Oxygen-Consuming Organics in Nonpoint
Source Runoff: A Literature Review
(U.S.) Corvallis Environmental Research Lab., OR
May 81
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
National Technical Information Service
£881-205981
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EPA 600/3-81-033
May 1981
OXYGEN-CONSUMING ORGANICS IN
NONPOINT SOURCE RUNOFF
A LITERATURE REVIEW
by
A. Ray Abernathy
Freshwater Division
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
Con/all is, Oregon 97330
CORVALLIS ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
CORVALLIS, OREGON 97330
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
2.
ORB Report
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
P83t 20598 1
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Oxygen-Consuming Organics in Nonpoint Source Runoff
S. REPORT DATE
May 1981
B. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
A. Ray Abernathy
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Environmental Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis, Oregon 97330
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
same
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
inhouse
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/02
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT • .
Much research has been carried out on the pollutional strength of nonpoint source
runoff and the potential effect of the runoff upon freshwater systems of the United
States. This report is an attempt to pull together the more significant findings
on the oxygen-demanding strength of both urban and rural nonpoint source runoff.
The objectives were to survey the recent literature, especially EPA Research Reports,
and to summarize the findings on loadings of oxygen consuming material discharged to
freshwater by nonpoint source runoff. Once the loadings of oxygen-using material
were available, the next objective was. to estimate the impact of these loadings upon
the dissolved oxygen resources of freshwater systems and the ecological effects upon
freshwater environments.
Unfortunately, there is a serious shortage of data upon surface accumulation rates,
stream-side loading rates, .and dissolved oxygen concentrations resulting from non-
point source inputs all measured concurrently within the same watershed. The data
available indicate that the oxygen-demanding loadings from urban runoff can be very
significant, but that estimates of effects upon fish and other aquatic organisms must
await more information.
17.
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Corvallis Environmental Research
Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publication.
Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement
or recommendation for use.
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ABSTRACT
Much research has been carried out on the pollutional strength of
nonpoint source runoff and the potential effect of the runoff upon freshwater
systems of the United States. This report is an attempt to pull together the
more significant findings on the oxygen-demanding strength of both urban and
rural nonpoint source runoff.
The objectives were to survey the recent literature, especially EPA
Research Reports, and to summarize the findings on loadings of oxygen-
consuming material discharged to freshwater by nonpoint source runoff. Once
the loadings of oxygen-using material were available, the next objective was
to estimate the impact of these loadings upon the dissolved oxygen resources
of freshwater systems and the ecological effects upon freshwater environments.
Unfortunately, there is a serious shortage of data upon surface accumula-
tion rates, stream-side loading rates, and dissolved oxygen concentrations
resulting from nonpoint source inputs all measured concurrently within the
same watershed. The data available indicate that the oxygen-demanding
loadings from urban runoff can be very significant, but that estimates of
effects upon fish and other aquatic organisms must await more information.
m
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CONTENTS
Page
Sections
1. Introduction 1
2. Urban Sources of NPS Biodegradable Organics 2
3. Rural Sources of NPS Biodegradable Organics 6
4. The Impact of NPS Upon Stream Dissolved Oxygen 8
5. Effect of DO Depletion Upon Fish 15
Salmonids 15
Non-salmonid Fish 17
6. Discussion and Conclusions 19
Conclusions 22
Bibliography 23
Appendix 31
Preceding page blank
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FIGURES
Number Page
1. Annual minimum 00 frequency curves 10
TABLES
1. Total yield of pollutants during storm periods from urban
runoff and raw municipal wastes in kg/hectare during 1972 8
2. Comparison of pollutional loads from hypothetical city-street
runoff vs. good secondary effluent 11
3. Comparison of pollutional loads from hypothetical city-street
runoff vs. raw sanitary sewage 12
4. Storm sewer discharge quality from a 5 square mile urban
watershed to Castro Valley Creek, California 14
5. Surface BOD loading rates for NPS runoff 20
Appendix 31
vi
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
Runoff from urban and rural areas can result in nonpoint source (NFS)
pollution of the receiving waters (49, 64, 67, 70, 71, 77, 81, 83, 85, 88, 90,
94). Urban runoff has been shown to contain concentrations of biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD), suspended solids, and coliform bacteria as great or
greater than treated sewage effluents along with heavy metals and other toxic
materials (2, 6, .11, 15, 56, 68, 70). Street dust, dirt, airborne partic-
ulates, and other such debris contribute much of the polluting material in
urban runoff (2, 6, 60, 61, 68). Research shows this urban runoff contains
suspended solids up to 2,000 mg/1, COD as high as 1,000 mg/1, total phosphorus
as great as 15 mg/1, and fecal coliforms up to several thousand organisms per
100 ml (9, 11, 12, 15, 47, 94, 95, 100). Heavy metal concentrations are
usually greater than in untreated domestic sewage (6, 21, 61, 70).
Rural NPS runoff, on the other hand, can include sediments, plant
nutrients, pesticides, organic matter, minerals, and microorganisms. Agricul-
tural, silvicultural, mining, and construction activities can be major sources
of rural NPS (16, 33, 44, 48, 49, 79, 89, 91). Both urban and rural runoff
have been shown to contain oxygen-consuming organic matter, a potential
pollution problem addressed in this report (5, 11, 15, 31, 33, 34, 35, 38, 48,
50, 52, 62, 63, 64, 71, 77, 79). The oxygen-demanding capacity of both urban
and rural NPS runoff will be characterized and the impact of the resulting
deoxygenation upon fish will be explored.
Masses of pollutants and area! loading rates given in English units in
literature references were recomputed in metric units for use in this report.
A conversion table is included as an appendix.
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SECTION 2
URBAN SOURCES OF NFS BIODEGRADABLE ORGANICS
Analyses of urban stormwater have been reported by several investigators
(7, 9, 11, 12, .15, 17, 19, 21, 25, 26, 28, 35, 40, 47, 49, 50, 52, 60, 63, 64,
67, 68, 100). Estimates have been made of loading rates, often in terms of
pounds per curb mile per day or kilograms per curb kilometer per day.
Bradford (9) found an average loading rate of 44 kg per day per curb km of
solids representing 0.87 kg BOD per curb kilometer per day.
Bryan initiated study of a 433-hectare drainage basin within the munici-
pality of Durham, North Carolina. Runoff from the study basin was monitored
for flow rate and for several important measures of water quality during 1969
and 1970. The urban basin gave an annual yield of 94.1 kg BOD/hectare along
with 1,165 kg chemical oxygen demand (COD) per hectare, or 0.26 and 3.2
kg/hectare/day of BOD and COD, respectively. Most of the discharges took
place during approximately 40 days of heavy rainfall which occurred during the
two-year study, so the effects of pollutants in the receiving stream were
considerably amplified (11).
Colston (15) studied the same basin as Bryan, continuing and expanding
the effort from December 1971 through March 1973. The results indicate that
urban runoff can influence downstream water quality during and following
storms to a greater extent than sewage treatment plant effluent. Colston
found that storm runoff carried 95 percent of the oxygen-demanding material
(as COD) during periods of rainfall which amounted to 19 percent of the time
during the study period (15). Colston also reported that the average BOD was
35 mg/1 (calculated from COD data). Problems observed with the BOD determina-
tions were thought to result from inhibitory compounds present in the urban
runoff. Colston found that as much as 41.3 kg of BCD/hectare/day washed off
the urban watershed under study during a. severe storm while the average annual
loading rate was 358 kg/hectare/year (15).
