi)
 showed that the bacterial air  pollution was not as  high as in the old  section
 and that  such counts fluctuated within  a narrow range.   None of  the  air
 samples collected at point No.  1  (center of the yard) in this section  had  a
 count exceeding 400 micro-organisms; similarly, none of the air  samples
 collected at point No.  2 (at the  yard gate) had a count exceeding 500  micro-
 organisms.  A higher bacterial count occurred  in  only 2 of the samples
 collected at point No.  1,  whereas 6 of  the  samples  collected at  point  No.  2
 had high  bacterial counts.  The higher  bacterial  air population  at point No. 2
 can be explained by the fact that this  point was  located at the  entrance into
 the yard  between two buildings where minor  air whirls were formed occasionally
 which prevented dust and bacterial  dispersion;  the  air  whirls also sucked  in
 dust and  bacteria from  the adjacent street.
      Air  of the Karl Marx section was studied  by  exposing 2 open Petri dishes
 for .20 minutes during February and  May.  Most  of  the plates showed counts
 ranging between 50 - 100 colonies,  never exceeding  300  colonies.  The  number
 of  viable microorganisms sharply  rose during June,  especially in samples
 collected at point No.  1 which showed a count  of  3,000  in one plate.   The
 number of viable microorganisms sharply fell during September and October,
 never exceeding 300.  In this  case, as  in the  preceeding study the air analyzed
.at  point  No. 1 had a greater number of  viable  bacteria.   Counts  obtained by
 the open  plate method .showed more clearly than did  the  counts made by  aspira-
 tion method that  the number  of bacteria per ml of air collected  in the Lesnoi
 section was less than in the air  collected  in  the Karl  Marx section.   In
 either case the number  of viable  bacteria did  not exceed 100, and only during
 September did counts of 500  appear  in some  plates.   The bacterial air  popula-
 tion rose in the old section during the  month  of  June;  no such rise  in the
 air microorganisms was  noted in the Lesnoi  section.  More viable  microorganisms
 were present in the air at collection point No. 2,  as shown by the aspiration
 and open  plate methods.   Pigmented  bacteria appeared more numerous in  samples
                                    -126-

-------
collected by  the  aspiration method in which they ranged between 30 and 40$>
they  stayed within  the  range of 10$,  only occasionally rising to 20%, in the
open  plate cultures.  Pigmented bacteria were more numerous in the air of the
Karl  Marx section than  in the air of the Lesnoi section, as shown by the
aspiration and  open plate methods.
                                                 Table 1
               PI6MENTEI IACTERIA IN PERCENT OF TOTAL NUMIER OF MlCBOOBGANISHS
PERCENT
OF Pl«-
MENTEt IACTERU
NUMIER OF TESTS
ASPIRATION
OLI |
•LOCK |
METHOt
NEW
ILOCK
PLATE
1 OLI
ILOCK
NETHOI

INEW
ILOCK
NONE FOUNI
UP TO (0$

10-20$
20-30$
30-40$
40-50$
50-6$
60-70$
_

12
15
11
13
6
I
4
L m

4
29
11
13
4
—
1
1

25
22
8
4
—
1
1
1

36
16
5
2
2
—
— ' •
                   TOTALS
                              62
62
                                                 62
      Aerobic spore-formers were checked mostly by the open plate gravity
 sedimentation method.   Results of the aspiration method showed that the number
 of  aerobic spore  formers in most cases did not exceed 10$, only rarely ranging
 between 10 - 20$.   Aerobic spore-formers,  as shown by the open plate sedimen-
 tation method usually  ranged between 10 - 20$ and frequently between 30 - 40$.
 Results of either method showed that air of the Lesnoi section contained more
 aerobic spore-formers  than the air of the Karl Marx section.
     Anaerobic spore-formers were  found only rarely and in small  numbers.   They
developed  colonies most  frequently and in  relatively greater numbers on the
open plates.  Results  obtained by  both methods showed that anaerobic spore-
formers were more numerous  in  the  air of the Lesnoi than in the air of the
Karl Marx  Section.
     Molds were found  more  frequently and  in greater numbers in samples
collected by the aspiration method.   As a  rule,  no  spores were found in the
air of the Lesnoi section and  their  range  never exceeded 5$ of "the  total
microbial count.  High percentages of mold colonies usually occurred in some
                                   -127-

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                                                    Table 2
                    AEROBIC SPORE FORMERS IN PERCENT OF TOTAL NUHIER OF
                                MICROORGANISMS

PERCENT OF AEROIIC
SPORE FORMERS

NONE FOUNI
UP TO 10$
10-20$
20-30$
30-40$
40-50$
50-60$
60-70$
NUHIER OF TESTS
ASPIRATION
OLI
• LOCK

30
19
5
6
2
_
—
METHOI
NEW
HOCK
2
18
18
16
4
4
_
' —
PLATE METHOI
OLI
ILOCK

12
25
9
10
3
1
X
NEW
ILOCK
3
4
21
16
9
3
5
1
                         TOTALS
62
62
                                                     62
62
                                                    Table 3
                    AEROIIC SPORE FORMERS II PERCENT OF TOTAL NUMIER OF
                                MICROOR6AMISM8
                                             NUMIER OF TESTS
PERCENT OF AEROIIC
SPORE FORMERS

ASPIRATION METHOI
Oil
ILOCK
NEW
ILOCK
PLATE METHOI
OLI
ILOCK
NEW
ILOCK
NONE FOUNI
UP TO 1$
1 - 5$
5-10$
68
2
2
—
56
1
5
—
48
6
8
I
46
3
11
2
                        TOTALS
                                 62
        62
          62
62
samples of low  bacterial count.  High absolute  numbers of molds were found  in
only 2 air samples collected in the Lesnoi  section.   Some high mold counts
resulted from the fact that, 11 April and 5 June,  while air samples were being
collected, a group of workers were removing metal  junk from a nearby dump and
loading same onto an autotruck, thereby dispersing clouds of mold spores into
the air.  Results of the present study also indicated that pigmented bacteria
and mold spores were more numerous in the air of the Karl Marx section, while
aerobic and anaerobic spore-formers were more numerous in the Lesnoi section.
As a rule, spore-formers found their way into the  air from the soil, while
mole spores usually came from surfaces of plants or from surfaces of discarded
                                     -128-

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domestic objects.  This clearly indicated that the bacterial population of the
new section air came from the soil, while the microbial air pollution in the
old section was the result of household conditions.  These two facts are of
importance from the hygienic viewpoint since air pollution from the soil,
as a rule, presents no epidemiological problems.  Air pollution of household
or living conditions origin undoubtedly possesses an element of danger created
by the possible presence of pathogenic microorganisms.
                                               Table 4

                   HOLIS IN PERCENT OF TOTAL NUHIER OF MlCROOR8ANISH8

PERCENT OF MOLIS
NUNIER OF TESTS
ASPIRATION MET HOI
Oil I NEW
• LOCK I HOCK
PLATE P1ETBM
OLI
ILOCK
NEW
• LOCK
NONE FOUNI
UP TO \%
I -#
5- l(#
10 - 20#
20- 3(#
30 - 50#
S) - 8C#
OVER 80#
IS
12
16
4
4
3
1
3
1
23
6
19
8
3
1
e
i
—
33
14
10
3
1
1
—
—
—
41
8
9
2
1
1
—
—
— '
                      TOTALS
                             62
62
62
62
      Comparative Study of Filters Used in the Aspiration Method for
                      the Determination of Suspended Dust
              V. M. Kornilova, S. P. Nikolaev, and N. M. Tomson
     Dust as a polydispersed system consisted of particles of different
diameters.   Suspension of dust in the air depended upon particle sizes, upon
weather conditions, and particularly, upon the wind velocity and direction.
Particle sizes ot>.n not be determined by one method due to differences in the
character and origin of the dusts and of the environmental conditions which
                                   -129-

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affected their dispersion.  Large diameter particles remained in the air for a
short time and settled down by gravity at different distances from their
origin and depending upon the force and direction of the wind.  Dust of large
particles is usually collected by the sedimentation method, whereas fine dust
whiqh tends to remain suspended in the air for a long time is collected by
aspiration through retaining filters.  All filters presently used in dust
aspiration for the determination of suspended dust concentrations retained
particles of 1 n or more in diameter.  Dust particles of smaller diameters
passed through paper and cotton filters and through small cyclones.  Only
membrane filters can hold back dust particles of 0.3 - 0.5 n in diameter.
Most aspiration methods collect dust particles measuring up to 10 JA in diameter.
Particles measuring fractions of n in diameter rarely fall upon the filter;
this is especially true of particulates measuring hundredths of n in diameter.
Suspended dust collection by the aspiration method is essentially a selective
procedure limited to a narrow range of dispersed dust, usually between 1 - 10 n
in diameter, which is the fraction bordering between the suspended and settling
of dust fractions.  Suspended dust concentration is expressed in terms of mg
per ml of air.  Consideration must be given to the fact that dust particles
exceeding 5 H» which are retained by the aspiration filter but did not
permeate into the lungs, constituted 93$ of the total dust weight, whereas
 the smaller particles,  which counted in millions and penetrated into the
lungs constituted approximately 1% of the total dust weight.  From this
viewpoint the aspiration method was of limited significance, one-sided,
selective and must be supplemented by the count per volume method in sanitary-
hygienic dust studies.
     Filters used in the aspiration method can be divided into 2 groups:
l) inertia type filters, based on the principle of aerodynamics; 2) filters
based on the principle of forced precipitation, such as electroprecipitators,
thermoprecipitators, liquid absorption precipitators; and 3) porous dust
retaining filters of different materials.  Weight of porous material filters
can increase as a result of settled or retained dust, as a result of gas and
vapor adsorption, as a result of filter material oxidation, formation of
hydroxides, and adsorption of SO-j, Cl, oxides of nitrogen, HpO-, ozone, and
other gases always present in city air.  Porous materials can also lose
weight, depending upon conditions of the experiment, through changes taking

                                    -130-

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place in the filtering material in the process of clearing or drying to
constant weight; this may be the result of evaporation or volatilization of
some constituents of the filtering material depending upon the duration of
the desiccation, amount of lost moisture, and other causes.  Because of this,
and for many other reasons, porous materials such as cotton, are not suited
to the determination of air dust density especially in low concentrations.
     Inertia filters based on the aerodynamic principle, cylindrical (greased
or oiled) and spherical (dry) small cyclones retained dust through inertia
when the direction of the air current becomes suddenly diverted, or its
velocity suddenly reduced, as upon emerging from a narrow cylindrical outlet
into a spherical apparatus of a considerably larger diameter; this may also
occur as a result of air current adherence to the inner surface of a cyclone
and the consequent dropping out of the dust particles into the outermost
layer where the air velocity practically equalled zero.  Thus, the dust
retaining property of inertia filters depended upon the size and number of
dust particles, the rate of aspiration and the particular type of the small
cyclone used.
     Four different types of filtering devices were used under natural atmos-
pheric air conditions and in the aerodynamic dust containing air conduits:
     l) The dust collecting adapter and porous filtering material, were
described in "Limits of Allowable Concentration of Atmospheric Air Pollutants,
Book 1, 1952, (OTS No. 59-21173, p. 120).  The filter adapter should be of sim-
plest and most appropriate shape and size made of transparent synthetic material
and free from static electrical changes.
     2)  An adapter for use of hygroscopic cotton as the filtering material.
The dust chamber and the filtering material and adapter were described in
"Specifications for Procedures Used in the Sanitary Control of Clean Air in
Inhabited Localities", approved by the All-Union State Sanitary Inspectorate.
     3)  Oil or grease "cyclone (small cyclone), designed by the Institute of
Labor Protection and described in "Voprosy Gigieny Atmosfernogo Vozdukha",
published by Medgiz, 1951* P« 16.
     4) Spherical small dry cyclones proposed by Prof. N. M. Tomson.  The
sphere is 50 mm in diameter, the intake tube is fused to the sphere tangen-
tially and is funnel shaped.  With a 25 mm intake funnel the outermost opening
                                      -131-

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is 10 mm  in  diameter and the innermost 5 inm i*1 diameter,  A  7 nm  diameter
tube 25 mm long is fused to the innermost opening of the funnel extending
towards the  center of the sphere.
     The  air is aspirated through 2 or 3 absorbers simultaneously, using a
suction funnel operating at the same speed of 20 li/min. for each absorber.
All apparatuses and experimental conditions were checked in  5 preliminary tests
using 2 identical absorber types such as small oil or grease cyclones  through
which the air was aspirated at the same rate.  Similar tests were made using
absorbers of the inertia type and 2 types of hygroscopic filters.  Results
are presented in Tables 1 and 2.  Air pollution values obtained by the dup-
licate tests were satisfactorily close.  Values obtained by  the spherical

                                                   Table  1
                     Al« IH6T IENSITY VALUES OITAINE* IY USINt TWO INERTIA
                                  TYPE AISORIER8
HUHIER OF
TESTS
IUST IEHSITY IN M6/H3
OIL CYCLONE
AVERASE
MAXIM.
SPHERICAL CYCLONE
AVERACE
MAX 1 M.
                     IS          0,47 *       1,00      0,52      1.33
                                                   Table 2
                     AIR IUST IENSITY VALUES OITAINEI IY USING TWO FILTER
                               MATERIAL  AISORIERS
NUMMK OF
TESTS
IUST IENSITY IN MS/M3
COTTON FILTER
AVERACE
MAXIM.
SPECIAL
AVERASE
7
IUST RETAINER
MAXIM.
                                  0.61
1,08
0,77
1,25
type of small  cyclones exceeded the values obtained with the other 3  types  of
apparatus.  The  adapters and hygroscopic cotton filters yielded values below
the initial weights  and were not used in succeeding experiments.  A comparison
of the data in tables 1 and 2 shows that higher dust pollution values were
obtained in tests made using porous material filters.  This had to be checked
by simultaneous  tests made with the oil or grease cyclones, the spherically
shaped small cyclone and dust chamber apparatus.  Results of such tests  indic-
ated that higher dust pollution values were again obtained with the spherical
small cyclone  than with the oil or grease cyclones.  On the other hand,  the
                                      -132-

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dust  chamber method yielded highest air  pollution index, as is shown in
Table 3.

                                                   Table 3
             n
             AIR IUST IENSITIES OITAINEI IY USIN8 THREE TYPES OF AISORIER6
NUMIER OF
TESTS
AIR IUST CONCENTRATION IN M«/MJ
OIL OR CREASE CYCLONE SPNERI CA
AVERACE 1 MAXIM. I AVERACE
1 CYCLONE SPECm ROST RETAIN) NC
CARTRIICE
MAXIM. | AVERACE | MAXIM.
                     0,61
1,00
0.64
1.72    0.7B    IJSO
     The  second series of experiments was conducted inside an aerodynamic
conduit through which the dust polluted air flowed along a straight line at
a constant rate as distinct from natural conditions where the air flow velocity
was inconstant  and of a turbulent character.  The  dust  installation used in
connection with the aerodynamic conduit was described by V. M. Kornilova in a
book "Voprosy Gigieny Atmosfernogo Vozdukha", published by Medgiz, 1951.
Determination of air dust intensity under such laboratory (artificial) condi-
tions were made using the spherical and oil or grease cyclones and the dust
chamber.  Air was aspirated by a suction pump and  the volume determined by a
pneumoiaeter.  Linear velocities at the wider opening of the filter were the
same as in the  linear aerodynamic conduit.  Equal  dust  distribution in the
air flow inside the aerodynamic conduit was determined  by 2 simultaneously
operating small oil or grease cyclones which yielded identical results.  All
comparative tests were made in duplicates.  Results are shown in Table 4.
                                                       Table 4
                    COMPARATIVE IUST RETAININS CAPACITIES OF  AN AIR  RUST CHUCK*
                        OIL OR CREASE AN! SPHERICAL CYCLONE

FILTER TYPE

AIR-RUST-CHUCR
SPHERICAL CYCLONE
AIR-IUST-CNUCX
OIL-OR CREASE CYCLONE
SPHERICAL CYCLONE
OIL OR CREASE CYCLONE

NUMB EH
OF
TESTS
5
5
6
6
5
5
AIR IUST IENSITY IN MS/M3
AVERAGES

3*
3.7
5.1
5.1
10,6
11.0
MINIM.

1,2
1.1
1.7
1.7
4.2
6,2
MAXIM.

8,1
9.4
12.2
7.3
19,3
19.1
                                       -133-

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Comparative results  indicated that the values were sufficiently close, with
a slight tendency  on the  part of the dust chamber apparatus to give  somewhat
higher results.  Results  in Table 5 show that increase in the rate of air flow
in the intake filter tube to the point exceeding the air velocity in the  aero-
dynamic tube lowered the  air dust density values.  The greater was the differ-
ence between the 2 velocities the lower were the experimental values and  vice
versa, as the rate of the air current in the aerodynamic progressively exceeded
                                                   Table  5
                   EFFECT OF ASPIRATION RATE OR IUST CATCHIN8 CAPACITY
                            OF IIFFERENT FILTERS
FILTER
TYPE
OIL CYCLONE
SPHERICAL CYCLONE
OIL CYCLONE
OIL CYCLONE
OIL CYCLONE
AIR IUST
CHUCK RETAINER
HATE OF
CURRENT
FLOW
5 Mil
HK 5
5
5
8
8
RATE AT
INFLOW
TUIE
: SMIC
10.4
20.0
31.8
8.0
4.4
•UST CONCENTRATION
AVERA6E
133
103
6ft
43
26,2
28.4
MINIM.
8,4
103
33
4.4
223
193
HG/IT3
MAXIM.
173
10,0
83
53
31.4
433
 the air current velocity  in the  inflow filter tube, air dust intensity values
 also increased progressively.
      Effect of aspiration rate on the filters dust retaining property was de-
 termined with the aid  of  the small spherical cyclones.  The air leaving the
 small spherical cyclone was then passed through the small grease type cyclone
 to catch the dust which might have slipped through the spherical cyclone.  Data
 in Table 6 show that the  amount  of dust particles which slipped through the

                                                     Table 6
                           EFFECT OF ASPIRATION RATE ON iOST CATCHING
                               CAPACITY OF SPHERICAL CYCLONES
FILTER
SPHERICAL
SPHERICAL
SPHERICAL
TYPE
ASPIRATION RATE
IN LI/MIN.
Jb OF IUST PASSING THROUGH
AVERAGES
CYCLONE |0 11,1
CYCLONE 20 0.0
CYCLONE M 3'7
MAXIM.
30.0
0.0
83
                                        -134-

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small spherical cyclone was not proportional to the rate of air aspiration.
At air aspiration of 20 li/min. the amount of dust slipping through the small
spherical cyclone was reduced to a minimum; it then rose again.  This may have
been due to the fact that at aspiration rate of 10 li/min. the centrifugal
forces were not sufficient for the retention of the predominant mass of small
diameter particles, and at an aspiration rate exceeding 20 li/min. there
occurred a secondary dust slipping through the small cyclone.  Therefore, it
must be concluded that the optimal efficiency of small spherical cyclone
performance was at air aspiration rate of 15 - 20 li/min.
     As a result of the above investigation it can be concluded that inertia
type filters used in the determination of atmospheric air dustiness possessed
advantages over the porous material type of filters.  Small spherical cyclones
possessed the advantage over the small grease and oil cyclones by the fact
that they did not have to be greased or oiled, and were free from the possibility
of losing weight in the course of air aspiration.  Small oil or grease cyclones
gradually lost their efficiency as the adhering dust covered their surface;
this fact should also be taken into consideration in the selection of air dust
filters.  In the light of the experiments it appeared that the small spherical
cyclones could be recommended for the determination of air dust intensity with-
out reservation.  It is essential that conditions of samples collection be prop-
erly standardized since the final results depended upon the correlation between
the velocity of the tested air flow and the velocity of the air at the filter
intake tube.
                                     -135-

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       Sanitization of Atmospheric Air Polluted by an Aluminum Plant
                                Discharges
             N. M. Tomson, Z. V. Dubrovina and E. N. Bondareva.

     Aluminum plant discharges polluted the atmospheric air with compounds of
fluorine, tarry substances, sublimated salicic acid and hydrogen sulfide.
Electrolysis of aluminum oxide requires a considerable amount of electrical
energy, usually supplied by an electric power station,  which polluted the
atmospheric air with fly ash, S02, etc.  Investigation of air pollution and
the study of its effect on health was conducted as a special assignment during
the period of 24 May up to 6 June, 1957-  Each of the plant's electrolysis
baths emitted hourly approximately 10,000 m  of gases,  50$ of which were dis-
charged through tall stacks, and the other 50$ coming from partly covered
baths became widely dispersed through the lower air layers.  Construction of
120 m tall stacks improved the general conditions to some degree by carrying
the discharge gases 1.5 - 2.0 km from the plant before they descended to the
lower air levels in a rarified state.
     Tarry substances are emitted during the aluminum oxide ore electrolysis
as yellowish-brown vapors at the point of the carbon electrodes made of coal
tar and coke.  Each electrolysis bath was equipped with 3 tons of electrodes
which gradually burned out eliminating vapors of heavy aromatic polynuclear
hydrocarbons.  The production of one ton of aluminum required 2 tons of
aluminum oxide ore, 0.1 ton of fluorides and 0.7 tons of carbon electrodes.
The deleterious discharges can be reduced by replacing the carbon electrodes
by more suitable ones.  Smelting aluminum ore with oxides of alkaline-earth
metals and direct heat reduction to aluminum of natural, alumino-silicates
can be accomplished without the use of cryolite.   But these methods of alum-
inum ore smelting have not been adopted widely.  Heat and power electric stations
have recently been receiving coal of a 50$ ash content instead of the previously
shipped coal of 25$ ash content.  Therefore, the ash-catching electrostatic
filters, battery cyclones and scrubbers were inadequate for the increased air
pollution on the one hand, and became deteriorated by the excessive use, on
the other hand.  Therefore, the need arose to equip the plant with new ash-
catching equipment and installations designed to take care of the increased
                                       -136-

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volume of generated fly-ash.
     High degree pollution  of atmospheric air with  fly-ash  extended up to  4 km
and lower degrees of pollution to 15 km from the  aluminum plant.   Birch trees
growing in the proximity of the electric power station perished,  poplar trees
"barely survived, and the only trees that withstood  the pollution  to a  reasonable
degree were acacia, hawthorn, and lilac.  Tree leaves, grass  and  soil  surface
were covered with a thick layer of grayish fly-ash.  The inhabitants dared not
open their windows, and in  the presence of unfavorable wind inhabitants com-
plained of breathing difficulty.
     Studies were conducted as usual by collecting  air samples  and analyzing
them for dust content, SO^, fluorides and tars.   Air dust intensity was deter-
mined by the aspiration method using small type spherical glass cyclones.
Performance of the filtration cyclones was carefully checked  in a preliminary
way and only those which retained not less than $6% of the  dust were used  in
the final analyses.  Results are presented in Tables 1 and  2.   The provisionally
                                                Table 1
                       SUSPENIEI »OST IN M«/M
METERS FROM
PLANT
500
1000
2000
3000
4000
HUM1ER OF
ANALYSES
17
11
12
16
2
FLUCTUATION
LIMITS
6,3—255.0
7.2—122,0
8.0-150.0
1.5—165.0
5.0— 9,0
EXCESS OVER LIMIT OF
ALLOW*! IE CORCENTRATION
5lO TIMES
240 „
300 „
330 „
18 .,
                                                Table 2
                            SULFUR IIOXIIC
IN M«/n3
METERS FROM
PLANT
600
1000
2000
3000
4000
NUHIER OF
SAMPLES
19
9
19
18
1
FLUCTUATION
LIMITS
0,45-6^0
0.90—4.30
0,33-6,30
0,25-440
5.00
EXCESS OVER LIMIT OF
ALLOWAILE CONCENTRATION
II TIMES
8,6 „
12,6 „
6 »
10 .
                                        -137-

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adopted limit of allowable suspended dust concentration in the sanitary
clearance zone was 0.5 mg/m .  Dust settling at 500 m from the plant amounted
to 63 g/m2 in 30 days, at 1,000 m it amounted to 220 g, and at 2,000 m to
50 g/m2.  Sulfur dioxide was determined by a micro method, and the results
are presented in Table 2.  The temporary limit of allowable concentration for
sulfur dioxide in the atmospheric air of sanitary clearance zones, set at
0.5 mg/m , was exceeded by 12 times amounting to 6.0 mg/m .  Fluorides were
determined by the zirconium-alizarine method.  The temporary limit of allowable
HF concentration adopted for sanitary clearance zones is 0.03 mg/m .  The in-
crease in concentration of fluorides in the air at 3,000 m from the plant was
caused by the discharge coming from the 120 m stacks; it could be reducing
the pollutant concentration coming from the stacks.  Samples were collected
directly under the discharge plume.  Maximal, not average, concentrations
presented the true picture of air pollution caused by weather changes and in
particular by wind direction and turbulence.  Similar conditions were respon-
sible for low analytical values in some of the samples.
     S09 and fuoride  concentrations were determined simultaneously inside the
dwellings.  Results showed that S0? concentrations were almost identical with
those found in the atmospheric air, while fluoride concentrations were even
greater.  Gaseous pollutants easily and rapidly penetrated into the living
quarters, and accumulated due to the lack of ventilation, whereas in the
atmospheric air such  pollutants were occasionally dispersed by wind and other
atmospheric conditions.  For this reason it was concluded that determinations
of the pollutant effects should be made on a 24-hour basis.  Results of such
investigation are listed in Table 3*

                                                    Table  3
                         CONCENTRATION OF HF IN MC/H3
METER FROM
PLANT
500
1000
2000
3000
4000
NUHIER OF FLUCTUATION EXCESS OVER LIMIT OF
SAMPLES LIMITS ALLOWAILE CONCENTRATION
17
16
17
16
4
0,13—1.65
0,23—2.82
0.14—2,04
0,12—3.40
l£0-3#>
66 TIMES
64
68
113
127
bt
tff
t»
»
                                     -138-

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     Concentrations  of tarry substances were  also determined in samples
collected by the aspiration method,  using alcohol as the absorber fluid  and the
luminescent analytical procedure  for the quantitative determination.  Results
are presented in Table 4.  Morbidity studies  were made by  examining clinical
                                                         Table 4
                            TARRY SMISTANOE8 III
METERS FROM
PUNT
NUMIER OF
SAMPLES
CONCENTRATION OF
TARRY 60ISTANCE8
600 3 106—176
2000 3 100— 300
3000 4 16-33
histories of patients living in  the  village where the aluminum plant was
located and clinical  histories of  patients who  lived in the  village of  the
metal processing plant which was located 8 km from the aluminum plant,  and
comparing the results of corresponding statistical analyses.   Data are  presented
in Table 5.
                                                       Table  5
                           POPULATION MORIIIITY PER I000 PERSONS (•)

ALIMINBM PLANT
viLim
METAL PROCESSING
PLANT mim
                                 MORIIIITV AMD HI  AIULT8
                    • ENERAL MORIIIITV            H®
                    RESPIRATORY IISEASE          4*>
                    • (•ESTIVE ORGANS            6>9
                                             8.6
                                             6,6
                                             0,3
                                             63
                                  MORIIIITY AMONtt CHILIREH
                    6ENERAL MORIIIITY            106
                    PNEUMONIA                  2!
                    EVE, EAR, ANI NOSE           8>®
                    RICKETS (CHILIREN UP TO I  YR)
                    REQUIRING ORAL RYSIENE
            (•) ORIGINAL  TAILE SAYS PER  100,
ACUTE INFLAM. IISEASE
OF  UPPER RESP. TRACTS
INFLUENZA
EYE IISEASES
                         80.0
403
 3»
 12
 3,0
 0.1
 2.4

 112
 3.6
 4.0
 28^
 10/>
      Clinical  histories  indicated that  41$ of the patients coming  from the vil-
 lage where  the aluminum  plant was located had active  tuberculosis  or were
                                        -139-

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 tubercule bacilli  carriers,  as  compared with 13$ of similar cases among the
 patients coming from  the  village where the metal processing plant was located.
     It is  suggested  that degree of air pollution coming from the aluminum
 plant  could be  considerably  reduced by completely eliminating the so-called
 incidental  or unorganized pollutant discharges, by trapping all fluoride com-
 pounds and  by replacing the  carbon electrodes by a more suitable type.  Air
 pollution caused by the electric heat and power station could be reduced
 considerably by grinding  the coal to a coarser consistency, by increasing the
.height of the smokestacks and by utilizing the accumulated fly-ash thus pre-
 venting secondary  air pollution.  The present investigation pointed to the need
 of  a check  study after  two weeks.  The study also indicated that adequate but
 minimal air samples yielded  more reliable analytical results.  For instance,
 0.5 -  1.0 li air samples  collected and analyzed for the determination of
 substances  showed  the tarry  substance concentration as 100 mg/m .  On the other
 hand determinations made  on  the basis of 20 li of the air collected over a
 period of 40 minutes  showed  a tarry substance range of 20 - 10 mg/m  due to the
 incidence of wind  direction  and turbulence changes and indicated that collecting
 voluminous  air  samples  over  too long a time period tended to dilute the
 pollutant concentration.
           Effect of Viscose Production Discharges on the Health
                                of Inhabitants
             N.  M. Tomson,  Z. V. Dubrovina, and M. I. Grigor'eva.

      Industrial  discharges  coming from viscose plant polluted atmospheric air
with  carbon bisulfide, hydrogen sulfide and to some extent with sulfur dioxide
and sulfuric acid aerosol.   The present investigation was conducted between
18  to 27 December, 1957.  Collected air samples amounted to 357, of which 264
were  collected at different  points in the open air and 93 in living quarters.
The plant's production processes were hermetically deficient, so that 66 - 69$
                                    -140-

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of escaped gases spread over the floor and the ground, some permeating through
windows  and doors and through low exhaust stacks^erected over the building
occupied by different plant departments and sections.  An inspection of the
plant disclosed the  presence of 200 incidental and unorganized points of
pollutant  escape and leakage.  Only about 35$ of the created gases were dis-
charged  into the atmospheric air through 100 - 120 m tall stacks.  Carbon
bisulfide  gas emitted by the plant's waste water amounted to 0.8 ton per day;
the waste  water was  run into settling reservoirs covering an area of 110,000 m2
in a volume  amounting to 51,000 m3.  Calculations showed that 380 kg of carbon
bisulfide  was generated in  the production of 1 ton of viscose.  The plant had
experimental  installations  for partial trapping and recovery of carbon bisulfide,
the efficiency of which did not exceed 2%.   The hydrogen sulfide formed in
the production of carbon bisulfide  was burned in a Klaus furnace to elemental
sulfur? burning of tail gases resulted in the formation of sulfur dioxide.
     Of the  127  air  samples analyzed for carbon bisulfide,  31 were collected
indoors and 96  in outdoor atmospheric air.   Analytical results are presented
in Tables  1,  2,  3, and  4.   The  limit of allowable  carbon bisulfide concentration

                                                   Table 1
               CARiON IISULFHE  IN M6/M3 IN RELATION TO ilSTUHCE FROM PLANT
METERS FROM
PLANT
NUHIER
ANALYSES
AVERA6ES

MAXIM.

MINIM.

IN EXCESS

GOO 22 0,22 1.00 0,09 33 pas*
2000 44 0,19 1,35 0.06 42 „
4000 30 0,09 032 0,04 11 .,
                 NYIR06EN SULFIIE IN MS,
i/H3
                                                  Table  2
IN RELATION TO I(STANCE FROM PLANT
M. FROM
PLANT
NUHIER OP
ANALYSES
AVERAGES

MAXIM.

MINIM.

IN EXCESS OF
MAXIM.
£00 22 0,19 033 0,03 28
2000 46 0,09 0,16 0,03 6
4000 26 0,07 0425 OX» 9
CONCEN.
pas
„
M
                                      -141-

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SULFUR BIOXUE in
                                                  Table  3
                                    m RELATION TO IISTANCE FROM PLAIIT
M. FROM
PLAIIT.

NUMIER OF
ANALYSES


AVERA8E8


MAXIM.


niNIH.

