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AIR POLLUTION ASPECTS
OF
PESTICIDES
Prepared for the
National Air Pollution Control Administration
Consumer Protection & Environmental Health Service
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
(Contract No. PH-22-68-25)
Compiled by Harold Finkelstein, Ph.D.
Litton Systems, Inc.
Environmental Systems Division
7300 Pearl Street
Bethesda, Maryland 20014
September 1969
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FOREWORD
As the concern for air quality grows, so does the con-
cern over the less ubiquitous but potentially harmful contami-
nants that are in our atmosphere. Thirty such pollutants have
been identified, and available information has been summarized
in a series of reports describing their sources, distribution,
effects, and control technology for their abatement.
A total of 27 reports have been prepared covering the
30 pollutants. These reports were developed under contract
for the National Air Pollution Control Administration (NAPCA) by
Litton Systems, Inc. The complete listing is as follows:
Aeroallergens (pollens) Ethylene
Aldehydes (includes acrolein Hydrochloric Acid
and formaldehyde) Hydrogen Sulfide
Ammonia Iron and Its Compounds
Arsenic and Its Compounds Manganese and Its Compounds
Asbestos Mercury and Its Compounds
Barium and Its Compounds Nickel and Its Compounds
Beryllium and Its Compounds Odorous Compounds
Biological Aerosols Organic Carcinogens
(microorganisms) Pesticides
Boron and Its Compounds Phosphorus and Its Compounds
Cadmium and Its Compounds Radioactive Substances
Chlorine Gas Selenium and Its Compounds
Chromium and Its Compounds Vanadium and Its Compounds
(includes chromic acid) Zinc and Its Compounds
These reports represent current state-of-the-art
literature reviews supplemented by discussions with selected
knowledgeable individuals both within and outside the Federal
Government. They do not however presume to be a synthesis of
available information but rather a summary without an attempt
to interpret or reconcile conflicting data. The reports are
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necessarily limited in their discussion of health effects for
some pollutants to descriptions of occupational health expo-
sures and animal laboratory studies since only a few epidemio-
logic studies were available.
Initially these reports were generally intended as
internal documents within NAPCA to provide a basis for sound
decision-making on program guidance for future research
activities and to allow ranking of future activities relating
to the development of criteria and control technology docu-
ments. However, it is apparent that these reports may also
be of significant value to many others in air pollution control,
such as State or local air pollution control officials, as a
library of information on which to base informed decisions on
pollutants to be controlled in their geographic areas. Addi-
tionally, these reports may stimulate scientific investigators
to pursue research in needed, areas. They also provide for the
interested citizen readily available information about a given
pollutant. Therefore, they are being given wide distribution
with the assumption that they will be used with full knowledge
of their value and limitations.
This series of reports was compiled and prepared by the
Litton personnel listed below:
Ralph J. Sullivan
Quade R. Stahl, Ph.D.
Norman L. Durocher
Yanis C. Athanassiadis
Sydney Miner
Harold Finkelstein, Ph.D.
Douglas A. Olsen, Ph0D.
James L. Haynes
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The NAPCA project officer for the contract was Ronald C.
Campbell, assisted by Dr. Emanuel Landau and Gerald Chapman.
Appreciation is expressed to the many individuals both
outside and within NAPCA who provided information and reviewed
draft copies of these reports. Appreciation is also expressed
to the NAPCA Office of Technical Information and Publications
for their support in providing a significant portion of the
technical literature.
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ABSTRACT
The air pollution aspects of those synthetic organic
pesticides that currently are most widely used and are poten-
tial health hazards to humans/ domestic and commercial ani-
mals, fish, and wildlife have been discussed. Of all the
pesticides, the chlorinated hydrocarbons and organophasphorous
insecticides are of the greatest concern as health hazards
because of inherent toxicity or persistence of residues.
The acute toxicity of the organophosphates, on the average,
is somewhat greater than that of the chlorinated hydrocarbons,
but the latter present a greater residue problem because of
their greater persistence. This persistence characteristic
has resulted in residue levels of DDT, in particular, in
human and animal fat tissue in all parts of the world, and
adverse health effects in some wildlife. However, there is
no medical evidence at the present time that the storage
levels found in humans can produce chronic adverse health
effects.
Toxicity studies are in progress using experimental
animals, and the results are used as guidelines for estab-
lishing tolerances for pesticide residues. Plants can be
accidentally damaged by herbicides, and some insecticides
can impart an undesirable flavor to food crops.
There have been no reports of damage to inanimate
materials from pesticides as such, but some of the solvents
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used in spraying applications could have a. damaging effect
on paint and other surfaces.
Preliminary estimates for 1967 place production of
pesticides in the United States at slightly in excess of
1 billion pounds and the manufacturers' value at approxi-
mately 900 million dollars. Agriculture is the leading user
of pesticides in this country. The primary source of
pesticides in the air is from the application process, and
a certain amount of drift is unavoidable even under ideal
conditions. Pesticides can volatilize into the air from
soil, water, and treated surfaces, and pesticides containing
dust from the soil can enter the ambient air and be trans-
ported for considerable distances before falling back to the
earth. Pesticides have been detected in the ambient air of
local areas where used, and have also been found in urban and
rural areas; as expected the rural areas usually contain the
highest concentrations.
The abatement and control measures for air contamina-
tion employed by the chemical industry in general are used
in pesticide production facilities. The control of pesticide
drift during application is being approached by improving
application equipment and methods, improving pesticide formu-
lation, and by distributing micrometeorological data more
extensively.
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Pesticides have contributed to the eradication or
reduction of a number of human diseases both in the United
States and in other parts of the world. Our present agri-
cultural efficiency is maintained only through the use of
pesticides. It is estimated that nationally about five
dollars are saved for every dollar invested in chemical
pesticide usage* The economic losses due to pesticide air
pollution have not been estimated.
Efforts to measure pesticides in the ambient air
have been handicapped in the past by the lack of methods
of sufficient sensitivity for these materials. However,
in recent years significant advances have occurred in instru-
mentation for detection and analysis of low concentrations.
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CONTENTS
FOREWORD
ABSTRACT
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. EFFECTS ...... 4
2.1 Effects on Humans 4
2.1.1 Insecticide Effects and Toxicities . 5
2.1.1.1 Chlorinated Hydrocarbons . 5
2.1.1.1.1 DDT Group , . . 6
2.1.1.1.2 Aldrin-Toxaphene
Group 7
2.1.1.1.3 Benzene Hexa-
chloride Group . 9
2.1.1.1.4 Other Chlorinated
Hydrocarbons . . 9
2.1.1.2 Organophosphates 10
2.1.2 Herbicide Effects and Toxicities . . 12
2.1.3 Fungicide Effects and Toxicities . . 12
2.1.4 Specific Effects and Case Histories. 13
2.1.4.1 Experimental Studies ... 13
2.1.4»2 Occupational Exposures . . 16
2.1.4.3 Nonoccupational Exposures . 20
2.1.4.4 Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in
Body Fat 21
2.1.4.5 Accidental Deaths 22
2.2 Effects on Animals 23
2.2.1 Commercial and Domestic Animals . . 23
2.2.2 Experimental Animals 27
2.3 Effects on Plants 34
2.4 Effect on Materials 37
2.5 Environmental Air Standards 37
3. SOURCES 38
3.1 Natural Occurrence 38
3.2 Production Sources 38
3.3 Product Sources 40
3.4 Other Sources 44
3.5 Environmental Air Concentrations 49
4. ABATEMENT 55
5. ECONOMICS 60
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CONTENTS (Continued)
6. METHODS OF ANALYSIS 63
6.1 Sampling Methods 63
6.2 Quantitative Methods 65
6.2.1 Extraction and "Cleanup" 66
6.2.2 Detection and Identification .... 67
6.2.3 Other Quantitative Methods 69
7. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 72
REFERENCES 78
APPENDIX A 90
APPENDIX B 158
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LIST OF TABLES
1. Exposure of Workers to Pesticides While Carrying
out Various Activities 90
2. Occupational Diseases Attributed to Pesticides
and other Agricultural Chemicals in California,
1953-1963 92
3. Occupational Diseases Attributed to Pesticides
and other Agricultural Chemicals in California,
1953-1963 93
4. Estimated Annual Relative Contribution of Various
Environmental Sources to the Body Burden of DDT
plus DDE 94
5. Identity of Pesticides Responsible for Accidental
Deaths in the United States in 1956 and 1961 . . 95
6. Distribution of Accidental Pesticide Deaths in
the United States in 1961 98
7. Accidental Deaths Attributed to Pesticides and
other Agricultural Chemicals in California,
1951-1963 . ....... 99
8. Effect of Method of Administration on Appearance
of DDT and its Metabolites in Milk 100
9. Acute Oral and Dermal LD5Q Values of Insecticides
for White Rats 101
10. Toxicity of Selected Pesticides 1Q4
11. Recovery of Total Aldrin/Dieldrin and Heptachlor/
Heptachlor Expoxide Residues 106
12. Threshold Limit Values for Selected Pesticides . 107
13. Ambient Air Quality Standards 109
14. Unites States Production of Selected Pesticides. HO
15. United States Sales of Synthetic Organic Pesti-
cides by Type of Use, Volume and Value, 1964-67. HI
16. United States Production of Pesticidal Chemicals,
1964-67 112
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29. Atmospheric Pesticide Levels
30. DDT and Ethion Levels in the Air Before and
After Application .....
LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
17. United States Production and Sales of Synthetic
Organic Pesticides, 1962-67 ... ....... 114
18. Locations and Number of Manufacturers of
Pesticides ..... .............. 115
19. Total Quantities of Pesticides Used by Farmers
in 48 Contiguous States of the United States,
1964 ....... .... ..... ...... 123
20. Comparison of Farm Use of Selected Pesticide
Chemicals with Production, United States, 1964 .
21. United States Acreages Treated Annually with
Insecticides (Excluding Hawaii and Alaska),
1962 ....... . ..... ......... 126
22. Quantities of Selected Types of Insecticide
Ingredients Used on Crops, by Regions in 48
Contiguous States of the United States, 1964 . . 127
23. Quantities of Selected Herbicides Used on
Crops, by Regions in 48 Contiguous States of
the United States, 1964 ............ 129
24. Quantities of Selected Fungicides Used on Crops
by Regions in 48 Contiguous States of the
United States, 1964 ... ..... ...... 131
25. Average Concentrations of Apparent Organochlorine
Insecticides Found in Rainwater Samples .... 132
26. Organochlorine Pesticide Residue Levels in London
Rainwater, 1965 ................ 133
27. Pesticide Content of Dust Sample, Cincinnati,
1965 ....... ..... ..... . . . . , 134
28. Atmospheric Concentration of Malathion, 1955
Planada, Calif., Study . . . .......... 135
31. Phenoxy Herbicides in the Air at Two Washington
Sites, 1964 . . „ . . . ............ 14°
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LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
32. Concentrations of p,p'-DDT Associated with
Suspended Particulate Matter in Pittsburgh
Air in 1964 141
33. Organochlorine Pesticides Found in London Air . 142
34. Maximum Pesticide Levels Found in Air Samples . 143
35. Horizontal Transport of Particles in Light
Winds 145
36. Horizontal Drift of Sprayed Particles 145
37. Deaths from Some Insect-Borne Diseases, United
States 146
38. Reported Cases of Selected Notifiable Diseases,
United States 146
39. Effects of Insecticide Use on Crop Yields . . . 147
40. Effects of Herbicide Use on Crop Yields .... 148
41. Effects of Fungicide Use ©n Crop Yields «... 150
42. Increasing Analytical Sensitivity (Minimum
Detectability) for Pesticides 153
43. Major Residue Analytical Instrumentation or
Techniques and their Residue Applications . . . 154
44. Chronology of Gas Chromatographic Detection
Systems Used in Pesticide Residue Evaluations . 156
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1. INTRODUCTION
Pesticides, or economic poisons, include a spectrum
of chemicals used to control or destroy pests that cause
economic losses or adverse human health effects. These
chemicals can be grouped as insecticides, herbicides (weed
and brush killers, defoliants, and desiccants), fungicides,
rodenticides, ascaricides, nematocides, molluscacides, algae-
cides, repellents, attractants, and plant growth regulators.
There are presently approximately 45,000 registered pesticide
formulations using some 900 chemicals. These are employed
in agriculture, forestry, food storage, urban sanitation,
and the home.
The pesticides are meant to be toxic to certain forms
of life—the pests which are the targets of control. How-
ever, only a small portion of the total quantity of the
pesticide used affects the target pest; the remainder enters
the environment as a contaminant and may affect other forms
of life directly or indirectly. Depending upon the target
of control, the application of a pesticide may contaminate
soil, water, air.- plants, animal life, and humans. Pesticides
in the air may settle in other parts of the environment
close to the site of application or be carried some distance
by air currents. Pesticides in the soil may remain on the
surface, be washed off by rain, be blown into the air, or
be absorbed by plants. In water, pesticides may be absorbed
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by aquatic forms of life. Pesticides on plant surfaces may
wash off into the soil or water or be ingested as a residue
by animals or humans when these plants are utilized as a
food. Pesticides applied directly to animals or humans may
be washed off into the environment or be absorbed. Thus, a
complex cycle exists for the distribution and fate of a
pesticide in the environment; the extent of distribution is
dependent upon the ease with which the specific pesticide
is degraded and the volume and method of its use.
Pesticide usage and environmental distribution is
investigated by the Federal Committee on Pest Control, which
represents the Departments of Defense; Interior; Agriculture;
and Health, Education, and Welfare. The purpose of the
Committee is to assure necessary control of pests without
hazard to the environment and its inhabitants through
coordination and review of the varied aspects of control
programs, research, and environmental monitoring for pesti-
cides.
Because of the magnitude and complexity of the sub-
ject of pesticides, it is not the intent of this report to
review all aspects of the topic. The content of this report
is limited primarily to those aspects of the subject that
are concerned with air contamination and to the synthetic
organic pesticides that are currently the most used and
that are potential health hazards to humans, domestic and
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commercial animals, fish, and wildlife because of inherent
toxicity or persistence. Other pesticides have been
included in some of the production and use tables for
comparative purposes. The arsenicals and mercurials are
discussed in companion reports of this series. The list
of pesticides tabulated for the Subcommittee on Pesticide
Monitoring of the Federal Committee on Pest Control has
been used as a guideline.
A glossary of common names and abbreviations of pesti-
cides is given in Appendix B. The reader may also find it
useful to examine Tables 9, 10, 22, 23, and 24 in Appendix A,
which group some of the more common pesticides according to
type and use.
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4
2. EFFECTS
2.1 Effects on Humans
Pesticides are intended to be especially toxic only
for certain forms of life: insecticides for insects/
herbicides for plants, fungicides for fungi, etc. In gen-
eral, however, these specific uses have proved to be more
quantitative than qualitative. At a sufficiently high dosage,
these materials can cause adverse effects in humans as well,
Pesticides can enter the body by ingestion, absorption
through the intact skin, or by inhalation; and if the dosage
is sufficiently high for each means of exposure, the effects
will be the same.
Cases of poisoning, both accidental and occupational,
have been reported for practically every known insecticide
in all countries where they are used. 4 In general, chem-
icals given at equivalent dosages are absorbed more rapidly
and more completely through the respiratory tract than
through the skin. In cases of accidental occupational
poisonings, it has usually been impossible to determine if
27
the exposure was predominantly respiratory or dermal.
Therefore, data from dermal as well as ingestion studies
have been included in the present report to describe the
effects on humans so that the relative importance of
respiratory exposure may be better evaluated.
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2.1.1 In s_e ct i c ide Ef f ect g ancl Tox i c it i e s
The chlorinated hydrocarbons and the organophosphates
are the two most important groups of synthetic organic
insecticides because of their wide use and toxicity to
humans. On the average, the acute toxicity of the organo-
phosphate compounds is somewhat greater than tiiat of the
chlorinated hydrocarbon compounds. However, the chlorinated
hydrocarbons/, because of their greater stability, may
present a greater residue problem than do the organophos-
phates.
As a groupf the chlorinated hydrocarbons are more
chemically stable in the environment than are the organo-
phosphates. They are not easily biodegradable and persist
for long periods of time. When absorbed into the body,
some of the chlorinated hydrocarbons are not metabolized
rapidly but are stored in the fat tissue. DDT, BHC, and
dieldrin have been found in the body fat of people in the
general population whose only significant exposure to these
insecticides has been through foods. -^ The consequences of
such storage are presently under extensive investigation by
many researchers. The organophosphates do not present a
great residue problem in the body since they are metabolized
much more rapidly than the chlorinated hydrocarbons.
2.1.1.1 Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
The chlorinated hydrocarbons, as a general group of
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insecticides, can be absorbed into the body through the
respiratory tract, digestive tract, or the skin or mucous
membranes. The symptoms of poisoning, regardless of the
specific chlorinated hydrocarbon involved or the method of
entry.- are similar but may vary in severity. Mild cases
are characterized by headache, dizziness, gastrointestinal
disturbances, numbness and weakness of the extremities,
apprehension, and hyperirritability. In more severe cases,
fine muscular tremors appear, spreading from the head to
the extremities. Eventually, there are jerking movements
involving whole muscle groups, finally leading to convulsions.
Death from cardiac or respiratory arrest may occur. ^
There is evidence that the severity of symptoms is related
to the concentration of the insecticide in the nervous
system, primarily the bra in.^2
The chlorinated hydrocarbons for the purpose of this
report can be subdivided into four major groups: the DDT
group, aldrin-toxaphene group, benzene hexachloride group,
and other chlorinated hydrocarbons.
2.1.1.1.1 DDT Group
The three major insecticides of this group are (1)
DDT (including its isomers and dehydrochlorination products),
(2) TDE (including its isomers and dehydrochlorination
products), and (3) methoxychlor.
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(1) DDT, the first of the synthetic organic insecti-
cides to have widespread usage, currently ranks as the most
used insecticide. Its primary importance is in Anopheles
mosquito control, control of crop insects, and as a
pediculicide applied topically as a 5 to 10 percent lotion,
emulsion, ointment, or powder. Acute poisoning may result
in tremors of the head and neck muscles, tonic and clonic
convulsions, cardiac or respiratory failure, and death.
The estimated oral fatal dose is 500 mg/kg body weight of
the solid material, with death occurring in 2 to 24 hours.
Effects of chronic poisoning may include hepatic damage,
central nervous system degradation, agranulocytosis,
dermatitis, weakness, convulsions, coma, and death.^1
(2) TDE (DDD), which is less toxic to humans than
DDT, can be slightly irritating to the skin. Acute poisoning
produces lethargy but no convulsions. The estimated fatal
oral dose is 5/g/kg body weight. Chronic poisoning leads to
atrophy of the adrenal cortex and liver damage.
(3) Methoxychlor, used to control insect pests of
crops and livestock, may be slightly irritating to the skin,
but not appreciably absorbed through it. The estimated
fatal oral doxe is 7.5 g/kg body weight. Continued ingestion
over long periods of time may cause kidney damage.
2.1.1.1.2 Aldrin-Toxaphene Group
This group of chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides
includes the following:
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(1) Aldrin, which may produce severe poisoning symp-
toms after ingestion of percutaneous absorption of 1 to 3 g,
especially if a liver disease already exists, Acute
poisoning may cause renal damage, tremors, ataxia, and con-
vulsions followed by central nervous system depression,
respiratory failure, and death. Prolonged exposure may
cause hepatic damage,
(2) Chlordane, which is moderately irritating to
the skin. Poisoning can occur by ingestion, inhalation,
or percutaneous absorption. Acute poisoning may be
characterized by irritability, convulsions, and deep
depression. Continued ingestion may cause degenerative
changes in the liver.61
(3) Dieldrin, which is readily absorbed through the
skin and has toxic effects similar to DDT. -*-
(4) Endrin, which exhibits toxic effects similar to
aldrin and dieldrin.
(5) Heptachlor. Poisoning may occur by ingestion,
inhalation, or skin contamination. Acute poisoning may be
characterized by tremors, ataxia, convulsions, renal damage,
respiratory failure, and death, the latter resulting from
ingestion of or skin contamination with 1 to 3 g. There
are some indications that chronic poisoning with small
quantities may cause hepatic damage.
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(6) Strobane, which may be mildly irritating to the
skin. Large doses may cause central nervous system stimu-
lation with tremors and convulsions.61
(7) Toxaphene, which can cause mild irritation of
and be absorbed through the skin. Central nervous system
stimulation with tremors, convulsions, and death may result.
2.1.1.1.3 Benzene Hexachloride Group
(1) BHC (benzene hexachloride) is a local irritant
which may be absorbed through the skin. Acute toxic effects
may include excitation, hyperirritability, loss of equilib-
rium, convulsions, and later depression.
(2) Lindane (gamma isomer of BHC) as a 1 percent
lotion or cream is used topically as a scabicide and
pediculicide. Poisoning may occur by ingestion, inhalation,
or percutaneous absorption* Acute poisoning may be indicated
by dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, tremors,
weakness, convulsions, dyspnea, cyanosis, and circulatory
collapse. The estimated oral fatal dose is 150 mg/kg body
weight. Topical use may cause local sensitivity reactions,
and vapors may irritate the eyes, nose, and throat. Some
evidence suggests that chronic toxicity may cause hepatic
damage.61
2.1.1.1.4 Other Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
(1) Mirex is suspected to be highly toxic although
there are no specific data on its toxicity. -*•
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(2) p-Dichlorobenzene is an irritant which may cause
headache, nausea, vomiting, weakness, cataract, and anemia
after a prolonged exposure to its vapors.<°^-
2.1.1.2 Organophosphates
The first symptoms of organophosphate poisoning are
usually loss of appetite, nausea, and headache. These are
followed by vomiting, abdominal cramps, excessive sweating
and salivation, and usually pupillary constriction. A large
dose of an organophosphate will also cause diarrhea, loss of
sphincter control, excessive bronchial secretion, and a
feeling of tightness in the chest that may be accompanied by
pulmonary edema. In severe cases, convulsions and coma
occur, and death may follow respiratory failure. In most
cases the body temperature does not rise and there are no
signs of meningeal irritation. The symptoms of organophos-
phate poisoning are rapid in onset, and death can occur
within 5 minutes to several hours following exposure. If
symptoms begin more than 12 hours after the last known
exposure to an insecticide, the illness probably is not due
to organophosphate poisoning. The first 6 hours of the
poisoning are critical; if the individual survives this
period, he will usually recover. The organophosphates are
toxic because they inhibit the enzyme acetylcholinesterase,
resulting in an accumulation of acetylcholine which causes
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11
symptoms of excessive stimulation of the parasympathetic
nervous system.40,111
The organophosphates used as insecticides are in
themselves generally poor acetylcholinesterase inhibitors.
The mechanism of their action is dependent upon their being
converted metabolically to other products that are good
inhibitors. This conversion occurs relatively rapidly in
invertebrates. This fact, combined with the poor ability
of invertebrates to detoxify these materials, makes inver-
tebrates highly susceptible to the organophosphates.