Sartor et a_l_. reported a mean of 3.8 kg BOD per curb km for street
surface contaminants (67, 68). This weighted average assumes from 2 to 10
days buildup since the last rain or street sweeping. They also calculated
that a 1-hour storm on a city with a population of 100,000 and an area of
5,670 hectares would result in the discharge of 2,540 kg of BOD per hour from
urban runoff to the receiving stream, about 5 times greater than the BOD in
the raw sewage generated in the city during that 1-hour period.
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Field and Lager reported on the state-of-the-art in urban runoff control
(28). Whipple et al_. found from 0.27 kg BOD/ha/day to 0.485 kg BOD/hectare/
day loadings for New Jersey urban areas. These investigators suggested that
for planning purposes, a value of 9.1 to 13.6 grams BOD/person/day be used in
predicting NPS loadings from clean urban areas (100). Yu et a_L reported
stream water BOD values as high as 100 mg/1 in streams receiving urban-
industrial NPS runoff with an increase from a mean of 9.0 mg/1 in dry weather
to a mean of 17.4 mg/1 in wet weather. Loadings of oxygen-demanding materials
increased as much as 10-fold after rainfall washed urban NPS materials into
the stream (105). Whipple has published extensively on urban runoff pollution
(97, 98, 99, 101).
Angino et .al. found that the BOO concentration in runoff from an area of
186 hectares of residential housing in Lawrence, Kansas approximately doubled
following a rainstorm, rising from 6.7 mg/1 to 11.4 mg/1 (3).
Wanielista et a_L sampled urban stormwater in central Florida with BOD
concentrations up to 700 mg/1. BOD loadings rates of 75 kg/hectare/year were
also given (91). Mills reported that flow-weighted mean concentrations of BOD
in urban runoff ranged from 4 mg/1 to 188 mg/1 for different storms monitored
in East York, Canada (55).
Lager and Smith prepared an assessment in 1974 for the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) covering characteristics of urban stormwatar, environ-
mental effects and management alternatives and technology (47). A similar
update was published in 1977 (46).
Pitt and Amy reported on the toxic materials found in street surface
contaminants collected during the project URS Research Company did for EPA
(61). Sartor and Boyd reported on the street surface contaminants in a
separate report (67). The greatest loading rates for heavy metals came from
industrial land-use areas. Metals in street runoff were found to be present
in greater concentrations than in sanitary sewage. Other toxicants were also
found. Perhaps the inhibitory effect of toxic compounds in urban runoff are
the cause of problems with BOD determinations reported by several investi-
gators (61).
The American Public Works Association contracted with the Federal Water
Pollution Control Administration to .perform an early study of the water
pollution aspects of urban storm water (2). The emphasis of this report was
on .the sources of street surface contaminants and the effects of different
control measures. The Franklin Institute prepared abstracts of papers on
urban storm water runoff (30). Cleveland et al. studied the stormwater
pollutant loadings from 12 small drainage areas in Tulsa, Oklahoma. They
found BOD loadings as high as 34 kg/ha over the spring season with an annual
average loading of 34 kg/hectare/year for all the basins (14).
Field edited the proceedings of a workshop on management of urban runoff
which includes data from case studies (27). A series of urban stormwater
studies have been sponsored by EPA. Davis :-and Borchardt described the
Des Moines, Iowa and Des Moines River situation with respect to combined sewer
overflows and urban storm drainage. They found urban stormwater averaged 53
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mg/1 BOD yielding 1,210,200 kg BOD per year from 18,225 hectares served by
separate storm sewers. The annual average loading rate was thus 66.4 kg
BOD/hectare/year (19). Holbrook et a_L presented an update of the Atlanta
stprmwater situation (39).
The Sacramento, California situation was studied by the Envirogenics
Company. There it was found that storm runoff from separate storm drains had
BOD values as high as 280 mg/1. Reliable flow data were not available, so
loading rates were not computed (25). AVCO Economic Systems Corporation
studied the Tulsa, Oklahoma stormwater runoff situation. Those findings
resulted in calculated average yearly loads of BOD for each of the 15 test
basins ranging from 13.4 to 54 kg/hectare/year (6). Wullschleger et aj.
recommended standard procedures for collecting data on quality and quantity of
urban storm runoff (104). Field et a_l. reviewed the EPA urban pollution
control group's programs presenting a useful listing of reports and publica-
tions as well as a summary of past projects (29).
A three-volume evaluation of combined sewer overflows and urban storm-
water discharges was prepared for EPA by the American Public Works Association
in cooperation with the University of Florida (36, 50, 81). Volume II covers
cost assessment and impacts of storm runoff (36). Heaney et al_. used data
from 25 drainage basins in seven cities to compute an average annual loading
rate proportional to precipitation for storm runoff in urban areas with
separate sewer systems (36). This average loading rate was then used to
predict loadings for other studies. The average value for the United States
was 34 kg/hectare/year for urban areas with separate sewer sytems. The
loading rate for different urban areas with separate sewers ranged from a low
of 3.9 kg/hectare/year for Las Vegas, Nevada to a high of 69 kg/ha/year for
New Orleans, Louisiana. The authors took great pains to point out the many
assumptions involved in the development of the equation used in these predic-
tions. They stated
"... Unquestionably, the data base for estimating
pollutant loads is very weak, and the resulting esti-
mating equation, supported by such a weak foundation
should be used with extreme caution." They also'
omitted data from Durham, North Carolina; Bucyrus,
Ohio; and Atlanta, Georgia in computing the averaged
factor for loading rate as a function of a population
density and annual precipitation because "... Atlanta,
Bucyrus, and Durham ... produce very high results
compared to the bulk of the data" (36).
Manning et al. in Volume III of the series did a good job in character-
izing urban stormwater quality, sources of pollution, and receiving water
impacts (50). The other volume in this series is an executive summary of the
entire project (81). It also includes additional details on some of the model
studies and a case study of receiving water impacts for the Des Moines, Iowa
situation (81).
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Oberts presented a literature review of best management practices for
urban runoff control (59). Sylvester and Brown reported on the relationship
between land use and quality of storm runoff in California (83).
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SECTION 3
RURAL SOURCES OF NFS BIOEGRADABLE ORGANICS
NPS runoff resulting from agriculture, silviculture, and construction
activities can also carry oxygen-demanding organic matter into receiving
streams (5, 61, 43, 44, 48, 49, 76, 77, 89, 90, 91).
Weidner et a]_. found up to 134 kg BOD/hectare/year washed from Ohio corn
fields (96). Whipple and Hunter reported 8.75 to 51 grams BOD/hectare/day
from New Jersey farmlands. Woodlands in New Jersey yielded from 10 to 19
grams/hectare/day (99). Wanielista et al. reported average loading rates in
Florida of 11 kg BOD/hectare/year for pasture land, and 5 kg/hectare/year for
woodland (91).
Harms et aj. reported COO loadings for various rural land uses. Culti-
vated land produced an average loading of 4 kg g/hectare/year while pasture
land averaged 28 kg/hectare/year and alfalfa and brome grass contributed only
13.4 kg/hectare/year (33).
BOD concentrations from 6 to 15 mg/1 were found in streams draining
agricultural lands during the Black Creek Project. Estimates of loading rates
included 0.33 kg/hectare during a 7.1 cm rainfall event (48). Loehr reported
BOD concentrations of 7 mg/1 in range land runoff with loading rates from
0.017 to 0.094 kg/hectare/day for agricultural lands used for manure disposal
(49).