IN EXCESS
OF MAX.
CONCEN.
500 16 1,80 3,00 0,30 6 pas
2000 34 0.98 3.20 0.20 6 „
4000 25 Off) 2,30 0.00 5 „
                                                 Table 4
               CONCENTRATIONS OF CASES IN ATMOSPHERIC AIR ANI IN RESIIENCES

NUMIER
AIIUY-
8ES
1 N ATM. A 1 R
A VS. FHAXIMjMIN.
NUniER
OF
ANALY-
SES
IN RESIIENCES
AVS.
MAXIM.
MINIM.
               cs2
               V
               so.
       96   0,17  US  0,04   31    0.13    0.40    0,04
       93   0.12  0.93  0,03   32    0.08    0.32    0.03
       75   1.10  3.20  0,20   90    l.Oo    3.20    0,20
 in the open air and in sanitary  clearance zones has been set at 0.03 mg/m^;
 data in Table 1 show that actual concentrations were 11 - 42 times as  high as
 the allowable limit.  Data presented  in Table 2 show that hydrogen sulfide con-
 centration in the air was 6-28 times  as high as the 0.03 mg/nf5 limit of
 allowable concentration.  Similarly,  data in Table 3 show that the concentra-
 tion of S02 in the atmospheric air was  5-6 times as great as the 0.5 mg/m^
 limit of allowable SOg concentration.   Data  summarized in Table 4 show that
 12  of the 31 indoor air samples  had a higher concentration of carbon bisulfide
 than did "the atmospheric air samples; 12  of  32 indoor samples contained a
 higher hydrogen sulfide concentration than did the outdoor air samples; like-
 wise  15 of the 30 indoor samples had a  higher  S02 concentration than did the
 outdoor samples.   Summarizing the results  it can be stated that 42.4$  of the
 indoor air samples had higher concentrations of the different pollutants than
 did the outdoor samples,  although the values in some instances were not very
pronounced.
      Effect  of the plant's discharge gases on  the  population's health was
evaluated  by results  of morbidity studies  as recorded in  clinical  histories
for the  entire year of 1956  and 9 months of 1957.   Workers  of other large
industrial plants  had  polyclinics and health centers of their own  and were not
                                      -142-

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included in this morbidity  study.   The  population of 3 regions served by the
polyclinic, and whose histories were  studied,  amounted to 97»500 persons;
77»000 were adults and 20,500 were  children.   Records indicated a total number
of 114,497 patients, of whom 70,917 were  adults and 43,580 were children.
Statistical accuracy of the morbidity studies  was ± 3$.  Actual morbidity data
are listed in Tables 5 and  6 and indicate that morbidity in the smoke polluted
area was 505? greater than in the comparatively clean air region.
                                                     Table 5
                              MORIIIITY PER I000 OF POPULATION
                                (FIRST CLINICAL VISITS)


TOTAL MORIIIITY
RESP. OR9AN8
NERV. SYSTEM
CAR! 10-V ASCII LAR
RYPERTONICm
II6ESTIVE ORQAN8
lERMATOLOeiCAL
INFECTIOUS IISEASE
CONTROL
SECTION
689
83
43
31
21
41
24
286

SMOKY
No. I
860
102
70
64
35
70
40
337

SECTIONS
No. 2
862
117
96
70
38
70
40
_

IN EXCESS
No. I
1.2
1.2
1.6
2jO
1,7
1.7
1,7
1,2


No. 2
13
13
12.
23
13
1,7
1.7
—

                                                      Table 6
                              MOB*IIITY PER 1000 CHILMEN
CONTROL SECTION


IIP TO
1 YR.
TOTAL NORIIIITY 1573 333
INFECTIOUS 895 105
RESPIR. ORGANS 473 109
EYE tlSEASl
EXUIAT.IIATHE6I8
5 1
7 4
SMOKY


2555
968
782
20
31
SECTION
OP TO
1 YR.
632
146
246
8
23
IN


14
1X>
1.6
4.0
4.5
EXCESS
UP TO
I YR.
1.9
1.4
2.1
8.0
6.0
                                Conclusions.
     The sanitary clearance  zone  surrounding the investigated viscose plant
was 2 km wide and, as indicated by this  study,  was entirely inadequate.
Pollutant gas concentrations in the atmospheric air were 5-42 times higher
than the allowable concentration  limit for air in the sanitary clearance zone.
                                      -143-

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     The population suffered from the effects of the deleterious gases day
and night since the gases easily permeated into the living quarters.
     Analysis of clinical morbidity data in the smoke-polluted region showed
a 50$ rise as compared with the control region, assumed to be the result of
the deleterious effects of the sulfur-containing gases discharged by the plant.
For the proper sanitization of living conditions in the regions surrounding
the viscose plant it was suggested that presently used production methods
based on the use of sulfur-containing compounds be replaced by more recent
methods in which non-sulfur-containing compounds are used.  It is also sug-
gested that the present system of scattered discharge of harmful gases be
regionally coordinated and efficient emission gas purification be rationally
centralized.
                                      -144-

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        PART   THREE
  Selections from "Uchenye ZapisM",  No. 6
 Gigienicheskie Voprosy Planirovki, Zastroiki
  i Sanitarnoi Okhrany Atmosfernogo Vozdukha
             Naselennykh Mest.
  Ministerstvo Zdrave-okhraneniya RSFSR.
Moskovskii Nauchno-Issledovatel'skii Institut
  Sanitarnoi Gigieny imeni F. F. Erismana
                Moscow - 1960
                      -145-

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     Caiicerogenic Substances in the Atmospheric Air with a View to
                             Cancer Prevention
                              B. P, Gurinov.
     Rational approach to the problem of cancer prophylaxis includes a study
of caneerogenic substances present in the surrounding environment, sources
of their formation, conditions of their emission into the atmosphere and an
experimental investigation of their effect on the animal organism.  Results
of such investigations should lead to the development of prophylactic means
for the elimination of cahcerogenic factors in the external environment or for
the prevention of contact with them.  The following cancer preventing measures
should be seriously considered!  changes in the production technology, pro-
hibiting the use of cancerogenic substances in industrial processes, replac-
ing known cancerogenic substances used in the food, perfume and agricultural
industries by non-cancerogenic substances,  improvement in methods of fuel
coabustion, etc.   Accordingly p-naphthylamine should be eliminated from the
aniline dye industry, as recommended by I.  L. Litkin, fuel combustion methods
should be perfected to eliminate products of incomplete combustion as sug-
gested by B. P. Gurinov, the use of butter,  bakery, and other food products
coloring with dyes of known or suspected cancerogenic properties should be
prohibited.
     Considerable information has been accumulated lately on the cancerogenic
effects of some coal tar chemicals as a result of numerous observations that
persons continuously in contact with coal tar products or related substances
frequently developed occupational skin cancers.  Coal tar is a mixture of
many aromatic bases, methynic and napthinic  hydrocarbons, phenols, sulfur
compounds,  etc.  In 1933 Cook isolated from  coal  tar a cancerogenic polynuclear
aromatic hydrocarbon known as 3,4-benzpyrene.  That same year the substance
was produced synthetically.  The chemical theory  of cancer formation was
substantially supported by the frequent development of lung cancer among
miners who inhaled ore dust containing cobalt and radium emanation.  The
chemical theory of cancer formation has also been substantiated by results
of animal experiments.
     Many cancerogenic chemical substances  exist  at present which belong to
different types of chemical compounds, such  as hydrocarbons, amino compounds,
                                   -146-

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 amines,  etc.   Ambient  air  always has  a  percentage  of  cancerogenic  hydro-
 carbons  as  products  of distillation and of  incomplete fuel  combustion.
 The polynuclear  aromatic hydrocarbon  3,4-benzpyrene which occurred most
 frequently  in  human  environment  possessed strong cancerogenic  properties.
 In tiiis  connection the following are  among  the most potent  sources of air
 pollution with cancerogenic  substances:  smoke discharged coal operated
 boilers, automobile  exhaust  gases, tarry street pavements,  discharges of many
 industrial  production  and  manufacturing plants, especially  those which
 engaged  in  processing  raw  materials at  temperatures exceeding  500°.  Some
 such plants were  located in  isolated  sections, while  others discharge can-
 cerogenic substances of various  types into  the ambient air.
     The effect  on human health  of cancerogenic substances,  notably  of
 3,4-benzpyrene, was  first  studied in  the USSR in L. M. Sabad's Oncological
 Laboratory  of  the P. P. Erisman  Institute beginning with 1949*  Samples
 of atmospheric dust  were collected by the open jar sedimentation and aspira-
 tion methods.  Experience  indicated that not less  than 3 g  of  dust must be
 collected by the  aspiration  method for  adequate cancerogenic study.  This
 could not be conveniently  done by the previously employed aspiration appara-
 tus.; a new  device had  to be  designed  based  on a higher rate of air aspira-
 tion through the  dust  retaining  porous  material filter.  Samples were
 usually  collected over 30  -  73 hour periods.  The  collected dust can be
 freed and 3,4-benzpyrene determined by  the  fluorescent-spectral method
 described by P. P. Dikun (see O.T.S.  No. 60-21188, p. 122 and  O.T.S. No.
 62-11103, p. 153, U.S.  Dept. of  Commerce).  Investigations  were conducted
 in Moscow where coal and mazut were used as boiler fuel, in Ivanovo  city
 where turf  was used  as fuel, and in Grozno  city, where crude oil was used
 as fuel.  Studies were also  conducted in Chelyabinsk, Dzerzhinsk,  Orenburg,
 Ryazan, Kostroma, Tyumen,  Shakhty, Novoshakhtinsk, and Magnitogorsk  using
 isolated samples  of  atmospheric  dust  which  contained  3,4-benzpyrene.  Analyses
 of 105 atmospheric dust samples  for 3,4-benzpyrene are shown in Table 1.
Data in the table show that 3,4-benzpyrene was found  in 77.1$ of the samples
 in thousands of a percent.
     During 1954 - 1958 the atmospheric air of USSR cities was investigated
 for the content of 3,4-benzpyrene by L.  M.  Shabad,  P.  P.  Dikun, M.  Z.
Dmitriev, V. S. Serebrennikov,  Ya. M.  Grushko and collaborators, I. I.  Nikberg,

                                    -147-

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  TOTAL
   105
                                                     Table 1
                      3,4 lENZPYRENt III ATMOSPHERIC AIR
HO. OF SAMPLES
POSITIVE
SAMPLES
ACTUAL
no. ?$
.0.0
ACTUAL
HO. #
3,4 IENZPYRENE
O.OOt-0.002
ACTUAL
i HO. <$,
IN JSf>
0.003-0.005
ACTUAL
NO. $6

O.Ol
ACTHAL
NO. <$>
8l
77.1
24
22.9  51
48.6
19
18
                                                            II
(0.5
and others, who used the open  jar  sedimentation method for the collection
of dust samples, some also used the  snow method of sample collection.
I. I. Nikberg used the aspiration  method for dust  collection in the vicinity
of a coke-pitch plant.  He collected his samples directly on the grounds of
the coke-pitch plant, therefore, his results were  not  included in the
general study of city air.
     Results of studies made by the  open jar sedimentation method had  a
relative value in relation to  air  pollution with cancerogenic 3,4-benzpyrenej
they did not lend themselves to quantitative analysis  of  basic importance
to a rational study of the problem under consideration.   Nor could results of
3,4-benzpyrene air dust studies obtained by the sedimentation method be
correlated with results obtained by  foreign investigators,  since the latter
used the aspiration method exclusively.  Members of the F.  F. Erisman
Institute were the only ones who studied city air  pollution with 3,4-benzpy-
rene.  Results of their studies are  presented in Table 2.  Weller (1932),
                                                       Table 2
             Percent of 3,4-benzpyrene in the air  of USSR cities
CITY OF MONTH ANI YEAR OF
SAMPLE TAKINt
Moscow JUNE, 1952






SEPT., OCT., 1957
• *
JANUARY, 195B
• •
• *
* •
N «
IVANOVO JANUARY, 1952
GNOZNYI DECEMIER, i95i
CONCENTRATION OF
TARRY SUI8TANCE8
I"**
5.0
3.6
4.0
6.2
5.5
3.5
4.3
5.5
2.0
7.2
3,4-1 ENZPYRENE
IN -f/lOO H3
0.08
0.03
0.09
0.57
0.07
0.02
0.05
0.02
0.04
0.11
                                       -146-

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Cooper (1954), Stok«a and Campbell  (1955) in England, Cotin and his
collaborators (1954) in the USA, Campbell and Clemnesen  (1956) in
Copenhagen conducted similar studies of atmospheric air.  Their results
are summarized in Table 3.  A comparative study of the data presented in
Tables 2 and 3 shows that the 3,4-benzpyrene content in  the air of USSR

                                                      Table 3
                     3,4-»EIIIPYREBE CONCENTRATION III 8«i»RI8
COUNTRY AMI CITY
EMUII
LOMIOI & OTHER CITIES
SAITFOM
U. S. A.
VIMOI, Los AMELES
3,4-1 ENZPYRE HE INy /lOO N
OF AIR
1.3 - 4.6
19.7 - 29.0
3.0 - 3.3
AUTHORS
WELLE*
COOPER
Com ET

Al
 cities  is  considerably below that  of the USA and England (100 times less).
 The  difference is even more  pronounced when compared with the data presented
 by Cooper.   Such facts regarding 3,4-benzpyrene concentrations in the air
 of Soviet  Union and foreign  cities can be explained first by the different
 methods of air sample  aspiration and even more  so by the difference in the
 auto traffic intensity in the streets of the USSR and foreign cities,  since
 it is known that auto  exhaust gases contained 3,4-benzpyrene.
      In the city of Los Angeles  alone more than 2 million automobiles may
 travel  during the day.   This author had studied the effect of such fuels
 as coal, turf,  wood, and crude oil on the presence of 3,4-benzpyrene in
 boiler  smoke gases.  Analysis of 45 smoke soot  samples collected from
 smokestacks belonging  to community enterprises,  electric power stations,
 and  residential buildings disclosed the presence of cancerogenic hydro-
 carbons of  the  3,4-benzpyrene type in smoke gases of all types of fuel.
 It has  been established now  that the presence of such hydrocarbons in
 smoke gases was the  result of incomplete combustion and that  the more  ef-
 ficient was the combustion the less was the quantity of generated 3,4-benz-
 pyrene.  Similar studies were conducted with air samples collected in the  '
 vicinity of plants burning finely  ground coal automatically hand-stoked
 and  in  the  vicinity of  plants burning lump coal.   Samples were collected
 by the  aspiration method previously mentioned (Table 4).   Data in Table 4
 show  that the  layer-bed method of  hand-stoked fuel burning created suspended

                                     -149-

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                                                   Table 4
           3,4-IENZPYRENE CONTENT IN FLHE 
-------
was turned in 24 hours,  as  for  instance in the Moscow Electric Heat and
Power  Station No. 16, and in  other  similar plants, no 3,4-benzpyrene was
found, due to the fact that combustion was near complete, as a result of
appropriate combustion installations and suitable and well qualified per-
sonnel.  In contrast to  this, smaller boiler operated plants with a con-
sumption of 1 - 2,000 m  of gas per day and not equipped with efficient
combustion facilities, emitted  smoke and gases containing polycyclic hydro-
carbons of the type of 1,12-benzoperilene and 3,4-benzpyrene.  Prom the
viewpoint of rational cancer  prophylaxis this suggests that the operation
of small fuel combustion units be discontinued or replaced by large units
in which the fuel combustion  and service personnel would be of high efficiency.
     Automobile exhaust gases, are  the result of incomplete liquid fuel
combustion, and as such contained cancerogenic hydrocarbons (3,4-benzpyrene)
freely emitted into the atmospheric air.  Results of the present study
indicated that soot samples collected from automobile exhaust pipes off
auto engines burning gasoline or Diesel engines burning oil contained
3,4-benzpyrene and tarry substances.  The content of tarry substances in
soot collected from carburetor operated auto engines amounted to 19.5 -
30.0$, and from Diesel engines to 4 - 10$.  Soot samples collected from
exhaust pipes of carburetor operated automobiles contained 0.012 - 0.033
with an average of 0.02$ of 3,4-benzpyrene or 200 Y per g of soot.  The
3,4-benzpyrene content of Diesel operated exhaust soot ranged between
0 - 0.0013, with an average of 0.0001$, or 1 y per g of soot.  Thus,  the
Diesel operated engine emitted into the atmospheric air less 3,4-benzpyrene
than did the carburetor operated automobile.
     Tarry and resinous substances present in the exhaust gases of carbur-
etor-operated and Diesel engines were applied to the skin of white mice,
strain CC»57«   At the moment of this writing complete results have not been
collected; however,  4 to 6 months after the experiments began the strong
blastomagenic activity of the tar and soot obtained from the carburetor
type of automobiles began to manifest itself strongly.  On the other hand,
application of exhaust substances from Diesel operated engines for 16 months
produced no cancerogenic symptoms,  pointing to the possibility that if any
blastomagenic  substances had been present in the Diesel engine soot and
tarry substances,  they were slow acting,  indeed.  Thus,  results of biological

                                     -151-

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and physical investigations clearly pointed to the fact that the soot
coming from carburetor operated automobile exhausts possessed definite
blastomdgenic properties, while, no clear evidence was obtained of the
existence of such properties in the exhaust material of the Diesel engines.
This is of uppermost importance from the sanitary-hygienic and cancer
prophylactic viewpoints.  It is essential, therefore, that some radical
measures be introduced to eliminate atmospheric air pollution with cancer-
ogenic substances coming from carburetor operated automobile exhausts.
Engineers designing internal combustion in automobile engines, especially
these operating on the carburetor principle, must concentrate their effort
on the development of new types of engines or on the development of supple-
mental auto-engine devices which would insure efficient automobile fuel
combustion for the elimination of air polluting cancerogenic hydrocarbons.
     Dust from streets paved with materials containing coal tar or other
tars undoubtedly plays an important part in air pollution with cancerogenic
substances.  The use of coal and other tars as street paving material, es-
pecially in populated sections, has been prohibited in the USSR and has
been replaced by crude oil bitumens.  Since no information has been avail-
able regarding the presence of cancerogenic substances in crude oil bitumens,
the scientific personnel of the F.  P.  Erisman Institute conducted an
appropriate investigation of this subject, using bitumens of the Groznensk
and Lyuberetsk plants.   Results indicated that these materials contained no
3,4-benzpyrene, and chronic experiments with animals failed to elicit
cancer growths.  It can be concluded,  therefore,  that the street paving
                                                                   \
materials now used in the USSR did not contribute to the pollution of air
with cancerogenic substances.
                                     -152-

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   Experimental Basis for the Determination of Maximal Allowable
     Single Carbon Bisulfide  Concentration in  Atmospheric Air
                            R. S. Gil'denskjol'd
     The Committee for the Determination of Allowable Atmospheric Air
Pollutant Concentrations affiliated with the Main State Inspectorate
proposed in 1952 that 0.5 mg/m  of carbon bisulfide be adopted as the limit
of its allowable maximal single concentration and 0.15 mg/m  as its average
24 hour concentration.  Experience indicated that these norms were in fact
too high.  Therefore, the present writer was requested to  check on the above
adopted limits of allowable carbon bisulfide concentrations in atmospheric
air.  Plants which produced carbon bisulfide constituted the main sources
of air pollution with this vapor and next came  the viscose industry plants.
High productive capacity viscose plants discharged into the atmospheric air
10s of tons of CS0 daily.  Ventilation air discharged into the atmosphere by
                 *                          3
the viscose plants amounted to millions of m per hour,  and the carbon
bisulfide vapor content of such air ranged between 20 - 240 mg/m ,  making
the task of the ventilation air purification an extremely  difficult one.
     The present investigation was limited to the study of atmospheric air
pollution with carbon bisulfide discharged by the combine  known as "Klin-
volokno".  Air samples were collected within radii of 150,  500, 1,000,
1,500, 2,000, 2,500 and 3,000 m from the combine.  Procedures followed in
sample collecting and analyzing were those recommended by  the Committee
on Allowable Air Concentrations, as described by A. L. Khritinina in  1940.
The sensitivity of that method was 0.0005 mg/2  ml.  Final  determinations
were made with a photoelectrocolorimeter M-l and with the  aid of a special
calibration curve.  342 samples were collected  on the lee  side of the plant.
Results are presented in Table 1.  Data in that table show that average air
pollution with carbon bisulfide at 1,000 m from the plant  was 0.4 mg/m  and
at 500 m it "as 0.64 - 1.2 mg/m .  Eleven of 28 air samples collected at
300 m from the combine contained a carbon bisulfide concentration below
the allowable limit.  Positive carbon bisulfide tests were obtained with
air samples collected at 3,000 m from the plant,  and at  2,000 m the odor
of carbon bisulfide was easily recognized.  The studies made by M.  A.
Kazakevich in 1954, by E. A. Drogichina in 1953,  by A. A.  Model in 1956,
                                    -153-

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                                                  Table  1
      MAXIMAL ADI MAXIMAL AVERAGE CARiON IISULFIIE ComMTRATIONS IN ATMOSPHERIC
                 AIR SHRROUNIIN* THE "KLINVOLOKNO* COMIINE

METERS
FROM
COMIINE
" T° K
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
»e. OF
AIR
SAMPLES

80
73
56
MAX. CONCRS.
•"3
M8/M

1.20
0,64
0.40
34 I 0.18
48 i 0.18
23 • 0.08
28 : 0.03
AVS. OF MAX*
CONCN8JN
M«/M3

0.21
0,19
0,09
CARION IISULFIBE OIOR
REPORTER
iv AIR SAMPLE COLLECTOR

STRONQ AN* CONSTANT
STRON« AN* CONSTANT
STRONt WITH WINI ONLY
0.07 FAINT AN! CONSTANT
0,06 FAINT WITH WINI ONLY
•{•2* NOT PERCEIVE*
NOT PERCEIVE*



and "by others indicated early stages  of  carbon  bisulfide poisoning manifested
shifts in higher nervous activity.  Results  of  the  above investigators have
a strong and direct bearing on the determination of limits of allowable
carbon bisulfide concentration in the atmospheric air.
     Results of the present investigation are based on  determinations of
carbon bisulfide threshold odor perception threshold inhalation reflex
effect as determined by optical chronaximetry,  and  threshold of carbon
bisulfide effects on sensitivity to light following dark adaptation.  The
methods and procedures used by such were described  by K. A. Bushtueva in
1954 in connection with S02 (O.T.S. No.  62-11103, p. 137, U. S. Department
of Commerce).  Only few reports have  been found in  the  literature on the
subject related to the determination  of  threshold odor  perceptive con=
centrations of carbon bisulfide.  P.  D.  Shikhvarger showed in 1950 that
1.0 mg/m  of carbon bisulfide was the threshold odor perception concentra-
tion.  K. G. Beryusheva showed in 1935 that  0.5 mg/m ,  or higher, of
carbonbisulfide was still perceived by odor.  Studies on carbon bisulfide
threshold odor perception  concentrations were  conducted by the present
writer using 15 test persons  1? - 29  years old, and 0.6, 0.4, 0.2, 0.1,
0.006, 0.05, .and 0.04 mg/m  carbon bisulfide concentrations in a total
of 256 tests.  Results  of the  investigation showed that the threshold of
carbon bisulfide odor perception  concentration ranged between 0.05 and
0.2 mg/m  .  For the most  sensitive persons (26.6$) the lowest odor per-
ceived concentration was  0.05  rag/m   and the highest odor non-perceived
                                      -154-

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concentration was 0.04 mg/m  .
     The cortical elements of the different neuro-analyzers are in a con-
stant state of reaction intercommunication; i.e., effects felt by one of
the neuro-analyzers (in this instance the olfactory analyzer) are transmitted
in a reflex manner to other neuro-analyzers, thereby affecting the functional
state of the cerebral cortex, which in turn manifests itself as a change
in the functional state of other neuro-analyzers.  Such changes in the
cortical activity resulting from short duration effect of low carbon bi-
sulfide concentrations through the reflex zones of the upper respiratory
tract (inhalations) were studied by the chronaxy method using the phenomenon
of phosphene appearance as the index of effect, and employing the method, or
procedure, recommended by the Committee on Allowable Atmospheric Air
Pollutant Concentrations.  This procedure was applied repeatedly to workers,
the results proved the adequate sensitivity and reliability of the method
even in the diagnosis of early intoxication.  In 1951* N. I. Galat examined
workers in a synthetic fiber plant by the method of optical chronaxy; he
found increased chronaxy and rheobase values even in the early intoxication
stages.
     Optical chronaxy tests were conducted in this investigation using 3
test subjects.  Threshold odor perception concentrations in the 3 test
subjects were 0.1, 0.06, and 0.05 mg/m .  Gas was administered on the 6th
minute of the experiment; 7 index values taken 3 minutes apart were recorded.
The following carbon bisulfide concentrations were used: 0.5 mg/m  which
was adopted originally as the limit of allowable maximal single concentration,
and 0.01, 0.05, and 0.04 mg/m , making a total of 609 determinations.
Statistical analysis of the data showed that the lowest carbon bisulfide
concentration which elicited reliable increase in chronaxy values (in
response to 0.05 n?) was 0.04 mg/m , or below the threshold of odor sensi-
tivity of most sensitive persons.  In one case chronaxy prolongation
occurred in response to 0.05 mg/m  of carbon bisulfide.   Statistically
significant rheobase changes were observed in all 3 test persons beginning
with 0.1 mg/m  of carbon bisulfide.  Shifts in optical chronaxy indicated
that short duration inhalation of low carbon bisulfide concentrations by
man was accompanied by brief shifts in the function of the cerebral cortex.
     Data found in the literature relative to the nature of changes in

                                     -155-

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dark adapted eyes to light sensitivity  offered no specific information.
Therefore,  original studies were undertaken using adaptometer ADM.  Young
healthy  persons,  free from pathologic visual  arid olfactory defects, were
chosen as  the test persons.  The adaptation curve was recorded beginning
with the 15th minute of adaptation during the inhalation of clean air.
Averages of the curves obtained were used as  normal standards in judging
shifts occurring during carbon bisulfide vapor inhalation.  A total of
1,160 tests were performed with 0.5, 0.1, 0.05,  0.04, and 0.03 mg/m  of
carbon bisulfide.  All 4 persons reacted to the  0.04 mg/m  concentration
even though the threshold concentration of odor  perception in these persons
was  correspondingly 0.01, 0.01, and 0.05 mg/m •   However,  the characters
of the shift curves of dark adaptation were different.   For instance, in
test  subject Ch.  all concentrations caused a  drop in eye sensitivity to
light, and,  as the concentration of the vapor increased, the sensitivity
to light also increased; in the case of test  person S.  high carbon bisulfide
concentration (0.5 mg/m ) depressed the eye sensitivity, while lower con-
centrations increased the eye sensitivity to  light; in  the case of test
person K.  eye sensitivity to light acted in a persistently depressing
manner at  high concentrations, whereas at 0.05 - 0.04 mg/m  the depressed
state of sensitivity to light was considerably lighter  arid lasted only
10 -  15  minutes,  following which the depressed effect again rose lasting
40 minutes  $nd extending far beyond the limits of the original curve.
Results  of  this experiment indicated that the effect produced by carbon
bisulfide  on the  olfactory analyzer receptors in concentrations below the
maximal  single limit elicited brief functional shifts in the central ner-
vous  system.   Results are summarized in Table 2.
                                                     Table 2
          Experimental determination of,carbon bisulfide odor threshold
                                 concentration
       •«•
            HETHO* i8t» IK ItTERMININ* TNMSMlt REFLEX ACTIOR
CARRON RI6NLFIIE 01 OR
TMRfRMOll CONCENTRATION
    III M«/M3	
      I      0*OR PERCEPTION THRESHOlt SNRJECTIVELY REPORTER
             •Y TE6T PERSON
      2      OIOR PERCEPTION TRRESNOLI IETERPIINEI IY THE METRO!
             OF OPTICAL CNRONAXY
      3      OIOR PERCEPTION THRE8NOLI RETERHINCI RY EVE
             SENSITIVITY
     0.05
     0.04
     0.04
                                      -156-

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     As a result of this investigation it was recommended that 0.03 mg/m
of carton bisulfide be adopted as the allowable limit of the single con-
centration in atmospheric air equivalent to the subthreshold reflex action
concentration.  Taking the results of this study into consideration, the
Main State Sanitary Inspectorate of the USSR officially adopted 0.03 mg/m
as the allowable maximal single carbon bisulfide concentration and 0.01
mg/m  as the average 24-hour concentration.
     Short time inhalation of low carbon bisulfide concentrations elicited
functional shifts in the cerebral cortex.  This indicated that the presently
adopted limits of carbon bisulfide concentrations in air of working premises
were badly in need of a revision.  The present investigation indicated that
atmospheric air surrounding the combine "Klinvolokno" was polluted with
carbonbisulfide even as far as 3,000 m from the plant; at 500 m from the
plant such pollution was 21.3 times as high as the allowable 0.03 mg/m
concentration.  Therefore, it was recommended that all inhabitants residing
within a radius of 500 m from the combine be moved to more distant points.
It was also suggested that official sanitary authorities request that pro-
duction management of the plant install, without delay, effective purification
and ventilation means for the elimination of proper reduction in the air
pollution with carbon bisulfide vapor.
                               Conclusions.
     1.  Carbon bisulfide vapor was detected in the atmospheric air at
3,000 m from the plant "Klinvolokno".
     2.  Carbon bisulfide odor was detected at 2,000 in from the plant;
sensory tests indicated that 0.05 mg/ni  of carbon bisulfide was the threshold
concentration sensed by most odor-sensitive persons.
     3.  Optical chronaxy tests indicated that 0.04 mg/m  of CSp was the
threshold concentration of carbon bisulfide reflex activity affect.
     4.  Statisitcal analysis indicated that 0.04 mg/m  of carbon bisul:
was the minimal active concentration which elicited shifts in darkness
adapted eye sensitivity to light, and that 0.03 mg/m  was the maximal si
threshold concentration.
     5.  Results, thus, indicated that the existing 0.5 mg/m  maximal
single and 0.15 nig/m  average 24-hour CSp concentrations were too high.

                                     -157-

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     6.  The presently recommended and adopted 0.03 mg/m   limit  of
allowable carbon bisulfide concentration in  atmospheric air  of inhabited
localities is below the threshold of odor perception  and reflex  activity
affect.
 Experimental Basis for the Determination of Allowable Concentrations
 of Chlorine and HC1 gas  Simultaneously Present in Atmospheric Air
                              V. M. Styazhkin
     The present study was initiated to obtain an experimental  basis for
the determination of permissible concentration limits  for simultaneously
present chlorine and HC1 gas in ambient air.   Studies  were conducted during
May and June of 1957 in the vicinity of the Solikansk  Magnesium Plant.
Many complaints were received during the investigation from inhabitants  of
a village located 500 m, and of a city located 2,500 - 3,000 m  from the
plant of unpleasant odors, killing of landscaping trees, shrubs,  etc.
caused by the plant's discharges.   B. B. BykhovsfcLi studied the atmospheric
air surrounding the magnesium plant;  he found that within a radius of 3  km
air pollution with chlorine caused considerable  destruction of  plant life
during the first 4 years of the plant's  operation.  Chlorine and HC1 gas,
by-products of the metallic magnesium production,  constituted valuable raw
materials used by other departments of the plant.  In  the case  of the
Solikansk Magnesium Plant chlorine was used by some of its departments,
and frequently such departments discharged large volumes of unused chlorine
into the atmospheric air,  as a res.ult of inefficient chlorine utilization.
Unpurified HC1 gas was emitted through a 120 m high stack into  the atmos-
pheric air at the rate of 15 tons per day.   Chlorine and HClgas  also
found their way into the atmospheric air as a result of poor hermetization
and from other unorganized points of pollution,  such as the electrolytic
department.
                                     -158-

-------
     Air pollution studies were conducted on the lee side of the plant
at 300, 500, 800, 1,000, 2,000, and 3,000 m from the plant.  Air samples
for the determination of chlorine and hydrochloride gas were collected
at the same time "by the aspiration method through an absorber equipped with
a porous plate No. 1.  One absorber was filled with double distilled water,
the other was filled with an acidified solution of methyl orange.  Air was
aspirated for 30 minutes at the rate of 1 li/min.  Air samples collected
by aspiration through double distilled water were used for the determination
of HC1 aerosol by the titration method.  Sulfuric acid, which interfered
with the analysis, was determined nepheloiaetrically and subtracted from the
titration result.  Chlorine was determined in the sample colorimetrically
as described in Limits of Allowable Concentration, Book 2, O.T.S. No.
59-21174, p. 84, U. S. Department of Commerce).  Results of the study of
atmospheric air pollution around the Solikansk Magnesium Plant are presented
in Table 1.  Odor of chlorine and HC1 gas was felt at all the air sample
collecting points.  Sample collectors stated that on foggy and cloudy days
                                                  Table 1
    Results of air analyses in the vicinity of the Solikansk Magnesium Plant
rlETERS
PROM
SOURCE
OF 116-
9HAR8E

300
500
800
1000
2000
3000
CONCENTRATIONS IN «/HJ
HOMIER OF COL- „.„,„., MAXIMAL" """
LECTEI AIR SAMPLES "»*inAi AVERAGE


HCI
39
44
43
39
32
34

Cl,
53
60
53
58
44
47


HCI
4,4
10,0
34.0
34,0
17,3
17,3

Cl.
3,0
3.4
0,85
0.88
5.4
0.8

HCI
1.77
3.7
4,7
6,1
5.0
5,4

Cl.
0.29
0,12
0,83
0,13
M
0,18
NO. OF SAMPLES
EXCEEIIN6 MAX-
IMAL CONCEN-
TRATIONS

HCI
36
43
36
39
27
33

Cl.
32
13
38
28
26
26
their eyes were irritated by small droplets of condensed HCI aerosol.
Data in Table 1 show that chlorine and HCI gas concentrations were con-
siderably in excess of the allowable limit of maximal single concentration
at all collection points.
     The high atmospheric air pollution at 3,000 m from the plant pointed
to the necessity of adopting timely means for the effective purification
of the plant's discharges.
     The investigation was conducted in two steps:  in the first step a
                                     -159-

-------
study was made of the combined effect on the human organism of simultan-
eously present chlorine and HC1 gas; the second step consisted of a
similar study of low chlorine and HC1 gas concentrations under laboratory
conditions.  The effect of simultaneously present low Cl and KG1 gas
concentrations on the physiological reactions of man was studied by the
method of threshold effect of Cl and HC1 gas individually and in combina-
tions, by the methods of odor perception, optical chronaxy, and effects
on eye sensitivityto light as determined by the adaptometric method.  Con-
stant concentrations of either component in the experimental test air were
produced and maintained by a modification of the method recommended by the
Committee on Sanitary Protection of Atmospheric Air.  Fig. 1 is a schematic
drawing of the device used.  With this device it was possible to deliver
at will intermittently and consecutively into each individual cylinders Cl,
         from air
         blower—*  Pig.  1.  Schematic drawing  of  apparatus for the
                     determination  of threshold odor  concentration.
 HC1 gas, or any combination of the  two,  mixed with fresh  air.  After some
 considerable experience the investigator was able  to  attain constancy of
 any desired concentration of either component alone or in any  desired
 combination.  Air samples were collected by aspiration through 2  parallel
 absorbers,  one of which contained an acidified  solution of methyl orange
 and the  other an 0.002  N solution of arsenous acid.   Air  samples  collected
 in  the first absorber were used for the  determination of  Cl and of the
 second for  the determination of both.
      Irritating substances were determined as follows:  the test person was
 made to  inhale intermittently air from both cylinders and was  asked  to
                                     -160-

-------
 indicate whether or not any odor was perceived.   The test  person naturally
 had no knowledge which uf the cylinders contained clean air and  which con-
 tained an admixture of gas.   Odor perception tests of Cl and HC1 gas
 individually were made on 12 persons 17 -  28 years old,  with a total  of
 144 tests.   During the orientation period  all test persons became familiar
 with the specific odor of Cl and HC1 gas,  individually and in combination.
 The possibility  of forming conditioned judgement  was guarded against  by
 control tests with fresh air.   Results indicated  that 0.7  mg/m   of chlorine
 was the threshold of chlorine odor perception, and 0.2 mg/m  HC1 gas  odor
 perception.   Such data agreed with the results obtained by M. T.  Takhirov,
 who established  the limits of allowable chlorine  concentration,  and of
 E.  V.  Elfimova,  who established the limit  of allowable HC1 gas concentra-
 tion.   The determination of threshold odor perception of the 2 components
 simultaneously present in the air was made with the aid of 22 test persons
 with whom 404 determinations were made using a variety of  concentration
 combinations of  the two components,  as shown in Table 2.    Results of the
                                                    Table 2
         Concentrations of chlorine and hydrochloride detected by odor
COHCENTBATIONS IN M6/N
CI2/ HCl
O.I
0|2
0.3
0,4
0.4
0.5
0,2
0.2
0.05
0,1
0,1
O.I
0,07
0.07
0,13
0,15
NO. OF TESTS

66
41
63
66
16
14
55
83
OIOR
PERCEIVES 1

—
3
65
—
13
12
82
OT PEHCEITEt
66
41
60
1
16
1
43
1
investigation yielded the following combination of concentrations: 1. 0.3
mg/m  of Cl and 0.1 mg/m  of HCl, and 2. 0.2 mg/m  of Cl and 0.13 mg/m^
of HCl as threshold odor perception concentrations of the simultaneously
present two pollutants in the air.
     The method of optical chronaxy was used to determine the threshold
reflex effect concentrations of chlorine and HCl gas simultaneously present
in the air.  The same inhalation device was used in this series of experi-
ments as was previously described.  Four test persons,  18 - 24 years old,
                                     -161-

-------
were under observation.  Tests were made in a darkened room and under
conditions of absolute quiet.  Orientation tests were conducted during the
preliminary period of observation, and the appearance of the phosphene
was used as the index of effect.  Tests were made in triplicate at 3 minute
intervals, determining the rheobase and the chronaxy.  Following that Cl
in combination with KCL gas in known concentrations was introduced between
the 6th and 9th minute of the experiment.  Chronaximetric determinations
were made immediately following the discontinuation of the gas mixture
flow.  Control tests were made with fresh air as checks against the possible
formation of reflex responses created by the experimental conditions.  The
two components were tested in 6 concentration combinations.  The first
consisted of 0.75 mg/m  of Cl and 0.03 mg/m  of HC1 gas.  Both concentra-
tions were correspondingly 50$ below the chronaxy threshold values estab-
lished for the components individually by M. T. Takhirov and E. P. Elfimova.
Inhalation of the 2 components in the above mentioned concentration combina-
tion produced sharp shifts in the chronaxy and in the rheobase.  A combina-
tion of the two gases in concentration of 0.1 mg/m  of Cl and 0.05 mg/m
of HC1 gas (which are the corresponding limits of allowable single con-
centrations for the two gases) had no effect on either chronaxy or the
rheobase.  Statistical analysis of the experimental data showed that com-
binations of 0.3 mg/m  of Cl and 0.2 mg/m  of HC1 gas and 0.2 mg/m  of
Cl with 0.3 mg/m  HC1 gas were reliable or significantly active combina-
tions of threshold concentrations.
     The method of'adapted eye sensitivity to light has been used in deter-
mining practical allowable concentrations of atmospheric air pollutants.
This procedure has also been used for the determination of maximal single
concentrations of Cl and HC1 gas by Takhirov and Elfimova.  Therefore,
the same procedure was used in determining the threshold effect of Cl and
HC1 gas simultaneously present in the air.  Determination of eye sensitiv-
ity to light following an hour adaptation to darkness was made in a chamber
of average room temperature and 60 - 10% relative humidity and complete
freedom from extraneous odors and absolute quiet; adaptometer ADM was used
in these studies.  Three test persons were used in determining the effect
of low Cl and HCL gas concentrations simultaneously present in the air.
                                    -162-

-------
 Ages  of  the  persons  were 20,  22,  and  23 years.  The  procedure  recommended
 by  the Committee  of  Atmospheric Air Protection was used  in  these  studies.
 Tests .mere made with 3 types  of concentration combinations  of  the  two gas
 components.  Persons were given a preliminary 10-day period of light
 sensitivity-orientation at 15  minutes  inhalation of fresh air.   The average
 curve of 3 such tests was used as the  standard, or pilot curve.  A combina-
 tion  of 0.1  mg/m   of Cl  and 0.05  rng/m  of HC1 gas produced  a curve of dark
 adaptation identical with the original, or control curve.   When the con-
 centrations  of Cl  and HC1 gas were doubled, light sensitivity  was  reduced
 in  the 3 test persons.   The third combination, consisting of 0.4 mg/m
 of  Cl and 0.2 mg/m  of HC1 gas was tested next.  The 0.4 mg/m   Cl  concen-
 tration was  50£ below the threshold concentration established  by Takhirov
 adaptonetrically,  while  the 0.2 mg/m   HC1 gas concentration was in accord
 with  the threshold concentration  established by Elfimova.   Inhalation of
 simultaneously present chlorine and HC1 gas in the above concentrations were
 below the original curve of eye sensitivity as well as .below the second
 concentration ratio.
                              Conclusions.
      1.  The threshold of Cl  odor perception was 0.7 mg/m  and of HC1
 gas 0.2 rag/m .
      2.  Threshold odor  perception of  Cl and HC1 gas simultaneously present
 in the air were established in the following two combinations!  a) 0.3 mg/m
 of Cl and 0.1 mg/m  of HC1 gas; b) 0.2 mg/m  of Cl and 0.13  mg/m  of HC1 gas.
      3.  Results of  tests by  the  method of optical chronaxy  established
 threshold of reflex  effect of Cl  and HC1 gas simultaneously  present in the
 air at the following two combinations: a) 0.3 mg/m  of Cl and 0.2 mg/m
 of HC1 gas; and b) 0.2 mg/m   of Cl and 0.3 mg/m  of HC1  gas.
     4.  0.1 mg/m  was the limit  of maximal single concentration of Cl
 and 0.05 mg/m  the limit of maximal single concentration  of HC1 gas.   The
 simultaneous presence of Cl and HC1 gas in the air in corresponding concen-
 trations had no effect on the control  curve of dark adaptation.
     5.  The officially adopted limit  of allowable maximal Cl concentration
was 0.1 mg/m  and  of HC1 gas 0.05 mg/m .  Results of the present investigation
 indicated that the two components simultaneously present in the air in the
                                     -163-

-------
above concentrations correspondingly were below the threshold of odor
perception and reflex effect; accordingly the official limits of allowable
concentrations for each of the components when present in the air above
remained valid when the two gases were present in the atmospheric air
simultaneously.
 Hygienic Aspects of Atmospheric Air Pollution in the City of Gubakhi
                 and its Effect on the Population's Health
                     B. K. Baikov and V. P.  Melekhina
     Lower Gubakhi atmospheric air pollutants,  gases and dust, come from
the Kizelov Hydroelectric Heat and Power Station and from a coke-chemical
plant.  The extent of Lower Gubakhi atmospheric air pollution and its
effect on the health and living conditions of the population were inves-
tigated in May and June, 1959•  Maximal single  concentration air samples
were collected for the determination of dust, SOp,  CO,  HpS, and phenol.
Samples were also collected for the determination of average 24-hour CO
concentrations in the air, and special studies  were  made of the pollutant
effects on the health of children in specific institutions.  Air samples
for the determination of maximal single concentration were  collected on
the lee side of the plants 500,  750, 1,000,  1,500 and 2,000 m from the
plants.  The total number of samples amounted to 609.  Attention was
first centered on the determination of S0? concentrations in the atmos-
pheric air.  Determinations were made by a nepheloiaetric method of 0.002 mg
sensitivity in 3 ml.  Data presented in Table 1 show that maximal single
concentrations of S02 exceeded the allowable limit.   Average concentrations
showed a gradual reduction with increase in distance from the plants; in
this case average concentration values also exceeded the allowable maximum
even at 500 m from the plant.  Of the 105 air samples collected for the  study
of SO- concentrations 81 exceeded the limit of allowable concentration in

                                     -164-

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atmospheric  air.   Only at 1,500 - 2,000 m from the plants were the  SO,,

concentrations below the allowable maximum.

