63-11570 Price $4.00
U.S.S.R. LITERATURE ON AIR POLLUTION
AND RELATED OCCUPATIONAL
DISEASES
Volume 8
A SURVEY
by
B. S. Levine, Ph. D.
INTRODUCTION BY ARTHUR C. STERN, ASSISTANT CHIEF /
DIVISION OF AIR POLLUTION, PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Distributed by
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
OFFICE OF TECHNICAL SERVICES
WASHINGTON 25, D. C.
-------
U. S. S. R. LITERATURE ON AIR POLLUTION
AND RELATED OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES
VOLUME 8
A SURVEY
by
B. S. Levine, Ph. D.
Washington, D. C., U. S. A.
1963
This survey was supported by
PHS Research Grant AP—00176
Awarded by the
Division of Air Pollution, U. S. P. H. S.
-------
Other translations, books and surveys by Dr. B. S. Levine dealing
with U.S.S.R. air and water pollution control and related occupational
diseases available from U.S. Department of Commerce, Office of Technical
Services, Washington 25, D. C.
SANITARY PROTECTION OF ATMOSPHERIC AIR,
PURIFICATION OF INMSTRIAL DISCHARGE
GASES FROM SUSPENIEI SUISTANCES. 59-2i092
LIMITS OF ALLOWAILE CONCENTRATIONS OF
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTANTS, BOOK i. 59-2H73
LIMITS OF ALLOW* LE CONCENTRATIONS OF
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTANTS, BOOK 2. 59-2n74
LIMITS OF ALLOWABLE CONCENTRATIONS OF
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTANTS, BOOK 3. 59-2H75
LIMITS OF ALLOWAILE CONCENTRATIONS OF
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTANTS, BOOK 4. 6i-iil48
LIMITS OF ALLOWABLE CONCENTRATIONS OF
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTANTS, BOOK 5. 62-M605
U.S.S.R. LITERATURE ON AIR POLLUTION
ANI RELATEI OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES.
A SURVEY. VOLUME)i. 60-2I049
U.S.S.R. LITERATURE ON AIR POLLUTION
ANI RELATEI OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES.
A SURVEY. VOLUME 2. 60-21188
U.S.S.R. LITERATURE ON AIR POLLUTION
ANI RELATEI OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES.
A SURVEY. VOLUME 3, 60-2i475
U.S.S.R. LITERATURE ON AIR POLLUTION
ANI RELATE* OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES.
A SURVEY. VOLUME 4. 60-21913
U.S.S.R. LITERATURE ON AIR POLLUTION
ANI RELATEI OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES.
A SURVEY. VOLUME 5. 6i-ni49
U.S.S.R. LITERATURE ON AIR POLLUTION
ANI RELATEI OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES.
A SURVEY. VOLUME 6. PB 6i-2i928
U.S.S.R. LITERATURE ON AIR POLLUTION
ANI RELATEI OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES.
A SURVEY. VOLUME 7. 62-ni03
U.S.S.R. LITERATURE ON WATER SUPPLY
ANI POLLUTION CONTROL*
A SURVEY. VOLUME t. 6i-3i60i
U.S.S.R. LITERATURE on WATER SUPPLY
ANI POLLUTION CONTROL.
A SURVEY. VOLUME 2. 6i-3i60i-2
U.S.S.R. LITERATURE ON WATER SUPPLY
ANI POLLUTION CONTROL.
A SURVEY. VOLUME 3. 6i-3i60i-3
i53 PP.
135 PP.
163 PP.
146 PP.
(23 PP.
134 PP.
210 PP.
260 PP.
262 PP.
281 PP.
2l9 PP.
299 PP.
336 PP.
233 PP.
249 PP.
248 PP.
3.00
2.75
3.00
3.00
2.75
2.75
3.50
4.00
4.00
4.00
3.50
4.00
5.00
3.50
4.00
4.00
-11-
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For comparison of metric and customary unitd from 1 to 10 see Handbook of Chem-
istry and Physics published by tbe Chemical Rubber Publishing Co., 2310 Superior
Avenue, N.E., Cleveland, Ohio.
Inches and millimeters, inches and centimeters, feet and n.eters,
U.S. yards and meters, U.S. miles and Kilometers - Page 2947
Square inches and square millimeters, square inches and square
centimeters, square feet and square meters, square yards and
square meters, square miles and square kilometers - Page 2948
Cubic inches and cubic millimeters, cubic inches and cubic
centimeters, cubic feet and cubic meters, cubic yards and cubic
meters, acres and hectares - Page 2949
Milliliters and U.S. ounces, milliliters and U.S. apothecaries'
drams, milliliters and U.S. apothecaries' scruples, liters and
U.S. liquid quarts, liters and U.S. liquid gallons. (Computed
on the basis 1 liter = 1.000027 cubic decimeters). Page 2950
Liters and U.S. dry quarts, liters and U.S. pecks, decaliters
and U.S. pecks, hectoliters and U.S. bushels, hectoliters per
hectare and U.S. bushels per acre. (Computed or. above basis). Page 2951
Other pertinent oonversion tables are presented on succeeding pa.ges.
RUSSIAN ALPHABET WITH TRANSLITERATION.
AaAa PpRr
E 6 B b CcSs
B B V v T T T t
TrGg YyUu
JljlDd <£ $ F f
EeEe XxKhkh
tf JK Zh zh U u, Ts ts
3 3 Z z M M Ch ch
Mull III ui Sh sh
M ii I i m m Shch shch
K K K k bl H Y y
JI ji L 1 B fc Mute soft sound
M M M m 3 3 E e
H H N n 10 ro lu iu or Yu yu
0 o 0 o H a la ia or Ya ya
n n p P
-iii-
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U.S.S.R. LITERATURE ON AIR POLLUTION
AND RELATED OCCUPATIONAL
DISEASES
INTRODUCTION
It is timely that another volume of Dr. Levine's translations
of USSR literature on air pollution and related occupational diseases
appear so soon after the visits of the USSR Air Pollution Mission to
the United States (January 16 - February 15, 1963) and the U. S.
Environmental Health Mission to the USSR (September 7 - October 9, 1962).
To no small degree, the earlier volumes in this series set the stage
for this exchange of missions by showing Americans that there was much
to see and learn about air pollution and occupational health in the
Soviet Union and by showing Soviet physicians and scientists in this
field the professional respect accorded their work by their American
counterparts 0
Of the fifty-six translations in this volume, the first sixteen
are USSR Standard Methods for the quantitative determination of con-
taminants in the air of industrial premises and include those con-
taminants most commonly measured in the air of American industrial
plants. These methods should therefore be of great interest to American
Industrial Hygienists. The two concluding translations in the volume
are also of specific occupational health interest since they set forth
the most recent standards for allowable concentrations of air-borne
contaminants in workrooms and the standard for noise level in residences.
Other of the papers relate to occupational hazards in plants quenching
coke and manufacturing synthetic fibres, to carbon monoxide concentrations
in dwellings, and to toxicological studies of a new insecticide-fungicide
(Mercurane). Thus, there is much in this volume for those concerned with
occupational diseases.
This volume includes the List of Allowable Concentrations of Pollu-
tants in the Air of Populated Areas of the U.S.S.R. approved February 14,
1961 and a supplement to that list dated April 13, 1962. This list super-
cedes earlier lists. Half of the remainder of the translations involve
air quality measurements in the U.S.S.R. The typical paper in this
category gives measurements of one or two contaminants from an industrial
process at different distances from the plant which is their source. The
plants reported are steam power plants; aluminum and magnesium reduction
plants; chemical plants manufacturing acids, alcohols, sulfides, fluorides
and pyrophosphates; cement, carbon black, fertilizer, rayon, drying oil
and thermometer plants; open pit coal mines, and coke ovens. Eight of
these papers also discuss the response of people living different
distances from the plant and one discusses the response of experimental
animals exposed at these locations. The other papers on air quality
-iv-
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report geographical and temporal variation of measurements of suspended
or settled particulate matter, SC^, CO, benzpyrene or bacteria, in
several Soviet cities - Moscow, Leningrad, Rostov-on-Don, Kalinin,
Vilna, Kaunas and a few others. The twenty-five papers reporting air
quality measurements are of interest because they provide insight into
air quality levels in the USSR and Soviet procedures in assessing air
pollution problems. However, they offer little data that can be
readily put to use in solving American problems.
Dr. Levine's earlier volumes of translations have led us to
expect that USSR laboratory studies to establish allowable concentra-
tions of pollutants preferably challenge humans rather than animals
as the experimental population. This volume lives up to that expecta-
tion. Five laboratory studies report human threshold response to
pollutants (NO, CS2> Cl and HC1 simultaneously, and CO); one labora-
tory study involves animal exposure (802). These are the research
papers of greatest utility to us because the data are directly appli-
cable to the problem of setting limits for these gases in the air of
American cities.
The volume is completed by a paper on emissions from a gas burning
power plant, one on an electronic particle counter, a research review
and several papers on analytical methodology.
Dr. Levine continues to be our principal avenue of access to
the voluminous Soviet literature on air pollution and occupational
health. We wish him good health to continue to serve this useful
function for years to come. I am honored to have been asked by him
to provide this introduction.
Arthur C. Stern, Assistant Chief
Division of Air Pollution
Public Health Service
Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare
-V-
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
By way of grateful acknowledgement each item in this volume is
headed by the original title in translation, name of the author or authors,
institutional affiliation and periodical or book from -vhich the item was
taken. The volume, issue number, year of publication, and the inclusive
pages are indicated for the convenience of those who may wish to consult
the Russian original publication, or may wish to make reference to same
in their own papers.
I wish to express my grateful appreciation to Mr. Vernon G. MacKenzie,
Chief of the Division of Air Pollution of the Public Health Service for
placing at my disposal the original papers which appear in translation
in part 5 of this volume. These were brought by Mr. NacKenzie to the
U. S. A. from fJie U0 S0 S. R., which he had recently visited as an official
P.H. S. representative. I also express my thanks to Mr0 Arthur C. Stern
for the introduction he had written to this volume and for the personal
warm good wishes,,
B. So Levine, Ph. D.
3312 Northampton Street, N. W.
Washington 15, D. C.
-vi-
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FOREWORD
In this volume are incorporated official methods for the determination
of deleterious substances in the air of working premises for sanitary con-
trol purposes, selections from a collection of studies on problems in the
hygiene of atmospheric air conducted at the Leningrad Institute of Radiation
Hygiene, selected papers from "Uchenye Zapiski" (Scientific Records),
No. 6, dealing with hygienic problems of planning, building and protecting
the atmospheric air of new settlements, six selected papers from Gigiena
i Sanitariya, the official U. S. S. R. sanitary-hygienic journal (1960-61),
lists of officially approved limits of allowable atmospheric air pollutants,
and regulations controlling noises in communal living quarters. The lists
were brought to the U. S. A. from the U. S. S. R. by Mr. Vernon G. MacKenzie,
Chief of the Division of Air Pollution, U. S. Public Health Service, and made
available to the undersigned for translation and incorporation into this
volume. Unlike the plan of the proceeding seven survey volumes, the mat-
erial incorporated in this volume was groupped according to the sources
from which the papers had been selected rather than according to the nature
of the subject matter they contained. For this reason the present volume
was organized in five parts instead of sections.
B. S. Levine, Ph. D.
3312 Northampton Street, N.W.
Washington 15, D. C.
-vii-
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CONTENTS
Introduction
Foreword
Part One 1
Quantitative Determination of Ammonia in the Air
Name of author not indicated 2
Quantitative Determination of Sulfur Dioxide in the Air
Name of author not indicated 3
Quantitative Determination of Hydrogen Sulfide in the Air
Name of author not indicated 8
Quantitative Determination of Carbon Bisulfide Vapor in the Air
Name of author not indicated 11
Quantitative Determination of Hydrogen Cyanide in the Air
Name of author not indicated 15
Quantitative Determination of Carbon Monoxide in the Air
Name of author not indicated 19
Quantitative Determination of Mercury Vapor in the Air
Name of author not indicated 30
Quantitative Determination of Lead and Its Compounds in the Air
Name of author not indicated 34
Quantitative Determination of Chromic Anhydride (Chromium
trioxide, CrO^) and Salts of Chromic Acid in the Air
Name of author not indicated 38
Quantitative Determination of Manganese Compounds in the Air
Name of author not indicated 41
Quantitative Determination of Aniline Vapor in the Air
Name of author not indicated 44
Quantitative Determination of Benzene in the Air
Name of author not indicated 47
Quantitative Determination of Phenol in the Air
Name of author not indicated 52
Quantitative Determination of Formaldehyde in the Air
Name of author not indicated 55
Quantitative Determination of Methyl Alcohol Vapor in the Air
Name of author not indicated 59
Quantitative Determination of Tetraethyl Lead in Gasoline of
Different Trade Marks and in Kerosene
Name of author not indicated 64
-Vlil-
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Part Two 7Q
Advances in Air Hygiene Investigations Conducted in 1951 - 1957
at the Institute of Radiation Hygiene. N. M. Tomson. 71
Effect of Low Sulfur Dioxide Concentrations on the Animal
Organism. E. K. Lobova. 79
Concentration of Tarry Substances in the Atmospheric Air
in the Vicinity of an Industrial Coke-Gas Plant. E. N. Bondareva. 89
Discharges of Boiler Operated (Coal Burning) Plants Converted
to Gas Burning. S. P. Nikolaev and S. A. Dymshits. 93
Atmospheric Air Pollution by Oil-Drying Plant Discharges.
V. A. Yas'kova. 96
Hygienic Evaluation of Low Concentrations of Nitrogen Oxides
Present in Atmospheric Air. E. N. Bondareva. 98
The Acid-Alkaline Reaction of Settling Dust. N. M. Tomson 102
Acid-Alkaline Reactions of Suspended Dust Collected by the
Aspiration Method. Z. V. Dubrovina. 105
Effect of Discharges of a Cement Plant on the Population's
Health. Z, V. Dubrovina, S. P. Nikolaev, and N. M. Tomson. 110
Hygienic Evaluation of Atmospheric Air Pollution in the Vicinity
of the Industrial Plant "Krasnyi Khimik". E. N. Bondareva and
V. A. Yas'kova. 115
Atmospheric Air Dustiness in Inhabited Sections of an Industrial
Region. S. P. Nikolaev. 119
Bacterial Population of Air Surrounding Typical Living Quarters
in an Industrial Region. K. I. Turzhetskii. 125
Comparative Study of Filters Used in the Aspiration Method
for the Determination of Suspended Dust. V. M. Komi 1 ova,
S. P. Nikolaev, and N. M. Tomson. 129
Sanitization of Atmospheric Air Polluted by an Aluminum Plant
Discharges. N. M. Tomzon, Z. V. Dubrovina, and E. N. Bondareva. 136
Effect of Viscose Production Discharges on the Health of
Inhabitants. N. M. Tomson, Z. V. Dubrovina, and M. I. Grigor'eva. 140
Part Three 145
Cancerogenic Substances in the Atmospheric Air with a View to
Cancer Prevention. B. P. Gurinov. 146
Experimental Basis for the Determination of Maximal Allowable
Single Carbon Bisulfide Concentration in Atmospheric Air.
R. S. Gil'denskjol'd. 153
Experimental Basis for the Determination of Allowable Concen-
trations of Chlorine and HC1 gas Simultaneously Present in
Atmospheric Air. V. M. Styazhkin. 158
-ix-
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Hygienic Aspects of Atmospheric Air Pollution in the City of
Gubakhi and its Effect on the Population's Health. B. K. Baikov
and V. P. Melekhina. 164
Atmospheric Air Pollutants Discharged by the Shebekinskii
Synthetic Acids and Alcohols Producing Combine.
P. I. Dubrovskaya 169
Atmospheric Air Pollution in Lithuanian Cities. P. N. Zhilin. 174
Moscow Atmospheric Air Pollution During 1948 - 1958.
M. K. Kharakhinov. 180
Data Related to Sanitary Clearance Zone Surrounding the
Klinsk Thermometer Plant. V. P. Melekhina. 184
Hygienic Data Related to Sanitary Clearance Zones for
Korkinsk Open Coal Pits. B. K. Baikov. 188
Pollution of Atmospheric Air in the Vicinity of Chimney
Gas and Hot Air Oven Soot Producing Plants. N. P. Gordynya. 191
Natural Ultraviolet Radiation Under Different Conditions
of Atmospheric Air Pollution. B. V. Rikhter. 195
An Improved Gas Pipette for Long Interval Air Sample
Collection. R. S. Gil'denskiol'd and S. B. Eting. 204
A Study of Carbon Monoxide Concentrations in the Air of
Living Dwellings and Its Effect on the Organism.
S. F. Sorokina. 20?
Atmospheric Air Dustiness of Kalinin and City Street
Eye Traumatism. E. P. Nagorova. 214
Rostov-on-Don Atmospheric Air Pollution with Auto-Traffic
Exhaust Carbon Monoxide. L. G. Milokostova and
K. A. Prokopenko. 215
Part Pour 218
Cases of Phenol Vapor Poisoning During Coke Slaking
with Phenol Water. V. I. Petrov. 219
A Study of Atmospheric Air Pollution by Discharges from
Synthetic Fatty Acids and Alcohol Producing Industries.
P. I. Dubrovskaya. 222
Toxilogical Properties of Mercurane — A New Insecto-
fungicide. V. Ya. Belashov. 22?
Photoelectric Counting of Organic and Inorganic Aerosol
Particles. V. S. Kitneko, Yu. P. Safronov, S. I. Kudryavtsev,
R. I. Elman, B. F. Fedorov, N. I. Pushchin, and A. A. Fedorovich 232
Sanitary Protection of Air in Vinnitsa. M. B. Belaga and
P. N. Maystruk. 241
Problems of Improving Working Conditions in the Chemical
Fiber Industry. V. D. Krantsfel'd 247
-x-
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Part Five 254
Limits of Allowable Concentrations of Deleterious Substances
in the Atmospheric Air of Populated Areas. Name of author
not indicated. 255
Supplement to "Limits of Allowable Concentration of
Deleterious Substances in Atmospheric Air of Populated
Areas". Name of author not indicated. 25?
New Standards of Allowable Concentrations of Toxic Gases,
Vapors, and Dust in the Air of Working Premises.
Z. 3. Smelyanskii and I. P. Ulandva. 258
Sanitary Norms of Allowable Noise Levels in Living Premises.
M. Nikitin. 2?1
-xi-
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PART ONE
Specifications for the Determination of Harmful Substances
in the Air
State Publishers of Medical Literature
Medgiz - 1960 - Moscow
Krivokolennyi Pereulok, 12
-1-
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Quantitative Determination of Ammonia in the Air
Approved by the USSR Chief State Sanitary Inspector V. M. Zhdanov,
May 7, 1958, No. 122-1/199
The method is applicable to the determination of ammonia in the air
of industrial premises for sanitary control purposes.
I. General
1. The method is based on the fact that in the presence of ammonia
Nessler's reagent forms dimercuric ammonium iodide which imparts to the
solution a yellowish-brown color.
2. The sensitivity of the method is 1 y Pei> colorimetric volume.
3. Salts of ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, aldehyde and some amines of the
aliphatic order interfere with the specificity of the determination.
4. The limit of allowable concentration of ammonia in the air according
to regulation No. 279-59, adopted January 10, 1959 is 0.02 mg/li.
II. Reagents and Apparatus
5. Reagents and solutions required:
Nessler's reagent, prepared according to GOST 4517-48.
Ammonium Chloride, c.p. prepared according to GOST 3773-47.
Sulfuric acid, c.p. prepared according to GOST 4204-48, 0.01 N. solution.
Distilled water, NH/1" - free, prepared as follows: Add 5 ml 10$ sulfuric
acid to 1 li of distilled water and redistill. Discard the first 100 - 200 ml;
check the remainder of the distillate with Nessler's reagent for the presence
of NH * ion.
No. 1 standard stock solution containing 1 mg of ammonia per ml is
prepared as follows: dissolve 0.7868 g of ammonium chloride in 25 ml of dis-
tilled water in a volumetric flash. The No. 1 standard stock solution is used
for the preparation of two working standard solutions, Nos. 2 and 3.
Standard solution No. 2 should contain 100 Y/ml and is prepared as
follows: Place 10 ml of standard stock solution No. 1 into a 100 ml volu-
metric flash and add distilled water to the mark.
Standard solution No. 3 should contain 10 Y/ml$ i* is prepared by
placing 1 ml of No. 1 standard stock solution into a 100 ml volumetric flask
and adding distilled water to the mark.
-2-
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6. Dishes and other equipment.
Petri absorbers as shown in Figure 1.
Flat-bottom colorimetric cups made of colorless
glass, 120 mm high and 13 mm inside diameter.
Pipettes 1, 2, 5, 10 ml as per COST 1770-51.
Microburette, 2 ml, as per COST 1770-51.
Flasks, volumetric, 250 and 100 ml, as per
COST 1770-51.
Bottles, reagent, of white and dark colors.
Aspirator or dust suction pump.
Flowmeter up to 2 li min. capacity.
Rubber tubing, pinchcocks, and clamps.
III. Air Sample Collecting
m.
Fig. 1. Petri
Absorber
7. Ammonia is aspirated through two Petri absorbers at the rate of
1 li/min.j each absorber should contain 10 ml of 0.01 N. sulfuric acid.
If the concentration of ammonia in the air is close to the limit of
allowable concentration, then it becomes necessary to pass through the
absorbers between 1 - 2 li of the air. If the ammonia concentration in the
air is below the limit of allowable concentration, then a correspondently
greater volume of air should be aspirated thru the Petri absorbers.
IV. Analytical Procedure
8. Content of each absorber is analyzed individually as follows:
Take 5 ml °f the solution from each Petri absorber and place into colorimetric
tubes. Simultaneously prepare a standard series as described in the table
below. Add to all test tubes and to the standard scale 0.5 ml of Nessler's
reagent; shake the tubes for five minutes and compare with the standard table..
Compute the quantity of ammonia in mg/li of air (X) using the formula
belowt
X-GV1
v vb .1000
in which 0- represents gammas of ammonia in the tested volume taken from the
first Petri absorber;
V - represents ml of the sample taken for analysis.
V, - represents ml of the sample in the first Petri absorber.
— 4—
-------
1/1000 - is the coefficient of y conversion to ml.
V - is li of air
o .
taken for analysis, reduced to normal
pressure and temperature according to the formula belowi
V, 273 P
X
V6 " 1273 +
in which V. - represents li of air taken for analysis.
v
t - is the air temperature at the point of sample collecting.
P - is the barometric pressure in mm mercury.
In calculating V use can be made of the table of coefficients for
different temperatures and pressures. In adjusting volume V^ to standard
temperature and pressure multiply its value by the corresponding coefficient.
Standard Scale
TUIE NUMIER
ML OF AMMONIA
SOLN. NO. 3.
ML OF AMMONIA
SOLN. NO. 2
ML OF 0.01 N.
60LN. OF SUL-
FURIC ACII
AMMONIA IN Y
1
— '
—
5,0
— •
a
0,1
— '
4,9
1,0
s.
0,2
—
4,8
2.0
4
0,3.
— -
4,7
3,0
5
0.4
—
4.6
4,0
6
0,5
—
4.5
5,0
7
0.6
. —
4.4
6.0
8
0,7
—
4.3
7,0
9
0.8
•—
4,2
8.0
10
0.9
—
4,1
9,0
.11
—
0.1
4.9
10.0
12
—
0.2
4,8
20,0
13
—
0,3
4.7
30,0
M
—
0,4
4.6
40.0
IS
—
0,5
4.5
60.0
Ammonia concentration in the second Petri absorber is determined by the
above described procedure. Final concentration of ammonia in the air is
determined by adding the results obtained for absorbers, Nos. 1 and 2.
NOTES: 1. If preliminary tests indicated that a single scale series would
suffice, then the scale prepared from solution No. 2 or from solution No. 3
alone can be used.
2. Colorimetric comparison can be made using a universal photometer or
a photocolorimeter equipped with a blue filter.
3. Air sample collecting can be done with any of the absorbers depicted
in Figures 1, 2, or 3. (See following pages).
-4-
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4. In the absence of HgCl, Nessler's reagent can be prepared using
. The reagent is prepared as follows: Dissolve 10 g of Hgl, in 10 ml
of water by thorough grinding in a mortar. Pour into a dark glass flask,
rinse the mortar with a small volume of water and add to the flask 5 g of KI.
Dissolve 20 g of NaOH in 10 ml of distilled water, cool and add to the same
flask. Bring volume up to 100 ml in a volumetric flask using distilled water;
leave standing in the dark for several days to allow excess of salts of mer-
cury to settle to the bottom of the flask; pour the clear supernatent fluid
into a clean dark colored bottle and store in the dark.
Quantitative Determination of Sulfur Dioxide in the Air
Approved by the USSR Chief State Sanitary Inspector V. M. Zhdanov,
May 7, 1958, No. 122-1/199
The method is applicable to the determination of sulfur dioxide in the
air of industrial premises for sanitary control purposes.
I. General
1. By this method sulfur dioxide is oxidized to sulfurio acid, and the
latter determined as lead sulfate in water-alcohol medium.
2. The sensitivity of the method is 2 y SOg per analyzed solution volume.
3. Hydrogen sulfide interferes with the determination.
4. The limit of allowable SO,, concentration in the air is 0.01 mg/li
according to regulation No. 2?9~59 approved January 10, 1959*
II. Reagents and Apparatus
5. Reagents and solutions required!
Lead nitrate, 10$ solution, prepared according to COST 4236-46. Dissolve
10 g of lead nitrate in 100 ml of water; filter twice thru the same double
thickness filter paper.
HNOp 1% solution, prepared by using COST 4461-48 nitric acid of 1.340
sp.gr.
-5-
-------
Alcoholic solution of lead nitrate. Add 0.8 ml of 1% nitric acid and
80 ml of ethylol to 20 ml of 10% aqueous lead nitrate solution; shake well
and store. Solution should be free from turbidity.
All reagents and the distilled water must be sulfate ion-free.
Potassium chlorate of GOST 4235-48 purity; 3$ solution prepared from
recrystallized salt.
Ethylol, 96° redistilled according to GOST 5962-5.
Potassium sulfate of GOST 4145-48 purity.
Standard stock solution No. 1 should contain 100 Y/ml of S02, it is prepared
by dissolving 0.272 g of KgSO. in 1 li of distilled water. Prepare standard
solution No. 2 by diluting stock solution No. 1 with the potassium chlorate
solution in 1:10 ratio; 1 ml of this solution contains 10 y of SO-.
6. Dishes and other equipment: i_ • • i
Absorbers as depicted in Figure 1 or Figure 2.
Colorimetric flat bottom cups made of colorless glass,
120 mm high and 15 mm inside diameter.
Pipettes, 5 and 10 ml divided into 0.05 and 0.1 ml,
according to GOST 1770-51.
Pipettes, 1 ml divided into 0.01 ml according to
GOST 1770-51. Flasks, volumetric, 1000 and 100 ml
according to GOST 1770-51.
Reagent bottles.
Aspirators.
Rubber tubing, clamps and pinchcocks.
ISO
III. Air Sample Collecting
Fig. 2. Absorber
with porous filter
plate
7; Sulfur dioxide is absorbed by aspirating air through two consecu-
tively connected absorbers such as are shown in Figures 1 or 2; place into
each absorber 5 ml of the potassium chlorate solution. Rate of air aspiration
should not exceed 25 li/hr. Between 2 - 3 li of air should be aspirated,
depending upon the estimated concentration of S02 in the air,
IV» Analytical Procedure
8. Analyze content of each absorber separately. Make colorimetric
determination by placing into the colorimetric tubes 5 ml of the alcoholic
-6-
-------
lead nitrate solution and 2 ml of the sample solution; Shake thoroughly.
Simultaneously prepare a standard scale as shown in the table below.
Standard Scale
STANOARI NO*
ML OF ALC. SOLN.
OF LEA*
NITRATE
ML OF POTASSIUM
80LFATE SOLN.
NO. 2
ML OF 3$ KCL
SOLN.
603 IN Y
0
5
0
0-
'
5
0.2
1,8
2.0
a
5
0.3
1.7
3.0
3
5
0,45
1.55
4.5
4
5
0.7
1.3
7.0
5
5
1,0
1.0
10,0
6
5
1.5
0,5
15.0
T
5
2.0
0.0
20.0
Shake all tubes
thoroughly and allow to
rest 10 - 15 min. Com-
pare turbidities against
a black background. The
control tube must be
free from turbidity.
Compute ml of sulfur
dioxide per 1 li of air
(X) using the formula
below.
G- V,
V VQ 1000
In which G - represents gammas of sulfur dioxide in the first absorber
V - represents ml of sample solution taken for analysis from the
first absorber.
V^ - represents ml of absorber solution in the first absorber.
1/1000 - is the coefficient of conversion of y "to ml.
V - represents li of air taken for analysis, adjusted to standard
conditions of temperature and pressure according to the following formula.
V. 273 P
o '(273 + t) 760
In which V. represents li of air taken for analysis
t - represents air temperature at the point of sample collecting.
P - represents the barometric pressure in mm of mercury.
In calculating V use can be made of the table of coefficients for
different temperatures and pressures. In adjusting V. to standard temperature
and pressure, its value is multiplied by the corresponding coefficient.
Determine sulfur dioxide concentration in the second absorber by the
above described procedure. Determine final concentration of sulfur dioxide
in the air by adding the results obtained for each of the two absorbers.
-7-
-------
Quantitative Determination of Hydrogen Sulfide in the Air
Approved by the USSR Chief State Sanitary Inspector, V. M. Zhdanov,
May 7, 1958, No. 122-1/194.
The method is applicable to the determination of hydrogen sulfide in
the air of industrial premises for sanitary control purposes.
I. General
1. The method is based on the fact that hydrogen sulfide is absorbed
from the air by sodium arsenite dissolved in a solution of ammonium carbonate.
A stable ammonium sulfate sol is formed which is converted to a silver sulfate
sol by the addition of silver nitrate; the silver sulfate sol is rapidly
reduced to silver sulfide, imparting to the solution a yellowish-brown color,
the intensity of which varies with the amount of silver sulfide in solution.
2. The sensitivity of the method is 2y in the analyzed volume. Hydrogen
sulfide and sodium sulfide become rapidly oxidized in solution; therefore,
sodium thiosulfate should be used in preparing the standard scale. In the
presence of silver nitrate sodium thiosulfate forms silver thiosulfate which
rapidly breaks down to silver sulfide in acid solution.
The color of silver sulfide solutions formed from sodium thiosulfate is
identical with the color of silver sulfide solution formed from silver sulfate
sol.
3. The method is specific for hydrogen sulfide.
4. The limit of allowable H»S concentration in the air was set at 0.01
mg/li and approved by No. 279-59, January 10, 1959.
II. Reagents and Apparatus
5. Reagents and solutions requiredt
Ammonium carbonate of GOST 3770-47 specifications.
Sodium arsenite of analytical purity. Sulfuric acid 1.82 - 1.83 sp. gr.
as per GOST 4204-48. Silver nitrate of GOST 1277-401 specifications, 1%
solution in dilute sulfuric acid. Sodium thiosulfate of GOST -4215-48 speci-
fications, 0.1 N. solution.
Starch, soluble, 1% solution.
Water, distilled.
Prepare absorber solution as follows: dissolve 5 g of ammonium carbonate
-8-
-------
in 100 ml of distilled water. Add 2 g of sodium arsenatej after the solution
clears transfer into a 1 li volumetric flask and add distilled water to the
mark.
Silver nitrate, 1% solutions Dissolve 1 g of silver nitrate in 90 ml
of distilled water, and while mixing carefully add 10 ml of sulfuric acid.
If upon standing a silver sulfate precipitate is formed, remove it by filtra-
tion.
Prepare standard solution No. 1, containing 100 Y/ml of hydrogen sulfide
as follows: Place 3 ml of 0.1 N. solution of sodium thiosulfate into a 100 ml
volumetric flask, add distilled water to the mark and mix. This solution
will keep for 10 days.
Prepare standard solution No. 2, containing 10 f/ml of hydrogen sulfide,
from standard solution No. 1 by diluting it 1:10 with distilled water. This
solution will keep from 1 to 2 days.
6. Dishes and other equipment:
Absorber, as shown in figures 1, 2, or 3.
Plat-bottom colorimetric cups 120 ml high and
15 mm inside diameter made of clear glass.
Pipettes, 5 and 10 ml of GOST 1770-57 specifications.
Pipettes, 1 ml divided into 0.01 ml, of GOST 1770-51
specifications.
Flasks, volumetric 100 and 1000 ml, of GOST 1770-51
specifications. Beakers, chemical, 200 ml, of GOST
3184-46 specifications. Flasks, glass of GOST 3184-46
specifications.
Droppers of NKTP 4017 specifications.
Bottles, reagent.
Aspirator or air blower with flowmeter; rubber tubing,
clamps and pinchcocks.
Fig. 3.
Rykhter absor-
ber.
III. Air Sample Collecting
7. Aspirate the air through the absorber solution at the rate of
15 - 20 li/hr using two consecutively connected absorbers, such as shown in
Figure 1. } or at the rate of 30 to 40 li/hr, using absorbers shown in Figures
2 or 3. Each absorber should contain 10 ml of the absorber solution. Two -
-9-
-------
three li of air are sufficient for the determination of the limit of allow-
able concentration of hydrogen sulfide in the air.
IV. Analytical Procedure
8. Analyze solution of each absorber separately. For the analysis of
the content in the first absorber take 1 and 5 ml of the solution; take
5 ml of the solution from the second absorber. Where 1 ml of the tested
solution is used, it should be diluted to 5 ml by the addition of 4 ml of
fresh absorber solution.
Simultaneously prepare the standard scale as shown in the table below.
Standard Scale
TUIE NUMIER
ML OF STAN1ARI
SOLN. NO. 2
(lOy HgS/ML)
Ml OF SOLN. NO. 1.
(lOO Y HgS/ML)
ML OF AISORIER
SOLN.
H2s IN Y
0
—
—
5
0
1
0.2
—
4.8
2
2
0.3
—
4.7
3
3
0.4
— *
4.6
4
4
0.5
—
4,5
5
5
0,6
— •
4,4
6
6
0.7
—
4.3
7
7
0.6
—
4.2
8
t
0.9
—
4.1
9
9
1,0
-"
4.0
10
10
—
0.2
4,8
20
II
—
0,3
4.7
30
12
' —
0,4
4,«
40
Add 1 drop of the starch solution and 1 drop of the silver nitrate solu-
tion to all test tubes containing the samples and the standard scale, and
determine colorimetrically after 5 minutes.
Calculate hydrogen sulfide in ml/li of air (X) using the following for-
mula:
G V,
V VQ 1000
in which G - represents gammas of hydrogen sulfide present in the volume of
analyzed sample in the first absorbers.
V - represents ml used in the determination;
V, - ml of solution in the first absorber;
-10-
-------
1/1000 - is the coefficient of Y conversion to ml.
x
VQ - is li of air taken for analysis after adjusting to standard
temperature and atmospheric pressure according to the equation below:
V. 273 P
V *
(273 + t; 760
in which the V. - represents li of air taken for analysis;
P - represents the barometric pressure in mm of mercury at the
point of sample collecting.
t - represents the air temperature at the point of air sample
collecting.
Air volume can be adjusted to standard temperature and atmospheric
pressure by multiplying the value of V. by a corresponding coefficient taken
from a table of coefficients prepared for the purpose.
Quantitative Determination of Carbon Bisulfide Vapor in the Air
Approved by the USSR Chief State Sanitary Inspector, V. M. Zhdanov,
May 7, 1958, No. 122-1/201
The method is applicable to the determination of carbon bisulfide in
the air of industrial premises for sanitary control purposes.
I. General
1. The method is based on the fact that in the presence of copper
acetate carbon bisulfide reacts with diethylamine or with piperidine to form
dithiocarbamate of copper which has a yellow-brown color.
2. The sensitivity of the method is 0.5 Y Per analyzed solution volume.
3. The method is non-specific in the presence of hydrogen sulfide or
thiocetic acid.
4. The limit of allowable concentration of carbon bisulfide gas in the
air was set at 0.01 mg/li by regulation No. 279~59 issued January 10, 1959*
II. Reagents and Apparatus
5. Reagents and solutions required:
-11-
-------
Lead acetate of GOST 5852-51 specifications, 0.05$ solution in alcohol,
freshly prepared.
Carton bisulfide, synthetic of GOST 1541-42 specifications, redistilled,
of b. p. 46°.
Diethylamine or piperidine, of 55.5° and 108° b. p. respectively; 1.5$
freshly prepared alcoholic solution.
Ethylol, redistilled according to GOST 592-51 specifications.
Standard stock solution of carbon bisulfide No. 1, prepared as follows!
Place 20 ml of 1.5$ alcoholic solution of diethylamine or piperidine into a
25 ml volumetric flask, stopper and weigh on analytical balance; add 1-2
drops of carbon bisulfide and weigh again; the difference between the two
weights is the weight of the carbon bisulfide; add 1.5$ alcoholic solution of
diethylamine or of piperidine to the mark; stopper and mix well.
Standard carbon bisulfide solution No. 2 of 10 Y/ml °f carbon bisulfide;
prepare by diluting standard stock solution No. 1 with 1.5$ of alcoholic
solution of diethylamine or piperidine as required.
Methyl red of appropriate intensity can be used instead of carbon bisul-
fide solutions; it is prepared as follows: weigh exactly 0.05 g of methyl red
of GOST 5853-51 specification and place into a 100 ml volumetric flask. Add
2 ml of freshly prepared 5$ NaOH free of color and shake; add distilled water
to the 100 ml mark and shake thoroughly. Take 1.8 ml of the prepared solution
and place into another 100 ml volumetric flask; add 0.1 N. NaOH to the 100 ml
mark. One nil of this solution is equivalent to 10 y of carbon bisulfide.
When using methyl red, prepare a standard scale grading up to 20 y °f carbon
bisulfide. At concentrations exceeding 20 Y "the color produced by carbon
bisulfide and methyl red differs sufficiently to render the comparison unsuit-
able.
6. Dishes and other equipment:
Absorbers, such as shown in Figures 1 and 2.
Colorimetric flat bottom cups, 120 mm high and 15 mm inside diameter,
made of clear colorless glass.
Pipettes, 3, 5, and 10 ml, also 1 ml divided into 0.01 ml, of GOST 1770-51
specifications.
Flask, volumetric, 25, 50 and 100 ml, of GOST 1770-51 specifications.
-12-
-------
Aspirators or air blowers with flowmeters.
Rubber tubing, clamps and pinchcooks.
III... Air Sample Collecting
Aspirate the air through 2 consecutively connected absorbers, such as
shown in Figures 1 and 2, at the rate of 30 li/hr; absorbers should contain
10 ml of 1.5$ of alcoholic solution of diethylamine or piperidine. Absorbers
must be submerged into ice water while the air samples are collected.
If the tested air contained carbon bisulfide in concentration close to
the allowable limit, aspirate only 2 - 3 li of the air.
IV. Analytical Procedure
8. Analyze content of each absorber separately. Make colorimetric
determination as follows: take 1 and 5 ml from absorber No. 1 and 5 ml from
absorber No. 2 and place into separate colorimetric cups properly marked.
Add to the colorimetric tube containing 1 ml of the tested solution
4 ml of fresh absorber solution. Replace volume for volume any solution that
has evaporated from the absorbers in the course of air aspiration with 1.5$
of alcoholic solution of diethylamine or piperidine.
Simultaneously prepare standard scale according to the following table.
Standard Scale
TUIE NimiER
ML OF STANIARO SOLN. i-
(lOYCSj/ML)
ML OF AI60RIER SOLD.
cs2 IN Y
0
0
5
0
i
0,05
4.95
0,5
2
0.1
4.9
1'
3
0,2
4,8
2
4
0.3
4.7
3
6
0.4
4.6
4
6
0.5
4.5
5
7
0.6
4.4
6
8
0,7
4.3
7
9
0.8
4.2
8
10
0.9
4.1
9
11
1.0
4.0
10
Artificial Standard Scale
TUIE MHHIER
ML OF METHYL REI
(iOY"t)
ML OF O.L N. AQUEOUS
NAOH SOLN.
CS2 ill V
0
0
5
0
i
0,05
4,95
0,5
2
0,1
4,9
1
3
0,2
4,8
2
4
0,3
4.7
3
5
0,4
4.6
4
6
0.5
4,5
5
r
0,6
4,4
6
8
'0.7
4,3
7
9
0.8
4,2
8
10
0,9
4,1
9
11
1.0
4.0
10
-13-
-------
Add 0.5 ml of 0.05$ of alcohol solution of lead acetate to all tubes,
shake for five minutes and compare colorimetrically.
The standard scale prepared with methyl red can be used up to a certain
carbon bisulfide concentration, as was previously indicated. The methyl
red scale can be prepared as shown in the table above.
Calculate the carbon bisulfide concentration in mg/li of air (X) using
the following formula:
. GV1
V VQ 1000
in which G - represents gammas of carbon bisulfide in the analyzed sample
volume taken from the first absorber.
V - represents ml taken for analysis.
V, - represents 'ml of the tested solution.
1/1000 - is the coefficient of y conversion to ml.
V - represents li of air taken' for analysis and adjusted to
standard conditions of temperature and barometric pressure according to the
following formula:
V
V 273 P
o " (273 + t) 760
In which V. - represents li of air taken for analysis}
t - represents the temperature of air at the point of sample
collecting;
P - represents barometric pressure in mm of mercury, at the point
of sample collecting.
Determine carbon bisulfide concentration in the second absorber by the
above described procedure. Determine final concentration of carbon bisulfide
in the air by adding results obtained for each of the two absorbers.
NOTE: Hydrogen sulfide interfered with the determination of carbon
bisulfide, due to the fact that in the presence of lead acetate it formed a
colored solution. Where the simultaneous presence in the air of hydrogen sul-
fide is suspected the tested air should be passed through I or 2 absorbers
each containing 10 ml of 0.2$ of sodium arsenite in ammonium carbonate
solution, before final aspiration. Hydrogen sulfide is completely absorbed
by sodium arsenite in ammonium carbonate solution, while carbon bisulfide
-14-
-------
passes through such a solution without "being absorbed.
Thus, the method of differential absorption makes possible the separate
determination of hydrogen sulfide and carbon bisulfide simultaneously present
in the air.
Volume V can be derived by using temperature and atmospheric coefficients
shown in appropriate tables. In adjusting the volume to standard temperature
and pressure multiply V, by the corresponding correction coefficient.
Quantitative Determination of Hydrogen Cyanide in the Air
Approved by the USSR Chief State Sanitary Inspector, V. 14. Zhdanov,
September 30, 1959, No. 122-1/325
The method is applicable to the determination of hydrocyanic gas in
the air of industrial premises for sanitary control purposes.
I. General
1. In alkaline medium and in the presence of sodium tetrathionate at
50 - 55 hydrocyanic acid and its salts form sodium thiocyanide. In the
presence of iron chloride the latter forms iron thiocyanide which possesses
red or yellowish-red color.
Hydrogen cyanide concentration is determined colorimetrically by the
intensity of the iron thiocyanide solution.
2. The sensitivity of the method is 2y per colorimetric volume.
3. The presence of acetates, sulfides and sulfites interferes with the
determination.
4. The limit of allowable concentration of hydrogen cyanide in the air
was set at 0.0003 mg/li according to regulation No. 279-59, January 10, 1959.
II. Reagents and Apparatus
5. Reagents and solutions required:
Sodium hydroxide 0.1 N. solution of COST 4328-48 specifications.
Ammonium thiocyanide of GOST 3768^47 specifications.
-15-
-------
Silver nitrate, 0003 N. solution, of 1277-41 specifications.
Nitric acid, 4 N. solution of GOST 4461-48 specifications.
Ferric ammonium sulfate (ferric ammonium alum), 4$ solution, of
GOST 4205-48 specifications.
Ammonia, 10% solution, of GOST 3760-47 specifications.
Ethylol, redistilled, of GOST 5962-51 specifications.
Sodium thiosulfate, of GOST 4215-48 specifications.
Distilled water.
Prepare No. 1 standard stock solution of ammonium thiocyanide as follows:
dissolve 2 g of ammonium thiocyanide in 1 li of distilled water.
Determine the exact content of ammonium thiocyanide in the solution by
titration with 0.03 N. solution of silver nitrate, using 40% solution of
iron ammonium alum as the indicator.
Prepare No. 2 standard solution of ammonium thiocyanide by diluting stan-
dard stock solution No. 1 so that 1 ml will contain 20 y of ammonium thio-
cyanide.
Prepare the iron chloride solution by dissolving 55 S °f *ne reagent in
1 li of distilled water. Add 0.5 ml of concentrated nitric acid for each
li of the solution.
Prepare sodium tetrathionate from sodium thiosulfate and crystalline
iodine as follows: thoroughly grind 15 g of sodium thiosulfate and 9 g of
sublimated iodine in a mortar.
Add a few drops of water and grind to complete homogeneity} add 10 - 15
ml of ethylol to precipitate the formed sodium tetrathionate} filter off the
liquid using a Buchner filter and vacuum suction.
Wash the dry precipitate on the filter with 0.5 - 1.0 ml of alcohol
until no trace of iodine remains. The precipitated sodium tetrathionate should
be of a pale creamy color; air dry and use for the preparation of a 1% solution.
Kept in the dark this solution can be used for 7 or 10 days. If a precipitate
forms in the solution discard it and make a new preparation.
6. Dishes and other equipment:
Absorbers such as are shown in Figures 1, 2 or 3.
Flat bottom colorimetric tubes of colorless glass, 120 mm high, and
15 mm inside diameter.
-16-
-------
Pipettes, 5 mm^ divided in^o O.i or 0.05 ml, of GOST 1770-51 specifications.
Pipettes, 1 ml, divided into 0.01 ml, of GOST 1770-51 specifications.
Burettes,'50 ml, of GOST 1770-51 specifications.
Cylinder graduates, 100 ml, of GOST 1770-51 specifications.
Flasks, volumetric, 1000.and.,100 ml, of GOST 1770-51 specifications.
Reagent bottles
Thermometer, chemical, up to -100°, of GOST 215-41 specifications;
Mortar, porcelain, of GOST 900-41 specifications.
Flasks, conical, (Erlenmeyer)-, 250 ml, of GOST 3184-46 specifications.
Funnel, Buchner medium size.
Waterbath. < •'.••..
Aspirators or air-blowers with flowmeter.
Rubber tubing, clamps'-and pinchcocks : - -
III. ' Air Sample Collecting
7. Aspirate the air at the rate of 25 li/hr through the consecutive
absorbers each containing 5 ml of;0.1 N. solution of NaOH.' '
: If .the hydrocyanide. rconcentration in the air is close to the limit of
allowable concentration, aspirate only 15 - 20 li of-air. ••••
IV. The Analytical Procedure
,8.. In making the analysis place into the colorimetric tube 3.5 ml of the
sample; simultaneously prepare the standard scale, as shown,in the table below.
TtflE HOMIER
HI Of NH4 SCN SOU.
No. 2
O.i N. NAOH SOLI.
HCN III y
1
0
3,5
0
2
0,19
3.31
2.0
3
0.24
3.26
2,6
4
0,31
3,19
3.4
s
0.41
3.09
4.4
6
0,53
2.97
5.7
7
0.69
2.81
7.4
8
0,90
2,60
9.6
D
1.17
2.33
12.5
10
1,52
1,98
16.3
II
2.13
1.37
21,2
12
2.77
0.73
27.5
Place into all tubes 0.15 ml of 10$ solution of ammonia and 0.5 ml of
the sodium tetrathionate solution. Mix well and heat for 5 minutes on a
waterbath at 50 - 55°} cool to room temperature. Do not raise the tempera-
ture above 55 to avoid decomposition of the sodium tetrathionate. After
cooling add to all the tubes 1 ml of 4 N. solution of nitric acid, 0.2 ml of
r-17-
-------
iron chloride, mix and compare colorimetrically at once. The color of iron
thiocyanide will keep for 10 to 13 minutes.
Calculate the hydrogen cyanide concentration in mg/li of air (X) with
the aid of the following foroulai
0 V,
X -
V V 1000
o .
In which G - represents gammas of hydrogen cyanide in the analyzed sample
volume}
V - represents ml used in the analysis}
V. - represents ml of the air sample}
1/1000 - is the coefficient of Y conversion to ml}
V - represents li of air adjusted to normal temperature and
barometric pressure, according to the equation shown below.
V - Vt 273 p
o
C273 * t; 760
In which V^ - represents li of air aspirated for analysis.
P - represents the barometric pressure in mm of mercury at the
point of sample taking}
t - represents the air at the point of sample taking}
V, - can be easily determined by multiplying the value of V^ by the
appropriate temperature correction factor found in a suitable correction
coefficient table.
-18-
-------
Quantitative Determination of Carbon Monoxide in the Air
Approved by the USSR Chief State Sanitary Inspector, V. M. Zhdanov,
. . • . . ..May ,7, 1958, No. 122-1/195
The method is applicable to the determination of carbon monoxide in the
air of industrial premises for sanitary control purposes.
I. General
1. The method is based on the fact that carbon monoxide is oxidized by
iodic anhydride according to the following equation: •
5CO + I2o5 - 5C02 + I2
The carbon dioxide formed is absorbed by a solution of barium hydroxide
according to the following equation.
....... B_a(QH)2 + C02-. BaC03 + HgO . . ..•-.-.
Excess of barium hydroxide is titrated with hydrochloric acid.
,2. The sensitivity of the method is 1.4 Y in the sample volume under
study. -•-"•'•'.-
3. The limit of allowable CO concentration in the air differs with the
duration of the polluted air inhalation, as shown in the table below.
Repeated subjection to
the inhalation of high car-
bon monoxide.concentrations
in the working premises may
be permitted at intermittent
intervals as specified in: regulation Ho. 279-59 approved January 10, 1959»
II. Reagents and Apparatus
: 4. Reagents, solutions and other materials.
Iodic anhydride (iodine pentpxide), of 3775-47,,or.iodic acid of. .
COST 4213-46 specifications.. ,
Barium chloride, of GOST 4108-48.specifications. ,
Barium hydroxide, 0.01 N. solution, of COST 4107-48 specifications.
Hygroscopic cotton, fat free, of GOST 5556-50 specifications.
Glass wool.
Distilled water.
IURATION OF EXPOSURE
CO COMEJITRATIORIIN HI/LI
• ',
0,03
I
0,05
•/•
0.1
V.-V,
0.2
-19-
-------
Potassium iodide, of GOST 4232-48 specifications.
Hydrochloric acid, 0.01 N. solution, of GOST 3118-46 specifications.
Sulfuric acid, 1.820-1.835 sp. gr., of GOST 4204-48 specifications.
Sodium hydroxide, of GOST 4328-48 specifications.
Copper filings, electrolytic.
Granulated pumice, washed and calcined.
Bthylol, redistilled, of GOST 5962-51 specifications.
Silicagel, of GOST 3956-51 specifications, calcined at a temperature not
exceeding 400°.
Phenolphthalein, of GOST 5850-51 specifications.
Prepare the 0.01 N. barium hydroxide solution with distilled water.
Close the flask containing the prepared barium hydroxide solution with a
two-hole stopper; insert a glass siphon extending to the bottom of the flask
through one hole; insert a short glass tube into the other stopper hole to
extend just below the stopper; connect its outside upper end with a drying
and purifying apparatus filled with soda lime. Shut off the purifying tubes
by tightening the pinchcocks at each end .of the purifying apparatus. (See
Fig. 4)* Place into the flask the desired volume of 1% aqueous solution of
barium chloride and 4.0 - 4.5 g of Ba(OH)2, which is
in excess of the calculated amount, to allow for the
barium carbonate frequently present in the barium
hydroxide; Shake the flask several times through the
day and leave rest until the barium hydroxide settles
to the bottom of the flask; siphon off the clear
solution into another bottle the air of which has
been replaced by carbon dioxide-free air using the
purifying set shown in Fig. 4. Determine the barium
hydroxide titre with the aid of a standardized 0.01 N.
solution of hydro-chloric acid. Prepare the latter as described in any text
book of analytical chemistry, taking the necessary precautions to prevent
contact between the Ba(OH)2 solution and air containing CO,,. Two ml of the
barium hydroxide should consume 2 ml of the 0.01 N. hydrochloric acid.
Dissolve 0.5 g of phenolphethalein in 100 ml of ethylol and add 50 ml
of water.
Prepare granulated iodic anhydride (iodine pentoxide) as follows»
Fig. 4. Purifying
apparatus.
-20-
-------
place powdered iodic anhydride into a porcelain dish, moisten with distilled
water and evaporate over a waterbath, while stirring constantly with a glass
rod. As the water gradually evaporates iodic anhydride granules of 2 - 3 nan
will form. Place 8 - 10 g of the granulated iodic anhydride into a V-shaped
tube connected with the apparatus for the determination of the carbon monoxide.
Prior to making the determination, COg-free air is heated to 140 - 150 , is
forced through a Y-shaped tube until all traces of COp and of moisture have
been removed. Heat the COp-free air to 180 - 200° and force it through the
entire system for 2 hours. The iodic anhydride is now ready for use in the
analytical procedure. Iodic anhydride prepared from iodic acid is rendered
granular as described above, poured into the V-shaped tube and heated in the
furnace to 230 - 240° while constantly forcing the air through the tube for
2-3 hours to drive off all free iodine and moisture. Check the oxidizing
property of the iodic anhydride with the aid of air samples containing known
concentrations of carbon monoxide. Methods used in such procedures are de-
scribed by M. V. Alekseeva e_t al in a book entitled, "Determination of
Harmful Substances in the Air of Industrial Premises - Goskhimizdat, M. 1954,
Page 213.
Prepare electrolytic copper as followsi wash 8 - 10 g of copper filings
with ether to remove all dust; dry the filings at room temperature and place
into a V-shaped tube of 2 - 3 mm inside diameter; plug the tube with glass
wool and place into the furnace at a temperature not exceeding 100°, all the
while forcing carbon monoxide-free air through it for 20 - 30 min.
Pig. 5. Apparatus for CO oxidation
-21-
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5. Dishes and other equipment:
Apparatus for carbon monoxide oxidation to carbon dioxide, as shown
in Pig. 5.
Aspirator, 5 - 10 li capacity.
Bottles, 1 - 2 li capacity with two-hole stopper and glass tubes as
previously described and as shown in Pig. 6, equipped with rubber tubing,
glass rods and pinchcocks.
Rubber bulbs.
Bottle to hold the barium hydroxide solution, arranged as shown in
Pig. 7.
Box
Pinchcocks
Inside rubber part of a football
Droppers, of NETP 4017 specifications
Micrometric screw for the pneumatic burette
Microabsorbers, as shown in Pig. 8
II
Pig. 6. Air Sample
collecting bottle for
CO determination.
Pig. 7. Apparatus
for BaOH solution.
Microburette, as shown in Pig. 9-
Microscrewcock
Bicycle pump
Purifying assembly, as shown in Pig. 4
Pig. 8. Microabsorber
-22-
-------
Microabsorber stand, as shown in Fig. 10
Absorbers, as shown in Pig. 1
Pipettes, 2 ml divided into 0.01 1, of GOST 1770-51
Pig. 9. Shilov mioroburette
Fig. 10. Microabsorber fastened
to its base
Mercury manometer
Thermocouple up to 250°
Cylinder graduates, 1 li capacity, of GOST 1770-51 specifications
Porcelain dishes, of GOST 900-41 specifications
Triple air purifying assembly, as shown in Pig. 4.
The first tube receiving the air is filled with HgSO, saturated pumice;
add 10 - 20 ml of concentrated sulfuric acid and close it. Draw off excess
of sulfuric acid the following day.
Pill the second tube with %OH or with KOH and the third tube with
silicagel.
Place small wads of cotton at the bottom of each tube to prevent the
material from getting into the connections.
Place some hygroscopic cotton in the upper part of the tube containing
the silicagel, from which the air will flow continually into the microabsorber
to trap any dust originally contained in the examined air.
Connect the three tubes with rubber tubing and fasten to a wooden stand
as shown in Fig. 4. Connect the bottom bulb of the first tube to the left
by means of a rubber tube to the lower empty aspirator bottle. Place the
second aspirator filled with water at a level above that of the empty bottle
to create air pressure. Attach a small diameter rubber tube equipped with a
-23-
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micropinchcock to the third tube.
Set up the pneumatic microburette as follows: use a 2 ml pipette of
smallest possible diameter divided into 0.01 ml the lower part of which is
drawn out into a capillary. Any appropriate tube can be used for the purpose,
provided its length is 30 - 70 mm, and the inside diameter 0.1 mm. Connect
the upper opening of the pipette to a rubber bulb by a rubber tubing of suit-
able diameter; place the rubber bulb in a position whereby the slightest turn
of the microscrew will exert pressure upon the bulb forcing out a small
volume of air. (See Pig. .9). By gradually turning the screw down and com-
pressing the rubber balloon the entire air can be forced out. The capillary
end of the burette is then immersed into the titration solution, and the micro-
screw turned up again, to create a vacuum in the microburette, thus, filling
it with the titration solution to any desired point. In performing this
manipulation care must be exercised to prevent the formation of air bubbles.
The carbon monoxide oxidation apparatus is mounted on .a board shown in Pig. 5}
2 air purifying tubes are attached to the back of the toard as indicated in
Fig. 5 by the dotted lines. The first tube is filled with sulfuric acid-
saturated pumice, as previously described. The second tube is filled with NaOH
or KOH, also as previously described. To the front side of the board attach
a manometer in the place indicated on the board by (9). Attach 4 U-shaped
tubes as indicated by (5) in Pig. 5} the U-shaped tubes must be 200 mm long and
13 mm inside diameter. The upper ends of the tubes are drawn out to 8 mm and
are interconnected by means of appropriate U-shaped tubes indicated by (3) in
Pig. 4.
Pill the first two U-shaped tubes with small lumps of NaOH or KOH, and
the third U-shaped tube with silicagel$ fill the fourth tube, the one to "the
right, two-thirds with NaOH and one-third with hygroscopic cotton. These
tubes must be completely filled. A fifth U-shaped tube, 140 mm high and 7 mm
in.diameter, is filled with granulated iodic anhydride. Place this tube (6)
into an electrically heated 150 x 150 x 30 mm compartment (l) equipped with a
flowmeter. Heat the compartment to 120 - 130° as registered by a thermometer
(8) to effect oxidation of the carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide. The
liberated iodine is trapped by the electrolytic copper or by the crystalline
potassium iodide contained in the abosrber (7), which must be shielded from
-24-
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sunlight. Replace the yellow colored potassium iodide as required.
Interconnect all tubes by rubber tubing as shown in Fig. 5. Check .for
possible leakage before setting the apparatus in operation. In doing this
connect the long tube of bottle (12) by means of rubber tubing with the siphon
inserted into a water-filled cylinder graduate placed above the upper level of
the mounting. Place the cylinder firmly on a shelf to prevent it from falling
over. When pinchcocks (14 and 15) are opened, some water will run from the
cylinder into bottle 12, which will create a gas pressure. If all parts of the
apparatus are hermetically interconnected water in bottle (12) will come to a
stationary level.
Connect the short tube of the bottle with the apparatus by releasing
pinchcock (13) but leaving pinchcock (ll) on the rubber tube (10) closed,
which connects absorber apparatus (7) with the microabsorber. A slight amount
of water will enter bottle (12) from the elevated cylinder graduate, and, if
the set up is leak-proof the water level in bottle (12) will remain constant.
In the presence of leaky points the water level in bottle (12) will continue
to rise. Connect the short tube of bottle (12) with the apparatus and release
pinchcock (13) while pinchcock (ll) on rubber tube (10) remains1.closed. Again,
a small amount of water will run into bottle (12) reaching a stationary level
if the apparatus is free from leaky points. If the level in bottle (12) con-
tinues to rise, no matter how slowly, the apparatus is not hermetically sealed.
Exact point of leakage must be detected by checking individual sections of the
apparatus as previously described, or by moistening all joints with a thick
solution of soap and looking for the formation of soap bubbles. Correct
detected leakage points and check the entire apparatus again, as previously
described.
Assemble the setup for the preparation of barium hydroxide solution as
follows: Use a 2 - 3 li capacity bottle equipped with a two hole rubber
stopper as shown in Fig. 7. Insert into one hole a C^Cl- tube filled with
soda lime to absorb carbonic acid contained in the airj insert into the other
stopper hole a siphon connecting the solution bottle with a burette used for
filling the microabsorber; protect the upper opening of the microburette with a
CaCl^ tube filled with soda lime. The microburette must be equipped with a
three-way stopcock and a side tube which is connected with the siphon. Other
details of the assembly can be inferred from the drawing presented in Fig. 4.
-25-
-------
III. Air Sample Collecting
Collect air samples using a tightly sealed 1 - 2 li capacity bottle
filled with water. Install the bottle at the point of sample collection.
Gradually siphon out the water leaving 20 - 30 ml; as the water is siphoned,
it is replaced by the sampled air; stopper the bottle tightly with a glass
rod or a pinchcock. Transport the bottle containing the air sample to the
laboratory, and analyze at once or within 3-4 days, making sure that the
bottle was safely sealed.
Air samples can also be collected using leak-proof football casings
by pumping the air into them. The football casing must be washed thoroughly
by filling and emptying it several times with the sampled air. Air samples
thus collected should not be stored for longer than 2-3 days. Transfer the
air sample into a glass container as follows: equip glass bottle of suit-
able capacity with a two-hole stopper, a short tube and a long siphon as shown
in Pig. 71 connect the rubber football bag containing the air sample with the
short tube and release the pinchcockj open the long end of the siphon; as the
water is siphoned out of the bottle it is replaced by the air contained in the
inner football casing. Any other suitable method can be used for transferring
the air sample from the football using the glass bottle.
IV. Analytical Procedure
Determine the equivalence of the barium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid
solution before starting the analysis. Pill the microabsorbers with the
barium hydroxide solution avoiding contamination with C02. Force COp-free
air through the absorber for 60 seconds. Run 2 ml of the barium hydroxide
solution and 1 drop of phenolphthalein into the microabsorbers avoiding contact
with the C02.
Regulate the air flow to prevent absorber solution from being blown over
or sprayed over into the wider section of the microabsorber. Run the absorber
solution into the first microabsorber, and connect it with the second microab-
sorber. While continuing the flow of the CO^-free air, fill the second micro-
absorber with the barium hydroxide solution, and connect with the CaClp tube
containing soda lime, as shown in Pig. 10. Rinse the pneumatic microburette
with 0.01 N. solution of hydrochloric acid, fill with 2 ml of the acid, and
-26-
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titrate the barium hydroxide solution in an atmosphere of CO-free air; titrate
the content of the second microabsorber first. Establish the titration end
point against a white background at the complete disappearance of the solution
color. At the end of the titration dry the tip of the burette with a piece of
clean filter paper. According to the specifications of barium hydroxide and
hydrochloric acid solution preparation 2 ml of the barium hydroxide solution
should be equivalent to 2 ml of the hydrochloric acid solution. Duplicate
titration results should not differ by more than 0.01 ml of the hydrochloric
acid solution. Make control test to check the purity and cleanliness of the
apparatus, using CO-free air.
Note: If difficulties are encountered in obtaining CO-free air, the CO
in the air should be oxidized to CCL by any appropriate method, such, for
instance as the Ip^S method.
Use CO-free air in determining the apparatus purity and in forcing out
C0_ from the apparatus. Pill the bottle prepared for the collection of the
air sample with CO-free air, then connect by means of a short rubber tube with
the CO oxidizing apparatus. Connect the long tube of the bottle with the
siphon of the cylinder graduate which is filled with water. ' Test the bottle
and apparatus for leaks as previously described.
In making the control test heat the electric oven or furnace to 120 - 150°.
Then fill the apparatus with 400 ml of CO-free air for 15 - 20 minutes with
all pinchcocks released; close pinchcock (ll) (See Pig. 5) of rubber tube (10)
and carefully note the water level in the cylinder graduate or bottle contain-
ing the CO-free air. Connect the free end of the rubber tubing with the
t •
microabsorbers, each containing 2 ml of the barium hydroxide solution. Release
the pinchcock and pass 500 ml of CO-free air through the apparatus for
40 - 50 min. Close all pinchcocks, and disconnect the microabsorbers contain-
ing the barium hydroxide solution from the apparatus, connect with the air
purification system and titrate with hydrochloric acid solution in a CO-free
atmosphere. The barium hydroxide solution titre determined during testing the
apparatus purity is always lower than the direct solution titre. The titre
drop should not exceed 0.01 - 0.02 ml of hydrochloric ,acid. If the purity of
the apparatus was found inadequate, it should be washed once more by forcing
CO-free air through it. The control test must be made on the day of analysis.
-27-
-------
After the control test has been performed. satisfactorily analysis of the air
sample is started. The procedure is identical with the one described for
checking the apparatus purity. Connect the bottle containing the air sample
with the apparatus via the short tube. Connect the long tube of the bottle
with the siphon of the graduate cylinder. Check the apparatus for leaks as
previously described. Temperature of the electric heating chamber must not
exceed 120 - 150°.
Within a period of 15 to 20 min. fill the apparatus with 400 ml of the air
with all pinchcocks released. Close pinchcock (ll) on rubber tube (10)
attached to absorber (7) and carefully note the water levels in the graduate
cylinder and in the bottle containing the air sample. Connect the two absor-
bers, each containing 2 ml of barium hydroxide solution, with the open end
of the apparatus rubber tubes successively. Connect with the apparatus by
a procedure similar to the one used in the control test, that is connect the
narrow end of the first microabsorber with the rubber tube, which is in turn
connected with the apparatus. Connect microabsorber No. 1 with microabsorber
No. 2 (See Fig. 10) which is connected with a Cacl2 tube filled with soda lime.