Hall and Lantz reported depletion of dissolved oxygen downstream from
logging operations in the Oregon Coast Range. Dissolved oxygen concentrations
lower than 1 mg/1 were measured (31). Slack found leaf fall resulted in
reduced dissolved oxygen concentrations in stream pools (76). Slack and Feltz
also reported tree leaf fall responsible for reducing DO concentrations to
less than 1 mg/1 in a small Virginia stream. At the same time increases in
manganese, bicarbonate, specific conductance and color were measured (77).
Yu et al. reported the BOD in streams draining woodland increased during
wet weather, with cropland streams showing greater BOD than woodland streams,
while streams in residential areas contained even more BOD than those in
croplands (105).
Hobbie and Likens found that from 10.44 to 13.84 kg/hectare/year of
organic matter (sum of dissolved and particulate) were exported from Hubbard
Brook forested watersheds (38).
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Stewart et aj. reported on the measures useful in controlling water
pollution from cropland (79). Seitz et al_., in a report for EPA, presented
alternative policies for controlling agricultural sources of NPS pollution
(69). Another EPA report covers methods for evaluating NPS pollutants from
agriculture, silviculture, mining, and construction (86).
Many of the articles and•reports on rural NPS runoff ephasize partic-
ulates from soil erosion or plant nutrients such as phosphates and nitrates
and do not report on oxygen-demanding organic matter (16, 22, 43, 44, 48, 79).
Others refer to physical changes which may occur along with nonpoint source
pollution (82).
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SECTION 4
THE IMPACT OF NPS UPON STREAM DISSOLVED OXYGEN
The significant organic matter content of urban NPS runoff has been
reasonably well, documented (8, 9, 11, 15, 21, 35, 47, 64, 68, 88, 90, 91, 94).
There is even, some evidence of the oxygen-demanding capacity of rural NPS
runoff (31, 49, 76, 77, 96). On the other hand, there is almost no direct
evidence of the effect of stormwater runoff on the dissolved oxygen resources
of receiving waters. Vitale and Spey stated in a report for the Council on
Environmental Quality, "... unfortunately, monitoring of DO profiles during
storm events is a rarity. DO profiles taken simultaneously with measured
storm loads are almost nonexistent" (88). Because of this lack of empirical
data, the projection of stormwater impacts upon DO has usually been made using
various mathematical models of stream deoxygenation/reaeration along with
measured or estimated loading rates for storm runoff, sewage treatment plant
discharges, and upstream BOD loads.
Colston compared the total annual yield of pollutants from urban runoff
to sewer-carried municipal wastewater pollutants for a drainage basin in
Durham, North Carolina. He reported that urban runoff and upstream additions
provided 48 percent of the BOD, 41 percent of the ultimate BOD, and 95 percent
of the suspended solids produced in the basin, including raw municipal
wastewater (15).
Colston made model studies of the oxygen sag in Third Fork Creek
resulting from the combination of urban runoff and sewage treatment plant
effluent. During storm events, the model simulation showed the effects of
sewage treatment plant effluent to the undetectable in oxygen sag computa-
tions. Storm runoff was found to contain 82 percent of the COD, 77 percent of
the ultimate BOD, and 99 percent of the suspended solids added to the
receiving stream during the storm (see Table 1).
TABLE 1. TOTAL YIELD OF POLLUTANTS DURING STORM PERIODS FROM URBAN RUNOFF AND
RAW MUNICIPAL WASTES IN KG/HECTARE DURING 1972. From Colston (15).
Parameter
COD
Ultimate BOD
Suspended Solids
Raw
municipal
wastes
218
146
72
Urban
runoff
1,000
500
7,410
Percent
Total
1,220
646
7,482
Municipal
18
23
1
Runoff
82
77
99
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Colston concluded that even if Durham provided TOO percent removal of
pollutants from municipal wastewater during wet weather, "... it would repre-
sent an overall reduction of only 18, 23, and 1 percent of BOD, ultimate BOD,
and suspended solids to the receiving water course." In addition, Colston
found that approximately 20 percent of the time downstream.water quality was
controlled by urban runoff rather than municipal waste discharges (15).
Davis and Borchardt investigated the NPS problem in Des Moines, Iowa
(19). Sullivan et al_. (81) summarized the impact of the Des Moines urban
runoff reported by Davis, and Borchardt. Taking the total upstream drainage
area of the Raccoon River and the Des Moines River, which join within the
city, and adding the urban area NPS loadings to the upstream loadings
indicated that total loadings per year were 31,751,466 kg of BOD, 11,521,250
kg of nitrate, and 3-, 606,059 kg of phosphate. The urban area loadings
represent 15 percent of the total BOD, 3 percent of the total nitrate, and 51
percent of the total phosphate loadings to the river. The available data were
then applied to simulations of runoff and stream dissolved oxygen. Stream DO
was simulated using a Streeter-Phelps formulation. Based on National Oceano-
graphic and Atmospheric Administration records, the total precipitation during
the study year (1968) was 70.1 cm. The estimated runoff was 26.1 cm over a
watershed area of 19,500 ha for an overall urban area runoff coefficient of
0.37. Four alternatives for reduction of water pollution were explored:
1. secondary treatment for dry weather flow alone;
2. tertiary treatment of dry weather flow alone;
3. secondary treatment of dry weather flow with 75 percent treatment of
wet weather flow;
4. secondary treatment of dry weather flow with 25 percent treatment of
wet weather flow. '
The simulation results indicated that wet weather flow (urban runoff)
greatly affected dissolved oxygen during storm events. Secondary treatment of
dry weather flow along with, removal of 25 percent of the BOD from wet weather
flow resulted in fewer violations of BOD standards than would result from
tertiary treatment of dry weather flow alone—and at much less cost. Removal
of 75 percent of the BOD in wet weather flow along with secondary treatment of
dry weather flow was predicted to result in violation of DO standards during
only 3 percent of the precipitation events, and still cost less than tertiary
treatment of dry weather flow alone (see Figure 1). Davis and Borchardt found
that during storms ranging from 4.4 mm to 152.3 mm, the pollution loading from
the Des Moines metropolitan area greatly exceeded the average daily loading
from dry weather sources (19).
These results point up the serious need to consider the results of urban
runoff before requiring tertiary treatment, and that control of wet weather
discharges can be very important in achieving "fishable, swiir.mable waters."
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\
SIMULATION PERIOD-1968
WASTE INPUT' UPSTREAM SOURCES » OWF*
SEPARATE SEWER FLOW* COMBINED SEWER FLOW
RIVER FLOW« 100% OF MEASURED FLOW
COMBINED SEWER AREA =8.16% OF UR8AN AREA
DWF TREATMENT RATE'
95 •/, (TERTIARY)
85 % (SECONDARY)
- 85 % (SECONDARY)
85 % (SECONDARY)
30 % (PRIMARY)
INDICATES EVENTS
WWF TREATMENT RATE-
0% (NO TREATMENT)
75%
25 %
0 %(NO TREATMENT)
0%(NO TREATMENT)
0%(NO TREATMENT)
EXCEEDING DESIRED D.O. LEVEL
2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0
DISSOLVED OXYGEN CONCENTRATION, mg/I
140
Figure 1. Annual minimum DO frequency curves. From Sullivan et a_L (81).
Sartor and Boyd (67) reported the results of a study of street surface
contaminants in twelve U.S. cities. They summarized the significance of
street surface runoff upon receiving water quality by comparing the runoff
from the streets of a hypothetical city with a population of 10Q.OOO persons,
total land area of 5,670 hectares, 644 curb kilometers of streets, and an
average sewage flow of 45,420 cubic meters per day. Table 2 taken from the
report by Sartor and Boyd indicates that over 50 times as much BOD would be
washed off by a 1-hour storm event than would be discharged from a good
secondary treatment plant serving the city. Even if untreated sewage is used
for comparison, the runoff during the first hour of a storm could be expected
to wash more pollutants into the receiving stream than would be discharged
during that time by untreated sewage produced within the city (see Table 3).
