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AIR POLLUTION ASPECTS
OF
RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES
Prepared for the
National Air Pollution Control Administration
Consumer Protection & Environmental Health Service
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
(Contract No. PH-22-68-25)
Compiled by Sydney Miner
Litton Systems, Inc.
Environmental Systems Division
7300 Pearl Street
Bethesda, Maryland 20014
September 1969
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FOREWORD
As the concern for air quality grows, so does the con-
cern over the less ubiquitous but potentially harmful contami-
nants that are in our atmosphere. Thirty such pollutants have
been identified, and available information has been summarized
in a series of reports describing their sources, distribution,
effects, and control technology for their abatement.
A total of 27 reports have been prepared covering the
30 pollutants. These reports were developed under contract
for the National Air Pollution Control Administration (NAPCA) by
Litton Systems, Inc. The complete listing is as follows:
Aeroallergens (pollens) Ethylene
Aldehydes (includes acrolein Hydrochloric Acid
and formaldehyde) Hydrogen Sulfide
Ammonia Iron and Its Compounds
Arsenic and Its Compounds Manganese and Its Compounds
Asbestos Mercury and Its Compounds
Barium and Its Compounds Nickel and Its Compounds
Beryllium and Its Compounds Odorous Compounds
Biological Aerosols Organic Carcinogens
(microorganisms) Pesticides
Boron and Its Compounds Phosphorus and Its Compounds
Cadmium and Its Compounds Radioactive Substances
Chlorine Gas Selenium and Its Compounds
Chromium and Its Compounds Vanadium and Its Compounds
(includes chromic acid) Zinc and Its Compounds
These reports represent current state-of-the-art
literature reviews supplemented by discussions with selected
knowledgeable individuals both within and outside the Federal
Government. They do not however presume to be a synthesis of
available information but rather a summary without an attempt
to interpret or reconcile conflicting data. The reports are
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necessarily limited in their discussion of health effects for
some pollutants to descriptions of occupational health expo-
sures and animal laboratory studies since only a few epidemio-
logic studies were available.
Initially these reports were generally intended as
internal documents within NAPCA to provide a basis for sound
decision-making on program guidance for future research
activities and to allow ranking of future activities relating
to the development of criteria and control technology docu-
ments. However, it is apparent that these reports may also
be of significant value to many others in air pollution control,
such as State or local air pollution control officials, as a
library of information on which to base informed decisions on
pollutants to be controlled in their geographic areas. Addi-
tionally, these reports may stimulate scientific investigators
to pursue research in needed areas. They also provide for the
interested citizen readily available information about a given
pollutant. Therefore, they are being given wide distribution
with the assumption that they will be used with full knowledge
of their value and limitations.
This series of reports was compiled and prepared by the
Litton personnel listed below:
Ralph J. Sullivan
Quade R. Stahl, Ph.D.
Norman L. Durocher
Yanis C. Athanassiadis
Sydney Miner
Harold Finkelstein, Ph.D.
Douglas A. Olsen, Ph0D.
James L. Haynes
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The NAPCA project officer for the contract was Ronald C.
Campbell, assisted by Dr. Emanuel Landau and Gerald Chapman.
Appreciation is expressed to the many individuals both
outside and within NAPCA who provided information and reviewed
draft copies of these reports. Appreciation is also expressed
to the NAPCA Office of Technical Information and Publications
for their support in providing a significant portion of the
technical literature.
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ABSTRACT
Radiation produces somatic effects (for example,
leukemia) and genetic effects in man. Since the genetic
effects of various amounts of radiation cannot always be
determined, many scientists accept the belief that there
appears to be no threshold for the biological damage from
radiation.
Atmospheric radiation arises both from natural
sources—such as rocks, soils, and cosmic rays—and from
artificial sources, such as nuclear explosions and the nuclear
industry in general. Experience to date has shown that the
amount of radiation reaching the general public through
releases from the nuclear industry is insignificant when com-
pared with the natural radiation dose, even though there is a
potential for radiation release from all facets of the nuclear
industry. However, because of projected nuclear expansion,
there is evidence that krypton-85 released from fuel reprocess-
ing may be a problem. The dose to the population from nuclear
weapons testing was more significant, amounting to levels about
5 to 10 percent higher than the levels of natural radioactivity.
The United States Atomic Energy Commission has established
maximum permissible concentrations for radionuclides that can
be released from nuclear plants.
Extensive efforts are employed in the nuclear industries
to prevent emission of radioactive substances into the atmo-
sphere. The cost of these abatement procedures has been
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estimated at approximately 10 percent of the total cost of
the nuclear plant. No information has been found on the
costs of damage resulting from radioactive pollution of the
atmosphere.
Many methods with a high degree of accuracy and sensi-
tivity are available for the determination of atmospheric
concentrations of radioactive substances.
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CONTENTS
FOREWORD
ABSTRACT
1. INTRODUCTION «, . 1
2. EFFECTS • „ . . 7
2.1 Effects on Humans 7
2.1.1 Types of Exposure 8
2.1.2 Biological Effects 9
2.1.2.1 Somatic Effects 10
2.1.2.1,1 Leukemia 10
2.1.2.1.2 Other Cancers. ... 11
2.1.2.1.3 Cataracts 13
2.1.2.1.4 Effect on Life Span. 14
2.1.2.2 Genetic Effects 15
2.1.2.3 Acute Exposure „ 16
2.2 Effects on Animals 17
2.2.1 Commercial and Domestic Animals 17
2.2.2 Experimental Animals „ 20
2.3 Effects on Plants 23
2.4 Effects on Materials 24
2.5 Environmental Air Standards 24
2.5.1 Maximum Permissible Dose (MPD) . . . . , 25
2.5.2 Maximum Permissible Concentrations (MPC) 26
3. SOURCES 29
3.1 Natural Occurrence 29
3.1.1 Radioactive Dusts. 0 29
3.1.2 Cosmic Rays 30
3.1.3 Combustion Emissions o .... a ... o 30
3.1.4 Natural Radioactivity 31
3.2 Production Sources 33
3.2.1 Production of Nuclear Fuel 33
3.201.1 Mining, Milling, and Refining
of Uranium 34
3.2.1.2 Fuel Fabrication. . „ 36
3.2.2 Nuclear Reactors „ 37
3.2.2,1 Normal Reactor Operation. ... 39
3.2.2.2 Reactor Accidents 42
3.2.3 Fuel Reprocessing 44
3.2.4 Nuclear Power Industry Projections ... 47
3.2.5 Nuclear Tests <,.„.. 48
3.3 Product Sources 0 . 53
3.3.1 Aerospace Applications 0 . 55
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CONTENTS (Continued)
3.4 Other Sources 56
3.5 Environmental Air Concentrations 57
4. ABATEMENT 60
4.1 Control of Radioactive Pollution 60
4.1.1 Limitation of the Emission of
Radioactive Pollutants 60
4.1.2 Containment. . „ . . . . , 61
4.1.3 Dispersal 61
4.2 Location of Facility Site 62
4.3 Air Cleaning Methods 62
4.3.1 Radioactive Particulates 63
4.3.2 Wet Collection , . . „ 64
4.4 Radioactive Gases and Vapors 65
4.4.1 Chemisorption and Adsorption ...„». 66
404.2 Absorption . 67
4.4.3 Delay in Storage „ . . . 67
5. ECONOMICS „ 69
6. METHODS OF ANALYSIS 71
6.1 Sampling Methods 71
6.1.1 Filters 71
601.2 Impactors. ...... „.. 73
6.1.3 Impingers 74
6.1.4 Settling Trays 74
6.2 Quantitative Methods 75
6.2.1 Analysis of Collected Particulate
Samples for Activity 75
602.2 Radioactive Particle Size Analysis ... 77
6.2.3 GaseSo 78
6.2.3.1 Iodine 78
6.2.3.2 Tritium 81
6.2.3.3 Noble Gases 82
6.2.3.4 Other Radioactive Gases .... 82
6.2.4 Air Quality Monitoring 83
7. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. . . . . „ 85
REFERENCES „ 90
APPENDIX A 109
APPENDIX Bo 114
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LIST OF FIGURES
1. Estimated Capacity of Nuclear Power Plants 49
2. Projected Expenditures for Construction
Investment „ 49
3. Fuel Cycle Costs 50
4. Monthly Mean Concentrations of Beta Radioactivity
as Related to Testing of Nuclear Weapons 54
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LIST OF TABLES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
200
Summary of Clinical Effects of Acute Ionizing
Lethal Response of Mammals and Fowl to Brief
Census of Laboratory Animals Used in Programs
of the Division of Biology and Medicine, U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission (as of Sept. 1, 1966) ...
Maximum Permissible Doses for Radiation Workers. . .
MPC for Some Selected Radionuclides for General
Radioactive Emissions from Fossil-Fired Power
Summary of Measurements of Natural Radioactivity
Environmental Radiation Levels Measured in
114
115
116
118
119
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
128
129
129
130
132
134
134
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LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
21. Approximate Total Yield of All Nuclear Weapons
Tests Through 1962 135
22. Commercial Use of Nuclear Explosions ........ 136
23. Gross Beta Radioactivity 137
24. Radioactive Solids Removal in the Nuclear Industry . 141
25. Radioactive Gas Removal Methods in Nuclear Industry. 144
26. Costs for Dry Mechanical Dust Collectors 145
27. Cost of Wet Dust Collectors Installed at AEC Sites . 146
28. RBE For Types of Radiation 0 147
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1. INTRODUCTION
Atmospheric pollution by radioactive substances origi-
nates as natural radioactivity that emanates from rocks or as
artificial activity, which is a by-product of the nuclear
industry. Natural radioactivity was first discovered by
Becquerel and the Curie^ at the turn of the century, while
artificial sources (nuclear fission) were discovered by Hahn
and Strassman about 30 years ago. The air pollution aspects
of radioactivity did not become apparent, however, until
after the development of the atomic bomb and the techniques
for harnessing nuclear energy during World War II.
Prior to World War II, environmental radioactivity
was a natural phenomenon which was studied by the relatively
few highly specialized laboratories equipped to make radio-
activity measurements. During World War II, the construction
of large nuclear reactors and plutonium extraction facilities
at Hanford and uranium enrichment facilities at Oak Ridge created
the first opportunity for artificial radioactive pollution of the
atmosphere. However, studies of the behavior of various radio-
nuclides that were released to the environment have shown that
although caution must be used in the process, large amounts of
radioactive materials can be safely discharged if the diffu-
sion and dispersion properties of the atmosphere are well
known.22'55
Evidence of the harmful effects of indiscriminate
exposure to radiation began to accumulate shortly after the
discovery of X-rays in 1895, and recommendations for
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limitations of exposure were soon made. This knowledge of
the harmful effects of radiation led the Manhattan Engineering
District (the wartime military organization responsible for
the atomic energy program) to place a high priority on keeping
environmental contamination to a minimum. Mien the Atomic
Energy Commission (AEG) succeeded the Manhattan Engineering
District in 1946, these cautious policies were continued.
Around the same time (1947), the Public Health Service estab-
lished a Radiation Energy Unit, later called the Radiological
Health Unit, within the Division of Industrial Hygiene to
handle the public health aspects of radiological health prob-
49
lems. In the United States, the Soviet Union, and the
United Kingdom, a series of weapons tests were conducted dur-
ing the 1940's and 1950's that discharged larger amounts of
radioactivity into the environment than were permitted by the
AEG in the operation of its industrial plants. This radio-
activity soon become widespread throughout the atmosphere,
contaminating soil and food to such an extent that world-
wide apprehension began to develop. The Congress of the
82 128
United States then held a number of hearings ' on fallout
from weapons testing and on radioactive waste-disposal prac-
tices. Around the same time, the National Academy of
Sciences1"^ in the United States and the Medical Research
Council in Great Britain began to evaluate the effects of
small doses of radioactivity. In 1955, the United Nations
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appointed a committee to investigate the effects of radia-
tion on man.
Since World War II, extensive research has been con-
ducted on the physical and chemical properties of radioactive
substances. The manner -in which they are transported physi-
cally through the environment and the way in which some of
them enter into man's food supplies, the water he drinks,
and. the air he breathes, have been studied. Many branches
of the biological and physical sciences have been involved
in this study.
Man can be contaminated by radiation both directly
and indirectly. The direct methods include exposure to radia-
tion emitted by radioactive gases or suspended dust, resulting
in either contamination of the skin or of the respiratory
tract. After a radioactive contaminant is inhaled, the radio-
active substances can be concentrated inside the body, depend-
ing on the selective power of fixation of organs for which
the radionuclides show a special affinity. Except in a few
cases, the concentrations reached are relatively small. The
direct type of contamination occurs primarily where there is
an occupational hazard or in the immediate neighborhood of
nuclear reactors.
Indirect contamination results from ingestion of
radionuclides after they have passed through the food chain.
The contaminating radionuclide may follow an extremely
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complicated path while passing down the food chain. Radio-
active contaminants suspended in air can be deposited on the
ground or on surface water. The contamination from the soil
and water is then passed on to vegetation and eventually to
animals. The fate of the contaminant will depend on the bio-
logical cycle for each organism, as well as on nutritive
exchanges between vegetation and animals.199 During these
exchanges, secondary—and often high—concentrations will be
on
produced in some organisms. Plants tend to concentrate
radioactivity more in the leaves and stems than in the seeds.
For man, the varied diet which he enjoys multiplies the sources
of contamination. For example, milk is a source of indirect
contamination. Therefore, indirect contamination can affect
whole populations.
Since radiation cannot be detected without special
instrumentation and its biological effects are usually not
evident until some time after the exposure, a series of regu-
lations have been developed to protect both the general public
and the occupational worker.
In 1928, the International Commission on Radiological
Protection (ICRP) was organized under the auspices of the
Second International Congress on Radiology. In 1929 the
Advisory Committee on X-ray and Radium Protection was orga-
nized to develop recommendations in the United States. Follow-
ing World War II, this advisory committee was reorganized as
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the National Committee on Radiation Protection (NCRP). The
recommendations developed by this group have served as the
basis for most radiation-protection programs and, later, for
rules and codes adopted by the various regulatory agencies
in the United States. In 1959 the Federal Radiation Council
(FRC) was formed to advise the President on radiation matters
and to guide all federal agencies in formulating standards
for protection against radiation damage. In 1949, Public
Health Service activities in radiological health were accel-
erated when the Radiological Health Unit became the Radio-
logical Health Branch in the Bureau of State Services. In
1958 the Surgeon General established the Division of Radio-
logical Health with six major responsibilities. These were
(1) research on the effects of radiation on living matter,
including man; (2) development of methods, facilities, and
programs for collecting, collating, analyzing, and inter-
preting data on all forms of radiation exposure throughout
the United States; (3) training of the scientific, professional,
and technical workers needed in the rapidly expanding radio-
logical health programs of Federal, State, and local agencies;
(4) technical assistance to Federal, State, and local agen-
cies as needed; (5) development of recommendations for
acceptable levels of radiation exposure from air, water, milk,
medical procedures, and the general environment; and (6) pub-
lic information and health education activities related to
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radiological health. The division was succeeded by the
National Center for Radiological Health which in 1968 became
the Bureau of Radiological Health in the Environmental Con-
trol Administration of the Consumer Protection and Environ-
mental Health Service, Department of Health, Education and
Welfare.49
The ICRP and the NCRP were first concerned with rec-
ommendations for X-ray and radium protection. In 1936, NCRP
first recommended specific permissible exposure levels (tol-
erance doses) for radium. NCRP has since published a series
of handbooks covering various aspects of radiation protection,
112 133
instrumentation, and environmental contamination. '
The ICRP and NCRP have recommended similar maximum
permissible concentrations (MPC) for a wide variety of radio-
nuclides in air and water. ^^ ' 128,144 These are recommenda-
tions only and have no legal status. In November 1960 the
AEC published in the Federal Register a regulation which
became effective January 1, 1961, establishing general stan-
dards for protection of licensees, their employees, and the
general public against radiation hazards arising out of the
possession or use of special nuclear source or by-product
material under license issued by the AEC.
Throughout the text of this report, a number of terms
unique to the nuclear energy field are used to quantitatively
describe radiation and its biological effects. The definitions
of these terms can be found in Appendix A.