Now, release pinchcock (ll) (See Fig. 5) and force 500 ml of the air sample
through the absorbers over 40 - 50 minutes. Close all the pinchcocks, and
disconnect the microabsorbers containing the barium hydroxide solution from
the apparatus and connect with the purifying system, as shown in Fig. 4*
Titrate the content of microabsorber No. 2 with hydrochloric acid solution in
a CO-free atmosphere. Hydrochloric acid volumes consumed in titrating the
barium hydroxide solution in each of the absorbers are added.
Compute CO in mg per 1 li of air (X) using the following formula!
0.14 K (V,-V)
in which V, - represents ml of 0.01 N. solution of hydrochloric acid consumed
in the titration of 4 ml of barium hydroxide solution by passing CO-free air
through the apparatus;
•
V - represents ml of 0.01 N. solution of hydrochloric acid consumed
in titrating 4 ml of barium hydroxide solution after passing the sample air
through the apparatus;
-28-
-------
0.14 - is the mg of CO equivalent of 1 ml standardized 0.01 N.
solution of hydrochloric acid;
K - represents the correction coefficient for the adjustment of the
HC1 solution to exactly 0.01 N.
V - represents ml of air adjusted to standard temperature and
atmospheric pressure using the formula below.
^."t
(273 + t)760
in which V - represents li of air taken for analysis;
t - is the temperature of the premises where the sample is analyzed;
P - represents the atmospheric pressure in mm of mercury;
p - represents the reading of the apparatus manometer.
In calculating V use can be made of temperature and pressure coefficient
(K) found in tables, in which case Vt « VQ x K
Note 1. If CO concentration exceeds 0.04 mg/li, the apparatus should be
thoroughly flushed with CO-free air, and a check test made to determine the
apparatus purity.
Note 2. After each determination the microabsorbers should be washed
with tap water, thoroughly brushed, and followed by a rinse in distilled water
and placed in the drying oven. Heavily soiled microabsorbers or absorbers which
remain soiled after washing and brushing as above described should be submerged
in 5 - 10$ of hydrochloric acid for several hours. They should then be thor-
oughly rinsed with distilled water, steamed and dried as above described.
Tested air containing 2% or more of COp, should be passed through a tube
containing lumps of NaOH before it is forced through the collection apparatus.
-29-
-------
Quantitative Determination of Mercury Vapor in the Air
Approved by the USSR Chief State Sanitary Inspector, V. M. Zhdanov,
May 7, 1958, No. 122-1/196.
The method is applicable to the determination of mercury vapor in the
air of industrial premises for sanitary control purposes.
I. General
1. The method is based on the fact that formation of CuI.Hglp in
solution is accompanied by the development of a red color. This compound
becomes mixed with the simultaneously formed copper iodide and in the presence
of mercury also formed a colorless substance. (The formula for mercuric cuprous
iodide is given in the Sixth edition of Merck's index as HgI2.2CuI. B.S.L.).
2. The sensitivity of the method is 0.3 y °f mercury in the analyzed
volume.
3. The reaction is nonspecific in the presence of mercuric chloride and
organic mercury compounds.
4. The limit of allowable concentration of mercury in the air was set
at 0.00001 mg/li by regulation No. 279-59, January 10, 1959.
II. Reagents and Apparatus
5. Reagents and solutions required.
Iodine, crystalline, of GOST 4159-48 specifications.
Iodine, 0.1 N. solution.
Sodium sulfite, of GOST 429-41 specifications.
Potassium iodide, of GOST 4232-48 specifications.
Mercuric chloride, of GOST 4519-48 specifications, or
Mercuric iodide, of GOST 3206-46 specifications.
Copper chloride, 1% solution, of GOST 4267-48 specifications, or
Copper sulfate 10$ solution, of GOST 4165-48 specifications.
Sodium thiosulfate 0.1 N. solution, of GOST 4215-48 specifications
Starch 0.5$ solution
Distilled water
Hydrochloric acid, 10$ solution, of GOST 3118-46 solutions.
Prepare the absorber solution as follows: dissolve 2.5 g of pure sublimated
-30-
-------
iodine and 30 g of potassium iodide in a small volume of water in a 1 li
volumetric flask; shake and add distilled water to the 1000 ml mark.
Prepare 2.5 - 3.0 N. sodium sulfite solution from a saturated solution
at low temperature; check normality iodometrically.
Place into a glass flask 35 - 40 ml of 0.1 N. iodine solution, 1 ml of
10$ hydrochloric acid and 1 ml of the saturated clear sodium sulfite solution)
mix for about 2-3 min. and titrate back excess of iodine with a 0.1 N.
sodium thiosulfate solution with starch as the indicator. Simultaneously
titrate 35 - 40 ml of 0.1 N. sodium thiosulfate solution and determine the
difference in titration results; the latter represents the amount of 0.1 N.
sodium iodide solution consumed by 1 ml of the sodium sulfite. 1 ml of the
2.5 - 3.0 N. sodium sulfite solution should be consumed by 25 - 30 ml of
0.1 N. iodine solution.
Prepare the "composite" or combined solution as follows!
Place into a. cylinder graduate a given volume of 1% lead chloride
solution or 10$ lead sulfate solution; add 5 volumes of 2.5 - 3.0 N. sodium
sulfite gradually and with constant stirring and mix with a glass rod until
the formed precipitate completely dissolves. Pour some of this solution into
a graduate burette for use in the analysis. Prepare the "composite" solution
immediately before making the analysis.
Standard solution No. 1 contains 100 Y/m^ °^ mercury; it is prepared by
using 0.0135 g of mercuric chloride of 0.0226 g of mercuric iodide dissolved
in a small volume of absorber solution; after thoroughly shaking add absorber
solution to a total of 100 ml. Hg concentration of standard solution No. 2
is 1 Y/ml» it is prepared by diluting standard solution No. 1 with distilled
water in lilOO proportion.
6. Dishes and other equipment:
Absorbers, such as- shown in Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 11.
Centrifuge tubes, 10 ml
Pipettes, 5 and 10 ml, divided in 0.01 ml, of COST 1770-51 specifications
Burettes, 50 and 100 ml, of GOST 1770-51 specifications.
Cylinders graduates, 25 and 100 ml, of GOST 1770-51 specifications.
Flasks, volumetric, 100 and 1000 ml, of GOST 1770-51 specifications
Reagent bottles
Aspirators or air blowers with flowmeters
-31-
-------
Rubber tubing, clamps and pinchcocks.
III. Air Sample Collecting
7. Aspirate the air at the rate of 2 li/min through
2 consecutively connected absorbers, No. 1 and No. 2, each
containing 10 ml of the absorber solution. Absorber type
No. 11 can be used if preferred, in which case the air
should be aspirated at the rate of 10 li/min., or absorber
type No. 3 can be used and the air aspirated at the rate
of 4 - 5 li/min. If preliminary testing indicated that the
concentration of mercury vapor in the air was close to the
0.00001 mg/li allowable concentration limit not less than
60 li of the air should be aspirated through the absorbing
solution.
-JCD
Pig. 11. Gernert
absorber.
IV. The Analytical Procedure
8. Analyze content of each absorber separately. Pour absorber solution
into a 10 ml cylinder graduate. Rinse the glass absorber with a small volume
of water and pour into the same cylinder graduate. Make the volume up to
10 ml with fresh absorber solution. Take 5 ml of the solution from each 10 ml
cylinder graduate and place in separate centrifuge tubes; at the same time
prepare the standard scale as shown in the following tablet
Add 1 ml of the
"composite" solution to
all tubes; shake well but
cautiously and leave stand
for 5-10 min. to complete
precipitation of the CuIHglp (or HgI2.2CuI according to Merck's index, B.S.L.).
Compare precipitates in the centrifuge tubes colorimetrically. If the
analytical procedure was carried out correctly the supernatant fluid in the
centrifuge tube should be clear.
It is essential that the "composite" solution used in the analytical
procedure be used in the preparation of the standard scale.
Compute mg/li mercury content in the air (X) using the following formula:
TUIE NO.
80LN. NO. 2, ML
AtSORIER SOLUTION,
ML
MERCURY IN Y
'
0
5
0
2
0.3
4.7
0.3
3
0.5
4,5
0,5
4
0.75
4.25
0,75
V
1,0
4,0
1.0
6
1.5
3,5
1.5
7
2.0
3.0
2.0
8
2.5
2.5
2.5
9
3.0
2.0
3.0
-32-
-------
x-gvi
V V 1000
.0 .
In which G - represents gammas of mercury in the first absorber;
V, - represents ml of solution in the first absorber;
V - represents ml of solution taken for analysis from the first
absorber;
1/1000 - is the coefficient used in converting y into ml;
VQ - represents li of air taken for analysis after adjusting to
standard temperature and atmospheric pressure using the following formulat
Vt 273 P
Vo " (273 + t; 760
In which V. - represents li of air aspirated for analysis;
P - is the barometric pressure in mm of mercury;
t - is the temperature of the air at the point of sample taking;
V - can be computed by multiplying the value of V. by the
temperature and pressure correction coefficient taken from appropriate table
of coefficients. The amount of mercury in the second absorber is computed
exactly as for the first absorber; final result is expressed as the sum of
the two values. .
-33-
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Quantitative Determination of Lead and Its Compounds in the Air
Approved by USSR Chief State Sanitary Inspector, V. M. Zhdanov,
September 30, 1959, No. 122-1/326
The method is applicable to the determination of lead and its compounds
in the air of industrial premises for sanitary control purposes.
I. General
1. The method is based on the fact that degree of turbidity formed by
the interaction between lead ions and potassium chromate increased with the
increase in the lead ion concentrations} comparison is made with the aid of
a standard scale.
2. Sensitivity of the method is 1 Y °f lead in the analyzed solution
volume.
3. The method is not specific in the presence of barium salts.
4. The limit of allowable concentration of lead and its compounds in the
air was set at 0.01 mg/ by regulation No. 279-59 issued January 10, 1959*
II. Reagents and Apparatus
5. Reagents and solutions required:
Lead nitrate, of GOST 4236-48 specifications.
Standard stock solution should contain 1 mg of lead per 1 ml; prepare as
follows: dissolve 0.1598 g of recrystallized lead nitrate in a 100 ml volumet-
ric flask using a 3$ ammonium acetate solution.
The final, or working standard solution should contain 10 Y °f lead per
1 ml; prepare it immediately before the analysis by placing 1 ml of stock
standard solution No. 1 into a 100 ml volumetric flask and add 3$ ammonium
acetate solution to the 100 ml mark.
Sulfuric acid, diluted 1:2 of GOST 4204-48 specifications.
Nitric acids, diluted It2, of GOST 4461-48 specifications.
A 5»1 mixture of the above mentioned dilute solutions of sulfuric and
nitric acids.
Ammonium acetate 3# solution, pH 6.6 - 6.8, of GOST 3117-51.
Potassium chromate, 1% solution, of GOST 4459-48 specifications.
Distilled water.
-34-
-------
Fig. 12. Metallic holder for paper and
other filter types.
Filter paper, ash-free or perchlorvinyl fiber filters.
All reagents and filter papers must be lead free.
6. Dishes and other equipment:
Plexiglass or metallic adapters, such as are shown in Figs. 12 or 13«
Muffle furnace.
Sandbath.
Electric aspirator.
Flowmeter up to 25 li/min.
Assortment of rubber tubing.
Clamps and screw-type pinchcocks.
Porcelain dishes, 5-6 cm. in diameter, or porcelain crucible 3 - 4 cm
diameter, of COST 900-41 specifications.
Crucible tongs.
Test tube stand.
Pipettes, 5 ml divided into 0.1 ml, of GOST 1770-51 specifications.
Pipettes, 2 ml, divided into 0.01 ml, of GOST 1770-51 specifications.
-35-
-------
Fig. 13. Plexiglass holder for paper and
other filter types.
Tubes, colorimetric, marked at 1 - 2 ml.
Tubes, colorimetric, marked at 5 and 10 ml.
Reagent bottles.
III. Air Sample Collecting
7. Aspirate the air sample through ash-free and lead-free filter paper,
or through lead-free perchlorvinyl fiber filters placed into an adapter such
as is shown in Figs. 12 or 13. Rate of air aspiration - 20 li/min.
If preliminary analysis indicated that lead content in the air was close
to the allowable concentration limit (0.00001 mg/li), aspirate not less than
500 li of the air. :
IV. The Analytical Procedure
8. Remove the paper or perchlorvinyl filter from the adapter and place
into a porcelain dish or crucible, moistened with 1 - 2 ml of the H^SO. and
HNO, mixture and heat over a sandbath until a solid residue is formed. Place
the porcelain dish or crucible into the muffle furnace, previously brought to
450 - 550° as recorded by a thermocouple. Do not allow temperature to rise
above 550 to prevent volatilization of the lead sulfate. At the end of the
incineration cover the porcelain dish or crucible with a lid and remove from
-36-
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the muffle furnace with crucible tongs.
Wait for the crucible and the dish to cool to room temperature and add
4 - 6 ml of 3$ ammonium acetate until the ash is completely dissolved.
Carefully pour the ash solution into a centrifuge tube and centrifuge lightly,
or allow the precipitate to settle by gravity to the bottom of the tube. The
supernatant should be clear and colorless. Remove 2 - 5 ml of this solution
with a graduated pipette and place into a colorimetric tube; prepare the
standard scale simultaneously as shown in Tables 1 and 2. The latter table
should be used in cases of high lead concentration in the air.
Add to all tubes 0.1 ml of 1$ potassium chromate solution, mix and leave
stand for 15 - 20 min. and compare colorimetrically against a dark background.
Table 1
Standard scale for the determination of lead
TUIE RO.
8TANIARI SOLUTION
CONTAINING
tO Ml
HI OF 3j£ AMMONIUM
ACETATE SOLUTION
LEAI IN
0
0
2
0
1
0.10
1,90
1.0
2
0,15
1,85
1.5
3
0.20
1,80
2.0
4
0,25
1,75
2.5
s
0,30
1,70
3.0
Table 2
TUIE NO.
STANIARI SOLUTION
CONTAIN IN*
10 Ml
ML OF 3$ AMMONIUM
ACETATE SOLUTION
LEAI III
0
0
5
0
I
0,4
4.6
4
2
0,6
4.4
6
3
0,8
4.2
8
4
1,0
4,0
10
S
1.5
3,5
15
Compute lead concentration in mg/m of air (X) using the following
formula!
V V
-37-
-------
in which V, - represents total ml of the sample?
V - represents ml of the sample taken for the determination;
G - represents gammas of lead Y found in the sample volume analyzed)
VQ - represents li of air taken for analysis after adjusting to
standard temperature and atmospheric pressure using the following formulat
v . Vt 273 P
o
(273 + t) 760
in which V, - represents li of air taken for analysis;
P - represents atmospheric pressure in mm of mercury;
t - represents the air temperature at the point of sample collecting;
VQ - can also be computed by multiplying the value of V. by the
appropriate temperature and pressure correction coefficient taken from g
suitable correction coefficient table.
Quantitative Determination of Chromic Anhydride (Chromium
trioxide, CrOg) and Salts of Chromic Acid in the Air
Approved by USSR Chief State Sanitary Inspector, V. M. Zhdanov,
September 30, 1959, No. 122-1/327
The method is applicable to the determination of chromic anhydride and
salts of chromic acid in the air of industrial premises for sanitary control
purposes.
I. General
1. The method is based on the appearance of a red color resulting from
the reaction between solutions of chromic acid or its salts and diphenylcarba-
zide, the intensity of which varied directly with the concentration of chromic
acid or its salts in solution.
«
2. The sensitivity of the method is 1 y in the analyzed solution volume,
3. The method is not specific. The presence of more than one mg of iron
or of more than 8 mg of molybdenum in 10 ml of the solution interfered with
the determination. The presence of manganese did not interfere with the
-38-
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determination.
4. The limit of allowable chromic anhydride concentration in the air
was set at 0.1 mg/m by regulation No. 279-59» issued January 10, 1959-
II. Reagents and Apparatus
5. Reagents and solutions required:
Ethylol (ethyl alcohol), of GOST 5962-51 specifications.
Glacial acetic acid, of GOST 61-51 specifications.
Diphenylcarbazide, of GOST 5859-51 specifications.
Dissolve 1 g of diphenylcarbazide in 20 ml of glacial acetic acid and
add 200 ml of 96£ ethylol.
Potassium dichromate of GOST 4220-48 specifications.
Prepare standard potassium dichromate solution containing 10y of chromtic
anhydride per 1 ml as follows: Place 0.1471 g of potassium dichromate into
a 100 ml volumetric flask; add a small amount of distilled water; shake until
dissolved, and add distilled water to the 100 ml mark. Place 2 ml of this
solution into a. 200 ml volumetric flask and add distilled water to the 200 ml
mark. One ml of the prepared solution should contain 10 Y °f chromic anhydride.
6. Dishes and other equipment:
Electrically operated aspirators.
Flowmeter up to 20 li/min.
Metallic or plexiglass adapter, such as shown in Pigs. 12 and 13.
Volumetric flasks, 100 and 200 ml, of GOST 1770-51 specifications.
Porcelain dish, 100 ml capacity, of GOST 300-41 specifications.
Cylinder graduates, 15 ml capacity, of GOST 1770-51 specifications.
Pipettes, 10 ml and 1 ml, divided correspondingly into 0.1 and 0.01 ml,
of GOST 1770-51 specifications
Flat-bottom colorimetric tubes of colorless glass, 120 mm high and 15 mm
inside diameter.
Standard Scale
Table 1
TttlE HO.
8TANMRI SOLD., lOY HI
NL OF •ISTILLEI WATER
CR03 IN Y
0
0
10,0
0
I
0.10
9.90
1
s
0.20
9,80
2
3
0.30
9.70
3
4
0.40
9,60
4
5
0.50
9,50
5
6
0,60
9,40
6
7
0,70
9.30
7
8
0.80
9.20
8
fl
0,90
9,10
9
10
1,00
9,00
10
-39-
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Table 2
TttlE NO.
6TANIAR* SOLN.
CONTAima
10 YM CRO
IISTIUEI WATER
CR03 IH y
0
0
10
0
0
0
10
0
1
0.2
9,8
2
«
0,4
9,6
4
a
0,8
9.4
6
4
0,8
9,2
8
6
1.0
9,0
10
Reagent bottles, of GOST 4300
Thermometer, 0 to 100°, of GOST 215-41
III. Sample Collecting
7. Aspirate the air at the rate of 10 li/min. through a paper or
perchlorvinyl fiber filter housed in an adapter as depicted in Pigs. 12 or 13,
The determination of the limit of allowable chromic acid in the air requires
the aspiration of not less than 100 li of the tested air.
IV. Analytical Procedure
8. Having aspirated the air sample carefully transfer the filter from
the adapter to a porcelain dish; add 3 separate 5 ml portions of distilled
water heated to 80 - 90°« Draw off each 5 ml portion of the distilled water
by vacuum suction. Place the wash water portions into a 15 ml graduated
cylinder and add distilled water to the 15 ml mark. Mix thoroughly.
Place 1 and 5 ml portions of this solution into colorimetric tubes and
add distilled water to each tube to the 10 ml mark. Prepare the standard
scale simultaneously as shown in Table 1. Add 1 ml of the diphenylcarbazide
solution to each of the tests and standard scale tubes and determine chromium
concentration in the air sample photocolorimetrically, using a green light
filter at a distance of 30 mm. Prepare a standard calibration curve with the
aid of a standard scale solution indicated in Table 2. Compute amount of
chromic anhydride in mg per 1 nr of air (X) using the following formulat
G V
Y •*•
A " V V
o
in which G - represents gammas of chromic anhydride in the analyzed volume}
-40-
-------
V - represents ml of test solution taken for the analysis)
V.- represents ml of the total volume of the test solution)
VQ- represents li of air taken for analysis and adjusted to standard
temperature and atmospheric pressure using the following formula:
V. 273 P
V
o (273 + t) 760
in which V. - represents li of air aspirated for analysis;
P - represents barometric pressure in mm mercury at the point of
sample collecting;
t - represents the temperature of air at the point of sample
collecting. VQ can also be computed by multiplying V^ by temperature and
pressure correction coefficient taken from a suitable table of correction
coefficients.
Quantitative Determination of Manganese Compounds in the Air
Approved by USSR Chief State Sanitary Inspector, P. M. Zhdanov,
September 30, 1959, No. 122-1/328.
The method is applicable to the determination of manganese in the air of
industrial premises for sanitary control purposes.
I. General
1. The method is based on the property of manganese compounds to oxidize
to manganic acid (HJ/InO,) with the aid of ammonium persulfate in the presence
of silver nitrates as the catalyzer, producing a color intensity which in-
creased with the increase in the concentration of manganese in solution. Final
determination is made colorimetrically with the aid of a standard scale. The
method is suited to the determination of salts of manganese and its many oxy-
compounds.
2. Iron in concentration not exceeding the concentration of manganese
has no effect on the determination, but chromium interferes with the deter-
mination of manganese by this method.
-41-
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4. The limit of allowable concentration of manganese and its compounds
le air was se
January- 10, 1959.
in the air was set at 0.3 mg/m in terms of MnO_ "by regulation No. 279-59 issued
II. Reagents and Apparatus
5. Reagents and solutions required;
Sulfuric acid, 1:20 dilution, of COST 4204-48 specifications;
Oxalic acid, freshly prepared 8$ solution, of GOST 5873-51 specifications;
A mixture of 1.85 sp- £?• sulfuric acid and 8$ oxalic acid in equal
proportions, freshly prepared.
Silver nitrate, 1% solution, of COST 1277-41 specifications;
Ammonium persulfate, of GOSH 3766-47 specifications;
Prepare stock solution containing 100 y of Mn per 1 ml by dissolving
0.1251 g of manganese sulfate in 250 ml of 1:20 sulfuric acid;
Prepare standard solution containing 10 y of manganese per ml by diluting
the standard stock solution with the 1:20 sulfuric acid in 1:10 ratio;
that is, make a 1:10 solution;
6. Dishes and other equipment:
Plexiglass or metallic adapter, as shown in Figs. 12 and 13.
Suction pump or an air blower;
Flowmeter up to 20 li/min.
Sandbath;
Porcelain crucibles No. 5, of GOST 900-41 specifications;
Crucible tongs;
Flasks volumetric, 100 and 200 ml, of GOST 1770-51 specifications;
Flat bottom colorimetric tubes of clear colorless glass, 120 mm high and
15 mm inside diameter;
Pipettes, 5 and 10 ml, marked correspondingly at 0.01 and 0.05 ml of
GOST 1770-51 specifications;
Pipettes, 1 ml, divided into 0.01 ml, of GOST 1770-51 specifications;
Ash-free paper or perchlorvinyl fiber filters;
Rubber tubing, pinchcocks and reagent bottles.
III. Air Sample Collecting
7. Place paper or perchlorvinyl filter into the adapter and aspirate
-42-
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the air at the rate of 10 li/min; use adapter shown in Figs. 12 or 13.
The manganese concentration in the air is close to the allowable limit,
aspirate not less than 100 li of the air. .
IV. Analytical Procedure
8. Having aspirated the air as described above carefully remove the
filter from the adapter and transfer it to a porcelain crucible and incinerate
in a muffle furnace (temperature not indicated). When the furnace has cooled
to room temperature remove the crucible and add 2 ml of the sulfuric oxalic
acids mixture; evaporate to dryness over a sandbath} cool and dissolve the
residue in 20 ml of 1:20 sulfuric acid{ pour the final solution into a wide
mouth tube, centrifuge, or allow to settle to the appearance of a clear
supernatant fluid. Now, take 1 and 5 ml of the clear supernatant solution
and place into two separate colorimetric tubes. Add It20 sulfuric aoid to
the tube containing the one ml sample to make a 5 ml volume. Simultaneously
prepare the standard set as shown on the table below. Add 0.1 ml of 1%
silver nitrate solution and 0.03 g of ammonium persulfate to all the tubes.
Mix, submerge into a waterbath at 80° for five minutes, cool and compare
colorimetrically.
Standard Scale
TUIE MO.
1
MNS04 SOLN. CON-
TAIN! N«
iOY M
ML OF i:20
SULFUR 1C ACII
H» IN Y
0
0
5
0
I
0,1
4.9
1,0
J
0.2
4,8
2,0
8
0.3
4-7
3.0
4
0,45
4.55
4,5
5
0,7
4.3
7.0
6
1.0
4.0
10.0
7
1.5
3.5
15.0
•
2,0
3,0
20,0
•
3.0
2,0
300
Compute mg of manganese dioxide per m of air (X) using the following
formula*
G V, 1.58
~ •
In which G - represents gammas of manganese present in the analyzed sample
volume;
V - represents ml of the sample taken for analysis!
-43-
-------
1.58 - is the coefficient of manganese conversion into manganese
dioxide;
V. - represents ml of solution in the absorber;
»
V - represents li of air in li taken for analysis, adjusted to
standard temperature and barometric pressure by the following formula!
V. 273 P
V o *
o (273 + t) ?60
in which V. - represents li of air aspirated for analysis;
P - represents barometric pressure in mm of mercury;
t - represents the temperature of air at the point of sample taking;
• V - can be calculated conveniently by multiplying the value of V^
by the appropriate temperature and pressure correction coefficient found in
the suitable table of correction coefficients.
Quantitative Determination of Aniline Vapor in the Air
Approved by USSR Chief State Sanitary Inspector, V. M. Zhdanov,
May 7, 1958, No. 122-1/193.
The method is applicable to the determination of aniline vapor in the
air of industrial premises for sanitary control purposes.
I. General
1. The method is based on the property of aniline to become oxidized to
indophenol by active chlorine in the presence of phenol. As a result of such
reaction the solution acquires a sky blue color, the intensity of which in-
creases with the increase in the aniline concentration in the solution.
2. The sensitivity of the method is 1 y of aniline in the solution
volume analyzed. '
3. The method is not specific in the presence of ammonia, para-anisidine,
paraphenylenediamine, and toluidine.
4. The limit of allowable aniline vapor concentration in the air was set
at 0.005 mg/li by regulation No. 279-59, issued January 10j 1959.
-44-
-------
II. Reagents and Apparatus
5. Reagents and solutions required!
Freshly distilled aniline of 1.84° b, p., of GOST. specifications 5819-51.
This reagent must be kept in dark glass bottles. Prepare the standard
stock solution of aniline as follows: use a 25 - 30 ml glass ground stoppered
bottle} place into it 10 - 15 ml of 0.01 N. solution of sulfuric acid and
weigh on analytical balance; add 2 - 3 drops of aniline and weigh again. The
difference between the two weights is the weight of the aniline. Now, add
0.01 N. sulfuric acid to the volumetric mark. Close the flask with a ground-
to-fit glass stopper and shake well. Compute the aniline contained in 1 ml
of the solution; use this solution for the preparation of standard working
solution No. 1 by diluting it with 0.01 N. sulfuric acid so that 1 ml will
contain 100 y of "tbe aniline; prepare standard working solution No. 2 from
standard working solution No. 1 by diluting it Is 10; 1 ml of the latter will
contain 10 y of aniline per ml.
Sulfuric acid, 0.01 N. solution, of GOST 4204-48 specifications;
Sodium hydroxide, 0.01 N. and 2% solution of GOST 4328-48.
Phenol, 3$ solution, prepared from freshly distilled colorless phenol,
of GOST 6417-52.
Chloramine-T, 4$ solution, freshly distilled; prepare by dissolving in
water at 30 - 50 ; filter. Dry chloramine contains not less than 205? of
active chlorine.
6. Dishes and other equipment]
Absorbers, equipped with No. 1 glass filter, as shown in Pig. 2;
Flajj bottom colorimetric tubes, made of clear colorless glass, 120 mm high
and 15 mm inside diameter, marked at 5 and 10 ml.
Pipettes, 5 and 10 ml, divided into 0.1 ml, of GOST 1770-51.
Pipettes, 1 ml, divided into 0.01 ml, of GOST 1770-51.
Flasks, volumetric, 25 and 50 ml, of GOST 1770-51.
Reagent bottles;
Aspirator or air blower;
Flowmeter up to 5 li/min.
Flask, Wurtz, of GOST 3184-46.
Ice-box or refrigerator.
-45-
-------
Thermometer, of GOST 215-41.
Rubber tubing and pinchcocks.
III. Air Sample Collecting
7. Absorb the aniline vapor by aspirating the air through 2 consecutively
connected absorbers, such as shown in Fig. 1, or one absorber, such as shown
in Pig. 2, equipped with No. 1 glass filter; place into the absorber 10 ml of
0.01 N. sulfuric acid. Aspirate the air at the rate of 30 li/hr. If the air
is judged to contain aniline vapor close to the limit of allowable concentra-
tion (0.005 mg/li aspirate only 1 li of the air. The air sample can be
collected by the vacuum method into a bottle of 1 li capacity, as follows!
Place 10 ml of 0.01 N. sulfuric acid into the bottle; open the pinchoock for
1-2 min. and close it* Having collected the air sample leave the container
stand for 2-3 hrs. with occasional shaking to bring about complete absorp-
tion of the aniline and to moisten the bottle walls.
IV. Analytical Procedure
Remove 1 and 5 ml of the aniline solution from the absorber or from
the bottle and place into 2 colorimetric tubes . Add 4 ml of fresh absorber
solution to the tube containing 1 ml of the aniline solution. Simultaneously
prepare the standard set as shown in the table below»
Cj-f. o r\
TNIE NO.
ML OF CTANIARt
COIN. MO. 2
ML OF STANIAR*
SOL II . NO. 1
ML OF O.L N. SOLN.
OF SULFURI6
ACII
ANILINE IN Y
0
0
—
5,0
0
t
0,1
—
4,9
1
t
0,3
—
4,7
3
3
0,5
—
4.5
5
4
0,7
—
4.3
7
5
0,9
—
4.1
9
6
—
0,1
4.9
10
7
—
0,2
4,8
20
6
—
0.3
4.7
30
8
—
0.4
4.6
40
Add 0.5 ml of 0.1 N. NaOH solution to all tubes and shake. Now add
1 ml of 4% chloramine solution, 1 ml of 3$ phenol solution and 0.5 ml of 25$
NaOH solution to all tubes and shake.
Within 15 - 20 min. the color will develop in all tubes, after which
-46-
-------
they are compared colorimetrically.
Compute Mg of aniline per 1 11 of air (x) by the following formula*
„ ° Vl
V V 1000
o
in which G - represents gammas of aniline in the analyzed sample volume;
V - represents ml of the sample used in the analysis;
V,- represents ml of the total sample;
1/1000 - is the factor of y conversion to mg.
V - represents li of air used in the analysis, adjusted to standard
temperature and atmospheric pressure using the following formula!
vt 273 P
Vo = (273 + t) 760
in which V. - represents li of air used in the analysis;
t - represents the air temperature at the point of sample taking;
P - represents the barometric pressure in mm of mercury.
V can be computed by multiplying V, by the temperature and pressure
correction coefficient obtained from a suitable correction coefficients table.
Quantitative Determination of Benzene in the Air
Approved by USSR Chief State Sanitary Inspector, V. M. Zhdanov,
May 7, 1958, No. 122-1/198.
The method is applicable to the determination of benzene vapor in the air
of industrial premises for sanitary control purposes.
I. General
1. By this method benzene is nitrated to dinitrobenzene, and the latter
determined colorimetrically in alkaline ether-acetone solution. The intensity
of the developed characteristic violet color increases with the increase in
the dinitrobenzene concentration in solution.
2. The sensitivity of the method is 2 Y in the analyzed solution volume.
3. The method is not specific in the presence of nitrobenzene, ohloro-
-47-
-------
benzene, toluol, xylol, and other aromatic hydrocarbons.
Butylacetate, amylacetate, acetone, and butyl alcohol in quantities lees
than 2 mg had no effect on the colorimetric determination| in high concentra-
tions they affect the color reaction.
4. The limit of allowable concentration of benzene vapor in the air was
set at 0.05 mg/li by regulation No. 2?9-59» issued January 10, 1959.
II. Reagents and Apparatus
5. Reagents and solutions required.
Benzene, redistilled, of 80 b. p.
Sulfuric acid, sp. gr. 1.82 - 1.84, of GOST 4204-48.
Ammonium nitrate, dried at 80°, of GOST 3?6l-47.
NaOH, 40$ solution, use supernatant solution after 12 hours settling, of
GOST 4328-48.
Acetone, of GOST 2603-44.
Ether, pure, anesthetic.
Prepare the nitration mixture as follows: dissolve 10 g ammonium nitrate
in 100 ml sulfuric acid of sp. gr. not below 1.82.
Prepare the ether-acetone mixture by mixing 30 ml of anesthetic ether with
70 ml of acetone. Keep mixture in tightly stoppered dark glass bottle and
store in dark room. .
Prepare standard benzene solution for use with the nitration mixture as
follows: place 10 - 15 ml of the nitration mixture into a 50 ml volumetric
flask, stopper tightly and weigh on analytical balance; add 1 drop of benzene
and weigh again. The difference represents the weight of the added benzene
drop. Shake the mixture carefully and leave rest for 4 hours to allow the
benzene to become nitrated to dinitrobenzene. Carefully add 5 ml of water by
slowly running it down the flask wall; add nitrating mixture to the 50 ml mark.
Calculate the content of benzene per 1 ml of the final solution.
Use the standard stock nitrating mixture for the preparation of working
standard solution No. 1, which should contain 50 Y of benzene per ml, and working
solution No. 2, which should contain 25 Y of benzene per ml.
6. Dishes and other equipment:
Polezhaev absorber, small size, as shown in Fig. 14 and a 0.5 or 1.0 li
bottle with ground-to-fit glass stopper equipped with a stopcock.
-48-
-------
Colorimetric tubes with ground-to-fit glass stoppers, 120 mm high and
13 mm inside diameter}
Microburettes, 1 ml divided into 0.01 ml, of GOST 1770-51.
Burettes, 25 ml capacity, of GOST 1770-51.
Micropipettes 1 ml, divided into 0.1 and 0.05 ml of GOST 1770-51.
Pipettes, 5 and 10 ml, divided into 0.05 and 0.1 ml, of GOST 1770-51.
Volumetric flasks, 25 and 50 ml, of GOST 1770-51.
Separating funnels, 50 and 100 ml, of GOST 10054-39.
Reagent bottles.
Aspirator.
Vacuum pump.
Manometer.
^Rubber tubing and pinchcocks.
III. Air Sample Collecting
7* Air samples can be collected in two ways: l) by aspiration and 2) by
vacuum suction.
l) Aspirate 3 li of the air to be analyzed at the rate of 10 li/hr through
two consecutively connected aspirators, as shown in Fig. 14, each aspirator
containing 2 ml of the nitration mixture. If the air to be analyzed is collected
at the point where benzene vapor is being eliminated, aspirate not more than
0.5 or 1.0 li of the air.
2) Vacuumize a tightly stoppered glass container of 0.5 - 1*0 li capacity
containing 8 ml of the nitration mixture. Release the pinchcock for 1-2 min.
at the point of air sample collecting and close it again. Leave the flask rest
for 1-2 hrs. occasionally shaking it to rinse the bottle walls and to hasten
the absorption of the benzene vapor.
Use the vacuum method of air sample collection where spray painting is
done, and in all instances in which benzene aerosol is present in the air.
IV. Analytical Procedure
8. Analyze the contents of the two absorbers together.
Place 16 ml of distilled water into a separating funnel, pour in the used
nitration mixtures from the two absorbers, rinsing each absorber with 4 ml of
water, which is also poured into the separating funnel. Place 4 ml of the
-49-
-------
nitration mixture into another separating funnel and add 4 ml of water. Add
10 ml of ether and shake for 3 minutes. Leave rest until the funnel content
becomes clearly separated} carefully open the funnel stopcock and remove the
lower liquid layer; add to the ether layer 10 ml of water and shake} carefully
remove the wash water and, without delay, pour the ether layer from the funnel
into a tube equipped with a ground-to-fit glass stopper. Place 3 ml of the
ether solution into a colorimetric tube containing 7 nil of acetone, add 1 ml
of 40$ NaOH and shake vigorously for 2 min.} leave rest for 20 min., and
compare colorimetrically with a standard scale prepared as shown in the table
below, under conditions identical with those prevailing during the preparation
of the test sample. This is accomplished as followsi place 12 ml of distilled
water into each of two separating funnels; place into one of the funnels 2 ml
of benzene solution No. 2 containing 25 Y/ml, and into the other funnel 2 ml
of benzene solution No. 1 containing 50 Y/ml« Add 10 ml of ether to each
funnel and shake for 3 rdn. Leave rest until solutions become well separated;
carefully pour off the lower layer, and wash the ether with 10 ml of water.
Allow to separate, and remove the wash water. Now, pour the content of each
funnel through the neck into a 25 ml volumetric flask, using a long-stemmed
funnel. Dissolve the ether extracts in acetone and make up the content of each
volumetric flask to 25 ml. Use benzene solutions A and B containing correspond-
ingly 2 and 4 Y/ml« Now> prepare the standard scale according to the following
table.
St a ncLard SnaJ
TUIE NO. i °
Ml OF STANtARI
SOLD. A
HL OF STANMRI
60LN. B
HL OF ETHER-ACETONE
MIXTURE
MI OF 40# NAOH
SOLUTION
0,0
—
10,0
1
1,0
—
2
1,5
—
9.0; 8.5
3
2,25
.
7,75
4
3,5
—
6.5
5
5,0
•-
5.0
6
.
—
3,75
6.25
r •
—
5.0
5,0
8
—
7.5
2.5
AM 1 ML TO EACH TUIE
IENZENE IN'
0,0
2.0
3,0
4.5
70
10.0
15,0
20.0
30,0
-50-
-------
Determine ml of benzene per li of air (X) with the aid of the following
formula«
. " V V 1000
o
in which G - represents gammas of benzene in the analyzed sample volume.,
V,- represents ml of ether used in extracting the dinitrobenzene.
V - represents ml of ether extract used in the analysis.
V - represents the volume of aspirated air used in the analysis,
adjusted to standard temperature and air pressure.
1/1000- is the coefficient of y conversion to mg.
In the case of air samples collected by the vacuum method only half of
the sample (4 ml) was used in the analysis; therefore, results obtained as
above described must be multiplied by two.
Adjust air volume (VQ) to standard temperature and atmospheric pressure
according to the following formula:
V. 273 P
v . -4 ,
o (273 + t) ?60
in which V - represents li of.air collected for analysis and adjusted to
standard temperature and pressure;
V, - represents li of air used in the analysis.
t
t - represents the air temperature at the point of sample collating.
P - represents the barometric pressure in mm of mercury.
Make final adjustment of the air sample volume collected by the vacuum
method using the following formula:
Vt 273 (P-p)
Vo '" (273 + t) 760
in which V - represents li of the aspirated air adjusted to normal temperature
and pressure;
V, - represents li capacity of the bottle into which the air was
collected;
t - represents the air temperature at the point of sample collecting;
P - represents the barometric pressure in mm of mercury;
p - represents residual pressure in the vacuumized bottle.
-51-
-------
V^ can also be calculated by multiplying V- by a corresponding
coefficient of temperature and pressure correction.
Quantitative Determination of Phenol in the Air
Approved by USSR Chief State Sanitary Inspector, V. M. Zhdanov,
September 30, 1959, No. 122-1/329.
The method is applicable to the determination of phenol in the air of
industrial premises for sanitary control purposes.
I. General
1. In the presence of sulfuric acid phenol reacts with nitric acid at
80 - 100 to form nitro-compounds. Upon the addition of excess of ammonia the
latter develops a yellow color, the intensity of which is proportional to the
phenol concentration.
2. The sensitivity of the method is 4 Y of phenol in the colorimetrically
compared volume.
3. Cresols interfere with the determination.
4. Limit of allowable phenol concentration in the air was set at
0.005 mg/li by regulation No. 279-59, issued January 10, 1959*
II. Reagents and Apparatus
5. Reagents and solutions required:
Phenol, of GOST 6417-52;
. Sulfurio acid, 255? solution, of GOST 4204-48|
NaOH, 0.1 N. solution, of GOST 5328-48;
Sodium nitrite, 0.5
-------
has completely dissolved add distilled water to the 50 ml mark. Shake well.
Calculate amount of phenol per ml of the solution.
Use the phenol stock solution No. 1 for the preparation of standard
working phenol solutions No. 2, which should contain 40 y °? phenol per ml,
and standard solution No. 3 which should contain 160 y of phenol per ml,
6. Dishes and other equipment requiredt
Absorbers, such as shown in Figs. 1 and 2. ..
Cylinder graduates, 100 ml capacity, of COST 1770-51.
Color-free clear colorimetrio glass tubes, 150 mm high and 15 mm inside
diameter. >
Pipettes, 5 ml, divided into 0.05 and 0.01 ml, of OOSP 1770-51.
Pipettes, 1 ml, divided into 0.01 ml, of COST 1770-51.
Volumetric flasks, 50 and 100 ml, of GOST 1770-51. .
Reagent bottles.
Waterbath.
Aspirator or air blower.
Plowmeter up to 1 li/min.
Rubber tubing and pinchcocks.
III. Air Sample Collecting.
7. Force the air through the aspirator containing 5 ol of 0.1 N. NaOH
solution at the rate of 0.5 li/min.
If the phenol concentration in the air is judged to be close to the limit
of allowable concentration, aspirate not less than 10 li of air. '
IV. Analytical Procedure
Place 2 ml of the aspirated sample into the oolorimetrio tube; simultane-
ously prepare the standard solution according to the table below,
Now, place 0.1 ml of 25% sulfuric acid solution and 1 ml of 0.5£ of
sodium nitrite solution into all tubes. Shake well and heat over boiling
waterbath for 5 min. Cool; add 10$ of ammonia to make a volume of 5 °1 and
compare colorimetrically with the standard scale.
-53-
-------
Standard Scale
TMȣ NO*
ML OF
PHENOL SOLN.N0.2
ML OF STANMRi
PHENOL 60LN.
NO. 3
HI OF O.I N
NAOH SOLN.
PHENOL
IN
Y
i
—
2
0
2
0,1
1.9
4.0
3
0,13
—
1.87
5,2
4
1
0,16
— .
1,84
6.4
5
0,21
—
1,79
8,4
6
0,27
—
1,73
10,8
7
0,36
—
1,64
14,4
8
0,46
• —
1,54
18.4
9
0,60
— .
1.40
24,0
10
0,78
—
1,22
31,2
II
1,02
—
0,98
40,8
13
—
0,37
1.63
59,2
13
—
0.43
1.57
68,8
14
—
0.62
1,38
99.2
Compute quantity of phenol vapor in mg per li of air (X) using the
following formula:
G V,
V .Y0 1000
in which G - represents gammas of phenol in the analyzed sample volume;
V - represents ml of the sample used in the analysis}
V, - represents ml of the total test solution;
1/1000 - is the coefficient of y conversion to ml;
V - represents li of air used in the analysis, adjusted to
standard temperature and atmospheric pressure by the following formula!
Vt 273 P
'o (273 + tj 760
in which V. - represents li of air used in the analysis;
P - represents air pressure in mm mercury;
t - represents air temperature at the point of sample collecting;
VQ - V. x k, in which k represents the temperature and atmospheric
pressure correction coefficient. The latter can -be taken from an appropriate
table of correction coefficients.
-54-
-------
Quantitative Determination of Formaldehyde in the Air
Approved by USSR Chief State Sanitary Inspector, V. M. Zhdanov,
May 7, 1958, No. 122-1/202.
The method is applicable to the determination of formaldehyde in the air
of industrial premises for sanitary control purposes.
I'. General
1. The method is based on the reaction taking place between formaldehyde
and fuchsin sulfate in acid medium.
2. Sensitivity of the method is 2 y of formaldehyde per colorimetric
volume.
3. Other aldehydes in concentrations of 300 y< or less per colorimetric
volume do not interfere with the determination. All aldehydes react with
fuchsin sulfate to form a rose-violet color. In the presence of less than
300 Y aldehydes other than formaldehyde develop a rose-violet color which
gradually fades out. The color developed by formaldehyde and fuchsin sulfate
does not fade out but turns into a rose-violet color in acid medium, gradually
changing to blue-violet.
4. Limit of allowable concentration of formaldehyde in the air was set
at 0.005 mg/li by regulation No. 279-59, issued January 10, 1959.
II. Reagents and Apparatus
5. Reagents and solutions required:
H2S04, 1:2 and 1:3 dilutions, of GOST 4204-48.
Hydrochloric acid, 10$ solution, of GOST 3118-46.
NaOH, 20$ solution, of GOST 4328-48.
Crystalline iodine, 0.1 N. solution, of GOST 4159-58.
Sodium thiosulfate, 0.1 N. solution, of GOST 4215-48.
Starch, ;0.5# solution.
Distilled water.
Formalin, technical, synthetic, 1$ solution, of determined formalin
content, of GOST 1625-54.
Basic fuchsin for the preparation of the fuchsin sulfate reagent.
Determine the amount of formaldehyde in the 15? formalin solution as follows:
place 1 ml of 1% formalin into a 200 ml volumetric flask) add 10 ml of distilled
-55-
-------
water; add 10 ml of 0.1 N. solution of iodine, u^ing a burette; add 20$
NaOH solution, drop by drop, to the appearance of a permanent light yellow
color; leave stand for 10 min. Add 1 ml of 10$ hydrochloric acid to the point
of complete iodine liberation and titrate with 0.1 N. solution of sodium
thiosulfate. Add the starch indicator when the titrated solution acquires a
light yellow color.
Make a preliminary control titration of 10 ml of the 0.1 N. iodine solu-
tion. The difference between the amount of sodium thiosulfate consumed by
the control titration and by the titration of the formalin solution represents
the amount of iodine consumed by the oxidation of the formaldehyde.
Calculate the amount of formaldehyde in mg/ml of the test solution (X)
using the following formula:
X . (a-a-^ k 1.5
in which a - represents ml of 0.1 N. sodium thiosulfate solution consumed.in
the iodine solution titrationj
a, - represents ml of 0.1 N. sodium thiosulfate solution consumed in
the titration of iodine excess;
1.5 - represents ml of formaldehyde equivalent to 1 ml of 0.1 N. sodium
thiosulfate solution;
K - is the correction coefficient of the 0.1 N. sodium thiosulfate
solution.
Prepare standard formaldehyde solution No. 1 of 2 mg/ml concentration from
a 1% formaldehyde solution by appropriate dilution.
Prepare standard formaldehyde solution No. 2 of 10 f/ml concentration by
appropriate dilution of standard solution No. 1. This solution will keep for
1 week;
Prepare sulfurous .acid solution of known SO- concentration per ml as
follows: insert a dropping funnel into a Wurtz flask; connect the outlet tube
of the flask to an absorber apparatus; connect the apparatus to a right angle
tube, the free end of which is inserted into the Wurtz flask; place some dis-
tilled water into the absorber and the Wurtz flask; place some sodium or po-
tassium sulfite into the Wurtz flask; place a 1:2 dilution of sulfuric acid
into the dropping funnel. Turn the dropping funnel stopcock carefully and run
the sulfuric acid into the Wurtz bottle a drop at a time. SOg will begin to
-56-
-------
generate at a rate corresponding to the amount of sulfuric acid added. The
rate of SOp generating can be hastened by slightly heating the Wurtz bottle.
To determine the sulfuric acid concentration, saturate the water with
SOp} place 1 ml of the sulfuric acid solution into a flask containing 5 ml of
water and add 1 ml of 10? solution of hydrochloric acid; titrate with 0.1 N.
iodine solution. This will determine the approximate amount of iodine required
for the titration of 1 ml sulfuric acid. A second titration can then be made
for the precise determination. By means of a burette run into a flask 0.1 N.
of iodine solution in excess of the previously determined amount by 2 - 3 ml.
Add 1 ml of 10$ hydrochloric solution and 1 ml of the sulfuric acid solution.
Shake and titrate excess of 0.1 N. iodine solution with standard sodium thio-
sulfate. Calculate the sulfurous acid and the corresponding SOp from the
amount of iodine consumed. One ml of 0.1 N. iodine solution is equivalent
to 3.2 mg of SOp. Prepare the fuchsin sulfate reagent by diluting 0.1 g of
basic fuchsin in 100 ml of hot distilled water. Filter the solution into a
dark glass bottle and cool. Add sulfuric acid solution to the bottle in an
amount equivalent to 300 mg of SOp, shake and store in the dark. A light
yellow color will develop within 24 hours indicating that the solution was
ready for use. Appearance of a rose or dark yellow color will indicate that
the solution was not fit for use, due to the quality of fuchsin employed.
Check the reagent as follows: place 0.2 ml of formaldehyde solution No. 2
into a colorimetric tube marked at 5 and 10 ml; add water to the 5 ml mark;
into another colorimetric tube add 5 ml of water* add to all tubes 1 ml of
1:3 dilution of sulfuric acid and 1 ml of the fuchsin sulfate reagent; leave
stand for 40 minutes. Lack of bluish-violet color development in the first
tube as compared with the color developed in the control tube indicates that
the reagent was faulty.
6. Dishes and other equipment:
Absorbers, such as shown in Figs. 1, 2, and 3.
Flat bottom colorimetric tubes of clear colorless glass, 120 mm high and
15 mm inside diameter.
Pipettes, 1 ml, divided into 0.01 ml, of GOST 1770-51.
Burettes, 25 ml, of GOST 1770-51.
Volumetric flasks, 100 ml, GOST 1770-51.
-57-
-------
Flasks, concial, Erlenmeyer, 100 and 200 ml, of. COST 3184-46.
Flasks, Wurtz, of GOST 3184-46.
Dropping funnels, of GOST 10054-39.
Aspirators.
Rubber tubing and pinchcocks.
III. Air Sample Collecting .
7.Aspirate the air at the rate of 20 li/hr through 2 consecutively
connected absorbers, each containing 10 ml of distilled water (See Fig.l).
Air samples can also be collected using an absorber equipped with a glass
filter, as shown in Fig. 2, aspirating the air at the rate of 1 li/min.; air
samples can also be collected by means of a Rykhter apparatus, such as shown
in Fig. 3 passing the air at the rate of 2 -»3 li/min.
In control-checking the limit of allowable formaldehyde concentration
in the air aspirate 5 li through the absorbers. .
IV. Analytical Procedure
8. Perform the analysis as follows: take 1 and 5 ml samples from the
first., absorber and 5 ml from the second absorber and place into properly
marked colorimetric tubes; add 4 ml of distilled water to the tube containing
1 ml of the sample. Simultaneously prepare the standard scale as shown in the
table below.
Scale for the Determination of Formaldehyde
WE NO.
ML OF ST»NI»R»
FORMALICKY1E
80LN. RO. 2
ML OF IISTILLEI WATEB
FOBHAIIEHYIE IN
Y
•
-
0
5
0
2
0,2
4,8
2
3
0,25
4,75
2,5
4
0.3
4,7
3.0
5
0.4
4.6
4,0
6
0.5
4.5
5,0
7
0,6
4.4
6,0
8
0,7
4,3
7,0
9
0.8
4,2
8,0
10
0,9
4.1
9.0
II
1.0
4,0
10,0
18
1,5
3,5
15,0
u
2.0
3.0
20,0
Add 1 ml of the fuchsin sulfate reagent to all tubes and shake. Wait
30 - 40 minutes and add 1 ml of It3 solution of sulfuric acid, and compare
colorimetrically. Compute ml of formaldehyde per li of air (X) using the
following formulas
-58-
-------
A V V 1000
o
in which G - represents gammas of formaldehyde in the analyzed volume of
the sample.
V - represents ml .of the sample taken from the first absorber.
V, - represents ml of the solution in the first absorber.
1/1000 - is the coefficient of converting of y to ml.
VQ - represents li of air used in the analysis, adjusted to standard
temperature and atmospheric pressure by the following formula»
vt 273 P
Vo " (273 + t; 760
in which V. - represents li of air collected for analysis;
t - represents air temperature at collection point;
P - represents barometric pressure in mm mercury.
Calculate amount of formaldehyde absorbed in the second absorber by the
same formula. Add values obtained for absorbers No. 1 and No. 2,
V can also be determined byformula V o V. x K in which K is the
correction coefficient for temperature and pressure found in appropriate
table.
Quantitative Determination of Methyl Alcohol Vapor in the Air
Approved by USSR Chief State Sanitary Inspector, V. M. Zhdanov,
7, 1958, No. 122-1/200.
The method is applicable to the determination of methyl alcohol vapor in
the air of industrial premises for sanitary control purposes.
I. General
1. The method is based on the fact that methyl alcohol is oxidized
formaldehyde by potassium permanganate in acid medium and the formaldehyde
determined by the fuchsin sulfate method.
2. Sensitivity of the method is 20 y per colorimetric volume.
-59-
-------
3. The method is not specific for methyl alcohol in the presence of other
organic compounds forming formaldehyde under similar reaction conditions. The
presence of formaldehyde as such up to 0.1 mg does not interfere with the
determination..
4. The limit of allowable concentration of methyl alcohol vapor in the
air was set at 0.005 mg/li by regulation No. 279~59» approved January 10, 1959.
II. Reagents and Apparatus
5* Reagents and solutions requiredi .
Methyl alcohol, freshly distilled, of COST 6996-54.
Sulfuric acid, Ii3 and Ii2 dilutions, of GOST 4204-48.
Potassium permanganate, 2Jt.solution, of COST 4527-48.
Iodine, 0.1 N. solution, of GOST 4159-48.
Sodium thiosulfate, 0.1 N. solution, of GOST 4215-48.
Hydrochloric acid, 5% solution, of GOST 3118-46.
Starch, 0.5$ solution.
Sodium sulfite or potassium sulfite, saturated solution, of GOST 195-41
or 429-41.
Distilled water.
Prepare standard stock solution No. 1 of methyl alcohol as follows:
place 10 ml of distilled water into a volumetric flask, stopper and weigh on
an analytical balance. Add 0.5 ml of methyl alcohol, stopper, and again weigh
on the analytical balance. The difference between the two weights represents
the weight of the methyl alcohol. Add distilled water to the 100 ml mark,
stopper and mix. The weight of the methyl alcohol in the flask divided by
100 gives the amount of methyl alcohol per 1 ml of the solution. The solution
will keep 1 to 2 months.
Prepare standard methyl alcohol solution No. 2 containing 0.2 mg/ml by
appropriately diluting solution No. 1 with distilled water. This solution
will keep for 7 days.
Use basic fuchsin, of GOST 1728-52 for the preparation of the fuchsin
sulfate reagent.
Prepare the sulfuric acid solution as followst place a dropping funnel,
inserted through a perforated rubber stopper, into a Wurtz flask, and connect
the side tube of the flask with an absorber; connect the absorber with a glass
-60-
-------
tube bent at right anglej insert the free end into the flask. Place some
distilled water into the flask and into the absorber. Place some sodium or
potassium sulfite into the Wurtz flask. Place 1*2 dilution of sulfuric acid
into the dropping funnel. Carefully open the stopcock of the dropping
funnel and gradually run the sulfuric acid into the Wurtz flask. If necessary
accelerate the rate of SOp generating by slightly heating the Wurtz flask.
Determine the sulfuric acid concentration in the solution as follows:
saturate some water with SOp gas; place 5 ml of water into a flask and add
1 ml of the saturated sulfuric acid and 1 ml of 10$ hydrochloric solution.
Titrate with 0.1 N. iodine solution. This will determine the appropriate
amount of iodine required for the titration of 1 ml of the sulfuric acid
solution. Follow this procedure by the second and more precise titration. By
means of a burette run in 0.1 N. iodine solution into a flask in amount exceed-
ing the previously established amount by 2— 3 ml| add 1 ml of 1055 hydrochloric
acid and 1 ml of the tested sulfuric acid, mix and titrate excess of 0.1 N.
iodine solution with a standard solution of sodium thiosulfate. Calculate the
concentration of sulfuric acid and of the corresponding SOp from the amount of
iodine consumed in the titration.
One ml of 0.1 N. iodine is equivalent to 3.2 mg S0_.
Prepare the fuchsin sulfate reagent by dissolving 0.1 g of basic fuchsin
in 100 ml of distilled water. Filter into a dark glass container and add an
equal amount of sulfuric acid calculated to contain 300 mg of SOp. Shake
and store overnight in a dark place. Development of a light yellow color
indicates that the reagent was properly prepared and was suited for use. Sol-
utions developing a pink or dark yellow color should be discarded. Kept in
the dark the solution should be good for several months. Check the reagent
as follows: Place 0.2 ml of the formaldehyde solution No. 2 (See specifica-
tion for the determination of formaldehyde concentration) into a colorimetric
tube and add distilled water/to the 5 ml markj place 5 ml of water into another
colorimetric tube. Add 1 ml of 1:3 sulfuric acid and 1 ml of the reagent
tested to each tube. If the reagent is properly prepared a bluish-violet
color should develop in the first tube within 40 min.5 this color should
differ from the one developed in the control tube.
Formaldehyde solution No. 2 containing 10 Y/ml-
6. Dishes and other equipment:
-61-
-------
Absorbers, such as are shown.in Figs. 1, 2, and 3.
Colorimetric flat bottom tubes of clear colorless glass, 120 mm high
and 15 mm inside diameter.
Pipettes 5 and 10 ml, divided into 0.01 ml, of COST 1770-51.
Burettes, 25 ml, of COST 1770-51.
Volumetric flasks, 100 ml, of COST 1770-51.
Wurtz flasks, of GOST 3184-46.
Plat bottom flasks, 50 ml, of GOST 2184-46.
Reagent bottles.
Dropping funnels, of GOST 10054-39.
Aspirator or air blower with flowmeter.
Rubber tubing and pinchcocks.
III. Air Sample Collecting.
7. Aspirate the air through two consecutively connected absorbers, each
containing 10 ml of distilled water, at the rate of 15 li/hr. An absorber
as is shown in Fig. 2 can also be used provided the air is aspirated at the
rate of 1 li/min. If the Rykhter apparatus is used, such as is shown in
Fig. 3, the air should be aspirated at the rate of 2 - 3 li/min. When con-
trol-checking the limit of allowable methyl alcohol vapor concentration in
the air aspirate 5 li of the air.
IV. Analytical Procedure.
8. Perform analysis as follows: Take 1 and 5 ml portions of absorber
solution from the first absorber and 5 ml from the second absorber and place
into properly marked colorimetric tubes; add 4 ml of fresh absorber solution
to the colorimetric tube containing the 1 ml samples.
Simultaneously prepare the standard set as shown in the table belowt
Scale for the Determination of Methyl Alcohol
TttlE 10.
MU OF HETMYLOL SO«.N0.2
HI OF WATER
H« OP HETHVIOL
«
0
5.
0
a
0.1
4,9
0.02
3
0,15
4,85
0,03
4
0.2
4.8
0,04
6
0.25
4,75
0,05
6
0,3
4,7
0,06
T
0.35
4,65
0.07
8
0.4
4.6
0,08
9
0,45
4.55
0,09
to
0,5
4,5
0.1
II
1,0
4,0
0.2
-62-
-------
Add 1 ml of 1:3 solution of sulfuric acid into all tubes; add 0.5 ml of
the potassium permanganate solution; shake the tubes individually and leave
stand for 5 minutes for complete oxidation. Add a drop at a time of potassium
sulfate to the first or control tube of the standard set while Shaking it,
then add excess of potassium permanganate to complete discoloration, Add an
identical volume of potassium sulfite to all other tubes. Shake tubes indiv-
idually. Add to all tubes 1 ml of the fuchsin sulfate reagent, and shake
the tubes again. The reaction will develop in 20 minutes in the tubes con-
taining 0.2 mg or more of methyl alcohol. The color intensity will be too
great for colorimetric comparison if tubes are allowed to stand for 1 hour or
longer. Experience indicated that after 30 to 40 min. the intensity of the
developed color was best for colorimetric determination. Therefore, it is
suggested that colorimetric determination be made once after 20 and again after
40 minutes.
Oxidation of methyl alcohol can proceed in part beyond the formaldehyde
stage, i.e., to C02; therefore, it is essential that the colorimetric deter-
mination be done under exactly the same conditions of time and volume for all
the tubes.
Compute ml of methyl alcohol in 1 li of air (X) using the following for-
mula:
„ GV1
* V VQ 1000
in which G - represents gammas of methyl alcohol in the sample volume analyzed.
V - represents ml of the sample taken for analysis from the first
absorber.
V, - represents ml of the sample in the first absorber.
1/1000- is the conversion coefficient of y to ml.
VQ - is li of air aspirated for analysis, reduced to standard tempera-
ture and atmospheric pressure according to formula
V. 273 P
V *
(273 + tJ 760
in which V. - is li of air aspirated for analysis.
u
t - represents the air temperature at the point of sample collecting.
-63-
-------
P - represents the barometric pressure in mm of mercury.
Calculate methyl alcohol retained by the second absorber the same as for
the first absorber and add the two values.
V_ can also be computed by the formula VQ = V. x K, in which K represents
the temperature and pressure correction coefficient, which can be found in an
appropriate table of correction coefficients.
Quantitative Determination of Tetraethyl Lead in Gasoline _of
Different Trade Marks and in Kerosene
Approved by USSR Chief State Sanitary Inspector, V.M. Zhdanov,
September 30, 1959, No. 122-1/330.
The method is applicable to the determination of small quantities of
tetraethyl lead in gasoline used as solvents and as automobile fuel", and in..
kerosene.
I. General
1. Tetraethyl lead is decomposed by iodine and the lead ion determined
as lead chrornate.
2. Sensitivity of the method is 1.56 Y of tetraethyl lead per analyzed
volume of the solution.
"•••.• II. Reagents and Apparatus
3. Crystalline iodine, of GOST 4159-48
Sulfuric acid, of GOST 4204-48
Ammonium acetate, 3$ solution, pH 6.6 - 6.8, of GOST 3117.51.
Lead nitrate, of GOST 4236-48.
Prepare standard stock solution containing 10 mg of lead per 1 ml as
follows: dissolve 1.5984 g of recrystallized lead nitrate in 100 ml of water;
use a 100 ml volumetric flask.
Prepare a standard solution, containing 10 y °f lead per 1 ml, as required
by appropriately diluting the standard stock solution before the determination.
-64-
-------
Potassium chromate, 3$ solution, of COST 4459-48.
Distilled water.
4. Dishes and other equipment required:
Muffle furnace.
Waterbath.
Sandbath.
Porcelain dishes, 13 - 15 cm in diametej; of COST 900-41.
Crucible porcelain, 7 - 8 cm in diameter, of GOS3?~900-41.
Reagent bottles.
Pipettes, 5 ml, divided 0.1 ml, of GOSX 1770-51.
Graduate cylinders, 50 - 100 ml.
Funnel, of 5 - 7 cm diameter.
Colorimetric tubes, marked at 1 and 2 ml.
Test tube stand.
Ash-free filter paper.
III. Analytical Procedure
5. Place 50 ml of filtered gasoline into a porcelain dish or crucible
and add a few crystals of iodine. Evaporate to dryness over an electrically
heated boiling waterbath. Dissolve the dry residue in 4 - 6 ml of 3?5 ammonium
acetate, centrifuge and leave standing. Place 2.5 ml of the clear solution
into colorimetric tubes, and simultaneously prepare the standard scale according
to the table below: •
Add 3? ammonium acetate
solution to the 5 ml mark.
Add to all tubes 0.1 ml of
3$ potassium chromate solu-
tion, leave stand for 15 -
20 minutes and compare
nephelometrically against
a dark background.
6. Occasionally a dark tarry residue will remain in the dish after the
gasoline has evaporated. In such cases evaporate approximately 4/5 of the
original volume; cool and add to the unevaporated gasoline 3 - 5 ffll °f sulfuric
acid sp. gr. 1.82 - 1.84; carefully wash down residue remaining on the walls
TMIE 10*
ML OF ST»NiAR»
SOLUTION
ML OF 3# AHMOIIHM
ACETATE
LEA* l« Y
1
_»
2
—
*
0.1
1,9
1.0
a
0.2
1.8
2.0
4
0.3
1,7
3,00
S
0.5
1.5
5,00
-65-
-------
of the dish with the aid of sulfuric acid; heat over sandbath to complete
evaporation, avoiding active boiling. Place the porcelain dish containing the
sample into the muffle furnace and ash at 450 - 550°. Prevent temperature
from rising above 550 to avoid volatilization of some lead sulfate. Cover
the porcelain dish after ashing, remove it from the muffle furnace. Add
4 - 6 ml of 35? of ammonium acetate solution after dish has cooled; centrifuge
the final solution or leave stand until solution has cleared then determine
the lead as above described.
Calculate tetraethyl lead in mg per 100 ml of the gasoline (X) using the
following formula.
G 1.56 V 1
" V 1000
in which G - represents gammas of lead in the solution volume analyzed.
1.56 - is the coefficient of lead conversion to tetraethyl lead.
V, - represents ml of the total sample.
V - represents ml of the sample taken for analysis.
1/1000- is the y to mg conversion coefficient.
-66-
-------
SUPPLEMENT
TAIll
OF COEFFICIENTS FOR IIFFERENT COHIIIATIORS OF TEMPERATURE All PRESSURE TO IE MBLTIPLIEI IV VALVE
V, TO OITAIH voLiHe UIIER NORMAL (STAHIARI)
CONIITIOI8
TEMP.