     Biochemical  blood analyses were paralleled by a 3-day period of  air

sample collecting for the determination of S0?.  Of the total 56 air

samples 9 were collected directly below the  plume at 2,000 m from the

source of S0_  discharge.  SOp in the air  samples collected within the

flume range  varied between 2.0 - 22.22 mg/m  ,  with an average of 7.92

mg/m .  Air  samples for the determination of CO were collected at similar

points.  Results  of analyses shown in Table  2  indicate that in 2 samples

collected at distant points the CO concentration was below the allowable

limit, and that single CO concentrations  were  highest at 1,000 m.  Average

24-hour air  samples as a rule contained highest concentrations of CO.

                                                    Table 1

   Sulfur dioxide concentration in the atmospheric air of city N. Gubakha
METERS FROM
SOURCE OF
•I6CNARGE
NO. OP
AIR
SAMPLES
CONCENTRATIONS IN M«/M3
MAX.
MIN.
AV6.
NO. OF SAM-
PLES EXCEEIIN8
MAX. CONCNS.
NO. OF SAMPLES
IELOW MAXIMUM
CONCENTRATION
      500       3l       8.74        i.O»S      5.52      3i
   750 - I 000    37       9.8i       0.6      2.89      37
  I 500 - 2 000    37       5.43       0.0      0.79      i3
                                         NONE
                                         NONE
                                           3
                                                    Table 2

   Carbon monoxide concentrations in the atmospheric air of city K. Gubakha
METERS FROM
SOURCE OP
IISCHARCE
NO. OF
AIR
SAMPLES
CONCENTRATIONS IN Mt/M3
MAX.
MIN.
AV6.
NO. OF SAM-
PLES EXCEEIING
MAX. CONCNS.
NO. OF SAMPLES
IELOW MAXIMUM
CONCENTRATION
       500       28       50.2       8.4       2i.4
    750 - I 000   42       73.6       8.4       39.1
   I 500 - 2 000   25       36.4       5.6       19.8
                            28
                            42
                            24

                            Table 3
                                 NONE
                                 NONE
                                 NONE
              Dust concentration in the atmospheric air  of  city N,
                                   Gubakha
METERS FROM
SOURCE 116-
CNARSE
NO. OF
AIR
SAMPLES
, CONCENTRATIONS IN MG/M3
MAX. 1 MIN.
AVG.
NO. OF SAM-
PLES EXCEEIINA
MAX. CONCNS.
NO. OF SAMPLES
BELOW MAXIMUM
CONCENTRATION
       500      34
    750 - I 000   26
  I 500  - 2 000   22
3.6
4.8
2.3
0.2
0.2
0.15
1.74
1.60
(.05
30
25
19
NONE
NONE
NONE
                                      -165-

-------
     Results of maximal single dust concentration determinations are
summarized in Table 3.  The data show that a$ 5^0 m from the pollution
sources dust concentrations exceeded the allowable hygienic limit.  Re-
sults of H-S .determinations in the atmospheric air presented in Table 4 show
that H2S exceeded the allowable concentration limit.  Highest HpS concen-
trations were found May 23 when the HpS was emitted without previous com-
bustion.  The survey of phenol concentration in the atmospheric air con-
sisted of 91 samples.  Results showed phenol fluctuations ranging between
0.0 - 0.25 mg/m .  Some air samples had phenol concentration below the

                                                    Table 4
METERS FROM
SOURCE 116-
CUAR«E
NO. OF
AIR
SAMPLES
CONCENTRATIONS IN
MAX.
900 32 0. 13l
750 - I 000 39 0.39
1 500 - 2 000 37 0.032
M1N.
0.033
0.0
0.0
M6/H3
AV6.
NO. OF SAM-
PLES EXCE«IN«
MAX. CONCNS.
NO. OF SAMPLES
IELOW MAXIMUM
CONCENTRATION
0.052 32 NONE
0.074 30 9
0.002 3 34
allowable concentration limit, the effect of pbenol~catching devices
installed in 1956.
     Air samples collected in the children's institutions were analyzed
for S00 and CO.  Results showed that 309 concentrations ranged up to
         3                       3
2.?3 mg/m  and CO up to 50.0 mg/m .  Inhabitants residing 2,000 m from
the plant were asked questions regarding the effects of the air pollution.
All interrogated persons complained of increased (lustiness, specific odors,
general air pollution, difficulty in breathing, coughing spells and head-
aches, when the wind -was coraing from the industrial plant.  Complaints were
also mentioned of the deleterious effects on vegetables and decorative
plants.  Examinations were made of the general state of health and physical
development of school children residing in the sections under study ranging
in age between 8-11 years who resided in Lower Gubakha not less than 5
years.  Grernyachinsk school children of same ages were used as controls,
since no extensive industrial production plants were located in that
vicinity.  The air of Gremyachinsk was analyzed for the presence of SO
and dust.  Results indicated that the air contained no SO- and the dust
                                     -166-

-------
concentration was below 0.5 rng/m  regarded as negligible„  Of 932 school
children receiving general medical examinations, 822 were examined
thoroughly; of these 562 resided in Gubakha and 260 in Gremyachinsk.
Results of the thorough medical examination disclosed a higher rate of
morbidity among the children residing in Lower Gubakha.  This was partic-
uarly true of the occurrence of upper respiratory disturbances and of the
number of rickets cases and of affected eye mucosa.  Data regarding the
occurrence of specific types of upper respiratory disturbances are shown
in Table 5.




CHRONIC II6EASES OF CAR,
NOSE AMI THROAT
1 OF WHICH
CHRONIC OTITIS
CHRONIC RHINITIS
CHRONIC PHARIMfilTie
CHRONIC TONSILITIS
HYFERTROPHIS TONSILITIS
% OF 552
EXAMINEI
PERSONS II
N.GUIAKNA
49.6


4.45
16.20
15.60
6.05
7.3
% Or 250 EX-
AM! DEI PERSONS
ID GREMACHINSK

20.38


1.92
7,31
3.46
1.92
5.77
     The frequent occurrence of upper respiratory disturbances among school
children of Lower Gubakha was due almost exclusively to the effect of SOp
and dust present in the air of that city.  Conjunctivities was observed
in 11.57$ of children in Lower Gubakha, abnormal refraction was 15.4855
as compared with corresponding 1.92 and 6.92$ among the control children;
this phenomenon was also ascribed to the deleterious effect of dust and
SOp present in the atmospheric air.  Residual symptoms of rickets were
found in 20.1$ of Lower Gubakha children as compared with 6.15^ among the
control children.  Neurologic examination of the school children of lower
Gubakha and Gremyachinsk disclosed functional disturbances of the central
nervous system in the form of neuroses, vegetodystonia, and cyanic syndrome.
Roentgenologic examination of Lower Gubakha school children disclosed
pulmonary shifts in 31 - 33£ as compared with 29$ among the children of the
Gremyachinsk.  The average hemoglobin concentration was lower in the
children of Lower Gubakha, the same was true of the color index.  Special
                                   -167-

-------
blood examinations for S0_ content convincingly showed that SOp found
its way into the organism where it persisted in the blood as sulfite for
a short time, it soon became oxidized and converted to sulfate.  Tests
for the presence of S0_ in 22 Gremyachinsk school children were negative
and 114 of ^ower Gubakha school children showed the presence of SOg ranging
from traces to 0.001 - 0.079 mg$ with an average of 0.06 - 0.058 mg£.
                               Conclusions.
     The deleterious effect of the plants' industrial discharges on the
health and living conditions of the inhabitants must be obviated.  Accord-
ingly, it is recommended that:  l) the Kizelov Hydroelectric Station be
converted to the use of gas fuel; in the interm efficient SO^-catching
devices should be installed; 2) the presently inefficient dust-catching
devices (64 - 73£) should be replaced by installations of not less than
95$ efficiency; 3) air pollution with hydrogen sulfide coming from the
coke-chemical plant should be obviated by compulsory burning of the raw
gases; 4) inhabitants of Lower Gubakha should be moved to New Gubakha at
the earliest possible time; 5) "that local health bodies must conduct
systematic dynamic examinations of the children as a prophylactic measure;
6) children should be moved during the summer months to localities free
from deleterious dust and gases; 7) financial allowances made to the
sanitary and health resort institution for sick and weakened children of
Gubakha must be substantially increased.
                                     -168-

-------
 Atmospheric Air Pollutants Discharged by the ShebeMnsMi Synthetic
              Acids and Alcohols Producing Combine.
                             P. I.  Dubrovskaya
     The Combine is located in the  center of the  city and is not  surrounded
by the normally required clearance  zone.   Air samples were collected on
the lee side of the Combine at distances  ranging  between 250 -  3,000 m from
the Combine.  During March and April samples were collected at  250 - 1,000
m from the Combine, and in some instances at 1,250 m. During June and
July air samples were collected at  250 -  3,000 and in some instances up  to
5,000 m from the Combine.   The air  was analyzed for total fatty acids
(computed as Co"^} aci^s)> f°r non-saturated hydrocarbons,  ketones (cal-
culated as acetone), formaldehyde and total hydrocarbons calculated as C.
Samples for the determination of carbohydrates (C) were  collected into gas
pipettes samples for other pollutant determinations were collected by the
Kachor aspiration method usingporous plates and appropriate types of absor-
ber solutions.  Records were kept of the  character of emission  gas plumes,
direction and rate of wind, temperature,  humidity, and barometric pressure.
The emitted gas plume at some periods of  the investigation was  high and  at
others low, which explained the marked differences in the pollutant sub-
stance concentrations yielded by the analysis  of  samples collected at one
and the same locality.  Synthetic fatty acids  discharge  gases were emitted
through several stacks in accordance with N-3035,  with the basic  oxidation
column emission coming through 3 stacks 35 m high.  Gases discharged by
the oxidation columns of the fatty  acid plant  during the summer months were
combusted.  In the course of investigation 1,252  air samples were collected,
580 during the winter and spring seasons  and 672  during  the summer months.
     Results of the investigation shown in Table  1 indicate that  the atmos-
pheric air had been polluted continually  by the Combine  discharges,  es-
pecially by total hydrocarbons, fatty acids and unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Total hydrocarbon determinations were made in  all cases.   Maximal single
concentrations of 52.8-mg/m  were found in samples collected 250  m from
the Combine.  Total fatty acid determinations  were positive in  54$ of
samples collected 250 m from the Combine  with  maximal single concentrations
of 56.16 mg/m .   Fifty-one percent  of the air  samples contained unsaturated
                                   -169-

-------
                                                    Table 1
          Spring concentrations of atmospheric  air pollutants  in the vicinity
                      of Shebekin combine SZhK  and ZhS
METERS FROr
THE COMI (HE
NO. OF SAMPLES
TOTAL
IELOW MAX,
CONCENTRA-
TION
CONCEHTBATtOn IN MG/H3
MAXIMAL
SINOLE
AVERAGE
MOST FREQIGNT CONCENTRATIONS
FROM
TO
         260
         500
         750
        1000
        1500
         250
         500
         750
        1000
        1500
         250
         500
         750
        1000
        1500
         250
         500
         750
        1000
        1500
          250
          500
          750
         1000
         I.50Q
18
36
14
18
 4
24
23
19
22
 4
24
30
19
23
 4
24
30
19
23
 4
 24
 30
 19
 23
 4
                           TOTAL UYIROCARIOII8
_ _ —
__
	
	
—
52,8
49,2
36,0
33.6
56,4
32,0
25.7
18.5
20.8
37,5
ONSATORATEI NYIROCARION8
14
16
8
9
1
5,0
6.6
13,4
2,8
2.2
0,9
1,1
2.6
1.1
1,0
FATTY ACII8
10
16
6
11
3
56.2
32,0
7,2
23,0
2,3
11.2
1,0
3.1
1.1
0.6
ACETONE
12
18
14
14
2
0,7
6,2
2.1
.2.2
0.1
0.2
0,4
0,3
0.2
0.1
FORMALIEHYie
18
30
17
21
4
0.02
0.00
0.02
0.02
0.00.
0.004
0.00
0.002
0.001
0.00
0.8
0,1
0,4
0.4
0,8
1,8
1,4
1.8
«,4
0,00
0.11.
0.14
0,26
0,0002
0,005

0,01
0,005
 2,9
 4,4
 4.9
 2.8
 2.2
38,9
13.0
 7.2
14.4
 2.3
 0.5
 1.0
 2,0
 0.2
0,02

0.02
0.02
hydrocarbons with maximal  single concentrations  of 13.4 mg/m  .  Acetone

and formaldehyde were found in considerably  lower concentrations.   Formal-

dehyde  concentrations were below the 0.035 nig/m   allowable single  concen-

tration for atmospheric air of inhabited areas.   Maximal single and

average 24-hour concentrations of total hydrocarbons and fatty acids be-

came gradually lower with  the  increase in the distance from the Combine.

     Atmospheric air samples were collected  during the summer months at a

radius  of  3,000 m from the plant, and in isolated instances at a radius of

5000 m.  All air samples were  analyzed for the same components as  previously
                                      -170-

-------
indicated.  Analysis results of some samples  listed in table 2 show that
total hydrocarbon determinations were positive  in 70$ of the 125 air
samples.  Three  air samples collected on the  same day at 250 m from the
Combine had the  following total hydrocarbon concentrations: 63, 78, and
90 mg/m .  The high values may have resulted  from the fact that the high

                                                 Table 2
                     NO.  OF SAMPLES
                                          CONCENTRATIONS III
           METERS FROM
           THE COHIINE
                     TOTAL
IELOW MAX.-
CONCENTRA-
 TION
                  MOST FREQUENT CONCEN-
MAXIMAl     AVERAGE    TRATIONS
SI HOLE               FROM       TO
                               TOTAL HYIROCARIONS
250
500
750—1000
1500—1700
2000
2500—3000
5000
15
18
28
18
14
25
3
7
5
13
5
3
3
1
90.0
48,0
36,0
30,0
50,0
30.0
39.0
19.5
9,0
6,0
10,7
15,8
11.5
20,5
4.8
2.4
0.9
3.0
1.3
3,0
0.0
20.0
15,6
14,0
22,0
22,5
21,0
0.0
250
500
750—1000
1500—1700
2000
2500—3000
5000
14
26
33
17
19
26
4
6
13
9
6
9
14
4
8,6
3.4
6.8
4.0
6.0
3.6
o.o
,2
,0
.9
.6
.1
0,9
0.0
0,3
0,3
0,3
0,6
0,1
0.6
0.0
3.6
3.4
5,0
4,0
3Q
,8
3,6
0.0
                                      FATTY ACIIS
250
500
750—1000
1500-1700
2000
2500—3000
5000
14
26
31
18
18
26
4
4
14
15
6
14
9
4
25.4
27,2*
16,8
78.0*
16.6
36,9*
0,0
7,7
4,4
3.1
11.9
1.8
6.7
0.0
3.4
2,5
2.1
1,1
4,4
0.6
0.0
13,9
14.3
11,2
13.2
5,0
29.2
0.0
              •WASTE 0ASES WERE NOT IBRNEt

temperature  at  which the gases were burned cracked the contact oven walls
which resulted  in leakage of uriburned discharge gases.  Fatty acids were
found in 52$ and  unsaturated hydrocarbons  in 56$ of the air samples.
Discontinuation of gas burning was followed by a rise in pollutant concen-
tration levels.   Acetone and formaldehyde  were found only in isolated
instances  in concentrations below the sensitivity of the analytical method
used.
     The comparison of the results obtained during the spring and summer
seasons showed  that maximal single concentrations of unsaturated hydro-
carbons and  fatty acids were higher during the spring than during the summer
                                      -171-

-------
season.  A difference was also observed in comparing data of atmospheric
air pollution with acetone and formaldehyde: approximately 50$ of all
spring air samples and only some isolated summer  samples were positive for
acetone.
     At the time the auuffiier studies were in progress the Combine began to
operate a synthetic alcohol plant.   It was expected that this would increase
the atmospheric air pollution.  Actually, no increase in the atmospheric
air pollutants was noted during the summer months despite the increase in
the number of emission sources, undoubtedly due to the fact that emission
gases were*burnt during the summer months.  It is reasonable to assume,
therefore, that atmospheric air pollution could be considerably reduced by
preventing unburned gas leakage from the cracks of the gas combustion
furnaces.  Air samples were collected simultaneously on the windward and
lee side of the Combine.  Pour air samples were collected for determination
of each pollutant.  Samples collected on the windward side of the combine
contained fatty acids and total hydrocarbons, indicating that the Combine
emissions intensely polluted the atmospheric air with these substances.
The investigation was supplemented by a question and answer survey conducted
among inhabitants residing 250, 500, 1,000,  2,000, and 3,000 in from the
Shebekinskii Combine.  Adults were asked a total of 494 questions.  The
answers indicated that the Combine's emissions polluted the atmospheric
air by substances of unpleasant odors which Induced a general ill-feeling,
labored respiration; residents kept the windows closed which prevented
house ventilation.  The answers are summarized in Table 3.

                                                  Table 3
        Summary of answers by inhabitants to health and general conditions
                                questionnaire
METERS
FROH
COM! 1MB
250
500
1000
2000
3000
NO* OF PERSONS .
INTERROGATE!

78
142
95
79
100
COMPLAINTS
AIOUT OIORS
AN* IUST
77
131
95
79
94
AIOUT STROKB
OIORS
77
122
80
36
61
AIOUT RESPIRATORY
TRACT IRRITATION
34
35
14
54
66
     Sixty-one percent of the answers indicated that a strong unpleasant
odor persisted in the air even at 3,000 m from the Combine; 66% of the
                                    -172-

-------
answers mentioned irritation of respiratory passages and difficulty in
breathing.  City inhabitants felt the odor inside their residences with
the windows closed when the wind was coming from the plant.  No studies
were made of the effects of the Combine's air pollutants in low concen-
trations under chronic conditions.  Therefore, it was not possible to
ascertain the long-run effect of the plant's emissions on the residents
of the city.
     The resolution of the III All-Union Conference on Sanitary Protection
of Atmospheric Air requires that thorough experimental and clinical studies
be made of the effect of low doses and concentrations of toxic products
contained in the emissions coming from plants producing synthetic fatty
acids and alcohols; the resolution also requires that limits of allowable
concentrations of such substances in the atmospheric air be established and
appropriate prophylactic sanitary-hygienic measures be instituted.  This
calls for a further and more detailed study of the effect on the external
environment of the Combine's emissions, for the determination of limits of
allowable concentrations of valeric acids in the ambient air and for a
thorough medical examination of the surrounding population.  Results of
the present study suggests that the sanitary-hygienic condition of
Shebekino atmospheric air could be considerably improved by complete and
thorough burning of all emission gases coming from the synthetic fatty
acids and alcohol producing plants.  Conditions of gas combustion should
be improved to prevent sources of uncornbusted gas leakage during gas
burning.
                                      -173-

-------
              Atmospheric Air Pollution in Lithuanian Cities
                                P. N. Zhilin.
     The sanitary-hygienic condition of the atmospheric air of many
Lithuanian cities was investigated by the Vilna Scientific-Research
Institute of Epidemiology and Hygiene in cooperation with other similar
institutions over a period of many years.  The results indicated that 2
electric heat and power stations (GEES and TETs) and some industrial
manufacturing enterprises constituted the main sources of Lithuanian SSR
air pollution.  Data presented in Table 1 show that distribution and de-
gree of Vilna atmospheric air pollution.
                                                Table 1
              Atmospheric air dust intensity in g/m  per year during
                         the  period of 1948 - 1952.

YEAR OF


1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
5 YR. AVERAGE
CITY CEB
TER RESx-
IIENTIAL

87.5
149.1
168.5
124,0
136,3
120.0
ZOOLOG-
ICAL PK
RESIDE*
TIAL
87,5
68,3
54,0
60,5
56,3
66,0
SOIOCHUS
RESIIEK-
TIAL

870,0
125,0
84,0
79.0
50.0
71.0
PEKARSKAYA
INIUSTRIAL


55.0
76.2
98.0
270.0
174.4
134,0
HAMLET, 5
KM FROM
CITY

25.3
31,0
19,0
26,0
29,2
26.0.
AVERA6E3 OF 5
YEARS IN 6/M3


149,8
164,6
102,2
133,5
104,5
130.6
     It was demonstrated that highest dust pollution was found in the city's
industrial section (Panarskaya Street); next in order was the center of
                                                  O
the city, where dust pollution amounted to 120 g/m ; next was the section
known as Zverintsa, where the atmospheric air dust density was 1.5-2 times
less than in the industrial manufacturing section.  The high air dust
density in the center of the city was created by discharges emitted into the
air by GRES.  This was indicated by data of investigators who studied the
sanitary-hygienic condition of Vilna atmospheric air in the proximity of
electric heat and power stations TETs and GRES.   The data indicated that
the discharges emitted into the atmospheric air by GRES and TETs created
an air dust concentration which exceeded the limit of allowable  concentra-
tions,  as is shown in Table 2.   The air dust concentration at 100 m from
station GRES was 22 times and at 300 m 35 times in excess of the allowable
                                    -174-

-------
                                                 Table 2
  Atmospheric air pollution  characteristics in the  surroundings  of  coal-
            operated and hydro-electric  stations of  Vil'nyus
METERS FROM
STATIONS
too
200
300
IUST IN MG/M3 OF AIR
IN THE VICINITY OF
THE H-ELECTR. STA.
MINIM. AV6e MAXIM.
8.0 —
3 6.7 12.7
8.5 ll.S 17.9
SULFUR •IOXIIE
III MG/M3
0.5
0.7
IUST IN MG/M3 OF AIR
IN THE VICINITY OF THE
COAl-OPERATEl STATION
MINIM. AV6. MAXIM.
2.0 4.7 6.4
3. 1 6. 1 6.8
SULFUR
IIOXIIE
NONE
FOBNI
limit of dust concentration; the dust concentration WES 13 times in excess
of the allowable concentration at 200 and 300 m from TETs.  The dust con-
tent of the snow at a radius of 1 - 2 km from either TETs or GRES was
investigated at several points.  Control snow samples were collected 2.5 km
beyond the city limits.  Results shown in Table 3 are self-explanatory.
Data in the table indicate that the dust concentration in snow samples

                                               Table 3
                  Grams of dust settled per meter square
                              of ground snow
• (STANCE IN METERS
100
200
300
500
750
1000
2500
HYIRO-
ELECTRIC
STATION
46.7
28,1
18,0
11.7
8,8
9,7
3,7
COAL-OPERATEI
ELECTRIC STATION
10,7
10,9
19.5
11,2
7,8
9.8
2.8
collected around station GRES were greater than in snow samples collected
around station TETs.  This was undoubtedly due to the fact that station
GRES was located in the center of the city among other sources which
emitted dust into the territory air, while station TETs was located at
the outskirts of the city and was the sole source of air dust pollution.
Highest air dust intensity was found in the vicinity of station GRES at
100 m. while highest air dust intensity in the vicinity of station TETs was
found at 300 m from the station; this may have been due to the fact that
the smokestack of station TETs was 99 m tall, which aided in carrying the
ash farther away from the station before it began to settle.
                                     -175-

-------
     Questions were asked of 282 residents of the vicinity of station
TETs regarding the effect of the station's discharges on general living
conditions.  Answers indicated that since 1951 > "when plant TETs began to
operate the population was disturbed by the noise created by the station's
steam release.  The basic air pollutants caiae from the station's discharges
emitted through a 99 m tall smokestack; the pollutants consisted of ash
and non-combusted fuel particles.  Sixty seven percent of the persons com-
plained of different disturbances and inconveniences created by station
T^iTs.  Most numerous and most emphatic complaints came from residents
living 300 - 400 m from the station which discharged its emissions through
the 99 m smokestack; 34$ complained of eye traumas caused by fly-ash, dust
and soot.  This phenomenon occurred most frequently in the 100 m section.
At 400 m from station TETs similar eye traumas were mentioned in 24$ of
the answers.  (Table 4).
                                                    Table 4

           Effect of coal-operated electric station discharges on the
           general state of surrounding inhabitants as indicated in
NATURE OF COMPLAINT
1. FLY-ASH, SOOT, FALLING
ON FACE ANI CLOTH INS
2. FLY-A8H ETE TRAUMAS
3. IHPOSSIILE TO IRY WASREI
LINEN OUTIOORS
4. UNtEARAtLE NOISE WHEN
8TBAH WAS RELEASE!
5. OTHER COMPLAINTS
100
65

34
32

30
67

200
34

0
22

22
70

300
55

13
52

14
78

400
74

24
74

0
75

£00
10

0
20

0
20

600
28

0
14

•0
22

703
0

0
0

0
6

800
0.

0
0

0
0

     Children living at various points in the vicinity of the plant were
examined in 1952 to determine the effect of the electric stations' air
pollution on the state of their respiratory organs.  Results in terms of
morbidity per 1000 children are presented in Table 5.  Morbidity data in
Table 5 show that influenza, adenoids, pulmonary tuberculosis, and pneu-
monia occurred most frequently among children residing in sections the
atmospheric air of which was highly polluted.  Thus, the index of influenza.
morbidity in the control region of Antakol was 5.83, whereas in the section
located in the vicinity of station TETs the index was 96.63.  The corres-
ponding index for tuberculosis was 0.33 and 12.57.  Pneumonia index in the
                                  -176-

-------
                                               •Table 5
                                 RESIIENCE OF EXAHINEI CHILIREN
DIAGNOSIS
1. INFLUENZA
2. ANGINA
3. PULMONARY T.B.
4. PNEUMONIA
5. PLEURITIS
6. AIENITIS
7. IRONCHITIS
AHTRA-
KOt-7
5.83
161,72
0,33
28.35
0.83
1 5
• ,«*
VlSUL'St
(5
37,7
101,55
3.11
40.07
0.24
. —
GlPROS
22
96.63
68,85
12.57
53.59
0.39
4.69

GEIRAI dxu Rosu
No.fi 2
46.17
94.56
4.14
71.97
—
_
165.5
9,2
109,57
1,83
0.92

KESTUCHIS
ZOOl. PK.
33.33
151.47
6.05
74,11
95^06
Antakol section was 28.35, and in a section where the electric  station
operated the morbidity index was 109.37, etc.  The atmospheric  air of city
Klaipeda was investigated over a period of years to determine the degree
of its pollution by a cellulose-paper combine  (TsBK) and  sulfate plant
(Artoyas); similar studies were made at 5 other points.   Results showed
that Klaipeda city was third in order of its atmospheric  air dust pollution;
the dust settled at the rate of 21.0 g per 1 m per year prior to 1951 and
                          Q
gradually rose to 87.0 g/m  per year during 1951 and 1952.  The dust
pollution was less evenly distributed in Klaipeda than in Vilna.  This
was due to the greater number of industrial manufacturing sections.
Atmospheric air dust concentration in the main city section amounted to
         9                                              o
105»7 g/m  per year as compared with 132.1 and 123.0 g/m  in the vicinity
of the cellulose-paper combine and other industrial manufacturing plants;
it should be noted that air dustiness in the park and recreation sections
                   Q
amounted to 125 g/ro  per year.  The basic Klaipeda atmospheric air
pollutant at the time of the study consisted of S0» which came from the
cellulose-paper combine; in 1954 this was aggravated by air pollutants com-
ing from Artoyas, which consisted of fluorides, arsenic,  and phosphorous
acid.  At the insistence of the State Sanitary Inspectorate, these plants
were replaced in 1954 by others which polluted the atmospheric air to a
lesser degree.  In 1956 - 1957 "the cellulose-paper combine equipped a new
acid-producing department which intensified the atmospheric air pollution
with SOp to a degree at which its concentration exceeded  by 10 times the
limit of allowable SO^ concentration.  The harmful effects of SO- have been
described on numerous occasions by other investigators,  especially with
                                     -177-

-------
regard to effects on the central nervous system.  The present investiga-
tion disclosed, a considerable parallel increase in serious respiratory
disturbances and other health conditions of children residing in the vic-
inity of the plant.  Acting upon the recommendation of the present inves-
tigator the acid producing department of the cellulose-paper combine was
closed, basically because it made no-provision for the purification of its
emission into the atmospheric air.
     Similar air dust pollution studies were conducted in the city of
Kaunas, where the pollution came from the Petrushinsk (JRES (electric heat
and power station).  Comparing the data obtained from air pollution studies
in.Kaunas and Vilna, it can be stated that Kaunas air dust pollution
intensity was more evenly distributed; this was due to the fact that the
industrial production and manufacturing plants were more evenly distributed
throughout the city and its surroundings.  The Vilna Institute of
Epidemiology and Hygiene conducted local air pollution studies in the
vicinity of the Akmyansk Cement Plant.  The investigation consisted of
questionnaires and of analysis of snow samples.  Results indicated that
the atmospheric air contained large amounts of cement and coal .dust
throughout the village territory and that concentration of such dust
pollution was 7 times as great as of air collected in control sections.
The open territory and forest surrounding the plant were covered by
cement dust at distances exceeding 2 km especially on the windward side
of the plant.  The studies are being continued.  The managers of plants
TETs, GRES at Vilna and of ORES at Klaipeda, and other plants were ordered
to install dust collectors at the earliest possible time.  All have com-
plied with this order.
                              Conclusions.
     1.  As a result of this investigation it was recommended that atmos-
pheric air pollution density of Vilna, Kaunas and Klaipeda be reduced by
installing dust-catching equipment at coal and steatu operated electric
stations, and that small boiler operated domestic communal and industrial
buildings be equipped with gas burners.  It was also recommended that
ORES No. 1 of Vilna and a similar plant at Klaipeda be converted to gas
burning.
                                     -178-

-------
     2.  It was recommended that the sulfur dioxide gas emitted by the
cellulose-paper combine of Klaipeda be absorbed by appropriate installa-
tions, and that the processes of the plant's manufacture be modified to
reduce the volume of SOp.
     3.  It was further recommended that the railroad transportation and
distribution systems in Vilna, Klaipeda and Kaunas be electrified^, and that
foundries and similar dust and gas producing establishments be closed or
moved farther away from the populated points, and that they be provided
with sanitary clearance zones.  It is further recommended that the auto-
bus transportation system be replaced by trolley bus particularly in
densely populated sections of the city.
     4.  Finally, it is recommended that inspection and reporting
sanitary-epidemiological stations be established at appropriate points
so that atmospheric air pollution could be brought under immediate control
when warranted.
                                    -179-

-------
        Moscow Atmospheric Air Pollution During 1948 - 1958
                             Id. K. Kharakhinov.
     Jdembers of the P. P. Erisman Sanitary-Hygienic Institute initiated
a systematic study of Moscow atmospheric air pollution in 1948 and in 1952
the Ail-Union State Sanitary Inspectorate ordered that a mandatory control
"be instituted over the purity of Moscow atmospheric air.  The project was
assigned to the F. F. Erisman Sanitary-Hygienic Institute, the Moscow .
Municipal Sanitary-Epidemiologic Station and to the Institute of General
and Community Hygiene of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences.  Collection
and coordination of the results was the task of the F. F. Erisman Institute.
     The 1958 plan established 7 sanitary control points throughout Moscow
and one suburban control point;  the F. F. Erisman Institute collected
samples at 2 points, the Municipal Sanitary-Epidemiological Station at 4
points, and the Institute of General and Community Hygiene at 1 point.
Atmospheric air samples were analyzed for dust and soot density and SOp
concentrations.  Morning and evening samples were collected daily through
the year, by the aspiration method using the Gubkin system (O.T.S. No.
59-21175* Book 3, page 103, U. S. Department of Commerce).
     State of air dust pollution.  City air dust pollution was caused
basically by TETs and GES electric heat and power station stack emissions
and from industrial production and processing plants.  Amount of dust
emitted by such sources differed with the type of fuel used, type and
condition of combustion chamber and the degree of discharge gas purifica-
tion prior to discharge.  Work on Moscow atmospheric air pollution reduc-
tion has assumed extensive proportions.  Ordinance of the Moscow City
Council requires that only low ash and sulfur containing coal be used by
the city's industrial plants which must be equipped with efficient ash
and dust catching devices; TETs and GES electric stations were compelled
to convert to gas burning.  The regulations have been complied with, as a
result of which the density of Moscow atmospheric air dustiness has been
gradually reduced.  This is illustrated by results of average single dust
concentration determinations made at the different air sampling points.
The data are listed in Table 1.  Highest average single concentrations were
found in Kozhevnicheskaya Street running through the section of industrial
                                    -180-

-------
                                           Table  1
           Pattern of average-single concentrations of dust in the
                              air during 1948 - 1958
AT t QUITS
MOKHOVAY A - MGU
KOZHEVNICHESKAYA
B. KALUZHSKAYA
(TSPK ANI o) pugn
VSKHV
LENINSK MOUN-
TAI NS
MGU
POflOBIN&KAYA
HOTEL UNIN-
QRAI
ZASOROINYI
1948
0.91
0.45


	




—
1949
0.47
0.32


—




—
1950
0,13
0,28
0,10


— •




0,01
1951
0,29
0,45


—

	


0.03
1952
0.23
0,41
0.29


—

	


0,03
1953
0,22
0,33
0.27


—




0.06
1954
0.27
0.44
0.26


—

0,43


0.04
1955
0.20
0,42
0,20
0 20
0.14
0,16

0,41


0,03
1956
0.15
0,31
0.21
0.19
0,11
0.14

0,25


0,04
1957
0,09
0,25
0,22

0.11

—
0,23

0.01
1958
0,16
0,25
0,21

0.11

—
0,21

0.005
production enterprises, and also in Pogodinskaya Street.  At other city
points the dust intensity was considerably lower, especially in the
southwestern part of the city.  Tests made in 1952 - 1958 indicated that
Moscow air dust concentration has abated by 27 - 39$.  At points of in-
dustrial production and manufacturing plants concentration dust intensity
abatement was not as marked.  The number of samples with dust concentra-
tion exceeding the allowable concentration limits has also been reduced
at other city points as can be seen from the data in Table 2.
                                               Table 2
                  Number of air samples with dust concentration in
                  excess of limit  of allowable concentration (in %%}

MOKHOVAYA - MGU
KOZHEVNICHESKAYA
B. KALUZNSKAYA
(T6PK & 0)
IZMAILOCSKII RK & &
VSKNV
LE MINSK MOUNTAINS-
MGU
POGOIINSKAYA
HOTEL LENIN-
6RAI
ZAGORO»NYI
1948
64
46
30
	
~~

• _„
—

—
1949
35
29
19
_ _
—

	
—

—
1950
2
13
2
	
•— -

	
—

—
1951
12
27
—
	
^~

	
—

—
1952
6
28
24
	
—

	
—

—
1953
2
11
20
_
i

—
—

0
1954
10
30
18
_
	

20
—

2
1955
4
28
9
8
3
6

21
—

0
I95S
5
20
16
8
2
7

15
—

2.5
1957
0
8
—
6
1.4

_
15

0
1958
0.4
4
—
12

-------
number of samples with dust concentrations above the allowable limits.  In
other places the reduction amounted to 50$.  Air dust pollution concentra-*
tions in control samples amounted to hundredths of mg/m .  Concentrations
of soot in the atmospheric air are presented in Tables 3 and 4.  Average
single soot concentrations showed on the one hand that the number of samples
exceeding the allowable concentration liodts was reduced and on the other
hand that high soot concentrations were still encountered.  The reverse
situation was also observed.  Undoubtedly, causes for such paradoxical man-
ifestations were resident in the types of fuel used.  (Tables 3 and 4)*
                                                     Table 3
             Pattern of average-single soot concentrations in the
                         air during 1950 - 1957



B. KALUZHSKAYA-TSPK & 0. . .
VSKHV 	
LENINGRAI Moumus -MSI). . .

1050

0,085
,uou
_
_

1951

0,096
,U01
__
_*.