Holbrook et al. used the dissolved oxygen model DOSAG to simulate the
effects of rainfall in the Peachtree Creek basin. Results indicated a signif-
icant reduction in the 00 for the Chattahoochee River from even a 1.0 cm rain.
The DO at the sag point dropped to 1.4 mg/1 (39).
Hammer cited data for the Passaic River which indicated that reductions
in dissolved oxygen followed increases in stream flow after storms. The
suggestion was made that the increased consumption of oxygen was caused by
nonpoint source runoff input as well as resuspension of oxygen-demanding
10
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TABLE 2. COMPARISON OF POLLUTIONAL LOADS FROM HYPOTHETICAL CITY-STREET RUNOFF vs GOOD SECONDARY EFFLUENT.
From Sartor and Boyd (67).
Settleable + .
Suspended Solids
BODd
CODd
Total Col i form
Bacteria
Kjeldahl.
Nitrogen
Phosphates
Contaminant Load
on Receiving Waters
Street Surface Runoff
(kg/hr)
254,016
2,540
5,897
40 x 1012
Organisms/hr
400
200
Effluent from Good Secondary
Treatment Plant
(% removal)3
90
90
90
99.99
90
95
(kg/hr)b
59
50
54
4.6 x 1010
Organisms/hr
9.1
1.1
' Ratio
(Street/Sewage)
;4,300
51
110
870
44
180
. Typical removal efficiences for waste treatment plants.
Loadings discharged to receiving waters (average hourly rate).
. Ratio of loadings: street runoff/sanitary discharge.
Weighted averages by land use, all others from numerical means.
Metric units computed from English units in reference (67).
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TABLE 3. COMPARISON OF POLLUTIONAL LOADS FROM HYPOTHETICAL CITY-STREET RUNOFF
vs RAW SANITARY SEWAGE. From Sarton and Boyd (67).
Settleable +
Suspended Solids0
BOD5C
COO.C
Total Col i form
Bacteria
Kjaldahl
Nitrogen
Phosphates
Zi nc
Copper
Lead
Nickel
Mercury
Cliromi urn
Contaminant Loads on
Receiving Waters
Street Surface Runoff
(kg/hr)
254,016
2,540
5,897
40 x 1012
Organisms/hr
400
200
118
36
104
9.1
13
20
Raw Sanitary Sewage
(mg/D
300
250
270
250 x 10s
Organisms/
1 i tere
50f
12d
0.20h
0.04h
0.03h
0.01h
0.079
0.04h
( kg/hr )a
590
499
544
4.6 x 1014
Organisms/hr
95
23
0.38
0.08
0.06
0.019
0.12
0.08
Ratio .
Street/0
Sewage
430
5.1
11
0.0087
4.2
8.7
310
450
1,733
480
108
250
. Loadings discharged to receiving waters (average hourly rate).
Ratio of loadings: street runoff/sanitary discharge.
5 Weighted averages by land use, all others from numerical mean.
Reference 10.
, Reference 35.
Reference 36.
? Reference 37.
San Jose-Santa Clara Water Pollution Control Plant, averages
1970, personal communication.
Metric units computed from English units given in reference (67).
for January
12
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sediments from the river bed. No attempt was made to assign a fraction of
total oxygen demand to nonpoint source runoff or to resuspended sediment.
However, the immediate cause of increased oxygen consumption seemed to be
storm-runoff activated (32). Hammer cited the Castro Valley Creek, California
study, referenced by Lager and Smith (47), which seems to be a case of
increased BOD due to storm runoff resulting in lower DO concentrations in the
receiving water (32) (see Table 4).
Rimmer et aJL reported an average reduction in stream DO of about 1 mg/1
following storm events in the Research Triangle area of North Carolina (65).
13
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TABLE 4. STORM
SEWER DISCHARGE QUALITY FROM A 5 SQUARE MILE URBAN WATERSHED TO CASTRO VALLEY CREEK, CALIFORNIA. From Lager and Smith (47).
San Francisco Bay3
1960-1964
Parameter
Temperature, °C
pll
DO. rag/1
••
DO. % saturation
*•• BODS-, rag/1
Ammonia nitrogen,
mg/1
(lit rage nitrogen,
mg/1
if-
Dissolved silica,
mg/1
Total col i form
bacteria,
low .
mean
high
low
mean
high
low
mean
high
low
mean
high
low
mean
high
low
mean
high
low
mean
high
low
mean
high
low
mean
high
South
Bay
9.3
16.3
24.0
7.2
7.6
8.0
0.7
5.1
8.3
9
55
92
0.5
10
48
—
3
11
0.05
0.35
1.1
2.3
8.7
16
10
20,000
3 x 10s
Lower
Bay
10.7
14.8
21.0
7.8
7.9
8.1
7.0
7.4
8.5
81
90
99
0.4
0.8
1.5
0.06
0.12
0.21
0.08
0.34
0.55
2.9
5.4
7.7
10
500
30,000
Upper Storm of
Bay 11 Nov 71
14.5
14.5
15.0
6.7
7.7
7.0
4.4
7.9
5.1
43
77
50
6.7
0.8 44
1.2
0.1
2.3
0
0.3
1.4
6.5 -7.1
1,000
Storm of
13 Nov 17
13.0
6.7
6.9
8.1
6.9
84
90
6.7
0.4
0.6
1.5
1.7
3.3
—
Storm of
2 Dec 71
9.5
10.5
5.4
6.4
9.5
in**
79
86
4.0
9.5
0.3
0.7
0.6
1.2
1.5
>16.000
Castro Valley Creek :
Storm of
9 Dec 71
8.5
10.5
6.6
7.4
9.0
9.6
85
90
10.0
11.0
0.1
0.4
0.3
3.3
12.0
4,200
41.000
Storm of
22 Dec 71
11.0
6.0
6.4
9.4
••no
88
1.7
5.0
0.2
0.3
—
?.2
9.500
12.500
Storm of
27 Dec 71
8.0
9.0
6.6 '
6.9
10.4
1.7
2.2
0.1
0.2
1.8
2.3
7
5,200
16,200
Storm of
25 Jan 72
7.5
8.5
6.2
6.8
63
68
4.7
6.0
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.9
3.1
M
*
Ik
Storm of
5 Apr 72
15.0
7.2
6.4
6.9 •
68
2.6
37.0
0.3
1.0
0 ;
4.2 ;
J
7.6 i
16,000 ;
63,000 i
From "Interim Water Quality Control Plan, San Francisco Bay Basin," California Regional Water Quality Control Board, San Francisco Bay Region,
June 1971.
* Determination pending.
-------
SECTION 5
EFFECTS OF DO DEPLETION UPON FISH
Several reports summarize the literature on the oxygen requirements of
fish (4, 18, 23, 24, 41, 58, 84, 87, 92, 93). More attention has been given
to salmonids than to other groups of fish (18, 20, 31, 37, 51, 72, 75, 102,
103). Separate standards have often been, proposed or established for cold-
water salmonids and for warmwater fish (4, 41, 84).
SALMONIDS
Salmonids are often considered especially sensitive to dissolved oxygen
concentration not only because their normal habitat is cold, well-oxygenated
water, but also because of their spawning habits and the oxygen requirements
of the developing eggs and larvae (1, 4, 13, 18, 37, 51, 58, 75).