II
c°
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
PRESSURE F II MM OF MERCURY
730
0.9432
0,9398
0.9365
0.9331
0,9298
0.9265
0,9233
0.9200
0,9168
0,9136
0,9104
0,9073
0,9041
0.9010
0.8979
0,8948
0.8918
0.8888
0,8858
0,8828
0.8798
0,8769
0,8739
0.8710
0,8681
0,8653
0.8624
0.8596
0.8568
0,8540
0,8512
0,8484
0,8457
0,8430
0,8403
0,8376
732
0.9458
0.9424
0,9390
0.9357
0.9324
0,9291
0.9258
0,9225
0.9193T
0.9161
0,9129
0.9097
0.9066
0.9035
0,9004
0.8973
0.8942
0,8912
0.8882
0,8852
0,8822
0,8793
0.8763
0,8734
0,8705
0.8676
0.8648
0,8619
0.8591
0,8563
0,8535
0,8508
0.8480
0.8453
. 0,8426
0,8399
734
0,9484
0,9450
0,9416
0,9383
0,9349
0,9316
0.9283
0.9251
0.9218
0.9186
0,9154
0.9122
0.9092
0.9059
0.9028
0,8997
0.8967
0,8936
0,8906
0,8876
0,8846
0.8817
0.8787
0,8758
0.8729
0,8700
0,8672
0,8643
0.8615
0,8587
0,8559
0,8531
0,8503
0,8476
0,8449
0.8422
736
0.9510
0.9476
0.9442
0.9408
0.9375
0.9341
0,9308
0.9276
0.9243
0,9211
:0,9179
0,9147
0,9116
0,9084
0,9053
0.9022
0.8991
0.8961
0.8930
0.8900
0,8870 '
0,8841
0,8811
0.8782
0,8753
0.8724
0,8695
0,8667
0.8638
0,8610
0,8582
0,8554
0,8526
0,8499
0,8472
0,8444
738
0,9536
0.9501
0,9467
0,9434
0.9400
0,9367
0.9334
0,9301
0.9269
0.9236
0.9204
0.9172
0.9140
0,9109
0,9078
0,9046
0,9016
0.8985
0.8955
0,8924
0.8894
0.8865
0.8835
0.8806
0,8776
0,8748
0,8719
0,8691
0,8662
0.8634
0,8605
0.8577
0.8549
0.8522
0.8495
0.8467
740
0.9561
0.9527
0.9493
0,9459
0,9426
0,9392
0,9359
0,9326
0.9294
0,9261
0.9229
0.9197
0.9165
0.9134
0,9102
0.9071
0.9040
0,9010
0.8979
0,8949
0,8919
0.8889
0,8859
0,8830
0,8800
0,8771
0.8742
0,8714
0,8685
0,8658
0,8629
0,8601
0.8573
0,8545
0,8518
0,8490
742
0,9587
0.9553
0.9518
0,9485
0,9451
0.9418
0.9384
0.9351
0.9319
0.9286
0.9254
0,9222
0.9190
. 0.9158
0.9127
0,9096
0.9065
0 9034
0,9003
0.8973
0,8943
0.8913
0,8883
0,8853
0,8824
0.8795
0,8766
0,8736
0.8709
0,8680
0.8652
0,8624
0.8596
0,8568
0,8541
0,8513
744
0,9613
0.9579
0.9544
0.9510
0.9477
0,9443
0.9410
0.9376
0,9344
0,9311
0.9279
0.9247
0.9215
0.9183
0.9151
0.9120
0.9089
0.9058
0,9028
0,8997
0.8967
0.8937
0.8907
0,8877
0,8848
0,8819
0,8790
0,8761
0,8732
0,8704
0.8675
0.8647
0,8619
0,8591
0.8564
0.8536
-67-
-------
CONTINUATION
TEMP.
'«••
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
PRESSURE P IN HH OF HERONRY
746
0,9639
0.9604
0,9570
0,9536
0.9502
0.9468
0,9435
0,9402
0,9369
0.9336
0,9304
0,9271
0,9239
0,9207
0.9176
0.9145
0,9113
0,9083
0,9052
0,9021
0,8991
0,8961
0,8901
0,8901
0,8872
0,8842
0,8813
0.8784
0.8756
0,8727
0,8699
0.8670
0.8642
0,8615
0,8587
0,8559
748
0.9665
0,9630
0,9596
0.9561
0.9528
0 ,9494
0,9460
0.9427
0.9394
0,9363
0,9329
0,9296
0,9264
0,9232
0.9200
0,9179
0,9138
0.9107
0,9076
0,9045
0,9015
0,8985
0.8955
0,8925
0.8895
0,8866
0.8837
0,8808
0.8779
0.8750
0.8722
0,8694
0,8665
0,8638
0.8610
0,8582
750
0.9691
0.9656
0,9621
0,9587
0.9553
0.9519
0,9486
0,9452
0,9419
0,9386
0,9354
0,9321
0,9289
0,9257
0,9225
0,9194
0,9162
0,9131
0,9100
0,9070
0,9039
0.9009
0,8949
0,8949
0,8919
0,8890
0,8861
0,8831
0,8803
0.8774
0.8745
0.8717
0.8689
0,8661
0,8633
0,8605
752
0,9717
0,9682
0,9647
0,9613
0,9578
0.9544
0,9511
0.9477
0,9444
0.9411
0.9378
0,9346
0.9314
0,9282
0,9250
0,9218
0,9187
0,9155
0.9125
0,9094
0.9063
0.9033
0.8973
0,8973
0,8943
0,8914
0.8884
0,8855
0.8826
0,8797
0,8768
0,8740
0,8712
0.8684
0,8656
0,8628
754
0.9742
0,9707
0.9673
0.9638
0.9604
0.9570
0.9536
0.9503
0.9469
0.9436
0.9404
0.9371
0.9339
0.9306
0.9275
0,9243
0,9211
0.9180
0,9149
0,9118
0,9087
0,9057
0,9027
0,8997
0,8967
0,8937
0,8908
0,8878
0,8850
0,8821
0,8792
0,8763
0,8735
0,8707
0.8679
0,8651
766
0.9768
0.9733
0,9698
0.9664
0.9629
0.9595
0,9562
0.9528
9.9495
0,9461
0.9428
0.9396
0,9363
0.9331
0,9299
0,9267
0.9236
0,9204
0.9173
0.9142
0,9112
0.9081
0.9051
0,9021
0,8990
0,8961
0,8931
0.8902
0.8873
0.8844
0,8815
0,8787
0.8758
0,8730
0,8702
0,8674
758
0.9794
0.9759
0,9724
0,9689
0,9655
0,9621
0.9587
0,9553
0.9520
0,9486
0,9453
0.9420
0,9388
0,9356
0.9324
0,9492
0.9260
0,9229
0,9197
0,9165
0.9135
0*9105
0.9074
0,9044
0.9014
0,8985
0,8955
0,8926
0,8897
0,8867
0,8839
0.8810
0,8781
0,8753
0,8725
0.8697
760
0.9820
0.9785
0.9750
0.9715
0,9680
0.9646
0.9612
0,9578
0.9545
0,9511
0,9478
0,9445
0,9413
0,9380
0,9348
0,9316
0.9285
0.9253
0.9222
0.9191
0.9160
0,9120
0,9099
0,9068
0.9038
0,9008
0.8979
0,8949
0,8920
0.8891
0,8862
0,8833
0,8804
0.8776
0,8748
0.8720
763
0,9846
0,9810
0.9775
0.9741
0.9706
0.9671
0.9637
0,9603
0,9570
0.9536
0.9503
0,9470
0.9438
0.9405
0.9373
0.9341
0.9309
0.9277
0.9246
0.9215
0.9184
0.9153
0,9122
0,9092
0,9062
0.9032
0.9002
0,8973
0,8943
0,8914
0,8885
0.8856
0.8828
0.8799
0.8771
0.8743
-68-
-------
CONTINUATION
TEMP.
IN
C°
5
6
7
8
9 ,
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
.26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
PRESSURE IN MM OF MERCIBY
764
0.9871
0.9836
0.9801
0.9766
0,9731
0,9697
0,9663
0.9629
0.9595
0.9561
0,9528
0,9495
0.9462
0.9430
0.9397
0,9365
0.9333
0.9302
0,9270
0,9239
0,9208
0,9177
0,9146
0.9116
0,9086
0,9056
0.9026
0,8986
0,8967
0.8938
0.8908
0,8880
0.8851
0,8822
0.8794
0,8766
766
0,9897
0,9862
0.9827
0,9792
0.9757
0,9722
0,9688
0.9R54
0.9620
0.9586
0.9553
0,9520
0,9487
0,9454
0.9422
0,9390
0.9359
0.9326
0.9294
0,9263
0.9232
0,9201
0,9170
0,9140
0,9109
0.9079
0,9050
0.9020
0,8990
0,8961
0,8932
0,8903
0.8874
0,8845
0,8817
0,8789
768
0,9923
0,9888
0,9852
0.9817
0,9782
0,9747
0,9713
0,9679
0,9645
0,9612
0.9578
0.9545
0,9512
0.9479
0.9447
0,9414
0,9382
0,9350
0,9319
0,9287
0,9256
0,9225
0,9194
0,9164
0,9133
0,9109
0,9073
0,9043
0.9014
0,8984
0,8955
0,9926
0,8897
0.8869
0,8840
0,8812
770
0.9949
0.9913
0.9878
0.9843
0.9807
0,9773
0,9739
0,9704
0,9670
0,9637
0,9603
0.9570
0.9537
0.9504
0.9471
0.9439
0.9407
0.9375
0.9343
0,9311
0,9280
0.9249
0.9218
0,9187
0,9157
0,9127
0.9097
0,9067
0,9037
0,9008
0,8978
0,8949
0,8920
0.8892
0.8863
0,8835
772
0,9975
0,9939
0,9904
0,9868
0.9833
0.9798
0,9764
0,9730
0,9695
0,9661
0.9628
0.9595
0,9561
0,9528
0,9496
0,9463
0.9431
0.9399
0,9367
n.9336
0,9304
0,9273
0,9242
0,9211
0,9181
0.9151
0,9121
0,9091
0,9061
0,9031
0,9002
0.8972
0.8943
0.8915
0.8886
0,8857
774
1,0001
0,9965
0.9929
0,9894
0.9859
0.9824
0.9789
0,9754
0.9720
0,9686
0.9653
0.9619
0,9586
0,9553
0,9520
0,9488
0,9455
0,9423
0,9391
0,9360
0,9328
0,9297
0,9266
0.9235
0,9205
0,9174 .
0,9144
0,9114
0,9084
0,9055
0.9025
0.8996
0.8967
0.8938
0,8909
0.8881
776
1.0026
0,9990
0,9955
0,9919
0.9884
0,9849
0,9814
0,9780
0,9745
0.9711
0.9678
0,9644
0.9611
0,9578
0,9545
0.9512
0.9480
0.9448
0.9416
0.9384
0.9352
0.9321
0.9290
0.9259
0.9228
0.9198
0.9168
0,9138
0.9108
0.9078
0,9048
0,9019
0.8990
0,8961
0,8932
0,8903
778
1,0051
1,0016
0,9980
0.9945
0,9910
0,9874
0.9839
0,9805
0,9771
0,9736
0.9703
0,9669
0,9636
0,9602
0,9569
0,9537
0,9504
0.9472
0,9440
0,9408
0.9377
0,9345
0,9314
0,9283
0,9252
0,9222
0,9191
0.9161
0.9131
0.9101
0.9072
0,9042
0,9013
0.8984
0.8955
0,8926
780
1,0078
1,0042
1,0006
0,9970
0,9935
0.9900
0.9865
0,9830
0.9796
0,9762
0,9728
0.9694
0.9661
0.9627
0.9594
0.9561
0.9529
0,9496
0.9464
0,9432
0.9401
0,9369
0,9938
0,9307
0.9276
0,9245
0,9215
0.9185
0.9154
0,9125
0.9092
0.9065
0,9036
0.9007
0,8978
0,8949
-69-
-------
PART T W O
Selections from
A Collection of Studies on Problems in
the Hygiene of Atmospheric Air
Leningrad Institute of Radiation Hygiene
N. M. Tomson,
Editor
-70-
-------
Advances in Air Hygiene Investigations Conducted in 1951 - 1957
at the Institute of Radiation Hygiene
N. H. Tomson
The purpose of air hygiene studies is to establish basic means for the
protection of air purity; such means consist of changes in the technology of
production processes for the reduction or possible elimination of formation
and spread of deleterious wastes, of waste-catching equipment, of equipment
hermetization and of waste products recuperation. Of equal importance are
proper selection of sites for the construction of industrial plants in the
proximity of populated areas, provision for sanitary clearance zones, or
green belts, and moving of some air polluting sources from populated regions
when the above recommended means of sanitization fail to attain the desired
hygienic ends. In making plans for the future development of USSR national
economy serious consideration should be given to the translocation of air-
polluting plants from cities into appropriate locations. At present electric,
heat, and power stations and gas producing plants are the most potent atmos-
pheric air pollutants) they should receive immediate attention. This is being
currently accomplished by erecting extensive hydroelectric and other heat and
power stations at the sources of power generation or close to sources of fuel
supply. The construction of extensive heat and power electric stations at a
minimum 20 - 30 km from city limits should result in closing the large number
of boiler-operated stations now located within the confined of populated areas.
Thus, in the city of Leningrad alone there exist upward to 5*000 such boiler-
operated plants; the closing of these should result in considerable purification
of the atmospheric air of that city. The problem of atmospheric air sanitiza-
tion should be approached from the following three directions: a) determine
degree of air pollution by dust, gases, and products of incomplete combustion
in different city sections and around large production plants; b) determine
effect of low concentrations of atmospheric air pollutants on the organism by
studying changes in reflex reactions and general metabolic processes (and by
the introduced method of electroencephalography,B.S.L.); c) refine and perfect
analytical and other study procedures.
This Institute studied the role played by large industrial production
enterprises in air pollution at the request of the USSR Ministry of Health
-71-
-------
and of the Leningrad City Sanitary-Epidemiological Station. Results of the
investigation served as the basis for planning and executing future sanitiza-
tion undertakings on a national scale, which included moving of some indus-
trial enterprises from populated regions. Studies of the part played "by in-
dividual production enterprises in atmospheric air pollution were paralleled
by studies of effects on the organism of individual discharge components.
Fifteen Leningrad regional sanitary-epidemiological stations participated in
the study of the practical solution of the problem related to the prevention and
control of city air pollution; each sanitary-epidemiological station determined
the degree of air pollution in its own region; the results served as the basis
for the establishment of sound sanitary regulations.
A study of the city's degree of dustiness at 10 fixed city observation
points was initiated in 1935. Air dust studies were conducted by the sedimen-
tation method, which in the opinion of the workers, adequately reflected the
city's state of air dust pollution. The data are presented in Table 1.
Table 1
AVERAGE MONTHLY AMOUNT OF MST SETTLE! IN •/«
YEAR
1935
1936
1937
1938
1939
1940
1946
1947
1?48
1949
1950
1951
1952
19S3
1954
1956
1966
INIUSTRIAL
SECTIONS
46
56
49
65
61
60
52
86
110
118
125
89
73
58
57
76
76
RESIIENTIAL
SECTIONS
38
36
17
24
35
30
16
20
25
32
41
37
35
34
28
39
35
PARKS
9
8
9
12
10
8
7
8
12
19
26
21
22
13
18
13
22
The gradual rise in Leningrad air dustiness, from 1946 to 1950, was caused
by the rebuilding and new development of industry and partially by the use (in
-72-
-------
1948) of low quality Pechorsk coal in the place of Donets anthracite which
resulted in the discharge into the air of products of incomplete combustion.
The abatement in air dustiness, which began in 1951, resulted from the installa-
tion of dust-catching filters in large production plants and electric heat and
power stations. Arrest in further dust abatement during the following years
was caused by the fact that most large industrial plants purified their dis-
charges only partially, while the consumption of low grade coal had considerably
increased. This can be seen from the data presented in Table 2.
Table 2
COMPARATIVE AMOUNTS of SETTLES *»«T, »VRNE» «OAL, AN* «O«L
QUALITY, IN TERMS OF
YEAR
1940
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
AMOUNT OF
SETTLE*
TOTAL IH8T
100
196
150
135
106
104
137
136
151
AMOUNT OF
SETTLE! IU8T
PER TON OF
OOAL
100
195
139
120
93
88
98
96
104
AMOUNT OF
LOW 8RAIE
COAL
100
157
160
166
167
185
278
306
_
Products of fuel combustion constitute the basic source of city air
pollution: fly ash, SOg, and products of incomplete combustion such as soot
and tarry substances. The considerable increase in dust settling during
heating season points to its fuel origin, as can be seen from data presented
in Table 3. Suspended dust concentration, determined by the aspiration
method, and expressed in terms of mg/m of air, basically reflects the effect
of weather conditions and can not be used as a dependable indicator of dust
pollution degree. The concentration of air suspended dust in rainy weather
is generally low even during intense fly ash discharge. In such cases the
aspiration method for the determination of air dust density becomes practically
valueless and such studies must be supplemented by the method of collecting-dust
settled by gravity as shown by the data presented in Table 4.
Studies of the general air pollution picture were supplemented by investi-
gations of the intensity and spread of air dust pollution by industrial
-73-
-------
Table 3
•RAMS Of RUST SETTLER PER N MONTHLY IN 1956
MOST IP
JANUARY
FERRUARY
MAI OH
APRIL
HAY
JUNE
JBLY
AR6UST
SEPTEHIER
OCTOIER
•OVEHIER
IECEMIER
INRUSTRIAL
SECTIONS
71
63
139
108
64
76
70
37
39
77
74
118
RESIBENTIAL
8ECTIOR8
41
48
43
37
27
23
26 ,
27
28
33
34
52
PARKS
18
25
38
33
25
15
14
14
12
21
17
34
SHSPENRER IBST IN Mi/M or AIB
TAItE 4
MONTB
JANIARY
PEIRUARY
NARtH
APRIL
HAY
JiNI
JILT
AUOUST
8EPTEMIER
OCTOIEt
NOVEHIER
•eeCMRER
IUHIER OP
ANALYSES
26
47
71
61
70
48
65
65
63
2
12
12
AVERA9ES OF
SU8PENRER »«ST
0.19
0.23
0.46
0.95
0,55
0,80
0,49
0,49
0.31
0.25
0.15
0,19
MAXIMAL
AMOUNTS or
SOSPERRER IBST
0,52
1.20
1.80
3,10
2,02
3.24
231
2.11
2.03
030
0.40
0.40
discharges from individual plants, such as viscose plants, hydroelectric sta-
tions, coke-gas plants, drying oil plants, all located in territories adjacent
to a cement and a hydroelectric plant, etc. Air pollution studies in the
populated regions adjacent to the viscose and carbon bisulfide plants were
conducted by E. K. Lobova and V. Zh. Yas'kova in cooperation with the Department
of Community and Occupational Hygiene and the Health Protecting Organization of
the Leningrad Sanitary Hygienic Medical Institute. Studies of the degree of
-74-
-------
air pollution with carbon bisulfide conducted in 1952 were paralleled by
A. P. Oreshina's investigations of the organism's reaction to low carbon bisul-
fide concentrations using motor conditioned reflex effects as the indicator,
since carbon bisulfide has been known to affect the nervous system.
A. F. Oreshina was able to show that certain carbon bisulfide concentra-
tions intensified the inhibition processes in the cerebral cortex and enhanced
the falling out of conditioned reflexes. Experiments were performed with non-
selected white mice. Animals with different types of neuro pattern reacted
differently to the effects of carbon bisulfide. Some animals manifested en-
hanced inhibition processes, other animals manifested reactions of an unde-
finable character while many animals showed no reactions of any kind. This
suggests that experiments with a group of selected neurosusceptible white
mice might yield more strikingly positive results. However, experiments with
a group of animals consisting of different neuro types should be of greater
value, since under practical conditions one encounters individuals of all types
of neuro patterns, and seldom, if ever, individuals belonging to one type of
neuro pattern.
Conditioned reflex studies were supplemented by studies of the effect of
carbon bisulfide on processes of growth and development. Newly born mice,
presumably more sensitive in their reactions, were exposed to the same carbon
bisulfide concentrations as adult mice. Results showed delayed growth and
arrested weight increase as compared with the control group, conclusively in-
dicating that the 0.5 mg/m carbon bisulfide concentration, now regarded as
allowable, should be reduced. In fact odor tests with carbon bisulfide vapor
showed that 0.03 mg/m was its threshold odor perception, and it is recommended
that such a concentration be adopted as the allowable limit for carbon bisulfide
vapor in the air of sanitary clearance zones. The odor perception method was
used in establishing the odor perception threshold for carbon bisulfide and
hydrogen sulfide simultaneously present in the air. Results showed that the
simultaneous presence in the air of CSp and H_S vapors* each in concentration
of its allowable limit unfavorably affected the conditioned reflex activity of
animals chronically exposed to the inhalation of the vapors. Results obtained
from the study of air pollution caused by individual industrial plants were
coordinated with results of tests^conducted for the determination of the
-75-
-------
organism's reaction to the pollution components. E. N. Bondareva investigated
the degree of air pollution with tarry substances discharged "by a coke-gas
plant; such substances contained heavy aromatic polynuclear hydrocarbons; she
also studied the air polluted by nitrogen oxides discharged by the Nevskii
Chemical Plant. Simultaneously she investigated the effect of such pollutants
on the mechanism of eye adaptation to the dark, and found that even low con-
centrations notably affected the process of eye adaptation to the dark.
£. N. Bondareva and V. Z. Yas'kova exposed white rats for 3 months to the
atmospheric air in the vicinity of a chemical plant. All test animals showed
a 65 - 68$ arrest in the normal rate of gaining weight and in their general
development as compared with the control animals. Cholinesterase and vitamin
C determinations also showed serious shifts from the normal.
Z. V. Dubrovina studied the effect of atmospheric air polluted by emission
of a cement plant on the health of the surrounding populations. She found that
approximately 40$ of the inhaled cement dust was retained in the lungs. In her
evaluation of the effect of cement dust inhalation Dubrovina used motor vascular
and respiratory reaction changes indicated by plethysmographic and pneumographic
records. Results showed a reduced blood volume and the appearance of spontane-
ous waves. Oxalic acid tests made in close proximity to the cement plant pointed
to an increase in the alkaline dust concentration. The effect of inhaled alka-
line dust on mucosa of the upper respiratory tract was studied with the aid of
a semi-permeable glass electrode. Shifts in the organism's reflex reactions
in response to the irritating effect of deleterious admixtures in the air were
used as preliminary indexes of threshold concentrations. However, it is well
known that reflex reactions changed under the influence of different internal
and 'external conditions, the effects of which are not easily determined, if
at all. Therefore, a search was made for indexes obtainable by other methods
such as biochemical and general metabolic procedures. E. K. Lobova studied
the effect of low S02 vapor concentrations on the organism in chronic experi-
ments, and used shifts in the functional activities of the animal organism, such
as biochemical and in particular enzyme reactions as indicators, since it has
been known that sulfur dioxide penetrated into the blood stream via the respir-
atory organs, and that the gas persisted in the circulation. SCU persistence
and accumulation in the blood stream may cause acidosis, which, in turn, may
-76-
-------
elicit biochemical shifts in the blood and tissues affecting, dehydrase activity,
anaerobic cell respiration and carboanhydrase activity.
The hygienic significance of products of incomplete fuel combustion as
city air pollutants was given considerable attention. Products of incomplete
fuel comoustion are usually discharged by primitively constructed and in-
appropriately used small or medium boiler-operated plants, which in Leningrad
burn approximately 60$ of the total fuel consumption; next come autotransport
exhaust gases, especially those emitted by diesel trucks and autobuses.
In this connection S. P. Nikolaev studied the effect of small boiler-
operated plants on air pollution in populated regions. He analyzed the com~
position of discharge gases in smokestacks of coal and gas burning plants
before they reached the atmospheric air. His results were published in
Gigiene i Sanitariya, No. 11, 1956. E. N. Bondareva analyzed atmospheric air
for the content of tarry substances in a populated area adjacent to a coke-
chemical plant, using the aspiration method of sample collecting and the lum-
inescent method of analysis. Fly ash concentrations in atmospheric air were
determined with the aid of a dust filter described in Izvest. Akad. Nauk USSR,
Vol. 1, No. 4, 1952) which operated at 20 li/min. air flow rate and retained
about 96$ of dust particles of In or more in diameter.
The USSR Ministry of Health requested that a parallel study be made of
dust pollution, density, and microbial population in the atmospheric air.
Such studies were conducted by K. I. Turzhetskii and E. I. Olen'eva. The
results pointed to certain regularities existing between the two types of
pollutants, as is shown by the data presented in Tables 5> 6 and 7« Generally,
the number of microorganisms changed in some correspondence with the suspended
dust concentration. A comparison of the number of microorganisms with the
number of dust particles is presented in Table 6; results showed a greater
correlation between the two than in the ease of the gravimetric determination,
since the weight of the dust basically reflected the size of the particles,
whereas microorganisms were usually associated with the smaller and less
rapidly settling dust particles. The number of microorganisms increased with
increase in the air of suspended soil dust, stirred up by rapidly moving
transport vehicles, especially in the industrial section. This is clearly
shown by the data presented in Table 7* It should be noted that the micro-
-77-
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Table 5
AMOUNT OF SDSPENIEI IBST AMI NBHIER OF MICROORGANISMS
M8 OF 6USPENIEI
1UST PER M3 OF AIR
IIHIERS OF SETTLE*
MICROOR«ANI6MS
N8MIER OF AIR
0,085
0,150
0,320
201
214
255
777
1100
1056
TABLE «
..UMIEHS OF IBST PARTICLES ANC OF MlCROOH«ANI8M8
IUST PARTICLES
PER t CM
NUMIERS OF SETTLE!
MICROORCANISMS
NUMBERS OF AIR
139
303
731
102
216
270
557
699
1265
TABLE 7
IUST AMI HICROIIAL BEN6ITIES IN THE AIR OF INIBSTBIAL
ANI RESIIENTIAL SECTIONS ANB OF PARKS
LOCATION
S
b.
O
r
INMSTRIAL SECTIONS
RESIIENTIAL SECTIONS
PARKS
5
a
IK •<
• ae
X ui to.
Ul «. O
a OF SETTLE! ]
0,62
0,42
0,20
oc
Ul
*. •.«:
O Ul
H- ac
B Z
V)
u
U
oc
«_
0-
(f)
a
A
78
37
17
m
£ •
oe
Ul
a.
1 NUMtER OF j
| SETTLE! MICRO-I
447
359
127
I ORGANISMS 1
•c
ML
O
ec
UJ
™
ae
713
194
35
SUSPENIEI
MICROOR6ANISMS
1458
917
249
organisms associated with the settled and suspended dusts differed in their
species. The settled dust contained mostly anaerobic and aerobic species,
whereas the suspended dust contained mostly pigmented microorganisms and molds.
The effect of pollutants discharged into the air by the aluminum and viscose
industrial plants on the health of the surrounding population was studied in
a preliminary way by analyzing morbidity data collected in smoke polluted and
control regions. Such data were obtained from the official files of respec-
tively located clinics. Data thus obtained were statistically analyzed and
correlated with age, sex, occupation, residence duration in the respective
regions, etc.
-78-
-------
Determination of the effect on health of low atmospheric pollutant con-
centrations was rendered difficult by the fact that in most cases it was
impossible to determine the effects of individual components; this was further
viciated by the fact that slight shifts in the air composition from clean air
could not be easily detected, and also by the fact that response of the organism
to the effect of such low concentrations depended upon surrounding conditions.
Development of new approaches and means for determining shifts in reactions of
the organism will help to establish a rational basis for the formulation of
sanitary-hygienic codes and regulations leading to the abolition of causes of
air pollution and to the introduction of temporary basic limits of allowable
concentrations of deleterious substances, singly or combination, in the at-
mospheric air and to the development of sanitary clearance zones.
Effect of Low Sulfur Dioxide Concentrations on the Animal Organism.
E. K. Lobova.
The purpose of this study was to check the limit of allowable sulfur
dioxide concentration adopted for atmospheric air of inhabited areas. The
recent tempo of industrial development continually increases the rate of at-
mospheric air pollution in industrial centers with substances deleterious to
human health, and in particular with sulfur dioxide. The community atmos-
pheric air in the proximity of the Leningrad First Hydroelectric Station, the
Coke-Gas Plant, the Neva Chemical Plant, and the Okhtensk Chemical Combine is
being polluted by different industrial gases among which sulfur dioxide is the
most important from the sanitary-hygienic viewpoint (E. N. Bondareva, E. K.
Lobova, V. Z. Yas'kova). The present limit of allowable sulfur dioxide con-
centration for community atmospheric air was set at 0.5 mg/m .
A review of the literature indicated that the present knowledge regarding
the effect of sulfur dioxide on the human and animal organisms was inadequate.
I. V. Sidorenkov studied the effect of sulfur dioxide on general metabolism of
man and animals; the purpose of his studies was to determine which of the
-79-
-------
"biochemical systems and reactions of the human organism suffered as a result
of sulfur dioxide poisoning and what were the principles of its mechanism of
action. His preliminary results indicated that sulfur dioxide entered the
"blood stream in its original form, as shown by its presence in the "blood. He
noted that entrance of sulfur dioxide into the organism elicited a hypergly-
cernia, which he regarded as the organism's response to the toxic effect of
sulfur dioxide. He further observed that hyperglycemia developed regardless
of the route of sulfur dioxide entrance into the organism, and concluded that
the mechanism of sulfur dioxide toxic action was the same in all instances and
was "basically of a reflex nature.
It is generally known that hypoxy was accompanied by hyperglycemia and
that hypoxy could be produced by the effect of sulfur dioxide on oxidative
tissue processes. It is.also known that nerve tissue was most sensitive to
disturbances in the oxidative processes. Taking these facts into consideration
I. V. Sidorenkov studied the effect of sulfur dioxide on the course of sugar
and oxygen metabolism in brain tissue In vivo and iri vitro. Depressed oxida-
tive processes were observed in both instances. Sidorenkov also investigated
the course of brain tissue dehydrase activity using the Tunberg method. . The
results led Sidorenkov to conclude that brain tissue respiration was inhibited
through the effect of sulfur dioxide on brain tissue dehydrase. He also found
that sulfur dioxide acted as a reducing agent, and as such inhibited the
donator and. acceptor functions of lactic acid dehydrogenase. V. A. Litkens
and V. A. Saknyn investigated the persistence of sulfur dioxide in the blood
depending upon concentration and duration of exposure. Their observations were
made on animals under experimental conditions and on humans under industrial
conditions. Results of the observations showed that inhalation of SOp dis-
turbed blood carboanhydrase activity and that the degree of the enzyme dis-
turbance correlated with the concentration of the sulfur dioxide inhaled,
and that the SOp content in the blood increased with the time of the human or
experimental animal exposure. Litkens and Saknyn regarded the fall in
carobyanhydrase activity as a definite symptom of generalized sulfur dioxide
intoxication. No references were found in the literature to studies related
to the effect of sulfur dioxide on cholinesterase activity, which acted as a
catalyzer in acetylcholine hydrolysis. According to N. Ya. Mikhel'son
-80-
-------
changes in the rate of acetylcholine hydrolysis may result in profound, if
not complete, disturbance of brain function. No-references were found in
the literature to studies made on the effect of sulfur dioxide on ascorbic
acid content in tissues of -laboratory animals.
The purpose of the study was to determine the effect of low sulfur
dioxide concentrations in acute and chronic experiments on changes in some
1 " • ' .
biochemical processes controlling the functional state of the organism.
Attention was focused on dehydrase"associated with anaerobic cell respiration
and carboanhydrase which acted as a catelyzer in gas metabolism; data were
also obtained on vitamin C content in tissues and blood of some organs of
white rats. Acute experiments were performed with white rats exposed to
. \ i. .. .-•
SO, concentration of 20 mg/m for 4 hours. N-101-54,set the limit of allow-
•• -3
able concentration of S02 in the air of workrooms at 20 og/m . In performing
the experiments animals were placed into a bell-shaped glass exposure chamber
of 17•7 li capacity, and the air containing the required SOp concentration was
flowing through this chamber at the rate .of 17 li/min. Tests were performed
with 24 white male rats. Of these, 13 rats, weighing between 110 - 225 g»
were exposed to the gas-air inhalation for 4 hours; 11 rats, weighing between
90 - 255 g» were used as controls. The concentration of SOg in the glass
exposure chamber was checked at appropriate intervals during the 4-hour exposure.
The rats were then removed from the chamber and rapidly decapitated.
Tissue dehydrase activity of different organs was tested by the Tunberg
method, as modified by A. V. Drobintseva and 0. N. Goryacheva, based on the
rate of methylene blue discoloration expressed in minutes. Dehydrase activity
is inversely proportional to methylene blue discoloration time. Thus, if x
denotes discoloration time, dehydrase activity will be expressed as 1/x, or
more conveniently as.IOO/x (A. Ya. Boyarskii). Cholinesterase activity in
different tissues was determined by the S. R. Zubkova micro method, and
T. V. Pravdich-Neminskaya, as modified by A. V. Drobintseva and 0. N. Goryacheva
for tissues and by M. Ya. Mikhel'son for blood. Blood carboanhydrase was
determined colorimetrically by the commonly adopted method of A. V. Drobintseva
and 0. N. Goryacheva. ...
Dehydrase activity in liver, kidney, heart, brain, and spleen tissues
of the experimental and control animals was studied, making 167 determinations
in the case of the experimental animals and 126 determinations in the case of
-81-
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Table 1
EFFECT OF SULFUR RIOXIRI tF lEHVIRASI 4HIVITV II TIMyiS Of '
RATS, IK CORCEHTRATIOHS UP TO 20 HI/H3 AT 4 MODUS EXPOSURE
WHITE
AHRY9RASE ACTIVITY IR TERMS OF ARRITRARV >.
•HITS -
TISSUE if
fc »-
o <
BE —
ui X
a I-
ROMTROL
RATS
rf
*
£
RRAIR 30 0.17
KIRHEY8 29 0,40
LIVER 30 0.50
HEART 17 0.37
SPIES* 20 0.11
^
K
2
025
0.80
1.10
• 0,50
<«*
«
flB
U
«
0^0
052
0.64
0.44
M. 016
i«
* 5
•c •
w —
IE
a u
EXPOSER
RATS
.^
•
K
46 012
42 0,22
33 0.27
20 021
36 0,04
£
ti
2
028
074
051
076
0,15
y|
1C
III
.2
o — o
u s s
• ce 0
u x
> u m
ois 10
039 25
042 34
0,28 36
0,08 50
the control animals. The results are summarized in Table 1. Spleen tissue
dehydrase activity of the exposed rats fell to considerably lower levels as
compared with those of the control rats. Lower level activity of spleen dehy-
drase was reduced by an average of 63.752 and the upper level by 28.6#, with an
average of 50$. Statistical analysis showed that the averages were of sig-
nificant magnitudes. Heart, liver, and kidney tissue dehydrase activity also
fell to lower levels.
Similar studies were made in connection with oholinesterase activity of
organ tissues and of the blood. Ninety one such tests were made with tissues
of 13 exposed rats and 84 tests with the tissues of 11 control rats. Results
are presented in Table 2.
Data presented in Table 2 show a lowered cholinesterase activity in
spleen, kidney, brain tissues and in the blood of the exposed rats. The fall
was more pronounced in the cholinesterase activity of the small intestinal
mucosa, where lower level activity was reduced, by 41.7$, upper level activity
by 29$, with an average of 2S?,f3/£.
In the second series of experiments tests were made to determine the
effect of the 0.5 mg/m allowable limit of sulfur dioxide concentration in
atmospheric air on shifts in some biochemical processes of white rats. Ten
rats were exposed to the above sulfur dioxide concentration 4 hours daily for
114 days, and 10 rats served as controls. Hone of the rats were older than
1.5 months. The total original weight of the exposed rats was 885 g and of
-82-
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Table 2
EFFECT OF SULFUR IIOXUE ONtTISSttE AMI ILQOI CHOLINE8TERASE ACTIVITY
OF WHITE RAT6 IN CONCENTRATION OF 20 MS/IT1 ANI EXPOSURE OF 4 HOURS
ORCANS
CHOLINESTERASE ACTIVITY IN TERMS OF ML
J, <•
0
O K
OB *
Ut ~
s £
m t-
HEART 12
LIVER 12
SPLEEN 12
ILOOI 12
KIINEYS 12
IRA IN *
Mlf COS A OF
8M. INTEST. 12
OF
O.Ol N NAOH
CONTROL
RATS f.
I
r
0.9
03
13
0,18
0.8
2.0
2.4
E
r
3.0
2.8
4,8
03
2.0
5.2
6,8
uf
111
ui Aft
• s
o
O 1—
oe *
UJ —
C K
m t-
EXPOSEI
RATS
r
r
1.7 13 0.8
• U5 13 0.7
2.9 13 1.9
C.29 13 0.18
1.2 13 0,7
3.1 13 2,0
4.1 13 1.4
£
X
•<
r
2.7
2.2
4.4
0,4
2.0
3.6
43
Ul
<*
ot
UJ
SSm
• 3*
got M -J
Ul — 0
•J 1- K
05 >- ^
ui ui >- ae
<* K — o
•* — > u
B -1 —
Ul O ^ Ik
> * 0 0
« «• «
1.6 6.0
1.4 6.7
2,6 10.0
0,26 10.0
1.1 123
2,6 16.0
2,9 293
the control rats
832 g. Test animals
were exposed to SOg
as previously de-
scribed; SOg concen-
tration checks were
made on 510 occasions;
the average value of
such tests was 0.48
mg/m of sulfur
dioxide. Weight of
the animals was
checked on 14 occasions.
At the end of inhala-
'""tion exposure and prior
to decapitation animals of the test group weighed a total of 3661.1 g and of
the control group 3777.8 g, indicating that the gain in weight in animals of
the exposed group was considerably arrested. It should be noted that 1 of the
control rats died before decapitation. At the end of rats' chronic exposure
to 0.50 mg/m S0_ the animals were decapitated and tissues of the liver,
kidneys, spleen, heart, lungs, brain and muscles tested for dehydrase, and of
the small intestinal mucosa and the blood for cholinesterasa. Intermediate
tests for peripheral blood cholinesterase activity were made between the 3rd
and 5"th months of continued exposure to SOp. Tests for tissue content of
ascorbic acid were made in a parallel manner by the method of K. Z. Tul'chinskii,
M. M. Eidel'man, and F. Ya. Gordona. Two hundred ninety-eight dehydrase tests
were made with the tissues of the nine surviving controls and the 10 exposed
rats. Results are listed in Table 3. Data in the table show that lower level
of spleen dehydrase activity was reduced in the exposed rats by 50$ values,
the upper.level by 56$, with an average of 54.6$. Statistical analysis
verified as significant the average values of dehydrase activity loss in the
rats exposed to an average SOp concentration of 0.48 mg/m . Muscle, liver,
lung, and heart tissues showed a general reduction in their dehydrase activity;
the drop was of lowest magnitude in the kidney tissue. Brain tissue dehydrase
-83-
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Table 3
EFFECT OF CHRORU EXPOSURE OF WHITE RATS TO 0.48 HQ/H OF 8HLFIII MOXIIE
IAILY FOR 4 HOURS FOR 1.44 I AYS ON THE MHYIRA8I
CAPACITY OF IIFFERENT IOIY ORCAM
ORCANS
IERYIRASE ACTIVITY II ARIITRARY VIITS
lOO
£1
o •
u. —
0 1-
Ul —
a ui
CONTROL
RATS
r
£
K
r
M
W
1 OF »E-
H AT IONS
u £
SB:
u
a t-
EXPOSEI
RATS
rf
c
C
w
K
Ul
CE LOSS OF
RASE ACTIVITY •
OF CONTROL
si^
> w m
IRAIH
KIINEVS
HEART
LHN«S
LIVER
MUSCLES
SPLEER
22 0.57 042 030 30 0^3 0^0 0^7 10.0
21 0.41 0.83 0,61 25 0.40 0.70 0.51 16.4
18 0,42 1,10 0,88 21
18 0,14 0.24 0,17 20
22 0,42 1.30 O.U 26
17 0.15 033 0,24 20
16 0,20 0,50 0,33 22
0.42 1,10 0.68 22.7
0,08 0,22 0,11 353
0,40 0,84 0,53 36,0
0,17 0,24 0.11 S4fl
0,10 0.22 0,15 54,6
proved the moat resistant to the effect of chronic exposure to 0.5 mg/m
(in actuality 0.48 mg/m of sulfur dioxide.
Fifty-six cholinesterase activity tests were made with the peripheral
blood of the control animals and 46 tests with the peripheral blood of the
exposed animals. Values of the two sets of tests were practically identical,
showing no significant effects of 0.48 mg/m of S02 vapor on the cholinesterase
activity in the peripheral blood. Results of 133 cholinesterase activity
determinations in organ tissues of 10 chronically exposed and 9 control rats
are listed in Table 4* Similar cholinesterase activity tests with tissues of
the spleen showed a clear-cut tendency to reduction; cholinesterase activity
of kidney, small intestinal mucosa, lung, heart, and brain tissues fell only
slightly.
Vitamin C content.was determined in the kidneys, small intestine mucosa,
adrenals, and in the blood of 10 exposed and 9 control animals, in a total of
171 tests, the results of which are presented in Table 5.
Results in Table 5 show that vitamin C content of the small intestinal
muoosa, of the kidneys and the liver showed reduction.
In a third series of tests white rats were exposed to the continuous
effect of 0.1 mg/m sulfur dioxide. At the end of the exposure determinations
were made of the activity of carboanhydrase, an enzyme which plays an
-84-
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' TAILE 4
HPPECT OP CHRONIC EXPOSURE OF WHITE RATS TO 0.48 Mi/M3 or SNIPBR
iI OilIE 4 HOURS 1AIIY F6R 144 IAYS ON CROLIIESTERASI
ACTIVITY Of IIFFERENT IOIY ORCARS
1 .
1 ORIANS
CNOLI HESTER A8E ACTIVITY IN ML OF O.Ol N NA*H
,LS
• 0
NKNIER 0
TERMIHA1
CONTROL
RATS
r
m
x
MAXIM.
w
w
i S
• 0
•
OC »
w r
»• H
EXPOSE!
RATS
MINIM.
X
Ml
^
ee
Ul
AVERAIE LOSS OF
CNOLI HESTER A8E
ACTIVITY IH % Of
CORTROL
SM. INTEST.
HNCOSA
• RAIN
SPLEEN
KIINEVS
LIVER
LUNM
HEART
9 1.95 3.65 2.68 10 2,10 3,00 2,54 8,6
9 1,23 1.83 1.50 10
9 1,20 2.85 2,20 10
9 0,60 1,38 0,90 10
9 0.88 1.56 1,12 10
9 0.93 1,58 1,20 10
9 0.95 135 1.50 10
1,10 2.10 1,40 7,0
1.20 2,60 1,70 23,0
0,55 1.00 0.80 10.0
0.85 1.48 1^0 -
0,85 1,45 1,10 83
1.20 2.30 1,40 7.0
TAILE 5
EFFECT OF CHRONIC EXPOSURE OF WHITE RATS TO 0.43 M«/M3 OF
SULFUR IIOXIIE 4 HOURS IAILY FOR 144 IAY8 ON VITAMIN •
CONCENTRATION IN IIFFERENT IOIY ORCANS
ORCANS
VITAMIN C IH M« %
!• 3 COHTHOl
£- RATS
» «
m
5?
• 1C
C "U
9 t-
•
£
X
r
M
r
w
m
tu
«
m S
K m
Hi _
9 £
a M
EXPOSE!
RATS
£
r
£
K
C
•M
SE
LU
*
t
ii
-J O
0 e
5*
>
KIINEYS
LIVER
SM. INTEST.
MUCOSA
AIRENAL8
11001
18
18
18
9
18
4.5
7,8
7.8
883
2.0
63
10^
19.0
180.1
S3
5.75
9.10
11.60
12330
23
20
20
20
10
20
3.74
5.74
7.96
99.40
1.40
633
10,10
11,63
166,90
3.0
5.07
8^5
9,90
142.90
2,40
10
9
15
—
—
important part in the organism's gas metabolism. Young male rats were exposed
to the inhalation of 0.1 mg/m of sulfur dioxide 5 hours daily for 166 days in
an exposure chamber of 2.5 m capacity and gas-air flow rate of 100 li/min.
-85-
-------
Even distribution of the SOp in the chamber air was assured by installing a
rotation fan. Under normal conditions of operation the gas-air mixture
should have been renewed 5 times in the course of the 5-houi exposure.
Unfortunately, prevailing technical conditions reduced the rate of gas-air
renewal in the exposure chamber to twice during the 3-hour exposure. As a
result, analysis at the end of the 5-hour exposure showed that the chamber air
contained 6% of carbon dioxide, 3.0 mg/m of ammonia and an occasional 80 -
90$ relative humidity with a temperature of 25 - 27 • Control animals were
kept under similar conditions 10 - 12 hours daily.
V. B. Koziner demonstrated that no connection existed between carboanhy-
drase activity and the limiting intensity of gas metabolism in man. It was
gilso shown that acute hypoxy and twofold pulmonary ventilation had no note-
worthy .effect on carboanhydrase activity. Pulmonary hyperventilation enhanced
the respiratory coefficient to 1.4 - 1.65 the carbon dioxide tension of the
organism was decreased, the urinary.pH shifted 2 units in the alkaline direc-
tion, but the carboanhydrase activity of the test animals remained unchanged.
In the course of the entire period of inhalation exposure the SOp concentration
in the exposure chamber was checked at given intervals. Due to the fact that
SOp was adsorbed by the animals' fur, by the walls of the chamber, and by the
higher chamber humidity,.more sulfur dioxide gas had to be delivered with the
air than original calculations had indicated. In the course of 5 hours ex-
posure air samples taken for analysis amounted to 342; analytical average
amounted to 0.1 mg/m of sulfur dioxide. In the experiments under considera-
tion 2 groups of young rats were used, each consisting of 96 animals 1.5-2
months old.
Animals of both groups were weighed 7 times in the course of the exposure.
Average weight per animal at the beginning of the experiment was 102,3 g for
the test animals and 110.3 g for the control animals. Weights of the animals
at the end of the exposure period were 324.6 and 345.8 g> correspondingly.
It appeared that exposure of the animals to 0.1 mg/m of SOp had no unfavorable
effect on the development and gain in weight of the animals. Check tests at
the beginning of the experiment showed that the average experimental error in
determining blood carboanhydrase activity did not exceed 6%. Peripheral blood
carboanhydrase activity was determined in 35 test rats and 61 control rats on
-86-
-------
the 41st day of chronic exposure. In both cases the average value was 2.8-fe
0.28 with a fluctuation amplitude of 2.0 - 3.6 for the test rats and 2.8±0.37
with fluctuation "between 2.1 - 3.8 for the control rats. It must be concluded
that 40 days continuous exposure of rats to 0.1 mg/m SO- concentration had
no unfavorable effect on the activity of carboanhydrase.
Blood carboanhydrase activity was then determined in 30 test and 38
control rats on the 112th day of inhalation exposure. In this case average
carboanhydrase activity values were correspondingly: 2.8±0.24 with fluctua-
tions between 2.0 - 3.3 in the test animals, and 3.2±0.38 with fluctuations
between 2.4 - 4.2 in the control animals. Thus, blood carboanhydrase activity
tended to fall as a result of the animals' exposure to the inhalation of
0.1 mg/m of sulfir dioxide. Analysis showed that the values of fall in the
carboanhydrase activity were significant statistically.
Additional blood carboanhydrase activity tests were made between the
141st and 162nd days of exposure of 99 exposed and 64 control rats. Average
carboanhydrase activity in the test rats was 3.1±0.42 with fluctuations be-
tween 2.7 - 5.7 (in only 1 case) in the control animals. The results pointed
to reduced blood carboanhydrase activity of the test animals between the 141st
and 162nd day. Analysis indicated that the data obtained were of statistically
significant magnitudes. Unfortunately, at the end of the 143rd day the exposure
had to be interrupted for 3 days for technical reasons. After that the exposure
was continued. However, prior to beginning the 144th day of exposure blood
samples were taken for the determination of carboanhydrase activity in 10 of
the test and 10 of the control rats. This was done for purposes of control.
Results of such tests showed no significant differences in the carboanhydrase
activity of the test and control rats (3.5i.db0.6 for the test animals and
3.6±0.29 for the control animals). Such results showed the non-persistence
of carboanhydrase activity changes effected by low concentration chronic SOg
inhalation and that the slight effect produced in the course of 150 days ex-
posure was reversible.
Conclusions.
1. It was demonstrated that inhalation of 20 mg/m of sulfur dioxide
during a single 4-hour exposure elicited physiological shifts in the organism
of white rats; the same was true of the inhalation of 0.5 mg/m and 0.1 mg/m ,
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which are the present limits of allowable SOp concentration in.community
atmospheric air.
a) Exposure of rats to the inhalation of 20.0 mg/m sulfur dioxide
lowered the activity of spleen tissue dehydrase by 50$. Dehydrase activity
of other organ tissues was reduced by 10 - 36$. Cholinesterase activity of
small intestinal mucosa was reduced in many instances by 29.3$ and in other
organ tissues by 6 - 16$. .
b) Chronic exposure of experimental animals to 0.5 nig/m of SO,,
lowered the activity of spleen tissue dehydrase by 54.6$; dehydrase activity
fell in many instances to 90 - 46%, and cholinesterase activity to 93 - 11%\
such reduction in tissue enzymic activity was noted in most but not all organ
tissues. Vitamin C content in small intestinal mucosa, liver, and kidneys fell
by 9 - 15$. . .
c) Chronic exposure of rats to 0.1 mg/m of SOp elicited short duration
reversible shifts in carboanhydrase activity.
2. On the basis of the results it can be assumed that daily inhalation
by indoor workers of air containing 20 mg/m of SOp (N 101-54) over a period
of years might seriously affect their health.
Data found in the literature indicated that sulfur dioxide gradually
accumulated in the blood where it persisted for a long time. In addition,
•rresults of the present study clearly indicated that inhalation of SOg in cer-
tain concentrations seriously affected several enzyme systems of the animal
organism. Evidence of this nature clearly indicated that exposure to 0.5 mg/m
concentration of SOp for several years must have a serious effect on the
general state and health of workers.
It was demonstrated that inhalation of 0.1 mg/m of sulfur dioxide de-
pressed the activity of erythrocyte carboanhydrase in white rats and that
0.5 mg/m of sulfur dioxide lowered the activity of spleen dehydrase. Such
results can be taken as pointing to the possible connection between carboanhy-
drase activity and enzymes activities of the respiration system.
3. It is suggested that smoke gases be completely freed from SOp prior
to their discharge into the atmospheric air and that the allowable concentra-
tion of SOp in the atmospheric air shall not exceed 0.03 mg/m . The same
should apply to hydrogen sulfide which, like sulfur dioxide, has an inhibiting
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effect on anaerobic cell respiration as was shown by Ya. R. Sabinskii.
Bibliography.
1. BoHAapesa E. H., Jlo6oaa3a6(WieBaHHfi. CsepA-
JIOBCX, 1955.
6. C a a H H c x a A fl. P. K sonpocy o vexaflHSMe aeAciBHa ceposoAOpOAa.
4>apMaxojiorH» H TOKCHKO^OPHH, Mi 4. TOM 11, 1948, Mocxaa, crp. 30—39.
7. CHAOpeHKOsH. B. K aonpocy o pesopfiTHBHOM AeActBHH cepnH-
croro rasa. apnaKo^orHH H TOKCHKCWIOFHH, 1950. TOM. 13, M 3.
8. CuAopeHKOBH. B. ZleActBHe cepuHctoro raaa ua OCMCH Bemecrs
B JKHBOTHOM OpraHH3M6. ABTOp6(pepaT AHCCCpTaUHW, F. MK3JIOB, 1952.
9. Ty^biHHCKaH K. 3. AHiaroHH3M H ciineprHSM BHraMHHOB. BHTJI-
MHHU B reopHH H flpaKTuxe, peAaxrop A. A. UIMHAT, crp. 219, MocKBa, 1911.
10. MersepHKOB H. A. KapOoaHrHapasa rxaHeA rnasa B OHTorenese.
HSBCCTOH AxaAeMHH nayx OOCP, to 4, crp. 461, 1948.
11. SAAe^bMaH M. M., TopAOH O. fl. OnpeaeneHHe acKopfimoaoA
KHCAOTU B UeJIbHOA KpOBH H OUCHKa HaChimCHHOCTH BHT3MHHOM cC»; BpaieO-
HOC A&no, Mi 7, 1948, XapbKOB, crp. 565.
12. MeroAHqecKHe yxaaanHii no opraHHsauwH caHHTapHoro KOHTpcwu sa
iHCTOToA arMocipepHoro sosAyxa HacwieHHhix MCCT. MearHs, 1952, Mocxaa.
13. CaHHTapnue Hopnu npoeKrapoBaHHa npoMbiuuieHHUX npeinpHamA
H101-54. Toe. HsaarMbCTBO AHreparypu no cipoHTMbCTBy H apxHiexrype,
MocxBa, 1954.
Concentration of Tarry Substances in the Atmospheric Air in the
Vicinity of an Industrial Coke-Gas Plant
E. N. Bondareva.
Atmospheric air of large cities is polluted by dust, soot, industrial
gases, and other harmful admixtures} the air also contains tarry substances
which are the products of incomplete combustion of coal, turf, shale, crude
oil, lignine, etc. Such tarry pollutants are discharged into the atmospheric
air by large industrial plants and electric heat and power stations? however,
domestic heating systems and the autotransport contribute substantially to
such atmospheric air pollution. Air suspended tarry substances consist of
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heavy polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons some of which possess carcinogenic
properties. In 1930 Kinnuya and Higger produced cancer in mice by the con-
tinuous application of coal tar to the skin. Later, Cook and his collaborators
working with coal tar. isolated 3,4-benzpyrene (^20^120^ wlaictl possessed par-
ticularly strong carcinogenic properties. 3,4-benzpyrene is a polyatomic
aromatic hydrocarbon made up of 5 benzene rings; its molecular weight is 252,
m.p. 179 > and b.p. between 500•- 510 . At normal temperature 3,4-benzpyrene
appears in the forin of.yellow needle-shaped crystals soluble in benzene, al-
cohol, ether, and other organic solvents. Like all aromatic hydrocarbons
benzpyrene is formed in the process of organic fuel combustion at 400 .
N. M. Torason, B. P. Gurinov, V. A. Zore, A. A. Il'in, and many others, found
3,4-benzpyrene in the atmospheric air. Other investigators (Gurinov, Mashbits,
Shabad) confirmed the carcinogenic properties of tarry substances isolated
from atmospheric air.
M. K. Petrova demonstrated that many unfavorable environmental conditions,
including carcinogenic substances, elicited the formation of malignant neo-
plasms in organisms afflicted by nervous system weakening and exhaustion.
Malignant neoplasms have developed following prolonged or frequently repeated
action of carcinogenic substances, particularly those which acted as skin and
mucosa irritants even in small quantities; the malignant neoplasm processes
developed either soon or a long time after the application of the carcinogenic
agent.
The fact that city atmospheric air contained polynuclear aromatic hydro-
carbons possessing cgroenogenic properties caused environmental hygienists
to investigate the atmospheric air in the vicinity of the coke-chemical plant.
Coke gas contained 1.5 - 3? by volume of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons.
Concentration of tarry substances in the atmospheric air of the coke plant
region under investigation was determined by the following 2 methods: aspira-
tion through an absorber containing organic solvents (The N. M. Tomson method),
and dust sedimentation followed by ether extraction. A total of 173 atmos-
pheric air samples was collected by the aspiration method at 100 - 500 m from
the coke-chemical plant. Twenty li of the air was aspirated in the course of
1 hour through a glass absorber containing 5 ml of non-fluorescent alcohol.
Quantitative determinations of tarry substances were made by luminescent analy-
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sisuusing known solution concentrations as the standard scale. The air of a
control area was tested similarly. Results are presented in Table 1.
Table 1
CONCENTRATION OF TARRY SUISTANCE3 II MC/M3 OF AIM AT tlFFERENT
11 STANCES FROM THE COKE-CAg PLANT
SAMPLE
COLLECTION
POUT
METERS
FROM THE
PLANT
TOTAL NBM-
• ER OF
SAMPLES
N0MIER
OF NEC-
ATI VE
6AHPLE8
CONCENTRATIONS IN MC/M
MAXIM.
MINIM.
AVERACES
VICINITY
CCRE-CA8
OF
PLANT
50-100
200
300
500
13
75
37
48
—
1
2
16
0.90
0.70
0,57
037
0.5
0.05
0,01
0,018
0,66
0.40
0.24
0.08
CONTROL POINT
ii -
0.08 0,001
0,04
Data in the table show that the concentrations of tarry substances in the air
surrounding the coke-chemical plant were considerably above those in the
control area. Changes in atmospheric factors, in particular changes in the
velocity and direction of the wind, markedly influenced the distribution of the
cancerous admixtures in the atmospheric air. Thus, at 300 m from the coke-
chemical plant and at wind velocity ot 5 - 6 m/sec., 2 air samples contained
0.34 - 0.3? mg/m , which is equivalent to tarry substance concentrations
normally found in the atmospheric air 300 m from the coke-chemical plant.
Dust samples were collected at 3 points by the usual method. The control
point was located in a residential section. The total of air samples collected
by the dust sedimentation method was 34. Tarry substance concentrations are
shown in Table 2. Data in Table 2 show that no notable difference was found
TAILC 2
CONCENTRATION OF TARRY 6NISTANCES IN SETTLE! IN8T IN TNE
VICINITY OF THE COKE-CAS PLAIT INRINC 30 NAYS «F
TIME OF THE
YEAR
METERS FROM TNE PLANT
500 M
1000 M
CONTROL
POINT
0^9 037 038
Mim* 0.43 0.38 0.23
SIMMER
in the concentration of tarry substances in the air during the winter and
summer months, pointing to the fact that the tarry substances were discharged
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by the same coke-chemical plant and only partly by domestic heating systems.
The situation was somewhat different at the central point, since the concen-
tration of tarry substances in the air during the winter months, when fuel was
used for heating purposes, was 50$ greater than during the summer months,
when no fuel or only a slight amount of it was used for heating purposes.
The presence of 3,4-benzpyrene in the tarry substances of samples
collected in the vicinity of the coke-chemical plant was verified by spectral
analysis. The effect .of 0.01 mg/m tarry substances in the air on the central
nervous system was studied by the adaptometric method. Procedures followed
in the preliminary preparation and final tests were described elsewhere. Tests
were made on 3 volunteer subjects with concentrations of tarry substances not
exceeding 0.001 mg/m . Duration of the tests was 50 - 70 minutes. Results
showed a rise in eye sensitivity!to dark adaptation during the early part of
the tests, and a return to normal at approximately the 60th minute of observa-
tion. Tests with pure air inhalation produced no changes in the adaptation
curve, indicating that no conditioned reflexes were formed in relation to
prevailing environmental conditions. Results of the investigation led to the
conclusion that concentrations of tarry substances found in the air surrounding
the coke-chemical plant exceeded those found in the air of the control area.
Such concentrations of the tarry substances should be regarded as physiologi-
cally unfavorable and deleterious to the health of residents of the vicinity;
this was substantiated by the established fact that a concentration of tarry
substances as, low as 0.001 mg/m , ordinarily not detected by odor perception,
produced shifts in the functional state of the central nervous system.
Bibliography.
il. F y p H H o B B. II., 3 o p e B. A., H Ji b H H a A. A., Ill a 6 a A JI. M.
O coAepxaHHH' mwiHUHiuiimecKiix apomaTHiecKHX yrtieBOAOpOAOB B sarpaaHe-
HHHX arMocAepHoro BO3Ayxa H B AUMOBUX autipocax. Fm-HeHa H caHHiapua,
J* 2, 1963.
2. T y p H H o B B. n., M a ui 6 H u *. A.. Ill a <5 a A JI. M. HcuieaoBauna
toacroMoreHHoro jefictBHo Hekoropux CMCWI, iKMiyqemiux H3 atMoopepHofl nunH •
npji cXHraHHH pasjimmui BHAOB TOiuiHBa. rumena H caHHrapHH. .Ms 10, 1964.
3. T o u c o H H. M. MeroAHKa 4>JiioopecaeHTHan> cneKrpa^bHoro anaJiiaa
HeKOTOpux apoMaTHiecuHX yrxeBOAOpoAOB. HSBCCTHH AH 3cr. CCP, 1952,
TOM .1, 16 3.
4. TOMCOH H. iM. npoAyKTU Heno^Horo cropaHHR B BtUAyxe ropOAoa
u HX rm-HeHHqecKoe snaqeHHe. Pyxonncb HiHGPH, iJQ54.
5. Ill a 6 a A JI. M. HeKoropue naHHtie o C^acroMoreHHUx aeweciBax H HX
3HaqeHHH an* raraeHU. THraeHa H caHHiapHH, Nt 4, >1SS5.
6. IIlHXBaptep *. fl. JIioMflHecaeHTHufl ueroA onpeAWieHHH CMMHCTUX
semecTB B Boaayxe. SaBOAacaii \na6opaTOpH», J* 2, 196C.
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Discharges of Boiler Operated (Coal Burning) plants Converted
to Gas Burning
:'•" •' ' . •-._'' .: .'- ... " •'•'• • ' ...;'.:.
S. P. Nikolaev and S. A. Dymshits
The use of smoke-free gas. as fuel has many advantages over coal) it
is technically convenient, financially economical, and constitutes a valuable
means for the sanitary-hygienic, protection of community atmospheric air.
Beginning with 1959 - 1?6Q .many, industrial and community plants and thousands
of small coal burning heating plants within the cities have turned to the use
of gas as fuel); thus they ceased to,discharge into the atmospheric air produd
of incomplete combustion of solid and liquid fuel. But the change from wood,
coal, and gas as fuel gave rise to. the following questions: what in effect is
the nature of combusted gas,emissions? are the discharges of combusted gas
really free from serious atmospheric air pollutants?. No answers to these
questions,were found in literature. ,. Close observation disclosed that chambers
converted,-from solid to shale, gas fuel burning in many instances operated
inefficiently with resulting3 incpmplete fuel combustion. In 1951 the Leningrad
Scientific-Research Institute of, the K. D. Panfilov Academy of Community
Economy investigated the efficiency.of shale gas combustion chambers installed
in bathhouses, laundries,,hotels, etc.- Results showed that incomplete shale
oil combustion ranging between-.19 - 36.2$ was the characteristic of all in-
stallations. Under such conditions incomplete gas fuel combustion the dis-
,, charges must have contained carbon monoxide,, soot, and tarry substances. Shale
,gas contains .mineral,.and organic sulfur.,compounds, such as hydrogen sulfide,
thiophene, mercaptans,v_.sulfides, and ;bisulfides which generate sulfur dioxide
in the process.of combustion,-hence discharges coming from chambers burning
shale.gas contained sulfur dioxide, in addition to the usual products of
incomplete combustion. . ?,;, . , . ,; - :
The.present studies were conducted in cooperation with the "Lengaz"
laboratory. Under .observation were 6 .combustion chambers. The chemical
composition of the, gases ^discharged by; each combustion chamber including the
S02 and tarry substances, was established periodically. Simultaneously the
gas was analyzed for its element composition, caloric value, HgS content, and
sp. gr.. The composition of shale gas .and of the products of its combustion
were determined .by the standard methods for the analysis of natural and
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artificial gas fuels, as specified by COST 5439-50. H.S was determined by
the iodometric method, discharged 30^ by the nephelometric micro-method, tarry
substances by the luminescent method. Quantitative determinations of discharge
gases formed by the combustion of 1 m of shale gas were made with reference to
the element composition of the combusted gas and to the air excess coefficient
by means of the formulas employed in testing the performance of combustion
chambers.. Analysis of shale gas showed that its composition varied in combus-
tion components (C H , CO, Hp, CH.) and in the inert gases (CO , Q , Np).
This was illustrated by the fact that in the course of the investigation C02
in the shale gas ranged between 15.8 - 17.1#, C H between 4.5 - 5.5#» 00
n m c.
within the range of 0.6 - 1.0$, CO within the range of 8.1 - 11.0$, Hg between
20 - 25.7#, CH, between 14.8 - 17.4#, and Ng between 27.0 - 32.0^. The sp. gr.
of the gas varied between 1.023 to 1.079* Caloric capacity of shale gas
depended upon its element composition, ranging during the early part of the
day between 3234 - 3576 Cal/nm and during the afternoon between 3178 - 3632
Cal/nm of the gas. The H2S content of the shale gas varied from day to day,
and during the entire period of observation ranged between 0.46 and 4.67 g/100
nm of the gas. Volume of discharge gases per 1 nm of shale gas varied with
the combustion chamber, and in some cases from day to day. The volume of
discharge gases depended upon the element composition of the combusted gas and,
on the excess air coefficient, all of which showed considerable variation.
Nineteen discharge gas analyses were made in connection with the different
combustion chambers, 17 of which pointed to normal complete gas combustion, and
2 indicated incomplete combustion, amounting to 23.5? an&v25£ correspondingly.
In both cases CO, H~ and CH. were the products of incomplete combustion. It
appears at first that incomplete gas combustion in chambers occurred rarely;
this impression had to be either verified or corrected. Statistical analysis
of data collected by the Lengaz laboratory during the study of the combustion
chambers under observation showed that 6— 63£ of .incomplete fuel combustion
occurred in 12 - 56% of the chambers. Such data show, on the one hand, that
incomplete fuel combustion in chambers burning gas occurred frequently, and,
on the other hand, that the need was Argent for complete elimination of
incomplete gas combustion. Incomplete combustion may be caused by improper
construction of different parts of the combustion chambers, inappropriate size
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or type of combustion chamber for the purpose at hand, changes in the
composition and pressure of the gas fuel, absence or inefficient performance
of apparatuses controlling the combustion chamber operation, lack of expert
knowledge on the part of the technical and service personnel and many other
causes. S0« in the discharge gases ranged between 3.04 - 207.06 mg/nm and
7
tarry substances between 0 - 32.61'mg/nm . In this connection it should be
noted that results of discharge gas analysis should not be relied upon as the
only criterion of degree of shale gas combustion, since tarry substances were
found in 55 of 63, or 81$, of discharge gas samples, pointing to the high
frequency of incomplete gas fuel combustion. This apparent contradiction in
the data can be explained by the different sensitivity of the methods used
for the determination of each factor under consideration.
