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              AIR POLLUTION ASPECTS

                        OF

              RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES
                Prepared for the
  National Air Pollution Control Administration
Consumer Protection & Environmental Health Service
   Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
            (Contract No. PH-22-68-25)
             Compiled by Sydney Miner
               Litton Systems, Inc.
          Environmental Systems Division
                7300 Pearl Street
             Bethesda, Maryland 20014

                  September 1969

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                          FOREWORD


       As the concern for air quality grows, so does the con-

cern over the less ubiquitous but potentially harmful contami-

nants that are in our atmosphere.  Thirty such pollutants have

been identified, and available information has been summarized

in a series of reports describing their sources, distribution,

effects, and control technology for their abatement.

       A total of 27 reports have been prepared covering the

30 pollutants.  These reports were developed under contract

for the National Air Pollution Control Administration  (NAPCA) by

Litton Systems, Inc.  The complete listing is as follows:


    Aeroallergens (pollens)       Ethylene
    Aldehydes (includes acrolein  Hydrochloric Acid
      and formaldehyde)           Hydrogen Sulfide
    Ammonia                       Iron and Its Compounds
    Arsenic and Its Compounds     Manganese and Its Compounds
    Asbestos                      Mercury and Its Compounds
    Barium and Its Compounds      Nickel and Its Compounds
    Beryllium and Its Compounds   Odorous Compounds
    Biological Aerosols           Organic Carcinogens
      (microorganisms)            Pesticides
    Boron and Its Compounds       Phosphorus and Its Compounds
    Cadmium and Its Compounds     Radioactive Substances
    Chlorine Gas                  Selenium and Its Compounds
    Chromium and Its Compounds    Vanadium and Its Compounds
      (includes chromic acid)     Zinc and Its Compounds


       These reports represent current state-of-the-art

literature reviews supplemented by discussions with selected

knowledgeable individuals both within and outside the Federal

Government.  They do not however presume to be a synthesis of

available information but rather a summary without an attempt

to interpret or reconcile conflicting data.  The reports are

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necessarily limited in their discussion of health effects for

some pollutants to descriptions of occupational health expo-

sures and animal laboratory studies since only a few epidemio-

logic studies were available.

       Initially these reports were generally intended as

internal documents within NAPCA to provide a basis for sound

decision-making on program guidance for future research

activities and to allow ranking of future activities relating

to the development of criteria and control technology docu-

ments.  However, it is apparent that these reports may also

be of significant value to many others in air pollution control,

such as State or local air pollution control officials, as a

library of information on which to base informed decisions on

pollutants to be controlled in their geographic areas.  Addi-

tionally, these reports may stimulate scientific investigators

to pursue research in needed areas.  They also provide for the

interested citizen readily available information about a given

pollutant.  Therefore, they are being given wide distribution

with the assumption that they will be used with full knowledge

of their value and limitations.

       This series of reports was compiled and prepared by the

Litton personnel listed below:

       Ralph J. Sullivan
       Quade R. Stahl, Ph.D.
       Norman L. Durocher
       Yanis C. Athanassiadis
       Sydney Miner
       Harold Finkelstein, Ph.D.
       Douglas A. Olsen, Ph0D.
       James L. Haynes

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       The NAPCA project officer for the contract was Ronald C.




Campbell, assisted by Dr. Emanuel Landau and Gerald Chapman.




       Appreciation is expressed to the many individuals both




outside and within NAPCA who provided information and reviewed




draft copies of these reports.  Appreciation is also expressed




to the NAPCA Office of Technical Information and Publications




for their support in providing a significant portion of the




technical literature.

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                         ABSTRACT






        Radiation produces somatic effects  (for example,




leukemia) and genetic effects in man.  Since the genetic




effects of various amounts of radiation cannot always be




determined, many scientists accept the belief that there




appears to be no threshold for the biological damage from




radiation.




        Atmospheric radiation arises both from natural




sources—such as rocks, soils, and cosmic rays—and from




artificial sources, such as nuclear explosions and the nuclear




industry in general.  Experience to date has shown that the




amount of radiation reaching the general public through




releases from the nuclear industry is insignificant when com-




pared with the natural radiation dose, even though there is a




potential for radiation release from all facets of the nuclear




industry.  However, because of projected nuclear expansion,




there is evidence that krypton-85 released from fuel reprocess-




ing may be a problem.  The dose to the population from nuclear




weapons testing was more significant, amounting to levels about



5 to 10 percent higher than the levels of natural radioactivity.




The United States Atomic Energy Commission has established




maximum permissible concentrations for radionuclides that can




be released from nuclear plants.




        Extensive efforts are employed in the nuclear industries




to prevent emission of radioactive substances into the atmo-




sphere.  The cost of these abatement procedures has been

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estimated at approximately 10 percent of the total cost of



the nuclear plant.  No information has been found on the



costs of damage resulting from radioactive pollution of the



atmosphere.



        Many methods with a high degree of accuracy and sensi-



tivity are available for the determination of atmospheric



concentrations of radioactive substances.

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                         CONTENTS


FOREWORD

ABSTRACT

1.  INTRODUCTION	«, .   1

2.  EFFECTS	•	„ . .   7

    2.1  Effects on Humans	   7
         2.1.1  Types of Exposure	   8
         2.1.2  Biological Effects 	   9
                2.1.2.1  Somatic Effects 	  10
                         2.1.2.1,1  Leukemia 	  10
                         2.1.2.1.2  Other Cancers. ...  11
                         2.1.2.1.3  Cataracts	13
                         2.1.2.1.4  Effect on Life Span.  14
                2.1.2.2  Genetic Effects 	  15
                2.1.2.3  Acute Exposure	„  16
    2.2  Effects on Animals	17
         2.2.1  Commercial and Domestic Animals	17
         2.2.2  Experimental Animals	„  20
    2.3  Effects on Plants	23
    2.4  Effects on Materials	24
    2.5  Environmental Air Standards 	  24
         2.5.1  Maximum Permissible Dose (MPD) .  . . . ,  25
         2.5.2  Maximum Permissible Concentrations (MPC)  26

3.  SOURCES	29

    3.1  Natural Occurrence	29
         3.1.1  Radioactive Dusts. 0	29
         3.1.2  Cosmic Rays	30
         3.1.3  Combustion Emissions o .... a  ... o  30
         3.1.4  Natural Radioactivity	31
    3.2  Production Sources	33
         3.2.1  Production of Nuclear Fuel	33
                3.201.1  Mining, Milling, and Refining
                           of Uranium	34
                3.2.1.2  Fuel Fabrication. . „	36
         3.2.2  Nuclear Reactors „	37
                3.2.2,1  Normal Reactor Operation. ...  39
                3.2.2.2  Reactor Accidents 	  42
         3.2.3  Fuel Reprocessing	44
         3.2.4  Nuclear Power Industry Projections ...  47
         3.2.5  Nuclear Tests	<,.„..  48
    3.3  Product Sources	0 .  53
         3.3.1  Aerospace Applications	0 .  55

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                   CONTENTS (Continued)


    3.4  Other Sources	56
    3.5  Environmental Air Concentrations	57

4.  ABATEMENT	60

    4.1  Control of Radioactive Pollution	60
         4.1.1  Limitation of the Emission of
                   Radioactive Pollutants	60
         4.1.2  Containment. . „ . . . . ,	61
         4.1.3  Dispersal	61
    4.2  Location of Facility Site	62
    4.3  Air Cleaning Methods	62
         4.3.1  Radioactive Particulates 	  63
         4.3.2  Wet Collection	, . . „  64
    4.4  Radioactive Gases and Vapors	65
         4.4.1  Chemisorption and Adsorption ...„».  66
         404.2  Absorption .	67
         4.4.3  Delay in Storage	„ . . .  67

5.  ECONOMICS	„	69

6.  METHODS OF ANALYSIS	71

    6.1  Sampling Methods	71
         6.1.1  Filters	71
         601.2  Impactors. ...... 	 „..  73
         6.1.3  Impingers	74
         6.1.4  Settling Trays	74
    6.2  Quantitative Methods	75
         6.2.1  Analysis of Collected Particulate
                   Samples for Activity	75
         602.2  Radioactive Particle Size Analysis ...  77
         6.2.3  GaseSo	78
                6.2.3.1  Iodine	78
                6.2.3.2  Tritium	81
                6.2.3.3  Noble Gases 	  82
                6.2.3.4  Other Radioactive Gases ....  82
         6.2.4  Air Quality Monitoring	  83

7.  SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. . . . . „	85

REFERENCES	„	90

APPENDIX A	109

APPENDIX Bo	114

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                     LIST OF FIGURES
1.  Estimated Capacity of Nuclear Power Plants 	 49

2.  Projected Expenditures for Construction
    Investment „	49

3.  Fuel Cycle Costs	50

4.  Monthly Mean Concentrations of Beta Radioactivity
    as Related to Testing of Nuclear Weapons 	 54

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LIST OF TABLES
1.
2.
3.

4.

5.


6.
7.
8.

9.

10.

11.

12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
200


Summary of Clinical Effects of Acute Ionizing

Lethal Response of Mammals and Fowl to Brief

Census of Laboratory Animals Used in Programs
of the Division of Biology and Medicine, U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission (as of Sept. 1, 1966) ...
Maximum Permissible Doses for Radiation Workers. . .

MPC for Some Selected Radionuclides for General

Radioactive Emissions from Fossil-Fired Power

Summary of Measurements of Natural Radioactivity

Environmental Radiation Levels Measured in










114
115

116

118


119
121
122

123

124

125

126
127
128
128
129
129
130
132
134
134

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                 LIST OF TABLES (Continued)


21.  Approximate Total Yield of All Nuclear Weapons
     Tests Through 1962	135

22.  Commercial Use of Nuclear Explosions ........ 136

23.  Gross Beta Radioactivity	137

24.  Radioactive Solids Removal in the Nuclear Industry . 141

25.  Radioactive Gas Removal Methods in Nuclear Industry. 144

26.  Costs for Dry Mechanical Dust Collectors	145

27.  Cost of Wet Dust Collectors Installed at AEC Sites . 146

28.  RBE For Types of Radiation	0	147

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1.  INTRODUCTION




            Atmospheric pollution by radioactive substances origi-




    nates as natural radioactivity that emanates from rocks or as




    artificial activity, which is a by-product of the nuclear




    industry.    Natural radioactivity was first discovered by




    Becquerel and the Curie^ at the turn of the century, while




    artificial sources (nuclear fission) were discovered by Hahn




    and Strassman about 30 years ago.  The air pollution aspects




    of radioactivity did not become apparent, however, until




    after the development of the atomic bomb and the techniques




    for harnessing nuclear energy during World War II.




            Prior to World War II, environmental radioactivity




    was a natural phenomenon which was studied by the relatively




    few highly specialized laboratories equipped to make radio-



    activity measurements.  During World War II, the construction




    of large nuclear reactors and plutonium extraction facilities




    at Hanford and uranium enrichment facilities at Oak Ridge created




    the first opportunity for artificial radioactive pollution of the




    atmosphere.  However, studies of the behavior of various radio-




    nuclides that were released to the environment have shown that




    although caution must be used in the process, large amounts of




    radioactive materials can be safely discharged if the diffu-




    sion and dispersion properties of the atmosphere are well




    known.22'55




            Evidence of the harmful effects of indiscriminate




    exposure to radiation began to accumulate shortly after the




    discovery of X-rays in 1895, and recommendations for

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limitations of exposure were soon made.  This knowledge of



the harmful effects of radiation led the Manhattan Engineering



District (the wartime military organization responsible for



the atomic energy program) to place a high priority on keeping



environmental contamination to a minimum.  Mien the Atomic



Energy Commission (AEG) succeeded the Manhattan Engineering



District in 1946, these cautious policies were continued.



Around the same time (1947), the Public Health Service estab-



lished a Radiation Energy Unit, later called the Radiological



Health Unit, within the Division of Industrial Hygiene to



handle the public health aspects of radiological health prob-

     49

lems.     In the United States, the Soviet Union, and the



United Kingdom, a series of weapons tests were conducted dur-



ing the 1940's and 1950's that discharged larger amounts of



radioactivity into the environment than were permitted by the



AEG in the operation of its industrial plants.  This radio-



activity soon become widespread throughout the atmosphere,



contaminating soil and food to such an extent that world-



wide apprehension began to develop.  The Congress of the


                                            82 128
United States then held a number of hearings  '    on fallout



from weapons testing and on radioactive waste-disposal prac-



tices.  Around the same time, the National Academy of



Sciences1"^ in the United States and the Medical Research



Council in Great Britain began to evaluate the effects of



small doses of radioactivity.  In 1955, the United Nations

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appointed a committee to investigate the effects of radia-



tion on man.




        Since World War II, extensive research has been con-



ducted on the physical and chemical properties of radioactive



substances.  The manner -in which they are transported physi-



cally through the environment and the way in which some of



them enter into man's food supplies, the water he drinks,



and. the air he breathes, have been studied.  Many branches



of the biological and physical sciences have been involved



in this study.



        Man can be contaminated by radiation both directly



and indirectly.  The direct methods include exposure to radia-



tion emitted by radioactive gases or suspended dust, resulting



in either contamination of the skin or of the respiratory



tract.  After a radioactive contaminant is inhaled, the radio-



active substances can be concentrated inside the body, depend-



ing on the selective power of fixation of organs for which



the radionuclides show a special affinity.  Except in a few



cases, the concentrations reached are relatively small.  The



direct type of contamination occurs primarily where there is



an occupational hazard  or in the immediate neighborhood of



nuclear reactors.



        Indirect contamination results from ingestion of



radionuclides after they have passed through the food chain.



The contaminating radionuclide may follow an extremely

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complicated path while passing down the food chain.  Radio-


active contaminants suspended in air can be deposited on the


ground or on surface water.  The contamination from the soil


and water is then passed on to vegetation and eventually to


animals.  The fate of the contaminant will depend on the bio-


logical cycle for each organism, as well as on nutritive


exchanges between vegetation and animals.199  During these


exchanges, secondary—and often high—concentrations will be

                           on
produced in some organisms.    Plants tend to concentrate


radioactivity more in the leaves and stems than in the seeds.


For man, the varied diet which he enjoys multiplies the sources


of contamination.  For example, milk is a source of indirect


contamination.  Therefore, indirect contamination can affect


whole populations.


        Since radiation cannot be detected without special


instrumentation and its biological effects are usually not


evident until some time after the exposure, a series of regu-


lations have been developed to protect both the general public


and the occupational worker.


        In 1928, the International Commission on Radiological


Protection (ICRP) was organized under the auspices of the


Second International Congress on Radiology.  In 1929 the


Advisory Committee on X-ray and Radium Protection was orga-


nized to develop recommendations in the United States.  Follow-


ing World War II, this advisory committee was reorganized as

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the National Committee on Radiation Protection (NCRP).  The



recommendations developed by this group have served as the



basis for most radiation-protection programs and, later, for



rules and codes adopted by the various regulatory agencies



in the United States.  In 1959 the Federal Radiation Council



(FRC) was formed to advise the President on radiation matters



and to guide all federal agencies in formulating standards



for protection against radiation damage.  In 1949, Public



Health Service activities in radiological health were accel-



erated when the Radiological Health Unit became the Radio-



logical Health Branch in the Bureau of State Services.  In



1958 the Surgeon General established the Division of Radio-



logical Health with six major responsibilities.  These were



(1) research on the effects of radiation on living matter,



including man; (2) development of methods, facilities, and



programs for collecting, collating, analyzing, and inter-



preting data on all forms of radiation exposure throughout



the United States; (3) training of the scientific, professional,



and technical workers needed in the rapidly expanding radio-



logical health programs of Federal, State, and local agencies;



(4) technical assistance to Federal, State, and local agen-



cies as needed; (5) development of recommendations for



acceptable levels of radiation exposure from air, water, milk,



medical procedures, and the general environment; and  (6) pub-



lic information and health education activities related to

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radiological health.  The division was succeeded by the




National Center for Radiological Health which in 1968 became




the Bureau of Radiological Health in the Environmental Con-




trol Administration of the Consumer Protection and Environ-




mental Health Service, Department of Health, Education and



Welfare.49




         The ICRP and the NCRP were first concerned with rec-




ommendations for X-ray and radium protection.  In 1936, NCRP




first recommended specific permissible exposure levels (tol-




erance doses) for radium.  NCRP has since published a series




of handbooks covering various aspects of radiation protection,



                                                 112 133
instrumentation, and environmental contamination.   '




        The ICRP and NCRP have recommended similar maximum




permissible concentrations (MPC) for a wide variety of radio-



nuclides in air and water. ^^ ' 128,144  These are recommenda-




tions only and have no legal status.  In November 1960 the




AEC published in the Federal Register   a regulation which




became effective January 1, 1961, establishing general stan-




dards for protection of licensees, their employees, and the




general public against radiation hazards arising out of the




possession or use of special nuclear source or by-product




material under license issued by the AEC.



        Throughout the text of this report, a number of terms




unique to the nuclear energy field are used to quantitatively




describe radiation and its biological effects.  The definitions




of these terms can be found in Appendix A.

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2.  EFFECTS


    2.1  Effects on Humans


            Evidence on the harmful effects of indiscriminate


    exposure to X-rays began to accumulate shortly after the dis-


    covery of X-rays in 1895 when the ability of X-rays to cause


    loss of hair, burns, chronic ulcers, and cancers was observed*


    During and following World War I, workers using radium in the


    luminous paint industry developed bone cancer and aplastic

                                   61,110
    anemia due to radium ingestion.        During the 1920 s,


    additional deaths were caused by the use of radium as a nos-


    trum for a variety of ailments such as arthritis, syphilis,


    and otherSo  Miners in Joachimsthal, Czechoslovakia, had high


    rates of lung cancer, which by 1949 was thought to be caused


    by high concentrations of radon and its daughter products in


    the mine atmosphere.   '     Evidence confirming this among


    workers in the U.S. uranium mining and milling industry was

                                       107 Ipp
    supplied by Wagoner et al. in 1964.   '


            Early in this century, it was discovered that suffi-


    cient ionizing radiation doses could cause sterility and


    changes in composition of peripheral blood.  If acute expo-


    sure occurred, a complex set of symptoms (nausea, vomiting,


    hemorrhage, diarrhea, loss of weight, and severe anemia) was


    observed that is now known as the acute radiation syndrome.


    On the positive side, it was discovered that cancerous tissue

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could be injured by ionizing radiation, and this fact forms



the basis for radiation treatment of cancer.



        The Division of Radiological Health of the Public



Health Service (currently the Bureau of Radiological Health,



Environmental Control Administration, Consumer Protection



and Environmental Health Service, Department of Health, Educa-



tion, and Welfare) prepared a Select List of References on



Human Studies.  Table 1, Appendix B, shows the number of



papers on each subject that were in the Select List in 1964.



2.1.1  Types of Exposure



        Two major types of radiation exposure may result from



radioactive pollution of the atmosphere:  exposure to radia-



tion from a distant source, and contamination by radioactive



substances which come into contact with the skin or find their



way into the body.



        External radiation exposure can occur only from



radionuclides emitting gamma rays from sources such as solid



decay products of radon in suspension in the air and radio-



active gases, such as argon-41.  The most serious hazard is



external or internal radioactive contamination.  External con-



tamination occurs when radioactive particles suspended in the



atmosphere are deposited on the surface of the skin0  This



may result in cutaneous irradiation, whole-body irradiation,



or internal contamination via the respiratory or digestive




tract.

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        Respiratory tract contamination is the most direct



and important effect of radiation pollution.  The digestive



route, which is indirect, is the route followed after con-



tamination of foodstuffs, or sometimes after cutaneous or



respiratory contaminatio'n.  Persons engaged in radiation



work  (occupational exposure) are subject to a different type



of exposure than the population at large.  These workers are



particularly prone to skin and respiratory contamination,



whereas the main hazards for the general population are



direct exposure to radioactive substances in the atmosphere



and indirect contamination through ingestion.



        The average ionizing radiation dose rate received by



persons living in the United States from various sources is



shown in Table 2, Appendix B.



2.1.2  Biological Effects



        Ionizing radiation produces a variety of biological



effects, depending upon the dose of radiation received and



whether it is delivered in a short or long period of time.



Some effects, such as changes in skin texture or hair pig-



mentation, occur soon after exposure, while other effects,



such as leukemia and cataracts, may not appear for five or



more years.  The effects that occur in the exposed individual



are called somatic effects.  The genetic effects of radiation



are observed in the descendants of the exposed person.

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                                                          10
2.1.2.1  Somatic Effects



        The most important somatic effects from ionizing



radiation are leukemia and other types of cancer, cataracts,



and reduction in life expectancy-.  Data on somatic effects of



radiation have been derived from animal experiments; from



observations made on patients treated by radiotherapy or



radioisotopes; from studies of radiologists, and other workers



exposed to ionizing radiations or poisoned by radioactive sub-



stances; and from Japanese survivors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.