Warren (92) reported reduced growth of coho salmon at 20°C when held in
water containing 5 mg/1 DO compared to controls maintained near air saturation
(7.9 - 8.5 mg/1). Even at 6 mg/1, some depression of growth was observed.
Alderdice e_t al. reported on the effects of low dissolved oxygen on salmon
eggs (1). Davison et a_L did experiments on the dissolved oxygen requirements
of salmonids (20).
Hermann e_t al_. reported on the continuing efforts of an Oregon State
University group on oxygen requirements of salmon (37). Another paper from
that group reported on the interaction of dissolved oxygen concentration with
water velocity in regard to the developing embryos of steel head trout and
Chinook salmon (75).
Doudoroff and Warren summarized the dissolved oxygen requirements of fish
at a seminar held in 1962 (24). They discussed the effects of DO concentra-
tion on swimming performance, appetite and growth, embryonic development, and
avoidance reactions. It was their conclusion that the complex DO standard
proposed by the Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission (ORSANCO)
Aquatic Life Advisory Committee (4) is not easy to enforce and does not seem
to be supported by the results of intermittent exposure of coho salmon and
largemouth bass to diurnal variations of DO. They concluded that "... Simpler
criteria apparently can be at least as satisfactory and defensible." However,
they did not make exact recommendations as to what the criteria should be
(24).
15
-------
Whitworth found that reducing the 00 concentration from 10.6 mg/1 to 5.3
mg/1 in a diurnal manner resulted in reduced growth of brook trout (102).
Mason found that embryos and fry of coho salmon exposed to 3 mg/1 or 5 mg/1 DO
were smaller at hatching than were controls exposed to 11.0 mg/1 (51).
Doudoroff and Shumway recommended dissolved oxygen criteria based on
allowable perturbations from the seasonal minimum concentration. They
presented curves of allowable DO for four different levels of protection
depending upon the importance of the fishery and the most beneficial use of
the waterway (23).
Itazawa measured the DO concentration required to maintain arterial blood
at normal oxygen levels. He found rainbow trout required about 60 percent
saturation at. temperatures near 10°C and carp required about 50 percent
saturation from 13 - 23°C (42).
Warren e_t al. proposed minimum DO requirements for different temperatures
using largemouth bass and coho salmon as examples of warmwater fish and
coldwater fish, respectively. A reduction of 10 percent in production of coho
salmon resulted at 5.0 mg/1 DO and water temperatures of 18 - 20°C or at 5.7
mg/1 and a water temperature of 22°C (93).
The National Academy of Sciences/National Academy of Engineering
(NAS/NAE) prepared a volume on water quality criteria for the Environmental
Protection Agency (58). Those experts preparing the dissolved oxygen criteria
for freshwater aquatic life adopted the approach of Doudoroff and Shumway (23)
and presented four levels of protection. Levels of Nearly Maximum, High,
Moderate, and Low protection' were presented with levels of allowable DO
reduction referenced to seasonal minima under "natural" conditions. Equations
of the curves prepared by Doudoroff and Shumway are given to allow calculation
of the allowable minimum DO concentration at existing water temperatures. A
minimum concentration of 4.0 mg/1 is recommended as a floor value and
consideration is given to the situation within stratified lakes (58).
Carlson and Siefert reported that reduction of DO to any concentration
less than saturation resulted in slowing the larval growth of lake trout (13).
Davis, in a report for the National Research Council of Canada, also followed
the lead of Doudoroff and Shumway in setting several levels of protection with
respect to DO concentration. Davis made extensive use of blood oxygen
dissociation curves in establishing what he called "incipient dissolved oxygen
response thresholds" which he then used in setting minimum DO requirements.
Tables of percent saturation at temperatures of 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25°C are
presented for each level of protection (18).
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency officially adopted quality
criteria for water based on the NAS/NAE REPORT. Dissolved oxygen standards
for freshwater fish were adopted with a minimum concentration required to
maintain a healthy fish population set at 5.0 mg/1. For salmonid spawning
beds, a minimum of 5.0 mg/1 should be present in the interstitial water of the
gravel (87). -
16
-------
NON-SALMONID FISH
A number of investigators have explored the oxygen requirements of warm-
water fishes. Katz and Gaufin found that low 00 resulting from wastewater
discharges made stream habitat unavailable for warmwater fish. They also
reported the absence of fish from zones of a sewage-polluted stream where
"sewage fungus" covered the stream bottom, even when oxygen was plentiful in
those reaches (45).
The Aquatic Life Advisory Committee of ORSANCO set 5 mg/1 as the minimum
DO concentration for maintenance of a balanced fish population. However,
their suggested criteria would allow declines below 5.0 mg/1 for up to 8 hours
per day. if the minimum was never below 3.0 mg/1 (4).
In 1958, Tarzwell recommended 5.0 mg/1 as the minimum DO concentration
for warmwater fish and 6.0 mg/1 for salmonid fish (84). Moss and Scott
studied the oxygen requirements of three warmwater fish--bluegills, largemouth
bass, and channel catfish. All three species were reported able to survive
for 24 hours at approximately 1.0 mg/1 DO at a temperature of 25°C (57). For
warmwater fish, Huet recommended 70 percent of the saturation concentration
with temporary depressions allowed to 3.0 mg/1 (41).
LONG TERM EFFECTS OF REDUCED DO
Doudoroff and Warren point out that "... it is now generally realized
that fishes cannot be expected to thrive in their natural habitat at barely
nonlethal oxygen concentrations." Swimming speed of largemouth bass was
reported to be virtually independent of oxygen concentration above 5 mg/1, but
decreased when DO was decreased below 5 mg/1. Juvenile largemouth bass and
bluegills avoided concentrations of DO near 1.5 mg/1 but showed little or no
avoidance near 3.0 and 4.5 mg/1. The growth rates of largemouth bass were
reduced at constant DO concentrations of 5.0 mg/1 (24).
Stewart et al_. found that reductions of DO below saturation resulted in a
decreased growth rate of largemouth bass held in constant DO concentrations.
They also reported that bass subjected to diurnal variations in DO grew more
slowly than those held at constant DO concentrations near the mean of the
alternate high and low concentrations (80).
Doudoroff and Shumway reviewed worldwide data on oxygen requirements of
fish. Their report covered warmwater fish as well as the salmonids mentioned
earlier (23).
Brungs carried out life cycle studies with fathead minnows grown under
different concentrations of dissolved oxygen. Egg production per female at 3
mg/1 or greater DO concentration was comparable to those at the 7.2 mg/1
control concentration. However, only 6 percent of the hatch survived at 3
mg/1 for 30 days after fertilization and only 24 percent at 4 mg/1. Hatch
survival at 5 mg/1 DO was comparable to the controls, but growth was signif-
icantly less than under the control conditions of 7.2 mg/1 (10).
17
-------
Itazawa found that carp required approximately 50 percent air saturation
at temperatures from 13 - 23°C in order to maintain the normal levels of
oxygen in arterial blood (42). Siefert e_t al_. reported that northern pike
embryos and larvae survived amost as well at 50 percent saturation and 15°C as
at 100 percent saturation (73). Carlson and Siefert studied the effects of
reduced oxygen concentration upon largemouth bass embryos and larvae. They
found comparable hatching and survival at 70 percent saturation at 20 or 23°C,
but growth of the fry was reduced at both temperatures compared to controls
held at air saturation (13).
Siefert et a_L reported on the effects of reduced oxygen concentration on
the early stages of smallmouth bass. Nearly a 20 percent reduction in
survival and a. reduced growth rate was noted for smallmouth bass exposed to a
continuous DO concentration of 50 percent saturation and a temperature of
20°C. At 7°C survival was similar in both 50 percent and 100 percent air
saturation, but hatching was delayed from 7 to 11 days at 50 percent (74).