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2. EFFECTS
2.1 Effects on Humans
Evidence on the harmful effects of indiscriminate
exposure to X-rays began to accumulate shortly after the dis-
covery of X-rays in 1895 when the ability of X-rays to cause
loss of hair, burns, chronic ulcers, and cancers was observed*
During and following World War I, workers using radium in the
luminous paint industry developed bone cancer and aplastic
61,110
anemia due to radium ingestion. During the 1920 s,
additional deaths were caused by the use of radium as a nos-
trum for a variety of ailments such as arthritis, syphilis,
and otherSo Miners in Joachimsthal, Czechoslovakia, had high
rates of lung cancer, which by 1949 was thought to be caused
by high concentrations of radon and its daughter products in
the mine atmosphere. ' Evidence confirming this among
workers in the U.S. uranium mining and milling industry was
107 Ipp
supplied by Wagoner et al. in 1964. '
Early in this century, it was discovered that suffi-
cient ionizing radiation doses could cause sterility and
changes in composition of peripheral blood. If acute expo-
sure occurred, a complex set of symptoms (nausea, vomiting,
hemorrhage, diarrhea, loss of weight, and severe anemia) was
observed that is now known as the acute radiation syndrome.
On the positive side, it was discovered that cancerous tissue
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could be injured by ionizing radiation, and this fact forms
the basis for radiation treatment of cancer.
The Division of Radiological Health of the Public
Health Service (currently the Bureau of Radiological Health,
Environmental Control Administration, Consumer Protection
and Environmental Health Service, Department of Health, Educa-
tion, and Welfare) prepared a Select List of References on
Human Studies. Table 1, Appendix B, shows the number of
papers on each subject that were in the Select List in 1964.
2.1.1 Types of Exposure
Two major types of radiation exposure may result from
radioactive pollution of the atmosphere: exposure to radia-
tion from a distant source, and contamination by radioactive
substances which come into contact with the skin or find their
way into the body.
External radiation exposure can occur only from
radionuclides emitting gamma rays from sources such as solid
decay products of radon in suspension in the air and radio-
active gases, such as argon-41. The most serious hazard is
external or internal radioactive contamination. External con-
tamination occurs when radioactive particles suspended in the
atmosphere are deposited on the surface of the skin0 This
may result in cutaneous irradiation, whole-body irradiation,
or internal contamination via the respiratory or digestive
tract.
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Respiratory tract contamination is the most direct
and important effect of radiation pollution. The digestive
route, which is indirect, is the route followed after con-
tamination of foodstuffs, or sometimes after cutaneous or
respiratory contaminatio'n. Persons engaged in radiation
work (occupational exposure) are subject to a different type
of exposure than the population at large. These workers are
particularly prone to skin and respiratory contamination,
whereas the main hazards for the general population are
direct exposure to radioactive substances in the atmosphere
and indirect contamination through ingestion.
The average ionizing radiation dose rate received by
persons living in the United States from various sources is
shown in Table 2, Appendix B.
2.1.2 Biological Effects
Ionizing radiation produces a variety of biological
effects, depending upon the dose of radiation received and
whether it is delivered in a short or long period of time.
Some effects, such as changes in skin texture or hair pig-
mentation, occur soon after exposure, while other effects,
such as leukemia and cataracts, may not appear for five or
more years. The effects that occur in the exposed individual
are called somatic effects. The genetic effects of radiation
are observed in the descendants of the exposed person.
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10
2.1.2.1 Somatic Effects
The most important somatic effects from ionizing
radiation are leukemia and other types of cancer, cataracts,
and reduction in life expectancy-. Data on somatic effects of
radiation have been derived from animal experiments; from
observations made on patients treated by radiotherapy or
radioisotopes; from studies of radiologists, and other workers
exposed to ionizing radiations or poisoned by radioactive sub-
stances; and from Japanese survivors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
2.1.2.1.1 Leukemia
There has been an increased incidence of leukemia
among the Japanese survivors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, ' '
21,84,190 ,. .. . . 44,53,84 .•.,_• * • *. * f
radiologists, patients irradiated for
42
ankylosing spondylitis, and children irradiated for thymic
enlargement. The radiologists received their doses in
repeated small quantities. The others were subject to acute
exposure. There is also evidence that leukemia can be
induced in children irradiated for therapeutic or other
95
diagnostic purposes.
Information to date on radiation-induced leukemia is
limited to the effects of a dose range between 100 and 1,000
rems; no cases of leukemia induced by exposures of less than
81
125 rem have been identified. However, leukemia has been
induced in the fetus by doses which ranged between 2 and 10
27
rem0 In recent years, the incidence of leukemia in
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11
1 go
radiologists has decreased. This is attributed to the
fact that most radiologists now keep their received doses
below current recommended maximum permissible dose levels.
These maximum permissible levels allow for a total lifetime
dose of 250 rems.
Therefore, there seems to be a lower threshold for
radiation-induced leukemia that is somewhere below 100 rems.
Many experimenters accept the threshold theory, although
there is some disagreement among them. ' ' The number
of cases induced by lower dose levels are too few to form
any firm conclusions.
2.1.2.1.2 Other Cancers
Radiation has produced skin cancers among radiologists,
thyroid cancer in children irradiated in the neck region, lung
cancer in miners and millers occupationally exposed to radon
and its daughters, and bone cancers in radium dial painters
and other persons exposed to radium.
Bone cancer (osteogenic sarcoma) can be produced by
irradiation when radioelements similar to calcium, such as
radium, radioactive strontium, radioactive plutonium, radio-
active thorium, and radioactive lead are ingested and
metabolized into the boneo Bone cancer was observed among
luminous paint workers and radium-treated patients early in
this centuryQ ' External radiation can also produce
95
bone cancer, and a few cases have been reportedo However,
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95
a high dose (3,000 to 4,000 rads) is thought to be required.
Lung cancer can result from inhalation of radioactive
gases or dust, such as radon and its daughter products. As
early as 1879, there was evidence of increased prevalence of
lung cancer among the metal miners in Schneeberg in Saxony.
By 1949 most investigators were attributing this and the
increased cancer in miners in Joachimstahl, Czechoslovakia,
107 1 ft 7
to radon and its daughter products in the mine atmosphere. '
187 188
In 1964, Wagoner and his coworkers ' reported an excessive
occurrence of respiratory cancer among uranium mine workers in
the United States and demonstrated a dose-response relationship.
However, the complete quantitative statement of the dose-
response relationship cannot be established at the present time
because the number of individual studies and the periods of
40
observation at low exposure levels are still inadequate,
particularly at the lower levels of exposure to radon and its
daughters.
Evidence of radiation-induced lung cancer was also
noted in fluorspar mines in Newfoundland, where abnormal
levels of radon and its daughter products were present in
40
the mine atmosphere.
The ability of the lung to concentrate particulates
increases the relative risk of inhaling radioactive aerosols
as compared to the risk of inhaling a radioactive gas. The
radon daughter products attach themselves to the atmospheric
dusts, thus making these dusts the principal hazard in the uranium
mineso According to Shapiro in 1956, the daughter products
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13
contribute about 20 times as much dosage as does the radon.
The dose received by the different portions of the
lungs from inhaled radioactive dust depends on the concentra-
tion of radionuclide in the inhaled air, the physical proper-
ties of the radionuclide, the rate at which the dust is
inhaled, the region of the lung in which the dust is deposited,
and the rate at which it is removed. Theoretical lung models
have been developed for computing the dust deposition in and
clearance from the respiratory tract to provide a basis for
1 o £~
calculating lung dosimetry and for setting exposure limits.
However, the dose required to produce lung cancer in man is
not known.
A number of studies have been made on the frequency of
occurrence of thyroid cancer in children and adults irradiated
in the thymus region for benign conditions. Most studies
27
showed an increase in thyroid cancer, although some did not.
Hiroshima and Nagasaki data indicate that the adult thyroid
95
may be less sensitive to radiation than a child's thyroid.
Since the thyroid tends to concentrate iodine and will there-
fore concentrate radioactive iodine, the potential for form-
ing thyroid cancer from irradiation is an important reason
for minimizing radioactive iodine releases to the atmosphere.
2.1.2.1.3 Cataracts
Exposure of the lens of the eye to heavy doses of
X-rays, gamma rays, beta particles, and neutrons may cause
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14
eye cataracts (opaque spots). Although lens changes have
been reported from doses as low as 200 rad, the minimum
X-ray or gamma ray dose capable of causing clinically signifi-
cant cataracts is thought to lie between 550 and 950 rads
(averaging about 800 rads) in adults and perhaps less in
children. ' ' If an average dose of about 800 rads is
delivered over a period of 2 weeks to 3 months, it may pro-
duce an opacity in 70 percent of those exposed. About 30
percent of these opacities may be progressive and eventually
gc
result in impaired vision. The development of cataracts
is much more likely to result from neutrons than from X-rays
or gamma rays.
Cataracts have been observed among the Japanese sur-
vivors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki; among patients whose eyes
were treated by X-rays, gamma rays, or beta rays for medical
purposes; and among a few physicists who were exposed to the
95
radiation from cyclotrons<,
2.1.2.1.4 Effect on Life Span
Whole-body irradiation of experimental animals has
122 133
been found to result in shortened life span. ' In
addition, there are indications of life-span shortening in
radiologists. The life-span shortening could not be
attributed to a radiation-induced fatal disease such as
leukemia, but rather to an apparent acceleration of the
aging process. ' Since 1935, the evidence of life
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15
shortening in radiologists has decreased, and by 1960 it had
disappeared. This can be attributed to the more rigid radia-
tion protection techniques adhered to by radiologists in
192
recent times. Data from experiments with rodents and
other animals indicate that the reduction in life span becomes
greater as the dose increases.106'147 No definitive data exist
on the dose-response relationship for general life shortening
95
in man. Theoretical models have been developed extrapolating
radiation exposure and life span shortening in experimental
animals for use in assessing human effects. Sacher, 1
extrapolating data from small animals to man, developed a
theoretical life-span reduction of 17 days per rad. However,
this quantitative relationship was not seen in the Hiroshima
data. The value is thought to be too high, and work to
establish a better value is in progress at Argonne National
Laboratory.
2.1.2.2 Genetic Effects
Radiation can produce mutations in human gametes
which will not be apparent in the person irradiated but which
52
may appear in future generations.
Genetic injury to a population depends on the total
number of mutant genes introduced. The measure of potential
damage is the total number of man roentgens delivered to the
gonads—the "per capita" gonadal dose0 A small dose delivered
to the whole population may thus produce more genetic damage
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16
than a much larger dose delivered to a relatively small frac-
tion of the population.
It is estimated that about 1 percent of live-born
infants suffer from severe effects of chromosomal abnormali-
ties which arise spontaneously. The extent to which natural
radiation contributes to this is not known.147
An estimate of the average dose over the reproductive
lifetime of the individual which is required to double the
TOO
mutation rate is between 10 and 100 rads0 That is, if an
average dose of between 10 and 100 rads were delivered to
each generation, a new equilibrium would in time be reached
in which mutant characteristics would be seen twice as fre-
quently as in the original population.
2.1.2.3 Acute Exposure
Acute exposure is primarily a hazard to people in the
nuclear industry (occupational exposure). The general public
will not be exposed in this manner except in wartime or follow-
ing a nuclear accident in which large quantities of radio-
active materials are released to the atmosphere0 When a
massive whole-body dose of radiation is received within a
short period of time, the effects may be seen as early as the
first day and will be dependent on the size of the dose
received. Only minor injury would occur at doses less than
100 rems, but about a 50 percent fatality rate would be
expected in the range of 400 to 500 rems. As the whole-body
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17
dose approaches 1,000 rems, fatalities would approach 100
percent. Table 3 in Appendix B summarizes the expected
clinical effects of acute doses of ionizing radiation. At
doses of less than 100 rems, no significant symptoms are
likely to be seen, but as the dose increases above 100 rems,
vomiting and nausea occur in increasing frequency and will
be seen in almost all exposures of about 300 rems. At 100 to
250 rems, the nausea and vomiting may be followed by a latent
period of as much as 2 weeks. However, this latent period is
less than a day at doses greater than 700 rems. The signs
and symptoms which then develop—known as radiation syndrome—
usually include epilation, sore throat, hemorrhage, purpura,
petechiae, and diarrhea.
Acute radiation causes illness primarily by damaging
the blood-forming centers in the bone marrow and lymph
74 189
glands0 ' Acute radiation exposure from inhalation or
ingestion of radionuclides is not a problem, since the
principal exposure in environments contaminated with fresh
fission products is from external radiation.
2.2 Effects on Animals
2.2.1 Commercial and Domestic Animals
The effects of radiation on animals are similar to
those on humans. At high radiation doses, acute radiation
effects develop within a period of a few hours to a few
O fo
weeks. In cattle, 50 percent fatality would be expected
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18
47
after a dose of 520 to 570 r. There is also some evidence
that whole-body irradiations of 100 to 400 r can temporarily
produce a reduction in conception.47 The LD50//30 dose rates
for other commercial animals are shown in Table 4, Appendix B.
Acute exposure of domestic animals would only occur
through direct radiation from a nuclear explosion or nuclear
accident which released large quantities of radioactive sub-
stances to the environment.
At lower radiation levels, the effects are either
delayed or long-term. These effects include leukemia, cancer,
O G^.
shortening of life span, and genetic or mutation effects.
Even at times of high nuclear test fallout, grazing
animals receive most of their radiation from ingesting air-
borne nuclides deposited on forage. Grazing animals have a
high tolerance for ingested radionuclides, which are poorly
absorbed. Of the absorbed radionuclides, iodine is the most
hazardous because it concentrates in the thyroid. However,
this hazard can be counteracted in most animals by feeding
them thyroactive compounds.-^ The primary observed effect
from radioactive fallout has been external damage to skin and
hair.
For example, during the detonation of the first atomic
bomb in 1945, a herd of Hereford cattle that were located
about 15 miles from the detonation site were accidentally
exposed to high levels of radiation from radioactive fallout
particles. Thirty-two of these cattle were purchased by the
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19
government for observation. Except for surface damage to
skin on the sides and backs of the animals produced by direct
contact with radioactive particles, the general condition,
productive efficiency, and death rate were comparable to that
13
of control cattle. One cow from the herd lived 20 years
with little apparent effect except for some hair that turned
grey; it produced 16 healthy, frisky calves0148 At Las Vegas,
Nev., various free-range animals (mountain goats, deer, and
livestock) that are exposed to low-level radiation from the
Nevada Test Site are periodically examined for radiation
content and radiation health effects. The animals have been
studied within the nuclear test .site and up to 200 miles from
the test site for about 10 years. Although strontium-90 has
been found in the bones and cesium-137 in the flesh of the
animals, examination of the tissue has shown no apparent
113 172
radiation damage to date. '
Commercial animals are an important link in the food
chain by means of which radioactive contamination released to
the atmosphere finds its way to man. Animals consume plants
which contain radionuclides deposited on them or absorbed
from the soil, and tend to concentrate the radionuclides
strontium-90, iodine-131, sesium-137, and others in their
flesh or milk. For man, the maximum tolerable level for
^\C.
contamination from this route is not known.
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20
2.2.2 Experimental Animals
Millions of experimental animals of all types are
being used in nearly every laboratory where nuclear research
is conducted. A recent Atomic Energy Commission inventory
showed that more than 6 million animals per year are used in
AEC-sponsored research. A list of the types and number of
experimental animals used in the programs of the Division of
Biology and Medicine of the AEG is shown in Table 5, Appendix B,
Work on the effects of radiation on animals in 1897
31
showed that radiation produced cataracts in animals. In
1927 Muller produced mutations in fruit flies by means of
X-rays. A great amount of research since 1942 has been
directed at understanding the mechanisms of these injuries.
Evidence from animal experiments has indicated that
32 150
mutations can have dominant deleterious effects.
As mentioned above, early estimates of genetic
hazards were based on experiments with Drosophila (fruit flies).
However, later experiments with mice showed greater radiation-
induced mutation frequencies, indicating that the genetic
hazard to man was greater than had been initially assumed.