2.1.2.1.1  Leukemia



        There has been an increased incidence of leukemia



among the Japanese survivors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki,  '  '


21,84,190   ,. ..  . .   44,53,84   .•.,_•   * •  *. * f
          radiologists,         patients irradiated for


                       42
ankylosing spondylitis,   and children irradiated for thymic



enlargement.  The radiologists received their doses in



repeated small quantities.  The others were subject to acute



exposure.  There is also evidence that leukemia can be



induced in children irradiated for therapeutic or other


                    95
diagnostic purposes.



        Information to date on radiation-induced leukemia is



limited to the effects of a dose range between 100 and 1,000



rems; no cases of leukemia induced by exposures of less than


                             81
125 rem have been identified.    However, leukemia has been



induced in the fetus by doses which ranged between 2 and 10


    27
rem0    In recent years, the incidence of leukemia in

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                                                           11
                           1 go
radiologists has decreased.     This is attributed to the


fact that most radiologists now keep their received doses


below current recommended maximum permissible dose levels.


These maximum permissible levels allow for a total lifetime


dose of 250 rems.


        Therefore, there seems to be a lower threshold for


radiation-induced leukemia that is somewhere below 100 rems.


Many experimenters accept the threshold theory, although


there is some disagreement among them.  '   '     The number


of cases induced by lower dose levels are too few to form


any firm conclusions.


2.1.2.1.2  Other Cancers


        Radiation has produced skin cancers among radiologists,


thyroid cancer in children irradiated in the neck region, lung


cancer in miners and millers occupationally exposed to radon


and its daughters, and bone cancers in radium dial painters


and other persons exposed to radium.


        Bone cancer (osteogenic sarcoma) can be produced by


irradiation when radioelements similar to calcium, such as


radium, radioactive strontium, radioactive plutonium, radio-


active thorium, and radioactive lead are ingested and


metabolized into the boneo  Bone cancer was observed among


luminous paint workers and radium-treated patients early in


this centuryQ  '     External radiation can also produce

                                                95
bone cancer, and a few cases have been reportedo    However,

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                                                            95
a high dose (3,000 to 4,000 rads) is thought to be required.


        Lung cancer can result from inhalation of radioactive


gases or dust, such as radon and its daughter products.    As


early as 1879, there was evidence of increased prevalence of


lung cancer among the metal miners in Schneeberg in Saxony.


By 1949 most investigators were attributing this and the


increased cancer in miners in Joachimstahl, Czechoslovakia,

                                                          107 1 ft 7
to radon and its daughter products in the mine atmosphere.   '

                                  187 188
In 1964, Wagoner and his coworkers   '    reported an excessive


occurrence of respiratory cancer among uranium mine workers in


the United States and demonstrated a dose-response relationship.


However, the complete quantitative statement of the dose-


response relationship cannot be established at the present time


because the number of individual studies and the periods of

                                                        40
observation at low exposure levels are still inadequate,


particularly at the lower levels of exposure to radon and its


daughters.


        Evidence of radiation-induced lung cancer was also


noted in fluorspar mines in Newfoundland, where abnormal


levels of radon and its daughter products were present in

                    40
the mine atmosphere.


        The ability of the lung to concentrate particulates


increases the relative risk of inhaling radioactive aerosols


as compared to the risk of inhaling a radioactive gas.  The


radon daughter products attach themselves to the atmospheric


dusts, thus making these dusts the principal hazard in the uranium


mineso     According to Shapiro    in 1956, the daughter products

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                                                           13
contribute about 20 times as much dosage as does the radon.




        The dose received by the different portions of the




lungs from inhaled radioactive dust depends on the concentra-




tion of radionuclide in the inhaled air, the physical proper-




ties of the radionuclide, the rate at which the dust is




inhaled, the region of the lung in which the dust is deposited,




and the rate at which it is removed.  Theoretical lung models




have been developed for computing the dust deposition in and




clearance from the respiratory tract to provide a basis for

                                                           1 o £~

calculating lung dosimetry and for setting exposure limits.




However, the dose required to produce lung cancer in man is




not known.




        A number of studies have been made on the frequency of




occurrence of thyroid cancer in children and adults irradiated




in the thymus region for benign conditions.  Most studies



                                                            27
showed an increase in thyroid cancer, although some did not.




Hiroshima and Nagasaki data indicate that the adult thyroid


                                                          95

may be less sensitive to radiation than a child's thyroid.




Since the thyroid tends to concentrate iodine and will there-




fore concentrate radioactive iodine, the potential for form-




ing thyroid cancer from irradiation is an important reason




for minimizing radioactive iodine releases to the atmosphere.




2.1.2.1.3  Cataracts




        Exposure of the lens of the eye to heavy doses of




X-rays, gamma rays, beta particles, and neutrons may cause

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                                                          14
eye cataracts (opaque spots).  Although lens changes have



been reported from doses as low as 200 rad, the minimum



X-ray or gamma ray dose capable of causing clinically signifi-



cant cataracts is thought to lie between 550 and 950 rads



(averaging about 800 rads) in adults and perhaps less in



children.  '   '     If an average dose of about 800 rads is



delivered over a period of 2 weeks to 3 months, it may pro-



duce an opacity in 70 percent of those exposed.  About 30



percent of these opacities may be progressive and eventually

                          gc
result in impaired vision.    The development of cataracts



is much more likely to result from neutrons than from X-rays



or gamma rays.



        Cataracts have been observed among the Japanese sur-



vivors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki; among patients whose eyes



were treated by X-rays, gamma rays, or beta rays for medical



purposes; and among a few physicists who were exposed to the


                          95
radiation from cyclotrons<,



2.1.2.1.4  Effect on Life Span



        Whole-body irradiation of experimental animals has


                                            122 133
been found to result in shortened life span.   '     In



addition, there are indications of life-span shortening in



radiologists.  The life-span shortening could not be



attributed to a radiation-induced fatal disease such as



leukemia, but rather to an apparent acceleration of the



aging process.   '     Since 1935, the evidence of life

-------
                                                          15
shortening in radiologists has decreased, and by 1960 it had



disappeared.  This can be attributed to the more rigid radia-



tion protection techniques adhered to by radiologists in


             192
recent times.     Data from experiments with rodents and



other animals indicate that the reduction in life span becomes



greater as the dose increases.106'147  No definitive data exist



on the dose-response relationship for general life shortening


       95
in man.    Theoretical models have been developed extrapolating



radiation exposure and life span shortening in experimental



animals for use in assessing human effects.  Sacher,  1



extrapolating data from small animals to man, developed a



theoretical life-span reduction of 17 days per rad.  However,



this quantitative relationship was not seen in the Hiroshima



data.  The value is thought to be too high, and work to



establish a better value is in progress at Argonne National



Laboratory.



2.1.2.2  Genetic Effects



        Radiation can produce mutations in human gametes



which will not be apparent in the person irradiated but which


                                 52

may appear in future generations.



        Genetic injury to a population depends on the total



number of mutant genes introduced.  The measure of potential



damage is the total number of man roentgens delivered to the



gonads—the "per capita" gonadal dose0  A small dose delivered



to the whole population may thus produce more genetic damage

-------
                                                          16
than a much larger dose delivered to a relatively small frac-

tion of the population.

        It is estimated that about 1 percent of live-born

infants suffer from severe effects of chromosomal abnormali-

ties which arise spontaneously.  The extent to which natural

radiation contributes to this  is not known.147

        An estimate of the average dose over the reproductive

lifetime of the individual which is required to double the
                                          TOO
mutation rate is between 10 and 100 rads0     That is, if an

average dose of between 10 and 100 rads were delivered to

each generation, a new equilibrium would  in time be reached

in which mutant characteristics would be  seen twice as fre-

quently as in the original population.

2.1.2.3  Acute Exposure

        Acute exposure is primarily a hazard to people in the

nuclear industry (occupational exposure).  The general public

will not be exposed in this manner except in wartime or follow-

ing a nuclear accident in which large quantities of radio-

active materials are released  to the atmosphere0  When a

massive whole-body dose of radiation is received within a

short period of time, the effects may be  seen as early as the

first day and will be dependent on the size of the dose

received.  Only minor injury would occur  at doses less than

100 rems, but about a 50 percent fatality rate would be

expected in the range of 400 to 500 rems.  As the whole-body

-------
                                                           17
dose approaches 1,000 rems, fatalities would approach 100



percent.  Table 3  in Appendix B summarizes the expected



clinical effects of acute doses of  ionizing radiation.  At



doses of less than 100 rems, no significant symptoms are



likely to be seen, but as the dose  increases above 100 rems,



vomiting and nausea occur in increasing frequency and will



be seen in almost  all exposures of  about 300 rems.  At 100 to



250 rems, the nausea and vomiting may be followed by a latent



period of as much  as 2 weeks.  However, this latent period is



less than a day at doses greater than 700 rems.  The signs



and symptoms which then develop—known as radiation syndrome—



usually include epilation, sore throat, hemorrhage, purpura,



petechiae, and diarrhea.



        Acute radiation causes illness primarily by damaging



the blood-forming centers in the bone marrow and lymph


       74 189
glands0  '     Acute radiation exposure from inhalation or



ingestion of radionuclides is not a problem, since the



principal exposure in environments contaminated with fresh



fission products is from external radiation.



2.2  Effects on Animals



2.2.1  Commercial and Domestic Animals



        The effects of radiation on animals are similar to



those on humans.  At high radiation doses, acute radiation



effects develop within a period of a few hours to a few

      O fo

weeks.    In cattle, 50 percent fatality would be expected

-------
                                                           18
                             47
after a dose of 520 to 570 r.    There  is also some evidence


that whole-body irradiations of 100 to  400 r can temporarily


produce a reduction in conception.47  The LD50//30 dose rates


for other commercial animals are shown  in Table 4, Appendix B.


        Acute exposure of domestic animals would only occur


through direct radiation from a nuclear explosion or nuclear


accident which released large quantities of radioactive sub-


stances to the environment.


        At lower radiation levels, the  effects are either


delayed or long-term.  These effects  include leukemia, cancer,

                                                         O G^.
shortening of life span, and genetic  or mutation effects.


        Even at times of high nuclear test fallout, grazing


animals receive most of their radiation from ingesting air-


borne nuclides deposited on forage.   Grazing animals have a


high tolerance for ingested radionuclides, which are poorly


absorbed.  Of the absorbed radionuclides, iodine is the most


hazardous because it concentrates in  the thyroid.  However,


this hazard can be counteracted in most animals by feeding


them thyroactive compounds.-^  The primary observed effect


from radioactive fallout has been external damage to skin and


hair.


        For example, during the detonation of the first atomic


bomb in 1945, a herd of Hereford cattle that were located


about 15 miles from the detonation site were accidentally


exposed to high levels of radiation from radioactive fallout


particles.  Thirty-two of these cattle were purchased by the

-------
                                                          19
government for observation.  Except for surface damage to



skin on the sides and backs of the animals produced by direct



contact with radioactive particles, the general condition,



productive efficiency, and death rate were comparable to that


                  13
of control cattle.    One cow from the herd lived 20 years



with little apparent effect except for some hair that turned



grey; it produced 16 healthy, frisky calves0148  At Las Vegas,



Nev., various free-range animals (mountain goats, deer, and



livestock) that are exposed to low-level radiation from the



Nevada Test Site are periodically examined for radiation



content and radiation health effects.  The animals have been



studied within the nuclear test .site and up to 200 miles from



the test site for about 10 years.  Although strontium-90 has



been found in the bones and cesium-137 in the flesh of the



animals, examination of the tissue has shown no apparent


                         113 172
radiation damage to date.   '



        Commercial animals are an important link in the food



chain by means of which radioactive contamination released to



the atmosphere finds its way to man.  Animals consume plants



which contain radionuclides deposited on them or absorbed



from the soil, and tend to concentrate the radionuclides



strontium-90, iodine-131, sesium-137, and others in their



flesh or milk.  For man, the maximum tolerable level for


                                           ^\C.

contamination from this route is not known.

-------
                                                           20
2.2.2  Experimental Animals



         Millions of experimental animals of all types are



being used in nearly every laboratory where nuclear research



is conducted.  A recent Atomic Energy Commission inventory



showed that more than 6 million animals per year are used in



AEC-sponsored research.  A list of the types and number of



experimental animals used in the programs of the Division of



Biology and Medicine of the AEG is shown in Table 5, Appendix B,



         Work on the effects of radiation on animals in 1897


                                                    31
showed that radiation produced cataracts in animals.    In



1927 Muller  produced mutations in fruit flies by means of



X-rays.  A great amount of research  since 1942 has been



directed at understanding the mechanisms of these injuries.



         Evidence from animal experiments has indicated that


                                                32 150
mutations can have dominant deleterious effects.



         As mentioned above, early estimates of genetic



hazards were based on experiments with Drosophila (fruit flies).



However, later experiments with mice showed greater radiation-



induced mutation frequencies, indicating that the genetic



hazard to man was greater than had been initially assumed.



         The results of irradiation  experiments on mice and



the indicated genetic hazard to man  are as follows:95'1   /15



         (1)  The more mature male germ cells (spermatozoa)



are more sensitive to genetic damage than the stem cells



(spermatogonia).  The spermatozoa do not survive very long in

-------
                                                          21
the body.  The process from spermatogonial cell to mature
spermatozoan takes about 5 weeks in the mouse and around 10
weeks in man.  Therefore, some reduction in risk of trans-
mitting genetic damage can be achieved by postponing procrea-
tion for a few weeks after irradiation of the male to allow
him to pass beyond the stage at which irradiated spermatozoa
are present.  Nothing is gained by further delay.
         (2)  For females irradiated with fission neutrons,
the interval between irradiation and conception has a major
effect on mutation frequency.  The genetic hazard will be
less when a long interval occurs between irradiation and
           27
conception.    There is some indication that a similar effect
occurs with gamma radiation.
         (3)  There is a dose-rate effect on mutations.
Mutation frequency is less per unit dose of radiation when
the exposure is spread out over a long period of time.  Low
dose-rate exposures do not produce as many mutations as
high dose-rate exposures.
         (4)  The dose-rate effect  in females  is considerably

higher than in males.
         (5)  There is no evidence  of a threshold dose rate,
i.e., a dose rate below which no mutations occur.   A  non-
threshold effect for mutation is generally accepted at the
             27
present time.
         Mice have also been used  in experiments studying

-------
the effect of radiation on aging.  Radiation accelerates


the aging process, as was shown by an experiment using a

group of 14-month-old mice.  Only three of the irradiated


mice survived—and these were gray and senile—while all


the untreated group remained normal, healthy, and active.

Irradiation experiments on mice at Argonne National Labora-


tory have been used to theoretically extrapolate life-span

shortening of man due to radiation.     A study by Sacher


on mortality statistics for mice, rats, guinea pigs, dogs,

and horses extrapolated to man led to a theoretical life-


span shortening in man of 17 days per rad.  This is dis-


cussed further in Section 2.1.2.1.4.


         Experiments with guinea pigs demonstrated that the

body could repair itself even after receiving a sizable
                  1 ^o
dose of radiation.     Dog experiments have shown that the

effects of radiation depend largely on the part of the body

exposed; for example, the leg can tolerate a higher dose


than the stomach.

         In experiments conducted at the University of Utah,


beagles were injected with radium-224, radium-226, radium-


228, plutonium-239, americium-241, thorium-228, lead-210,


and strontium-90 to determine the internal effects of these


radionuclides.  It was found that these radionuclides are


deposited in the skeleton, although plutonium and americium


are also deposited in other tissue.  The dogs in these

-------
                                                          23
experiments developed bone cancers, liver tumors, and other

cancers.     From the experiments it was found that the

alpha emitters were more toxic than originally believed,

while the beta emitters (strontium-90) were less toxic.

Plutonium-239 contributes to a large incidence of fractures

in leg bones, and radium-228 weakens bones throughout the

body.148

         Inhalation experiments have been run with beagles

at Battelle Northwest Laboratories.  In 1958 and 1959 the

dogs were exposed to 1.0 to 3.0 |j. ci per dog of plutonium

oxide.  Out of the 25 dogs exposed, 17 developed primary
                                              25
pulmonary tumors 9 to 10 years after exposure.

         Miniature swine were also used at Batelle Northwest

Laboratories to study the effects of ingested strontium-90

at various dose levels.  This substance was fed daily to

the experimental animals.  After 3 to 4 years of ingesting
                                                   25
low levels of strontium-90, leukemia has developed.    The

high levels of strontium-90 have produced bone tumors.

         Experiments with monkeys indicate that high levels

of radiation interfere with the functioning of an animal's

nervous system  In addition, experiments with sleeping rats

and cats indicate that low levels of radiation may also
                                         148
affect functioning of the nervous system.

2.3  Effects on Plants

         The observable effects of radiation on plants range from

-------
                                                         24
mutations at low dose rate to growth  inhibition and death



at high dose rates.  In general, radiation damage in plants



is difficult to detect except at dose rates many times



higher than those attained during worldwide fallout117 or



those normally encountered in ambient air.




         Mericle and Mericle118 found a higher mutation rate



in tradescantia at a dose rate of 0.006 r per day than at



0.001 r per day.  Miller120 found that needle growth on



pine seedlings was slightly inhibited at 20 r per day.



More noticeable effects are likely at 100 r per day.



         Plants become contaminated with radionuclides



either through deposition from airborne radionuclides or



absorption from the soil and may transfer these through the



food chain to man.



2.4  Effects on Materials



         There is no evidence at the present time to indi-



cate that there is any detrimental effect on materials from



the radiation levels encountered in ambient air or worldwide



fallout.



2.5  Environmental Air Standards



         Early clinical data seemed to indicate that there



was a radiation damage threshold—that is, a point below



which no damage occurs.  Prior to 1950, the radiation pro-



tection standards were based on this threshold concept.



However, recent evidence on genetic effects of radiation

-------
                                                          25
indicates that even small doses of radiation can produce



mutations.  Conclusive evidence is not available to dis-



prove the possibility of somatic effects from small, chronic



radiation doses to large populations.  There is now a con-



sensus that there is no_level of radiation exposure below



which there is absolute certainty that harmful effects will



not occur to at least a few individuals when sufficiently



large numbers of people are exposed.  This means that any



radiation protection standard must take into account some



risk to an exposed individual or population.  Therefore,



recently established radiation standards have been based on



the permissible dose concept.  The permissible dose is



defined as the amount of ionizing radiation that, in the



light of present knowledge, is not expected to cause appre-



ciable damage to a person during his lifetime.



2.5.1  Maximum Permissible Dose  (MPD)



         The maximum permissible doses (MPD) for radiation



workers recommended by the International Commission on



Radiological Protection (ICRP)142/143 and by the National


                                        133
Committee on Radiation Protection (NCRP)    are in basic



agreement, although there are some minor differences.  Some



of the recommended maximum permissible doses for radiation



workers are listed in Table 6, Appendix B.



         Before the development of large nuclear facilities,



exposure of the public to man-made radiation did not exist,



except for medical purposes„  Differing sets of recommendations

-------
                                                         26
for radiation protection have since been formulated for



radiation workers and for the general public.  In 1952 the



AEG recommended that the exposure for the general public be



limited to one-tenth the amount of occupational exposure.



The ICRP144 and the NCRP133 adopted this recommendation a



few years later.1



         The Federal Radiation Council  (FRC) in 1960 trans-



lated the recommendation into general guidelines for all



Federal agencies.  The FRC-recommended  practice  '63 limits



the maximum dose for an individual from nonmedical sources



to 0.5 rem/yr (whole-body) and states that the average dose



to the population over a 30-year period should not exceed 5



rem to the gonads for males.  The amount of exposure from



natural background radiation is not taken into account in



the recommendations.



2.5.2  Maximum Permissible Concentrations (MFC)



         The maximum permissible concentrations (MFC) of



radioisotopes in air and water are calculated on the basis



of the maximum permissible dose to an organ.  Both the



radioisotope uptake and concentration in various organs are


                                 119
considered over a 50-year period.     To provide a standard



basis of calculation, the ICRP has defined a "standard man"



in terms of his intake of air and water, retention of



particulates, and weight of organs.     Some of these



parameters are listed in Table 7 in Appendix B.

-------
                                                          27
         The standard man is a hypothetical individual, and



specific people vary significantly from this standard.



However, the use of standard-man values provides an overall



estimate of the doses that might be received by the average



industrial worker.



         The quantity of radionuclides in the body when the



critical organ is being exposed at MPD is known as the



maximum permissible body burden.  (The critical organ is the



organ that receives the highest radiation from the absorbed



isotope.)  The concentrations of the radionuclides in the



air and water to which the body is being exposed at MPD



are also the maximum permissible concentrations (MFC) in



air and water, respectively.  These are the maximum permissi-



ble concentrations for internal emitters.  Where the possi-



bility for external exposure exists, the permissible dose



of radionuclides in air and water must be reduced.  However,



for the general public, opportunities for significant expo-



sure arise mainly from internal radiation due to contaminated



air and water, except in times of war when there is an



increased probability of external exposure.