1952

,074
FUW
	
_<_

1953

,067
Once
0,025
0,030

	

1954

,167
Oft V7
0,038
0,040
0,037
_

1955

,090
Oft7H
0.030
0,030
0.030
0.023

1956

,030
Oft7ft
0,050
0.050
0.040
0,030

1957

,110
OAOA
0,030

0,020
0,070

                                                 Table 4
                Percent of air samples with soot concentrations in
                  excess of allowable maxima concentration.





VSKHV 	



1955

10
7
f
I
I


1958

8
7

3
2


res?

18
11
9

1
6

     State of sulfur dioxide air pollution.  At the time of this writing
Moscow TETs and GES stations and industrial production and manufacturing
plants had no provisions for SO- absorption, and any reduction in the
Moscow atmospheric air SO. concentration could be attained only by lower-
ing the hard fuel consumption or by replacing it with fuel gas.
     Data presented in Table 5 indicate that the average single SO  con-
centration showed no signs of reduction.  In fact, it was still at a
comparatively high level at most of the sample collecting points, as shown
                                    -182-

-------
 by data in Table 5.  There appeared a slight average concentration reduc-
 tion in the center of Moscow, as shown by the fact that its index on
 Mokhovaya Street was 0.96 in 1948 and 0.26 in 1958.  SO  concentration
 reductions at other points were very slight, indeed.  The number of air

                                                       Table 5
              Pattern of average-single sulfur dioxide concentration
                          in the air during 1948 - 1938


KOZHEVNICrtESKAYA 	
3. KALUZKSKAYA-TSPK & 0. .
3ZI1AILOVSKII PK & 0 ....



1348

0,96
0,50
—

__
1949

0,42
0,38
—


1950

0,49
0,30
0,48
—


1951

0,36
0.28
0,47
	
""^

1955

0,20
0,41
0.50
0,37
0,25
0,17

1956

0.33
0.39
0,56
0,36
0,25
0,21
,48
1957

0,37
0.30
0.40
—
0,17
n 43
1958

0,26
0,35
0.31
—
0,19
n 4i
 samples with S0? concentrations exceeding the allowable limit fluctuated
 during 1955 - 1958 with a slight tendency to reduction at the end of the
 period, as can be seen from data presented in Table 6.  Quantitative
 atmospheric air pollution changes noted in Moscow were the result of changes
                                                Table  6
                  percent of air samples with sulfur dioxide in
                  excess of maximal allowable concentration

MOKHOVAYA-MGU ....
KOZHEVNICHESKAYA . . .
B. KALUZHSKAYA-TSPK&D
IZHAILOVSKII PK&O . .

LENINSK mus-MGU. . .
POGOIINSKAYA 	
HOTEL LENINSRAI. . .
1955
14
30
34
27
13
8
44
—
1956
14
16
36
21
12
10
25
—
1957
23
25
50/1/2 r.
27
—
7
11
39
1958
16
27
—
18
—
10
—
31
in the type of fuel and combustion methods employed.  The amount of hard
fuel burned during the years of 1953 - 1957 was reduced by 24%, as com-
pared with previous years.  Thus, the consumption of S-rich Moscow coal
was reduced to 20$ of the amount previously used, while the consumption
of Donets coal of a lower ash content has been increased by 50$.  It must
be noted, however, that the SO- content of the 2 coals differed only
                                    -183-

-------
slightly.  Gas replaced coal as a fuel in many instances.   Thus,  in 1957
gas consumption has increased by 50$ as compared with 1956.  In 1956 coal
constituted 59«4$ and gas 18.5? of the total fuel used in  Moscow,  while in
1957 "the corresponding percentages were 51 and. 28.656.
                              Conclusions.
     1.  Atmospheric air dust intensity has been abating gradually in
Moscow during the last 10 years.  This was not true of air soot content.
     2.  Atmospheric air pollution with 30? had been abating gradually but
progressively.
     3.  It is expected that the conversion of coal operated plants to gas
operation will progressively lower all the indexes of Moscow atmospheric
air pollution.
       Data Related to Sanitary Clearance Zone Surrounding the Klinsk
                             Thermometer Plant
                              V. P. Melekhina
     Literature is replete with data related to pollution of atmospheric
air surrounding thermometer plants, caused by their mercury vapor discharges.
E. Ya. Vengerskii (as cited by R. G. Leites in 1952) found that at 500 m
from a mercury plant the atmospheric air contained 2 y/m  of Hg vapor, and
E. I. Vorontsova (as cited by R. G. Leites in 1952) showed that at 1,200 m
from a mercury plant the atmospheric air contained 1 Y/m  of Hg during the
winter months.  Mercury vapor pollution affected not only atmospheric air,
but buildings, the soil, green plants, and many other objects in the vicinity
of mercury plants.
     Sanitary-hygienic regulation N 101-54 specifies that plants,  the
production of which depended on the use of mercury should be surrounded by
a sanitary protection zone 100 m wide.  This study was conducted to check
the validity of N 101-54.  The investigation was centered around a known
mercury thermometer plant.  Mercury vapor in the air was determined
                                     -184-

-------
microcoloriinetrically as described by N. G. Polezhaev in 1956.  (O.T.S.
No. 59-21175 , page 129-130, U. S. Dept. of Commerce).        The sensi-
tivity of the method was 0.00002 mg of Hg per 2 ml.  Samples were collected
by the L. F. Kachor aspirator on the lee side of the plant at 100, 250,
500, 1,000, 1,500, 2,000 and 3,000 m.  One hundred and seventy three 24-hour
samples were collected and analyzed.  Average 24-hour samples were collected
by passing the air at 6-hour intervals through the same absorbers.  The
investigation was conducted during the summer and fall of 1958.  Results of
the summer investigation presented in Table 1 show that maximal average
24-hour concentrations were prohibitively high at 100 and 250 m from the
plant exceeding the allowable Hg concentration in atmospheric air
correspondingly 50 and 63 times and that the maximal mercury vapor con-
centration was higher at 250 m than at 100 m from the plant due to the fact
that plume descended close to the ground at 250 m.  Results obtained during
the summer months varied with temperature fluctuations ranging between +6
and +22 C which affected the rate of Hg desorption fro& the thermometer
plant's walls and from surfaces of other objects.  (Table l).  Analysis of
atmospheric air samples collected during the fall season listed in Table 2
show that highest mercury vapor concentrations were found in air samples
collected 100 and 250 m from the plant.                        Table 1
            24-hour mercury vapor concentrations  in the vicinity  of
            the thermometer factory during summer at different dis-

METERS FROM
THE PLANT
100
250
500
1000
TOTALS • • •
NO. OF AIR
SAMPLES
13
19
21
14
67
;ances from the nlant
NO. OF AIR
SAMPLES
WITH MERE
TRACE
H6T
H6T
3
10
(3
«AMMAS PER CUBIC METER
MAXIM.
12
18,4
3.4
0,75

MINIM.
4
2,84
0,36
0,5

AVERAGE
6,6
6,0
0,88
0,16

NO. OF AIR
SAMPLES WITH
SULFUR 1IOXIIE
IN EXC. OF AL-
LOWAILE LIMIT
13
19
18
4
54
     A  comparison made  of the  summer and fall data showed that mercury vapor
concentrations in the air were lower during the fall season.  This may have
been due to the lower fall air temperatures which avergged 3 - 5 > when
mercury vaporization is at its lowest.  V. A. P'yankova showed in 1938 that
rate of mercury vaporization at 20  C amounted to 3.72 mg/m /min., while
     rt                                 9
at 10   C. it amounted only to 1.43 mg/m /min.  Data of this investigation
                                    -185-

-------
                                              Table 2
            24-hour mercury vapor concentrations in the vicinity of
            the thermometer factory during fall at different dis-
                              tances from the plant
METERS FROM NO. OF All
TNE PLANT [SAMPLES
i
100
250
500
1000
1500
2000
3000
TOTALS • • •
18
17
16
16
17
12
10
106
NO. OF AIR
SAMPLES
6AMMA8 PER 6BIIC METER
1 1
NO. OF AIR
SAMPLES WITH
SULFUR IIOXIIE
WITN MERE M., L.. - I '" EXe- OF *L~
TRACE pimM. ]AVERA«E LOWAILE LIMIT
HCT
Her.
HCT
HCT
HCT
HCT
5
5
1.5
3.3
2.6
1.5
0.6
1.0
0.14

1.0
0.66
0,33
0.25
0.2
0.16
0.14

1.35
1,4
0.64
0.59
0.34
0,36
0.07

18
17
16
16
8
7
BCT
82
 showed that atmospheric air pollution with mercury  vapor  coming  from  the
 thermometer plant extended over great distances,  and  that  even at  2,000 m
 from the plant  the maximal mercury  vapor  concentration  exceeded  the allow-
 able limit  by 200$;  only at 3,000 m was the mercury vapor concentration
 in the air  approximately $0% of the allowable  concentration  limit.  The
 high atmospheric  air mercury vapor  concentrations penetrated into  living
 quarters and into the  soil.  Table  3 presents  data  on mercury vapor
                                                    Table 3
                 Mercury vapor concentrations in dwellings at
                      different distances from the plant
METERS FROM
POINT OF 116-
CHARCC

100
250
500
1000
2000
TOTALS
MO. OF
AIR
SAMPLES

6
6
6
4
5
27
•AMMAS PER CU.M. AIR

MAXIMAL

2,0
1.0
0.8
0,4
0.8


MINIMAL

U
0.7
0.4
0,3
0.4

NO. OF SAMPLES WITH
MERC8RT VAPOR IN
EXC. OF PERM! SSI ILE
CONCEN. LIMIT
6
6
5
2
1
20
pollution in the air of workers living quarters.  It can be seen that the
indoor air pollution was high indeed.  Data obtained from analyses made on
window wash samples and washings of other living quarter surfaces indicated
that the inhabitants of the mercury plant vicinity, mostly its workers,
were subjected to continuous mercury vapor inhalation.
     Soil samples were collected at depths of 8 - 10 cm.  Analytical re-
                                   -186-

-------
suits of soil samples collected at different distances from the thermometer
 plant presented in Table 4 showed mercury concentrations ranging between

                                                  Table 4
              Mercury content in the soil of the thermometer
                           plant vicinity
METERS FROM THE
PLAHT
• 100
250
500
1000
2000
TOTAl
NO. OF
SOI L SAM-
PLES
3
3
4.
4
4
18
Me PER iCO G OF SOIL
MAXIMUM
1,76
1,51
2,56
1.4
2.3

MINIMUM
0,92
0,97
0,3
0,83
0,896

AVERAGE
1.39
0,996
0,996
1.015
1.714

 3.10  and  24.31 g/ton  as  compared with the  average 0.077 g/ton normally
 present in  soil.   Such mercury  concentration  could have been caused  only
 by  the penetration of atmospheric  air mercury into the soil of  the plant
 vicinity.   The above  analyses of air, washings,  and  soil  samples  pointed
 to  a  general  gross environmental mercury vapor pollution  caused by the
 mercury vapor discharged into the  atmospheric air by the  thermometer plant.
 Results of  a  special  study showed  that  the 100 m width sanitary clearance
 zones specified by N  101-54, paragraph  146, was  inadequate and  should be
 investigated  more thoroughly with  a view to its  widening.
                              Conclusions.
      1.   All  atmospheric air samples collected in the proximity of a
 thermometer plant at  points up  to  2,000 m  from the plant  contained mercury
 vapor in  concentrations  exceeding  the  allowable  concentration  limit.
      2.   Results  of the  present investigation indicated  that radical means
 must  be instituted for the reduction of the existing mercury vapor air
 catching  pollution.  Accordingly,  it is recommended  that  mercury  vapor
 apparatus be  installed  in the plant for the purification of  emission gases
 prior to  their  discharge, and that appropriate controls  be instituted to
 insure proper operation  of such apparatus. Trust  "Gazoochistka"  should be
 requested to  develop efficient  and compact methods for the purification of
 the thermometer plant's  discharges from mercury  vapor.
                                     -187-

-------
      Hveienic Data Related to Sanitary Clearance  Zones for Korkinsk
                              Open Coal Pits
                               B. K. Baikov
     The purpose of the present study was to investigate the degree of
atmospheric air pollution with coal dust,  SO ,  and CO at different distances
from the Korkinsk open coal pits, to determine  the effect of such atmos-
pheric air pollutants on the sanitary living conditions of surrounding
inhabitants, and to arrive at a sanitary-hygienic basis for the national
recommendation of an adequately wide sanitary clearance zone to be estab-
lished between the open coal pits and residential areas.  N. Vatolina,
V. P. Okulova, E. V. Khukhrina, M. S. Gol'dberg,  Ts. D. Pick, S. M. Genkin,
and others have published many reports regarding the deleterious effects
produced by dust on the human organism.  M. S.  Gol'dberg (in 1952) had
shown that dust pollution produced pre-silicotic symptoms in persons
living in localities the atmospheric air of which was polluted with 203?
of free SiO_.  R. A. Gruzeeva's analyses of Korkinsk coal dust showed
that it contained about 10$ free SiO-.  Equally as many reports have been
published by USSR and foreign investigators regarding atmospheric air
pollution with SOp and CO.
     The Korkinsk coal region is located in the central part of the
Chelyabinsk basin, which is in the nature of a  forest valley.  The climate
is a continental one, having cold winters and short hot summers, with pre-
dominating southwesterly and westerly winds. The method of mining in the
open coal pits consists of removing the waste rock and by automatically
conveying the coal to railroad gondolas.  One of the characteristics of
such coal is its tendency to spontaneous combustion during storage, in
stockpiles, or upon exposure at the original mining point.  Dust was
generated during drilling, mining, loading, conveying, and during some
other operations.
     Study of the atmospheric air surrounding the Korkinsk open coal pits
was conducted during the winter and summer seasons of 1958.  Air samples
were collected on the lee side of the mine pit  at 300, 500, 800, 1,000
and 1,200 m from the open pits.  Samples were collected by the F. P.
Erisman Institute automobile aspirator system.   (O.T.S. No. 59-21173,
page 94.  United States Department of Commerce).

                                   -188-

-------
      Air samples for the  determination of S0? were  collected by the
 aspiration method and determined nephelometrically,  using gas analyzer
 TG-5.   Records were  kept  of the  temperature,  air humidity, wind direction
 and velocity,  and barometric pressure.  Temperatures ranged  between
 -10 to  0° during the winter months.   Except for a few days the air was warm
 and the atmosphere clear  during  the  summer period.   Five  hundred and  ninety-
 one air samples were collected during both seasons.  Two-hundred and  sixty-
 seven were analyzed  for S0?, 92  for  CO,  and 232 for dust  intensity.   Results
 of  dust analysis presented  in Table  1 show that the dust  concentration in
 the air became reduced with increase in the distance from the open coal pits;
 this was equally true of  the summer  and winter samples.   Maximal single
 dust concentration exceeded the  adopted limit of allowable concentration by
 360$ at 300 m  from the pit;  at 500 m by 180$,  and by 100$ at  the distance
 of  800  m from  the open pit.  Maximal single concentration average at  the

                 Results or atmospheric air dust  concentration
stuc
METERS FROM
SOURCE OF
IISCHARGE

300
500
800
1 000—1 208

300
500
800
1 000—1 200
NO. OF
AIR SAM-
PLES

34
32
8
28
NO. OF
POSITIVES

34
32
8
28
Lies
CONCENTRATIONS IN M6/M
MAXIMAL
MINIMAL
AVERAGES OF
MAX.-SINCLE
CONCENS.
WINTER PERIOI
0.5
0,3
0,3
0,02
2,1
1,4
1.2
0,5
1 ,03
0,72
0,65
0,26
SUMMER PERIOB
29
25
27
26
29
24
27
26
0,7
0.4
0,2
0,1
2,3
1.2
1.1
0.5
0.2
0.7f
0.66
0.32
above indicated distances were also in excess of the allowable single con-
centration.  At 1,000 - 1,200 m from the open pit all dust concentrations
were below the limit of allowable dust concentration for the atmospheric air
in inhabited areas.
     Results of atmospheric air sample analysis for S0y are presented in
Table 2.  Maximal single concentrations of SOp exceeded the allowable
limit by 160# at 300 m from the pit; at 800 m by lOOgj all concentrations were
below the allowable single concentration limit at 1,000 - 1,200 m.  Control
samples of atmospheric air collected at 2,000 m from the open pit on the
                                     -189-

-------
                                               Table 2
                           Winter period

METER6 FROM
SOURBE OF
ItSCHARSE
300
500
800
1000
1200

300
500
800
1000
1200

NO. OF
AIR SAM-
PLES
34
25
12
20
15
IUST CONCENTRATIONS IN MS/M3

MAXIMAL

0,4
0,25
0.1
TRACE
TRACE

SINGLE

1.8
1.05
0.5
0.2
0.2

AVERXGE8 OF
MAXIMAL-SINGLE
0.77
0.61
0.23
0,06
0,02
SBMHER PER 101
28
28
50
25
JO
0,5
0.47
0.2
0,1
0,05
1.25
1.1
1.0
0.5
0.2
0.63
0,62
0.51
0,35
a. 12
windward side (on the grounds of the sanitary-epidemiological station)
contained only traces of S0_.  Generally, all air samples collected during
the summer and winter all contained S0? up to 1,000 m from the coal pit,
receeding quantitatively with the distance from the coal pit.  Analysis
of 92 air samples showed that CO was present in samples collected at
50 - 100 m from the coal pit, and that the CO concentration was not in
excess of the limit of allowable single concentration.  Thus, the study
of atmospheric air pollution at different distances from the open coal pit
disclosed the presence of intense pollution with S0? and dust; SO- concen-
trations exceeded the limit of allowable single concentration for atmos-
pheric air of inhabited places by 260$ at 300 m, and by 100$ at 800 m; dust
concentrations exceeded the hygienic norm by 360$ at 300 m and by 140$ at
800 m.  CO was present in trace amounts only.  The question and answer
investigation showed that residents of the proximal vicinity complained
of unpleasant odor and air dustiness.  Type and insistance of the com-
plaints ran in accord with the results of air sample analyses.
     Based on the results of the investigations it was recommended that the
sanitary clearance zone surrounding open coal pits, similar to the Korkinsk
pit, should be not less than 1,000 m wide; the sanitary clearance zone
could be reduced where sufficient hydro-mechanical installations efficiently
operated, provided that production processes and sanitary-hygienic protection
means were under strict inspection and control.
                                     -190-

-------
        Pollution of Atmospheric Air in the Vicinity of Chimney Gas
                    and Hot Air Oven Soot Producing Plants
                              K. P. Gordynya
     Soot producing plants constitute serious sources of regional atmos-
pheric air pollution with soot, CO, and possibly with cancerogenic sub-
stances.  Soot hinders ventilation of residences, soils, apparel, linens,
interior of residences, defaces statues and buildings,  etc.  Soot coats
green thereby hampering plants' respiration processes and impeding the
synthesis of vitamins, sugar, starch, and other substances as was
demonstrated by V.  A. Yakovenko.  S. I. Adamov, D. A. Mishke, Yu. K.
Korotkov, K. B. Leman, and others found that soot traumatized eye mucosa,
damaged the unper respiratory tract, the lungs and the epidermis of workers
employed in soot plants.  English investigators have long since established
that soot was the specific causative agent of cancer of the scrotum in
chimney sweeps.  N. M. Tomson, B. P. Gurinov, V. A. Zore, A. A. Il'inaand,
L. M. Shabad, I. L.  Kenava, and R. N. Uoller, 1C. N. Bauer, R. E. Stiner,
and many others, found that the air surrounding industrial centers con-
tained cancerogenic  substances, in particular 3,4-benzpyrene, as a result
of incomplete fuel  combustion.  It has been generally regarded that hot air
oven and chimney gas soot were the result of incomplete combustion; hence,
it would not seem unreasonable to assume that soot also contained cancero-
genic substances.
     Air samples were collected by aspirating the air through ash-free
filter paper at the rate of 20 li/hr.  Aspiration was continued to the
point of visible blackening of the filter; the filter was then removed and
intensity of color  compared with the standard scale prepared on the basis of
soot concentrations per m  of air.  The soot  plant which caused the air
pollution consisted of 3 production installations, 2 of which produced
chimney gas and the third hot oven soot.  The two basic pollution com-
ponents discharged by the plant into the atmospheric air were soot and C00
The basic atmospheric discharges were gases coming froru the soot ovens
after passing through the electrostatic precipitators;  the soot content in
the gas ranged between 3 - 5$» and the CO concentration averaged 8.1$.
In addition,  there were gases which came from the hot oven burners and
which contained up to 20$ soot and up to 0.1$ of CO.  Some soot was dis-

                                    -191-

-------
 charged  into  the  atmospheric  air by the granulation  and  packing  and also "by
 the  storing and other similar departments, and  by  loading and transportation
 of the final  product.  Natural gas was used as  the so-called, raw product
 for  the  production  of soot.   Chimney gas soot was prepared  by burning
 natural  gas under conditions  of incomplete combustion.   The soot was pre-
 cipitated by  passing  the  soot-gas mixture through 14 electrostatic precipi-
 tators type SG-14 with an efficiency of 95 - 97$; the remaining  3 - 5# of
 the  soot was  then discharged  into the atmospheric air through a  20 m high
 stack.  The hot oven  soot installation consisted of  112  open air chamber
 burners.  The gaser discharged into the atmospheric  air  by this installation
 carried with  them 20%  of  soot.  It can be seen from  the  brief description
 that the method of gas oven soot production was more efficient from the
 viewpoints of production and  lesser air pollution than was the hot oven
 installations.  The two chimney gas installations discharged into the at-
mospheric air 1,984 kg of soot per day, while the hot oven chamber in-
 stallation  discharged into the atmospheric air 2,452 kg per day.
     Study of the atmospheric air pollution was conducted in the plant
 surrounding vicinity at 500, 1,000, 2,000,  3,000, and 4,000 m from the
plant, and on the plant territory 200 m from the chimney.  Air samples
were taken at 1.5 m from the surface of the ground under the plume;  con-
trol samples were collected on the windward side of the plant.  One  hundred
and forty samples of atmospheric air were collected and analyzed for soot
content as recorded in Table 1.  Eesults showed that atmospheric air pollu-

                                                    Table 1
           Soot pollution of atmospheric air in the region of a soot
                            manufacturing plant
AIR
SMPL.
NO.
1
2
3
4
5
6
ZONE OP INVESTIGATION
TeppinopHH 3aBO.ua 200 M or rpy6 ; .
500 M OT 33 BO A3 . ; 	
1000 JK OT 33BOAa ... ...
2000 M 	
3000 M 	
4000 M . .........


MG OF SOOT PER CU. M. AIR
AVERAGE
4,42
0,62
0,31
0,03
0,02
0,1
0.0
MAXIMAL
7.10
1,07
0,73
0,04
0,02
0,01
0,0
MINIMUM
2,740
0,16
0,048
0,016
0.002
0,005
0,0
NO. OF AIR SAMPLES
WITH SOOT IN EXCESS
OF ALLOWAILE LIMIT
CONCENTRATION
100
100
55,5
0
0
0
0
                                    -192-

-------
 tion with  soot  in the  vicinity of  the  plant  was  generally within  a  radius  of
 4  km from  the plant.   Results  indicated  that all samples collected  up to
 1  km from  the plant contained  soot in  excess of  the allowable  limit of  soot
 concentration in  community  atmospheric air.   Results  are listed in  Table 2.
                                                  Table 2.
     ikaxiuial-bingle soot concentration  in excess  of limit of  allowable
     concentration in the atmospheric air of  the  region surrounding
                          the  soot  factory.
BO. OF
AIR
SAMPLE

ZONE "-F INVESTI8ATION

i. "" PLANT TERRITORY, 200 M FROM
2. 500 M FROM
3. 1,000 M "
4. 2,000 " "
5. 3,000 " "
6. 4,000 " "




EXCEEtlNC OFFICIAL
LIMIT
SMOKE STACK ' 47.3 TIMES
PLANT 7.1 TIMES
" 5.0 "
" NOT IN EXCESS
It H It
It It It
Soot concentrations in the atmospheric air abated with increase in the
distance from the plant.  The curve of soot concentrations sharply rose
up to the 200 m point from the plant, indicating that air soot concentrations
were high in close proximity to the plant.  At 2 - 4 km from the plant the
concentration curve ran a horizontal course of highly dispersed low concen-
tration soot particles.  Atmospheric air CO pollution was studied by the
Reberg microtitrometric method.  Results of analyses listed in Table 3
indicate that the atmospheric air pollution with CO in the region of the
plant extended over a radius of 1 km from the plant.  Highest atmospheric
air CO concentration was found in the air at 500 m from the plant (the
original paper states 1,500 m, which most clearly is an uncorrected
printer's error. B.S.L.).  No CO was found in the atmospheric air at
2,000 - 3,000 m from the plant,  as shown by data listed in Table 3.
                                                   Table 3
      Atmospheric air pollution with carbon monoxide in the region of
                       the soot making plant.
NO.
AIR
OF

SAMPLES










1. PLANT




2.
3. i,
4. 2,
5. 3,
500
000
000
000

ZONE OF



INVESTItATION


CO 1 N MS
OF Al
AVERAGE

TERRITORY, 200 H FROM STACK 63.0
M FROM
M FROM
M FROM
M FROM
PLANT 23.4
PLANT 7.2
PLANT 0.0
PLANT 0.0
PER CB»IC
R.
MAXIMAL

84.0
30.0
16.0
0.0
0.0
METER

Ml KIMAL

PERCENT PF
EXCEEBI MG
SAMPLES
OFFICIAL
FOR MAXIMAL-SI N8LE

LIMIT
CON-
CENTRATtONS.
50.0 100$
25.0 . 100
0.0 43
0.0 0
0.0 0










                                    -193-

-------
     Soot produced by both methods was studied by fluorescent fine-line
analysis for the content of 3,4-benzpyrene at the Institute of Oncology,
USSR Academy of Medical Sciences.  Results showed the presence of 0.003$
of 3,4-benzpyrene in the chimney gas soot; no 3,4-benzpyrene was found
in the soot produced by the other method.  These findings are now being
checked by tests with white mice.
     Studies were also made of the effect of the soot producing factory
discharges on plant life; a question and answer survey was conducted to
determine the effect of the pollutants on general living conditions and
on the health of surrounding inhabitants.  It was found that tree and shrub
leaves m ?e coated with layers of soot on the upper and under sides extend-
ing to 2 - 3 km from the plant.  Answers to the questionnaire complained of
unfavorable effects on living conditions and health of population extending
over 4 km from the plant.  Complainants stated that the soot pollution
reached surrounding farms, penetrated into the interior of houses through
minute pores and cracks, soiled the furniture, drapes, bed linen, made
difficult maintenance of home cleanliness.  Furthermore, the soot soiled
washed clothes hung to dry outdoors or in the attic 5  it also affected the
cleanliness of domestic animals, fruits, and vegetables.  Mothers complained
that children came home so dirty after playing outdoors and that it was
necessary to bathe them before putting them to bed.
                                     -194-

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        Natural Ultraviolet Radiation Under Different Conditions
                        of Atmospheric Air Pollution
                               B. V. Rikhter
     In 1958 the P. P.  Erisman Moscow Research  Institute  of  Sanitation  and
Hygiene initiated a systematic investigation  of the  effect of  industrial
production and manufacturing discharge pollutants  on the  intensity  of out-
door ultraviolet radiation.
     1.  Moscow was the first city to be investigated.  Studies were con-
ducted in the cen'.er of the city and 34 km on the  west  southwest  side of
Moscow at the Sobakino meteorological station which  was equipped  with
ultraviolet actinometer,  actinograph and a device  for recording total
ultraviolet radiation,  connected with a galvanometer and  a galvanograph.
An ultraviolet actinometer and a galvanometer were also installed in the
Moscow observation station.  From May, 1952 through  31  December,  1959»
4.695 synchronic measurements were made at both stations  by  the ultra-
violet actinometer, and 7«547 total ultraviolet radiation measurements
were recorded at the Moscow station only.  The  following  is  an analysis
of the ultraviolet radiation, as recorded at the Sebakino station:
     Average annual ultraviolet radiation amounted to 17.6 meal,  which
 is 1.2% of the integral  flow (ultraviolet radiation tension is recorded
in this paper in terms  of thousandths of small  calories as meal.).  Annual
radiation intensity fluctuated between 15.4 - 1.9  meal.   Maxima and highest
annual radiation amplitudes were noted during the  summer  months?  19.0 -
27.0 meal, in May, 22.4 - 33.9 meal, in June, 22.0 - 32.0 in July, and
28.0 - 30.0 meal, in August; the range was considerably narrower  during
the winter months, amounting to 4.0 - 6.7 meal.  Highest  intensity and
average 24-hour maxima of direct solar ultraviolet radiation were re-
corded between 11 and 13  o'clock.  The following ultraviolet radiation
magnitudes recorded were  in terms of meal at Sebakino station  at mid-day
the first of each month:
            I    II    III    IV    V   VI   VII   VIII   IX    X     XI     XII
          9,0   14,2  28.5   33.0  41.8  51,7  49.9  43,5  38,2  23,0 18,5   11.0
                                  -195-

-------
Expressed in percent of theoretically possible u-v-radiation the corres-
ponding values appeared as follows:

                          -0 56 81 81 79 90 86 79 76 58 64 64,
In  percent of pctual radiation  flow  the  values were correspondingly as
follows!
                      0,6 1,1  1,8 1,9 2,1 2,7 2,6 2,3 2,3 1,3 1,1 0,8
      Average monthly intensities recorded at  the Sebakino station in meal.
for the 12 month period were as follows:

           I    H    HI   IV    V   VI    VII  VIII   IX   X    XI    XII
          5.1    9,7   18.5  20.8   22.7 29.8  28.0  24,9  23,9   13.5   9,0    5.8
corresponding absolute maxima  in meal  were as follows:

                14,0  18,5 35,0 45,0 50,0  55,0 59,0 52,0 38,0 35,0 19,0 12,0
Hourly changes in  radiation  intensity  during the day as recorded at  Sebakino
 station were as follows:
  Hours     6   7   8    9     10   11    12   13    14  15   16   17   18
  Meal     H-5  '6.4  19.6  20.4 24.3  28,6  32.0 39.2 25,1  19.4 15.9 11,8  7.2.
Period  of highest  solar ultraviolet radiation intensity  occurred in March-
September, when the index exceeded 29.0  meal.  During the  April mid-day
hours the intensity exceeded 40.0 meal.  Except  for the  early morning
hours the uv-radiation  intensity during June  exceeded 40 meal.,  reaching
50 meal,  at  noon.
     The  picture of solar ultraviolet radiation  was entirely different in
Moscow.   If  the total of sunshine hours  recorded during  the  investigation
were taken as 100?, then 5.3$ of the shifts occurred during  the periods
of ultraviolet  radiation absence.   Sixty-four percent of radiation intensity
determinations  gave values of 10.0 meal, or less.   Determinations of 10.0 -
20.0 meal constituted 27$ of daylight time and intensities ranging between
20.0 -  30.0  meal,  amounted to 3.7$.  Average  annual direct Moscow solar
ultraviolet  radiation was 6.3 meal., or  0.84$ of the integral radiation
flow, and ranged during that period between 3.9  and 8.6  meal.   The monthly
                                     -196-

-------
 ultraviolet  part of the integral radiation flow was as follows in  percent:

          I    II    III   IV    V    VI   VII   VIII   IX    X     XI    XII
        0.4   0.4   0,8  0,9   1,0   1,4   1,3   1,1   0,9   0,7  0,4     0.2.