The results of irradiation experiments on mice and
the indicated genetic hazard to man are as follows:95'1 /15
(1) The more mature male germ cells (spermatozoa)
are more sensitive to genetic damage than the stem cells
(spermatogonia). The spermatozoa do not survive very long in
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21
the body. The process from spermatogonial cell to mature
spermatozoan takes about 5 weeks in the mouse and around 10
weeks in man. Therefore, some reduction in risk of trans-
mitting genetic damage can be achieved by postponing procrea-
tion for a few weeks after irradiation of the male to allow
him to pass beyond the stage at which irradiated spermatozoa
are present. Nothing is gained by further delay.
(2) For females irradiated with fission neutrons,
the interval between irradiation and conception has a major
effect on mutation frequency. The genetic hazard will be
less when a long interval occurs between irradiation and
27
conception. There is some indication that a similar effect
occurs with gamma radiation.
(3) There is a dose-rate effect on mutations.
Mutation frequency is less per unit dose of radiation when
the exposure is spread out over a long period of time. Low
dose-rate exposures do not produce as many mutations as
high dose-rate exposures.
(4) The dose-rate effect in females is considerably
higher than in males.
(5) There is no evidence of a threshold dose rate,
i.e., a dose rate below which no mutations occur. A non-
threshold effect for mutation is generally accepted at the
27
present time.
Mice have also been used in experiments studying
-------
the effect of radiation on aging. Radiation accelerates
the aging process, as was shown by an experiment using a
group of 14-month-old mice. Only three of the irradiated
mice survived—and these were gray and senile—while all
the untreated group remained normal, healthy, and active.
Irradiation experiments on mice at Argonne National Labora-
tory have been used to theoretically extrapolate life-span
shortening of man due to radiation. A study by Sacher
on mortality statistics for mice, rats, guinea pigs, dogs,
and horses extrapolated to man led to a theoretical life-
span shortening in man of 17 days per rad. This is dis-
cussed further in Section 2.1.2.1.4.
Experiments with guinea pigs demonstrated that the
body could repair itself even after receiving a sizable
1 ^o
dose of radiation. Dog experiments have shown that the
effects of radiation depend largely on the part of the body
exposed; for example, the leg can tolerate a higher dose
than the stomach.
In experiments conducted at the University of Utah,
beagles were injected with radium-224, radium-226, radium-
228, plutonium-239, americium-241, thorium-228, lead-210,
and strontium-90 to determine the internal effects of these
radionuclides. It was found that these radionuclides are
deposited in the skeleton, although plutonium and americium
are also deposited in other tissue. The dogs in these
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23
experiments developed bone cancers, liver tumors, and other
cancers. From the experiments it was found that the
alpha emitters were more toxic than originally believed,
while the beta emitters (strontium-90) were less toxic.
Plutonium-239 contributes to a large incidence of fractures
in leg bones, and radium-228 weakens bones throughout the
body.148
Inhalation experiments have been run with beagles
at Battelle Northwest Laboratories. In 1958 and 1959 the
dogs were exposed to 1.0 to 3.0 |j. ci per dog of plutonium
oxide. Out of the 25 dogs exposed, 17 developed primary
25
pulmonary tumors 9 to 10 years after exposure.
Miniature swine were also used at Batelle Northwest
Laboratories to study the effects of ingested strontium-90
at various dose levels. This substance was fed daily to
the experimental animals. After 3 to 4 years of ingesting
25
low levels of strontium-90, leukemia has developed. The
high levels of strontium-90 have produced bone tumors.
Experiments with monkeys indicate that high levels
of radiation interfere with the functioning of an animal's
nervous system In addition, experiments with sleeping rats
and cats indicate that low levels of radiation may also
148
affect functioning of the nervous system.
2.3 Effects on Plants
The observable effects of radiation on plants range from
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24
mutations at low dose rate to growth inhibition and death
at high dose rates. In general, radiation damage in plants
is difficult to detect except at dose rates many times
higher than those attained during worldwide fallout117 or
those normally encountered in ambient air.
Mericle and Mericle118 found a higher mutation rate
in tradescantia at a dose rate of 0.006 r per day than at
0.001 r per day. Miller120 found that needle growth on
pine seedlings was slightly inhibited at 20 r per day.
More noticeable effects are likely at 100 r per day.
Plants become contaminated with radionuclides
either through deposition from airborne radionuclides or
absorption from the soil and may transfer these through the
food chain to man.
2.4 Effects on Materials
There is no evidence at the present time to indi-
cate that there is any detrimental effect on materials from
the radiation levels encountered in ambient air or worldwide
fallout.
2.5 Environmental Air Standards
Early clinical data seemed to indicate that there
was a radiation damage threshold—that is, a point below
which no damage occurs. Prior to 1950, the radiation pro-
tection standards were based on this threshold concept.
However, recent evidence on genetic effects of radiation
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25
indicates that even small doses of radiation can produce
mutations. Conclusive evidence is not available to dis-
prove the possibility of somatic effects from small, chronic
radiation doses to large populations. There is now a con-
sensus that there is no_level of radiation exposure below
which there is absolute certainty that harmful effects will
not occur to at least a few individuals when sufficiently
large numbers of people are exposed. This means that any
radiation protection standard must take into account some
risk to an exposed individual or population. Therefore,
recently established radiation standards have been based on
the permissible dose concept. The permissible dose is
defined as the amount of ionizing radiation that, in the
light of present knowledge, is not expected to cause appre-
ciable damage to a person during his lifetime.
2.5.1 Maximum Permissible Dose (MPD)
The maximum permissible doses (MPD) for radiation
workers recommended by the International Commission on
Radiological Protection (ICRP)142/143 and by the National
133
Committee on Radiation Protection (NCRP) are in basic
agreement, although there are some minor differences. Some
of the recommended maximum permissible doses for radiation
workers are listed in Table 6, Appendix B.
Before the development of large nuclear facilities,
exposure of the public to man-made radiation did not exist,
except for medical purposes„ Differing sets of recommendations
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26
for radiation protection have since been formulated for
radiation workers and for the general public. In 1952 the
AEG recommended that the exposure for the general public be
limited to one-tenth the amount of occupational exposure.
The ICRP144 and the NCRP133 adopted this recommendation a
few years later.1
The Federal Radiation Council (FRC) in 1960 trans-
lated the recommendation into general guidelines for all
Federal agencies. The FRC-recommended practice '63 limits
the maximum dose for an individual from nonmedical sources
to 0.5 rem/yr (whole-body) and states that the average dose
to the population over a 30-year period should not exceed 5
rem to the gonads for males. The amount of exposure from
natural background radiation is not taken into account in
the recommendations.
2.5.2 Maximum Permissible Concentrations (MFC)
The maximum permissible concentrations (MFC) of
radioisotopes in air and water are calculated on the basis
of the maximum permissible dose to an organ. Both the
radioisotope uptake and concentration in various organs are
119
considered over a 50-year period. To provide a standard
basis of calculation, the ICRP has defined a "standard man"
in terms of his intake of air and water, retention of
particulates, and weight of organs. Some of these
parameters are listed in Table 7 in Appendix B.
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27
The standard man is a hypothetical individual, and
specific people vary significantly from this standard.
However, the use of standard-man values provides an overall
estimate of the doses that might be received by the average
industrial worker.
The quantity of radionuclides in the body when the
critical organ is being exposed at MPD is known as the
maximum permissible body burden. (The critical organ is the
organ that receives the highest radiation from the absorbed
isotope.) The concentrations of the radionuclides in the
air and water to which the body is being exposed at MPD
are also the maximum permissible concentrations (MFC) in
air and water, respectively. These are the maximum permissi-
ble concentrations for internal emitters. Where the possi-
bility for external exposure exists, the permissible dose
of radionuclides in air and water must be reduced. However,
for the general public, opportunities for significant expo-
sure arise mainly from internal radiation due to contaminated
air and water, except in times of war when there is an
increased probability of external exposure.
Periodically, the NCRP and ICRP publish maximum
permissible values which are in general agreement for more
than 130 radionuclides. The NCRP values have been given
official status by the AEG by making them generally
applicable to installations licensed by the AEG.
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28
The AEG regulations establish the average maximum
concentration (MFC) of radionuclid.es that can be released
to an uncontrolled or unrestricted area (for example, to
the atmosphere from the top of the stack) over a period of
time. The radionuclide.MPC1s in air that can be released to
the atmosphere are shown in Table 8, Appendix B.
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29
3. SOURCES
3.1 Natural Occurrence
The two major sources of natural radioactivity are
the gases which emanate from minerals in the earth's crust
and the interaction of cosmic radiation with gases in the
atmosphere.
3.1.1 Radioactive Dusts
Soils and rocks contain naturally radioactive
minerals such as radium-226 and radium-229 in variable
amounts. The radioactive progeny of two nuclides, the noble
gases radon-222 and radon-220 (thoron), emanate from the
earth's crust and contribute greatly to atmospheric radio-
activity.5^ Their concentration is higher in areas where
there are substantial amounts of uranium and thorium ores.
Therefore, these gases may occur as air pollutants in the
vicinity of uranium mines, mills, and refineries, or where
radium and its ores and by-products are processed.
Radon, with a half-life of 3.8 days, has a much higher
probability of emanating from the earth's crust before it
decays than thoron, which has a half-life of 54 seconds.
The atmospheric concentration of these noble gases and
their daughter products also depends on many geological
and meteorological factors. The daughter products of
thoron and radon attach themselves to the inert dust in the
/
atmosphere, endowing these dusts with apparent radio-
activity.28'196 In addition, some dust particles from
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30
naturally radioactive minerals and soils also find their
way into the atmosphere, but they contribute very little to
natural radiation.168
3.1.2 Cosmic Ravs
Interactions of cosmic rays with atmospheric gases
produce a number of radioactive species, the most important
of which are tritium, carbon-14, and beryllium-7. Of lesser
importance are beryllium-10, sodium-22, phosphorus-32,
phosphorus-33, sulfur-35, and chlorine-39.168 These inter-
actions produce electrons, gamma rays, nucleons, and muons.
At low radiation levels the muons account for 70 percent of
the cosmic radiation.14^
3.1.3 Combustion Emissions
Fossil fuels contain radioactive materials that
escape into the atmosphere when the fuel is burned. The
radioactive nuclides that escape from fossil fuels during
combustion are listed in Table 9 in Appendix B. Coal ash
contains a number of radionuclides which originate from
traces of uranium-238 and thorium-232. It has been esti-
mated that uranium-238 and thorium-232 are present in coal
in concentrations of 1.1 and 2.0 ppm, respectively. Fly
ash released from the stack when coal is burned contains
10.8 |j.Ci of radium-235 and 17.2 |j.Ci of radium-226 per
-i *~j g-
electrical megawatt (MW) per year.
Oil-burning plants normally discharge nearly all
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31
of their combustion products into the atmosphere; a 1,000 MW
station which consumes 460 million gallons of oil per year
will discharge about 0.5 |j.Ci of radium-226 and radium-228.
24
A recent joint study of natural gas from north-
western New Mexico and southwestern Colorado by the U.S.
Public Health Service and the El Paso Natural Gas Company
shows that radon-222 (a daughter of radium-226) is present
in natural gas at concentrations ranging from 0.2 pCi/liter
to 158.8 pCi/liter. There is a lack of data concerning con-
centrations of radon-222 in the stack effluent of natural
gas power plants, but it can be assumed to be minimal because
of the short (3.8 day) half-life of radon-222 and the rela-
tively long time required for transit of the gas from the
well to the plant where it is burned, as well as for storage.
There will be some activity from the longer-lived daughter
products of radon, but these are hard to determine since
the daughter products occur as particulates and are subject
to many removal forces.
3.104 Natural Radioactivity
Measurements have been made of ground-level atmo-
spheric radioactivity at a number of places throughout the
world and the summary of several years of data is shown in
103
Table 10 in Appendix B. The radon concentration is
inferred from the lead-214 measurements, since radon and
its daughter products lead-214 are in radioactive equilibrium
-------
32
when the radon-laden air and dust coexist for 2 hours. The
thoron concentration is inferred from measurements of lead-
212. The thoron series has no long-lived daughters and its
secular equilibrium is determined by the 10.6 hour half-life
of lead-212.
The meteorological factors related to an air mass
for several days prior to its observation influences its
radon and thoron content. Both passage of the air over
oceans and precipitation tend to reduce the concentration
of these gases, whereas periods of temperature inversion
cause them to increase. Washington, B.C., which is some
distance from the ocean, had the highest thoron (lead-214)
concentration of any coastal area studied, followed by sea-
ports, midocean islands, and finally Antarctica.
Table 11 (Appendix B) shows the doses received by
human beings throughout the United States from ionizing
radiation that originates from cosmic rays and from gamma-
emitting radionuclides in the earth's crust. The doses
received in populated areas vary from 75 to 175 mrad/yr.
Radiation emissions associated with the burning of
fossil fuels are distributed generally throughout the coun-
try. The majority of the emissions will be concentrated in
areas where large power plants are located. Therefore, the
distribution of radioactive materials in the atmosphere
from this source will follow distribution patterns similar
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33
to those of other fossil fuel combustion products (for
example, sulfur dioxide).
3.2 Production Sources
The radioactive nuclides from production sources
originate either as fisgion products or activation products;
the ones encountered in atmospheric pollution are the same
regardless of whether they are produced by nuclear reactor,
a nuclear or thermonuclear bomb, or a plant reprocessing
spent reactor fuel. The potential for radioactive contami-
nation of the environment exists in all phases of processing
radioactive materials. This processing involves mainly
heavy industries, such as the uranium and thorium mines,
metallurgical factories, nuclear reactors, and chemical
plants.
Radioactive pollution of the atmosphere can occur
by the release of airborne radioactive materials in routine
industrial operations or as the consequence of an accidental
release of airborne contaminants.
Nuclear reactor operations and nuclear spent fuel
processing are the principal sources of radioactive gases.
Those that are important in air pollution work, their main
sources, and half-lives are given in Table 12 in Appendix B.
3.2.1 Production of Nuclear Fuel
The production of nuclear fuel for use in reactors
or for nuclear explosions involves the mining of crude
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34
uranium or thorium ore, washing and concentrating the ore
in processing plants adjacent to the mines, producing ingots
of refined uranium or thorium, and physically separating the
different isotopes of uranium and thorium. All these opera-
tions use only the naturally occurring radioactive elements
belonging to the uranium and thorium families.
3.2.1.1 Mining, Milling, and Refining of Uranium
Uranium mining gives rise to the usual dust problems
associated with conventional ore mining. The presence of
radium in particles is not considered as important as the
presence of radon gas daughter products. Adequate ventila-
tion at the working faces of the mine must therefore be
provided. The release of mine ventilation air to the atmo-
sphere and subsequent dispersion provide large dilution fac-
154
tors. In addition, mines are frequently in remote areas
at significant distances from population centers. Therefore,
this is mainly an occupational problem rather than a general
air pollution problem.
Ore concentration begins with crushing and pulver-
izing the ore. These operations yield dusts containing a
small concentration of radioactive materials, but the other
toxic materials present (such as silica, vanadium, arsenic,
and selenium) pose greater problems than the radioactive
materials present. Adequate filtering of the ventilation
air prevents the release of pollutants to the atmosphere.
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35
The large tailing piles that have accumulated around uranium
mills have recently become an area of public concern from
the air pollution standpoint. It is feared that radon gas
emanating from these piles may be an air pollution hazard
to the general public in the surrounding areas. A joint
study was made by the AEG and the Division of Radiological
Health (now the Bureau of Radiological Health) to evaluate
the atmospheric concentration of radon in areas near the
piles as an index of radiation exposure of the population
and to determine the effects of stabilizing and covering
the piles on the emanation of radon gas. Piles at Durango
and Grand Junction, Colo., and Salt Lake City and Monticello,
Utah, were surveyed. The study has been completed but the
results and conclusions have not been released. Two
States, Colorado and Wyoming, have passed legislation
requiring covering of uranium tailing piles.""
The concentrates, consisting of impure U3O8 (pitch-
blende), are further processed for isolation and purifica-
tion of uranium. Solvent extraction and fluoride volatiliza-
tion are the principal methods used to produce pure compounds
for reduction to metal or for the production of uranium
hexafluoride, which is used in the gas diffusion process
for producing uranium-235. The airborne radioactive products
released from these processes are dilute, volatile uranium
fluorides and uranium-containing dusts. During the feed
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36
preparation step, less than 3 \j,Ci per day of uranium are
82
released as the hexafluoride. Uranium dust and other
uranium compounds are controlled at the diffusion plants so
that downwind concentrations are consistently less than the
MFC.