         Periodically, the NCRP and ICRP publish maximum



permissible values which are in general agreement for more



than 130 radionuclides.  The NCRP values have been given



official status by the AEG   by making them generally



applicable to installations licensed by the AEG.

-------
                                                          28
         The AEG regulations establish the average maximum



concentration (MFC) of radionuclid.es that can be released



to an uncontrolled or unrestricted area (for example, to



the atmosphere from the top of the stack) over a period of



time.  The radionuclide.MPC1s in air that can be released to



the atmosphere are shown in Table 8, Appendix B.

-------
                                                              29
3.  SOURCES

    3.1  Natural Occurrence

             The two major sources of natural radioactivity are

    the gases which emanate from minerals in the earth's crust

    and the interaction of cosmic radiation with gases in the

    atmosphere.

    3.1.1  Radioactive Dusts

             Soils and rocks contain naturally radioactive

    minerals such as radium-226 and radium-229 in variable

    amounts.  The radioactive progeny of two nuclides, the noble

    gases radon-222 and radon-220  (thoron), emanate  from the

    earth's crust and contribute greatly to atmospheric radio-

    activity.5^  Their concentration  is higher in areas where

    there are substantial amounts  of uranium and thorium ores.

    Therefore, these gases may  occur as air pollutants  in the

    vicinity of  uranium mines,  mills, and  refineries, or where

    radium and  its ores and by-products are processed.

    Radon, with  a half-life  of  3.8 days, has a much  higher

    probability  of emanating  from  the earth's crust  before  it

    decays than  thoron, which has  a half-life of  54  seconds.

    The  atmospheric  concentration  of  these noble  gases  and

    their daughter products  also  depends  on many  geological

    and  meteorological  factors. The  daughter products  of

    thoron and  radon attach  themselves  to  the  inert  dust  in the
  /
    atmosphere,  endowing  these  dusts  with  apparent radio-

    activity.28'196   In addition,  some  dust particles from

-------
                                                          30
naturally radioactive minerals and soils also find their

way into the atmosphere, but they contribute very little to

natural radiation.168

3.1.2  Cosmic Ravs

         Interactions of cosmic rays with atmospheric gases

produce a number of radioactive species, the most important

of which are tritium, carbon-14, and beryllium-7.  Of lesser

importance are beryllium-10, sodium-22, phosphorus-32,

phosphorus-33, sulfur-35, and chlorine-39.168  These inter-

actions produce electrons, gamma rays, nucleons, and muons.

At low radiation levels the muons account for 70 percent of

the cosmic radiation.14^

3.1.3  Combustion Emissions

         Fossil fuels contain radioactive materials that

escape into the atmosphere when the fuel is burned.  The

radioactive nuclides that escape from fossil fuels during

combustion are listed in Table 9 in Appendix B.  Coal ash

contains a number of radionuclides which originate from

traces of uranium-238 and thorium-232.  It has been esti-

mated that uranium-238 and thorium-232 are present in coal

in concentrations of 1.1 and 2.0 ppm, respectively.  Fly

ash released from the stack when coal is burned contains

10.8 |j.Ci of radium-235 and 17.2 |j.Ci of radium-226 per
                                  -i *~j g-
electrical megawatt  (MW) per year.

         Oil-burning plants normally discharge nearly all

-------
                                                          31
of their combustion products into the atmosphere; a 1,000 MW



station which consumes 460 million gallons of oil per year



will discharge about 0.5 |j.Ci of radium-226 and radium-228.


                             24

         A recent  joint study   of natural gas from north-



western New Mexico and southwestern Colorado by the U.S.



Public Health Service and the El Paso Natural Gas Company



shows that radon-222 (a daughter of radium-226) is present



in natural gas at  concentrations ranging from 0.2 pCi/liter



to 158.8 pCi/liter.  There is a lack of data concerning con-



centrations of radon-222 in the stack effluent of natural



gas power plants, but it can be assumed to be minimal because



of the short  (3.8  day) half-life of radon-222 and the rela-



tively long time required for transit of the gas from the



well to the plant  where it is burned, as well as for storage.



There will be some activity from the longer-lived daughter



products of radon, but these are hard to determine since



the daughter products occur as particulates and are subject



to many removal forces.



3.104  Natural Radioactivity



         Measurements have been made of ground-level atmo-



spheric radioactivity at a number of places throughout the



world and the summary of several years of data is shown in


                       103
Table 10 in Appendix B.     The radon concentration is



inferred from the  lead-214 measurements, since radon and



its daughter products lead-214 are in radioactive equilibrium

-------
                                                          32
when the radon-laden air and dust coexist for 2 hours.  The



thoron concentration is inferred from measurements of lead-



212.  The thoron series has no long-lived daughters and its



secular equilibrium is determined by the 10.6 hour half-life



of lead-212.




         The meteorological factors related to an air mass



for several days prior to  its observation influences its



radon and thoron content.  Both passage of the air over



oceans and precipitation tend to reduce the concentration



of these gases, whereas periods of temperature inversion



cause them to  increase.  Washington, B.C., which is some



distance from  the ocean, had the highest thoron (lead-214)



concentration  of any coastal area studied, followed by sea-



ports, midocean islands, and finally Antarctica.



         Table 11  (Appendix B) shows the doses received by



human beings throughout the United States from ionizing



radiation that originates  from cosmic rays and from gamma-



emitting radionuclides in  the earth's crust.  The doses



received in populated areas vary from 75 to 175 mrad/yr.



         Radiation emissions associated with the burning of



fossil fuels are distributed generally throughout the coun-



try.  The majority of the  emissions will be concentrated in



areas where large power plants are located.  Therefore, the



distribution of radioactive materials in the atmosphere



from this source will follow distribution patterns similar

-------
                                                          33
to those of other fossil fuel combustion products  (for



example, sulfur dioxide).



3.2  Production Sources




         The radioactive nuclides from production sources



originate either as fisgion products or activation products;



the ones encountered in atmospheric pollution are the same



regardless of whether they are produced by nuclear reactor,



a nuclear or thermonuclear bomb, or a plant reprocessing



spent reactor fuel.  The potential for radioactive contami-



nation of the environment exists in all phases of processing



radioactive materials.  This processing involves mainly



heavy industries, such as the uranium and thorium mines,



metallurgical factories, nuclear reactors, and chemical



plants.



         Radioactive pollution of the atmosphere can occur



by the release of airborne radioactive materials in routine



industrial operations or as the consequence of an accidental



release of airborne contaminants.



         Nuclear reactor operations and nuclear spent fuel



processing are the principal sources of radioactive gases.



Those that are important in air pollution work, their main



sources, and half-lives are given in Table 12 in Appendix B.



3.2.1  Production of Nuclear Fuel



         The production of nuclear fuel for use in reactors



or for nuclear explosions involves the mining of crude

-------
                                                          34
uranium or thorium ore, washing and concentrating the ore



in processing plants adjacent to the mines, producing ingots



of refined uranium or thorium, and physically separating the



different isotopes of uranium and thorium.  All these opera-



tions use only the naturally occurring radioactive elements



belonging to the uranium and thorium families.



3.2.1.1  Mining, Milling, and Refining of Uranium



         Uranium mining gives rise to the usual dust problems



associated with conventional ore mining.  The presence of



radium in particles is not considered as important as the



presence of radon gas daughter products.  Adequate ventila-



tion at the working faces of the mine must therefore be



provided.  The release of mine ventilation air to the atmo-



sphere and subsequent dispersion provide large dilution fac-


     154
tors.     In addition, mines are frequently in remote areas



at significant distances from population centers.  Therefore,



this is mainly an occupational problem rather than a general




air pollution problem.



         Ore concentration begins with crushing and pulver-



izing the ore.  These operations yield dusts containing a



small concentration of radioactive materials, but the other



toxic materials present (such as silica, vanadium, arsenic,



and selenium) pose greater problems than the radioactive



materials present.  Adequate filtering of the ventilation



air prevents the release of pollutants to the atmosphere.

-------
                                                          35
The large tailing piles that have accumulated around uranium



mills have recently become an area of public concern from



the air pollution standpoint.  It is feared that radon gas



emanating from these piles may be an air pollution hazard



to the general public in the surrounding areas.  A joint



study was made by the AEG and the Division of Radiological



Health (now the Bureau of Radiological Health) to evaluate



the atmospheric concentration of radon in areas near the



piles as an index of radiation exposure of the population



and to determine the effects of stabilizing and covering



the piles on the emanation of radon gas.  Piles at Durango



and Grand Junction, Colo., and Salt Lake City and Monticello,



Utah, were surveyed.  The study has been completed but the



results and conclusions have not been released.    Two



States, Colorado and Wyoming, have passed legislation



requiring covering of uranium tailing piles.""



         The concentrates, consisting of impure U3O8 (pitch-



blende), are further processed for isolation and purifica-



tion of uranium.  Solvent extraction and fluoride volatiliza-



tion are the principal methods used to produce pure compounds



for reduction to metal or for the production of uranium



hexafluoride, which is used in the gas diffusion process



for producing uranium-235.  The airborne radioactive products



released from these processes are dilute, volatile uranium



fluorides and uranium-containing dusts.  During the feed

-------
                                                          36
preparation step, less than 3 \j,Ci per day of uranium are


                             82
released as the hexafluoride.    Uranium dust and other



uranium compounds are controlled at the diffusion plants so



that downwind concentrations are consistently less than the



MFC.



         Uranium ore processing plants are located in the



States of Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, South Dakota, Texas,



and Wyoming.  Most of these locations are remote from popu-



lated areas.  The milling plants are in general located



close to the mines; these locations are shown in Table 13 in



Appendix B.  The location of plants refining the uranium



ore concentrates to feedstock for fuel manufacture are



shown in Table 14, Appendix B.



3.2ol.2  Fuel Fabrication



         The fabrication of fuel elements for power reactors



involves the metal-working processes of rolling, extruding,



heat treating, machining, and cladding the uranium.  Experi-



ence to date has shown that the potential for radioactive


                                                 154
airborne pollution from these processes is minor.



         Since the development of the breeder reactors,



there has been much interest in plutonium and plutonium



alloy fuels.  Plutonium metal is pyropheric and extremely



toxic; hence, great care must be exercised in its loading.



To minimize the release of plutonium during fabrication,



leak-tight enclosures are used for all work, and all exhaust

-------
                                                          37
gases are filtered at least twice through high-efficiency


filters.  Operating experience at Hanford, Oak Ridge,



Argonne, and Los Alamos has shown that intricate operations


with all forms of plutonium can be carried out without

                                          94
signxfleant release of airborne plutonium.     Despite this



fact, there have been some serious fires and explosions in


plutonium-handling facilities; decontamination costs and

                                                    80
equipment damage have been the most serious results.    No


serious releases to the atmosphere have occurred.


         From experience to date, the airborne radioactive


contamination from uranium mining, milling, refining, and


fuel fabrication processes is considered to be minor.  In


processing plutonium into fuels, great care is exercised in


the design of equipment and control features to insure that


negligible quantities are released to the atmosphere in day-


to-day  operations and in fires and other serious accidents.


         The principal producers of uranium fuel for fabri-


cation  into fuel elements together with the locations of


their processing plants, are shown in Table 15, Appendix B,


Fuel fabrication plants are located in a number of areas


throughout the United States.  The locations of plants


fabricating fuel for the nuclear industry are shown in



Table 16 in Appendix B.


3.202  Nuclear Reactors


         Nuclear fuels are introduced into reactors where

-------
                                                          38
heat is produced by nuclear fission.  Radioactive wastes



formed by nuclear fission are of two types:  fission products,



which remain incorporated in the nuclear fuels;  and activa-



tion products, found mainly in the coolant.  Both the fuel



elements and the coolants are thus potential sources of



radioactive atmospheric pollution.  The pollution may come



about through release  into the atmosphere of radioactive



gases, such as xenon and krypton  (fission products); through



the induced activity of atmospheric argon; through the forma-



tion of radioactive aerosols containing fuels  (uranium,



thorium, plutonium); through the release of fission products



(strontium-90, cerium-144, barium-140, zirconium-95, and



others); or through induced activity of other kinds.



         The civilian  nuclear power reactors  (built for gen-



eration of electricity) operating at the present time are



generally located around the Great Lakes and in the Eastern



portion of the country.  The new plants planned for the near



future are concentrated in the same areas as well as in the



Southeast, the upper Mississippi and Missouri regions, and



the Pacific Coast.  A  list of the civilian nuclear plants—



built, being constructed, and proposed—and the expected



start-up dates are shown in Table 17, Appendix B.



         In addition to the power reactors, a number of



research and test reactors are located throughout the United



States, as well as plutonium production reactors.  The

-------
                                                          39
largest concentrations of test reactors are at the National



Reactor Testing Station, Idaho Falls, Idaho, and Oak Ridge



National Laboratories, Oak Ridge, Tenn.



         Large plutonium production reactors are located at



Hanford, Wash, and Aiken, S.C.



3.2.2.1  Normal Reactor Operation



         The quantity and nature of the gaseous effluents



will be influenced by the type of reactor used.  The air-



cooled reactor at Brookhaven Laboratories releases large



quantities of argon-41, an isotope with a 112-minute half-



life.  Each operating day, some 14,000 Ci are released from



a 300-foot stack.



         The waste gases released from the water reactors at



Dresden 1, Big Rock Point, Humboldt Bay, Elk River, Yankee,



and Indian Point 1 are shown in Table 18, Appendix B.



Dresden 1, Big Rock Point, Humboldt Bay, and Elk River are



boiling-water reactors; Yankee and Indian Point 1 are



pressurized-water types.   The power ratings of the stations



vary from 24 Mw(e)* for Elk River to 200 Mw(e) for Dresden 1,



and the periods of operation range from 4 to 7 years.  All



these plants have operated within the limits authorized by



the AEG for release of radioactive wastes to the environ-



ment o  The maximum annual average releases of gaseous activa-



tion products and noble gases have ranged from 22 Ci/yr (0.7



(jCi/sec) at Yankee, to 35,000 jaCi/sec at Big Rock Point.
         *Mw(e): megawatts electrical energy.

-------
                                                          40
The releases varied from a maximum of 0.002 percent of the



limit at Indian Point to as much as  28 percent of the limit



at Humboldt Bay.  Releases of halogens and particulates in



the gaseous wastes ranged from 2 x 10"8 |j.Ci/sec at Indian



Point to nearly 1.2 (_iCi/sec at Big Rock Point, corresponding to



about  0.00001  percent and 30 percent of the respective



limits.  The maximum annual average  releases of 0.07 |jCi/sec



of halogens and particulates at Humboldt Bay corresponded to



38 percent of that station's licensed limit.18'19



         The maximum off-site dosage measured above back-



ground at Humboldt Bay  (integrated over 12 consecutive



months)  was only 50 mrems.  Off-site air monitoring at



other sites has yielded measurements at or very near the


                              82

background level in all cases.



         Tritium is produced in nuclear reactors by fission-



ing of uranium, neutron capture in boron and lithium added



to the coolant, neutron capture reaction with boron in con-



trol rods, activation of deuterium in water, and high energy



capture reactions with structural materials.  In light water



reactors the main sources of tritium in the primary coolant



are leaking of fission-produced tritium through cladding



defects and boron and lithium reactions.  In heavy water



reactors, neutron activation of the  deuterium moderator and


                                       134
coolant is the major source of tritium.



         The majority of the tritium released from the

-------
                                                          41
coolant reaches the environment as liquid waste.  Only about



1 percent of the total tritium entering the atmosphere is


                          194
released as gaseous waste.     Measurements made by the



Bureau of Radiological Health's Nuclear Engineering Labora-



tory at a boiling water reactor indicate that the gaseous



tritium release may be less than 005 Ci/yr.134  Gaseous



tritium releases from the Yankee pressurized-water reactor

                                       1-34
are reported to be less than 100 Ci/yr.     In heavy water



reactors, only limited loss of heavy water can be tolerated



for economy considerations, a consideration which effec-



tively limits the release of tritium from this source.  In



addition, the rather high permissible concentration of



tritium in ambient air also reduces this isotope's signifi-



cance as an air pollutant from reactors.



         Very short-lived nitrogen and oxygen isotopes are



formed in large quantities from activation but do not pose



an air pollution problem because of their rapid decay.



         Several incidents in the past 20 years have occurred



during fuel discharge of the Hanford reactors that resulted



in temporary off-standard releases of airborne material.  An



estimated 4 Ci was released in one episode, yet only minor



contamination was found in the environment.  Filters and



charcoal beds were installed in 1960, and since that time


                                          114
releases have been entirely insignificant.



         A serious incident occurred in 1958 at the NRU



reactor, a heavy-water moderated Canadian experimental

-------
                                                          42
reactor, yet recovery was possible and only minor releases



to the environment resulted.  Due to a faulty mechanism, a



highly irradiated fuel assembly was caught and could not be



inserted into the discharge cask.  A 3-foot portion melted



and burned.  A detectable level of contamination was found



at a distance of 1,000 feet from the reactor building.


                                                           87
Decontamination of the reactor required about three months.



3.2.2.2  Reactor Accidents



         Reactor accidents which result in melting of a large



fraction of the highly irradiated fuel are highly unlikely—



although credible.  Upon melting, the core could release to



the reactor building the noble gas fission isotopes and a



fraction of the halogens and other volatile isotopes.  The



postulated accident which could cause this is called the



design basis accident, and the reactor system is designed



to preclude such an event.  In addition, special designs



(such as for a containment vessel) are required which



"ensure" confinement or containment to a very high degree



in the event of a serious accident.  The AEG reviews all



reactor designs prior to licensing to ensure the safety of



the general public in case of an accident.



         Some serious reactor accidents in the Western world



have occurred in the United States, Canada, and England.



The most recent of these, which resulted in the death of



three military personnel, occurred in 1961 at the Army

-------
                                                          43
low-power (SL-1) reactor at the National Reactor Testing




Station in Idaho.  Through inadvertent withdrawal of a




safety rod,  the reactor went critical and the nuclear excur-




sion resulted in a violent chemical explosion.  Even though




the reactor building was conventionally constructed, the




radioactivity released from the core was substantially con-




fined within the reactor building.  An estimated 10 Ci of




iodine (about twice the background radiation) was released




and was detectable about 80 miles downwind.




         Through a series of compounding events in Canada at



the NRX reactor in Chalk River, Ontario, a power surge melted




about 10 percent of the uranium fuel rods in 1952.  Some




10,000 Ci of fission products were carried below the reactor




and spread through auxiliary equipment.  Evacuation of the



                                                          7 ")
area for a weekend was required because of airborne gases.'*




         The only accident which caused any generalized




environmental contamination occurred at Windscale, England,




in 1957.  The accident followed an attempt to anneal graphite




by nuclear heat.  The uranium elements in 150 fuel channels




rose to such temperatures that cladding failed and the ele-




ments reached a glowing red heat.  After carbon dioxide was




found ineffectual, water was used to quench the uranium.




The reactor cooling air was released to the atmosphere




through a 410-foot stack, at the top of which was a low-




efficiency filter.  Some 20,000 Ci of iodine-131, 600 Ci of

-------
                                                         44
cesium-137, 80 Ci of strontium-89, and 9 Gi of strontium-90



were released.  Milk was contaminated by iodine-131 in a



200-square-mile area to greater than the permissible level,



and sale of milk from this area was forbidden for 3 to 6



weeks.  The largest thyroid dose recorded among the inhabi-



tants was 19 rad in one child.  The reactor was never put



back into operation.182'197'198



         Even though the foregoing represent the worst



accidents to date involving radioactive air pollution, the



consequences in respect to air pollution were much less



serious than some of the documented nonradioactive air pollu-



tion incidents on record.



3.2.3  Fuel Reprocessing



         The highly radioactive fuels taken from power



reactors are reprocessed to separate the uranium and plu-



tonium from the many curies of fission products.  Many



processes have been developed for removing the cladding



material, dissolving the fuel, and extracting the uranium



and plutonium.



         Radioactive airborne contamination from a reprocess-



ing plant is a potential problem, since all the highly



radioactive fission products are released from the fuel



during the dissolution step.  Unless they are deliberately



recovered, all noble gas isotopes in the fuel at the time



of dissolution are swept out of the dissolver into the

-------
                                                          45
atmosphere.  At present, krypton-85 releases do not consti-


tute an air pollution problem.  However, based on projected


nuclear power expansion and population growth by the year


2060, it is estimated that the radiation dose from krypton-85


would be of the order of_ 50 mrad per year, and may be as high


as 100 mrad .per year.  From the public health standpoint, 50


mrad per year may be acceptable if other sources of exposure

                          oo
are adequately controlled.