 The monthly  city ultraviolet solar  radiation (in  percent  of corresponding
 monthly suburban radiation was as follows:

        I     II    III    IV    V    VI   VII   VIII   IX    X    XI    XII
        45    30    ?1    36    41    40    40    39    30    39   27    17

 In the course  of the day it  was  as follows:
   Hours    6   7    8   9   10  11   12   13   14   15   16   17   18
     *     37   35   31  34   37  38   39   38   37   37   39   48   68

 The average monthly direct ultraviolet  solar radiation intensity in Moscow
 was as follows in meal:
                  I   II  III  IV  V VI  VII VIII IX  X  XI  XII
                2,3  3.0 5,7 7,4 9.3 11,9  11,3  9,6  7.0 5.2  2.5  1,0
 The corresponding absolute maxima were as follows:

                6.0 9,0 17,2 28,0  31,0 35,0 34,2 29,0 28,2 16,8 9,4 6,2.
 Hourly annual averages were as follows:
 Hours   6   7   8   9  10  11   12   13  14  15 16  17  18
 Meal.    4,3 5,8, 6,1 7,9 9,0 10,7  12,6  11,2 9,4 7.2 6.2 5,7 4,9.
Average total radiation loss  in the ultraviolet  part of the  solar spectrum
in the  city amounted to 64%.   Average yearly  radiation losses were  as
follows in %:       I953   1954  J955   ,956   m? rr
                      76     73    64    55    54%
 During the  summer period such radiation losses amounted to an average of
 j60#} yearly  summer radiation losses were as follows in %:

                     72    59     60    44     50%.

 Such considerable losses in  solar ultraviolet radiation in the city were
 the result  of  ultraviolet radiation absorption by the finely dispersed

                                       -197-

-------
dust and soot particles.
     Thus, results of the  investigation  clearly indicated that soot and dust
absorbed considerable amounts  of ultraviolet  solar radiation and that only
by the elimination of atmospherically  suspended soot and dust could an
adequate intensity of ultraviolet  solar  radiation be assured.  Measurements
indicated that 50 - 60% of solar ultraviolet  radiation was absorbed by the
presently dust-polluted Moscow atmospheric  air.  It was also shown that the
average soot concentration in  Moscow atmospheric air amounted to 0.05 mg/m
Monthly Moscow solar ultraviolet radiation  falling upon horizontal surfaces
was as follows in meal.:

               I   II  III  IV  V  VI  VII  VIII  IX X  XI  XII
             0,5  0,9 2,7  4,5 6,8  8,0  6,9  5,6 3,6 1,7  0,6  0,3.
These  values were a part  of the  total  monthly atmospheric Moscow ultraviolet
radiation.   The  corresponding values of  which are listed below in meal.:

                 0,8  1,3  3.2 5,5 8,8  10,5  9,3  8,8  5.1  2,7  1,1 0,6
The difference between the two corresponding values  represented  the
intensity of dispensed radiation in meal, which were as followsi

                0,3  0,4  0,5 1,0 2,0  2,5 2,4  3,2  1,5  1,0  0,5 0,3
A correlative study of  the 3 forms of  radiation flow lead to the conclusion
that dispersed ultraviolet radiation predominated during the winter season
and direct solar radiation predominated  during the summer season.  Average
direct solar radiation  per annum amounted to  73$ and disseminated radiation
to 27$»  During  cloudy  hours disseminated radiation was the only source of
                                                              2
ultraviolet  radiation.  The sum ultraviolet radiations per cm  of horizontal
surface amountedIto the following:
           April   May    June   July    August    September
             2?0   310     345    340     330         260   cal.
of which direct  solar radiation amounted to the following:
             200   190     185    180      165         100   cal.
and disseminated radiation amounted to:
              70   120     160     160      165         160   cal.
     Total yearly ultraviolet  solar radiation amounted to 2,508 cal. of
                                    -198-

-------
 which 1,263 cal.  were  in the form of direct solar radiation and 1,245 cal.
 in  the form of dispersed radiation.
      2.   Studies  were  made next  of natural  solar ultraviolet radiation
 distribution at the  transpolar industrial center of  Noril'sk,  located at
 69  northern latitude.   The position of  the sun  below  the  69th parallel
 is  lower  than in  southern latitudes;  accordingly,  the  ultraviolet  solar
 radiation at that point  should be  of a lower level,,  Actual measurements
 gave  the  following average values  of ultraviolet radiation on  the  first day
                             2
 of  each month in  meal per cm per  min.s

                I   II  III  IV  V  VI  VII   VIII IX   X  XI  XII
                0  5   '18  33  45  50   52    47 38   25  10  0.

 Chances for natural  ultraviolet  radiation were considerably reduced  at that
 point, due  to prevailing orographic  conditions which delayed the rise of
 the sun over the  city territory  as compared with the mountains; and  hastened
 the sunset,  thereby  reducing the period  of  solar radiation over the  city
 by  42  days  of the year.   Another cause of lowered solar  radiation  intensity
 was created by the manner in which the city residences were planned  in
 relation  to the direction and dispersion of the  industrial  smoke and the
 path  of the  sun's travel:  during the  day the sun's rays  passed through the
 part of the  city which was  covered by a dense smoke  coming from the  indus-
 trial  enterprises located south of the city's territory.  Novil'sk had
practically  no direct ultraviolet  solar radiation during the early part of
October due  to persistent  cloudiness; beginning with 15 December to  15
January the  polar night deprived the  city of solar radiation;  only during
 the last days  of February did the  sun rise  above the mountains.  Solar
ultraviolet  radiation existed in Novil'sk during 7 months of the year and
according to months of the year and hours of the day it was distributed
as shown below in meal:
MONTHS










3
0'




n
0


6


1
la


12


9


9
oc
^D
Oft
Ofi
9^
13

KUUH
12


19
oy
31
to
^9
|)

S
15


\l
o*
qe
<)e
90
10


18



Of
1 *>
G
5


21


in

4
o
0

                                    -199-

-------
     Maximal ultraviolet radiation intensity  in Noril'sk in meal was
occasionally considerable, namely 31 in April, 40  in May and August, 46  in
June and July,  and  28 meal,  in September.  On the  other hand a massive air
pollution appeared  during any month and at any time of the day, including
the noon hour,  which screened out the  short wave rays preventing them from
reaching the ground surface.  No studies could be  made under such  condi-
tions.  Instances of this type constituted 20 - 25$ of the total observa-
tions.  Ultraviolet solar radiation on horizontal  surface was as follows
in meal.:

MONTHS









3


0
0
1
n
o


6


0
1
6
1
0


9


3
14
16
1 A
12
3

HOU
»


10
12
22
\R
7

R6
«.


4
14
18
10
3


,8


0
3
10
o
2


21


0
0
1
o
o

Insufficiency in solar ultraviolet radiation was compensated by disseminated
ultraviolet radiation in terms of meal, as shown in the following tablet
                                                    HOURS
MONTHS









3





3

n

6





16
t
o

9
1




26
ifi
i n
2

12


1Q
99

24
oft



15
1

3


18
Ifi

JU

18





10



21



1

4
i



      Solar ultraviolet radiation effect  on the human organism is deter-
 mined by the  total ultraviolet  solar radiation flow.  In Noril'sk this
                                                                        o
 total consisted of the following components in terms of calories per cm ;



SOLAR REACTION
BISPERSEI REACTION
SUMMARY REACTION
1 1 1
MARCH APRIL MAY

4
5
9

42
98
140

53
85
138
JUNE

122
129
251

JULY

174
189
362

AU6UST

101
120
220

SEPTEMIER

10
23
33
                                    -200-

-------
      3.  Another series of investigations was conducted in 1959 in the
 city of Magnitogorsk, the atmospheric air of which is intensely polluted.
 Between 25 May and 25 September two total ultraviolet radiation collec-
 tors were installed, 1 in the territory of the old part of the city,  about
 1 km south of the blast furnace, and another 35 km northwest of the city
 at Yakty-kul sanatorium on the shore of Lake Banno, which served as the
 control point.  The total solar ultraviolet radiation for the period under
 investigation was as follows in meal.:

HOURS
III MA6NIT080RSK
111 YAKTY-KULE
4

0
5
5

0
14
6

2
19
7

5
28
8

8
35
9

12
43
10

17
48
11

20
50
12

19
51
13

21
50
14

19
48
15

18
43
16

16
36
17

13
29
18

8
13
19

5
10
20

1
4
 Averages per minute per cm  were as follows:


IM MAGNITOCOR6K ....
IN YAKTY-KULE

MAY
24
32

JUNE
7
34

JULY
11
35

AUGUST
8
36

SEPT.
10
33
FOR THE
SUMMER
12
34
 Data in the tables show that the natural solar ultraviolet radiation in
 the city varied greatly and that it amounted to a mere 65$ of the average
 natural solar intensity.  Lowest loss of solar ultraviolet radiation was
 observed between 13 and 19 o'clock, when the predominating wind carried the
 smoke away from the city.   Distribution of ultraviolet solar radiation is
 presented in the table below:
ULTRA VIOLET REACTION IN
MCAL

IN YAKTY-KULE

30:
23%
20%

OT 30— «
28%
48%

45
0
32%

HOURS WITH
NO 8-V RAII
ATI ON
49%
0

Nearly half of the entire solar radiation period was deprived of direct
natural ultraviolet radiation which profoundly affected the sanitary-
hygienic condition of the city's atmospheric air.  As a result of such
unfavorable meteorological conditions the total excess of ultraviolet
radiation in Magnitogorsk during the summer months was as shown, as com-
                                    -201-

-------
                                        o
 pared with Yakty-kul  in  terms  of  cal/cm  :

IN MASNITOSORSK
In YAKTY-KULE
MAY
400
963
JUNE
234
926
JULY
325
1042
AUGUST
223
949
SEPTEMIEF
234
738
      4.  The significance of the previously described conditions  of  solar
 ultraviolet radiation prevailing in the cities under investigation can be
 best understood when compared with similar studies made in other  cities,
 where no solar radiation impeding factors existed.  In this connection data
 are presented obtained by members of the P. F. Erisman Sanitary-Hygienic
 Institute in their studies of the Kuibyshev region near river Volga  in 1951
 and 1952 and of Anapa near the Black Sea in 1959 which was free from indus-
 trial air pollution.  The investigational approach was the same as previously
 described.  Daily changes in the direct solar ultraviolet radiation  in meal.
 are shown in the following table:
HOURS
ZAVOLZH'E
ANAPA
8
37
41
10
55
57
12
64
69
14
51
50
16
32
37
18
8
11
 Daily changes on total ultraviolet radiation in meal, were as follows
 during July - August:
HOURS
ZAVOLZH'E • • • •
ANAPA , , . . .
7
52
15
8
58
38
9
64
46
10
70
64
11
72
68
12
77
77
13
70
75
14
58
68
15
47
58
16
39
44
This can be compared with the following data in.,mcal. obtained during the
months of July and August at Yakty-kul:

               30   37   43   48   50   52  51   50   45   38   32.
                                     -202-

-------
      It  should be noted that  maximal  solar intensity at  the  Volga region
 near Kuibyshev amounted to 10? meal,  in 1955  and to 104  meal,  in Anapa  in
 1959.  The  ultraviolet  radiation flow in Anapa during a  summer day,  that
                                                           p
 is,  during  June - August fluctuated between 30 - 49 cal/cm  as compared with
 57  cal.  under  ideal  atmospheric conditions.   The flow of natural ultraviolet
                          2
 radiation in Anapa per  cm  of horizontal surface was as  shown  in the
 following table:
AUCUST
1116
SEPTEHIER
763
OCTOIER
539
NOVEM8ER
186
     The  investigation generally  indicated  that  similarity  existed between
 data obtained  at  different points during'different years.   The  comparatively
 slight differences  could be  explained first by the effect created  by  local
 pollutants always present in the  air in the form of  soil dust,  a factor of
 considerable importance in the Volga Steppe regions, or in  the  form of sus-
 pended salt particles  present in  the near sea shore  regions (Anapa).  The
 second factor  of  importance  in natural ultraviolet radiation fluctuations
 is the inherent variability  in solar ultraviolet  radiation  itself.  Changes
 in the intensity  of direct solar  radiation in individual localities were
 relatively slight, especially within the same hour.  Loss in direct ultra-
 violet radiation  ranged between 14 - 47 with an average of  30$, under
 natural conditions? in the case of artificially created atmospheric pollution
 average loss amounted to 6$% with a predominance  of 50$ of the theoretically
possible ultraviolet solar radiation.
                                     -203-

-------
            An Improved Gas Pipette for Long Interval Air
                              Sample Collection
                R. S. Gil'denskiol'd and S. B. Eting.
     The sanitary hygienic evaluation of atmospheric air pollution with
different chemical substances is based on the determination of maximal
concentrations, such as generally prevail in or immediately under the
discharge flume, and of average 24-hour concentrations.  Air samples for
the determination of maximal concentrations are usually collected during
a brief period of time.  For the determination of average 24-hour pollution
concentrations air samples are collected over longer periods of time.  The
improved pipette described in this paper was designed for such occasions.
The pipette enables the collection of air samples of known volume, of the
order of 1000 ml, over a period of 24 hours, for later determination of such
substances as hydrocarbons, CO,  etc.   The apparatus is illustrated in Pig. 1.
                          The operating principle;
      7=*	t            A negative  pressure is  created in the body of the
      /^            pipette (2) by the outflow of a saturated NaCl solution
                     (4) through a capillary.
                          Description of the parts and operation of the
                          pipettet
                          A pressure  drop (hydrostatic pressure) regular
                     (3) maintains a  constant definite pressure on the
                     capillary at all levels of the fluid (4)  in the body
                     of the pipette (2).  The hydrostatic pressure regulator
                     is just a glass  tube (l) having a diameter of 0.4-0.6 cm.
                     At the conclusion of air sample collection the NaCl
                     saturated solution drops down to the level of the upper
end of the capillary pipette (5) which is slightly above the  lower end opening
of the hydrostatic pressure regulated (l),  thereby shutting off further
connection between the collected air  sample and the atmospheric air.   The
variable hydrostatic pressure device  (7) can be lengthened or  shortened, so
that the height of the fluid column can be raised or lowered,  depending upon
the temperature changes through the day in the surrounding air thereby
controlling the ra^e of the outflowing saturated  NaCl solution.  The  variable
                                   -204-

-------
hydrostatic pressure device  (7) is merely a rubber tube of 0.5-0.7 cm
diameter with an inserted glass tube forming a kind of movable  sucker rod
 connection.  Capillary (9)  controls the constant flow of the saturated NaCl
solution at any desirable rate.  At the conclusion of air sample collecting
a meniscus is formed in this capillary which acts as a lower liquid seal.
The glass cylinder  (10) prevents the salting out of NaCl at the capillary
tip.  Saturation of the water with NaCl prevents the possible partial ab-
sorption by the fluid of the chemical substance (gas) under investigation;
it also prevents the solution from freezing when air samples are collected
at temperatures. (20 C).
            Setting up the apparatus for air sample collecting.
     The pipette and its parts must be thoroughly cleaned before each air
sample collection.  The variable hydrostatic pressure controller is then
removed, the assembly is turned upside down and the NaCl solution run in
through the reduced protrustion (6).  As the saturated NaCl solution
gradually fills chamber (2), the air is being forced out of it through
capillary tube (l).  When all the air of chamber (2) has been replaced by
the saturated NaCl solution, the assembly is turned to its original position
and the variable hydrostatic pressure controlling section consisting of
(7> 8, 9» and- 10) is reconnected.  To attain any desired rate of NaCl solu-
tion outflow, and consequently of air inflow, it is necessary to select the
appropriate capillary tube (l) diameter in combination with a correspondingly
fitting length of the variable hydrostatic pressure controlling tube (7).
This can be easily accomplished experimentally by running into chamber (2)
a known volume (say 3 or 5 ol) of the salt solution and determining the time
required for it to run out.  On the basis of this it is then possible to
select a combination of the  right diameter size of capillary tube (l), the
right length of the variable hydrostatic pressure control capillary (7) and
the right volume of the NaCl solution required for a continuous 24-hour
inflow of air.
     When the sample of air has been collected the lower section of the
assembly is removed at the reduced protruding end (6) of chamber (2).
Pinch-cocked rubber tubes of suitable diameter are then placed over the
protruding opening (6) and upper opening of capillary tube (10).  The
                                    -205-

-------
entire  is then  placed into a carrying box and transported to the  labor-
atory for air analysis.
                                       Pig.  2 illustrated a  simplified assem-
                                  bly which  can be  easily prepared by  workers
                                  of any sanitary-hygienic laboratory.
              .
 i. BOTTLE WITH UPPER INLET AMI  LOWER
 OUTFLOW TUIES; 2.  HYIROSTATIC PRES-
 SURE STAIILIZER TUIE; 3.  HYIRO-
 STATIC PRESSURE VARIATOR  (AIJUSTER);
;4, CAPIUARY FKJW cemot; 3,-*USS
 CYLINIER SMIELI.
                                        -206-

-------
  A Study of Carbon Monoxide Concentrations in the Air of Living
              Dwellings and Its Effect on the Organism.
                              S. P. Sorokina.                          .
         (Leningrad Sanitary-Hygienic Medical Institute);
     Tne basic gas supply of Leningrad is of shale origin.   It differs in
its chemical composition from natural gas and contains the  following in
volume percent: H2 - 32-38, CO - 15.0-15.5, CH. - 17-18, heavy hydrocarbons
4.0-4.5, C02 - 14-15,  N2 - 9.2-15.7, 02 - 0.8-1.0.   Open burning of the
gas results in the generation of products of complete combustion as well
as products of incomplete combustion, mainly carbon monoxide.   Fatal or
acute poisoning with CO has become a rare occurrence,  and the  possibility
of chronic CO poisoning has been denied'for a long time. However,  accord-
ing to such investigators as L. S. Gorsheleva,  A. A. Lubshin,  N. N.  Pravdin,
Yu. P. Frolov and others chronic CO poisoning still constituted a sanitary-
hygienic problem.  Z.  6. Vol'fson, I. I.  Datsenko,  D.  G. Dvyatka, A. S.
Lykova, V. Z.  Martynyuk, N. N. Skvortsova, M. N. Troitskaya, and others
have shown that carboxytoxicosis occurred widely and frequently among
inhabitants of industrial towns.
     The purpose of the present study was to investigate the CO concentra-
tions in the air of living premises and to determine its effect on the
health of the occupants.  As objects of the present study this author
selected 42 gasified quarters consisting of 160 apartments  located in
different sections of Leningrad, and 2 non-gasified quarters consisting
of 6 apartments, as controls.  Air samples were collected by the foot-ball
method in the  center of each apartment 1.5 m above  the floor,  under normal
conditions of gas burning.  Carbon monoxide concentrations  were determined
by the conductometric method developed by the Leningrad Institute of
Labor Protection.  Eight hundred and ninety-five samples had been collected
during the summer, fall and winter seasons under normal conditions of
shale gas burning.  One-hundred-twenty-four of the  samples, or 14$,  were
CO-free.  Seasonally such samples were as follows:  in the summer - 59,
(19.5$ in the fall - 54, or 15.0*, and in the winter - 11, or 4.0?.  CO
concentrations in the air samples ranged between 20 - 214 mg/m , with the
concentrations increasing during the fall and winter seasons.   Thus, CO
                                     -207-

-------
concentrations ranging between 4 - 20 mg/m  occurred in 77.55? of the summer
samples, 61% in the fall samples and 60£ in the winter air samples) while
CO concentrations ranging between 21 - 60 mg/m  occurred in 3£ of the summer
samples, in 11% of the fall air samples, and in 36£ of the winter samples.
                                                Table 1
           Hg of CO per cubic meter of  air in gas equipped apartments
      	at different seasons  of the year	'
smm
CO PER CHIIC
METER OF AIR
0
4-10
11—20
21—30
31—40
41—60
60—214
TOTALS
NO. Of
TESTS
59
192
43
7
1
—
—
302
ER Fl
5$ or
TESTS
19,5
63,6
14.2
2,3
0.4
__
. —
100
HO. OF
TESTS
54
116
84
21
14
8
4
301
tt VI
°tf> •'
TESTS
17,9
38,6
27,9
7,0
4.6
2,7
1.3
100
NO. OF
TESTS
11
68
107
51
26
21
8
292
NTH TOTAL
jty> or
TESTS
4
23
37
17,5
9
7
2,5
100
NO. OF
TESTS
124
376
234
79
41
29
12
895
#OF
TESTS
14
42
27
8.5
4,5
3
1
100
      Carbon monoxide  concentrations of most air  samples collected at the
 three indicated  seasons  of the year were considerably in excess of the
 officially allowable  concentration limits for CO in the atmospheric air
 of residential localities; in the summer the CO  concentrations were from
 1.5 to 6.6 times in excess, in the fall 2.66 to  29*5 times in excess and
 in the winter season  3.33-35.66 times in excess  of the officially allowable
 maxima.
      Series of air samples were collected simultaneously in the kitchens,
 in the hallways  and in the living rooms, the concentrations of which are
 listed in Table  2.
           :% of CO per cubic meter of air in gas equipped apartments
	 . 	
ROOM

KITCHEN
CORRIIOR
LI VIM RH.
summer
NO. OF
TESTS
74
61
167

(AX.
30
40
28

niN.
4
4
4

AV«.
11
10
6,5
fall
— *f**
NO. on
TESTS 1 MAX.
. 84
75
142
177
97
90

HIM.
4
4
4

AVt.
18,5
16,3
10.7

NO. OF
TESTS
96
71
125
»Jni

MAX.
214
69
150
ev

HIN.
6
6
6


AV«.
27
22.4
20,3
                                   -208-

-------
     Data in the table show that highest CO concentrations were found in
the kitchen air samples, lower concentrations in the hallway air samples
and lowest in the living room samples.  But the CO air concentration of
all rooms was higher in the fall-winter months.  Results of air sample
analysis also showed that average fall concentration was 17.4 mg/m  and
winter concentration 26.8 mg/m  in dwellings which used individual gas
stoves, while in centrally gas heated apartments the average fall CO con-
centration in the air was 10.7 mg/m  and the average winter concentration
20.5 mg/m .  This may have been due to the faulty construction of the
individual gas heaters and the consequent incomplete shale gas combustion,
and partly due to improper use and care of the individual gas heaters.  The
CO concentration averages in the air of the two types of gas heated
apartments were practically the same during the summer months, with a slight
tendency towards a higher average in the centrally heated apartments.
     Thirty air samples were collected in the non-gasified apartments cover-
ing all seasons of the year.  Of these 22, or 73.4$, were CO-free; the
remaining 8-samples were all winter-collected and contained CO only after
house heating.  In this connection a study was also made of the temperature-
humidity conditions of the apartments.  The relative humidity range was
30-96$.  The average relative humidity in the apartments equipped with in-
dividual gas heaters was by 6 - 8% above that of the centrally gas heated
apartments.  Decorative plants became rapidly destroyed in all the heated
apartments.
     Questions related to the effect on human health of carbon monoxide
present in the indoor air were asked of 111 occupants of gas heated
apartments; 31 of these occupants  had hypertonic disease;  these were not
included in the final statistical study of this phase of the work, since
complaints of hypertonic patients were practically identical with complaints
of persons exposed to the effects of carbon monoxide.  The remaining 80
occupants were regarded as medically normal individuals.  Fifty-four of
these, or approximately 61%, complained of headaches and a sensation of
vertigo, while the remaining 24, or 33$, coiaplained of pain in the vicinity
of the heart, nausea, vomiting,  disturbed gastrointestinal activity, general
weakness, easy fatigability, etc.  Exact data are presented in Table 3.
                                    -209-

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                                                 Table 3
COMPLAINTS


P*IN AROUM HEART, IRRECULAR HEART It

GASTRO-INTESTINAL IISTURIANCE ANI

GENERAL WEAKNESS, EASY FATISASIUTY .
IISTURIEI SLEEP ANI APPETITE ....

TOTAL
«0. OF
:on-
•LAINTS

58
d/
19
16


4
2
1
142
*•

oc
13.5
11

3r
• «>
2.5
1,5
1
100%
     Blood was analyzed for concentrations of hemoglobin, carboxyhemoglobin
and number of erythrocytes.  The hemoglobin concentration of the housewives
ranged between 60 - 95%, with an average of 77 - 78$.  The hemoglobin con-
centration was 16% and higher in 64% of the examined housewives.  Generally,
the hemoglobin concentration average of the housewives living in the gas-
ified apartments was higher than in the control housewives.  The control
group in this instance consisted of 100 persons occupying non-gas equipped
apartments in a nearby suburb.  The hemoglobin concentration range in this
group was 58 - 80$ with an average of 70 -
                                               Table 4
                 Blood hemoglobin concentrations in occupants of
                 gas-equipped apartments and in control persons



58
66—65
66—70
71—75
76—80
81-85
86—90
91—95
TOTALS
NO. OF EXAMINE! OCCU-
PANTS OF SAS-EQUIPPEI
APARTMENTS
No.
	 ,
7
14
19
41
20
7
3
111
#

6
13
17
37
18
6
3
100
NO. OF EXAMINEI
CONTROLS
No.
1
24
29
28
18
_
—
—
100
W
1
24
29
28
18
_
_
_
100
                                   -210-

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     Data in this table show that erythrocyte counts in residents of the
gasified apartments were higher; thus, in 44% of the investigated the
erythrocyte count ranged between 4500000 - 5000000, in 24$ between 5000000-
6000000, and in 2452 higher than 6000000, while the highest erythrocyte counts
found in 34$ of persons of the control group ranged between 4500000-5000000.

                                              Table  5
             JSrythrocyte counts of gas-equipped apartment
            	 occupants and of control persons


Erythrocyte
' no.
3335000
3400000—4000000
4000000—4500000
4500000—5000000
5000000—5500000
5500000—6000000
6000000 H Bume
TOTALS
OCCVFANTS OF «AS
EQUIPPEi »PTS. COMTROt «ROIP

HUM! Eft
_
8
24
45
19
3
2
101

%
_
8
24
44
19
3
2
100

NVMIER
1
18
47
34
_
—
!—
100

#
1
18
47
34
—
—
—
100
      Carboxyhemoglobin was determined photometrically  by the  method of
 Yozhikov,  and was found to range  between 1.85-27.75$.   Carboxyhemoglobin
 concentration was in excess of 9% in  the blood of 62%  of the  studied
 individuals,  with an average of 9.5-10$.   Carboxyhemoglobin concentrations
 in  the bloods of  the control group averaged  2.98$.
                                              Table 6
               Carboxy-hemoglobin in  the  blood  of gas-equipped
                              apartment occupants
$6 OF HiCO
0-2
3—5
5,5—8
9—11
12-15
16-19
20—27.75
TOTALS
NO. OF PERSONS
3
9
30
42
20
5
1
110
%%
3
8
27
38
18
5
1
100
Occupants of gasified apartments were examined for their arterial blood
pressure, pulse rhythm and temperature changes.  Of eighty examined in-
dividuals 48.75$ had symptoms of hypotonicity, and of 111 persons 39$ had
                                   -211-

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 hypothermia and 21% had a pulse rate of over 86 beats per minute.
      Sensory-dermsl flexor and extensor chronaxies of the forearm, optical,
 and motor chronaxies of the general finger flexor and extensor apparatus
 were investigated in 20 persons, and 15 controls.  Results are listed in
 Table 7.

                                                Table 7
             Averages of rheobase and chronaxy in the test persons
                              and in the controls
OtJECT
CUTANEOUS FLEXOR OF THE SUPER-
FICIAL AMTIIRACHIAL ......


FLEXOR II6ITORKM COHHDNIS ...
EXTENSOR ItSITORUM COHHUNIS . .
TEST SUIJECTS CONTROL PERSONS
RNEOIASE
20,4
20,6
13,6
29
30.6
CHRONAXY
0,176
0.257
2,05
0.193
0.245
RHEOIASE
19.6
21
14
30
31
CHRONAXY
0.105
0,182
1.904
0,105
0.153
Data in that table show that the chronaxy of the test group was delayed as
compared with the chronaxy of the controls.  It is reasonable to assume
that the prolonged chronaxy was the result of the persons' chronic ex-
posure to the inhalation of low CO concentrations in the air of their
apartments.  In other words, chronic exposure to low CO concentrations in
the surrounding air affected the nervous system.
                              Conclusions.
     1.  The air of the investigated living apartments was considerably
polluted with carbon monoxide primarily coming from gas burning heaters
and stoves.  Determined CO concentrations in the indoor air at all seasons
of the year exceeded the allowable maximal CO concentrations in the atmos-
pheric air of residential sections by 1.5 up to 35.5 times.
     2.  Concentrations of carbon monoxide and per cent of relative humidity
were greater in the air of residences equipped with individual gas heaters
than in the air of centrally gas heated apartments.
     3.  Sixty-five of 80 interrogated occupants of gas equipped apartments
complained of head-aches, pain around the heart, vertigo,  nausea,  vomiting,
general debility, rapid fatigability,  etc.  Occupant housewives had an
average hemoglobin of 77-80$,  as against normal 70-71$,  and their erythrocyte
                                     -212-

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counts were also higher.  Blood carboxyhemoglobin was above 9% in 62%
of the investigated persons, with an average of 9*5-10$.  About 33.5$ of
the investigated housewives manifested symptoms of hypotonia and hypo-
thermy.  General chronaxy in the investigated persons was delayed as
compared with the controls.  Subjective complaints, blood changes, arter-
ial blood pressure and increase in chronaxy in chronic exposure to the
inhalation of carbon monoxide can not be accounted for by anoxy alone; the
direct action of carbon monoxide on tissues and cells of organisms must
also be taken into account.
     4.  The results generally indicated that the use of shale gas for
domestic purposes by means of open gas burning can result in chronic
intoxication.
     5.  Based on the results of this investigation it is suggested that
suitable means be adopted for the sanitization of open gas burning resi-
dences and that shale gas consumption be limited to industrial plants
where the combustion of the gas should be done in gas leakproof and
rationally built combustion chambers.
                                  -213-

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           Atmospheric Air Dustiness of Kalinin and City
                      Street Eye Traumatism
                             E, Po  Nagorova
       (Department of General Hygiene,  Kalinin Medical Institute).
     A study was made in 1955 - 58 of the effect of industrial discharges
on the atmospheric air dust density of Kalinity city and of the correlation
"between the latter and the frequency of street eye trauma occurrence in
that city.  Samples were collected by the aspiration method and by several
sedimentations methods at 6 selected city points, one of which was used as
the control point.  A total of 289 samples were collected by the sedimen-
tation methods and 108 by the aspiration method.  Results of snow sedimen-
tation samples indicated that averages of annual dust sedimentation ranged
                           P
between 349•7 and 541»5 g/m  and that the rate of dust sedimentation in
the industrial region was 4 times as high as in the center of the city and
31 times as high as at the control point outside the city bounds.  Highest
atmospheric dust density was noted during the months of September and
                                         2
February-April.  Particle counts per 1 cm  ranged between 15 and 214 in the
city center and between 36 and 4449 in "the industrial region.  Dispersion
composition of dust settling upon a horizontal surface was as follows!
up to 5n - 90»3$, 5 H and over - 9.1%,  and on a vertical surface 83,7 and
16.3$ correspondingly.  Results of the aspiration method brought out the
fact that dust density in the air of the city center exceeded the limit of
officially allowed concentration by 3 times and in the air of the indus-
trial region by a range of 11 - 30 times, and that during cold months, when
heating furnaces were in operation, the dust concentrations in the  air were
twice as high as during the warm seasons of the year.
     Street eye trauma occurrences were recorded on specially designed
charts.  Data contained in 583 such charts were subjected to statistical
analysis.  Results indicated that street eye traumas constituted 9«4$ of
the total of eye diseases in the residential part of the city and up to
29.3$ in the industrial section.  Lowest number of eye traumas occurred in
the center of the city, which did not exceed 0.4$.  In the majority of cases
(58.4$) eye traumas were caused by coal particles and fly-ashj eye traumas
caused by sand particles constituted 11.1$ of the total of eye damage.
                                   -214-

-------
Analysis of results brought out a direct correlation between the  inten-
sity of atmospheric air dustineas and the frequency of street eye trauma
appearance.
     Highest atmospheric air dust density was recorded in the city section
in which the industrial plants were located,  especially on the side ex-
posed to the wind which included the heat and power electric station,  the
train cars building plants, etc.; this considerably worsened the  quality
of the air not only in the direct vicinity of the plants'  location but of
the air basin on the lee side of the plants.   It was recommended  that  all
industrial plants which contributed to the city air dust and fly-ash
density be equipped with high efficiency dust catching installations.
    Rostov-on-Don Atmospheric Air Pollution with Auto-Traffic
                        Exhaust Carbon Monoxide
                  L. G. Milokostova and K. A. Prokopenko.
        (Rostov Institute of Epidemiology, Microbiology,  and Hygiene)
     Rostov-on-Don is a terminal and junction point for the Caucasus, Donbas,
and Moscow auto-traffic.  In addition it has a heavy automobile traffic of
its own.  Air pollution with automobile exhaust gases was studied at four
main highways at five observation points located where automobile traffic
was high and boiler smoke was either absent or at its minimum.   Points 1,
3, and 4 were located at large main auto highways with a two-way intensive
movement of all types of automobiles and trucks.  The main highways were
41-43 meters wide; houses at points 1 and 3 were 4 - 5 stories  high and at
point 4 the houses were 1-3 stories high.  The streets were lined with
trees.  At point 1 the autotraffic averaged 600 machines per hour with a
maximum of 800 machines per hour; at point 3 the numbers were correspondingly
700 and 1000 and at point 4 they were 500 - 900.  Points 2 and  5 were lo-
cated at narrow highways, 12 - 15 meters wide, with 2 - 3  story houses on
both sides.  Traffic at point 2 was one-way and at point 5 two-way.   Average

                                     -215-

-------
number of machines passing point 2 was 250 per hour, with a maximum of
450, and at point 5 the number was 46? and 700 correspondingly.
     Air samples were collected at the observation points through the
months of April-September during the hours of 8 - 19 and through the
months of October-November during the hours of 8-15.  Samples were
collected into liter flasks by the salt solution-negative-pressure method
for 1-2 minutes at 1.5 meters above ground; three air samples were
collected at each point: one on the highway proper, one on the sidewalk,
and one close to the decorative trees or bushes.  Samples were analyzed
with the aid of gas analyzer TG-5A.  The total number of analyses amounted
to 1280.  The results clearly indicated that the city air basin was
heavily polluted with carbon monoxide coming from the exhaust gases of
automobiles passing by the observation points at the rate of 200-600 per
hour.  The CO concentrations in the atmospheric air ranged between 1.5-80
mg/m , and samples with CO concentrations exceeding the officially allowable
concentration limit for CO constituted 87«7#»  Generally, the CO concen-
trations varied in some direct proportion to the number of passing auto-
mobiles; CO concentrations also varied with the nature of the terrain,
certain other local conditions and also with the meteorological conditions.
Highest CO concentrations were found in the summer samples.  The curve of
CO air concentrations ran a course closely parallel with the curve of number
of machines passing per hour.  At 15-16 o'clock the CO concentration in-
creased, followed by a drop, but at 19 o'clock it was higher than in the
morning, despite the fall in the number of passing machines, as a result of
CO accumulation during the day.  This phenomenon could not be noted at any
single point during one day's observation, since the machine traffic varied
considerably.  CO concentrations of samples collected at any one observation
point on the highway proper, on the sidewalk or close to the trees or
decorative shrubs differed insignificantly, being slightly lower in the
samples collected farthest away from the highway proper.  Air samples
collected in nearby squares (small parks) during the hour of 19 had a CO
concentration below the official limit of allowable concentration.
     No CO was detected by the method of analysis used in the air samples
collected at the control point in suburb Leskhoz.  Under identical or
similar rates of automobile traffic, samples of air collected at the wider

                                       -216-

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main highways contained lower CO concentrations than did samples collected
at narrower highways, probably due to more intensive air circulation and
ventilation.  As a result of the present study appropriate practical means
have been adopted intended for the sanitization of the atmospheric air of
Rostov-on-Don and for the protection of its population's health.
                                     -217-

-------
       PART  FOUR
Six Selected Papers From
   Gigiena i  Sanitariya
       1960   -   1961
              -218-

-------
   Cases of Phenol Vapor Poisoning During Coke Slaking with
                          Phenol Water
                          V. I. Petrov.
            (Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 25, No. 2, 60-62, I960).