Mammals also oxidize these insecticides to acetylcholinesterase
inhibitors but at a slower rate than insects. Also, mammalian
detoxification of these compounds occurs at a higher rate,
resulting in a lower level of mammalian susceptibility to
the toxicity of organophosphates. 4'.
Some of the organic phosphorous insecticides are
described below.
(1) Parathion is highly toxic and special precautions
should be taken to prevent inhalation and skin contamination.
Acute symptoms may include anorexia, nausea, vomiting, diar-
rhea, excessive salivation, pupillary constriction, broncho-
constriction, muscle twitching, convulsions, coma, and
respiratory failure.
(2) Methyl parathion has a toxicity similar to
parathion. •*•
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12
(3) Malathion induces toxicity symptoms similar to
parathion, but is considered to be less toxic.61
(4) Disulfoton is permitted in the feed and drinking
water of animals and is used as a pesticide on food-producing
animals. Its human toxicity is not known.
(5) Guthion exhibits toxicity symptoms similar to
fin
parathion. J-
(6) Demeton is readily absorbed through the skin.
Its toxicity symptoms are similar to parathion.^
2.1.2 Herbicide Effects and Toxicities
(1) 2,4-D can cause irritation of the eyes and
gastrointestinal disturbances.
(2) 2,4,5-T has a toxicity similar to 2,4-D.61
(3) Silvex has caused liver and kidney injury and
fii
muscular disturbances in experimental animals.OJ-
(4) Atrazine has shown low toxicity in limited
77
animal experiments.
(5) Simazin has been reported as causing irritation
77
of mucous membranes.
(6) Amitrole has shown a low toxicity in limited
animal experiments.
2.1.3 Fungicide Effects and Toxicities
(1) Maneb has caused allergic dermatitis in humans.7^
(2) Ferbam may cause irritation of skin and mucous
membranes and renal damage.
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13
(3) Zineb is irritating to the skin and mucous
membranes. Animal experiments suggest a low toxicity.
2.1.4 Specific Effects and Case Histories
2.1.4.1 Experimental Studies
Studies have been performed in which human volunteers
have ingested quantities of pesticides. Hayes _et a_l_. in
1956 observed one group of 51 men divided into three approxi-
mately equal groups. The first group received no DDT except
that which occurred in their normal diet. A second group was
fed 3,500 (ag/man/day of DDT, and a third group was fed 35,000
ug/man/day of DDT. At no time during daily exposure for
up to 18 months did any of the men show any acute symptoms
indicative of DDT poisoning. The fat storage levels of DDT
reached an equilibrium in about one year. The average fat stor-
age levels of DDT in the men who received 35,000 ug/day were
340 ppm and 234 ppm for those ingesting 3,500 (jg/day.
Hunter and Robinson47 reported on a study in which
nine adult males deliberately ingested HEOD (the major com-
pound (~85%) in dieldrin) for 18 months without any observ-
able effects on their health. These men were divided into
three groups of three men each; the first group received
10 (ag of HEOD per day, the second 50 ug per day, and the
third 211 ug per day. During the experimental period, the
initial rates of increase in body storage of HEOD progres-
sively declined, and the eventual storage level was
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14
characteristic of each individual and his particular daily in-
take. In general, the levels of the first group did not dif-
fer from those of four male controls; the second group had a
fourfold increase in storage levels; and the third group
had an increase of tenfold. The concentration of HEOD in
the fat tissue of the men in all groups ranged from 0.80 to
4.94 ppm in samples taken 749 days after the beginning of
the study. It appeared to Hunter and Robinson that the
body storage levels of the men receiving 211 ng of HEOD per day
if continued through life, would become 12 times those of
the general population, although exposures were approximately
11 times greater.
00
Gamelin et a^L. conducted a survey in the Phoenix,
Ariz, area on the effect of exposure to parathion on the
general population and on asthmatics. A total of 122
volunteer subjects were placed into five approximately equal
groups in the following manner:
Group 1: Nonasthmatic, no exposure to organophos-
phorous insecticides.
Group 2: Nonasthmatic, environmental exposure to
organophosphorous insecticides.
Group 3: Asthmatic, no exposure to organophosphorous
insecticides.
Group 4: Asthmatic, environmental exposure to organo-
phosphorous insecticides.
Group 5: Nonasthmatic, occupational exposure to
insecticides, including organophosphorous
compounds.
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15
The persons in Groups 2 and 4, with environmental
exposure, lived less than 500 yards from cotton fields being
treated by aerial application of insecticides, primarily
parathion. Unexposed persons in Groups 1 and 3 lived and
worked in Phoenix and had no special contact with insecti-
cides. The occupationally exposed Group 5 was composed of
formulators, crop dusters, loaders, and mechanics. The
study was performed from June to December; July to September
was the period of heaviest insecticide application to the
cotton crop, June and October smaller, and May, November,
and December almost negligible. Throughout the study,
although the exposed groups reported the odor and mucous
membrane irritation due to the insecticides, no individual
had symptoms resembling those of organophosphorous poisoning.
In addition, there was no significant incidence of cholines-
terase depression in Groups 2 and 4 when compared with their
controls, and p-nitrophenol excretion measurements indicated
that the actual insecticide exposure of all persons other
than those in the occupational group was small. The
incidence of asthma in the exposed and unexposed groups was
similar and roughly followed the same seasonal occurrence
indicative of common causative agents such as pollens,
molds, and other aeroallergens. Although no quantitating
of the severity of the asthmatic attacks was made, the
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16
investigators concluded that if insecticides do affect
preexisting bronchial asthma, the effect is a relatively
minor one.
2.1.4.2 O c cupat iona 1 Expo sure s
39
Hartwell and Hayes investigated two formulating
plants in which poisonings among the workers by organic
phosphorous pesticides had been reported. The poisonings
and cholinesterase activity depression were due to inadequate
respiratory protection for the workers. In one plant only
a canister-type respirator was in use, and in the other the
supply of compressed air was being contaminated. Proper
modification of the air supplies resulted in return of
cholinesterase activity to normal, and no additional poison-
ings due to parathion and phosdrin occurred. In the same
report, Hartwell and Hayes mentioned illnesses in two crop-
dusting pilots who had continued to dust crops with no
respiratory protection after their supply of compressed air
had been exhausted. When they returned to work and used the
proper respiratory protection, their cholinesterase levels
returned to normal, although the environmental exposure
level remained the same.
52
Laws et al. examined 35 men with 11 to 19 years of
occupational exposure to DDT in a production plant. Findings
from medical histories, physical examinations, routine
clinical laboratory tests/ and chest X-rays did not show
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17
any ill effects that could be attributed to the DDT. It
was estimated that the average daily intake of DDT by the
20 men with the highest occupational exposure was 17,500
to 18,000 (j,g/man/day as compared to an average of 40 ug/
man/day for the general population. The fat storage levels
of the men were 38 to 647 ppm.
91
Culver ,§t Jil.. observed a worker handling malathion
while loading equipment for two weeks during which he was
being exposed to an air concentration of about 3,300 ng/m13
of parathion. It was estimated that he had inhaled about
11,000 to 21,000 jag of malathion during that time but
exhibited no ill effects.
90
Durham and Wolfe studied the occupational exposure
received by workers while applying pesticides. Some of
their calculated exposure rates are presented in Table 1,
Appendix A. The respiratory exposure represented only a
small fraction of the dermal exposure.
Davignon et al_.24 concluded from a study of a group of
apple growers that insecticides used by such an occupationally
exposed group may have some chronic effects in humans. They
found a greater incidence of leukopenia and neurologic
symptoms among this group than in the general population.
However, because of the relatively short period of total
exposure and the limited number of test subjects/ they
recommended that this occupational group be reexamined at
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18
5-year intervals until a sufficient number of apple growers
had been exposed for a long enough period of time to make
definite conclusions.
49
Jegier in studying the occupational hazard for
operators of spray equipment both indoors and outdoors and
during aerial application found no ill effects in the workers
examined.
Epileptic-type symptoms have been reported after
exposure to aldrin. ° A 23-year-old worker, who mixed
aldrin with fuller's earth in a formulating plant, developed
epileptiform convulsions after 1 week of heavy exposure.
Nine other exposed workers were examined, and two were found
to have symptoms suggestive of aldrin poisoning: involuntary
jerking of the hands and forearms, irritability, headaches,
rash, and nausea. At a later date, one of the latter two
and one other suffered convulsions and unconsciousness. In
all cases, abnormally high levels of blood and fat dieldrin*
concentrations were associated with abnormal electroencephalo-
gram activity. One subject had a fat storage level of 60
ppm, which is approximately 300 times higher than that found
in the general population. The acuteness of the symptoms
was caused by the high exposure level and the fact that aldrin
can be absorbed into the body through the intact skin and by
inhalation, as well as by ingestion.
*HEOD, the metabolized form of aldrin.
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19
Barnes described the occurrence of convulsions
caused by chlordane poisoning in an individual. The subject,
a nurseryman, had handled daily soil and plants treated with
chlordane for a period of 1 year before the first seizure
and hospitalization. His illness was not recognized as
chlordane poisoning at that time and he returned to work.
A year later, after still handling chlordane-treated soil
and plants, he required rehospitalization because of two
additional convulsive epileptic-type seizures.
A large number of parathion poisonings among peach
pickers was reported in California. The symptoms primarily
were nausea, vomiting, occipital headache, profound weakness,
and extreme malaise. It was found that these workers were
being exposed to not more than 4,000 ug/day of parathion, a
quantity which is approximately one-half that required to
precipitate an acute reaction. Apparently at these low
levels of exposure, their cholinesterase levels were being
chronically depleted, and at some critical point recurrent
mild symptoms were noted. The unusual lengthy persistence
of the parathion residues led Milby et al. to believe that
the cause of the poisonings was due to a paraoxon derived
from parathion, paraoxon having a cutaneous toxicity of
about tenfold that of parathion.
West and Milby104 summarized the occurrences of
occupational diseases attributed to pesticides and other
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20
agricultural chemicals in California (see Tables 2 and 3,
Appendix A), where approximately 20 percent of the nation's
pesticides are used and 40 percent of the nation's vegetables
are grown.
2.1.4.3 Nonoccupational Exposures
Quinby and Doornink reported nonoccupational poison-
ings from 1 percent tetraethyl pyrophosphate (TEPP) dust in
Toppenish, Wash., in August 1963. The poisonings
occurred following the aerial dusting of hop vines in which
the dust cloud drifted at least 700 feet beyond the vineyards
over adjacent pastures/ fields of corn, and other crops,
and homes. The dust hung in the air as a cloud about 3
feet above the ground and did not lift or move for almost
2 hours. The occurrence of dust clouds in the area was not
unusual, but the 2-hour period of thermal inversion of air
was rare. Of a total of 11 people in a nearby farmhouse,
five who had spent 30 minutes or more outdoors during the
2-hour period showed symptoms of shortness of breath. The
six who had remained indoors did not complain of any symptoms.
Cattle near the house showed severe symptoms and two heifers
died. In addition, 10 other persons in the vicinity of the
dust cloud complained of shortness of breath. Of the 15
persons who had complained of symptoms, all but 3 recovered
before arriving at the hospital, and these 3 recovered
within a few hours without any treatment. The flagman who
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21
worked directly under the application of the TEPP dust and
wore no respirator did not complain of any symptoms.
Quinby and Clappison72 reported a case of unusual
persistence of parathion. A 2-year-old boy had eaten mud
on which a parathion concentrate had accidentally leaked
6 months previously. The soil had been leached by water
and snow for 6 months and still remained sufficiently toxic
when ingested to cause an acute poisoning in the youngster.
West and Milby104 reported four deaths in California
due to the use of lindane in the home. Other incidents
have also been reported.
2.1.4.4 Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in Body Fat
The concentration of DDT in the fat depots of indi-
viduals in the general population has been monitored for
many years. Sufficient evidence exists that the general
world population now carries a body burden of DDT, and the
level in any given individual is dependent on his history
of exposure.78 Quinby ,et ajL. reported a mean storage
level in the body fat of 12.6 ppm of DDT and DDE (a degrada-
tion product of DDT) for the population in the United States
in 1961 to 1962. This value of 12.6 ppm was not significantly
different from that observed for the population in 1954 to
1956.
The DDT storage level in the United States is slightly
more than that in Canada or most of Europe."70 The average
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22
storage level of BHC is less in this country (0.2 ppm) than
in France (1.19 ppm), and the U.S. dieldrin storage level is
0.15 ppm as compared with 0.21 ppm in southern England,
103
West tabulated 32 reports that have appeared in the
literature prior to 1965 on DDT, dieldrin, and BHC storage
levels in human fat including the country,, the year, and
the investigators.
Regarding chronic effects and toxicity of stored
dieldrin, Heath and Vandeker45 concluded that symptoms
should not appear later than 2 months after the last expo-
sure unless fat depots are greatly decreased by illness or
starvation, and there should not be any special sensitivity
to a second dose after 6 months.
Campbell et aA. estimated the annual relative
contribution of the various environmental sources to the
human body burden of DDT and DDE. They concluded that food
sources constitute the chief source of DDT intake, and that
air only represents 0.06 percent of the total (Table 4,
Appendix A).
2.1.4.5 Accidental Deaths
Hayes and Pirkle have presented a review of the
pesticides responsible for accidental deaths in the United
States in 1956 and 1961. The number of deaths for these 2
years and the associated pesticides are shown in Table 5,
Appendix A. There were 119 deaths in 1961 possibly related
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to pesticides, and 111 were ascribed to identifiable
materials. Of the 111 cases, 57 (51 percent) were in
children under 10 years of age; at least 64 (58 percent)
were caused by compounds in use before the introduction of
DDT; not more than 17 (15 percent) were occupational; and
several cases were associated with alcoholic intoxication,
mental deficiency, improper storage of the pesticide, or
some other special circumstance. Insecticides caused 62 of
the 111 deaths; herbicides, 15; rodenticides, 25; fungicides,
2; and 7 were unspecified. The distribution of deaths
according to age and route of exposure and whether occupa-
tional is presented in Table 6, Appendix A. Five deaths
of the total were attributed to respiratory exposure.
Accidental deaths from pesticides and other agricul-
tural chemicals in California from 1951 to 1963 are listed
in Table 7 in Appendix A.
2.2 Effects on Animals
2.2.1 Commercial and Domestic Animals
Pesticides are generally introduced into the environ-
ment of commercial and domestic animals by direct treatment
of the animal for pest control and by pesticide residues in
feed. Usually, such animal exposures are carefully con-
trolled and no ill effects are noted. However, accidents
have occurred, and Street cites a personal communication
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24
from Radeleff in 1963 stating that pesticide accidents
account for 0.5 to 1.0 percent of all domestic animal losses
from disease. These acute poisoning accidents usually were
due to carelessness or misuse of the pesticides and involved
the more toxic organophosphates in addition to endrin and
dieldrin. As in humans, chronic effects have been difficult
to identify in domestic and wild mammals.90 The chlorinated
hydrocarbons generally can penetrate the skin if applied in
an oil solution or emulsion, and dieldrin can be absorbed
in the dry powder form. Except for methoxychlor, all are
18
stored in the body fat at various levels. Again as with
humans, the significance of this storage on health is not
completely understood.
The presence of DDT and other stored pesticide residues
in the secreted milk of dairy animals has been of concern
since it relates to humans and it also provides a method for
study of these residues. In addition to DDT, small amounts
of BHC, chlordane, and dieldrin are also in the secreted
milk. Only insignificant amounts of Toxaphene are present,
and practically no methoxychlor. After ingestion of as
little as 7 to 8 ppm of DDT on hay (a normal residue follow-
ing spraying), approximately 3 ppm will be secreted in cow's
milk, and butter made from such milk will contain about 65
ppm.108 Witt et al.108 in their studies found that DDT
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25
present in cow's milk in Arizona fluctuated seasonally
with a low of about 1.0 ppm in the milk fat in the late
spring and early summer and a high of 3.0 to 3.5 ppm in the
late fall and early winter. This fluctuation was correlated
with ingestion of residue in the feed at the higher dosage
levels but not at the lower levels. They also studied the
relative importance of respiratory (intratracheal) exposure
of the cows as compared with other means of exposure to
DDT. Their results (Table 8, Appendix A) showed that intra-
tracheal exposure resulted in slightly less total excretion
of DDT and its metabolites in milk than either of the two
alimentary modes of exposure.
Fowl, fish, and many lower forms of wildlife have
been extremely susceptible to low dosages of DDT and related
insecticides. DDT residues in the bodies of such animals
have been reported in all parts of the world, including
p O
penguins in the Antarctic. Birds are particularly affected
by such residues because they interfer with calcium deposition
in eggs. Thin-shelled eggs are laid thus causing a loss in
reproduction. West102 and Dustman have reviewed many of
these occurrences of the effects on wildlife.
Cattle have been poisoned by drifting dust of 1 per-
cent TEPP. Three incidences occurring in Washington in
August 1963 were observed and documented. 3 Each involved
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26
the drift of TEPP dust from a hop vineyard to adjacent areas,
and a prolonged static condition of the air resulted in an
extra high exposure of the animals. In one instance, 15
cattle showed symptons of staggering, gasping for air,
drooling, and some degree of cyanosis; two young cows died
within the second hour after onset of the symptoms. Two
geese, a cat, and chickens in the same dust cloud were not
harmed. In another incident, a heifer in an open barn
began coughing and developed symptoms of respiratory stress
within 30 minutes of initial exposure. It was given one-
fourth grain of atropine and was normal by the next morning.
In the third incident, 17 head of cattle became severely
ill after exposure to TEPP dust, with symptoms of diarrhea,
excessive urination, wobbly gait, and loss of appetite. All
recovered without special treatment.
The phenoxyacetic acid herbicide derivatives (2,4-D
and 2,4,5-T) are comparatively harmless to most animals. All
of the alleged cases of herbicidal poisoning of livestock and
wildlife have been diagnosed as due to things other than
herbicides. Inhalation of these herbicide dusts and sprays
is relatively harmless, and percutaneous absorption is
negligible. Even when administered to cows in large doses
by ingestion, 2,4-D has not been found in the secreted milk.
In cattle, a daily dose rate of 3,000 ug/kg body weight of
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27
2,4-D or 2,4,5-T can be tolerated for long periods. However,
at higher dosages of 100,000 (JgAg, pathological changes
occur if feeding is continued for over a week, and at
repeated doses of 1 gm/kg, illness and death result.
Horses/ cattle, sheep, pigs, and chickens have foraged on
pastures freshly sprayed with 2,4-D or 2,4,5-T at two to
four times the normal application with no ill effects.
Exposure of poultry to abnormally high residues of these
herbicides led to reduced egg production but did not affect
fertility or hatchability.18
The main hazard to livestock from fungicides is
likely to arise from their use as seed-dressings for the
protection of stored grain, potatoes, and other crops.
However, the newer fungicides such as dodine, zineb, and
1 o
maneb appear to present little toxic hazard.
2.2.2 Experimental Animals
Extensive studies using experimental animals have been
and are currently being performed to learn more about the
biological effects of pesticides and their toxicity, mechanism
of action, and metabolism.
Compared with the total number of such studies,
relatively few have utilized air as the means of exposing
animals to the pesticide. However, because of the distribu-
tion and potential recycling of pesticides in the total
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28
environment, the results of ingestion-exposure studies are
significant. Therefore, the following discussion will be
concerned with some of the important areas of study, regard-
less of the means of exposure, in which the findings are
relevant to air pollution aspects.
.The acute oral and dermal LDs0 values of the most
common insecticides are listed in Table 9, Appendix A.
The listed values were assembled by the Pesticides Program,
National Communicable Disease Center, Public Health Service,
92
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
Data on long-term feeding of low dosages of pesticides
to experimental animals have been tabulated by Mitchell
(Table 10, Appendix A). He has summarized some of the data
c o
collected by Lehman relating to the dietary levels of
pesticides that produced minimal or no effects after
continuous feeding for 90 days to 2 years. Approximately
the same dietary levels of chlorinated hydrocarbon insecti-
cides and the organophosphorous insecticides were required
to produce minimal or no effects. These levels are
significantly lower than levels observed with the fungicides
and herbicides which both required similar dietary levels.
Lehman5"^ in his monograph has reviewed and summarized
other information on pesticides in addition to the dietary
levels that cause no effect. He has presented extensive
data relating to mortality, body weight, organ weight, body
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29
storage levels, rate of disappearance, metabolism, repro-
duction effects, histopathology.- neoplasms, and potentiating
effects in dietary studies of specific pesticides with
experimental animals.
22
Dale et al. observed a direct correlation between
the severity of symptoms and the brain concentration of DDT
when rats were exposed to a single dose of DDT. Rats showing
severe tremors had brain concentrations ranging from 386 to
483 ppm; those with convulsions, 289 to 606 ppm; and those
with convulsions and death had DDT concentrations ranging
from 524 to 848 ppm in the brain tissue. The animals that
recovered from exposure to DDT (138 to 213 ppm) showed
decreasing concentrations of DDT in the brain within. 26 hours,
accompanied by significantly increased levels in the fat (58
to 598 ppm) within 2 hours after exposure. The concentra-
tions associated with death after one large dose were about
the same as those following many smaller doses. The
investigators' studies showed that in addition to the brain,
all parts of the nervous system were affected, but indica-
tions were that the effects on the brain were the most
important. The data indicated that, regardless of how the
DDT was administered, the probability that death would occur
was increased if concentrations of DDT in the brain exceeded
500 ppm in otherwise healthy rats or exceeded 200 ppm in
debilitated rats.
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30
Barnes and Heath9 found that the oral toxicity of
dieldrin in rats was increased when they were fed a
restrictive diet leading to a loss of weight. In addition,
rats that survived one dose of dieldrin remained much more
sensitive than normal rats given a second dose within
3 weeks. That is, two equal doses given within 3 weeks
of each other were more toxic than the same two given as a
single dose. Heath and Vandeker explained these results
as due to the low solubility of dieldrin in water, its solu-
bility in fat, and its mobilization in the body when fat is
utilized. They concluded that the toxic effects of dieldrin
were related to dieldrin mobilization, and that there was no
need to postulate that dieldrin produced a long-lasting
effect in the central nervous system.
Boyd and Chen reported on lindane administered
intragastrically to 103 young male rats fed a normal labora-
tory diet; the LDBO was found to be 157 +37 mgAg body
weight. Death occurred within 1 to 25 hours from respiratory
failure, usually following convulsions. Ninety rats whose
growth had been stunted by feeding of a low protein (casein)
diet from the time of weaning were twice as susceptible to
the toxic effects of lindane as rats fed a normal diet. In
other experiments with DDT, the LDSO for DDT was not affected
in similar protein-deficient rats. These results suggested
the possibility that lindane should be used with caution in
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31
areas where the diet of the population is deficient in
protein. Wolfe et a__L.109 observed that rats tolerated more
than one-half an LD50 dosage of parathion daily for months
if the insecticide was ingested through the day in the food.