         Of greater concern at the present time is the poten-


tial for day-to-day emission of radioactive particles and


volatile isotopes.  The most critical volatile isotope is


iodine-131, which can be reduced to negligible quantities by


allowing a long storage time after the fuel is removed from


the reactor.  In addition, good processes are available for


removing iodine-131 from exhaust air.  Experience has shown


that on a long-term basis and with adequate fuel-cooling and


iodine-131 removal facilities, the routine iodine-131 emis-


sions can be kept well below 1 Ci per day from a large


separations plant.   '^    Another isotope of iodine whose


emissions from fuel reprocessing plants may be significant


is iodine-129.  Studies are in progress by the Bureau of

                                             193
Radiological Health to evaluate this problem.


         The fuel processing plants at Savannah River and


at Hanford have experienced momentary releases of iodine-131


on occasion, due to equipment failure or inadvertent process-


ing of fuel which had "cooled" less than 4 months0  For

-------
                                                          46
example, the Savannah River Plant released 153 Ci of iodine-
                                  1 r\n
131 during a 5-day period in 1961.     The levels reached in

the environment did not require withholding milk from con-

sumption or any precautions other than monitoring action.

         A very similar -incident occurred at Hanford in

September 1963165 when about 60 Gi of iodine-131 were

released.  The maximum off-project grass level reached about

1.3 x 10~5 |jCi/g.  Increases in milk were detectable, but

not dangerous.

         Another isotope which forms volatile compounds is

ruthenium, prominently present in the fission product mix-

ture as ruthenium-103 (with a half-life of 40 days) and

ruthenium-106 (with a half-life of 1 year).  Ruthenium is

relatively easily oxidized to the tetroxide, volatilized,

and trapped in a caustic scrubber.     Radioactive particles

are generated at almost every point in the process where a

liquid is boiled, sprayed, agitated, or pumped.  The very

fine sprays may be carried out through the vessel vents or

through very small leaks.  The liquid evaporates, leaving

a very small solid residue that carries with it the radio-

active material.  Very efficient filters are utilized for all


air leaving the operation.

         Isolation and purification of plutonium during fuel

processing is accomplished through precipitation, fluorina-

tion, and eventual reduction to metal.  Plutonium aerosols

-------
                                                          47
are generated from droplets and dry powders0  Each enclosure



where the work is performed is exhausted through a high-



efficiency fire-resistant filter.  The air is again filtered



before release to the atmosphere through a tall stack.



         The uranium stream from the fuel separations process



becomes the .feed for a calcining operation which converts



the nitrate to oxide.  The calcining yields airborne uranium



oxide particles, practically all of which are retained on



high-efficiency filters in the ventilation air exhaust.



         Radioactive air pollution due to fuel reprocessing



plants to date has been minor.1^^



         The location of plants for reprocessing spent fuel



removed from reactors is shown in Table 19 in Appendix B.



The Nuclear Fuel Services Plant at West Valley, N.Y., is



the only commercial fuel reprocessing plant in operation at



present.



3.2.4  Nuclear Power Industry Projections



         Until about 4 or 5 years ago, nuclear power for



central power stations was essentially in a development



stage.  Since then, many utilities over a broad section of



the country have decided to construct large power facilities



based on nuclear heat sources because they are more economi-



cal than fossil fuels.  In some borderline cases, the decision



to go nuclear was made.  Therefore, the growth of commercial



nuclear-powered electrical generating facilities has been

-------
                                                          48
remarkable, with growth rates larger than had been predicted.


In 1968 the new orders for a select group of nuclear products


that are part of the nuclear power plants, as reported by the

                                            199
Census Bureau, exceeded 1.5 billion dollars.     The estimated


growth of nuclear power plants  is shown in Figure 1.  The


projected expenditures for construction investment are shown


in Figure 2.  A list of the commercial nuclear power plants


already built, being constructed, and proposed for construc-


tion are shown in Table 17, Appendix B.


         The projected market for fuel resulting from the


growth of nuclear power is shown  in Figure 3.  This includes


the total estimated cost of fuel  from ore concentration to


fuel fabrication.  The cost for each step in the total fuel


market for the year 1980 is shown in Table 20, Appendix B.


         The overall use of nuclear energy, such as applica-


tions of radioisotopes and radiation, is expected to continue


to expand.  The market for radiation processing in 1967 was
250 million dollars, and  it  is expected to grow at the rate


of 25 percent per year0   The projected 1968 market for radio-


chemicals and radiopharmaceuticals  is 22 to 28 million

                                                            129
dollars, with an annual projected growth rate of 25 percent.


3.2.5  Nuclear Tests


         Testing of nuclear  explosives is another source of


atmospheric pollution.  The  nuclear explosives are either


based on fission processes employing uranium-235 or plutonium-239

-------
                                                        49
CD
O)
O)
c
CD
«

O
    200
    160-
 120-
  80-
     40-
      0
            i    i
                           i    i    i    r
      1970
                      1975
1980
                   FIGURE 1


Estimated  Capacity of Nuclear  Power Plants
                                                129
          30
          20
       o
       Q
       V)


       O
       00
           10-
                      Cumulative
               1970
                         i  i  r  t  i
                       1975         1980
                       FIGURE  2


Projected  Expenditures for  Construction Investment
                                                 129

-------
                                                    50
     30
     20 -
"5
Q
CO

O
     10 -
     0
                  1  1 1  I   1  I  I  T
           1970        1975       1980
                  FIGURE 3
             Fuel Cycle Costs
                              129

-------
                                                         51
or fusion reactions employing light nuclei (hydrogen or



lithium).



         The explosion takes the form of a nonmoderated



chain reaction which produces large neutron fluxes that



activate the surrounding material.  The radioactive products



released in a nuclear explosion are the fission products



strontium-90, cesium-137, iodine-131, and others, and the


                                             89
activation products calcium-45 and sodium-24.    After some



time has elapsed, the principal contaminants remaining are


                            89
strontium-90 and cesium-137.



         The force of the explosion and the accompanying



rise in temperature convert these radioactive materials into



gases or else eject fine particles high into the atmosphere.



The immediate result is thus a primary pollution of the



atmosphere at the site of the explosion.  This is followed



by a secondary pollution due to radioactive fallout.  The



distance covered by the particles of radioactive material



will vary with the height to which they are ejected and with



their size.  They will eventually settle out or be carried



down by rain and become dispersed over the surface of the



ground.  In this way, pollution is produced at points remote



from the site of the explosion, the distance depending upon



the size of the explosion, the prevailing meteorological



conditions, and the latitude at which ejection into the



stratosphere takes place.    Examples of this remote type

-------
                                                          52
of pollution are illustrated in reports by Gold et al.   and


              *? o
Branson et aJL_.   that reported on the measurements of fission



product fallout in the United States from the Chinese nuclear



tests in 1964 and 1965,



         It is estimated that from World War II until the



end of 1962, the total explosive yield of all nucelar detona-



tions by the United States, the United Kingdom, and the



Soviet Union was equivalent to 511 megatons of TNT, as shown



in Table 21, Appendix B.



         In 1963 a moratorium on open-air testing was



adopted by the United States, the United Kingdom, and Russia.



Since then, there has been a small amount of venting from



underground tests conducted by the United States and Russia,



but this has not added a significant amount of radioactivity



to the total atmospheric inventory.  Moreover, the Chinese



and French have tested nuclear weapons, but these tests have



not added appreciably to the radioactivity totals made prior


        147
to 1962.     During tests prior to 1963, it is estimated



that about 30 percent of the radioactivity produced by the



nuclear explosions was deposited in the immediate vicinity


                  168
of the test sites.     Measurements of the atmospheric



radioactivity resulting from nuclear weapons tests have been



made at hundreds of locations throughout the world and at


                145
many elevations.     The measurements are contained in the



reports of the United Nations Scientific Committee on the

-------
                                                           53
Effects of Radiation.145'146'147  The monthly mean concen-



trations of beta radioactivity measured in the United States



following periods of major atmospheric nuclear testing are



shown in Figure 4.



         The hazard to man arises primarily from fallout



since most of the debris  is carried to the earth's surface



in rainfall.  The greatest source of human exposure is the



radionuclides absorbed by man via the food chain (for



example, the contamination of grass by iodine-131 fallout,



with subsequent ingestion by cows and concentration in their



milk).168



         The majority of  the radiation received from inhaled



radioactive debris from weapons testing originated from



zirconium-95 and cerium-144.  During the heavy weapons test-



ing in 1962 and 1963, doses to the lung amounted to only a



few mrad per year, which  is small in comparison with the


                       147
normal background dose.     The total radiation from nuclear



testing has added only about 10 to 15 percent to the normal



natural radiation background dose.



3.3  Product Sources



         Radionuclides are used as tracers in industry,



biology, and agriculture  and for internal irradiation in



medicine.  Another application of radionuclides is as sealed



sources for gammagraphy and for massive external irradiation



(sterilization).  Radioactive wastes result only from the



first type of application„  These wastes may be either the

-------
                                                               54
 o
 o.
55


50 -


45-

40-


35 -


30 -
 K
 >
 O
 5 20 H
 cc
   15 -
        1957
               1958
                      1959
         PERIODS OF MAJOR ATMOSPHERIC TESTING
                            U.S.(Nevada Test Site)
                            U.S.(Pacific)
                            U.K.

                            U.S.S.R.
                             1960
1961
                                           1962
                n\
                I
                o|
                d
                UJ
                ccl
                I- 1
                I!
                &!
                HI
                                                  1963
                         FIGURE 4

Monthly Mean Concentrations of Beta Radioactivity
     as  Related  to Testing of  Nuclear Weapons3

-------
                                                          55
unused remains of the radionuclides employed, or products of


transformation or excretion.  The quantities involved are


small, and atmospheric pollution from this source is gener-

                            pn
ally of little significance.


3.3.1  Aerospace Applications


         A relatively new potential source of atmospheric


pollution is the use of nuclear energy for rocket propulsion


and as a source of power for satellites and space probes.


         The first practical application of nuclear energy


in outer space was the use of isotopic power units that pro-


duce electricity by thermoelectric conversion of the heat of


radioactivity decay.  The first isotopic power unit actually


to  fly in  outer space was a 2.7-watt generator containing 80-


year plutonium-238.  This unit powered the communications


system in TRANSIT, a communications satellite designed to


provide constant frequency transmission for a period of


several years.  This device was placed in orbit in June 1962.


         In April 1964, an isotopic power device containing


plutonium-238 burned up at about 150,000 feet over the Indian


Ocean during reentry into the atmosphere.  Traces of the


plutonium-238 were found at the expected altitude and lati-


tude, confirming the belief that complete burnup was


achieved.  The material is slowly descending toward the


ground and has recently been detected in the surface air.


It is expected that this will give rise to a negligible amount

-------
                                                          56
of air pollution.     Although these types of nuclear energy



uses are new potential sources of atmospheric contamination,



it seems unlikely that in the foreseeable future the levels



of atmospheric contamination will approach those to which



the world was once subjected as a result of nuclear weapons



tests.



         The United States is engaged in the development of



a rocket propulsion system utilizing nuclear power.  For



some years this program will be in an experimental stage



which will limit the operation of reactors to land-based



test units at remote locations, such as the Nevada Test Site.



Because of the isolation of the test units and the relative



infrequency of test firings, it is not likely that the



nuclear rocket program will constitute a significant source



of atmospheric pollution for some years.



3.4  Other Sources



         Other sources of radioactivity are pilot plants,



research laboratories, and laundries for washing contaminated



clothes, as well as metallurgical examination of fuels, and



incineration of slightly contaminated clothing and radio-



activity filters.  In such cases, the release of particulate



activity is easily controlled by absolute filtration of all



air from active laboratories; the levels of gaseous activity



are invariably so low that no significant air pollution



occurs.

-------
                                                          57
         Another potential source of radioactivity can result



from the peaceful use of nuclear explosions underground to



stimulate gas production, provide gas storage basins, enhance



the production of oil from oil shale, and facilitate solution



mining of copper.  Many.such projects have been proposed or



are in the planning stages.  (Table 22, Appendix B).  One



project, called Gas Buggy, was conducted in December 1967,



to stimulate gas production.  The results of this project



are being evaluated.  The potential for release of radio-



activity accurs mainly during the production and use of the



end products; for example, fuel gases produced or stored can



become contaminated with radioactive materials that are



released when the gas is burned.  To minimize the possibility



of such contamination, the area is not used for a period of



time afterwards to allow the radioactivity produced during



the explosion to decay.



3.5  Environmental Air Concentrations



         Prior to 1967, sampling for gross beta reactivity



was carried out at 323 stations throughout the country by



the Air Surveillance Network of the National Air Surveillance



Networks Section, Division of Air Quality and Emission Data,



Bureau of Criteria and Standards, National Air Pollution



Control Administration.  Since 1967 the Air Surveillance



Network has limited its radioactivity sampling to the West



Coast.123  The Radiation Surveillance Network (RSN)—which



in 1967 became the Radiation Alert Network (RAN) of the

-------
                                                         58
Radiological Surveillance Branch of the Division of Envi-



ronmental Radiation, Bureau of Environmental Health—samples



the atmosphere for gross beta activity at 74 stations through-



out the country.  The network is oriented toward detecting



radioactive fallout from weapons testing.8  Therefore, if



the atmospheric radioactivity exceeds 10 pCi/m3  (or 5 pCi/m3



in Hawaii, Alaska, and Puerto Rico), the samples are scanned



for fission products.  Data from the Radiation Alert Network



are published each month in the Radiological Health and Data


Reports.  In the near future, the Radiation Alert Network is



expected to become part of the Air Surveillance Network,123


                                104
          Lockhart  and Patterson     intercalibrated the Radia-



tion  Surveillance  Network  (RSN) and the Air Surveillance



Network (ASN) by sampling  for beta activity at the Naval



Research  Laboratory  in "Washington, D.C., utilizing the



systems and methods used by these networks.  The samples



were  then counted  at the Naval Research Laboratory and at



the Network laboratories,  utilizing their  standard procedures,



They  found from these data that the RSN measurements were



lower than the corresponding ASN measurements, primarily due



to the different type of filter paper used by the two systems,



The RSN uses carbon-impregnated cellulose  paper, which allows



a greater penetration of radioactive particles than does the



glass-fiber filter paper used by ASN. The  relative activity



concentration or intercomparison factors for the two systems



are


                   RSN =  1000, ASN =1.77

-------
                                                          59
Gross beta measurements made by the ASN for the years 1953

       P
to 1966  are shown in Table 23, Appendix B.

-------
                                                              60
4.   ABATEMENT




             Radiation cannot be detected without special instru-



    mentation,  and the biological effects are usually not evident



    until some  time after exposure.  Therefore,  reliance must be



    placed on methods for preventing the atmospheric activity



    from exceeding permissible levels.  The abatement systems



    and methods utilized to prevent atmospheric pollution are



    rigorous, systematic, and organized so as to provide multiple



    and successive safeguards.  In addition, the abatement sys-



    tems must be designed to handle not only pollution arising



    out of normal working conditions, but also the accidental



    pollution caused by defective installations or faulty



    operations.



             Effective control of radioactive pollution consists



    of limiting the emission of radioactive pollutants, contain-



    ing them to prevent the spread of the pollution, and dis-



    persing them to reduce the pollution below the maximum per-



    missible level.



    4.1  Control of Radioactive Pollution



    4.1.1  Limitation of the Emission of Radioactive Pollutants



             There is often a choice of techniques for carrying



    out a mining or processing operation, some of which offer



    special advantages for limiting air pollution.  In uranium



    mines, for  example,  pollution can be kept to a minimum by



    the use of  wet drilling, by underground drainage, and by

-------
                                                          61
clearing away the ore as rapidly as possible to prevent the



release of radon.  In nuclear reactors, the risk of pollu-



tion can be reduced by using closed-cycle coolant systems



and maintaining high coolant purity to minimize activation



products.  In addition, nuclear testing can be carried out



under meteorological conditions chosen to ensure minimum



dispersal.



4.1.2  Containment



         Containment of radioactivity can be done in two



ways:  the polluted atmosphere itself can be contained, or



the radioactive pollutant can be contained by not allowing



it to escape to the atmosphere.  In the first case, the



polluted air is separated from the air where people are work-



ing or from the outside atmosphere.  A reactor containment



building serves to minimize the release of fission products



to the outside atmosphere if an accident allows them to



escape from the reactor.  In the second case, the radioactive



gases are completely contained by means of hermetically



sealed tanks and closed-cycle process systems.



4.1.3  Dispersal



         The dispersal method consists merely of diluting the



pollution with a volume of air large enough to reduce the



resulting concentration of radioactivity in the air below



maximum permissible concentrations.



         Radioactive pollutants are dispersed by means of

-------
                                                          62
stacks.  The satisfactory dispersal of radioactive gas to



the atmosphere at permissible concentrations depends upon



the position, height, and discharge of the stack and on



local meteorological factors.



4.2  Location of Facility Site



         A guiding principle in locating an atomic facility



is to select a site where the possibility of excessive



radiation doses to the general public will be minimized.33'3



In choosing a site, the most important considerations are



          (1)  The type of installation (i.e., nuclear



reactor, chemical treatment plant, plutonium extraction



center, etc.), since  it will influence the type of accident



most likely to occur and the consequences of an accidental



release of radioactivity.



          (2)  The area's meteorological factors, especially



the local weather conditions, prevailing winds, rainfall



pattern, temperature changes, humidity, and others.



          (3)  The nature of the environment likely to be



contaminated; i<>e., distribution  of the population, position



of industrial and residential areas and of agricultural zones,




and other factors„



4.3  Air Cleaning Methods



         Airborne radioactive particulates and gaseous sub-



stances are produced in many of the operations in the nuclear



energy  industry,,  Since some of these are produced at levels

-------
                                                          63
that preclude direct release to the environment, a variety



of methods have been used for their collection and removal



prior to release.  These methods include filtration, centrifu-



gal collection, wet collection, electrostatic collection,



surface absorption, and -delay to allow for decay.  The air



cleaning method utilized will depend upon the form of the



radioactive material  (particulate or gas), the particle



size, and the chemical and physical properties of the atmo-



sphere and its contaminants.  Tables 24 and 25, Appendix B.



show the methods used to remove radioactivity and their


  -...  .     159
efficxency.



4.3.1  Radioactive Particulates



         Radioactive particulates consist of dust, fumes,



smokes, and mists and range in size from less than 0.05 [_i



upward.  The degree of removal required for radioactive



particulates is considerably higher than that encountered



in normal (nonradioactive) industry practice.  Removal



efficiencies of 99 percent or better are required in many



instances for particles of less than one |a in diameter.



These removal efficiencies have been achieved by conventional



methods or by refinements of them.



         Filtration '   '   '    is the most widely used



method of removing radioactive materials from air.  Filtra-



tion equipment can consist of roughing filters, absolute



filters, bag filters, deep-bed sand filters, or combinations

-------
                                                          64
of these, depending upon the dust loading in the air and
the removal efficiencies required.  Absolute filters give
removal efficiencies of better than 99 percent for particles
greater than 0.3 p..  For high dust loading situations,
absolute filters are often preceded by coarser filters.
These can consist of roughing filters, bag filters, or deep
bed filters.
         Electrostatic precipitators   '   '    and cyclones
can also be used in high dust loading situations.  However,
electrostatic precipitators are rarely used because of their
high cost.  Small cyclones  '    '    have been used in collect-
ing swarf from uranium machining operations, and large
cyclones^'170,171 have been used in ore operations.
4.3.2  Wet Collection
         Mixed aerosols such as acid mists and solids are
usually removed by wet collectors.  This group of equipment
consists of wet filters, viscous filters, packed towers,
cyclone scrubbers, and venting scrubbers.  As a class,
scrubbers will rarely remove particles less than 0.5 (j. in
diameter.  They cool as well as clean the gas.  The removal
of dust is continuous, but the relatively large quantities
of liquid effluent may require treatment as liquid radio-
active wastes.  There may also be a danger of chemical
         T- .L.     *•     ,-in-^o.    Jo-   6,170,171
reaction between fine metallic dusts and water.
         Wet filters have been used in the absorption of

-------
                                                          65
acid mists and vapors from laboratory fume hoods, particu-


larly when hydrofluoric and perchloric acid mists were

present.


         Viscous filters are primarily used as prefilters

for general ventilation 'air.


         Packed towers or spray columns are particularly


useful when the aerosol contains some reactive chemical.


However , they are mainly used for gas absorption rather than


air cleaning.


         Cyclone scrubbers are used where removal of pyro-


phoric materials are necessary.  Venturi scrubbers are often


incorporated in the air-cleaning train of incinerators,


since they allow high gas temperatures to be handled.  ''


4.4  Radioactive Gases and Vapors


         During reactor operation, volatile radioactive


gases and vapors are formed that cannot be removed from air


or other carrier gas streams by filtration.  The most danger-
                                                  "I O O
ous of these are the isotopes of iodine  ( ° I and    I) and


the isotopes of krypton and xenon  (87Kr, 88Kr , 133Xe, 135Xe,


and 85Kr).