A special study of the discharge gases for the determination of their
soot content showed that, under normal conditions of gas combustion, the soot
present in the discharge gases was in a high degree of dispersion and could
not be detected by the cotton filtration method. The presence of a small
amount of highly dispersed soot can be demonstrated by the method of deposition
inside of a glass tube. In gross cases of incomplete combustion soot may be
formed in quantities detected visually at their exit from the smokestack. For
instance, according to the information supplied by the "lengaz" laboratory on
27 IX, 1957» heavy rolls of smoke were seen coming from the smokestack of a
bakery which used gas for its operations. S. P. Nikolaev made a study of the
SO- and tarry substances content in the discharge gases emitted by the com-
bustion chamber of a bathhouse when it was coal operated. A similar study was
made by the present writers of the combustion chamber operation of the same bath-
house after it had been converted to shale gas burning. A comparative quanti-
tative study indicated that the concentration of SO- was 17 times less when
shale gas was used than during coal burning. Similarly, the concentration of
tarry substances was 11 times less when gas was burned as against coal burning.
A similar comparative study of the S02 and tarry substances content in the
atmospheric air showed that the concentrations of SO- and tarry substances in
the discharge gases emitted by shale gas operated combustion chambers were
comparatively slight, approximating in most cases the maximal concentration
normally found in the atmospheric air of some industrial city regions. The
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concentration of tarry substances, the number of incomplete combustion cases,
and the degree of incomplete combustion can be substantially reduced by the
installation of proper gas purifying equipment, by efficiently operating com-
bustion chambers, and by securing well-trained and experienced service
personnel.
Generally speaking, the pollutants entering the atmospheric air with gas
discharges from gas burning combustion chambers present much less of a problem
to environmental sanitation and hygiene than similar discharges coming from a
coal operated combustion chamber.
Atmospheric Air Pollution by Oil-Drying Plant Discharges
V. Z. Yas'kova.
Atmospheric air of the nation's industrial regions is being polluted by
sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, tarry substances, soot and dust, and by
emission coming from oil-drying plants. Among the products discharged by oil-
drying plants aldehydes are of greatest importance from the sanitary-hygienic
viewpoint. Aldehydes belong to a large group of organic compounds the molecule
of which has a carboxyl group, K - C <„, one valence of which is connected
with the radical and the other with hydrogen. The physical properties of
aldehydes and their effects on the organism are largely determined by the
number of carbon atoms in the molecule. The simplest of the aldehydes, for-
maldehyde (HCHO), is a gas; on the other hand n-^butylaldehyde is a fluid. All
aldehydes have a double bond in the carboxyl group which reacted with organic
tissues. In this respect acrylic aldehyde, commonly known as acrolein, merits
special attention. Acrolein is formed during fat and glycerol oxidation and is
found primarily in industrial branches where fat and glycerol are heated to
160 - 170° C., as in the production of oilcloth, linoleum, stearine, drying
oils, in the electrical industry, etc.
Acrolein is a colorless fluid of high volatility having an odor of burnt
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fat. Acrolein vapor is twice as heavy as air; it is stable under normal
conditions, but becomes converted to formic and acetic acids in the presence
.of strong oxidizers.. lexicologically, acrolein is classed as a strongly .
irritating substance. Brief inhalation of low acrolein vapor concentrations
elicited a throat scratching sensation, burning of the eyes, eye watering,
conjunctivitis, palpebral edema, etc. Cases of chronic acrolein poisoning
have been observed under industrial conditions. No reports have been found in
the literature on the content .and distribution of acrolein in the atmospheric
air. The present author undertook to fill in this gap. .
The preparation of drying oils is accompanied by the formation of volatile
substances composed of fatty acids and aldehydes, with acrolein predominating.
Acrolein predominance in the air of the region under investigation was easily
detected by the odor. Acrolein was discharged into the atmospheric air at the
second floor level of the plant under study via 3 vertical exhaust pipes 6 m
high. Some acrolein entering the atmospheric air came from so-called unorganized
pollution, that is, from open windows and doors and from leaky joints, which
created acrolein air pollution at the level of man's respiration. Ninety-eight
air samples were collected by the aspiration method; aldehyde was determined
colorimetrically by the fuchsin-sulfurous acid reaction. Of the 98 air
samples 25 were collected inside of residences and 73 in the atmospheric air
(see table). Average aldehyde concentration in the atmospheric air within a
radius of 400 m from the plant was the same as in the indoor air; at 500 m from
the plant aldehyde concentration in the indoor air was twice that of the
outdoor air. Maximal aldehyde concentrations were gradually reduced with the
increase in the distance from the oil-drying plant, in the indoor as well as
outdoor air samples. However, the aldehyde concentrations in the indoor samples
Table 1
ZONAL ALIENYIE IISTRIIUTIOH
SAMPLE COLLECTION POINT
MCVCBft
METER9
FROM
PLANT
ALIEHYIE
AVERAtE
ATMOSPHERIC AIR 200 7,44
INSIIE RESIDENCE 20° 8'44
ATMOSPHERIC AIR 400 7,5
INSIIE RESHENCE ^ 8,1
ATMOSPHERIC AIR 600 3,62
INSIIE RESIIENCB 500 4,12
IN MS/** OF
MAXIM.
37.4
32,0
24fi
16,0
4,12
4,12
AIR
MINIM.
0,32
1*37
0,64
4.12
0,04
4.12
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were greater than in the outdoor samples. This may have been due to the fact
that, like carbon bisulfide, chlorine, and sulfur dioxide, aldehydes easily
penetrated into living quarters and tended to accumulate where ventilation was
poor, while in- open air the aldehyde concentrations became rarified by prevail-
ing winds.
No official limit of allowable acrolein concentration has been adopted
for. atmospheric air; therefore, results of the present study have been compared
with the limit of allowable concentration of aldehydes in the air of workrooms.
It was found that average and maximal aldehyde concentrations present in atmos-
pheric air exceeded the indoor allowable limit by 100 - 1800$. Such a concen-
tration of aldehydes in the atmospheric air should be regarded, as excessive.
It is recommended that an official limit of allowable aldehyde concentration in
atmospheric air be adopted as a sanitary-hygienic air and health protection.
Note: This investigation was instrumental in moving the oil-drying section of
the plant under study to a more suitable location.
Hygienic Evaluation of Low Concentrations of Nitrogen Oxides
Present in Atmospheric Air
E. N. Bondareva.
Nitrogen oxides, as pollutants of atmospheric air in inhabited areas,
usually come from nitrogenous fertilizer plants, plants producing sulfuric acid,
explosives, from auto exhaust gases, etc. Under normal conditions concentrations
of oxides of nitrogen in clean air amount to 0.0015 mg/m , and are supposedly
formed during thunderstorms. Oxides of nitrogen trapped in the upper respiratory
tract caused slight irritation of the mucosa and seriously affected pulmonary
tissues, frequently causing pulmonary edemas. Oxides of nitrogen can also cause
fall of blood pressure, vascular dilatation, methemoglobin formation and some
narcosis of the nervous system. It is generally believed that the above systemic
changes resulted from the presence of nitrites formed in the blood.
Despite the fact that most scientists agree on the nature of the toxicological
properties of nitrogen oxides, the question of the limit of allowable oxides of
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nitrogen concentrations in indoor and atmospheric air remains unresolved.
Thus, Bodwitch, Drinker, Hoggard, and Hamilton of the USA recommended 20 mg/m ,
while Elkins recommended 10 mg/m as the limit of allowable nitrogen oxides
concentration. USSR scientists believe that nitrogen oxides can produce serious
toxic effects in concentrations lower than above mentioned. P. P. Vinokurov
and 3. N. Kosourov noted that the inhalation of nitrogen oxides in concentrations
producing no acute manifestations were responsible for the frequent occurrence
of bronchitis, emphysema, chronic gastro-intestinal disturbances and blood
changes. The limit of allowable nitrogen oxides concentration in the air of
working premises was set in the USSR at 5.0 mg/m and at 0.5 mg/m for atmos-
pheric air. The latter limit was empirically adopted as 1/10 of the indoor
limit and its validity has to be verified experimentally.
It was previously noted that clean air contained oxides of nitrogen up to
0.0015 mg/m , but the concentration of oxides of nitrogen in the atmospheric
air of cities has never been determined experimentally. All data found in the
literature relative to nitrogen oxides concentrations pertained to air of
industrial regions the plants of which emitted oxides of nitrogen. Accordingly,
as the first step of this study, the present author undertook to establish
concentration of nitrogen oxides in the air of Leningrad and in the air sur-
rounding the Nevskii Chemical and Superphosphate Plant, located at the city
boundary. The total of collected air samples was 109. Quantitative nitrogen
oxides determinations were made microcolorimetrically by the Griss-Ilosvay
reaction. Nitrogen oxides concentrations in the Leningrad atmospheric air
ranged between 0.0001 and 0.02 mg/m . Maximal nitrogen oxides concentrations
were found in samples collected at a thoroughfare with intensive auto trans-
port, which is in agreement with data found in the literature (Vol'fson found
0.03 - 0.05 rng/li of oxides of nitrogen in automobile exhaust gases). In the
air surrounding the Nevskii Chemical and Superphosphate Plant, which produced
sulfuric acid by the tower method, nitrogen oxide' concentrations were consid-
erably higher: at 500 m from the plant maximal single concentrations ranged
between 0.8 - 1.43 mg/m , and at a distance of 1,000 m the concentration was
0.2 mg/m . This indicated that intense nitrogen oxide*concentrations did not
extend far from the plant and had no substantial effect on the city's general
living conditions.
-99-
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In the next stage of the investigation determinations were made of limits
of allowable nitrogen oxides concentration in the atmospheric air, paralleled
by studies of the effect of low nitrogen oxides concentrations on the human
organism. It has been generally assumed that low intensity irritations usually
occurring in the external environment caused no noteworthy changes in the
organism. This does not preclude the possible occurrence in the organism's
physiological reactions of shifts detectable adaptometrically, i.e., by testing
changes in eye sensitivity to dark adaptation. This method is highly sensitive
and has been extensively used in industrial pathology in diagnosing occupational
or industrial poisoning, in clinical medicine, and in community hygiene for the
determination of limits of allowable concentrations of atmospheric air pollution
with sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid aerosol, as reported by P. I. Dubrovskaya
and K. A. Bushtueva. The method was used in this Institute in 1955 for the
determination of the effect on the organism of low concentrations of tarry
substances; it also was sufficiently sensitive for the determination of the
central nervous system's functional state. Stimulation of the trigeminal
nerve ends in the cerebral cortex created a stimulation focus which spread
(radiated) and enhanced the stimulabili'ty of the visual center and as a con-
sequence, eye sensitivity to light. On the other hand, the stimulation focus
elicited as the result of trigeminal nerve end stimulation in accordance with
the law of negative induction can bring about inhibition of the visual center,
thereby lowering eye sensitivity to light.
Tests were made with low nitrogen oxide concentrations, such as 0.15 UP to
1 mg/m , using adaptometer ADM on 5 persons with a total of 50 experiments.
All persons were given preliminary tests of several days for the determination
of the initial normal adaptation curve; this was followed by tests in which
air containing 0.15 - 0.5 mg/m of nitrogen oxides was inhaled by the test
individuals. The test procedure and apparatus used were described elsewhere.
Air delivered to the test persons nostrils was examined at intervals for nitro-
gen oxides content. Test persons were unaware of the nature of air they were
made to inhale, especially since oxides of nitrogen were odorless. Nitrogen
oxides concentration ranging between 0.15 - 0.3 mg/m elicited no changes in
eye adaptation to darkness as indicated by the recording curve. Raising the
concentration to 0.5 mg/m resulted in a sharp rise in the adaptation curve.
Continued tests with the above nitrogen oxides concentrations for 2.5 - 3.0
-100-
-------
months resulted in a slight drop in the adaptation curve, pointing to a probable
adjustment to the effect of oxides of nitrogen; such adjustment remained slight
or partial, never approaching the normal curve. Inhalation of 1 mg/m of
oxides of nitrogen caused the adaptation curve to rise at the beginning of some
tests, while in other tests the adaptation curve fell to lower levels; however,
regardless of the character the adaptation curve assuned during the first 20 -
30 minutes of the tests, it fell to lower levels after such period, failing
to return to normal even on the 60th minute of the test, that is, even at the
end of the test.
The following series of experiments were performed with 0.5 mg/m of the
oxides of nitrogen in 2 different procedures. Experimental group 1: gas
inhalation followed by rest (no gas). In this group the curve produced by gas
inhalation rose to above normal amplitude. During one of the hour rest periods
the gas admixture was eliminated unbeknown to the test subjects. Under such
conditions no rise was seen in the adaptation curve. Experimental group 2'.
no gas inhalation - gas inhalation - no gas inhalation. Inhalation of clean air
produced no rise in the adaptation curve, while the gas inhalation step was
accompanied by a slight rise in the adaptation curve. Similar tests were
conducted during the third month with the patients inured to the effects of
the oxides of nitrogen. Inhalation of pure air during the third step of this
experimental group produced no changes in the adaptation curve, that is, no
changes were seen in the character of the normal adaptation curve. Results of
tests by the adaptometric method led to the conclusion that oxides of nitrogen
in concentrations ranging between 0.15 - 0.3 mg/m produced no changes in the
adaptation curve, i.e., they had no effect on the functional state of the
cerebral cortex. Nitrogen oxide concentration of 0.5 mg/m produced a sharp
increase in eye sensitivity to light, while a 1 mg/m concentration produced a
slight lowering of the adaptation curve 20 - 30 minutes after the experiment
was begun; the curve failed to return to normal even at the end of the experi-
mental period. Thus, the results herein recorded indicated that the validity
of the present officially adopted limit of allowable nitrogen oxides concentra-
tion in the atmospheric air of the sanitary clearance zone should be reexamined
with a view to reducing it to 0.3 mg/m .
-101-
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The Acid-Alkaline Reaction of Settling Dust
N. li. Tomson.
Common air dust is of alkaline reaction, whereas gaseous air pollutants
such as S09, HC1, oxides of nitrogen, and others are of acid reaction; vapors
of ammonia, naturally are of alkaline reaction. In the process of inhalation
respiratory organs are subjected to the effects of acid gases and alkaline
dusts; this may cause disturbances in the function of the ciliated epithelium
by creating shifts in the nearly neutral reaction of mucous membrances, which
normally range between pH 6.8 - 7.4. Changes in the pH of mucous membranes
either to the alkaline or acid side effected by air pollutants slow down the
motility of epithelial cilia, and, according to A. P. Shmagin, frequently
arrest it completely. At near neutral pH of the mucosa, epithelial cilia make
around 25 movements per second which eliminates the dust and gas containing
mucus at the rate of 15 mm per minute, as was shown by Groetz, Dalhamn, and
others. On this basis mucus • is eliminated from the bronchi in approximately
30 minutes. This shows that persistence of the normal mucosa pH was important
to the organism's protective adaptation. Penetration of dust particles into
the lungs depended upon their size; it is known that only particles less than 5n
normally entered the lungs. Some settling dust constituents which are insoluble
in perspiration and in skin oil can enter the organism through the intact skin.
The pH of the epidermis ranged between 4.9 - 6.2; changes in the skin reaction
produced by air pollutants produced skin irritation processes.
The above summary of air pollutant effects on the physiological acid-
alkaline reaction suggested to the present writer to make a thorough study of
the range of acid-alkaline reactions of settling dust by the following 2
methods: by pH measurements and by titration with 1/10 N HC1.
During 1954 - 1957» 38? samples of settled dust were checked for their
pH. Results are shown in Table 1. Data in the table show that the pH of the
387 dust samples ranged between 4.2 - 9«4. In most instances the pH ranged
within the normal limits. Dust samples collected in industrial regions were
predominantly of alkaline reaction, while dust collected in inhabited and park
sections were predominantly of acid reaction. The average pH of dust samples
collected in the industrial region was 7.30, in the inhabited regions 7.14, and
-102-
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Table 1
ACI(-ALKALINE HEACTIUNfc OF METTLE* »NfcT IN TEHHtt OF PH
PH
lust
SEC
4,2
4,4 1
4.6 1
4«8
5,0 1
5,2
5,4 _ 1
5,6 1
NUHIER OF TESTS .
sTttiAi RESismrm I
TION8 SECTIONS 1
1
1
1
2
1
—
2
1
5.8 4 5
6,0 5 6
6,2 6 12
6,4 6 16
6,6 10 11
6.8 16 16
7,0 16 16
7,2 21 16
7,4 13 18
7,6 (6 14
7,8 17 11
8,0 7 3
PARKS
_
—
1
1
3
2
1
3
2
4
6
8
8
7
12
7
5
2
3
2
8,2 3 5 —
8.4 "3 3 —
8,6 2 1 —
8.8 2 — —
9.0
9,2
9.4
— •
. —
1 —
—
—
—
TOTAL
151
169
77
in the park regions 6.56. The reactions shifted to the alkaline side during
winter months and to the acid side during the warm seasons.
Table 2
ACII-ALXALINE REACTION OF SETTLE* IUST IN PH
IN SUMMER ANI WINTER
SECTIONS
SUMMER
Wl NTER
. INIUSTBIAL 7,26 6.82
RESIIEHTIAl 7,08 6.77
PARKS 6,91 6.44
-103-
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Table 3
HYtROSEN ION CONCENTHATION OF IU6T IN % ACCORIIH* TO
SECTIONS
SECTIONS
PH
4V2 - £.6
ACII
6.8 - 7.4
NEUTRAL
7.6 - 9«4
ALKALI Nt
INIU6TRIAL *
.RESIIENTIAL '
PARKS "* 38,4 7.4
Table 4
ALKALINITY OF SETTLEI IU&T IN TERMS OF ML O.I NHCL
SECTIONS
ML OF HCL
2-4
4-6
6-8
8-10
10-12
12-14
14-15
INDUSTRIAL 7 31 24 9 8 3 1
RESIDENTIAL 28 36 18 4 3 — —
31 13 — ' — — — —
PARKS
Data in Table 3 show that pH shifts to the alkaline or acid side were
numerically the same in the dust collected in the industrial region, whereas
in the inhabited regions 40% of the shifts were in the acid direction, and
in the dust samples collected in the park such shifts amounted to 54.25?.
Alkalinity of settling dust was determined in 250 samples by titration with
0.1 N HC1. Average alkalinity of dust samples collected in the industrial
regions was 6.24, of dusts in the inhabited regions, 4.59, and of the park
regions 2.92 ml of 0.1 N HCl; the alkalinity was somewhat higher during winter
months.
Results of the present investigation indicated that the acid-alkaline
reaction of settling dust followed a definite pattern; this should be taken
into consideration whencstudying the physiological effect.
Bibliography.
1. UlHaruHa A. TI. MepiwTejibHoe flBHxeHHe. 1948. Mearas.
c «?-,Pr,oetz ^ W< Essays on N16 Applied Physiology, of the Nose. 1853,.
Saint Louis.
t u3' ,9°J.h1a'nn Tore. Mucous Flow and Ciliary Activity in the Trachea
pi Healty Rats and Rats Exposed to Respiratory Irritant Case*. 1956, Stock-
holm.
-104-
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Acid-Alkaline Reactions of Suspended Dust Collected by the
Aspiration Method
Z. V. Dubrovina.
The acid-alkaline reaction of dust should be taken into consideration
when making a thorough hygienic evaluation of the effect of inhaled dust on
the organism, in particular on the mucous membrane of the upper respiratory
tract. Data found in literature indicated that in addition to studying
general symptoms of damage caused to organs of respiration by dusts it was
also essential to take into account some purely specific effects. There is
some indication that the acid-alkaline pH phase played an important role in
such specific dust effects. Suspended dust samples for the determination of
acid-alkaline pH were collected by the aspiration method.
According to data presented by some investigators nearly 50% of the
inhaled air-suspended dust was retained in the upper respiratory tract and in
the lungs. A. P. Shmagina examined workers of a cetaent-slate plant and found
that 40 g of the suspended dust were deposited upon the mucous membranes of
the upper respiratory tract of the workers in the course of every work day.
Under such conditions the acid-alkaline pH reaction may be of considerable
importance. A. W. Proetz found that some diseases of the nasal mucous membrane
were accompanied by changes in the acid-alkaline reaction. A. P. Shmagina,
T. Dalhamn, and others, called attention to the importance of the acid-alkaline
reaction of mucous membranes to the normal functioning of ciliated mucosae of
the respiratory tract. No data were found in the literature related to methods
for the determination of dust pH. Instead of using the method which determines
acid-alkaline reactions in terms of pH the present author preferred to use the
more precise electrometric method. Determinations were made with quinhydrone
and glass electrodes, for which a special apparatus was assembled.
The procedure was as follows: 2 mg of the cement or talc dust were weighed
in an hour glass and then washed down with 5 nil of distilled water into a glass
vessel for the pH determination; 2 minutes later hydroquinone was added and the
platinum electrode submerged. Results of pH determinations with the hydro-
quinone electrode showed that, all other conditions of the experiment being
equal, the pH values varied between 7.0 and 9.0 for the cement dust and between
-105-
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6.0 and 8.0 for the talc dust. In addition the pH values of the solution also
varied: thus, in the course of 3 minutes the pH fell by 1 unit in 8 experiments,
as for instance, from pH 8.10 to pH 7.30, or from pH 7.55 to pH 6.60. The
work of V. A. Pchelin in 1955, E. Mislovitser in 1932 and D. A. Rubinshtein in
1940 showed that the hydroquinon'e electrode was not suited for pH determination
in solutions with a pH above 8 or in heterogeneous systems, which dust solutions
in fact are. Hydroquinone oxidized in alkaline solution, forming acid products,
which neutralized part of the solution's alkali, and shifted the results in the
direction of lower pH. In making reaction determinations in solutions of low
dust concentration, such as are dealt with in this study, any unfavorable
effect of the hydroquinone method acquired considerable significance. Accord-
ingly, it is recommended that the hydroquinone method should not be used for
pH determination in dust.
The glass electrode was used in all future pH determinations in cement
and talc dust. pH values were established for different dust concentrations,
different dilutions and varieties of dust; studies were also made to determine
the effect of time on the pH. Tests were made with known quantities of dust
collected on hour glasses and on dusts collected by the aspiration method using
small glass cyclones. pH determinations were also made on dust samples
collected by the small glass cyclones in 2 city sections. (Table 1 and 2).
Table 1
RELATION IETWEEN PH AMI IUST CONCENTRATION
CEHENT IBST 6U8PENIEI III 7 Ml OF IISTILLEI WATER
H« OF
IBST
NUHIER OF TESTS 1 PH
1 4
2 4
5 5
Sfi-9.4
9£_4,g
9,9—10^
Table 2
RELATION IETWEEN PH AMI 2 MS OF BUST SUSPENSION
IN IISTILLEI WATER
ML OF IISTILLEI
WATER
NUHIER OF
TESTS
AVERA9I
rH
AVERACC
SQUARE
IEVIATION
7 6 9,70 0.1
15 9 9,05 02
-106-
-------
Under identical determination conditions the pH reaction depended upon the
/Sust concentration; for the cement dust the pH was inversely proportional to
its concentration as shown by data in Table 1. However, the proportion was
not a simple one, as shown by the fact that a five-fold increase in the
concentration shifted the pH in the alkaline direction from 8.9 and 9.9, or by
1 unit. Lower dust dilutions yielded higher pH values. It was also found that
usiny less than 5 ^1 of water proved inappropriate, since it took a minimum of
7 ml to wash the dust off the walls of the glass cyclones and for securing a
complete dust dilution. pH measurements made for the determination of the
effect of time, for instance, 5 minutes, showed that the pH rose at the end of
5 minutes by approximately 0.1 - 0.3 units. Such pH variations were within the
limits of experimental error. Therefore, it was assumed that pH changes within
5 minutes after dilution (solution) were of constant magnitudes. Data in
Table 3 indicate that pH varied with the nature of the dust.
Table 3
RELATION IETWEEN PH AMI TYPE OF IUST
USINt 2 M«
TYPE Of IUST
NUHIER Of
TESTS
PH AVERAOES
AVERACE
SQUARE
IEVIATION
CEMENT 9 9,05 0,2
TAC* 5 *» 0.2
STREET iUST 3 7><° °'16
The following method was used in determining the pH of suspended dust
collected by aspiration with small glass cyclones: the glass cyclones were
washed thoroughly with a chromium solution; they were then submerged in dis-
tilled water for not less than 24 hours, then dried under a hood or in a
desiccator until their weight became constant. Prior to sample collecting
the glass cyclones were rinsed with water several times and the pH of the
wash water was checked. This was done until the pH of the wash water equalled
that of distilled water, that is until the wash water reaction came close to
neutral. Dust samples were collected as usual, and the amount of dust was
then determined gravimetrically. The collected dust was then washed into a
glass container using 7 ml of double distilled CO -free water. In each case
3 pH determinations were made, and the final values established on the basis
-107-
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of the average of the 3. Seven dust samples were collected in the cement
work room. Determination data are shown in Table 4. Results indicated that
pH of dust collected by the gravimetric method was the same as of suspended
dust collected by the cyclone aspiration method. (This seemingly generalized
Table 4
ACII ALKALINE REACTION Of CEMENT IUST IN
ASPIRATEI SAMPLES
EXTREME IUST
CONCENTRATIONS IN
HO IN SMALL'CtOUIS
NO. OF
TESTS
PH EXTREMES
AVERACE PH
FOR 2 M« OF
IUST SUSPENSION
1,4-2*
9.4-10,3
9.7
conclusion does not seem to accord with the data presented in Table 3 and 4;
the average of the 3 pH values listed in Table 3 is pH 7-56, while the average
in Table 4, as indicated in the last column, is 9«7> the difference between the
two values amounts to 2.14, and the 2 pH values can hardly be regarded as
coincidental. B.S.L.). It was noted that in tests with cement dust, where
pH determinations were made 6 days or longer after collection, the values of pH
were below those expected. For instance, for a 3 - 5 mS dust sample values
obtained by delayed determinations ranged between pH J.60 - 8.25 instead of the
expected pH 10.0. Therefore, it was concluded that in the case of cement dust
pH determinations should be made as soon as possible, and certainly not later
than 24 hours after sample collection.
Results of laboratory tests were verified by making pH determinations on
dust samples collected in 2 regions of the city in the proximity of the cement
plant and in the residential section.. Results are presented in Table 5« Data
Table 5
ACU-ALKALINE REACTION OF ATMOSPHERIC AIR ASPIRATEI IUST SAMPLES
SAMPLE
NUMIER
SAMPLE
COLLECTING
POINT
NUMIER
OF
TESTS
PH
EXTREMES
MS OF IUST
AVERAGES
FLUCTUATION
LIMITS
AT I00 M FROM
CEMENT PLANT
AT 500 M FROM
CEMENT PLANT
A RESIDENTIAL
SECTION
11
«.15-,12,40
13 7.05—9.05
9 5,50—7.70 <1
3.5
2fi
1.4-S.4
0.8-5.0
-108-
-------
in Table 5 show that the dust collected in the proximity of the cement plant •
-was of strong alkaline reaction and that the pH was reduced in dust samples
collected 500 m from the plant. The pH of dust collected in the residential
section stayed within the neutral zone; however, since the dust samples
collected in the residential section weighed less than 1 mg making a final low
dilution, acceptance of the above statement as final should be made with reser-
vations. .
Conclusions.
1. A method was developed for the pH determination of suspended dust
collected by the aspiration method; pH determinations were made using glass
electrodes.
2. It was demonstrated that the hydroquinone electrode could not be used
in the present investigation.
3. It was found that dust pH varied with the type of dust, its concen-
tration, dilution and time kept before the pH determination.
4. Dust samples collected in the proximity of the cement plant had a
high or alkaline pH.
Bibliography.
1. Ill if a run a A. n. MepuaiwibHoe AuuKeHxe. MCATHS, 1946.
2. FlqeJiHH B. A. HauepeHHe aKTHBHOCTH BOuopOAHtu HOBOB. rnjur-
npoH, 1956.
3. MiicjioBHuep E. OnpeaeJieHHe xoxiieHTpaiiHH BOAOPOAHUX ROHOB
B JKHAKOCTMX. OHTH, i!932.
4. PyfiHHiiiTeftH H. A. QmtmecKan XHMHH. HSA. AH CCCP. iHMO.
5. P r o e t z A. W. Essays on the Applied Physiology of the Nose.
St.-Louis, 1953.
6. D a I h a m n T. Mucous flow and Ciliary Activity in the Trachea of
Healthy Rats and Rats, exposed to respiratory irritans gases. Stockholm
1966.
7. D o 11 M. The Glass electrode. New York, 1941.
-109-
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Effect of Discharges of a Cement Plant on the Population's Health.
Z. V. Dubrovina, S. P. Nikolaev, and N. M. Tomson.
The cement plant was located in the city and was surrounded by other
industrial establishments and residences, some of which were located 100 m
from the cement plant. The plant produced Portland cement which was prepared
by calcining a mixture of limestone, loam, and clay. Analyses showed that
the mixture contained 63 - 8?# of CaO and 21 - 24$ of SiOg. In addition, the
cement contained oxides of iron and aluminum and traces of fluorine and arsenic.
Regardless of the fact that fluorine and arsenic were present in the cement
in trace quantities their total added up to 700 kg per 1,000 tons of the final
product. Cement ha.s a highly alkaline pH and is strongly hygroscopic.
The plant discharged daily close to 80 tons of cement, coal dust, and
gases from the calcining ovens and drying drums. Dust creating sources were
spread throughout the plant grounds. The dust was discharged into the atmos-
pheric air through exhaust pipes or stacks at different heights from the
ground, some as high as 70 m, which caused the dust to become widely distrib-
uted. Studies were made by collecting samples of air suspended and gravity
settled dust by determining degree of dispersion, and by ascertaining distances
to which the discharged plant dust was carried. The following studies were
made for the determination of cement dust effect on the organism: a) degree of
cement dust retention in the lungs of man under laboratory and industrial
conditions, that is, in the plant's proximity; b) inhabitants in the region
of the plant location were asked certain questions; c) statistical morbidity
studies were made among the cement plant workers; d) the effect of cement dust
inhalation on the vascular and respiratory systems of man was investigated.
Air samples were collected within the range of the plant's stack flume
for gravimetric, count and dispersion determinations. Concentration of sus-
pended dust in the air was determined by the aspiration method, using glass
cyclones and aspiration.rate of 19 li/min., for 20 minutes and 2-3 hours,
depending upon the dust concentration; particle counts and dispersion
composition determinations were made by the usual method. Results are
presented in Table 1.
-110-
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Table 1
IUST IENSITY IN THE AIR AROUNI THE CEMENT PtANT
METER FROM §UST '" IUST MR~
nETEH FHOH ^ T 1 CLE6 IN «» CENT OF IUST IISPER6ION
H«/M . CM3
CEMENT PLANT
.
*
M
4
111
j
a:
Ul
>
^
•
^
C
til
^
Ul
— ^
V
a.
•9
a.
o
A
a.
^j
4
a.
8
A
PLANT
SROUNI6
500
1000
1500
83.27 16.05 9038 1600 16.7 18.7 23.7 32.9 8.0
4.94 1.77 5280 J742 41,3 29.8 15.8 10,« 23
3.48 1^3 4616 1610 48.4 31.5 11.9 7.3 0^
2,29 0.90 2378 1076 62,8 21.1 8.2 6,1 1.8
The gravimetric dust content in the air gradually abated with increase in
the distance from the plant. At a 500 m radial zone the average number of
particles at first increased and then abated. This was explained by the fact
that the air in the territory of the plant contained 40# of dust particles
measuring >10ju At 500 m from the plant the large particles were reduced to
13$; as the distance from the plant increased the percentage of dust particles
of this size proportionally decreased. Beyond the 500 m zone the number of
dust particles of <5M in diameter increased to the point of predominance; such
particles easily penetrated deep into the respiratory organs. It appeared clear
that the high dust concentration on the plant grounds represented the fraction
.consisting of large particles, which contributed substantially to the weight of
the dust, while dust particles passing through the slit of Owens' apparatus I
measured not more than 10^. Accordingly, the particle count in air samples
collected on the plant's territory on the average was below the count in air
samples collected at 500 m, and even 1,000 m from the plant.
Results of air sample analyses also showed that average dust intensity
within a radius of 500 m from the plant was 12 times as high as in the samples
collected in the residential region, 8 times as great within a radius of 1,000 m
and 6 times as great within a radius of 1,500 m from the plant. At 2,000 m
from the plant dust intensity fell to the level of the limit of allowable con-
centration in atmospheric air. Fractional, or dispersion, analysis of the air
samples showed that the number of fractions containing dust particles below IH
in diameter rose from 16%, in air samples collected on the plant grounds, to
-111-
-------
62%, in samples collected at 1,500 m from the plant, while the number of dust
particles 10 - 50 n in diameter' fell from 33$ to 6%. Results of calcium
determinations in dust samples taken at different distances from the plant
are shown in Table 2. The data indicate that the Ca content in the dust
samples decreased with increase of the distance from the plant, and that the
Table 2
CALCIUM COmNT OF IUST SAMPLES AT •IFFEBEUI
IISTANCES FROM THE PLANT
METERS FROM THE PLANT
PERCENT OF CALCIUM
500
19.1
ICCO
16,3
l"PO
9,8
2000
7.9
2500
5,4
presence of plant discharges could still be detected at 2,000 - 2,500 m from
the plant. Data obtained in 1938 on settled dust within the region of the
plant site showed that the Ca content of samples collected inside the plant
grounds amounted to 57 - 63$ as compared with 3 - 6% in other sections of the
city. At 1,000 m from the plant the Ca content fell to 50$. Amount of settled
dust throughout the city rose during the cold seasons of the year and fell
considerably during the warm seasons, indicating that most of the dust was
caused by domestic heating plants. The reverse was observed on the plant grounds,
where the amount of settled dust was greater during the summer period, when the
plant worked at a higher capacity.
Persons residing in the vicinity of the cement plant were asked questions
related to the effect of the cement plant's discharges on the sanitary-hygienic
state and on general living conditions. Questions were presented to 194 persons
living at different distances from the plant. Inhabitants complained of
intense air pollution with cement plant discharges, the inability of ventilating
their quarters, rapid and frequent dust pollution of house utilities, frequent
eye traumas, etc. Similar complaints were registered by persons living 1.5 km
from the plant. -Persons whose living quarters were located 500 m from the
cement plant registered the most emphatic and serious complaints, especially
as regards to their inability to ventilate their houses. Studies were also
made of the degree of inhaled cement dust retention by the method of E. A.
Vigdorchik. Analyses of dispersion composition of the inhaled cement dust
showed 62$ of particles up to 1 n in diameter and 29$ of particles of 1 - 2 \L
-112-
-------
in diameter and 9$ of particles 3 - 5 n in diameter. The results, thus, showed
that the greater part of the dust consisted of particles which easily pene-
trated deep into the respiratory organs. More detailed analysis of the data
obtained from laboratory studies showed that retention within the organs of
respiration of dust particles <1 n in diameter amounted to 35$» of particles
1 - 2 n in diameter amounted to 41$, of particles 3 - 5 H in diameter amounted
to 73$, and of particles >5 n in diameter amounted to 97$. Retained dust
amounted to 41.5$ of the total of inhaled dust. Approximately identical
results were obtained with similar experiments under conditions prevailing
in the territory occupied by the plant and in sections closely abutting the
plant grounds. V/ith an increase in the dust concentration of the inhaled air,
the percentage of particles retained by the respiratory tract also increased.
No such tests were made previously; therefore, the above findings had to be
verified.
Usually studies of atmospheric cement dust effect on the population's
health begin with an analysis of morbidity among residents living in the
plant's vicinity. In this instance other types of plants located in the same
vicinity emitted into the air deleterious substances, which undoubtedly added
to the effects of the cement dust. Under such conditions morbidity analysis
would throw no light on the effects of the discharges of the cement plant alone.
It was thought that analysis of morbidity among workers of the cement plant
might be of substantial value. Accordingly, 2,000 morbidity records of cement
plant workers were studied, covering a period of 5 years (1950 - 1954).
Results showed that the rate of general morbidity among workers of the cement
plant exceeded that found during the same period among workers of other
Leningrad production plants. It must be mentioned that pulmonary tuberculosis
was excluded from this study.
Vascular and respiratory systems are most directly, most frequently, and
most intensely affected by environmental influences; these systems are also
most sensitive to a number of irritants, accordingly states of the vascular and
respiratory systems were selected as indexes of cement dust effects on the
organism in general. Reactions of the vascular system to unfavorable external
factors were recorded plethysmographically, using the arm water-air plethysmo-
graph. Records were made by the usual kymographic methods. Respiratory
-113-
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reactions, were recorded by a rubber device placed on the chest and connected with
the kymograph recording point. Tests were made in chambers of 10 m capacity.
The subject, the investigator, and the recording apparatus were placed inside
the chamber. Each test lasted 10 - 15 minutes including a period of 3 - 8
minutes of dust inhalation. The following dust concentrations were tested:
0.5 to 1.0 rag/m , 1.0 to 3.0 mg/m , 3.0 to 6.0 mg/m and 6.0 mg/m . The
series consisted of 55 dust inhalations and 24 control tests, using 10 selected
persons.
Of the 55 tested cases 44, or 80$, showed symptoms of vascular reaction of
a transient character; in 50$ of the cases the plethysmogram at first dropped
to lower the levels, returning to normal in most instances; plethysmograms of
the remaining 50$ were of a fluctuating wavy character. The total plethysmogram
picture indicated that vascular reaction to cement dust inhalation began to
appear at 0.5 - 1.0 mg/m dust density. Respiration curves showed that the
first dust inhalations elicited an inspiration arrest of short duration and in
some cases respiration came to a short duration standstill gradually returning
to a shallow and finally normal respiration.
Conclusions and Suggestions.
1. Intensity of atmospheric air pollution with cement dust in the
vicinity of the cement plant exceeded the dust intensity found in the inhabited
region; it was 3-4 times as great as the limit of allowable dust concentra-
tion in atmospheric air. This was equally true of total dust concentration and
of the number of particles per 1 cm .
2. Atmospheric air pollution with the cement plant discharges was
detected at 2,000 m from the plant. It is suggested, therefore, that cement
plants of 270,000 tons annual capacity be separated by a 2,000 m sanitary
clearance zone.
3. Between 41 and 45$ of inhaled cement dust was deposited in the
respiratory organs; amount of dust deposited in the respiratory organs increased
with tne increase in dust pollution intensity.
4. Dust dispersion studies showed that 95$ of cement dust in the atmos-
pheric air consisted of particles 5 H in diameter; such particles easily
penetrated into the respiratory organs of man.
-114-
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5. Medical examination of workers in the cement plant showed increased
frequency in the following morbid conditions: bronchitis, gastritis, gastric
and duodenal ulcers, diseases of the skin and of the hypodermis.
6. Appearance of vascular reaction began with inhalation of 0.5 - 1.0
mg/m of cement dust concentrations.
7. Elimination or abatement of cement plant discharges into the atmos-
pheric air of inhabited localities can be attained by moving city plants into
regions outside the city limits, or by adopting sanitary-hygienic protective
meanst a) complete hermetization of all cement producing processes; b) install
effective dust catching equipment at all points of dust generation and insure
their proper operation; c) replace (or convert) coal burning to gas burning
operations; d) increase the number and extent of park spaces containing trees,
shrubs, and other plant life.
Hygienic Evaluation of Atmospheric Air Pollution in the Vicinity
of the Industrial Plant "Krasnyi Khimik"
E. N. Bondareva and V. Z. Yas'kova.
"Krasnyi Khimik" is one of the largest plants of the USSR chemical
industry which produces hydrochloric and sulfuric acids and about 500 other
kinds of chemical reagents. Some technological improvements have been recently
introduced in that plant. However, inspection showed that no improvement had
been introduced in the acid producing departments still equipped with old and
worn out sanitary-hygienic installations; as a result there are many, so-called,
organized discharges of sulfuric and hydrochloric acid aerosols. The plant
was erected before the Revolution in a sparsely populated southeastern region
of Leningrad. As the city population increased and residences were constructed
at a higher rate, a situation was created which brought the plant to within
100 m of inhabited sections with no provision for a sanitary clearance zone
or landscaping of any kind.
-115-
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The Atmospheric air was studied by collecting 264 single concentration
samples which were analyzed for concentrations of sulfuric acid aerosol, S0_,
and HC1. Sulfur dioxide was the predominant atmospheric air pollutant in the
inhabited areas. The unfavorable effect of SO. on the human organism has
been adequately described by many investigators. The purpose of this study was
to accumulate basic data for the determination of the limit of
allowable SO- concentration in community air. It is also known that the loss
of S0_ in the production of sulfuric acid constituted a considerable loss of
raw material; therefore, every sulfuric acid producing plant is interested in
eliminating or reducing the extent of SO. loss. The sulfuric acid producing
department of "Krasnyi Khimik" has been provided with tower absorbers equipped
with alkaline sprayers supposed to absorb 99«95# of the SO- in the form of
NaHSO.. Nevertheless, considerable loss of the sulfur gas occurred throughout
the sulfuric acid producing departments for lack of complete hermetization of
the processes. Results of community air analyses are shown in Table 1.
3 Table 1
MS/M OF SULFUR tlOXIIE IN THE ATMOSPHERIC AIR
•KRASRYI KHIHIK" •:
THE PLANT
NO* OF
TESTS
SULFUR tlOXIIE CONCENTRATION
MINIM.
op TO 300 M 31 0.2
MAXIM.
AVERAIES
% OF TESTS
EXCEED N<
ALLOWABLE
SO, CONCEN-
TRATION LIMITS
11.65 2.03 80
" " 500 M 58 0,2 5,0 1.05 65.5
" " 1000 M 9 0.1 13 0.83 60
Highest SO- concentrations were found in the fall samples, particularly in cold
cloudy weather and during foggy summer days. All air samples also contained
sulfuric acid aerosol. Under normal conditions SO,, as a product of incomplete
hard fuel combustion, was present in community air in concentrations ranging
between 0.007 - 0.6 mg/m , amounting to 1 - 3# of the S0_ content in the air.
Observations made under" industrial conditions showed that sulfuric acid
irritated the mucosa of the conjunctiva and palpebra and of the upper respira-
tory passages.
M. V. Alekseeva established the threshold of H SO. irritative effect at
1 mg/m . Data showing sulfuric acid concentration found in the air surrounding
the "Krasnyi Khimik" plant are shown in Table 2. Sulfuric acid aerosol con-
centration determinations were made by the differential SO and H-SO. aerosol
-116-
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Table 2
M6/H3 OF SULFURIC ACIB IN THE VICINITY OF "KRASNYI KHIHIK"
METERS FROM POINT -
OF IISCHAR6E
200-300
' SULFURIC ACII CONCENTRATIONS
MINIM.
MAXIM.
AVERAGES
5,0 17^ 10.4
no 500 6,26 7,5 6,87
flo 1000 i5 5.0 4,06
TAILE 3
M«/M3 OF NYIROCHLORIIE IN THE VICINITY OF "KRASNYI KNIHIK"
METERS
FROM
PLANT
NUMIER OF
TESTS
NO. OF
POSITIVE
SAMPLES
CONCENTRATIONS OF HYI ROCHLOHI IE
MINIM.
MAXIM.
AVERAGES
200
600
1000
31
24
16
19
15
8
0.10
0,10
0,10
11,6
0,72
1.14
0,31
0.27
procedure of Alekseeva and Bushtueva (Se'e Limits of Allowable Concentrations,
Book 2, O.T.S. 59-21174, p. 98-99). Sulfuric acid concentrations of all
samples collected at 1,000 m from the plant were 1,300$ times above the limit
of allowable concentration. Pollution of community atmospheric air with HC1,
converted in the air into an aerosol, came from departments producing hydro-
chloric acid, superphosphate, soda and other chlorides. Maximal HC1 concen-
trations, 1-12 times as great as the allowable concentration, were found
only at 200 m from the plant. On the other hand, minimal concentrations were
found at 500 and 1,000 m from the plant, always associated with S02 and sulfuric
acid aerosol, a combination which undoubtedly had a deleterious effect on the
health of the nearby inhabitants.
The next step consisted of a study of the effect of the plant's complex
discharge on the organism of man and animals. Caged rats were placed within
300 and 500 m radii from the plant along the path of the prevailing winds.
Control rats, similarly maintained, were placed at great distances from the
other known industrial plants. Test -.groups consisted of 10 young male rats
of idential weight and age. Weight observations were made over a period of
3 months; rats were then sacrificed and determinations were made for Vitamin C,
and blood cholinesterase activity.
-117-
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It has been known that slight irritations occurring in the environment
produced shifts in the organism's physiological reactions long before any
morphological changes could be detected in the organs and tissues. Blood
cholinesterase activity was determined by the amount of choline and acetic acid
resulting from acetylcholine hydrolysis. Normal cholinesterase activity is
of importance to the nervous system, since nerve stimulation transmission
depended upon hydrolysis of the acetylcholine mediator. Changes in blood
cholinesterase activity occured in febrile conditions and in chronic infections
and as the result of drug effect, (especially of toxic effect) on the organism.
Cholinesterase activity was determined by the Michaelson method (no reference
given).
Table 4
ILOO» CHOLINE8TERA8E ACTIVITY IN EXPERIMENTAL AMI CONTROL
RATS EXPRESSEI AS ML OF 0.1 N NAOB
RAT tROOP
ACTIVITY
FLUCTUATION
AVERAU8
comets 0,60-0,80 0,70
•ROUP I 0,30-0,40 0.37
flROUP II 0,30—0,30 0,30
Data in Table 4 show that cholinesterase activity was reduced in rats of
group 1 to a greater extent than in rats of group 2 kept in closer proximity
to the plant.
Effect of "Krasnyi Khimik" discharges on vitamin metabolism was studied
next. Vitamin C was determined in the liver, kidneys and adrenals by the
Tul'chinskii method. Results showed that the test rats had a lower concen-
tration of vitamin C in the adrenals and a slightly increased concentration in
the liver and kidneys. Observations showed that rate of weight increase in
animals of group 2 kept in closer proximity to the plant was reduced as shown
in Table 5« Thus, results of the study showed that the complex discharge of
"Krasnyi Khimik" plant had a deleterious effect on the general health of the
experimental animals.
The radical way to eliminate the plant's discharges into the community
atmospheric air and to stop their harmful effect on the health and general
living conditions of the population would be by moving the plant's acid produc-
ing departments to a considerable distance outside the city limits. Practical
-118-
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Table 5
CHANGES IN AVERAGE WEI8HTS OF EXPERIMENTAL AN* CONTROL RAT6
RAT
GROUPS
WEIGHT
INITIAL
WE 1 6HT
CONTROL 40
CROUP 1 38
GROUP 1 1 3*
1
46
43
40
2 3
51 55
54 57
47 45
IN
4
62
64
54
GRAMS ACCORIING
5 '6
74 76
75 79
59 65
7
65
70
73
8
94
86
79
TO WEEKS
9
105
00
90
10
106
105
87
II
118
106
94
(2
127
112
105
considerations showed that such a step involved many complications and could
not be carried out at a reasonably early time. Therefore, it is suggested:
first, that all production processes be made hermetically leak-proof; and second,
that all plant discharges be freed of deleterious components prior to their
emission into the community atmospheric air.
Atmospheric Air Dustiness in Inhabited Sections of an Industrial Region
S. P. Nikolaev.
This study of atmospheric air dustiness was conducted in two inhabited
sections of an industrial region characterized by different methods of building
construction. One section, known as the Karl Marx section, represented the
pre-revolutionary system of dwelling organization characterized by enclosed,
so-called, well-like yards. Living quarters were all in one six-story building
equipped with a central boiler-operated heating system located in the house
basement. Yard spaces were interconnected and paved with cobblestones. The
other section, called Lesnoi, was located 900 m from the first; its buildings
were perimetrieally located with open spaces between 4 separated buildings, each
4 stories high; all living quarters were equipped with individual heating stoves.
The enclosed yard was sand covered, had a fountain in the center and trees and
some shrubbery around the periphery. Walks and drives were asphalt paved. Air
studies were made simultaneously at 2 points of each section. Point No. 1 was
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located in a poorly aerated part of the yard, point Ho. 2 was located in a
part of the yard which was open to freely moving air0 Air dust determinations
were made: l) by the aspiration method, 2) by the count method, 3) by the
method of sedimentation on adhesive glass for the study of dispersion degree,
and 4) by sedimentation in glass containers. Observations were made between
10 - 16 o'clock and through the entire day (24 hrs) during the months of
February to October. Analytical results presented in Table 1 show that
averages obtained by the count method became gradually lower with approach
of the warm months and began to increase again beginning with the month of
September - October, that is, with the onset of the heating season.
Table 1
AIR IUST IENSITY IN RESIIENTIAL SLOCKS OP THE INIUSTRIAL
SFCTinil •RUTH
MOUTHS
V 11111111
KARL MARX PROSPECT
IOST IN M6/M-3
MAXIM. 1 AV.
BUST PARTICLES
PER 1 CM
MAXIM.
AV.
p THF «1V
LESNOI PROSPECT
•UST IN MC/M^
MAXIM. AV.
IUST PARTICLES
PER CM3
MAXIM.
AV.
FEIROARY
MARCH
APRIL
MAY
JULY
SEPTEMIER
OCTOIER
1.12
0,65
0.13
0,57
0,46
0.37
0.36
0.88
0,37
0,07
0.41
0.38
0,25
0.25
10470
6300
1900
1960
1319
2595
2040
7719
2194
1463
1281
1002
1529
1599
0,16
0.18
0,29
0.32
0,31
0,13
—
0,10
0,12
0.22
0,15
0,20
0.12
—
2430
3320
2490
680
1614
1270
1770
1787
1322
1144
475
1005
854
1308
Thus, the number of dust particles per 1 cm in the Karl Marx section was
7719 in February, dropped to 1002 in June and again rose to 1529 in September.
Similarly, in the Lesnoi section the number of dust particles per 1 cm was
1787 in February, dropped to 475 in May and again rose to 1308 in October. No
such regularity was observed in the results obtained by the aspiration method.
This can be explained by the fact that the content of large particles in the
air, as determined by the aspiration method, depended largely upon air humidity,
rate and direction of winds and the presence of convection currents, etc. On
the other hand, particles of fine dust, as determined by the count method, were
reasonably constant for each season of the year. Results presented in Table 1
also indicate that air dustiness in the well-like closed-in yards was of
greater intensity than in the open yards of the second section. Except for the
-120-
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month of April, greatest difference was observed during the month of
February (8.8 times) and.minimal difference during the month of June (1.9
times); maximal difference in the number of particles per volume (month of
June excluded) was observed during February (4.3 times) and minimal difference
in the month of October (1.2 times).
Data obtained for each section during the cold, or heating, season and
warm, or non-heating, season were in agreement with data presented above, in
that dust concentrations were nearly the same in corresponding periods, whereas
number of particles per 1 cm was greater during the heating season of the year,
2.4 times as great in the Karl Marx section and 1.7 times as great in the
Lesnoi section. Air dustiness in the Karl Marx section was greater during the
heating period than in the Lesnoi section: 3 times as great on the basis of
particle concentration and 2.3 times as great on the basis of particle numbers;
during the non-heating period the corresponding numbers were 2.2 and 1.7-
Undoubtedly, the open air ventilation of the Lesnoi section and the presence of
landscaping played an important part in the lower dust concentration as well
as number of particles per 1 cm . Atmospheric air dustiness was constant
through the day in either of the sections. This was due to several causes:
l) different work shifts in the regional industrial enterprises, 2) uneven
consumption of fuel in the course of the same shift, 3) differences in length
of time during which house heating systems were used, 4) differences in
meteorological conditions, etc.
Changes in air dust intensity through the day are shown in Table 2. The
Table 2
PICTURE OF ATMOSPHERIC AID BUST IENSITY IN RESllENTIAL
BLOCKS OF THE INIUSTRIAL SECTION
HOURS Of THE SAY
10-13
13—16
16—19
19-22
22—1
1-4
4—7
7-9
IUST IN M6/M
0,15
0,14
0,17
0,35
0,12
0,09
0.10
0,32
IUST PARTICLES
PER 1 CM3
1398
1167
1774
2123
1367
1249
1371
1651
-121-
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data show that air dustiness rose beginning with 16 o'clock, especially between
19 and 22 o'clock in the evening and 7 and 9 o'clock in the morning. Minimal
air dust intensity was noted during the night hours. Results of such observa-
tions coincided completely with concentrations of soot in the air observed
during the day, as was shown by V, A. Ryazanov in his book "Sanitary Protection
of Atmospheric Air", published by Medgiz in 1954 (See 3. S. Levine's transla-
tion, U. S. Dept. of Commerce, OTS- 60-21049, pp. 11-3?.
Changes in air dustiness through the day typical of industrial regions
also reflected dustiness occurring in the atmospheric air of city inhabited
regions, due to the fact that the causes responsible for such changes were
practically identical in both regions, and that discharges polluting the air
of the industrial regions were carried by winds of different directions into
the air of inhabited sections. The data also indicated that 13 and 14$ of
° T
single concentrations exceeded the 0.5 mg/m limit of allowable concentration
and 66.7$ of air samples exceeded the 0.15 mg/m allowable average 24-hour
concentration. The following seemingly paradoxical situation was occasionally
noted: regardless of the fact that ventilation played a general positive role
in both sections there were instances when free ventilation instead of reducing,
in fact, increased the dust intensity of the better ventilated sections. This
was explained by the fact that openings connecting the yards with the street
made the street dust, created by heavy traffic, accessible, to the inside of the
yard. In planning future settlement sections this fact should be taken into
consideration.
Table 3
IUST IISPERSION COMPOSITION IN THE AIR OF RESIIENTIAL ILOCKS OF
THE INDUSTRIAL SECTION
KARL
t."PN
1IAMETER
-------
explained why gravimetrically the dust concentration in the air of the indus-
trial region was comparatively low. On the other hand, since particles of 5 M
in diameter easily penetrated deep into the respiratory passages, their impor-
tance from a sanitary-hygienic viewpoint was greater. Finally, the count
method, which some authors have discarded, in this instance supplemented the
data obtained by the aspiration method. This was due to the fact that the slit
of Owen's-I apparatus excluded only 2.5$ of the dust.
The total picture of atmospheric air pollution in the inhabited sections
is summarized in Table 4. In this table data presented in the top line pertain
to averages of settled dust obtained in the city industrial regions; such data
are presented for comparative purposes.
TAKE 4
•UST IN S/M^/MOHTN SETTLE! IN THE CITY INIUSTRIAL SECTIONS
AMI IN THE RESIIENTIAL ILOCKS UNIER
OISERVATION
MONTHS
| II | 111 | IV | V | VI | VII | VIII | IX | X | XI
INIUSTRIAL .
SECTIONS 6329138.79108.21 63.66 76.26 69,82 36.59 38,7277.0474.50
546-24 307-23 ~ 100-69 *18' W-28 86(7°
LESNOI 79.33 111.76 79.55 94.38 67.28 40.18 36.78 51.30 40,28.46.44
PROSPECT
Air dust intensity values obtained by the aspiration and count methods
did not differ substantially from those obtained by the sedimentation method.
Data presented in Table 4 show that air dust intensity in the Lesnoi region
was lower than in the Karl Marx region. Generally, air dust concentrations
indicated by the dust settling method were within the limits of allowable
dust pollution concentration in the Lesnoi and Karl Marx sections during the
months corresponding to those observed in the city commercial regions; with
the exception of March and April the differences were practically insignificant
in the Karl Marx section. However, during the same months the quantity of
dust obtained by the dust settling method in the Karl Marx section was corres-
pondingly 4 and 3 times as great as obtained in the city industrial regions.
This can be easily explained on the basis of monthly wind directions.
Thus, during the month of March westerly winds predominated. In addition
calm weather was observed during this month 155 times of 52? observations.
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Increase in the amount of settled dust at this point was caused, on the one
hand, "by discharges coming from the coal operating plant (Russkii Dizel)
located westerly in the proximity of the observation point, and on the other
hand, by the voluminous discharge coming from the coal-operated domestic
heating plants which rapidly settled within a short radius during calm days.
Average velocity of the predominating northeasterly winds was 4.4 m/sec., which
exceeded the highest average velocity of winds blowing in other directions.
Therefore, it can be assumed that increase in the amount of dust settled in
the Karl Marx section during that month may have come from the discharges of
a group of industrial plants located on Chugunnaya Street located 900 - 1,000 m
northeasterly from the inhabited section.
Conclusions.
1. Atmospheric air dustiness varied in city inhabited sections with the
season of the year, being lower during the summer months and rising with the
heating season, which pointed to fuel as the basic origin of air dust.
2. Air dustiness in inhabited quarters varied during the day reflecting
the periodic operation of the region's industrial plants, and with the popula-
tion's mode of living. Air dustiness manifested 2 maxima during the day: in
the evening between 19 and 22 o'clock, and in the morning between 7 and 9
o'clock; minimum air dustiness was noted during the night hours.
3. Air dustiness in the fenced-in yards was considerably higher than in
the open yards accessible to ventilation.
4. Average 24-hour dust concentration in living quarters exceeded the
0.15 mg/m limit of allowable dust concentration.
5. Air dust in living quarters was characterized by a comparatively
high degree of dispersion; analyses showed that 97.5$ of the dust consisted of
particles <10 n in diameter, and only 2.5$ of particles >10 n in diameter.
6. Quantity of dust settled from the air of living quarters located in
the industrial regions generally exceeded the maximal averages noted in all
other industrial sections of the city.
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Bacterial Population of Air Surrounding Typical Living Quarters
in an Industrial Region
K. I. Turzhetskii
The study of atmospheric air pollution conducted by 3. P. Nikolaev in
two inhabited sections of an industrial city as described in the proceeding
report was paralleled by a bacteriological investigation of the air of the
same sections conducted by the present writer. Air samples were collected
by the aspiration method using the Krotov apparatus and by the gravity settling
method using open Petri dishes. Two Petri dishes containing nutrient agar
were placed inside the Krotov apparatus and 125 li of "the air aspirated over
each dish. A similar volume of air was aspirated over 2 dishes containing
ferro-sulfite agar for the isolation of anaerobes. The same types of agar
media were used in catching air bacteria by the gravity method. Counts were
made of total number of bacteria, pigmented bacteria, aerobic and anaerobic
spore-formers and of molds.
Bacterial counts made by the aspiration method in the old (Karl Marx)
residential section during February, March, and April showed that the total
number of air bacteria stayed consistently within the limit of 100 and 500
per ml with counts between 200 - 300 occurring most frequently. As in the
preceeding investigation, air samples were collected at 2 points. Total
counts disclosed no significant numerical differences in the bacterial air
population of the 2 points. On 2 occasions only was the total bacteriological
count per ml of air as high as 900 at collection point No. 1 (in the corner of
the enclosed yard) while no such high count occurred among the samples
collected at point No. 2 located between 2 arches which served as the yard's
gates.
Total bacterial count per ml of air collected in the old Karl Marx
section sharply rose during May and June. Two of the samples collected at
point No. 1 had counts of 900 - 1,000 per ml, two of 1,000 - 2,000 and 2
exceeding 2,000. Total counts of air samples collected at point No. 2 were
lower, with an average of 1,576. High bacterial counts were also found
among samples collected during September, when the maximum at point 1 was
2,080 and at point No. 2, 1240. The number of bacteria per ml of air during
the month of October at point No. 2 did not exceed 500 and at point No. 1
-125-
-------
one sample had a count of' 1,784<
Thus, the total number of bacteria in air samples collected at point
No. 1 was consistently greater than at point No. 2, which may have been
caused by prevailing air stagnancy at that point. Counts of air samples
collected by the aspiration method in the newer residential section (Lesnoi)
showed that the bacterial air pollution was not as high as in the old section
and that such counts fluctuated within a narrow range. None of the air
samples collected at point No. 1 (center of the yard) in this section had a
count exceeding 400 micro-organisms; similarly, none of the air samples
collected at point No. 2 (at the yard gate) had a count exceeding 500 micro-
organisms. A higher bacterial count occurred in only 2 of the samples
collected at point No. 1, whereas 6 of the samples collected at point No. 2
had high bacterial counts. The higher bacterial air population at point No. 2
can be explained by the fact that this point was located at the entrance into
the yard between two buildings where minor air whirls were formed occasionally
which prevented dust and bacterial dispersion; the air whirls also sucked in
dust and bacteria from the adjacent street.
Air of the Karl Marx section was studied by exposing 2 open Petri dishes
for .20 minutes during February and May. Most of the plates showed counts
ranging between 50 - 100 colonies, never exceeding 300 colonies. The number
of viable microorganisms sharply rose during June, especially in samples
collected at point No. 1 which showed a count of 3,000 in one plate. The
number of viable microorganisms sharply fell during September and October,
never exceeding 300. In this case, as in the preceeding study the air analyzed
.at point No. 1 had a greater number of viable bacteria. Counts obtained by
the open plate method .showed more clearly than did the counts made by aspira-
tion method that the number of bacteria per ml of air collected in the Lesnoi
section was less than in the air collected in the Karl Marx section. In
either case the number of viable bacteria did not exceed 100, and only during
September did counts of 500 appear in some plates. The bacterial air popula-
tion rose in the old section during the month of June; no such rise in the
air microorganisms was noted in the Lesnoi section. More viable microorganisms
were present in the air at collection point No. 2, as shown by the aspiration
and open plate methods. Pigmented bacteria appeared more numerous in samples
-126-
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collected by the aspiration method in which they ranged between 30 and 40$>
they stayed within the range of 10$, only occasionally rising to 20%, in the
open plate cultures. Pigmented bacteria were more numerous in the air of the
Karl Marx section than in the air of the Lesnoi section, as shown by the
aspiration and open plate methods.
Table 1
PI6MENTEI IACTERIA IN PERCENT OF TOTAL NUMIER OF MlCBOOBGANISHS
PERCENT
OF Pl«-
MENTEt IACTERU
NUMIER OF TESTS
ASPIRATION
OLI |
•LOCK |
METHOt
NEW
ILOCK
PLATE
1 OLI
ILOCK
NETHOI
INEW
ILOCK
NONE FOUNI
UP TO (0$
10-20$
20-30$
30-40$
40-50$
50-6$
60-70$
_
12
15
11
13
6
I
4
L m
4
29
11
13
4
—
1
1
25
22
8
4
—
1
1
1
36
16
5
2
2
—
— ' •
TOTALS
62
62
62
Aerobic spore-formers were checked mostly by the open plate gravity
sedimentation method. Results of the aspiration method showed that the number
of aerobic spore formers in most cases did not exceed 10$, only rarely ranging
between 10 - 20$. Aerobic spore-formers, as shown by the open plate sedimen-
tation method usually ranged between 10 - 20$ and frequently between 30 - 40$.
Results of either method showed that air of the Lesnoi section contained more
aerobic spore-formers than the air of the Karl Marx section.
Anaerobic spore-formers were found only rarely and in small numbers. They
developed colonies most frequently and in relatively greater numbers on the
open plates. Results obtained by both methods showed that anaerobic spore-
formers were more numerous in the air of the Lesnoi than in the air of the
Karl Marx Section.
Molds were found more frequently and in greater numbers in samples
collected by the aspiration method. As a rule, no spores were found in the
air of the Lesnoi section and their range never exceeded 5$ of "the total
microbial count. High percentages of mold colonies usually occurred in some
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Table 2
AEROBIC SPORE FORMERS IN PERCENT OF TOTAL NUHIER OF
MICROORGANISMS
PERCENT OF AEROIIC
SPORE FORMERS
NONE FOUNI
UP TO 10$
10-20$
20-30$
30-40$
40-50$
50-60$
60-70$
NUHIER OF TESTS
ASPIRATION
OLI
• LOCK
30
19
5
6
2
_
—
METHOI
NEW
HOCK
2
18
18
16
4
4
_
' —
PLATE METHOI
OLI
ILOCK
12
25
9
10
3
1
X
NEW
ILOCK
3
4
21
16
9
3
5
1
TOTALS
62
62
62
62
Table 3
AEROIIC SPORE FORMERS II PERCENT OF TOTAL NUMIER OF
MICROOR6AMISM8
NUMIER OF TESTS
PERCENT OF AEROIIC
SPORE FORMERS
ASPIRATION METHOI
Oil
ILOCK
NEW
ILOCK
PLATE METHOI
OLI
ILOCK
NEW
ILOCK
NONE FOUNI
UP TO 1$
1 - 5$
5-10$
68
2
2
—
56
1
5
—
48
6
8
I
46
3
11
2
TOTALS
62
62
62
62
samples of low bacterial count. High absolute numbers of molds were found in
only 2 air samples collected in the Lesnoi section. Some high mold counts
resulted from the fact that, 11 April and 5 June, while air samples were being
collected, a group of workers were removing metal junk from a nearby dump and
loading same onto an autotruck, thereby dispersing clouds of mold spores into
the air. Results of the present study also indicated that pigmented bacteria
and mold spores were more numerous in the air of the Karl Marx section, while
aerobic and anaerobic spore-formers were more numerous in the Lesnoi section.
As a rule, spore-formers found their way into the air from the soil, while
mole spores usually came from surfaces of plants or from surfaces of discarded
-128-
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domestic objects. This clearly indicated that the bacterial population of the
new section air came from the soil, while the microbial air pollution in the
old section was the result of household conditions. These two facts are of
importance from the hygienic viewpoint since air pollution from the soil,
as a rule, presents no epidemiological problems. Air pollution of household
or living conditions origin undoubtedly possesses an element of danger created
by the possible presence of pathogenic microorganisms.
