U.S.S.R. LITERATURE ON AIR POLUTION AND
RELATED OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES, VOLUME 14:
A SURVEY
B.S. Lev i ne, et a
1966
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U-S.S.R. LITERATURE ON AIR POLLUTION
AND RELATED OCCUPATIONAL
DISEASES
Volume 1 4
A SURVEY
by B. S. L«vin«, Ph. D.
Sanitary Protection of Moscow Atmospheric Air
M. S. Sokolovskii, Zh. L. Gabinova, B. V. Popov, and L. F. Kachor
(Moscow Sanitary-Epidemiological Station)
Processed by
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TECHNICAL INFORMATION
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Transliterated Russian Title
Sanitarnaya Okhrana Atmosfernogo Vozdukha Moskvy
(Iz dpyta raboty Sanitarno-epidemiologichesokoi stantsii goroda Moskvy)
Moskva, 1965
The present English edition is a part of a survey conducted by
B. S. Levine, Ph. D.
of 3312 Northampton St. , N. W.
Washington, D. C. 20015
supported by PHS Research Grant AP - 00176,
awarded by the Division of Air Pollution
of the U. S. P. H. Service
- i -
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Note
At the request of the District of Columbia Department of Public
Health and with the cooperation of the Maryland State Department of Health
Mr. Gene B. Welsh made an appraisal of "Air Pollution in the National Cap-
ital Area". Results of Mr. Welsh's efforts were published by the U. S. De-
partment of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Divi-
sion of Air Pollution, Technical Assistance Branch, Washington 25, D. C.
as PHS. Pub. No. 955, July 1962. The publication is for sale by the Superin-
tendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, Was.hington 25,
D. C. - Price 35 cents.
A parallel reading of the present translation (Volume 14 of the USSR
AIR POLLUTION LITERATURE SURVEY) and of Mr. Gene B. Welsh's "Ap-
praisal of Air Pollution in the National Capital Area" should help American
air pollution students to acquire a clear understanding of the difference in
approach used in the USSR and in the USA evaluating the problems of air
pollution in the respective capitals and in the various measures either sug-
gested or actually adopted for the protection of the air purity of Moscow,
USSR and of Washington, D. C. USA and its proximal area.
B. S. Levine, Ph. D.
3312 Northampton Street, N. W.
Washington, D. C. 20015, USA.
- 11 -
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CONTENTS
The Hygienic Significance of the Atmospheric Air 1
Organization of the Moscow Sanitary Service Engaged in
Preserving the City's Air Cleanliness 3
Sources of Moscow Ambient Air Pollution and Measures
Used in Combatting It 8
The Chemical Industry 10
Plants of the Nonferrous Metallurgical Industry 13
The Construction Materials Industry 13
The Metalworking and Machine Building Industry of Moscow 15
The Woodworking Industry 17
Motor Vehicle Transport 17
Fuel Combustion 24
Stationary Air Sample Collecting Points 28
Aspiration Apparatus for Collecting Atmospheric Air Samples 31
The Automobile Aspirator 32
Electrical Aspirator LK-1 33
The Automatic Electrical Aspirator LK-2 35
Automatic Electrical Aspirator LK-2A 37
Automatic Electrical Aspirator LK-3 40
Automatic Electrical Aspirator LK-3 A 42
Automatic Electrical Relay LK-4 43
The System of City Tree Planting 44
Basic Trends and Prospects for Improving Air Cleanliness 60
Appendix , 63
- iii -
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THE HYGIENIC SIGNIFICANCE OF THE ATMOSPHERIC AIR
The Soviet Union Communist Party devoted in its program consider-
able attention to problems dealing with planning and organizing public utili-
ties in inhabited areas, such as installation of gas facilities, planting of
parks, trees, groves, etc. ; the necessity of conducting an effective struggle
against pollution of the ambient medium, particularly atmospheric air is
emphasized; protection of atmospheric air against pollution has been raised
to the level of National Government responsibility. It is pointed out that
air pollution by industrial discharges affected the nation's sanitary-hygien-
ic living conditions and its economy. Many chemical substances dis-
charged into the atmosphere are harmful to the population's health, and in
addition cause considerable material damage and loss to the nation's econ-
omy. Hundreds of tons of substances, which could be recovered and utilized
in production, fly daily into the air from smokestacks and ventilation in-
stallations. Protection of atmospheric air purity is no longer an exclusive
concern of public health authorities; preservation of air purity is now of
vital concern to the Soviet Government, to the Communist Party, to commu-
nity organizations, etc. Atmospheric air of large cities and industrial cen-
ters, inhaled daily by their residents, is polluted by discharges from indus-
trial plants and boiler houses, such as dust, soot, gases, vapors, aerosols,
etc. The substances contained in such discharges are harmful to health, and
exert a gradual unfavorable effect on the human organism. It has been es-
timated that a man inhaled an average of 1,200 li of air in 24 hours. Under
such conditions even small pollutant concentrations in the air, penetrating
into the human organism, can cause a variety of diseases.
Moscow is a large industrial center with different types of industries,
In prerevolutionary Moscow plants and factories were located within the city
limits, in residential quarters without sanitary breaks or protection zones,
and production and processing plants had no installations for the purification
of industrial discharges. The interests of the industrialists were of para-
mount importance and the interests of the populace were ignored. Old Mos-
cow was planned according to the law of the existing economic system. No
rational measures in an attempt to protect Moscow's atmospheric air could
be planned or introduced; air pollution from surviving old plants' discharges
still takes place in Moscow. Under present conditions Moscow's indus-
trial establishments discharge a complex of solid and gaseous organic and
inorganic chemical substances into the air causing considerable economic
damage to the national economy through the destruction of decorative and .
shade trees, shrubs, parks, etc. , through excessive fuel consumption due
to incomplete combustion, through loss of rare metals and valuable chemi-
cal substances, through the destructive effect of sulfur dioxide on buildings,
increased consumption of electric light power connected with loss in air
transparency, etc. V. A. Uglov estimated in 1934 that the world's loss in
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coal alone, based on a 1% incomplete fuel combustion, amounted to 13,600,000
tons in 1935; Uglov also estimated that losses in sulfur dioxide discharged into
the atmosphere from smoke stacks of the world's furnaces were equivalent to
38,200,000 tons of sulfuric acid, or almost three times the 13,000,000 tons
of sulfuric acid produced in the world that year.
Losses due to air pollution in the USA in 1950-1951 amounted to A
1, 500, 000, 000 dollars; such losses have been estimated in England in 1947n
at 100,000,000 pounds sterling, while the corresponding losses in France'
amounted to 240,000,000,000 francs ("Unesco Courier"). Damage caused
to buildings in England has been estimated at 2, 500, 000, 000 pounds sterling,
the use of artificial illumination during one smoggy day in London was es-
timated to cost that city in excess of 20, 000 pounds sterling. Kayzer and
Munger (1952) estimated that copper extraction from foundry fumes resulted
in savings of 27, 000, 000 dollars. Under certain meteorological conditions
atmospheric pollutants amassed in the air causing incidence of acute sick-
ness, which frequently increased the mortality rate among the weak, the
sick, the elderly and among children. Alarmingly increased morbidity and
mortality rates occurred among populations of Maas river valley-in Belgium
in 1930 and in the American city of Donora in 1948 as the result of harmful
industrial gases accumulated in anticyclonic weather. A thick fog, observed
in London in 1952, caused a sharp rise in morbidity and mortality among
children and elderly persons. (V. A. Ryazanov, 1962) Cases of poisoning
free from fatalities occurred in 1946 in Lancashire, England in the vicinity
of a plant discharging fluorine compounds, and in 1949 in Scotland-mear an
oil refinery. A haze and mist have been appearing recently with some regu-
larity over Los Angeles on sunny days. The mist caused irritation of the
eyes and of the upper .respiratory passages, damaged vegetation, and auto-
mobile tire casings. Under the effect of ultraviolet radiation oxides of
nitrogen contained in automotive exhausts discharged by more than three mil-
lion Los Angeles automobiles decompose forming ozone. In the presence of
saturated hydrocarbons - olefins - contained in automotive exhausts formed
a toxic mist which during the frequently occurring periods of temperature
inversion turned into the well known Los Angeles smogs.
Atmospheric air polluted by products of incomplete combustion, such
as soot, different hydrocarbons, frequently contained 3, 4-benzpyrene found
to be a carcinogen. Some scientists are of the opinion that air polluted with
flue gases and automotive exhaust fumes was largely responsible for the
occurrence of lung cancer. Soot and sulfur dioxide are constant components
of smoke formed during fuel combustion; sulfur dioxide is subsequently oxi-
dized into sulfuric acid and sulfuric acid aerosol which act as irritants on the
mucosa of the eyes and the respiratory organs. The harmful effect of highly
dispersed coal ash, if suspended in the air above certain concentrations, has
been described by foreign investigators abroad, and by M. S. Goldberg in
the USSR, and is now well known to scientists and health authorities concern-
ed with in the preservation of atmospheric air cleanliness.
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ORGANIZATION OF THE MOSCOW SANITARY SERVICE ENGAGED IN'
PRESERVING THE CITY'S AIR CLEANLINESS
i
The sanitary-epidemiological station of Moscow City assigned the
problem of protecting the cleanliness of the city's air basin to its Depart- '
ment of Atmospheric Air Hygiene which was organized in 1956. Prior to '
that, the protection of atmospheric air cleanliness had been the responsi-
bility of two groups: l) state sanitary inspectors, whose function was that
of control, and 2) so-called, sanitary physicians/who supervised the means
and methods used in protecting atmospheric air against pollution. In the
early stages of Moscow air protection these two groups lacked direct con-
tact, cooperation and systematic approach. Dust concentration in the air
was first determined by the sedimentation method and later by the aspira-
tion method. Attempts were made to reduce air ash content by compelling
all types of boiler operated plants to use coal of the lowest ash and sulfur
content, by installing ash and dust trapping equipment, etc. More effort
was devoted by the authoritative construction organizations to the develop-
ment and building of ventilation and air purifying installations in Moscow's
most unhygienic industrial establishments from the viewpoint of air pollu-
tion.
Investigation of atmospheric air dust content by the aspiration method
was conducted only on the territory of the Gor'kii Central Park of culture
and Rest prior to 1945. In 1947 another testing point was established. In 1954
the Moscow sanitary-epidemiological station began to organize municipal and
regional inspection points. By June, 1955 there were 5 municipal regional
stationary inspection points in operation in Moscow. The Division of Atmo-
spheric Air Hygiene, attached to the Section of General and Community Hy-,
giene, had a staff which included physicians, an engineer, an assistant to
the sanitary physician; it worked in close cooperation with the laboratory
group which consisted of analytical chemists, a physical chemist and a labora-
tory helper; the scope of the work expanded considerably, operational control
was centralized and coordinated, and consultation became an important phase
of the total operation. Contact with regional sanitary epidemiological sta-
tions facilitated and hastened the process of solving basic problems related
to the sanitization of Moscow's air basin. The Division recognized the signif-
icance of prophylactic sanitary control with direct leaning on rational pre-
liminary planning, construction and equipping of industrial plants. Measures
are considered for establishing sanitary protection zones around industrial
establishments. This is being accomplished by relocating plants causing
serious air pollution, moving residences out of sanitary protective zones,
modernizing production technology, etc.
Staff members of the Atmospheric Air Hygiene Division participate
in meetings of the sanitary and technical council of experts, at which ques-
- 3 -
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tions dealing with basic factors related to sanitary protection zones are
discussed, including selection of housing construction locations in vi-
cinities of some industrial establishments, reconstruction and moderni-
zation of old plants, hygienic classifications of industries not covered by
standard operating regulations, etc. Serious questions are also discussed
at meetings of the council of experts in the F. F. Erisman Moscow Scien-
tific Research Institute of Hygiene, and the Central Institute of Post Grad-
uate Medicine, and of the USSR and the RSFSR Ministries of Public Health.
According to a decision of the Mossoviet (Moscow Soviet), complex
problems related to the construction of purification devices must be dis-
cussed at the Technical Mossoviet Administration meetings in cooperation
with air pollution experts. It has become a recent practice to study joint-
ly plans submitted to the industrial section of the Municipal Sanitary -
Epidemiological Station. The plans are first examined by experts of the
Division with regard to sanitary protection of the atmospheric air: deci-
sions are finally considered by the council of industrial experts with the
participation of the Division's staff members. Construction of purification
installations is supervised by sanitary physicians of the city and regional
sanitary-epidemiological stations.
The Division of Atmospheric Air Hygiene issued routine standard
instructions to be followed in conducting inspections of industrial plants
with regard to a sound and rational construction from a sanitary hygienic
viewpoint, means of production and processing operations, and with re-
gard to ventilation and other air purifying installations. Instructions are
periodically issued to regional sanitary epidemiological stations which deal
with sanitary-hygienic problems arising in production departments per-
tinent to their authority. The City Sanitary-Epidemiological Station ini-
tiated an extensive project in 1958 dealing with the study of atmospheric
air pollution by motor vehicle exhaust fumes on highways and by-gasoline
stations. A study was initiated in 1959 of widths of sanitary protective
zones surrounding city enterprises which constituted principal sources of
atmospheric city air pollution. The same year some regional sanitary-epi-
demiological stations initiated a study on the relationship between mor-
bidity rates and degree of atmospheric air pollution by specific city enter-
prises.
In I960 P. P. Dikun developed a fluorescent-spectral method for
the detection of the carcinogen 3, 4-benzpyrene in atmospheric air pollu-
tants and in settled dust. Following this fifteen city enterprises were
selected for special study and determination of the amount of 3, 4-benz-
pyrene their discharges may have contained. Parallel with this, deter-
minations were made of the amount of 3, 4-benzpyrene contained in the
raw material and in the intermediate, finished, and processed products.
- 4 -
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Dust was collected for such studies by the sedimentation and aspiration
method. Results of the study determined the urgent need for and type
of sanitary-hygienic installations which were to be recomended as pro-
phylactic measures.
Serious attention has been given to park development, planting of
trees, decorative shrubs, bushes and flower beds. In cooperation with
other pertinent departments a study was made of industrial effluents' ef-
fect on the growth of vegetable life in the city parks, nearly forest groves
and farms, and in the sanitary protection belt. Studies have been initiated
for the exact determination of air pollution type and degree contributed by
specific city enterprises.
Fig. 1 is a schematic presentation of the organizational plan ac-
cording to which work for the protection of Moscow's atmospheric air
purity is being conducted.
Fig. 1
COOHOIN*
COMMITTEE
DIVISION OF ATMOSPH. |
AIR HYGIENE
SANIT.-TECHOL.
COUNCIL OK
EXPERTS
M.DO IN CHARGE
OF ATMOSPH,
AIR PROTECT 'H
FIG. . ORGANIZATION OF Moscow
AIR PROTECT son
- -3 -
ATMOSPHERIC
-------
The Division of Atmospheric Air Hygiene functions in cooperation
with the Mossoviet, the Mosgorsqvnarkhoz (Moscow Economic Council),
and the Institute of Basic Moscow City Planning, the Central Moscow In-
stitute of Post Graduate Medicine, the F. F. Erisman Central Scientific,
(
Institute of Hygiene, the A. N. Sysin Institute of General and Community
Hygiene of the USSJ^ Academy of Medical Sciences, and many other func-
tionally related institutes and organizations. Questions pertaining to
general sources of atmospheric air pollution, city fuel supply, reduction
in atmospheric pollution by automotive exhaust fumes, organization of
sanitary protection zones, etc. are decided by the Mossoviet. Measures
requiring substantial capital outlay by the city's industrial enterprises
are decided on the basis of specific conditions by the Mosgorsovnarkhoz
(Moscow City Economic Council). Based on information supplied by city
regional sanitary-epidemiological stations, the Division prepares specific
lists of purification installations which the City's economic Council anti-
cipates through the year for distribution among Moscow's industrial enter-
prises.
r* .
The need to institute sanitary protection zones around Moscow's
industrial enterprises is determined by sanitary authorities in cooperation
with the Moscow Institute of General City Planning; simultaneously concrete
sanitization measures are being developed and instituted according ^o speci-
fications prescribed for each enterprise in compliance with standard city
health regulations. With respect to park development, tree planting, etc.
the Division cooperates with workshops of the General City Planning Insti-
tute, with the Planning Administration, the Public Welfare Department, and
the Forest and Park Management Administration of the Moscow City Execu-
tive Committees, and several other pertinent institutes and organizations.
In the field of atmospheric air protection against pollution by automotive
exhausts, the Division cooperates with Institutes of the Automobile Industry,
the Automobile and Internal Combustion Scientific Research Institute, the
Auto-Transport Scientific Research Institute, the Fuel Supply Central
Scientific Research Institute, and with the Main Moscow Motor Transport
Administration of the Mosgorispolkom (Moscow City Executive Committee).
In recent years the Department has established contact with the
Mosgorsdravotdel (Moscow City Public Health Department) for the cooper-
ative study of population morbidity in relation to Moscow atmospheric air
pollution. In this connection the City Sanitary-Epidemiological Station in
cooperation with the Department of Municipal Hygiene of the Central Insti-
tute of Post Graduate Medicine convoked the First Moscow Topical Con-
ference for the Sanitary Protection of Atmospheric Air in November of 1961.
Approximately 450 practical workers, physicians, engineers and scientists,
from hygienic and technological institutes actively participated in the con-
ference. Among those who attended the Conference were representatives
from Leningrad, Riga, Sverdlovsk, Tbilisi and Dnepropetrovak.
-------
Twenty-five reports were presented at the conference which covered a
wide scope of problems. Seven reports were presented by staff members
of the Division of Atmospheric Air Hygiene, three by physicians of city-
district sanitary-epidemiological stations in cooperation with staff mem-
bers of the Division. Some technological problems were illuminatingly
discussed in reports presented by members of NAMI (Automobile Inter-
nal Combustion Engine Scientific Research Institute), "Mosgazproeskt",
and members of other pertinent research institutes and organizations.