Warren et a_L used largemouth bass as a representative warmwater fish.
They reported that growth rate was reduced upon exposure to reduced concentra-
tions of DO. Minimum DO concentrations were proposed based on the concentra-
tions resulting in. reductions of 10 percent in growth rate. These concentra-
tions ware 4.7 mg/1, 5.1 mg/1, and 5.5 mg/1 at temperatures of 26°C, 29°C, and
20°C, respectively.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency adopted quality criteria for
water after consideration of the NAS/NAE report. Five mg/1 was chosen as the
minimum concentration of dissolved oxygen for aquatic life. This standard
does not allow for excursions of DO below 5 mg/1 even for short periods (87).
There is a lack of reliable data about the effects of transient low DO
conditions upon fish. The deoxygenation,effects resulting from storm runoff
can be expected to persist for only a few hours at a particular stream
location. If the low 00 concentration does not reach a lethal level, what
will the impact be upon fish 'and other aquatic organisms? Depletion of DO
Tasting for 8 to 12 hours out of each 24 seems harmful to the growth of fish
(23, 24, 80, 93, 102). However, these data do not tell us what would result
from one depletion period of 12 hours a week. Research is needed to explain
the effects of such intermittent pollution. Meaningful experiments could
perhaps be performed in artificial streams where dissolved oxygen could be
controlled, but where other conditions could be kept realistic. Such
controlled conditions would also allow separation of transient DO effects due
to storm runoff from the related effects of combined sewer overflows and point
source discharges.
18
-------
SECTION 6
DISCUSSION AMD CONCLUSIONS
The oxygen-consuming effects of urban nonpoint source runoff have been
well documented (26, 28, 47, 50, 94). Input of BOD from nonpoint sources has
been shown by. modeling and simulation to be the controlling influence on
dissolved oxygen concentrations during and after storm events (6, 15, 19, 47,
50, 67, 100). Several studies have shown that collection and treatment of
urban runoff to about 75 percent removal of BOD would be more beneficial and
cost effective than tertiary treatment of dry weather wastewater flows (15,
18, 81). Table 5 contains a compilation of data from 19 locations around the
nation comparing annual average NPS loadings to the BOD loadings which occur
during rain storms. Note the spread of loading rates from areas of different
land use and different rainfall. Also note the great difference in loading
rates between the annual average (or dry weather rate) and the short term rate
during and after rainfall. The shock loads of oxygen-demanding material
washed into rivers by storm runoff can cause intermittent problems of greater
severity than the average loadings would if discharged continuously.
It is not easy to show widespread problems resulting from rural NPS
oxygen demands. There have been reports of leaf fall resulting in deoxygena-
tion in stream pools (76, 77). Certain silviculture operations can cause
deoxygenation in small streams (31). Deoxygenation can also result from
cattle feedlot runoff, but this type of problem is usually considered with
point source discharges. The water quality problem resulting from rural NPS
runoff are generally related to soil erosion and sediments, plant nutrients
from agricultural lands, or toxic materials such as pesticides (16, 33, 49,
105).
The impact of nonpoint source deoxygenation upon fish is difficult to
assess. The effects of even the more obvious urban runoff situations are
usually confused because of the presence of point source discharges and/or
other constituents in urban runoff such as suspended solids, heavy metals, and
organic toxicants. For this reason, mathematical modeling has been heavily
used to demonstrate the effects of NPS upon dissolved oxygen (15, 21, 36, 54,
78, 81, 89, 90).
It has been well documented that continuous depletion of DO is harmful to
fish even at levels well above the lethal level. This seems equally true for
salmonids and for those species usually considered warmwater dwellers such as
largemouth bass (13, 18, 23, 24, 37, 57, 58).
19
-------
TABLE 5. SURFACE BOD LOADING RATES FOR NPS RUNOFF
ho
O
Location
Durham, NC
n n
n n
n n
I* • -i |-| n i
Mi le Kun, NJ
kil * L. hi l
Morris town, NJ
/AT J IT 1
urianuo, rL
n n
II II
Maryland
l.lrt f i- 1 i •£ ->i«*i I- 1- /-v TKI
west Lafayette, IN
Greenfield, MA
Des Moines, I A
Tulsa, OK
Atlanta, GA
Occoquan Watershed, VA
n n n
n n n
Roanoke, VA
n n
n M
Washington, DC
" "
Site or Station
M (10/2/69)
M (7/26/69)
Main (Storm 17)
(Storm 21)
Rock Creek
1 KiK -ic.
urban
D-ll
Site 15
Station 5
Lower Bull Run
Flat Branch
Portner Avenue
24th Street
Murray Run
Trout Run
Good Hope Run
(8/9/69)
n n n
(7/28/69)
V
Land Use (
Urban
Urban
Urban
Urban
il l
urban
1 1 v.K -. »-\
Urban
n • i . • -i
i\esi cientia I
Commercial
1}. IV. -1 1
luira l
Suburban,
Residential
n "l 4- " l
Kesi cientia I
Urban
Urban
Urban
Urban
Residential/
Urban
Urban
Commercial/
Urban
Urban Mix
Residential/
Suburban
Residential/
Urban
Urban
tot Weather Rate
[ kg/hectare/day)
2.86
0.487
3.09
41.31
-i A f\
1 . rU
0')/"Q
. *_oy
0^*31
. bo I
0.848
n fio/i Q
U * Uo^tj
0.222
1 "7Q
i . /y
0.470
1.86
2.15
1.29
0.403
0.627
0.784
0.171
0.332
0.436
1.17
1.06
Annual Average or
Dry Weather Rate
(kg/hectare/day)
0.258
0.258
0.980
M
0/1 QJ\
• *f OT"
01 O O
. loJ
OOf\A
• C.UT"
0.137
f\ nocc
U • U^.OO
0.0526
0.102
0.181
0.0772
0.782
0.037
0.046
0.072
0.051
0.102
0.019
0.0735
0.0735
Reference
11
11
15
15
inn
IUU
i nn
IUU
Ql
y i
91
Ql
y i
63
f Q
D j
21
19
6
8
64
64
64
35
35
35
66
66
-------
On the other hand, the effects of transient DO depletions due to storm
runoff is less clearcut. Fluctuating DO concentrations between the air
saturation concentration and concentrations of 60-65 percent of saturation
have been shown to result in reduced growth rates for juvenile fish when the
daily exposure periods at the high and low concentrations were both about 12
hours. In fact, fish held under these conditions grew only slightly faster
than comparable groups of fish held continuously at the lower concentration
(23, 24, 80, 93, 102). Fish kills could result from NFS runoff, of course, if
oxygen concentration were depressed to lethal levels.
There seems to be no readily available answer to the crucial question
about NPS deoxygenation. What is the impact of occasional reductions in
oxygen concentration caused by NPS pollutants? No unequivocal answer is
available. However, from the information which is available, it seems
probable that even short term depressions' of DO concentration resulting
several times per year from NPS runoff could possibly result in decreased
growth and productivity of balanced fish populations. Concentrations of DO
somewhat above lethal concentrations probably affect reproductive success,
decrease growth rates, and affect competitive interactions. When the
deoxygenation occurs along with increased sediment loadings and potentially
toxic materials such as heavy metals (also carried by NPS runoff), there is
increased probability of damage to fish.