Uranium ore processing plants are located in the
States of Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, South Dakota, Texas,
and Wyoming. Most of these locations are remote from popu-
lated areas. The milling plants are in general located
close to the mines; these locations are shown in Table 13 in
Appendix B. The location of plants refining the uranium
ore concentrates to feedstock for fuel manufacture are
shown in Table 14, Appendix B.
3.2ol.2 Fuel Fabrication
The fabrication of fuel elements for power reactors
involves the metal-working processes of rolling, extruding,
heat treating, machining, and cladding the uranium. Experi-
ence to date has shown that the potential for radioactive
154
airborne pollution from these processes is minor.
Since the development of the breeder reactors,
there has been much interest in plutonium and plutonium
alloy fuels. Plutonium metal is pyropheric and extremely
toxic; hence, great care must be exercised in its loading.
To minimize the release of plutonium during fabrication,
leak-tight enclosures are used for all work, and all exhaust
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37
gases are filtered at least twice through high-efficiency
filters. Operating experience at Hanford, Oak Ridge,
Argonne, and Los Alamos has shown that intricate operations
with all forms of plutonium can be carried out without
94
signxfleant release of airborne plutonium. Despite this
fact, there have been some serious fires and explosions in
plutonium-handling facilities; decontamination costs and
80
equipment damage have been the most serious results. No
serious releases to the atmosphere have occurred.
From experience to date, the airborne radioactive
contamination from uranium mining, milling, refining, and
fuel fabrication processes is considered to be minor. In
processing plutonium into fuels, great care is exercised in
the design of equipment and control features to insure that
negligible quantities are released to the atmosphere in day-
to-day operations and in fires and other serious accidents.
The principal producers of uranium fuel for fabri-
cation into fuel elements together with the locations of
their processing plants, are shown in Table 15, Appendix B,
Fuel fabrication plants are located in a number of areas
throughout the United States. The locations of plants
fabricating fuel for the nuclear industry are shown in
Table 16 in Appendix B.
3.202 Nuclear Reactors
Nuclear fuels are introduced into reactors where
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38
heat is produced by nuclear fission. Radioactive wastes
formed by nuclear fission are of two types: fission products,
which remain incorporated in the nuclear fuels; and activa-
tion products, found mainly in the coolant. Both the fuel
elements and the coolants are thus potential sources of
radioactive atmospheric pollution. The pollution may come
about through release into the atmosphere of radioactive
gases, such as xenon and krypton (fission products); through
the induced activity of atmospheric argon; through the forma-
tion of radioactive aerosols containing fuels (uranium,
thorium, plutonium); through the release of fission products
(strontium-90, cerium-144, barium-140, zirconium-95, and
others); or through induced activity of other kinds.
The civilian nuclear power reactors (built for gen-
eration of electricity) operating at the present time are
generally located around the Great Lakes and in the Eastern
portion of the country. The new plants planned for the near
future are concentrated in the same areas as well as in the
Southeast, the upper Mississippi and Missouri regions, and
the Pacific Coast. A list of the civilian nuclear plants—
built, being constructed, and proposed—and the expected
start-up dates are shown in Table 17, Appendix B.
In addition to the power reactors, a number of
research and test reactors are located throughout the United
States, as well as plutonium production reactors. The
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39
largest concentrations of test reactors are at the National
Reactor Testing Station, Idaho Falls, Idaho, and Oak Ridge
National Laboratories, Oak Ridge, Tenn.
Large plutonium production reactors are located at
Hanford, Wash, and Aiken, S.C.
3.2.2.1 Normal Reactor Operation
The quantity and nature of the gaseous effluents
will be influenced by the type of reactor used. The air-
cooled reactor at Brookhaven Laboratories releases large
quantities of argon-41, an isotope with a 112-minute half-
life. Each operating day, some 14,000 Ci are released from
a 300-foot stack.
The waste gases released from the water reactors at
Dresden 1, Big Rock Point, Humboldt Bay, Elk River, Yankee,
and Indian Point 1 are shown in Table 18, Appendix B.
Dresden 1, Big Rock Point, Humboldt Bay, and Elk River are
boiling-water reactors; Yankee and Indian Point 1 are
pressurized-water types. The power ratings of the stations
vary from 24 Mw(e)* for Elk River to 200 Mw(e) for Dresden 1,
and the periods of operation range from 4 to 7 years. All
these plants have operated within the limits authorized by
the AEG for release of radioactive wastes to the environ-
ment o The maximum annual average releases of gaseous activa-
tion products and noble gases have ranged from 22 Ci/yr (0.7
(jCi/sec) at Yankee, to 35,000 jaCi/sec at Big Rock Point.
*Mw(e): megawatts electrical energy.
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40
The releases varied from a maximum of 0.002 percent of the
limit at Indian Point to as much as 28 percent of the limit
at Humboldt Bay. Releases of halogens and particulates in
the gaseous wastes ranged from 2 x 10"8 |j.Ci/sec at Indian
Point to nearly 1.2 (_iCi/sec at Big Rock Point, corresponding to
about 0.00001 percent and 30 percent of the respective
limits. The maximum annual average releases of 0.07 |jCi/sec
of halogens and particulates at Humboldt Bay corresponded to
38 percent of that station's licensed limit.18'19
The maximum off-site dosage measured above back-
ground at Humboldt Bay (integrated over 12 consecutive
months) was only 50 mrems. Off-site air monitoring at
other sites has yielded measurements at or very near the
82
background level in all cases.
Tritium is produced in nuclear reactors by fission-
ing of uranium, neutron capture in boron and lithium added
to the coolant, neutron capture reaction with boron in con-
trol rods, activation of deuterium in water, and high energy
capture reactions with structural materials. In light water
reactors the main sources of tritium in the primary coolant
are leaking of fission-produced tritium through cladding
defects and boron and lithium reactions. In heavy water
reactors, neutron activation of the deuterium moderator and
134
coolant is the major source of tritium.
The majority of the tritium released from the
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41
coolant reaches the environment as liquid waste. Only about
1 percent of the total tritium entering the atmosphere is
194
released as gaseous waste. Measurements made by the
Bureau of Radiological Health's Nuclear Engineering Labora-
tory at a boiling water reactor indicate that the gaseous
tritium release may be less than 005 Ci/yr.134 Gaseous
tritium releases from the Yankee pressurized-water reactor
1-34
are reported to be less than 100 Ci/yr. In heavy water
reactors, only limited loss of heavy water can be tolerated
for economy considerations, a consideration which effec-
tively limits the release of tritium from this source. In
addition, the rather high permissible concentration of
tritium in ambient air also reduces this isotope's signifi-
cance as an air pollutant from reactors.
Very short-lived nitrogen and oxygen isotopes are
formed in large quantities from activation but do not pose
an air pollution problem because of their rapid decay.
Several incidents in the past 20 years have occurred
during fuel discharge of the Hanford reactors that resulted
in temporary off-standard releases of airborne material. An
estimated 4 Ci was released in one episode, yet only minor
contamination was found in the environment. Filters and
charcoal beds were installed in 1960, and since that time
114
releases have been entirely insignificant.
A serious incident occurred in 1958 at the NRU
reactor, a heavy-water moderated Canadian experimental
-------
42
reactor, yet recovery was possible and only minor releases
to the environment resulted. Due to a faulty mechanism, a
highly irradiated fuel assembly was caught and could not be
inserted into the discharge cask. A 3-foot portion melted
and burned. A detectable level of contamination was found
at a distance of 1,000 feet from the reactor building.
87
Decontamination of the reactor required about three months.
3.2.2.2 Reactor Accidents
Reactor accidents which result in melting of a large
fraction of the highly irradiated fuel are highly unlikely—
although credible. Upon melting, the core could release to
the reactor building the noble gas fission isotopes and a
fraction of the halogens and other volatile isotopes. The
postulated accident which could cause this is called the
design basis accident, and the reactor system is designed
to preclude such an event. In addition, special designs
(such as for a containment vessel) are required which
"ensure" confinement or containment to a very high degree
in the event of a serious accident. The AEG reviews all
reactor designs prior to licensing to ensure the safety of
the general public in case of an accident.
Some serious reactor accidents in the Western world
have occurred in the United States, Canada, and England.
The most recent of these, which resulted in the death of
three military personnel, occurred in 1961 at the Army
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43
low-power (SL-1) reactor at the National Reactor Testing
Station in Idaho. Through inadvertent withdrawal of a
safety rod, the reactor went critical and the nuclear excur-
sion resulted in a violent chemical explosion. Even though
the reactor building was conventionally constructed, the
radioactivity released from the core was substantially con-
fined within the reactor building. An estimated 10 Ci of
iodine (about twice the background radiation) was released
and was detectable about 80 miles downwind.
Through a series of compounding events in Canada at
the NRX reactor in Chalk River, Ontario, a power surge melted
about 10 percent of the uranium fuel rods in 1952. Some
10,000 Ci of fission products were carried below the reactor
and spread through auxiliary equipment. Evacuation of the
7 ")
area for a weekend was required because of airborne gases.'*
The only accident which caused any generalized
environmental contamination occurred at Windscale, England,
in 1957. The accident followed an attempt to anneal graphite
by nuclear heat. The uranium elements in 150 fuel channels
rose to such temperatures that cladding failed and the ele-
ments reached a glowing red heat. After carbon dioxide was
found ineffectual, water was used to quench the uranium.
The reactor cooling air was released to the atmosphere
through a 410-foot stack, at the top of which was a low-
efficiency filter. Some 20,000 Ci of iodine-131, 600 Ci of
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44
cesium-137, 80 Ci of strontium-89, and 9 Gi of strontium-90
were released. Milk was contaminated by iodine-131 in a
200-square-mile area to greater than the permissible level,
and sale of milk from this area was forbidden for 3 to 6
weeks. The largest thyroid dose recorded among the inhabi-
tants was 19 rad in one child. The reactor was never put
back into operation.182'197'198
Even though the foregoing represent the worst
accidents to date involving radioactive air pollution, the
consequences in respect to air pollution were much less
serious than some of the documented nonradioactive air pollu-
tion incidents on record.
3.2.3 Fuel Reprocessing
The highly radioactive fuels taken from power
reactors are reprocessed to separate the uranium and plu-
tonium from the many curies of fission products. Many
processes have been developed for removing the cladding
material, dissolving the fuel, and extracting the uranium
and plutonium.
Radioactive airborne contamination from a reprocess-
ing plant is a potential problem, since all the highly
radioactive fission products are released from the fuel
during the dissolution step. Unless they are deliberately
recovered, all noble gas isotopes in the fuel at the time
of dissolution are swept out of the dissolver into the
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45
atmosphere. At present, krypton-85 releases do not consti-
tute an air pollution problem. However, based on projected
nuclear power expansion and population growth by the year
2060, it is estimated that the radiation dose from krypton-85
would be of the order of_ 50 mrad per year, and may be as high
as 100 mrad .per year. From the public health standpoint, 50
mrad per year may be acceptable if other sources of exposure
oo
are adequately controlled.
Of greater concern at the present time is the poten-
tial for day-to-day emission of radioactive particles and
volatile isotopes. The most critical volatile isotope is
iodine-131, which can be reduced to negligible quantities by
allowing a long storage time after the fuel is removed from
the reactor. In addition, good processes are available for
removing iodine-131 from exhaust air. Experience has shown
that on a long-term basis and with adequate fuel-cooling and
iodine-131 removal facilities, the routine iodine-131 emis-
sions can be kept well below 1 Ci per day from a large
separations plant. '^ Another isotope of iodine whose
emissions from fuel reprocessing plants may be significant
is iodine-129. Studies are in progress by the Bureau of
193
Radiological Health to evaluate this problem.
The fuel processing plants at Savannah River and
at Hanford have experienced momentary releases of iodine-131
on occasion, due to equipment failure or inadvertent process-
ing of fuel which had "cooled" less than 4 months0 For
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46
example, the Savannah River Plant released 153 Ci of iodine-
1 r\n
131 during a 5-day period in 1961. The levels reached in
the environment did not require withholding milk from con-
sumption or any precautions other than monitoring action.
A very similar -incident occurred at Hanford in
September 1963165 when about 60 Gi of iodine-131 were
released. The maximum off-project grass level reached about
1.3 x 10~5 |jCi/g. Increases in milk were detectable, but
not dangerous.
Another isotope which forms volatile compounds is
ruthenium, prominently present in the fission product mix-
ture as ruthenium-103 (with a half-life of 40 days) and
ruthenium-106 (with a half-life of 1 year). Ruthenium is
relatively easily oxidized to the tetroxide, volatilized,
and trapped in a caustic scrubber. Radioactive particles
are generated at almost every point in the process where a
liquid is boiled, sprayed, agitated, or pumped. The very
fine sprays may be carried out through the vessel vents or
through very small leaks. The liquid evaporates, leaving
a very small solid residue that carries with it the radio-
active material. Very efficient filters are utilized for all
air leaving the operation.
Isolation and purification of plutonium during fuel
processing is accomplished through precipitation, fluorina-
tion, and eventual reduction to metal. Plutonium aerosols
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47
are generated from droplets and dry powders0 Each enclosure
where the work is performed is exhausted through a high-
efficiency fire-resistant filter. The air is again filtered
before release to the atmosphere through a tall stack.
The uranium stream from the fuel separations process
becomes the .feed for a calcining operation which converts
the nitrate to oxide. The calcining yields airborne uranium
oxide particles, practically all of which are retained on
high-efficiency filters in the ventilation air exhaust.
Radioactive air pollution due to fuel reprocessing
plants to date has been minor.1^^
The location of plants for reprocessing spent fuel
removed from reactors is shown in Table 19 in Appendix B.
The Nuclear Fuel Services Plant at West Valley, N.Y., is
the only commercial fuel reprocessing plant in operation at
present.
3.2.4 Nuclear Power Industry Projections
Until about 4 or 5 years ago, nuclear power for
central power stations was essentially in a development
stage. Since then, many utilities over a broad section of
the country have decided to construct large power facilities
based on nuclear heat sources because they are more economi-
cal than fossil fuels. In some borderline cases, the decision
to go nuclear was made. Therefore, the growth of commercial
nuclear-powered electrical generating facilities has been
-------
48
remarkable, with growth rates larger than had been predicted.
In 1968 the new orders for a select group of nuclear products
that are part of the nuclear power plants, as reported by the
199
Census Bureau, exceeded 1.5 billion dollars. The estimated
growth of nuclear power plants is shown in Figure 1. The
projected expenditures for construction investment are shown
in Figure 2. A list of the commercial nuclear power plants
already built, being constructed, and proposed for construc-
tion are shown in Table 17, Appendix B.
The projected market for fuel resulting from the
growth of nuclear power is shown in Figure 3. This includes
the total estimated cost of fuel from ore concentration to
fuel fabrication. The cost for each step in the total fuel
market for the year 1980 is shown in Table 20, Appendix B.
The overall use of nuclear energy, such as applica-
tions of radioisotopes and radiation, is expected to continue
to expand. The market for radiation processing in 1967 was
250 million dollars, and it is expected to grow at the rate
of 25 percent per year0 The projected 1968 market for radio-
chemicals and radiopharmaceuticals is 22 to 28 million
129
dollars, with an annual projected growth rate of 25 percent.
3.2.5 Nuclear Tests
Testing of nuclear explosives is another source of
atmospheric pollution. The nuclear explosives are either
based on fission processes employing uranium-235 or plutonium-239
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49
CD
O)
O)
c
CD
«
O
200
160-
120-
80-
40-
0
i i
i i i r
1970
1975
1980
FIGURE 1
Estimated Capacity of Nuclear Power Plants
129
30
20
o
Q
V)
O
00
10-
Cumulative
1970
i i r t i
1975 1980
FIGURE 2
Projected Expenditures for Construction Investment
129
-------
50
30
20 -
"5
Q
CO
O
10 -
0
1 1 1 I 1 I I T
1970 1975 1980
FIGURE 3
Fuel Cycle Costs
129
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51
or fusion reactions employing light nuclei (hydrogen or
lithium).