Beginning with 1956 staff members of the Division have been en-
gaged in work dealing with problems of pertinent applied sciences. Thus,
in 1957 and 1959, members of Moscow Sanitary-Epidemiological Stations
reported at an applied science conference on the state of the city's atmos-
pheric air pollution as indicated by data secured at stationary inspection
points; at the All-Union Conference on sanitary protection of atmospheric
air held in Kiev in 1959, and an applied science conference convoked by
the Moscow Sanitary-Epidemiological Station in I960, reports were pre-
sented dealing with the effect of automotive exhausts on Moscow atmos-
pheric air, and its pollution with CO and poisonous hydrocarbons.
At the third Plenum session of the Committee on Carcinogens and Prophy-
lactic Measures, a report was presented dealing with Moscow ambient air
pollution with the carcinogen 3,4-benzpyrene. Studies are being conducted
on the effect of industrial discharges on vegetation; methods and equipment
are being developed for the automatic collection of atmospheric air sam-
ples and their analysis. Staff members of the Division are urged to attend
meetings and conferences, to participate in discussions, exchange of ex-
periences and opinions related to problems encountered in the course of
their work.
A significant part of the Division's activity is devoted to advancing
the professional qualifications of the scientific, semiprofessional and man-
ual personnel of the Division. Since I960 laboratories of the Division ,
have been used as workshops to which sanitary physicians were assigned '
for a year's study of laboratory procedures directly or indirectly related
to the sanitary protection of atmospheric air. The Division personnel
and trainees, including sanitary physicians, hold frequent intramural con- .
ferences at which pertinent problems of immediate concern are discussed
in detail. At present nearly all scientific and professional personnel have
received such advanced qualification training. Two sanitary physicians '.
have received advanced instruction at the F. F. Erisman Moscow Scientific
Research Institute of Hygiene; one sanitary physician has completed corres-
pondence courses on sanitary protection of the atmospheric air offered by
the Department of Municipal Hygiene of the Central Institute of Post Gradu-
ate Medicine; another had spent thirty days at the Department of Radiation
Hygiene of the above mentioned Institute; four sanitary physicians com-
pleted a special 122-hour course at the same Institute.
- 7 -
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Two of the Division's sanitary physicians passed certain prescribed examin'-
ations and have been given the titles of Minimum Program Candidates.
Topical conferences are held and seminars are being conducted
for sanitary physicians of regional city sanitary-epidemiological stations.
All sanitary physicians of regional city sanitary-epidemiological -stations
engaged in the sanitary protection of atmospheric air cleanliness have
taken the previously mentioned 122-hour program of advanced training at
the Division of Municipal Hygiene of the Central Institute of Post Gradu-
ate Medicine. In addition, the Moscow City Sanitary-Epidemiological Sta-
tion invites sanitary physicians, chemists and other scientific laboratory
workers to engage in practical work conducted at the Station on a tempor-
ary training basis. The Division of Atmospheric Air Hygiene conducts lec-
ture courses for auditors at the Central Institute for Post Graduate Medi-
cine and at the F. F. Erisman Moscow Scientific Research Institute of
Hygiene. Representatives of different cities and republics of the Soviet
Union are periodically familiarized with the work of the Division.
A Committee attached to the office of the Chief Physician of the Sanitary-
Epidemiological Station, has been assigned the task of coordinating all
the work on sanitary protection of Moscow's ambient air. Included in such
Committee are representatives of hygienic and technical institutes, indi-
vidual Mossoviet administrations, the Mosgorsovnarkhoz, the Academy
of City Administration, and other pertinent organizations.
SOURCES OF MOSCOW AMBIENT AIR POLLUTION AND MEASURES
USED IN COMBATTING IT
A total of 1956 purification installations were listed on the books
of Moscow Sanitary-Epidemiological Station in 1963. Table 1 shows the
rate of annual growth in the number of purification devices.
Table 1
LIST or PURIFICATION INSTALLATIONS
NUMBER OF
PURIFYING
INSTALLA-
TIONS
1954
462
1955
622
1956
776
1957
1153
1958
1256
1959
1367
1960
1504
1961
1586
1962
i699
1963
1956
NOT!i; DATA SHOW INCREASED TOTALS
The Moscow City Sanitary-Epidemiological Station is conducting
systematic work in developing improved methods for the manufacture of
purification installations. Many purification installations are newly built
and rebuilt at Moscow shops. Thus, 137 installations were built in 36
- 8 -
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Moscow shops in I960. The building of purification installations was ac-
celerated and substantially increased during 1963-1965. This raises be-
fore Moscow sanitary organizations new imposing problems in the field of
preventive sanitary supervision. The Department of Atmospheric Air Hy-
giene issues official decrees, list trade.names of available purification ,
equipment, makes known resolutions of the Mosseviet and enactments of ,
the Moscow Chief Sanitary Physician on questions dealing with preventive .
sanitary supervision of protecting atmospheric air against pollution.
Considerable attention is devoted by the Sanitary Service of Moscow to the
installation of gas burning facilities in community and industrial boiler
rooms and in industrial furnaces. The Division of Atmospheric Hygiene
prepares annual lists indicating the order in which fuel combusting utilities
should be converted to gas burning. Over 800 industrial plants had been '
converted to gas fuel; more than 100,000 home heating "ovens" and about
1200 boiler rooms of apartment houses and community heating facilities
have been converted from hard fuel burning to that of gas; over 100 industrial
buildings and 9000 residential buildings have been provided with gas burn-
ing heating facilities.
Fig. 2
600
1959 i960 1961 1962
Development of a special method made
possible the detection of carcinogen 3,4-benz-
pyrene in the raw materials :used by industrial
plants which employed coal-tar pitch, tar mas-
tic, and certain brands of soot. Results of
studies conducted in the detection of 3,4-benz-
pyrene prompted the Chief Sanitary Physician
to shut down a roof -paper making plant and to
stop the production of tar cement at a Rubber-
oid plant. Wider use of the aspiration method
in collecting air samples and the development
of the fluorescent method for the detection of
3, 4-benzpyrene should indicate with greater
certainity the imperative need for shutting down
_ _ ------ industrial plants which pollute the air with car-i
BLOCKS SHOW NUMBER OF INDUSTRIAL EN- ^ ^
TERPRISES ACCOHDING TO INDICATED YEARS cinogens.
Considerable difficulty has been encountered in enforcing existing
Mossoviet regulations prohibiting the open burning of industrial wastes.
Not all industrial plants complied with this official regulation; this was par-
ticularly true of plants belonging-to the woodworking industry. The intro-
duction of a new unit designed for the combustion of wood waste with the
shaft inside the combustion chamber, developed by engineer N. I. Kraits-
berg, eliminated the discharge of smoke into the atmospheric air. The
year 1955 marks the beginning of removal from Moscow of industrial com-
bines and individual production plants which were responsible in greater
part for Moscow's air pollution and which particularly disturbed the popu-
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lation with their discharges. Since 1955 29 plants and 73 shops have been
removed from Moscow, which resulted in lowering the suspended dust, gas
and sulfur dioxide concentrations in the atmospheric air. In many Moscow
city districts air dust density has been reduced to 20-15% of what it was in
1950, and sulfur dioxide concentration in Moscow ambient air was reduced .
by 50% since 1956.
t
Intensity of air pollution by a variety of chemicals in the vicinity
of Moscow plants which installed air purifying equipment inside their work-
ing premises has been reduced drastically. It can be stated with certainity
that industrial production, manufacturing and processing plants constituted
the basic sources of Moscow ambient air pollution. Industrial discharges
emitted into the atmospheric air can be grouped into six categories: 1)
combined tail gases thrown into the air in a centralized manner;
-------
Thus, at plant "Kauchuk", which manufactured a variety of rubber products,
the basic source of atmospheric air pollution was the stage of preliminary
processing in which synthetic and natural rubber and different brands of
soot were used. This preparatory stage of production will soon be moved
into a new building now under construction outside Moscow city limits.
Plants manufacturing artificial leather and leather substitutes use
different solvents such as gasoline, acetates, etc., the vapors of which
are being trapped by recovery installations, and gasoline soluble latex
is replaced by water-soluble latexes, etc. Oil refineries which produced
high-grade gasolines, paraffins, acetic acid, butane, lubricating oils, and
crude oil cracking and pyrolysis plants, and other types of conversion plants
operated in the open polluting the atmospheric air with sulfur compounds and
saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons, the recovery of which is difficult,
costly and complicated. No practically reliable and economical means for
the recovery of such products have yet been proposed, but the search for
such procedures continues.
Raw materials used by plants of the dye industry include different
hydrocarbons, sulfur and aniline compounds. Here different types oi
scrubbers are used for the recovery of dye dust, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen
sulfide, oxides of nitrogen, ammonia, hydrocarbons. Paints and varnish
producing plants discharged into the atmosphere entire complexes of or-
ganic solvents containing vapors of gasoline, xylol, white spirit, isopropyl
alcohol, etc. Tne operation of such plants within the city limits of Moscow
has been prohibited.
Plants producing drugs, pharmaceuticais and perfumes obtain
alkaloids and other similar substances by extraction with dichlorethane
and methanol, the vapors of which seriously pollute the surrounding atmo-
spheric air. In addition plants which produced antibiotics discharged into
the air surrounding the plants antibiotic dust, phenol, butanol, butyl acetate,
sulfur dioxide, and an entire series of aromatic compounds and inorganic
substances. The principal discnarge components are recovered. Some of
such pharmaceutical production plants have been moved outside the city
limits. Such was the case with the Karpov chemical and pharmaceutical
plant which used to pollute Moscow air with manganese. Another Moscow
plant which produced potassium permanganate was completely shut down.
The Semashko chemical and pharmaceutical plant has also been moved out
of Moscow. A new plant is at present under construction outside of Mos-
cow city limits which will house an endocrine preparations plant which is
now operating in the heart of Moscow. Cleaning, dyeing and general chemi-
cal plants which could not be moved from Moscow have been ordered to
equip their production and processing rooms with up-to-date pollution
trapping and by- and waste products recovering equipment, such as
scrubbers, filter bag dust catchers, etc. In accordance with the Moscow
- 11 -
-------
City Sanitary-Epidemiological Station's proposal, the general city.recon-
struction plan provides for, the construction of new buildings outside the
built-up residential city area which will ultimately house all previously
mentioned production and processing plants.
Sulfur dioxide is one of the most extensively encountered air pollu-
tants of the chemical industry, as well as in many other industries. Gas-
eous discharges containing more than 4% of SO2 can be utilized in the pro-
duction of sulfuric acid. Gaseous discharges containing less than 4% sul-
fur dioxide can be purified with water, soda, ammonia, lime solutions,
etc. The dilute sulfur dioxide solutions can be converted into weak sul-
furic acid, sulfates and sulfites by the generally known combined methods.
Hydrogen sulfide is recovered by different methods depending upon local
conditions. The wet'purification method employing soda, alkalies, arsenic,
catasulfite, etc. are used most commonly. Wet scrubbers sprayed inside
with milk of lime are used for the removal of chlorine. Depending upon
the purification degree required the plant management can use the well
known single or double stage wet scrubbers.
Hydrogen chloride is absorbed easily by water in packed scrubbers
the purification efficiency of which can be as high as 95-96%. Industrial
discharges containing mercury can be effectively purified with the aid of
activated charcoal filters, pyroluside, potassium permanganate, etc. The
recovery of oxides of nitrogen presents certain difficulties, and the purifi-
cation method to be selected depended upon the ratio between the nitric
oxides and the nitrogen peroxide. Organic solvents are generally recovered
and recirculated into the technological cycle. A necessary condition for ef-
ficient recovery is a leakproof system of conduits and adequate suction in-
stallations at strategic production and processing points. It has been es-
tablished that recovery installations operated efficiently at volatile pollutant
concentrations of not less than 1000 mg/m3 . However, recovery of solvent
vapors of lower concentrations must be resorted to for the adequate pro-
tection of atmospheric air purity.
Adsorption and absorption methods of solvent recovery are the
most widely used at present. The adsorbent is usually activated charcoal
or silica gel, and the absorbent is a suitable liquid. The purification de-
gree depended upon the solvent, and generally amounted to 70-80%. Any
residual should be burned by passing the mixture through a combustion unit.
The solvent vapor recovery method has been employed successfully in
Moscow for the recovery of toluol in printing shops, of ethyl acetate at
furniture factories, in the production of artificial leather and leather
articles, etc. Recovery of deep freeze gases proved to be of low effi-
ciency, and, therefore, uneconomical.
- 12 -
-------
Plants of the Nonferrous Metallurgical Industry
Many plants engaged in secondary processing of nonferrous metals
are located within Moscow city limits, the discharges of which polluted
the cities ambient air with lead, zinc, chlorides, pitch, coal dust, sulfur
dioxide, carbon monoxide, etc. The copper electrolytic plant is the largest
of all nonferrous Moscow plants.
Processing of raw metallic ore containing copper is done at high
temperatures causing the formation of colloidal oxides of zinc and lead.
To prevent the latter from heavily polluting the city's atmospheric air
the plant is equipped with efficient purification devices, such as filter
bag installations. Certain sanitization measures have been instituted
in the plant and the production of crude copper has been curtailed, which
resulted in a marked improvement in the sanitary condition of the sur-
rounding air, but not enough to adequately improve the sanitary living
conditions of nearby residents; therefore, some of the plant's production
and processing departments were moved out of the city. The Moscow
Electrode Plant used coal tar pitch, crude oil tar and pyrolyzed anthra-
cite as raw materials in its technological and mechanical processes; the
plant created and discharged into the air a large amount of dust, pitch
volatilization products, a variety of sublimates and vapors, sulfur dioxide,
carbon monoxide, etc. For the recovery of tars and particulate substances,
highly effective electrostatic filters have been installed by order of the
Sanitary Service. This has considerably reduced the pollution of atmospher-
ic air in the vicinity of the plant. Electrostatic filters are at present being
installed for trapping other air polluting plant discharges.
By order of the Moscow City Sanitary Service other plants engaged
in secondary processing of nonferrous metals replaced their reverberatory
furnaces by electric furnaces, basically revised production and processing
procedures, reorganized one of the plants into a scientific research in-
stitute, moved individual production sections beyond the city limits,
equipped some departments with installations for the recovery of nitrogen
oxides, lead, etc.
The Construction Materials Industry
Moscow plants of the construction materials industry include asphalt-
concrete plants, a group of plants engaged in the manufacture of different
construction materials such as alabaster, bricks, glass, etc. and plants
engaged in the production of roofing and insulation materials, etc.
Asphalt-concrete and roofing materials plants are an intense source of
Moscow air pollution with dust, soot, sulfur dioxide and many other harm-
ful compounds, such as sand, gravel, calcareous powder, and petroleum
asphalt. The basic raw materials used in the asphalt-concrete plants,
such as rocks and limestone, are first finely'-crushed or ground, dried in
- 13 -
-------
' t I f
drying drums at 120 - 140° C, and mixed with hot petroleum asphalt in "f
special mixers. Laboratory investigations showed that preparation of ^
the asphalt mass emitted discharges which heavily polluted the surround-
ing air. This was substantiated by complaints coming from local resi- t
dents. Results of laboratory investigations showed that soot, dust and Jt
SO2 concentrations in the air surrounding the asphalt-concrete plant over a
wide belt exceeded their corresponding MAC by 100-200%. By request of-
the Moscow Soviet and by order of the Moscow City Sanitary Service most
of the asphalt-concrete plants located within Moscow City limits were shut
down and a new and modern plant was built in a special zone.
Stone and alabaster moulding, brick and glass making, reinforced
concrete and some other plants use sand, cement, clay and other loose
raw materials, which are finely pulverized before their final use; this
results in atmospheric air pollution with dust. And, indeed the territory
around the alabaster,plant used to be heavily polluted. The Moscow City
Sanitary-Epidemiological Station ordered the plant to install appropriate
dust-catching equipment. Electrostatic precipitators were installed and
put into operation, which reduced the air dust concentration in the
vicinity of the plant to the MAC level.
i
Tar-paper and so-called rubberoid plants used some of the pre-
viously mentioned ,loose or running materials and coal-tar pitch the vapor
of which contained 3, 4-benzpyrene; their discharges heavily polluted the
surrounding air. Based on results presented by the city sanitary labor-
atory, the Chief-Sanitary. Physician of Moscow ordered that the tar paper
and rubberoid plant be shut down. Elimination of air pollution by. such
plants required that all unorganized pollution leakage be stopped, -and
recovery of valuable discharges be instituted by installing suitable cyclones,
electrostatic precipitators, or other suitable air purifying equipment.
Boiler rooms of gypsum producing plants should be equipped with a
four-stage air purification system consisting of battery cyclones., bag
filters and electrostatic precipitators of up to 99% efficiency.
Figures 3 and 4 show the NIIOGAZ cyclone and a battery cyclone
(multicyclone) used in Moscow industrial plant engaged in the production
of a variety of construction materials.
- 14 -
-------
~
, '
,
, ,
, ,
,
.
,
,
"
,
"
"
,
,
.
,
,
,
-
.
-
Fig. 3
,
Fi g. 4
--~---- --
.----'----
.-:---'... ','.".,.-'.;. .~- "--_:=--
- - - -- :-- ".. -'
- -'
. - .- - - ._--.
--
~. --
,
.-
- --- _..-
-----
.. --
I
.
BATTERY CYCLONE
(MULTI CYCLONE)
CYCLONE
NIIOGAS
.
.
The Metalworking and Machine
Building Indust r:y
of Moscow
,
Most of the production and processing plants of Moscow belong to the
metalworking and' machine building industry. All such plants discharged
into the atmospheric air similar monotypical pollution components which
are ,of a benign character. In addition, Mr.:>scow houses shops engaged in
'c?o.sting, galvanizing, etching, painting and forging which polluted the air
with dust, metal oxides, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, vapors of acid
and alkalies, compounds of manganese, 'Zinc and chromium, nitro dyes,
,and other compounds.