Controlled experiments designed to quantitatively measure the impact of
transient low DO concentrations upon fish or other aquatic organisms would
seem difficult, expensive, and time consuming. However, they are necessary in
order to conclusively answer this crucial question. The ecological effects of
other aspects of NPS runoff such as heavy metals, sediments, increased peak
flows, and channel modification would also seem deserving of attention.
Some encouragement has been given to EPA for the development of separate
criteria for water quality during storm flows, often called "wet weather
criteria." Such criteria would give consideration to the transient nature of
storm events and allow for decreased water quality during such periods.
Arguments in favor of such relaxed criteria include reduced costs for storage
and treatment, current failure to meet existing criteria during storm events,
and little evidence of harm to aquatic life during storm runoff.
On the other hand, there is little evidence that storm discharges do not
harm aquatic life, especially from solids which settle in receiving streams to
continue affecting water quality long after the storm flow subsides. Such
solids can destroy habitat, use dissolved oxygen, and release potentially
toxic compounds over long periods of time. They may become resuspended during
the next storm event and again contribute to another acute episode.
The same measures which would reduce organic loadings in NPS runoff can
also be expected to reduce the loadings of other pollutants such as sediments,
toxic chemicals, and plant nutrients. Therefore, encouragement should be
given to those practices which can reduce the BOD load of NPS runoff, help
meet stream standards for dissolved oxygen concentration, and at the same time
result in other improvements in water quality.
21
-------
This study revealed two areas where research is badly needed. Controlled
experiments on the impact of occasional transient depletion of dissolved
oxygen upon fish are entirely lacking. Such research is needed in order to
estimate the effects of deoxygenation due to storm runoff upon fish in the
receiving water and to aid in evaluating the results from field research.
Another glaring lack of data is actual measured dissolved oxygen concen-
trations in streams receiving storm runoff. A complete study which relates
surface accumulation rates of pollutants to end-of-pipe loadings and down-
stream oxygen concentrations is needed.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Urban NPS runoff has been shown to contain large quantities of
oxygen-demanding materials. Although few direct measurements have been made
of the oxygen demands actually exerted in streams, modeling studies have
indicated that the DO demand from urban NPS runoff can result in low 00
concentrations, either alone or in combination with point source discharges.
2. It is more difficult to show serious oxygen depletion due to NPS
runoff from rural areas. More serious rural NPS pollutants seem to be
sediments from soil erosion, plant nutrients, and toxic materials such as
pesticides.
3. Continuous exposure to dissolved oxygen concentrations significantly
lower than air saturation concentrations seems to be harmful for fish. This
seems true for both salmonid fishes and such warmwater fishes as largemouth
bass.
4. Exposure to fluctuating DO concentrations between air saturation and
60-65 percent of saturation can reduce the growth rate of fish if the high and
low concentration exposure periods are approximately equal (12 hours each)
during each day.
5. Efforts should be made to achieve the appropriate DO standards by
reducing the loads of BOD in NPS runoff as well as point source discharges.
Reduction of the BOD loadings from NPS runoff should result in other improve-
ments in receiving water quality by reducing the loadings of suspended solids,
plant nutrients, and potentially toxic materials.
6. Research should be carried out to directly relate stream impact to
end-of-pipe loadings and surface accumulation rates of urban NPS pollutants.
7. Research should be performed to evaluate the effects upon the growth
rate of fish of one exposure of 12 hours per week to oxygen concentrations of
2., 3, and 4 milligrams per liter.
22
-------
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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23
-------
13. Carlson, A. R., and Siefert, R. E., "Effects of Reduced Oxygen on the
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24
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28. Field, Richard, and Lager, John A., "Urban Runoff Pollution Control—
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32. Hammer, T. R., Planning Methodologies for Analysis of Land Use/Water
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33. Harms, L. L., et a_L , "Physical and Chemical Quality of Agricultural Land
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35. Hayes, Seay, Mattern and Mattern, Engineering Investigation of Sewer
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37. Hermann, R. B., et aj_., "Influence of Oxygen Concentration on the Growth
of Juvenile Coho Salmon," Trans. Am. Fish. Soc.. 9J_, 155 (1962).
38. Hobbie, J.E., and Likens, G. E., "Output of Phosphorus, Dissolved Organic
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40. Huber, W. C., and Heaney, J. P., Urban Rainfall-Runoff-Quality Data Base,
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41. Huet, Marcel, "Water Quality Criteria for Fish Life," In: Biological
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25
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42. Itazawa, Y., "An Estimation of the Minimum Level of Dissolved Oxygen in
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43. Karr, James R., and Schlosser, I. J., Impact of Nearstream Vegetation and
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44. Karr, James R., and Schlosser, I. J., "Water Resources and the Land-Water
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45. Katz, M., and Gaufin, A. F., "The Effects of Sewage Pollution on the Fish
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46. Lager, John A., et al. , Urban Stormwater Management and Technology:
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47. Lager, John A., and Smith, William G., Urban Stormwater Management and
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48. Lake, James, and Morrison, James, Environmental Impact of Land Use on
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49. Loehr, R. C. , "Characteristics and Comparative Magnitude of Non-Point
Sources/1 Journ. Water Poll. Control Fed., 46, 1849 (1974).
50. Manning, Martin J. , et al., Nationwide Evaluation of Combined Sewer
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51. Mason, J. C. , "Hypoxial Stress Prior to Emergence and Competition Among
Coho Salmon Fry," Journ. Fish. Res. Bd. Can., 26, 63 (1969).
52. McElroy, A. D. , et a_1_. , Loading Functions for Assessment of Water Pollu-
tion From Nonpoint Sources, USEPA Rept. EPA-600/2-76-151 (1976).
53. McElroy, III, F. T. R. , et al. , Sampling and Analysis of Stormwater
Runoff from Urban and Semi-Urban/Rural Watersheds, Tech. Rept. No. 64,
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Indiana (1976).
54. Meadows, Michael E. , et aj_. , "Assessing Non-Point Water Quality for Small
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55. Mills, W. Gordon, "Water Quality of Urban Stormwater Runoff in the
Borough of East York," Research Report No. 66, Research Program for the
Abatement of Municipal Pollution Within the Provision of the Canada-
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(1977).
26
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56. Mische, Eric F., and Dharmadhikari, Vishnu V., "Runoff—A Potential
Resource," Water and Wastes Engineering, 8, 28 (1971).
57. Moss, D. D., and Scott, D. C., "Dissolved Oxygen Requirements of Three
Species of Fish," Trans. Am. Fish. Soc.. 90, 377 (1961).
58. National Academy of Sciences/National Academy of Engineering, Water
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D.C., EPA-R3-73-033 (1974).
59. Oberts, Gary L., Water Quality Effects of Potential Urban Best Management
Practices: A Literature Review, Tech. Bulletin No. 97, Department of
Natural Resources, Madison, Wisconsin (1977).
60. Pirner, S. M., and Harms, L. L., "Rapid City Combats the Effects of Urban
Runoff on Surface Water," Water and Sewage Works, 125, No. 2, 48 (1978).
61. Pitt, R. E., and Amy, Gary, Toxic Materials Analysis of Street Surface
Contaminants, USEPA Rept. EPA-R2-73-283 (1973).
62. Pitt, Robert, and Field, Richard, "Water Quality Effects From Urban
Runoff," Journ. Am. Water Works Assn., 69, 432 (1977).
63. Ragan, R. M., and Dieteman, A. J., Characterization of Urban Runoff in
the Maryland Suburbs of Washington, D.C., Tech. Rept. No. 38, Water
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64. Randall, C. W. , et aj_. , Impact of Urban Runoff on Water Quality in the
Occoquan Watershed, Bulletin No. 80, Water Resources Research Center,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
(1978).