However, a daily dietary intake of one-nineteenth of an
acute LD50 of dieldrin produced convulsions and death in
some rats within a month. A possible explanation for these
observations is that parathion, even at a high subfatal
dosage, is excreted from the body in a few days, wheras
dieldrin is stored and eliminated only very slowly,
Laboratory studies have shown that rats are mox-e
susceptible to parathion than to endrin. However, meadow
mice (Microtus) apparently are more sensitive to endrin and
are relatively insensitive to parathion. It was observed
that meadow mice populations practically disappeared when
their habitat and food supply were sprayed once with endrin,
but they were not noticeably affected when parathion was
applied even several times during the year.
Evidence has been reported that some pesticides can
undergo photochemical isomerization to yield products of
different toxicity than the parent material. In one experi-
ment,^^ dieldrin was exposed to sunlight (3 weeks to 2 months)
o
or to a 2537 A germicidal lamp (48 hours) and a photoconver-
sion product was obtained which was approximately twice as
toxic to the housefly and mosquito as dieldrin. In another
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32
study, a photoproduct of dieldrin was almost half as toxic
for flies but approximately 4.5 times as toxic for mice than
84
dieldrin.
89
Street observed that storage of dieldrin in the
adipose tissue of female rats was markedly reduced when DDT
and dieldrin were fed simultaneously. The amount of dieldrin
present in the tissues of rats fed 1 and 10 ppm of dieldrin
was reduced by the addition of 5 ppm DDT to the feed. The
addition of 50 ppm DDT to the feed caused a 15-fold reduction
in dieldrin storage in rats fed 1 ppm dieldrin and a 6-fold
reduction in rats fed 100 ppm dieldrin. In a following
91
study, female rats were fed a diet for 10 weeks containing
0. 0.5 and 50 ppm DDT; 0, 50, and 500 ppm methoxychlorr 0,
1, and 10 ppm dieldrin, as well as a combination of these
compounds at all dosage levels*, Again it was found that
dieldrin storage was markedly reduced when DDT was present in
the diet. Storage of DDT when fed at the 50 ppm level was
increased by the high dieldrin treatment. Methoxychlor
storage was not affected by the other treatments; however,
methoxychlor caused a small but significant reduction in the
dieldrin storage. The DDErDDT storage ratio in the tissue
was not influenced by either dieldrin or methoxychlor. The
DDT effect was postulated to result from enhanced dieldrin
metabolism by liver microsomial enzymes.
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33
Deichman et aJ^.25 studied the effect of aldrin and
DDT on dogs. Six adult beagles in each of four groups were
fed aldrin and/or DDT in capsule form five days a week for
10 months and then observed for an additional 12 months.
The dogs were treated as follows:
Group 1: 0.6 mg of aldrin per kg body weight
Group 2: 24 mg of DDT per kg body weight
Group 3: 0.3 mg of aldrin plus 12 mg DDT per kg body
weight
Group 4: Control
Hyperexcitability and tremors were noted in some dogs fed
aldrin (Groups 1 and 3). The concentration of dieldrin in
the fat, liver, and blood of dogs was the same strength as
in an individual tissue, whether or not the animals had been
fed aldrin and/or DDT (Groups 1 and 3). Retention of p,p'~
DDT and DDE in fat and blood was roughly 2.5 to 4 times
greater for Group 3 (aldrin plus DDT) than Group 2 which had
been fed only DDT but at twice the concentration. The con-
centrations of p,p'-DDT and DDE in the liver tissue were
similar in both Groups 2 and 3.
The possibility of two or more pesticides having an
additive toxicity effect (potentiation) has been under
investigation. Lehman^3 has referenced a number of findings
in which potentiation has been observed in experimental
animals. The potentiation effects of some pesticides have
been reported as follows:
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34
Diazinon: significant potentiation with malathion,
and to a lesser degree with parathion,
EPN, and systox in mice. No potentiation
with other organophosphorous insecticides
in dogs.
Carbaryl: no potentiation with other organophos-
phorous insecticides in rats.
Co-Ral: potentiation with piperonyl butoxide and
malathion.
Guthion: no potentiation has been observed.
Delvon: some degree of potentiation with malathion
in rats.
EPN: 10-fold increase in toxicity with mala-
thion in rats/ and a 50-fold increase
with malathion in dogs.
Ethion: approximately a 3-fold increase with
malathion in rats, and slight increase in
dogs.
Ronnel: mild potentiation with malathion in rats.
One of the long-term effects of exposure to certain
chemicals is the production of tumors, some of which are
cancerous. The following pesticides have been listed by
West1 as suspected carcinogens: Aminotriazole, aramite,
arsenic dithiocarbomates, DDT, aldrin, heptachor, dieldrin,
endrin, 8-hydroxyquinoline, ethylene oxide, propylene oxide,
and piperonyl compounds. However, the carcinogenic effects
of pesticides have been observed in animals at relatively
high concentrations and no carcinogenic effects have been
observed at the concentrations found in ambient air.
2.3 Effects on Plants
Many of the insecticides and fungicides have been
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35
developed for use against pests on or near plant life.
Therefore, these materials generally have no adverse effect-
on plant growth. Herbicides, however, have been developed
specifically to prevent the growth of plants. They can be
classed into two categories, selective (affecting only
certain types of plants) and nonselective (affecting all
types of plants). However, there are only quantitative
differences for many herbicides in the two categories; many
selective herbicides, when used in higher dosages, become
nonselective. The problems associated with the drift in
the air of herbicides are discussed in Sections 3.3 and 4.
Many of the insecticides, although they do not
affect the plant per _sei, have affected plant taste and flavor
when used for food. Also, translocation of insecticides
into the plant from the soil and the plant surface has been
observed and studied.
1 ?
Birdsall et al. found undesirable flavor effects
in some foods, especially after heat processing, resulting
from treating the soil with insecticides. Undesirable
flavors in food have been associated with specific insecti-
cides as follows:
Aldrin: canned sauerkraut, cooked rutabagas
Endrin: canned beets, sauerkraut, squash,
pumpkin, cooked rutabagas
Chlordane : canned potatoes, canned pumpkin
Heptachlor: canned sauerkraut, canned pumpkin
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36
3 7
Hard and Ross noted flavor changes in raw apples
previously treated with methoxychlor, chlorbenzilate, and
guthion; in canned apple juice from apples which had been
treated with demeton; and in canned peaches from fruit
treated with chlorbenzilate. Flavor changes, although not
objectionable, were found in strawberries treated with
kelthane, endrin, diazinon, heptachlor, chlordane, or
aldrin; and in raspberries treated with heptachlor, chlordane,
or aldrin.
Mahoney has reviewed this subject and presents
many such examples of flavor changes. Lindane and BHC have
imparted undesirable flavors to many foods: potatoes,
sweet corn, carrots, green beans, turnips, onions, and
squash. Problems have also arisen as a result of crop
rotation; instances have occurred in which processed sweet
corn had to be destroyed after being grown in fields which
contained alfalfa the year before and had been treated with
0.5 Ib of lindane per acre.
Lichtenstein54 observed translocation of DDT,
lindane, and aldrin into crops such as carrots, beets,
cucumbers, potatoes, radishes, and rutabage. In another
study,^7 carrots were grown in soils treated with abnormally
high levels (5 Ib/acre) of aldrin and heptachlor. Concen-
trations of insecticidal residues in the carrots varied
from 22 to 80 percent of the concentrations in the soilo
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37
The vertical distribution of the insecticidal residue within
the carrot tissue corresponded to the distribution within
the soil layers and most of the residue in the carrot (14
percent) was found in the outer thin layer of the peel.
In another series of growth studies several different crops
were grown in soils heavily treated with 5 and 25 Ib/acre
of heptachlor and of aldrin.55 The insecticidal residues
found in the crops are given in Table 11, Appendix A. It
was concluded that under the normal low levels of treatment,
none or only traces of insecticides in these crops would
have been found. Additional data on this topic can be found
in the review by Lichtenstein.
2.4 Effect on Materials
There have been no reports of damage to inanimate
materials from the pesticides per _se_, but some of the
solvents used in spray application could have a damaging
effect on paint and other surfaces.
2.5 Environmental Air Standards
The American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists at their 29th Annual Meeting in 1967 set the
threshold limit values for a number of chemicals used as
pesticides. ' These occupational values for an 8-hour
workday are listed in Table 12, Appendix A. Foreign
on
standards for some pesticides have been listed by Stern
and are listed in Table 13, Appendix A.
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38
3. SOURCES
3.1 Natural Occurrence
Pesticides do not occur naturally in the atmospheric
environment.
3.2 Production Sources
Following the introduction of DDT in 1945 there was
a rapid increase in the production of synthetic organic
pesticides. DDT production increased to 164 million pounds
in 15 years. BHC production reached about 77 million pounds
in 1950, which was about equal to the production of DDT
that year. However, by 1963 the production of DDT had
increased to about 179 million pounds and BHC production
declined to 6.7 million pounds. Other organic pesticides,
such as the herbicide 2,4-D, have increased in production
continuously since they were first used as pesticides
(Table 14, Appendix A). As a result of the increased
production of organic pesticides, the production of
arsenicals and other inorganic pesticides declined. Lead
and calcium arsenate production totaled approximately 100
million pounds in 1939, whereas only about 8 million pounds
are currently used (Table 14, Appendix A). In addition,
there has been a considerable decline in the use of botan-
ically derived materials, such as rotenone and pyrethrum.
The use of the once popular nicotine sulfate has declined
44
sharply-
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39
The sales of synthetic organic pesticides by type
of use, volume, and value in the United States for 1964 to
1967 are presented in Table 15, Appendix A, and the produc-
tion volume of major pesticides in Table 16, Appendix A.
The total production and sales of synthetic organic
pesticides in the United States for the years 1962 to 1967
are shown in Table 17, Appendix A. The preliminary estimate
for 1967 places production at slightly in excess of 1
billion pounds and the manufacturers' value at approximately
900 million dollars.69 Total Unites States sales of
pesticides in 1966, including inorganic as well as organic,
amounted to over 1.25 billion pounds having a manufacturers'
value of around 800 million dollars. The annual growth
rate in total sales value for the 1962 to 1967 period has
averaged about 15 percent. This growth has been due in
part to increased costs of production, but primarily to
increased production volume and usage.
The manufacture, formulation, and packaging of
pesticides present possible air pollution hazards. The
pesticides are generally manufactured in closed systems of
a continuous-process nature. The process systems are
normally maintained at a slightly negative pressure to
avoid leakage.76 No data were found on the emission rates
95
of pesticides from production plants. Tabor sampled the
air in a community (Fort Valley, Ga.) in Wiich a formulating
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40
plant was operating. He noted that DDT concentrations in
ambient air ranged up to 0.007 |~ig/m3 during the spraying
season (May-June) and 0.004 i-ig/m3 when spraying season was
over (September). He concluded that most of the DDT found
in the air during September came from the formulating plant.
Production plant sites for pesticides are presented
in Table 18, Appendix A.
3.3 Product Sources
The increased value of shipments during the last
10-year period represents primarily increased usage rather
than merely increased costs. Table 19, Appendix A, presents
the latest available survey (1964) for the overall farm
usage of pesticides in the United States. Agricultural
usage accounted for about 457.5 million pounds of pesticides
(active ingredient basis), valued at about 500 million
dollars. Of the total used, the fungicides, insecticides,
and herbicides constituted approximately 90 percent of all
pesticides. The comparison of the farm use of selected
pesticide chemicals with the production for 1964 is shown
in Table 20, Appendix A. Approximately 42 percent of the
total production was used by farmers; the remainder was
used for export and domestic nonagricultural purposes.
Data showing the acreages in various land-use categories
annually treated with insecticides are shown in Table 21,
Appendix A. Approximately 5 percent of the land area of
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41
the United States (the 48 contiguous States) was treated
with insecticides in 1962. Cropland and cropland pasture
constituted more than 75 percent of the treated area, with
cereal crops accounting for nearly 50 percent of the treated
area in this category-44
The quantities of selected types of insecticide,
herbicide, and fungicide ingredients used on crops in 1964
by geographical regions are presented in Tables 22, 23, and
24, respectively, in Appendix A. Crop insecticides were
most heavily used in the Southern regions of the country.
The three leading areas were the Southeast (35 million
pounds), the Delta (27 million pounds), and the Southern
Plains (20 million pounds). Herbicide use was heaviest
in the corn belt, which used approximately 25 percent of the
total applied to crops. Other areas with large usage were
the Northern Plains, Lake States, and Mountain regions.
The two regions which used the greatest amount of fungicides
were the Southeast with 44 percent of the total, and the
Pacific region with 26 percent of the total usage.71
The primary source of pesticide contamination of the
environment is the process of application. Since much of
this application is by spraying or dusting, some part of the
quantity dispensed can remain in the atmosphere and be diluted
and dispersed. However, under certain metorological con-
ditions, dilution to an ineffectual concentration may not
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42
occur, and the chemical can drift in the air mass and cause
adverse effects to nontarget forms of life some distance
from the original application site.
Pesticidal sprays and dusts usually drift over
relatively short distances. However, drift to streams and
ponds or to land areas not intended to be treated has been
common, particularly when application is by airplane.
Moreover, drift from application with ground equipment also
has occurred. The reported presence of low levels of
pesticides in fish and wildlife has been suggested as
evidence of the persistance and the distribution of pesti-
. .. . 101
cides in the air.
Many of the serious drift problems have occurred
when chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides were applied under
proper conditions to fields or orchards adjacent to fields
containing cattle forage but nevertheless drifted into the
forage.101
Damage to cotton, cereal grain, tomatoes, and other
broad-leaf plants has been caused by phenoxyherbicides
such as 2,4-D as far as 15 miles from the site of application.
The physical state of the pesticide (spray or dust), particle
size, extent of the area being treated, as well as volatility
of the herbicide should be considered when phenoxyherbicides
are used. Highly volatile phenoxy-ester herbicides have
been known to adversely affect sensitive crops some distance
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43
away from a treated area for a period of several weeks.101
Akesson and Yates6 reviewed the pesticide drift
literature and found that at least three factors affect a
given application: (1) distribution equipment and method
used, (2) the physical form (and formulation in cases of
sprays), and (3) the microclimatology in the area. Gen-
erally, application by airplane tends to result in more
drift than by ground equipment because, regardless of other
factors, more control is possible with ground than with
aerial equipment. Dusts have a greater tendency to drift
than do sprays, to the extent that the Federal Government
has banned the use of 2,4-D dusts. Akesson and Yates
reported that a pesticide dust composed of particles 10 p.
in diameter released about 10 feet above ground in a 3 mph
wind drifted about 1 mile, and those with 2 |a particles
drifted 21 miles, but a 50 n droplet in a spray of the same
pesticide drifted not more than 200 feet. The microclima-
tology is important in determining the movement and disper-
sion of the drift. Although drift of pesticides can be
minimized by careful application in agricultural use, it was
their belief that a certain amount of drift was unavoidable.
The potential of nonoccupational human acute poison-
ing resulting from the drift of pesticides should always be
considered even though very few incidents of such poisonings
have been reported. The TEPP poisoning episodes which
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44
occurred in Washington in 1963 have been discussed earlier
(Section 2.1.4.3). Quinby and Doornink73 in their discus-
sion of these occurrences, emphasized that the same dusting
procedures had been used for the previous 16 years in that
area of the country; an infrequent combination of several
factors had occurred, trapping the dust cloud in the air
for periods long enough for people in the area of drift to
breathe sufficient TEPP to cause shortness of breath. These
factors were (1) thermal inversion and a static air condition
for longer than an hour over a large area (2) topography of
the land, causing interference with even a slow movement of
the dust cloud and (3) tall growing crops with dense foliage,
also interfering with air movement.
3.4 Other Sources
In addition to the production and large-scale
agricultural uses of pesticides, there are other sources
of pesticide air contamination. Pesticides are released
into the atmosphere during application in public areas,
buildings, and homes. Pesticides may be inhaled in dusts
from treated soils, from house dust contaminated by applica-
tions for household pests, or from moth-proofed rugs,
blankets, and clothes.100 However, it is difficult at
present to estimate the degree of importance to be placed
on any of these sources as contributors to the concentration
of pesticides in the ambient air* either locally or over a
wide area.
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45
For example, little is known about the concentra-
tions that exist in the home and garden environment. The
increased availability of pesticides for the home has led to
increased usage each year. In 1963, the annual sales of aerosol
pesticide canisters was reported to be one per household.
Although several fatalities resulting from inhalation of
volatile pesticides in the home have been reported, nothing
is known of the incidence of mild illnesses caused by home
use of pesticides.104
Wolfe et al. observed that in the orchard and
row-crop areas of the Pacific Northwest, many users destroyed
burnable containers after the pesticide has been removed,
The residual parathion in 12 paper bags that had each con-
tained 4 pounds of powder was found to range between 0.25
and 1.20 g, with a mean of 0.60 g of the pesticide. Air
samples were taken in the smoke from such burning bags and
were found to contain 4,400 to 12,100 [J,g/m3 of parathion,
with a mean of 7,900 p.g/m3 .
op
Harris and Lichtenstein found in both laboratory
and field studies that vapors toxic to vinegar flies and to
houseflies were given off by soils treated with aldrin;
heptachlor phorate; lindane; heptachlor epoxide; and dieldrin.
They found no evidence that volatilization occurred with
DDT, Sevin, and parathion. The volatilization rate of aldrin
increased with increases in insecticide concentration in the
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46
soil, soil moisture, relative humidity of air passing over
the soil, soil temperature, and rate of air movement over
the soil. They concluded that volatilization of insecticidal
residues from soil was a major factor in their disappearance.
2
Abbott and co-workers presented the possibility that
the air-soil contact might result in pesticides from the air
being absorbed by the soil acting as a gas-solid chromato-
graphic column, as well as by direct surface adsorption
mechanisms. In addition, assuming a tendency to equili-
brate, treated soils would lose pesticides and untreated
soils would gain them.
Additional studies revealed that cover crops such
as alfalfa increased the persistence of volatile pesticides
in the soil. In insecticide-treated soils, two or three
times more insecticidal residues were recovered from alfalfa-
covered plots than from fallow ones.
46
Hindin _et al. , in studying the distribution of
insecticides applied once to an irrigated plot, observed
that DDT and ethion were not found in the air in detectable
amounts prior to the application but were found in measurable
quantities for as long as 2 weeks after application.
Acree _et a^l.3 reported that codist illation of DDT
and water can occur, and that approximately 50 percent DDT
can be lost from a water solution in 24 hours by this means.
Bowman et al. concluded from their studies that volatili-
zation from soil surfaces may be an important pathway for
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47
loss of dieldrin and some other persistent organochlorine
insecticides (p/p'-DDT, endosulfan, heptachlor, and lindane)
These data also indicate this loss by codistillation might
be diminished by organic matter in the soil. Spencer and
Cliath found in their studies that the vapor density
associated with solid-phase dieldrin (HEOD) and dieldrin
soil mixtures as measured by the gas saturation technique
was 3 to 12 times greater than predicted from published
vapor pressure values. Their measured vapor densities were
54 (20° C), 202 (30° C), and 676 (40° C) ng of HEOD per
liter, the values being the same for dry HEOD as for HEOD
plus water. The vapor density of HEOD in soil at 100 ppm
was the same as that of HEOD alone, but at 10 ppm the
vapor density in soil was reduced approximately 80 percent.
The data indicated to Spencer and Cliath that the codistil-
lation phenomenon does not result from an increased vapor
density in the presence of evaporating water, and that loss
of water is not required to attain maximum vapor density of
HEOD, either in soil or above HEOD-water mixtures.
Wheatley and Hardman107 observed increases in
dieldrin residue levels in a plot of soil untreated with
insecticide. They considered the possibility that rainfall
could wash out quantities of dieldrin when present in the
ambient air and account for the increase. Monthly samples
of rainwater were collected in an area of central England
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and analyzed for the presence of insecticides. The findings
are presented in Table 25, Appendix A. Although the inves-
tigators detected small quantities of gamma-BHC, dieldrin,
and p,p'-DDT in the rainwater, their conclusion was that
these concentrations were insufficient to account for more
than a small proportion of the pesticides present in the
soil. However, the presence of organochlorine insecticides
in the atmosphere and in rain would aid their dispersion in
the environment and might partially explain the occurrence
of residues in unexpected places.
The presence of organochlorine pesticide residues
2
in rainwater was also observed by Abbott et al. They
collected monthly rainwater samples on roofs of two buildings
approximately 1.45 km apart in central London. The quanti-
ties of organochlorine insecticides detected, based on
detection limits of 5 parts per million-million for BHC and
10 parts per million-million for the other organochlorine
insecticides, are presented in Table 26, Appendix A. These
results suggested to them that the atmosphere carries,
either as vapor or by occlusion on dust particles, small
amounts of the organochlorine pesticides in common use in
Great Britain, and that they are scrubbed out by rain and
snow.
Evidence that pesticide-containing dust originating
from soil can enter the ambient air, can be transported by
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49
air over long distances, and then can be precipitated to
earth by rainfall, has been obtained by Cohen and Pinkerton.19
They examined a sample of dust that had been deposited in
the Cincinnati, Ohio, area on January 26, 1965, and that had
as its origin a hugh dust storm in the Southern high plains
of New Mexico and Texas. The movement of the dust-bear ing
air mass had been followed by meteorologists as it spread
east and northeastward and passed over Cincinnati. A sample
of the dust collected in Cincinnati was shown to contain
seven identifiable pesticides: DDT and chlordane as the
major pesticide components; lesser amounts of DDE and ronnel;
and minor amounts of heptachlor epoxide, 2,4,5-T, and
dieldrin (Table 27, Appendix A).
Storage and handling of pesticides presents a possible
air pollution problem. Pesticides are usually stored in
bags; glass, plastic, or metal bottles; or cans or drums.
Contamination of the air may occur during handling, storage,
or transit from breakage, leakage, or spillage.
3.5 Environmental Air Concentrations
The role of air in the distribution of pesticides in
the total environment has been of concern to many investiga-
tors. This interest has been stimulated by the need for
information pertaining to the concentrations in ambient air
of local, urban, and rural areas in which pesticides have
been used in large quantities, as well as on the transport
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50
of pesticides for long distances remote from the site of
actual application.
Batchelor and Walker11 in 1954 obtained 94 air
samples from various locations in an orchard where aerial
parathion application operations were being carried on.