Table 4
HOLIS IN PERCENT OF TOTAL NUHIER OF MlCROOR8ANISH8
PERCENT OF MOLIS
NUNIER OF TESTS
ASPIRATION MET HOI
Oil I NEW
• LOCK I HOCK
PLATE P1ETBM
OLI
ILOCK
NEW
• LOCK
NONE FOUNI
UP TO \%
I -#
5- l(#
10 - 20#
20- 3(#
30 - 50#
S) - 8C#
OVER 80#
IS
12
16
4
4
3
1
3
1
23
6
19
8
3
1
e
i
—
33
14
10
3
1
1
—
—
—
41
8
9
2
1
1
—
—
— '
TOTALS
62
62
62
62
Comparative Study of Filters Used in the Aspiration Method for
the Determination of Suspended Dust
V. M. Kornilova, S. P. Nikolaev, and N. M. Tomson
Dust as a polydispersed system consisted of particles of different
diameters. Suspension of dust in the air depended upon particle sizes, upon
weather conditions, and particularly, upon the wind velocity and direction.
Particle sizes ot>.n not be determined by one method due to differences in the
character and origin of the dusts and of the environmental conditions which
-129-
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affected their dispersion. Large diameter particles remained in the air for a
short time and settled down by gravity at different distances from their
origin and depending upon the force and direction of the wind. Dust of large
particles is usually collected by the sedimentation method, whereas fine dust
whiqh tends to remain suspended in the air for a long time is collected by
aspiration through retaining filters. All filters presently used in dust
aspiration for the determination of suspended dust concentrations retained
particles of 1 n or more in diameter. Dust particles of smaller diameters
passed through paper and cotton filters and through small cyclones. Only
membrane filters can hold back dust particles of 0.3 - 0.5 n in diameter.
Most aspiration methods collect dust particles measuring up to 10 JA in diameter.
Particles measuring fractions of n in diameter rarely fall upon the filter;
this is especially true of particulates measuring hundredths of n in diameter.
Suspended dust collection by the aspiration method is essentially a selective
procedure limited to a narrow range of dispersed dust, usually between 1 - 10 n
in diameter, which is the fraction bordering between the suspended and settling
of dust fractions. Suspended dust concentration is expressed in terms of mg
per ml of air. Consideration must be given to the fact that dust particles
exceeding 5 H» which are retained by the aspiration filter but did not
permeate into the lungs, constituted 93$ of the total dust weight, whereas
the smaller particles, which counted in millions and penetrated into the
lungs constituted approximately 1% of the total dust weight. From this
viewpoint the aspiration method was of limited significance, one-sided,
selective and must be supplemented by the count per volume method in sanitary-
hygienic dust studies.
Filters used in the aspiration method can be divided into 2 groups:
l) inertia type filters, based on the principle of aerodynamics; 2) filters
based on the principle of forced precipitation, such as electroprecipitators,
thermoprecipitators, liquid absorption precipitators; and 3) porous dust
retaining filters of different materials. Weight of porous material filters
can increase as a result of settled or retained dust, as a result of gas and
vapor adsorption, as a result of filter material oxidation, formation of
hydroxides, and adsorption of SO-j, Cl, oxides of nitrogen, HpO-, ozone, and
other gases always present in city air. Porous materials can also lose
weight, depending upon conditions of the experiment, through changes taking
-130-
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place in the filtering material in the process of clearing or drying to
constant weight; this may be the result of evaporation or volatilization of
some constituents of the filtering material depending upon the duration of
the desiccation, amount of lost moisture, and other causes. Because of this,
and for many other reasons, porous materials such as cotton, are not suited
to the determination of air dust density especially in low concentrations.
Inertia filters based on the aerodynamic principle, cylindrical (greased
or oiled) and spherical (dry) small cyclones retained dust through inertia
when the direction of the air current becomes suddenly diverted, or its
velocity suddenly reduced, as upon emerging from a narrow cylindrical outlet
into a spherical apparatus of a considerably larger diameter; this may also
occur as a result of air current adherence to the inner surface of a cyclone
and the consequent dropping out of the dust particles into the outermost
layer where the air velocity practically equalled zero. Thus, the dust
retaining property of inertia filters depended upon the size and number of
dust particles, the rate of aspiration and the particular type of the small
cyclone used.
Four different types of filtering devices were used under natural atmos-
pheric air conditions and in the aerodynamic dust containing air conduits:
l) The dust collecting adapter and porous filtering material, were
described in "Limits of Allowable Concentration of Atmospheric Air Pollutants,
Book 1, 1952, (OTS No. 59-21173, p. 120). The filter adapter should be of sim-
plest and most appropriate shape and size made of transparent synthetic material
and free from static electrical changes.
2) An adapter for use of hygroscopic cotton as the filtering material.
The dust chamber and the filtering material and adapter were described in
"Specifications for Procedures Used in the Sanitary Control of Clean Air in
Inhabited Localities", approved by the All-Union State Sanitary Inspectorate.
3) Oil or grease "cyclone (small cyclone), designed by the Institute of
Labor Protection and described in "Voprosy Gigieny Atmosfernogo Vozdukha",
published by Medgiz, 1951* P« 16.
4) Spherical small dry cyclones proposed by Prof. N. M. Tomson. The
sphere is 50 mm in diameter, the intake tube is fused to the sphere tangen-
tially and is funnel shaped. With a 25 mm intake funnel the outermost opening
-131-
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is 10 mm in diameter and the innermost 5 inm i*1 diameter, A 7 nm diameter
tube 25 mm long is fused to the innermost opening of the funnel extending
towards the center of the sphere.
The air is aspirated through 2 or 3 absorbers simultaneously, using a
suction funnel operating at the same speed of 20 li/min. for each absorber.
All apparatuses and experimental conditions were checked in 5 preliminary tests
using 2 identical absorber types such as small oil or grease cyclones through
which the air was aspirated at the same rate. Similar tests were made using
absorbers of the inertia type and 2 types of hygroscopic filters. Results
are presented in Tables 1 and 2. Air pollution values obtained by the dup-
licate tests were satisfactorily close. Values obtained by the spherical
Table 1
Al« IH6T IENSITY VALUES OITAINE* IY USINt TWO INERTIA
TYPE AISORIER8
HUHIER OF
TESTS
IUST IEHSITY IN M6/H3
OIL CYCLONE
AVERASE
MAXIM.
SPHERICAL CYCLONE
AVERACE
MAX 1 M.
IS 0,47 * 1,00 0,52 1.33
Table 2
AIR IUST IENSITY VALUES OITAINEI IY USING TWO FILTER
MATERIAL AISORIERS
NUMMK OF
TESTS
IUST IENSITY IN MS/M3
COTTON FILTER
AVERACE
MAXIM.
SPECIAL
AVERASE
7
IUST RETAINER
MAXIM.
0.61
1,08
0,77
1,25
type of small cyclones exceeded the values obtained with the other 3 types of
apparatus. The adapters and hygroscopic cotton filters yielded values below
the initial weights and were not used in succeeding experiments. A comparison
of the data in tables 1 and 2 shows that higher dust pollution values were
obtained in tests made using porous material filters. This had to be checked
by simultaneous tests made with the oil or grease cyclones, the spherically
shaped small cyclone and dust chamber apparatus. Results of such tests indic-
ated that higher dust pollution values were again obtained with the spherical
small cyclone than with the oil or grease cyclones. On the other hand, the
-132-
-------
dust chamber method yielded highest air pollution index, as is shown in
Table 3.
Table 3
n
AIR IUST IENSITIES OITAINEI IY USIN8 THREE TYPES OF AISORIER6
NUMIER OF
TESTS
AIR IUST CONCENTRATION IN M«/MJ
OIL OR CREASE CYCLONE SPNERI CA
AVERACE 1 MAXIM. I AVERACE
1 CYCLONE SPECm ROST RETAIN) NC
CARTRIICE
MAXIM. | AVERACE | MAXIM.
0,61
1,00
0.64
1.72 0.7B IJSO
The second series of experiments was conducted inside an aerodynamic
conduit through which the dust polluted air flowed along a straight line at
a constant rate as distinct from natural conditions where the air flow velocity
was inconstant and of a turbulent character. The dust installation used in
connection with the aerodynamic conduit was described by V. M. Kornilova in a
book "Voprosy Gigieny Atmosfernogo Vozdukha", published by Medgiz, 1951.
Determination of air dust intensity under such laboratory (artificial) condi-
tions were made using the spherical and oil or grease cyclones and the dust
chamber. Air was aspirated by a suction pump and the volume determined by a
pneumoiaeter. Linear velocities at the wider opening of the filter were the
same as in the linear aerodynamic conduit. Equal dust distribution in the
air flow inside the aerodynamic conduit was determined by 2 simultaneously
operating small oil or grease cyclones which yielded identical results. All
comparative tests were made in duplicates. Results are shown in Table 4.
Table 4
COMPARATIVE IUST RETAININS CAPACITIES OF AN AIR RUST CHUCK*
OIL OR CREASE AN! SPHERICAL CYCLONE
FILTER TYPE
AIR-RUST-CHUCR
SPHERICAL CYCLONE
AIR-IUST-CNUCX
OIL-OR CREASE CYCLONE
SPHERICAL CYCLONE
OIL OR CREASE CYCLONE
NUMB EH
OF
TESTS
5
5
6
6
5
5
AIR IUST IENSITY IN MS/M3
AVERAGES
3*
3.7
5.1
5.1
10,6
11.0
MINIM.
1,2
1.1
1.7
1.7
4.2
6,2
MAXIM.
8,1
9.4
12.2
7.3
19,3
19.1
-133-
-------
Comparative results indicated that the values were sufficiently close, with
a slight tendency on the part of the dust chamber apparatus to give somewhat
higher results. Results in Table 5 show that increase in the rate of air flow
in the intake filter tube to the point exceeding the air velocity in the aero-
dynamic tube lowered the air dust density values. The greater was the differ-
ence between the 2 velocities the lower were the experimental values and vice
versa, as the rate of the air current in the aerodynamic progressively exceeded
Table 5
EFFECT OF ASPIRATION RATE OR IUST CATCHIN8 CAPACITY
OF IIFFERENT FILTERS
FILTER
TYPE
OIL CYCLONE
SPHERICAL CYCLONE
OIL CYCLONE
OIL CYCLONE
OIL CYCLONE
AIR IUST
CHUCK RETAINER
HATE OF
CURRENT
FLOW
5 Mil
HK 5
5
5
8
8
RATE AT
INFLOW
TUIE
: SMIC
10.4
20.0
31.8
8.0
4.4
•UST CONCENTRATION
AVERA6E
133
103
6ft
43
26,2
28.4
MINIM.
8,4
103
33
4.4
223
193
HG/IT3
MAXIM.
173
10,0
83
53
31.4
433
the air current velocity in the inflow filter tube, air dust intensity values
also increased progressively.
Effect of aspiration rate on the filters dust retaining property was de-
termined with the aid of the small spherical cyclones. The air leaving the
small spherical cyclone was then passed through the small grease type cyclone
to catch the dust which might have slipped through the spherical cyclone. Data
in Table 6 show that the amount of dust particles which slipped through the
Table 6
EFFECT OF ASPIRATION RATE ON iOST CATCHING
CAPACITY OF SPHERICAL CYCLONES
FILTER
SPHERICAL
SPHERICAL
SPHERICAL
TYPE
ASPIRATION RATE
IN LI/MIN.
Jb OF IUST PASSING THROUGH
AVERAGES
CYCLONE |0 11,1
CYCLONE 20 0.0
CYCLONE M 3'7
MAXIM.
30.0
0.0
83
-134-
-------
small spherical cyclone was not proportional to the rate of air aspiration.
At air aspiration of 20 li/min. the amount of dust slipping through the small
spherical cyclone was reduced to a minimum; it then rose again. This may have
been due to the fact that at aspiration rate of 10 li/min. the centrifugal
forces were not sufficient for the retention of the predominant mass of small
diameter particles, and at an aspiration rate exceeding 20 li/min. there
occurred a secondary dust slipping through the small cyclone. Therefore, it
must be concluded that the optimal efficiency of small spherical cyclone
performance was at air aspiration rate of 15 - 20 li/min.
As a result of the above investigation it can be concluded that inertia
type filters used in the determination of atmospheric air dustiness possessed
advantages over the porous material type of filters. Small spherical cyclones
possessed the advantage over the small grease and oil cyclones by the fact
that they did not have to be greased or oiled, and were free from the possibility
of losing weight in the course of air aspiration. Small oil or grease cyclones
gradually lost their efficiency as the adhering dust covered their surface;
this fact should also be taken into consideration in the selection of air dust
filters. In the light of the experiments it appeared that the small spherical
cyclones could be recommended for the determination of air dust intensity with-
out reservation. It is essential that conditions of samples collection be prop-
erly standardized since the final results depended upon the correlation between
the velocity of the tested air flow and the velocity of the air at the filter
intake tube.
-135-
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Sanitization of Atmospheric Air Polluted by an Aluminum Plant
Discharges
N. M. Tomson, Z. V. Dubrovina and E. N. Bondareva.
Aluminum plant discharges polluted the atmospheric air with compounds of
fluorine, tarry substances, sublimated salicic acid and hydrogen sulfide.
Electrolysis of aluminum oxide requires a considerable amount of electrical
energy, usually supplied by an electric power station, which polluted the
atmospheric air with fly ash, S02, etc. Investigation of air pollution and
the study of its effect on health was conducted as a special assignment during
the period of 24 May up to 6 June, 1957- Each of the plant's electrolysis
baths emitted hourly approximately 10,000 m of gases, 50$ of which were dis-
charged through tall stacks, and the other 50$ coming from partly covered
baths became widely dispersed through the lower air layers. Construction of
120 m tall stacks improved the general conditions to some degree by carrying
the discharge gases 1.5 - 2.0 km from the plant before they descended to the
lower air levels in a rarified state.
Tarry substances are emitted during the aluminum oxide ore electrolysis
as yellowish-brown vapors at the point of the carbon electrodes made of coal
tar and coke. Each electrolysis bath was equipped with 3 tons of electrodes
which gradually burned out eliminating vapors of heavy aromatic polynuclear
hydrocarbons. The production of one ton of aluminum required 2 tons of
aluminum oxide ore, 0.1 ton of fluorides and 0.7 tons of carbon electrodes.
The deleterious discharges can be reduced by replacing the carbon electrodes
by more suitable ones. Smelting aluminum ore with oxides of alkaline-earth
metals and direct heat reduction to aluminum of natural, alumino-silicates
can be accomplished without the use of cryolite. But these methods of alum-
inum ore smelting have not been adopted widely. Heat and power electric stations
have recently been receiving coal of a 50$ ash content instead of the previously
shipped coal of 25$ ash content. Therefore, the ash-catching electrostatic
filters, battery cyclones and scrubbers were inadequate for the increased air
pollution on the one hand, and became deteriorated by the excessive use, on
the other hand. Therefore, the need arose to equip the plant with new ash-
catching equipment and installations designed to take care of the increased
-136-
-------
volume of generated fly-ash.
High degree pollution of atmospheric air with fly-ash extended up to 4 km
and lower degrees of pollution to 15 km from the aluminum plant. Birch trees
growing in the proximity of the electric power station perished, poplar trees
"barely survived, and the only trees that withstood the pollution to a reasonable
degree were acacia, hawthorn, and lilac. Tree leaves, grass and soil surface
were covered with a thick layer of grayish fly-ash. The inhabitants dared not
open their windows, and in the presence of unfavorable wind inhabitants com-
plained of breathing difficulty.
Studies were conducted as usual by collecting air samples and analyzing
them for dust content, SO^, fluorides and tars. Air dust intensity was deter-
mined by the aspiration method using small type spherical glass cyclones.
Performance of the filtration cyclones was carefully checked in a preliminary
way and only those which retained not less than $6% of the dust were used in
the final analyses. Results are presented in Tables 1 and 2. The provisionally
Table 1
SUSPENIEI »OST IN M«/M
METERS FROM
PLANT
500
1000
2000
3000
4000
HUM1ER OF
ANALYSES
17
11
12
16
2
FLUCTUATION
LIMITS
6,3—255.0
7.2—122,0
8.0-150.0
1.5—165.0
5.0— 9,0
EXCESS OVER LIMIT OF
ALLOW*! IE CORCENTRATION
5lO TIMES
240 „
300 „
330 „
18 .,
Table 2
SULFUR IIOXIIC
IN M«/n3
METERS FROM
PLANT
600
1000
2000
3000
4000
NUHIER OF
SAMPLES
19
9
19
18
1
FLUCTUATION
LIMITS
0,45-6^0
0.90—4.30
0,33-6,30
0,25-440
5.00
EXCESS OVER LIMIT OF
ALLOWAILE CONCENTRATION
II TIMES
8,6 „
12,6 „
6 »
10 .
-137-
-------
adopted limit of allowable suspended dust concentration in the sanitary
clearance zone was 0.5 mg/m . Dust settling at 500 m from the plant amounted
to 63 g/m2 in 30 days, at 1,000 m it amounted to 220 g, and at 2,000 m to
50 g/m2. Sulfur dioxide was determined by a micro method, and the results
are presented in Table 2. The temporary limit of allowable concentration for
sulfur dioxide in the atmospheric air of sanitary clearance zones, set at
0.5 mg/m , was exceeded by 12 times amounting to 6.0 mg/m . Fluorides were
determined by the zirconium-alizarine method. The temporary limit of allowable
HF concentration adopted for sanitary clearance zones is 0.03 mg/m . The in-
crease in concentration of fluorides in the air at 3,000 m from the plant was
caused by the discharge coming from the 120 m stacks; it could be reducing
the pollutant concentration coming from the stacks. Samples were collected
directly under the discharge plume. Maximal, not average, concentrations
presented the true picture of air pollution caused by weather changes and in
particular by wind direction and turbulence. Similar conditions were respon-
sible for low analytical values in some of the samples.
S09 and fuoride concentrations were determined simultaneously inside the
dwellings. Results showed that S0? concentrations were almost identical with
those found in the atmospheric air, while fluoride concentrations were even
greater. Gaseous pollutants easily and rapidly penetrated into the living
quarters, and accumulated due to the lack of ventilation, whereas in the
atmospheric air such pollutants were occasionally dispersed by wind and other
atmospheric conditions. For this reason it was concluded that determinations
of the pollutant effects should be made on a 24-hour basis. Results of such
investigation are listed in Table 3*
Table 3
CONCENTRATION OF HF IN MC/H3
METER FROM
PLANT
500
1000
2000
3000
4000
NUHIER OF FLUCTUATION EXCESS OVER LIMIT OF
SAMPLES LIMITS ALLOWAILE CONCENTRATION
17
16
17
16
4
0,13—1.65
0,23—2.82
0.14—2,04
0,12—3.40
l£0-3#>
66 TIMES
64
68
113
127
bt
tff
t»
»
-138-
-------
Concentrations of tarry substances were also determined in samples
collected by the aspiration method, using alcohol as the absorber fluid and the
luminescent analytical procedure for the quantitative determination. Results
are presented in Table 4. Morbidity studies were made by examining clinical
Table 4
TARRY SMISTANOE8 III
METERS FROM
PUNT
NUMIER OF
SAMPLES
CONCENTRATION OF
TARRY 60ISTANCE8
600 3 106—176
2000 3 100— 300
3000 4 16-33
histories of patients living in the village where the aluminum plant was
located and clinical histories of patients who lived in the village of the
metal processing plant which was located 8 km from the aluminum plant, and
comparing the results of corresponding statistical analyses. Data are presented
in Table 5.
Table 5
POPULATION MORIIIITY PER I000 PERSONS (•)
ALIMINBM PLANT
viLim
METAL PROCESSING
PLANT mim
MORIIIITV AMD HI AIULT8
• ENERAL MORIIIITV H®
RESPIRATORY IISEASE 4*>
• (•ESTIVE ORGANS 6>9
8.6
6,6
0,3
63
MORIIIITY AMONtt CHILIREH
6ENERAL MORIIIITY 106
PNEUMONIA 2!
EVE, EAR, ANI NOSE 8>®
RICKETS (CHILIREN UP TO I YR)
REQUIRING ORAL RYSIENE
(•) ORIGINAL TAILE SAYS PER 100,
ACUTE INFLAM. IISEASE
OF UPPER RESP. TRACTS
INFLUENZA
EYE IISEASES
80.0
403
3»
12
3,0
0.1
2.4
112
3.6
4.0
28^
10/>
Clinical histories indicated that 41$ of the patients coming from the vil-
lage where the aluminum plant was located had active tuberculosis or were
-139-
-------
tubercule bacilli carriers, as compared with 13$ of similar cases among the
patients coming from the village where the metal processing plant was located.
It is suggested that degree of air pollution coming from the aluminum
plant could be considerably reduced by completely eliminating the so-called
incidental or unorganized pollutant discharges, by trapping all fluoride com-
pounds and by replacing the carbon electrodes by a more suitable type. Air
pollution caused by the electric heat and power station could be reduced
considerably by grinding the coal to a coarser consistency, by increasing the
.height of the smokestacks and by utilizing the accumulated fly-ash thus pre-
venting secondary air pollution. The present investigation pointed to the need
of a check study after two weeks. The study also indicated that adequate but
minimal air samples yielded more reliable analytical results. For instance,
0.5 - 1.0 li air samples collected and analyzed for the determination of
substances showed the tarry substance concentration as 100 mg/m . On the other
hand determinations made on the basis of 20 li of the air collected over a
period of 40 minutes showed a tarry substance range of 20 - 10 mg/m due to the
incidence of wind direction and turbulence changes and indicated that collecting
voluminous air samples over too long a time period tended to dilute the
pollutant concentration.
Effect of Viscose Production Discharges on the Health
of Inhabitants
N. M. Tomson, Z. V. Dubrovina, and M. I. Grigor'eva.
Industrial discharges coming from viscose plant polluted atmospheric air
with carbon bisulfide, hydrogen sulfide and to some extent with sulfur dioxide
and sulfuric acid aerosol. The present investigation was conducted between
18 to 27 December, 1957. Collected air samples amounted to 357, of which 264
were collected at different points in the open air and 93 in living quarters.
The plant's production processes were hermetically deficient, so that 66 - 69$
-140-
-------
of escaped gases spread over the floor and the ground, some permeating through
windows and doors and through low exhaust stacks^erected over the building
occupied by different plant departments and sections. An inspection of the
plant disclosed the presence of 200 incidental and unorganized points of
pollutant escape and leakage. Only about 35$ of the created gases were dis-
charged into the atmospheric air through 100 - 120 m tall stacks. Carbon
bisulfide gas emitted by the plant's waste water amounted to 0.8 ton per day;
the waste water was run into settling reservoirs covering an area of 110,000 m2
in a volume amounting to 51,000 m3. Calculations showed that 380 kg of carbon
bisulfide was generated in the production of 1 ton of viscose. The plant had
experimental installations for partial trapping and recovery of carbon bisulfide,
the efficiency of which did not exceed 2%. The hydrogen sulfide formed in
the production of carbon bisulfide was burned in a Klaus furnace to elemental
sulfur? burning of tail gases resulted in the formation of sulfur dioxide.
Of the 127 air samples analyzed for carbon bisulfide, 31 were collected
indoors and 96 in outdoor atmospheric air. Analytical results are presented
in Tables 1, 2, 3, and 4. The limit of allowable carbon bisulfide concentration
Table 1
CARiON IISULFHE IN M6/M3 IN RELATION TO ilSTUHCE FROM PLANT
METERS FROM
PLANT
NUHIER
ANALYSES
AVERA6ES
MAXIM.
MINIM.
IN EXCESS
GOO 22 0,22 1.00 0,09 33 pas*
2000 44 0,19 1,35 0.06 42 „
4000 30 0,09 032 0,04 11 .,
NYIR06EN SULFIIE IN MS,
i/H3
Table 2
IN RELATION TO I(STANCE FROM PLANT
M. FROM
PLANT
NUHIER OP
ANALYSES
AVERAGES
MAXIM.
MINIM.
IN EXCESS OF
MAXIM.
£00 22 0,19 033 0,03 28
2000 46 0,09 0,16 0,03 6
4000 26 0,07 0425 OX» 9
CONCEN.
pas
„
M
-141-
-------
SULFUR BIOXUE in
Table 3
m RELATION TO IISTANCE FROM PLAIIT
M. FROM
PLAIIT.
NUMIER OF
ANALYSES
AVERA8E8
MAXIM.
niNIH.
IN EXCESS
OF MAX.
CONCEN.
500 16 1,80 3,00 0,30 6 pas
2000 34 0.98 3.20 0.20 6 „
4000 25 Off) 2,30 0.00 5 „
Table 4
CONCENTRATIONS OF CASES IN ATMOSPHERIC AIR ANI IN RESIIENCES
NUMIER
AIIUY-
8ES
1 N ATM. A 1 R
A VS. FHAXIMjMIN.
NUniER
OF
ANALY-
SES
IN RESIIENCES
AVS.
MAXIM.
MINIM.
cs2
V
so.
96 0,17 US 0,04 31 0.13 0.40 0,04
93 0.12 0.93 0,03 32 0.08 0.32 0.03
75 1.10 3.20 0,20 90 l.Oo 3.20 0,20
in the open air and in sanitary clearance zones has been set at 0.03 mg/m^;
data in Table 1 show that actual concentrations were 11 - 42 times as high as
the allowable limit. Data presented in Table 2 show that hydrogen sulfide con-
centration in the air was 6-28 times as high as the 0.03 mg/nf5 limit of
allowable concentration. Similarly, data in Table 3 show that the concentra-
tion of S02 in the atmospheric air was 5-6 times as great as the 0.5 mg/m^
limit of allowable SOg concentration. Data summarized in Table 4 show that
12 of the 31 indoor air samples had a higher concentration of carbon bisulfide
than did "the atmospheric air samples; 12 of 32 indoor samples contained a
higher hydrogen sulfide concentration than did the outdoor air samples; like-
wise 15 of the 30 indoor samples had a higher S02 concentration than did the
outdoor samples. Summarizing the results it can be stated that 42.4$ of the
indoor air samples had higher concentrations of the different pollutants than
did the outdoor samples, although the values in some instances were not very
pronounced.
Effect of the plant's discharge gases on the population's health was
evaluated by results of morbidity studies as recorded in clinical histories
for the entire year of 1956 and 9 months of 1957. Workers of other large
industrial plants had polyclinics and health centers of their own and were not
-142-
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included in this morbidity study. The population of 3 regions served by the
polyclinic, and whose histories were studied, amounted to 97»500 persons;
77»000 were adults and 20,500 were children. Records indicated a total number
of 114,497 patients, of whom 70,917 were adults and 43,580 were children.
Statistical accuracy of the morbidity studies was ± 3$. Actual morbidity data
are listed in Tables 5 and 6 and indicate that morbidity in the smoke polluted
area was 505? greater than in the comparatively clean air region.
Table 5
MORIIIITY PER I000 OF POPULATION
(FIRST CLINICAL VISITS)
TOTAL MORIIIITY
RESP. OR9AN8
NERV. SYSTEM
CAR! 10-V ASCII LAR
RYPERTONICm
II6ESTIVE ORQAN8
lERMATOLOeiCAL
INFECTIOUS IISEASE
CONTROL
SECTION
689
83
43
31
21
41
24
286
SMOKY
No. I
860
102
70
64
35
70
40
337
SECTIONS
No. 2
862
117
96
70
38
70
40
_
IN EXCESS
No. I
1.2
1.2
1.6
2jO
1,7
1.7
1,7
1,2
No. 2
13
13
12.
23
13
1,7
1.7
—
Table 6
MOB*IIITY PER 1000 CHILMEN
CONTROL SECTION
IIP TO
1 YR.
TOTAL NORIIIITY 1573 333
INFECTIOUS 895 105
RESPIR. ORGANS 473 109
EYE tlSEASl
EXUIAT.IIATHE6I8
5 1
7 4
SMOKY
2555
968
782
20
31
SECTION
OP TO
1 YR.
632
146
246
8
23
IN
14
1X>
1.6
4.0
4.5
EXCESS
UP TO
I YR.
1.9
1.4
2.1
8.0
6.0
Conclusions.
The sanitary clearance zone surrounding the investigated viscose plant
was 2 km wide and, as indicated by this study, was entirely inadequate.
Pollutant gas concentrations in the atmospheric air were 5-42 times higher
than the allowable concentration limit for air in the sanitary clearance zone.
-143-
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The population suffered from the effects of the deleterious gases day
and night since the gases easily permeated into the living quarters.
Analysis of clinical morbidity data in the smoke-polluted region showed
a 50$ rise as compared with the control region, assumed to be the result of
the deleterious effects of the sulfur-containing gases discharged by the plant.
For the proper sanitization of living conditions in the regions surrounding
the viscose plant it was suggested that presently used production methods
based on the use of sulfur-containing compounds be replaced by more recent
methods in which non-sulfur-containing compounds are used. It is also sug-
gested that the present system of scattered discharge of harmful gases be
regionally coordinated and efficient emission gas purification be rationally
centralized.
-144-
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PART THREE
Selections from "Uchenye ZapisM", No. 6
Gigienicheskie Voprosy Planirovki, Zastroiki
i Sanitarnoi Okhrany Atmosfernogo Vozdukha
Naselennykh Mest.
Ministerstvo Zdrave-okhraneniya RSFSR.
Moskovskii Nauchno-Issledovatel'skii Institut
Sanitarnoi Gigieny imeni F. F. Erismana
Moscow - 1960
-145-
-------
Caiicerogenic Substances in the Atmospheric Air with a View to
Cancer Prevention
B. P, Gurinov.
Rational approach to the problem of cancer prophylaxis includes a study
of caneerogenic substances present in the surrounding environment, sources
of their formation, conditions of their emission into the atmosphere and an
experimental investigation of their effect on the animal organism. Results
of such investigations should lead to the development of prophylactic means
for the elimination of cahcerogenic factors in the external environment or for
the prevention of contact with them. The following cancer preventing measures
should be seriously considered! changes in the production technology, pro-
hibiting the use of cancerogenic substances in industrial processes, replac-
ing known cancerogenic substances used in the food, perfume and agricultural
industries by non-cancerogenic substances, improvement in methods of fuel
coabustion, etc. Accordingly p-naphthylamine should be eliminated from the
aniline dye industry, as recommended by I. L. Litkin, fuel combustion methods
should be perfected to eliminate products of incomplete combustion as sug-
gested by B. P. Gurinov, the use of butter, bakery, and other food products
coloring with dyes of known or suspected cancerogenic properties should be
prohibited.
Considerable information has been accumulated lately on the cancerogenic
effects of some coal tar chemicals as a result of numerous observations that
persons continuously in contact with coal tar products or related substances
frequently developed occupational skin cancers. Coal tar is a mixture of
many aromatic bases, methynic and napthinic hydrocarbons, phenols, sulfur
compounds, etc. In 1933 Cook isolated from coal tar a cancerogenic polynuclear
aromatic hydrocarbon known as 3,4-benzpyrene. That same year the substance
was produced synthetically. The chemical theory of cancer formation was
substantially supported by the frequent development of lung cancer among
miners who inhaled ore dust containing cobalt and radium emanation. The
chemical theory of cancer formation has also been substantiated by results
of animal experiments.
Many cancerogenic chemical substances exist at present which belong to
different types of chemical compounds, such as hydrocarbons, amino compounds,
-146-
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amines, etc. Ambient air always has a percentage of cancerogenic hydro-
carbons as products of distillation and of incomplete fuel combustion.
The polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon 3,4-benzpyrene which occurred most
frequently in human environment possessed strong cancerogenic properties.
In tiiis connection the following are among the most potent sources of air
pollution with cancerogenic substances: smoke discharged coal operated
boilers, automobile exhaust gases, tarry street pavements, discharges of many
industrial production and manufacturing plants, especially those which
engaged in processing raw materials at temperatures exceeding 500°. Some
such plants were located in isolated sections, while others discharge can-
cerogenic substances of various types into the ambient air.
The effect on human health of cancerogenic substances, notably of
3,4-benzpyrene, was first studied in the USSR in L. M. Sabad's Oncological
Laboratory of the P. P. Erisman Institute beginning with 1949* Samples
of atmospheric dust were collected by the open jar sedimentation and aspira-
tion methods. Experience indicated that not less than 3 g of dust must be
collected by the aspiration method for adequate cancerogenic study. This
could not be conveniently done by the previously employed aspiration appara-
tus.; a new device had to be designed based on a higher rate of air aspira-
tion through the dust retaining porous material filter. Samples were
usually collected over 30 - 73 hour periods. The collected dust can be
freed and 3,4-benzpyrene determined by the fluorescent-spectral method
described by P. P. Dikun (see O.T.S. No. 60-21188, p. 122 and O.T.S. No.
62-11103, p. 153, U.S. Dept. of Commerce). Investigations were conducted
in Moscow where coal and mazut were used as boiler fuel, in Ivanovo city
where turf was used as fuel, and in Grozno city, where crude oil was used
as fuel. Studies were also conducted in Chelyabinsk, Dzerzhinsk, Orenburg,
Ryazan, Kostroma, Tyumen, Shakhty, Novoshakhtinsk, and Magnitogorsk using
isolated samples of atmospheric dust which contained 3,4-benzpyrene. Analyses
of 105 atmospheric dust samples for 3,4-benzpyrene are shown in Table 1.
Data in the table show that 3,4-benzpyrene was found in 77.1$ of the samples
in thousands of a percent.
During 1954 - 1958 the atmospheric air of USSR cities was investigated
for the content of 3,4-benzpyrene by L. M. Shabad, P. P. Dikun, M. Z.
Dmitriev, V. S. Serebrennikov, Ya. M. Grushko and collaborators, I. I. Nikberg,
-147-
-------
TOTAL
105
Table 1
3,4 lENZPYRENt III ATMOSPHERIC AIR
HO. OF SAMPLES
POSITIVE
SAMPLES
ACTUAL
no. ?$
.0.0
ACTUAL
HO. #
3,4 IENZPYRENE
O.OOt-0.002
ACTUAL
i HO. <$,
IN JSf>
0.003-0.005
ACTUAL
NO. $6
O.Ol
ACTHAL
NO. <$>
8l
77.1
24
22.9 51
48.6
19
18
II
(0.5
and others, who used the open jar sedimentation method for the collection
of dust samples, some also used the snow method of sample collection.
I. I. Nikberg used the aspiration method for dust collection in the vicinity
of a coke-pitch plant. He collected his samples directly on the grounds of
the coke-pitch plant, therefore, his results were not included in the
general study of city air.
Results of studies made by the open jar sedimentation method had a
relative value in relation to air pollution with cancerogenic 3,4-benzpyrenej
they did not lend themselves to quantitative analysis of basic importance
to a rational study of the problem under consideration. Nor could results of
3,4-benzpyrene air dust studies obtained by the sedimentation method be
correlated with results obtained by foreign investigators, since the latter
used the aspiration method exclusively. Members of the F. F. Erisman
Institute were the only ones who studied city air pollution with 3,4-benzpy-
rene. Results of their studies are presented in Table 2. Weller (1932),
Table 2
Percent of 3,4-benzpyrene in the air of USSR cities
CITY OF MONTH ANI YEAR OF
SAMPLE TAKINt
Moscow JUNE, 1952
SEPT., OCT., 1957
• *
JANUARY, 195B
• •
• *
* •
N «
IVANOVO JANUARY, 1952
GNOZNYI DECEMIER, i95i
CONCENTRATION OF
TARRY SUI8TANCE8
I"**
5.0
3.6
4.0
6.2
5.5
3.5
4.3
5.5
2.0
7.2
3,4-1 ENZPYRENE
IN -f/lOO H3
0.08
0.03
0.09
0.57
0.07
0.02
0.05
0.02
0.04
0.11
-146-
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Cooper (1954), Stok«a and Campbell (1955) in England, Cotin and his
collaborators (1954) in the USA, Campbell and Clemnesen (1956) in
Copenhagen conducted similar studies of atmospheric air. Their results
are summarized in Table 3. A comparative study of the data presented in
Tables 2 and 3 shows that the 3,4-benzpyrene content in the air of USSR
Table 3
3,4-»EIIIPYREBE CONCENTRATION III 8«i»RI8
COUNTRY AMI CITY
EMUII
LOMIOI & OTHER CITIES
SAITFOM
U. S. A.
VIMOI, Los AMELES
3,4-1 ENZPYRE HE INy /lOO N
OF AIR
1.3 - 4.6
19.7 - 29.0
3.0 - 3.3
AUTHORS
WELLE*
COOPER
Com ET
Al
cities is considerably below that of the USA and England (100 times less).
The difference is even more pronounced when compared with the data presented
by Cooper. Such facts regarding 3,4-benzpyrene concentrations in the air
of Soviet Union and foreign cities can be explained first by the different
methods of air sample aspiration and even more so by the difference in the
auto traffic intensity in the streets of the USSR and foreign cities, since
it is known that auto exhaust gases contained 3,4-benzpyrene.
In the city of Los Angeles alone more than 2 million automobiles may
travel during the day. This author had studied the effect of such fuels
as coal, turf, wood, and crude oil on the presence of 3,4-benzpyrene in
boiler smoke gases. Analysis of 45 smoke soot samples collected from
smokestacks belonging to community enterprises, electric power stations,
and residential buildings disclosed the presence of cancerogenic hydro-
carbons of the 3,4-benzpyrene type in smoke gases of all types of fuel.
It has been established now that the presence of such hydrocarbons in
smoke gases was the result of incomplete combustion and that the more ef-
ficient was the combustion the less was the quantity of generated 3,4-benz-
pyrene. Similar studies were conducted with air samples collected in the '
vicinity of plants burning finely ground coal automatically hand-stoked
and in the vicinity of plants burning lump coal. Samples were collected
by the aspiration method previously mentioned (Table 4). Data in Table 4
show that the layer-bed method of hand-stoked fuel burning created suspended
-149-
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Table 4
3,4-IENZPYRENE CONTENT IN FLHE
-------
was turned in 24 hours, as for instance in the Moscow Electric Heat and
Power Station No. 16, and in other similar plants, no 3,4-benzpyrene was
found, due to the fact that combustion was near complete, as a result of
appropriate combustion installations and suitable and well qualified per-
sonnel. In contrast to this, smaller boiler operated plants with a con-
sumption of 1 - 2,000 m of gas per day and not equipped with efficient
combustion facilities, emitted smoke and gases containing polycyclic hydro-
carbons of the type of 1,12-benzoperilene and 3,4-benzpyrene. Prom the
viewpoint of rational cancer prophylaxis this suggests that the operation
of small fuel combustion units be discontinued or replaced by large units
in which the fuel combustion and service personnel would be of high efficiency.
Automobile exhaust gases, are the result of incomplete liquid fuel
combustion, and as such contained cancerogenic hydrocarbons (3,4-benzpyrene)
freely emitted into the atmospheric air. Results of the present study
indicated that soot samples collected from automobile exhaust pipes off
auto engines burning gasoline or Diesel engines burning oil contained
3,4-benzpyrene and tarry substances. The content of tarry substances in
soot collected from carburetor operated auto engines amounted to 19.5 -
30.0$, and from Diesel engines to 4 - 10$. Soot samples collected from
exhaust pipes of carburetor operated automobiles contained 0.012 - 0.033
with an average of 0.02$ of 3,4-benzpyrene or 200 Y per g of soot. The
3,4-benzpyrene content of Diesel operated exhaust soot ranged between
0 - 0.0013, with an average of 0.0001$, or 1 y per g of soot. Thus, the
Diesel operated engine emitted into the atmospheric air less 3,4-benzpyrene
than did the carburetor operated automobile.
Tarry and resinous substances present in the exhaust gases of carbur-
etor-operated and Diesel engines were applied to the skin of white mice,
strain CC»57« At the moment of this writing complete results have not been
collected; however, 4 to 6 months after the experiments began the strong
blastomagenic activity of the tar and soot obtained from the carburetor
type of automobiles began to manifest itself strongly. On the other hand,
application of exhaust substances from Diesel operated engines for 16 months
produced no cancerogenic symptoms, pointing to the possibility that if any
blastomagenic substances had been present in the Diesel engine soot and
tarry substances, they were slow acting, indeed. Thus, results of biological
-151-
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and physical investigations clearly pointed to the fact that the soot
coming from carburetor operated automobile exhausts possessed definite
blastomdgenic properties, while, no clear evidence was obtained of the
existence of such properties in the exhaust material of the Diesel engines.
This is of uppermost importance from the sanitary-hygienic and cancer
prophylactic viewpoints. It is essential, therefore, that some radical
measures be introduced to eliminate atmospheric air pollution with cancer-
ogenic substances coming from carburetor operated automobile exhausts.
Engineers designing internal combustion in automobile engines, especially
these operating on the carburetor principle, must concentrate their effort
on the development of new types of engines or on the development of supple-
mental auto-engine devices which would insure efficient automobile fuel
combustion for the elimination of air polluting cancerogenic hydrocarbons.
Dust from streets paved with materials containing coal tar or other
tars undoubtedly plays an important part in air pollution with cancerogenic
substances. The use of coal and other tars as street paving material, es-
pecially in populated sections, has been prohibited in the USSR and has
been replaced by crude oil bitumens. Since no information has been avail-
able regarding the presence of cancerogenic substances in crude oil bitumens,
the scientific personnel of the F. P. Erisman Institute conducted an
appropriate investigation of this subject, using bitumens of the Groznensk
and Lyuberetsk plants. Results indicated that these materials contained no
3,4-benzpyrene, and chronic experiments with animals failed to elicit
cancer growths. It can be concluded, therefore, that the street paving
\
materials now used in the USSR did not contribute to the pollution of air
with cancerogenic substances.
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Experimental Basis for the Determination of Maximal Allowable
Single Carbon Bisulfide Concentration in Atmospheric Air
R. S. Gil'denskjol'd
The Committee for the Determination of Allowable Atmospheric Air
Pollutant Concentrations affiliated with the Main State Inspectorate
proposed in 1952 that 0.5 mg/m of carbon bisulfide be adopted as the limit
of its allowable maximal single concentration and 0.15 mg/m as its average
24 hour concentration. Experience indicated that these norms were in fact
too high. Therefore, the present writer was requested to check on the above
adopted limits of allowable carbon bisulfide concentrations in atmospheric
air. Plants which produced carbon bisulfide constituted the main sources
of air pollution with this vapor and next came the viscose industry plants.
High productive capacity viscose plants discharged into the atmospheric air
10s of tons of CS0 daily. Ventilation air discharged into the atmosphere by
* 3
the viscose plants amounted to millions of m per hour, and the carbon
bisulfide vapor content of such air ranged between 20 - 240 mg/m , making
the task of the ventilation air purification an extremely difficult one.
The present investigation was limited to the study of atmospheric air
pollution with carbon bisulfide discharged by the combine known as "Klin-
volokno". Air samples were collected within radii of 150, 500, 1,000,
1,500, 2,000, 2,500 and 3,000 m from the combine. Procedures followed in
sample collecting and analyzing were those recommended by the Committee
on Allowable Air Concentrations, as described by A. L. Khritinina in 1940.
The sensitivity of that method was 0.0005 mg/2 ml. Final determinations
were made with a photoelectrocolorimeter M-l and with the aid of a special
calibration curve. 342 samples were collected on the lee side of the plant.
Results are presented in Table 1. Data in that table show that average air
pollution with carbon bisulfide at 1,000 m from the plant was 0.4 mg/m and
at 500 m it "as 0.64 - 1.2 mg/m . Eleven of 28 air samples collected at
300 m from the combine contained a carbon bisulfide concentration below
the allowable limit. Positive carbon bisulfide tests were obtained with
air samples collected at 3,000 m from the plant, and at 2,000 m the odor
of carbon bisulfide was easily recognized. The studies made by M. A.
Kazakevich in 1954, by E. A. Drogichina in 1953, by A. A. Model in 1956,
-153-
-------
Table 1
MAXIMAL ADI MAXIMAL AVERAGE CARiON IISULFIIE ComMTRATIONS IN ATMOSPHERIC
AIR SHRROUNIIN* THE "KLINVOLOKNO* COMIINE
METERS
FROM
COMIINE
" T° K
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
»e. OF
AIR
SAMPLES
80
73
56
MAX. CONCRS.
•"3
M8/M
1.20
0,64
0.40
34 I 0.18
48 i 0.18
23 • 0.08
28 : 0.03
AVS. OF MAX*
CONCN8JN
M«/M3
0.21
0,19
0,09
CARION IISULFIBE OIOR
REPORTER
iv AIR SAMPLE COLLECTOR
STRONQ AN* CONSTANT
STRON« AN* CONSTANT
STRONt WITH WINI ONLY
0.07 FAINT AN! CONSTANT
0,06 FAINT WITH WINI ONLY
•{•2* NOT PERCEIVE*
NOT PERCEIVE*
and "by others indicated early stages of carbon bisulfide poisoning manifested
shifts in higher nervous activity. Results of the above investigators have
a strong and direct bearing on the determination of limits of allowable
carbon bisulfide concentration in the atmospheric air.
Results of the present investigation are based on determinations of
carbon bisulfide threshold odor perception threshold inhalation reflex
effect as determined by optical chronaximetry, and threshold of carbon
bisulfide effects on sensitivity to light following dark adaptation. The
methods and procedures used by such were described by K. A. Bushtueva in
1954 in connection with S02 (O.T.S. No. 62-11103, p. 137, U. S. Department
of Commerce). Only few reports have been found in the literature on the
subject related to the determination of threshold odor perceptive con=
centrations of carbon bisulfide. P. D. Shikhvarger showed in 1950 that
1.0 mg/m of carbon bisulfide was the threshold odor perception concentra-
tion. K. G. Beryusheva showed in 1935 that 0.5 mg/m , or higher, of
carbonbisulfide was still perceived by odor. Studies on carbon bisulfide
threshold odor perception concentrations were conducted by the present
writer using 15 test persons 1? - 29 years old, and 0.6, 0.4, 0.2, 0.1,
0.006, 0.05, .and 0.04 mg/m carbon bisulfide concentrations in a total
of 256 tests. Results of the investigation showed that the threshold of
carbon bisulfide odor perception concentration ranged between 0.05 and
0.2 mg/m . For the most sensitive persons (26.6$) the lowest odor per-
ceived concentration was 0.05 rag/m and the highest odor non-perceived
-154-
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concentration was 0.04 mg/m .
The cortical elements of the different neuro-analyzers are in a con-
stant state of reaction intercommunication; i.e., effects felt by one of
the neuro-analyzers (in this instance the olfactory analyzer) are transmitted
in a reflex manner to other neuro-analyzers, thereby affecting the functional
state of the cerebral cortex, which in turn manifests itself as a change
in the functional state of other neuro-analyzers. Such changes in the
cortical activity resulting from short duration effect of low carbon bi-
sulfide concentrations through the reflex zones of the upper respiratory
tract (inhalations) were studied by the chronaxy method using the phenomenon
of phosphene appearance as the index of effect, and employing the method, or
procedure, recommended by the Committee on Allowable Atmospheric Air
Pollutant Concentrations. This procedure was applied repeatedly to workers,
the results proved the adequate sensitivity and reliability of the method
even in the diagnosis of early intoxication. In 1951* N. I. Galat examined
workers in a synthetic fiber plant by the method of optical chronaxy; he
found increased chronaxy and rheobase values even in the early intoxication
stages.
Optical chronaxy tests were conducted in this investigation using 3
test subjects. Threshold odor perception concentrations in the 3 test
subjects were 0.1, 0.06, and 0.05 mg/m . Gas was administered on the 6th
minute of the experiment; 7 index values taken 3 minutes apart were recorded.
The following carbon bisulfide concentrations were used: 0.5 mg/m which
was adopted originally as the limit of allowable maximal single concentration,
and 0.01, 0.05, and 0.04 mg/m , making a total of 609 determinations.
Statistical analysis of the data showed that the lowest carbon bisulfide
concentration which elicited reliable increase in chronaxy values (in
response to 0.05 n?) was 0.04 mg/m , or below the threshold of odor sensi-
tivity of most sensitive persons. In one case chronaxy prolongation
occurred in response to 0.05 mg/m of carbon bisulfide. Statistically
significant rheobase changes were observed in all 3 test persons beginning
with 0.1 mg/m of carbon bisulfide. Shifts in optical chronaxy indicated
that short duration inhalation of low carbon bisulfide concentrations by
man was accompanied by brief shifts in the function of the cerebral cortex.
Data found in the literature relative to the nature of changes in
-155-
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dark adapted eyes to light sensitivity offered no specific information.
Therefore, original studies were undertaken using adaptometer ADM. Young
healthy persons, free from pathologic visual arid olfactory defects, were
chosen as the test persons. The adaptation curve was recorded beginning
with the 15th minute of adaptation during the inhalation of clean air.
Averages of the curves obtained were used as normal standards in judging
shifts occurring during carbon bisulfide vapor inhalation. A total of
1,160 tests were performed with 0.5, 0.1, 0.05, 0.04, and 0.03 mg/m of
carbon bisulfide. All 4 persons reacted to the 0.04 mg/m concentration
even though the threshold concentration of odor perception in these persons
was correspondingly 0.01, 0.01, and 0.05 mg/m • However, the characters
of the shift curves of dark adaptation were different. For instance, in
test subject Ch. all concentrations caused a drop in eye sensitivity to
light, and, as the concentration of the vapor increased, the sensitivity
to light also increased; in the case of test person S. high carbon bisulfide
concentration (0.5 mg/m ) depressed the eye sensitivity, while lower con-
centrations increased the eye sensitivity to light; in the case of test
person K. eye sensitivity to light acted in a persistently depressing
manner at high concentrations, whereas at 0.05 - 0.04 mg/m the depressed
state of sensitivity to light was considerably lighter arid lasted only
10 - 15 minutes, following which the depressed effect again rose lasting
40 minutes $nd extending far beyond the limits of the original curve.
Results of this experiment indicated that the effect produced by carbon
bisulfide on the olfactory analyzer receptors in concentrations below the
maximal single limit elicited brief functional shifts in the central ner-
vous system. Results are summarized in Table 2.
Table 2
Experimental determination of,carbon bisulfide odor threshold
concentration
•«•
HETHO* i8t» IK ItTERMININ* TNMSMlt REFLEX ACTIOR
CARRON RI6NLFIIE 01 OR
TMRfRMOll CONCENTRATION
III M«/M3
I 0*OR PERCEPTION THRESHOlt SNRJECTIVELY REPORTER
•Y TE6T PERSON
2 OIOR PERCEPTION TRRESNOLI IETERPIINEI IY THE METRO!
OF OPTICAL CNRONAXY
3 OIOR PERCEPTION THRE8NOLI RETERHINCI RY EVE
SENSITIVITY
0.05
0.04
0.04
-156-
-------
As a result of this investigation it was recommended that 0.03 mg/m
of carton bisulfide be adopted as the allowable limit of the single con-
centration in atmospheric air equivalent to the subthreshold reflex action
concentration. Taking the results of this study into consideration, the
Main State Sanitary Inspectorate of the USSR officially adopted 0.03 mg/m
as the allowable maximal single carbon bisulfide concentration and 0.01
mg/m as the average 24-hour concentration.
Short time inhalation of low carbon bisulfide concentrations elicited
functional shifts in the cerebral cortex. This indicated that the presently
adopted limits of carbon bisulfide concentrations in air of working premises
were badly in need of a revision. The present investigation indicated that
atmospheric air surrounding the combine "Klinvolokno" was polluted with
carbonbisulfide even as far as 3,000 m from the plant; at 500 m from the
plant such pollution was 21.3 times as high as the allowable 0.03 mg/m
concentration. Therefore, it was recommended that all inhabitants residing
within a radius of 500 m from the combine be moved to more distant points.
It was also suggested that official sanitary authorities request that pro-
duction management of the plant install, without delay, effective purification
and ventilation means for the elimination of proper reduction in the air
pollution with carbon bisulfide vapor.
Conclusions.
1. Carbon bisulfide vapor was detected in the atmospheric air at
3,000 m from the plant "Klinvolokno".
2. Carbon bisulfide odor was detected at 2,000 in from the plant;
sensory tests indicated that 0.05 mg/ni of carbon bisulfide was the threshold
concentration sensed by most odor-sensitive persons.
3. Optical chronaxy tests indicated that 0.04 mg/m of CSp was the
threshold concentration of carbon bisulfide reflex activity affect.
4. Statisitcal analysis indicated that 0.04 mg/m of carbon bisul:
was the minimal active concentration which elicited shifts in darkness
adapted eye sensitivity to light, and that 0.03 mg/m was the maximal si
threshold concentration.
5. Results, thus, indicated that the existing 0.5 mg/m maximal
single and 0.15 nig/m average 24-hour CSp concentrations were too high.
-157-
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6. The presently recommended and adopted 0.03 mg/m limit of
allowable carbon bisulfide concentration in atmospheric air of inhabited
localities is below the threshold of odor perception and reflex activity
affect.
Experimental Basis for the Determination of Allowable Concentrations
of Chlorine and HC1 gas Simultaneously Present in Atmospheric Air
V. M. Styazhkin
The present study was initiated to obtain an experimental basis for
the determination of permissible concentration limits for simultaneously
present chlorine and HC1 gas in ambient air. Studies were conducted during
May and June of 1957 in the vicinity of the Solikansk Magnesium Plant.
Many complaints were received during the investigation from inhabitants of
a village located 500 m, and of a city located 2,500 - 3,000 m from the
plant of unpleasant odors, killing of landscaping trees, shrubs, etc.
caused by the plant's discharges. B. B. BykhovsfcLi studied the atmospheric
air surrounding the magnesium plant; he found that within a radius of 3 km
air pollution with chlorine caused considerable destruction of plant life
during the first 4 years of the plant's operation. Chlorine and HC1 gas,
by-products of the metallic magnesium production, constituted valuable raw
materials used by other departments of the plant. In the case of the
Solikansk Magnesium Plant chlorine was used by some of its departments,
and frequently such departments discharged large volumes of unused chlorine
into the atmospheric air, as a res.ult of inefficient chlorine utilization.
Unpurified HC1 gas was emitted through a 120 m high stack into the atmos-
pheric air at the rate of 15 tons per day. Chlorine and HClgas also
found their way into the atmospheric air as a result of poor hermetization
and from other unorganized points of pollution, such as the electrolytic
department.
-158-
-------
Air pollution studies were conducted on the lee side of the plant
at 300, 500, 800, 1,000, 2,000, and 3,000 m from the plant. Air samples
for the determination of chlorine and hydrochloride gas were collected
at the same time "by the aspiration method through an absorber equipped with
a porous plate No. 1. One absorber was filled with double distilled water,
the other was filled with an acidified solution of methyl orange. Air was
aspirated for 30 minutes at the rate of 1 li/min. Air samples collected
by aspiration through double distilled water were used for the determination
of HC1 aerosol by the titration method. Sulfuric acid, which interfered
with the analysis, was determined nepheloiaetrically and subtracted from the
titration result. Chlorine was determined in the sample colorimetrically
as described in Limits of Allowable Concentration, Book 2, O.T.S. No.
59-21174, p. 84, U. S. Department of Commerce). Results of the study of
atmospheric air pollution around the Solikansk Magnesium Plant are presented
in Table 1. Odor of chlorine and HC1 gas was felt at all the air sample
collecting points. Sample collectors stated that on foggy and cloudy days
Table 1
Results of air analyses in the vicinity of the Solikansk Magnesium Plant
rlETERS
PROM
SOURCE
OF 116-
9HAR8E
300
500
800
1000
2000
3000
CONCENTRATIONS IN «/HJ
HOMIER OF COL- „.„,„., MAXIMAL" """
LECTEI AIR SAMPLES "»*inAi AVERAGE
HCI
39
44
43
39
32
34
Cl,
53
60
53
58
44
47
HCI
4,4
10,0
34.0
34,0
17,3
17,3
Cl.
3,0
3.4
0,85
0.88
5.4
0.8
HCI
1.77
3.7
4,7
6,1
5.0
5,4
Cl.
0.29
0,12
0,83
0,13
M
0,18
NO. OF SAMPLES
EXCEEIIN6 MAX-
IMAL CONCEN-
TRATIONS
HCI
36
43
36
39
27
33
Cl.
32
13
38
28
26
26
their eyes were irritated by small droplets of condensed HCI aerosol.
Data in Table 1 show that chlorine and HCI gas concentrations were con-
siderably in excess of the allowable limit of maximal single concentration
at all collection points.
The high atmospheric air pollution at 3,000 m from the plant pointed
to the necessity of adopting timely means for the effective purification
of the plant's discharges.
The investigation was conducted in two steps: in the first step a
-159-
-------
study was made of the combined effect on the human organism of simultan-
eously present chlorine and HC1 gas; the second step consisted of a
similar study of low chlorine and HC1 gas concentrations under laboratory
conditions. The effect of simultaneously present low Cl and KG1 gas
concentrations on the physiological reactions of man was studied by the
method of threshold effect of Cl and HC1 gas individually and in combina-
tions, by the methods of odor perception, optical chronaxy, and effects
on eye sensitivityto light as determined by the adaptometric method. Con-
stant concentrations of either component in the experimental test air were
produced and maintained by a modification of the method recommended by the
Committee on Sanitary Protection of Atmospheric Air. Fig. 1 is a schematic
drawing of the device used. With this device it was possible to deliver
at will intermittently and consecutively into each individual cylinders Cl,
from air
blower—* Pig. 1. Schematic drawing of apparatus for the
determination of threshold odor concentration.
HC1 gas, or any combination of the two, mixed with fresh air. After some
considerable experience the investigator was able to attain constancy of
any desired concentration of either component alone or in any desired
combination. Air samples were collected by aspiration through 2 parallel
absorbers, one of which contained an acidified solution of methyl orange
and the other an 0.002 N solution of arsenous acid. Air samples collected
in the first absorber were used for the determination of Cl and of the
second for the determination of both.
Irritating substances were determined as follows: the test person was
made to inhale intermittently air from both cylinders and was asked to
-160-
-------
indicate whether or not any odor was perceived. The test person naturally
had no knowledge which uf the cylinders contained clean air and which con-
tained an admixture of gas. Odor perception tests of Cl and HC1 gas
individually were made on 12 persons 17 - 28 years old, with a total of
144 tests. During the orientation period all test persons became familiar
with the specific odor of Cl and HC1 gas, individually and in combination.
The possibility of forming conditioned judgement was guarded against by
control tests with fresh air. Results indicated that 0.7 mg/m of chlorine
was the threshold of chlorine odor perception, and 0.2 mg/m HC1 gas odor
perception. Such data agreed with the results obtained by M. T. Takhirov,
who established the limits of allowable chlorine concentration, and of
E. V. Elfimova, who established the limit of allowable HC1 gas concentra-
tion. The determination of threshold odor perception of the 2 components
simultaneously present in the air was made with the aid of 22 test persons
with whom 404 determinations were made using a variety of concentration
combinations of the two components, as shown in Table 2. Results of the
Table 2
Concentrations of chlorine and hydrochloride detected by odor
COHCENTBATIONS IN M6/N
CI2/ HCl
O.I
0|2
0.3
0,4
0.4
0.5
0,2
0.2
0.05
0,1
0,1
O.I
0,07
0.07
0,13
0,15
NO. OF TESTS
66
41
63
66
16
14
55
83
OIOR
PERCEIVES 1
—
3
65
—
13
12
82
OT PEHCEITEt
66
41
60
1
16
1
43
1
investigation yielded the following combination of concentrations: 1. 0.3
mg/m of Cl and 0.1 mg/m of HCl, and 2. 0.2 mg/m of Cl and 0.13 mg/m^
of HCl as threshold odor perception concentrations of the simultaneously
present two pollutants in the air.
The method of optical chronaxy was used to determine the threshold
reflex effect concentrations of chlorine and HCl gas simultaneously present
in the air. The same inhalation device was used in this series of experi-
ments as was previously described. Four test persons, 18 - 24 years old,
-161-
-------
were under observation. Tests were made in a darkened room and under
conditions of absolute quiet. Orientation tests were conducted during the
preliminary period of observation, and the appearance of the phosphene
was used as the index of effect. Tests were made in triplicate at 3 minute
intervals, determining the rheobase and the chronaxy. Following that Cl
in combination with KCL gas in known concentrations was introduced between
the 6th and 9th minute of the experiment. Chronaximetric determinations
were made immediately following the discontinuation of the gas mixture
flow. Control tests were made with fresh air as checks against the possible
formation of reflex responses created by the experimental conditions. The
two components were tested in 6 concentration combinations. The first
consisted of 0.75 mg/m of Cl and 0.03 mg/m of HC1 gas. Both concentra-
tions were correspondingly 50$ below the chronaxy threshold values estab-
lished for the components individually by M. T. Takhirov and E. P. Elfimova.
Inhalation of the 2 components in the above mentioned concentration combina-
tion produced sharp shifts in the chronaxy and in the rheobase. A combina-
tion of the two gases in concentration of 0.1 mg/m of Cl and 0.05 mg/m
of HC1 gas (which are the corresponding limits of allowable single con-
centrations for the two gases) had no effect on either chronaxy or the
rheobase. Statistical analysis of the experimental data showed that com-
binations of 0.3 mg/m of Cl and 0.2 mg/m of HC1 gas and 0.2 mg/m of
Cl with 0.3 mg/m HC1 gas were reliable or significantly active combina-
tions of threshold concentrations.
The method of'adapted eye sensitivity to light has been used in deter-
mining practical allowable concentrations of atmospheric air pollutants.
This procedure has also been used for the determination of maximal single
concentrations of Cl and HC1 gas by Takhirov and Elfimova. Therefore,
the same procedure was used in determining the threshold effect of Cl and
HC1 gas simultaneously present in the air. Determination of eye sensitiv-
ity to light following an hour adaptation to darkness was made in a chamber
of average room temperature and 60 - 10% relative humidity and complete
freedom from extraneous odors and absolute quiet; adaptometer ADM was used
in these studies. Three test persons were used in determining the effect
of low Cl and HCL gas concentrations simultaneously present in the air.
-162-
-------
Ages of the persons were 20, 22, and 23 years. The procedure recommended
by the Committee of Atmospheric Air Protection was used in these studies.
Tests .mere made with 3 types of concentration combinations of the two gas
components. Persons were given a preliminary 10-day period of light
sensitivity-orientation at 15 minutes inhalation of fresh air. The average
curve of 3 such tests was used as the standard, or pilot curve. A combina-
tion of 0.1 mg/m of Cl and 0.05 rng/m of HC1 gas produced a curve of dark
adaptation identical with the original, or control curve. When the con-
centrations of Cl and HC1 gas were doubled, light sensitivity was reduced
in the 3 test persons. The third combination, consisting of 0.4 mg/m
of Cl and 0.2 mg/m of HC1 gas was tested next. The 0.4 mg/m Cl concen-
tration was 50£ below the threshold concentration established by Takhirov
adaptonetrically, while the 0.2 mg/m HC1 gas concentration was in accord
with the threshold concentration established by Elfimova. Inhalation of
simultaneously present chlorine and HC1 gas in the above concentrations were
below the original curve of eye sensitivity as well as .below the second
concentration ratio.
Conclusions.
1. The threshold of Cl odor perception was 0.7 mg/m and of HC1
gas 0.2 rag/m .
2. Threshold odor perception of Cl and HC1 gas simultaneously present
in the air were established in the following two combinations! a) 0.3 mg/m
of Cl and 0.1 mg/m of HC1 gas; b) 0.2 mg/m of Cl and 0.13 mg/m of HC1 gas.
3. Results of tests by the method of optical chronaxy established
threshold of reflex effect of Cl and HC1 gas simultaneously present in the
air at the following two combinations: a) 0.3 mg/m of Cl and 0.2 mg/m
of HC1 gas; and b) 0.2 mg/m of Cl and 0.3 mg/m of HC1 gas.
4. 0.1 mg/m was the limit of maximal single concentration of Cl
and 0.05 mg/m the limit of maximal single concentration of HC1 gas. The
simultaneous presence of Cl and HC1 gas in the air in corresponding concen-
trations had no effect on the control curve of dark adaptation.
5. The officially adopted limit of allowable maximal Cl concentration
was 0.1 mg/m and of HC1 gas 0.05 mg/m . Results of the present investigation
indicated that the two components simultaneously present in the air in the
-163-
-------
above concentrations correspondingly were below the threshold of odor
perception and reflex effect; accordingly the official limits of allowable
concentrations for each of the components when present in the air above
remained valid when the two gases were present in the atmospheric air
simultaneously.
Hygienic Aspects of Atmospheric Air Pollution in the City of Gubakhi
and its Effect on the Population's Health
B. K. Baikov and V. P. Melekhina
Lower Gubakhi atmospheric air pollutants, gases and dust, come from
the Kizelov Hydroelectric Heat and Power Station and from a coke-chemical
plant. The extent of Lower Gubakhi atmospheric air pollution and its
effect on the health and living conditions of the population were inves-
tigated in May and June, 1959• Maximal single concentration air samples
were collected for the determination of dust, SOp, CO, HpS, and phenol.
Samples were also collected for the determination of average 24-hour CO
concentrations in the air, and special studies were made of the pollutant
effects on the health of children in specific institutions. Air samples
for the determination of maximal single concentration were collected on
the lee side of the plants 500, 750, 1,000, 1,500 and 2,000 m from the
plants. The total number of samples amounted to 609. Attention was
first centered on the determination of S0? concentrations in the atmos-
pheric air. Determinations were made by a nepheloiaetric method of 0.002 mg
sensitivity in 3 ml. Data presented in Table 1 show that maximal single
concentrations of S02 exceeded the allowable limit. Average concentrations
showed a gradual reduction with increase in distance from the plants; in
this case average concentration values also exceeded the allowable maximum
even at 500 m from the plant. Of the 105 air samples collected for the study
of SO- concentrations 81 exceeded the limit of allowable concentration in
-164-
-------
atmospheric air. Only at 1,500 - 2,000 m from the plants were the SO,,
concentrations below the allowable maximum.