\
i
\
.
Air pollution in the casting shops comes from the cupola-furnace ex-
haust gases and ventilation discharges. Cupola-furnace exhaust gases con-
tain up to 10 -15 g of dust per m3 of gas, up to 15% carbon monoxide and up
to 1% sulfur dioxide, all of which are thrown into the surrounding air with-
out previous purification. Foundries and casting shops polluted the atmos-
pheric air with ventilation exhausts containing quartz dust generated dur-
ing ground molds preparation, cast cleaning, etc. Dust-laden air coming
from casting shops through ventilation systems or through aeration sky-
lights entered the atmosphere and polluted. it. This is particularly true of
ventilation air coming from earth-preparation cast cleaning sections.
"
,
,
,
- 15 -
\
,
-------
Ventilation air coming from sand-blasting chambers contained as high
175 g/m3 of sand, 50% of which may be in the form of silicon dioxide. In-
the forge shops of machine building and metalworking plants air pollution
comes basically from hearths used in preheating of the material to be
forged; in this case the pollution components are smoke containing carbon
monoxide, soot, and a small amount of sulfur dioxide. Furnaces used by
plants forging objects of large dimensions and which burned mazut are
serious sources of air pollution. Paint shops, especially the ones which
employed the spray system come next. Paint shops can discharge into
the air tons of solvents, including acetone, benzene, toluol, acetates, etc.
Modern machine building plants do a considerable amount of electric weld-
ing. High grade electrode coating and welding fluxes contained such sub-
stances as manganese and fluorides. In the course of electric welding
manganese aerosols and hydrogen fluoride are generated which entered the
air of the shop and therefrom permeated into the atmospheric air through
the ventilation conduits and also as a result of unorganized pollution
through the aeration skylights.
Industrial shops which used the process of pyrolysis, etching and
pickling also polluted Moscow ambient air with sulfuric acid aerosol, soot
hydrocarbons, etc. Furnaces used in the process of pyrolysis and which
burned liquid fuel polluted the atmospheric air with carbon monoxide, soot,
and sulfur dioxide. Some machine building plants have nonferrous casting
departments which remelted lead or other nonferrous metals. Galvanizing
shops polluted the atmospheric air with hydrogen cyanide, dust, sulfuric
acid aerosol, etc. No technical solution has been found until recently for
the abatement of atmospheric air pollution by toxic discharges coming from
cupola furnaces. -.">
Preliminary plans have been submitted recently for the construction
of effective cupola furnace air purifiers. A few cupola furnaces have been
provided with such air purifiers on an experimental basis. The expected
efficiency of the first purification stage lies between 70 and 80%.: Smoke
gases underwent final purification in a foam washer with a calculated effi-
ciency of 95% or higher. Such cupola furnaces are being installed in a
number of Moscow plants according to plans of the "Santekhnika" Scientific
Research Institute. Ventilation air of casting shops has been undergoing
purification in conventional cyclone scrubbers, fabric bag filter installa-
tions, and the like, which operated at 90 and 92% efficiency.
Conversion of forge and pyrolysis furnaces to burning gas fuel de-
creased the volume of their discharges into Moscow's ambient air.
Paint shops of machine building plants using the spray method are being
equipped with hydro filter chambers which trapped the paint aerosol and
not the solvent vapors; therefore, the recovery of solvents in plants using
, , -i
- 16 -
-------
large amounts of solvents must be done by appropriate upplementary in-
stallations. Polluted air discharged by galvanization plants can be puri-
fied best by electrostatic filters, or glass fiber bag filters, or by passing
it through alkaline solutions.
Discharges containing non-ferrous vapors, sublimates, aerosols,
or fine particulates must be purified in strict accordance with sanitary-
hygienic specification, since they contained toxic substances such as oxides
of lead and other nonferrous metals. This can be accomplished best by
using one stage scrubbers, or two-stage cyclones and cloth bag filter
installations.
The Woodworking Industry
City atmospheric air may be polluted by discharges coming from
furniture factories, woodworking shops, pencil factories, etc. Ventilation
air discharged by plants of the wood processing industry contain dust, car-
bon monoxide, organic solvents, phenols, and the like. In addition a con-
siderable quantity of wood waste in the form of sawdust, shavings, and
lath fragments accumulated daily at all plants which use cyclones of differ-
ent types for the recovery of sawdust. Part of the wood waste is used
directly by the plants as secondary material. Part is shipped to other
plants, and part is burned. However, the boiler room combustion units
have not been universally adapted to wood waste burning, and there arise
cases of intense air smoke pollution; therefore, burning of smoke-creating
wastes is forbidden by order of the Moscow Soviet. Twelve Moscow wood-
working plants installed the combustion unit designed by engineer N. I.
Kraitsberg, which can attain complete smokeless combustion of substandard
grade wood wastes containing 60% or more of moisture. Furthermore, the
combustion unit can be easily adapted to all known steam boiler designs,
The basic element of the combustion unit is a rectangular cross section
shaft lined with chamotte brick. The side walls have many cells. The
shaft is seated inside the combustion unit, perpendicular to its front wall.
The space between the shaft side walls and the side walls of the combustion
unit form two channels, each of which is partitioned horizontally; the lower
section forms the draft channel, and the upper the fire channel, and the two
are connected by the combustion chamber. In the waste wood burning pro-
cess the draft passes through the combustion unit twice bringing about com-
plete combustion of the waste wood, eliminating smoke formation.
Motor Vehicle Transport
The number of motor vehicles has been increasing in Moscow with
each year. Construction of new suburban apartment blocks at consider-
able distances from the old city boundaries necessitated expansion of bus
and taxicab transportation and increase in the number of public motor
vehicles in Moscow to more than 200,000, which created the need for
- 17 -
-------
protecting Moscow street air against pollution by automotive exhausts
containing a complex of toxic substances, such as carbon monoxide, nitro-
gen oxides, hydrocarbons, formaldehyde, etc. Concentrations of these
substances in automobile .exhaust fumes frequently exceed the permissible
levels. Carbon dioxide is probably the most significant toxic compound 2
of the automotive exhaust complex. The maximal single permissible con-
centration of carbon monoxide in atmospheric air is 6 mg. m . Investiga-
tions conducted in many cities of the world showed that this value has been
most generally exceeded. According to data reported by American authors
Saper, Kaming, Asbell and Bloomfield in 1937 the street air of large USA
cities contained between 90 and 138 mg/m of carbon monoxide. According
to Z. V. Vol'fson and A. S. Lykova the street air of the largest'USSR cities
contained 17 - 18 mg/m3 of carbon monoxide in 1956. Results of studies con-
ducted by the present authors on the arterial highways of Moscow indicated
carbon monoxide concentrations ranging from 4.3 to 12.9 mg/m3, varying
with volume of traffic intensity and the width of the thorofare. However,
D. P. Partaev found in 1962 that CO concentrations in Moscow street air
was considerably in, excess of the official MAC. . ,<
Carbon monoxide and other toxic substances are released into the
atmosphere as a result of incomplete fuel combustion. The amount of
carbon monoxide in the automotive exhaust depends on a complex of fac-
tors: the technical condition of the engine, its proper tuning up, its design,
fuel quality, general operating conditions, organization of highway traffic,
condition of the thorofare, meteorological factors, etc. Exhaust gases of
an automotive engine in proper mechanical condition and fuel, ignition and
combustion adjustment contained from 1 to 3% carbon monoxide; ,a poorly
adjusted engine under heavy operating conditions will emit exhaust fumes
containing up to 13% of carbon monoxide. Exhaust gases varied ..to a con-
siderable degree with fuel quality. The use of gasoline brand A-70 yielded
half as much carbon monoxide as did gasoline A-56. The 200,000 Moscow
motor vehicles consumed daily about 2500 t of gasoline and 500 t of diesel
oil. It has been estimated that combustion of 1 t of gasoline liberated ap-
proximately 600 - 800 t of carbon monoxide. The danger is here aggravated
by the fact that carbon monoxide did not dissipate, but persisted in the air
within the level of respiration.
The Moscow Sanitary Service conducted a systematic study of the
degree of atmospheric air pollution by motor vehicle exhaust fumes, and
of measures for the abatement of the harm: caused by these fumes to the
health of the city's residents. Carbon monoxide content in atmospheric
air is being studied in Moscow and other cities at fixed points in the resi-
dential and park zones, at four points in the industrial city districts with
low motor-vehicle traffic, and at 4 selected points on the capital's auto-
mobile highways. Air samples are being collected also at streets having
fluctuating rates of traffic and are tested for carbon monoxide, hydro -
'" -18-"
-------
carbons, nitrogen oxides and formaldehyde. Over 2000 such air samples
have been collected and analyzed in the course of the past three years.
The Moscow Sanitary-Epidemiological Station collected air samples
in streets with fluctuating traffic: low motor-vehicle traffic - up to 300
per hour; traffic of medium intensity - 900 - 1000 motor vehicles per hour;
high-intensity traffic - 2000 motor vehicles per hour and over (Figure 5).
As motor vehicle traffic intensity increased, atmospheric air pollution with
carbon monoxide rose with respect to number of samples containing CO in
excess of 6 mg/m3, and with respect to the average maximum. As was
previously mentioned, atmospheric air pollution with carbon monoxide varied
with the volume of passing traffic, and with the width of the street, or the
street air ventilation.
Fig. 7
-- - ------.--- -'.
" I
II
.
. 109,9 55,6' 66, i
i ,I ~ I ~
- -~-~-- ---- "-- --
PERCENT OF ~!!P_~S ~IT'!. CO- C~H~_rrrifATIOHS
~ _~!?YE 6 M"G/~3- -- "
!Z:2 BELOW 6 110//13
10,0
4,3
~
10, .,
~
12,9
~
44,0
22,0
---~-~ -- -
----
CO CONCENTRATIONS IN MG/M3
- ' MAXIMAL
~ AVERAGE
-ATI'IOSPHERIC. AIR- PO"r:"LUTION-" WITH" CO IN--RELATI"oNPro RATE OF AUTC>-
MoalLI! TRAFfiC
I - UP TO 300 VEHICLES PER HR.; II - UP TO 1000; III - UP 10
2000 0\1 HORE
The rate of automotive traffic passing through Sadovo-Sukharevskaya
Street, Dzerzhinskii Square, Enthusiasts' Highway and Sadovo-Triumfal r -
naya Street is about the same. The first two highways are 35-40 m wide and
have good ventilation; whereas Sadovo- Triumfal'naya Street is only 16 m wide'
(Figure 6).
-.19 -
"
-------
~ - -
---..
. ,--
----..,...,..- -
~--.oo:-- -
.
,
t
"
"
-
Fig. 6
.
Air studies conducted in streets of
equal motor traffic intensity, but'of differ-
1/ .., -.. ent widths, showed that the air of narrow
streets contained on the average twice as
much carbon monoxide as did the air of
the wider streets, and that number of air
samples containing CO in excess of MAC
was greater by 50% than in air samples
,
collected in the wider streets. Construc-
tion of underground pedestrian street
crossings and of tunnels for uninterrupted
high-speed automotive traffic has been in-
creasing in Moscow since 1959. The pres-
, .
ent authors tested the beneficial effect of
street crossings and tunnels on the sani-
tary condition of the atmospheric air. It
has been established that highest concen-
20,1 trations of toxic substances are exhausted
d,O ~
~ ~ ~ by motor vehicles during acceleration, de-
-,.- IN--MSI.M3 - celeration, and idling, especially when
co CONTEwr (I
- ' -- stopping at a traffic light; therefore, air
~ MAXIMAL samples have been collected for the deter-
--- -
~ AVERAGE mination of carbon monoxide and hydrocar-
. ,--- -- - ,-' -' bon concentrations at spots where cars
CO CONCENTRATION IN RELATION TO THOROUGH-
FARE WIDTH AT SAME MOTOR TRAFFIC RATE stopped at a red light, before the construc-
1-;:-;tHOROUG"HFAR'i WID1H35 ':''4QuM;' - tion of underground street cros sings i simi-
II - 10 M. 1ar1y air samples have been collected at,
the same spots after the stop lights had
been removed. Analysis of the air sam-
ples showed significant reduction in the carbon monoxide concentrations,
and a perceptible reduction in the concentration of hydrocarbons in air
samples collected after the removal of the red stop lights as illustrated
by blocks in Fig. 7. . .
I
78,4
531
,
21,6
~
1.5.8
-- u.- ---
- --~ - - --- - --- . ~--
PERce:" OF SAMPLES CONTAINING CO
~ ABO~E 6 116/113--
, .
EZ2J BELOW 6 I1G/113
10,0
JUO
,
A considerable sanitizing effect was attained after the construction
of an underground tunnel across Mayakovskii Square. Carbon monoxide
and hydrocarbon concentrations were considerably reduced (see Figure 7).
Intensity of the atmospheric air pollution with hydrocarbons also in-
creased with increase in the automotive traffic rate. Maximal air pollu-
tion concentrations instreets of low auto traffic rate were 3, 4 mg/m~, .
and in streets of high auto traffic rate (1000 vehicles per hour) maximal air
pollution was 4.25 mg/m3. Intensity of air pollution with oxides of nitro-
gen also varied with traffic intensity from concentrations below MAC to
concentrations exceeding it. Formaldehyde concentrations in Moscow
, / 3 I
atmospheric air varied between 0.008 - 0.012 mg m .
- 20
-
. -
, .
,
I
.
.
,
I
,
. I
,
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.
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.
,
,
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- '
-------
--
~ -
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-
~ ~
,
.
, .
.
,
.
.
Fig. 7
.
- -,
- - ---- - -
A
. .
- - ~-- ..- ---
5
,
MAXIMAL
16,9 16,9
AvERAGE
--...". ..
AVER'AGE '
.
MAXIMAL
12,6
(0,9
.
B 6
,
~f1~,~
3,62 1,85
~~
-- ~.- ---- -
, ,
------
DZERZHINSKII SQUARE
.
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.
,
,
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,
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I . 70
I
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,
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43,4
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f5,4
8,2
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20,7
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8,45 3,35
~Ai~,'\.'J
.
.
.-- ----
SQUARE
,
MAYAKO\fSKII
~ I
~ "
.
,
-. ------ .-- -
FALL IN fA) co AIR POLLUTION AND (B) HYDROCARBON AIR POLLUTIOU AFtER
INSTITUTING OVERHEAD AND UNDERGROUND PEDESTRIAN PASSAGES. AIR POLLU-
TANT CONCENr~ATION (I) BEFORE AND (II) AFTER THE INTRODUCTION OF SP&-
CIAL PEDESTRIAL PASSAGES
.' Filling stations also polluted Moscow street air. Most Moscow gaso-
,
. line stations supplied more than 15 t of gasoline every 24 hours. At 30 m
the filling stations gasoline vapors in the air averaged 7.1 mg/ma, and the
odor of gasoline was unmistakably perceived. At 50 m the gasoline vapor
concentrations dropped to 5 mg/m3 which is below the MAC.
-
- ----
- .'
-~----
--
-- ---
I
I
.
,
,
I
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,
. '
,
.
.
,
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,
.
,
,
,
.
i
.
,
,
,
,
,
.
.
.
.
Introduction of new types of motor vehicles operating on gaseous fuel
I
confronts sanitary supervisors with a number of new problems related to
the evaluation of their effect on the sanitary condition of atmospheric air.
According to laboratory data of the Research Automobile and Automobile
Engine Institute, carbon monoxide was practically absent in exhaust fumes
. of the ZIL-164 vehicle, which operates on liquefied gas.
I
.
I
.
. '
Air samples were collected directly at the discharge flume 10 cm
and 2 m from the end of the exhaust pipe of a ZIL-156 automobile operat-
ing on compressed gas and on gasoline. Carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon
concentrations were determined in samples collected when the vehicle was
idling. The resu~ts of the tests are shown in Table 2.
.
.
- 21 -
.
.
.
.
-------
Table 2
CARBON MONOXIDE AND HYDROCARBON CONTENT IN EXHAUSTS OF THE Zllr-150 AUTO-
ENGINE AT IDLING
SAMPLES" cot-"
LECTED AT CM ,
FROM THE EX-
HAUST PIPE END
10
200
ENGINE COMBUSTED
GASOLINE COMPRESSED GAS
COCH. IN N6/M3
CO [HYDROCARBONS CO
279,3
478,8
118,7
106.4
1014,2
991,1
151,4
79.8
71,5
53.0
11.0
17.0
HYDROCARBONS
7.3
7.46
3.83
4.75
The Moscow Sanitary-Epidemiological Station in cooperation with the
Leningrad Central Scientific Research Institute of Fuel Equipment conducted
tests in 1962 on a PAZ-651 bus with a spark ignition system and a jet igni-
tion system for the purpose of determining the sanitary-hygienic effective-
ness of the new ignition system. In the new jet ignition system special cham-
bers take the place of spark plugs; a mixture of light gasoline fractions and
basic cylinder fuel is fed into these chambers. The mixture is ignited by
a spark plug and a jet is projected through the opening of a nozzle into the
principal combustion chamber of the cylinder, in which an air-fuel mixture
is ignited. Intensity of the mixture ignition in the cylinder brings about a
more complete fuel combustion than in the case of the simple spark igni-
tion system.
An engine with a standard spark ignition system and one with a jet
ignition system were tested under identical conditions.
Samples of exhaust fumes were taken with the engines idling at 500,
1600 and 2200 rpm, and with the vehicles traveling at 20, 30, 50, and 70,
and 90 km/hour. A-56 type of gasoline was used in all tests.
Results are shown in Table 3.
Data in Table 3 show that when the engine was operating with the
jet type ignition, lower concentrations of carbon monoxide were detected
than when the standard spark ignition system was used. However, equally
high CO concentrations were obtained when the bus was travelling at a
speed of 90 km/hour; this constituted an overload condition for the en-
gine GAZ-51 installed in bus PAZ-651, since its maximum rated speed was
only 70 km/hour. .The jet ignition system proved more effective than the
standard spark system during idling.