The concentrations ranged from 0 to 100 [ag/m3 in the orchard,
0-20 p.g/m in the residential vicinities near the treated
orchard, and trace amounts in residential vicinities far
from the orchard. The highest concentrations were observed
in the area of loading and mixing and ranged from a trace to
5,530 |J.g/m3 . The dermal exposure under these conditions
appeared to Batchelor and Walker to be considerably greater
than the exposure by inhalation. Similar concentrations of
parathion (ranging from 40 to 290 ng/m3 , with a mean of 130
iag/m3 ) were found in a California orchard. Middleton J has
cited early reports of as much as 360 !~ig/m3 of parathion in
a Florida orchard (1951) and 20 to 150 |jg/m3 in Canadian
orchards (1952). Culver _et .al. reported an air concen-
tration level of about 3,300 Mg/m3 near a worker handling
malathion loading equipment. In the same report they
observed an average concentration of 600 \J-g/m of malathion
and 470 (J.g/m3 of chlorthion in a storage warehouse. Milby
jet ja_l. ,65 in studying an outbreak of parathion poisoning
among peach pickers, found that the ambient air samples at
the breathing zone of the workers had a parathion concentra-
tion of 35 |J.g/m3 .
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51
Caplan et al. obtained air samples in a small
community of Planada, Calif, in 1955 while the entire area
was being sprayed by airplane with malathion for mosquito
control. The rate of application was 0.46 pounds per acre,
and the spray particles had a mass-median diameter of 109
M.. Indications were that the air sampling measured only 12
percent of the insecticide, because the drop size was too
large to be trapped by the sampler; however, the 12 percent
probably represented the respiratory exposure. It was
calculated that a man working in the open received a total
respiratory exposure of 109.2 |_tg, or about five times
greater than that of a man working in a building (23.5 |_ig) •
The outdoor skin exposure was 3,556 jag, or about four times
the indoor exposure of 984 |j.g. The ambient air concentra-
tions obtained during spraying are shown in Table 28,
Appendix A.
Tabor, in a series of studies in 1963 and 1964,
found pesticides in the air of communities adjacent to
agricultural areas where large quantities of pesticides are
used on crops. The sampling was performed in the center of
the community, and areas of spray application were generally
at least a mile from the sampler. The samples were collected
on glass fiber filters, and only particulate pesticide
quantities could be determined. Therefore, the data
represented minimum concentrations, and Tabor had no basis
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52
for estimating maximum values. His results are given in
Table 29, Appendix A. He also sampled the air of four
urban communities during insect control programs. Samp-
ling was done within one-half mile of the fogging applica-
tion. The results obtained are given in Table 29, Appendix A,
A calculated possible respiratory intake of DDT was made for
five of the communities.
Hindin et al. studied the distribution of insecti-
cides after one aerial application to an irrigated plot.
They observed that no detectable levels of DDT or ethion
were present in the air prior to application but were detected
in samplings for as long as two weeks (Table 30, Appendix A)
after application.
Bamesberger and Adams8 collected air samples near
Pulman and Kennewick Highlands, Wash, between April 16 and
August 6, 1964, and examined them for aerosol and gaseous
2,4-D and 2,4,5-T herbicides. They collected 24-hour samples
of air impinged on air impaction discs rotating through a
n-decane collection fluid to retain the droplets of impacted
aerosols. The gaseous fraction was collected in a modified
midget impinger containing a two-phase n-decane and 3 percent
aqueous sodium bicarbonate solution. Their data are presented
in Table 31, Appendix A.
Detectable concentrations of particulate DDT were
observed by Antommaria et aJL. in the air in Pittsburgh.
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53
Their sampling procedure divided the dust particulates into
two size categories: The larger size dust (nonrespirable)
that is trapped in the nasopharyngeal area, and the smaller
particles (respirable) that deposit in the lower respiratory
tract. These results are given in Table 32, Appendix A.
Abbott et al.2 sampled the air in London and its
suburbs. Although the quantities of organochlorine
insecticide residues detected were small (Table 33, Appendix
A), their presence in air might be important.
The most recent and extensive program of monitoring
the ambient air for concentrations of pesticides has been
performed by the Midwest Research Institute (MRI) in 1967
to 1968 for the United States Food and Drug Administration.64
Air monitoring stations were set up in nine localities in
various sections of the United States: Baltimore, Md.
(urban); Buffalo, N.Y. (rural); Iowa City, Iowa (rural);
Salt Lake City, Utah (urban); Fresno, Calif, (urban);
Riverside, Calif, (urban); Stoneville, Miss, (rural); Dothan,
Ala. (rural); and Orlando, Fla. (rural). Air samples were
obtained at each locality for 2 weeks out of each 4 weeks
during the sampling period for a total of 6 months of
sampling. The sampling units were designed to trap both
particulate and gaseous pesticides in the air.
A summary of the MRI findings is shown in Table 34,
Appendix A. The only pesticides that were found at all
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54
localities were p,p'-DDT and o,p'-DDT. Heptachlor epoxide,
chlordane, DDD, and 2,4-D esters were not found in any
samples; aldrin and 2,4-D were found in one sample each.
Organophosphate pesticides were found only in samples from
Dothan, Orlando, and Stoneville, methyl parathion at each
of the three areas, parathion and malathion only at Orlando,
and DEF (a cotton defoliant) only at Stoneville. Pesticide
levels ranged from the lower limit of detection of 0.0001
|ag/m3 to a high of 2.52 ]jg/m3 . The pesticide levels that
were found varied according to locality and season and
generally were lower in urban areas than in agricultural
areas. The highest levels were found in the rural areas of
the South: Dothan, Orlando, Stoneville; relatively low
levels were found in the other rural areas near Buffalo and
Iowa City. The appreciable levels found in the urban area
of Salt Lake City could be attributed to the mosquito
control activity there; the levels were quite low in the
other urban areas of Baltimore, Fresno, and Riverside.
Higher levels had been anticipated in Fresno and Riverside,
since both cities are surrounded by major agricultural
activities, but the sampling may have been conducted too
far from the spraying operations for higher concentrations
of pesticides to be present in the air.
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55
4. ABATEMENT
The abatement of pesticidal contamination of the
ambient air is a complex problem but it is being attempted.
It appears that the contamination arising from the produc-
tion processes can be controlled. Although incidences of
occupational poisonings have been reported (see Section
2.1.4.2), proper protective measures are available. Pre-
cautions similar to those used in general chemical industries
are taken to prevent the dusts and fumes from leaving the
production plant into the outside environment. Bag packers,
barrel fillers, blenders, mixing tanks, and grinding opera-
tions are generally completely enclosed or hooded and the
air is vented through baghouses or cyclone separators.
Similar control procedures are used when liquids are in-
volved; liquid scrubbers are used however, instead of
baghouses.^'^3 Although Tabor9^ has monitored the air near
a formulating plant and found air levels similar to that
observed in earlier agricultural samplings in the same area,
too little air monitoring data are available at the present
time to properly evaluate the production air control
measures.
The control of chemical drift as a source of pesticide
air contamination has been studied extensively- Akesson and
Yates6 have reviewed the literature, including their own
research on drift control. They considered that three
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56
factors affect the control of a given application: (1) the
distribution equipment, (2) the physical state of the pesti-
cide, and (3) the microclimatelogy of the area. Although
the emphasis has been placed on control of aerial applica-
tions, applications made with ground equipment can also
result in drift. However, greater operator control is
possible with a ground unit, since it generally has a lower
discharge rate than aerial equipment.
The physical state of the pesticide is quite important
in drift. The drift potential from pesticide dust is very
high because of particle size. Dust materials are generally
screened to incorporate only particles ranging from 1 to 25
jj. in size; on the average, 80 to 90 percent of the particles
in the formulation are under 25 \j,. Spray droplets of 50 u
in size show less drift than dusts of smaller particle size
(see Section 3.3). Therefore, the use of dusts has been
decreasing in recent years, and the Federal Government has
banned the use of 2,4-D dust.
MacCollom,59 in a study of a Vermont apple orchard
where Tedion dusting for apple insect control had been the
standard practice for the previous 10 years, found that
drift could be a problem even under ideal weather conditions.
He noted that under conditions of a windspeed of 1.3 mph,
a temperature of 81°F, and relative humidity of 40 percent,
drift occurred up to 300 feet. He suggested that a buffer
zone of at least 300 feet be used in future applications
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57
where forage area;? are adjacent to the sprayed area.
Van Middelem101 cited the work of Yoe, who found
that spray droplets ranging from 10 to 50
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58
water phase. In contrast to conventional oil-in-water
emulsions, preparations containing a high water content are
quite viscous. When using the invert emulsions, sprays
consisting of large droplets can be delivered aerially,
minimizing both drift and evaporation. Trials indicated
that smaller quantities of pesticide could be used in the
invert emulsion with equivalent results in terms of insect
kill or herbicidal efficiency. At the same time, the
accuracy of delivery was improved so that the invert emul-
sions could be applied under more adverse meteorological
conditions than conventional sprays.
Various spray nozzles have been designed and used
with varied pesticide formulations having different visco-
sity, density, and surface tension in attempts to control
drift during application. Additional factors such as the
angle of the nozzle with airstream or the use of screens
or discs at the nozzle also contribute to the characteristic
of the spray. These factors are discussed in detail by
Akesson and Yates.
Meteorological conditions are extremely important
parameters that are considered in the application of pesti-
cides and the control of potential drifts. Wind direction
and velocity, humidity and temperature at ground and higher
levels, and the amount of sunshine or rain are all inter-
related factors that are considered. Because of the
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59
importance of such meteorological information, the U.S.
Weather Bureau provides this specialized data as part of
their service. Dusting and spraying advisories are sent
out on a teletypewriter circuit 24 hours a day emphasizing
local weather conditions for aerial and ground applications
for various agricultural chemicals. In addition, these
advisories include information relating certain insect and
other pest activities with weather conditions, so that
pesticides can be applied at the proper time to produce
maximum pest control.81
Volatilization of pesticides into the air from soil,
water, plants, and other treated surfaces is known to occur.
However, the control of this is complicated by the fact that
the extent to which volatilization occurs is not known.
Some control over volatilization from soil can be effected
by the use of cover crops. It has been observed that two
to three times more insecticidal residues were recovered
from alfalfa-covered plots than from fallow ones.
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5. ECONOMICS
The economic and social benefits gained by the use
of pesticides are great, as noted in a number of discussions.
The President's Science Advisory Committee100 reported, that
modern agricultural efficiency is maintained only through
the use of pesticides. It has been estimated that without
the use of pesticides, 50 percent of the agricultural and
forestry crops of California would be destroyed, and that
the present loss in spite of pesticides is 21 percent. 5 In
the United States, agricultural losses from insect damage
have been estimated at approximately 3.5 billion dollars,
losses from plant diseases at 2.9 billion dollars, and losses
from weeds at 3.7 billion dollars; the annual total world-
wide damage by pests to agriculture has been estimated to be
fi *?
about 80 billion dollars. In addition, pesticides have
contributed to the eradication or reduction of a number of
human diseases such as malaria, typhus, and yellow fever in
less developed countries of the world. 4'100 However, the
estimate for worldwide malaria is still placed at about 200
million cases and 2.5 million deaths a year. 2
Insect-borne diseases have been highly prevalent in
the past in the United States. However, largely because of
the introduction of DDT and other synthetic organic insecti-
cides, the number of deaths (Table 37, Appendix A) and number
of reported cases (Table 38, Appendix A) for some of these
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61
diseases have declined considerably. Malaria at one time had
a severe economic impact on the Southern States in the United
States, but today it is almost nonexistent.44
The economic benefits derived from the use of pesti-
cides by agriculture in the United States have been quite
significant. These benefits have been not only in increased
yields of production, but also in increased quality of the
product. In many cases, the improvement in quality has been
such that a high percentage of the crop would not have been
otherwise marketable. In California, for example, in crops
not treated with insecticides the percent of wormy fruit in
1956 was 21 to 23 percent, but it was only 0.5 percent
44
following the use of guthion. Some examples of increased
crop yields from use of insecticides, herbicides, and fungi-
cides are presented in Tables 39, 40, and 41 in Appendix A.
Although the value may vary for different crops and regions
of the country, it has been estimated that nationally about
five dollars are saved for every dollar invested in chemical
pesticide usage. The pesticide cost includes research,
*7 c
development, and price of the material. Data on the pro-
duction, sales, and usage of pesticides are presented in
Section 3.
No tabulated data on costs of damage due to air
pollution from pesticides have been found in the literature.
However, episodes of death or harm to livestock and damage to
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62
crops caused by pesticide drift resulting from agricultural
treatment have been reported (see Section 3-3). Akesson and
Yates have reported that many lawsuits have arisen from such
episodes and that liability insurance has been made available
to operators of pesticide equipment,
The costs of pesticide damage to wildlife resulting
from air pollution is impossible to estimate. The direct
effects of such pollution on wildlife, if compared with
those on livestock, are probably small. However, the indirect
effects on the entire ecosystem resulting from the presence
of pesticides in the air might be greater. However, at the
present time, insufficient information exists regarding the
translocation of pesticides in the ecosystem to make any
valid cost estimates or conclusions.
The economic costs of pesticide contamination of the
air with respect to human health have not been estimated.
While there have been reported episodes of death or illnesses
resulting from respiratory exposure to pesticides, it is not
known how many unreported illnesses may occur. The percentage
of the body burden of DDT resulting directly from respiratory
exposure probably is low (Campbell e_t_ al_» have estimated it
to be about 0.06 percent) but the percentage that is indirectly
due to overall environmental pesticide pollution is not known.
Furthermore, outside of those costs estimated for
agricultural damage, there appears to be no cost figures
available for controlling air pollution by pesticides from
manufacturing or formulating plants.
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6. METHODS OF ANALYSIS
The analytical procedures for the determination of
pesticides in the environment generally involve four steps:
(1) a sampling method that collects a sufficient quantity of
the material to permit analysis, (2) an extraction procedure
to remove the specific pesticide(s) from the bulk of nonpesti-
cide environmental material, (3) separation or "cleanup" to
remove nonpesticidal interfering materials carried along during
the extraction, and (4) detection and identification. The
analysis of pesticides has been handicapped by the low concen-
trations present in the ambient air, which in the past have
made the completion of the above four steps difficult* Only
in recent years has instrumentation become sufficiently
sophisticated, especially for detection and identification, so
that valid information may be obtained. Table 42, Appendix A,
presents the analytical sensitivity which has been acquired
over the years as understanding of the pesticide residue subject
has increased.
6.1 Sampling Methods
In addition to the low concentration of airborne pesti-
cides, sampling is also complicated by the coexistence of non-
pesticidal materials in both aerosol and vapor phases.
A sampling method has recently been developed by the
f>4
Midwest Research Institute using a three-section sequential
collection train consisting of (1) a glass cloth filter, (2)
an impinger containing 2~methyl--2,4-pentanediol and (3) an
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64
adsorption tube containing alumina. The maximum air sampling
rate is approximately 29 liters/minute, and about 24 hours
are generally required to collect enough sample for analysis.
95
Tabor sampled only participate DDT by the collection
of particulate samples on glass-fiber filters. In another
study, air samples were collected at rooftop level in
Pittsburgh with a two-stage sampling system to separate air-
borne dust into two fractions. The large particles were
collected by sedimentation on 71 horizontal trays, and
particles which penetrated through this section of the sampler
were collected on an MSA 1106B glass-fiber filter. Each
sample of particulates was obtained by continuous sampling at
an average flow rate of 1.22 m /min.
An air sampling system for the differential collection
of aerosol and gaseous fractions of airborne herbicides has
o
been reported. It consists of a rotating disk impactor for
collecting aerosol droplets down to approximately 3 |a in
diameter, followed by a midget impinger to collect the gaseous
fraction. The impactor was specially designed and constructed
of glass, Teflon, and stainless steel to prevent contamination
of the collection fluid with substances that interfere with
electron capture gas chromatography. Incoming air impinges
on the impaction disk that rotates slowly through a fluid
well containing n-decane. The impacted droplets wash off into
the collection fluid. The disk then passes through a Teflon
squeegee to remove the adhering droplets, thus presenting a
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65
smooth surface containing a fluid film upon which the air
stream impinges.
There are other sampling techniques used to measure
operators' hazards in the field. The level of exposure may
be determined by the amount of toxicant trapped on the filter
of a respirator worn by the operator. Samples are also
collected in a special respirator which is modified to simulate
nasal breathing characteristics. Contact samples are collected
on pads attached at suitable points on the operators' clothing.
Additional samples may be taken by means of suction-operated
equipment placed in the breathing zones. The mass to size
ratios of airborne particles are evaluated by sampling the air
in the breathing zones through cascade impactors and also by
collecting the fallout on slides set at different heights in
C Q
the working area.
Air samples were collected at tractor operators'
breathing zones using all-glass fritted absorbers and electric
or hand-operated suction pumps. Exposures were also determined
49
by attaching filter pads to double-unit respirators.
6.2 Quantitative Methods
Although methods have been developed to determine the
concentration of some pesticides or a component of the pesti-
cide, e.g. phosphorus, the methods are very tedious and time
consuming. More research is needed to reduce the methods to
procedures that can be used economically for routine analyses
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66
in the National Sampling Network.
6.2.1 Extraction and "Cleanup"
The collected pesticide must be extracted from the
particulate matter and generally needs a "cleanup" treatment
to remove other interfering substances before the final
analysis can be performed.
The extraction and "cleanup" procedure for the Midwest
Research Institute sampling train is as follows: The filter-
cloth is washed with methanol. The alcoholic mixture is
poured over an alumina adsorbent which has previously been
transferred to a chromatography tube. The treated alumina
column is extracted with hexane. The impinger solution (2-
methyl-2,4-pentanediol) is diluted with water and this
solution is extracted with hexarie. The combined hexane ex-
tracts are concentrated by evaporation. The treated hexane
solution is passed through a Florisil column and the pesti-
cides eluted from the column by first adding 0.5 percent
dioxane in hexane to remove the chlorinated hydrocarbon
pesticides followed by 5„0 percent dioxane in hexane to
remove the organophosphate pesticides. The two solutions are
concentrated before final analysis by gas chromatography.
Tabor9^ used pentane followed by benzene to extract
chlorinated and thiophosphate pesticides from particulate
matter. The residues of extracts were analyzed by gas
chromatography without further treatment.
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6-2.2 Detection and Identification
Pesticide analysis is generally accomplished by some
form of chromatography. Three types of chromatography can be
used for the quantitative determination, of pesticide residues:,
(1) gas chromatography, (2) thin-layer chromatography, and
(3) paper chromatography. The gas chromatographic technique
has been used to separate complex pesticide mixtures in a
single operation.
A highly sensitive detector for chlorinated pesticides
is the electron-capture detector. It is capable of measuring
some chlorinated pesticides in concentrations as low as the
nanogram range (10 g). Another detector widely used with gas
chromatography of chlorinated hydrocarbons is the
microcoulometric detector. This detector operates on the
following principles: (1) As each chlorinated pesticide
emerges from the chromatographic column, it passes through a
combustion tube where the pesticide is burned with oxygen to
yield hydrogen chloride, water, and carbon dioxide. (2) The
gas stream then flows through a titration cell containing
silver ion, which is maintained electrochemically at a constant
concentration. (3) Hydrogen chloride precipitates the silver
ion stoichiometrically, and the current required to regenerate
it from a silver electrode is recorded as a chromatographic
—8
peak. The detector can measure as little as 10 g of chlorine
or sulfur. Other detectors that have been used include
hydrogen flame detectors (sensitive to carbon-containing
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68
compounds), sodium thermionic detectors (sensitive to
thiophosphates), and flame-photometric detectors (sensitive
to phosphorus).
The Midwest Research Institute64 method of analysis uses
gas chromatography- The chlorinated pesticides were determined
by using two different columns with an electron-capture detec-
tor. The organophosphate pesticides were determined by using
two different columns with a flame photometric detector.
95
Tabor used an electron-capture detector and a sodium
thermionic detector for determining chlorinated and thiophos-
phate pesticides.
A summary list of major analytical instrumentation or
techniques is presented in Table 43, Appendix A.
Westlake and Gunther have reviewed detection systems
used in pesticide residue evaluations. Table 44 (Appendix A)
lists the available systems and the minimum detectability of
each. Detectability as used in the Table refers to Suthle
Sutherland's definition; the detectable level is the concentra-
tion of pesticide above which a given sample of material can be
said, with a high degree of assurance, to contain the chemical
106
analyzed. Westlake and Gunther in their review have
discussed each of the available methods, including illustra-
tions of the devices and literature references to their use.
Also included are a table listing more than 100 pesticides
for which infrared spectra have been published, and a table
listing more than 50 pesticides for which mass spectal data
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69
have been published.
6.2.3 Other Quantitative Methods
Thomson and Abbott97 described two methods termed
Chemical Group Analysis and Biological Test Methods.
(1) Chemical Group Analysis. By comparison with a
certain class of substances, the pesticide can be identified
and determined. This method does not give precise identifica-
tion and cannot be applied without purification of the extracted
material.
Organophosphorous Pesticide Residues. In applying
the Chemical Group Analysis technique to these residues, phos-
phorus is usually determined quantitatively, not the pesticide
compound. The essence of the method is the extraction and
"cleanup" of the residue to insure the absence of natural
phosphorous compounds. The phosphorous in the subdivided ex-
tract is eventually converted to phosphoric acid by wet oxida-
tion. The subsequent addition of ammonium molybdate and
reduction with stannous chloride produces a heteropoly blue
color which is compared against standards produced from
solutions of known phosphorous content. This method has only
limited selectivity and is sensitive down to 5 [ag of any one
pesticide, i.e., 0.1 ppm in a 50-g sample. A simple screening
method for the rapid estimation of organophosphorous pesticides
using the above chemical-end-method of analysis has recently
been introduced. In this method the compounds are extracted
from the sample, "cleaned up" on a silica gel chromatoplate,
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70
and oxidized with ammonium persulfate or a nitric-perchloric
acid mixture for phosphorous determination. Colorimetric and
esterase-inhibition methods of estimating total phosphorous
have been used to develop a method of automatic wet chemical
analysis.
Chlorinated Pesticide Residue. In the analysis
of this type of residue, the pesticides are extracted and
after a limited "cleanup" process, they are spotted onto a
filter paper flag, which is burned in a flask of oxygen. The
chloride formed is absorbed in dilute sulfuric acid and can
be estimated colorimetrically by the addition of ferric
ammonium sulfate and mercuric thiocyanate; the sensitivity of
this method of estimation is approximately 5 |J.g of organo-
chlroine pesticide. A more sensitive method is to measure
the quantity of chloride produced potentiometrically. This
makes the method sensitive down to 0.5 u~g of pesticide.
Recently a new continuous chloride ion system has been
developed for use with a completely automated combustion
apparatus to determine organochlorine pesticides and their
residues.
(2) Biological Test Methods. These methods show the
presence or absence of toxicologically significant residues.
They are basically useful as sorting methods or for confirming
the presence of pesticide residues. The basis of the bioassay
methods is the comparison of the response of selected insects
to pretreated or unknown samples with the insects response to
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71
a series of standard pesticides under the same test conditions,
These methods are very sensitive and can easily detect
pesticide levels of 0.1 ppm, but the methods do not distinguish
between pesticides of similar toxicity. Some of the common
insects and other organisms that are used in such bioassays
are vinegar fly, housefly, mosquito larvae, mites, brine
93
shrimp, daphnia, guppies, and goldfish.