         It is extremely difficult and expensive to remove


small quantities of radioactive inert gases from large volumes


of air.  Therefore, in most cases  it is  easier and simpler


to install waste gas treatment systems to treat the gases


prior to release to the ventilation system.

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                                                          66
         The methods available for removal of radioactive
gases are absorption and chemisorption, adsorption, and
storage until the isotope has decayed.
4.4.1  Chemisorption and Adsorption
         The adsorbents used for removing radioactive gases
and vapors include activated carbons, silica gels  (pure or
impregnated with chemicals which give them chemisorptive
properties), and chemicals based on soda lime (to absorb
acidic vapors and gases).  Other substances used include
those having a selective adsorption capacity for certain
types of material, for example, silver and its salts or oxide
plated on inert carriers such as unfired porcelain and
Alundum, aluminum oxide, or metal mesh and finely-ground
metals.1,22,137,170,171
         The activated carbons are efficient and cheap and
will remove many radioactive vapors and gases from air and
other carrier gas streams.  At low temperatures, they are
good adsorbents of radioactive inert gases such as xenon and
kryptono  The silica gels are used to decontaminate gases
containing high concentrations of oxidants, but not fluoride
or hydrogen fluoride.  The adsorbents based on soda lime are
used as alkaline chemical absorbers for acid gases and vapors
(compounds of iodine, phosphorus, and carbon dioxide).
Selective adsorbents—such as silver plate on activated
carbon, silica gel, or nonporous material (porcelain)—are

-------
                                                          67
highly efficient for the decontaminating streams containing

                   22 137
radioactive iodine.  '


4.4.2  Absorption



         Absorption is suitable  for removing from the venti-



lation air gases that react chemically with the scrubbing



liquid or are highly soluble in  it.  Normally, this method



is used for the relatively gross cleaning of the air of



(inorganic) compounds of radioactive iodine, carbon-14


dioxide, and others.



         The most  important absorbents for removing radio-



active contamination from the air are



         (1)  Water (although not always sufficiently effec-

tive, such as in removing iodine from air), and



         (2)  A weak alkaline solution (pH 8 to 10) the most

widely used absorbent.



         The same  equipment is used for air cleaning by



absorption as is used for the removal of dust and aerosols



from air.   However, the efficiency of even the best



installations of this type is not great, and removal does



not usually exceed 90 to 95 percent.



         The main  disadvantage of this type of equipment



is that it produces radioactive waste water.



4.4.3  Delay in Storage


         The delay or retention of gases in tanks until the



radioisotopes have decayed enough to permit release is one



of the simplest and most reliable ways of removing radio-



active inert gases—argon, krypton, and xenon—from the air

-------
                                                          68
and other carrier gases.  In order to reduce the activity of



a given isotope by a factor of 100, the retention time must



be 6.7 times the half-life of the isotope; and for a thou-



sand fold reduction, the retention time must be 10 times the


,  . , . . _  18,19,171
half-life.



         The delay in storage method is used primarily for



the removal of comparatively short-lived  isotopes, especially



radioactive inert gases, from limited volumes of air and



other  carrier gases.  However, storage tanks can also be



used for temporary storage of exhaust gases during unfavora-



ble meteorological conditions, such as inversion or unfavora-



ble wind direction.  The gases are stored until the meteoro-



logical conditions are  satisfactory and then released.   '

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                                                              69
5.   ECONOMICS


             In the last few years the growth of the commercial


    nuclear power generating industry has been greater than had


    been predicted even 5 years ago.  (See Section 3 for pro-


    jected growth rates).  Each nuclear facility must incorpo-


    rate safety systems that will safeguard the public from


    uncontrolled and excessive release of radioactive materials

                                                     1 86
    to the atmosphere.  It has been estimated by Vann    that


    the costs associated with reactor safety for plants being


    engineered and constructed for mid-1973 service constitute


    approximately 10 percent of the total plant cost.  For a


    800 Mw(e) light water reactor plant this would amount to

                      186
    about $18,000,000.     This figure includes costs of com-


    ponents, piping, structures, and engineering.


             A cost analysis of the dust collectors used at AEC


    facilities to prevent release of toxic and radioactive dusts


    to the atmosphere was made by First and Silverman.     From


    their study they determined the following costs for air


    cleaning equipment:


             (1)  For air supply units of 10,000 cfm capacity,


    dry fiber throwaway prefilters cost under $50/1,000 cfm/yr;


    two-stage electrostatic precipitators cost $76/1,000 cfm/yr.


             (2)  For exhaust air cleaners of 10,000 cfm capacity,


    most dry and wet medium-efficiency mechanical dust collectors


    will cost approximately $50/1,000 cfm/yr, and cleanable

-------
                                                          70
fabric dust collectors will cost about twice this amount.



         (3)  The costs and. service conditions of some dry



mechanical and wet dust collectors installed at the AEC



facilities are shown in Tables 26 and 27 in Appendix B.



         The economic impact of radioactive air pollution on



humans, animals, and plants is expected to be minimal at the



low levels presently encountered.  Some economic losses have



been incurred in the past from accidental releases of radio-



active materials from nuclear facilities such as in 1957 at



Windscale, England, where contaminated milk was withheld



from the market.



         The main impact of radioactive pollution is in the



area of long-term health effects, and the magnitude of this



impact is not yet known.  Potential releases of krypton-85



from an expanding nuclear industry could well limit nuclear



expansion around the year 2000 if it is determined that the



radiation dose from the quantity of krypton-85 released at



that time is harmful to health.

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                                                              71
6.  METHODS OF ANALYSIS




             Radioactive materials are produced and dispersed



    in a variety of ways.  In most cases, the radioactive pollu-



    tants occur as solid particles dispersed in air.  They



    rarely occur dispersed in air as liquids.  However, some of



    the products are gaseous such as radon, elemental radio-



    iodine and some of its organic compounds, radiocarbon as



    carbon dioxide, and radioargon.  The method of sampling and



    monitoring for radioactive material dispersed in air depends



    on the physical form of the material.  Techniques for mea-



    suring radiation have been developed which are sensitive to



    extremely minute amounts.  As a result, the amounts of



    radioactive material that can be detected and measured quan-



    titatively with a high degree of accuracy are much smaller



    than almost any other atmospheric pollutant.



    6.1  Sampling Methods



             The types of collecting devices used to sample



    radioactive particulates are filters, impactors, impingers,



    and settling trays.  Large particles can be collected on



    settling trays.  However, sampling for radioactive particu-



    lates is usually accomplished by pulling the air at a mea-



    sured flow rate through the collecting device.1'46'102'168



    6.1.1  Filters



             Filtration through paper is the most widely used


                                                    119
    technique for sampling radioactive particulates.     The



    types of filter paper used by some various air sampling

-------
                                                         72
networks throughout  the world have been  listed by Lockhart

      105
et. aj^.     They have listed  cellulose, cellulose-asbestos,


cellulose-glass fiber, glass fiber,  polystyrene, and membrane


filters.  Glass filters are  probably used more extensively


than the other filter types„ However, certain inherent


advantages are obtained from using other filter media.  For


example, the  synthetic organic  filters and  cellulose filters


are easily burned  and essentially ash-free, where the glass


and asbestos  filters leave a residual ash when burned.  This


may be an advantage  during analysis  because of the presence


of a finite amount of material  for observation and manipula-


tion.  Chemical processes are available  to  dissolve the ash


from the glass or asbestos filters or to dissolve the filter


media without ashing.


         The membrane-type filters are readily soluble in a


wide variety of organic solvents, and they  can easily be


ashed.  Thus, when chemical  operations are  to be performed


on the collected dust, the dust can  be easily separated from


the filter.  In addition, a  drop  of  the  proper immersion oil


in contact with a filter on  a microscope slide makes the


filter completely transparent for microscopic examination of


collected material.     Techniques have  been developed for


transferring collected material from membrane filters to


electron microscope  grids so that very small particles may

            93
be observed.

-------
                                                          73
         Where direct counting of the filter media is to be



used to measure the collected radioactivity, radioactive



particle penetration of the filter paper should be minimized;



highly compacted filters which are essentially surface



collectors should be utilized.  Lockhart et al.    have made



measurements on penetration of various filter media by smoke.



         Collection efficiencies of 100 percent in a sampling



system are not necessary provided the efficiencies are at



least 90 percent and are known for the material to be



collected.  Lockhart et al.    have listed measurements made



on collection efficiencies of various filter media for



natural radioactive aerosols and airborne fission products.



6.1.2  Impactors



         In impactors the airstream is speeded up by a jet



and then impinged or impacted on a surface coated with a



sticky material to catch the dust.  The material is collected



in a small area immediately in front of the jet and the size



range collected is a function of the jet velocity and the



system dimensions.  Impactors are rarely used for pollution



monitoring involving radioactive materials because of the



long collection times required under outdoor conditions



where natural dust exists.  Moving slides and tapes have



been used for this purpose but are only satisfactory for



relatively short periods of sampling.     The Anderson sam-



pler (although an impactor similar to the cascade impactor)

-------
                                                          74
collects more material and more fractions.  This impactor



consists of a series of perforated plates and collecting



plates. The air is forced through a perforated plate onto a



collecting plate, where the  fraction  is collected.1



6.1.3  Impincfers



         Impingers use impaction under a liquid surface and



are rarely used in air pollution studies.  They occasionally



have been used for sampling  stacks emitting hot, wet gases.



The impinger may be  immersed in ice water for this purpose



and the aerosol then trapped in the liquid.



6.1o4  Settling Trays



         Settling trays are  widely used in air pollution



work and have been used for  radioactive materials.  The



"fallout tray" is a  standard instrument in radioactive air



pollution monitoring.  The tray is a  metal sheet coated



with a sticky material or lined with  sheets of gummed


      89,168
paper.



         After exposure, the metal sheet can be placed in a



counter for direct counting  of radioactivity, or the material



can be removed from  the tray and the  radioactivity determined.



The collected material can be washed  off with a solvent and



the material wet- or dry-ashed for analysis.  After exposure,



gummed paper can be  stripped off and  ashed out.  Radio-



chemical analyses for various elements can then be performed.



         Another method of evaluation is by autoradiography

-------
                                                          75
of the tray.  The sticky surface is covered with a thin



plastic sheet, placed in contact with a sheet of X-ray film,



and kept in the dark for a fixed period.  After development



of the film, the dark spots reveal the presence of radio-

                                              -i g~ -I

active particles, which .can then be evaluated.     Instead



of sticky trays, a shallow tray filled with water can also



be used.  The water can then be evaporated or filtered for


direct counting.



         Radioactive washout by precipitation is evaluated



by collecting precipitation in stainless steel trays.  The



water is then evaporated and the residue is counted for



radioactivity.



6.2  Quantitative Methods



6.2.1  Analysis of Collected Particulate Samples for Activity



         Direct radioactive counting of filter paper and



other samples involves considerable electronic equipment.



The size of the probe or counting chamber should match that



of the collection medium, which usually is filter paper.



Special probes that can be used with standard sealers or



count-rate meters are built to handle most filter paper


      89,168
sizes.


         Proportional counters are widely used for activity analy-



sis but can give erratic results with filter papers because the



filter paper, being an insulator, distorts the electric field



in the counting chamber.  Scintillation counters are more



widely used at present for counting all types of air

-------
                                                          76
samples than proportional counters.  For alpha counting,



the scintillation surface is placed very close to the filter.



Low-level radioactivity can be counted, using small disks of



scintillating material on clear plastic placed in actual con-



tact with the deposited .material.  The counting device  is a



photomultiplier which "sees" the light flashes inside a



scintillating medium.



         Gamma activity is usually counted with a crystal as



a scintillator although Geiger tubes with end windows have



been used.  Beta counting can be done with scintillating



crystals (or powders) on plastic films or with thin window



proportional counters.  Multichannel analyzers are used,



particularly with gamma emitters, to give qualitative



information on the  isotopes present.  As noted previously,



membrane filters are best for collecting alpha emitters.



These are then counted with solid-state detectors connected



to a multichannel analyzer.



         The air usually contains appreciable quantities of



naturally occurring radioactive particulates.  These particu-



lates are collected on filter paper at the same time that



other radioactive contamination is being measured.  If  the



samples are counted immediately after the end of the sampling



period, the results are high because of the presence of these



short-lived natural radioactive materials.  Counting can be



delayed for several days to permit the decay of the natural

-------
                                                          77
products or several counts can be made and a correction



calculated.




         Combined sampler-counter units are available that



use a scintillation counter probe placed near the filter



paper during the sampling period.  The counter used  is a



count-rate instrument and the output  is connected to a



recorder, which then measures the buildup of activity on



the filter paper.  These types of instruments are rarely



used, however, for monitoring alpha emitters.  Instruments



also have been built using filter tape—moving intermittently



or continuously—as a collector so that one sample is


                                         70 8"3
counted while another is being collected.   '



6.202  Radioactive Particle Size Analysis



         The mass concentration of a  radioactive contaminant



in air usually is so minute, even at  concentrations  above



permissible levels, that it cannot be seen on the collection



media0  Therefore, it is seldom possible to use optical



techniques.  The concentration of ordinary dust is always



much greater than that  of the radioactive dust.  In  addition,



there is seldom any visible characteristic of the radio-



active dust by which it can be distinguished under the micro-



scope.  Therefore, indirect sizing methods usually are used.



         A widely used  indirect method for sizing uses the



cascade impactor.  This instrument draws air through a



series of progressively smaller jets.  After each jet, the

-------
                                                           78
nuclear track film, which is then developed,,  When the film



is examined under a microscope, tracks can be seen where



alpha particles were emitted, and the number of tracks



emanating from a single point is a measure of the amount of



radioactive material in the particle at that point.  From



the calculated mass of material, the particle size can be


          97
estimated.



6.2.3  Gases



         Radioactive gases require special handling for



analysis depending on their chemical and physical properties.



6.2.3.1  Iodine



         Iodine is collected on activated charcoal,   although



chemical absorbers also have been used.  The samples collected



can then be analyzed by placing the absorber directly on a



scintillation crystal or in a well counter for gamma counting.



By using discriminator circuits in a gated single-channel



analyzer, a high degree of sensitivity can be obtained.



         When the iodine is completely gaseous and entirely



in elemental form, the charcoal absorption method gives



reliable results.  At ordinary temperatures, however, some



iodine may be present as solid particles, or atoms may attach



themselves to other solids in the atmosphere.  Such materials



can penetrate the absorbent.  For this reason, filter paper



is usually placed in front of or behind the collection



cartridge during air sampling.  Both should be counted when

-------
                                                         79
air is allowed to impact on a plate coated with an adhesive


or dust-retaining material.  Since the jet velocities


increase as the jet size decreases, progressively smaller


particles are impacted and retained.  If the impactor has


been properly calibrated, the size ranges deposited on each


stage will be known;  '168 and if the cascade impactor has


been properly calibrated using an aerosol similar to the


one being sampled, it is fairly accurate.  Particle shape,


density, and size affect the stage constants.  Other errors


may be introduced by leakage of air into various parts of


the impactor, by deposition inside the instrument body, and


by resuspension of deposited aerosol from heavily loaded


slides.


         There are several aerosol spectrometers that can


be adapted for use with radioactive materials.  In Timbrell's


aerosol spectrometer, the air passes horizontally in a thin


film above a long surface and the particles settle on the


surface.  Since the larger the particle, the sooner it


settles, the distance that the particle is located from


the entrance is a measure of the particle size, and the


amount settled out at various distances can be measured to

                           1 orj
give the size distribution.     This system, satisfactory


only for particles larger than 10 microns, is seldom used


for air pollution worko


         In the Conifuge, centrifugal force is used to

-------
                                                          80
speed up the settling.  The aerosol-laden air is passed


through hollow space between two cones which are rotating


rapidly.     Therefore, the particles are driven to the


outside wall, where they are deposited on an adhesive-


coated surface.  Distance down the wall from the entrance


is again a measure of size.  This instrument is expensive,


difficult to build, and primarily used in laboratories.


         Another laboratory instrument, the Goetz aerosol

             75
spectrometer,   is similar to the Conifuge but the air


traverses a spiral down the annular space between the cones.


The air is not guided into the deposition space in a thin


layer and therefore, the distance from the entrance is only


a measure of the maximum size particle deposited there.


Interpretation of the resulting data is quite complex.


         Other methods for sizing radioactive particles


depend upon placing the collected sample in contact with


film for some time, developing the film, and examining it


under a microscope.  The particle can be left in place


during development or the film can be developed separately


and then placed in contact with the particles again.  When


examined under the microscope, the radioactive particles


can be identified by the darkened spots under the particles


on the film and can then be sized.


         For measuring alpha-emitting particles, the collected


aerosol is placed in contact for a period of time with a

-------
                                                          81
measuring the iodine concentration.



         Some iodine has been  found to penetrate various



absorbents and  filters.  There appear to be  several compounds


                                                     23 177
of iodine having different  diffusion characteristics.   '



Some materials  such as  ailver-coated copper  mesh have been



used as traps for  iodine, and  their efficiency  seems to be



dependent on humidity.  Silver-coated filter papers and



charcoal-loaded filter  papers  give high efficiencies with



iodine formed in the laboratory, but varying efficiencies with



iodine produced by reactors or industrial  fuel-processing

           C O

operations.     Scrubbers containing sodium hydroxide can also



be used in sampling air for iodine.




6.2.3.2  Tritium



         Tritium is usually present in the form of gaseous



molecular hydrogen or as water vapor.  When  dispersed in



air as molecular hydrogen,  it  gradually oxidizes to tritium



oxide or water  as  a result  of  self-activation.  Ambient


                                             196
tritium consists mainly of  water vapor (HTO).



         Low-level counting of tritium can be conveniently



and accurately  accomplished by liquid scintillation counting



systems.  Tritium  samples are  collected from the air by



freezing out the water  vapor from the air with  a cold trap,



then melting the collected  sample.  Water  is then mixed with



liquid scintillation solution.  The mixture  is  then counted



by a liquid scintillation counter.  All operations involving



the scintillation  solution  are performed under  red light to

-------
                                                          82
avoid phosphorescence resulting from excitation of the

scintillation solution by white light0121

6.2.3.3  Noble Gases

         The usual method of monitoring for noble gases

such as argon-41, krypton-85, xenon-133 and xenon-135 is by

means of a simple thin-window Geiger counter in the atmo-

sphere.  The Kanne chamber or other ion chamber can also be

used.  For measurement of very low concentrations of xenon

and krypton, a charcoal-freeze-out pump is used for trapping

the gases, which can then be released  into an  ion chamber or

a chamber containing a Geiger tube for measurement.  Since

permissible air concentrations of these gases  are relatively

high, such techniques are rarely required.   '

6.203.4  Other Radioactive Gases

         Gas such as carbon-14 dioxide and sulfur-35 dioxide

may be formed as a result of operations in an  isotope labora-

tory or through incineration of radioactive wastes.  These

gases are sampled by liquid scrubbers  containing sodium

hydroxide or barium chloride with an oxidant.  The determina-

tion of collected radioactive material is easily made by

liquid scintillation counting.  The precipitated barium

carbonate or barium sulfate also can be filtered off and

the filter paper counted in a suitable instrument, or a
                                                     1 /r p
sniffer can be used for determining the gas directly.

         Oxygen and nitrogen can become radioactive if

-------
                                                          83
exposed to intense radiation.  The half-lives of these



irradiated materials are short; therefore, they are not an



air pollution hazard.  Unshielded Geiger counters or other



detectors can be used for direct measurements of radiation



where this is necessary."



         When reactor fuel elements are dissolved in highly



oxidizing solutions, ruthenium, which is formed by the fis-



sion process, may be oxidized to the volatile tetroxide and



released.  Ruthenium-106 is the most hazardous isotope of



this element.  Air containing ruthenium can be sampled by



passing it through an absorber containing a dry organic



material such as polyethylene pellets, and the ruthenium



content determined by gamma counting.



6.2.4  Air Quality Monitoring



         Generally, monitoring for radioactive substances



is done in much the same way as for nonradioactive materials.



Sampling locations are determined both by meteorological and



demographic factors and the specific information to be



obtained.  Although airplanes, rockets, and high-altitude



balloons are all employed in measuring radioactive fallout,



the sampling equipment for each uses the same principles.



Since such pollutants are widely distributed, exact sampling



locations are not criticalo  '   '



         Duration and frequency of sampling are also similar



to those employed in all air pollution worko  In some cases,

-------
                                                         84
sampling times must be limited because of the short half-


life of the pollutant being measured.  The high sensitivity


of radioactivity measurements and the ready conversion of


the radioactive emissions to electronic pulses make continu-


ous monitoring possible in most cases.