Gas-filling or charging stations can also constitute sources of atmo-
spheric air pollution. Natural illuminating gas supplied by such stations
consists of the following: carbon dioxide - from 0.5 to 2.2%; heavy hydro-
- 22 -
-------
carbons - up to 0.6%; oxygen - from 0.1 to 0.4%; carbon monoxide - from
1.1 to 4. 9%; methane - from 81. 3 to 92. 7%; hydrogen - from 9. 8 to 16. 7%,
and nitrogen up to 5. 8%, and in some cases hydrogen sulfide up to 0. 017%
g/m . This gas has a high fuel value - from 7241 to 8267 Cal. One charge
of this gas is sufficient for a truck run of 250 - 290 km. Moscow has at
present several compressed fuel gas public stations.
Table 3
PERCENT OF CO IN EXHAUST GASES GENERATED BY AUTOBUS PAZ-651
CO IN %
NATURE OF WORK
ROAD TESTS AT TRAVEL SPEED IN K^HR
20
30
50
70
90
IDLING AT RPM
500
1600
2200
IGNITION
SPARK""
8,8
8,6
8,9
5.1
6,2
5,6
1.0
1,3
0,9
2,6
0,6
1.2
5,3
4,3
3,8
5,9
7,8
7.9
5,1
5.1
5,0
1,6
4,0
3.7
JET
0,8
0.6
0.4
0,4
0,3
0,2
0.8
0,5
0.5
0,4
0,3
0,4
6,4
6.1
5.9
0.7
0.8
0.7
0.6
0,6
0.6
0.7
0.9
0.5
The natural gas is supplied by pipelines and is fed by compressors into cen-
tral storage tanks,and from there into a net of gas-distributing pump sta-
tions. The atmospheric air at such points is polluted by fumes of the natu-
ral gas, by exhaust fumes of the serviced automotive vehicles. It has been
established by laboratory tests that a 50-meter break zone may be suffi-
cient as sanitary safeguard for service stations supplying compressed natu-
ral gas. As a measure of noise abatement and prevention of atmospheric
air pollution with motor-vehicle exhaust fumes, the Moscow Sanitary-Epi-
demiological Station issued a regulation in 1954 prohibiting the use of diesel-
engine buses within Moscow city limits.
- 23 -
-------
When the use of ethyl gasoline in Moscow was under discussion in
1956 the city sanitary-epidemiological station investigated the lead content
of atmospheric air on highways at city approaches where automobiles
operating on an ethyl lead gasoline were passing by. Results of the study
showed that in the course of gasoline combustion tetraethyl lead decom-
posed into other less toxic compounds, such as lead oxide, lead bromide,
lead chloride, lead phosphate, etc., and that 80-85% of the lead contained
in ethyl gasoline was eliminated. Based on the results of the investigation
city sanitary authorities issued a regulation forbiding the use of tetraethyl
lead gasoline within Moscow City limits.
In I960 and 1962 The Executive Committee of the Moscow Soviet is-
sued decrees dealing with measures for the reduction of atmospheric air
pollution by exhaust fumes of automotive engines. A temporary technical
standard was established at 2% maximum permissible carbon monoxide
content in exhaust fumes of trucks and buses. Existing requirements for
the maintenance and repair of automotive vehicles were supplemented by
stricter requirements aimed at improving the engines' mechanical per-
formance and at reducing the carbon monoxide concentration in the ex-
haust fumes. The City's Traffic Control Department and the Government
Motor Vehicle Inspection should institute a strict check on the technical
condition of engines, their fuel and ignition systems, etc.; the fuel combus-
tion efficiency should.be checked with special reference to CO concentration
in the automotive exhaust fumes. Motor vehicle operators were requested
to acquire Ors- Fisher carbon monoxide determination instruments. Mana-
gers of organizations which had motor-vehicle transport fleets were under
official orders to observe a strict routine for the prevention of faulty en-
gine functioning through proper maintenance of the carburetion and Igni-
tion systems. Following the issuance of the motor vehicle maintenance
regulations inspectors of the Moscow Traffic Control Departments and of
the Government Motor Vehicle Inspection condemned over 4500 vehicles
for reasons of faulty operation and intensive atmospheric air pollution.
Fuel Combustion
Moscow's general growth was paralleled by fuel consumption for in-
dustrial, community, and general utility purposes. Thus, twice as much
Donets coal was burned in Moscow in I960 as in 1946; the consumption of low-
calorific and high-ash Lower M scow coal sharply fell to a low level,
while consumption of gas increased by 24.0%.
Degree to which a fuel polluted the atmospheric air depended on its
ash and sulfur content. The ash content of a fuel varied with the amount
of mineral substances present in the coal, and by the mechanical admix-
tures originally present in it. The mineral substances present in coal
- 24 -
-------
cannot be removed and constitute only a small part of the entire ash; the
mechanical admixtures constitute the principal incombustible mass of coal
ash and can be partially removed by preliminary sorting and washing of
coal or by the, so-called, enrichment process. The ash content of differ-
ent hard fuel types varies greatly. Good Donets anthracite of the AP (plate
anthracite) brand has an ash content of 4.5%; lean Donets coal contains 15%'
of ash; Podmoskov'ye (Lower Moscow) coal contains up to 30%, while peat
and shale contain as much as 50% ash. In contrast to this, mazut and gas
yield practically no ash. Sulfur content in fuel also varies: its concentra -
tion in Donets coals is 1 - 2. 5%; in Podmoskov'ye (Lower Moscow) coal it
is 2.5 - 4%; in shales its range is 3 - 4%; in mazuts it varies between 0.5
and 4. 5%. Sulfur is practically absent in gas.
Fuel burning is accompanied by the discharge of ash and sulfur di-
oxide into the atmospheric air in proportion to their content in the fuel.
Therefore, in order to diminish discharges, preference should be given
to low-ash and low-sulfur high-caloric fuel. The best fuel from this view-
point is gas, since it contains no ash and no sulfur. Sulfur is contained in
coal in the organic, sulfate, and sulfite forms- Sulfate sulfur becomes a
part of the ash and plays no part in the formation of sulfur dioxide; sulfur
of the other two forms burns up completely in the combustion chamber and
is converted into sulfur dioxide and, to a slight extent, sulfur trioxide.
Organic sulfur is present in coal in an insignificant constant proportion;
sulfite sulfur, such as pyrite and marcasite admixtures, are invariably
present in varying concentrations. Sulfur and ash concentrations in coal
can be considerably reduced by enrichment processes lowering the intensity
of air pollution with SO2 ash.
Coal concentration, or coal enrichment, is an important factor in
reducing carbon dioxide discharges, since recovery of the latter by special
installations is expensive. Ash intensity contained in fuel combustion dis-
charges thrown into the air depended on the fuel ash content and on the de-
sign of the combustion chamber. Layer fuel combustion liberated only 20-
30% of the total ash, the bulk of it is trapped by the slag; burning of powder-
ed coal liberates 80- 90% of the ash. Coal-dust combustion chambers
differ from the fire-grate type in that the coal is burned not over grates,
but in a suspended state in the form of free dust, blown into combustion
chambers through special nozzles which resulted in more complete com-
bustion and less soot, so that the smoke did not have the black color which
characterized the smoke coming from fire-grate combustion chambers.
Low grade coal, rich in mineral admixtures and having a low caloric
value, is easily and completely consumed in coal-dust combustion chambers
due to the large total area of the pulverized coal particles. Conversion to
the coal-dust combustion method makes possible the use of extensively oc-
curring local low-grade coal in power plants. Coal-dust combustion cham-
bers liberate a high percentage of light coal ash which is a great disad-
- 25 -
-------
1--
--_.._..,-~-
~1.
~
. vantage from the viewpoint of air sanitation. Recently coal-dust combus - ,.
.
tion chambers have been designed and built on the principle of liquid slag I
removal. which reduced the percentage of carry-off ash. In double comblf.s-
tion chambers the carry-off ash amounts to 30-400/0. and in the cyclone com-
bustion chambers it is reduced to 10-150/0. Since these combustion chambers
are the most efficient technically and economically, and since they reduced
the volume of ash discharged into the atmospheric air, they should come in-
to exclusive use. Chambers of the layer fuel combustion type are used
principally in industrial and in community residence boiler rooms. while
coat-dust combustion chambers are found mostly in the boiler houses of
electric power plants. Large quantities are consumed in the compara-
tively few boiler houses of the City's electric power plants. Boiler com-
plexes of city electric heat and power plants are serious sources of atmos-
pheric air pollution. This fact caused the Moscow sanitary authorities to
issue a mandatory request that efficient ash catching devices be installed
in all Moscow electricity generating stations. and that ash transportation
from such stations to selected dumps be done in tightly enclosed convey-
ances. Moscow electrogenerating stations now use the following two-stage
ash trapping installation: battery cyclones with electric filters. as illus-
trated in Figure 8, with an overall efficiency of 95 -980/0, and with a hy-
draulic ash removal; ash dumps must be located beyond the city limit.
Fig. 8
ELECTROSTATIC FILTER DVP-
8T5 (FOR SNOKE, VERTICAL,
PLASTIC, WITH BATTERY CY-
CLOljE)
All electrostatic filte rs were equipped
with ;milliammeters and voltagemeters. which
recorded the electrical parameters of their
operation. Operation of purification installa-
tions was adjusted to accord with the' operation
of the electric power plants I basic equipment
to insure operational continuity and efficiency.
Workers were rewarded with bonuses for proper
operation and maintenance of purification equip-
ment, which had a salutatory effect on the work-
ers' morale and the pe rformance of their oc-
cupational functions. Plants' boilers and puri-
fication installations were shut down for simul-
taneous overhauling, after which their perform-
ance efficiency was checked, and, if:found want-
ing. steps were taken to restore them to the
levels of original rated efficiency. Boilers
were not put into operation unless and until
ash trapping installations were functioning nor-
mally. The ash trapped at Moscow electric
power plants burning solid fuel was trans-
ferred by a hydraulic ash removal system to
special ash dumps maintained in a moist con-
dition under strict control to prevent the ashes
..:""..
- 26 -
-------
from becoming windblown into the atmospheric air.
overlaid with 20-30 cm of soil and grass seeded.
Filled dumps were
A few of the elctric power generating stations used mazut as fuel
the complete combustion of which depended upon a proper 'mazut/air
ratio. All electric power station boilers were ordered to install smoke
recorders or smoke meters in the form of a light installed inside the
boiler aggregate gas flue or smoke stack. Changes in light intensity
caused by changes in smoke intensity affected a photoelectric cell. Elec-
tric currents activated by the light changes were amplified and fed either
to a galvanometer or to a microammeter having a seal: graduated into
units of smoke intensity. The smoke meter was moun;ed on a panel with
a system regulating the boiler operation. The latter, in turn, was .-onnect-
ed with a 24-hour smoke intensity recording device. Actually, the fuel
combustion in the boilers must be complete and smokeless, and any records
pointing to the presence of smoke reflected negligence on the part of the
fireman. Similar instruments have been installed at some boiler units of
Moscow's electric heat and power plants which burned gas, in order to
determine the extent of smoking and to prevent smoking when an infrac-
tion occurred in the process of gas combustion. This system has been in-
troduced by the Moscow Sanitary Service; it fully served the intended pur-
pose and was recommended to most boiler room operators.
The above described smoke recording devices were designed by
Mosenergo, but their production must be mastered by the machine build-
ing industry.
According to regulations presently in force, any boiler rooms lo-
cated within the city limits and consuming more than 10 t of solid fuel
per day must be equipped with ash-catching installations; in fact, some
boiler rooms with a fuel consumption of less than 10 t per day have such
installations. Ash-catching devices have been installed in these boiler
rooms due to complaints coming from persons residing in the vicinity
of such plants.
Table 4
OESREE OF ASH AND SULFUR DIOXIDE REMOVAL 4Y DIFFERENT 80ILEB
HEATERS IN PERCENT ACCORDING TO YEARS
YEAR
19.50
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1959
1960
1961
BOILER OPERATING
ELECTRIC STATIONS
35
11
11,2
6,1
3
3.8
3,5
3,4
41
36
31,2
25
12
10.5
9
9,3
DU Ik&nt? wr wvi r
HUHAC RESIDENCES
AND INDUSTRIAL
4?
35
30,6
34,4
3-i
20
17,9
17,6
50
46
47,8
50
54
47.5
46
42
TOTAL DISCHARGE
ASH S02
100
77
100
'I
16 ! ,S2
41,8
40,5
36
23,8
21,4
21
7'.)
/.)
66
58
55
51,3
- 27 -
-------
Moscow boiler rooms using layer combustion chambers have been
equipped with NIIOGAZ cyclones and battery cyclones. Louver-type ash-
-------
of Moscow, special sections have been classed characterized by a pre-
dominance of monotypical air pollution, such as industrial, highway,
residential, vegetation, etc. Stationary air sample collection points had
been organized in industrial districts the pollution discharges of which
permeated into residential blocks located at some distance from the in-
dustrial establishments close to highways with intensive auto-transport
traffic, in the proximity of railroad stations, and in the city parks.
Highest concentrations of SOS were found in air samples collected at
stationary points located in the industrial districts, and lowest in samples
collected in the city parks. Air of residential districts showed generally
a lower pollution level where industrial establishments were absent. How-
ever, location of industrial enterprises in residential districts without the
provisions of sanitary protection zones introduced considerable pollution
into the atmospheric air of individual residential sectors. A high air dust
content prevailed the year round on highways with intensive auto-transport
traffic. Diesel fuel exhaust, boiler room fumes, and industrial establish-
ments located close to highways constituted serious sources of air pollu-
tion with sulfur dioxide.
The atmospheric air of sections close to railroad stations was also
characterized by high .content of sulfur dioxide and dust which may have
been the result of incomplete coal combustion in the locomotive burning
chambers, and discharges coming from the depot, the railroad workshops,
etc. Considerable dust was created by the intensive auto transport, by
the pedestrians, etc.
Air samples collected at the stationary point on the 8th floor of hotel
"Leningradskaya", located in the railroad station zone, showed a low dust
concentration and a high concentration of sulfur dioxide, indicating that SO2
polluted atmospheric air at altitudes far above the breathing level; analytical
results indicated that the cleanest air was^found in parks and other similar
city spots. Laboratory data also showed that air dust concentration per-
sisted at high levels at all seasons of the year in 1956. Beginning with
1957 air dust content has been falling in the winter and rising considerably
in the summer months. It is believed that the high air dust content in the
winter of 1956 may have been due to a high rate of solid fuel consumption
at that time, and to low efficiency air purifying installations. ,
In 1957 - 1958 a new complex of sanitary measures was adopted
for the protection of the city's atmospheric air against pollution; consump-
tion of solid fuel was drastically reduced by converting coal burning cham-
bers partly into gas and partly into liquid fuel combustion furnaces. Such
measures reduced Moscow's air pollution to a considerable degree. Thus,
in the industrial zone the average yearly air dust density fell from 0. 99
mg/m3 in 1956 to 0. 35 mg/m3 in 1962; in the residential zone the drop was
from 0. 75 to 0.27 mg/m3; on__the highways - from O.J89 to 0.22 mg/m3;
- 29 -
-------
in the railroad station zone from 0.82 to 0.46 mg/m ,
parks from 0.63 to 0.1 mg/m3.
and in the areas of
Since 1957 a considerable reduction in air dust density was noted in
the winter and a rise in the summer months. An investigation of the ob-
servation had shown that Moscow's atmospheric air dust pollution came
not only from furnace discharges, but basically from ground surface dust
raised by winds and transport traffic, especially in the case of poorly
paved streets and highways, etc. Table 5 shows average dust-densities
according to seasons from 1956 through 1962.
Table 5
Table 6
MG OF AIR OUST PER M3 OF AIR. SEASONAL AVERAGES
NATURE
OF LO-
CAL RE-
GION
1 NDU&i
TRIAL
RESIDEN-'
TIAL
HIGH-
WAYS
RAIL-
ROADS
PARKS
1956
1957
1958
1959
I960
1961
1962
SEASON OF YEAR
! a
IS
; u
, X
0,98
0,74
0,77
0.6
0,59
O
is
O f
2 Ul
X
1.0
0,67
0,97
0,96
0,66
_. i
a o
Ul 1 Ul
*~ 0 *~
X X
0,37
0,22
0.4
0,3
0,11
0,44
0,34
0,68
0,38
0,14
HEATED h
0,36
0,25
0,64
0,22
0,17
0 O
±UI Ul
1- (-
0 < «.
a uj w.
0.45
0,28
0,71
0,32
0,22
0,28
0,23
0,47
0,35
0,09
is|
i S 5:
x x:
0,4
0,3
0,92
0.41
0,14
0,25
0,25
0,11
0,39
0,1
NON- i
HEATEO .
HEATEO |
0,45
0,32
0,33
0,54
0,11
0,3
0,24
0,35
0.12
0,23
NON-
HEATED L
0,39
0,34
0,43
0.13
0,22
., 031 V3H
0,22
0,2
0,28
0,18
0,18
a
SB Ul
X
0,3
0,36
0,51
0,18
0,18
MG OF SULFUR DIOXIDE PER M3 OF ATMOSPHERIC AIR. SEASONAL
AVERAGE
NATURE
OF LO-
CAL RE-
GION
IMDJS-
T3 1 At
RESIDEN-
TIAL
UGH-
WAYS
AIL-
ROADS
ARKS
1956
1957
1958'
1959
I960 -
1961
1E62
SEASON OF YEAR
i
o
u
»»
^c
0,84
0,84
0,78
0,78
a
Z 1
O *
3r t^
X
0,82
0,51
0.68
0,7
i i .
u 14. - -iu.<5 jSS
, .?
S
1 ,S^-^«CI >- 351- l"£fc» *"
<'2* '*:O« « O< < : O 5 ^.
Uzuju«z2ui atuUvui S
x. 1 * !=_ = x z z * x z
0,5
0,53
0,52
0.5.