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72
7. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Pesticides include a spectrum of chemicals used to
control or destroy pests which may cause economic damages
or present health hazards. These are employed in agricul-
ture, forestry, food storage, urban sanitation, and home
use. Since hundreds of such chemicals are presently availa-
ble, this report has been limited to those synthetic organic
pesticides which currently are used in the greatest volume
and are potential health hazards to humans, domestic and
commercial animals, and fish and wildlife because of the
pesticides, inherent toxicity or persistence„
Pesticides can cause poisoning by ingestion, absorp-
tion through the intact skin, or inhalation. In cases of
accidental occupational poisonings, it has usually been
impossible to determine if the exposure was predominantly
respiratory or dermal. Of the 111 accidental deaths caused
by pesticides in 1961 in the United States, five deaths
were attributed to respiratory exposure.
Of all the pesticides, the chlorinated hydrocarbon
and organophosphorous insecticides are of major concern
because of their health hazard0 The acute toxicity of the
organo-phosphates, on the average, is somewhat greater than that
of the chlorinated hydrocarbons,, However, the latter group is
considerably more persistent because of their greater stability.
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73
Some members of the chlorinated hydrocarbon group—especially
DDT, dieldrin, and BHC—have been found as residues in human
fat tissue in all parts of the world. The mean storage level
of DDT in the body fat of the general population in the United
States in 1961 to 1962 was reported to be 12.6 ppm. The
dieldrin and BHC storage levels have been reported in the
United States as 0.15 ppm and 0.2 ppm, respectively.
Acute poisonings of commercial and domestic animals
have usually been accidental and involved the more toxic
organophosphorous insecticides. Animals also store the
chlorinated hydrocarbon residues in fat tissue, and as with
humans, the significance of this storage is not completely
known. When ingested, as little as 7 to 8 ppm of DDT residue
on hay will result in 3 ppm being excreted in cow's milk, and
butter made from such milk will contain 65 ppm.
Fowl, fish, and many forms of wildlife have been
adversely affected by pesticides, especially the chlorinated
hydrocarbons. Birds are affected by DDT resulting in thin-
shelled eggs and a decrease in hatchability- Wildlife in
general have been affected in various parts of the country.
Herbicides may cause damage to other than the target
plants if the dosage is too great. Some insecticides have
produced undesirable flavors in plants used as food. Trans-
location of DDT and other insecticides into crops from the
soil has been observed, but apparently this does not result
in a high residue level.
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74
There have been no reports of damage to inanimate
materials from the pesticides as such, but some of the solvents
used in spraying applications could have a damaging effect on
paint and other surfaces.
The annual growth rate in total sales value for the
1962 to 1967 period has averaged about 15 percent. This growth
has been due in part to increased costs of production, but
primarily to increased production volume and usage. The
preliminary estimate for 1967 places production at slightly
in excess of 1 billion pounds, and the manufacturers' value
at approximately 900 million dollars.
Agriculture is the leading user of pesticides in the
United States. Approximately 5 percent of the land area of
the United States (the 48 contiguous States) was treated with
insecticides in 1962. Cropland and cropland pasture consti-
tuted more than 75 percent of the treated area.
The primary source of pesticides in the air is the
process of application. Even under the most ideal conditions,
some amount will remain in the air following the application.
However, under certain meteorological conditions, the pesticide
spray or.dust does not settle and can drift some distance from
the area of application. Many episodes have occurred in which
these drifting pesticide clouds have caused inhalation
poisonings as well as toxic residues on croplands.
It is known that pesticides will volatilize into the
air from soil, water, and treated surfaces. It has also been
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75
observed that rain and snow can wash pesticides from the air
back to soil and water surfaces. There is good evidence that
pesticide-containing dust originating from soil can enter the
ambient air and be transported for considerable distances
before falling back to the earth. The full significance of"
this with respect to effects on the total environment is still
not known.
Home use of pesticides has been increasing annually,
but little is known about the concentration of pesticides in
the home.
The air near agricultural areas being treated with
pesticides has been monitored and the specific pesticides
being used were detected. Detectable amounts of DDT and related
insecticides also have been found in the air over urban areas.
It has been only recently that an air monitoring network for
pesticides has been established so that sufficient data will
become available to ascertain the magnitude and dispersion of
pesticides in the ambient air. Preliminary data from nine
areas sampled have shown that seasonal and regional variations
of pesticide concentrations in the air exist and that the only
pesticide common to all of the sampled areas was DDT.
The abatement and control measures for prevention of
air contamination employed by the chemical industry in general
are used in pesticide production facilities. The major
problem in pesticide air pollution abatement is in control of
pesticide drift during application. This problem is being
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76
approached by improvement in application equipment and methods,
improvement in pesticide formulation and physical properties,
and more extensive consideration of micrometeorological data.
The economic and social benefits gained by the use of
pesticides have been great. Pesticides have contributed to
the eradication or reduction of a number of human diseases
both in the United States and in other parts of the world.
It has been estimated that nationally about five dollars are
saved for every dollar invested in chemical pesticide usage.
Although episodes of damage caused by pesticide drift resulting
from agricultural treatment have been reported, no tabulated
data on costs of damage due to air pollution from pesticides
have been found. The costs of pesticide air pollution damage
to humans, wildlife, and other animals cannot be estimated.
The analytical procedures for the determination of
pesticides in the environment generally have involved four
steps: sampling, extraction, separation, and detection.
These procedures have been handicapped in the past by the low
pesticide concentrations that must be measured in the ambient
air. However, in recent years significant advances have
occurred in instrumentation for detection and analysis of low
concentrations.
Based on the material presented in this report, further
studies are suggested in the following areas:
(1) Development of better sampling and analysis methodology
and standardization for internal consistency.
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77
(2) Further determination of concentrations of
pesticides in the atmosphere for a clearer definition of
pesticide pollution, not only in known contaminated areas but
also on a large geographical scale.
(3) Further investigation of the translocation of
pesticides from the soil and water to the air and return.
(4) Investigation of the ambient air pesticide levels
in the home and determination of individual misuse of
pesticides causing contamination of the home environment.
(5) Expansion of research on biologic pest controls.
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67. Ordish, G., and J. F. Mitchell, "World Fungicide Usage,"
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72. Quinby, G. E. and G. B. Clappison, Parathion Poisoning
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77. Sax, N. I., Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials,
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85
83. Sladin, W. J. L., C. M. Menzie, and W. L. Rei.chel,
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85. Spencer, J. N., Pesticide Poisoning: The Insecticides,
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89. Street, J. C., DDT Antagonism to Dieldrin Storage in
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91. Street, J. C., and A. D. Blau, Insecticides Interactions
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86
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-------
87
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-------
88
OTHER REFERENCES
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Determination of Trace Quantities of Pesticides in Air, Pre-
sented at the 147th Meeting of the American Chemical Society,
Detroit, Mich. (Apr. 1965).
-------
APPENDIX A
-------
TABLE 1
EXPOSURE OF WORKERS TO PESTICIDES WHILE CARRYING OUT VARIOUS ACTIVITIES28
Compound
Parathion
Chlorothion
Malathion
Guthion
Methyl
parathion
DDT
DDT
Activity
Spraying
apples
Applying
aerosol
Applying
aerosol
Checking
cotton
Checking
cotton
Spraying
apples
Indoor house
spraying
Exposure
Total
Dermal Respiratory (percentage of toxic
(Ug/man/hr) d-ig/rnan/hr ) dose per hour)a
77,700 200
3,000 300
6,600 300
5,400 b
700 b
274,000 120
1, "'55, 000 7,100
5,4
0.003
0,003
0,004
0.002
0,15
1 ,. 02
(continued)
-------
TABLE 1 (Continued)
EXPOSURE OF WORKERS TO PESTICIDES WHILE CARRYING OUT VARIOUS ACTIVITIES
Exposure
Compound
DDT
DNOC
DNOSBP
Activity
Spraying house
outside
Spray thinning
of apples
Applying as
herbicide
Dermal
(M.g/man/hr)
243,000
63,200
88,700
Respiratory
(ng/man/hr)
110
400
120
Total
(percentage
dose per
0.14
0.25
0.57
of toxic
hour ) a
aCalculated for a 70 kg man on the basis of dermal LD to male white rats or
guinea pigs.
"Value obtained was below experimental limits of chemical method.
-------
92
APPENDIX A
TABLE 2
OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES ATTRIBUTED TO PESTICIDES
AND OTHER AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS IN
CALIFORNIA, 1953-1963104
Year All Industries Agriculture Other Industries*
1953 377 277 100
1954 391 248 143
1955 531 326 205
1956 789 464 325
1957 749 434 315
1958 910 599 311
1959 1,093 782 311
1960 975 668 307
1961 911 578 333
1962 827 545 282
1963 1,013 746 267
*Includes service, construction, manufacture,
government, etc.
-------
APPENDIX A
TABLE 3
OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES ATTRIBUTED TO PESTICIDES AND OTHER
AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS IN CALIFORNIA, 1953-1963104
Systemic Poisonings
Year
Total
All Conditions
Phosphate
Ester Pesticides
DDT, Lindane,
Endrin, Dieldrin
Other
Agricultural
Chemicals
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
Total
910
1,093
975
911
827
1,013
8,566
227
407
283
194
140
267
2,277
117
87
82
78
60
58
64
672
Total
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
377
391
531
789
749
146
101
126
197
189
9*
1*
4*
11
12
46
20
53
73
51
201
182
183
281
252
328
499
368
268
219
345
3,066
*DDT only.
CO
-------
APPENDIX A
TABLE 4
ESTIMATED ANNUAL RELATIVE CONTRIBUTION OF VARIOUS ENVIRONMENTAL
SOURCES TO THE BODY BURDEN OF DDT PLUS
Concentration
Intake
Total Intake
Air
2 x 10"4 ug/m3
13 x 103 rti3
30 ug
Water
0.02 ppb
364 liters
10 ug
Source
Food
0 . 08 ppro
560 kg
44,800 ug
Other
Approx .
5, 000 ug
Total
Approx.
50, 000 ug
-------
95
APPENDIX A
TABLE 5
IDENTITY OF PESTICIDES RESPONSIBLE FOR ACCIDENTAL
DEATHS IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1956 AND 196142
Pesticide 1956 1961
Inorganic and botanical solid and liquid
pesticide
Arsenic 54 29
Thallium 8 2
Mercury la
Phosphorous 21 12
Fluorides 6
Sodium chlorate 1
Calcium polysulfide 1
Boric acid 1
Cyanide (solid) 3
Copper oleate mixed with tetrahydro-
naphthalene 1
Strychnine 3 1
Nicotine 4 3
Pyrethrum 1
Camphor 1
Rotenone, copper, and sulfur _!.
Subtotal 96 58
Organic phosphorus insecticid.es
Diazinon
Demeton
Malathion
Methyl parathion
Parathion
Mevinphos
TEPP
Unspecified organic phosphorus
insecticid.es
Subtotal
2
1
3
11
2
1
20
1
3
3
15
1
1
24
(continued.)
-------
APPENDIX A
TABLE 5 (Continued)
IDENTITY OF PESTICIDES RESPONSIBLE FOR ACCIDENTAL
DEATHS IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1956 AND 1961
96
Pesticide
Subtotal
Solids and liquids (E870-E888) (pesticides
only)
F or ma1d ehyd e
Combination of specified, insecticides
2,4-D
Warfarin
Coumarin
Isobornyl thiocyanoacetate
Unspecified, insecticides
Unspecified, rodenticides
Subtotal
1956
1
2
3
1
1
3
1
1
13
1
7
6
16
1961
Chlorinated, hyd.roca.rbon insecticides
Ald.rin
BHC (including lindane)
Chlordane
DDT
Dield.rin
Endrin
Toxaphene
Combination of chlorinated, hydrocarbon
insecticides
lc
1
2
4b
1
1
1
6a
3
17
(continued.)
-------
97
APPENDIX A
TABLE 5 (Continued)
IDENTITY OF PESTICIDES RESPONSIBLE FOR ACCIDENTAL
DEATHS IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1956 AND 1961
Pesticide 1956 1961
Gases and vapors (E890-E895) (pesticides
only)
Carboxide gasc 1
Cyanide gas 1 3
Ethylene dibromide 1
Mercury 2
Methyl bromide 3
Sulfur dioxid.e 1. L
Subtotal I 6
Grand Total 152 111
aDiagnosis of pesticid.e poisoning open to serious ques-
tion.
Diagnosis of pesticide poisoning open to some question,
cMixture of ethylene oxide and carbon dioxide.
-------
98
APPENDIX A
TABLE 6
DISTRIBUTION OF ACCIDENTAL PESTICIDE DEATHS IN
THE UNITED STATES IN 196142
Aqe Group
Parameter
Occupational
Yes
No
Unknown
Total
Route of exposure
Oral
Respiratory
Dermal
Combined
Unknown
Total
<10
0
57
0
57
47
1
1
5
3
57
10-19
4
4
0
8
3
1
0
3
1
8
20-69
12
24
7
43
27
3
0
9
4
43
^70
1
2
0
3
3
0
0
0
0
3
Total
17
87
7
111
80
5
1
17
8
111
-------
99
APPENDIX A
TABLE 7
ACCIDENTAL DEATHS ATTRIBUTED TO PESTICIDES AND OTHER
AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS IN CALIFORNIA, 1951-1963104
Children
Workers
Year
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
Total
3
5
4
9
3
11
8
6
10
4
3
4
3
Organic
Phosphates
0
0
1
4
0
1
1
0
2
0
0
2
1
Total^
0
1
4
2
1
4
2
3
5
0
3
1
1
Organic
Phosphates
0
0
3
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
2
1
1
Total
5
6
10
12
6
18
12
13
18
4
6
5
6
Total 73
12
27
11
121
-------
APPENDIX A
TABLE 8
EFFECT OF METHOD OF ADMINISTRATION ON APPEARANCE
OF DDT AND ITS METABOLITES IN MILK108
Method of
Administration
Intratracheal
Oral (capsular)
Oral (aged residue)
Intravenous
Consecutive
Days Dosed
1
6
1
6
1
1
6
Mean Maximum Response*
(ppm in milk fat)
DDT
0.68
1.54
0.59
0.49
0.38
3.00
7.60
DDE
0.06
0.01
0.0
0.08
0.90
0.12
0.25
ODD
0.0
0.08
0.28
1.18
0.56
0.12
0.68
Total
0.74
1.64
0.87
1.75
1.84
3.24
8.53
*Average of three cows. Net gain over base line.
-------
101
APPENDIX A
TABLE 9
ACUTE ORAL AND DERMAL LD5Q VALUES OF INSECTICIDES FOR WHITE RATS92
Insecticides
Chlorinated Hydrocarbon
Insecticides
Aldrin
Benzene hexachloride
Chlordane
Chlorobenzilate
DDT
Dichloropropane-
Dichloropropene
Dicofol
Dieldrin
Endosulf an
Endrin
Ethylene dibromide
Ethylene dichloride
Heptachlor
Kepone
Lindane
Methoxychlor
Mir ex
Paradichlorobenzene
Perthane
Strobane
TDE
Telone
Toxaphene
Orqanic Phosphate
Insecticides
Abate
Azinphosmethyl
Azodrin
Bidrin
Carbophenothion
Ciodrin
Coumaphos
Demeton
Diazinon
Oral LD5Q (mg/kg)
Males
39
1,250
335
1,040
113
140a
1,100
46
43
17.8
146
770a
100
125
88
5,000
740
>1,000
>4,000
200a
>4,000
250-500a
90
8,600
13
17.5
22a
30
125a
41
6.2
108
Females
60
430
1,220
118
1,000
46
18
7.5
117
162
125
91
5,000
600
>1,000
>4,000
>4,000
80
13,000
11
20
10
15.5
2.5
76
Dermal LD5Q (mg/kg)
Males
98
840
2,100a/b
1,230
90
130
18
300a'b'c
3,890a'b
195
>2,000
1,000
>2,000
>5,000a/b
>4,000a'b
1,075
>4,000
220
126 .
225a'b
54
_ T_
385a'b
860
14
900
Females
98
690
>5,000
2,510
1,000
60
74
15
250
>2,000
900
>6,000
>2,000
780
>4,000
220
112
27
8.2
455
(continued)
-------
102
APPENDIX A
TABLE 9 (Continued)
ACUTE ORAL AND DERMAL LD5Q VALUES OF INSECTICIDES FOR WHITE RATS
Insecticides
Organic Phosphates
Insecticides
Dichlorvos
Dimethoate
Dioxathion
Disulf oton
EPN
Ethion
Fenthion
Malathion
Methyl par a th ion
Methyl trithion
Mevinphos
Naled
Nemacide
Parathion
Phorate
Phosphamidon
Ronnel
Ruelene
Tepp
Trichlorf on
Carbamate Insecticides
Carbaryl
Zineb
Other Insecticides
Binapacryl
Calcium arsenate
Cryolite
DN-111
Lead arsenate
Methaldehyde
Morestan
Naphthalene
Oral LD5Q (mg/kg)
Males
80
215
43
6.8
36
65
215
1,375
14
98
6.1
250
270
13
2.3
23.5
1,250
635
1.05
630
850
>5,000
63
200a
330a
a p
Ca l,000a/e
1,800
2,400
Females
56
23
2.3
7.7
27
245
1,000
24
120
3.7
3.6
1.1
23.5
2,630
460
560
500
>5,000
58
298
1,050
1,100
2,400
Dermal LD50 (mgAg)
Males
107
400
235
15
230
245
330
>4,444
67
215
4.7
800
21
6.2
143
2.4
>2,000
>4,000
>2,500
810
>l,000a'd
>2,000
>2,500
Females
75
610
63
6
25
62
330
>4,444
67
190
4.2
6.8
2.5
107
>5,000
>2,. 000
>4,000
>2,500
720
2,400
>2,400
>2,000
>2,500
(continued)
-------
103
APPENDIX A
TABLE 9 (Continued)
ACUTE ORAL AND DERMAL LD5Q VALUES OF INSECTICIDES FOR WHITE RATS
[nsecticides
)ther Insecticides
Nicotine sulfate
Ovex
Paris green
Pyrethrins
Rotenone
Ryania
Tetradif on
Oral LDgQ (mg/kg)
Males
2,050a
>l,500a
50-75a
l,200a
>14,700a
Females
83
100
Dermal LD50 (mg/kg)
Males
>l,880a'ri
>940a,b
>4,000a'k
>10,000a'b
Females
285
>2,400
Sex not indicated.
/alue for rabbits.
Approximate
Value for guinea pigs,
for dogs.
-------
104
APPENDIX A
TABLE 10
66
TOXICITY OF SELECTED PESTICIDES
(Dietary levels measured in ppm producing minimal or no
effect after continuous feeding for 90 days to 2 years)
Toxicity
Pesticide
Rats
Dogs
Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Insecticides
Cyclodiene compounds
Aldrin
Cnlordan
Dieldrin
Endosulfan
Heptachlor
(Heptachlor epoxide)
DDT-related compounds
DDT
Chlorbenside
Chlorobenzilate
ODD
Methoxychlor
Kelthaneb
Perthane
Miscellaneous compounds
BHC
Lindane
Ovex
Strobane
Sulfenoneb
Tetradifon
Toxaphene
Organophosphorus Insecticides
Carbophenothion
Demeton
Diazinon
Guthion
Dioxathion
EPN
Ethion
Malathion
Phosdrin
Parathion
0.5
25
0.5
30
0.5
0.5
5
20
<50
10
100
20-100
500
10
50
25
50
100
300
10
5
1
1
5
4
5-25
3
100-1,000
0.8
1
1
a
1
30
4
0.5
400
1,000
2,564
a
4,000
300
100
a
XL 5
200
400
400
500
400
8
0
1
0
5
1
50
1
100
1
1
75
(continued)
-------
105
APPENDIX A
TABLE 10 (Continued)
TOXICITY OF SELECTED PESTICIDES
(Dietary levels measured in ppm producing minimal or no
effect after continuous feeding for 90 days to 2 years)
Toxicity
Pesticide Rats Dogs
Fungicides
Captan 1,000 4,000
Dichlone (phygon) 1,580 500
Dyrene 5,000 >5,000
Dodine (cyprex) 200 >50
Folpet (phaltan) 3,200 10,000
Ferbam 250 200
Maneb 25 80
Thiram 100 200
Zineb 500 2,000
2iram 250 200
Herbicides
Chloro-IPC
Dalapon
Diuron
Fenuron
Monuron
2,4-D
Simazine
Trif luralin
2,000
300
50-500
500
250
300
100
2,000
2,000
2,000
a
a
1,000
400
a
1,000
aData not available,
bMiticide.
-------
APPENDIX A
TABLE 11
RECOVERY OF TOTAL ALDRIN/DIELDRIN AND
HEPTACHLOR/HEPTACHLOR EPOXIDE RESIDUES55
(ppm)
Soil Treatment Per Acre
Aldrin/Dieldrin
Crop
Radishes
Beets
Potatoes
Onions
Carrots
Cucumbers
Lettuce
Beans (seeds)
5 Ib
0.09
0.07
0.14
0.00
0.24
0.07
0.16
0.00
25 Ib
0.52
0.25
1.20
0.05
1.26
0.07
0.41
0.00
Heptachlor/Heptachlor Epoxide
5 Ib
0.13
0.08
0.14
traces
0.55
0.10
0.10
0.00
25 Ib
0.59
0.42
1.22
0.02
3.98
0.15
0.56
0.00
Recovered from
soil at harvest
1.57
11.08
2.38
11.41
-------
107
APPENDIX A
TABLE 12
THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUES FOR SELECTED PESTICIDES76'98'"
Pesticide i ppm gg/m3,
Abate 15,000
Acrolein 0.1 250
Acrylamide-skin 300
Acrylonitrile-skin 20 45,000
Aldrin-skin ' 250
ANTU (alpha naphtyl thiourea) 300
Arsenic and compounds 500
Azinphos-methyl-skin 200
Cadmium oxide fume 100
Calcium arsenate 1,000
Camphor 2,000
Carbaryl (Sevin) 5,000
Carbon disulfide-skin 20 60,000
Carbon tetrachloride-skin 10 65,000
Chlordane-skin 500
Chlorinated camphene-skin 500
Chlorobenzene (monochlorobenzene) 75 350,000
o-Chlorobenzylidene malononitrile
Chloropicrin 0.1 700
Chloroprene 25 90,000
Copper fume 100
Copper dusts and mists 1,000
Crag herbicide 15,000
Cyanide (as CN)-skin 5,000
Cyanogen 10
2,4-D 10,000
DDT-skin 1,000
DDVP-skin 1,000
Demeton-skin 100
1,2-Dibromoethane (ethylene dibromide)-skin* 25 190,000
Dichloroethyl ether-skin 15 90,000
1,2-Dichloroethylene 200 790,000
Dieldrin-skin 250
Diethylamino ethanol-skin 10 50,000
Dimethyl 1,2-dibromo-2,2-dichloroethyl
phosphate (Dibrom) 3,000
Dinitro-o-cresol-skin 200
Endrin-skin 100
Epichlorhydrin-skin 5 19,000
EPN-skin 50°
Ferbam 15,000
Formaldehyde 5 6,000
Guthion 20°
(continued)
-------
108
APPENDIX A
TABLE 12 (Continued)
THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUES FOR SELECTED PESTICIDES
Pesticide
Heptachlor-skin
Hexachloronaphthaiene-skin
Hydrogen cyanide-skin
Lead arsenate
Lindane-skin
Malathion-skin
Mercury-skin
Mercury (organic compounds)-skin
Methoxychlor
Methyl bromide-skin
Methyl chloroform
Methyl isocyanate-skin
Napthalene
Nicotine-skin
Paraquat-skin*
Parathion-skin
Pentachlorophenol-skin
Phosdrin (Mevinphos)-skin
Phosphine
Phosphorous (yellow)
Pival (2-pivalyl-l,3-indandione)*
Pyrethrum
Ronnel*
Rotenone (commercial)
Sodium fluoroacetate (lOSO)-skin
Strychnine
Sulfur dioxide
2,4,5-T
TEDP-skin
TEPP-skin
Thallium (soluble compounds)-skin
Thiram
1,1,2-Trichloroethane-skin
Triorthocresyl phosphate
Triphenyl phosphate
Turpentine
Warfarin
10
20
350
0.02
10
0.3
10,
100
500
200
11,000
150
500
15,000
100
10
15,000
80,000
900,000
50
50,000
500
500
100
500
100
400
100
100
5,000
15,000
5,000
50
150
13,000
10,000
200
50
100
5,000
45,000
100
3,000
560,000
100
*Tentative result.