     The discharge of phenol waste water into river Dneper by coke-
chemical plants was prohibited in 1956, which led to the use of such
waste water for coke slaking.  In October, 1956, when the phenol-
containing waste water began to be used for coke slaking purposes,
workers were heard to complain of phenol poisoning symptoms, especially
those who worked in close association with the process of coke slaking.
Between 1956 and 1958 the medical service registered 29 cases, 20 of
which were registered in 1956, 7 in 1957 and 2 in 1958.  In 5 instances
the phenol poisoning was so severe that the workers were unable to report
for duty.  M. V. Lazarev indicated in his book "Harmful Industrial
Substances", Fart 1, published in Leningrad in 1954, that phenol vapor
poisoning was possible, especially while phenol was heated, also phenol
poisoning by fine phenol dust, which was formed during phenol vapor
 condensation in cold air.
     Prior to the utilization of phenol-containing waste water for coke
slaking no cases of phenol poisoning were observed; therefore, it was
assumed that the reported instances were due to vaporized phenols and
phenolates formed during slaking of the red-hot coke with the phenol-
containing waste water.  Accordingly, studies were initiated of the air
medium beginning in October 17, 1956.  Results indicated that phenol
concentrations in the air of workrooms ranged between 0.0005 - 0.0122
mg/li on 17, between 0.0024 - 0.0044 mg/li on 25, 0.0016 - 0.0088 mg/li
on 26, 0.002 - 0.0061 mg/li on 27, etc.  The data indicated that  in some
instances phenol concentrations in the air of working premises exceeded
the allowable 0.005 og/li concentration.  Simultaneously, a series of
analyses were made of the air of some other plant departments.  Results
showed that the content of cyanide vapors amounted to 0.000005 n"g/li»
ammonia 0.011 mg/li, benzene 0.014 - 0.019 mg/li, etc.  In other words,
concentrations of these substances were all below the allowable concen-
                                  -219-

-------
tration limits.   Accordingly, it was assumed that  these substances could
not have been  responsible for the poisoning symptoms.   Therefore, it
was recommended  that  the phenol-containing waste water must be diluted to
a considerable degree with phenol-free technical waste water for use
in coke slaking.  It  was hoped that such a procedure might reduce the
concentration  of phenol vapor in the air of working premises below the
level of the maximal  allowable concentration.
     Care was  taken to exclude the possibility  of  the  simultaneous
discharge of large volumes of waste water by different plant departments}
this was paralleled by laboratory control over  the dilution of phenol-
containing waste water and the general condition of air in the coke
producing department.  The plant laboratory recorded the following phenol
concentrations in the water used in coke slakingi  in 1957 it ranged be-
tween 0.326 -  0.813 g/li and in 1958 between 0.44  - 0.63 g/li.  Data
presented in the following graph indicate that  the average monthly phenol
concentration  in the  air of the coke producing  department in mg/li fluc-
tuated considerably during 1957-1958.  Such fluctuations depended upon
the efficient  operation of the steam dephenolizing installation, the
original raw material, the output volume, etc.   It should be noted in
this connection  that  the limits of phenol concentration fluctuations in
   Mt/JI
    o.oi t.o-
                                                 >SS8t.
     Phenol concentrations in phenol water used in coke slaking
     in relation to phenol concentrations  in the air of different
                            coke making plant sections
     I. PHENOL CONCENTRATIONS IN WATER; 2. PHENOL CONCENTRATION IN TNE AIR OF RAMP-
     FIRST «RAIE; 3. PHENOL CONCENTRATION IN THE AIS OF  RAMP - SEC:B» SRA»E; 4. PHENOL
     CONCENTRATION IN TNE AIR OF COKE 8RAIIN6 - FIRST 6RAIE; 5.-PHENOL CONCENTRATION
     IN COKE-CRAIINC - SECONI 6RAIE.
                                   -220-

-------
the air of the coke producing department at the ramps and coke grading
of first and second grade, were lower in 1937 than in 1958.  The phenol
concentration in the air of the coke plant only slightly exceeded the
allowable level during April and June of 1957* a* the coke sorting
section of the first grade, and during October - December at the coke
sorting section of the second grade.
     On the other hand, during 10 months of 1958 the phenol concentration
in the air of the coke processing department at different sections
considerably exceeded the allowable maximal concentration during 1958.
This may have been due to meteorological conditions prevailing in 1958,
when precipitation, cloudy foggy days and days of heavy low clouds
prevailed.
                              Conclusions.
     1.  Poisoning with phenol vapor occurred among workers employed at
the ramp and first and second grade coke sorting sections of the coke
producing department, when maximal phenol vapor concentrations in the
air ranged between 0.088 - 0.0122 mg/li as a result of coke slaking
with undiluted phenol-containing waste water.
     2.  The maximal phenol vapor concentration in the air of the coke
producing plant was lowered by partial dilution of the phenol-containing
waste water used in coke slaking with phenol-free technical water; how-
ever, in such cases, and under unfavorable conditions, the maximum
phenol vapor concentration at isolated points of the coke producing
plant still exceeded the allowable concentration limit.
     3.  Use of waste water containing more than 0.3 g/li of phenol
occasionally resulted in air concentrations exceeding the allowable
0.005 mg/li concentration limit in the air.
     4.  Sanitary-hygienic considerations prohibit the use of waste
water containing more than 0.3 g/li of phenol for coke slaking purposes.
Waste water concentrations containing less than 0.3 g/li of phenol can
be attained by diluting the phenol-containing waste water with 1-1/2
times its volume of phenol-free technical water.
     5.  The most rational means of eliminating the possibility of
workers' intoxication with phenol vapor at ramp and coke sorting sections
                                   -221-

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of the plant is the replacement of manual coke slaking by an automatic
process which did not require the presence of workers.
   A Study of Atmospheric Air Pollution by Discharges from
     Synthetic Fatty Acids and Alcohol Producing Indur£~ies
                            F. I. Dubrovskaya
(Moscow F. F. Erisman Scientific Research Institute of Hygiene,  Ministry
                       of Health of the RSFSR)
              Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 26,  No.  1, 7-10,  1961
     The basic raw material for the production of synthetic fatty acids
is a mixture of natural and synthetic paraffin hydrocarbons.  Synthetic
fatty acids are prepared by atmospheric air oxidation of paraffin hydro-
carbons in the presence of potassium permanganate as the catalyst.  Syn-
thetic fatty alcohols are prepared by direct  atmospheric air oxidation
of paraffin hydrocarbons in the presence of boric acid as the catalyzer.
     The investigated industrial combine which produced synthetic fatty
acids and alcohols included a synthetic fatty acids plant, a synthetic
                                ^
fatty alcohols plant,  a high-molecular fatty alcohol and detergent indus-
trial pilot installation, and a gas-producing and an electric heat and
power station.  The combine was located in the center of the city in
direct proximity to residential areas.  The study of atmospheric air
pollution by discharges from the combine was conducted during the
winter-spring (March-April) and summer (June-July) periods.  Air
samples were collected on the lee side of the combine 250 to 3000-5000 m
from the plant.
     The total content of fatty acid (calculated as Cj-Cq acids), unsat-
urated hydrocarbons, ketones (calculated as acetone), formaldehyde,  and
hydrocarbons (C) were determined in the samples.   Air samples for hydro-
carbons (C) were collected in gas pipettes; air samples for all  other
                                    -222-

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substances were collected by post-graduate student L. F. Kachora,
using absorption apparatus equipped with porous^plates filled with the
suitable solutions.  Hydrocarbons (C) were determined by the combustion
method in a gas analyzer and by titrating the carbon dioxide with a
bariun, oxide solution; the total fatty acids were determined titrimetri-
cally, and the formaldehyde colorimetrically with the aid of the chromo-
tropic acid reaction.  Unsaturated hydrocarbons were determined by the
usual bromination reaction, and acetone by the formation of iodoform.
Samples were collected for 20 - 40 minutes, depending on the distance
from the plant at the rate of 1 li/min for fatty acids, and 0.5 li/min
for the other substances.
     The fatty acids plant and the pilot plant for higher fatty alcohols
were in operation during the winter-spring when air samples were being
collected.  The plant producing synthetic fatty alcohols was put into
operation in the summer of that year with the exception of the sulfona-
tion section.  The production process in the alcohol plant was a closed
chain operation, with 5 - 10# of the total air volume being expelled into
the atmosphere through a 30 m high stack.  Most of the synthetic fatty
acids plant's discharge gases came from the oxidation columns; they were
thrown into the atmospheric air through three stacks 35 m high.  These
gases were burned by means of natural gas in a contact furnace during the
summer months.  According to the data accumulated by the combine, the
waste gases contained 7 mg/li of organic matter before combustion and
2 mg/li after combustion; this was due to the faulty design of the combus-
tion furnace;—the damper did not fit tightly and caused the exhaust air,
which left the furnace after combustion, to mix with the air which
entered the furnace.
     A total of 1252 air samples were collected for analysis	580 during
winter and spring and 672 during the summer.  Results listed in Tables
(1,2) indicate that the atmospheric air was continually polluted during
the winter-spring period by the combine discharges, especially by
hydrocarbons, fatty acids, and unsaturated hydrocarbons.  Hydrocarbons
were found in all samples with maximal single concentrations of 56.4 mg/m
at 1500 m from the plant.  Fatty acids were found in 54$ of all samples
with maximum single concentrations of 56.16 mg/m  at 250 m from the plant.

                                     -223-

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                                                Table 1


Concentrations of fatty aoida, hydrocarbons  and unsaturated hydro-
    oarbpns in the atmospheric air (winter-fall)  period

METERS nor
cjMimi
NO. OF SAMPLES
TOTAL
MINT
TRACES
Pco»etmuTiow n m PER ««•
MINIMAL
MAXIMAL
AVERAtE
• MITBR M All
MOST FNEQNENT
CORCENTRATIOIIS
                          HYMOCARIOIS
250
500
750
1000
1500
18
36
14
18
4

	
	
	
—
9,60
6.24
1,80
12.20
14,4
52.8
49.20
36.0
33 ,6
56,4
32.00
25.77
18.55
20.80
37,5
9,60—43.2
6.24—39.6
1 .80—29.2
12.2 —26.4
14,4 —42.0
UN8ATUMTEI NVtROCARNORS
1
250
500
750
1000
1500
24
29
19
22
4

14
16
8
9
1

0,80
0.10
0,41
0.40
0,80

5.0
6.6
13.4
2,80
2.19

0.87
1.09
2.62
1.12
1,00

0,8 — 2.90
0. 10— 4 .39
0.41— 4,85
0.40— 2.80
0,8 — 2.19
FATTY ACI»S
250
500
750
1000
1500
24
30
19
23
4
10
16
6
11
3
1,80
1 ,44
1,80
1.44
0,00
56,16
32,02
7,20
28.0
2,34
11.20
1.02
3.08
1,12
0,58
1.80—38.88
1,44—13.04
1.80— 7.2
1,44_14,4
0.00— 2.34
                                                 Table 2
  Concentrations of acetone and formaldehyde in the atmospheric
                   air  (winter-fall)  period
METERS FRO*
CONRINE
HO. OF SAMPLES
TOTAL
FAINT
TRAeiS
CONCENTRATIONS IN Nt FER CMIC METER OF AIN
MINIMAL
MAXIMAL
AVERAGE
MOST FREQUENT
com m AT IONS
                            ACETONE

250
500
750
1000
1500

24
30
19
23
4
1
12
18
14
14
2
0.11
0,14
0,26
0,0002
0,00

0.70
6,20
2,10
2,22
0,13

0,16
0,37
0,27
0,20
0.06

0,11—0,51
0,14—1,04
0,26—2,00
0,0002—0.20

FORHALNERYM
250
500
750
1000
1500
24
30
19
23
4
18
30
17
21
4
0,005
0,00
0,01
0,005
0,00
0,02
0.00
0,02
0,02
0,00
0,004
0.00
0.002
0,001
0,00
0, 005-8.02
0.00
0,01—0.02
0.005-0,02

                              -224-

-------
Unsaturated hydrocarbons were found  in 51% of all  samples, with, a

maximum single concentration of 13.4 mg/m .  Formaldehyde concentrations

were below the allowable concentration limit (0.033  mg/m  for atmospheric

air).

     Analytical results of summer samples .are shown  in Table 3.

                                                      Table 3

           Concentrations of  fatty acids, hydrocarbons and
           unsaturated hydrocarbons in the  atmospheric air
                            Summer period
NETIRS FROM
COHRINC

HO. OF SAMPLES 1 CONCENTRATIONS IN NC PER CM 1C METER OF AIR
i
TOTAL

'AINT
TRACES

Ml III HAL

MA1IHAL

AVERAGE

HOST FREQUENT
CONCENTRATIONS

           250
           500
        750—1 000
       1 500-1 700
       2000
       2500—3000
       5000
15
18
28
18
14
25
 3
 7
 5
13
 5
 3
 3
 1
 4,8U
 2.40
 0,90
 3,0
 1.30
 3,0
22,50
                                      90,0
                                      48,0
                                      30.0
                                      30,0
                                      50,0
                                      30.00
                                      39.0
19.52
9,01
5.9%
10.70
15.84
11.504
20,50
4,80— 20,u
2.40—15.6
0.90— 14. C
3.0 —22.0
• 1,30—22.6
3,0—21.0

                              UNSATORATER RYMOCAMONS
    250
    500
 750—1 000
1 500—1 700
2000
2 500-3 000
5000
                   14
                   26
                   33
                   17
                   19
                   26
                    4
         0
         13
         9
         6
         9
         14
         4
         0,30
         0,30
         0,30
         0 CO
         0.10
         0.60
         0,00
          8,00
          3.40
          6.80
          4,00
          f.,00
          3,60
,20
,01
,876
.57
,07
0,873
5,00
0,30—3.66
0,30—3.40
0,30-5.00
0 6(7—4,00
0.10-3.80
0.60—3.60

                                 FATTY A.CIR*
          250   i
          500
        750—1 000 !
       1 500—1 700 I
       20CO      i
       2 500—3 000
       5000      i
14
26
31
18
18
26
 4
 4
14
15
 6
14
 9
 4
 3.40
 2,52
 2,10
 1,10
 4.40
 0,C5
 O.G'J
                                       25.4
                                       27,2l
                                       !G, 8
                                       78,0'
                                       10.6
                                       ?.C 91
                                       0.00
7,67
4,41
3.14
11,92
1,81
6. 004
0.00
3.40— IS, U
1 2,52-14.3
i 2,10— M. 2
i 1 10-13,2
! 4.4U-5.00
j 0.65—29.2
1
          i. WASTE RASES WERE NOT RIRRER.


Results show that hydrocarbons were  found in 10%  of 121 samples.   Concen-

trations of 63, ?8,  and 90 mg/m  were found in three samples collected on

the  same day at 250  m from the plant.  Such high  hydrocarbon concentra-

tions  can be explained by gas leaking through cracks in the sides  of the

contact furnace, caused by the high  temperature generated in the process
                                       -225-

-------
of waste gas burning.  Fatty acids  were found in 52$, and unsaturated
hydrocarbons in ^6% of 137 samples.   Acetone and formaldehyde were
found  only in individual cases, and in practically all samples  in con-
centrations below the sensitivity limit of the analytical procedure.
Acetor.e  was found in 4 of 114 samples collected at 250, 500, 750, and
2500-3000 m from the pi^t in concentrations of 0.08 (2§0 m) to 3.7 mg/m*
(500 m).   In 114 tests formaldehyde  was found in 2 of 114 samples in
concentrations of 0.010 (500 m) and 0.016 mg/m  (750 m).  Analysis  of the
test results indicated that air pollutant concentrations were considerably
greater  in the air samples collected during the winter months.
                m ,,  .                   A questionnaire was sent out  to
                Table 4
Analysis of answers to questioner   494 persons residing in an area  of a
                  """"coHJu.m *       3000 m radius around the combine.
                 01OR ftF  IRRIGATION      »      .,
                 •AS &   OF R ESP IRA-    Among the answers were numerous  oom-
	IgST    TION OMARS
    250     W    77~"      5T       plaints of a definitely unpleasant
    CSAA     14.9     4k        oit
   1000     95     '95       14       odor»  a amelioration in the general
   3000     iOO     ^       as       state of well-being, labored breathing,
                                    inability to ventilate living quarters,
                                    etc.   When the wind was blowing  from
the plant  in the direction  of the residential section, the unpleasant odor
penetrated into the living  quarters, even when the windows were closed.
Therefore,  it was suggested that the air in the vicinity of the combine
be sanitized by complete burning of the  waste gases and that all incidental
gas leakage  be stopped by complete equipment hermetization, especially
when the contact furnace was operating.
                               Bibliography.

            A .ia en 5. C. ri;poH3BOflcrBO  cirHTcrimecKiix /KirpnMx KTCJIOT. M., 1952. — AJICK-
        veeaa M. B. OnpeaejieHHe arMocifepHbix sarpaaHemnii. M., 1959. — H e n o q a rti x A. F7.
        HutpopM. 6K>Afl. HayfHO-HCMea. HH-ra can. H PHF. HM. 0. 0. 3pHCM3Ha, 1957, Xs 6—7,
        rrp. 81.
                                     -226-

-------
  Toxilogical Properties of Mercurane — A New Insectofungicide
                             V. Ya. Belashov
         Faculty of Labor Hygiene, Kiyev Medical Institute
         Gigiena i Sanitariya; Vol. 26, No. 1, 40-43, 1961
     Mercurane, a highly effective insectofungicide, has been recently
widely used in the agricultural industry; it is a mixture of 2%
ethylmercuric chloride (EMC) and 12% Y~isomer °? hexachloro-cyclohexane
(HCCH), with talc or kaolin as a filler.  Mercurane has been used to
protect winter rye and wheat, summer wheat, and barley crops against
click beetles and fruit flies, and summer and winter wheat against fungous
diseases.  Mercurane has also been effective in the treatment of cotton
and flax seeds before sowing.  The toxicity of EMC has been studied
experimentally by L. I. Medved, N. S. Pavdin, and S. N. Kremneva,
I. M. Trakhtenberg, S. I. Ashbel, S. A. Troitskii, et al.  The toxicity
of HCCH and its Y~isomei> has been studied, and is still being investigated,
by E. N. Burkatska, A. P. Volkova, et al.  But the toxicity of mercurane,
i.e., the mixture of EMC and y~isomer HCCH, has not been studied up to the
present.  The toxilogicology of mercurane cannot be judged on the basis of
the toxic properties of its components.  It was necessary, therefore, to
determine experimentally the toxicity of EMC and y-isomer HCCH in different
combinations.  Such a study was conducted by the method of comparisons
EMC and ^-isomer HCCH were obtained from a scientific research institute
of insectofungicides, and a mixture of these components was prepared in
2:12 (ls6) ratio.  Acute and chronic experiments were conducted with
white mice, administering the mercurane subcutaneously, by inhalation
and by mouth.
     It has been known that EMC was considerably more effective as an
insectofungicide than the Y-isomer of HCCH, on the basis of which it was
assumed that the toxicity of mercurane to animals might prove higher than
of the Y-i30mer of HCCH, and lower than the toxicity of EMC.  However,
results of acute tests with laboratory animals showed that mercurane was
less toxic than the Y~isomer of HCCH.  Thus, when a 125 mg/kg of mercur-
ane was administered per os to rabbits, death occurred on the 4-5^h day,
whereas when the animals were poisoned by the same dose of -f-isonieT HCCH

                                    -227-

-------
they died on  the  2-3rd day.  Administration of  a  200 mg/kg of mercurane

per £s_ to mice  killed all animals within 3 days.   The same dose of

y-isomer HCCH killed all mice within 24 hours.

     Tests were then made with white mice with  mixtures of the two

compounds in  different ratios.  Simultaneously, I*DIQQ was determined for

EMC and y-isomer  HCCH.  Results are shown in the  table below.  As shown

by the data in  the  table, LD100 for EMC was 60  mg/kg and 200 mg/kg for

y-isomer HCCH.  Doses of mercurane was administered  to white mice intra-

gastrically which contained 14.3$ of the LD100  of EMC and ^5.7$ of
LD1QO of y-isomer HCCH.   In this dose the EMC:Y-isomer HCCH was 2:12 or

1:6 which is  the  same as in the commercial mercurane.   (This is a gross

     Time of  white  mice  death following a single  per _os administration
                  of EMC,  gamma-isomer-HCCH and  of mercurane

PREPARATION

EMC
GAMMA-ISOMER
HCCH
MERCURANE

IOSE

60 IJ/KS ....
200 M8/KC . . .
14.3^ OF LETHAL
u. . u>
O -1 -J
• £ r
O ft. —
Ul •<
10
10
IAY ANIMALS IIEt
3: X
1- XXXXXfr-t-
— CM fr> ^ ID VO 1^ <5 — —
10
10

X.
£


                  HOSE OF EMC ANI
                  85.7* OF LETHAL
                  IOSE OF «AMMA-
                  ISOMER-HCCH ...  20   10   4   I   I         I      III
      MIXTURE OF    23& OF LETHAL
      EMC ANI SAMMA  BOSE OF EMC &
      ISOMER HCCH    T3fa OF GAMMA-ISO*
                  MER-HCCH. ....  20   |2   3   I   2     I      I
      MIXTURE OF    50$ OF LETHAL
      EMC ANI 8AMMA- IOSE OF EMC ANI
      ISOMER-HCCH    75$ OF LETHAL
                  IOSE OF GAMMA-
                  ISOMER-HCCH. . .  20   II   7   I      I

error:  4.3$  of  60 is  8.58 and 85.?$ of  200 is 1?1.4.   The ratio between

8.58:171.4 is 1:20 or 2:40 and not 2:12.   Hence,  the  next statement is

ill-founded.  B.S.L.).  In other words, the  quantity  of mercurane adminis-

tered was one which would cause the death  of all  animals within 24 hours.

However, of  the 20 mice to which this dose was  administered, 10 died on

the  1st day,  4  on the 2nd, and the remaining 6  died within 16 days after

administration.  In the second test of  this  series a  25$ fatal dose of

EMC  and a 75$ fatal dose of y-isomer HCCH  were  administered to 20 mice.

(Again  actual materials were 15 and 150, a ratio  of 1:10 or 2:20 and not
                                    -228-

-------
1»3 or 2:6. B.S.L.)  Twelve mice died on the 1st day, 3 mice on the 2nd,
and the remaining 5 within 9 days.  In the 3rd test a 50% fatal dose of
both EMC and y-isoiaer HCCH was administered to 20 mice,  (in which case
actual material was 30 and 100 or 3:10 and not 1:1. B.S.L.).  Eleven mice
died within 24 Lours, 7 on the 2nd day, and the last 2 on the 3rd and 5th
days after injection.  When a solution of EMC and mercurane was adminis-
tered subcutaneously, necrosis developed in the white rats as early as
2 and 3 days after injection.  These tests were discontinued.  Necrosis
was less pronounced in white mice,  L^TAA ^oses were °f ^e same magni-
tude whether administered subcutaneously or intragastrically in the case
of EMC and y-isomer HCCH.
     Mercurane proved of higher toxicity than y-isomer HCCH in chronic
experiments with rabbits which received daily intragaftric administrations
of identical combination doses of EMC and of y-isomer HCCH.  Mercurane
and y-isoiner HCCH proved equally toxic in experiments with white mice
which received 20 mg/kg of each of the preparations.  Thus, the intra-
gastric administration of 20 mg/kg of mercurane to each of 20 white mice
killed all the experimental animals within 15 and 39 days and similarly
20 mice administered 20 mg/kg of y-isomer HCCH died within 21 to 47 days.
     A group of white mice were subjected daily to 6-hour inhalations of
air containing 0.001 mg/li of mercurane.  All mice died within 18 - 62
days.  All white mice exposed to the inhalation of y-isomer HCCH under
identical conditions died within 27 - 71 days.  Thus, the results indic-
ated that mercurane possessed a higher toxicity than y-isomer HCCH.
     A study of the clinical picture of acute poisoning of white mice and
rats with mercurane showed the following: in the early stages of the
experiments the animals exhibited motor stimulation, which was rapidly
replaced by depression and arhythmic respiration,  accompanied by cyanosis
of the tips of ears and tail; this was followed by exaggerated reflex
excitability, motor ataxia, pareses, and later by paralysis first of the
front and then the rear extremeties; the animals fell into a lateral
position, manifested a sudden drop in respiration rate, lost control
over urination and defecation; attacks of clonic spasms became frequent
on the day before death, which turned into tonic spasms,  in the course
of which most animals died.

                                    -229-

-------
     Autopsies showed plethora of the internal organs and pulmonary tissue
hemorrhages.  The gastro-intestinal tract was overfilled and distended,
indicating that it was in an atonic state.  Despite persistent normal
appetite the experimental animals gradually lost weight.  As this con-
dition progressed, motor and respiratory discoordination set in, followed
by paralysis and by clonic and tonic spasms.
     Hematological changes caused by the action of EMC were previously
investigated by V. E. Belashov, and effects of y-iBomr HCCH were
studied by A. P. Volkova and by E. N.Burkatskaya.  This author exposed
white mice to the inhalation of air containing 0.1 - 0.12 mg/li of mer-
curane vapor and administered intragastrically 123 mg/kg of mercurane
to rabbits.  A hemotologic study showed the following changes: accelera-
tion of the erythrocyte sedimentation time, a notable reduction in the
number of erythrocytes, a relative eosinopenia and lymphopenia, and a
pronounced leukocytesis with a neutrophilic shift to the left.  Cellular
elements of the bone marrow were changed qualitatively, vacuoles appeared
in the mononuclear nuclei and protoplasms and karyorrhexis of the
eosinophils and lymphocytes was .noted.
     Hematological changes often developed before any other visible
manifestations of intoxication appeared in the course of repeated daily
poisoning of white mice and rabbits with mercurane vapor.  A shortening
of the erythrocyte sedimentation time, which became most pronounced
(66 mm/hr) on the day proceeding the animals' death was noted almost from
the first days of poisoning with mercurane vapor in 0.001 mg/li concen-
tration.  Leukocytosis with a pronounced neutrophilic shift to the left
and an intensified proliferation of the myeloid elements in the bone
marrow developed simultaneously.  Symptoms of anemia became slowly inten-
sified somewhat later.  Hyperplasia of an erythremic growth was observed
in the bone marrow during this period.  On the eve of the animal's death
the hemopoietic picture as a whole has markedly changed; this was accom-
panied by the appearance of pronounced vital-granular erythrocytes,
normoblasts, a drop in the poikilocytes, and anisocytes in the peripheral
blood, leukopenia with a neutrophilic shift to the left, a substantial drop
in the number of lymphocytes, the appearance of medium cells with
vacuuolized protoplasm, the disappearance of eosinophila, and the
                                    -230-

-------
appearance  of neutrophils with toxic granules.  A  study of the myelograms
showed  in addition  sharp changes  in the  cellular structure of the bone
marrow  in the white mice in the form of  atrophy of the erythroid,
especially  of a myeloid element,  and as  the relative increase in the
number  of cells showing toxic granules and vacuoles in the protoplasms,
and  as  a reduction  in the number  of mitoses.
     Thus,  mercurane affected warm-blooded animals differently in acute
and  in  chronic experiments.  In acute experiments  its toxicity was some-
what less pronounced than the toxicity of either the EMC or the y-isomer
HCCH components, pointing to a possible  antagonistic reaction.  Indeed,
L. I. Medved and L. G. Serebrenaya found that EMC  lowered blood pressure
and  depressed respiration when administered intravenously, and A. P.
Volnova and E. N. Burkatskaya found that y-isomer  HCCH raised blood
pressure and stimulated respiration, which pointed to the rise of a so-
called  "physiological" antagonism when EMC and Y-isomer HCCH are admin-
istered in  combination.  Results  of animals chronical-poisoning with
mercurane showed that it was slightly less toxic than the y-isomer HCCH
and  considerably less toxic than  EMC.  This could  not be explained on
the basis of a simple summation of the toxic effects of EMC and y-isomer
HCCH.  The  higher toxicity of mercurane  in the chronic experiment may
have been due to the fact that one of the ingredients, namely, EMC,
had  considerably more pronounced  cumulative properties manifested during
chronic poisoning.
     The air of industrial workrooms processing mercurane always contained
higher concentrations of y-isomer HCCH vapor than  it should have
according to the 1:6 ratio of the mercurane components.  Taking this into
consideration,  it is recommended that the air of such workrooms be tested
for each mercurane component individually.
     Medical examinations of individuals who come into contact with
mercurane,   should necessarily include a complete morphological blood
test, since it was found that changes in the blood picture appeared
earlier than other symptoms of intoxication.
                              Bibliography.
                                     -231-

-------
        AuiGe^h C. H. 'B jtH.:.riirncHa. TOKCHKOJionia  H K.IHHIIKH IIOBWX niicvKTnyHrHUji
    «OB. M.. 1959, crp. 328. — B a n a lu n B B. E. Bpa^. aojio, 1959, Ni 6, crfi. 625. — - B o n
    Kona A. M >Ke,  1951, .Vs 1. crp. 48. — T p o n u K n ft C. A., K o ji e c H H KO-
    sa 'H. B.,  CM'iipnoua B. K. Tesiicw JOK.I.  Hayiinofi  KniKtiepeiiunH FfmLKoncK. HH-Ta
    nirwHM rpvja H  npcx)>3a6o.neBaiirHii,  nocosm. wroraM  nayiiio-ncc.iea. ipaOoiu sa  1955 r..
    1956. crp. 33.
  Photoelectric Counting of Organic and Inorganic Aerosol Particles

          V. S. Kitneko, lu. P.  Safronov,  S.  I. Kudryavtsev,
          R. I. Elman,  B. F. Fedorov, N. I. Pushchin, and
                          A. A. Fedorovich

          Gigiena  i  Sanitariya,  Vol. 26, No.  2, 47-53,  1961.

     The determination of aerosol concentrations of different origin is

of considerable value  in solving problems of sanitary  bacteriology,

microbiology, epidemilogy, and  of prophylactic and therapeutic medicine.

The usual methods of counting particles,  such as sedimentation, filtration,

precipitation, are  time consuming,  laborious,  subjective,  and variable.

Gucker,  O'Konaki, Pickard, Pitts,  Gucker and O'Konski, Ferry Farr,

Hartman, and others attempted to use photoelectric counters  in their

studies  of bacterial air suspensions.  Their methods were  based on the

principle of counting electrical impulses emanating from a photoelement

as a result of light reflected  by particulates in a special  chamber.