The explosion takes the form of a nonmoderated
chain reaction which produces large neutron fluxes that
activate the surrounding material. The radioactive products
released in a nuclear explosion are the fission products
strontium-90, cesium-137, iodine-131, and others, and the
89
activation products calcium-45 and sodium-24. After some
time has elapsed, the principal contaminants remaining are
89
strontium-90 and cesium-137.
The force of the explosion and the accompanying
rise in temperature convert these radioactive materials into
gases or else eject fine particles high into the atmosphere.
The immediate result is thus a primary pollution of the
atmosphere at the site of the explosion. This is followed
by a secondary pollution due to radioactive fallout. The
distance covered by the particles of radioactive material
will vary with the height to which they are ejected and with
their size. They will eventually settle out or be carried
down by rain and become dispersed over the surface of the
ground. In this way, pollution is produced at points remote
from the site of the explosion, the distance depending upon
the size of the explosion, the prevailing meteorological
conditions, and the latitude at which ejection into the
stratosphere takes place. Examples of this remote type
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52
of pollution are illustrated in reports by Gold et al. and
*? o
Branson et aJL_. that reported on the measurements of fission
product fallout in the United States from the Chinese nuclear
tests in 1964 and 1965,
It is estimated that from World War II until the
end of 1962, the total explosive yield of all nucelar detona-
tions by the United States, the United Kingdom, and the
Soviet Union was equivalent to 511 megatons of TNT, as shown
in Table 21, Appendix B.
In 1963 a moratorium on open-air testing was
adopted by the United States, the United Kingdom, and Russia.
Since then, there has been a small amount of venting from
underground tests conducted by the United States and Russia,
but this has not added a significant amount of radioactivity
to the total atmospheric inventory. Moreover, the Chinese
and French have tested nuclear weapons, but these tests have
not added appreciably to the radioactivity totals made prior
147
to 1962. During tests prior to 1963, it is estimated
that about 30 percent of the radioactivity produced by the
nuclear explosions was deposited in the immediate vicinity
168
of the test sites. Measurements of the atmospheric
radioactivity resulting from nuclear weapons tests have been
made at hundreds of locations throughout the world and at
145
many elevations. The measurements are contained in the
reports of the United Nations Scientific Committee on the
-------
53
Effects of Radiation.145'146'147 The monthly mean concen-
trations of beta radioactivity measured in the United States
following periods of major atmospheric nuclear testing are
shown in Figure 4.
The hazard to man arises primarily from fallout
since most of the debris is carried to the earth's surface
in rainfall. The greatest source of human exposure is the
radionuclides absorbed by man via the food chain (for
example, the contamination of grass by iodine-131 fallout,
with subsequent ingestion by cows and concentration in their
milk).168
The majority of the radiation received from inhaled
radioactive debris from weapons testing originated from
zirconium-95 and cerium-144. During the heavy weapons test-
ing in 1962 and 1963, doses to the lung amounted to only a
few mrad per year, which is small in comparison with the
147
normal background dose. The total radiation from nuclear
testing has added only about 10 to 15 percent to the normal
natural radiation background dose.
3.3 Product Sources
Radionuclides are used as tracers in industry,
biology, and agriculture and for internal irradiation in
medicine. Another application of radionuclides is as sealed
sources for gammagraphy and for massive external irradiation
(sterilization). Radioactive wastes result only from the
first type of application„ These wastes may be either the
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54
o
o.
55
50 -
45-
40-
35 -
30 -
K
>
O
5 20 H
cc
15 -
1957
1958
1959
PERIODS OF MAJOR ATMOSPHERIC TESTING
U.S.(Nevada Test Site)
U.S.(Pacific)
U.K.
U.S.S.R.
1960
1961
1962
n\
I
o|
d
UJ
ccl
I- 1
I!
&!
HI
1963
FIGURE 4
Monthly Mean Concentrations of Beta Radioactivity
as Related to Testing of Nuclear Weapons3
-------
55
unused remains of the radionuclides employed, or products of
transformation or excretion. The quantities involved are
small, and atmospheric pollution from this source is gener-
pn
ally of little significance.
3.3.1 Aerospace Applications
A relatively new potential source of atmospheric
pollution is the use of nuclear energy for rocket propulsion
and as a source of power for satellites and space probes.
The first practical application of nuclear energy
in outer space was the use of isotopic power units that pro-
duce electricity by thermoelectric conversion of the heat of
radioactivity decay. The first isotopic power unit actually
to fly in outer space was a 2.7-watt generator containing 80-
year plutonium-238. This unit powered the communications
system in TRANSIT, a communications satellite designed to
provide constant frequency transmission for a period of
several years. This device was placed in orbit in June 1962.
In April 1964, an isotopic power device containing
plutonium-238 burned up at about 150,000 feet over the Indian
Ocean during reentry into the atmosphere. Traces of the
plutonium-238 were found at the expected altitude and lati-
tude, confirming the belief that complete burnup was
achieved. The material is slowly descending toward the
ground and has recently been detected in the surface air.
It is expected that this will give rise to a negligible amount
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56
of air pollution. Although these types of nuclear energy
uses are new potential sources of atmospheric contamination,
it seems unlikely that in the foreseeable future the levels
of atmospheric contamination will approach those to which
the world was once subjected as a result of nuclear weapons
tests.
The United States is engaged in the development of
a rocket propulsion system utilizing nuclear power. For
some years this program will be in an experimental stage
which will limit the operation of reactors to land-based
test units at remote locations, such as the Nevada Test Site.
Because of the isolation of the test units and the relative
infrequency of test firings, it is not likely that the
nuclear rocket program will constitute a significant source
of atmospheric pollution for some years.
3.4 Other Sources
Other sources of radioactivity are pilot plants,
research laboratories, and laundries for washing contaminated
clothes, as well as metallurgical examination of fuels, and
incineration of slightly contaminated clothing and radio-
activity filters. In such cases, the release of particulate
activity is easily controlled by absolute filtration of all
air from active laboratories; the levels of gaseous activity
are invariably so low that no significant air pollution
occurs.
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57
Another potential source of radioactivity can result
from the peaceful use of nuclear explosions underground to
stimulate gas production, provide gas storage basins, enhance
the production of oil from oil shale, and facilitate solution
mining of copper. Many.such projects have been proposed or
are in the planning stages. (Table 22, Appendix B). One
project, called Gas Buggy, was conducted in December 1967,
to stimulate gas production. The results of this project
are being evaluated. The potential for release of radio-
activity accurs mainly during the production and use of the
end products; for example, fuel gases produced or stored can
become contaminated with radioactive materials that are
released when the gas is burned. To minimize the possibility
of such contamination, the area is not used for a period of
time afterwards to allow the radioactivity produced during
the explosion to decay.
3.5 Environmental Air Concentrations
Prior to 1967, sampling for gross beta reactivity
was carried out at 323 stations throughout the country by
the Air Surveillance Network of the National Air Surveillance
Networks Section, Division of Air Quality and Emission Data,
Bureau of Criteria and Standards, National Air Pollution
Control Administration. Since 1967 the Air Surveillance
Network has limited its radioactivity sampling to the West
Coast.123 The Radiation Surveillance Network (RSN)—which
in 1967 became the Radiation Alert Network (RAN) of the
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58
Radiological Surveillance Branch of the Division of Envi-
ronmental Radiation, Bureau of Environmental Health—samples
the atmosphere for gross beta activity at 74 stations through-
out the country. The network is oriented toward detecting
radioactive fallout from weapons testing.8 Therefore, if
the atmospheric radioactivity exceeds 10 pCi/m3 (or 5 pCi/m3
in Hawaii, Alaska, and Puerto Rico), the samples are scanned
for fission products. Data from the Radiation Alert Network
are published each month in the Radiological Health and Data
Reports. In the near future, the Radiation Alert Network is
expected to become part of the Air Surveillance Network,123
104
Lockhart and Patterson intercalibrated the Radia-
tion Surveillance Network (RSN) and the Air Surveillance
Network (ASN) by sampling for beta activity at the Naval
Research Laboratory in "Washington, D.C., utilizing the
systems and methods used by these networks. The samples
were then counted at the Naval Research Laboratory and at
the Network laboratories, utilizing their standard procedures,
They found from these data that the RSN measurements were
lower than the corresponding ASN measurements, primarily due
to the different type of filter paper used by the two systems,
The RSN uses carbon-impregnated cellulose paper, which allows
a greater penetration of radioactive particles than does the
glass-fiber filter paper used by ASN. The relative activity
concentration or intercomparison factors for the two systems
are
RSN = 1000, ASN =1.77
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59
Gross beta measurements made by the ASN for the years 1953
P
to 1966 are shown in Table 23, Appendix B.
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60
4. ABATEMENT
Radiation cannot be detected without special instru-
mentation, and the biological effects are usually not evident
until some time after exposure. Therefore, reliance must be
placed on methods for preventing the atmospheric activity
from exceeding permissible levels. The abatement systems
and methods utilized to prevent atmospheric pollution are
rigorous, systematic, and organized so as to provide multiple
and successive safeguards. In addition, the abatement sys-
tems must be designed to handle not only pollution arising
out of normal working conditions, but also the accidental
pollution caused by defective installations or faulty
operations.
Effective control of radioactive pollution consists
of limiting the emission of radioactive pollutants, contain-
ing them to prevent the spread of the pollution, and dis-
persing them to reduce the pollution below the maximum per-
missible level.
4.1 Control of Radioactive Pollution
4.1.1 Limitation of the Emission of Radioactive Pollutants
There is often a choice of techniques for carrying
out a mining or processing operation, some of which offer
special advantages for limiting air pollution. In uranium
mines, for example, pollution can be kept to a minimum by
the use of wet drilling, by underground drainage, and by
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61
clearing away the ore as rapidly as possible to prevent the
release of radon. In nuclear reactors, the risk of pollu-
tion can be reduced by using closed-cycle coolant systems
and maintaining high coolant purity to minimize activation
products. In addition, nuclear testing can be carried out
under meteorological conditions chosen to ensure minimum
dispersal.
4.1.2 Containment
Containment of radioactivity can be done in two
ways: the polluted atmosphere itself can be contained, or
the radioactive pollutant can be contained by not allowing
it to escape to the atmosphere. In the first case, the
polluted air is separated from the air where people are work-
ing or from the outside atmosphere. A reactor containment
building serves to minimize the release of fission products
to the outside atmosphere if an accident allows them to
escape from the reactor. In the second case, the radioactive
gases are completely contained by means of hermetically
sealed tanks and closed-cycle process systems.
4.1.3 Dispersal
The dispersal method consists merely of diluting the
pollution with a volume of air large enough to reduce the
resulting concentration of radioactivity in the air below
maximum permissible concentrations.
Radioactive pollutants are dispersed by means of
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62
stacks. The satisfactory dispersal of radioactive gas to
the atmosphere at permissible concentrations depends upon
the position, height, and discharge of the stack and on
local meteorological factors.
4.2 Location of Facility Site
A guiding principle in locating an atomic facility
is to select a site where the possibility of excessive
radiation doses to the general public will be minimized.33'3
In choosing a site, the most important considerations are
(1) The type of installation (i.e., nuclear
reactor, chemical treatment plant, plutonium extraction
center, etc.), since it will influence the type of accident
most likely to occur and the consequences of an accidental
release of radioactivity.
(2) The area's meteorological factors, especially
the local weather conditions, prevailing winds, rainfall
pattern, temperature changes, humidity, and others.
(3) The nature of the environment likely to be
contaminated; i<>e., distribution of the population, position
of industrial and residential areas and of agricultural zones,
and other factors„
4.3 Air Cleaning Methods
Airborne radioactive particulates and gaseous sub-
stances are produced in many of the operations in the nuclear
energy industry,, Since some of these are produced at levels
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63
that preclude direct release to the environment, a variety
of methods have been used for their collection and removal
prior to release. These methods include filtration, centrifu-
gal collection, wet collection, electrostatic collection,
surface absorption, and -delay to allow for decay. The air
cleaning method utilized will depend upon the form of the
radioactive material (particulate or gas), the particle
size, and the chemical and physical properties of the atmo-
sphere and its contaminants. Tables 24 and 25, Appendix B.
show the methods used to remove radioactivity and their
-... . 159
efficxency.
4.3.1 Radioactive Particulates
Radioactive particulates consist of dust, fumes,
smokes, and mists and range in size from less than 0.05 [_i
upward. The degree of removal required for radioactive
particulates is considerably higher than that encountered
in normal (nonradioactive) industry practice. Removal
efficiencies of 99 percent or better are required in many
instances for particles of less than one |a in diameter.
These removal efficiencies have been achieved by conventional
methods or by refinements of them.
Filtration ' ' ' is the most widely used
method of removing radioactive materials from air. Filtra-
tion equipment can consist of roughing filters, absolute
filters, bag filters, deep-bed sand filters, or combinations
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64
of these, depending upon the dust loading in the air and
the removal efficiencies required. Absolute filters give
removal efficiencies of better than 99 percent for particles
greater than 0.3 p.. For high dust loading situations,
absolute filters are often preceded by coarser filters.
These can consist of roughing filters, bag filters, or deep
bed filters.
Electrostatic precipitators ' ' and cyclones
can also be used in high dust loading situations. However,
electrostatic precipitators are rarely used because of their
high cost. Small cyclones ' ' have been used in collect-
ing swarf from uranium machining operations, and large
cyclones^'170,171 have been used in ore operations.
4.3.2 Wet Collection
Mixed aerosols such as acid mists and solids are
usually removed by wet collectors. This group of equipment
consists of wet filters, viscous filters, packed towers,
cyclone scrubbers, and venting scrubbers. As a class,
scrubbers will rarely remove particles less than 0.5 (j. in
diameter. They cool as well as clean the gas. The removal
of dust is continuous, but the relatively large quantities
of liquid effluent may require treatment as liquid radio-
active wastes. There may also be a danger of chemical
T- .L. *• ,-in-^o. Jo- 6,170,171
reaction between fine metallic dusts and water.
Wet filters have been used in the absorption of
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65
acid mists and vapors from laboratory fume hoods, particu-
larly when hydrofluoric and perchloric acid mists were
present.
Viscous filters are primarily used as prefilters
for general ventilation 'air.
Packed towers or spray columns are particularly
useful when the aerosol contains some reactive chemical.
However , they are mainly used for gas absorption rather than
air cleaning.
Cyclone scrubbers are used where removal of pyro-
phoric materials are necessary. Venturi scrubbers are often
incorporated in the air-cleaning train of incinerators,
since they allow high gas temperatures to be handled. ''
4.4 Radioactive Gases and Vapors
During reactor operation, volatile radioactive
gases and vapors are formed that cannot be removed from air
or other carrier gas streams by filtration. The most danger-
"I O O
ous of these are the isotopes of iodine ( ° I and I) and
the isotopes of krypton and xenon (87Kr, 88Kr , 133Xe, 135Xe,
and 85Kr).
It is extremely difficult and expensive to remove
small quantities of radioactive inert gases from large volumes
of air. Therefore, in most cases it is easier and simpler
to install waste gas treatment systems to treat the gases
prior to release to the ventilation system.
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66
The methods available for removal of radioactive
gases are absorption and chemisorption, adsorption, and
storage until the isotope has decayed.
4.4.1 Chemisorption and Adsorption
The adsorbents used for removing radioactive gases
and vapors include activated carbons, silica gels (pure or
impregnated with chemicals which give them chemisorptive
properties), and chemicals based on soda lime (to absorb
acidic vapors and gases). Other substances used include
those having a selective adsorption capacity for certain
types of material, for example, silver and its salts or oxide
plated on inert carriers such as unfired porcelain and
Alundum, aluminum oxide, or metal mesh and finely-ground
metals.1,22,137,170,171
The activated carbons are efficient and cheap and
will remove many radioactive vapors and gases from air and
other carrier gas streams. At low temperatures, they are
good adsorbents of radioactive inert gases such as xenon and
kryptono The silica gels are used to decontaminate gases
containing high concentrations of oxidants, but not fluoride
or hydrogen fluoride. The adsorbents based on soda lime are
used as alkaline chemical absorbers for acid gases and vapors
(compounds of iodine, phosphorus, and carbon dioxide).