Biochemical blood analyses were paralleled by a 3-day period of air
sample collecting for the determination of S0?. Of the total 56 air
samples 9 were collected directly below the plume at 2,000 m from the
source of S0_ discharge. SOp in the air samples collected within the
flume range varied between 2.0 - 22.22 mg/m , with an average of 7.92
mg/m . Air samples for the determination of CO were collected at similar
points. Results of analyses shown in Table 2 indicate that in 2 samples
collected at distant points the CO concentration was below the allowable
limit, and that single CO concentrations were highest at 1,000 m. Average
24-hour air samples as a rule contained highest concentrations of CO.
Table 1
Sulfur dioxide concentration in the atmospheric air of city N. Gubakha
METERS FROM
SOURCE OF
•I6CNARGE
NO. OP
AIR
SAMPLES
CONCENTRATIONS IN M«/M3
MAX.
MIN.
AV6.
NO. OF SAM-
PLES EXCEEIIN8
MAX. CONCNS.
NO. OF SAMPLES
IELOW MAXIMUM
CONCENTRATION
500 3l 8.74 i.O»S 5.52 3i
750 - I 000 37 9.8i 0.6 2.89 37
I 500 - 2 000 37 5.43 0.0 0.79 i3
NONE
NONE
3
Table 2
Carbon monoxide concentrations in the atmospheric air of city K. Gubakha
METERS FROM
SOURCE OP
IISCHARCE
NO. OF
AIR
SAMPLES
CONCENTRATIONS IN Mt/M3
MAX.
MIN.
AV6.
NO. OF SAM-
PLES EXCEEIING
MAX. CONCNS.
NO. OF SAMPLES
IELOW MAXIMUM
CONCENTRATION
500 28 50.2 8.4 2i.4
750 - I 000 42 73.6 8.4 39.1
I 500 - 2 000 25 36.4 5.6 19.8
28
42
24
Table 3
NONE
NONE
NONE
Dust concentration in the atmospheric air of city N,
Gubakha
METERS FROM
SOURCE 116-
CNARSE
NO. OF
AIR
SAMPLES
, CONCENTRATIONS IN MG/M3
MAX. 1 MIN.
AVG.
NO. OF SAM-
PLES EXCEEIINA
MAX. CONCNS.
NO. OF SAMPLES
BELOW MAXIMUM
CONCENTRATION
500 34
750 - I 000 26
I 500 - 2 000 22
3.6
4.8
2.3
0.2
0.2
0.15
1.74
1.60
(.05
30
25
19
NONE
NONE
NONE
-165-
-------
Results of maximal single dust concentration determinations are
summarized in Table 3. The data show that a$ 5^0 m from the pollution
sources dust concentrations exceeded the allowable hygienic limit. Re-
sults of H-S .determinations in the atmospheric air presented in Table 4 show
that H2S exceeded the allowable concentration limit. Highest HpS concen-
trations were found May 23 when the HpS was emitted without previous com-
bustion. The survey of phenol concentration in the atmospheric air con-
sisted of 91 samples. Results showed phenol fluctuations ranging between
0.0 - 0.25 mg/m . Some air samples had phenol concentration below the
Table 4
METERS FROM
SOURCE 116-
CUAR«E
NO. OF
AIR
SAMPLES
CONCENTRATIONS IN
MAX.
900 32 0. 13l
750 - I 000 39 0.39
1 500 - 2 000 37 0.032
M1N.
0.033
0.0
0.0
M6/H3
AV6.
NO. OF SAM-
PLES EXCE«IN«
MAX. CONCNS.
NO. OF SAMPLES
IELOW MAXIMUM
CONCENTRATION
0.052 32 NONE
0.074 30 9
0.002 3 34
allowable concentration limit, the effect of pbenol~catching devices
installed in 1956.
Air samples collected in the children's institutions were analyzed
for S00 and CO. Results showed that 309 concentrations ranged up to
3 3
2.?3 mg/m and CO up to 50.0 mg/m . Inhabitants residing 2,000 m from
the plant were asked questions regarding the effects of the air pollution.
All interrogated persons complained of increased (lustiness, specific odors,
general air pollution, difficulty in breathing, coughing spells and head-
aches, when the wind -was coraing from the industrial plant. Complaints were
also mentioned of the deleterious effects on vegetables and decorative
plants. Examinations were made of the general state of health and physical
development of school children residing in the sections under study ranging
in age between 8-11 years who resided in Lower Gubakha not less than 5
years. Grernyachinsk school children of same ages were used as controls,
since no extensive industrial production plants were located in that
vicinity. The air of Gremyachinsk was analyzed for the presence of SO
and dust. Results indicated that the air contained no SO- and the dust
-166-
-------
concentration was below 0.5 rng/m regarded as negligible„ Of 932 school
children receiving general medical examinations, 822 were examined
thoroughly; of these 562 resided in Gubakha and 260 in Gremyachinsk.
Results of the thorough medical examination disclosed a higher rate of
morbidity among the children residing in Lower Gubakha. This was partic-
uarly true of the occurrence of upper respiratory disturbances and of the
number of rickets cases and of affected eye mucosa. Data regarding the
occurrence of specific types of upper respiratory disturbances are shown
in Table 5.
CHRONIC II6EASES OF CAR,
NOSE AMI THROAT
1 OF WHICH
CHRONIC OTITIS
CHRONIC RHINITIS
CHRONIC PHARIMfilTie
CHRONIC TONSILITIS
HYFERTROPHIS TONSILITIS
% OF 552
EXAMINEI
PERSONS II
N.GUIAKNA
49.6
4.45
16.20
15.60
6.05
7.3
% Or 250 EX-
AM! DEI PERSONS
ID GREMACHINSK
20.38
1.92
7,31
3.46
1.92
5.77
The frequent occurrence of upper respiratory disturbances among school
children of Lower Gubakha was due almost exclusively to the effect of SOp
and dust present in the air of that city. Conjunctivities was observed
in 11.57$ of children in Lower Gubakha, abnormal refraction was 15.4855
as compared with corresponding 1.92 and 6.92$ among the control children;
this phenomenon was also ascribed to the deleterious effect of dust and
SOp present in the atmospheric air. Residual symptoms of rickets were
found in 20.1$ of Lower Gubakha children as compared with 6.15^ among the
control children. Neurologic examination of the school children of lower
Gubakha and Gremyachinsk disclosed functional disturbances of the central
nervous system in the form of neuroses, vegetodystonia, and cyanic syndrome.
Roentgenologic examination of Lower Gubakha school children disclosed
pulmonary shifts in 31 - 33£ as compared with 29$ among the children of the
Gremyachinsk. The average hemoglobin concentration was lower in the
children of Lower Gubakha, the same was true of the color index. Special
-167-
-------
blood examinations for S0_ content convincingly showed that SOp found
its way into the organism where it persisted in the blood as sulfite for
a short time, it soon became oxidized and converted to sulfate. Tests
for the presence of S0_ in 22 Gremyachinsk school children were negative
and 114 of ^ower Gubakha school children showed the presence of SOg ranging
from traces to 0.001 - 0.079 mg$ with an average of 0.06 - 0.058 mg£.
Conclusions.
The deleterious effect of the plants' industrial discharges on the
health and living conditions of the inhabitants must be obviated. Accord-
ingly, it is recommended that: l) the Kizelov Hydroelectric Station be
converted to the use of gas fuel; in the interm efficient SO^-catching
devices should be installed; 2) the presently inefficient dust-catching
devices (64 - 73£) should be replaced by installations of not less than
95$ efficiency; 3) air pollution with hydrogen sulfide coming from the
coke-chemical plant should be obviated by compulsory burning of the raw
gases; 4) inhabitants of Lower Gubakha should be moved to New Gubakha at
the earliest possible time; 5) "that local health bodies must conduct
systematic dynamic examinations of the children as a prophylactic measure;
6) children should be moved during the summer months to localities free
from deleterious dust and gases; 7) financial allowances made to the
sanitary and health resort institution for sick and weakened children of
Gubakha must be substantially increased.
-168-
-------
Atmospheric Air Pollutants Discharged by the ShebeMnsMi Synthetic
Acids and Alcohols Producing Combine.
P. I. Dubrovskaya
The Combine is located in the center of the city and is not surrounded
by the normally required clearance zone. Air samples were collected on
the lee side of the Combine at distances ranging between 250 - 3,000 m from
the Combine. During March and April samples were collected at 250 - 1,000
m from the Combine, and in some instances at 1,250 m. During June and
July air samples were collected at 250 - 3,000 and in some instances up to
5,000 m from the Combine. The air was analyzed for total fatty acids
(computed as Co"^} aci^s)> f°r non-saturated hydrocarbons, ketones (cal-
culated as acetone), formaldehyde and total hydrocarbons calculated as C.
Samples for the determination of carbohydrates (C) were collected into gas
pipettes samples for other pollutant determinations were collected by the
Kachor aspiration method usingporous plates and appropriate types of absor-
ber solutions. Records were kept of the character of emission gas plumes,
direction and rate of wind, temperature, humidity, and barometric pressure.
The emitted gas plume at some periods of the investigation was high and at
others low, which explained the marked differences in the pollutant sub-
stance concentrations yielded by the analysis of samples collected at one
and the same locality. Synthetic fatty acids discharge gases were emitted
through several stacks in accordance with N-3035, with the basic oxidation
column emission coming through 3 stacks 35 m high. Gases discharged by
the oxidation columns of the fatty acid plant during the summer months were
combusted. In the course of investigation 1,252 air samples were collected,
580 during the winter and spring seasons and 672 during the summer months.
Results of the investigation shown in Table 1 indicate that the atmos-
pheric air had been polluted continually by the Combine discharges, es-
pecially by total hydrocarbons, fatty acids and unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Total hydrocarbon determinations were made in all cases. Maximal single
concentrations of 52.8-mg/m were found in samples collected 250 m from
the Combine. Total fatty acid determinations were positive in 54$ of
samples collected 250 m from the Combine with maximal single concentrations
of 56.16 mg/m . Fifty-one percent of the air samples contained unsaturated
-169-
-------
Table 1
Spring concentrations of atmospheric air pollutants in the vicinity
of Shebekin combine SZhK and ZhS
METERS FROr
THE COMI (HE
NO. OF SAMPLES
TOTAL
IELOW MAX,
CONCENTRA-
TION
CONCEHTBATtOn IN MG/H3
MAXIMAL
SINOLE
AVERAGE
MOST FREQIGNT CONCENTRATIONS
FROM
TO
260
500
750
1000
1500
250
500
750
1000
1500
250
500
750
1000
1500
250
500
750
1000
1500
250
500
750
1000
I.50Q
18
36
14
18
4
24
23
19
22
4
24
30
19
23
4
24
30
19
23
4
24
30
19
23
4
TOTAL UYIROCARIOII8
_ _ —
__
—
52,8
49,2
36,0
33.6
56,4
32,0
25.7
18.5
20.8
37,5
ONSATORATEI NYIROCARION8
14
16
8
9
1
5,0
6.6
13,4
2,8
2.2
0,9
1,1
2.6
1.1
1,0
FATTY ACII8
10
16
6
11
3
56.2
32,0
7,2
23,0
2,3
11.2
1,0
3.1
1.1
0.6
ACETONE
12
18
14
14
2
0,7
6,2
2.1
.2.2
0.1
0.2
0,4
0,3
0.2
0.1
FORMALIEHYie
18
30
17
21
4
0.02
0.00
0.02
0.02
0.00.
0.004
0.00
0.002
0.001
0.00
0.8
0,1
0,4
0.4
0,8
1,8
1,4
1.8
«,4
0,00
0.11.
0.14
0,26
0,0002
0,005
0,01
0,005
2,9
4,4
4.9
2.8
2.2
38,9
13.0
7.2
14.4
2.3
0.5
1.0
2,0
0.2
0,02
0.02
0.02
hydrocarbons with maximal single concentrations of 13.4 mg/m . Acetone
and formaldehyde were found in considerably lower concentrations. Formal-
dehyde concentrations were below the 0.035 nig/m allowable single concen-
tration for atmospheric air of inhabited areas. Maximal single and
average 24-hour concentrations of total hydrocarbons and fatty acids be-
came gradually lower with the increase in the distance from the Combine.
Atmospheric air samples were collected during the summer months at a
radius of 3,000 m from the plant, and in isolated instances at a radius of
5000 m. All air samples were analyzed for the same components as previously
-170-
-------
indicated. Analysis results of some samples listed in table 2 show that
total hydrocarbon determinations were positive in 70$ of the 125 air
samples. Three air samples collected on the same day at 250 m from the
Combine had the following total hydrocarbon concentrations: 63, 78, and
90 mg/m . The high values may have resulted from the fact that the high
Table 2
NO. OF SAMPLES
CONCENTRATIONS III
METERS FROM
THE COHIINE
TOTAL
IELOW MAX.-
CONCENTRA-
TION
MOST FREQUENT CONCEN-
MAXIMAl AVERAGE TRATIONS
SI HOLE FROM TO
TOTAL HYIROCARIONS
250
500
750—1000
1500—1700
2000
2500—3000
5000
15
18
28
18
14
25
3
7
5
13
5
3
3
1
90.0
48,0
36,0
30,0
50,0
30.0
39.0
19.5
9,0
6,0
10,7
15,8
11.5
20,5
4.8
2.4
0.9
3.0
1.3
3,0
0.0
20.0
15,6
14,0
22,0
22,5
21,0
0.0
250
500
750—1000
1500—1700
2000
2500—3000
5000
14
26
33
17
19
26
4
6
13
9
6
9
14
4
8,6
3.4
6.8
4.0
6.0
3.6
o.o
,2
,0
.9
.6
.1
0,9
0.0
0,3
0,3
0,3
0,6
0,1
0.6
0.0
3.6
3.4
5,0
4,0
3Q
,8
3,6
0.0
FATTY ACIIS
250
500
750—1000
1500-1700
2000
2500—3000
5000
14
26
31
18
18
26
4
4
14
15
6
14
9
4
25.4
27,2*
16,8
78.0*
16.6
36,9*
0,0
7,7
4,4
3.1
11.9
1.8
6.7
0.0
3.4
2,5
2.1
1,1
4,4
0.6
0.0
13,9
14.3
11,2
13.2
5,0
29.2
0.0
•WASTE 0ASES WERE NOT IBRNEt
temperature at which the gases were burned cracked the contact oven walls
which resulted in leakage of uriburned discharge gases. Fatty acids were
found in 52$ and unsaturated hydrocarbons in 56$ of the air samples.
Discontinuation of gas burning was followed by a rise in pollutant concen-
tration levels. Acetone and formaldehyde were found only in isolated
instances in concentrations below the sensitivity of the analytical method
used.
The comparison of the results obtained during the spring and summer
seasons showed that maximal single concentrations of unsaturated hydro-
carbons and fatty acids were higher during the spring than during the summer
-171-
-------
season. A difference was also observed in comparing data of atmospheric
air pollution with acetone and formaldehyde: approximately 50$ of all
spring air samples and only some isolated summer samples were positive for
acetone.
At the time the auuffiier studies were in progress the Combine began to
operate a synthetic alcohol plant. It was expected that this would increase
the atmospheric air pollution. Actually, no increase in the atmospheric
air pollutants was noted during the summer months despite the increase in
the number of emission sources, undoubtedly due to the fact that emission
gases were*burnt during the summer months. It is reasonable to assume,
therefore, that atmospheric air pollution could be considerably reduced by
preventing unburned gas leakage from the cracks of the gas combustion
furnaces. Air samples were collected simultaneously on the windward and
lee side of the Combine. Pour air samples were collected for determination
of each pollutant. Samples collected on the windward side of the combine
contained fatty acids and total hydrocarbons, indicating that the Combine
emissions intensely polluted the atmospheric air with these substances.
The investigation was supplemented by a question and answer survey conducted
among inhabitants residing 250, 500, 1,000, 2,000, and 3,000 in from the
Shebekinskii Combine. Adults were asked a total of 494 questions. The
answers indicated that the Combine's emissions polluted the atmospheric
air by substances of unpleasant odors which Induced a general ill-feeling,
labored respiration; residents kept the windows closed which prevented
house ventilation. The answers are summarized in Table 3.
Table 3
Summary of answers by inhabitants to health and general conditions
questionnaire
METERS
FROH
COM! 1MB
250
500
1000
2000
3000
NO* OF PERSONS .
INTERROGATE!
78
142
95
79
100
COMPLAINTS
AIOUT OIORS
AN* IUST
77
131
95
79
94
AIOUT STROKB
OIORS
77
122
80
36
61
AIOUT RESPIRATORY
TRACT IRRITATION
34
35
14
54
66
Sixty-one percent of the answers indicated that a strong unpleasant
odor persisted in the air even at 3,000 m from the Combine; 66% of the
-172-
-------
answers mentioned irritation of respiratory passages and difficulty in
breathing. City inhabitants felt the odor inside their residences with
the windows closed when the wind was coming from the plant. No studies
were made of the effects of the Combine's air pollutants in low concen-
trations under chronic conditions. Therefore, it was not possible to
ascertain the long-run effect of the plant's emissions on the residents
of the city.
The resolution of the III All-Union Conference on Sanitary Protection
of Atmospheric Air requires that thorough experimental and clinical studies
be made of the effect of low doses and concentrations of toxic products
contained in the emissions coming from plants producing synthetic fatty
acids and alcohols; the resolution also requires that limits of allowable
concentrations of such substances in the atmospheric air be established and
appropriate prophylactic sanitary-hygienic measures be instituted. This
calls for a further and more detailed study of the effect on the external
environment of the Combine's emissions, for the determination of limits of
allowable concentrations of valeric acids in the ambient air and for a
thorough medical examination of the surrounding population. Results of
the present study suggests that the sanitary-hygienic condition of
Shebekino atmospheric air could be considerably improved by complete and
thorough burning of all emission gases coming from the synthetic fatty
acids and alcohol producing plants. Conditions of gas combustion should
be improved to prevent sources of uncornbusted gas leakage during gas
burning.
-173-
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Atmospheric Air Pollution in Lithuanian Cities
P. N. Zhilin.
The sanitary-hygienic condition of the atmospheric air of many
Lithuanian cities was investigated by the Vilna Scientific-Research
Institute of Epidemiology and Hygiene in cooperation with other similar
institutions over a period of many years. The results indicated that 2
electric heat and power stations (GEES and TETs) and some industrial
manufacturing enterprises constituted the main sources of Lithuanian SSR
air pollution. Data presented in Table 1 show that distribution and de-
gree of Vilna atmospheric air pollution.
Table 1
Atmospheric air dust intensity in g/m per year during
the period of 1948 - 1952.
YEAR OF
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
5 YR. AVERAGE
CITY CEB
TER RESx-
IIENTIAL
87.5
149.1
168.5
124,0
136,3
120.0
ZOOLOG-
ICAL PK
RESIDE*
TIAL
87,5
68,3
54,0
60,5
56,3
66,0
SOIOCHUS
RESIIEK-
TIAL
870,0
125,0
84,0
79.0
50.0
71.0
PEKARSKAYA
INIUSTRIAL
55.0
76.2
98.0
270.0
174.4
134,0
HAMLET, 5
KM FROM
CITY
25.3
31,0
19,0
26,0
29,2
26.0.
AVERA6E3 OF 5
YEARS IN 6/M3
149,8
164,6
102,2
133,5
104,5
130.6
It was demonstrated that highest dust pollution was found in the city's
industrial section (Panarskaya Street); next in order was the center of
O
the city, where dust pollution amounted to 120 g/m ; next was the section
known as Zverintsa, where the atmospheric air dust density was 1.5-2 times
less than in the industrial manufacturing section. The high air dust
density in the center of the city was created by discharges emitted into the
air by GRES. This was indicated by data of investigators who studied the
sanitary-hygienic condition of Vilna atmospheric air in the proximity of
electric heat and power stations TETs and GRES. The data indicated that
the discharges emitted into the atmospheric air by GRES and TETs created
an air dust concentration which exceeded the limit of allowable concentra-
tions, as is shown in Table 2. The air dust concentration at 100 m from
station GRES was 22 times and at 300 m 35 times in excess of the allowable
-174-
-------
Table 2
Atmospheric air pollution characteristics in the surroundings of coal-
operated and hydro-electric stations of Vil'nyus
METERS FROM
STATIONS
too
200
300
IUST IN MG/M3 OF AIR
IN THE VICINITY OF
THE H-ELECTR. STA.
MINIM. AV6e MAXIM.
8.0 —
3 6.7 12.7
8.5 ll.S 17.9
SULFUR •IOXIIE
III MG/M3
0.5
0.7
IUST IN MG/M3 OF AIR
IN THE VICINITY OF THE
COAl-OPERATEl STATION
MINIM. AV6. MAXIM.
2.0 4.7 6.4
3. 1 6. 1 6.8
SULFUR
IIOXIIE
NONE
FOBNI
limit of dust concentration; the dust concentration WES 13 times in excess
of the allowable concentration at 200 and 300 m from TETs. The dust con-
tent of the snow at a radius of 1 - 2 km from either TETs or GRES was
investigated at several points. Control snow samples were collected 2.5 km
beyond the city limits. Results shown in Table 3 are self-explanatory.
Data in the table indicate that the dust concentration in snow samples
Table 3
Grams of dust settled per meter square
of ground snow
• (STANCE IN METERS
100
200
300
500
750
1000
2500
HYIRO-
ELECTRIC
STATION
46.7
28,1
18,0
11.7
8,8
9,7
3,7
COAL-OPERATEI
ELECTRIC STATION
10,7
10,9
19.5
11,2
7,8
9.8
2.8
collected around station GRES were greater than in snow samples collected
around station TETs. This was undoubtedly due to the fact that station
GRES was located in the center of the city among other sources which
emitted dust into the territory air, while station TETs was located at
the outskirts of the city and was the sole source of air dust pollution.
Highest air dust intensity was found in the vicinity of station GRES at
100 m. while highest air dust intensity in the vicinity of station TETs was
found at 300 m from the station; this may have been due to the fact that
the smokestack of station TETs was 99 m tall, which aided in carrying the
ash farther away from the station before it began to settle.
-175-
-------
Questions were asked of 282 residents of the vicinity of station
TETs regarding the effect of the station's discharges on general living
conditions. Answers indicated that since 1951 > "when plant TETs began to
operate the population was disturbed by the noise created by the station's
steam release. The basic air pollutants caiae from the station's discharges
emitted through a 99 m tall smokestack; the pollutants consisted of ash
and non-combusted fuel particles. Sixty seven percent of the persons com-
plained of different disturbances and inconveniences created by station
T^iTs. Most numerous and most emphatic complaints came from residents
living 300 - 400 m from the station which discharged its emissions through
the 99 m smokestack; 34$ complained of eye traumas caused by fly-ash, dust
and soot. This phenomenon occurred most frequently in the 100 m section.
At 400 m from station TETs similar eye traumas were mentioned in 24$ of
the answers. (Table 4).
Table 4
Effect of coal-operated electric station discharges on the
general state of surrounding inhabitants as indicated in
NATURE OF COMPLAINT
1. FLY-ASH, SOOT, FALLING
ON FACE ANI CLOTH INS
2. FLY-A8H ETE TRAUMAS
3. IHPOSSIILE TO IRY WASREI
LINEN OUTIOORS
4. UNtEARAtLE NOISE WHEN
8TBAH WAS RELEASE!
5. OTHER COMPLAINTS
100
65
34
32
30
67
200
34
0
22
22
70
300
55
13
52
14
78
400
74
24
74
0
75
£00
10
0
20
0
20
600
28
0
14
•0
22
703
0
0
0
0
6
800
0.
0
0
0
0
Children living at various points in the vicinity of the plant were
examined in 1952 to determine the effect of the electric stations' air
pollution on the state of their respiratory organs. Results in terms of
morbidity per 1000 children are presented in Table 5. Morbidity data in
Table 5 show that influenza, adenoids, pulmonary tuberculosis, and pneu-
monia occurred most frequently among children residing in sections the
atmospheric air of which was highly polluted. Thus, the index of influenza.
morbidity in the control region of Antakol was 5.83, whereas in the section
located in the vicinity of station TETs the index was 96.63. The corres-
ponding index for tuberculosis was 0.33 and 12.57. Pneumonia index in the
-176-
-------
•Table 5
RESIIENCE OF EXAHINEI CHILIREN
DIAGNOSIS
1. INFLUENZA
2. ANGINA
3. PULMONARY T.B.
4. PNEUMONIA
5. PLEURITIS
6. AIENITIS
7. IRONCHITIS
AHTRA-
KOt-7
5.83
161,72
0,33
28.35
0.83
1 5
• ,«*
VlSUL'St
(5
37,7
101,55
3.11
40.07
0.24
. —
GlPROS
22
96.63
68,85
12.57
53.59
0.39
4.69
GEIRAI dxu Rosu
No.fi 2
46.17
94.56
4.14
71.97
—
_
165.5
9,2
109,57
1,83
0.92
KESTUCHIS
ZOOl. PK.
33.33
151.47
6.05
74,11
95^06
Antakol section was 28.35, and in a section where the electric station
operated the morbidity index was 109.37, etc. The atmospheric air of city
Klaipeda was investigated over a period of years to determine the degree
of its pollution by a cellulose-paper combine (TsBK) and sulfate plant
(Artoyas); similar studies were made at 5 other points. Results showed
that Klaipeda city was third in order of its atmospheric air dust pollution;
the dust settled at the rate of 21.0 g per 1 m per year prior to 1951 and
Q
gradually rose to 87.0 g/m per year during 1951 and 1952. The dust
pollution was less evenly distributed in Klaipeda than in Vilna. This
was due to the greater number of industrial manufacturing sections.
Atmospheric air dust concentration in the main city section amounted to
9 o
105»7 g/m per year as compared with 132.1 and 123.0 g/m in the vicinity
of the cellulose-paper combine and other industrial manufacturing plants;
it should be noted that air dustiness in the park and recreation sections
Q
amounted to 125 g/ro per year. The basic Klaipeda atmospheric air
pollutant at the time of the study consisted of S0» which came from the
cellulose-paper combine; in 1954 this was aggravated by air pollutants com-
ing from Artoyas, which consisted of fluorides, arsenic, and phosphorous
acid. At the insistence of the State Sanitary Inspectorate, these plants
were replaced in 1954 by others which polluted the atmospheric air to a
lesser degree. In 1956 - 1957 "the cellulose-paper combine equipped a new
acid-producing department which intensified the atmospheric air pollution
with SOp to a degree at which its concentration exceeded by 10 times the
limit of allowable SO^ concentration. The harmful effects of SO- have been
described on numerous occasions by other investigators, especially with
-177-
-------
regard to effects on the central nervous system. The present investiga-
tion disclosed, a considerable parallel increase in serious respiratory
disturbances and other health conditions of children residing in the vic-
inity of the plant. Acting upon the recommendation of the present inves-
tigator the acid producing department of the cellulose-paper combine was
closed, basically because it made no-provision for the purification of its
emission into the atmospheric air.
Similar air dust pollution studies were conducted in the city of
Kaunas, where the pollution came from the Petrushinsk (JRES (electric heat
and power station). Comparing the data obtained from air pollution studies
in.Kaunas and Vilna, it can be stated that Kaunas air dust pollution
intensity was more evenly distributed; this was due to the fact that the
industrial production and manufacturing plants were more evenly distributed
throughout the city and its surroundings. The Vilna Institute of
Epidemiology and Hygiene conducted local air pollution studies in the
vicinity of the Akmyansk Cement Plant. The investigation consisted of
questionnaires and of analysis of snow samples. Results indicated that
the atmospheric air contained large amounts of cement and coal .dust
throughout the village territory and that concentration of such dust
pollution was 7 times as great as of air collected in control sections.
The open territory and forest surrounding the plant were covered by
cement dust at distances exceeding 2 km especially on the windward side
of the plant. The studies are being continued. The managers of plants
TETs, GRES at Vilna and of ORES at Klaipeda, and other plants were ordered
to install dust collectors at the earliest possible time. All have com-
plied with this order.
Conclusions.
1. As a result of this investigation it was recommended that atmos-
pheric air pollution density of Vilna, Kaunas and Klaipeda be reduced by
installing dust-catching equipment at coal and steatu operated electric
stations, and that small boiler operated domestic communal and industrial
buildings be equipped with gas burners. It was also recommended that
ORES No. 1 of Vilna and a similar plant at Klaipeda be converted to gas
burning.
-178-
-------
2. It was recommended that the sulfur dioxide gas emitted by the
cellulose-paper combine of Klaipeda be absorbed by appropriate installa-
tions, and that the processes of the plant's manufacture be modified to
reduce the volume of SOp.
3. It was further recommended that the railroad transportation and
distribution systems in Vilna, Klaipeda and Kaunas be electrified^, and that
foundries and similar dust and gas producing establishments be closed or
moved farther away from the populated points, and that they be provided
with sanitary clearance zones. It is further recommended that the auto-
bus transportation system be replaced by trolley bus particularly in
densely populated sections of the city.
4. Finally, it is recommended that inspection and reporting
sanitary-epidemiological stations be established at appropriate points
so that atmospheric air pollution could be brought under immediate control
when warranted.
-179-
-------
Moscow Atmospheric Air Pollution During 1948 - 1958
Id. K. Kharakhinov.
Jdembers of the P. P. Erisman Sanitary-Hygienic Institute initiated
a systematic study of Moscow atmospheric air pollution in 1948 and in 1952
the Ail-Union State Sanitary Inspectorate ordered that a mandatory control
"be instituted over the purity of Moscow atmospheric air. The project was
assigned to the F. F. Erisman Sanitary-Hygienic Institute, the Moscow .
Municipal Sanitary-Epidemiologic Station and to the Institute of General
and Community Hygiene of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences. Collection
and coordination of the results was the task of the F. F. Erisman Institute.
The 1958 plan established 7 sanitary control points throughout Moscow
and one suburban control point; the F. F. Erisman Institute collected
samples at 2 points, the Municipal Sanitary-Epidemiological Station at 4
points, and the Institute of General and Community Hygiene at 1 point.
Atmospheric air samples were analyzed for dust and soot density and SOp
concentrations. Morning and evening samples were collected daily through
the year, by the aspiration method using the Gubkin system (O.T.S. No.
59-21175* Book 3, page 103, U. S. Department of Commerce).
State of air dust pollution. City air dust pollution was caused
basically by TETs and GES electric heat and power station stack emissions
and from industrial production and processing plants. Amount of dust
emitted by such sources differed with the type of fuel used, type and
condition of combustion chamber and the degree of discharge gas purifica-
tion prior to discharge. Work on Moscow atmospheric air pollution reduc-
tion has assumed extensive proportions. Ordinance of the Moscow City
Council requires that only low ash and sulfur containing coal be used by
the city's industrial plants which must be equipped with efficient ash
and dust catching devices; TETs and GES electric stations were compelled
to convert to gas burning. The regulations have been complied with, as a
result of which the density of Moscow atmospheric air dustiness has been
gradually reduced. This is illustrated by results of average single dust
concentration determinations made at the different air sampling points.
The data are listed in Table 1. Highest average single concentrations were
found in Kozhevnicheskaya Street running through the section of industrial
-180-
-------
Table 1
Pattern of average-single concentrations of dust in the
air during 1948 - 1958
AT t QUITS
MOKHOVAY A - MGU
KOZHEVNICHESKAYA
B. KALUZHSKAYA
(TSPK ANI o) pugn
VSKHV
LENINSK MOUN-
TAI NS
MGU
POflOBIN&KAYA
HOTEL UNIN-
QRAI
ZASOROINYI
1948
0.91
0.45
—
1949
0.47
0.32
—
—
1950
0,13
0,28
0,10
— •
0,01
1951
0,29
0,45
—
0.03
1952
0.23
0,41
0.29
—
0,03
1953
0,22
0,33
0.27
—
0.06
1954
0.27
0.44
0.26
—
0,43
0.04
1955
0.20
0,42
0,20
0 20
0.14
0,16
0,41
0,03
1956
0.15
0,31
0.21
0.19
0,11
0.14
0,25
0,04
1957
0,09
0,25
0,22
0.11
—
0,23
0.01
1958
0,16
0,25
0,21
0.11
—
0,21
0.005
production enterprises, and also in Pogodinskaya Street. At other city
points the dust intensity was considerably lower, especially in the
southwestern part of the city. Tests made in 1952 - 1958 indicated that
Moscow air dust concentration has abated by 27 - 39$. At points of in-
dustrial production and manufacturing plants concentration dust intensity
abatement was not as marked. The number of samples with dust concentra-
tion exceeding the allowable concentration limits has also been reduced
at other city points as can be seen from the data in Table 2.
Table 2
Number of air samples with dust concentration in
excess of limit of allowable concentration (in %%}
MOKHOVAYA - MGU
KOZHEVNICHESKAYA
B. KALUZNSKAYA
(T6PK & 0)
IZMAILOCSKII RK & &
VSKNV
LE MINSK MOUNTAINS-
MGU
POGOIINSKAYA
HOTEL LENIN-
6RAI
ZAGORO»NYI
1948
64
46
30
~~
• _„
—
—
1949
35
29
19
_ _
—
—
—
1950
2
13
2
•— -
—
—
1951
12
27
—
^~
—
—
1952
6
28
24
—
—
—
1953
2
11
20
_
i
—
—
0
1954
10
30
18
_
20
—
2
1955
4
28
9
8
3
6
21
—
0
I95S
5
20
16
8
2
7
15
—
2.5
1957
0
8
—
6
1.4
_
15
0
1958
0.4
4
—
12
-------
number of samples with dust concentrations above the allowable limits. In
other places the reduction amounted to 50$. Air dust pollution concentra-*
tions in control samples amounted to hundredths of mg/m . Concentrations
of soot in the atmospheric air are presented in Tables 3 and 4. Average
single soot concentrations showed on the one hand that the number of samples
exceeding the allowable concentration liodts was reduced and on the other
hand that high soot concentrations were still encountered. The reverse
situation was also observed. Undoubtedly, causes for such paradoxical man-
ifestations were resident in the types of fuel used. (Tables 3 and 4)*
Table 3
Pattern of average-single soot concentrations in the
air during 1950 - 1957
B. KALUZHSKAYA-TSPK & 0. . .
VSKHV
LENINGRAI Moumus -MSI). . .
1050
0,085
,uou
_
_
1951
0,096
,U01
__
_*.
1952
,074
FUW
_<_
1953
,067
Once
0,025
0,030
1954
,167
Oft V7
0,038
0,040
0,037
_
1955
,090
Oft7H
0.030
0,030
0.030
0.023
1956
,030
Oft7ft
0,050
0.050
0.040
0,030
1957
,110
OAOA
0,030
0,020
0,070
Table 4
Percent of air samples with soot concentrations in
excess of allowable maxima concentration.
VSKHV
1955
10
7
f
I
I
1958
8
7
3
2
res?
18
11
9
1
6
State of sulfur dioxide air pollution. At the time of this writing
Moscow TETs and GES stations and industrial production and manufacturing
plants had no provisions for SO- absorption, and any reduction in the
Moscow atmospheric air SO. concentration could be attained only by lower-
ing the hard fuel consumption or by replacing it with fuel gas.
Data presented in Table 5 indicate that the average single SO con-
centration showed no signs of reduction. In fact, it was still at a
comparatively high level at most of the sample collecting points, as shown
-182-
-------
by data in Table 5. There appeared a slight average concentration reduc-
tion in the center of Moscow, as shown by the fact that its index on
Mokhovaya Street was 0.96 in 1948 and 0.26 in 1958. SO concentration
reductions at other points were very slight, indeed. The number of air
Table 5
Pattern of average-single sulfur dioxide concentration
in the air during 1948 - 1938
KOZHEVNICrtESKAYA
3. KALUZKSKAYA-TSPK & 0. .
3ZI1AILOVSKII PK & 0 ....
1348
0,96
0,50
—
__
1949
0,42
0,38
—
1950
0,49
0,30
0,48
—
1951
0,36
0.28
0,47
""^
1955
0,20
0,41
0.50
0,37
0,25
0,17
1956
0.33
0.39
0,56
0,36
0,25
0,21
,48
1957
0,37
0.30
0.40
—
0,17
n 43
1958
0,26
0,35
0.31
—
0,19
n 4i
samples with S0? concentrations exceeding the allowable limit fluctuated
during 1955 - 1958 with a slight tendency to reduction at the end of the
period, as can be seen from data presented in Table 6. Quantitative
atmospheric air pollution changes noted in Moscow were the result of changes
Table 6
percent of air samples with sulfur dioxide in
excess of maximal allowable concentration
MOKHOVAYA-MGU ....
KOZHEVNICHESKAYA . . .
B. KALUZHSKAYA-TSPK&D
IZHAILOVSKII PK&O . .
LENINSK mus-MGU. . .
POGOIINSKAYA
HOTEL LENINSRAI. . .
1955
14
30
34
27
13
8
44
—
1956
14
16
36
21
12
10
25
—
1957
23
25
50/1/2 r.
27
—
7
11
39
1958
16
27
—
18
—
10
—
31
in the type of fuel and combustion methods employed. The amount of hard
fuel burned during the years of 1953 - 1957 was reduced by 24%, as com-
pared with previous years. Thus, the consumption of S-rich Moscow coal
was reduced to 20$ of the amount previously used, while the consumption
of Donets coal of a lower ash content has been increased by 50$. It must
be noted, however, that the SO- content of the 2 coals differed only
-183-
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slightly. Gas replaced coal as a fuel in many instances. Thus, in 1957
gas consumption has increased by 50$ as compared with 1956. In 1956 coal
constituted 59«4$ and gas 18.5? of the total fuel used in Moscow, while in
1957 "the corresponding percentages were 51 and. 28.656.
Conclusions.
1. Atmospheric air dust intensity has been abating gradually in
Moscow during the last 10 years. This was not true of air soot content.
2. Atmospheric air pollution with 30? had been abating gradually but
progressively.
3. It is expected that the conversion of coal operated plants to gas
operation will progressively lower all the indexes of Moscow atmospheric
air pollution.
Data Related to Sanitary Clearance Zone Surrounding the Klinsk
Thermometer Plant
V. P. Melekhina
Literature is replete with data related to pollution of atmospheric
air surrounding thermometer plants, caused by their mercury vapor discharges.
E. Ya. Vengerskii (as cited by R. G. Leites in 1952) found that at 500 m
from a mercury plant the atmospheric air contained 2 y/m of Hg vapor, and
E. I. Vorontsova (as cited by R. G. Leites in 1952) showed that at 1,200 m
from a mercury plant the atmospheric air contained 1 Y/m of Hg during the
winter months. Mercury vapor pollution affected not only atmospheric air,
but buildings, the soil, green plants, and many other objects in the vicinity
of mercury plants.
Sanitary-hygienic regulation N 101-54 specifies that plants, the
production of which depended on the use of mercury should be surrounded by
a sanitary protection zone 100 m wide. This study was conducted to check
the validity of N 101-54. The investigation was centered around a known
mercury thermometer plant. Mercury vapor in the air was determined
-184-
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microcoloriinetrically as described by N. G. Polezhaev in 1956. (O.T.S.
No. 59-21175 , page 129-130, U. S. Dept. of Commerce). The sensi-
tivity of the method was 0.00002 mg of Hg per 2 ml. Samples were collected
by the L. F. Kachor aspirator on the lee side of the plant at 100, 250,
500, 1,000, 1,500, 2,000 and 3,000 m. One hundred and seventy three 24-hour
samples were collected and analyzed. Average 24-hour samples were collected
by passing the air at 6-hour intervals through the same absorbers. The
investigation was conducted during the summer and fall of 1958. Results of
the summer investigation presented in Table 1 show that maximal average
24-hour concentrations were prohibitively high at 100 and 250 m from the
plant exceeding the allowable Hg concentration in atmospheric air
correspondingly 50 and 63 times and that the maximal mercury vapor con-
centration was higher at 250 m than at 100 m from the plant due to the fact
that plume descended close to the ground at 250 m. Results obtained during
the summer months varied with temperature fluctuations ranging between +6
and +22 C which affected the rate of Hg desorption fro& the thermometer
plant's walls and from surfaces of other objects. (Table l). Analysis of
atmospheric air samples collected during the fall season listed in Table 2
show that highest mercury vapor concentrations were found in air samples
collected 100 and 250 m from the plant. Table 1
24-hour mercury vapor concentrations in the vicinity of
the thermometer factory during summer at different dis-
METERS FROM
THE PLANT
100
250
500
1000
TOTALS • • •
NO. OF AIR
SAMPLES
13
19
21
14
67
;ances from the nlant
NO. OF AIR
SAMPLES
WITH MERE
TRACE
H6T
H6T
3
10
(3
«AMMAS PER CUBIC METER
MAXIM.
12
18,4
3.4
0,75
MINIM.
4
2,84
0,36
0,5
AVERAGE
6,6
6,0
0,88
0,16
NO. OF AIR
SAMPLES WITH
SULFUR 1IOXIIE
IN EXC. OF AL-
LOWAILE LIMIT
13
19
18
4
54
A comparison made of the summer and fall data showed that mercury vapor
concentrations in the air were lower during the fall season. This may have
been due to the lower fall air temperatures which avergged 3 - 5 > when
mercury vaporization is at its lowest. V. A. P'yankova showed in 1938 that
rate of mercury vaporization at 20 C amounted to 3.72 mg/m /min., while
rt 9
at 10 C. it amounted only to 1.43 mg/m /min. Data of this investigation
-185-
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Table 2
24-hour mercury vapor concentrations in the vicinity of
the thermometer factory during fall at different dis-
tances from the plant
METERS FROM NO. OF All
TNE PLANT [SAMPLES
i
100
250
500
1000
1500
2000
3000
TOTALS • • •
18
17
16
16
17
12
10
106
NO. OF AIR
SAMPLES
6AMMA8 PER 6BIIC METER
1 1
NO. OF AIR
SAMPLES WITH
SULFUR IIOXIIE
WITN MERE M., L.. - I '" EXe- OF *L~
TRACE pimM. ]AVERA«E LOWAILE LIMIT
HCT
Her.
HCT
HCT
HCT
HCT
5
5
1.5
3.3
2.6
1.5
0.6
1.0
0.14
1.0
0.66
0,33
0.25
0.2
0.16
0.14
1.35
1,4
0.64
0.59
0.34
0,36
0.07
18
17
16
16
8
7
BCT
82
showed that atmospheric air pollution with mercury vapor coming from the
thermometer plant extended over great distances, and that even at 2,000 m
from the plant the maximal mercury vapor concentration exceeded the allow-
able limit by 200$; only at 3,000 m was the mercury vapor concentration
in the air approximately $0% of the allowable concentration limit. The
high atmospheric air mercury vapor concentrations penetrated into living
quarters and into the soil. Table 3 presents data on mercury vapor
Table 3
Mercury vapor concentrations in dwellings at
different distances from the plant
METERS FROM
POINT OF 116-
CHARCC
100
250
500
1000
2000
TOTALS
MO. OF
AIR
SAMPLES
6
6
6
4
5
27
•AMMAS PER CU.M. AIR
MAXIMAL
2,0
1.0
0.8
0,4
0.8
MINIMAL
U
0.7
0.4
0,3
0.4
NO. OF SAMPLES WITH
MERC8RT VAPOR IN
EXC. OF PERM! SSI ILE
CONCEN. LIMIT
6
6
5
2
1
20
pollution in the air of workers living quarters. It can be seen that the
indoor air pollution was high indeed. Data obtained from analyses made on
window wash samples and washings of other living quarter surfaces indicated
that the inhabitants of the mercury plant vicinity, mostly its workers,
were subjected to continuous mercury vapor inhalation.
Soil samples were collected at depths of 8 - 10 cm. Analytical re-
-186-
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suits of soil samples collected at different distances from the thermometer
plant presented in Table 4 showed mercury concentrations ranging between
Table 4
Mercury content in the soil of the thermometer
plant vicinity
METERS FROM THE
PLAHT
• 100
250
500
1000
2000
TOTAl
NO. OF
SOI L SAM-
PLES
3
3
4.
4
4
18
Me PER iCO G OF SOIL
MAXIMUM
1,76
1,51
2,56
1.4
2.3
MINIMUM
0,92
0,97
0,3
0,83
0,896
AVERAGE
1.39
0,996
0,996
1.015
1.714
3.10 and 24.31 g/ton as compared with the average 0.077 g/ton normally
present in soil. Such mercury concentration could have been caused only
by the penetration of atmospheric air mercury into the soil of the plant
vicinity. The above analyses of air, washings, and soil samples pointed
to a general gross environmental mercury vapor pollution caused by the
mercury vapor discharged into the atmospheric air by the thermometer plant.
Results of a special study showed that the 100 m width sanitary clearance
zones specified by N 101-54, paragraph 146, was inadequate and should be
investigated more thoroughly with a view to its widening.
Conclusions.
1. All atmospheric air samples collected in the proximity of a
thermometer plant at points up to 2,000 m from the plant contained mercury
vapor in concentrations exceeding the allowable concentration limit.
2. Results of the present investigation indicated that radical means
must be instituted for the reduction of the existing mercury vapor air
catching pollution. Accordingly, it is recommended that mercury vapor
apparatus be installed in the plant for the purification of emission gases
prior to their discharge, and that appropriate controls be instituted to
insure proper operation of such apparatus. Trust "Gazoochistka" should be
requested to develop efficient and compact methods for the purification of
the thermometer plant's discharges from mercury vapor.
-187-
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Hveienic Data Related to Sanitary Clearance Zones for Korkinsk
Open Coal Pits
B. K. Baikov
The purpose of the present study was to investigate the degree of
atmospheric air pollution with coal dust, SO , and CO at different distances
from the Korkinsk open coal pits, to determine the effect of such atmos-
pheric air pollutants on the sanitary living conditions of surrounding
inhabitants, and to arrive at a sanitary-hygienic basis for the national
recommendation of an adequately wide sanitary clearance zone to be estab-
lished between the open coal pits and residential areas. N. Vatolina,
V. P. Okulova, E. V. Khukhrina, M. S. Gol'dberg, Ts. D. Pick, S. M. Genkin,
and others have published many reports regarding the deleterious effects
produced by dust on the human organism. M. S. Gol'dberg (in 1952) had
shown that dust pollution produced pre-silicotic symptoms in persons
living in localities the atmospheric air of which was polluted with 203?
of free SiO_. R. A. Gruzeeva's analyses of Korkinsk coal dust showed
that it contained about 10$ free SiO-. Equally as many reports have been
published by USSR and foreign investigators regarding atmospheric air
pollution with SOp and CO.
The Korkinsk coal region is located in the central part of the
Chelyabinsk basin, which is in the nature of a forest valley. The climate
is a continental one, having cold winters and short hot summers, with pre-
dominating southwesterly and westerly winds. The method of mining in the
open coal pits consists of removing the waste rock and by automatically
conveying the coal to railroad gondolas. One of the characteristics of
such coal is its tendency to spontaneous combustion during storage, in
stockpiles, or upon exposure at the original mining point. Dust was
generated during drilling, mining, loading, conveying, and during some
other operations.
Study of the atmospheric air surrounding the Korkinsk open coal pits
was conducted during the winter and summer seasons of 1958. Air samples
were collected on the lee side of the mine pit at 300, 500, 800, 1,000
and 1,200 m from the open pits. Samples were collected by the F. P.
Erisman Institute automobile aspirator system. (O.T.S. No. 59-21173,
page 94. United States Department of Commerce).
-188-
-------
Air samples for the determination of S0? were collected by the
aspiration method and determined nephelometrically, using gas analyzer
TG-5. Records were kept of the temperature, air humidity, wind direction
and velocity, and barometric pressure. Temperatures ranged between
-10 to 0° during the winter months. Except for a few days the air was warm
and the atmosphere clear during the summer period. Five hundred and ninety-
one air samples were collected during both seasons. Two-hundred and sixty-
seven were analyzed for S0?, 92 for CO, and 232 for dust intensity. Results
of dust analysis presented in Table 1 show that the dust concentration in
the air became reduced with increase in the distance from the open coal pits;
this was equally true of the summer and winter samples. Maximal single
dust concentration exceeded the adopted limit of allowable concentration by
360$ at 300 m from the pit; at 500 m by 180$, and by 100$ at the distance
of 800 m from the open pit. Maximal single concentration average at the
Results or atmospheric air dust concentration
stuc
METERS FROM
SOURCE OF
IISCHARGE
300
500
800
1 000—1 208
300
500
800
1 000—1 200
NO. OF
AIR SAM-
PLES
34
32
8
28
NO. OF
POSITIVES
34
32
8
28
Lies
CONCENTRATIONS IN M6/M
MAXIMAL
MINIMAL
AVERAGES OF
MAX.-SINCLE
CONCENS.
WINTER PERIOI
0.5
0,3
0,3
0,02
2,1
1,4
1.2
0,5
1 ,03
0,72
0,65
0,26
SUMMER PERIOB
29
25
27
26
29
24
27
26
0,7
0.4
0,2
0,1
2,3
1.2
1.1
0.5
0.2
0.7f
0.66
0.32
above indicated distances were also in excess of the allowable single con-
centration. At 1,000 - 1,200 m from the open pit all dust concentrations
were below the limit of allowable dust concentration for the atmospheric air
in inhabited areas.
Results of atmospheric air sample analysis for S0y are presented in
Table 2. Maximal single concentrations of SOp exceeded the allowable
limit by 160# at 300 m from the pit; at 800 m by lOOgj all concentrations were
below the allowable single concentration limit at 1,000 - 1,200 m. Control
samples of atmospheric air collected at 2,000 m from the open pit on the
-189-
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Table 2
Winter period
METER6 FROM
SOURBE OF
ItSCHARSE
300
500
800
1000
1200
300
500
800
1000
1200
NO. OF
AIR SAM-
PLES
34
25
12
20
15
IUST CONCENTRATIONS IN MS/M3
MAXIMAL
0,4
0,25
0.1
TRACE
TRACE
SINGLE
1.8
1.05
0.5
0.2
0.2
AVERXGE8 OF
MAXIMAL-SINGLE
0.77
0.61
0.23
0,06
0,02
SBMHER PER 101
28
28
50
25
JO
0,5
0.47
0.2
0,1
0,05
1.25
1.1
1.0
0.5
0.2
0.63
0,62
0.51
0,35
a. 12
windward side (on the grounds of the sanitary-epidemiological station)
contained only traces of S0_. Generally, all air samples collected during
the summer and winter all contained S0? up to 1,000 m from the coal pit,
receeding quantitatively with the distance from the coal pit. Analysis
of 92 air samples showed that CO was present in samples collected at
50 - 100 m from the coal pit, and that the CO concentration was not in
excess of the limit of allowable single concentration. Thus, the study
of atmospheric air pollution at different distances from the open coal pit
disclosed the presence of intense pollution with S0? and dust; SO- concen-
trations exceeded the limit of allowable single concentration for atmos-
pheric air of inhabited places by 260$ at 300 m, and by 100$ at 800 m; dust
concentrations exceeded the hygienic norm by 360$ at 300 m and by 140$ at
800 m. CO was present in trace amounts only. The question and answer
investigation showed that residents of the proximal vicinity complained
of unpleasant odor and air dustiness. Type and insistance of the com-
plaints ran in accord with the results of air sample analyses.
Based on the results of the investigations it was recommended that the
sanitary clearance zone surrounding open coal pits, similar to the Korkinsk
pit, should be not less than 1,000 m wide; the sanitary clearance zone
could be reduced where sufficient hydro-mechanical installations efficiently
operated, provided that production processes and sanitary-hygienic protection
means were under strict inspection and control.
-190-
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Pollution of Atmospheric Air in the Vicinity of Chimney Gas
and Hot Air Oven Soot Producing Plants
K. P. Gordynya
Soot producing plants constitute serious sources of regional atmos-
pheric air pollution with soot, CO, and possibly with cancerogenic sub-
stances. Soot hinders ventilation of residences, soils, apparel, linens,
interior of residences, defaces statues and buildings, etc. Soot coats
green thereby hampering plants' respiration processes and impeding the
synthesis of vitamins, sugar, starch, and other substances as was
demonstrated by V. A. Yakovenko. S. I. Adamov, D. A. Mishke, Yu. K.
Korotkov, K. B. Leman, and others found that soot traumatized eye mucosa,
damaged the unper respiratory tract, the lungs and the epidermis of workers
employed in soot plants. English investigators have long since established
that soot was the specific causative agent of cancer of the scrotum in
chimney sweeps. N. M. Tomson, B. P. Gurinov, V. A. Zore, A. A. Il'inaand,
L. M. Shabad, I. L. Kenava, and R. N. Uoller, 1C. N. Bauer, R. E. Stiner,
and many others, found that the air surrounding industrial centers con-
tained cancerogenic substances, in particular 3,4-benzpyrene, as a result
of incomplete fuel combustion. It has been generally regarded that hot air
oven and chimney gas soot were the result of incomplete combustion; hence,
it would not seem unreasonable to assume that soot also contained cancero-
genic substances.
Air samples were collected by aspirating the air through ash-free
filter paper at the rate of 20 li/hr. Aspiration was continued to the
point of visible blackening of the filter; the filter was then removed and
intensity of color compared with the standard scale prepared on the basis of
soot concentrations per m of air. The soot plant which caused the air
pollution consisted of 3 production installations, 2 of which produced
chimney gas and the third hot oven soot. The two basic pollution com-
ponents discharged by the plant into the atmospheric air were soot and C00
The basic atmospheric discharges were gases coming froru the soot ovens
after passing through the electrostatic precipitators; the soot content in
the gas ranged between 3 - 5$» and the CO concentration averaged 8.1$.
In addition, there were gases which came from the hot oven burners and
which contained up to 20$ soot and up to 0.1$ of CO. Some soot was dis-
-191-
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charged into the atmospheric air by the granulation and packing and also "by
the storing and other similar departments, and by loading and transportation
of the final product. Natural gas was used as the so-called, raw product
for the production of soot. Chimney gas soot was prepared by burning
natural gas under conditions of incomplete combustion. The soot was pre-
cipitated by passing the soot-gas mixture through 14 electrostatic precipi-
tators type SG-14 with an efficiency of 95 - 97$; the remaining 3 - 5# of
the soot was then discharged into the atmospheric air through a 20 m high
stack. The hot oven soot installation consisted of 112 open air chamber
burners. The gaser discharged into the atmospheric air by this installation
carried with them 20% of soot. It can be seen from the brief description
that the method of gas oven soot production was more efficient from the
viewpoints of production and lesser air pollution than was the hot oven
installations. The two chimney gas installations discharged into the at-
mospheric air 1,984 kg of soot per day, while the hot oven chamber in-
stallation discharged into the atmospheric air 2,452 kg per day.
Study of the atmospheric air pollution was conducted in the plant
surrounding vicinity at 500, 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, and 4,000 m from the
plant, and on the plant territory 200 m from the chimney. Air samples
were taken at 1.5 m from the surface of the ground under the plume; con-
trol samples were collected on the windward side of the plant. One hundred
and forty samples of atmospheric air were collected and analyzed for soot
content as recorded in Table 1. Eesults showed that atmospheric air pollu-
Table 1
Soot pollution of atmospheric air in the region of a soot
manufacturing plant
AIR
SMPL.
NO.
1
2
3
4
5
6
ZONE OP INVESTIGATION
TeppinopHH 3aBO.ua 200 M or rpy6 ; .
500 M OT 33 BO A3 . ;
1000 JK OT 33BOAa ... ...
2000 M
3000 M
4000 M . .........
MG OF SOOT PER CU. M. AIR
AVERAGE
4,42
0,62
0,31
0,03
0,02
0,1
0.0
MAXIMAL
7.10
1,07
0,73
0,04
0,02
0,01
0,0
MINIMUM
2,740
0,16
0,048
0,016
0.002
0,005
0,0
NO. OF AIR SAMPLES
WITH SOOT IN EXCESS
OF ALLOWAILE LIMIT
CONCENTRATION
100
100
55,5
0
0
0
0
-192-
-------
tion with soot in the vicinity of the plant was generally within a radius of
4 km from the plant. Results indicated that all samples collected up to
1 km from the plant contained soot in excess of the allowable limit of soot
concentration in community atmospheric air. Results are listed in Table 2.
Table 2.
ikaxiuial-bingle soot concentration in excess of limit of allowable
concentration in the atmospheric air of the region surrounding
the soot factory.
BO. OF
AIR
SAMPLE
ZONE "-F INVESTI8ATION
i. "" PLANT TERRITORY, 200 M FROM
2. 500 M FROM
3. 1,000 M "
4. 2,000 " "
5. 3,000 " "
6. 4,000 " "
EXCEEtlNC OFFICIAL
LIMIT
SMOKE STACK ' 47.3 TIMES
PLANT 7.1 TIMES
" 5.0 "
" NOT IN EXCESS
It H It
It It It
Soot concentrations in the atmospheric air abated with increase in the
distance from the plant. The curve of soot concentrations sharply rose
up to the 200 m point from the plant, indicating that air soot concentrations
were high in close proximity to the plant. At 2 - 4 km from the plant the
concentration curve ran a horizontal course of highly dispersed low concen-
tration soot particles. Atmospheric air CO pollution was studied by the
Reberg microtitrometric method. Results of analyses listed in Table 3
indicate that the atmospheric air pollution with CO in the region of the
plant extended over a radius of 1 km from the plant. Highest atmospheric
air CO concentration was found in the air at 500 m from the plant (the
original paper states 1,500 m, which most clearly is an uncorrected
printer's error. B.S.L.). No CO was found in the atmospheric air at
2,000 - 3,000 m from the plant, as shown by data listed in Table 3.
Table 3
Atmospheric air pollution with carbon monoxide in the region of
the soot making plant.
NO.
AIR
OF
SAMPLES
1. PLANT
2.
3. i,
4. 2,
5. 3,
500
000
000
000
ZONE OF
INVESTItATION
CO 1 N MS
OF Al
AVERAGE
TERRITORY, 200 H FROM STACK 63.0
M FROM
M FROM
M FROM
M FROM
PLANT 23.4
PLANT 7.2
PLANT 0.0
PLANT 0.0
PER CB»IC
R.
MAXIMAL
84.0
30.0
16.0
0.0
0.0
METER
Ml KIMAL
PERCENT PF
EXCEEBI MG
SAMPLES
OFFICIAL
FOR MAXIMAL-SI N8LE
LIMIT
CON-
CENTRATtONS.
50.0 100$
25.0 . 100
0.0 43
0.0 0
0.0 0
-193-
-------
Soot produced by both methods was studied by fluorescent fine-line
analysis for the content of 3,4-benzpyrene at the Institute of Oncology,
USSR Academy of Medical Sciences. Results showed the presence of 0.003$
of 3,4-benzpyrene in the chimney gas soot; no 3,4-benzpyrene was found
in the soot produced by the other method. These findings are now being
checked by tests with white mice.
Studies were also made of the effect of the soot producing factory
discharges on plant life; a question and answer survey was conducted to
determine the effect of the pollutants on general living conditions and
on the health of surrounding inhabitants. It was found that tree and shrub
leaves m ?e coated with layers of soot on the upper and under sides extend-
ing to 2 - 3 km from the plant. Answers to the questionnaire complained of
unfavorable effects on living conditions and health of population extending
over 4 km from the plant. Complainants stated that the soot pollution
reached surrounding farms, penetrated into the interior of houses through
minute pores and cracks, soiled the furniture, drapes, bed linen, made
difficult maintenance of home cleanliness. Furthermore, the soot soiled
washed clothes hung to dry outdoors or in the attic 5 it also affected the
cleanliness of domestic animals, fruits, and vegetables. Mothers complained
that children came home so dirty after playing outdoors and that it was
necessary to bathe them before putting them to bed.
-194-
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Natural Ultraviolet Radiation Under Different Conditions
of Atmospheric Air Pollution
B. V. Rikhter
In 1958 the P. P. Erisman Moscow Research Institute of Sanitation and
Hygiene initiated a systematic investigation of the effect of industrial
production and manufacturing discharge pollutants on the intensity of out-
door ultraviolet radiation.
1. Moscow was the first city to be investigated. Studies were con-
ducted in the cen'.er of the city and 34 km on the west southwest side of
Moscow at the Sobakino meteorological station which was equipped with
ultraviolet actinometer, actinograph and a device for recording total
ultraviolet radiation, connected with a galvanometer and a galvanograph.
An ultraviolet actinometer and a galvanometer were also installed in the
Moscow observation station. From May, 1952 through 31 December, 1959»
4.695 synchronic measurements were made at both stations by the ultra-
violet actinometer, and 7«547 total ultraviolet radiation measurements
were recorded at the Moscow station only. The following is an analysis
of the ultraviolet radiation, as recorded at the Sebakino station:
Average annual ultraviolet radiation amounted to 17.6 meal, which
is 1.2% of the integral flow (ultraviolet radiation tension is recorded
in this paper in terms of thousandths of small calories as meal.). Annual
radiation intensity fluctuated between 15.4 - 1.9 meal. Maxima and highest
annual radiation amplitudes were noted during the summer months? 19.0 -
27.0 meal, in May, 22.4 - 33.9 meal, in June, 22.0 - 32.0 in July, and
28.0 - 30.0 meal, in August; the range was considerably narrower during
the winter months, amounting to 4.0 - 6.7 meal. Highest intensity and
average 24-hour maxima of direct solar ultraviolet radiation were re-
corded between 11 and 13 o'clock. The following ultraviolet radiation
magnitudes recorded were in terms of meal at Sebakino station at mid-day
the first of each month:
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII
9,0 14,2 28.5 33.0 41.8 51,7 49.9 43,5 38,2 23,0 18,5 11.0
-195-
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Expressed in percent of theoretically possible u-v-radiation the corres-
ponding values appeared as follows:
-0 56 81 81 79 90 86 79 76 58 64 64,
In percent of pctual radiation flow the values were correspondingly as
follows!
0,6 1,1 1,8 1,9 2,1 2,7 2,6 2,3 2,3 1,3 1,1 0,8
Average monthly intensities recorded at the Sebakino station in meal.
for the 12 month period were as follows:
I H HI IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII
5.1 9,7 18.5 20.8 22.7 29.8 28.0 24,9 23,9 13.5 9,0 5.8
corresponding absolute maxima in meal were as follows:
14,0 18,5 35,0 45,0 50,0 55,0 59,0 52,0 38,0 35,0 19,0 12,0
Hourly changes in radiation intensity during the day as recorded at Sebakino
station were as follows:
Hours 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Meal H-5 '6.4 19.6 20.4 24.3 28,6 32.0 39.2 25,1 19.4 15.9 11,8 7.2.
Period of highest solar ultraviolet radiation intensity occurred in March-
September, when the index exceeded 29.0 meal. During the April mid-day
hours the intensity exceeded 40.0 meal. Except for the early morning
hours the uv-radiation intensity during June exceeded 40 meal., reaching
50 meal, at noon.
The picture of solar ultraviolet radiation was entirely different in
Moscow. If the total of sunshine hours recorded during the investigation
were taken as 100?, then 5.3$ of the shifts occurred during the periods
of ultraviolet radiation absence. Sixty-four percent of radiation intensity
determinations gave values of 10.0 meal, or less. Determinations of 10.0 -
20.0 meal constituted 27$ of daylight time and intensities ranging between
20.0 - 30.0 meal, amounted to 3.7$. Average annual direct Moscow solar
ultraviolet radiation was 6.3 meal., or 0.84$ of the integral radiation
flow, and ranged during that period between 3.9 and 8.6 meal. The monthly
-196-
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ultraviolet part of the integral radiation flow was as follows in percent:
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII
0.4 0.4 0,8 0,9 1,0 1,4 1,3 1,1 0,9 0,7 0,4 0.2.
The monthly city ultraviolet solar radiation (in percent of corresponding
monthly suburban radiation was as follows:
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII
45 30 ?1 36 41 40 40 39 30 39 27 17
In the course of the day it was as follows:
Hours 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
* 37 35 31 34 37 38 39 38 37 37 39 48 68
The average monthly direct ultraviolet solar radiation intensity in Moscow
was as follows in meal:
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII
2,3 3.0 5,7 7,4 9.3 11,9 11,3 9,6 7.0 5.2 2.5 1,0
The corresponding absolute maxima were as follows:
6.0 9,0 17,2 28,0 31,0 35,0 34,2 29,0 28,2 16,8 9,4 6,2.
Hourly annual averages were as follows:
Hours 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Meal. 4,3 5,8, 6,1 7,9 9,0 10,7 12,6 11,2 9,4 7.2 6.2 5,7 4,9.
Average total radiation loss in the ultraviolet part of the solar spectrum
in the city amounted to 64%. Average yearly radiation losses were as
follows in %: I953 1954 J955 ,956 m? rr
76 73 64 55 54%
During the summer period such radiation losses amounted to an average of
j60#} yearly summer radiation losses were as follows in %:
72 59 60 44 50%.
Such considerable losses in solar ultraviolet radiation in the city were
the result of ultraviolet radiation absorption by the finely dispersed
-197-
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dust and soot particles.
Thus, results of the investigation clearly indicated that soot and dust
absorbed considerable amounts of ultraviolet solar radiation and that only
by the elimination of atmospherically suspended soot and dust could an
adequate intensity of ultraviolet solar radiation be assured. Measurements
indicated that 50 - 60% of solar ultraviolet radiation was absorbed by the
presently dust-polluted Moscow atmospheric air. It was also shown that the
average soot concentration in Moscow atmospheric air amounted to 0.05 mg/m
Monthly Moscow solar ultraviolet radiation falling upon horizontal surfaces
was as follows in meal.:
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII
0,5 0,9 2,7 4,5 6,8 8,0 6,9 5,6 3,6 1,7 0,6 0,3.