         Continuous monitoring of reactor installations is


effected by a chain of stations suitably arranged around


the site.  Many different techniques and types of equipment


are utilized at various facilities throughout the country.


The Division of Radiological Health  is reviewing the monitor-


ing techniques and equipment used at the present time with

                                                           193
the intention of developing uniform measurement techniques.


One method presently used at many facilities to measure radio-


activity in air is to pass the air through a tape of filter


paper that is continuously fed to a discharge or scintilla-


tion counter.  lonization chambers and filter detectors give


instantaneous information on pollution with radioactive gases


and dusts.  When used in conjunction with recording equipment,


they enable the average pollution at the measurement point to


be determined; when fitted with alarm devices, they can give


a warning if the maximum permissible concentrations are



exceededo

-------
                                                              85
7.  SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS




            Radiation has been observed to produce somatic




    effects such as leukemia; lung, skin, thyroid, and bone




    cancer; cataracts; and life-span shortening.  In addition,




    it is responsible for significant genetic effects.  Although




    some estimates of the dose-time relationships to these




    effects have been reported, there is some uncertainty in




    safe levels of exposure to radiation.




            There is at present a generally wide acceptance of




    the biological concept which holds that there is no level of




    radiation exposure below which there can be absolute certainty




    that harmful effects will not occur to at least a few




    individuals.  This concept is based to a large extent on




    considerations of potentially harmful genetic effects.  While




    many of the acute and long-term biological effects of high




    doses of radiation are known, there is a lack of information




    on the biological effect of low doses and low-dose rates of




    radiation.  In general, somatic effects are less likely to




    occur at low-dose rates.  Much more information is required




    to fill the information gaps in the area of low doses and low-




    dose rates, which are of primary concern in air pollution.




            Animals suffer effects similar to those observed in




    man, and all of the effects observed in man have been confirmed




    with experimental animals.




            Plants are suspected of undergoing genetic mutations.




    However, the experiments have been carried out at radiation

-------
                                                          86
doses far in excess of those encountered in ambient air.  No



material damage has been observed by the radiation found in



ambient air.




        On the basis of recommendations from the International



Commission on Radiological Protection  (ICRP), the National



Committee on Radiation Protection  (NCRP), and the Federal



Radiation Council  (FRC), the AEC has established standards



of maximum permissible concentrations  (MPC) of nuclides that



can be released from nuclear plants.



        The nuclear industry has expanded rapidly in the



past decade and will continue to expand.  With this rapid



expansion, there has been an increase  in potential radio-



active pollution of the atmosphere.  Experience to date has



shown that the radiation dose to the general public from



nuclear plant emissions has been insignificant when compared



with that from natural radioactivity.  The  dose to the popu-



lation from nuclear weapons testing was more significant,



amounting to levels about 5 to  10 percent higher than the



levels of natural  radioactivity.



        Recent investigations have indicated that krypton-85



releases from fuel processing may add  significantly to the



general public radiation dose rate (50 to 100 mrad/yr) by the



year 2060.  Krypton-85 is a radioactive gas with a long half-



life and at the present time is vented to the atmosphere.



Methods must be developed for preventing the release of this



noble gas.

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                                                          87
        The projected growth of the nuclear industry in



localized areas (such as near Lake Michigan) may in the



future produce higher than desired radiation levels in the



local air basin.  The total emissions from these concentrated



facilities may be excessive, even though the emissions from



each new facility alone are well within their discharge



limits.  This problem will require careful review in the



future.



        Fossil fuels contain natural radionuclides that are



released from the fuel by combustion.  Therefore, radioactivity



is released from fossil-fuel-fired power plants that in some



cases can amount to more than that released from a similar-



sized nuclear power plant.



        Accidents have occurred in the nuclear industry, and



in some cases resulting in releases of appreciable amounts of



radioactivity.  In other instances, the result has been



temporary atmospheric pollution.  Most of these incidents



were caused by human error rather than the failure or



inadequacy of the air cleaning systems.



        Environmental radiation monitoring programs are con-



ducted by State, local, and Federal agencies external to the



nuclear facility site perimeter to monitor radioactivity



releases.  In addition, the Radiological Surveillance Branch,



Division of Environmental Radiation, Bureau of Environmental



Health, has a National Surveillance Network (Radiation Alert



Network) to monitor environmental radioactivity.,  However,

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                                                          88
this network is oriented toward detecting radioactive fallout



from weapons testing.  In the near future, the Radiation



Alert Network is expected to become part of the Air Surveil-



lance Network of the National Air Surveillance Network Sec-



tion, Division of Air Quality and Emission Data, Bureau of



Criteria and Standards, National Air Pollution Control



Administration.




        The low levels of radioactivity from all phases of



the nuclear industry are accomplished by rigidly controlling



the plant emissions.



        Control of radioactive pollution is accomplished by



a variety of methods.  Radioactive particulates are removed



by filtration, electrostatic precipitation cyclones, or



scrubbers.  Gases and vapors are often removed by absorption



or chemisorptibn.  Storage is effective in eliminating those



radionuclides which r"have a comparitively short half-life.



Most reactors are required to have containment buildings to



preclude the possibility of atmospheric contamination from



an accident.



        Estimates place the costs of controlling radioactive



emissions from nuclear power plants at 10 percent of the



total plant cost, or approximately $18,000,000 for a typical



800 Mw(e) reactor plant.  No information has been found on



the costs of damage resulting from radioactive air pollution.



        Techniques are available for measuring atmospheric

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                                                          89
concentrations of radioactive substances with a high degree



of accuracy and sensitivity.




       Based on the material presented in this report, further




studies are suggested in the following areas:




       (1)  Investigation of increase of emissions caused by




the increased growth rate of commercial nuclear reactors to




determine the future cumulative effects on ambient air con-




centrations of radioactive  substances.



       (2)  Investigation of the effects on humans, animals,




and plants of low-level, long-duration exposures to environmental




concentrations of radioactive substances.




       (3)  Expansion of the investigation of the emission of




radioactive materials from  combustion of fossil fuels.

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                                                           90
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      Natl. Res. Council, Publ. 452 (1956).

133.  Permissible Dose from External Sources of Ionizing
      Radiation, Addendum:  Maximum Permissible Radiation
      Exposures to Man, National Committee on Radiation
      Protection, Natl. Bur. Std. (U.S.), Handbook 59 (1958).

134.  Peterson, J. J., Jr., J. E. Mortin, C. L. Weaver, and
      E. D. Harword, Environmental Tritium Contamination from
      Increasing Utilization of Nuclear Energy Sources,
      Presented at the Seminar on Agricultural and Public
      Health, Aspects of Environmental Contamination by Radio-
      active Materials, Vienna, Austria (1969).

135.  Plowshare Closer to Commercialization, Chem. Eng. News
      p.38 (July 28, 1969).

136.  Premature Aging Seen in Irradiated Animals, The Biology
      of Aging, Publication 34, Brookhaven Lecture Series, BNL
      854, T-340 (1964).

137.  Proceedings of the 9th Atomic Energy Commission Air
      Cleaning Conference, Boston, Mass. (Sept. 1966).

138.  Radioactivity in Airborne Particulates and Precipitation,
      Radio. Health Data Repts, U.S. Public Health Serv.
      Publ. 658 (Nov. 1966).

139.  Radioactive Waste Handling in the Nuclear Power Industry,
      Edison Electric Institute (March 1960).

-------
                                                          103
REFERENCES

140.  Radiation Control for Health and Safety Act of 1967,
      Hearings before the Committee on Commerce, United States
      Senate, 90th Congress. Serial No. 90-49 (Aug. 1967).

141.  Radiation Quantities and Standards, International
      Commission on Radiological Units and Measurements, Natl.
      Bur. Std. (U.S.) Handbook 84 (ICRU Report 100) (1962).

142.  Radiological Health Data Reports, U.S. Dept.  of Health,
      Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Vol. 6
      (1965), Vol. 7  (1966), Vol. 8 (1967), and Vol. 9 (1968).

143.  Recommendations of the International Commission on
      Radiological Protection, Report of the Committee on
      Permissible Dose for Internal Radiation, Recommendations
      of the Internal Commission on Radiological Protection,
      ICRP Publication 2 (London:  Pergamon Press,  1959).

144.  Recommendations of the International Commission on
      Radiological Protection (adopted Sept. 1966), ICRP
      Publication 9 (London:  Pergamon Press, 1966).

145.  Report of the United Nations Scientific Committee on the
      Effects of Atomic Radiation (1962).

146.  Report of the United Nations Scientific Committee on the
      Effects of Atomic Radiation (1964).

147.  Report of the United Nations Scientific Committee on the
      Effects of Atomic Radiation (1966).

148.  Riccioti, E. R., Animals in Atomic Research,  U.S. Atomic
      Energy Commission Technical Information Division, Oak
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149.  Rost, D. , New Method of Particle Size Analysis with
      Membrane Filters, Translated from German.  Report of the
      Department of Physics and Technology of the Federal Center
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150.  Russell, W.  L., Studies in Mammalian Radiation Genetics,
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151.  Sacher, G. A. Division of Biological and Medical Research,
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-------
                                                          104
REFERENCES

152.  Sale of Gas Buggy Gas Believed 3 Years Away, Oil Gas
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153.  Sawyer, K. F., and W. H. Walton, The Conifuge, A Size-
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154.  Schwendiman, L. C., Radioactive Airborne Pollutant -
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155.  Seltser, R., and P. E. Sartwell, The Influence of
      Occupational Exposure to Radiation on the Mortality of
      American Radiologists and Other Medical Specialists,
      Am. J. Epidemiol. 82 (1965).

156.  Setter, L. R., Airborne Particulate Radioactivity
      Measurements of the National Air Sampling Network 1953-
      1959, Am. Ind. Hyq. Assoc. J. 22_(3) :I92 (1961).

157.  Shapiro, J., Radiation Damage from Breathing Radon and
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      (1956).

158.  Sickles, R. W. , Electrostatic Precipitators, Chem. Eng.
      25:156 (1968).

159.  Silverman, L., "Economic Aspects of Air and Gas Cleaning
      for Nuclear Energy Processes," in Disposal of Radioactive
      Wastes, Proceedings Conference, Monaco, 1959, Vol. 1
      (Vienna, Austria International Atomic Energy Agency,
      1960).

160.  Sinclair.- T. C. , Control of Hazards in Nuclear Reactors,
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161.  Skillern, C. P., How to Obtain Beta Activity of Fission
      Particles, Nucleonics 54 (1955).

162.  Slade, D. H., Meteorology and Atomic Energy, TID 24190
      (1968).

163.  Smith, C. B., Nuclear Power and the Air Pollution Problem,
      Presented at the Conference Engineering Solutions to Air
      Resource Problems (Sept. 1966).

-------
                                                           105
REFERENCES

164.  Soldat, J. K., Monitoring for Air-Borne Radioactive
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165.  Soldat, J. K.. Environmental Evaluation of an Acute
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166.  Solon, L. R. , _et a_.L. , Investigations of Natural Environ-
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167.  Spurray, R., M. Polydorova, and Z. Starcuk, Procovni
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168.  Stern, A. C., Air Pollution (New York:  Academic Press,
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169.  Stewart, A., _et aj... , A Survey of Childhood Malignancies,
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170.  Straub, C. P., Low Level Radioactive Waste, Their Handling,
      Treatment, and Disposal, U.S. Government Printing Office,
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171.  Techniques for Controlling Air Pollution from the Opera-
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172.  Telles, N. C., Acting Deputy Director, Division of
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173.  Terrill, J.  G., Radioactive Waste Discharges from
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174.  Terrill, J.  G. , Jr., Ingestion of Radioactive Materials,
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175.  Terrill, J.  G., Jr., Public Health Radiation Surveillance,
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-------
                                                           106
REFERENCES

176.  Terrill, J. G., Jr., Environmental Aspects of Nuclear
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177.  Terrill, J. G., Jr., _et _aji. , Environmental Surveillance
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178.  Thermal Pollution -" 1968 (Part 4) in Hearings before the
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179.  Third International Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic
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180.  Timbrell, V., The Terminal Velocity and Structure of
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181.  Tompkins, P., A Consideration of Basic Radiation Protec-
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182.  United Kingdom Atomic Energy Office, Final Report on the
      Windscale Accident, (London:  Her Majesty's Stationery
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183.  United Nations 1958 Report of the United Nations Scientific
      Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation, United
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184.  U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Investigation Board Report
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185.  U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Press Release No. M-6
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186.  Vann, Harold E., Trends in the Design and Construction
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187.  Wagoner, J. K. , _ejt  al. , Radiation as the Cause of Lung
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-------
                                                          107
REFERENCES

188.  Wagoner, L., _ejt _al. , Cancer Mortality Patterns Among
      U.S. Uranium Miners and Millers, 1950 through 1962,
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189.  Wald, N., _et al_. , Hematologic Manifestations of Radiation
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190.  Warren, S., The Nagasaki  Survivors as Seen in 1947,
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191.  Warren, S., Longevity and Causes of Death from Irradiation
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192.  Warren, S., _et al_. , Data  on the Effects of Ionizing
      Radiation on Radiologists, Arch. Environ. Health 13
      (1966).

193.  Weaver, C., Director of the Division of Environmental
      Radiation, Bureau of Radiological Health, Environmental
      Control Administration of the Consumer  Protection and
      Environmental Health Service, Dept. of  Health, Education,
      and Welfare, personal communication (July 1969).

194.  Weaver, C. L., E. D. Harward, and H. T. Petersonson, Jr.,
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195.  Western, F. , Developing Radiation Protection Standards,
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196.  Wilkening, N. H. , Natural Radioactivity as a Tracer  in
      Sorting of Aerosols According to Mobility, Rev. Sci.
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197.  Windscale, The Committee's Report, Nucl. Eng. _2_:51°
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198.  The Windscale Report - A  Summary, Nucl. Eng. 2_:338
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199.  Woodwell, G. M., Toxic Substances and Ecological Cycles,
      Sci. Am. 216(3):24  (1967).

-------
APPENDIX A

-------
                                                          109
APPENDIX A




A.I  Radiation73'130'162




        Each radionuclide has a characteristic decay constant



that is expressed in terms of the half-life, i.e., the time



required for half the atpros of a particular radionuclide to



disintegrate into another form.  This period may range from



less than a millionth of a second to billions of years.  In



the case of air pollution by a radionuclide with a short half-



life, the atmospheric radioactivity decreases rapidly by



itself if no fresh pollution occurs.  However, if the pol-



lutant has a long half-life, radioactive pollution may remain



practically at a relatively constant level.  Radionuclides



emit three types of radiation:  alpha rays carrying a posi-



tive charge, beta rays carrying a negative charge, and



electromagnetic gamma rays.  The energy of this radiation



may vary from a very low value to several million electron



volts  (Mev).  The effect on living organisms depends largely



on the type of radiation emitted and its penetrating power,



which is weak for alpha rays, medium for beta rays, and




strong for gamma rays.



A.1.1  Alpha Radiation



        Alpha radiations, positively charged particles that



are identical with the nucleus of a helium atom, are emitted



by some radioactive atoms with a kinetic energy of 4 to 10



Mev.  Alpha particles emitted from most radioactive materials

-------
                                                          110
will travel only 1 to 8 cm in air, depending upon their



energies.  Since particles of these energies will generally



be stopped by the inert surface layer of skin, alpha emitters



present no problem from external radiation but can produce



serious damage if ingested.



A.1.2  Beta Radiation




        Beta radiations are electrons emitted from the



nucleus of a radioactive atom with an energy of 0.02 to 3.2



Mev.  External beta radiation with kinetic energy above about



0.1 Mev will penetrate the protective layer of the skin and



cause skin burns.  It will not penetrate to the deep-seated



organs and therefore, damage is largely confined to the



surface layers of the body, including such exposed organs




as the eyes.



A.1.3  Gamma Radiation



        Gamma radiations are short wavelength electromagnetic



rays emitted from the nucleus of radioactive atoms.  They are



indistinguishable from X-rays.  Gamma rays are extremely



penetrating, and dense materials such as lead or depleted



uranium are used to stop them or provide a shield against




them.



A.2  Radiation Units



        Special radiation units have been defined to permit



measurement of radiation relative to the effects it produces.



Damage to tissue is related to the amount of energy deposited

-------
                                                          Ill
by radiation in the tissue.  Some common radiation units are



defined as follows:




         (1)  Rad




             The rad  is the basic unit of absorbed dose in




ionizing radiation.   A dose of  1 rad is defined as the depo-




sition of 100  ergs of radiation per gram of absorbing material




 (International Commission on Radiological Units and Measure-




ments, 1962).



         (2)  Roentgen (r)




             The roentgen is the unit of measurement for




radiation exposure.   It is defined as the amount of gamma or




X-radiation  required  to produce ions carrying 1 electrostatic




unit  (esu) of  electricity, either positive or negative, in




1 cm  of dry air at standard conditions.




        Since  the roentgen is a measure of the interaction




of gamma radiation and air, the absorbed dose  (in rads) will




vary  in different materials for the same exposure  (in roentgens)




With moderate-energy  gamma rays  (0.2 to 3 Mev), an exposure of




1 r will produce an absorbed dose in muscle of about 0.97 rads.




         (3)  Absorbed Dose  (rems)




             All radiations do  not produce identical bio-




logical effects for a given amount of energy delivered to the




tissues.  The  relative biological effectiveness factor  (RBE)




is used to compare the effectiveness of absorbed doses of



radiation from different types  of ionizing radiation.  RBE  is

-------
                                                         112
defined as the inverse rate of the amount of absorbed radia-

tion required to produce a given effect to a standard (or

reference) radiation required to produce the same effect.

The absorbed dose  in rems is the unit of dose of any ionizing

radiation which produces the same biological effect as a unit

of absorbed dose of ordinary X-rays.  The relationship

between the absorbed dose in rems and the absorbed dose in

rads is

             dose  rems = RBE x absorbed dose, rads.

             The RBE for different types of radiation are

shown in Table 28, Appendix B.

        (4)  Curie  (Ci*)

             The curie is the basic unit used to describe the

intensity of radioactivity in a sample of material.  One

curie is that quantity of a radioactive nuclide in which the

number of disintegrations per second is exactly 3 x 10~10.

This is approximately the rate of decay of 1 gram of radium.

             The relation between the rate of disintegration

of radioactive material  (curie) and the radiation dose rate

(rad/sec) is dependent upon the energy of the radiation emitted,

the type of radiation emitted, the geometrical pattern between

the radioactive material and the receptor, and the amount of

absorbing material between the radioactive material and the

receptor.
         *1 micro curie  (1 uCi) = 10~6 Gi =  3  x 10 4
disintegrations/sec.
          1 pico curie (1 pci)  = 10~12 Ci = lO"6

-------
APPENDIX B

-------
                                                          114
APPENDIX B
                           TABLE 1

         REFERENCES TO STUDIES OF EFFECTS ON HUMANS
          27
Study Area
Number of References
  in Bibliography
Genetic and congenital effects

Effects on life span

Carcinogenesis
  Leukemia and prenatal exposure
  Leukemia and exposure in children and
    adults
    Neoplasms in children and adults
      treated for benign conditions
      in the neck and mediastinum
    Neoplasms in patients with
      thyroid diseases treated with
      1-131 or X-ray
  Bone neoplasms and radium
  Neoplasms of the reticuloendothelial
    system and thorium
  Pulmonary neoplasms and radon daughters
          43

          41


          42

         133


         130
          44
          83

         118
          15
Other pathological effects

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                            TABLE 2

              AVERAGE IONIZING RADIATION DOSE RATE
                                                            115
Source
Dose Rate per Year   Reference
Natural radiation

Medical exposure
  Gonad dose from diagnosis (1964)
  Gonad dose from therapeutic
    use (1964)
  Bone marrow dose from diagnosis
    (1964)
  Thyroid dose from diagnosis
    (mostly dental) (1964)

Weapons fallout dose (1954-1965)
Weapons fallout dose (1966)
Nuclear energy industry, gonad
  dose (1966)
Nuclear industry, whole-body (2,060)
All other occupational
  exposure, gonad dose (1966)
Other manmade sources (watches,
  televisions, shoe-fitting machines,
  radioisotope applications, etc.)
  gonad dose (1966)c
 75 to 175 mrad/yr


    155 mrem/yr

      7 mrem/yr

    125 mrem/yr

  1,000 mrem/yr

     76 mrad Total
      3 mrem/yr

    0.2 mrem/yr
 50 to 100 mrad/yr

    0.4 mrem/yr



    0.1 mrem/yr
166

140


140

140

140

147
140


 43

140



140
     Nuclear industry genetically significant dose to the United
States population.

      Based on estimates of dose received by medical personnel
occupationally exposed in medical diagnoses and therapy.
     c                         62,63           ,      , .  ,
      Federal Radiation Council      recommended nonmedical maxi-
mum dose to general public:  whole body - 500 mrem/yr; gonad
                                        - average dose for 30 yrs
                                          5 rem is approximately
                                          equal to 170 mrem/yr
                             for X-ray and beta particles, mrem is
                               the same as mrad.