Selective adsorbents—such as silver plate on activated
carbon, silica gel, or nonporous material (porcelain)—are
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67
highly efficient for the decontaminating streams containing
22 137
radioactive iodine. '
4.4.2 Absorption
Absorption is suitable for removing from the venti-
lation air gases that react chemically with the scrubbing
liquid or are highly soluble in it. Normally, this method
is used for the relatively gross cleaning of the air of
(inorganic) compounds of radioactive iodine, carbon-14
dioxide, and others.
The most important absorbents for removing radio-
active contamination from the air are
(1) Water (although not always sufficiently effec-
tive, such as in removing iodine from air), and
(2) A weak alkaline solution (pH 8 to 10) the most
widely used absorbent.
The same equipment is used for air cleaning by
absorption as is used for the removal of dust and aerosols
from air. However, the efficiency of even the best
installations of this type is not great, and removal does
not usually exceed 90 to 95 percent.
The main disadvantage of this type of equipment
is that it produces radioactive waste water.
4.4.3 Delay in Storage
The delay or retention of gases in tanks until the
radioisotopes have decayed enough to permit release is one
of the simplest and most reliable ways of removing radio-
active inert gases—argon, krypton, and xenon—from the air
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68
and other carrier gases. In order to reduce the activity of
a given isotope by a factor of 100, the retention time must
be 6.7 times the half-life of the isotope; and for a thou-
sand fold reduction, the retention time must be 10 times the
, . , . . _ 18,19,171
half-life.
The delay in storage method is used primarily for
the removal of comparatively short-lived isotopes, especially
radioactive inert gases, from limited volumes of air and
other carrier gases. However, storage tanks can also be
used for temporary storage of exhaust gases during unfavora-
ble meteorological conditions, such as inversion or unfavora-
ble wind direction. The gases are stored until the meteoro-
logical conditions are satisfactory and then released. '
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69
5. ECONOMICS
In the last few years the growth of the commercial
nuclear power generating industry has been greater than had
been predicted even 5 years ago. (See Section 3 for pro-
jected growth rates). Each nuclear facility must incorpo-
rate safety systems that will safeguard the public from
uncontrolled and excessive release of radioactive materials
1 86
to the atmosphere. It has been estimated by Vann that
the costs associated with reactor safety for plants being
engineered and constructed for mid-1973 service constitute
approximately 10 percent of the total plant cost. For a
800 Mw(e) light water reactor plant this would amount to
186
about $18,000,000. This figure includes costs of com-
ponents, piping, structures, and engineering.
A cost analysis of the dust collectors used at AEC
facilities to prevent release of toxic and radioactive dusts
to the atmosphere was made by First and Silverman. From
their study they determined the following costs for air
cleaning equipment:
(1) For air supply units of 10,000 cfm capacity,
dry fiber throwaway prefilters cost under $50/1,000 cfm/yr;
two-stage electrostatic precipitators cost $76/1,000 cfm/yr.
(2) For exhaust air cleaners of 10,000 cfm capacity,
most dry and wet medium-efficiency mechanical dust collectors
will cost approximately $50/1,000 cfm/yr, and cleanable
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70
fabric dust collectors will cost about twice this amount.
(3) The costs and. service conditions of some dry
mechanical and wet dust collectors installed at the AEC
facilities are shown in Tables 26 and 27 in Appendix B.
The economic impact of radioactive air pollution on
humans, animals, and plants is expected to be minimal at the
low levels presently encountered. Some economic losses have
been incurred in the past from accidental releases of radio-
active materials from nuclear facilities such as in 1957 at
Windscale, England, where contaminated milk was withheld
from the market.
The main impact of radioactive pollution is in the
area of long-term health effects, and the magnitude of this
impact is not yet known. Potential releases of krypton-85
from an expanding nuclear industry could well limit nuclear
expansion around the year 2000 if it is determined that the
radiation dose from the quantity of krypton-85 released at
that time is harmful to health.
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71
6. METHODS OF ANALYSIS
Radioactive materials are produced and dispersed
in a variety of ways. In most cases, the radioactive pollu-
tants occur as solid particles dispersed in air. They
rarely occur dispersed in air as liquids. However, some of
the products are gaseous such as radon, elemental radio-
iodine and some of its organic compounds, radiocarbon as
carbon dioxide, and radioargon. The method of sampling and
monitoring for radioactive material dispersed in air depends
on the physical form of the material. Techniques for mea-
suring radiation have been developed which are sensitive to
extremely minute amounts. As a result, the amounts of
radioactive material that can be detected and measured quan-
titatively with a high degree of accuracy are much smaller
than almost any other atmospheric pollutant.
6.1 Sampling Methods
The types of collecting devices used to sample
radioactive particulates are filters, impactors, impingers,
and settling trays. Large particles can be collected on
settling trays. However, sampling for radioactive particu-
lates is usually accomplished by pulling the air at a mea-
sured flow rate through the collecting device.1'46'102'168
6.1.1 Filters
Filtration through paper is the most widely used
119
technique for sampling radioactive particulates. The
types of filter paper used by some various air sampling
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72
networks throughout the world have been listed by Lockhart
105
et. aj^. They have listed cellulose, cellulose-asbestos,
cellulose-glass fiber, glass fiber, polystyrene, and membrane
filters. Glass filters are probably used more extensively
than the other filter types„ However, certain inherent
advantages are obtained from using other filter media. For
example, the synthetic organic filters and cellulose filters
are easily burned and essentially ash-free, where the glass
and asbestos filters leave a residual ash when burned. This
may be an advantage during analysis because of the presence
of a finite amount of material for observation and manipula-
tion. Chemical processes are available to dissolve the ash
from the glass or asbestos filters or to dissolve the filter
media without ashing.
The membrane-type filters are readily soluble in a
wide variety of organic solvents, and they can easily be
ashed. Thus, when chemical operations are to be performed
on the collected dust, the dust can be easily separated from
the filter. In addition, a drop of the proper immersion oil
in contact with a filter on a microscope slide makes the
filter completely transparent for microscopic examination of
collected material. Techniques have been developed for
transferring collected material from membrane filters to
electron microscope grids so that very small particles may
93
be observed.
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73
Where direct counting of the filter media is to be
used to measure the collected radioactivity, radioactive
particle penetration of the filter paper should be minimized;
highly compacted filters which are essentially surface
collectors should be utilized. Lockhart et al. have made
measurements on penetration of various filter media by smoke.
Collection efficiencies of 100 percent in a sampling
system are not necessary provided the efficiencies are at
least 90 percent and are known for the material to be
collected. Lockhart et al. have listed measurements made
on collection efficiencies of various filter media for
natural radioactive aerosols and airborne fission products.
6.1.2 Impactors
In impactors the airstream is speeded up by a jet
and then impinged or impacted on a surface coated with a
sticky material to catch the dust. The material is collected
in a small area immediately in front of the jet and the size
range collected is a function of the jet velocity and the
system dimensions. Impactors are rarely used for pollution
monitoring involving radioactive materials because of the
long collection times required under outdoor conditions
where natural dust exists. Moving slides and tapes have
been used for this purpose but are only satisfactory for
relatively short periods of sampling. The Anderson sam-
pler (although an impactor similar to the cascade impactor)
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74
collects more material and more fractions. This impactor
consists of a series of perforated plates and collecting
plates. The air is forced through a perforated plate onto a
collecting plate, where the fraction is collected.1
6.1.3 Impincfers
Impingers use impaction under a liquid surface and
are rarely used in air pollution studies. They occasionally
have been used for sampling stacks emitting hot, wet gases.
The impinger may be immersed in ice water for this purpose
and the aerosol then trapped in the liquid.
6.1o4 Settling Trays
Settling trays are widely used in air pollution
work and have been used for radioactive materials. The
"fallout tray" is a standard instrument in radioactive air
pollution monitoring. The tray is a metal sheet coated
with a sticky material or lined with sheets of gummed
89,168
paper.
After exposure, the metal sheet can be placed in a
counter for direct counting of radioactivity, or the material
can be removed from the tray and the radioactivity determined.
The collected material can be washed off with a solvent and
the material wet- or dry-ashed for analysis. After exposure,
gummed paper can be stripped off and ashed out. Radio-
chemical analyses for various elements can then be performed.
Another method of evaluation is by autoradiography
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75
of the tray. The sticky surface is covered with a thin
plastic sheet, placed in contact with a sheet of X-ray film,
and kept in the dark for a fixed period. After development
of the film, the dark spots reveal the presence of radio-
-i g~ -I
active particles, which .can then be evaluated. Instead
of sticky trays, a shallow tray filled with water can also
be used. The water can then be evaporated or filtered for
direct counting.
Radioactive washout by precipitation is evaluated
by collecting precipitation in stainless steel trays. The
water is then evaporated and the residue is counted for
radioactivity.
6.2 Quantitative Methods
6.2.1 Analysis of Collected Particulate Samples for Activity
Direct radioactive counting of filter paper and
other samples involves considerable electronic equipment.
The size of the probe or counting chamber should match that
of the collection medium, which usually is filter paper.
Special probes that can be used with standard sealers or
count-rate meters are built to handle most filter paper
89,168
sizes.
Proportional counters are widely used for activity analy-
sis but can give erratic results with filter papers because the
filter paper, being an insulator, distorts the electric field
in the counting chamber. Scintillation counters are more
widely used at present for counting all types of air
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76
samples than proportional counters. For alpha counting,
the scintillation surface is placed very close to the filter.
Low-level radioactivity can be counted, using small disks of
scintillating material on clear plastic placed in actual con-
tact with the deposited .material. The counting device is a
photomultiplier which "sees" the light flashes inside a
scintillating medium.
Gamma activity is usually counted with a crystal as
a scintillator although Geiger tubes with end windows have
been used. Beta counting can be done with scintillating
crystals (or powders) on plastic films or with thin window
proportional counters. Multichannel analyzers are used,
particularly with gamma emitters, to give qualitative
information on the isotopes present. As noted previously,
membrane filters are best for collecting alpha emitters.
These are then counted with solid-state detectors connected
to a multichannel analyzer.
The air usually contains appreciable quantities of
naturally occurring radioactive particulates. These particu-
lates are collected on filter paper at the same time that
other radioactive contamination is being measured. If the
samples are counted immediately after the end of the sampling
period, the results are high because of the presence of these
short-lived natural radioactive materials. Counting can be
delayed for several days to permit the decay of the natural
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77
products or several counts can be made and a correction
calculated.
Combined sampler-counter units are available that
use a scintillation counter probe placed near the filter
paper during the sampling period. The counter used is a
count-rate instrument and the output is connected to a
recorder, which then measures the buildup of activity on
the filter paper. These types of instruments are rarely
used, however, for monitoring alpha emitters. Instruments
also have been built using filter tape—moving intermittently
or continuously—as a collector so that one sample is
70 8"3
counted while another is being collected. '
6.202 Radioactive Particle Size Analysis
The mass concentration of a radioactive contaminant
in air usually is so minute, even at concentrations above
permissible levels, that it cannot be seen on the collection
media0 Therefore, it is seldom possible to use optical
techniques. The concentration of ordinary dust is always
much greater than that of the radioactive dust. In addition,
there is seldom any visible characteristic of the radio-
active dust by which it can be distinguished under the micro-
scope. Therefore, indirect sizing methods usually are used.
A widely used indirect method for sizing uses the
cascade impactor. This instrument draws air through a
series of progressively smaller jets. After each jet, the
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78
nuclear track film, which is then developed,, When the film
is examined under a microscope, tracks can be seen where
alpha particles were emitted, and the number of tracks
emanating from a single point is a measure of the amount of
radioactive material in the particle at that point. From
the calculated mass of material, the particle size can be
97
estimated.
6.2.3 Gases
Radioactive gases require special handling for
analysis depending on their chemical and physical properties.
6.2.3.1 Iodine
Iodine is collected on activated charcoal, although
chemical absorbers also have been used. The samples collected
can then be analyzed by placing the absorber directly on a
scintillation crystal or in a well counter for gamma counting.
By using discriminator circuits in a gated single-channel
analyzer, a high degree of sensitivity can be obtained.
When the iodine is completely gaseous and entirely
in elemental form, the charcoal absorption method gives
reliable results. At ordinary temperatures, however, some
iodine may be present as solid particles, or atoms may attach
themselves to other solids in the atmosphere. Such materials
can penetrate the absorbent. For this reason, filter paper
is usually placed in front of or behind the collection
cartridge during air sampling. Both should be counted when
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79
air is allowed to impact on a plate coated with an adhesive
or dust-retaining material. Since the jet velocities
increase as the jet size decreases, progressively smaller
particles are impacted and retained. If the impactor has
been properly calibrated, the size ranges deposited on each
stage will be known; '168 and if the cascade impactor has
been properly calibrated using an aerosol similar to the
one being sampled, it is fairly accurate. Particle shape,
density, and size affect the stage constants. Other errors
may be introduced by leakage of air into various parts of
the impactor, by deposition inside the instrument body, and
by resuspension of deposited aerosol from heavily loaded
slides.
There are several aerosol spectrometers that can
be adapted for use with radioactive materials. In Timbrell's
aerosol spectrometer, the air passes horizontally in a thin
film above a long surface and the particles settle on the
surface. Since the larger the particle, the sooner it
settles, the distance that the particle is located from
the entrance is a measure of the particle size, and the
amount settled out at various distances can be measured to
1 orj
give the size distribution. This system, satisfactory
only for particles larger than 10 microns, is seldom used
for air pollution worko
In the Conifuge, centrifugal force is used to
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80
speed up the settling. The aerosol-laden air is passed
through hollow space between two cones which are rotating
rapidly. Therefore, the particles are driven to the
outside wall, where they are deposited on an adhesive-
coated surface. Distance down the wall from the entrance
is again a measure of size. This instrument is expensive,
difficult to build, and primarily used in laboratories.
Another laboratory instrument, the Goetz aerosol
75
spectrometer, is similar to the Conifuge but the air
traverses a spiral down the annular space between the cones.
The air is not guided into the deposition space in a thin
layer and therefore, the distance from the entrance is only
a measure of the maximum size particle deposited there.
Interpretation of the resulting data is quite complex.
Other methods for sizing radioactive particles
depend upon placing the collected sample in contact with
film for some time, developing the film, and examining it
under a microscope. The particle can be left in place
during development or the film can be developed separately
and then placed in contact with the particles again. When
examined under the microscope, the radioactive particles
can be identified by the darkened spots under the particles
on the film and can then be sized.
For measuring alpha-emitting particles, the collected
aerosol is placed in contact for a period of time with a
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81
measuring the iodine concentration.
Some iodine has been found to penetrate various
absorbents and filters. There appear to be several compounds
23 177
of iodine having different diffusion characteristics. '
Some materials such as ailver-coated copper mesh have been
used as traps for iodine, and their efficiency seems to be
dependent on humidity. Silver-coated filter papers and
charcoal-loaded filter papers give high efficiencies with
iodine formed in the laboratory, but varying efficiencies with
iodine produced by reactors or industrial fuel-processing
C O
operations. Scrubbers containing sodium hydroxide can also
be used in sampling air for iodine.
6.2.3.2 Tritium
Tritium is usually present in the form of gaseous
molecular hydrogen or as water vapor. When dispersed in
air as molecular hydrogen, it gradually oxidizes to tritium
oxide or water as a result of self-activation. Ambient
196
tritium consists mainly of water vapor (HTO).
Low-level counting of tritium can be conveniently
and accurately accomplished by liquid scintillation counting
systems. Tritium samples are collected from the air by
freezing out the water vapor from the air with a cold trap,
then melting the collected sample. Water is then mixed with
liquid scintillation solution. The mixture is then counted
by a liquid scintillation counter. All operations involving
the scintillation solution are performed under red light to
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82
avoid phosphorescence resulting from excitation of the
scintillation solution by white light0121
6.2.3.3 Noble Gases
The usual method of monitoring for noble gases
such as argon-41, krypton-85, xenon-133 and xenon-135 is by
means of a simple thin-window Geiger counter in the atmo-
sphere. The Kanne chamber or other ion chamber can also be
used. For measurement of very low concentrations of xenon
and krypton, a charcoal-freeze-out pump is used for trapping
the gases, which can then be released into an ion chamber or
a chamber containing a Geiger tube for measurement. Since
permissible air concentrations of these gases are relatively
high, such techniques are rarely required. '
6.203.4 Other Radioactive Gases
Gas such as carbon-14 dioxide and sulfur-35 dioxide
may be formed as a result of operations in an isotope labora-
tory or through incineration of radioactive wastes. These
gases are sampled by liquid scrubbers containing sodium
hydroxide or barium chloride with an oxidant. The determina-
tion of collected radioactive material is easily made by
liquid scintillation counting. The precipitated barium
carbonate or barium sulfate also can be filtered off and
the filter paper counted in a suitable instrument, or a
1 /r p
sniffer can be used for determining the gas directly.