65. Rimer, A. E., e_t al. , "Characterization and Impact of Stormwater Runoff
From Various Land Cover Types," Journ. Water Poll. Control Fed., 50, 252
(1978). ~
66. Roy F. Weston, Inc., Combined Sewer Overflow Abatement Alternatives,
Washington, D.C., USEPA Rep. 11024 EXF 08/70 (1970).
67. Sartor, J. D., and Boyd, G. B., Water Pollution Aspects of Street Surface
Contaminants, USEPA Rept. EPA-R2-72-081 (1972).
68. Sartor, J. D. , Boyd, G. B. , and Agardy, F. J. , "Water Pollution Aspects
of Street Surface Contaminants," Journ. Water Poll. Control Fed., 46, 458
(1974).
69. Seitz, D. W., et aj_., Alternative Policies for Controlling Non-Point
Agricultural Sources of Water Pollution, USEPA Rept. EPA-600/5-78-005
(1978).
27
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70. Shaheen, Donald G., Contributions of Urban Roadway Usage to Water
Pollution, USEPA Rept. EPA-600/2-75-004 (1975).
71. Shallock, Eldor W., and Lotspeich, Frederick B., Low Winter Dissolved
Oxygen in Some Alaskan Rivers, USEPA Rept. EPA-600/3-74-008 (1974).
72. Shumway, D. L. , et al_., "Influence of Oxygen Concentration and Water
Movement on the Growth of Steel head Trout and Coho Salmon Embryos,"
Trans. Am. Fish. Soc.. 93, 342 (1964).
73. Siefert, R. E., et al. , "Effects of Reduced Oxygen Concentration on
Northern Pike (Esox lucius) Embryos and Larvae," Journ. Fish. Res. Bd.
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74. Siefert, R. E. ,. et al_. , "Effects of Reduced Oxygen Concentration on the
Early Life Stages of Mountain Whitefish, Smallmouth Bass, and White
Bass," The Progressive Fish-Culturist. 36, 186 (1974).
75. Silver, S. J. , et aj. , "Dissolved Oxygen Requirements of Developing
Steelhead Trout and Chinook Salmon Embryos at Different Water Veloc-
ities," Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 92, 327 (1963).
76. Slack, K. V., "Effect of Tree Leaves on Water Quality in the Cacapon
River, West Virginia," U.S. Geol. Survey Prog. Paper 475-D, p. D181
(1964).
77. Slack, K. V. , and Feltz, H. R. , "Tree Leaf Control on Low Flow Water
Quality in Small Virginia Streams," Environ. Sci. and Techno!., 2, 126
(1968).
78. Smith, Robert, and Eilers, R. G., "Effects of Stormwater on Stream
Dissolved Oxygen," Journ. Environmental Engineering Div., ASCE, 104, 549
(1978).
79. Stewart, B. A., et al., Control of Water Pollution From Cropland, Vols. 1
& 2, USEPA Rept. EPA600/2-75-0026a & b (1975).
80. Stewart, N. E., et a_L , "Influence of Oxygen Concentration on the Growth
of Juvenile Largemouth Bass," Journ. Fish. Res. Bd. Can., 24, 475 (1967).
81. Sullivan, Richard H., et al_., Nationwide Evaluation of Combined Sewer
Overflows and Urban Stormwater Discharges, Vol. I: Executive Summary,
USEPA Rept. EPA600/2-77-064a (1977).
82. Swift, L. W., Jr., and Messer, J. B., "Forest Cuttings Raise Temperature
of Small Streams in the Southeastern Appalachians," Journ. Soil and Water
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83. Sylvester, M. A., and Brown, W. M., III, Relation of Urban Land Use and
Land Surface Characteristics to Quantity and Quality of Storm Runoff in
Two Basins in California, Water Supply Paper 2051, Geological Survey,
U.S. Department of Interior, USGPO, Washington, D.C. (1978).
28
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84. Tarzwell, Clarence M., "Dissolved Oxygen Requirements for Fishes," In:
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85. Thompson, G. B., et a_K , Variation of Urban Runoff Quality and Quantity
with Duration and Intensity of Storms—Phase III, Interim Rept. , Water
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86. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Methods for Identifying and Eval-
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Rept. EPA-430/9-73-014 (1973).
87. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Quality Criteria for Water, U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. (1976).
88. Vitale, A. M. , and Spey, P. M. , Total Urban Water Pollution Loads: The
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89. Wallace, D. A. and Dague, R. R. , "Modeling of Land Runoff Effects on
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90. Wanielista, Martin P., Stormwater Management: Quantity and Quality, Ann
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91. Wanielista, M. P., "Non-Point Source Effects on Water Quality," Journ.
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92. Warren, C. E., "The Influence of DO Upon the Survival, Development,
Growth, Activity, and Movement of Freshwater Fishes," Report to USPHS,
NIH Research Grant No. RG-4352 (1957).
93. Warren, C. E., et al. , "Development of Dissolved Oxygen Criteria for
Freshwater Fish," USEPA Rept. EPA-R3-73-019 (1973).
94. Weibel, S. R. , "Urban Drainage as a Factor in Eutrophication," In:
Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences, Correctives, Proc. of Symposium,
June 11-15, 1967, Madison, Wisconsin, National Academy of Sciences
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95. Weibel, S. R., "Urban Drainage as a Factor in Eutrophication," In:
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96. Weidner, R. B. , et a_L , "Rural Runoff as a Factor in Stream Pollution,"
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97. Whipple, William, Jr., "SOD Mass Balance and Water Quality Standards."
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29
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98. Whipple, William, Jr. (ed.), Urbanization and Water Quality Control.
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99. Whipple, William, Jr., and Hunter, J. V., "Non-Point Sources and Planning
for Water Pollution Control," Journ. Water Poll. Control Fed., 49, 15
(1977). ' —
100. Whipple, W., et a_L, "Unrecorded Pollution From Urban Runoff," Journ.
Water Poll. Control Fed., 46, 873 (1974).
101. Whipple, William, Jr., et aJL , Runoff Pollution From Multiple Family
Housing, Partial Completion Rept., Water Resources Research Institute,
Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey (1977).
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Growth of Brook Trout," Journ. Fish. Res. Bd. Can., 25, 579 (1968).
103. Wickett, W. P., "The Oxygen Supply to Salmon Eggs in Spawning Beds,"
Journ. Fish. Res. Bd. Can., JJ[, 933 (1954).
104. Wullschleger, R. E., et al., Methodology for the Study of Urban Storm
Generated Pollution and Control, USEPA Rept. EPA-600/2-76-145 (1976).
105. Yu, S. L , e_t aj_., "Assessing Unrecorded Organic Pollution From Agri-
cultural, Urban, and Wooded Lands," Water Research, 9, 349 (1975).
30
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APPENDIX
CONVERSION TABLE
Multiply
By
To Obtain
Ibs
acres
miles
square miles
Ibs/acre
Ibs/curb mile
Ibs/sq mile
MGD
ki1ograms
hectares
kilometers
hectares
kg/hectare
kg/hectare
kg/curb km
cubic meters per day
0.4536
0.405
1.609
259
1.12
0.2819
1.75 x 10-3
3.785 x 103
2.20
2.47
0.62
3.86 x 10-3
0.893
571
3.55
2.64 x 10-4
kilograms
hectares
kilometers
hectares
kg/hectare
kg/curb kilometer
kg/hectare
cubic meters per day
Ibs
acres
miles
square miles
Ibs/acre
Ibs/sq mile
Ibs/curb mile
MGD
31
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