-------
APPENDIX B
                                             TABLE 3




                 SUMMARY OP  CLINICAL EFFECTS OF ACUTE IONIZING RADIATION DOSES
74
Range
Incidence of
vomiting
Delay time
Leading
organ
Characteristic
signs
Critical period,
post-exposure
Therapy

0-100 Rems
(Subclinical
Range
None

None
None

Reassurance
100 to 1,000 Rems (Therapeutic Range)
100-200
Rems
Clinical
Surveillance
100 rems: 5%
200 rems: 50%
3 hr
200-600
Rems
Effective
Therapy
300 rems: 100%
2 hr
600-1,000
Rems
Promising
Therapy
100%
1 hr
Hematopoietic tissue
Moderate
leukopenia

Reassurance;
hemato logic
surveillance
Severe leukopenia; purpura;
hemorrhage; infection.
Epilation above 300 rems
4 to 6 wk
Blood transfu-
sion; anti-
biotics
Consider
bone-marrow
transplanta-
tion
Over 1,000 Rems
(Lethal Range)
1,000-5,000 Over 5,000
Rems 1 Rems
Palliative Therapy
100%
30 min
Gastrointesti-
nal tract
Diarrhea;
fever; dis-
turbance of
electrolyte
balance
5 to 14 days
Maintenance of
electrolyte
balance
Central Ner-
vous System
Convulsions ;
tremor ;
a taxi a;
lethargy
1 to 48 hr
Sedatives
                                                                                           (continued)

-------
                      TABLE 3 (Continued)




SUMMARY OF CLINICAL  EFFECTS OF ACUTE IONIZING RADIATION DOSES
Range
Prognosis
Convalescent
period
Incidence of
death
period within
which death
occurs
Cause of death
0-100 Rems
(Subclinical
Range)
Excellent
None
None


100 to 1,000 Rems (Therapeutic Range)
100-200
Rems
Clinical
Surveillance
Excellent
Several wk
None


200-600
Rems
Effective
Therapv
Good
1 to 12 mo
0-80%
(variable)
600-1,000
Rems
Promising
Therapy
Guarded
Long
80-100%
( variable)
2 mo
Hemorrhage; infection
Over 1,000 Rems
(Lethal Range)
1,000-5,000
Rems
Over 5,000
Rems
Palliative Therapy
Hopeless
•
90 to 100%
2 wk
Circulatory
collapse
2 days
Respiratory
failure;
brain edema
- -

-------
APPENDIX B
                                      TABLE 4
    LETHAL RESPONSE OF  MAMMALS AND FOWL TO BRIEF EXPOSURES OF NUCLEAR RADIATIONS
                                                                                  47
Species
Burro
Burro
Burro
Swine
Sheep
Cattle
Swine
Swine
Burro
Poultry
Males
Females
Chicks
Source
Co60
rp.. 182
J.a o_
Zr95-Nb95
Co6? q.
Zrf-Nb95
Co60
X-ray
X-ray
neutron/gamma

Co
Co60
X-ray
Mean
Energies (Mev)
1.25
1.20-0.18
0.74
1.25
0.74
1.25
1.0
2.0
various

1.25
1.25
0.250 (peak)
LDRO/30a
784
651
585
618
524
540
555
388
402

600
1,000
900
(95% C.I.)b
753-847
621-683
530-627
525-682

520-570
418-671
323-441


(estimated)
(estimated)
(estimated)
Rate
(r/hr)
50
18-23
19-20
50
20
25
180
90


50
50
very short
     1LD.
- 50 percent fatalities within 30 days
       50/30
     95 percent Confidence  Index
                                                                                                oo

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APPENDIX B                                               119
                         TABLE 5
    CENSUS OF LABORATORY ANIMALS USED IN PROGRAMS OF THE
    DIVISION OF BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE, U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY
              COMMISSION (AS OF SEPT. 1, 1966)148
Animal	___.	Number Used

Alligator                                                 1
Cats                                                    239
Cattle                                                  541
Chickens                                              5,809
Chicks                                                6,400
Chinchillas                                              38
Chipmunks                                                34
Cichlids                                                 50
Deer                                                     15
Dogs (beagles)                                        2,091
Dogs (miscellaneous breeds)                             494
Drosophila                                              *
Ducks                                                    78
Eels                                                    312
Equines (burros, ponies, horses)                         40
Ferrets                                                  30
Fish (miscellaneous)                                    184
Fowl (miscellaneous                                     500
Frogs                                                 2,638
Gerbils                                                   8
Goats                                                   106
Grasshoppers                                          2,800
Guinea pigs                                           4,130
Hamsters                                              5,607
Mastomys                                                  8
Mice                                                783,615
Mice (wild)                                             140
Muskrat                                                   1
Mussels                                                 200
Oppossum                                                  1
Pigeons                                                 115
Primates                                                369
Quail                                                   100
Rabbits                                               8,437
Raccoons                                                  4
Rats                                                111,084
Salamanders                                             411
Salamanders (necturi)                                    58

                                                 (continued)

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                                                          120
APPENDIX B
                    TABLE  5  (Continued)

    CENSUS OF LABORATORY ANIMALS USED IN PROGRAMS OF  THE
    DIVISION OF  BIOLOGY AND  MEDICINE,  U.S.  ATOMIC ENERGY
              COMMISSION (AS OF SEPT.  1,  1966)
Animal	.	Number Used

Salmon                                              4,264,000
Sea urchins                                               500
Sheep                                                     391
Snails                                                     50
Squirrels                                                 298
Swine                                                   7,047
Swine, miniature                                        1,053
Toads                                                     579
Trout                                               1,201,550
Turtles                                                    50

         *Many  millions,  too numerous to count.

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                                                       121


APPENDIX B


                        TABLE 6

  MAXIMUM  PERMISSIBLE DOSES  FOR RADIATION WORKERS133
                                           Annual MPD
  Organ	(rem)	

  Gonads,  red bone marrow,  and
    whole  body                                  5*
  Skin,  thyroid,  and bone                      30
  Hands  and forearms, feet  and ankles           75
  All  other organs                             15
       *The cumulative dose of D = 5(N-18)  rem should
  not be exceeded.   Here D (rem)  is the  cumulative
  dose and N (years) is the age of the individual.

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                                                           122

APPENDIX B

                            TABLE  7

         SELECTED PARAMETERS OF THE  STANDARD MAN162
Parameters
Total body weight
Skeleton
Without bone marrow
Red marrow
Yellow marrow
Contents of GI tract
Lower large intestine
Stomach
Small intestine
Upper large intestine
Liver
Lungs
Kidneys
Spleen
Testes
Thyroid
Water intake in food and fluids
Total air inhaled per day
Amounts
70

7
1
1


1

1
1





2
2
,000

,000
,500
,500

150
,100
135
,700
,500
700
300
150
30
20
,200
g

g
g
g

g
g
g
g
g
g
g
g
g
g
q/dav
X 107 cm
                    RENTENTION OF  PARTICLES
                          Readily  soluble     Other Compounds
 Distribution	Compounds,  (percent)	(percent)

 Exhaled                         25                   25
 Deposited  in upper
  respiratory passages
  and later swallowed           50                   50
 Deposited  in lungs	25a	25b

                    CONSTANTS FOR  GI TRACT



Portion
Lower large intestine
Small intestine
Upper large intestine
Stomach

Mass of
Contents
(grams)
150
1,100
135
250
Time of
Food
Arrival
(hours)
13
1
5
0
Time of
Food
Leaving
(hours )
31
5
13
1
     5*Taken up  into  the body.
      One-half  is  eliminated from  lungs  and  swallowed  in  first
24 hours.  The  remaining  12.5 percent  is retained  in lungs with
a half-life of  120 days,  except  for plutonium  and  thorium, for
which the biological half-life is  assumed to be  1  year and 4
years, respectively.

-------
                                                 123


APPENDIX B

                  TABLE 8
    MPC FOR SOME SELECTED RADIONUCLIDES
      FOR GENERAL PUBLIC PROTECTION34
                                  MPC in  Air
    Isotope	(pCi/m3 )

    Strontium-90
      Soluble                            30
      Insoluble                        200

    Ruthenium-103
      Soluble                         3,000
      Insoluble                        200

    Iodine-131
      Soluble                          100
      Insoluble                      10,000

    Cesium-137
      Soluble                         2,000
      Insoluble                       5,000

    Plutonium-239
      Soluble                             0.06
      Insoluble                           1

    Xenon-133
      Sub*                          300,000

    Krypton-85
      Sub*                          300,000
         *Sub:  Submersion in a semispherical
    infinite cloud of air.

-------
                                                            124
         APPENDIX B
                           TABLE  9
 RADIOACTIVE EiVlISSIONS FROM FOSSIL-FIRED POWER PLANTS
                                                      34,176
Type of
Plant
Coal
Oil
Critical
Pollutant
226Ra
228Ra
226Ra
228Ra
Exposure
Vector
Air-lungs
Air-lungs
Air-lungs
Air-lungs
Concentration
Standards
(pCi/m3)
0.1
0.3
0.1
0.3
Discharge
Quantities
per MW/yr
17.2 nCi
10.8 (J.C1
0.15 nCi
0.35 luiCi
Gas
Particulates
  Radon
  Daughters
Air-lungs
unknown
unknown

-------
                                                           125
APPENDIX B

                           TABLE 10
               SUMMARY OF MEASUREMENTS OF NATURAL
            RADIOACTIVITY IN GROUND-LEVEL AIR103
                                                 Radioactivity
                                 Period of	(pCi/m3)	
Site	  _                •      Observation     214Pb     212Pb
Wales, Alaska
Kodiak, Alaska
Washington, D.C.
Yokosuka, Japan
Lima, Peru
Chacaltaya, Bolivia
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Little America, Antarctica
South Pole
1953-59
1950-60
1950-61
1954-58
1959-62
1958-62
1958-62
1956-58
1959-62
20
9.9
122
56
42
40
51
2.5
0.47
0.16
0.04
1.34
0.48
1.33
0.53
2.54
<0.01
<0.01

-------
APPENDIX B
                                                           126
                           TABLE 11

            ENVIRONMENTAL RADIATION LEVELS MEASURED
             IN PRINCIPAL UNITED STATES CITIES165
 City
Range of Radi-
 ation Levels
   (jJ.r/hr)
 Mean
Annual
 Dose
(mrad)
  Cosmic
Radiation
 (|ar/hr)
 Little Rock,  -Ark	,
 Colorado Springs,  Colo.  .  .
 Denver,  Colo	
 Grand Junction,  Colo.  .  .  .
 Bridgeport, Conn	

 Hartford,  Conn	
 New Haven,  Conn	,
 Washington, D.C	
 Chicago, 111	
 Portland,  Maine  	

 Baltimore,  Md	
 Boston,  Mass	,
 Springfield,  Mass	
 Worcester,  Mass	
 Minneapolis-St.  Paul,  Minn,

 Albuquerque,  N.Mex	
 New York,  N.Y	
 Charlotte,  N.C	
 Raleigh, N.C	
 Winston-Salem, N.C	

 Cleveland,  Ohio  	
 Toledo,  Ohio   	
 Oklahoma City, Okla.   .  .  .
 Tulsa,  Okla	
 Harrisburg, Pa	

 Philadephia,  Pa	
 Pittsburgh, Pa	
 Providence, R.I	
 Charleston, S.C	
 Columbia,  S.C	

 Sioux Falls,  S.Dak	
 Chattanooga,  Tenn	
 Memphis, Tenn	
 Amarillo,  Tex	
 Lynchburg,  Va	

 Richmond,  Va	
 Madison, Wis	
 Cheyenne,  Wyo	
  15.5-16.1
  22.5-26.4
  18.2-22.9
  19.2-20.8
  10.8-13.8

  11.9
   8.7- 9.1
  11.1-13.3
  12.2-13.9
  12.5-13.5

   9.0-12.1
  11.0-14.3
  12.9-13.9
  14.0-16.4
  10.6-15.0

  15.7-16.5
   8.2-15.6
  10.6
  12.1-13.5
  12.9-14.7

  12.4-14.1
  10.1-11.8
  11.5-12.3
  12.8-13.9
  11.3-14.3

  11.7-12.5
  11.5-16.8
  11.1-13.8
  13.5-14.5
  15.0-15.2

  13.6-14.0
  13.2-14.8
  11.0-13.2
  14.9-15.8
  12.4-15.4

   9.8-11.1
  11.8-12.2
  19.8-20.4
 129
 197
 172
 159
 100

  97
  73
  99
 105
 106

  86
 103
 109
 124
 109

 132
  91
  86
 108
 112

 108
  89
  99
 109
 104

  99
 114
 101
 114
 123

 112
 114
  99
 126
 113

  85
  98
 164
   3.9
   8.7
   7.9
   7.2
   3.8

   3.8
   3.8
   3.9
   4.1
   3.8

   3.9
   3.8
   3.8
   4.0
   4.2

   7.5
   3.8
   4.1
   4.0
   4.3

   4.2
   4.1
   4.6
   4.2
   4.0

   3.8
   4.3
   3.8
   3.7
   3.9

   4.5
   4.0
   3.9
   6.4
   4.2

   3.9
   4.3
   8.5

-------
APPENDIX B
                                                         127
                          TABLE 12

         PROPERTIES OF COMMON RADIOACTIVE GASES168
Gas
   Half-Life
    Principal Sources
131'
   T3*HTO
 41Ar

133Xe

135Xe
 14
 35
   CO,
   SO.
106
222
   RuO,
   Rn
    8.0 days


   12.5 years

    1.8 hours

    5.2 days

    9.2 hours

   10.0 years

5,700.0 years

   87.0 days

   10.0 minutes

    2.0 minutes

    1.0 years

    3.8 days
Reactors, bombs, chemical
 fuel processing

Reactors, accelerators

Reactors

Reactors, fuel processing

Reactors, fuel processing

Reactors, fuel processing

Laboratories, bombs

Laboratories

Accelerators

Accelerators

Fuel processing

Mines, mills, refineries
        *Tritium.

-------
APPENDIX B
                                                        128
                         TABLE 13

                URANIUM ORE MILLING PLANTS129
Plant
          Location
Anaconda Co.

Atlas Corp.

Climax Uranium

Cotter Corp.

Federal-American Partners

Kerr-McGee Corp.

Mines Development, Inc.

P etrotomics Co.

Susquehanna-Western, Inc.

Union Carbide Corp.


United Nuclear Corporation-
  Homestake Partners

Utah Mining and Construction

Western Nuclear
Bluewater, N.Mex.

Moab, Utah

Grand Junction, Colo.

Canon City, Colo.

Fremont County. Wyom.

Grants, N. Mex.

Edgemont, S. Dak.

Shirly Basin, Wyom.

Falls City, Tex.

Uravan and Rifle, Colo., and
  Globe, Wyom.

Grants, N. Mex.


Fremont County. Wyom.

Jeffrey City, Wyom.
                          TABLE  14

         URANIUM CONVERSION AND ENRICHING PLANTS129
Plant
         Location
Allied Chemical Corp.

Kerr-McGee Ltd.


Atomic Energy Commission

Atomic Energy Commission

Atomic Energy Commission
Metropolis, 111.

Sequoyah, Oklahoma (to be
  completed mid-1970)

Oak Ridge, Tenn.

Paducah, Ky.

Portsmouth, Ohio

-------
                                                        129

APPENDIX B
                         TABLE 15

               PRODUCERS OF URANIUM FUELS129



Plant	Location	

General Electric Co.                   San Jose, Calif.

Gulf General Atomic,  Inc.              San Diego, Calif.

Kerr-McGee Corp.                       Oklahoma City, Okla.

National Lead Co.                      Albany, N.Y.

Nuclear Fuel Services, Inc.            Erwin, Tenn.

Nuclear Materials  and
  Equipment Corp.                      Apollo, Pa.

United Nuclear Corp.                   Hematite, Mo.
                         TABLE 16

              FABRICATORS OF URANIUM FUELS129
Plant	Location	

Aerojet-General Corp.                   San Ramon, Calif.
Atomics International, Inc.             Canoga Park, Calif.
Babcock & Wilcox Co.                    Lynchburg, Va.
Combustion Engineering, Inc.            Windsor, Conn.
General Electric Co.                    San Jose, Calif.
Gulf General Atomic, Inc.               San Diego, Calif.
M & C Nuclear, Inc.                     Attleboro, Mass.
National Lead Co.                       Albany, N.Y.
Nuclear Fuel Services, Inc.             Erwin, Tenn.
Nuclear Materials and
  Equipment Corp.                       Apollo, Pa.
Nuclear Metals Div.,
  Whittaker Corp.                       West Concord, Mass.
United Nuclear Corp.                    New Haven, Conn.
Westinghouse Electric Corp.             Cheswick, Pa.

-------
APPENDIX B
130
                             TABLE 17




                        POWER REACTORSa 129

Ala.


Ark.
Calif.





Colo.
Conn.


Fla.



Ga.
111.






Ind.
Iowa
Maine
Md.

Mass.

Mich.







Location
Browns Ferry
Browns Ferry
Browns Ferry
Dardanelle Lake
Humboldt Bay
San Clements
Corral Canyon
Diablo Canyon No .
Diablo Canyon No.
Sacramento County
Platteville
Haddam Neck
Waterford No. 1
Waterf ord No . 2
Turkey Point No. 3
Turkey Point No. 4
Red Level
Hutchinson Island
Baxley
Morris No. 1
Morris No. 2
Morris No. 3
Zion No. 1
Zion No. 2
Quad Cities No. 1
Quad Cities No. 2
Burns Harbor
Cedar Rapids
Wiscasset
Lusby
Lusby
Rowe
Plymouth
Big Rock Point
South Haven
Lagoona Beach
Lagoona Beach
Bridgman
Bridgman
Midland
Midland
Startup
1970
. 1971
1972
1972
1963
1967
1974
1 1972
2 1974
1972
1971
1967
1969
1973
1970
1971
1972
1973
1973
1959
1968
1969
1972
1973
1970
1971
1970' s
1973
1972
1973
1974
1960
1971
1962
1969
1963
1974
1972
1973
1974
1975
Location
Minn. Elk River
Monticello
Red Wing No . 1
Red Wing No . 2
Neb. Fort Calhoun
Brownville
N.H. Seabrook
N.J. Toms River
Toms River
Artificial Island
Artificial Island
N.Y. Indian Point No.
Indian Point No.
Indian Point No.
Scriba
Rochester
Shoreham
Lansing
b
Nine Mile Point
N.C. Southport
Southport
b
Ohio Oak Harbor
Or eg. Rainier
Pa. Peach Bottom No.
Peach Bottom No.
Peach Bottom No.
b
b
Shippingport
Shippingport
Three Mile Island
b
•^
a
S.C. Hartsville
Lake Keowee No . 1
Lake Keowee No . 2
Lake Keowee No . 3
Tenn. Daisy
Daisy
Startup
1962
1970
1972
1974
1971
1972
1974
1968
1972
1971
1973
1 1962
2 1970
3 1971
1968
1969
1975
1973
1973
1973
1973
1974
1976
1974
1974
1 1966
2 1971
3 1973
1975
1977
1957
1973
1971
1975
1977
1970
1971
1972
1973
1973
1973
                                                          (continued)

-------
APPENDIX B
                                                            131
                      TABLE  17  (Continued)



                         POWER REACTORSa

vt.
Va.



Location
Vernon
Hog Island
Hog Island
Louisa County

Startup
1970
1971
1972
-1974

Location
Wash. Richland
Wis. Genoa
Two Creeks No. 1
Two Creeks No. 2
Carlton
Startup
1966
1967
1970
1971
1972
        Operable: 13; being built: 44; planned: 34.

        b
         Site not selected.

-------
APPENDIX B
                                               TABLE 18



                              POWER-REACTOR WASTE-MANAGEMENT EXPERIENCE18
Reactor Parameters
Power rating, MW
Thermal
Electrical
Operational period
reported
3ross electricity
generated, MW-hr
Approximate capacity
factor, %
Fuel cladding material


Maximum assemblies
with defective
cladding, %
Baseous wastes
treatment

Stack exhaust rate,
efm
3eight of stack, ft
Permissible annual
average release,
ci/sec
activation and
noble gases
halogens and
particulates
Boiling-Water Reactors
Dresden 1

700
200
Oct. 1959-
Dec. 1966

6,600,000

65
Stainless
steel
Zircaloy


5

20-min delay,
filtration

44,000
300




700,000


Big Rock Pt .