-------
APPENDIX A
TABLE 13
AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
88
Basic Standard
Substance
Acrolein
Acrolein
Arsenic (as As)
Arsenic (as As)
Carbon disulfide
Carbon disulfide
Carbon disulfide
Carbon disulfide
Chlorobenzene
Chlorobenzene
Chloroform
Chloroprene
Cresol
2-3 Dichloro-
1-4 naphthaquinine
Epichlorohydrin
Formaldehyde
Formaldehyde
Formaldehyde
Malathion
Methyl parathion
Naphthalene
Political Jurisdic-
tion or Standard
U.S.S.R.
VDI 2306*
Czechoslovakia
U.S.S.R.
Cz echo s 1 o vak i a
Ontario
Poland
U.S.S.R.
VDI 2306*
U.S.S.R.
VDI 2306*
U.S.S.R.
VDI 2306*
U.S.S.R.
U.S.S.R.
VDI 2306*
Czechoslovakia
U.S.S.R.
U.S.S.R.
U.S.S.R.
VDI 2306*
Concentration
(Uq/m3 at STP)
100
10
3
3
10
450
15
10
5,000
100
10,000
100
200
50
200
30
15
12
2,500
Averaging
Time
24 hr
30 min
24 hr
24 hr
24 hr
30 min
30 min
24 hr
30 min
24 hr
30 min
24 hr
30 min
24 hr
24 hr
30 min
24 hr
24 hr
30 min
Permissible
Concentration
(Uq/m3 at STP)
300
25
30
45
30
15,000
100
30,000
100
600
50
200
70
50
35
15
8
7,500
Standard
Averaging
Time
20 min
30 min
30 min
30 min
20 min
30 min
20 min
30 min
20 min
30 min
20 min
20 min
30 min
30 min
20 min
20 min
20 min
30 min
*For the Federal Republic of Germany, as determined and reported by Verein Deutscher
Ingenieure-Kommission Reinhaltung der huft-Richtlinien, VDI-Verlag Gmbh., Dusseldorf.
-------
TABLE 14
UNITED STATES PRODUCTION OF SELECTED PESTICIDES44'69
(Thousands of Pounds)
Pesticide 1939 1945
Calcium arsenate 41,349 25,644
Lead arsenate 59,569 70,522
White arsenic 44,686 48,698
Copper sulfate 134,032 251,000
Aldrin-toxaphene
groupk
BHC (Benzene
hexachlor ide ) G
DDT 33,243
Methyl bromide
Methyl parathion
Parathion
Nab am
2,4-D acid 917
aData not available.
^Includes the chlorinated compc
1950 1955
45,348 3,770
39,434 14,776
26,546 a
174,600 156,176
77, 025
76,698 56,051
78,150 129,693
9,222
5,168
14,156 34,516
1960
6,590
10,062
a
116,000
90,671
37,444
164,180
12,659
11,794
7,434
2, 978
36,185
junds, aldrin, dieldrin, endrin,
1965
4,192
7,098
a
47,272
118,832
a
140, 785
14,303
29,111
16,607
2,489
63,320
chlordane
1966
2,890
7,328
a
41,504
130,470
a
141,349
16,345
35,862
19,444
2, 053
68,182
, heptacl"
1967
2, 500
6,000
a
33,992
120,183
a
103,411
19,665
33,344
11, 361
1, 361
77,139
H-
1—
ilor, o
and toxaphene.
cProduction of gamma isomer content in BHC was 17.1 million pounds in 1951, 10.7 million
in 1955, and 6.9 million in 1960. Data in the table are on a gross basis.
-------
TABLE 15
UNITED STATES SALES OF SYNTHETIC ORGANIC PESTICIDES
BY TYPE OF USE, VOLUME, AND VALUE, 1964-6758'69
Type of Useaqea
/olume of sales:
Fungicides
Herbicides and plant
hormones
Insecticides, fumigants,
rodent ic ides, and soil
conditioners^
Total
^alue of sales,:
Fungicides
Herbicides and plant
hormones
Insecticides, fumigants,
rodent icides, and soil
conditioners^
Total
1964 1965 1966b 1967°
Amount
Thousands
of Pounds
95,556
152,027
444,772
692, 355
Thousands
of Dollars
45,465
163,450
218,196
427,111
Percent-
age of
Total
Percent
13.8
21.9
64.3
100.0
Percent
10.6
38.3
51.1
100.0
Amount
Thousands
of Pounds
106, 342
182,869
474,694
763,905
Thousands
of Dollars
50,151
207,276
239,639
497,066
Percent-
age of
Total
Percent
13.9
23.9
62.2
100.0
Percent
10.1
41.7
48.2
100.0
Amount
Thousands
of Pounds
118,397
221, 502
482,357
822,256
Thousands
of Dollars
53,275
257,635
272,892
583,802
Percent-
age of
Total
Percent
14.4
26.9
58.7
100.0
Percent
9.1
44.1
46.8
100.0
Amount
Thousands
of Pounds
120,413
287,582
489, 368
897,363
Thousands
of Dollars
56, 333
429, 980
300, 730
787, 043
Percent-
age of
Total
Percent
13.4
32.1
54.5
100.0
Percent
7.2
54.6
38.2
100.0
aClassified by Tariff Commission according to the most important use; many chemicals actually
lave uses in more than one major category; the herbicides involve some repetition.
^Revised.
^Preliminary.
<^A grouping required by the Tariff Commission to meet its need for separate data on cyclic
:hemicals; fumigants included may be fungicidal, nematocidal, and/or herbicidal, as well as
.nsecticidal.
-------
APPENDIX A
112
TABLE 16
UNITED STATES PRODUCTION OF PESTICIDAL CHEMICALS, 1964-6769
(Thousands of Pounds)
Chemical
Fungicides
Copper naphthenate
Copper sulfate*3
Ferbam
Mercury fungicides
Nabam
Pentachlorophenol (PCP)C
2 , 4, 5-Trichloro phenol and salts
Zineb
Other organic fungicides
Total6
Herbicides
2,4-D acidf
2,4-D acid esters and salts
Disodium methyl arsenate
DNBP
DNBP, ammonium salt
Phenyl mercuric .acetate (PMA)h
Sodium chlorate -1-
2,4,5-T acidf
2,4,5-T acid esters and salts
Other organic herbicides
Total
Insecticides, Fumiqants,
Rodenticides 3
]^
Aldrin-toxaphene group
Calcium arsenate
DDT
Dibromochloropropane
Lead arsenate
Methyl bromide™
Methyl parathion
Parathion
TEPP
Other organics
Total
Grand Total
1964
1,897
41,186
1,838
1, 138
2,251
36,901
4,790
6,664
48,352
145,647
(53,714)
54,366
2,167
4,146
55
495
35,000
(11,434)
12,963
87, 046
196,238
105,296
6,958
123,709
5,314
9,258
16,994
18,640
12,768
669
163,715
463,321
805,206
1965
3,268
47,272
2,384
1,602
2,489
39,965
4,003
5,075
44,969
151,027
(63,320)
63,360
4,619
59
588
32 ,000
(11,601)
13,516
105,861
220, 003
118,832
4,192
140,785
3,433
7,098
14,303
29,111
16,607
167,398
501,729
872,759
1966
3,211
41,504
1,379
1,035
2,053
43,262
5,958
4,721
63,818
166,941
(68,182)
72 ,522
g
85
502
32,000
(15,489)
18,059
148,765
271,933
130,470
2 ,890
141,349
8,722
7,328
16,345
35,862
19,444
199,404
561,596
1000, 688
1967a
3,473
33,992
2 ,331
912
1,361
44,239
14,008
3,055
63,269
166,640
(77,139)
83,750
g
58
518
30,000
(14,552)
27,189
206,759
348,274
120, 183
2,5001
103,411
5,240
6,000±
19,665
33,344
11,361
202 ,600
504,304
1019,218
For footnotes, see next page.
-------
113
APPENDIX A
Footnotes for Table 16
Preliminary.
"Shipments by producers to agriculture (including for use
as minor plant nutrient.
Not only a wood preservative for wood rot control but a
herbicide and desiccant.
^Requirement as a 2,4,5-T intermediate is subtracted from
figures.
eSulfur not included may amount to 150 million pounds.
Figures in parentheses, because of duplication, are not
included in totals.
^Separate figure not available.
^Also a fungicide.
"'"Estimated shipments to producers of herbicides and de-
foliants.
^Includes a small quantity of synthetic soil conditioners;
does not include the fumigants, carbon tetrachloride, carbon di-
sulfide, ethylene dibromide and ethylene dichloride, which have
many other uses; nor does it include paradichlorobenzene (classed
by Tariff as an intermediate) or inorganic rodenticides.
kIncludes aldrin, chlordane, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor,
Strobane, and toxaphene.
Estimated.
mFumigant for control of both insects and weeds.
-------
APPENDIX A
114
TABLE 17
UNITED STATES PRODUCTION AND SALES OF SYNTHETIC
ORGANIC PESTICIDES,a 1962-6769
Calendar
Year
Quantity
(thousands
of pounds )
Increase
over
Previous
Year
(percent)
Value
( thousands
of dollars)
Increase
over
Previous
Year
(percent)
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966C
1967d
729,718
763,477
782,749
877,197
1,013,110
1,049,663
Production
4.3
4.6
2.5
12.1
15.5
3.6
427,373b
456,068b
481,955b
582,899b
727,772*"
914, 018*3
18.1
6.7
5.7
20.9
24.9
25.6
Sales (Domestic and Export)
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
-------
115
APPENDIX A
TABLE 18
LOCATIONS AND NUMBER OF MANUFACTURERS OF PESTICIDES30
Pesticide
Manufacturer
Plant Site
DDT
2,4-D
BHC and
lindane
Allied Chemical Corp.
Diamond Alkali Co.
Geigy Chemical Corp.
LeJbon Chemical Corp.
Montrose Chemical
Corp. of Calif.
Olin Mathieson Chemical
Corp.
Chemical Insecticide
Corp.
Chipman Chemical
Co., Inc.
Diamond Alkali Co.
Dow Chemical Co.
Monsanto Co.
Thompson Che icals
Corp.
Diamond Alkali Co.
Hooker Chemical Corp.
Pittsburgh Plate
Glass Co.
Marcus Hook, Pa.
Green Bayou, Tex.
Mclntosh, Ala.
Lebanon, Pa.
Torrance, Calif.
Huntsville, Ala.
Metuchen, N.J.
Portland, Oreg.;
Kansas City, Mo.;
St. Paul, Minn.
Newark, N.J.
Midland, Mich.
Monsanto 111. ;
Nitro, W.Va.
St. Louis, Mo.
Green Bayou, Tex.
Niagara Falls, N.Y.
Natorium, W.Va.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS
(Pesticides)
State
County
No. of
Plant Sites*
Alabama
Etowah
Houston
Jefferson
Mobile
Montgomery
Morgan
Pike
Talladega
Washington
12
3
2
(continued)
-------
116
APPENDIX A
TABLE 18 (Continued)
LOCATIONS AND NUMBER OF MANUFACTURERS OF PESTICIDES
AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS
(Pesticides)
State
County
No. of
Plant Sites*
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Maricopa
Final
Yuma
Jefferson
Phillips
Pulaski
Alameda
Contra Costa
Fresno
Imperial
Kern
Los Angeles
Mar in
Monterey
Orange
Riverside
San Francisco
San Joaquin
San Mateo
Santa Barbara
Santa Clara
Santa Cruz
Stanislaus
Tulare
Ventura
Yolo
Adams
El Paso
Pueblo
Weld
11
8
2
5
2
56
4
5
5
2
16
2
2
3
2
2
7
2
(continued)
-------
117
APPENDIX A
TABLE 18 (Continued)
LOCATIONS AND NUMBER OF MANUFACTURERS OF PESTICIDES
AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS
(Pesticides)
No_ of
State County Plant Sites*
Connecticut 1
Fairfield
Florida 18
Broward
Dade 2
Duval 2
Hillsborough 3
Lake
Manatee
Orange 4
Pasco
Pinellas 2
Polk
Georgia I8
Bibb
Burke
Chatham
Cobb
Coffee
Crisp
Dougherty 2
Fulton 5
Lowndes
Peach
Polk
Terrell
Tift
Idaho 1
Canyon
Illinois J5
Cook 11
Du Page
Effingham
McHenry
Stark
(continued)
-------
118
APPENDIX A
TABLE 18 (Continued
LOCATIONS AND NUMBER OF MANUFACTURERS OF PESTICIDES
AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS
(Pesticides)
State
Louisiana
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
County
Fayette
Bossier
Caddo
Orleans
Quachita
St. Landry
Terrebonne
Baltimore City
Washington
Wicomico
Middlesex
Norfolk
Allegan
Clinton
Kent
Lenawee
Midland
Muskegon
Van Buren
No. of
Plant Sites*
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentuckv
Henry
Hard in
Page
Polk
Woodbury
Reno
Wyandotte
1
7
2
3
4
3
1
7
5
2
(continued)
-------
119
APPENDIX A
TABLE 18 (Continued)
LOCATIONS AND NUMBER OF MANUFACTURERS OF PESTICIDES
AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS
(Pesticides)
State
County
No. of
Plant Sites*
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Nebraska
Nevada
New Jersey
Dakota
Hennepin
Ramsey
Winona
Bolivar
Coahoma
Madison
Monroe
Quitman
Sunflower
Washington
Buchanan
Clay
Jackson
St. Louis
St. Louis City
Douglas
Lincoln
Burlington
Cumberland
Essex
Gloucester
Hudson
Middlesex
Ocean
Passaic
Salem
Somerset
9
2
2
3
4
4
15
2
3
(continued)
-------
120
APPENDIX A
TABLE 18 (Continued)
LOCATIONS AND NUMBER OF MANUFACTURERS OF PESTICIDES
AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS
(Pesticides)
State
County
Plant Sites*
New York
North Carolina
Ohio
12
Albany
Bronx
Dutchess
Kings
Niagara
Oneida
Onondaga
Orleans
Putnam
St. Lawrence
Yates
Avery
Bladen
Cumberland
Forsyth
Hertford
Johnston
Lenoir
Moore
Northampton
Pitt
Wayne
Wilson
Allen
Erie
Franklin
Fulton
Jefferson
Lucas
Scioto
Stark
16
2
2
2
10
(continued)
-------
APPENDIX A
121
TABLE 18 (Continued)
LOCATIONS AND NUMBER OF MANUFACTURERS OF PESTICIDES
AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS
(Pesticides)
State
County
No. of
Plant Sites*
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
South Carolina
Choctaw
Garfield
Tulsa
Clackamas
Multnomah
Berks
Lancaster
Lebanon
Montgomery
Philadelphia City
Allendale
Hamptom
Lexington
Spartanburg
Williamsburg
4
3
8
2
3
Tennessee
Texas
Franklin
Shelby
Angelina
Bexar
Brazos
Burleson
Cameron
Dallas
Deaf Smith
Ector
Ellis
El Paso
3
2
34
2
3
2
-------
APPENDIX A
122
TABLE 18 (Continued)
LOCATIONS AND NUMBER OF MANUFACTURERS OF PESTICIDES
AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS
(Pesticides)
'No. of
State . County Plant Sites*
T exa s (cont inued)
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Fannin
Hale
Harris
Hidalgo
Hunt
Liberty
Lubbock
McLennan
Reeves
Terry
Alexandria
Botetourt
Lunenburg
Norfolk City
Roanoke City
CheIan
King
Pierce
Yakima
Jefferson
Dane
Dodge
Milwaukee
Rock
6
5
8
5
1
UNITED STATES
340
*Those counties where no number is indicated have
one plant.
-------
APPENDIX A
TABLE 19
TOTAL QUANTITIES OF PESTICIDES USED BY FARMERS
IN 48 CONTIGUOUS STATES OF THE UNITED STATES, 196471
Type of Pesticide Producta
Fungicides
Sulfur
Other inorganic
Total inorganic
Organic
Total fungicides
3erbicides
Inorganic
Organic
Total herbicides
Insecticides
Inorganic
Botanicals and biologicals
Synthetic organic
Other organic
Total insecticides
Pounds of Active Ingredients ( in t
Total
136,823
9,327
146,150
23,929
170,079
10,434
73,604
84,038
7,651
336
147,849
160
155,996
Cropsb
135,228
9,264
144,492
21,451
165,943
9,565
66,749
76,314
7,095
249
135,744
96
143,184
Livestock0
404
47
451
2,373
2,824
15
86
10,390
63
10,554
lousands )
Otherd
1,191
16
1,207
105
1,312
869
6,855
7,724
541
1
1,715
1
2,258
(continued)
to
-------
TABLE 19 (Continued)
TOTAL QUANTITIES OF PESTICIDES USED BY FARMERS
IN 48 CONTIGUOUS STATES OF THE UNITED STATES, 1964
Type of Pesticide Producta
Miscellaneous pesticides6
Miticides
Fumigants
Defoliants and desiccants
Rodenticides
Growth Regulators
Repellents
Total miscellaneous pesticides
Total pesticide products (not
including petroleum)
Petroleum
Total (including petroleum)
Pounds o
Total
3,093
24,867
16,129
76
2,566
656
47,387
457,500
313,411
770,911
f Active Ingredients (in thousands)
Cropsb
3,059
23,665
11,906
2,566
41,196
426,637
232,561
659,198
Livestock0
10
656
666
14,044
18,855
32,899
Oth erd
24
1,202
4,223
76
5,525
16,819
61,995
78,814
aAll technical pesticide materials classified by anticipated major use. Each
ingredient included in only one category.
Includes all crops, pasture, rangeland, and land in summer fallow.
°Includes livestock buildings.
^Includes pesticides for all other noncrop and nonlivestock uses except for
treating seeds, stored crops, or storage buildings.
eThe enumeration may have been incomplete for some miscellaneous pesticides.
Used primarily in insecticidal and herbicidal preparations.
to
-------
125
APPENDIX A
TABLE 20
COMPARISON OF FARM USE OF SELECTED PESTICIDE CHEMICALS
WITH PRODUCTION, UNITED STATES, 196471
Type of Pesticide Product
Active Ingredients
Percentage
Used by
U.S. Farmers
Production in
(Thousands 48 Statesa
of Pounds) (percent)
Fungicides
Herbicides :
2 , 4-Dc
2,4,5-Tc
Other herbicides
108,746
54,366
12,963
128,909
30.2
63.4
12.8
51.7
Total herbicides
Insecticides, f umigants , rodenticides ,
and miticides:
Chlorinated hydrocarbons:
196,238
52.3
Aldrin-toxaphenee
DDT
Organic phosphorous compounds:
Parathion
Methyl par a th ion
TEPP
Other
All insecticides, f umigants,
rodenticides, and miticides
Total pesticides
105,296
123,709
12,768
18,640
669
202,239
463,321
768,305
52.2
27.1
50.3
53.6
23.9
38.5
39.9
42.4
aDoes not include sulfur, pentachlorophenol, or petroleum.
Includes all other pesticides used by farmers, except those
used in the treatment of seeds, stored crops, or storage
buildings.
bDoes not include sulfur or pentachlorophenol.
"rJAcids, esters, and salts.