These values were a part of the total monthly atmospheric Moscow ultraviolet
radiation. The corresponding values of which are listed below in meal.:
0,8 1,3 3.2 5,5 8,8 10,5 9,3 8,8 5.1 2,7 1,1 0,6
The difference between the two corresponding values represented the
intensity of dispensed radiation in meal, which were as followsi
0,3 0,4 0,5 1,0 2,0 2,5 2,4 3,2 1,5 1,0 0,5 0,3
A correlative study of the 3 forms of radiation flow lead to the conclusion
that dispersed ultraviolet radiation predominated during the winter season
and direct solar radiation predominated during the summer season. Average
direct solar radiation per annum amounted to 73$ and disseminated radiation
to 27$» During cloudy hours disseminated radiation was the only source of
2
ultraviolet radiation. The sum ultraviolet radiations per cm of horizontal
surface amountedIto the following:
April May June July August September
2?0 310 345 340 330 260 cal.
of which direct solar radiation amounted to the following:
200 190 185 180 165 100 cal.
and disseminated radiation amounted to:
70 120 160 160 165 160 cal.
Total yearly ultraviolet solar radiation amounted to 2,508 cal. of
-198-
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which 1,263 cal. were in the form of direct solar radiation and 1,245 cal.
in the form of dispersed radiation.
2. Studies were made next of natural solar ultraviolet radiation
distribution at the transpolar industrial center of Noril'sk, located at
69 northern latitude. The position of the sun below the 69th parallel
is lower than in southern latitudes; accordingly, the ultraviolet solar
radiation at that point should be of a lower level,, Actual measurements
gave the following average values of ultraviolet radiation on the first day
2
of each month in meal per cm per min.s
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII
0 5 '18 33 45 50 52 47 38 25 10 0.
Chances for natural ultraviolet radiation were considerably reduced at that
point, due to prevailing orographic conditions which delayed the rise of
the sun over the city territory as compared with the mountains; and hastened
the sunset, thereby reducing the period of solar radiation over the city
by 42 days of the year. Another cause of lowered solar radiation intensity
was created by the manner in which the city residences were planned in
relation to the direction and dispersion of the industrial smoke and the
path of the sun's travel: during the day the sun's rays passed through the
part of the city which was covered by a dense smoke coming from the indus-
trial enterprises located south of the city's territory. Novil'sk had
practically no direct ultraviolet solar radiation during the early part of
October due to persistent cloudiness; beginning with 15 December to 15
January the polar night deprived the city of solar radiation; only during
the last days of February did the sun rise above the mountains. Solar
ultraviolet radiation existed in Novil'sk during 7 months of the year and
according to months of the year and hours of the day it was distributed
as shown below in meal:
MONTHS
3
0'
n
0
6
1
la
12
9
9
oc
^D
Oft
Ofi
9^
13
KUUH
12
19
oy
31
to
^9
|)
S
15
\l
o*
qe
<)e
90
10
18
Of
1 *>
G
5
21
in
4
o
0
-199-
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Maximal ultraviolet radiation intensity in Noril'sk in meal was
occasionally considerable, namely 31 in April, 40 in May and August, 46 in
June and July, and 28 meal, in September. On the other hand a massive air
pollution appeared during any month and at any time of the day, including
the noon hour, which screened out the short wave rays preventing them from
reaching the ground surface. No studies could be made under such condi-
tions. Instances of this type constituted 20 - 25$ of the total observa-
tions. Ultraviolet solar radiation on horizontal surface was as follows
in meal.:
MONTHS
3
0
0
1
n
o
6
0
1
6
1
0
9
3
14
16
1 A
12
3
HOU
»
10
12
22
\R
7
R6
«.
4
14
18
10
3
,8
0
3
10
o
2
21
0
0
1
o
o
Insufficiency in solar ultraviolet radiation was compensated by disseminated
ultraviolet radiation in terms of meal, as shown in the following tablet
HOURS
MONTHS
3
3
n
6
16
t
o
9
1
26
ifi
i n
2
12
1Q
99
24
oft
15
1
3
18
Ifi
JU
18
10
21
1
4
i
Solar ultraviolet radiation effect on the human organism is deter-
mined by the total ultraviolet solar radiation flow. In Noril'sk this
o
total consisted of the following components in terms of calories per cm ;
SOLAR REACTION
BISPERSEI REACTION
SUMMARY REACTION
1 1 1
MARCH APRIL MAY
4
5
9
42
98
140
53
85
138
JUNE
122
129
251
JULY
174
189
362
AU6UST
101
120
220
SEPTEMIER
10
23
33
-200-
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3. Another series of investigations was conducted in 1959 in the
city of Magnitogorsk, the atmospheric air of which is intensely polluted.
Between 25 May and 25 September two total ultraviolet radiation collec-
tors were installed, 1 in the territory of the old part of the city, about
1 km south of the blast furnace, and another 35 km northwest of the city
at Yakty-kul sanatorium on the shore of Lake Banno, which served as the
control point. The total solar ultraviolet radiation for the period under
investigation was as follows in meal.:
HOURS
III MA6NIT080RSK
111 YAKTY-KULE
4
0
5
5
0
14
6
2
19
7
5
28
8
8
35
9
12
43
10
17
48
11
20
50
12
19
51
13
21
50
14
19
48
15
18
43
16
16
36
17
13
29
18
8
13
19
5
10
20
1
4
Averages per minute per cm were as follows:
IM MAGNITOCOR6K ....
IN YAKTY-KULE
MAY
24
32
JUNE
7
34
JULY
11
35
AUGUST
8
36
SEPT.
10
33
FOR THE
SUMMER
12
34
Data in the tables show that the natural solar ultraviolet radiation in
the city varied greatly and that it amounted to a mere 65$ of the average
natural solar intensity. Lowest loss of solar ultraviolet radiation was
observed between 13 and 19 o'clock, when the predominating wind carried the
smoke away from the city. Distribution of ultraviolet solar radiation is
presented in the table below:
ULTRA VIOLET REACTION IN
MCAL
IN YAKTY-KULE
30:
23%
20%
OT 30— «
28%
48%
45
0
32%
HOURS WITH
NO 8-V RAII
ATI ON
49%
0
Nearly half of the entire solar radiation period was deprived of direct
natural ultraviolet radiation which profoundly affected the sanitary-
hygienic condition of the city's atmospheric air. As a result of such
unfavorable meteorological conditions the total excess of ultraviolet
radiation in Magnitogorsk during the summer months was as shown, as com-
-201-
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o
pared with Yakty-kul in terms of cal/cm :
IN MASNITOSORSK
In YAKTY-KULE
MAY
400
963
JUNE
234
926
JULY
325
1042
AUGUST
223
949
SEPTEMIEF
234
738
4. The significance of the previously described conditions of solar
ultraviolet radiation prevailing in the cities under investigation can be
best understood when compared with similar studies made in other cities,
where no solar radiation impeding factors existed. In this connection data
are presented obtained by members of the P. F. Erisman Sanitary-Hygienic
Institute in their studies of the Kuibyshev region near river Volga in 1951
and 1952 and of Anapa near the Black Sea in 1959 which was free from indus-
trial air pollution. The investigational approach was the same as previously
described. Daily changes in the direct solar ultraviolet radiation in meal.
are shown in the following table:
HOURS
ZAVOLZH'E
ANAPA
8
37
41
10
55
57
12
64
69
14
51
50
16
32
37
18
8
11
Daily changes on total ultraviolet radiation in meal, were as follows
during July - August:
HOURS
ZAVOLZH'E • • • •
ANAPA , , . . .
7
52
15
8
58
38
9
64
46
10
70
64
11
72
68
12
77
77
13
70
75
14
58
68
15
47
58
16
39
44
This can be compared with the following data in.,mcal. obtained during the
months of July and August at Yakty-kul:
30 37 43 48 50 52 51 50 45 38 32.
-202-
-------
It should be noted that maximal solar intensity at the Volga region
near Kuibyshev amounted to 10? meal, in 1955 and to 104 meal, in Anapa in
1959. The ultraviolet radiation flow in Anapa during a summer day, that
p
is, during June - August fluctuated between 30 - 49 cal/cm as compared with
57 cal. under ideal atmospheric conditions. The flow of natural ultraviolet
2
radiation in Anapa per cm of horizontal surface was as shown in the
following table:
AUCUST
1116
SEPTEHIER
763
OCTOIER
539
NOVEM8ER
186
The investigation generally indicated that similarity existed between
data obtained at different points during'different years. The comparatively
slight differences could be explained first by the effect created by local
pollutants always present in the air in the form of soil dust, a factor of
considerable importance in the Volga Steppe regions, or in the form of sus-
pended salt particles present in the near sea shore regions (Anapa). The
second factor of importance in natural ultraviolet radiation fluctuations
is the inherent variability in solar ultraviolet radiation itself. Changes
in the intensity of direct solar radiation in individual localities were
relatively slight, especially within the same hour. Loss in direct ultra-
violet radiation ranged between 14 - 47 with an average of 30$, under
natural conditions? in the case of artificially created atmospheric pollution
average loss amounted to 6$% with a predominance of 50$ of the theoretically
possible ultraviolet solar radiation.
-203-
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An Improved Gas Pipette for Long Interval Air
Sample Collection
R. S. Gil'denskiol'd and S. B. Eting.
The sanitary hygienic evaluation of atmospheric air pollution with
different chemical substances is based on the determination of maximal
concentrations, such as generally prevail in or immediately under the
discharge flume, and of average 24-hour concentrations. Air samples for
the determination of maximal concentrations are usually collected during
a brief period of time. For the determination of average 24-hour pollution
concentrations air samples are collected over longer periods of time. The
improved pipette described in this paper was designed for such occasions.
The pipette enables the collection of air samples of known volume, of the
order of 1000 ml, over a period of 24 hours, for later determination of such
substances as hydrocarbons, CO, etc. The apparatus is illustrated in Pig. 1.
The operating principle;
7=* t A negative pressure is created in the body of the
/^ pipette (2) by the outflow of a saturated NaCl solution
(4) through a capillary.
Description of the parts and operation of the
pipettet
A pressure drop (hydrostatic pressure) regular
(3) maintains a constant definite pressure on the
capillary at all levels of the fluid (4) in the body
of the pipette (2). The hydrostatic pressure regulator
is just a glass tube (l) having a diameter of 0.4-0.6 cm.
At the conclusion of air sample collection the NaCl
saturated solution drops down to the level of the upper
end of the capillary pipette (5) which is slightly above the lower end opening
of the hydrostatic pressure regulated (l), thereby shutting off further
connection between the collected air sample and the atmospheric air. The
variable hydrostatic pressure device (7) can be lengthened or shortened, so
that the height of the fluid column can be raised or lowered, depending upon
the temperature changes through the day in the surrounding air thereby
controlling the ra^e of the outflowing saturated NaCl solution. The variable
-204-
-------
hydrostatic pressure device (7) is merely a rubber tube of 0.5-0.7 cm
diameter with an inserted glass tube forming a kind of movable sucker rod
connection. Capillary (9) controls the constant flow of the saturated NaCl
solution at any desirable rate. At the conclusion of air sample collecting
a meniscus is formed in this capillary which acts as a lower liquid seal.
The glass cylinder (10) prevents the salting out of NaCl at the capillary
tip. Saturation of the water with NaCl prevents the possible partial ab-
sorption by the fluid of the chemical substance (gas) under investigation;
it also prevents the solution from freezing when air samples are collected
at temperatures. (20 C).
Setting up the apparatus for air sample collecting.
The pipette and its parts must be thoroughly cleaned before each air
sample collection. The variable hydrostatic pressure controller is then
removed, the assembly is turned upside down and the NaCl solution run in
through the reduced protrustion (6). As the saturated NaCl solution
gradually fills chamber (2), the air is being forced out of it through
capillary tube (l). When all the air of chamber (2) has been replaced by
the saturated NaCl solution, the assembly is turned to its original position
and the variable hydrostatic pressure controlling section consisting of
(7> 8, 9» and- 10) is reconnected. To attain any desired rate of NaCl solu-
tion outflow, and consequently of air inflow, it is necessary to select the
appropriate capillary tube (l) diameter in combination with a correspondingly
fitting length of the variable hydrostatic pressure controlling tube (7).
This can be easily accomplished experimentally by running into chamber (2)
a known volume (say 3 or 5 ol) of the salt solution and determining the time
required for it to run out. On the basis of this it is then possible to
select a combination of the right diameter size of capillary tube (l), the
right length of the variable hydrostatic pressure control capillary (7) and
the right volume of the NaCl solution required for a continuous 24-hour
inflow of air.
When the sample of air has been collected the lower section of the
assembly is removed at the reduced protruding end (6) of chamber (2).
Pinch-cocked rubber tubes of suitable diameter are then placed over the
protruding opening (6) and upper opening of capillary tube (10). The
-205-
-------
entire is then placed into a carrying box and transported to the labor-
atory for air analysis.
Pig. 2 illustrated a simplified assem-
bly which can be easily prepared by workers
of any sanitary-hygienic laboratory.
.
i. BOTTLE WITH UPPER INLET AMI LOWER
OUTFLOW TUIES; 2. HYIROSTATIC PRES-
SURE STAIILIZER TUIE; 3. HYIRO-
STATIC PRESSURE VARIATOR (AIJUSTER);
;4, CAPIUARY FKJW cemot; 3,-*USS
CYLINIER SMIELI.
-206-
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A Study of Carbon Monoxide Concentrations in the Air of Living
Dwellings and Its Effect on the Organism.
S. P. Sorokina. .
(Leningrad Sanitary-Hygienic Medical Institute);
Tne basic gas supply of Leningrad is of shale origin. It differs in
its chemical composition from natural gas and contains the following in
volume percent: H2 - 32-38, CO - 15.0-15.5, CH. - 17-18, heavy hydrocarbons
4.0-4.5, C02 - 14-15, N2 - 9.2-15.7, 02 - 0.8-1.0. Open burning of the
gas results in the generation of products of complete combustion as well
as products of incomplete combustion, mainly carbon monoxide. Fatal or
acute poisoning with CO has become a rare occurrence, and the possibility
of chronic CO poisoning has been denied'for a long time. However, accord-
ing to such investigators as L. S. Gorsheleva, A. A. Lubshin, N. N. Pravdin,
Yu. P. Frolov and others chronic CO poisoning still constituted a sanitary-
hygienic problem. Z. 6. Vol'fson, I. I. Datsenko, D. G. Dvyatka, A. S.
Lykova, V. Z. Martynyuk, N. N. Skvortsova, M. N. Troitskaya, and others
have shown that carboxytoxicosis occurred widely and frequently among
inhabitants of industrial towns.
The purpose of the present study was to investigate the CO concentra-
tions in the air of living premises and to determine its effect on the
health of the occupants. As objects of the present study this author
selected 42 gasified quarters consisting of 160 apartments located in
different sections of Leningrad, and 2 non-gasified quarters consisting
of 6 apartments, as controls. Air samples were collected by the foot-ball
method in the center of each apartment 1.5 m above the floor, under normal
conditions of gas burning. Carbon monoxide concentrations were determined
by the conductometric method developed by the Leningrad Institute of
Labor Protection. Eight hundred and ninety-five samples had been collected
during the summer, fall and winter seasons under normal conditions of
shale gas burning. One-hundred-twenty-four of the samples, or 14$, were
CO-free. Seasonally such samples were as follows: in the summer - 59,
(19.5$ in the fall - 54, or 15.0*, and in the winter - 11, or 4.0?. CO
concentrations in the air samples ranged between 20 - 214 mg/m , with the
concentrations increasing during the fall and winter seasons. Thus, CO
-207-
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concentrations ranging between 4 - 20 mg/m occurred in 77.55? of the summer
samples, 61% in the fall samples and 60£ in the winter air samples) while
CO concentrations ranging between 21 - 60 mg/m occurred in 3£ of the summer
samples, in 11% of the fall air samples, and in 36£ of the winter samples.
Table 1
Hg of CO per cubic meter of air in gas equipped apartments
at different seasons of the year '
smm
CO PER CHIIC
METER OF AIR
0
4-10
11—20
21—30
31—40
41—60
60—214
TOTALS
NO. Of
TESTS
59
192
43
7
1
—
—
302
ER Fl
5$ or
TESTS
19,5
63,6
14.2
2,3
0.4
__
. —
100
HO. OF
TESTS
54
116
84
21
14
8
4
301
tt VI
°tf> •'
TESTS
17,9
38,6
27,9
7,0
4.6
2,7
1.3
100
NO. OF
TESTS
11
68
107
51
26
21
8
292
NTH TOTAL
jty> or
TESTS
4
23
37
17,5
9
7
2,5
100
NO. OF
TESTS
124
376
234
79
41
29
12
895
#OF
TESTS
14
42
27
8.5
4,5
3
1
100
Carbon monoxide concentrations of most air samples collected at the
three indicated seasons of the year were considerably in excess of the
officially allowable concentration limits for CO in the atmospheric air
of residential localities; in the summer the CO concentrations were from
1.5 to 6.6 times in excess, in the fall 2.66 to 29*5 times in excess and
in the winter season 3.33-35.66 times in excess of the officially allowable
maxima.
Series of air samples were collected simultaneously in the kitchens,
in the hallways and in the living rooms, the concentrations of which are
listed in Table 2.
:% of CO per cubic meter of air in gas equipped apartments
.
ROOM
KITCHEN
CORRIIOR
LI VIM RH.
summer
NO. OF
TESTS
74
61
167
(AX.
30
40
28
niN.
4
4
4
AV«.
11
10
6,5
fall
— *f**
NO. on
TESTS 1 MAX.
. 84
75
142
177
97
90
HIM.
4
4
4
AVt.
18,5
16,3
10.7
NO. OF
TESTS
96
71
125
»Jni
MAX.
214
69
150
ev
HIN.
6
6
6
AV«.
27
22.4
20,3
-208-
-------
Data in the table show that highest CO concentrations were found in
the kitchen air samples, lower concentrations in the hallway air samples
and lowest in the living room samples. But the CO air concentration of
all rooms was higher in the fall-winter months. Results of air sample
analysis also showed that average fall concentration was 17.4 mg/m and
winter concentration 26.8 mg/m in dwellings which used individual gas
stoves, while in centrally gas heated apartments the average fall CO con-
centration in the air was 10.7 mg/m and the average winter concentration
20.5 mg/m . This may have been due to the faulty construction of the
individual gas heaters and the consequent incomplete shale gas combustion,
and partly due to improper use and care of the individual gas heaters. The
CO concentration averages in the air of the two types of gas heated
apartments were practically the same during the summer months, with a slight
tendency towards a higher average in the centrally heated apartments.
Thirty air samples were collected in the non-gasified apartments cover-
ing all seasons of the year. Of these 22, or 73.4$, were CO-free; the
remaining 8-samples were all winter-collected and contained CO only after
house heating. In this connection a study was also made of the temperature-
humidity conditions of the apartments. The relative humidity range was
30-96$. The average relative humidity in the apartments equipped with in-
dividual gas heaters was by 6 - 8% above that of the centrally gas heated
apartments. Decorative plants became rapidly destroyed in all the heated
apartments.
Questions related to the effect on human health of carbon monoxide
present in the indoor air were asked of 111 occupants of gas heated
apartments; 31 of these occupants had hypertonic disease; these were not
included in the final statistical study of this phase of the work, since
complaints of hypertonic patients were practically identical with complaints
of persons exposed to the effects of carbon monoxide. The remaining 80
occupants were regarded as medically normal individuals. Fifty-four of
these, or approximately 61%, complained of headaches and a sensation of
vertigo, while the remaining 24, or 33$, coiaplained of pain in the vicinity
of the heart, nausea, vomiting, disturbed gastrointestinal activity, general
weakness, easy fatigability, etc. Exact data are presented in Table 3.
-209-
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Table 3
COMPLAINTS
P*IN AROUM HEART, IRRECULAR HEART It
GASTRO-INTESTINAL IISTURIANCE ANI
GENERAL WEAKNESS, EASY FATISASIUTY .
IISTURIEI SLEEP ANI APPETITE ....
TOTAL
«0. OF
:on-
•LAINTS
58
d/
19
16
4
2
1
142
*•
oc
13.5
11
3r
• «>
2.5
1,5
1
100%
Blood was analyzed for concentrations of hemoglobin, carboxyhemoglobin
and number of erythrocytes. The hemoglobin concentration of the housewives
ranged between 60 - 95%, with an average of 77 - 78$. The hemoglobin con-
centration was 16% and higher in 64% of the examined housewives. Generally,
the hemoglobin concentration average of the housewives living in the gas-
ified apartments was higher than in the control housewives. The control
group in this instance consisted of 100 persons occupying non-gas equipped
apartments in a nearby suburb. The hemoglobin concentration range in this
group was 58 - 80$ with an average of 70 -
Table 4
Blood hemoglobin concentrations in occupants of
gas-equipped apartments and in control persons
58
66—65
66—70
71—75
76—80
81-85
86—90
91—95
TOTALS
NO. OF EXAMINE! OCCU-
PANTS OF SAS-EQUIPPEI
APARTMENTS
No.
,
7
14
19
41
20
7
3
111
#
6
13
17
37
18
6
3
100
NO. OF EXAMINEI
CONTROLS
No.
1
24
29
28
18
_
—
—
100
W
1
24
29
28
18
_
_
_
100
-210-
-------
Data in this table show that erythrocyte counts in residents of the
gasified apartments were higher; thus, in 44% of the investigated the
erythrocyte count ranged between 4500000 - 5000000, in 24$ between 5000000-
6000000, and in 2452 higher than 6000000, while the highest erythrocyte counts
found in 34$ of persons of the control group ranged between 4500000-5000000.
Table 5
JSrythrocyte counts of gas-equipped apartment
occupants and of control persons
Erythrocyte
' no.
3335000
3400000—4000000
4000000—4500000
4500000—5000000
5000000—5500000
5500000—6000000
6000000 H Bume
TOTALS
OCCVFANTS OF «AS
EQUIPPEi »PTS. COMTROt «ROIP
HUM! Eft
_
8
24
45
19
3
2
101
%
_
8
24
44
19
3
2
100
NVMIER
1
18
47
34
_
—
!—
100
#
1
18
47
34
—
—
—
100
Carboxyhemoglobin was determined photometrically by the method of
Yozhikov, and was found to range between 1.85-27.75$. Carboxyhemoglobin
concentration was in excess of 9% in the blood of 62% of the studied
individuals, with an average of 9.5-10$. Carboxyhemoglobin concentrations
in the bloods of the control group averaged 2.98$.
Table 6
Carboxy-hemoglobin in the blood of gas-equipped
apartment occupants
$6 OF HiCO
0-2
3—5
5,5—8
9—11
12-15
16-19
20—27.75
TOTALS
NO. OF PERSONS
3
9
30
42
20
5
1
110
%%
3
8
27
38
18
5
1
100
Occupants of gasified apartments were examined for their arterial blood
pressure, pulse rhythm and temperature changes. Of eighty examined in-
dividuals 48.75$ had symptoms of hypotonicity, and of 111 persons 39$ had
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hypothermia and 21% had a pulse rate of over 86 beats per minute.
Sensory-dermsl flexor and extensor chronaxies of the forearm, optical,
and motor chronaxies of the general finger flexor and extensor apparatus
were investigated in 20 persons, and 15 controls. Results are listed in
Table 7.
Table 7
Averages of rheobase and chronaxy in the test persons
and in the controls
OtJECT
CUTANEOUS FLEXOR OF THE SUPER-
FICIAL AMTIIRACHIAL ......
FLEXOR II6ITORKM COHHDNIS ...
EXTENSOR ItSITORUM COHHUNIS . .
TEST SUIJECTS CONTROL PERSONS
RNEOIASE
20,4
20,6
13,6
29
30.6
CHRONAXY
0,176
0.257
2,05
0.193
0.245
RHEOIASE
19.6
21
14
30
31
CHRONAXY
0.105
0,182
1.904
0,105
0.153
Data in that table show that the chronaxy of the test group was delayed as
compared with the chronaxy of the controls. It is reasonable to assume
that the prolonged chronaxy was the result of the persons' chronic ex-
posure to the inhalation of low CO concentrations in the air of their
apartments. In other words, chronic exposure to low CO concentrations in
the surrounding air affected the nervous system.
Conclusions.
1. The air of the investigated living apartments was considerably
polluted with carbon monoxide primarily coming from gas burning heaters
and stoves. Determined CO concentrations in the indoor air at all seasons
of the year exceeded the allowable maximal CO concentrations in the atmos-
pheric air of residential sections by 1.5 up to 35.5 times.
2. Concentrations of carbon monoxide and per cent of relative humidity
were greater in the air of residences equipped with individual gas heaters
than in the air of centrally gas heated apartments.
3. Sixty-five of 80 interrogated occupants of gas equipped apartments
complained of head-aches, pain around the heart, vertigo, nausea, vomiting,
general debility, rapid fatigability, etc. Occupant housewives had an
average hemoglobin of 77-80$, as against normal 70-71$, and their erythrocyte
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counts were also higher. Blood carboxyhemoglobin was above 9% in 62%
of the investigated persons, with an average of 9*5-10$. About 33.5$ of
the investigated housewives manifested symptoms of hypotonia and hypo-
thermy. General chronaxy in the investigated persons was delayed as
compared with the controls. Subjective complaints, blood changes, arter-
ial blood pressure and increase in chronaxy in chronic exposure to the
inhalation of carbon monoxide can not be accounted for by anoxy alone; the
direct action of carbon monoxide on tissues and cells of organisms must
also be taken into account.
4. The results generally indicated that the use of shale gas for
domestic purposes by means of open gas burning can result in chronic
intoxication.
5. Based on the results of this investigation it is suggested that
suitable means be adopted for the sanitization of open gas burning resi-
dences and that shale gas consumption be limited to industrial plants
where the combustion of the gas should be done in gas leakproof and
rationally built combustion chambers.
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Atmospheric Air Dustiness of Kalinin and City
Street Eye Traumatism
E, Po Nagorova
(Department of General Hygiene, Kalinin Medical Institute).
A study was made in 1955 - 58 of the effect of industrial discharges
on the atmospheric air dust density of Kalinity city and of the correlation
"between the latter and the frequency of street eye trauma occurrence in
that city. Samples were collected by the aspiration method and by several
sedimentations methods at 6 selected city points, one of which was used as
the control point. A total of 289 samples were collected by the sedimen-
tation methods and 108 by the aspiration method. Results of snow sedimen-
tation samples indicated that averages of annual dust sedimentation ranged
P
between 349•7 and 541»5 g/m and that the rate of dust sedimentation in
the industrial region was 4 times as high as in the center of the city and
31 times as high as at the control point outside the city bounds. Highest
atmospheric dust density was noted during the months of September and
2
February-April. Particle counts per 1 cm ranged between 15 and 214 in the
city center and between 36 and 4449 in "the industrial region. Dispersion
composition of dust settling upon a horizontal surface was as follows!
up to 5n - 90»3$, 5 H and over - 9.1%, and on a vertical surface 83,7 and
16.3$ correspondingly. Results of the aspiration method brought out the
fact that dust density in the air of the city center exceeded the limit of
officially allowed concentration by 3 times and in the air of the indus-
trial region by a range of 11 - 30 times, and that during cold months, when
heating furnaces were in operation, the dust concentrations in the air were
twice as high as during the warm seasons of the year.
Street eye trauma occurrences were recorded on specially designed
charts. Data contained in 583 such charts were subjected to statistical
analysis. Results indicated that street eye traumas constituted 9«4$ of
the total of eye diseases in the residential part of the city and up to
29.3$ in the industrial section. Lowest number of eye traumas occurred in
the center of the city, which did not exceed 0.4$. In the majority of cases
(58.4$) eye traumas were caused by coal particles and fly-ashj eye traumas
caused by sand particles constituted 11.1$ of the total of eye damage.
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Analysis of results brought out a direct correlation between the inten-
sity of atmospheric air dustineas and the frequency of street eye trauma
appearance.
Highest atmospheric air dust density was recorded in the city section
in which the industrial plants were located, especially on the side ex-
posed to the wind which included the heat and power electric station, the
train cars building plants, etc.; this considerably worsened the quality
of the air not only in the direct vicinity of the plants' location but of
the air basin on the lee side of the plants. It was recommended that all
industrial plants which contributed to the city air dust and fly-ash
density be equipped with high efficiency dust catching installations.
Rostov-on-Don Atmospheric Air Pollution with Auto-Traffic
Exhaust Carbon Monoxide
L. G. Milokostova and K. A. Prokopenko.
(Rostov Institute of Epidemiology, Microbiology, and Hygiene)
Rostov-on-Don is a terminal and junction point for the Caucasus, Donbas,
and Moscow auto-traffic. In addition it has a heavy automobile traffic of
its own. Air pollution with automobile exhaust gases was studied at four
main highways at five observation points located where automobile traffic
was high and boiler smoke was either absent or at its minimum. Points 1,
3, and 4 were located at large main auto highways with a two-way intensive
movement of all types of automobiles and trucks. The main highways were
41-43 meters wide; houses at points 1 and 3 were 4 - 5 stories high and at
point 4 the houses were 1-3 stories high. The streets were lined with
trees. At point 1 the autotraffic averaged 600 machines per hour with a
maximum of 800 machines per hour; at point 3 the numbers were correspondingly
700 and 1000 and at point 4 they were 500 - 900. Points 2 and 5 were lo-
cated at narrow highways, 12 - 15 meters wide, with 2 - 3 story houses on
both sides. Traffic at point 2 was one-way and at point 5 two-way. Average
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number of machines passing point 2 was 250 per hour, with a maximum of
450, and at point 5 the number was 46? and 700 correspondingly.
Air samples were collected at the observation points through the
months of April-September during the hours of 8 - 19 and through the
months of October-November during the hours of 8-15. Samples were
collected into liter flasks by the salt solution-negative-pressure method
for 1-2 minutes at 1.5 meters above ground; three air samples were
collected at each point: one on the highway proper, one on the sidewalk,
and one close to the decorative trees or bushes. Samples were analyzed
with the aid of gas analyzer TG-5A. The total number of analyses amounted
to 1280. The results clearly indicated that the city air basin was
heavily polluted with carbon monoxide coming from the exhaust gases of
automobiles passing by the observation points at the rate of 200-600 per
hour. The CO concentrations in the atmospheric air ranged between 1.5-80
mg/m , and samples with CO concentrations exceeding the officially allowable
concentration limit for CO constituted 87«7#» Generally, the CO concen-
trations varied in some direct proportion to the number of passing auto-
mobiles; CO concentrations also varied with the nature of the terrain,
certain other local conditions and also with the meteorological conditions.
Highest CO concentrations were found in the summer samples. The curve of
CO air concentrations ran a course closely parallel with the curve of number
of machines passing per hour. At 15-16 o'clock the CO concentration in-
creased, followed by a drop, but at 19 o'clock it was higher than in the
morning, despite the fall in the number of passing machines, as a result of
CO accumulation during the day. This phenomenon could not be noted at any
single point during one day's observation, since the machine traffic varied
considerably. CO concentrations of samples collected at any one observation
point on the highway proper, on the sidewalk or close to the trees or
decorative shrubs differed insignificantly, being slightly lower in the
samples collected farthest away from the highway proper. Air samples
collected in nearby squares (small parks) during the hour of 19 had a CO
concentration below the official limit of allowable concentration.
No CO was detected by the method of analysis used in the air samples
collected at the control point in suburb Leskhoz. Under identical or
similar rates of automobile traffic, samples of air collected at the wider
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main highways contained lower CO concentrations than did samples collected
at narrower highways, probably due to more intensive air circulation and
ventilation. As a result of the present study appropriate practical means
have been adopted intended for the sanitization of the atmospheric air of
Rostov-on-Don and for the protection of its population's health.
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PART FOUR
Six Selected Papers From
Gigiena i Sanitariya
1960 - 1961
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Cases of Phenol Vapor Poisoning During Coke Slaking with
Phenol Water
V. I. Petrov.
(Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 25, No. 2, 60-62, I960).
The discharge of phenol waste water into river Dneper by coke-
chemical plants was prohibited in 1956, which led to the use of such
waste water for coke slaking. In October, 1956, when the phenol-
containing waste water began to be used for coke slaking purposes,
workers were heard to complain of phenol poisoning symptoms, especially
those who worked in close association with the process of coke slaking.
Between 1956 and 1958 the medical service registered 29 cases, 20 of
which were registered in 1956, 7 in 1957 and 2 in 1958. In 5 instances
the phenol poisoning was so severe that the workers were unable to report
for duty. M. V. Lazarev indicated in his book "Harmful Industrial
Substances", Fart 1, published in Leningrad in 1954, that phenol vapor
poisoning was possible, especially while phenol was heated, also phenol
poisoning by fine phenol dust, which was formed during phenol vapor
condensation in cold air.
Prior to the utilization of phenol-containing waste water for coke
slaking no cases of phenol poisoning were observed; therefore, it was
assumed that the reported instances were due to vaporized phenols and
phenolates formed during slaking of the red-hot coke with the phenol-
containing waste water. Accordingly, studies were initiated of the air
medium beginning in October 17, 1956. Results indicated that phenol
concentrations in the air of workrooms ranged between 0.0005 - 0.0122
mg/li on 17, between 0.0024 - 0.0044 mg/li on 25, 0.0016 - 0.0088 mg/li
on 26, 0.002 - 0.0061 mg/li on 27, etc. The data indicated that in some
instances phenol concentrations in the air of working premises exceeded
the allowable 0.005 og/li concentration. Simultaneously, a series of
analyses were made of the air of some other plant departments. Results
showed that the content of cyanide vapors amounted to 0.000005 n"g/li»
ammonia 0.011 mg/li, benzene 0.014 - 0.019 mg/li, etc. In other words,
concentrations of these substances were all below the allowable concen-
-219-
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tration limits. Accordingly, it was assumed that these substances could
not have been responsible for the poisoning symptoms. Therefore, it
was recommended that the phenol-containing waste water must be diluted to
a considerable degree with phenol-free technical waste water for use
in coke slaking. It was hoped that such a procedure might reduce the
concentration of phenol vapor in the air of working premises below the
level of the maximal allowable concentration.
Care was taken to exclude the possibility of the simultaneous
discharge of large volumes of waste water by different plant departments}
this was paralleled by laboratory control over the dilution of phenol-
containing waste water and the general condition of air in the coke
producing department. The plant laboratory recorded the following phenol
concentrations in the water used in coke slakingi in 1957 it ranged be-
tween 0.326 - 0.813 g/li and in 1958 between 0.44 - 0.63 g/li. Data
presented in the following graph indicate that the average monthly phenol
concentration in the air of the coke producing department in mg/li fluc-
tuated considerably during 1957-1958. Such fluctuations depended upon
the efficient operation of the steam dephenolizing installation, the
original raw material, the output volume, etc. It should be noted in
this connection that the limits of phenol concentration fluctuations in
Mt/JI
o.oi t.o-
>SS8t.
Phenol concentrations in phenol water used in coke slaking
in relation to phenol concentrations in the air of different
coke making plant sections
I. PHENOL CONCENTRATIONS IN WATER; 2. PHENOL CONCENTRATION IN TNE AIR OF RAMP-
FIRST «RAIE; 3. PHENOL CONCENTRATION IN THE AIS OF RAMP - SEC:B» SRA»E; 4. PHENOL
CONCENTRATION IN TNE AIR OF COKE 8RAIIN6 - FIRST 6RAIE; 5.-PHENOL CONCENTRATION
IN COKE-CRAIINC - SECONI 6RAIE.
-220-
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the air of the coke producing department at the ramps and coke grading
of first and second grade, were lower in 1937 than in 1958. The phenol
concentration in the air of the coke plant only slightly exceeded the
allowable level during April and June of 1957* a* the coke sorting
section of the first grade, and during October - December at the coke
sorting section of the second grade.
On the other hand, during 10 months of 1958 the phenol concentration
in the air of the coke processing department at different sections
considerably exceeded the allowable maximal concentration during 1958.
This may have been due to meteorological conditions prevailing in 1958,
when precipitation, cloudy foggy days and days of heavy low clouds
prevailed.
Conclusions.
1. Poisoning with phenol vapor occurred among workers employed at
the ramp and first and second grade coke sorting sections of the coke
producing department, when maximal phenol vapor concentrations in the
air ranged between 0.088 - 0.0122 mg/li as a result of coke slaking
with undiluted phenol-containing waste water.
2. The maximal phenol vapor concentration in the air of the coke
producing plant was lowered by partial dilution of the phenol-containing
waste water used in coke slaking with phenol-free technical water; how-
ever, in such cases, and under unfavorable conditions, the maximum
phenol vapor concentration at isolated points of the coke producing
plant still exceeded the allowable concentration limit.
3. Use of waste water containing more than 0.3 g/li of phenol
occasionally resulted in air concentrations exceeding the allowable
0.005 mg/li concentration limit in the air.
4. Sanitary-hygienic considerations prohibit the use of waste
water containing more than 0.3 g/li of phenol for coke slaking purposes.
Waste water concentrations containing less than 0.3 g/li of phenol can
be attained by diluting the phenol-containing waste water with 1-1/2
times its volume of phenol-free technical water.
5. The most rational means of eliminating the possibility of
workers' intoxication with phenol vapor at ramp and coke sorting sections
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of the plant is the replacement of manual coke slaking by an automatic
process which did not require the presence of workers.
A Study of Atmospheric Air Pollution by Discharges from
Synthetic Fatty Acids and Alcohol Producing Indur£~ies
F. I. Dubrovskaya
(Moscow F. F. Erisman Scientific Research Institute of Hygiene, Ministry
of Health of the RSFSR)
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 26, No. 1, 7-10, 1961
The basic raw material for the production of synthetic fatty acids
is a mixture of natural and synthetic paraffin hydrocarbons. Synthetic
fatty acids are prepared by atmospheric air oxidation of paraffin hydro-
carbons in the presence of potassium permanganate as the catalyst. Syn-
thetic fatty alcohols are prepared by direct atmospheric air oxidation
of paraffin hydrocarbons in the presence of boric acid as the catalyzer.
The investigated industrial combine which produced synthetic fatty
acids and alcohols included a synthetic fatty acids plant, a synthetic
^
fatty alcohols plant, a high-molecular fatty alcohol and detergent indus-
trial pilot installation, and a gas-producing and an electric heat and
power station. The combine was located in the center of the city in
direct proximity to residential areas. The study of atmospheric air
pollution by discharges from the combine was conducted during the
winter-spring (March-April) and summer (June-July) periods. Air
samples were collected on the lee side of the combine 250 to 3000-5000 m
from the plant.
The total content of fatty acid (calculated as Cj-Cq acids), unsat-
urated hydrocarbons, ketones (calculated as acetone), formaldehyde, and
hydrocarbons (C) were determined in the samples. Air samples for hydro-
carbons (C) were collected in gas pipettes; air samples for all other
-222-
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substances were collected by post-graduate student L. F. Kachora,
using absorption apparatus equipped with porous^plates filled with the
suitable solutions. Hydrocarbons (C) were determined by the combustion
method in a gas analyzer and by titrating the carbon dioxide with a
bariun, oxide solution; the total fatty acids were determined titrimetri-
cally, and the formaldehyde colorimetrically with the aid of the chromo-
tropic acid reaction. Unsaturated hydrocarbons were determined by the
usual bromination reaction, and acetone by the formation of iodoform.
Samples were collected for 20 - 40 minutes, depending on the distance
from the plant at the rate of 1 li/min for fatty acids, and 0.5 li/min
for the other substances.
The fatty acids plant and the pilot plant for higher fatty alcohols
were in operation during the winter-spring when air samples were being
collected. The plant producing synthetic fatty alcohols was put into
operation in the summer of that year with the exception of the sulfona-
tion section. The production process in the alcohol plant was a closed
chain operation, with 5 - 10# of the total air volume being expelled into
the atmosphere through a 30 m high stack. Most of the synthetic fatty
acids plant's discharge gases came from the oxidation columns; they were
thrown into the atmospheric air through three stacks 35 m high. These
gases were burned by means of natural gas in a contact furnace during the
summer months. According to the data accumulated by the combine, the
waste gases contained 7 mg/li of organic matter before combustion and
2 mg/li after combustion; this was due to the faulty design of the combus-
tion furnace;—the damper did not fit tightly and caused the exhaust air,
which left the furnace after combustion, to mix with the air which
entered the furnace.
A total of 1252 air samples were collected for analysis 580 during
winter and spring and 672 during the summer. Results listed in Tables
(1,2) indicate that the atmospheric air was continually polluted during
the winter-spring period by the combine discharges, especially by
hydrocarbons, fatty acids, and unsaturated hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons
were found in all samples with maximal single concentrations of 56.4 mg/m
at 1500 m from the plant. Fatty acids were found in 54$ of all samples
with maximum single concentrations of 56.16 mg/m at 250 m from the plant.
-223-
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Table 1
Concentrations of fatty aoida, hydrocarbons and unsaturated hydro-
oarbpns in the atmospheric air (winter-fall) period
METERS nor
cjMimi
NO. OF SAMPLES
TOTAL
MINT
TRACES
Pco»etmuTiow n m PER ««•
MINIMAL
MAXIMAL
AVERAtE
• MITBR M All
MOST FNEQNENT
CORCENTRATIOIIS
HYMOCARIOIS
250
500
750
1000
1500
18
36
14
18
4
—
9,60
6.24
1,80
12.20
14,4
52.8
49.20
36.0
33 ,6
56,4
32.00
25.77
18.55
20.80
37,5
9,60—43.2
6.24—39.6
1 .80—29.2
12.2 —26.4
14,4 —42.0
UN8ATUMTEI NVtROCARNORS
1
250
500
750
1000
1500
24
29
19
22
4
14
16
8
9
1
0,80
0.10
0,41
0.40
0,80
5.0
6.6
13.4
2,80
2.19
0.87
1.09
2.62
1.12
1,00
0,8 — 2.90
0. 10— 4 .39
0.41— 4,85
0.40— 2.80
0,8 — 2.19
FATTY ACI»S
250
500
750
1000
1500
24
30
19
23
4
10
16
6
11
3
1,80
1 ,44
1,80
1.44
0,00
56,16
32,02
7,20
28.0
2,34
11.20
1.02
3.08
1,12
0,58
1.80—38.88
1,44—13.04
1.80— 7.2
1,44_14,4
0.00— 2.34
Table 2
Concentrations of acetone and formaldehyde in the atmospheric
air (winter-fall) period
METERS FRO*
CONRINE
HO. OF SAMPLES
TOTAL
FAINT
TRAeiS
CONCENTRATIONS IN Nt FER CMIC METER OF AIN
MINIMAL
MAXIMAL
AVERAGE
MOST FREQUENT
com m AT IONS
ACETONE
250
500
750
1000
1500
24
30
19
23
4
1
12
18
14
14
2
0.11
0,14
0,26
0,0002
0,00
0.70
6,20
2,10
2,22
0,13
0,16
0,37
0,27
0,20
0.06
0,11—0,51
0,14—1,04
0,26—2,00
0,0002—0.20
FORHALNERYM
250
500
750
1000
1500
24
30
19
23
4
18
30
17
21
4
0,005
0,00
0,01
0,005
0,00
0,02
0.00
0,02
0,02
0,00
0,004
0.00
0.002
0,001
0,00
0, 005-8.02
0.00
0,01—0.02
0.005-0,02
-224-
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Unsaturated hydrocarbons were found in 51% of all samples, with, a
maximum single concentration of 13.4 mg/m . Formaldehyde concentrations
were below the allowable concentration limit (0.033 mg/m for atmospheric
air).
Analytical results of summer samples .are shown in Table 3.
Table 3
Concentrations of fatty acids, hydrocarbons and
unsaturated hydrocarbons in the atmospheric air
Summer period
NETIRS FROM
COHRINC
HO. OF SAMPLES 1 CONCENTRATIONS IN NC PER CM 1C METER OF AIR
i
TOTAL
'AINT
TRACES
Ml III HAL
MA1IHAL
AVERAGE
HOST FREQUENT
CONCENTRATIONS
250
500
750—1 000
1 500-1 700
2000
2500—3000
5000
15
18
28
18
14
25
3
7
5
13
5
3
3
1
4,8U
2.40
0,90
3,0
1.30
3,0
22,50
90,0
48,0
30.0
30,0
50,0
30.00
39.0
19.52
9,01
5.9%
10.70
15.84
11.504
20,50
4,80— 20,u
2.40—15.6
0.90— 14. C
3.0 —22.0
• 1,30—22.6
3,0—21.0
UNSATORATER RYMOCAMONS
250
500
750—1 000
1 500—1 700
2000
2 500-3 000
5000
14
26
33
17
19
26
4
0
13
9
6
9
14
4
0,30
0,30
0,30
0 CO
0.10
0.60
0,00
8,00
3.40
6.80
4,00
f.,00
3,60
,20
,01
,876
.57
,07
0,873
5,00
0,30—3.66
0,30—3.40
0,30-5.00
0 6(7—4,00
0.10-3.80
0.60—3.60
FATTY A.CIR*
250 i
500
750—1 000 !
1 500—1 700 I
20CO i
2 500—3 000
5000 i
14
26
31
18
18
26
4
4
14
15
6
14
9
4
3.40
2,52
2,10
1,10
4.40
0,C5
O.G'J
25.4
27,2l
!G, 8
78,0'
10.6
?.C 91
0.00
7,67
4,41
3.14
11,92
1,81
6. 004
0.00
3.40— IS, U
1 2,52-14.3
i 2,10— M. 2
i 1 10-13,2
! 4.4U-5.00
j 0.65—29.2
1
i. WASTE RASES WERE NOT RIRRER.
Results show that hydrocarbons were found in 10% of 121 samples. Concen-
trations of 63, ?8, and 90 mg/m were found in three samples collected on
the same day at 250 m from the plant. Such high hydrocarbon concentra-
tions can be explained by gas leaking through cracks in the sides of the
contact furnace, caused by the high temperature generated in the process
-225-
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of waste gas burning. Fatty acids were found in 52$, and unsaturated
hydrocarbons in ^6% of 137 samples. Acetone and formaldehyde were
found only in individual cases, and in practically all samples in con-
centrations below the sensitivity limit of the analytical procedure.
Acetor.e was found in 4 of 114 samples collected at 250, 500, 750, and
2500-3000 m from the pi^t in concentrations of 0.08 (2§0 m) to 3.7 mg/m*
(500 m). In 114 tests formaldehyde was found in 2 of 114 samples in
concentrations of 0.010 (500 m) and 0.016 mg/m (750 m). Analysis of the
test results indicated that air pollutant concentrations were considerably
greater in the air samples collected during the winter months.
m ,, . A questionnaire was sent out to
Table 4
Analysis of answers to questioner 494 persons residing in an area of a
""""coHJu.m * 3000 m radius around the combine.
01OR ftF IRRIGATION » .,
•AS & OF R ESP IRA- Among the answers were numerous oom-
IgST TION OMARS
250 W 77~" 5T plaints of a definitely unpleasant
CSAA 14.9 4k oit
1000 95 '95 14 odor» a amelioration in the general
3000 iOO ^ as state of well-being, labored breathing,
inability to ventilate living quarters,
etc. When the wind was blowing from
the plant in the direction of the residential section, the unpleasant odor
penetrated into the living quarters, even when the windows were closed.
Therefore, it was suggested that the air in the vicinity of the combine
be sanitized by complete burning of the waste gases and that all incidental
gas leakage be stopped by complete equipment hermetization, especially
when the contact furnace was operating.
Bibliography.
A .ia en 5. C. ri;poH3BOflcrBO cirHTcrimecKiix /KirpnMx KTCJIOT. M., 1952. — AJICK-
veeaa M. B. OnpeaejieHHe arMocifepHbix sarpaaHemnii. M., 1959. — H e n o q a rti x A. F7.
HutpopM. 6K>Afl. HayfHO-HCMea. HH-ra can. H PHF. HM. 0. 0. 3pHCM3Ha, 1957, Xs 6—7,
rrp. 81.
-226-
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Toxilogical Properties of Mercurane — A New Insectofungicide
V. Ya. Belashov
Faculty of Labor Hygiene, Kiyev Medical Institute
Gigiena i Sanitariya; Vol. 26, No. 1, 40-43, 1961
Mercurane, a highly effective insectofungicide, has been recently
widely used in the agricultural industry; it is a mixture of 2%
ethylmercuric chloride (EMC) and 12% Y~isomer °? hexachloro-cyclohexane
(HCCH), with talc or kaolin as a filler. Mercurane has been used to
protect winter rye and wheat, summer wheat, and barley crops against
click beetles and fruit flies, and summer and winter wheat against fungous
diseases. Mercurane has also been effective in the treatment of cotton
and flax seeds before sowing. The toxicity of EMC has been studied
experimentally by L. I. Medved, N. S. Pavdin, and S. N. Kremneva,
I. M. Trakhtenberg, S. I. Ashbel, S. A. Troitskii, et al. The toxicity
of HCCH and its Y~isomei> has been studied, and is still being investigated,
by E. N. Burkatska, A. P. Volkova, et al. But the toxicity of mercurane,
i.e., the mixture of EMC and y~isomer HCCH, has not been studied up to the
present. The toxilogicology of mercurane cannot be judged on the basis of
the toxic properties of its components. It was necessary, therefore, to
determine experimentally the toxicity of EMC and y-isomer HCCH in different
combinations. Such a study was conducted by the method of comparisons
EMC and ^-isomer HCCH were obtained from a scientific research institute
of insectofungicides, and a mixture of these components was prepared in
2:12 (ls6) ratio. Acute and chronic experiments were conducted with
white mice, administering the mercurane subcutaneously, by inhalation
and by mouth.
It has been known that EMC was considerably more effective as an
insectofungicide than the Y-isomer of HCCH, on the basis of which it was
assumed that the toxicity of mercurane to animals might prove higher than
of the Y-i30mer of HCCH, and lower than the toxicity of EMC. However,
results of acute tests with laboratory animals showed that mercurane was
less toxic than the Y~isomer of HCCH. Thus, when a 125 mg/kg of mercur-
ane was administered per os to rabbits, death occurred on the 4-5^h day,
whereas when the animals were poisoned by the same dose of -f-isonieT HCCH
-227-
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they died on the 2-3rd day. Administration of a 200 mg/kg of mercurane
per £s_ to mice killed all animals within 3 days. The same dose of
y-isomer HCCH killed all mice within 24 hours.
Tests were then made with white mice with mixtures of the two
compounds in different ratios. Simultaneously, I*DIQQ was determined for
EMC and y-isomer HCCH. Results are shown in the table below. As shown
by the data in the table, LD100 for EMC was 60 mg/kg and 200 mg/kg for
y-isomer HCCH. Doses of mercurane was administered to white mice intra-
gastrically which contained 14.3$ of the LD100 of EMC and ^5.7$ of
LD1QO of y-isomer HCCH. In this dose the EMC:Y-isomer HCCH was 2:12 or
1:6 which is the same as in the commercial mercurane. (This is a gross
Time of white mice death following a single per _os administration
of EMC, gamma-isomer-HCCH and of mercurane
PREPARATION
EMC
GAMMA-ISOMER
HCCH
MERCURANE
IOSE
60 IJ/KS ....
200 M8/KC . . .
14.3^ OF LETHAL
u. . u>
O -1 -J
• £ r
O ft. —
Ul •<
10
10
IAY ANIMALS IIEt
3: X
1- XXXXXfr-t-
— CM fr> ^ ID VO 1^ <5 — —
10
10
X.
£
HOSE OF EMC ANI
85.7* OF LETHAL
IOSE OF «AMMA-
ISOMER-HCCH ... 20 10 4 I I I III
MIXTURE OF 23& OF LETHAL
EMC ANI SAMMA BOSE OF EMC &
ISOMER HCCH T3fa OF GAMMA-ISO*
MER-HCCH. .... 20 |2 3 I 2 I I
MIXTURE OF 50$ OF LETHAL
EMC ANI 8AMMA- IOSE OF EMC ANI
ISOMER-HCCH 75$ OF LETHAL
IOSE OF GAMMA-
ISOMER-HCCH. . . 20 II 7 I I
error: 4.3$ of 60 is 8.58 and 85.?$ of 200 is 1?1.4. The ratio between
8.58:171.4 is 1:20 or 2:40 and not 2:12. Hence, the next statement is
ill-founded. B.S.L.). In other words, the quantity of mercurane adminis-
tered was one which would cause the death of all animals within 24 hours.
However, of the 20 mice to which this dose was administered, 10 died on
the 1st day, 4 on the 2nd, and the remaining 6 died within 16 days after
administration. In the second test of this series a 25$ fatal dose of
EMC and a 75$ fatal dose of y-isomer HCCH were administered to 20 mice.
(Again actual materials were 15 and 150, a ratio of 1:10 or 2:20 and not
-228-
-------
1»3 or 2:6. B.S.L.) Twelve mice died on the 1st day, 3 mice on the 2nd,
and the remaining 5 within 9 days. In the 3rd test a 50% fatal dose of
both EMC and y-isoiaer HCCH was administered to 20 mice, (in which case
actual material was 30 and 100 or 3:10 and not 1:1. B.S.L.). Eleven mice
died within 24 Lours, 7 on the 2nd day, and the last 2 on the 3rd and 5th
days after injection. When a solution of EMC and mercurane was adminis-
tered subcutaneously, necrosis developed in the white rats as early as
2 and 3 days after injection. These tests were discontinued. Necrosis
was less pronounced in white mice, L^TAA ^oses were °f ^e same magni-
tude whether administered subcutaneously or intragastrically in the case
of EMC and y-isomer HCCH.
Mercurane proved of higher toxicity than y-isomer HCCH in chronic
experiments with rabbits which received daily intragaftric administrations
of identical combination doses of EMC and of y-isomer HCCH. Mercurane
and y-isoiner HCCH proved equally toxic in experiments with white mice
which received 20 mg/kg of each of the preparations. Thus, the intra-
gastric administration of 20 mg/kg of mercurane to each of 20 white mice
killed all the experimental animals within 15 and 39 days and similarly
20 mice administered 20 mg/kg of y-isomer HCCH died within 21 to 47 days.
A group of white mice were subjected daily to 6-hour inhalations of
air containing 0.001 mg/li of mercurane. All mice died within 18 - 62
days. All white mice exposed to the inhalation of y-isomer HCCH under
identical conditions died within 27 - 71 days. Thus, the results indic-
ated that mercurane possessed a higher toxicity than y-isomer HCCH.
A study of the clinical picture of acute poisoning of white mice and
rats with mercurane showed the following: in the early stages of the
experiments the animals exhibited motor stimulation, which was rapidly
replaced by depression and arhythmic respiration, accompanied by cyanosis
of the tips of ears and tail; this was followed by exaggerated reflex
excitability, motor ataxia, pareses, and later by paralysis first of the
front and then the rear extremeties; the animals fell into a lateral
position, manifested a sudden drop in respiration rate, lost control
over urination and defecation; attacks of clonic spasms became frequent
on the day before death, which turned into tonic spasms, in the course
of which most animals died.
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Autopsies showed plethora of the internal organs and pulmonary tissue
hemorrhages. The gastro-intestinal tract was overfilled and distended,
indicating that it was in an atonic state. Despite persistent normal
appetite the experimental animals gradually lost weight. As this con-
dition progressed, motor and respiratory discoordination set in, followed
by paralysis and by clonic and tonic spasms.
Hematological changes caused by the action of EMC were previously
investigated by V. E. Belashov, and effects of y-iBomr HCCH were
studied by A. P. Volkova and by E. N.Burkatskaya. This author exposed
white mice to the inhalation of air containing 0.1 - 0.12 mg/li of mer-
curane vapor and administered intragastrically 123 mg/kg of mercurane
to rabbits. A hemotologic study showed the following changes: accelera-
tion of the erythrocyte sedimentation time, a notable reduction in the
number of erythrocytes, a relative eosinopenia and lymphopenia, and a
pronounced leukocytesis with a neutrophilic shift to the left. Cellular
elements of the bone marrow were changed qualitatively, vacuoles appeared
in the mononuclear nuclei and protoplasms and karyorrhexis of the
eosinophils and lymphocytes was .noted.
Hematological changes often developed before any other visible
manifestations of intoxication appeared in the course of repeated daily
poisoning of white mice and rabbits with mercurane vapor. A shortening
of the erythrocyte sedimentation time, which became most pronounced
(66 mm/hr) on the day proceeding the animals' death was noted almost from
the first days of poisoning with mercurane vapor in 0.001 mg/li concen-
tration. Leukocytosis with a pronounced neutrophilic shift to the left
and an intensified proliferation of the myeloid elements in the bone
marrow developed simultaneously. Symptoms of anemia became slowly inten-
sified somewhat later. Hyperplasia of an erythremic growth was observed
in the bone marrow during this period. On the eve of the animal's death
the hemopoietic picture as a whole has markedly changed; this was accom-
panied by the appearance of pronounced vital-granular erythrocytes,
normoblasts, a drop in the poikilocytes, and anisocytes in the peripheral
blood, leukopenia with a neutrophilic shift to the left, a substantial drop
in the number of lymphocytes, the appearance of medium cells with
vacuuolized protoplasm, the disappearance of eosinophila, and the
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-------
appearance of neutrophils with toxic granules. A study of the myelograms
showed in addition sharp changes in the cellular structure of the bone
marrow in the white mice in the form of atrophy of the erythroid,
especially of a myeloid element, and as the relative increase in the
number of cells showing toxic granules and vacuoles in the protoplasms,
and as a reduction in the number of mitoses.
Thus, mercurane affected warm-blooded animals differently in acute
and in chronic experiments. In acute experiments its toxicity was some-
what less pronounced than the toxicity of either the EMC or the y-isomer
HCCH components, pointing to a possible antagonistic reaction. Indeed,
L. I. Medved and L. G. Serebrenaya found that EMC lowered blood pressure
and depressed respiration when administered intravenously, and A. P.
Volnova and E. N. Burkatskaya found that y-isomer HCCH raised blood
pressure and stimulated respiration, which pointed to the rise of a so-
called "physiological" antagonism when EMC and Y-isomer HCCH are admin-
istered in combination. Results of animals chronical-poisoning with
mercurane showed that it was slightly less toxic than the y-isomer HCCH
and considerably less toxic than EMC. This could not be explained on
the basis of a simple summation of the toxic effects of EMC and y-isomer
HCCH. The higher toxicity of mercurane in the chronic experiment may
have been due to the fact that one of the ingredients, namely, EMC,
had considerably more pronounced cumulative properties manifested during
chronic poisoning.
The air of industrial workrooms processing mercurane always contained
higher concentrations of y-isomer HCCH vapor than it should have
according to the 1:6 ratio of the mercurane components. Taking this into
consideration, it is recommended that the air of such workrooms be tested
for each mercurane component individually.
Medical examinations of individuals who come into contact with
mercurane, should necessarily include a complete morphological blood
test, since it was found that changes in the blood picture appeared
earlier than other symptoms of intoxication.
Bibliography.
-231-
-------
AuiGe^h C. H. 'B jtH.:.riirncHa. TOKCHKOJionia H K.IHHIIKH IIOBWX niicvKTnyHrHUji
«OB. M.. 1959, crp. 328. — B a n a lu n B B. E. Bpa^. aojio, 1959, Ni 6, crfi. 625. — - B o n
Kona A. M >Ke, 1951, .Vs 1. crp. 48. — T p o n u K n ft C. A., K o ji e c H H KO-
sa 'H. B., CM'iipnoua B. K. Tesiicw JOK.I. Hayiinofi KniKtiepeiiunH FfmLKoncK. HH-Ta
nirwHM rpvja H npcx)>3a6o.neBaiirHii, nocosm. wroraM nayiiio-ncc.iea. ipaOoiu sa 1955 r..
1956. crp. 33.
Photoelectric Counting of Organic and Inorganic Aerosol Particles
V. S. Kitneko, lu. P. Safronov, S. I. Kudryavtsev,
R. I. Elman, B. F. Fedorov, N. I. Pushchin, and
A. A. Fedorovich
Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 26, No. 2, 47-53, 1961.
The determination of aerosol concentrations of different origin is
of considerable value in solving problems of sanitary bacteriology,
microbiology, epidemilogy, and of prophylactic and therapeutic medicine.
The usual methods of counting particles, such as sedimentation, filtration,
precipitation, are time consuming, laborious, subjective, and variable.
Gucker, O'Konaki, Pickard, Pitts, Gucker and O'Konski, Ferry Farr,
Hartman, and others attempted to use photoelectric counters in their
studies of bacterial air suspensions. Their methods were based on the
principle of counting electrical impulses emanating from a photoelement
as a result of light reflected by particulates in a special chamber.
The purpose of the present study was to investigate the possible use
of a highly sensitive photoeleotronic device constructed on the principle
of FEU-25 in combination with an amplifier and an SB-1M automatic elec-
tronic counter, for the.automatic counting of particles in a VDK contin-
uous flow ultramicroscope. It was hoped that the solution to this
problem would make possible counting of aerosol particles of organic and
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inorganic origin.rapidly, objectively, and accurately both in experimen-
tal chambers and in the open air. The possibility of continuous and
automatic counting of aerosol particles in an ultramicroscope by a photo-
element was demonstrated by B. V. Deryagin and G. Ya. Vlasenko in 1931*
The VDK continuous flow ultramicroscope has proven its effectiveness
in many fields of science, but has found only limited application in the
study of bacterial air suspensions. Such a procedure can be widely and
advantageously used in sanitary-hygienic practice not only for the *
determination of air dust particles but for simultaneous determination
of the number of microorganisms in it.
The instrument for ultramicroscopic research was developed in 1943
by Deryagin and Vlasenko. With this device the observer's eye perceives
brief flashes of light against a dark ground when aerosol particles pass
through the illuminated area. Results of preliminary tests indicated
that it was possible to use the existing design of the VDK continuous
ultramicroscope for making total counts of bacteria in air suspension
in an experimental chamber with greater convenience and accuracy than
by any of the presently used methods. However, it soon became clear
that due to limitations inherent to the human eye accurate counts could
be made only when the number of particulates flowing through the
illuminated area per unit of time was limitedly low, and that visual
counting became impossible when the frequency exceeded 150 flashes per
minute. Furthermore, considerable difficulty was experienced in counting
brief flashes caused by the highly dispersed fraction of the particulate
suspension, and in determining particle sizes by the proportional
illumination reduction method in the area of observation. It should also
be noted that prolonged counting caused eye fatigue, which affected eye
sensitivity.
The present authors developed an ultramicroscopic research method in
which a special photoelectron adapter was used in combination with an
automatic electrical counter which received the suspended particulates
of reflection impulses.
Counting of air suspended particles automatically can be easily
attained by utilizing the electrical impulses created by the reflected
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illumination falling upon the particles when they passed through a light
team in the chamber of a continuous ultramicroscope. The intensity of the
luminocity scattered by a particle was sufficient for proper recording with
the aid of modern commercial photoelectron multipliers, such as FEU-19,
PEU-25, etc. Results indicated that the duration of a light impulse
created by a particle did not exceed 0.5 - 0.6 seconds, and that the
impulse sequence frequency depended on the particle concentration, which
during the experimental period of visual observation did not exceed 120
impulses per minute; this indicated the low efficiency of the visual
method, and emphasized the need and importance of the automatic method
for counting air-suspended particulates of different sizes and origin.
Therefore, an experimental device was designed and constructed for the
automatic counting of aerosol particles, based on the principle of
recording electric impulses created by a luminous flux reflected by
particles. The device was first tested under laboratory conditions. It
consisted of the following components: a photoeleotronic adapter connected
to a VDK continuous ultramicroscope, amplifier, impulse counter, and
power supply. A schematic diagram of the device is shown in Figure 1.
PHOTOELECTRONIC ATTACHMENT I
IOOSTER AMI MRTICLE COUNTER
BH9C ffW8 BW8 6H7C
SH7C
•FOUR MATCHEI RESISTANCE
UNITS IN IOUILES
Fig. 1. Schematic drawing of electronic device for the
automatic counting of air suspended particulates.
-234-
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The photoelectronic adapter converted the luminous flux reflected from
an aerosol particle into an electrical impulse and pre-amplified the
v
electrical signal. The adapter consisted of a type FEU-25 photoelectronic
multiplier and a preamplifier assembled around a 6Zh4 tube; it was built
as a separate unit installed with its opened side in close proximity to
the eyepiece of the VDK continuous ultramicroscope. The amplifier and
impulse counter amplified the electrical impulses to a magnitude
sufficient to trigger a type SB-1M automatic electronic counter. The
amplifier and impulse counter unit consisted of a valvular input cascade
(opening^ and an amplifier control above tube 6N8, a locking input multi-
vibrator over two 6Zh8 tubes, an output multivibrator over tube 6N7, and
an amplifier cascade over tube 6N7, which triggered the automatic electronic
counter.
The electrical flow developed a high voltage going into the photo-
electronic multiplier, the anode plate, and into the incandescent fila-
ment.. The amplifier, impulse counter, and source of power were built as
a single unit connected by a cable with the photoelectronic adapter.
The luminous flux reflected from air suspended particles (bacteria)
falling on the cathode of the photoelectronic multiplier, elicited an
electrical impulse at its output which was magnified in the preamplifier;
it was then fed into the inflowing valvular cascade of the amplifier. The
impulse, amplified to the required magnitude, entered into the electro-
mechanical counter and brought it into action. The optimal impulse
sequence frequency for accurate automatic counter recording was approxi-
mately 100 impulses per second or 6,000 impulses per minute. An error due
to the inertia of the system could occur only when two or more particles
with time intervals of less than 0.01 seconds appeared in the instrument's
field of view, which is a remote possibility, and the error thus caused
could not be in excess of 1%. Special care must be used in increasing the
contrast of the particles by reducing the luminous reflections to a level
sufficiently below the.illumination coming from the background of the
instrument's field of view in order to attain high accuracy of measurements
and to increase the instrument sensitivity.