     The purpose  of the present study was to investigate the possible  use

of a highly sensitive  photoeleotronic device constructed on  the principle

of FEU-25 in combination with an amplifier and an SB-1M  automatic elec-

tronic counter, for the.automatic counting of particles  in a VDK contin-

uous flow ultramicroscope.  It  was hoped that the solution to this

problem  would make  possible counting of aerosol particles  of organic and
                                       -232-

-------
inorganic origin.rapidly, objectively, and accurately both in experimen-
tal chambers and in the open air.  The possibility of continuous and
automatic counting of aerosol particles in an ultramicroscope by a photo-
element was demonstrated by B. V. Deryagin and G. Ya. Vlasenko in 1931*
     The VDK continuous flow ultramicroscope has proven its effectiveness
in many fields of science, but has found only limited application in the
study of bacterial air suspensions.  Such a procedure can be widely and
advantageously used in sanitary-hygienic practice not only for the   *
determination of air dust particles but for simultaneous determination
of the number of microorganisms in it.
     The instrument for ultramicroscopic research was developed in 1943
by Deryagin and Vlasenko.  With this device the observer's eye perceives
brief flashes of light against a dark ground when aerosol particles pass
through the illuminated area.  Results of preliminary tests indicated
that it was possible to use the existing design of the VDK continuous
ultramicroscope for making total counts of bacteria in air suspension
in an experimental chamber with greater convenience and accuracy than
by any of the presently used methods.  However, it soon became clear
that due to limitations inherent to the human eye accurate counts could
be made only when the number of particulates flowing through the
illuminated area per unit of time was limitedly low, and that visual
counting became impossible when the frequency exceeded 150 flashes per
minute.  Furthermore, considerable difficulty was experienced in counting
brief flashes caused by the highly dispersed fraction of the particulate
suspension, and in determining particle sizes by the proportional
illumination reduction method in the area of observation.  It should also
be noted that prolonged counting caused eye fatigue, which affected eye
sensitivity.
     The present authors developed an ultramicroscopic research method in
which a special photoelectron adapter was used in combination with an
automatic electrical counter which received the suspended particulates
of reflection impulses.
     Counting of air suspended particles automatically can be easily
attained by utilizing the electrical impulses created by the reflected
                                    -233-

-------
illumination falling upon the particles when they passed through a light
team in the chamber of a continuous ultramicroscope.   The intensity of the
luminocity scattered by a particle was sufficient for proper recording with
the aid of modern commercial photoelectron multipliers,  such as FEU-19,
PEU-25, etc.  Results indicated that  the  duration of a light impulse
created by a particle did not exceed  0.5  - 0.6 seconds,  and that the
impulse sequence frequency depended on the particle concentration, which
during the experimental period of visual  observation did not exceed 120
impulses per minute; this indicated the low efficiency of the visual
method, and emphasized the need and importance of the automatic method
for counting air-suspended particulates of different sizes and origin.
Therefore, an experimental device was designed and constructed for the
automatic counting of aerosol particles,  based on the principle of
recording electric impulses created by a  luminous flux reflected by
particles.  The device was first tested under laboratory conditions.  It
consisted of the following components: a  photoeleotronic adapter connected
to a VDK continuous ultramicroscope,  amplifier, impulse counter, and
power supply.  A schematic diagram of the device is shown in Figure 1.
   PHOTOELECTRONIC ATTACHMENT I
                               IOOSTER AMI MRTICLE COUNTER
                              BH9C    ffW8     BW8      6H7C
SH7C
                                               •FOUR MATCHEI RESISTANCE
                                                 UNITS IN IOUILES
       Fig. 1.  Schematic drawing  of  electronic device for the
       automatic counting of air suspended particulates.
                                      -234-

-------
     The photoelectronic adapter converted the luminous flux reflected from
an aerosol particle into an electrical impulse and pre-amplified the
                                             v
electrical signal.  The adapter consisted of a type FEU-25 photoelectronic
multiplier and a preamplifier assembled around a 6Zh4 tube; it was built
as a separate unit installed with its opened side in close proximity to
the eyepiece of the VDK continuous ultramicroscope.  The amplifier and
impulse counter amplified the electrical impulses to a magnitude
sufficient to trigger a type SB-1M automatic electronic counter.  The
amplifier and impulse counter unit consisted of a valvular input cascade
(opening^ and an amplifier control above tube 6N8, a locking input multi-
vibrator over two 6Zh8 tubes, an output multivibrator over tube 6N7, and
an amplifier cascade over tube 6N7, which triggered the automatic electronic
counter.
     The electrical flow developed a high voltage going into the photo-
electronic multiplier, the anode plate, and into the incandescent fila-
ment..  The amplifier, impulse counter, and source of power were built as
a single unit connected by a cable with the photoelectronic adapter.
     The luminous flux reflected from air suspended particles (bacteria)
falling on the cathode of the photoelectronic multiplier, elicited an
electrical impulse at its output which was magnified in the preamplifier;
it was then fed into the inflowing valvular cascade of the amplifier.  The
impulse, amplified to the required magnitude, entered into the electro-
mechanical counter and brought it into action.  The optimal impulse
sequence frequency for accurate automatic counter recording was approxi-
mately 100 impulses per second or 6,000 impulses per minute.  An error due
to the inertia of the system could occur only when two or more particles
with time intervals of less than 0.01 seconds appeared in the instrument's
field of view, which is a remote possibility, and the error thus caused
could not be in excess of 1%.  Special care must be used in increasing the
contrast of the particles by reducing the luminous reflections to a level
sufficiently below the.illumination coming from the background of the
instrument's field of view in order to attain high accuracy of measurements
and to increase the instrument sensitivity.
                                    -235-

-------
 Fig. 2. Outside vitw of the elec-
 tronic automatic air-suspended
 participates counter.
Fig, 3.  Fhotoeleotronio attachment.
     Fig. 2 represents an over-
all view of the device for the
automatic counting and recording
of organic and inorganic air
suspended particles.  As shown
in the illustration it consists
of an aerosol chamber (l),
ultraniorosoope (2), photoelec-
tric adapter (3), an  amplifier
and particle counter unit (4)*
The device is powered by a 127
or 220 v line.  Fig. 3 shows
the photoeleotronio adapter
with front and rear covers
removed.  It is simple in con-
struction and can be easily
manufactured in any laboratory.
A commercial type B-2 unit can
be used as an amplifier, impulse
counter, and source of power
supply, with slight modifications
in the design, clearly indicated
in the circuit diagram of the
instrument in Fig. 1.
     The particle concentration and dispersion composition were checked
using am artificial bacterial aerosol system and atmospheric air with the
aid of a continuous ultramiorosoope equipped with an automatic photoeleo-
tronio counter.  The artificial bacterial aerosol was created in a special
500 li chamber into which a water suspension of Chromobaoterium prodigiosum
was sprayed.  Different concentrations of a bacterial aerosol system were
created in the chamberi 1 and 3 billion per ml bacterial suspensions
were sprayed in which produced suspension densities of 2 million and
6 million bacteria per 1 li of chamber air.  The bacteria were kept in
                                   -236-

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 suspension by a rotating fan.  Particles were counted by the photocell and
 visual method.  Particle sizes were  also determined by the method of
 proportional illumination reduction  in  the  field of view.  Changes in
 bacterial cell concentration as a function  of the time the aerosol sys-
 tem remained in the chamber was first studied visually in a continuous
 ultramioroscope by counting the number  of particles per unit volume at,
 different time intervals after spraying the bacterial suspension.  Results
 of the tests are shown in Table 1.
«                                                           Table  1
                               Stability of bactarial aaroaol  in relation to tiM
Exporiaantal
condition*  *  OI6ERVATIOI TIHI
   u, * Fit. 4. C»B»B OF IACTERIU
   o S MSPENSIOK CMAH4I8 III THE
   £ i COOKTIII* •tttHIER. ^
     Data in Table  1  and in Fig.  4 indicate that the concentration  of
bacterial cella did not  change substantially up to 90 minutes} after that
the density of  suspended bacterial cells dropped sharply.  Differential
dispersion counts were then made  during the first 90 minute interval
following the spraying.   This was done by two methods.  Averages of 200
differential dispersion  counts are presented in Table 2.
     Data in Table  2  show that the results obtained by the visual and
automatic methods were in close agreement, but the photoeleotronic  method
possessed some  advantages.   An average of 20 particles was detected in
the field of view with the  VDK ultramicroscope by the visual method, as
compared with 25 particles  by automatic photoeleotronic method, i.e.,
    or more.  The total  number of particles by the differential dispersion
                                    -237-

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                          Table 2
Comparative particle counts visually
with device VDK and automatically
with the photoelectronic device
    (Averages of 200 counts)
                                         counts made by the photoelectric
                                         method exceeded the count made
                                         by the visual method by 1,567
                                         particles using the VDK contin-
                                         uous ultramicroscope.
                                              Similar tests were made with
                                         tobacco smoke.  An average of
                                         142,000 aerosol particles per
                                         1 ml was counted visually in the
                                         VDK ultramicroscope with the
                                         diaphragm at 3 and a flow rate
                                         of 0.5 ml/min; whereas the aver-
                                         age count was 223,200 particles
                                         per 1 ml with the photoelectronic
                                         unit, due to the higher sensitivity
                                         of the unit.  Thus, the photoelec-
                                         tronic device yielded data consid-
                                         erably closer to the true aerosol
concentration in the chamber than did the visual count with the aid of the
VDK continuous flow microscope.
     A comparative study of the sensitivity of the two research methods was
made by proportional illumination reduction in the observation field of
the continuous ultramior««cop«.  kesults are shown in Table 3.

                                                  Table 3
           Dispersion  composition of bacterial  suspension  determined
                     by VDK  (Averages  of  200 counts)
VISHAILY
NO. OF PAR-
TICLES III
OCULAR FLI.
30
30
29
15
13
22
23
23
22
25
16
19
11
17
22
18
18
13:
13
18
AVERAGES
20
ARTICLES
PER
ML
9660
9 f>00
' 9?80
4830
4 186
5940
7360
7360 .
5340
8050
4320
6 ('80
2970
5440 .
7040
5760
5760
4 186
4 186
5760

6133
AiTOW TIC ALLY
10. OF PAR-
TICLES REC'I
IV COUNTER
30
27
34
30
24
30
20
25 .
24
29 .
26
33
20
19
30
19
19
20
21
16

25
DO. OF
PARTICLES
PER I HI
9660
8 SCO
10880
9 060
7 P80
9660
6400
8 050
7 680
9280
8320
10 560
6400
6080
9660
6080
6080
6400
6 720
4 320

' 7700
PARTI OLI
IIAMETER
IN HI
TOTAL COM IT
0.2-0,7
0,7-1.3
1.3-2.0
2.0—2,7
2,7-3.4
VISUAL .
DlA-
PRRAtH
3
3
2
1
1
1
TISIILC
com
20
8
4
5
2
1
PARTICLES
PER 1 HI
5450
1915
360
198
70
39
AUTOMATIC PHOT.OELECTRONIC
II A-
PHRACM
3
3
3
1
1
1
VISIRLI
COUNT
25
11
4
10
7
2
PARTICLES
PER | NL
6000
2485
OKA
*roo
397
241
70
                                  -238-

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     Data in Table 3 also indicate that more air suspended bacterial
cells were recorded by the photoelectronic adapter in combination with
the ultramicroscope, than were counted by the visual method.   Series of
tests were then made for the determination of the maximum particle
counting capability of VDK continuous flow ultramicroscope by the photo-
electronic device and visually.  Counts were made of particulates sus-
pended in city atmospheric air.

                                             Table 4
        Comparative counts of aerosol particles in atmospheric air
VISUAL COUNTS
! ARTICLES PER
OCULAR FIELI
110
140
111
119
140
129
140
118
117
110
119
111
112
113
115
AVERA«ES 120
AISOLUTE GOUMT
PER t ML
35,42.10*
46. 20.10*
35,74 10*
39,60-10'
46.20-10*
42,90-10*
46,20- 10'
39, 40-10*
38.61 10*
35.42-10*
39.60-10*
35.74 10*
36,96-10*
37,i9-IO*
37,95-10*
39,28-10*
PHOTOELECTROHIC AOTOMATIS
PARTICLES PER
OCOLAR FIELI
270
290
300
346
360
375
380
384
360
375
355
360
370
384
370
350
AISOLBTE COUNT
PER ? Ml
86.40-10*
95.70 10*
99,00-10*
115.00-10*
118,80-10*
125. CO- 10*
128, 00-10*
128.70-10*
118.80-10*
125,00-10*
1I5.60-IO*
118.80-10*
122,10-10*
128.70-10*
122,10-10*
110,00-1C«
     The high concentration of suspended particulates was due to the fact
 that the air dust  studies were made in the proximity of a cement concrete
 plant.
     Data  in Table 4  show that even when the  concentration of particulates
 suspended  in the air  was considerable, only 120-150 particulates could be
 counted visually with the aid of  the  continuous flow ultramicroscope, as
  compared  with 350 particulates recorded by the automatic device.  This
 was in  part due to advantages inherent in the VDK continuous flow ultra-
 microscope.  Previous calculations indicated  that  theoretically the photo-
 electronic device  was capable of  recording up to  6,000 impulses per
 minute. Results of investigations under practical conditions pointed to
 a range with a maximum of 1,000 impulses per  minute.  Thus, the results
                                      -239-

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of the present  investigation demonstrated the practical advantages  of
the automatic photoelectronic aerosol particle counter? it was more
sensitive, less time  consuming,  and yielded more accurate counts  than
the visual method  in  combination with the VDK continuous ultramicroscope.
It is anticipated  that  the  proposed automatic method tested in the
present investigation basically  in connection with bacterial suspensions
will prove equally efficient in  the study of other types of air sus-
pended particulates.
                               Conclusions.
     1.  The proposed automatic  photoelectronic device in combination
with a VDK continuous flow  microscope places the counting of organic
and inorganic aerosol particulates on an objective basis and makes  the
counting procedure less time consuming and more accurate.
     2.  A photoelectronic  device and an electromechanical counter  are
described which in combination with a continuous flow ultramicroscope
can be used for automatic recording of the number of bacterial cells  in
an aerosol chamber.
     3.  This device  in combination with a continuous flow ultramicro-
scope is recommended  for the study of the quantitative or dispersion
characteristics of aerosols in solid and liquid phases.
                               Bibliography.
                 H B. B., BjiaceHKO T. H. Ko.MonjiHbiH JKVPH., 1951, B. 4, cip. 249. —
      Ferry R. M., Farr L. E., Hart man M. G.,  Chem.  Rev., 1949, v. 44, p. 388.—
      Gucker F  T., O'Konski C. T., Pickard H.  B. et al.. J. Am. chem. Soc., 1947,
      v. 69, p. 2422. —Gucker F. T, O'Konski C. T., Chem. Rev., 1949. v. 44, p. 373.
                                     -240-

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                 Sanitary Protection of Air in Vinnitsa
                   M. B. Belaga and P. N. Maystruk
          (Vinnitsa Regional Sanitary-Epidemiological Station).
          (Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 26, No. 1, 73-?6, 1961).
     Vinnitsa consists of five districts: Center, Zamost'ye, Old City,
Pyatnichany, and Slavyanka.  The first part of the city is the admin-
istrative and cultural center; it is the site of residences, administrat-
ive offices, minor industries and cooperatives which do not contribute
substantially to the city's air pollution, except for the electric power
plant.  Zamost'ye district is the industrial region of the city, where
machine-construction plants and some light and food industries are lo-
cated, which pollute the city air to some degree.  The basic city air
pollution came from a superphosphate plant.  The other three city dis-
tricts present no problems with regard to the sanitary condition of the
city air.
     Air samples were collected in each district at selected points over
a period of several years by the sedimentation method, and by the aspira-
tion method during the warm seasons of one year.  The power plant, located
in the center of the city, polluted the district air heavily in the direc-
tion of the prevailing winds up to 1000 m, or up to the edge of the
recreation park.  Residents of the district complained about the dirty
condition of the streets, fly-ash eye traumas, and about the deterioration
of green plants.  By order of the sanitary organization the power plant
operation was converted to natural gas in 1958.  The air became cleaner,
green plants revived, and complaints from the population ceased.  The con-
version of residential and small industry furnaces to natural gas, the
paving and asphalting of the streets, and their sprinkling during the
summer contributed substantially to the cleanliness of the city air.
     The conversion of many Zamost'e district industries to operation by
gas and the partial asphalting of the streets, improved the composition of
the city air.  Installation of 100 m high smoke stacks in 1956 for the
disposal of waste gases generated by the superphosphate plant, before
starting any other gas-trapping units, reduced the concentrations of
                                    -241-

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sulfur dioxide and of nitric.oxides in the air surrounding the plant to
50-20$ of the old concentrations.  The sulphuric acid recovered from the
waste gases of the sulphuric acid shop amounted to almost five tons per
day.  However, since the gas-trapping and purifying units in the shops
and departments of the superphosphate plant operated at 40-65$ efficiency,
and the plant production continued to increase, the city air pollution
by the industrial discharges from the plant shops and electric heat and
power plant persisted.
     Conditions of and plans for the purification of discharges in the
different shops and departments are described in the following paragraphs:
     Sulphuric Acid Shop,  Sulphuric acid was manufactured by the tower
method.  One unit was equipped with a single-stage gas purifier to remove
the cinder dust and the sulphuric acid vapor and spray.  Six KhK-45 type
electrostatic filters were installed to remove the cinder dust from the
sulfur dioxide coming from the roasting furnaces and two PM-15 type
electrostatic filters to remove the sulphuric acid vapor and spray from
the waste gases.  Plant laboratory data indicated that up to 40,000 m
of gas per hour were discharged into the atmosphere during October-November
1959*  Exhaust gases carried with them up to 0.3 g/m  of nitric oxides in
terms of sulfuric acid equivalent, and up to 10 g/m  in terms of nitric
acid equivalent.  Dust content of the gas, after passing through the dry
electrostatic filters, dropped to 0.153 g/m .
     Superphosphate Shop.  This shop was equipped with two continually
operating production systems using apatite concentrate and sulphuric acid
as raw material.  Each system was equipped with a two-stage unit for the
removal of fluorine compounds from the discharge gas.  Absorption towers,
8.026 m high and 2.017 m in diameter, served as the purifying equipment*
Spraying was done with water through seven nozzles mounted in the form
of a circle at the top -of the tower.  Two fans, one for each system,
with individual capacity of 16,000 m /hr, were installed for the gas
exhaustion and discharge into the atmosphere.  The absorption towers
operated during discharging.  Gases were discharged into the atmosphere
through a single 15 m high metal stack.  Close to 20,000 m /hr of gas
was discharged into the atmosphere by both systems, through the cleaning
                                   -242-

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device.  Fluorine content in the gas upon entering the absorption towers
was 22.8 g/m , and an average of 0.6 g/m  upon leaving it.
     Sodium Fluoride Production Department.  Sodium fluoride was prepared
from sodium fluorosilicate.  The gas leaving the drier passed through a
two stage purifier, the first stage was an LIOT No. 6-B dust remover,
1.1 m in diameter, and the second stage was an absorption tower 7 m high
and 2.01 m in diameter.  A compound bag filter, composed of four bags,
each 1 m long and 2.5 cm in diameter, was installed for the removal of
sodium fluoride dust at the, unloading and unpacking point.  The dust in-
tensity in the air and gas, and the composition of the gas discharged
into the atmosphere remained unchanged.
     The superphosphate granulation shop included the granulation shop
proper and a tricalcium phosphate department.  The shop had four units, .
each equipped with a two-stage gas cleaner.  The first stage, used to
clean the gas coming from the drier, consisted of three LIOT No. 11 dust
removers with a diameter of 1.89 m; the second stage was a cyclone 7 m
high and 2.1 m in diameter.  The scrubber was hollow, equipped with an
inside water sprayer.  Each unit had three dust removers, mounted in
parallel formation, and one rotary fan with a capacity of 30,000 m  hr.
     According to factory data, 20,000 to 40,000 m /hr of flue gases were
discharged into the atmosphere carrying with them 0.173 g/m  of super-
phosphate dust and 0.002 g/m  of fluorides.  The tricalcium phosphate
feeder department consisted of one technological device, and the tri-
calcium phosphate dust was removed by a one-stage procedure.  One LIOT
type dust remover was also installed.  Flue gases carried off tricalcium
phosphate dust and other gases.  After having passed through the dust
remover, the gas was discharged into the atmosphere at the rate of
5,260 m.  hr, with a tricalcium phosphate dust content of 4-5 g/m > S00—
  •    i       '  '"                              ^                      e.
80 g/m , and fluorine compounds — up to 3 g/m .
     Sodium Pyrophosphate Production Shop.  This shop was equipped with a
scrubber 4 m high and 2.2 m in diameter.to purify the gas of C0? and of
soda particles.  Spraying was done with a soda solution at the rate of
18 m /hr.  After passing through the scrubber the gas was discharged
into the atmosphere at the rate of 3,500 m /hr.  The number of soda
                                    -243-

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particles and amount of CO. discharged were not determined, as the dis-
charged gas contained no pyrophosphates.  The polluted air of the
phosphate unpacking room was drawn out by suction and purified by passing
it through a battery cyclone.
     The Factory Heat and Electric Power Station.  The electric power
station was provided with three boilers.  VTP jalousie ash catchers were
installed on the first and second boilers, each consisting of two jalousie
screens and two cyclones.  Close to 3.5 tons of ashes per day were dis-
charged into the atmosphere together with the flue gases.  Preliminary
data indicated that the plant discharged into the atmosphere daily up to
10.5 tons of SOg, 6,5 tons of nitric  acid, 1.2 tons of sulphuric acid,
0.5 tons of fluorides, and one ton of superphosphate and tricalcium
phosphate dust.
     A study was made of air pollution in the plant vicinity with
fluorides, sulfur dioxide, sulphuric acid aerosol, nitric oxides, and
dust.  Results had shown that 40.4 percent of samples collected at
2000 m from the plant had a fluorine concentration exceeding the allow-
able maximal fluorine concentration, while the percentage of such samples
rose to 88.2 at 200 m from the plant.  Even at a distance of 2000 m from
the plant the maximal fluorine concentration was 13 times in excess of
the allowable limit.  The highest air pollution by sulfur dioxide was
noted at 1000 m from the plant, where the samples exceeding the allowable
limit rose to 36.6$.  The highest air pollution by sulphuric acid aerosols
was noted at 500 m from the plant.  Twenty-six percent of the samples
exceeded the allowable concentration limit.  The concentration of nitric
oxides in the majority of tests was within the allowable maximal limit.
High dust density prevailed in the plant vicinity.  Maximum concentration
at 200 m from the plant was 15.4 mg/m , or thirty times in excess of the
allowable concentration limit.  Concentrations decreased as the distance
 from the plant increased; however, they were still considerable at
2,000 m from the plant, exceeding the limit by 150$,  Analyses of dust
dispersion showed that it consisted of particles up to 5 |» at all
distances from the plant.  Analysis of dust samples collected at 200 —
1000 m from the plant showed that the fluorine content ranged between 0.8
                                     -244-

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and 1.4$.                                                  .
     Three soil samples at 200, 300, and 1,000 m from the plant contained
16.9, 9.61, and 8.7 og of fluorine respectively Tper 100 g of soil.
Cabbage wash-water contained 6.3 mg and beet wash-water contained 14.2
mg/1 kg of the vegetables grown 500 m from the plant.  Window wash-water
                                           2
contained close to 2 mg of fluorine per 1 m  of glass surface in residences
situated 1,000 m from the plant.  Fluorine-etched window panes were seen
in residences at 1,000 m from the plant.
     The effect of the air pollution on the health of the local residents
was studied by the question and answer method.  Questions pertaining to
health were asked of 422 adults by a special card method suggested by the
Ukrainian Institute of Community Hygiene.  The questioned residents were
divided into four groups according to their place of residence.
     Group One included persons who resided in the 200 m zone surrounding
the plant) Group Two resided in the 500 m zone; Group Three resided in
the 1000 m zone, and Group Four in the 2,000 m zone.  Approximately 50$
of all the interrogated persons complained of plant gas odors in the air,
especially when the wind blew from the plant.  Many complained of feeling
of malaise, irritation of the respiratory tract, coughing, eye trauma,
which the inhabitants believed was caused by harmful gases and dust.
Such complaints came from 68% of residents questioned in zones One and
Two.
     Questioned inhabitants of the first, second, and third zones com-
plained of serious household inconveniences, such as heavy dust penetrat-
ing into their living quarters, especially during summer.  Such com-
plaints came from 91% of questioned persons in the first zone, 62% in
the second, and 84$ in the third.  Soiled linen complaints came from 95»
43, and 22% respectively? soiled clothing complaints came from 94-41$;
and soiled furniture from 95-42$.  Inhabitants also complained of damage
to trees and house plants.  Yellowing of the green parts of plants was
noted over an area of 1000 m surrounding the plant.  The nature of the
complaints accorded with the laboratory findings.   The  sanitary-defense
or clearance zone prescribed by N-101-54 for this plant was inadequate,
since the maximum fluorine concentrations in the air at 1,000 m from the
                                     -245-

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plant was 12 times in excess of the official limit, sulfur dioxide con-
centration was three times, and dust density was six times in excess of
their respective official limits.
     In view of the fact that residential zones already existed in the
vicinity of the plant (Vinnitsa, Shevchenko Village, etc.), the sanitary
clearance zone could not be extended to the required width.  Therefore,
technical sanitary means had to be instituted in the superphosphate plant
itself for the proper reduction of the excessive air pollution.  Among
such means are elimination of every possible source of gas leakage by
appropriate equipment hermetization, the installation of effective and
efficient dust catching and gas purifying equipment, and appropriately
high stacks for the greater dispersion of the discharged air pollutants.
Some of the suggested improvements were being instituted.  The following
is recommended specifically for the sulfur acid department; a) complete
the construction of a two-story building to house two exhaust fans of
150,000 m /hr in place of the 40,000 m /hr fan now in operation} b) in-
stitute special means by which the gases generated in the pyrite roasting
furnace could be exhausted and discharged while the tower was being
cleaned and washed; c) complete the installation of filters to raise the
tail gas utilization efficiency to 90-95$5 d.) build a warehouse for the
superphosphate shop to store the apatite concentrate instead of storing
it in the open, and eliminate this phase of air pollution.  The gases from
the sodium fluosilicate drying furnace should be discharged through a
common factory stack; localized exhaust ventilation should be interconnected
so that the total of such exhaust pollution could be discharged through
the plant's main discharge stack.  Plans were being drawn up in connection
with the tricalcium phosphate section of the superphosphate granulation
shop for the installation of a one million ruble device to trap discharged
gases.  The jalousie ash-catching installations in the electric heat and
power station should be replaced by equipment of higher efficiency.
     The gas-cleaning equipment should be inspected and checked at inter-
vals for its general condition and performance efficiency.
                                    -246-

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   Problems of Improving Working Conditions in the Chemical
                           Fiber Industry
                          V. D. Krantsfel'd
            (Institute of Labor Hygiene and Occupational Diseases
                    Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR)
     Depending upon the initial raw material used, synthetic fibers are
produced by two types of manufacturing industrial plants; a) plants
which produced viscose from different kinds of cellulose by the cupram-
monium or acetate method, and b) plants which produced synthetic fibers
from processed products of coal and related materials  and from natural
gas.  The first group of industrial plants, especially the ones which
manufactured different types of viscose fibers and viscous sheets,  were
the earliest to go into extensive operation in the USSR.  Only capron and
nylon fibers are being produced at present on broad commercial scale in
the USSR.  Other types of synthetic fibers, such as nitron, dacron,
enanthic fibers, teflon, etc. are produced only in limited quantities.
However, latest economic plans call for the production of these fibers
on a large commercial scale in the near future.
     The ever-increasing tempo of economic development gave rise to new
and complex problems related to the improvement of working conditions in
the synthetic fiber industries.  The nature of the problems varies  from
indoor environmental sanitation, such as air pollution with new substances
of unknown toxicity to faulty planning and construction of working  premises
from a general hygienic viewpoint.  In addition inspection of present
sanitary-hygienic working conditions in existing synthetic fiber manufac-
turing plants clearly indicated the urgent need or reappraisal of such
phases of sanitation as ventilation, discharge of air  pollutants, noise
and vibration elimination, and faulty and inadequate illumination.   Some
of these phases, are discussed in detail in the following paragraphs.
     Means by which sanitation could be improved in plants producing
synthetic fibers are conditioned to a considerable degree by the techno-
logical characteristics of synthetic fiber formation.   Synthetic fibers
are formed by two methods, generally known as the "wet" and "dry" methods.
Viscose, cuprammonium and nitron fibers, are formed by  the "wet" method.
                                    -247-

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In the "wet" method a "spinning" solution is forced through so-called
filters which are special nozzles with a large number of very fine
openings, or spinnerets, mounted on the end of tubes through which the
forced spinning solution flows.  The spinnerets are submerged in
"spinning baths".  The fine threadlike streams of spinning solution
emerging from the spinnerets react with the liquid of the spinning bath,
thereby converting the threadlike streams into fiber filaments.  In the
"dry" method a spinning solution (acetate fiber) or melted synthetic
resins (the majority of synthetic fibers, e.g. capron, nylon) is also
forced through a spinneret filter; the streams emerging from the
spinnerets are passed through special stacks where they come in contact
with a stream of conditioned air which converts them into threads.  The
"spinning" machines in both methods consist of a series of identical
spinning units, or spinnerets, sometimes as many as 200, installed in a
row of several kilometers.  The thread formation process is done either
openly, or in a non-hermetic enclosure or encapsulation resulting in the
majority of cases in the dispersion of harmful substances in the shop air.
     The expected industrial output of a series of newly built viscose
plants together with the output of several existing and operating in-
stallations will amount to hundreds of tons of synthetic fibers each day.
This means that the daily consumption of carbon bisulfide will amount to
tens of tons, of which almost 80-90$ will become vaporized or partially
converted to hydrogen sulfide in secondary reactions.   Existing technical
facilities will prove inadequate for the recovery of such great volumes of
these harmful waste products from the work areas or for their discharge
into the atmospheric air.  It will become impossible to attain the pre-
scribed sanitary conditions by the usual "encapsulating" of the gas gen-
erating equipment and/or by powerful fans to discharge such gases into
the atmospheric air through 100-120 m stacks.  Purification of ventilator
discharges has become imperative for the prevention of air pollution in
settlement regions.  With the development of the production of viscose
as above indicated millions of cubic meters of air per hour would have
to be purified by the existing technical facilities—an impossible task
in view of the extreme complexity and size of the purifying equipment and
                                   -248-

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the huge economic expenditures.  Moreover, mere rarification of OS- and
HpS concentrations would not constitute a radical solution of the
problem of atmospheric or indoor air pollution with vapors of CSp or
HpS.  At the present time there are several ways of solving the complex
problem of sanitizing the air of work areas or of the atmosphere in indus-
trial and settlement areas.
     Experience in the production of viscous fiber indicated that the most
effective means of trapping carbon bisulfide was by direct driving off
the CS? vapor given off by the plastic material as it left the spinnerets
and entered the pListicizer stacks.  A mixture of water vapor and CSp
formed in the plasticizing stacks which was being continually removed
and condensed, a procedure which made possible the recovery of 40-60$
of CS_ used in the process of fiber xanthogenation; the remaining 40-60$
of the CSp could be recovered with the aid of activated charcoal.  This
author is of the opinion that a direct process similar to the one above
described should be used in the recovery of CSp given off during "spinning"
viscose, thread fiber, viscose silk, or during cellophane making.
     Purification of carbon bisulfide and hydrogen sulfide-polluted
exhaust air from encapsulated installations, especially from "spinning"
machines, can be made practical by reducing the volume of exhaust air
and correspondingly increasing the concentrations of the harmful sub-
stances in it.  This can be effectively accomplished by absolute hermetic
encapsulation of the "spinning" machine.  The "spinning" bath and the
"air conditioned" plasticizer stack and exhaust ventilation unit should
be provided with two modes of operation as shown in the illustration;
with the encapsulation screens hermetically closed, the volume of exhaust
air should be minimum; the exhaust unit should create a negative pressure
inside the encapsulation to prevent the polluted air from escaping into
the work area when the encapsulated "spinning" machine is opened by
raising its lid.  The rate of air exhaust ventilation from the uncovered
equipment should be instantaneously and automatically increased
sufficiently to be able to completely ventilate the workroom air, there-
by protecting the workers from inhaling air containing high concentrations
of carbon bisulfide and hydrogen sulfide.
                                     -249-

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    I.FILTERS; 2.SPINNIIIG IATU; 3.LIFTIMS PART OF
    ENCAPSULATOR; 4-vENT FOR CONTINUOUS EXHAUST AIR;
    5.-VENT FOR IOOSTER EXHAUST AIR; 6.-UFT VALVE
    FOR IOOSTER VENTILATION; 7. HYIRAULIC SHUT-OFF}
    8.-CARION IISHLFIIE EXHAUST PIPES.
     Such a reduction  in  the
volumev of exhaust air  is  advan-
tageous from the technical  econ-
omic and air sanitization view-
points.  However, it must be
borne in mind that the above
outlined procedure will operate
effectively only when  the cap-
sule or housing can be hermet-
ically closed and the  automatic
exhaust booster begins to
operate the exhaust apparatus
the very moment the housing lid
is opened, and that rate  of air
exchange by the created negative
pressure has been sufficiently
enhanced.
      Perfection in manufacturing technology is  an important factor in the
improvement  of work conditions in the synthetic fiber industry.
      N.  V. Mikhailov of the Ail-Union Synthetic Fiber Scientific
Research Institute has recently developed a method of alkaline spinning,
instead  of acid spinning, of staple viscous fiber,  in which air pollution
with  carbon  bisulfide and hydrogen sulfide can  be substantially reduced.
This  method  should be checked and tested and its general practicability
determined without delay; a pilot plant should  be built  and pilot-scale
operation should begin immediately.
      Dinyl,  is a high-boiling organic heat transferring  substance used
in heating equipment employed in the manufacture of synthetic fibers such
as capron, polyamide, dacron, etc. in the preparation of resin mixtures
for "spinning", in converting monomer compounds of toxic properties into
polymers, and in the preparation of autoclave melting tape and fibers.
Dinyl is a mixture of 75$ diphenyl oxide and 25* diphenyl, having a b. p.
-of 256 . Dinyl is usually brought to the vapor state and is sent through
pipes at 0.5 m pressure into jacketed heat radiators.  Dinyl fumes permeate
                                     -250-

-------
into the air through loose joints and valves, during disassembling of
pipe connection or during pipe cleaning, causing air pollution.
     Purification of air polluted by dinyl fumes in the capron fiber
industry until recently, has been done primarily by exchange and exhaust
ventilation and by sealing leakage in dinyl supply lines.  A study of
working conditions in this industry by A. P. Martynova et. al. indicated
that these methods did not ensure the desired sanitary results.  Dinyl
concentrations considerably in excess of the allowable concentration
limit have been found in the air during monomer melting processes in
the "chemical" preparation shops, and during filament forming processes
in the spinning shops.  The unpleasant odor of dinyl discharged by an
exhaust fan has been perceived both in the vicinity of the plant and be-
yond its boundaries.  Dinyl air pollution can be eliminated by heating
the needed apparatus and equipment electrically.  Despite the fact that
this is technically feasible, this has not been done up to the present.
Therefore, it is recommended that all means capable of reducing the
amount of dinyl fumes should be resorted to: replacing packing gland
valves with bellow type valves, the production of which was begun this year
instituting a combined dinyl-eleetric heating system and discontinuing the
use of the dinyl boiler and the long supply lines.  Enclosure of the
spinning machines has not been resorted to until recently in the capron
and amide fiber industry.  Enclosure of the equipment in combination with
an exhaust fan proved effective in the localization and trapping of dinyl
                                   i
fumes and other harmful substances: caprolactam fumes and aerosols in the
capron fiber industry, and hexamethylene-diamine in the amide fiber in-
dustry} it was generally effective in removing considerable quantities of
heat.  Especially important was the development of a new spinning machine
design, which included devices for the removal of fumes of harmful sub-
stances at their point of origin and for their subsequent recovery and
return to the production department.
     Until recently little attention has been devoted to the problem of
dust control, when loading pulverized materials, used in the synthetic
fiber industry, into the processing equipment,  e.g.,  caprolactam (a
monomer) into autoclaves, polyacrylonitrile into hoppers and mixers
containing solvents in the nitron industry, dimethyl-terephthalic acid
                                    -251-

-------
into equipment and into solvents containing ethylene glycol, etc.  In
the majority of cases weighing and charging was done manually.  The use
of equipment which performed these operations automatically is suggested
as another means of improving working conditions.
     So-called lubricants, which are surface active organic compounds,
have been used during the finishing processes of different chemical fibers.
The raw materials of these compounds are organic solvents, petroleum
products, fatty alcohols, pyridine, phosphorus trichloride, phosphoric
anhydride, dibutyl ethanolamine, butyl stearate, lauric acid, etc.
Undoubtedly, new such lubricants will corne into use as new types of
synthetic fibers will be manufactured.  In this connection the need
arises for the determination of the toxic properties of such substances
as dimethyl-terephthalic acid, dimethyl ethanolamine, polytetrafluoro-
ethelene, dibutyl-ethanolamine, etc.., and to study the prevailing sani-
tary and hygienic conditions when using these substances in the manufac-
turing processes.  This is essential for the development of prophylactic
sanitary-hygienic measures at the proper time for the protection of
workers from the harmful effects of these substances.
     Problems of controlling noise and vibration in the chemical fiber
industry have practically not been raised until recently.  Results of a
survey conducted by T. A. Or1ova, L. A. Kozlov, N. N. Shatalov, A. L.
Melkov et. al. of the Institute of Labor Hygiene and Occupational Diseases
of the Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR have shown that the noise
level in the twisting, spinning, and rewinding shops considerably exceeded
the allowable noise limit, causing adverse changes in the workers state
of health.  Furthermore, it was noted that workers who operated certain
machines suffered the effects of local vibration, such as the finger
tips, knee joints, etc.  Freeing the workers from the harmful effects of
these physical factors should be regarded as an urgent problem.
                               Conclusions.
     1.  Development of the USSR chemical fiber industry gave rise to
new problems related to the improvement of working conditions worsened
by the increased amount of new toxic materials released into the air
of the shops and discharged into the atmospheric air.
                                    -252-

-------
      The number  and  variety of problems related  to the improvement  of

working conditions is continuously increasing with the appearance of new

physical factors which affect  adversely the  external  environment 5 — noise,

vibration,  etc.
      2.   The introduction of new and more efficient technological proc-

esses  in combination with wide use of  automation and  improved  production

equipment will present the possibility of more efficient  prevention of

industrial  injuries.