Oxygen and nitrogen can become radioactive if
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83
exposed to intense radiation. The half-lives of these
irradiated materials are short; therefore, they are not an
air pollution hazard. Unshielded Geiger counters or other
detectors can be used for direct measurements of radiation
where this is necessary."
When reactor fuel elements are dissolved in highly
oxidizing solutions, ruthenium, which is formed by the fis-
sion process, may be oxidized to the volatile tetroxide and
released. Ruthenium-106 is the most hazardous isotope of
this element. Air containing ruthenium can be sampled by
passing it through an absorber containing a dry organic
material such as polyethylene pellets, and the ruthenium
content determined by gamma counting.
6.2.4 Air Quality Monitoring
Generally, monitoring for radioactive substances
is done in much the same way as for nonradioactive materials.
Sampling locations are determined both by meteorological and
demographic factors and the specific information to be
obtained. Although airplanes, rockets, and high-altitude
balloons are all employed in measuring radioactive fallout,
the sampling equipment for each uses the same principles.
Since such pollutants are widely distributed, exact sampling
locations are not criticalo ' '
Duration and frequency of sampling are also similar
to those employed in all air pollution worko In some cases,
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84
sampling times must be limited because of the short half-
life of the pollutant being measured. The high sensitivity
of radioactivity measurements and the ready conversion of
the radioactive emissions to electronic pulses make continu-
ous monitoring possible in most cases.
Continuous monitoring of reactor installations is
effected by a chain of stations suitably arranged around
the site. Many different techniques and types of equipment
are utilized at various facilities throughout the country.
The Division of Radiological Health is reviewing the monitor-
ing techniques and equipment used at the present time with
193
the intention of developing uniform measurement techniques.
One method presently used at many facilities to measure radio-
activity in air is to pass the air through a tape of filter
paper that is continuously fed to a discharge or scintilla-
tion counter. lonization chambers and filter detectors give
instantaneous information on pollution with radioactive gases
and dusts. When used in conjunction with recording equipment,
they enable the average pollution at the measurement point to
be determined; when fitted with alarm devices, they can give
a warning if the maximum permissible concentrations are
exceededo
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85
7. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Radiation has been observed to produce somatic
effects such as leukemia; lung, skin, thyroid, and bone
cancer; cataracts; and life-span shortening. In addition,
it is responsible for significant genetic effects. Although
some estimates of the dose-time relationships to these
effects have been reported, there is some uncertainty in
safe levels of exposure to radiation.
There is at present a generally wide acceptance of
the biological concept which holds that there is no level of
radiation exposure below which there can be absolute certainty
that harmful effects will not occur to at least a few
individuals. This concept is based to a large extent on
considerations of potentially harmful genetic effects. While
many of the acute and long-term biological effects of high
doses of radiation are known, there is a lack of information
on the biological effect of low doses and low-dose rates of
radiation. In general, somatic effects are less likely to
occur at low-dose rates. Much more information is required
to fill the information gaps in the area of low doses and low-
dose rates, which are of primary concern in air pollution.
Animals suffer effects similar to those observed in
man, and all of the effects observed in man have been confirmed
with experimental animals.
Plants are suspected of undergoing genetic mutations.
However, the experiments have been carried out at radiation
-------
86
doses far in excess of those encountered in ambient air. No
material damage has been observed by the radiation found in
ambient air.
On the basis of recommendations from the International
Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP), the National
Committee on Radiation Protection (NCRP), and the Federal
Radiation Council (FRC), the AEC has established standards
of maximum permissible concentrations (MPC) of nuclides that
can be released from nuclear plants.
The nuclear industry has expanded rapidly in the
past decade and will continue to expand. With this rapid
expansion, there has been an increase in potential radio-
active pollution of the atmosphere. Experience to date has
shown that the radiation dose to the general public from
nuclear plant emissions has been insignificant when compared
with that from natural radioactivity. The dose to the popu-
lation from nuclear weapons testing was more significant,
amounting to levels about 5 to 10 percent higher than the
levels of natural radioactivity.
Recent investigations have indicated that krypton-85
releases from fuel processing may add significantly to the
general public radiation dose rate (50 to 100 mrad/yr) by the
year 2060. Krypton-85 is a radioactive gas with a long half-
life and at the present time is vented to the atmosphere.
Methods must be developed for preventing the release of this
noble gas.
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87
The projected growth of the nuclear industry in
localized areas (such as near Lake Michigan) may in the
future produce higher than desired radiation levels in the
local air basin. The total emissions from these concentrated
facilities may be excessive, even though the emissions from
each new facility alone are well within their discharge
limits. This problem will require careful review in the
future.
Fossil fuels contain natural radionuclides that are
released from the fuel by combustion. Therefore, radioactivity
is released from fossil-fuel-fired power plants that in some
cases can amount to more than that released from a similar-
sized nuclear power plant.
Accidents have occurred in the nuclear industry, and
in some cases resulting in releases of appreciable amounts of
radioactivity. In other instances, the result has been
temporary atmospheric pollution. Most of these incidents
were caused by human error rather than the failure or
inadequacy of the air cleaning systems.
Environmental radiation monitoring programs are con-
ducted by State, local, and Federal agencies external to the
nuclear facility site perimeter to monitor radioactivity
releases. In addition, the Radiological Surveillance Branch,
Division of Environmental Radiation, Bureau of Environmental
Health, has a National Surveillance Network (Radiation Alert
Network) to monitor environmental radioactivity., However,
-------
88
this network is oriented toward detecting radioactive fallout
from weapons testing. In the near future, the Radiation
Alert Network is expected to become part of the Air Surveil-
lance Network of the National Air Surveillance Network Sec-
tion, Division of Air Quality and Emission Data, Bureau of
Criteria and Standards, National Air Pollution Control
Administration.
The low levels of radioactivity from all phases of
the nuclear industry are accomplished by rigidly controlling
the plant emissions.
Control of radioactive pollution is accomplished by
a variety of methods. Radioactive particulates are removed
by filtration, electrostatic precipitation cyclones, or
scrubbers. Gases and vapors are often removed by absorption
or chemisorptibn. Storage is effective in eliminating those
radionuclides which r"have a comparitively short half-life.
Most reactors are required to have containment buildings to
preclude the possibility of atmospheric contamination from
an accident.
Estimates place the costs of controlling radioactive
emissions from nuclear power plants at 10 percent of the
total plant cost, or approximately $18,000,000 for a typical
800 Mw(e) reactor plant. No information has been found on
the costs of damage resulting from radioactive air pollution.
Techniques are available for measuring atmospheric
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89
concentrations of radioactive substances with a high degree
of accuracy and sensitivity.
Based on the material presented in this report, further
studies are suggested in the following areas:
(1) Investigation of increase of emissions caused by
the increased growth rate of commercial nuclear reactors to
determine the future cumulative effects on ambient air con-
centrations of radioactive substances.
(2) Investigation of the effects on humans, animals,
and plants of low-level, long-duration exposures to environmental
concentrations of radioactive substances.
(3) Expansion of the investigation of the emission of
radioactive materials from combustion of fossil fuels.
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90
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APPENDIX A
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109
APPENDIX A
A.I Radiation73'130'162
Each radionuclide has a characteristic decay constant
that is expressed in terms of the half-life, i.e., the time
required for half the atpros of a particular radionuclide to
disintegrate into another form. This period may range from
less than a millionth of a second to billions of years. In
the case of air pollution by a radionuclide with a short half-
life, the atmospheric radioactivity decreases rapidly by
itself if no fresh pollution occurs. However, if the pol-
lutant has a long half-life, radioactive pollution may remain
practically at a relatively constant level. Radionuclides
emit three types of radiation: alpha rays carrying a posi-
tive charge, beta rays carrying a negative charge, and
electromagnetic gamma rays. The energy of this radiation
may vary from a very low value to several million electron
volts (Mev). The effect on living organisms depends largely
on the type of radiation emitted and its penetrating power,
which is weak for alpha rays, medium for beta rays, and
strong for gamma rays.
A.1.1 Alpha Radiation
Alpha radiations, positively charged particles that
are identical with the nucleus of a helium atom, are emitted
by some radioactive atoms with a kinetic energy of 4 to 10
Mev. Alpha particles emitted from most radioactive materials
-------
110
will travel only 1 to 8 cm in air, depending upon their
energies. Since particles of these energies will generally
be stopped by the inert surface layer of skin, alpha emitters
present no problem from external radiation but can produce
serious damage if ingested.
A.1.2 Beta Radiation
Beta radiations are electrons emitted from the
nucleus of a radioactive atom with an energy of 0.02 to 3.2
Mev. External beta radiation with kinetic energy above about
0.1 Mev will penetrate the protective layer of the skin and
cause skin burns. It will not penetrate to the deep-seated
organs and therefore, damage is largely confined to the
surface layers of the body, including such exposed organs
as the eyes.
A.1.3 Gamma Radiation
Gamma radiations are short wavelength electromagnetic
rays emitted from the nucleus of radioactive atoms. They are
indistinguishable from X-rays. Gamma rays are extremely
penetrating, and dense materials such as lead or depleted
uranium are used to stop them or provide a shield against
them.
A.2 Radiation Units
Special radiation units have been defined to permit
measurement of radiation relative to the effects it produces.
Damage to tissue is related to the amount of energy deposited
-------
Ill
by radiation in the tissue. Some common radiation units are
defined as follows:
(1) Rad
The rad is the basic unit of absorbed dose in
ionizing radiation. A dose of 1 rad is defined as the depo-
sition of 100 ergs of radiation per gram of absorbing material
(International Commission on Radiological Units and Measure-
ments, 1962).
(2) Roentgen (r)
The roentgen is the unit of measurement for
radiation exposure. It is defined as the amount of gamma or
X-radiation required to produce ions carrying 1 electrostatic
unit (esu) of electricity, either positive or negative, in
1 cm of dry air at standard conditions.
Since the roentgen is a measure of the interaction
of gamma radiation and air, the absorbed dose (in rads) will
vary in different materials for the same exposure (in roentgens)
With moderate-energy gamma rays (0.2 to 3 Mev), an exposure of
1 r will produce an absorbed dose in muscle of about 0.97 rads.
(3) Absorbed Dose (rems)
All radiations do not produce identical bio-
logical effects for a given amount of energy delivered to the
tissues. The relative biological effectiveness factor (RBE)
is used to compare the effectiveness of absorbed doses of
radiation from different types of ionizing radiation. RBE is
-------
112
defined as the inverse rate of the amount of absorbed radia-
tion required to produce a given effect to a standard (or
reference) radiation required to produce the same effect.
The absorbed dose in rems is the unit of dose of any ionizing
radiation which produces the same biological effect as a unit
of absorbed dose of ordinary X-rays. The relationship
between the absorbed dose in rems and the absorbed dose in
rads is
dose rems = RBE x absorbed dose, rads.
The RBE for different types of radiation are
shown in Table 28, Appendix B.
(4) Curie (Ci*)
The curie is the basic unit used to describe the
intensity of radioactivity in a sample of material. One
curie is that quantity of a radioactive nuclide in which the
number of disintegrations per second is exactly 3 x 10~10.
This is approximately the rate of decay of 1 gram of radium.
The relation between the rate of disintegration
of radioactive material (curie) and the radiation dose rate
(rad/sec) is dependent upon the energy of the radiation emitted,
the type of radiation emitted, the geometrical pattern between
the radioactive material and the receptor, and the amount of
absorbing material between the radioactive material and the
receptor.
*1 micro curie (1 uCi) = 10~6 Gi = 3 x 10 4
disintegrations/sec.
1 pico curie (1 pci) = 10~12 Ci = lO"6
-------
APPENDIX B
-------
114
APPENDIX B
TABLE 1
REFERENCES TO STUDIES OF EFFECTS ON HUMANS
27
Study Area
Number of References
in Bibliography
Genetic and congenital effects
Effects on life span
Carcinogenesis
Leukemia and prenatal exposure
Leukemia and exposure in children and
adults
Neoplasms in children and adults
treated for benign conditions
in the neck and mediastinum
Neoplasms in patients with
thyroid diseases treated with
1-131 or X-ray
Bone neoplasms and radium
Neoplasms of the reticuloendothelial
system and thorium
Pulmonary neoplasms and radon daughters
43
41
42
133
130
44
83
118
15
Other pathological effects
-------
TABLE 2
AVERAGE IONIZING RADIATION DOSE RATE
115
Source
Dose Rate per Year Reference
Natural radiation
Medical exposure
Gonad dose from diagnosis (1964)
Gonad dose from therapeutic
use (1964)
Bone marrow dose from diagnosis
(1964)
Thyroid dose from diagnosis
(mostly dental) (1964)
Weapons fallout dose (1954-1965)
Weapons fallout dose (1966)
Nuclear energy industry, gonad
dose (1966)
Nuclear industry, whole-body (2,060)
All other occupational
exposure, gonad dose (1966)
Other manmade sources (watches,
televisions, shoe-fitting machines,
radioisotope applications, etc.)
gonad dose (1966)c
75 to 175 mrad/yr
155 mrem/yr
7 mrem/yr
125 mrem/yr
1,000 mrem/yr
76 mrad Total
3 mrem/yr
0.2 mrem/yr
50 to 100 mrad/yr
0.4 mrem/yr
0.1 mrem/yr
166
140
140
140
140
147
140
43
140
140
Nuclear industry genetically significant dose to the United
States population.
Based on estimates of dose received by medical personnel
occupationally exposed in medical diagnoses and therapy.
c 62,63 , , . ,
Federal Radiation Council recommended nonmedical maxi-
mum dose to general public: whole body - 500 mrem/yr; gonad
- average dose for 30 yrs
5 rem is approximately
equal to 170 mrem/yr
for X-ray and beta particles, mrem is
the same as mrad.
-------
APPENDIX B
TABLE 3
SUMMARY OP CLINICAL EFFECTS OF ACUTE IONIZING RADIATION DOSES
74
Range
Incidence of
vomiting
Delay time
Leading
organ
Characteristic
signs
Critical period,
post-exposure
Therapy
0-100 Rems
(Subclinical
Range
None
None
None
Reassurance
100 to 1,000 Rems (Therapeutic Range)
100-200
Rems
Clinical
Surveillance
100 rems: 5%
200 rems: 50%
3 hr
200-600
Rems
Effective
Therapy
300 rems: 100%
2 hr
600-1,000
Rems
Promising
Therapy
100%
1 hr
Hematopoietic tissue
Moderate
leukopenia
Reassurance;
hemato logic
surveillance
Severe leukopenia; purpura;
hemorrhage; infection.
Epilation above 300 rems
4 to 6 wk
Blood transfu-
sion; anti-
biotics
Consider
bone-marrow
transplanta-
tion
Over 1,000 Rems
(Lethal Range)
1,000-5,000 Over 5,000
Rems 1 Rems
Palliative Therapy
100%
30 min
Gastrointesti-
nal tract
Diarrhea;
fever; dis-
turbance of
electrolyte
balance
5 to 14 days
Maintenance of
electrolyte
balance
Central Ner-
vous System
Convulsions ;
tremor ;
a taxi a;
lethargy
1 to 48 hr
Sedatives
(continued)
-------
TABLE 3 (Continued)
SUMMARY OF CLINICAL EFFECTS OF ACUTE IONIZING RADIATION DOSES
Range
Prognosis
Convalescent
period
Incidence of
death
period within
which death
occurs
Cause of death
0-100 Rems
(Subclinical
Range)
Excellent
None
None
100 to 1,000 Rems (Therapeutic Range)
100-200
Rems
Clinical
Surveillance
Excellent
Several wk
None
200-600
Rems
Effective
Therapv
Good
1 to 12 mo
0-80%
(variable)
600-1,000
Rems
Promising
Therapy
Guarded
Long
80-100%
( variable)
2 mo
Hemorrhage; infection
Over 1,000 Rems
(Lethal Range)
1,000-5,000
Rems
Over 5,000
Rems
Palliative Therapy
Hopeless
•
90 to 100%
2 wk
Circulatory
collapse
2 days
Respiratory
failure;
brain edema
- -
-------
APPENDIX B
TABLE 4
LETHAL RESPONSE OF MAMMALS AND FOWL TO BRIEF EXPOSURES OF NUCLEAR RADIATIONS
47
Species
Burro
Burro
Burro
Swine
Sheep
Cattle
Swine
Swine
Burro
Poultry
Males
Females
Chicks
Source
Co60
rp.. 182
J.a o_
Zr95-Nb95
Co6? q.