-235-
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Fig. 2. Outside vitw of the elec-
tronic automatic air-suspended
participates counter.
Fig, 3. Fhotoeleotronio attachment.
Fig. 2 represents an over-
all view of the device for the
automatic counting and recording
of organic and inorganic air
suspended particles. As shown
in the illustration it consists
of an aerosol chamber (l),
ultraniorosoope (2), photoelec-
tric adapter (3), an amplifier
and particle counter unit (4)*
The device is powered by a 127
or 220 v line. Fig. 3 shows
the photoeleotronio adapter
with front and rear covers
removed. It is simple in con-
struction and can be easily
manufactured in any laboratory.
A commercial type B-2 unit can
be used as an amplifier, impulse
counter, and source of power
supply, with slight modifications
in the design, clearly indicated
in the circuit diagram of the
instrument in Fig. 1.
The particle concentration and dispersion composition were checked
using am artificial bacterial aerosol system and atmospheric air with the
aid of a continuous ultramiorosoope equipped with an automatic photoeleo-
tronio counter. The artificial bacterial aerosol was created in a special
500 li chamber into which a water suspension of Chromobaoterium prodigiosum
was sprayed. Different concentrations of a bacterial aerosol system were
created in the chamberi 1 and 3 billion per ml bacterial suspensions
were sprayed in which produced suspension densities of 2 million and
6 million bacteria per 1 li of chamber air. The bacteria were kept in
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suspension by a rotating fan. Particles were counted by the photocell and
visual method. Particle sizes were also determined by the method of
proportional illumination reduction in the field of view. Changes in
bacterial cell concentration as a function of the time the aerosol sys-
tem remained in the chamber was first studied visually in a continuous
ultramioroscope by counting the number of particles per unit volume at,
different time intervals after spraying the bacterial suspension. Results
of the tests are shown in Table 1.
« Table 1
Stability of bactarial aaroaol in relation to tiM
Exporiaantal
condition* * OI6ERVATIOI TIHI
u, * Fit. 4. C»B»B OF IACTERIU
o S MSPENSIOK CMAH4I8 III THE
£ i COOKTIII* •tttHIER. ^
Data in Table 1 and in Fig. 4 indicate that the concentration of
bacterial cella did not change substantially up to 90 minutes} after that
the density of suspended bacterial cells dropped sharply. Differential
dispersion counts were then made during the first 90 minute interval
following the spraying. This was done by two methods. Averages of 200
differential dispersion counts are presented in Table 2.
Data in Table 2 show that the results obtained by the visual and
automatic methods were in close agreement, but the photoeleotronic method
possessed some advantages. An average of 20 particles was detected in
the field of view with the VDK ultramicroscope by the visual method, as
compared with 25 particles by automatic photoeleotronic method, i.e.,
or more. The total number of particles by the differential dispersion
-237-
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Table 2
Comparative particle counts visually
with device VDK and automatically
with the photoelectronic device
(Averages of 200 counts)
counts made by the photoelectric
method exceeded the count made
by the visual method by 1,567
particles using the VDK contin-
uous ultramicroscope.
Similar tests were made with
tobacco smoke. An average of
142,000 aerosol particles per
1 ml was counted visually in the
VDK ultramicroscope with the
diaphragm at 3 and a flow rate
of 0.5 ml/min; whereas the aver-
age count was 223,200 particles
per 1 ml with the photoelectronic
unit, due to the higher sensitivity
of the unit. Thus, the photoelec-
tronic device yielded data consid-
erably closer to the true aerosol
concentration in the chamber than did the visual count with the aid of the
VDK continuous flow microscope.
A comparative study of the sensitivity of the two research methods was
made by proportional illumination reduction in the observation field of
the continuous ultramior««cop«. kesults are shown in Table 3.
Table 3
Dispersion composition of bacterial suspension determined
by VDK (Averages of 200 counts)
VISHAILY
NO. OF PAR-
TICLES III
OCULAR FLI.
30
30
29
15
13
22
23
23
22
25
16
19
11
17
22
18
18
13:
13
18
AVERAGES
20
ARTICLES
PER
ML
9660
9 f>00
' 9?80
4830
4 186
5940
7360
7360 .
5340
8050
4320
6 ('80
2970
5440 .
7040
5760
5760
4 186
4 186
5760
6133
AiTOW TIC ALLY
10. OF PAR-
TICLES REC'I
IV COUNTER
30
27
34
30
24
30
20
25 .
24
29 .
26
33
20
19
30
19
19
20
21
16
25
DO. OF
PARTICLES
PER I HI
9660
8 SCO
10880
9 060
7 P80
9660
6400
8 050
7 680
9280
8320
10 560
6400
6080
9660
6080
6080
6400
6 720
4 320
' 7700
PARTI OLI
IIAMETER
IN HI
TOTAL COM IT
0.2-0,7
0,7-1.3
1.3-2.0
2.0—2,7
2,7-3.4
VISUAL .
DlA-
PRRAtH
3
3
2
1
1
1
TISIILC
com
20
8
4
5
2
1
PARTICLES
PER 1 HI
5450
1915
360
198
70
39
AUTOMATIC PHOT.OELECTRONIC
II A-
PHRACM
3
3
3
1
1
1
VISIRLI
COUNT
25
11
4
10
7
2
PARTICLES
PER | NL
6000
2485
OKA
*roo
397
241
70
-238-
-------
Data in Table 3 also indicate that more air suspended bacterial
cells were recorded by the photoelectronic adapter in combination with
the ultramicroscope, than were counted by the visual method. Series of
tests were then made for the determination of the maximum particle
counting capability of VDK continuous flow ultramicroscope by the photo-
electronic device and visually. Counts were made of particulates sus-
pended in city atmospheric air.
Table 4
Comparative counts of aerosol particles in atmospheric air
VISUAL COUNTS
! ARTICLES PER
OCULAR FIELI
110
140
111
119
140
129
140
118
117
110
119
111
112
113
115
AVERA«ES 120
AISOLUTE GOUMT
PER t ML
35,42.10*
46. 20.10*
35,74 10*
39,60-10'
46.20-10*
42,90-10*
46,20- 10'
39, 40-10*
38.61 10*
35.42-10*
39.60-10*
35.74 10*
36,96-10*
37,i9-IO*
37,95-10*
39,28-10*
PHOTOELECTROHIC AOTOMATIS
PARTICLES PER
OCOLAR FIELI
270
290
300
346
360
375
380
384
360
375
355
360
370
384
370
350
AISOLBTE COUNT
PER ? Ml
86.40-10*
95.70 10*
99,00-10*
115.00-10*
118,80-10*
125. CO- 10*
128, 00-10*
128.70-10*
118.80-10*
125,00-10*
1I5.60-IO*
118.80-10*
122,10-10*
128.70-10*
122,10-10*
110,00-1C«
The high concentration of suspended particulates was due to the fact
that the air dust studies were made in the proximity of a cement concrete
plant.
Data in Table 4 show that even when the concentration of particulates
suspended in the air was considerable, only 120-150 particulates could be
counted visually with the aid of the continuous flow ultramicroscope, as
compared with 350 particulates recorded by the automatic device. This
was in part due to advantages inherent in the VDK continuous flow ultra-
microscope. Previous calculations indicated that theoretically the photo-
electronic device was capable of recording up to 6,000 impulses per
minute. Results of investigations under practical conditions pointed to
a range with a maximum of 1,000 impulses per minute. Thus, the results
-239-
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of the present investigation demonstrated the practical advantages of
the automatic photoelectronic aerosol particle counter? it was more
sensitive, less time consuming, and yielded more accurate counts than
the visual method in combination with the VDK continuous ultramicroscope.
It is anticipated that the proposed automatic method tested in the
present investigation basically in connection with bacterial suspensions
will prove equally efficient in the study of other types of air sus-
pended particulates.
Conclusions.
1. The proposed automatic photoelectronic device in combination
with a VDK continuous flow microscope places the counting of organic
and inorganic aerosol particulates on an objective basis and makes the
counting procedure less time consuming and more accurate.
2. A photoelectronic device and an electromechanical counter are
described which in combination with a continuous flow ultramicroscope
can be used for automatic recording of the number of bacterial cells in
an aerosol chamber.
3. This device in combination with a continuous flow ultramicro-
scope is recommended for the study of the quantitative or dispersion
characteristics of aerosols in solid and liquid phases.
Bibliography.
H B. B., BjiaceHKO T. H. Ko.MonjiHbiH JKVPH., 1951, B. 4, cip. 249. —
Ferry R. M., Farr L. E., Hart man M. G., Chem. Rev., 1949, v. 44, p. 388.—
Gucker F T., O'Konski C. T., Pickard H. B. et al.. J. Am. chem. Soc., 1947,
v. 69, p. 2422. —Gucker F. T, O'Konski C. T., Chem. Rev., 1949. v. 44, p. 373.
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Sanitary Protection of Air in Vinnitsa
M. B. Belaga and P. N. Maystruk
(Vinnitsa Regional Sanitary-Epidemiological Station).
(Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 26, No. 1, 73-?6, 1961).
Vinnitsa consists of five districts: Center, Zamost'ye, Old City,
Pyatnichany, and Slavyanka. The first part of the city is the admin-
istrative and cultural center; it is the site of residences, administrat-
ive offices, minor industries and cooperatives which do not contribute
substantially to the city's air pollution, except for the electric power
plant. Zamost'ye district is the industrial region of the city, where
machine-construction plants and some light and food industries are lo-
cated, which pollute the city air to some degree. The basic city air
pollution came from a superphosphate plant. The other three city dis-
tricts present no problems with regard to the sanitary condition of the
city air.
Air samples were collected in each district at selected points over
a period of several years by the sedimentation method, and by the aspira-
tion method during the warm seasons of one year. The power plant, located
in the center of the city, polluted the district air heavily in the direc-
tion of the prevailing winds up to 1000 m, or up to the edge of the
recreation park. Residents of the district complained about the dirty
condition of the streets, fly-ash eye traumas, and about the deterioration
of green plants. By order of the sanitary organization the power plant
operation was converted to natural gas in 1958. The air became cleaner,
green plants revived, and complaints from the population ceased. The con-
version of residential and small industry furnaces to natural gas, the
paving and asphalting of the streets, and their sprinkling during the
summer contributed substantially to the cleanliness of the city air.
The conversion of many Zamost'e district industries to operation by
gas and the partial asphalting of the streets, improved the composition of
the city air. Installation of 100 m high smoke stacks in 1956 for the
disposal of waste gases generated by the superphosphate plant, before
starting any other gas-trapping units, reduced the concentrations of
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sulfur dioxide and of nitric.oxides in the air surrounding the plant to
50-20$ of the old concentrations. The sulphuric acid recovered from the
waste gases of the sulphuric acid shop amounted to almost five tons per
day. However, since the gas-trapping and purifying units in the shops
and departments of the superphosphate plant operated at 40-65$ efficiency,
and the plant production continued to increase, the city air pollution
by the industrial discharges from the plant shops and electric heat and
power plant persisted.
Conditions of and plans for the purification of discharges in the
different shops and departments are described in the following paragraphs:
Sulphuric Acid Shop, Sulphuric acid was manufactured by the tower
method. One unit was equipped with a single-stage gas purifier to remove
the cinder dust and the sulphuric acid vapor and spray. Six KhK-45 type
electrostatic filters were installed to remove the cinder dust from the
sulfur dioxide coming from the roasting furnaces and two PM-15 type
electrostatic filters to remove the sulphuric acid vapor and spray from
the waste gases. Plant laboratory data indicated that up to 40,000 m
of gas per hour were discharged into the atmosphere during October-November
1959* Exhaust gases carried with them up to 0.3 g/m of nitric oxides in
terms of sulfuric acid equivalent, and up to 10 g/m in terms of nitric
acid equivalent. Dust content of the gas, after passing through the dry
electrostatic filters, dropped to 0.153 g/m .
Superphosphate Shop. This shop was equipped with two continually
operating production systems using apatite concentrate and sulphuric acid
as raw material. Each system was equipped with a two-stage unit for the
removal of fluorine compounds from the discharge gas. Absorption towers,
8.026 m high and 2.017 m in diameter, served as the purifying equipment*
Spraying was done with water through seven nozzles mounted in the form
of a circle at the top -of the tower. Two fans, one for each system,
with individual capacity of 16,000 m /hr, were installed for the gas
exhaustion and discharge into the atmosphere. The absorption towers
operated during discharging. Gases were discharged into the atmosphere
through a single 15 m high metal stack. Close to 20,000 m /hr of gas
was discharged into the atmosphere by both systems, through the cleaning
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device. Fluorine content in the gas upon entering the absorption towers
was 22.8 g/m , and an average of 0.6 g/m upon leaving it.
Sodium Fluoride Production Department. Sodium fluoride was prepared
from sodium fluorosilicate. The gas leaving the drier passed through a
two stage purifier, the first stage was an LIOT No. 6-B dust remover,
1.1 m in diameter, and the second stage was an absorption tower 7 m high
and 2.01 m in diameter. A compound bag filter, composed of four bags,
each 1 m long and 2.5 cm in diameter, was installed for the removal of
sodium fluoride dust at the, unloading and unpacking point. The dust in-
tensity in the air and gas, and the composition of the gas discharged
into the atmosphere remained unchanged.
The superphosphate granulation shop included the granulation shop
proper and a tricalcium phosphate department. The shop had four units, .
each equipped with a two-stage gas cleaner. The first stage, used to
clean the gas coming from the drier, consisted of three LIOT No. 11 dust
removers with a diameter of 1.89 m; the second stage was a cyclone 7 m
high and 2.1 m in diameter. The scrubber was hollow, equipped with an
inside water sprayer. Each unit had three dust removers, mounted in
parallel formation, and one rotary fan with a capacity of 30,000 m hr.
According to factory data, 20,000 to 40,000 m /hr of flue gases were
discharged into the atmosphere carrying with them 0.173 g/m of super-
phosphate dust and 0.002 g/m of fluorides. The tricalcium phosphate
feeder department consisted of one technological device, and the tri-
calcium phosphate dust was removed by a one-stage procedure. One LIOT
type dust remover was also installed. Flue gases carried off tricalcium
phosphate dust and other gases. After having passed through the dust
remover, the gas was discharged into the atmosphere at the rate of
5,260 m. hr, with a tricalcium phosphate dust content of 4-5 g/m > S00—
• i ' '" ^ e.
80 g/m , and fluorine compounds — up to 3 g/m .
Sodium Pyrophosphate Production Shop. This shop was equipped with a
scrubber 4 m high and 2.2 m in diameter.to purify the gas of C0? and of
soda particles. Spraying was done with a soda solution at the rate of
18 m /hr. After passing through the scrubber the gas was discharged
into the atmosphere at the rate of 3,500 m /hr. The number of soda
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particles and amount of CO. discharged were not determined, as the dis-
charged gas contained no pyrophosphates. The polluted air of the
phosphate unpacking room was drawn out by suction and purified by passing
it through a battery cyclone.
The Factory Heat and Electric Power Station. The electric power
station was provided with three boilers. VTP jalousie ash catchers were
installed on the first and second boilers, each consisting of two jalousie
screens and two cyclones. Close to 3.5 tons of ashes per day were dis-
charged into the atmosphere together with the flue gases. Preliminary
data indicated that the plant discharged into the atmosphere daily up to
10.5 tons of SOg, 6,5 tons of nitric acid, 1.2 tons of sulphuric acid,
0.5 tons of fluorides, and one ton of superphosphate and tricalcium
phosphate dust.
A study was made of air pollution in the plant vicinity with
fluorides, sulfur dioxide, sulphuric acid aerosol, nitric oxides, and
dust. Results had shown that 40.4 percent of samples collected at
2000 m from the plant had a fluorine concentration exceeding the allow-
able maximal fluorine concentration, while the percentage of such samples
rose to 88.2 at 200 m from the plant. Even at a distance of 2000 m from
the plant the maximal fluorine concentration was 13 times in excess of
the allowable limit. The highest air pollution by sulfur dioxide was
noted at 1000 m from the plant, where the samples exceeding the allowable
limit rose to 36.6$. The highest air pollution by sulphuric acid aerosols
was noted at 500 m from the plant. Twenty-six percent of the samples
exceeded the allowable concentration limit. The concentration of nitric
oxides in the majority of tests was within the allowable maximal limit.
High dust density prevailed in the plant vicinity. Maximum concentration
at 200 m from the plant was 15.4 mg/m , or thirty times in excess of the
allowable concentration limit. Concentrations decreased as the distance
from the plant increased; however, they were still considerable at
2,000 m from the plant, exceeding the limit by 150$, Analyses of dust
dispersion showed that it consisted of particles up to 5 |» at all
distances from the plant. Analysis of dust samples collected at 200 —
1000 m from the plant showed that the fluorine content ranged between 0.8
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and 1.4$. .
Three soil samples at 200, 300, and 1,000 m from the plant contained
16.9, 9.61, and 8.7 og of fluorine respectively Tper 100 g of soil.
Cabbage wash-water contained 6.3 mg and beet wash-water contained 14.2
mg/1 kg of the vegetables grown 500 m from the plant. Window wash-water
2
contained close to 2 mg of fluorine per 1 m of glass surface in residences
situated 1,000 m from the plant. Fluorine-etched window panes were seen
in residences at 1,000 m from the plant.
The effect of the air pollution on the health of the local residents
was studied by the question and answer method. Questions pertaining to
health were asked of 422 adults by a special card method suggested by the
Ukrainian Institute of Community Hygiene. The questioned residents were
divided into four groups according to their place of residence.
Group One included persons who resided in the 200 m zone surrounding
the plant) Group Two resided in the 500 m zone; Group Three resided in
the 1000 m zone, and Group Four in the 2,000 m zone. Approximately 50$
of all the interrogated persons complained of plant gas odors in the air,
especially when the wind blew from the plant. Many complained of feeling
of malaise, irritation of the respiratory tract, coughing, eye trauma,
which the inhabitants believed was caused by harmful gases and dust.
Such complaints came from 68% of residents questioned in zones One and
Two.
Questioned inhabitants of the first, second, and third zones com-
plained of serious household inconveniences, such as heavy dust penetrat-
ing into their living quarters, especially during summer. Such com-
plaints came from 91% of questioned persons in the first zone, 62% in
the second, and 84$ in the third. Soiled linen complaints came from 95»
43, and 22% respectively? soiled clothing complaints came from 94-41$;
and soiled furniture from 95-42$. Inhabitants also complained of damage
to trees and house plants. Yellowing of the green parts of plants was
noted over an area of 1000 m surrounding the plant. The nature of the
complaints accorded with the laboratory findings. The sanitary-defense
or clearance zone prescribed by N-101-54 for this plant was inadequate,
since the maximum fluorine concentrations in the air at 1,000 m from the
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plant was 12 times in excess of the official limit, sulfur dioxide con-
centration was three times, and dust density was six times in excess of
their respective official limits.
In view of the fact that residential zones already existed in the
vicinity of the plant (Vinnitsa, Shevchenko Village, etc.), the sanitary
clearance zone could not be extended to the required width. Therefore,
technical sanitary means had to be instituted in the superphosphate plant
itself for the proper reduction of the excessive air pollution. Among
such means are elimination of every possible source of gas leakage by
appropriate equipment hermetization, the installation of effective and
efficient dust catching and gas purifying equipment, and appropriately
high stacks for the greater dispersion of the discharged air pollutants.
Some of the suggested improvements were being instituted. The following
is recommended specifically for the sulfur acid department; a) complete
the construction of a two-story building to house two exhaust fans of
150,000 m /hr in place of the 40,000 m /hr fan now in operation} b) in-
stitute special means by which the gases generated in the pyrite roasting
furnace could be exhausted and discharged while the tower was being
cleaned and washed; c) complete the installation of filters to raise the
tail gas utilization efficiency to 90-95$5 d.) build a warehouse for the
superphosphate shop to store the apatite concentrate instead of storing
it in the open, and eliminate this phase of air pollution. The gases from
the sodium fluosilicate drying furnace should be discharged through a
common factory stack; localized exhaust ventilation should be interconnected
so that the total of such exhaust pollution could be discharged through
the plant's main discharge stack. Plans were being drawn up in connection
with the tricalcium phosphate section of the superphosphate granulation
shop for the installation of a one million ruble device to trap discharged
gases. The jalousie ash-catching installations in the electric heat and
power station should be replaced by equipment of higher efficiency.
The gas-cleaning equipment should be inspected and checked at inter-
vals for its general condition and performance efficiency.
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Problems of Improving Working Conditions in the Chemical
Fiber Industry
V. D. Krantsfel'd
(Institute of Labor Hygiene and Occupational Diseases
Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR)
Depending upon the initial raw material used, synthetic fibers are
produced by two types of manufacturing industrial plants; a) plants
which produced viscose from different kinds of cellulose by the cupram-
monium or acetate method, and b) plants which produced synthetic fibers
from processed products of coal and related materials and from natural
gas. The first group of industrial plants, especially the ones which
manufactured different types of viscose fibers and viscous sheets, were
the earliest to go into extensive operation in the USSR. Only capron and
nylon fibers are being produced at present on broad commercial scale in
the USSR. Other types of synthetic fibers, such as nitron, dacron,
enanthic fibers, teflon, etc. are produced only in limited quantities.
However, latest economic plans call for the production of these fibers
on a large commercial scale in the near future.
The ever-increasing tempo of economic development gave rise to new
and complex problems related to the improvement of working conditions in
the synthetic fiber industries. The nature of the problems varies from
indoor environmental sanitation, such as air pollution with new substances
of unknown toxicity to faulty planning and construction of working premises
from a general hygienic viewpoint. In addition inspection of present
sanitary-hygienic working conditions in existing synthetic fiber manufac-
turing plants clearly indicated the urgent need or reappraisal of such
phases of sanitation as ventilation, discharge of air pollutants, noise
and vibration elimination, and faulty and inadequate illumination. Some
of these phases, are discussed in detail in the following paragraphs.
Means by which sanitation could be improved in plants producing
synthetic fibers are conditioned to a considerable degree by the techno-
logical characteristics of synthetic fiber formation. Synthetic fibers
are formed by two methods, generally known as the "wet" and "dry" methods.
Viscose, cuprammonium and nitron fibers, are formed by the "wet" method.
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In the "wet" method a "spinning" solution is forced through so-called
filters which are special nozzles with a large number of very fine
openings, or spinnerets, mounted on the end of tubes through which the
forced spinning solution flows. The spinnerets are submerged in
"spinning baths". The fine threadlike streams of spinning solution
emerging from the spinnerets react with the liquid of the spinning bath,
thereby converting the threadlike streams into fiber filaments. In the
"dry" method a spinning solution (acetate fiber) or melted synthetic
resins (the majority of synthetic fibers, e.g. capron, nylon) is also
forced through a spinneret filter; the streams emerging from the
spinnerets are passed through special stacks where they come in contact
with a stream of conditioned air which converts them into threads. The
"spinning" machines in both methods consist of a series of identical
spinning units, or spinnerets, sometimes as many as 200, installed in a
row of several kilometers. The thread formation process is done either
openly, or in a non-hermetic enclosure or encapsulation resulting in the
majority of cases in the dispersion of harmful substances in the shop air.
The expected industrial output of a series of newly built viscose
plants together with the output of several existing and operating in-
stallations will amount to hundreds of tons of synthetic fibers each day.
This means that the daily consumption of carbon bisulfide will amount to
tens of tons, of which almost 80-90$ will become vaporized or partially
converted to hydrogen sulfide in secondary reactions. Existing technical
facilities will prove inadequate for the recovery of such great volumes of
these harmful waste products from the work areas or for their discharge
into the atmospheric air. It will become impossible to attain the pre-
scribed sanitary conditions by the usual "encapsulating" of the gas gen-
erating equipment and/or by powerful fans to discharge such gases into
the atmospheric air through 100-120 m stacks. Purification of ventilator
discharges has become imperative for the prevention of air pollution in
settlement regions. With the development of the production of viscose
as above indicated millions of cubic meters of air per hour would have
to be purified by the existing technical facilities—an impossible task
in view of the extreme complexity and size of the purifying equipment and
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the huge economic expenditures. Moreover, mere rarification of OS- and
HpS concentrations would not constitute a radical solution of the
problem of atmospheric or indoor air pollution with vapors of CSp or
HpS. At the present time there are several ways of solving the complex
problem of sanitizing the air of work areas or of the atmosphere in indus-
trial and settlement areas.
Experience in the production of viscous fiber indicated that the most
effective means of trapping carbon bisulfide was by direct driving off
the CS? vapor given off by the plastic material as it left the spinnerets
and entered the pListicizer stacks. A mixture of water vapor and CSp
formed in the plasticizing stacks which was being continually removed
and condensed, a procedure which made possible the recovery of 40-60$
of CS_ used in the process of fiber xanthogenation; the remaining 40-60$
of the CSp could be recovered with the aid of activated charcoal. This
author is of the opinion that a direct process similar to the one above
described should be used in the recovery of CSp given off during "spinning"
viscose, thread fiber, viscose silk, or during cellophane making.
Purification of carbon bisulfide and hydrogen sulfide-polluted
exhaust air from encapsulated installations, especially from "spinning"
machines, can be made practical by reducing the volume of exhaust air
and correspondingly increasing the concentrations of the harmful sub-
stances in it. This can be effectively accomplished by absolute hermetic
encapsulation of the "spinning" machine. The "spinning" bath and the
"air conditioned" plasticizer stack and exhaust ventilation unit should
be provided with two modes of operation as shown in the illustration;
with the encapsulation screens hermetically closed, the volume of exhaust
air should be minimum; the exhaust unit should create a negative pressure
inside the encapsulation to prevent the polluted air from escaping into
the work area when the encapsulated "spinning" machine is opened by
raising its lid. The rate of air exhaust ventilation from the uncovered
equipment should be instantaneously and automatically increased
sufficiently to be able to completely ventilate the workroom air, there-
by protecting the workers from inhaling air containing high concentrations
of carbon bisulfide and hydrogen sulfide.
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I.FILTERS; 2.SPINNIIIG IATU; 3.LIFTIMS PART OF
ENCAPSULATOR; 4-vENT FOR CONTINUOUS EXHAUST AIR;
5.-VENT FOR IOOSTER EXHAUST AIR; 6.-UFT VALVE
FOR IOOSTER VENTILATION; 7. HYIRAULIC SHUT-OFF}
8.-CARION IISHLFIIE EXHAUST PIPES.
Such a reduction in the
volumev of exhaust air is advan-
tageous from the technical econ-
omic and air sanitization view-
points. However, it must be
borne in mind that the above
outlined procedure will operate
effectively only when the cap-
sule or housing can be hermet-
ically closed and the automatic
exhaust booster begins to
operate the exhaust apparatus
the very moment the housing lid
is opened, and that rate of air
exchange by the created negative
pressure has been sufficiently
enhanced.
Perfection in manufacturing technology is an important factor in the
improvement of work conditions in the synthetic fiber industry.
N. V. Mikhailov of the Ail-Union Synthetic Fiber Scientific
Research Institute has recently developed a method of alkaline spinning,
instead of acid spinning, of staple viscous fiber, in which air pollution
with carbon bisulfide and hydrogen sulfide can be substantially reduced.
This method should be checked and tested and its general practicability
determined without delay; a pilot plant should be built and pilot-scale
operation should begin immediately.
Dinyl, is a high-boiling organic heat transferring substance used
in heating equipment employed in the manufacture of synthetic fibers such
as capron, polyamide, dacron, etc. in the preparation of resin mixtures
for "spinning", in converting monomer compounds of toxic properties into
polymers, and in the preparation of autoclave melting tape and fibers.
Dinyl is a mixture of 75$ diphenyl oxide and 25* diphenyl, having a b. p.
-of 256 . Dinyl is usually brought to the vapor state and is sent through
pipes at 0.5 m pressure into jacketed heat radiators. Dinyl fumes permeate
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into the air through loose joints and valves, during disassembling of
pipe connection or during pipe cleaning, causing air pollution.
Purification of air polluted by dinyl fumes in the capron fiber
industry until recently, has been done primarily by exchange and exhaust
ventilation and by sealing leakage in dinyl supply lines. A study of
working conditions in this industry by A. P. Martynova et. al. indicated
that these methods did not ensure the desired sanitary results. Dinyl
concentrations considerably in excess of the allowable concentration
limit have been found in the air during monomer melting processes in
the "chemical" preparation shops, and during filament forming processes
in the spinning shops. The unpleasant odor of dinyl discharged by an
exhaust fan has been perceived both in the vicinity of the plant and be-
yond its boundaries. Dinyl air pollution can be eliminated by heating
the needed apparatus and equipment electrically. Despite the fact that
this is technically feasible, this has not been done up to the present.
Therefore, it is recommended that all means capable of reducing the
amount of dinyl fumes should be resorted to: replacing packing gland
valves with bellow type valves, the production of which was begun this year
instituting a combined dinyl-eleetric heating system and discontinuing the
use of the dinyl boiler and the long supply lines. Enclosure of the
spinning machines has not been resorted to until recently in the capron
and amide fiber industry. Enclosure of the equipment in combination with
an exhaust fan proved effective in the localization and trapping of dinyl
i
fumes and other harmful substances: caprolactam fumes and aerosols in the
capron fiber industry, and hexamethylene-diamine in the amide fiber in-
dustry} it was generally effective in removing considerable quantities of
heat. Especially important was the development of a new spinning machine
design, which included devices for the removal of fumes of harmful sub-
stances at their point of origin and for their subsequent recovery and
return to the production department.
Until recently little attention has been devoted to the problem of
dust control, when loading pulverized materials, used in the synthetic
fiber industry, into the processing equipment, e.g., caprolactam (a
monomer) into autoclaves, polyacrylonitrile into hoppers and mixers
containing solvents in the nitron industry, dimethyl-terephthalic acid
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into equipment and into solvents containing ethylene glycol, etc. In
the majority of cases weighing and charging was done manually. The use
of equipment which performed these operations automatically is suggested
as another means of improving working conditions.
So-called lubricants, which are surface active organic compounds,
have been used during the finishing processes of different chemical fibers.
The raw materials of these compounds are organic solvents, petroleum
products, fatty alcohols, pyridine, phosphorus trichloride, phosphoric
anhydride, dibutyl ethanolamine, butyl stearate, lauric acid, etc.
Undoubtedly, new such lubricants will corne into use as new types of
synthetic fibers will be manufactured. In this connection the need
arises for the determination of the toxic properties of such substances
as dimethyl-terephthalic acid, dimethyl ethanolamine, polytetrafluoro-
ethelene, dibutyl-ethanolamine, etc.., and to study the prevailing sani-
tary and hygienic conditions when using these substances in the manufac-
turing processes. This is essential for the development of prophylactic
sanitary-hygienic measures at the proper time for the protection of
workers from the harmful effects of these substances.
Problems of controlling noise and vibration in the chemical fiber
industry have practically not been raised until recently. Results of a
survey conducted by T. A. Or1ova, L. A. Kozlov, N. N. Shatalov, A. L.
Melkov et. al. of the Institute of Labor Hygiene and Occupational Diseases
of the Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR have shown that the noise
level in the twisting, spinning, and rewinding shops considerably exceeded
the allowable noise limit, causing adverse changes in the workers state
of health. Furthermore, it was noted that workers who operated certain
machines suffered the effects of local vibration, such as the finger
tips, knee joints, etc. Freeing the workers from the harmful effects of
these physical factors should be regarded as an urgent problem.
Conclusions.
1. Development of the USSR chemical fiber industry gave rise to
new problems related to the improvement of working conditions worsened
by the increased amount of new toxic materials released into the air
of the shops and discharged into the atmospheric air.
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The number and variety of problems related to the improvement of
working conditions is continuously increasing with the appearance of new
physical factors which affect adversely the external environment 5 — noise,
vibration, etc.
2. The introduction of new and more efficient technological proc-
esses in combination with wide use of automation and improved production
equipment will present the possibility of more efficient prevention of
industrial injuries.
Bibliography.
n. fl., Rp o rw IH H a 3. A., Kami ax K>. R. H ap. B MH.: Tlpo-
4>eccHOHajibHbie (So-nesHH. M'., 1957, crp. 281. — K p a H u e Ji b ji B. R., Ill a $ p a-
H o B B. B. TesHcu HOKJI. Ha HayiHofi CCCCHH, nocasiiu. 30-JieTHK> Hfl-ra rarHeHbi rpyaa H
npodwaoojieBaHHii. M., 1953, crp. 75. — K p a H u(j> e Ji b a B. R. B KH.: Bonpocu rHriteHhi
Tpyaa H npexJwaftaneBawHft. M., 1948, crp. 109. — On JKC. Teanrcbi JOKJI. Ha io6fUteiinoit
HayqHoft cueccHH H'H-ra rHTHeHu rpyaa H npcx})3a6o^eBaHnfl AMH CCCP COBMCCTHO 9
»H-T3'MH rHPHenbi itpyfla COKWHHX peony6;iHK H KaiJ>eflpaMH rwrHeHbi rpyaa Man. KH-TOB, no;'
CBDIU. 40-^eTHK> BeJiHKof! OKTfiGpbCKOH cou. peBo^iouHH. M., 1957, q. 2, crp. 17.-^
JIofiaHooa K. fl. r«r. rpyaa H mpo(J;. 3a6o^eBaiHH», 1959, JV» 6, crp. 8. — MaprbiHO-,.
B a A. PI. TesHCu AOKJI. ua io6H^efiHOii CCCCHH Hn-ra THF. rpyna H TipcxJ)3a6o^eBa.HHH AMH
CCCP COBMCCTHO c HH-TaM'H pHrHeHw Tpy^a H Ka(peapaM'H rHraeHbi ipyaa Mea. HH-TOB,
nooBtiui. 40-jietMO Be-rwKoA OKtaftpbCKOH cou. pes. M^ 1957, M. 2, crp. 19. — Poro-
BHH 3. A. OcHOBbl XHMHH H TCXHOJlOrHH npOH3BOACTB3 XHMHM6CKHX BO^OKOH. M., 1957.—
Banik E. Melliand Textilber., 1957, Bd. 38. S. 330. — V i g tie n i E. C., Folia med.
fNaipoli). 1953. v. 36, p. 144. — W ist H. J., Dtsch. Gesundhwes.. 1958, Bd. 131, S. 684 —
Wilke A. Faserforsch. und Textiltechn., 1954^ Bd. 5, S. 513.
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P A R T F I V E
Lists of Limits of Allowable Concentrations
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Limits of Allowable Concentrations of Deleterious
Substances in the Atmospheric Air of Populated Areas
(Approved by the Deputy Chief State Sanitary Inspector of the
USSR, Yu. Lebdev, 14 February, 1961. No. 221 61).
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
Name of pollutant
Acrolein
Amyl Acetate
Acetone
Benzene
Gasoline, petrolic
low S content as C
Butyl Acetate
Vinyl Acetate
Dichloroethane
Dinyl
Methanol,
Methyl Acetate
Mn and its compounds
As, inorganic compounds,
hydrogen arsenide excluded
Carbon monoxide
Oxides of nitrogen
Dust, inert, non- toxic
Mercury, metallic
Sulfur dioxide
Hydrogen sulfide
Carbon bisulfide
Soot or lampblack
Su If uric acid
Lead and its compounds
Formula
CH2CH CHO
CH3COOCH2
CH2CH(CH3)2
CH3CO CH3
C6H6
CH3COOC4H9
CH3COOCH»CH2
CH2C1 CH2C1
CH3OH
CH3COOCH3
Mn
As
CO
N2°5
Hg
so2
H2S
cs2
H2S04
Limit of allowable
concentration
in mg/m3
Maximum i
single i
0.30
0.1
0.35
2.40
5.0
0.1
0.2
3.0
0.01
1.5
0.07
0.03
—
6.0
0.3
0.5
—
0.5
0.008
0.03
0.15
0.3
24-hour
average
0.10
0.1
0.35
0.80
1.5
0.1
0.2
1.0
0.01
0.5
0.07
0.01
0.003
1.0
0.1
0.15
0.0003
0.15
0.008
0.01
0.05
0.1
(Tetraethyl lead excepted)
Pb
0.0007
-255-
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Name of pollutant
32. Chloroprene
(2-chlorobutadian-1.3)
33. Chromium hexavalent
calculated as Cr-Oi
Formula
C12«CC1CH=CH2
Limit of allowable
concentration
in rog/m
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
Lead sulfide
Formaldehyde
Phosphoric anhydride
Fluorine compound
Phenol
Furforol
Chlorine
Hydrogen chloride
PbS
HCHO
P2°5
CgHcOH
HC - CH
II II
HC CHO
0
Cl
HC1
Maximum t
single ,
—
0.035
0.15
0.03
0.01
0.05
0.10
0.05
24-hour
average
0.0017
0.012
0.05
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.015
0.25
0.0015
0.1
0.08
0.1
34. Ethyl Acetate
Notes:
1. In the presence in the atmospheric air of sulfurous anhydride (SO.)
and sulfuric acid aerosol the allowable sum of their concentrations should
be determined by the following formula:
In which A is the existing concentration of 309 in mg/m
' o
m is the maximal allowable S09 concentration in mg/m
3
B is the existing concentration of HgSO, aerosol in mg/m
and n is the maximal allowable H0SO concentration in mg/m
* 4
2. Indexes of limits of allowable concentrations for the hygienic
evaluation of the sanitary condition of atmospheric air of inhabited areas
originally approved 16th of July, 1956 by No. 221-56, 26th of July, 1957
by No. 253-57, 9th of December, 1^59 by No. 307-59 and 31st of March, I960
by No. 323-60 are hereby declared null and void.
Ministry of Health of the USSR.
State Sanitary Inspectorate of the USSR.
Moscow, 1961.
-256-
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Supplement to "Limits of Allowable Concentration of Deleterious
Substances in Atmospheric Air of Populated Areas", approved
14 February, 1961 by No. 221-61, the following maximal concen-
tration limits have been approved:
max. single 24-hour avg.
allowable allowable
Substance Formula concentration concentration
Furfurol (*) HC CH 0.05
HC CH
0
Styrol 0.003 0.003
Methylmethacrylate CH2:C(CH3)COOCH-j 0.10
Dimethylformamide 0.03 0.03
(* ) Maximal single concentration for furfurol was determined and
approved by the State Sanitary Inspectorate 14th of February, 1961
by No. 221-61.
Approved by Deputy Chief State Sanitary Inspector of the USSR Yu. Lebedev,
13th of April, 1962.
-257-
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New Standards of Allowable Concentrations of Toxic Gases, Vapors,
and Dust in the Air of Working Premises
Z. B. Smelyanskii and I; P. Ulanova
Central Institute of Post Graduate Medicine, Moscow
(Gigiena Truda i Professional'nye Zabolevaniya, No. 5» 7-14» 1959).
Below are listed limits of allowable concentrations of toxic gases,
vapors and dust in the air of working premises, approved by the Chief
State Sanitary Inspector of the USSR, 10th of January, 1959 and adopted
as official standards as per No. 279-59.
N 101-54 established limits of allowable concentrations of toxic
gases, vapors, and dust in the air of working premises as mandatory guides
for planners and builders of new industrial manufacturing and processing
enterprises, especially as such standard limits were indicated in note 5
of supplement 3.
1. The present limits of allowable concentrations were intended as
guides in:
a) planning technological processes, industrial equipment and installations,
properly calculating and designing ventilation systems, especially in
individual production and processing shops and departments which create
and emit toxic gases, vapors and dust;
b) maintaining proper control over sanitary conditions in working prem-
ises, and in the proper evaluation (inspection) of existing sanitary
working conditions.
2. The data presented in the following tables represent maximal
allowable concentrations of the toxic substances in the air of working
premises. Concentrations exceeding these shall not be permitted under
any circumstances. In many instances it may be possible to completely
remove the indoor air pollutants by improved processes of production,
complete hermetization of channels for the discharge of the indoor air
pollutant components, and by proper maintenance and safe operation of
all production, processing, and waste gas? vapor, and dust removal. In
such cases it is the duty of local sanitary authorities to see that such
a sanitary hygienic system be enforced.
-258°
-------
3. The determined and approved limits of allowable concentrations
of toxic gases, vapors, and dust must be regarded as mandatory standards
for working premises. By working premises is meant places of continuous
or periodic presence of workers, in connection with any phase of their
duties, whether actual production or processing, or inspection of oper-
ations of equipment and installations, etc. If the production operations
are performed at different points of the industrial premises then the
entire premises should be regarded as "working premises" subject to the
standard limits enumerated.
4. The following limits of allowable concentrations apply mandatorily
to all industrial enterprises in the process of planning, in the process
of construction and to industrial enterprises which are about to begin
operation; the limits are also mandatory for industrial plants which had
been in operation since 1/1, I960.
5. Supplements to and changes in the present limits of allowable
concentrations of gases, vapors and dust may be issued by the State
Sanitary Inspectorate of the USSR as the result of scientific and practical
facts accumulated by authoritative research and practical institutes directly
or indirectly affiliated with USSR Ministry of Health.
6. The following limits of allowable concentrations of toxic gases,
vapors and dust shall prevail in the air of industrial manufacturing and
processing premises.
-259-
-------
Nos.
Nature of air pollutant
Maximal allowable
concentrations in
mg/li
1. Acrolein J- Gases and Vapors in mg/li 0.000? (*)
2. Arayl acetate 0.10
3. Ammonia 0.02
4. Anilin 0.003
5. Acetaldehyde 0.005
6. Acetone 0.20
7. Gasoline, solvent 0.30
8. Gasoline, fuel, shale, creaking, etc. 0.10
9. Benzene 0.02 (*)
10. Butyl acetate 0.20
11. Vinyl acetate 0.01
12. Hexogen (Cycle-trimethylene-trinitroamine) 0.001
13. Hexamethylene-di-isocyanate 0.00005
14. Hexamethylene-diamine 0.001
15. Hydrazine-hydrate, hydrazine and its derivatives ; 0.0001
16. Decaline 0.10
17. Divinyl, pseudobutylene 0.10
18. Dimethylamine 0.001
19. Dimethylformamide 0.01
20. Dinyl 0.01
21. Dinotrobezene 0.001
22. Dinitrotoluol 0.001
23. Dioxan 0.01
24. Dichlorobenzene 0.02
25. Dichlorostyrol 0.05
26. Dichlorophenyltrichlorosilane 0.001
27. Dichloroethane 0.01 (*)
28. 1,1-dichloroethylene (vinylidene dichloride) 0.05
29. Diethylamine 0.03
30. Isopropyl nitrate 0.005
31. Iodine 0.001
-260-
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Maximal allow-
Nos. Nature of air pollutant able concentrations
in mg/li
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
Camphor
Caprolactam
Kerosene (Calculated on the basis of C)
Xylidine
Xylol
Li groin
0.003
0.01
0.30
0.003
0.05 <*)
0.30
Mercaptophos (A mixture of thionic and 0.00002
thiolic isomers, diethylmercaptoethylthiophosphate)
Metaphos ( 0 . 0-dimethy 1-0. 4-nitropheny 1-
thi opho sphat e )
Methyl acetate
Methylhexylketone
Methyl acrylate
Methylpropyl ketone
Methyl sytox (A mixture of thionic and
thiolic isomers, p-mercaptoethyldimethyl
thiophosphate )
Methylethyl ketone
Monobutylamine
Monomethyamine
Monochlorstyrole
Hydrogen arsenide
M-81 ( ) , )-dimethyl-p-ethylmercapto-
dithiophosphate
Napthalene
Unsaturated alcohols of the fatty order
(Alyl alcohol, crotonylic alcohol, etc.)
Nitryl acrylate
Nitro-and dinitrochlorobenzenes
Nitrobutane
Nitromethane
Nitropropane
Nitroethane
0.0001
0.10
0.20
0.02
0.20
0.0001
0.20
0.01
0.005.
0.05
0.0003
0.0001
0.02
0.002
0.0005
0.001
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
-261-
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Nos.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
Nature of air pollutant
Nitrated benzene compounds
Ozone
Oxides of nitrogen, as Np^S
Carbon monoxide
Ethylene oxide
Picolines (A mixture of isomera)
Pyridine
Propyl acetate
Mercury, metallic
Sulfuric acid and sulfuric anhydride (SO^)
Sulfurous anhydride (SO^)
Hydrogen sulfide
Carbon bisulfide
Sylvan (2-methylfuran)
Turpentine
Solvent naphtha
Amyl alcohol
Butyl alcohol
Methyl alcohol
Propyl alcohol
Ethyl alcohol
Styrole-a
Tetraline
Tetranitromethane
Tetrachlorheptane
Tetrachloropehtane
Tetrachloropropane
Tetraethyllead
Toluidine
Toluylene-diisocyanate
Toluol
Trinitrotoluol
Trichlorobenzene
Maximal allow-
able concentrations
in mg/li
0.003
0.0001
0.005
0.02 (*)
0.001
0.005
0.005
0.20
0.00001
0.001 (*)
0.01 (*)
0.01
0.01
0.001
0.30
0.10
0.10
0.20
0.05
0.20
1.00
0.05
0.10
0.0003
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.000005
0.003
0.0005
0.05 f )
0.001
0.01
-262-
-------
N08.
Nature of air pollutant
Maximal allow-
able concentrations
in nur/li
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
111.
112.
113.
114.
115.
116.
117.
118.
119.
120.
121.
122.
Trichloroethylene
White spirit
Hydrocarbons, calculated as C
Acetic acid
Phenylmethyl-dichlorosilane
Phenol
Formaldehyde
Phosgene (Car bony 1 chloride)
Hydrogen phosphide (Phosphine)
Phosphoric anhydride
Phosphotud yellow
Salts of hydrofluoric acid, calculated as HP
Hydrogen fluoride
Furfurol
Chlorine
Chlorobenzene
Chlorinated diphenyls
Chlorinated diphenyl oxide
Chlorinated naphthalines (Trichloronaphthaline,
mixture of tetra-and pentachloronaphthalines)
Chlorinated higher naphthalenes
Chlorovinyl
Hydrogen chloride and hydrochloric acid, calculated
as HC1
Methylene chloride
Chloromethyltriohlorosilane
Chloroprene
Hydrogen cyanide and salts of hydrocyanic
acid, as HCN
Cyolohexanon
Cy c 1 ohexanonoxym
Carbon tetraohloride
Extra line
Epichlorohydrin
0.05
0.03
0.30
0.005
0.001
0.005
0.001 (*)
0.0005
0.0001 (*)
0.001
0.00003
0.001
0.0005 (*)
0.01
0.001
0.05
0.001
0.0005
0.001
0.0005
0.03
0.01
0.05
0.001
0.002
0.0003
0.01
0.01
/*\
0.02 ( )
0.003
0.001
-263-
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Nos.
123.
124.
Nature of air pollutant
Ethyl acetate
Ethyl ether
Maximal allow-
able concentration
in mg/li
0.20
0.30
II. Dust and other aerosols in mg/m
a) Dust, mineral and organic
1. Dust containing more than 70$ free SiO_ in its
, crystalline form, such as quartz, crystabalite,
tridimite, and condensate of SiO~ 1.00
2. Dust containing more than 10$ but not over 70$ of
.free SiO- ' 2.00
3. Asbestos dust and mixed dust containing more
than 10$ of asbestos 2.00
4. Glass wool and mineral wool dusts 3.00
5. Other silicate dust containing less than 10$
free Si 02, such as talc, olivin, etc. 4.00
6. Baryta, apatite, phosphorite, cement dusts
containing less than 10$ SiOg 5.00
7. Abrasive dusts (Corundum, carborundum, etc.) 5.00
8. Cement, loam, mineral dusts and their mixed
dusts, free from SiOp 6.00
9. Coal and coal-rock dusts containing over 10$
free SiO ' 2.00
10. Coal dust containing up to 10$ free SiOg 4.00
11. Coal dust Si02 free 10.00
12. Tabacco and tea dust 3.00
13. Dust of animal and vegetable origin (cotton,
linen, flour, grain, seeds, wood, wool, feathers,
etc.) containing 10$ oroover free SiOp 2.00
14. Dust of animal or vegetable origin containing
up to 10$ free SiO . 4.00
15. Dusts from powder, compression, pheno andsnino
plastics 6.00
16. Dusts, other than above listed -it lOiOO
/ **v
17. Hexachlorocyclohexane (y-isomer) v 0.10
( i
18. Hexachlorocyclohexane (y-isomer) v ' 0.05
19. Hexachlorobenzene 0.90
20. Heptachlor 1, (or 3a)4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8-heptachlo-3a
4, 7a-tetrahydro-4, 7-endomethylindene 0.10
-264-
-------
21. Dinitrorhodoben zene 2.00
22. Ootamethyl (Octamethyltetramide pyrophosphate) 0.0?
23. Polychlopinene 0.20
24* Pentachloronitrobenzene 0.50
25. Preparation 125 (Of the type of dinitroortho-
creaol) 3.00
26. Thiophos (Diethylparanitrophenylthiophosphate) 0.05
27. Chloindan (Octachloroendomethylenehexahydroindane) 0.01
28. Chlorethane (Chlorinated bicyclic compounds) 0.02
29. Ethylmercuricphosphate 0.005
30. Ethylmercurio chloride 0.005
b) Aerosols of metals, metaloids and their compounds
31. Aluminum, aluminum hydroxide, aluminum alloys 2.00
32. Berillium and its compounds 0.001
33. Vanadium and its compounds:
Vanadium pentoxide aerosol 0.100
Vanadium pentozide dust 0.50
Ferrovanadium 1.00
34. Tungsten (Tungsten carbide) 6.00
35. Iron oxide with an admixture of Fl and Mn
compounds 4.00
36. Cadmium oxide 0.10
37. Cobalt (oxide of Co) 0.50
38. Manganese, calculated as Mn02 0.30
39. Molybdenum (Soluble compounds) 4.00
40. Molybdenum .(Insoluble compounds) 6.00
41. Arsenical and arsenious anhydrides 0.30
42. Nickel, nickel oxide 0.50
43. Lead and its inorganic compounds 0.01
44. Selenium, amorphous 2.00
45* Selenium anhydride 0.10
46. Mercuric chloride 0.10
47. Tantalum oxide 10.00
48. Tellurium 0.01
-265-
-------
49. Titanium oxide 10.00
50. Thorium 0.05
51. Copper trichlorpphenolate 0.10
52. Uranium (Soluble compounds) 0.015
53. Uranium (Insoluble compounds) 0.075
54. Chromic anhydride, chromatrs, bichromates,
calculated as Cr^OO 0.10
55. Zinc oxide 5.00
56. Zirconium 5.00
57* Alkaline aerosols, calculated as NaOH 0.500
(*) Until the next revision of N 101-54 limits of
allowable concentrations must be such as are
specified in Supplement 3 of N 101-54, which
is still in force.
y »f ,
( ) Technical hexachlorocyclohexane is a mixture of at
least five of nine possible isomers, some of which
are without appreciable activity} the Y-isomer, known
as "lindane" is the most active biologically, hence,
the technical material is graded according to its
Y-isomer content. Smelyanskii and Ulanova in items
17 and 18 of mineral and organic dusts present 0.10
and 0.05 mg/m^ as the limiting values without making
any reference to their Y-isomer contents. There must
be a reason for the 50$ difference in the limit values,
but the reason is not indicated. B.S.L.
Notes* 1. Where workers remain in the production and processing rooms for only
a brief period of time the Office of the State Sanitary Inspector
of the USSR may grant permission to digress from the prescribed
concentration limits.
2_._ Where CO is present in the air of working premises for one hour or
less its maximal concentration may be raised to 0.05 "ig/lij in oases
where CO is present in the air for not more than 30 min. its maximal
concentration may be raised to 0.10 mg/lij and if the period does
not exceed 15 min. the maximal CO concentration may be as high as
0.20 mg/li.
3^ In seasonal agricultural work in the presence of deleterious chemical
air pollutants maximal allowable concentrations may be raised by
permission of the Chief State Sanitary Inspector of the USSR.
4,.. In the presence in the air of vapors of several volatile solvents,
such as acetone, alcohols, acetic esters, etc. the rate of air ex-
change ventilation must be such as to bring in a sufficient volume
of fresh air required for the dilution of the gaseous or vapor air
pollutant to its prescribed maximal allowable concentration.
-266-
-------
In instances of gases and vapors other than those coming
from volatile solvents enough fresh air should be brought in
continuously to bring the concentration of the pollutant having
the highest toxioity to its maximal allowable limit.
The standards of maximal limits presented in this paper differ substan-
tially from the maximal concentrations prescribed by N 101-54, and, in fact,
constitute a further development and improvement in the field of limits of
allowable concentrations of air pollutants. For one thing, the present list
includes about 2.5 times as many pollutants, amounting to nearly 180 ingredients.
It should be noted in this connection that the list includes a number of raw
material or intermediary products used in the production and manufacture of
plastics, synthetic fibers, new adhesives, such as hexamethylenediamine,
styrole, monochlorstyrole, caprolaotam, dinyl, chlorosilane, etc., and many
inaecto-fungioidal agents. In prescribing maximal concentrations for dust,
the latter have been differentiated in greater detail} as a result, instead of
2 maximal concentrations, 2 and 10 mg/m , the dusts have been classed into 16
groups of mineral and organic origin, which is of value from the viewpoint
of sanitary-hygienic inspection.
The concept of "limits of allowable, or maximal concentrations" has been
given a sounder basis, from the legal and enforcement viewpoints, in the sense
that they are limits which must not be exceeded. This should disperse possible
doubt which may arise under certain practical conditions of sanitary-hygienic
evaluation of situations by administrators and sanitary inspectors. Of consid-
erable importance is the provision which takes into consideration some instances
where it may be possible to attain almost complete elimination of indoor air
pollutants by a combination of precautionary measures, such as proper coordin-
ation of the exhaust system, improvement in the production and processing
methods, absolute exhaust conduits hermetization, gas purifying and dust
catching installations, etc. Wherever such possibilities exist, local sanitary
authoritative bodies must exert all possible pressure and influence for the
realization of the desired sanitary condition, that is to bring the pollutants'
air concentration to below the official maximal level.
In accordance with the resolution of the plenum of the XXI Convention of
the Communist Party of the Soviet Union reorganizations and reconstructions are
now in process throughout the entire Union in the directions of modernized
-267-
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technics, automation, hermetization, improved production and processing inter-
communications, etc. This should result in unprecedented improvement in the
sanitary, physical, and moral labor conditions, especially when coupled with
the new limits of allowable air pollutant concentrations. The latter have
been arrived at on the basis of scientific investigations in pertinent scien-
tific, medical, clinical, and industrial professional institutes in Leningrad,
Gor'kii, Kiev, Khar'kov, Sverdlovsk, Moscow, etc. In many instances existing
limits of allowable concentrations have been lowered as the result of clinical
and general medical observations and examinations of workers exposed to the
effects of the pollutants under actual working conditions, especially under
chronic conditions. Dichloroethane, benzene, carbon monoxide, and eye irritat-
ing substances can be mentioned as examples of substances with lowered maximal
concentrations. In some cases the limiting concentrations were lowered as the
result of experimental studies. The effect of low concentrations of such
pollutants as SCU, SO,, HC1, formaldehyde, acroleine, etc. were studies by the
methods of sensory physiology, conditioned reflexes, eye sensitivity to light,
flexor and extensor chronaxy ratios, etc. at the Moscow Central Institute of
Post graduate Medicine. Effect of air pollutants, such as SCL, CO, dichloro-
ethane, carbon tetrachloride on the immunobiological reactions of the organism
were studied in Khar'kov at the Institute of Post Graduate Medicine.
The following fact is of considerable importance: In the past (1930-1940)
many, if not all, limits of allowable air pollutant concentrations adopted
in the USSR were considerably below the corresponding limits adopted in
foreign countries, chiefly due to the considerably greater allowance for safety.
The limits recorded in the present paper are the result of continued chronic
experiments with low pollutant concentrations in coordination with results of
actual working conditions. Limits of allowable concentrations for synthetic
or other types of substances new to the production and processing industries
and of byproducts and waste products resulting from them were arrived at
entirely on the basis of experimental investigations and will undoubtedly be
revised as new information concerning their effects on the health of workers
will accumulate. As examples of such substances mention can be made of
vinylidendichloride, monochlorostyrol, monomethylamine, etc.
-268-
-------
According to the new plan all aerosols of minerals and metals constitute
an independent division. The limits of allowable concentrations recommended
and adopted for aerosols of rare metals were arrived at on the basis of
experimental and clinical-hygienic investigations conducted at the Department
of. Labor Hygiene at the I-MOLMI (First Moscow Order of Lenin Medical Institute).
Limits of allowable concentrations for such substances as corundum, electro-
corundum, etc. were determined by scientific experimentation at the Sverdlovsk
Institute of Labor Protection. Other limits were adopted on the basis of
observations made under practical working conditions in the USSR and abroad,
coupled with the consensus of opinion that the presence of quartz in different
percentages should lead to extreme caution and stricter prohibitive limits.
The entire list of proposed concentration limits was submitted for scrutiny
and discussion to the Hygienic Committee of the Scientific Medical Soviet
of the Ministry of Health of the USSR.
The approved standard limits of allowable pollutant concentrations in the
air of working premises constitute a considerable advance with regard to the
number of pollutant components included, as well as with regard to the char-
acter of investigations, scientific and practical used in arriving at the
limits. But the process must not end at this. Pertinent scientific research
institutes and industrial organizations must cooperate in accumulating
supplemental information with a view to confirming, amending, or replacing
the proposed norms in the future. Concurrently observations and studies should
be conducted with substances which as yet have not been put into production,
but which may go into production before long. In this way sanitary-hygienic
norms will not only keep abreast with the production of new substances, but
will antedate them.
It was briefly indicated in one of the proceeding paragraphs that the
development of limits of allowable air pollutant concentrations was based on
the results obtained with a variety of scientific-research and practical
methods of investigations; in this connection it should be noted that scarcely
any data had been accumulated on the effect of industrial air pollutants on the
metabolic phases of the organism, such as digestion, elimination, conjugation,
and other possible processes of toxic substances neutralization as defense
mechanisms. Such information may have a significant bearing on the problem
of limiting pollutant concentrations. It should be noted that not enough is
-269-
-------
known at present regarding the true nature of air suspended aerosols, especial-
ly of mineral aerosols, and the mechanism of thej^r effect on the physiology of
the organism. Studies should be undertaken on a more intimate basis and
broader scale to fill in the gaps of knowledge in the above two respects.
In view of the rapid and profound changes which now continuously take place
in the chemical industry, especially as regards synthetic products, and of the
rapid changes and improvements in methods of production and processing as well
as in the design and construction of purifying and ventilating equipment, it
would be well to make mandatory an annual reappraisal of existing standards of
limits of allowable air pollutants by Research Departments of Institutes of
Labor Hygiene and Sanitation.
-270-
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Sanitary Norms of Allowable Noise Levels in Living
Premises
Approved by the Chief Government Sanitary Inspector of the USSR
M. Nikitin, 24th of August, I960.
No. 337 - 60
I. Purpose and Field of Application
1. These norms establish allowable levels of noises which penetrate
into living premises, and basic means for the prevention of unfavorable noise
effects on the inhabitants.
II. Allowable Noise Levels and Methods for Their Determination.
1. Allowable intensities of permeating noises are established and defined
/• \
in terms of octave spectral bands according to curve PS-30 v ' during the day
hours between 8 and 22 o'clock, and according to curve PS-25 during night hours
between 22 and 8 o'clock, as shown in the following graph.
Level of sound intensity in octave bands
in hertz
0>
2
O (ft
O (D
cf
P 01]
<
CD O
O'
-------
2. Depending upon the location of the living premises in relation to the
street the index of spectral limits for outside noises penetrating into living
premises should be revised as shown in Table 1.
Table 1
Windows of living premises faceAdd to the index of
B * the spectral limit
The inside of the residential block or the
bordering street used for local traffic. 0
The main thoroughfare of the section + 5
The main city thoroughfare + 10
3. Where the penetrating noise comes at short regular time intervals or
is of a definite tonal character (monotone) the index of the spectral limit
should be reduced by 5 units.
(* ) Index P&-30 defines a limit spectrum with a sound effect level of 30 deci-
bels in the octave band having an average geometric frequency of 1000 hertz.
4. Levels of sound intensity (pressure) of a penetrating noise in any of
the octave bands must not exceed the allowable limits of the sound intensity
(pressure) i.e., of the limit spectrum indicated in the graph plus the coefficient
corrections indicated in Tables 1 and 3.
Note: The indicated limit levels apply to measurement conditions
prevailing in furnished rooms with closed windows, ventilating
vents and doors. In making sound intensity determinations in
empty rooms (having no furniture) 3 db may be added to the
limit level indicated in the spectral band.
5. Levels of sound intensity of penetrating noises should be determined
with the aid of an objective noise ;gage provided with an octave band filter
having an easily read recording device graduated into db, or with the aid of
some other standard noise gage, the results of which can be conveniently
converted into corresponding octave bands.
Note: In making noise intensity determinations the microphone
should be installed in the central part of the living premises,
1.0-1.5 m above the floor.
6. Orientation evaluations of the magnitude of penetrating noises can be
made without the use of a sound analyzing device by resorting to noise levels
listed in Table 2 which were obtained by a noise gage and recorded in the form
of a curve, according to hours of the day (See appendix No. l).
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Table 2.
Values of allowable limits of composite noise levels
„,. Q _ ., , Allowable composite noise level as recorded
Tune of the day , „..•,, . .,... .
J on scale "A" of noise gage "A" in db
Day time between
8 and 22 o'clock ^5
Night time between
22 and 8 o'clock 30
7. Depending upon the location of the apartment in relation to the street,
the character of the noise and the room furniture the allowable noise levels
listed in Table 2 can be amended by correction factors listed in Table 1, in
paragraph No. 3 and the note following paragraph No. 4.
8. In doubtful cases, results obtained on the basis of noise intensity
determinations in the octave bands should be regarded as the correct ones.
9. The noise gage must be accompanied by tables of correction factors for
the filter, microphone and the noise intensity recorder; such tables of
correction must be certified by a pertinent Committee on Standards, Measures
and Recording Apparatuses, as shown by a .certificate not older than 12 months.
10. In the case of controversy regarding non-compliance with the proposed
standards, final decision shall rest with the Government Sanitary Inspectorate.
III. Means to be Used for Securing Compliance with
the Allowable Noise Intensity Levels in
Apartments or Living Premises.
1. Proper protection of buildings against penetrating noises can be
basically obtained by appropriate planning of buildings with regard to their
location (position), architectural, engineering, construction, and hygienic-
sanitary provisions, as well as with regard to surrounding sound proof con-
structions. This should be done in accordance with "Instructions for the
Protection of Living Premises and Common Buildings (Apartment Houses) Against
Penetrating Noises" (SN 39-58).
2. Protection of living premises against outside penetrating noises can
also be attained by appropriate planning of streets and whole blocks, by
planting trees, shrubs, etc. and by enforcing regulations which reduce the
original outdoor noises, such, for instance, as emanate from city traffic.
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The appropriate street planning, the planting of trees and other decora-
tive plants should be done according to "Regulations and Standards for City
Planning and House Construction" approved by the Government Committee of the
USSR Ministers' Soviet on Matters of Construction" issued 1st of December,
1958 (SN 41-58).
3. Residential sections in relation to industrial and other enterprises
which are equipped with noise creating machinery, or other installations, must
be planned in accordance with "Temporary Sanitary Standards for the Abatement
of Noise by Industry" No. 205-56, approved by the Government Chief Sanitary
Inspectorate 9th of February, 195^.
4. Inhabitants of apartments must comply with the rules of communal ,
living and must maintain the proper degree of quiet in the living quarters.
Regulations to that effect have been formulated in "Regulations for the Use
and Maintenance of Living Quarters", approved by the Ministry of Communal
Households of the RSFSR, 3rd of October, 1950 and later amended in regulations
issued 1st of August, 1955; the regulations were also approved by the Executive
Committee of Local Workers' Soviets.
The following is prohibited: loud singing, loud playing of musical instru-
ments or of radio and television and other similar appliances, loud telephone
conversation, or making other loud noises which penetrate into living quarters
of other inhabitants, thereby disturbing their quiet..
Between the hours of 22 and 8 o'clock turning on the radio, television; or
playing of musical instruments is permissible only when sound intensity has
been reduced to the level at which it will not penetrate into the living quar-
ters of other inhabitants, nor into rooms of roomers in the same quarters.
Inhabitants must turn off all such sound producing appliances before they
leave the living quarters. Playing of sound-producing appliances such as
pathephones, radiolas, etc. on open balconies, porches, or on open windows is
prohibited.
Appendix No. 1
_ Frequency characteristics of Noise Gage "A"
Frequency in ° ° 3 8 § 2 I i § § | § § | § § 1 1 § §
hertz "" *~ """ " •• — — *
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Appendix Ho. 2
Examples for calculating allowable noise intensity levels.
l) Required to determine limiting noise spectrum in a living room
with windows facing the main thoroughfare of the section which is the source
of noise.
According to paragraph No. 1 the allowable spectrum during night hours
is PS-25i and according to paragraph No. 2 the index of the limit spectrum has
to be increased by 5 units. Accordingly, the final allowable levels - levels
in the octave bands, are those which correspond with spectrum PS-25+5 - PS-30,
found in the graph of spectral curves.
2) Required to determine the allowable limit spectrum in the living prem-
ises of noise created by a basement pump operating 24 hours a day.
According to paragraph No. 1 the allowable night spectrum is PS-25.
Accordingly the permissible levels in the octave bands are the ones which
correspond with PS-25, found in the graph of spectral curves.
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