0,34
0,28
0,37
0,3
0.29
0,17
0,37
0,28
0,52
0,56
0,6
0,24
0,13
0,13
0,22
0,2
0,37
0,34
0,46
0,5
0,14
0,21
0,19
0,27
0.38
0,04
0,31
0,23
0,51
0,48
0,16
t
0,19
0,14
0,3
3.23
0,06
0,24
0,28
0,89
0,31
0,14
i *
O d
1 u u
s <- !:
O
-------
An inverse relationship was observed with respect to the atmo-
spheric air pollution with sulfur dioxide seasonally: air pollution by
sulfur dioxide was higher during the winter heating than during the sum-
mer months when most of the boiler rooms ceased to operate. Table 6
lists average indicators of atmospheric air pollution with sulfur dioxide
according to seasons from 1956 through 1962. Extensive conversion of
industrial establishments and large boiler rooms of community facilities
to gas burning considerably reduced atmospheric air pollution by sulfur
dioxide in 1957 as compared with 1956. The reduction was noted at all
stationary air sampling points, and for the city in general. Reduction in
Moscow air pollution was noted also in the succeeding years, although to
a considerably lesser degree; due to an insufficient gas supply to Moscow,
the rate of conversion to gas burning was lowvr^d considerably, and many
large industrial plants were operating during part of the year on solid and
liquid fuel. A notably sharp reduction in atmospheric air pollution by sul-
fur dioxide was observed in many city districts during the warm season,
when electric heat, light and power plants operating in the summer re-
ceived adequate supplies of gas. The average annual intensity of the at-
mospheric air pollution by sulfur dioxide, as compared with 1956, was re-
duced in 1962 in the industrial zone from 0.81 to 0. 24 mg/m3, in the resi-
dential zone from 0.66 to 0.18 mg/m , in the railroad station zone from
0. 75 to 0. 35 mg/m3, in the vegetation implanted zone from 0. 74 to 0. 11
mg/m3, and for the city as a whole the SO2 dropped from 0. 74 to 0. 25
mg/m3, and the dust density from 0.81 to 0. 36 mg/m3.
The improvement in the quality of Moscow atmospheric air reflected
the favorable effects of the enacted air health measures arid, in particular,
the strict sanitation regulations, the conversion of hard and liquid fuel burn-
ing furnaces to gas combustion, and the systems of parks, groves, etc.
ASPIRATION APPARATUS FOR COLLECTING ATMOSPHER -
1C AIR SAMPLES
USSR technologists, inventors and scientists have recently acceler-
ated the tempo and broadened the scope of developing new equipment, and
new technological processes characterized by high efficiency, productivity
and automation; this considerably improves human working conditions. In
this connection the introduction of automatically operating installations
for the collection of atmospheric air samples substantially reduces experi-
mental errors, makes the laboratory worker's task easier, thereby in-
creasing the number and accuracy of analyses, etc. The automation meth-
od of collecting air samples whether single or at intermittent intervals,
freed the laboratory workers from performing this simple procedure. Re-
liable hygienic evaluation of air pollution requires that samples be taken
24 hours round the clock. Air samples collected at night, when the plant's
purification installations may not be operating, are of particular importance.
- 31 -
-------
Air sample collection at night can now be attained early by using auto-
matic air sampling devices. New air aspirators functioning automatical-
ly and manually, have been developed by engineer L. F. Kacher of the
Sanitary-Epidemiological Station of Moscow, which are now in production.
The air aspirators have been approved by the Committee on Sanitary Pro-
tection of the Atmospheric Air affiliated with the Main Sanitary Epidemio-
logical Administration of the USSR "Ministry of Health.
Aspiration apparatuses used in atmospheric air research can be
classed into the following two groups; those operating with the aid of local
energy sources, and portable aspirators operating with the aid of built-in
batteries. Aspirators of the first group are usually employed in conduct-
ing atmospheric air pollution studies at stationary air sample collection
points. Aspirators of the second type are employed in conducting atmo-
spheric air pollution,studies at temporarily selected points of special in-
terest where electric energy is not available.
In designing aspirators used at other than stationary points consider-
ation was given to the fact that dust density studies required the aspiration
of large atmospheric air volumes in order to be able to register gravi-
metric increase increments. In addition, a change in the wind direction
may require frequent changing of the sample collection point possible only
with -asily portable equipment.
Cf (
THE AUTOMOBILE ASPIRATOR
The automobile aspirator belongs to equipment of the second group
and is used for the collection of special atmospheric air samples.. An
automobile motor is used as the energy source and as a means of transpor-
tation. An automobile aspirator functions steadily and with sufficient re-
liability. The aspirator is attached to the automobile engine with no de-
sign changes, directly to the carburetor intake connection, and the work is
performed with the engine in the state of idling as shown in Fig. 9v
SCHEMATIC PRESENTATION OF THE AUTOMOBILE ASPIRATOR
I - BUSHING; 2 - RECEPTACLE (PATRON); 3 - DIAPHRAGM; 4 - PER-
FORATED DAMPER; 5 - ELBOW; 6- CARBURETOR; 7- 20 MM RUBBER
TUBING; 8- PLOWMETER.
- 32 -
-------
-
, '
,
.
,
,
.
.
,
I '
.
,
.
,
,
" .
I
,
. ,
.
.
,
I
.
.
.
,
".
.
j
I
,
,
,
, .
,
. '
"
.
-
-
I
. '
The, automobile air aspirator can be attached to any motor vehicle
operating on 4 or more cylinders. The tested air is drawn through a metal
adapter fitted with a cotton or Petryanov fabric absorber. The metal
adapter is a duraluminum cylinder, into which the adsOTbent mate dal is
inserted as shown in FigurE: 10. The automobile aspirator efficiency is
determined with the aid of formula (0 = A'" P, ) where Q is the productiv-
ity express~~d in liters of air per minute, P is the pressure d}"op in terms
of millimeters of water column, and A is a constant determined and speci-
fied by the aspirator manufacturer. The aspirator has several nipples of
varying diameters. The automobile air aspirator is operated as follow£:'
the vehicle is stationed at a selected point based on wind direction; the
aspirator is connected to the carburetor, the Wind velocity is determined
by an anemometer; the required nipple diameter is determined from a
graph, the metal adapter is set into place, the required pressure differen-
tial is determined by a flowmeter attached to the carbureter throttle, or
to the aspir;:s.tor, and the air sample taking begins. The aspirated dust is
determined gravimetrically in the laboratory b)" a standardized method. '
The aut.omobile air aspirator has been carefully tested and found efficient
in practical operation, and is recommended for use in investigating atmo-
spheric air dust density.
- - ...-
--
----~-- - -.
- _-0_-
--------
"
Fig. 10
.
.
.
,
~unJI'!1 '
- .*_.~-..
.~;; .-- ~.~.. I
'-- = /
,'IIII",I8II!!!!!!!!I'"'
..
,
.
.
Q
.
,
.
\
.
, ,
II
,
"~.,-
. -
.
-.- - ....- --- .--
-.. - -. -..
......._-~
---- -
----
METALLIC HOLDER FOR AUTOl10BIlE ASPIRATOit
A - FRONT VIEW 9F OPEN HOLDER; B - REAR VIEW OF SAHE
" .
--
.
,ELECTRICAL ASPIRATOR LK - 1
I
,
Electdc aspirator LK-l belongs to the second equipment group.
A l2-v battery is used as the source of energy. Photogr.::c.phs of aspirator
LK-l are shown in Fig. 11. Atmospheric air samples are collected by as- \
pirating the air through absorbers at a definite rate. The instrument is pro- ,
- 33 -
J
.
J
-------
'i
v
vided with an air blower, flowmeter for measuring the rate of air flow un~;
der regulated conditions. The air volume passed through the adsorber is
determined on the basis of rate of flow and aspiration time. I)"
The aspirator is put into operation ac-
cording to the following sequence of steps:
the op~ration regulators are shut off; the
absorbers are joined to the connecting
branches by mean.s of rubber tubing; the ap-
- pa::atus is s~itched on, al'ld the required
aspiration ra.te is selected by manipulating
the operation regulators. The apparatus is
designed for repeated 40-minute:-; 'continu-
ous operation with 5-10 min. rest inter-
vals. Aspirator LK-l is easily portable, can
be installed on any motor vehicle, and can
be connected to its batte ry. With the as-
pirator installed on a motor vehicle as
described, ::tir samples can be collected in
:notion in a specifically polluted area near
a production plant, in a street, of,}n a
- .~ASP-IRATOR U(-t block. To insure normal operation of the
UPPER - FRONT VIEW; LOWER - INSIDE viEW air aspirator, the electric-motor bearings
and the air blower must be lubricated with
GOST (State Standard) 928-53 machine oil at the rate of one drop per 40-
60 minutes. It is recommended that the air blower be washed with kero-
sene every 10 .. 15 hours and its housing be lubricated. .,',
Fig. 11
l.u! ---'IlL
..'1r\ ".lTr\' i
. ..._8M-I_.. u.;, 1
t1
t ;;:
-.
-
". of...
, #_'tJ)""'~~,\~
\ ~~~. ~:i.1"""'.~ "
\~.~ .'
m.. ,.""'.. It"
>;,t.~
. ">1 ... ~. -
r :'~ ;'}.',' iI' ~fr
.' \ ~.~~c~-
,;;;.~~ .
(j
The aspirator is designed for pperation'
by a 12-v battery. The power consumed hy
the instrument amounts to approximately 55
w. The direct-current motor devebps 3000
rpm. F:.>ur air samples are collected at a
time. The flowmeters are design~d for a
maximum flow rate of 0.5 ii/min., The per-
missible error of the flow meters is :i: 10%.
All subassembly terminals of the a.pparatus
are fastened to a panel. The apparatus con-
sists of 4 flowmeters, 5 operating regulators,
5 absorber connecting sleeves, an apparatus
switch, an absorbe r fastening support, an
air blower, an electric motor, an air collec-
tor, and a bulb for illuminating the scale.
0'
For this the frame must be removed from the box and the o~l pipetted
or otherwise forced into the lubricating bearing housing. ,~.
I
34
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, ,
THE A UTOMA TIC
ELECTRICAL ASPIRATOR
LK-2
.
Automatic electrical aspirator LK-2, shown in Figure 12, belongs
to the second group of aspirators operated by locally available electric
energy. The instrument is designed for the collection of individual atmo-
spheric air samples. It operates on the basis of a specific program auto-
matically. It is illustrated schematically in Figure 13. The operating
program of the instrument can be selected as desired by adjusting the time
relay. The present instrument design permits automatic air sa'mple col-
lection at 7 'a. m. J 5 p. m., and at 12 midnight. In addition, samples may
be collected by the instrument at intervals of 12 and 5 hours. The instru-
ment is installed on a stationary basis for a specified period at some air
, sampling point provided with a 220.... electric power supply. The instru-
ment is mounted on an angular panel installed in a wooden box. It con-
sumes approximately 300 w of power.
Fig.J2 - . - -.
I
,
,I
When the instrument is con-
nected to the power network, a
bulb lights up and the motor of
the time relay begins to operate.
The absorbers are connected to
the operation regulators by means
of rubbe r tubing with the cocks of
all regulators safely closed. For
channel adjustment, each line is
in turn put into operation accord-
ing to a specific rate of air-sam-
ple selection; at this point ~e air
impeller begins to operate, and
one of the three valves opens.
The required air aspiration is
attained by means of the opera-
tion regulator, and the adjust-
ment switch is turned off. The.
.
other two time channels are ad-
justed in the same manner. It
must be remembered tha.t no re-
adjustment may be made on the
regulators once the apparatus has
been adjusted. The time relay is
adjusted next. The time relay
disk is divided into 24 equal parts
and, when the locking clasp is dis-
engaged, the disk can be turned:
about its axis. The time - re la y
disk is set so that the number of
divisions fronting the next oper-
. .
,
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.
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r -.' ~ - . ~";.,' ,-, -.W.- ~_. '-~.,;:
,) , ~.. - .' ..,~ Y." "~-1>~ ,.;..... ..:.,;f",'~'"';>' ,,~~,..-......~.~
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",_8 ...- -,,~~..,.- . ,.. -< , -,..,-
,"" 'h.; :;::."""-",,,,''-':J' -"c-,.,- .. ,.
u_-
--~.-
-- - ~-- ----
AUT0I1-ATIC - ii'ECTR leAL ASPIRATOR LK-2
UPPER - FRONT VIEW; LOWER - IN51DE viEW
- 35 -
.
-------
ating contact equals .the number of hours preceding the next instrument
switching on; the disk is then fastened with the locking punch cock.
Fig. 13
CURRENT 220 VOLTS
SCHEMATIC PLAN OF ASPIRATOR LK-2 (LK-2) , .
A - AIR IMPELLER MOTOR? B - TIME RELAY MOTdR; RPS,, RPS2, RPS3,
- SLAVE RELAYS; I, II, III - MANUAL ADJUSTMENT; I, 2, 3, 4 -
AUTOMATIC OPERATION; 5- APPARATUS SWITCH
This procedure completes the preliminary preparation of the appara-
tus for operation. Air samples are collected at 7 p. m., 12 midnight, and
at 7 a. m. in different adsorbers. Collection of a single sample consumes
20 minutes. Between 7 a. m. and 7 p.m. the absorbers must be replaced
by new ones and the operation regulators must be adjusted; the time relay
setting remains unchanged.
Individual air samples must be aspirated through each channel. The
air volume aspirated through the absorbers is determined with the aid of
the following formula:
Q = 20 li
where Q is the total liters of air aspirated through the absorber;
\
20 is the time constant of air aspiration in minutes; j
li is the established rate of air aspiration in liters per minute.
In special cases it may be desirable to connect extra aspirator ab-
sorbers intended for special determination of some chemical components.
- 36 -
-------
This can be done with the instrument here described. It is possible, when
necessary, to connect more absorbers to the instrument for the fractional
collection of an average daily sample during three 20 min. intervals. Air
volume passed through such absorbers is determined by the following
formula:
Q = 60 li
where 60 is the time constant for collecting the sample during three 20
minute periods.
In addition to operating automatically, the new air aspirator permits
the simultaneous collection of 4 air samples when the time relay is dis-
connected. In such a cas« the air is aspirated at a given rate for a prede-
termined time. Proper function of the instrument requires that its essen-
tial parts, such as the gear mechanism of the time relay and also the valve
rods, be lubricated once a week.
AUTOMATIC ELECTRICAL, ASPIRATOR LK-2A
This automatic electric aspirator is photographically illustrated
in Figure 14. It was designed for the collection of individual atmospheric
air samples. It may also be used for taking air samples inside "industrial
premises. The instrument operates automatically according to a specified
program without human participation. It is installed at a fixed point for a
specified time, it powered by a locally available 220-v alternating current,
and consumes approximately 300 w of electricity. The apparatus is mounted
on an angular panel inclosed in a wooden box; it consists of the following
principal suba semblies: an air impeller with a synchronous electric motor,
a time relay, a group of valves, a group of actuating relays, volumetric
apparatus, an operation regulator, and manual adjustment switches.
The electric motor of the air impeller is put into operation by an actuating
relay shown in Figure 15, which is connected to the time relay. The air
impeller operates for 10 minutes, and is then turned off. The instrument
is programmed to switch in 6 times in 24-hours at 4-hour intervals. The
air impeller is switched on at 8 a. m., 12 noon, 4 p. m., 8 p. m., 2a.m.
and 6 a. m. , or respectively at other hours at similar equal intervals. The
starting operation time can be altered by moving a special slide. Time be-
tween the instrument's operation intervals may also be changed. The instru-
ment has 6 valves which can be opened by means of actuating relays and,
when the instrument is switched off, can be closed by the action of a back-
moving spring located inside the valve case. The valves' inlets and outlets
have an internal diameter of 6 mm.
- 37 -
-------
..r-.;"----
..
Fig. 14
/i
-~---_._~------- ----
. AUTOMATIC ELECTRICAL ASPIRATOR lK-2A
A - FRONT VIEW; B - INSIDE ViEW
Fig. 15
~~ - - -~~.- --~... ~~, -~--~.
- -- -~ ----
PUN Of ELECTR I CAL ASPIRATOR LK-2A
A- AIR IMPELLER MOTOR; B - TI~E RELAY MOTOR; RPS - SLAVE RELAYS I-VI-
HA~UAL OPERATION ADJUSTMENT; L.2.3.4. - AUTOMATIC OPERATIoN 5- APPARA-
TUS SWITCH
- 38-
."! .;
. -:.{:;~.
,".... .
-------
The air valves are connected by means of rubber tubing with a
collector installed at the suction end of an exhaust fan, and by way of the
flowmeter fan intake and, by way of rotometers, and with the operation
regulators. Each air channel has its own flowmeter of a capacity up to 3
liters per minute, and an operation regulator which makes possible the
use of absorbers having different pressure drops and, when necessary,
different absorber solution volumes. The apparatus is set into operation
as follows: the time to begin air sample collection is determined by the
position of the time-relay slider; the apparatus is switched into the elec-
trical power network which starts the time relay operation. Before the
apparatus functioning is started all operation regulators must be closed,
and the selected absorbers must be joined to the connecting pipes. The
required air flow rate through the absorbers is attained by gradually turn-
ing on and then turning off the air adjustment switches, while the respec-
tive operation regulators are being opened. The apparatus should be ad-
justed 30-40 minutes before the air aspirator is set into operation by the
automatic switching system. The adjusted apparatus will automatically
aspirate 6 samples in the course of 24 hours. If necessary an additional
absorber can be connected by way of an outside flowmeter to the connecting
pipe of the seventh operation regulator.
Such apparatus design makes possible the simultaneous aspiration
of 7 air samples for the determination of 7 different pollution ingredients, at
7 differential points in a shop by switching the apparatus on manually. For
this, the required rates of air aspiration through the 7 absorbers are simu-
ltaneously adjusted by the operation regulators, and the air samples are
aspirated in the course of the required time interval. The amount of air
aspirated through the first 6 absorbers is determined correspondingly for
each absorber by the following formula:
Q = 12 11
where Q is the volume of air in li which was aspirated through the absorber;
12 is the aspiration time constant in minutes; and li is the established air '
aspiration rate in liters per minute.