Includes plant hormones, defoliants, and desiccants.
elncludes aldrin, chlordane, dieldrin, endrin,
heptachlor, and toxaphene.
fDoes not include sulfur, pentachlorophenol, or petroleum,
-------
126
APPENDIX A
TABLE 21
UNITED STATES ACREAGES TREATED ANNUALLY WITH INSECTICIDES
(EXCLUDING HAWAII AND ALASKA), 196244
Land Use
Forest lands
Grassland pasture
Desert, swamps, dunes,
and wildland
Water areas
Acres in
Category
( in
millions)
640
630
77
32.6
Acreage on
Which
Insecticides
Applied
(in millions)
1.8
1.6
2.5
0
Percentage
of
Category
Treated
0.28
0.25
3.24
Cropland and cropland
pasture 457
Land devoted to
Fruits, nuts 2.8
Cotton 15.8
Vegetables 4.1
Grains 216.6
All other crops, etc. 217.6
Urban or built-up areas 53
Nonforested parks,
wildlife refuges,
duck reserves,
national defense
sites 43
Total U.S. acreage
(48 States) 1,934.6
68.6
2.3
11.9
2.1
32.5
19.9
15
15.0
80
75
50
15
9
28.3
89.5
4.6
-------
TABLE 22
QUANTITIES OF SELECTED TYPES OF INSECTICIDE INGREDIENTS USED ON CROPS,
BY REGIONS IN 48 CONTIGUOUS STATES OF THE UNITED STATES, 1964
Type of Insecticide
Product
Inorganic insecticides
Synthetic organic
insecticides
Chlorinated
hydrocarbons
DDT
TDE
BHC and lindane
Aldrin
Dieldrin
Endrin
Heptachlor
Toxaphene
Other
Total chlorinated
hydrocarbon s
Phosphorus compounds
Parathion
Methyl par a th ion
Ma lath ion
Diazinon
Demeton
Disulfoton
Az inphosmethyl
Phorate
Other
Total phosphorus
compounds
Pounds of 'Active Inaredier
North-
east
1,714
1,001
128
22
*
158
13
17
3
236
1,583
366
*
265
30
10
2
455
62
121
1,313
Lake
States
688
511
104
24
761
69
12
105
53
53
1,692
95
43
13
*
170
212
16
555
Corn
Belt
291
612
123
7
8,581
126
*
974
1,298
68
11,790
110
7
38
886
*
139
316
81
1,709
North-
ern
Plains
12
1
491
51
*
46
1
9
613
646
3
5
650
3
8
762
34
2,111
Appa-
lachian
1,300
2,780
1,040
182
1,066
46
155
116
4,179
77
9,641
246
78
280
361
33
138
95
104
192
1,527
South-
east
175
12,540
1,604
471
189
209
484
2
11,502
481
27,482
1,071
1,970
82
13
4
67
338
9
705
4,259
its fin thousands)
Delta
States
6,851
126
9
*
*
893
8
10,256
824
18,972
34
5,326
228
*
22
12
9
210
5,842
South-
ern
Plains
2,516
4,715
25
118
73
231
5,065
1,695
11,922
1,420
2,558
317
12
313
6
725
5,351
Moun-
tain
773
91
3
175
42
33
1,040
13
2,170
516
28
424
99
34
63
*
324
1,489
Pacific
411
2,040
134
118
24
17
318
792
527
3,970
1,634
*
2,384
225
200
*
925
956
6,337
48
States
7,095
31,835
3,375
955
11,119
927
2,151
1,301
34,189
3,983
89,835
6,138
9,981
4,066
2,277
269
890
2,245
1,263
3,364
30,492
(continued)
-------
APPENDIX A
TABLE 22 (Continued)
QUANTITIES OF SELECTED TYPES OF INSECTICIDE INGREDIENTS USED ON CROPS,
BY REGIONS IN 48 CONTIGUOUS STATES OF THE UNITED STATES, 1964
pe of Insecticide
oduct
Other synthetic
; organics
Carbaryl
Other
Total other
synthetic
organics
Total synthetic
organics
Other organics
Total
insecticides
Pounds of Active Ingredients tin thousands)
North-
east
2,316
18
2,334
5,230
4
6,948
Lake
States
841
*
844
3,091
3,779
Corn
Belt
514
33
547
14,046
21
14,358
North-
ern
Plains
25
25
2,749
5
2,754
Appa-
lachian
1,283
10
1,293
12,461
15
13,776
South-
east
2,789
307
3,096
34,837
24
35,036
Delta
States
2,229
18
2,247
27,061
7
27,068
South-
ern
Plains
2,321
6
2,327
19,600
10
22,126
Moun-
tain
267
3
270
3,929
1
3,930
Pacific
2,239
194
2,433
12,740
258
13,409
48
States
14,824
592
15,416
135,744
345
143,184
*Less than 10,000 acres treated..
h-
N3
oo
-------
APPENDIX A
TABLE 23
QUANTITIES OF SELECTED HERBICIDES USED ON CROPS, BY
REGIONS IN 48 CONTIGUOUS STATES OP THE UNITED STATES, 1964
71
Type of Herbicide
Product
Inorganic herbicides
Organic herbicides
Arsenicalsa
Phenoxy
2,4-Da
2,4,5-^T
MCPA
Other phenoxy
Total phenoxy
Phenyl urea
Monuron
Diuron
Other phenyl urea
Total phenyl
urea
Carbamates
Propanil
IPC and CIPC
EPTC, raolinate,
and vernolate
CDAA (Randox)
Other carbamates
Total carbamates
Dinitro group
Pounds of Active Ingredients (in thousands)
North-
east
2,296
1,097
8
48
12
1,165
122
18
49
189
b
b
7
1,595
Lake
States
b
2,552
8
377
22
2,959
15
b
43
60
162
296
1
459
55
Corn
Belt
234
b
6,181
80
119
64
6,444
23
164
187
169
65
3,222
b
3,460
61
North-
ern
Plains
122
6,829
123
612
14
7,578
b
b
2
b
71
105
9
188
Appa-
lachian
1,321
7
881
52
101
28
1,062
14
102
28
144
113
28
141
210
South-
east
451
11
522
16
9
472
1,019
174
14
188
110
90
10
210
726
Delta
States
791
765
699
258
4
961
27
673
12
712
949
14
b
13
979
South-
ern
Plains
464
214
1,777
400
23
2,200
43
39
82
2,903
2,903
Moun-
tain
3,577
4,545
22
44
b
4,612
b
b
6
V,
JJ
106
b
46
178
14
Pacific
262
4,604
12
121
67
4,804
84
65
159
384
103
60
547
535
48
States
9,565
1,006
29,687
979
1,454
684
32,804
231
1,119
379
1,729
3,852
795
633
3,662
130
9,072
3,196
(continued)
-------
APPENDIX A
TABLE 23 (Continued)
QUANTITIES OF SELECTED HERBICIDES USED ON CROPS, BY
REGIONS IN 48 CONTIGUOUS STATES OP THE UNLTED STATES, 1964
Type of Herbicide
Product
Triazine group
Atrazine
Simazine
Other triazines
Total triazines
Chlorinated
aliphatic
Benzoic group
Trifluralin and
benef in
Other organics
Total organic
herbicides
Total
herbicides
Pounds of Active In
North-
east
1,584
53
1,637
731
b
35
5,362
7,658
Lake
States
3,524
35
3,559
538
295
169
8,094
8,141
Corn
Belt
3,304
16
3,320
143
2,096
176
865
L6,761
L6,995
North-
ern
Plains
804
b
810
254
197
14
9,043
9,165
Appa-
lachian
1,343
2
1,345
b
b
140
298
3,352
4,673
aredients (in thousar
South-
east
138
138
b
14
176
261
2,744
3,195
Delta
States
40
b
44
203
54
190
138
4,046
4,837
South-
ern
Plains
30
92
122
25
b
30
81
5,667
6,131
ds)
Moun-
tain
b
b
21
b
28
41
4,901
8,478
Pacific
68
55
123
13
515
23
60
6,779
7,041
48
States
10,837
190
92
11,119
1,912
3,214
735
1,962
66,749
76,314
May include quantities used for purposes other than as herbicides,
bLess than 10,000 acres treated.
u>
o
-------
TABLE 24
QUANTITIES OF SELECTED FUNGICIDES USED ON CROPS BY REGIONS IN
43 CONTIGUOUS STATES OF THE UNITED STATES, 196471
Type of Fungicide
Product
Inorganic fungicides
Sulfura
Other inorganics
Copper sulfatesa
Other coppersa
Zinc saltsa
Other inorganic
Total inorganic
Organic fungicides
Dithiocarbamates
Phthalimides
Imidazolines
Quinones a
Pentachlorophenol
Karathanea
Other organics
Total organic
fungicides
Total fungicides
Poun
North-
east
1,520
111
68
115
14
1,828
3,241
1,507
87
741
14
4
616
6,210
8,038
Lake
States
2,182
b
12
5
2,228
1,275
536
b
83
208
2,104
4,332
Corn
Belt
4,462
776
176
28
40
5,482
1,670
612
b
119
242
b
48
2,699
8,181
ds of Active Inqredients (in thousands)
North-
ern
Plains
105
105
204
b
204
309
Appa-
lachian
15,137
152
263
b
15,553
2,437
2,292
b
48
287
5,065
20,618
South-
east
64,536
1,142
2,116
971
1,245
70,010
2,796
53
b
b
6
2,855
72,865
Delta
States
24
129
66
6
201
225
South-
ern
Plains
5,823
14
12
b
5,851
74
3
97
174
6,025
Moun-
tain
1,031
b
1,034
158
43
b
205
1,239
Pacific
40,408
1,672
137
156
4
42,377
814
713
10
87
b
17
81
1,734
44,111
48
States
135,228
3,868
2,788
1,294
1,314
144,492
12,798
5,825
103
1,031
274
77
1,343
21,451
165,943
aMay include quantities used for purposes other than as fungicides,
bLess than 10,000 acres treated.
-------
132
APPENDIX A
TABLE 25
AVERAGE CONCENTRATIONS OF APPARENT ORGANOCHLORINE
INSECTICIDES FOUND IN RAINWATER SAMPLES (Expressed
As Parts Per 1012 Parts of Rainwater)1Q7
Samples
Monthly samples
Apr. -Oct. 1964
Nov. 1964-Feb. 1965
Supplementary samples
Jan. and Mar. 1965
Reagent blanks
Gamma-BHC
97(77-120)a
100(32-164)
29(12-52)b
2(1-3)
Dieldrin
28(19-36)
20(10-25)
9(3-16)b
3(1-4)
p,p'-DDT
3(1-4)
3(2-4)C
<0.5
Ranges of concentrations are shown in parentheses.
Five samples.
c
Four samples.
-------
133
APPENDIX A
TABLE 26
ORGANOCHLORINE PESTICIDE RESIDUE LEVELS IN
LONDON RAINWATER, 19652
Month
Residue Concentration Parts Per Million-Million
alpha beta gamma HEOD P?PP P>p' P/P*
BHC BHC BHC (dieldrin) -DDE -TDE -DDT
Station 1
Feb.
Mar.
Apr .
May
June
July
Station 2
Mar.
Apr.
May
June
July
40
15
30
20
30
25
10
20
20
20
30
90
65
25
90
60
80
70
55
40
20
70
55
155
70
50
60
50
95
25
10
20
70
50
20
15
70
20
15
15
85
10
100
50
20
400
115
300
190
70
85
140
220
125
80
-------
134
APPENDIX A.
TABLE 27
1 Q
PESTICIDE CONTENT OF DUST SAMPLE, CINCINNATI, 1965
Pesticide Concentration (ppm)*
DDT (Tech. grude) 0.6
Chlordane 0.5
DDE 0.2
Ronnel 0.2
Heptachlor epoxide 0.04
2,4,5-T 0.04
Dieldrin 0.003
Total Organic chlorine 1.34
Total Organic sulfur 0.5
*Based on air-dried weight of dust.
-------
135
APPENDIX A
TABLE 28
ATMOSPHERIC CONCENTRATION OF MALATHION, 1955
PLANADA, CALIF., STUDY17
Location
Unprotected Area Semisheltered Area
Time ( ng/m3 ) ( ua/m3 )
During spraying
Range 61-75 50-125
Average 67 88
One hour after spraying 44* 34*
Overall sample
Range 50-84 51-60
Average 67 56
*One sample.
-------
ATMOSPHERIC PESTICIDE LEVELS
Atmospheric Pesticide Levels in Communities with Pest Control Programs, 1964
(Ranges of Concentrations in |-ig/m3 )
o. samples
DT
alathion
Houston
3
<0.002 -0.0004
0.0001-0.0002
Community
During
Fogging
4
0.008-0.022 0
A
After
Fogging
3
.001-0.002
Community
During
Fogging
6
0.1 -8
<0. 001-0. 08
B
After
Fogging
6
0.002-0.011
<=Below minimum detectable level.
( )=Number of samples having less than detectable level.
Atmospheric Pesticide Levels in a Large Eastern City with a Pest Control Program
(Community C), 1964
(.Concentrations in |~ig/m3 )
DDT
Malathion
Neighborhood
a
b
a
b
First Weeka
4 Samples
0.006-0.025
<-0.016
b
Second Week
4 Samples
0.23-0.3
c
Third Week
3 Samples
0.1 -0.43
0.003
0.006-0.14
0.0005
(continued)
<=Below detectable level.
Only malathion used in fogging.
Only DDT used in fogging.
c
Both DDT and malathion used in fogging.
GJ
-------
TABLE 29 (Continued)
ATMOSPHERIC PESTICIDE LEVELS
Calculated Possible Daily Respiratory Intake of DDT
Agricultural
Cornmun ity
[ig DDT/
24 hr
Pest Control
Community
|ig DDT/
24 hr
Fort Valley, Ga.
Leland, Miss.
Weslaco, Tex.
0.2
0.5
0.8
Community C
Community B
2.6
32
OJ
CO
-------
139
APPENDIX A
TABLE 30
DDT AND ETHION LEVELS IN THE AIR
BEFORE AND AFTER APPLICATION46
Concentration (
Time __ DDT __ Ethion
7 days prior <35.3* <35.3*
to application
12 hours after 10,600 3,800
application
7 days after 1,765 353
application
14 days after 70.6 <35.3*
application
21 days after <35.3* <35.3*
application
30 days after <35.3* <35-3*
application
*Less than sensitivity of detection.
-------
140
APPENDIX A
TABLE 31
PHENOXY HERBICIDES IN THE AIR AT TWO WASHINGTON SITES, 1964*
Collector
2,4-D Esters
Methyl Isopropyl Butyl Isooctyl 2,4, 5-T Methyl Ester
TOLLMAN
Number of Days Found (out of 99)
Impactora 3 29 13 9
Impinger"'c 5 1
Average Concentration of Ester Found, M.g/m3
Impactor 0.006 0.116 0.059 0.045
Impinger 0.031 0.007
Maximum Concentration of Ester Found, M-g/m3
Impactor 0.34 1.96 1.04 3.38
Impinger 1.00 0.69
Impactor
Impinger
Impactor
Impinger
Impactor
Impinger
KENNEWICK
Number of Days Found (out of 102)
5 39 22 1
4 15 5
Average Concentration of Ester Found, M-g/m3
0.017 0.073 0.079 0.005
0.055 0.078 0.028
Maximum Concentration of Ester Found, [ag/m3
0.47 0.72 0.82 0.53
5.12 1.30 1.27
14
7
0.012
0.013
0.63
0.78
, Aerosol sample.
cData on methyl esters include the sum of all salts and
amines which were converted to the methyl ester for analysis.
-------
141
APPENDIX A
TABLE 32
CONCENTRATIONS OF p,p'-DDT ASSOCIATED WITH SUSPENDED
PARTICULATE MATTER IN PITTSBURGH AIR IN 19647
Particulate
Sample Period
6/22- 7/6
7/6 - 7/20
7/20- 8/3
8/4 - 8/18
8/31- 9/14
9/15- 9/29
10/2 -10/16
10/19-11/2
11/3 -11/17
11/18-12/2
Respirable
0.00
1.14
0.23
0.06
<*
0.13
.10
<*
<*
0.11
Nonrespirable
0.10
1.22
<*
<*
<*
<*
<*
<*
<*
<*
* < Indicates less than a detectable amount.
-------
142
APPENDIX A
TABLE 33
ORGANOCHLORINE PESTICIDES FOUND IN LONDON AIR2
Concentration* Found by Gas-Liquid Chromatoaraphy
Compound Silicone E. 301 Apj-ezon L
Alpha-BHC 1 1
Gamma-BHC 5 11
Dieldrin (HEOD) 18 21
p, p'-DDE 4 7
p, p ' -DDT 3 3
p, p'-TDE 3 3
*Grams per 1012 gram or 3g/10 g.
-------
APPENDIX A
TABLE 34
MAXIMUM PESTICIDE LEVELS FOUND IN AIR SAMPLES64
(Levels in ug/m )
Pesticides
p/P'-DDT
o , p ' -DDT
p.p1 -DDE
o , p ' -DDE
alpha-BHC
Lindane
beta-BHC
delta-BHC
Heptachlor
Aldrin
Toxaphene
2, 4-D
Dieldrin
Baltimore
(123
Samples)
0.0195
(89)*
0.003
(59)
0.0024
(4)
0.0045
(27)
0.0026
(4)
0.0022
(4)
Buffalo
(57
Samples)
0.011
(40)
0.0029
(24)
Dothan
(90
Samples)
0.177
(88)
0.088
(72)
0.0132
(32)
0.0039
(13)
0.068
(11)
Fresno
(120
Samples)
0.0112
(62)
0.0055
(28)
0.0064
(3)
0.0045
(4)
Iowa City
(94
Samples)
0.0027
(56)
0.0021
(21)
0.0037
(10)
0.0044
(9)
0.0001
(1)
0.0192
(37)
0.0080
(1)
Orlando
(99
Samples )
1.56
(99)
.5
(95)
.131
(29)
0.0096
(7)
0.0023
(7)
2.520
(9)
0.0297
(50)
Riverside
(94
Samples )
0.0244
(85)
0.0062
(44)
0.0113
(6)
Salt Lake
City
(100
Samples )
0.0086
(62)
0.0014
(29)
0.0099
(30)
0.007
(24)
0.0018
(3)
0.0099
(5)
0.0040
(1)
Stoneville
(98
Samples )
0.95
(98)
0.25
(98)
0.047
(76)
0.0019
(25)
1.340
(55)
-------
APPENDIX A
TABLE 34 (Continued)
MAXIMUM PESTICIDE LEVELS FOUND IN AIR SAMPLES
(Levels in lag/in )
Pesticides
Endrin
Parathion
Methyl
parathion
Ma lath ion
DEF
Baltimore
(123
Samples )
Buffalo
(57
Samples )
Dothan
(90
Samples
0.0296
(9)
Fresno
(120
Samples )
Iowa City
(94
Samples )
Orlando
(99
Samples
0.465
(37)
0.0054
(3)
0.0020
(4)
i
Riverside
(94
Samples )
Salt Lake
City
(] 00
Samples )
Stoneville
(98
Samples )
0.0585
(25)
0.129
(40)
0. 016
(12)
*Value in parenthesis indicates the number of
pesticide (about 0.001 g/m ).
amles contain i.ncj detectable amounts of the
-------
145
APPENDIX A
TABLE 35
HORIZONTAL TRANSPORT OF PARTICLES IN LIGHT WINDS^
Drop Diameter
Distance Traveled
in 3 mph Wind
400
150
100
50
20
10
2
Coarse aircraft spray
Medium aircraft spray
Fine aircraft spray
Air carrier sprayers
Fine spray and dusts
Usual dusts and aerosols
Aerosols
8.5 ft
22 ft
48 ft
178 ft
0.21 mile
0.84 mile
21 miles
TABLE 36
HORIZONTAL DRIFT OF SPRAYED PARTICLES
76
Drift of Particles When Sprayed from 5-ft Height
Particle Diameter
(U)
1 mph
Crosswind Speed
5 mph 10 mph
100
300
600
800
7 ft, 6
9
3
2
inches
inches
inches
inches
37
4
1
ft,
ft,
ft,
6
3
1
6
inches
inches
inch
inches
75
8
2
1
ft
ft,
ft,
ft,
4
1
3
inches
inch
inches
Drift of Particles When Sprayed from 50-ft Height
100
300
600
800
75 ft
8 ft, 4 inches
2 ft, 1 inch
1 ft, 3 inches
375 ft
42 ft
10 ft, 5 inches
5 ft, 9 inches
750 ft
83 ft
20 ft, 8 inches
12 ft
-------
APPENDIX A
146
TABLE 37
DEATHS FROM SOME INSECT-BORNE DISEASES, UNITED STATES44
Year
Malaria
Rocky Mountain
Spotted Fever
Arthropod-
Borne
Tularemia
1940
1945
1950
1955
1960
1,442
443
76
18
7
83
128
31
8
11
189
122
15
9
4
a
a
65b
32
a
aNot separately available.
b
'Data for 1952.
TABLE 38
REPORTED CASES OF SELECTED NOTIFIABLE DISEASES, UNITED STATES
111
Year
Dengue Malaria
Rocky Mountain
Spotted Fever
Tularemia
Murine
Typhus
1930
1935
1940
1945
1950
1955
1960
1961
203
582
66
106
26
98,491
137,513
78,129
62,763
2,184
522
72
73
197
492
457
472
464
295
204
219
661
782
1,620
900
927
584
390
365
511
1,287
1,878
5,193
685
135
68
46
-------
APPENDIX A
TABLE 39
EFFECTS OF INSECTICIDE USE ON CROP YIELDS44
COTTON CROPS
Location
Florence, S.C.
Tallulah, La.
Waco, Tex.
Years
1928-58
1920-56
1939-58
AH Years
40.6
31.2
41.8
Percent Increase
Pre-1945
23.6
26.4
34.0
in Yields
Since
53.
41.
53.
1945
9
3
0
SMALL GRAIN CROPS
Yield (Ib/acre)
Crop
Wheat
Oats
Barley
Year
1951
1952
1952
1956
1956
1951
1952
1954
1951
1954
Location
Oklahoma
Oklahoma
Oklahoma
Texas
Texas
Oklahoma
Oklahoma
Oklahoma
Oklahoma
Oklahoma
Untreated
54
762
546
804
1, 380
976
227
68
58
379
Treated
666
1,242
1,398
1,254
2,134
1,214
1,308
1, 361
566
1,373
Percent Increase
after Treatment
with Parathion
1,133
63
156
56
54
24
476
1, 901
876
262
-J
-------
APPENDIX A
148
TABLE 40
EFFECTS OF HERBICIDE USE ON CROP YIELDS44
VEGETABLE CROPS
Crop
Weeds Involved
Herbicide
Used
Percent Increase
in Yields in
Experimental Plots
Carrots
Lettuce
Onions
Spinach
Sweet Potatoes
Tomatoes
Annual weeds
Annual weeds
Pigweed, purslane,
henbit, crabgrass,
barnyard grass
Annual weeds
Pigweed, lambs-
quarter, barnyard
grass, foxtail,
plantain
Arniben
Amiben
CIPC
CIPC
CDAA
Solan
157
86
561
12
27
140
RANGELAND FORAGE CROPS
Crop
Weeds Involved
Yield (Ib/acre)
Without With Percent
Herbicide Herbicide Herbicide Increase
Forage, airdry
Forage, dry
matter eaten
by cattle
Forage, overdry
Shinnery oak 2,4,5-T 635
Blackjack oak 2,4,5-T 2,200
and associated
species
Low-grade hard- 2,4,5-T 220
woods (Ozarks)
1,640
7,100
1,210
258
323
550
Grass, airdry
Herbage produc-
tion
Grass, average
production
Forage grasses
Forage (animal
unit months)
Forage, airdry
Sagebrush
Sagebrush
Mesquite (Ariz.)