157
50
Sept. 1962-
Apr. 1967

1,053,000

45
Stainless
steel



15

30-min delay,
filtration

30,000
240




10s

3.6
Humboldt Bay

165
52
Feb. 1963-
Feb. 1967

1,055,000

80
Stainless
steel
Zircaloy


25

18-min delay,
filtration

12,000
250




50,000

0.18
Elk River

58
24
Oct. 1961-
Mar. 1967

393,000

70
Stainless
steel



15

30-min delay,
filtration

3,000
97




600

0.003
Pressurized-Wff
Indian Pt. 1

585
163
Aug. 1962-
Sept. 1966

3,489,000

50
Stainless
steel



0 (approx)

120-day delay,
filtration

280,000
400




50,000

0.24
tPT Rf^afi^nTs:
Yankee

600
185
Jan, 1961
Dec. 1966

6,362,000

70
Stainless
steel



0 (approx. )

60-day dela
filtration

15,000
150




2,000


                                                                                                (continued)
                                                                                                          co

-------
             TABLE  18 (Continued)

POWER-REACTOR  WASTE-MANAGEMENT EXPERIENCE
Reactor Parameter
*ange of annual
average release
activation and
noble gases

Percent of limit

halogens and
particulates

Percent of limit
Boiling-Water Reactors
Dresden 1



<100-25,000
Ci/sec
<0.02-3.6


0.002-0.003


Biq Rock Pt.



<20-35,000
Ci/sec
<0. 002-3. 5


<1.2 |aCi/sec

<30
Humboldt Bay



40-14,100
Ci/sec
0.08-28


10~5-0.07
Ci/sec
1-38
Elk River



0-109 |aCi/sec

0-18


<3 X 10~5
Ci/sec
<.l
Pressurized— Water Reactor,^
Indian Pt. 1



0.07-1.6
|jCi/sec
0.00013-
0.0026

~2 X 10~8
• Ci/sec

-------
APPENDIX B                                               134
                         TABLE  19

                                           1 79
              FUEL REPROCESSING FACILITIES
Plant	Location	


Hanford  (AEG)                            Richland, Wash.


Savannah River  (AEG)    "                 Aiken, S.C.


NRTS (AEG)                               Idaho Falls, Idaho


Nuclear Fuel Services                    West Valley, N.Y.


General Electric                         Morris, 111.

                                         (Completion 1970)
                         TABLE  20


                NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE  COST129

       (Projected 1980 Costs in Millions of Dollars)
Cycle	Cost


Ore concentration                                         110


U3O8 conversion to UF6                                    115


Enriching                                              1,030


Fabrication                                               630


Reprocessing                                              110


   Total Fuel Cycle                                    2,500

-------
                                                        135

APPENDIX B
                         TABLE  21

          APPROXIMATE TOTAL YIELD OF ALL NUCLEAR
               WEAPONS TESTS THROUGH 196265
     Year	;	 Megatons

     1945-51                                      1
     1952-54                                     60
     1955-56                                     28
     1957-58                                     85
     1961                                       120
     1962                                       217

        Total                                   511

-------
APPEND IX B
                                           TABLE 22

                             COMMERCIAL USE OF NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS
                                 (Plowshare Program)^1'135,152
Pro-iect
Ketch
Gas Buggy
Rulison


Sloop
Commercial Company
Columbia Gas
Corp.
El Paso Natural
Gas Co.
Austral Oil Co.
and CER Geonuclear
El Paso
Natural Gas
Wyoming Atomic
Stimulation Project
(WASP )
Kennecott
Copper Corp.
Purpose
Fuel gas
Storage
Gas
stimulation
Gas
stimulation
Gas
stimulation
Gas
stimulation
Copper
mining
Proposed
Location
To be
determined
Northeast
New Mexico
North of Grand
Jun c t ion , Co lo .
Pinedale area
of Wyoming
Pinedale area
of Colorado
Northeast of
Stafford, Ariz.
Status
(July 1969)
Looking for
a site
Accomplished
Dec. 1967.
Results being
calculated
Scheduled for
Sept. 1970
Proposed
Proposed
Proposed for
1970
Bronco
CER Geonuclear
  and 15 oil and
  related companies
Recovery of
  oil from
  oil shale
Wyoming, Utah,
  and Colorado
Negotiating
  contract with
  Gov't. agencies

-------
APPENDIX B
                                              TABLE 2 3
                                    GROSS  BETA RADIOACTIVITY2"5

                                              (pCi/m3 )
Location
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
District of
Columbia
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
1953-1957"
Max
23.4
11.0
731.9
71.3
350.0
159.2
49.0
52.6
16.3
65.8
53.3
5.2
142.3
72.1
48.6
70.5
Avg
5.6
.7
67.0
7.5
2.5
7.0
4.6
6.0
1.6
2.8
3.4
1.8
15.2
2.4
4.5
9.5
1958
Max
20.3
4.8
63.7
16.5
126 . 0
49.0
22.0
12.0
17.6
39.0
24.2
17.1
59.8
25.0
15.7
15.9
Avg
5.6
2.5
13.8
4.9
8.1
7.7
4.2
4.9
5.4
5.7
5.2
4.4
8.0
5.7
4.9
4.3
1959
Max
24.5
17.8
52.1
17.5
33.8
39.4
15.2
19.5
15.5
22.2
27.9
16.1
27.9
21.4
13.5
16.9
Avg
4.4
2.8
6.6
4.3
4.3
4.9
3.4
3.5
4.2
4.2
4.2
3.2
4.6
3.6
3.4
4.1
1960
Max
0.4
0.2
1.9
0.4
0.9
0.8
0.4
0.5
0.3
1.2
0.4
0.6
0.3
0.3
0.8
0.4
Avg
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.2
1961
Max
58.3
27.7
108. C
43.9
73.7
33.6
44.1
29.3
38.2
62.6
51.2
26.9
35.2
29.7
42.2
20.1
Avg
5.2
2.6
7.2
4.1
4.9
5.0
3.3
3.6
3.7
4.3
3.9
2.2
4.2
3.6
3.2
3.1
1962
Max
16.6
17.6
40.0
20.0
31.2
17.8
13.3
12.8
14.0
33.0
18.2
16.8
19.0
16.3
15.8
16.1
Avg
7.3
4.1
9.8
6.2
5.8
7.0
5.6
4.9
6.3
7.0
6.5
4.0
7.6
6.1
5.8
5.6
1963
Max
16.6
17.6
40.0
20.0
31.2'
17.3
13.3
12.8
14.0
33.0
18.2
8.3
11.9
16.3
15.8
16.1
Avg
7.4
4.2
9.5
6.4
5.8
7.0
5.6
5.0
6.9
7.2
6.4
4.0
7.5
6.1
5.8
5.5
1964
Max
3.8
3.8
8.0
5.5
6.5
9.5
4.9
8.4
7.2
12.4
3.8
2.2
5.5
4.6
4.1
3.6
Avg
1.5
0.7
2.1
1.3
1.2
1.8
1.3
1.5
1.8
1.5
1.3
0.9
1.6
1.3
1.3
1.2
1965
Max
1.1
_
8.8
0.7
1.4
1.6
1.3
1.3
1.3
' _
1.0
3.0
1.4
1.5
1.8
1-1
Avg
0.3
-
0.6
0.3
0.3
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.3
_
0.3
0.3
0.5
0.3
0.3|
0.3
(continued)!
                                                                                                         CJ
                                                                                                         -J

-------
  TABLE  23  (Continued)


GROSS BETA  RADIOACTIVITY

         (pCi/m3)
^Location

Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
1953-1957*
Max
324.0
72.8
142.7
3.8
14.8
58.8
70.6
46.8
56.2
120.1
24.1
27.8
380.0
14.0
74.0
57.5
Avg
16.8
2.9
3.7
1.8
3.1
3.3
2.7
1.9
11.6
4.1
4.2
5.0
43.6
4.1
6.0
11.9
1958
Max
68.2
7.2
26.4
29.0
15.0
33.0
16.4
20.3
20.9
31.8
508.0
76.0
66.0
20.4
18.2
85.0
Avg
10.1
3.2
6.7
5.2
3.6
4.5
4.0
4.1
5.1
6.1
13.6
6.2
12.0
4.1
4.0
11.3
1959
Max
16.3
12.8
19.4
24.7
15.2
71.0
18.4
11.5
_
25.4
13.0
12.5
20.3
14.2
17.9
39.5
Avg
3.5
3.2
3.7
4.3
3.5
3.8
3.7
3.1
_
4.7
3.6
3.6
5.7
3.3
2.9
5.9
1960
- .j
Max
0.5
_
0.7
0.4
0.3
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.8
0.3
0.2
0.5
Avg
0.2
_
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.2
1961
Max
22.3
37.4
262.9
32.5
33.7
53.0
36.1
31.7
247.9
26.0
52.5
41.8
53.7
22.1
28.1
41.0
Avg
3.0
4.7
9.4
3.0
3.5
2.2
4.4
3.1
12.6
3.5
5.1
4.7
6.9
3.6
3.4
5.0
1962
Max
16.2
, 	
95.8
15.8
16.7
22.4
17.2
13.8
15.4
20.1
35.2
19.6
26.0
10.0
27.3
17.0
Avg
6.4
„
8.5
5.3
5.9
6.1
5.3
5.6
6.0
7.3
6.4
7.0
10.9
5.7
5.8
7.4
1963
Max
16.2
_
95.8
15.8
16.7
22.4
17.2
13.8
15.4
20.1
35.2
19.6
26.0
10.0
27.3
17.0
Avg
6.3
—
8.4
5.3
5.8
6.2
5.3
5.7
5.9
7.3
6.4
7.0
9.9
5.9
5.7
7.4
1964
Max
3.8
6.5
6.8
3.9
5.7
4.4
4.3
3.2
_
4.2
4.7
6.4
4.9
3.4
4.6
5.8
Avg
1.2
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.7
1.2
1.5
1.1
_
1.4
1.1
1.6
1.8
1.2
1.4
1.8
1965
Max
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.3
2.4
2.0
1.5
0.8
1.6
1.2
1.4
0.9
1.9
1.0
2.0
2.6
Avg
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.5
0.3
0.5
0.3
0.3
0.5
                                                           (continued]
                                                                    H
                                                                    CO
                                                                    m

-------
APPENDIX B
                                          TABLE 23  (Continued)

                                        GROSS BETA  RADIOACTIVITY
                                                 (pCi/ir3 )
Location
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Puerto Rico
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
1953-1957*
Max
26.8
23.4
33.1
117.9
53.5
18.8
93.0
5.8
6.4
68.5
54.9
271.7
193.1
5435.0
18.8
24.3

Avg
2.0
3.5
6.4
2.3
8.1
1.0
2.9
2.0
1.5
7.8
7.6
7.2
4.8
82.7
2.8
4.4
1958
Max
20.6
34.5
22.0
27.3
17.0
17.0
29.0
-
17.2
21.0
26.5
30.8
33.5
57.0
14.0
17.4
Avg
4.3
5.9
3.8
5.4
4.9
2.5
4.2
-
5.6
6.6
6.1
5.9
5.5
9.8
3.1
5.1
1959
Max
29.0
14.6
11.0
18.4
15.3
14.8
22.2
14.7
11.0
22.0
26.5
18.2
19.3
17.0
21.0
17.8
Avg
4.3
3.9
2.5
3.6
3.9
2.6
3.6
2.3
3.0
4.2
5.7
3.8
4.3
5.1
3.1
4.3
1960
Max
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.3
26.3
0.3
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.8
0.6
0.3
0.4
Avg
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.7
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.2
1961
Max
81.0
39.0
29.4
63.9
243.7
59.6
46.5
16.4
29.7
32.0
28.0
75.6
227.7
28.6
19.6
75.0
Avg
3.8
4.2
3.2
4.1
7.5
3.8
3.5
1.2
3.4
4.9
5.2
4.4
4.8
6.4
2.1
4.9
1962
Max
25.2
29.0
29.8
20.5
24.5
16.2
27.0
10.5
10.7
20.0
64.8
20.6
398.0
18.6
11.3
14.9
Avg
6.0
7.6
6.4
5.9
6.7
4.0
6.3
4.3
4.2
7.2
7.5
6.4
8.5
8.8
5.5
7.1
1963
Max
25.2
29.0
29.8
20.5
24/5
16.2
27.0
10.5
10.7
20.0
64.8
20.6
398.0
18.6
11.3
14.9
Avg
6.0
7.7
7.1
5.9
6.8
3.8
6.3
3.9
4.2
7.2
8.9
6.5
8.5
8.6
5.5
7.1
1964
Max
5.7
10.4
6.1
6.8
5.0
3.5
6.3
3.3
5.1
5.1
4.9
5.7
8.3
5.2
4.2
9.8
Avg
1.3
1.5
1.3
1.5
1.3
0.8
1.5
1.0
1.4
1.4
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.6
•1.2
1.7
1965
Max
1.2
1.4
-r_
3.6
1.3
0.9
2.9
2.0
2.0
1.3
0.9
1.2
1.8
2.5
1.4
1.5
Avg
0.4
0.4
	
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.4
0.2
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.4
0.4
(continued

-------
APPENDIX B
                                          TABLE 23 (Continued)


                                        GROSS BETA RADIOACTIVITY

                                                (pCi/itl3 )
Location
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
1953-1957*
Max
7.9
82.6
49.3
233.7
Avg
1.3
2.9
5.5
30.0
1958
Max
18.0
16.3
13.7
21.3
Avg
5.3
4.7
3.9
7.8
1959
Max
-
20.3
11.6
23.4
Avg
—
3.6
3.4
4.8
1960
Max
0.3
0.5
0.4
0.4
Avg
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.2
1961
Max
23.2
16.3
43.1
46.2
Avg
2.5
2.9
4.1
5.5
1962
Max
14.3
11.2
18.5
104.6
Avg
4.2
5.6
4.3
10.7
1963
Max
14.3
11.2
18.5
104.6
Avg
4.2
5.5
4.5
11.3
1964
Max
1.9
6.8
3.5
5.4
Avg
0.6
1.6
1.1
1.5
1965
Max
0.8
1.3
2.0
1.4
Avg
0.2
0.4
0.3
0.4
         *Data in this column may  include  only  one year  or  the  average  of all  measurements made during
 these years.
                                                                                                          t-
                                                                                                          £
                                                                                                          C

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                                                              141
APPENDIX B
                             TABLE  24

        RADIOACTIVE SOLIDS REMOVAL  IN THE NUCLEAR  INDUSTRY159
                  Particle-size
                   Range Mass
                     Median
Type of Equipment	(|j)	
                Efficiency(%)
                Application
Simple settling
  chambers
Cyclones, large
  diameter
     >50
     >5
Cyclones, small
  diameter

Mechanical centri-
  fugal collectors
Baffle chambers
Spray washers
     >5
     >5
     >5
     >5
Wet filters
Gases and 0.1-
  25|J. mists
Packed towers     Gases and
                    soluble
                    particles
Cyclone scrubber
     >5
60-80     Rarely used except
            for chips and re-
            covery operations

40-85     Precleaners in
            mining, ore-
            handling, and
            machining opera-
            tions

40-95     Same as above
20-85     Same as large-
            cyclone applica-
            tion

10-40     Incorporated in chip
            traps for metal-
            turning

20-40     Rarely used except
            occasionally for
            cooling hot gases

90-99     Used in laboratory
            hoods and chemical-
            separation opera-
            tions

  90      Gas absorption and
            precleaning for
            acid mists

40-85     Dealing with pyro-
            phoric materials
            in machining and
            casting operations,
            mining, and ore
            handling; roughing
            for incinerators
                                                           (continued)

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                                                              142
 APPENDIX B

                              TABLE 24 (Continued)

        RADIOACTIVE SOLIDS REMOVAL IN THE NUCLEAR  INDUSTRY
Type of Equipment
                  Particle-Size
                   Range Mass
                     Median
             Efficiency(%)
                    Application
Inertial scrubbers,
  power-driven
Ve ntur i s c r ubb er
Viscous air
  conditioning
  filters

Dry spun-glass
  filters
Packed beds of
  graded glass
  fibers 1 to 20 (J-,
  40" deep

High-efficiency
  cellulose-asbestos
  filters
 8-10
  >1
10-25
  <1
  <1
All-glass web filters  <1

Conventional fabric    >1
  filters
Reverse-jet fabric     XL
  filters
    90-95     Dealing with pyro-
                phoric materials
                in machining and
                casting operations,
                mining, and ore
                handling

99 for H2SO4  Incorporated in air-
                                  mist; for
                                  SiO.
                   oil,
smoke, etc.
  60-70

    70-85
                 85-90
99.90-99.99
99.95-99.98
             99.95-99.99

                90-99.9



                90-99.9
                cleaning train of
                incinerators
Filtering of general
  ventilation air
Filtering of general
  ventilation air;
  precleaning from
  chemical and
  metallurgical hoods

Dissolver, off-gas
  cleaning
Final cleaning for
  hoods, glove boxes,
  reactor air, and
  incinerators

Same as above

Dust and fumes in
  feed materials
  production

Same as above
                                                           (continued)

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                                                             143
APPENDIX B
                        TABLE 24 (Continued)

          RADIOACTIVE  SOLIDS REMOVAL  IN THE NUCLEAR  INDUSTRY
Type of Equipment
                  Particle-Size
                   Range Mass
                     Median
                                   Efficiency(%)
                              Application
Single-stage
  electrostatic
  precipitators
Two-stage
  electrostatic
  precipitator
<1
                                      90-99     Final cleanup for
                                                  chemical and
                                                  metallurgical
                                                  hoods; uranium
                                                  machining

                                      85-99     Not widely used for
                                                  decontamination

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                                                              144
  APPENDIX B
                             TABLE  25

                                                          159
       RADIOACTIVE GAS REMOVAL METHODS IN NUCLEAR INDUSTRY
Type of Equipment  Type of Gas
                   Removal
                Efficiencv(%)
               Application
Delay in storage  Noble gases
Spray towers
Packed towers
Halogens,
  hydrogen
  fluoride

Radioiodine
Adsorbent beds    Iodine and
                    noble gases
Limestone beds
Liquefaction
  column

Stripping columns
Halogens,
  hydrogen
  fluoride

Noble gases
Refrigerated      Xenon and
  carbon catalyst   krypton
  and carbon
  pellets
                     100
70-99



95-99


99.95
94-99.9



  99.9


90-95

  99.9
Depends on shielding
  and structural
  materials; used to
  hold up relatively
  small volumes for
  gaseous decontami-
  nation

Precleaning or final
  cleaning on iodine
  removal

Heated beryl saddles
  coated with
Activated charcoal
  or molecular
  sieves; may be used
  to decay xenon;
  may be refrigerated

Experimental only;
  some hood applica-
  tions

Used to recover small
  amounts

Pilot studies only

Liquid nitrogen used
  for refrigerant;
  gases recovered by
  desorption

-------
APPENDIX B
                                             TABLE 26




                            COSTS FOR DRY MECHANICAL DUST COLLECTORS68
Cost Analysis (
Type of Unit
Settling chamber
Aerodyne
Rotoclone "D"
Cyclone
(2) Cyclone (Ducon)
(2) Cyclone (A, B, C)
Cyclone (K & B)
Mult icy clone (Dustex)
Capacity
(cfra)
4,000
5,900
4,000
3,570
2,200
2,200
8,090
800
Total Annual
Cost
($/l,000 cfm/yr)
103
92
593
203
409
170
135
511
Purchase
and
Installation
3.7
41.4
12.2
16.3
33.1
22.9
17.8
46.5
Percent
Power
17.5
25.4
28.3
34.6
22.9
55.3
69.6
18.3
of Total
Cost)
Maintenance
and
Repairs Service Conditions
78.8
33.2
59.5
49.1
44.0
21.8
12.6
35.2
Exhaust from
graphite machining
Incinerator flue
. gas
Exhaust from
graphite machining
Exhaust from
carpenter shop
Incinerator flue gas
Exhaust from uranium
machining
Exhaust from uranium
machining
Exhaust from
                                                                                sintering  furnace
                                                                                                     Ul

-------
APPENDIX B
                                        TABLE 27

                  COST  OF WET DUST COLLECTORS INSTALLED AT AEC SITES
                                   (Unit:  Rotoclone N)
68
Capacity
(cfm)
3,300
5,500
5,900
13,000
Total Annual
Cost
($/l,000 cfm/vr)
505
422
1,399
547
Cost Analysis
Purchase
and
Installation
32.3
20.5
2.1
4.9
(Percent
Power
and
Water
62.5
74.8
16.2
41.5
of Total Cost)
Maintenance
and
Repairs
5.2
4.7
81.7
53.6
Service Conditions
Exhaust from machine
shop and foundry
Exhaust from machine
shop and foundry
Exhuast from uranium
refinery (U3O8 )
Exhaust from uranium
                                                                         refinery (U3O8)

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                                                         147
APPENDIX B
                         TABLE 28
               RBE FOR TYPES OF RADIATION73
     Type of Radiation  .	RBE
     X-rays or  gamma rays                         1
     Beta particles                               1
     Fast neutrons                                10
     Thermal neutrons                             4-5
     Alpha particles                              10-20

-------