The volume of air aspirated through the 7th absorber is determined
by the following formula:
Q7 = 12 li 7n l
where n is the number of times the instrument was switched in for 12 min.
aspiration intervals through absorber 7 for the collection of an average
24 hour air sample.
The vital parts of aspirator LK-2A must be thoroughly lubricated
weekly to insure proper instrument operation.
- 39 -
-------
AUTOMA TIC ELECTRICAL ASPIRATOR LK-3
.
IJ
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)1
t
The automatic electrical aspiration LK-3 shown in Figure 16 belongs
to the first group of aspirators and operates on alternating-current. It
was designed for the aspiration of average 24-hour atmospheric air samples.
The aspirator operates automatically according to a specific program. It
is schematically illustrated in Fig. 17. Three samples are aspirated1~
simultaneously. In the course of 24 hours the instrument is turned on
hourly for 30 minutes. The instrument functions under several sets of
operating conditions, depending upon the pressure drop developed by the
absorber material used. The number of times the apparatus has been
switched in automatically is registered by special counter, and is used in
computing the total amount of aspirated air. The instrument is installed
at a stationary point. An alternating current of 220 v supplies the power to
the instrument which consumes approximately 300 w. The instrument is
mounted on an angular panel enclosed in a wooden box.
Fig. 16
.. ~...
..:--
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~ 'f'
~
... :1
~
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(r: .
il. ..
t~
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t"
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- ~-------- ll- "----
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- ----
A'Ii'TOMATIC-ELECTR -. CAI. -AsPi-RAT()RlK-3
TOP - FRONT VIEW; LOWER - INSIDE VIEW
- 40 -
'f
-------
Fig. 17
220 VOLTS
ELECTRICAL PHASE OF ELECTROASPIRATOR Ltt-3 (LK-3)
A-MOTOR 0* AIR IMPELLER; &-TIME RELAY MOTOR; ^-OPERATING MECHAN-
ISM OF THE TIME RELAY; 1,2,3, - AUTOMATIC ADJUSTER, 4,5,5,7-
VOLTAGE REGULATION; 8 - SWITCH
i
When the instrument is switched into the power line, an electric bulb
lights up and the time-relay motor starts. The absorbers are fastened by
means of rubber tubing to the cocks of the operation regulators. The re-
quired air aspiration rate is attained by manipulating adjustment screws,
which completes the instrument adjustment. Subsequently the instrument
operation is controlled automatically by the time relay. The absorbers
can be set to operate at any desired time intervals.
Tp - transformer; a) 220 v network
The total amount of air aspirated through the absorbers is computed by the
following formula:
Q = 30 li n
where Q is the air volume in liters aspirated'through the absorbers;
30 is the air aspiration time constant in minutes;
n is the number of times the instrument has been switched in;
li is the determined air aspiration rate in liters per minute
When necessary an additional absorber may be attached by way of a supple-
mentary flowmeter connected to the fourth operation regulator.
The essential parts of this aspirator must be lubricated weekly as
previously described for other aspirators.
- 41 -
-------
AUTOMATIC ELECTRICAL ASPIRATOR LK-3A-
u
Automatic electrical aspirator LK-3A, schematically illustrated in
Fig. 18, is intended for the collection of-24-hour average atmospheric airi
samples for determining concentrations of dust or other suspended particu-
lates. It belongs to aspirators of group I. The instrument operates auto-
matically according to a specified program without human participation. »r
Filters made of ACA-B-18'(untransliterated) Petryanov' fabric are used in
this type of air aspirators. The instrument is installed for a specified
time at a selected fixed point. An alternating current of 220 v serves as '"'
the source of power supplied to the instrument, -which consumes'>"approxi -
mately 270 w. The apparatus is mounted on an angular panel enclosed in a
box, and consists of the following principal subassemblies: an electrically
operated air blower., a time relay with a counter which recorded the number
of times the aspiration has been switched in, and a volume recording device
and operation regulators.
'-* i *
Fig. 18 . To prevent undue motor
wear and thereby assure reli-
able apparatus performance,
the electric motor should be
operated on reduced voltage
obtained with the aid^of AOS-03
220/127 v step-down transform-
er. The electric tnbtor of the
air blower is switched in by
means of the time re-lay. The
ELECTRICAL PHASE OF ELECTROASPIRATOR LK - 3A U1 .._ / -, , c __4_
A - AIR IMPELLER MOTOR; B - MOTOR OF TIME BELAY; K - COP- blower operates for -2.25 min-
PER OXIDE RECTIFIER; c - SWITCHING OFF METERJ TP. - STEP- utes, and is then switched off
DOWN TRANSFORMER; T?2 - TRANSFORMER OF COPPER OXIDE RECTI- for 2 minutes. Such an ope rat -
FIER; 1 - APPARATUS SWITCH; 2 - CONTACTS OF TIME RELAY; 3 - , , , , , . , .
TIME RELAY *ng schedule was adopted to
prevent the instrument from overheating and to secure maximum air vol-
ume aspirated through the apparatus. The instrument is switched in 340
times in 24 hours. A diagram of the instrument is shown in Fig.-18.
The time relay is equipped with an electromagnetic counting mechanism
which records the number of times the instrument has been switched in.
A flowmeter of 20 li/min. maximum capacity records the volume of
aspirated air; it is connected by way of the collector with the fan air intake
and the Y-shaped operation regulator. The instrument has another operation
regulator connected by way of the collector with the intake fan air-;- The ap-
paratus is set up for operation in the following manner; the instrument is in-
stalled at the selected point and is connected to the electrical supply system.
The loaded absorber is connected to the operation regulator by a^rubber tub-i
ing; when necessary two loaded absorbers can be connected by way of a
supplementary flowmeter; the apparatus is then set into operation at the
42
-------
desired air flow rate continuously for 24 hours. The total volume of air
aspirated through the absorbers is determined by the following formula:
O = 2,25 li (n8 - ni ,
1000
where Q is the total air volume aspirated through the absorber in m3 ;
2.25 is the air aspiration time constant, in minutes; li is the rate of
air aspiration in liters per minute; n2 is the number of switch-ins
registered by the counter at the end of air aspiration; ni is the counter
reading at the beginning of the operation.
The apparatus should be lubricated weekly as previously described
for other aspirators.
AUTOMATIC ELECTRICAL RELAY LK-4
Automatic electrical relay LK-4, shown in Figure 19 makes possible
the use of conventional electrical aspirators powered by an alternating-
current for the automatic aspiration of average 24-hour air samples without
human participation. With the aid of such a relay, it is possible to use
dust suction and other types of electrical aspirators which normally tend to
overhead with prolonged continuous operation. With the aid of this relay,
the aspirators can operate repeatedly 30 minutes at a time with intermittent
30 min. cooling off periods. The volume of air aspirated through the air
absorber is computed using the formula cited in describing the LK-3 as-
pirator.
Two- or three -phase current, depending on the type of current re-
quired for the connected apparatus, is fed into the terminals of the electri-
cal relay installed on the instrument panel. The employed aspirator or dust
suction apparatus is connected to the inside terminals. The automatic
relay is engaged by means of a special band switch; from then on all work
will proceed automatically for any desired length of time. The instrument '
is stopped by turning the band switch. The essential parts of the appara-
tus must be kept clean and lubricated as previously described for other
aspirators.
- 43 -
-------
Fi g. 19
------r-,:- --
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.~
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ll,,~..v.- n . "", -'.... ~
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'or ',. "",~..; "'f,4J',;~;r;.'
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If
----- -~._---~----
AUTOMATIC ELECTRICAL RELAY LK-4
UPPER - FRONT viEW; LOWER - INSIDE VIEW
"
THE SYSTEM OF CITY TREE'PLANTING
It has been well recognized now that extensive city tree planting
favorably affected the general sanitary condition of urban life. Ther~ is
sense to the popular sayings that massive tree plantings, tree groves and
parks are natural "oxygen factories II and IIlungs of cities". Through their
leaves tree absorb CO2 and release,02 daring the day; they also release
into the air considerable quantities of vaporized moisture which has a
cooling effect on the surrounding air temperature; tree leaves also ab-
sorb a considerable amount of dust and noise. Green crowns of trees and
shrubs also lower the velocity of winds. This is particularly noticeable
- 44 -
-------
in the summertime when the wind in the forest or in parks is reduced to
a standstill. Expressly for this reason small forests are cultivated in
extensive windy Russian steppes which considerably reduce the effect of
the dry steppe winds. Reduction in air movement velocity also enhances
the rate of air suspended dust settling. It has been shown that gardens
and parks cultivated in the vicinity of industrial establishments lowered
the local air dust density by 40% or more. Dust precipitating from the
atmospheric air is retained by tree crowns, surfaces of tree trunks, and
their branches to varying degrees. The rough surfaces of elm tree leaves
entrap six times as much dust as do the smooth leaves of the poplar, the
linden, and the aspen.
A study of dust retention by leaves of different tree species, ex-
pressed in terms of milligrams per square meter of surface yielded the
following data: elm - 3.39, lilac - 1.6, linden - 1.32, maple - 1.05, pop-
lar - 0.55.
Taking into account the dust-protective effect of leafy type of vege-
tation it is possible to attain a considerable reduction in the air dust density
in residential areas. Areas of arborous implantation are also of signifi-
cance in the abatement of city noises. Crowns of city trees absorb up to
20% of the sonic energy incident upon them, reflecting and dispersing an-
other 74%. It has been established that at a level of 2 m above the ground
surface noise intensity in a street with multistory buildings and barren of
trees is 5 times as great as in a street with an abundance of trees along
the sidewalks. In parks and gardens, scattered groups of trees offer
better protection against noise than trees arranged in rows. Noise is
absorbed most by low trees with broad crowns in combination with shrubbery
beds. Trees planted between city blocks are of great psychohygienic value
since they appear to be in more intimate contact with the city residents,
bringing nature, so to speak, close to their doorsteps.
Trees should be transplanted when they are 8-11 years old, and
they should be transplanted 5 years before construction begins in a new
development. This is not the general practice; in most instances nursery
trees are transplanted into new developments at the last moment before
the houses are opened for occupancy. This is frequently done in an un-
planned manner and without the cooperation of authority which originally
planned the development. Furthermore, the representative of the adminis-
tration in charge of municipal parks seldom participates in the inspection
of a completed city development.
Unfortunately, the tendency to erect new dwellings on lots in a more
efficient utilitarian manner frequently encroach upon the area intended for
home garden plots. According to recent standards 1/3 of a new territory
- 45 -
-------
must be reserved for parks, squares and interblock trees and shrub implan-
tations; but this standard requirement is seldom observed. In addition,
official data indicate that 30-40% of trees in newly planted areas fail to
survive. Poorly organized care and maintenance systems result in early
destruction of new vegetation implantations. Low trees and shrubs are
harmed by rotary snow removal, by the use of salt on city sidewalks, etc.
Snow sliding from roofs frequently deforms tree crowns.
Municipal inspection employees and architectural planning authorities
seem to forget that by the present building construction method a multistory
house can be built in a few months, while 15 years is required for the full
development of a shade tree. Individual trees, and frequently whole tree
groves are cut down in sections where new residential developments are
planned. Data of the Administration of Forest and Park Facilities in Moscow
indicate that approximately 80,000 trees and 180,000 shrubs had been cut
down in connection with new development and other construction operations.
The ratio between parks, groves and individual tree implantation and in-
crease in urban population is progressively becoming smaller.
a '
The situation is similar, though not as pronounced in Moscow,
despite the fact that the increment of green area in the city has been in-
creasing. For example, 198 hectares of vegetation had been planted in
1959, - 480 hectares in I960, 655 hectares in 1961, and 707 hectares in 1962.
The Moscow territory is equal at present to 87, 500 hectares, of which
18, 700 hectares are given to green areas. But the park and general vegeta-
tion implantation system are poorly organized from the viewpoint of execu-
tion and maintenance which result in fatal failures. It is true that during the
spring and fall planting operations the city residents cooperated with the
municipal authorities. Thus, in 1959 the Moscow public donated 1,300,000
man-days for planting vegetation in the city; in I960 - 2,000,000 man-days,
in 1961 - 3,100,000, and in 1962 - 3,700,000. But the same city residents
failed to cooperate in the care and protection of the implantations. In
'Swerdiovsk, for instance, a "green patrol" numbering over 30,000, mostly
children, was organized for the protection of green areas. Individual trees
were assigned to individual persons for their care and protection. The par-
ticipation of school children in such activity is regarded as a must; but edu-
cational work to imbue the children with a love of nature has not reached
the desired strength. A proper attitude toward the gifts of nature must be
developed in children. A similar appreciation of nature and its socio-
hygienic significance must become a part of the moral fiber of the physical
builders of communism.
Before the October 1917 revolution parks and other green areas ac-
cessible to the general public within Moscow city limits comprised 833 hec-
tares, or 9. 1% of the city's area which then amounted to 9150 hectares. The
- 46 -
-------
per capita green area was 5.9 m2. The city's green area amounts to
18, 700 hectares, or 20% of the city's total area or 18. 5 m2 per resident.
However, the distribution of trees, shrubs and other vegetation in Moscow
is highly uneven: in the center of the city - within the limits of "Sadovoye
kol'tso" (Garden Ring) there is only 0.84 m2 of verdure per person; in the
territory lying between "Sadovoye kol'tso" and the belt-line railroad there
are 4. 56 m2 per person, and between the limits of the belt-line railroad
and the new automotive beltway there are 8 m2 per person. Green areas
are also distributed unevenly among Moscow city districts. For instance,
in the Bauman, Kirov, Frunze and Sverdlov city districts there are only
2. 5 m of verdure of any kinds per resident, whereas in the Kuibyshev,
Pervomayskii, Dzherzhinskii and Kiyevskii districts there are approximate-
ly 62 m per resident. It is planned and hoped that by 198- the green area
of all kinds will be brought up to 50 m per resident.
Fifty-six tree species are being planted at present in the city, of
which birch comprises 10%, linden 23%, poplar - 10%, pine 9% and spruce
1%.
All large parks are located beyond the limits of "Sadovoye Kol'tso",
and are situated mainly in the northwest sector of the city: the Pokrovsko-
stershnevskii park extends over 140 hectares, the Ostankinskii park over
74 hectares, the Sokol'nichenskii park with an experimental tree farm
over 700 hectares, the Izmailovakii park over 1180 hectares. In the south-
western part of the city the park areas are concentrated predominantly
along the Moska river; the Gor'kii Central Park of Culture and Rest of
105 hectares, Leninskie gory Park of 85 hectares, the Fili-Kuntsevskii
park of 97 hectares, the Khoroshevskii Serebryanyi grove of 92 hectares.
As a rule, only parks located in the central part are provided with facili-
ties and accommodations. Industrial discharges heavily polluting the atmo-
spheric air and frequent and numerous park visitors seriously damaged
trees and other park vegetation, chasing the birds away from the parks.
As a result, most vegetation in the parks became heavily diseased and pest
infested.
O
The average area of all forest territory in Greater Moscow is 92 m
per resident if areas inaccessible to the public are excluded. Most of the
forests are of a mixed type. Smaller limited forests are found in the
Ul'yanovskii district of the Moscow oblast; coniferous forests are found in
the Balashikhinskii district. Pine predominates among the coniferous
species, and birch - among the deciduous species. The forests' conditions
vary: along with the healthy forest park areas (Krasnogorskii, Cherkizov-
skii), there are weakened ones, especially in industrial vicinity and in spots
most frequently visited by the populace. The basis of the city's green ex-
panses consists of large general municipal parks. They are distributed
- 47
-------
evenly in planned zones between the arterial transportation highways. The
general municipal parks extend into the areas of the forest parks which
wedge into the city at some sections or are linked with it by boulevards,
park roads and minor green strips. o
Plans are in progress to eliminate the existing lack of uniformity
in the location of general municipal parks by creating new forest areas.
City district parks will play an important part in extending the green area of
Moscow and their distribution will have to be made more uniform. The
existing public municipal parks (Pokrovskoye-Glebovo, part of the Izmailov-
skii, of the Kuskovskii, etc.) will henceforth be administered by the city
districts. The neighborhood parks and squares are the rest and .recreation
areas most accessible to the residents. Courtyards, schools, sports,
hospitals, and industrial plants' green areas and sanitary protective zones
wer=: included in the preceding statistical account. According to present
plans municipal parks are to be established in towns and settlements of
the so-called forest-park protective belt. The parks in Lytkarino, Balashik-
ha, Lyubertsy, and Mytishchi are to be expanded and provided with recrea-
tional and sanitary utility facilities. Part of the territories of the forest-
park belt, in which vegetation has been planted, is being set aside as bird
and animal sanctuaries, as factors of aesthetic and educational value, and
as an aid in the struggle against forest and park pests; these, in addition
to their aesthetic and educational value, are imperatively needed in the
struggle against forest infestation. -'..,
Coniferous tree species such as the pine, spruce, fir, etc. are
most sensitive to the effect of atmospheric air pollutants, particularly
acid gases. Therefore, a study was made of the effect of sulfur dioxide
on the coniferous trees in the parks of Moscow and Podmoskov'e.
Sulfur dioxide, which is a component of smoke gases, is discharged into
the atmosphere of Moscow in varying quantities depending on the type,
quantity, quality, and method of fuel combustion. High air concentrations
of acid gases are the cause of acute damage generally referred to as "plant
burn". Prolonged effect of low SO3 concentrations causes chronic, plant
damage by disturbing the normal physiological and biochemical processes
of plant growth. The deterioration and destruction of areas implanted
with perennial coniferous plants closely parallels the growth and develop-
ment of urban invasion into forest areas.
The degree of atmospheric air pollution of some districts of large
industrial cities, including Moscow, depends not only on the number of
plants located there and the intensity of their discharges, but also on the
local topography, the plant location, the pattern of prevailing winds, the
height of smokestacks, etc.
i .'