                                     Bibliography.
                           n.  fl., Rp o rw IH H a 3. A., Kami ax K>. R. H ap. B MH.: Tlpo-
           4>eccHOHajibHbie  (So-nesHH.  M'., 1957, crp.  281. — K p a H u e Ji b ji  B.  R.,  Ill a $ p a-
           H o B  B. B. TesHcu HOKJI. Ha HayiHofi CCCCHH, nocasiiu. 30-JieTHK> Hfl-ra rarHeHbi rpyaa H
           npodwaoojieBaHHii. M., 1953, crp. 75. — K p a H u(j> e Ji b a B. R. B KH.: Bonpocu rHriteHhi
           Tpyaa H npexJwaftaneBawHft. M.,  1948,  crp. 109. — On  JKC.  Teanrcbi JOKJI.  Ha  io6fUteiinoit
           HayqHoft cueccHH H'H-ra rHTHeHu rpyaa H npcx})3a6o^eBaHnfl AMH  CCCP  COBMCCTHO 9
           »H-T3'MH rHPHenbi itpyfla COKWHHX peony6;iHK  H KaiJ>eflpaMH rwrHeHbi rpyaa Man.  KH-TOB, no;'
           CBDIU. 40-^eTHK>  BeJiHKof!  OKTfiGpbCKOH  cou.  peBo^iouHH. M., 1957, q.  2,  crp.  17.-^
           JIofiaHooa K. fl. r«r.  rpyaa H mpo(J;. 3a6o^eBaiHH»,  1959, JV» 6, crp. 8. — MaprbiHO-,.
           B a A. PI. TesHCu AOKJI. ua io6H^efiHOii  CCCCHH Hn-ra THF. rpyna  H TipcxJ)3a6o^eBa.HHH AMH
           CCCP  COBMCCTHO c HH-TaM'H  pHrHeHw Tpy^a H Ka(peapaM'H rHraeHbi ipyaa Mea.  HH-TOB,
           nooBtiui. 40-jietMO Be-rwKoA  OKtaftpbCKOH cou. pes.  M^  1957, M.  2,  crp. 19. —  Poro-
           BHH 3. A. OcHOBbl XHMHH H  TCXHOJlOrHH npOH3BOACTB3 XHMHM6CKHX  BO^OKOH. M., 1957.—
           Banik E.  Melliand  Textilber., 1957,  Bd.  38. S. 330. — V i g tie n i  E.  C.,  Folia med.
           fNaipoli). 1953. v. 36, p. 144. — W ist H.  J., Dtsch.  Gesundhwes.. 1958, Bd. 131, S. 684 —
           Wilke A. Faserforsch. und Textiltechn.,  1954^ Bd.  5,  S. 513.
                                              -253-

-------
          P  A  R  T  F I V E
Lists of Limits of Allowable Concentrations
                   -254-

-------
      Limits of Allowable Concentrations of Deleterious
    Substances in the Atmospheric Air of Populated Areas

 (Approved by the Deputy Chief State Sanitary Inspector of the
      USSR, Yu. Lebdev, 14 February, 1961. No. 221 61).

1.
2.

3.
4.
5.

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
Name of pollutant
Acrolein
Amyl Acetate

Acetone
Benzene
Gasoline, petrolic
low S content as C
Butyl Acetate
Vinyl Acetate
Dichloroethane
Dinyl
Methanol,
Methyl Acetate
Mn and its compounds
As, inorganic compounds,
hydrogen arsenide excluded
Carbon monoxide
Oxides of nitrogen
Dust, inert, non- toxic
Mercury, metallic
Sulfur dioxide
Hydrogen sulfide
Carbon bisulfide
Soot or lampblack
Su If uric acid
Lead and its compounds
Formula
CH2CH CHO
CH3COOCH2
CH2CH(CH3)2
CH3CO CH3
C6H6


CH3COOC4H9
CH3COOCH»CH2
CH2C1 CH2C1

CH3OH
CH3COOCH3
Mn

As
CO
N2°5

Hg
so2
H2S
cs2

H2S04

Limit of allowable
concentration
in mg/m3
Maximum i
single i
0.30

0.1
0.35
2.40

5.0
0.1
0.2
3.0
0.01
1.5
0.07
0.03

—
6.0
0.3
0.5
—
0.5
0.008
0.03
0.15
0.3

24-hour
average
0.10

0.1
0.35
0.80

1.5
0.1
0.2
1.0
0.01
0.5
0.07
0.01

0.003
1.0
0.1
0.15
0.0003
0.15
0.008
0.01
0.05
0.1

(Tetraethyl lead excepted)
Pb
0.0007
                                 -255-

-------
   Name of pollutant
32.  Chloroprene
     (2-chlorobutadian-1.3)
33.  Chromium hexavalent
     calculated as Cr-Oi
Formula
                                    C12«CC1CH=CH2
                                                        Limit of allowable
                                                           concentration
                                                              in rog/m

24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.

Lead sulfide
Formaldehyde
Phosphoric anhydride
Fluorine compound
Phenol
Furforol
Chlorine
Hydrogen chloride

PbS
HCHO
P2°5
CgHcOH
HC - CH
II II
HC CHO
0
Cl
HC1
Maximum t
single ,
—
0.035
0.15
0.03
0.01
0.05
0.10
0.05
24-hour
average
0.0017
0.012
0.05
0.01
0.01

0.03
0.015
                    0.25

                    0.0015
                    0.1
                                                                     0.08
                                                                     0.1
34.  Ethyl Acetate

Notes:

     1. In the presence in the atmospheric air of sulfurous anhydride (SO.)
and sulfuric acid aerosol the allowable sum of their concentrations should
be determined by the following formula:
In which A is the existing concentration of 309 in mg/m
                                              '              o
         m is the maximal allowable S09 concentration in mg/m
                                                                 3
         B is the existing concentration of HgSO, aerosol in mg/m
     and n is the maximal allowable H0SO  concentration in mg/m
                                     *  4
     2.  Indexes of limits of allowable concentrations for the hygienic
evaluation of the sanitary condition of atmospheric air of inhabited areas
originally approved 16th of July, 1956 by No. 221-56, 26th of July, 1957
by No. 253-57, 9th of December, 1^59 by No. 307-59 and 31st of March, I960
by No. 323-60 are hereby declared null and void.
Ministry of Health of the USSR.
State Sanitary Inspectorate of the USSR.
Moscow, 1961.
                                      -256-

-------
       Supplement to "Limits of Allowable Concentration of Deleterious
       Substances in Atmospheric Air of Populated Areas", approved
       14 February, 1961 by No. 221-61, the following maximal concen-
       tration limits have been approved:


                                              max. single   24-hour avg.
                                              allowable     allowable
    Substance                    Formula      concentration concentration

Furfurol (*)                     HC    CH                       0.05
                                 HC    CH
                                    0

Styrol                                           0.003          0.003
Methylmethacrylate           CH2:C(CH3)COOCH-j    0.10

Dimethylformamide                                0.03           0.03


(* )  Maximal single concentration for furfurol was determined and
     approved by the State Sanitary Inspectorate 14th of February, 1961
     by No. 221-61.

Approved by Deputy Chief State Sanitary Inspector of the USSR Yu. Lebedev,
13th of April, 1962.
                                     -257-

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   New Standards of Allowable Concentrations of Toxic Gases, Vapors,
               and Dust in the Air of Working Premises
                     Z. B. Smelyanskii and I;  P.  Ulanova
             Central Institute of Post Graduate Medicine,  Moscow
    (Gigiena Truda i Professional'nye Zabolevaniya,  No. 5»  7-14»  1959).
     Below are listed limits of allowable concentrations of toxic gases,
vapors and dust in the air of working premises, approved by the Chief
State Sanitary Inspector of the USSR, 10th of  January,  1959 and adopted
as official standards as per No. 279-59.
     N 101-54 established limits of allowable  concentrations of toxic
gases, vapors, and dust in the air of working  premises  as  mandatory  guides
for planners and builders of new industrial manufacturing  and processing
enterprises, especially as such standard  limits were indicated in note 5
of supplement 3.
     1.  The present limits of allowable  concentrations were intended as
guides in:
   a) planning technological processes, industrial  equipment and  installations,
properly calculating and designing ventilation systems, especially in
individual production and processing shops and departments which  create
and emit toxic gases, vapors and dust;
   b) maintaining proper control over sanitary conditions  in working prem-
ises, and in the proper evaluation (inspection) of  existing sanitary
working conditions.
     2.  The data presented in the following tables represent maximal
allowable concentrations of the toxic substances  in the air of working
premises.  Concentrations exceeding these shall not be  permitted  under
any circumstances.  In many instances it  may be possible to completely
remove the indoor air pollutants by improved processes  of  production,
complete hermetization of channels for the discharge of the indoor air
pollutant components, and by proper maintenance and safe operation of
all production, processing,  and waste gas? vapor, and dust removal.  In
such cases it is the duty of local sanitary authorities to see that  such
a sanitary hygienic system be enforced.
                                     -258°

-------
     3.  The determined and approved limits of allowable concentrations
of toxic gases, vapors, and dust must be regarded as mandatory standards
for working premises.  By working premises is meant places of continuous
or periodic presence of workers, in connection with any phase of their
duties, whether actual production or processing, or inspection of oper-
ations of equipment and installations, etc.  If the production operations
are performed at different points of the industrial premises then the
entire premises should be regarded as "working premises" subject to the
standard limits enumerated.
     4.  The following limits of allowable concentrations apply mandatorily
to all industrial enterprises in the process of planning, in the process
of construction and to industrial enterprises which are about to begin
operation; the limits are also mandatory for industrial plants which had
been in operation since 1/1, I960.
     5.  Supplements to and changes in the present limits of allowable
concentrations of gases, vapors and dust may be issued by the State
Sanitary Inspectorate of the USSR as the result of scientific and practical
facts accumulated by authoritative research and practical institutes directly
or indirectly affiliated with USSR Ministry of Health.
     6.  The following limits of allowable concentrations of toxic gases,
vapors and dust shall prevail in the air of industrial manufacturing and
processing premises.
                                      -259-

-------
Nos.
Nature of air pollutant
Maximal allowable
concentrations in
      mg/li
 1.      Acrolein       J- Gases and Vapors in mg/li       0.000? (*)
 2.      Arayl acetate                                      0.10
 3.      Ammonia                                           0.02
 4.      Anilin                                            0.003
 5.      Acetaldehyde                                      0.005
 6.      Acetone                                           0.20
 7.      Gasoline, solvent                                 0.30
 8.      Gasoline, fuel, shale, creaking, etc.             0.10
 9.      Benzene                                           0.02 (*)
10.      Butyl acetate                                     0.20
11.      Vinyl acetate                                     0.01
12.      Hexogen (Cycle-trimethylene-trinitroamine)        0.001
13.      Hexamethylene-di-isocyanate                       0.00005
14.      Hexamethylene-diamine                             0.001
15.      Hydrazine-hydrate, hydrazine and its derivatives ; 0.0001
16.      Decaline                                          0.10
17.      Divinyl, pseudobutylene                           0.10
18.      Dimethylamine                                     0.001
19.      Dimethylformamide                                 0.01
20.      Dinyl                                             0.01
21.      Dinotrobezene                                     0.001
22.      Dinitrotoluol                                     0.001
23.      Dioxan                                            0.01
24.      Dichlorobenzene                                   0.02
25.      Dichlorostyrol                                    0.05
26.      Dichlorophenyltrichlorosilane                     0.001
27.      Dichloroethane                                    0.01 (*)
28.      1,1-dichloroethylene (vinylidene dichloride)       0.05
29.      Diethylamine                                      0.03
30.      Isopropyl nitrate                                 0.005
31.      Iodine                                            0.001
                                     -260-

-------
                                                         Maximal allow-
Nos.                   Nature of air pollutant           able concentrations
                                                             in mg/li
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
Camphor
Caprolactam
Kerosene (Calculated on the basis of C)
Xylidine
Xylol
Li groin
0.003
0.01
0.30
0.003
0.05 <*)
0.30
Mercaptophos (A mixture of thionic and 0.00002
thiolic isomers, diethylmercaptoethylthiophosphate)
Metaphos ( 0 . 0-dimethy 1-0. 4-nitropheny 1-
thi opho sphat e )
Methyl acetate
Methylhexylketone
Methyl acrylate
Methylpropyl ketone
Methyl sytox (A mixture of thionic and
thiolic isomers, p-mercaptoethyldimethyl
thiophosphate )
Methylethyl ketone
Monobutylamine
Monomethyamine
Monochlorstyrole
Hydrogen arsenide
M-81 ( ) , )-dimethyl-p-ethylmercapto-
dithiophosphate
Napthalene
Unsaturated alcohols of the fatty order
(Alyl alcohol, crotonylic alcohol, etc.)
Nitryl acrylate
Nitro-and dinitrochlorobenzenes
Nitrobutane
Nitromethane
Nitropropane
Nitroethane
0.0001
0.10
0.20
0.02
0.20
0.0001
0.20
0.01
0.005.
0.05
0.0003
0.0001
0.02
0.002
0.0005
0.001
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
                                     -261-

-------
Nos.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
Nature of air pollutant
Nitrated benzene compounds
Ozone
Oxides of nitrogen, as Np^S
Carbon monoxide
Ethylene oxide
Picolines (A mixture of isomera)
Pyridine
Propyl acetate
Mercury, metallic
Sulfuric acid and sulfuric anhydride (SO^)
Sulfurous anhydride (SO^)
Hydrogen sulfide
Carbon bisulfide
Sylvan (2-methylfuran)
Turpentine
Solvent naphtha
Amyl alcohol
Butyl alcohol
Methyl alcohol
Propyl alcohol
Ethyl alcohol
Styrole-a
Tetraline
Tetranitromethane
Tetrachlorheptane
Tetrachloropehtane
Tetrachloropropane
Tetraethyllead
Toluidine
Toluylene-diisocyanate
Toluol
Trinitrotoluol
Trichlorobenzene
Maximal allow-
able concentrations
in mg/li
0.003
0.0001
0.005
0.02 (*)
0.001
0.005
0.005
0.20
0.00001
0.001 (*)
0.01 (*)
0.01
0.01
0.001
0.30
0.10
0.10
0.20
0.05
0.20
1.00
0.05
0.10
0.0003
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.000005
0.003
0.0005
0.05 f )
0.001
0.01
-262-

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N08.
Nature of air pollutant
Maximal allow-
able concentrations
     in nur/li
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
111.
112.
113.
114.
115.
116.
117.
118.
119.
120.
121.
122.
Trichloroethylene
White spirit
Hydrocarbons, calculated as C
Acetic acid
Phenylmethyl-dichlorosilane
Phenol
Formaldehyde
Phosgene (Car bony 1 chloride)
Hydrogen phosphide (Phosphine)
Phosphoric anhydride
Phosphotud yellow
Salts of hydrofluoric acid, calculated as HP
Hydrogen fluoride
Furfurol
Chlorine
Chlorobenzene
Chlorinated diphenyls
Chlorinated diphenyl oxide
Chlorinated naphthalines (Trichloronaphthaline,
mixture of tetra-and pentachloronaphthalines)
Chlorinated higher naphthalenes
Chlorovinyl
Hydrogen chloride and hydrochloric acid, calculated
as HC1
Methylene chloride
Chloromethyltriohlorosilane
Chloroprene
Hydrogen cyanide and salts of hydrocyanic
acid, as HCN
Cyolohexanon
Cy c 1 ohexanonoxym
Carbon tetraohloride
Extra line
Epichlorohydrin
0.05
0.03
0.30
0.005
0.001
0.005
0.001 (*)
0.0005
0.0001 (*)
0.001
0.00003
0.001
0.0005 (*)
0.01
0.001
0.05
0.001
0.0005
0.001
0.0005
0.03
0.01
0.05
0.001
0.002
0.0003
0.01
0.01
/*\
0.02 ( )
0.003
0.001
                                     -263-

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Nos.
123.
124.
Nature of air pollutant
Ethyl acetate
Ethyl ether
Maximal allow-
able concentration
in mg/li
0.20
0.30
                   II.  Dust and other aerosols in mg/m
                    a)  Dust, mineral and organic
 1.        Dust containing more than 70$ free SiO_ in its
         ,  crystalline form, such as quartz, crystabalite,
           tridimite, and condensate of SiO~                    1.00
 2.        Dust containing more than 10$ but not over 70$ of
          .free SiO-                   '                         2.00
 3.        Asbestos dust and mixed dust containing more
           than 10$ of asbestos                                 2.00
 4.        Glass wool and mineral wool dusts                    3.00
 5.        Other silicate dust containing less than 10$
           free Si 02, such as talc, olivin, etc.                4.00
 6.        Baryta, apatite, phosphorite, cement dusts
           containing less than 10$ SiOg                        5.00
 7.        Abrasive dusts (Corundum, carborundum, etc.)         5.00
 8.        Cement, loam, mineral dusts and their mixed
           dusts, free from SiOp                                6.00
 9.        Coal and coal-rock dusts containing over 10$
           free SiO                     '                        2.00
10.        Coal dust containing up to 10$ free SiOg             4.00
11.        Coal dust Si02 free                                 10.00
12.        Tabacco and tea dust                                 3.00
13.        Dust of animal and vegetable origin (cotton,
           linen, flour, grain, seeds, wood, wool, feathers,
           etc.) containing 10$ oroover free SiOp               2.00
14.        Dust of animal or vegetable origin containing
           up to 10$ free SiO                              .     4.00
15.        Dusts from powder, compression, pheno andsnino
           plastics                                             6.00
16.        Dusts, other than above listed    -it                lOiOO
                                            / **v
17.        Hexachlorocyclohexane (y-isomer) v                   0.10
                                            (  i
18.        Hexachlorocyclohexane (y-isomer) v  '                0.05
19.        Hexachlorobenzene                                    0.90
20.        Heptachlor  1, (or 3a)4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8-heptachlo-3a
           4, 7a-tetrahydro-4, 7-endomethylindene               0.10
                                        -264-

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21.        Dinitrorhodoben zene                                 2.00
22.        Ootamethyl (Octamethyltetramide pyrophosphate)       0.0?
23.        Polychlopinene                                       0.20
24*        Pentachloronitrobenzene                              0.50
25.        Preparation 125 (Of the type of dinitroortho-
           creaol)                                              3.00
26.        Thiophos (Diethylparanitrophenylthiophosphate)       0.05
27.        Chloindan (Octachloroendomethylenehexahydroindane)   0.01
28.        Chlorethane (Chlorinated bicyclic compounds)         0.02
29.        Ethylmercuricphosphate                               0.005
30.        Ethylmercurio chloride                               0.005
            b) Aerosols of metals, metaloids and their compounds
31.        Aluminum, aluminum hydroxide, aluminum alloys        2.00
32.        Berillium and its compounds                          0.001
33.        Vanadium and its compounds:
                Vanadium pentoxide aerosol                      0.100
                Vanadium pentozide dust                         0.50
                Ferrovanadium                                   1.00
34.        Tungsten (Tungsten carbide)                          6.00
35.        Iron oxide with an admixture of Fl and Mn
           compounds                                            4.00
36.        Cadmium oxide                                        0.10
37.        Cobalt (oxide of Co)                                 0.50
38.        Manganese,  calculated as Mn02                        0.30
39.        Molybdenum (Soluble compounds)                       4.00
40.        Molybdenum .(Insoluble compounds)                     6.00
41.        Arsenical and arsenious anhydrides                   0.30
42.        Nickel, nickel oxide                                 0.50
43.        Lead and its inorganic compounds                     0.01
44.        Selenium, amorphous                                  2.00
45*        Selenium anhydride                                   0.10
46.        Mercuric chloride                                    0.10
47.        Tantalum oxide                                      10.00
48.        Tellurium                                            0.01
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49.        Titanium oxide                                      10.00

50.        Thorium                                              0.05

51.        Copper trichlorpphenolate                            0.10

52.        Uranium (Soluble compounds)                          0.015

53.        Uranium (Insoluble compounds)                        0.075

54.        Chromic anhydride, chromatrs, bichromates,
           calculated as Cr^OO                                 0.10

55.        Zinc oxide                                           5.00

56.        Zirconium                                            5.00

57*        Alkaline aerosols, calculated as NaOH                0.500

(*)        Until the next revision of N 101-54 limits of
           allowable concentrations must be such as are
           specified in Supplement 3 of N 101-54, which
           is still in force.
 y »f ,
(  )       Technical hexachlorocyclohexane is a mixture of at
           least five of nine possible isomers, some of which
           are without appreciable activity} the Y-isomer, known
           as "lindane" is the most active biologically, hence,
           the technical material is graded according to its
           Y-isomer content.  Smelyanskii and Ulanova in items
           17 and 18 of mineral and organic dusts present 0.10
           and 0.05 mg/m^ as the limiting values without making
           any reference to their Y-isomer contents.  There must
           be a reason for the 50$ difference in the limit values,
           but the reason is not indicated.  B.S.L.

Notes* 1.  Where workers remain in the production and processing rooms for only
           a brief period of time the Office of the State Sanitary Inspector
           of the USSR may grant permission to digress from the prescribed
           concentration limits.
       2_._  Where CO is present in the air of working premises for one hour or
           less its maximal concentration may be raised to 0.05 "ig/lij in oases
           where CO is present in the air for not more than 30 min. its maximal
           concentration may be raised to 0.10 mg/lij and if the period does
           not exceed 15 min. the maximal CO concentration may be as high as
           0.20 mg/li.
        3^ In seasonal agricultural work in the presence of deleterious chemical
           air pollutants maximal allowable concentrations may be raised by
           permission of the Chief State Sanitary Inspector of the USSR.
        4,.. In the presence in the air of vapors of several volatile solvents,
           such as acetone, alcohols, acetic esters, etc. the rate of air ex-
           change ventilation must be such as to bring in a sufficient volume
           of fresh air required for the dilution of the gaseous or vapor air
           pollutant to its prescribed maximal allowable concentration.


                                         -266-

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                In instances of gases and vapors other than those coming
           from volatile solvents enough fresh air should be brought in
           continuously to bring the concentration of the pollutant having
           the highest toxioity to its maximal allowable limit.
     The standards of maximal limits presented in this paper differ substan-
tially from the maximal concentrations prescribed by N 101-54, and, in fact,
constitute a further development and improvement in the field of limits of
allowable concentrations of air pollutants.  For one thing, the present list
includes about 2.5 times as many pollutants, amounting to nearly 180 ingredients.
It should be noted in this connection that the list includes a number of raw
material or intermediary products used in the production and manufacture of
plastics, synthetic fibers, new adhesives, such as hexamethylenediamine,
styrole, monochlorstyrole, caprolaotam, dinyl, chlorosilane, etc., and many
inaecto-fungioidal agents.  In prescribing maximal concentrations for dust,
the latter have been differentiated in greater detail} as a result, instead of
2 maximal concentrations, 2 and 10 mg/m , the dusts have been classed into 16
groups of mineral and organic origin, which is of value from the viewpoint
of sanitary-hygienic inspection.
     The concept of "limits of allowable, or maximal concentrations" has been
given a sounder basis, from the legal and enforcement viewpoints, in the sense
that they are limits which must not be exceeded.  This should disperse possible
doubt which may arise under certain practical conditions of sanitary-hygienic
evaluation of situations by administrators and sanitary inspectors.  Of consid-
erable importance is the provision which takes into consideration some instances
where it may be possible to attain almost complete elimination of indoor air
pollutants by a combination of precautionary measures, such as proper coordin-
ation of the exhaust system, improvement in the production and processing
methods, absolute exhaust conduits hermetization, gas purifying and dust
catching installations, etc.  Wherever such possibilities exist, local sanitary
authoritative bodies must exert all possible pressure and influence for the
realization of the desired sanitary condition, that is to bring the pollutants'
air concentration to below the official maximal level.
     In accordance with the resolution of the plenum of the XXI Convention of
the Communist Party of the Soviet Union reorganizations and reconstructions are
now in process throughout the entire Union in the directions of modernized
                                         -267-

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technics, automation, hermetization, improved production and processing inter-
communications, etc.   This should result in unprecedented improvement in the
sanitary, physical, and moral labor conditions, especially when coupled with
the new limits of allowable air pollutant concentrations.  The latter have
been arrived at on the basis of scientific investigations in pertinent scien-
tific, medical, clinical, and industrial professional institutes in Leningrad,
Gor'kii, Kiev, Khar'kov, Sverdlovsk, Moscow, etc.  In many instances existing
limits of allowable concentrations have been lowered as the result of clinical
and general medical observations and examinations of workers exposed to the
effects of the pollutants under actual working conditions, especially under
chronic conditions.  Dichloroethane, benzene, carbon monoxide, and eye irritat-
ing substances can be mentioned as examples of substances with lowered maximal
concentrations.  In some cases the limiting concentrations were lowered as the
result of experimental studies.  The effect of low concentrations of such
pollutants as SCU, SO,, HC1, formaldehyde, acroleine, etc. were studies by the
methods of sensory physiology, conditioned reflexes, eye sensitivity to light,
flexor and extensor chronaxy ratios, etc. at the Moscow Central Institute of
Post graduate Medicine.  Effect of air pollutants, such as SCL, CO, dichloro-
ethane, carbon tetrachloride on the immunobiological reactions of the organism
were studied in Khar'kov at the Institute of Post Graduate Medicine.
     The following fact is of considerable importance: In the past (1930-1940)
many, if not all, limits of allowable air pollutant concentrations adopted
in the USSR were considerably below the corresponding limits adopted in
foreign countries, chiefly due to the considerably greater allowance for safety.
The limits recorded in the present paper are the result of continued chronic
experiments with low pollutant concentrations in coordination with results of
actual working conditions.  Limits of allowable concentrations for synthetic
or other types of substances new to the production and processing industries
and of byproducts and waste products resulting from them were arrived at
entirely on the basis of experimental investigations and will undoubtedly be
revised as new information concerning their effects on the health of workers
will accumulate.  As examples of such substances mention can be made of
vinylidendichloride, monochlorostyrol, monomethylamine, etc.
                                       -268-

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     According to the new plan all aerosols of minerals and metals constitute
an independent division.  The limits of allowable concentrations recommended
and adopted for aerosols of rare metals were arrived at on the basis of
experimental and clinical-hygienic investigations conducted at the Department
of. Labor Hygiene at the I-MOLMI (First Moscow Order of Lenin Medical Institute).
Limits of allowable concentrations for such substances as corundum, electro-
corundum, etc. were determined by scientific experimentation at the Sverdlovsk
Institute of Labor Protection.  Other limits were adopted on the basis of
observations made under practical working conditions in the USSR and abroad,
coupled with the consensus of opinion that the presence of quartz in different
percentages should lead to extreme caution and stricter prohibitive limits.
The entire list of proposed concentration limits was submitted for scrutiny
and discussion to the Hygienic Committee of the Scientific Medical Soviet
of the Ministry of Health of the USSR.
     The approved standard limits of allowable pollutant concentrations in the
air of working premises constitute a considerable advance with regard to the
number of pollutant components included, as well as with regard to the char-
acter of investigations, scientific and practical used in arriving at the
limits.  But the process must not end at this.  Pertinent scientific research
institutes and industrial organizations must cooperate in accumulating
supplemental information with a view to confirming, amending, or replacing
the proposed norms in the future.  Concurrently observations and studies should
be conducted with substances which as yet have not been put into production,
but which may go into production before long.  In this way sanitary-hygienic
norms will not only keep abreast with the production of new substances, but
will antedate them.
     It was briefly indicated in one of the proceeding paragraphs that the
development of limits of allowable air pollutant concentrations was based on
the results obtained with a variety of scientific-research and practical
methods of investigations; in this connection it should be noted that scarcely
any data had been accumulated on the effect of industrial air pollutants on the
metabolic phases of the organism, such as digestion, elimination, conjugation,
and other possible processes of toxic substances neutralization as defense
mechanisms.  Such information may have a significant bearing on the problem
of limiting pollutant concentrations.  It should be noted that not enough is

                                        -269-

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known at present regarding the true nature of air suspended aerosols, especial-
ly of mineral aerosols, and the mechanism of thej^r effect on the physiology of
the organism.  Studies should be undertaken on a more intimate basis and
broader scale to fill in the gaps of knowledge in the above two respects.
     In view of the rapid and profound changes which now continuously take place
in the chemical industry, especially as regards synthetic products, and of the
rapid changes and improvements in methods of production and processing as well
as in the design and construction of purifying and ventilating equipment, it
would be well to make mandatory an annual reappraisal of existing standards of
limits of allowable air pollutants by Research Departments of Institutes of
Labor Hygiene and Sanitation.
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              Sanitary Norms of Allowable Noise Levels in Living
                                   Premises


     Approved by  the  Chief  Government  Sanitary Inspector of the USSR


                         M. Nikitin, 24th of August,  I960.

                                   No.  337 - 60


                        I.  Purpose  and Field of Application

     1.  These norms  establish  allowable levels of noises which penetrate

into living premises,  and basic means  for the prevention of unfavorable noise

effects on the inhabitants.


         II.  Allowable Noise Levels and Methods for  Their Determination.

     1.  Allowable intensities  of permeating noises are established and defined
                                                            /• \
in terms of octave spectral bands according  to curve  PS-30  v  '  during the day

hours between 8 and 22 o'clock,  and according to curve  PS-25  during night hours

between 22 and 8  o'clock, as shown in the following graph.
                   Level of sound intensity in octave bands

                                  in hertz
  0>

  2
O (ft
O (D
cf
P 01]
< 
CD O

O' 
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     2.  Depending upon the location of the living premises in relation to the
street the index of spectral limits for outside noises penetrating into living
premises should be revised as shown in Table 1.
                                                                Table 1
      Windows of living premises faceAdd to the index of
	B *	the spectral limit	
    The inside of the residential block or the
    bordering street used for local traffic.                     0
    The main thoroughfare of the section                        + 5
    The main city thoroughfare                                  + 10
     3.  Where the penetrating noise comes at short regular time intervals or
is of a definite tonal character (monotone) the index of the spectral limit
should be reduced by 5 units.
(* )  Index P&-30 defines a limit spectrum with a sound effect level of 30 deci-
     bels in the octave band having an average geometric frequency of 1000 hertz.
     4.  Levels of sound intensity (pressure) of a penetrating noise in any of
the octave bands must not exceed the allowable limits of the sound intensity
(pressure) i.e., of the limit spectrum indicated in the graph plus the coefficient
corrections indicated in Tables 1 and 3.
    Note:  The indicated limit levels apply to measurement conditions
           prevailing in furnished rooms with closed windows, ventilating
           vents and doors.  In making sound intensity determinations in
           empty rooms (having no furniture) 3 db may be added to the
           limit level indicated in the spectral band.
     5.  Levels of sound intensity of penetrating noises should be determined
with the aid of an objective noise ;gage provided with an octave band filter
having an easily read recording device graduated into db, or with the aid of
some other standard noise gage, the results of which can be conveniently
converted into corresponding octave bands.
   Note:  In making noise intensity determinations the microphone
          should be installed in the central part of the living premises,
          1.0-1.5 m above the floor.
     6.  Orientation evaluations of the magnitude of penetrating noises can be
made without the use of a sound analyzing device by resorting to noise levels
listed in Table 2 which were obtained by a noise gage and recorded in the form
of a curve, according to hours of the day (See appendix No. l).
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                                                              Table 2.
	Values of allowable limits of composite noise levels	
    „,. Q   _  .,   ,              Allowable composite noise level as recorded
    Tune of  the day                  ,  „..•,,    .        .,...  .
	J   	on scale "A" of noise gage "A" in db	
   Day time  between
   8 and 22  o'clock                                 ^5
   Night time between
   22 and  8  o'clock                                 30
     7.  Depending upon the location of the apartment in relation to the street,
the character of the noise and the room furniture the allowable noise levels
listed in  Table 2 can be amended by correction factors listed in Table 1,  in
paragraph  No. 3 and the note following paragraph No. 4.
     8.  In  doubtful cases, results obtained on the basis of noise intensity
determinations in the octave bands should be regarded as the correct ones.
     9.  The noise gage must be accompanied by tables of correction factors for
the filter,  microphone and the noise intensity recorder; such tables of
correction must be certified by a pertinent Committee on Standards, Measures
and Recording Apparatuses, as shown by a .certificate not older than 12 months.
    10.  In  the case of controversy regarding non-compliance with the proposed
standards, final decision shall rest with the Government Sanitary Inspectorate.
                III.  Means to be Used for Securing Compliance with
                      the Allowable Noise Intensity Levels in
                          Apartments or Living Premises.
     1.  Proper protection of buildings against penetrating noises can be
basically  obtained by appropriate planning of buildings with regard to their
location (position), architectural, engineering, construction, and hygienic-
 sanitary  provisions, as well as with regard to surrounding sound proof con-
structions.  This should be done in accordance with "Instructions for the
Protection of Living Premises and Common Buildings (Apartment Houses) Against
Penetrating  Noises" (SN 39-58).
     2.  Protection of living premises against outside penetrating noises can
also be attained by appropriate planning of streets and whole blocks, by
planting trees, shrubs, etc. and by enforcing regulations which reduce the
original outdoor noises, such, for instance, as emanate from city traffic.
                                         -273-

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     The appropriate street planning, the planting of trees and other decora-
tive plants should be done according to "Regulations and Standards for City
Planning and House Construction" approved by the Government Committee of the
USSR Ministers' Soviet on Matters of Construction" issued 1st of December,
1958 (SN 41-58).
     3.  Residential sections in relation to industrial and other enterprises
which are equipped with noise creating machinery, or other installations, must
be planned in accordance with "Temporary Sanitary Standards for the Abatement
of Noise by Industry" No. 205-56, approved by the Government Chief Sanitary
Inspectorate 9th of February, 195^.
     4.  Inhabitants of apartments must comply with the rules of communal ,
living and must maintain the proper degree of quiet in the living quarters.
Regulations to that effect have been formulated in "Regulations for the Use
and Maintenance of Living Quarters", approved by the Ministry of Communal
Households of the RSFSR, 3rd of October, 1950 and later amended in regulations
issued 1st of August, 1955; the regulations were also approved by the Executive
Committee of Local Workers' Soviets.
     The following is prohibited: loud singing, loud playing of musical instru-
ments or of radio and television and other similar appliances, loud telephone
conversation, or making other loud noises which penetrate into living quarters
of other inhabitants, thereby disturbing their quiet..
     Between the hours of 22 and 8 o'clock turning  on the radio, television; or
playing of musical instruments is permissible only when sound intensity has
been reduced to the level at which it will not penetrate into the living quar-
ters of other inhabitants, nor into rooms of roomers in the same quarters.
Inhabitants must turn off all such sound producing appliances before they
leave the living quarters.  Playing of sound-producing appliances such as
pathephones, radiolas, etc. on open balconies, porches, or on open windows is
prohibited.
                                                           Appendix No. 1
     _ Frequency characteristics of Noise Gage "A"
      Frequency in     ° ° 3 8 § 2 I i § § | § § | § § 1 1 § §
         hertz                "" *~ """           " •• — — * 
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                                                        Appendix Ho. 2
          Examples for calculating allowable noise intensity levels.
     l)  Required to determine limiting noise spectrum in a living room
with windows facing the main thoroughfare of the section which is the source
of noise.
     According to paragraph No. 1 the allowable spectrum during night hours
is PS-25i and according to paragraph No. 2 the index of the limit spectrum has
to be increased by 5 units.  Accordingly, the final allowable levels - levels
in the octave bands, are those which correspond with spectrum PS-25+5 - PS-30,
found in the graph of spectral curves.
     2)  Required to determine the allowable limit spectrum in the living prem-
ises of noise created by a basement pump operating 24 hours a day.
     According to paragraph No. 1 the allowable night spectrum is PS-25.
Accordingly the permissible levels in the octave bands are the ones which
correspond with PS-25, found in the graph of spectral curves.
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