Port -black jack
oak
Sagebrush
Mixed hardwoods
2,4-D
2,4-D
2,4,5-T
2,4,5-T
2,4-D
2,4,5-T
526
159
157
223
702
164
2, 075
502
645
1,290
1, 372
1,796
394
316
411
578
195
1, 095
(continued)
-------
149
APPENDIX A
TABLE 40 (Continued)
EFFECTS OF HERBICIDE USE ON CROP YIELDS
PASTURE FORAGE CROPS
Yield (Ib/acre)
Crop
Forage herbage
Ladino clove
Forage grass
Forage
Alfalfa
Birdsfoot
trefoil
Alfalfa
Weeds Involved
Perennial and
annual
Curly dock
Perennial and
annual
Undesirable
grasses
Winter annuals
Annuals
Annuals
Herbicide
2,4-D
4-(2,4-DB)
2,4-D
TCA
CIPC
Dalapon
4-(2,4-DB)
Without
Herbicide
1, 100
2,800
2,000
2, 100
3, 000
80
460
With
Herbicide
2,800
6, 000
4, 000
5,400
4,600
3,860
1, 750
Percent
Increase
254
214
200
257
153
4,825
380
-------
APPENDIX A
TABLE 41
EFFECTS OF FUNGICIDE USE ON CROP YIELDS44
ORCHARD CROPS
Yield
Crop
Apple
Apple
Peach
Peach
Peach
Cherry
Grape
Pecan
Disease Funqicide
Scab Captan
Powdery mildew Karaltane
Brown rot Captan
Leaf curl Ferbani
Scab Captan
Leaf spot Dodine
Black rot Ferbam
Scab Dodine
Untreated
2 ton/acre
3 ton/acre
3 . 5 ton/acre
1 ton/acre
0.5 ton/acre
1, 700 Ib/acre
1, 000 Ib/acre
100 Ib/acre
Treated
8 ton/acre
6 . 5 ton/acre
6.8 ton/acre
7 ton/acre
7 ton/acre
2,600 Ib/acre
8, 000 Ib/acre
300 Ib/acre
Percent
Quality Yield
Untreated
1 ton/acre,
good
2 ton/acre,
good
1.7 ton/acre,
good-fancy
1 ton/acre,
poor cull
0.5 ton/acre,
poor cull
1, 300 Ib/acre,
good-fancy
50 Ib/acre,
poor-good
Treated Increase
7.0 ton/acre,
good-fancy
6.0 ton/acre,
good-fancy
6.5 ton/acre,
good-fancy
6 ton/acre,
good-fancy
6.5 ton/acre,
good-fancy
2,600 Ib/acre,
good-fancy
150 Ib/acre,
fancy
300
117
126
600
1, 300
53
700
200
(continued)
-------
APPENDIX A
TABLE 41 (Continued)
EFFECTS OF FUNGICIDE USE ON CROP YIELDS
VEGETABLE CROPS
Yield
Crop
Tomatoes
Cucumber
Potatoes
Potatoes
Potatoes
Potatoes
Sweet corn
Lima beans
Disease
Early blight
and gray
leaf spot
Scab
Late blight
Late blight
and early
blight
Verticillium
wilt
Scab and scurf
Helminthospor-
ium blight
Downy mildew
anthracnose
Fungicide Untreated
Maneb
Maneb
Maneb
Maneb
Vaf am
PCNB
Zineb
Maneb
Zineb
4.6 ton/acre
51 bu/acre
360 cwt*/acre
258 cwt*/acre
74 cwt*/acre
232 cwt*/acre
862 Ib/acre
2,180 Ib/acre
82 bu/acre
Percent
Quality Yield
Treated Untreated Treated Increase
1.8
148
418
402
330
300
ton/acre
bu/acre 31% U.S. 1 74% U.S. 1
cwt*/acre
cwt*/acre
cwt*/acre
cwt*/acre 40 cwt*/acre, 224 cwt*/acre,
U.S. 1 ' U.S. 1
1,724 Ib/acre 385 Ib/acre, 1,339 Ib/acre,
fancy fancy
3,855 Ib/acre
355 bu/acre .,,
293
190
16
56
347
29
100
77
333
u\
(continued)
-------
APPENDIX A
TABLE 41 (Continued)
EFFECTS OF FUNGICIDE USE ON CROP YIELDS
VEGETABLE CROPS
Percent
Yield Quality Yield
Crop
Onions
Corn
Cotton
Disease
Downy mildew
Seedling blight
Seedling
diseases
Fungicide
Zineb
Thiram
Caresa
Untreated
125 lb/300
bulbs
87.1 bu/acre
2,487 Ib/acre
Treated Untreated
217 lb/300
bulbs
95. 9 bu/acre
2, 750 Ib/acre
Treated Increase
70
10
11
*cwt=hundred weight.
to
-------
153
APPENDIX A
TABLE 42
INCREASING ANALYTICAL SENSITIVITY
(MINIMUM DETECTABILITY) FOR PESTICIDES35
Year Sensitivity
1930 10 ppm
1935 10 ppm
1940 10 ppm
1945 1 ppm
1950 0.1 ppm
1955 0.02 ppm
1960 1 ppb
1965 0.1 ppb
-------
154
APPENDIX A
TABLE 43
MAJOR RESIDUE ANALYTICAL INSTRUMENTATION OR TECHNIQUES AND
THEIR RESIDUE APPLICATIONS
Instrumentation or Technique
Application
Precision colorimetry
Gas chromatography, variety
of detectors
Ultraviolet spectrophotometry
Infrared spectrophotometry
Radiotracer scanning and
counting
Micropolarography
Mass spectrometry
Nuclear magnetic resonance
spectrometry
Hydrogen ion measurement
Thin-layer chromatography
Paper chromatography
Column chromatography
Measurement, rarely to support
identification, sensitive
Segregation, measurement, poor
for identification,
sensitive
Measurement, occasionally to
support identification,
sensitive
Measurement, superior for
comparative identification,
sensitive
Measurement, often superior
for identification of
element sought, very
sensitive
Measurement, often superior
for identification, very
sens itive
Measurement, identification,
not sensitive
Comparative, identification,
not sensitive
Measurement, can be sensitive
Segregation, poor for
identification, rapid,
versatile, can be sensitive
Segregation, poor for
identification, sensitive
Segregation, poor for
identification, not
sensitive
(continued)
-------
155
APPENDIX A
TABLE 43 (Continued)
MAJOR RESIDUE ANALYTICAL INSTRUMENTATION OR TECHNIQUES AND
THEIR RESIDUE APPLICATIONS
Instrumentation or Technique
Application
Countercurrent distribution
Fluorescence spectrometry
Phosphorescence spectrometry
Paper and zone electrophoresis
Titrimetry
X-ray spectrometry
Segregation, identification
by p-values, not sensitive
Measurement, identification,
very sensitive
Measurement, identification,
very sensitive
Segregation, characterization,
sensitive
Measurement, sensitive
Measurement, identification
sensitive
-------
156
APPENDIX A
TABLE 44
CHRONOLOGY OF GAS CHROMATOGRAPHIC DETECTION
SYSTEMS USED IN PESTICIDE RESIDUE EVALUATIONS106
Detection
System
Flame ionization
Electron-capture
Microcoulometric
Beilstein flame
Thermionic
Electrolytic-
conductivity
Spectrometric :
Microwave emission
Flame emission
Mass
Infrared
Ultraviolet
Responding
Element(s)
C
Electron-
transferring
Cl
S
N
Cl
C1,P
C1,S
C1,S,N
C1,S,PC
S,P
Structural
units
Bonding
Pi
electrons
Year
Announced
1958
1960
1960
1961
1966
1961
1964
1964
1965
1965
1966
1966
1960
Being
developed
Approximate Minimum
Detectability
Ideal"1 Practical
ng lag
pg ng
ng ng
ng lag
ng tag
ng lag
pg ng
tag lag
ng ng
d d
ng ng
pg ng
^g ^ge
M-g Mg
|ag-mg fag-mg
aWith purified compounds and purified solvents.
bln the presence of substrate extractives, after some "cleanup."
cDemonstrable in various oxidation states.
dOrganophosphates.
eAbout 0.1 M-g in some residue studies.
-------
APPENDIX B
-------
APPENDIX B
PESTICIDE GLOSSARY31'68, 69,92
Common Name
Abate
aery Ion itrile
aldrin
aluminum phosphide
amiben
ammonium sulfamate
ANTU
atrazine
a.z inphosmethy 1
Azodrin
Chemical Name
0,0-dimethyl phosphorothioate
0,0-diester with 4,4 ' -thiodiphenol
acrylon itr ile
1,2,3,4,10, 10-hexachloro-
1 , 4 , 4a , 5 , 8 , 8a-hexahydro-l , 4-endoexo-
5 , 8-dimethanonaphthalene
aluminum phosphide
amino-2 , 5-dichlorobenzoic acid
ammonium amidosulfate
alpha-naphthyl thiourea
2-chloro-4-ethylamino-6-
isopropylamino-s-tr iazine
0,0-dimethyl S [4-oxo-l ,2 ,J3-
benzotriazin-3 (4H)ylmethy]_3
phosphorodithioate
3-hydroxy-N-methyl-cis-crotonamide
dimethyl phosphate
Use
insecticide
fumigant
insecticide
insect fumigant
herbicide
herbicide
rodenticide
herbicide
fungicide
insecticide
f—
(Jl
00
(continued)
-------
APPENDIX B
PESTICIDE GLOSSARY
Common Name
baygon
benzene hexachlor ide
(BHC)
Bidrin
binapacryl
borax
Brassicol
bromoxynil
cacodylic acid
calcium arsenite
calcium cyanamide
carbaryl
Chemical Name
o-isopropoxyphenyl methyl carbamate
1,2,3,4,5 ,6-hexachlorocyclohexane
(mixture of isomers )
3-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyl-cis-
crotonamide dimethyl phosphate
2-sec-butyl-4 ,6-dinitrophenyl
3-methyl-2-butenoate
sodium biborate
pentachlorophenol
4-hydroxy-3 , 5-dibromobenzonitr ile
dimethylarsinic acid
mono-calcium arsenite
calcium carbimide
1-naphthyl N-methylcarbamate
Use
insecticide
insecticide
insecticide
insecticide
fungicide, herbicide
fungicide
herbicide
herbicide, defoliant
insecticide
herbicide
insecticide
Ul
(continued)
-------
APPENDIX B
PESTICIDE GLOSSARY
Common Name
carbon disulfide
carbon tetrachloride
carbophenothion
CDAA
chloranil
chlordane
chlorobenzilate
chloroform
chloropicrin
chloroxuron
Chemical Name
carbon disulfide
carbon tetrachloride
S-[ C(p-chlorophenyl) thioj methyl]
0,0-diethyl phosphor odithioate
2-chloro-N,N-diallylacetamide
tetrachloro-p-benzoquinone
1,2,3,5,6,7,8 , 8-octachloro-
2 , 3 , 3a , 4 , 7 , 7a-hexahydro-4 , 7-
methanoindene
ethyl 4,4 ' -dichlorobenzilate
chloroform
trich lor on itrome thane
N1 -(4-chlorophenoxy) phenyl N,N-
dimethylurea
Use
insecticide ,
fumigant
insecticide
insecticide
herbicide
fungicide
insecticide
insecticide
insect fumigant and
ingredient in screw-
worm smears
fumigant, insecti-
cide, fumicide,
rodent repellent
herbicide
(continued)
-------
APPENDIX B
PESTICIDE GLOSSARY
Common Name
Chemical Name
Use
Ciodrin
alpha-methyIbenzyl 3-hydroxycrotonate
dimethyl phosphate
insecticide
coal tar
by-product of coal distillation
insecticide,
fungicide
Compound 5353
m(1-methylbutyl) phenyl
methylcarbamate
copper naphthenate
cupric cyclopentanecarboxylate
fungicide, especial-
ly in wood and
fabric preservation
copper 8-quinolino-
late
copper 8-hydroxyquinolinate
fungicide
copper sulfate
(blue copperas)
cupric sulfate
fungicide
coumaphos
0,0-diethyl 0-(3-chloro-4-methyl-
2-oxo-2H-l-benzopyran-7-yl)
phosphorothioate
insecticide
Crag 169
copper zinc chromate complexes
fungicide
creosote
creosote, a mixture of phenols
obtained from wood tar
wood preservative
(continued)
-------
APPENDIX B
PESTICIDE GLOSSARY
Common Name
cryolite
cube (root)
2,4-D
dalapon
DBA
DDE
DDT
demeton
Dexon
Diazinon
Chemical Name
sodium hexaf luoroaluminate
rotenone
2 , 4-dichlo.rophenoxyacetic acid
2 , 2-dichloropropionic acid,
sodium salt
bis: (chlorophenyl) acetic acid,
(degradation product of DDT)
dichlorodiphenyl dichlorethylene
(degradation product of DDT)
1,1, l-trichloro~2 , 2-bis
p-chlorophenyl) ethane
mixture of 0,0-diethyl S(and 0)-
[2 - ( e thylthio ) ethyl]
phosphor othioates
p-dimsthylaminobenzenediazo
sodium sulfonate
0,0-diethyl 0-(2-isopropyl
Use
insecticide
insecticide
herbicide
herbicide
insecticide
insecticide
insecticide
I
— )
(continued)
-------
APPENDIX B
PESTICIDE GLOSSARY
Common Name
dichlone
Chemical Name
2,3-dichloro-l,4-naphthoquinone
Use
fungicide, herbicide
d ichloropropene
1,3-d ichloropropylene
soil fumigant,
herbicide, insecti-
cide, fungicide,
nematocide
dichlorvos (DDVP)
0,O-dimethyl-0-2,2-dichlorovinyl
phosphate
insecticide
dicofol
4,4 '-dichloro-alpha-
i (trichloromethyl)-benzhydrol
dieldrin
1,2,3,4,10,10-hexachloro-6,7-
epoxy-1,4,4a,5,6,7,8,8a-octahydro-
1,4-endo-exo-5,8-dimethano-
naphthalene
insecticide
insecticide
dimethoate
0,0-dimethyl S-(N-
methylcarbamoylmethyl)
phosphorodithioate
systemic acaricide,
insecticide
dinitrocresol
4,6-dinitro-o-cresol
insecticide,
herbicide
diquat
1,1'-ethylene-2,2'-dipyridinium
d ibromide
herbicide, desiccant
(continued)
-------
APPENDIX B
PESTICIDE GLOSSARY
Common Name
disulfoton
diuron
Chemical Name
0,0-diethyl S- [2-(ethylthio) ethyl]
phosphorodithioate
Use
insecticide
3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-
dimethylurea
herbicide
DN-111
dicyclohexylamine salt of
2-cyclohexyl-4,6-dinitrophenol
insecticide
DNBP
(dinitrobutylphenol)
2 ,4-dinitro-6 -sec-butylphenol
2,4-DP (dichlorprop)
2-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)
propionic acid
endosulfan
6,7,8,9,10,10-hexachloro-
1,5,5a,6,9,-9a-hexahydro-
6,9-methano-2,4,3-benzodi-
oxathiepin 3-oxide
endrin
1,2,3,4,10,10-hexachloro-6,7-
epoxy-1,4,4a,5,6,7,8,8a-
octahydro-1,4-endo-endo-5,8-
dimethanonaphthalene
EPN
O-ethyl-0-p-nitrophenyl
phenylphosphonothioate
herbicide,
insecticide
herbicide
insecticide
insecticide
insecticide
(continued)
-------
APPENDIX B
PESTICIDE GLOSSARY
Common Name
ethion
ethylene dibromide
ethyl formate
ethylene dichloride
ethylene oxide
f enthion
ferbam
Fumazone
heptachlor
hydrogen cyanide
Chemical Name
0,0,0' , 0 ' -tetraethyl
S , S ' -methylenebisphosphorodithioate
1 , 2 -d ibromo ethane
ethyl formate
1 , 2-dichloroethane
ethylene oxide
0,0-dimethyl [o- 4-(methylthio) -
m-tolyll phosphorothioate
ferric dimethyldithiocarbamate
1 , 2-dibromo-3-chloropropane
1,4,5,6,7,8, 8-heptachloro-
3a , 4 , 7 , 7a-tetrahydro-4 , 7-endo-
methanoindene
hydrocyanic acid
Use
insecticide
fumigant, nematocide
f umigant
insecticide
herbicide
acaricide ,
insecticide, bird
control
fungicide
soil fumigant,
nematocide
insecticide
insect fumigant
(continued)
-------
APPENDIX B
PESTICIDE GLOSSARY
Common Name
Chemical Name
Use
Kepone
decachlorobctahydro-1,3,4-metheno-
2H-cyclobuta [cd] pentalen-2-one
insecticide
lead arsenate
diplumbic hydrogen arsenate
insecticide,
fungicide
lime sulfur
30 percent calcium polysulfide
and various small amount of
calcium thiosulfate plus water
and free sulfur
acaricide,
fungicide,
insecticide
lindans
gamma isomer of 1,2,3/4,5/6-
hexachlorocyclohexane of 99+%
insecticide
malathion
S- [l, 2-bis (ethoxycarbonyl) ethyl]
0,0-dimethyl phosphorodithioate
insecticide
MCPA
4-chloro-2-methyl-phenoxyacetic
acid
herbicide
MGPB
4-chloro-2-methylphenoxy
butyric acid
herbicide
MGPP
metaldehyde
2-(4, chloro-2-methyl-phenoxy)
propionic acid
metaldehyde
herbicide
insecticide
(continued)
-------
APPENDIX B
PESTICIDE GLOSSARY
Common Name
methoxychlor
methyl bromide
methyl chloride
methyl formate
methyl par a th ion
Methyl Trithion
mevinphos
mirex
Mores tan
nabam
Chemical Name
l,l,l-trichloro-2,2-bis (p-
methoxy phenol) ethane
br omome than e
ch 1 or ome thane
methyl formate
0,0-dimethyl 0-p-nitrophenyl
phosphor othioate
S- [[ (p-chlorophenyl) thio] methyl]
0,0-dimethyl phosphor odithioate
mathyl 3-hydroxy-alpha-crotonate
dimethyl phosphate
dodecachlo.rooctahydro-1, 3 ,4-
metheno-2H-cyclobuta [CdJ
pentalene
6 -me thy 1-2 -oxo-1 , 3-dithio
(4,5-b) quinoxaline
disodium ethylene bisdithio-
carbamate
Use
insecticide
fumigant
aerosol propellent
insect fumigant
insecticide
insecticide
insecticide
insecticide
acaricide, fungicide
fungicide
(continued)
-------
APPENDIX B
PESTICIDE GLOSSARY
Common Name
naled
naphthalene
neburon
Nemacide
nicotine
nicotine sulfate
ovex
paradichloro"benzene
Paraquat
par a th ion
paris green
Chemical Name
1 , 2-dibromo-2 , 3-dichloroethyl
dimethyl phosphate
naphthalene
3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-l-methyl-
1 -n -but y lur e a
0-2,4-dichlorophenyl 0,0-diethyl
phosphorothioate
L-3-( l-methyl-2-pyrolidyl)
pyr idine
nicotine sulfate
p-chlorophenyl p-chlorobenzene-
sulf onate
p-dichlorobenzene
1,1' -dime thy 1-4, 4' -dipyridylium
cation
0,0-diethyl-O-p-nitrophenyl
phosphorothioate
copper acetoarsenite
Use
insecticide
insecticide
herbicide
insecticide
insecticide
insecticide
insecticide
insect fumigant
herbicide
acaricide ,
insecticide
insecticide
oo
(continued)
-------
APPENDIX B
PESTICIDE GLOSSARY
Common Name
Chemical Name
Use
Patoran
4-(4-bromophenyl)-1-methyl-l'-
methoxyurea
herbicide
pentachlorophenol
sodium pentachlorophenate
defoliant, herbicide,
insecticide, fumgi-
cide, wood
preservative
Perthane
1,l-dichloro-2,2-bis(p-ethylphenyl)
ethane
insecticide
petroleum oils
acaricide,
insecticide,
herbicide
phorate
0,0-diethyl S- [(e thy Ithio) methyl!
phosphorodithioate
insecticide
phosphamidon
2-chloro-2-diethylcarbamoyl-l-
methylvinyl dimethyl phosphate
insecticide
pindone
2-pinaloyl-l,3-indandione
rodenticide,
insecticide
piperonyl butoxide
(butyl carbitol) (6-propyl
piperone) ether
insecticide
synergist
PMA
phenylmercurie acetate
fungicide, herbicide
(continued)
-------
APPENDIX B
PESTICIDE GLOSSARY
Common Name
propanil
propylene chloride
propylene oxide
pyrazon
pyrethrins
pyre thrum
red squill
ronnel
rotenone
Ruelene
Chemical Name
3' ,4' -dichloropropionanilide
dichloropropane
propylene oxide
5-amino-4-chloro-2-phenyl-3
(2H) pyridazinone
the active insecticidal con-
stituents of pyrethrum
dalmatian insect flowers
inner bulb scales of Urqinea maritima
0 , 0-dimethyl 0-2 , 4 , 5-tr ichlorophenyl
phosphor othioate
the primary active compound of
derris and cube roots
4— tert-butyl-2— chlorophenyl methyl
methylphosphoramidate
Use
herbicide
soil fumigant,
herbicide,
insecticide ,
fungicide, nematocide
insecticide synergist
herbicide
insecticide
insecticide
rodenticide
insecticide
insecticide
insecticide
(continued)
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APPENDIX B
PESTICIDE GLOSSARY
Common Name
ryania
sabadilla
sodium arsenite
sodium chlorate
sodium N-
me thyld ith iocarbama te
Strobane
strychnine
sulfur (brimstone)
sulfuryl fluoride
Chemical Name
powdered stemwood of Ryan ia
speciosa
ground seeds of sabadilla containing
vera trine, a complex mixture of
alkaloids
sodium meta-arsenite
sodium chlorate
sodium N-methyldithiocarbamate
terpene polychlorinates
Nux vomica alkaloid
sulfur
sulfuryl fluoride
Use
insecticide
insecticide
herbicide, insect
poison bait
ingredient
herbicide
(desiccant )
fungicide, herbicide,
nematocide
insecticide
rodenticides ; used in
poison baits for
birds, moles, and
other rodents
acaricide ,
fungicide
insecticide, fumigant
H
^1
H
(continued)
-------
APPENDIX B
PESTICIDE GLOSSARY
Common Name
Sumithion
2,4,5-T
tartar emetic
2,3,6-TBA
TDE (DDD)
Telone
TEPP
tetradifon
thiram
toxaphene
Chemical Name
0,0-dimethyl 0-( 4-nitro-m-tolyl)
phosphor othioate
2 ,4, 5-trichorophenoxyacetic acid
antimony potassium tartrate
2 , 3 ,6-trichlorobenzoic acid
2, 2 -bis ( p-chlorophenyl } -1, 1-
dichloroe thane
mixed dichloropropenes
tetraethyl pyrophosphate
p-chlorophenyl 2 ,4,5-trichloro-
phenyl sulfone
tetramethyl thiuram disulfide
chlorinated camphene
Use
Insecticide, space
fumigant
herbicide
herbicide
herbicide
insecticide
insecticide
insecticide
insecticide
fungicide, animal
repellent
insecticide
-J
tsJ
(continued)
-------
APPENDIX B
PESTICIDE GLOSSARY
Common Name
trichlorfon
2 , 4,5-trichlorophenol
warfarin
white arsenic
Zectran
zinc white
zineb
Zinophos
Chemical Name
0,0-dimethyl ( l-hydroxy-2 , 2 , 2-
trichloroethyl) phosphonate
sodium 2 ,4 , 5-trichlorophenate
3-(l'-phenyl-2 ' -acetylethyl) -4-
hydroxy-coumar in
arsenic trioxide
4-dimethylamino-3 , 5-xylyl
N-methylcarbamate
zinc oxide
zinc ethylene bisdithiocarbamate
0,0-diethyl 0-2-pyrazinyl
phosphor othioate
Use
systemic insecticide
fungicide
rodenticide
animal dip, herbicide,
ingredient in insect
baits
pesticide for control
of snails and slugs
ingredient in animal
remedies
fungicide
insecticide ,
fungicide, nematocide
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