- 48 -
-------
The withering and destruction of Moscow pine was observed in the
Sokol'nicheskii and the Izmailovskii parks, in the Pokrovsko-Streshnevo
forest, the experimental forest farm of the K. A. Timiryazev Agricultural
Academy, and in other similar places. A study of the harmful effect of
acid gases on the coniferous species of the Izmailovskii park was conducted
in 1959 by the Department of Atmospheric Air Hygiene of the Moscow Sani-
tary -Epidemiological Station in cooperation with the 5th aerial photography
expedition of the All-Union "Lesproyekt" Association. The Izmailovskii
park located in the eastern part of the Pervomaiskii district of Moscow,
extended in 1958 over 1180 hectares, of which 709 hectares were covered
by forest. The rich natural resources of the Izmailovskii park serve as
a basis for its varied and highly valuable and rare vegetation species. Up
to the early 1930's the upper grade of the park inforestation consisted of
the highest quality as well as of oldest (108 years) pine trees. The second
grade consisted of broad-leaf tree species, predominantly of 50-70-years
old linden and oak, Norway maple, elm and, occasionally, birch. The un-
derbrush consisted of nut tree thickets, viburnum, elder, honeysuckle,
etc. Nc growth weakening or withering of the tree species was observed
on the territory of the park. The plant vitality was high .
In the early 1930's the city began to encroach on the park territory
from the southwest, i. e., from the direction of prevailing winds. Dwell-
ings and industrial establishments came closer and closer to the park in
adjacent districts, poluting the atmospheric air surrounding the park terri-
tory with acid flue and smoke gases. At this time the pine species in the
western part of the park began to wither. Before long industrial establish-
ments began to appear in the Pervomaiskii and adjoining city districts;
electric heat and power plants and their 126 m high smokestacks rose up
here and there, followed by clusters of industrial plants; automobile
traffic and its exhaust became heavy and intense. At this time withering
of the park and forest pine species began to increase encompassing larger
areas, spreading northeast from the southewest territory following the
direction of the prevailing winds. As a result, only isolated spots in a few .
blocks of the northeast part of the park have pine growth. Figure 20 shows
the reduction in the number of pine trees.
External signs of pine tree destruction are dry tree tops, poor tree .
crown, loss of normal coloration, early dropping of the pine needles, a
large number of undergrown pine cones, shorter and thinner pine trees,
etc.
Table 7 shows the reduction in the height increments of pine trees
by decades since 1870, recorded in 1959 in one sector of the park. Data
in Table 7 show clearly the sharp difference in the rate of pine tree de-
velopment in height prior to and after 1930. The same is true of the pine
- 49 -
-------
,-
~.
~'"
~
development in thickness and with regard to the fruit-bearing, etc. It has
been noticed in this connection that S02 generally impeded the growth of;
trees and their fruit bearing capacity. Under the effect of S02 pine tre,es
withered, dried up and perished. This is particularly true of first grade
older pine timber. Sulfur dioxide also profoundly damaged spruce and
fir, 1. e. tree species with perennial coniferous needles. Damaged pine
groves of all ages have been seen in the territory of the Izmailovskii park.
in spite of the multistage structure of the forest areas.
Fig. 20
i' " : ',o--T:~" M~'~:~,"['~"\ ~\:~'~':-"""IJ:;' .
~f . J I~" .. j " ,'. ' "-
~~,. (It.:,' \'" ~'.Y.~' .("J-:"":'.'{,""'\. '~:-~" ','.
\ t> . ~".> ->,,' ~<..' ! ~~,~ ,:..~,:t:-' '. 1 ;:-')1 ~' .
\ . r '. I'. "',;'"t;:... ,V<.:.}..!' ' I
, r " :~~It:" >, 1 ~ ' , ..
\ " ~_,,-Jl~. . '. no :.. - ~ - - -~_._-: -- -- .
r-- ----~,:"~\~,,,. " : . ',,', . ,i
\ ' , ' . '. " . . 't2 " " . ,
"'-' ' J' '.' r i . . .,,\ "'1
i r"'i :\." ~~~: : ..' .'. >,,':.~. .);~, " .<~
, ---\-- r::\---,,~q, ", " t~~, ,~~"" " I " ,"
\ r- ~r' ~>: :f-JS""1" .F'" 1 . I
\ i ':'~,:---:':~, J ('.~" ~ . '~~':""- j ,~ ~
., '. ".1" I ----.... " ',.,~" (.
.:---. I' ---r--'\,'-- --.+~' --"":(~,' --'~~~'~,--"."',.~,'~':- m-- --..
\ ~I '" 1 ; ",.-./"':', 'r, " .', "',' ~.., "',{. ',~
~JI 1\."" :""''',-.' """",~,'," ""7' .
, '. ,-":'.'" 'Ci . , ',', N' ''', .
\ . I .. -- {''-''.'' " '.' '.-1',"",': '.-, ,', - . J
. ......' ',' "'~' " .. -- ..--
. ~ i0.-':" " '. i (-'-" ,", : ,'. r ..:-----:
~ L:~"~\" :,t, ,I : I 'l::-::'~.+:~>:::'-
~~--=---=~~'~.'~~' -, S, :,£i,'t.,-:." ),' II I: .~;.:.:;:~>/.I
V -"$" '-.!, "''-''1-
~ -. . ~~,,,' \, ,-<-",,:'~'.r ---i'-' ::.- /- ---I -'--1-- -- -',
:-,~~:;:~<-\~.~ .~~~~.._~ .1.- -' ,----."-. '- -. .
~->/---:./ _...~
e-/ - 2 '
----
PLAN OF IZMAILOVSK PARK SHOWI NG THE COURSE 'AND NATURE OF CHANGES
IN PINE TREE PLANTED AREAS
I - AREA COVERED WITH PINE TREES IN 1946; 2 - DITTO IN 1959
Table 7
RISS IN THE NUMBER OF PINE TREES
TREES' AGE I'N! UHETER$OF HEIGIIT INCREASE
PER DECADES.. - .-
YEARS i 1870 - 1929, \ 1930": I~,
112
8.'\
i9
;1,8
4,6
4,6
0,4
0,6
1,:3
An investigation of the park territory groves made in 1959 failed to
disclose any considerable infestation with harmful pests or dis eases. At
present pine trees are being replaced in the upper geologic strata by decidu-
ous species, predominantly by the linden. Generally, deciduous species are
more gas resistant than coniferous species. The rapid course of pine groves
replacement by deciduous species for the past 27 years is well presented by
the forest-management data for 1931 and 1958 listed in Table 8.
- 50
-------
Table 8
TREE GROVE AREAS IN HECTARES ACCORDING TO SPECIES
SPECIES
1321
AREA IN
HA.
580
45
A
22
60
21
\2
o
77,4
6,0
rt O
u,y
n d
U,4
20
8,0
2,8
2,5
1958
AREA IN
HA«
74
1
90
89
288
154
29
52
10.4
0,1
> i
12 "i
409
21,7
4,0
7,3
Thus, in the past 27 years the areas of the park's pine groves were re-
duced from 580 hectares to 74, spruce and fir have completely disappear-
ed. Along with this, a sharp increase was noted in the area of linden,
birch and oak groves, and of other deciduous species. According to the
1948 forest-management data, the average age of surviving pines has
dropped to 90 years. The basic background of the park is composed at
present of linden groves averaging 74 years. The linden tree is not
highly smoke resistant. According to 1958 evaluation data, the linden of
the basic park forest areas was showing signs of widespread weakening,
and in a large part of the territory can be described as of second-class
vitality. Up to recent years the polluted atmospheric air had affected
mainly the tops of the pine tree crowns. After the pine trees perished
the toxic air pollutants began to affect the peripheral parts of the linden
grove, tree crowns becoming the primary cause of stunting the growth and
development in the park vegetation.
The effect of atmospheric air pollution on pine grove trees was
studied with special reference to local tree sprouting conditions, econom-
ic tree quality, value of the groves, and the composition of the smoke
pollution in the vicinity of the experimental forest farm of the K. A.
Timiryazev Agricultural Academy; the latter study extended over several
years. The forest farm has an area of 248. 7 hectares. Pine trees with
an average age of 76 years prevailed in the groves of the experimental
farm. Here, as in the Izmailovskii park, the city spread close to the
southwest territory of the farm in the 1930's; simultaneously with this
the pine species began to wither rapidly on a large scale; at the same
time broad lead trees remained practically unaffected. There were no
large industrial establishments close to the boundary of the farm. The
air pollution came primarily from the railroad, residential boiler rooms,
and automobile exhaust. The outward signs of poisoning were the same
as in the case of the Izmailovskii park pine groves. But here the pine
died out not over the entire forest farm territory but in a comparatively
- 51 -
-------
broad strip along its southwest edge, and in narrow strips along the asphalt
paved highways. The pine in the center of the farm and along its northern
edge survived either as the sole species or mixed with deciduous species.
Table 9 presents data of a study of Izmailov park atmospheric air conducted
in 1955 - 1961. The data point to the prevailance of year-round air pollution
with sulfur dioxide.
Table 9
ATMOSPHERIC AIR POLLUTION WITH SULFUR DIOXIDE OVER
IZMAILOVSK PA1K
_. | MAXIMAL SINGLE COHCEHTRATION IN HS/H
"OHTH I 1955 ! 1<>56 ' )% 1958 1959
U.r> !
. ' 0,09 i
0,70
' 0,73 1
' i M7 j
1 ,20
1,62
1,64
1,91
0,64
1 ,58
1,60
0,90
0,73
0,89
?.15
0,80 '
0,54 .
0,63 ;
,% j
0,0
0,34
0,35
0,29
,18
Reduction in sulfur dioxide concentration over the years is explained
by the fact that at the city's electrical heat and power plants and at the indus-
trial plants, including Central Electrical Power Plant-11, the previously
burned Podmoskov'e coal was at first replaced by low-sulfur containing
Donets coal; later the combustion chambers were converted to burning
gas, which significantly reduced the quantity of discharged sulfur dioxide.
In 1952 the discharges of sulfur dioxide by Central Plant-11 amounted to
72, 000 t, and in 1959 to only 25, 000 t.
Concentrations cited in Table 9 pertain to the vegetative period.
However, during the winter, fall and early spring months, when the great-
est amount of fuel was burned in the residence boiler rooms, sulfur dioxide
concentrations in the atmospheric air exceeded the indicated two-and three-
fold. Such high sulfur dioxide concentrations cause permanent blight,
"burn" damage to coniferous needles of the pine species. The present hy- (
gienic maximum permissible single concentration of sulfur dioxide is set
at 0.5 mg/m3. No one has as yet proposed an acceptalbe maximal sulfur
dioxide concentration in the atmospheric air with regard to plants,.. Spruce
withstands 0.09 -0.2 mg/m3 of SO3 without showing unfavorable effects.
The number of air samples exceeding the single maximum permissible sul-
fur dioxide concentration of 0.5 mg/m3 (which is considerably higher than (
that endured by spruce) was 27.1% of all air samples taken that year; in
1956 the percent of such samples was 28.2, in 1957 - 29.2, in 1958 - 18.7,
in 1959 - 6, in I960 4.5, and in 1962 - 3.8.
The sulfur dioxide concentrations in the atmospheric air in the K.A.
Timiryazev Agricultural Academy forest farm territory differed sharply from
i '
- 52 -
-------
those indicated above. According to observations made in the spring and
summer months of 1955, the sulfur dioxide concentrations in the air sur-
rounding the greater part of its territory ranged between 0. 07 and 0.19
mg/m ; only in the sections of the territory's southwest edge, in the
proximity of the railroad line and residential houses did the sulfur dioxide
rise from 0. 23 to 0. 36 mg/m3 . Nowhere in the forest farm territory did
the sulfur dioxide concentration stay within the MAC of 0.5 mg/m3. Maxi-
mum single concentrations did not exceed 0.4 mg/m3.
Thus, the sulfur dioxide concentration in the air over the Izmailov-
skii park territory differed considerably from its concentration over the
forest farm. This was clearly reflected in the degree of toxic effect and
damage to the arboreal vegetation of these two grove areas. It can be
concluded on the basis of the above that for the preservation and restora-
tion of Moscow urban and suburban forest areas the sulfur dioxide concen-
tration in the surrounding atmospheric air must not exceed 0.10 - 0.20
mg/m . Deleterious effect of gases on the Izmailovskii park coniferous
groves has now been clearly demonstrated. All other conditions, such as
the state of the underground water, excessive attendance by visitors,
breaking up of the soil top, poor care, etc. , being equal the leafy tree
varieties survived and proliferated well and extended the area of their
growth 5.5 - 13 - fold where the coniferous evergreen species gradually
perished.
Similar studies were conducted in the forests and parks of Podmos-
kov'e (Lower Moscow). In 1961-1962 a study was conducted jointly by the
Department .of Atmospheric Air Hygiene of the Moscow Sanitary-Epidemic -
logical Station and the Siviculture Laboratory. Candidate of Biological
sciences A. P. Shcherbakov studied the state of'tree groves in the Moscow
forest park belt under existing air pollution conditions. The purpose was
to determine experimentally the harmful effect of gaseous smoke dis-
charges coming from the city's industrial establishments on forests and
other zones of green areas. The direction of prevailing winds in Podmos -
kov'e is from west eastwardly and from southwest to northeast. There-
fore, forests and parks located in the eastern part of Moscow's forest-
park protective belt were selected for study: the Podmoskovskii, Mytish-
chinskii, Balashikhinskii forest and parks, and the Kuchinsk forest in-
dustry. Forest areas in the western part of the green belt, in the Zvenig-
orod district, which included Khlyupinsk, Sharapovsk, Stepanovsk, Niko-
lina gora mountain, were used as controls.
Three plots of approximately 0.5 hectare were selected in each
forest and forest park. The selected plots were covered by the same
type of 15-20 and 60-80 year old coniferous tree species and by the same
type of herbage; the experimental work was conducted on these plots.
Results of laboratory investigations showed that the air over the eastern
- 53 -
-------
and northeastern sectors of the green zone, in the Podmoskov'e, Mytish-
chinsk, Balashikhinsk forest parks and in the Kuchinsk forest areas con-
tained detectable concentrations of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, chlorine
and chlorides through the year. In the western part of the city, in the
smokeless districts, these pollutants were not detected in the air, or were
found in negligible concentrations. Table 10 shows the maximum concen-
trations of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides detected in the atmospheric
air in the eastern and western forests and parks.
Table 10
ATMOSPHERIC AIR POLLUTION IN MOSCOW TREE-GROVE PARKS IN |962
MAXIMAL CONCENTRATIONS IN MG/Md
RESPONSIBLE AUTHORITY
SULFUR DIOXIDE
OXIDES OP
NITROGEN^
SMOKY REGIONS
BALASHIKHINSK LESP
LOWER Moscow
MYTISHCHINSK
KUCHINSK FORESTRY
RK-U9X. .
" . .
it
.
0,3
1,1
0,3
0,9
0,7
1,87
0,4S
0,?7
SMOKE-FREE REGIONS
KHLYUPINSK FORESTRY
SHARAPOVSK FORESTRY
NIKOLINA HILL o . .
Il/O
11/0
H/O
0,7
II/O
0,12
High concentrations of oxides of nitrogen, but no SOS were found in the
atmospheric air over Khlyupinsk forest area and Nikolina mountain.
This may have been due to the fact that the air samples were taken at the
edges of the forest, close to the sides of a highway which had heavy auto-
motive traffic. No oxides of nitrogen were found in the Sharapovsk fores-
try area where the air samples were collected at some distance f-rom the
highway. More significant data were obtained in studying the pollution in-
tensity of rain precipitation by industrial gaseous discharges and--soluble
nitrogenous substances in the eastern districts as compared with the un-
polluted districts. The highest intensity of soluble and insoluble aerosols
was detected in the precipitation falling close to Moscow in the Podmos-
kov'e forest park. Such intensity became gradually less in the Kuchinsk
and Balashikhinsk districts, and in the Mytishchinsk forest park; lowest
precipitation pollution intensity was noted in the Zvenigorod district.
Assigning to the intensity of pollution aerosols in the atmospheric precipi-
tation of the Zvenigorod district the value of 100, then the corresponding
value in the Podmoskovsk forest park would be 1126 for the insoluble and
271 for the soluble aerosols; in the Balashikhinsk and Kuchinsk forest
parks the respective values were 495 and 253, and in Mytishchinsk Park
239 and 180. The sulfate and chloride precipitation components of smoke-
polluted districts were 3 to 4 times as high as similar precipitation com-
- 54 -
-------
ponents of the smoke-free park areas. Thus, the precipitation permeating
into the soil increased its acidity and, as a consequence, unfavorably af-
fected the growth of the tree species, as shown dy data listed in Table 11.
Table 11
ATMOSPHERIC AIR POLLUTION IN SMOKY REGIONS OF MOSCOW'S "GREEN
ZONE", (AVERAGE INDEXES IN MG PER CUBIC METER PER DAY BEGIN-
NINQ DECEMBER 1961 THROUGH OCTOBER 1962
- - -
FOREST AUTHORITY
LOWER MOSCOW
KUCHINSK FORESTRY ....
MYTISHCHI NSL LES-
1 Hfini .
AEROSOLS
498
188
91
38
ASH
9R7
108
56
16
SUL FATES
917
181
135
57
CHLORIDES
11
lo
9
5,5
4,8
The above described air and precipitation factors and pollutant com-
ponents similarly affected the eastern part of the forest park area with
respect to damage caused to coniferous groves.
An inspection made by forestry specialists yielded the following
results: conditions of trees were classed as "sick", "completely dry",
and "unaffected". The percentage ratios of such trees in different forests
are shown in Table 12.
Table 12
CONDITION OF STANDING TIMBER IN AREAS IN 1962
(IN PERCENT) _
"CONDITION OF"STAND-
ING TIMBER
FOREST AUTHORITY
DRY DISEASED HEALTHY
S M 0 K Y" R E 6 I 0 N S
BALASHIKHJNSKli LESPARK-KHOZ .
LOWER Moscow " ...
MYTISHCHINSKII " ...
1,0
4,0
SMOKE-FREE RE6I
SHARAPOVSK FORESTRY .....
1,0
1,0
H-f
100
84 !
55 .
0 N S
4,0
3.0
2.0
17
15
41
96
96
97
100
The same is also noted with regard to rate of growth noted in pine
and spruce groves, as shown by records accumulated for the period of
1956 - 1961 and listed in Table 13.
- 55 -
-------
Table 13
GAIN IN THE GROWTH OF PINE AND SPRUCE PLANTATIONS ON CENTIMETERS
PER YEAR
-* 1
FOREST AUTHORITY ; ''l(l
BALASHIKHINSK LESPARK-KHOZ
MYTISHCHINSKII LESPARK-KHOZ
SHARAPOVSK FORESTRY
STEPANOVSK FORESTRY
"" '*' " '*'
4.0
5,0
19,0
18,0
3,6
4.6
16,6
20,7
3,0
3,0
2r,,0
17,0
i
I'9'"
! 3,5
2.4
'. 20,8
16,0
.»
3,4
9,6
10.K
27,0
Results of S and N determinations in pine and spruce needles, con-
ducted by A. P. Scherbakov and of microbiological studies of the soil in
smoke-polluted and control districts in Podmoskov'e, indicated that a
connection existed between the intensity of the atmospheric air pollution
and the quantitative determination results. For example, needles of pine
and spruce growing in smoke-polluted forest park areas contained a
higher percent of sulfur on the basis of dry substance, and less nitrogen,
in milligrams per 100 coniferous needles as compared with the controls.
The contents of nitrogen and of microorganisms were correspondingly less
in the soil of smoke-polluted sectors than in the control sectors. This
circumstance was clearly-reflected in the nutritional condition and general
development of the trees, as shown by data in Table 14.
Table 14
SULFUR AND NITROGEN CONTENT IN CONIFEROUS PINE AND SPRUCE NEEDLES
AND IN SOIL MICRO-ORGANISMS (AVERAGE DATA)
FOREST AUTHORITY
% OF
S ON
DRY
WT, BA-
SIS
M6~OF THOUSAHOS
N PER«PF MIOR°-
,R ORGANISMS
N £. PE" ' G
OF DRY
LES - SOIIL
REGION
S P R
KlJCHINSK
SHARAPOVSK
MYTISHINSK
LESPARK-KHOZ . . . o
STEPANOVSK
P 1 I
LOWER Moscow
KHLOPINSK FORESTRY . . .
BALASHIKHINSK
LESPARK-KHOZ .....
NtKOLINA HILL .: . . . .
U C E
0.19
0,12
0,20
0 14
1 E- 6
_
0.20
0.1
1,17
0,12
_
- 80
5,2
5.7
5,5
71
» Y E
11
22
13.9
29,5
56
YEARS
637
2002
A R S
1209
1835
~
«.
SM/IKV
^Mnff C__CDCC
SMOKY
CMrttf C- COCcr
onOK5«ornE£
SMOKY
SMOKE-FREE
SMOKY
SMOKE-FREE
-------
Gaseous atmospheric air pollutants damaged coniferous trees most
in the fall and winter months because pollution of the atmospheric air with
sulfur dioxide was most intense during the heating seasons; in addition,
sulfur dioxide being heavier than air did not rise to the upper strata of the
atmosphere, but spread along the ground. Meteorological conditions can
enhance the harmful effect of gaseous air pollutants upon plants. Incom-
plete combustion products form condensation nuclei with droplets of fog
or dew in air layers lying close to the surface of the soil during the winter
season. The different components of air-pollution complexes (carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, tars, etc.) are less aggressive
individually than as a complex. These substances tend to become concen-
trated into a fog as the results of additive effect and become more aggres-
sive to plants. The wind direction and force frequently enhanced the ef-
fect of polluted air on plants.
In considering the toxic effect of smoke and gas air complexes
upon vegetation account should be taken of the fact that tree groves impeded
the penetration of windblown polluted air. B. F. Dokuchayeva et al recom-
mended that protective land strips be implanted with trees as shields for
the protection of forest groves consisting of more valuable tree species
against smoke and harmful fumes, and to eliminate the unfavorable physio-
logical effect of mechanical and chemical action. The effect is a double
one: a) upon the metabolic apparatus of the leaves directly as a result of
sulfur dioxide absorption through the leaf stomata distributing the CO2
assimilation process thereby lowering photosynthesis, and b) inactivating
the chloroplasts1 iron, disturbing the respiratory quotient which becomes
greater than unity, breaking down vitamin B, creating an unfavorable pro-
tein and carbohydrate balance, and causing an excessive accumulation of
silicic acid and strontium in the leaves. The above effects are most pro-
nounced in coniferous needles and buds in the smoke-polluted districts
of the Moscow forest-park belt. Young and old trees without exception lost
much moisture, absolute dry weight, and height. The synthesizing leaf
function is disturbed so that the process of growth becomes abnormal and
impeded. The ratio between the number of needles and length of shoots
becomes reversed, as shown by the fact that in smoke-polluted districts
the number of needles per 1 cm of shoot was generally much greater than
in trees growing under pure air conditions. Needles of peripheral shoots
assumed a broom-shaped distribution, grew closer together and were
considerably shortened.
Gaseous air pollutants reduced the number of healthy trees to one
sixth, while the number of withered and withering trees was 85 times as
great as in trees growing in clean air areas. In addition, the annual rate
of height increase over the past 5 years fell by 13 to 73%. Simultaneously
with the weakening and withering of the trees, the number of trunk pest
species and their general population rose sharply.
- 57 -
-------
Harmful smoke and gas pollutants unfavorably affected trees and
other vegetation growth indirectly through the soil. The natural buffering
capacity of the soil becomes overpowered, so to speak, by the precipita^
tion-introduced air pollutants and the basic soil pH becomes disturbed,
the soil's bases become depleted, the normal balance of microbial life
circles becomes destroyed, soluble aluminum and strontium salts accumu-
late in the soil, causing the normal regime of plant nutrition to break down.
Ultimately almost all smoke particles, soot, dust, and gases which pol-
lute the air find their way into the soil. Some components, such as sili-
con, fluorine, lead,' copper, zinc, chrome, strontium, etc., entered the
soil as trace elements -which are essential components of the food ration
in trace quantities, but have toxic effects in larger doses. Heavy metals
penetrated into the soil to a depth of 25 cm. Experience showed that the
soil absorbed great quantities of these substances. The unfavorable effect
of chemical admixtures and mechanical elements in the air is more pro-
nounced in forest soils than in soil used for agricultural cultivation even
though forest soil has a higher buffering action and greater humus content.
Agricultural soil is plowed over repeatedly and fertilized each year. This
helps to overcome the harmful effect of smoke gases on them.
Different tree and shrub species manifest different biological
resistance against harmful chemical and mechanical air polluting-factors.
The larch proved to be the most resistant coniferous of trees which change
their needles annually; next comes the pine, the needles of which are re-
placed every 2-3 years; it is followed by the fir, the needles of which are re-
newed every 3-5 years; then comes the spruce which changes its needles
every 7 years.
Some investigators divide tree species into three groups, with
respect to the degree of their resistance to smoke and flue gases: highly
resistant, slightly sensitive, and highly sensitive. They base their classi-
fication on the following criteria: premature falling of leaves or needles,
the appearance of spots on the leaves, loss of leaves on tree tops, lowering
of the tree's resistance to harmful insects, and a fall in the rate of verti-
cal and thickness growth. These criteria have been used by the present
authors in determining the degree of harmful effect of smoke and^flue
gases on the growth, of spruce and pine in the eastern districts of the Mos-
cow forest park belt.
Diagnostic techniques are being developed at present based on ex-
ternal criteria or on laboratory analysis of wax and SO2 leaf content for
the determination of harmful air pollutant effects on trees. Successful
use is also being made of biological indicators: gladiolus for detecting
fluorine, pine which is capable of accumulating sulfates without showing
signs of damage; meadow grass, sensitive to general gas pollution of
air; the sunflower, the cherry sensitive to the presence of sulfur oxides
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in the air . Mention should also be made of possible means for increas-
ing tree hardiness in the eastern part of the Moscow park belt. The
possibility of using mineral fertilizers for such purposes has been men-
tioned extensively in the literature. It has been suggested that systematic
application of mineral and nitrogenous fertilizers to the soil in districts
subject to the effect of acid gases and smoke, supplemented by lime and
Ca-Mg soil treatment may improve the soil structure to a considerable de-
gree. The fall application every 3-5 years of 2 or 3 t of lime, dolomite,
or marl per hectare of forest area can be recommended as an expedient,
effective, and economical measure for the rational maintenance of forest-
park agriculture. The application every second spring of 100 kg of am-
monium nitrate per hectare of forest and park area, raking same into the
soil, is also recommended. Young trees should be sprayed with a 0.5%
solution of urea; this will markedly enhance their growth.
Results of experimental studies and of observations described above
clearly established that smoke polluted atmospheric air destroyed coni-
ferous tree species. The results also indicated that the 0.5 mg/m3 MAC
of SO2 adapted as the general hygienic standard for man should be lowered
to 0.10 - 0.20"mg/m for trees, especially of the coniferous species.
The damaging effect of atmospheric sulfur dioxide upon vegetation must
be reduced, if not completely obviated. This can be accomplished by mov-
ing the electric power generating station beyond the city limits taking into
consideration direction of prevailing winds and by introducing agro- (and
soil) technical and chemical pollution neutralizing soil treatment.
Future inforestation of suburban zones subject to effects of industrial
discharges, particularly those containing sulfur dioxide, should be done
with trees of 4-5 needle and leaf bearing smoke-resistant species of differ-
ent ages. Such arborization zones should be belted around by forest pro-
tection areas implanted by gas-resistant species. The sanitary-epidemio-
logical station of Moscow is engaged in developing standard procedures for
the protection of inforestations, tree groves, and other cultivated vegeta-
tion areas. The general plan is as follows:
a) arrive at a single standard set of MAC for atmospheric air
pollutants non-toxic to plants?
b) establish a rational and reliable classification of smoke- and
gas- resistant trees and flowers and other cultivated and non-
cultivated vegetation used in developing green areas exposed
to the effects of different chemical substances found in polluted
atmospheric air;
c) prepare a list of rational agrotechnical prophylactic measures
for the prevention of coniferous trees withering in municipal
and forest parks, and for enhancing the stability, vitality, and
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economic value of the inforestated trees; to develop mea-
sures for the attraction of birds to nest in the forest parks
and groves.
Such measure should become standard in the practical work of ar-
chitects, forest planners, foresters, and other workers engaged in the
planning, development, and exploitation of arboreal implanations. The
Moscow sanitary-epidemiological station submitted such a proposal to
the Central Council of the A11-Union Society for the Protection of Nature
and the Development of Vegetation implantation areas.
BASIC TRENDS AND PROSPECTS FOR IMPROVING AIR CLEANLINESS
A system of measures for the abatement and control of Moscow
atmospheric air pollution was developed and adapted cooperatively by
pertinent central governmental and municipal organizations. Some of the
measures constitute a part of the technical and economic basis of the plan
for future development of Moscow. Recommendations made by the present
authors can be reduced to the following:
1. Plants of chemical, woodworking, and construction material
industries are the principal sources of atmospheric air pollution. To
diminish the harmful effect of their discharges, only those plants should
be permitted to operate in the city which serve the immediate everyday
needs of the populace.
*. i
2. Metallurgical plants greatly pollute the city air with many toxic
substances. Since the raw products on -which the plants' production-depends
must be imported into the city, the plants should be moved to points nearest
to the sources of such raw products.
3. Foundries of machine-building plants discharge into the atmos-
pheric air large quantities of dust, of metallic oxides, of carbon monoxide,
and other harmful substances. Exhaust-gas discharges of cupola furnaces
cannot be purified. Therefore, casting shops should be separated from
the machine-building plants, and a single central casting plant be organized
beyond the city limits.
4. Crushing and grinding departments at asphalt-concrete plants
heavily pollute atmospheric air with dust due to organized and unorganized
dust discharges. The obsolete plants should be replaced by 5-6 new
plants equipped with up-to-date air purifying installations.
5. It is not practical, and in fact impossible, to surround all city
industrial plants by sanitary protection zones 500 m or more wide; they
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should be moved from the city or they should reorganize on a more modern
sanitary basis.
6. Compliance with the last part of recommendation 5 will make
possible to reduce the specified width of sanitary protection zones.
7. Maintenance of sanitary protection zones surrounding all indus-
trial production plants presuppose the removal of all the populace, chil-
dren's and medical facilities, physical-culture building and other similar
facilities from the territory of such zones, followed by their complete
implantation with trees and shrubs.
8. The construction in the city of new electric heat and electric
power stations which will use gas as fuel, will saturate the air with water
vapor, which may lead to changes in local meteorological conditions by re-
ducing hours of sunshine and increasing the number of foggy and rainy days.
In addition, the use of coal and mazut as reserve fuel will pollute the atmo-
spheric air to a considerable extent with products of incomplete fuel combus-
tion; therefore, new heat and electric power stations should be built beyond
the city limits and surrounded by sanitary protection zones of adequate
width.
9. In order to restrict the consumption of gas and solid fuel the
general utility, community, and industrial combustion chambers must be
converted to operation by electric heat as a means of eliminating or re-
ducing the use of gas and hard fuel.
10. It is imperative that low-sulfur mazuts be developed for use as
reserve fuel as a means of preventing air pollution with sulfur dioxide and
fly ash.
11. Atmospheric air pollution with motor-vehicle exhaust fumes,
must be reduced or eliminated by replacing gas automotive transportation
by electrical traction facilities, developing improved internal combustion
engines, installing exhaust-gas afterburners, supplying the city with high-
grade gasoline, and employing liquid gas as a fuel.
12. Organize high-speed nonstop motor vehicle routes as a means of
reducing the discharge of toxic substances from motor vehicle exhausts;
in this connection it is recommended that crosswalks and vehicular cross-
overs should be built at different levels wherever possible.
13. Methods should be developed in the immediate future for the
recovery of organic and aromatic compounds and of open-hearth furnace
discharges and for the recovery of small quantities of solvents.
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14. A special plant for designing and. building purification installa-
tions and an expert organization for planning, installing, and monitoring
all types of purification installations must be created to serve the needs of
Moscow industrial plants.
It is essential, if not mandatory, that vegetation implantation areas
be evenly distributed with the planting of verdure throughout Moscow, in-
cluding forest parks, groves, squares, sanitary protection zones, and
areas next to street sidewalks, etc. The following per capita standards of
green areas must be the goal: 50 m2 within the city limits, and 130 m2
within the forest-park belt.
Railroad transportation should be electrified as extensively as
possible, and all auxiliary railroad facilities, such as repair shops, store -
houses and the like, should be moved beyond the city limits.
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APPENDIX
1 - Limits of allowable concentrations of harmful substances in the
atmospheric air of inhabited locations
2 - Substance No. '. 3 - Name of Pollutant 4 - Maximal allowable conc'n.
5 - Max, single conc'n. 6 - Average daily
1 Acroleine
2 Amyl acetate
3 Amylene
4 A my line
5 Acetone
6 Acetophenon
7 Benzene
8 Gasoline (Crude oil, low S content,
computed on the basis of C)
9 Butyl acetate
10 Butylene
11 Vinyl acetate
12 Hexamethylenediamine
13 Dichlorethane
14 Dimethylfomamide
15 Dinyl
16 Isopropylbenzenehydroperoxide
17 Isopropylbenzene
18 Methanol
19 Methylacetate
20 Maleic anhydride
21 Methylmetacrylate
22 Maganese and its compounds
23 As (inorganic compounds,
arseneous H excluded) computed
on the basis of As
24 Nitrobenzene
25 Carbon monoxide
26 Oxides of nitrogen, as Na80s
27 Propylene
28 Dust, non-toxic
29 Mercury, metallic
30 Sulfur dioxide
31 Hydrogen sulfide
32 Carbon "disulfide
33 Sooth
34 Sulfuric acid
35 Lead and its compounds
(Tetraethyllead excluded)
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36 Lead sulfide
37 Sulfuric acid as its H-ion
concentrate
38 Hydrochloric acid
as its H-ion concentrate
39 Nitric acid, as its H-ion
concentrate
40 Styrol
41 Formaldehyde
42 Toluilienedi-isocyanate
43 Phosphoric anhydride '''
44 Fluorides
45 Phenol
46 Furfurol
47 Chlorine
48 Chlorobenzene
49 Hydrogen chloride
50 Chloroprene (2-chlorobutadien 1,3)
51 , Chromium, hexavalent, computed as Cr03
52 Ethylacetate i,
53 Ethylene
54 I Cyclohexanol
55 Cyclohexanon
Notes - 1. When the atmospheric air contains simultaneously several
air pollutants the toxic or harmful effects of which are of an additive
(or summation) character, then the final or limiting concentration should
be determined by the following formula:
X = (A/Mi)+ (B/M8) + (C/M3) where A/ML B/Ma, C/M3
i
are the desired concentrations of the pollution components arrived at by
dividing A, B, and C, the components' concentrations present in the air,
correspondingly by MI, Ma , and M3 , their corresponding maximal allow-
able concentrations.
The following substances belong to groups the harmful or toxic
properties of which are of an additive or summation nature: 1) sulfur
dioxide and sulfuric acid aerosol; 2) hydrogen sulfide, and dinyl; 3) iso- ,
propylbenzene and peroxide of isopropylbenzene; 4) ethylene, propylene,
butylene, and amylene; 5) strong sulfuric, hydrochloric, nitric, and other
mineral acids.
2. If the atmospheric air contained simultaneously hydrogen sulfide and
carbon bisulfide the sanitarian should be guided by the individual unmodified
officially adopted maximal concentrations for each individual substance.
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