Zrf-Nb95
Co60
X-ray
X-ray
neutron/gamma
Co
Co60
X-ray
Mean
Energies (Mev)
1.25
1.20-0.18
0.74
1.25
0.74
1.25
1.0
2.0
various
1.25
1.25
0.250 (peak)
LDRO/30a
784
651
585
618
524
540
555
388
402
600
1,000
900
(95% C.I.)b
753-847
621-683
530-627
525-682
520-570
418-671
323-441
(estimated)
(estimated)
(estimated)
Rate
(r/hr)
50
18-23
19-20
50
20
25
180
90
50
50
very short
1LD.
- 50 percent fatalities within 30 days
50/30
95 percent Confidence Index
oo
-------
APPENDIX B 119
TABLE 5
CENSUS OF LABORATORY ANIMALS USED IN PROGRAMS OF THE
DIVISION OF BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE, U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY
COMMISSION (AS OF SEPT. 1, 1966)148
Animal ___. Number Used
Alligator 1
Cats 239
Cattle 541
Chickens 5,809
Chicks 6,400
Chinchillas 38
Chipmunks 34
Cichlids 50
Deer 15
Dogs (beagles) 2,091
Dogs (miscellaneous breeds) 494
Drosophila *
Ducks 78
Eels 312
Equines (burros, ponies, horses) 40
Ferrets 30
Fish (miscellaneous) 184
Fowl (miscellaneous 500
Frogs 2,638
Gerbils 8
Goats 106
Grasshoppers 2,800
Guinea pigs 4,130
Hamsters 5,607
Mastomys 8
Mice 783,615
Mice (wild) 140
Muskrat 1
Mussels 200
Oppossum 1
Pigeons 115
Primates 369
Quail 100
Rabbits 8,437
Raccoons 4
Rats 111,084
Salamanders 411
Salamanders (necturi) 58
(continued)
-------
120
APPENDIX B
TABLE 5 (Continued)
CENSUS OF LABORATORY ANIMALS USED IN PROGRAMS OF THE
DIVISION OF BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE, U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY
COMMISSION (AS OF SEPT. 1, 1966)
Animal . Number Used
Salmon 4,264,000
Sea urchins 500
Sheep 391
Snails 50
Squirrels 298
Swine 7,047
Swine, miniature 1,053
Toads 579
Trout 1,201,550
Turtles 50
*Many millions, too numerous to count.
-------
121
APPENDIX B
TABLE 6
MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE DOSES FOR RADIATION WORKERS133
Annual MPD
Organ (rem)
Gonads, red bone marrow, and
whole body 5*
Skin, thyroid, and bone 30
Hands and forearms, feet and ankles 75
All other organs 15
*The cumulative dose of D = 5(N-18) rem should
not be exceeded. Here D (rem) is the cumulative
dose and N (years) is the age of the individual.
-------
122
APPENDIX B
TABLE 7
SELECTED PARAMETERS OF THE STANDARD MAN162
Parameters
Total body weight
Skeleton
Without bone marrow
Red marrow
Yellow marrow
Contents of GI tract
Lower large intestine
Stomach
Small intestine
Upper large intestine
Liver
Lungs
Kidneys
Spleen
Testes
Thyroid
Water intake in food and fluids
Total air inhaled per day
Amounts
70
7
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
,000
,000
,500
,500
150
,100
135
,700
,500
700
300
150
30
20
,200
g
g
g
g
g
g
g
g
g
g
g
g
g
g
q/dav
X 107 cm
RENTENTION OF PARTICLES
Readily soluble Other Compounds
Distribution Compounds, (percent) (percent)
Exhaled 25 25
Deposited in upper
respiratory passages
and later swallowed 50 50
Deposited in lungs 25a 25b
CONSTANTS FOR GI TRACT
Portion
Lower large intestine
Small intestine
Upper large intestine
Stomach
Mass of
Contents
(grams)
150
1,100
135
250
Time of
Food
Arrival
(hours)
13
1
5
0
Time of
Food
Leaving
(hours )
31
5
13
1
5*Taken up into the body.
One-half is eliminated from lungs and swallowed in first
24 hours. The remaining 12.5 percent is retained in lungs with
a half-life of 120 days, except for plutonium and thorium, for
which the biological half-life is assumed to be 1 year and 4
years, respectively.
-------
123
APPENDIX B
TABLE 8
MPC FOR SOME SELECTED RADIONUCLIDES
FOR GENERAL PUBLIC PROTECTION34
MPC in Air
Isotope (pCi/m3 )
Strontium-90
Soluble 30
Insoluble 200
Ruthenium-103
Soluble 3,000
Insoluble 200
Iodine-131
Soluble 100
Insoluble 10,000
Cesium-137
Soluble 2,000
Insoluble 5,000
Plutonium-239
Soluble 0.06
Insoluble 1
Xenon-133
Sub* 300,000
Krypton-85
Sub* 300,000
*Sub: Submersion in a semispherical
infinite cloud of air.
-------
124
APPENDIX B
TABLE 9
RADIOACTIVE EiVlISSIONS FROM FOSSIL-FIRED POWER PLANTS
34,176
Type of
Plant
Coal
Oil
Critical
Pollutant
226Ra
228Ra
226Ra
228Ra
Exposure
Vector
Air-lungs
Air-lungs
Air-lungs
Air-lungs
Concentration
Standards
(pCi/m3)
0.1
0.3
0.1
0.3
Discharge
Quantities
per MW/yr
17.2 nCi
10.8 (J.C1
0.15 nCi
0.35 luiCi
Gas
Particulates
Radon
Daughters
Air-lungs
unknown
unknown
-------
125
APPENDIX B
TABLE 10
SUMMARY OF MEASUREMENTS OF NATURAL
RADIOACTIVITY IN GROUND-LEVEL AIR103
Radioactivity
Period of (pCi/m3)
Site _ • Observation 214Pb 212Pb
Wales, Alaska
Kodiak, Alaska
Washington, D.C.
Yokosuka, Japan
Lima, Peru
Chacaltaya, Bolivia
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Little America, Antarctica
South Pole
1953-59
1950-60
1950-61
1954-58
1959-62
1958-62
1958-62
1956-58
1959-62
20
9.9
122
56
42
40
51
2.5
0.47
0.16
0.04
1.34
0.48
1.33
0.53
2.54
<0.01
<0.01
-------
APPENDIX B
126
TABLE 11
ENVIRONMENTAL RADIATION LEVELS MEASURED
IN PRINCIPAL UNITED STATES CITIES165
City
Range of Radi-
ation Levels
(jJ.r/hr)
Mean
Annual
Dose
(mrad)
Cosmic
Radiation
(|ar/hr)
Little Rock, -Ark ,
Colorado Springs, Colo. . .
Denver, Colo
Grand Junction, Colo. . . .
Bridgeport, Conn
Hartford, Conn
New Haven, Conn ,
Washington, D.C
Chicago, 111
Portland, Maine
Baltimore, Md
Boston, Mass ,
Springfield, Mass
Worcester, Mass
Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minn,
Albuquerque, N.Mex
New York, N.Y
Charlotte, N.C
Raleigh, N.C
Winston-Salem, N.C
Cleveland, Ohio
Toledo, Ohio
Oklahoma City, Okla. . . .
Tulsa, Okla
Harrisburg, Pa
Philadephia, Pa
Pittsburgh, Pa
Providence, R.I
Charleston, S.C
Columbia, S.C
Sioux Falls, S.Dak
Chattanooga, Tenn
Memphis, Tenn
Amarillo, Tex
Lynchburg, Va
Richmond, Va
Madison, Wis
Cheyenne, Wyo
15.5-16.1
22.5-26.4
18.2-22.9
19.2-20.8
10.8-13.8
11.9
8.7- 9.1
11.1-13.3
12.2-13.9
12.5-13.5
9.0-12.1
11.0-14.3
12.9-13.9
14.0-16.4
10.6-15.0
15.7-16.5
8.2-15.6
10.6
12.1-13.5
12.9-14.7
12.4-14.1
10.1-11.8
11.5-12.3
12.8-13.9
11.3-14.3
11.7-12.5
11.5-16.8
11.1-13.8
13.5-14.5
15.0-15.2
13.6-14.0
13.2-14.8
11.0-13.2
14.9-15.8
12.4-15.4
9.8-11.1
11.8-12.2
19.8-20.4
129
197
172
159
100
97
73
99
105
106
86
103
109
124
109
132
91
86
108
112
108
89
99
109
104
99
114
101
114
123
112
114
99
126
113
85
98
164
3.9
8.7
7.9
7.2
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.9
4.1
3.8
3.9
3.8
3.8
4.0
4.2
7.5
3.8
4.1
4.0
4.3
4.2
4.1
4.6
4.2
4.0
3.8
4.3
3.8
3.7
3.9
4.5
4.0
3.9
6.4
4.2
3.9
4.3
8.5
-------
APPENDIX B
127
TABLE 12
PROPERTIES OF COMMON RADIOACTIVE GASES168
Gas
Half-Life
Principal Sources
131'
T3*HTO
41Ar
133Xe
135Xe
14
35
CO,
SO.
106
222
RuO,
Rn
8.0 days
12.5 years
1.8 hours
5.2 days
9.2 hours
10.0 years
5,700.0 years
87.0 days
10.0 minutes
2.0 minutes
1.0 years
3.8 days
Reactors, bombs, chemical
fuel processing
Reactors, accelerators
Reactors
Reactors, fuel processing
Reactors, fuel processing
Reactors, fuel processing
Laboratories, bombs
Laboratories
Accelerators
Accelerators
Fuel processing
Mines, mills, refineries
*Tritium.
-------
APPENDIX B
128
TABLE 13
URANIUM ORE MILLING PLANTS129
Plant
Location
Anaconda Co.
Atlas Corp.
Climax Uranium
Cotter Corp.
Federal-American Partners
Kerr-McGee Corp.
Mines Development, Inc.
P etrotomics Co.
Susquehanna-Western, Inc.
Union Carbide Corp.
United Nuclear Corporation-
Homestake Partners
Utah Mining and Construction
Western Nuclear
Bluewater, N.Mex.
Moab, Utah
Grand Junction, Colo.
Canon City, Colo.
Fremont County. Wyom.
Grants, N. Mex.
Edgemont, S. Dak.
Shirly Basin, Wyom.
Falls City, Tex.
Uravan and Rifle, Colo., and
Globe, Wyom.
Grants, N. Mex.
Fremont County. Wyom.
Jeffrey City, Wyom.
TABLE 14
URANIUM CONVERSION AND ENRICHING PLANTS129
Plant
Location
Allied Chemical Corp.
Kerr-McGee Ltd.
Atomic Energy Commission
Atomic Energy Commission
Atomic Energy Commission
Metropolis, 111.
Sequoyah, Oklahoma (to be
completed mid-1970)
Oak Ridge, Tenn.
Paducah, Ky.
Portsmouth, Ohio
-------
129
APPENDIX B
TABLE 15
PRODUCERS OF URANIUM FUELS129
Plant Location
General Electric Co. San Jose, Calif.
Gulf General Atomic, Inc. San Diego, Calif.
Kerr-McGee Corp. Oklahoma City, Okla.
National Lead Co. Albany, N.Y.
Nuclear Fuel Services, Inc. Erwin, Tenn.
Nuclear Materials and
Equipment Corp. Apollo, Pa.
United Nuclear Corp. Hematite, Mo.
TABLE 16
FABRICATORS OF URANIUM FUELS129
Plant Location
Aerojet-General Corp. San Ramon, Calif.
Atomics International, Inc. Canoga Park, Calif.
Babcock & Wilcox Co. Lynchburg, Va.
Combustion Engineering, Inc. Windsor, Conn.
General Electric Co. San Jose, Calif.
Gulf General Atomic, Inc. San Diego, Calif.
M & C Nuclear, Inc. Attleboro, Mass.
National Lead Co. Albany, N.Y.
Nuclear Fuel Services, Inc. Erwin, Tenn.
Nuclear Materials and
Equipment Corp. Apollo, Pa.
Nuclear Metals Div.,
Whittaker Corp. West Concord, Mass.
United Nuclear Corp. New Haven, Conn.
Westinghouse Electric Corp. Cheswick, Pa.
-------
APPENDIX B
130
TABLE 17
POWER REACTORSa 129
Ala.
Ark.
Calif.
Colo.
Conn.
Fla.
Ga.
111.
Ind.
Iowa
Maine
Md.
Mass.
Mich.
Location
Browns Ferry
Browns Ferry
Browns Ferry
Dardanelle Lake
Humboldt Bay
San Clements
Corral Canyon
Diablo Canyon No .
Diablo Canyon No.
Sacramento County
Platteville
Haddam Neck
Waterford No. 1
Waterf ord No . 2
Turkey Point No. 3
Turkey Point No. 4
Red Level
Hutchinson Island
Baxley
Morris No. 1
Morris No. 2
Morris No. 3
Zion No. 1
Zion No. 2
Quad Cities No. 1
Quad Cities No. 2
Burns Harbor
Cedar Rapids
Wiscasset
Lusby
Lusby
Rowe
Plymouth
Big Rock Point
South Haven
Lagoona Beach
Lagoona Beach
Bridgman
Bridgman
Midland
Midland
Startup
1970
. 1971
1972
1972
1963
1967
1974
1 1972
2 1974
1972
1971
1967
1969
1973
1970
1971
1972
1973
1973
1959
1968
1969
1972
1973
1970
1971
1970' s
1973
1972
1973
1974
1960
1971
1962
1969
1963
1974
1972
1973
1974
1975
Location
Minn. Elk River
Monticello
Red Wing No . 1
Red Wing No . 2
Neb. Fort Calhoun
Brownville
N.H. Seabrook
N.J. Toms River
Toms River
Artificial Island
Artificial Island
N.Y. Indian Point No.
Indian Point No.
Indian Point No.
Scriba
Rochester
Shoreham
Lansing
b
Nine Mile Point
N.C. Southport
Southport
b
Ohio Oak Harbor
Or eg. Rainier
Pa. Peach Bottom No.
Peach Bottom No.
Peach Bottom No.
b
b
Shippingport
Shippingport
Three Mile Island
b
•^
a
S.C. Hartsville
Lake Keowee No . 1
Lake Keowee No . 2
Lake Keowee No . 3
Tenn. Daisy
Daisy
Startup
1962
1970
1972
1974
1971
1972
1974
1968
1972
1971
1973
1 1962
2 1970
3 1971
1968
1969
1975
1973
1973
1973
1973
1974
1976
1974
1974
1 1966
2 1971
3 1973
1975
1977
1957
1973
1971
1975
1977
1970
1971
1972
1973
1973
1973
(continued)
-------
APPENDIX B
131
TABLE 17 (Continued)
POWER REACTORSa
vt.
Va.
Location
Vernon
Hog Island
Hog Island
Louisa County
Startup
1970
1971
1972
-1974
Location
Wash. Richland
Wis. Genoa
Two Creeks No. 1
Two Creeks No. 2
Carlton
Startup
1966
1967
1970
1971
1972
Operable: 13; being built: 44; planned: 34.
b
Site not selected.
-------
APPENDIX B
TABLE 18
POWER-REACTOR WASTE-MANAGEMENT EXPERIENCE18
Reactor Parameters
Power rating, MW
Thermal
Electrical
Operational period
reported
3ross electricity
generated, MW-hr
Approximate capacity
factor, %
Fuel cladding material
Maximum assemblies
with defective
cladding, %
Baseous wastes
treatment
Stack exhaust rate,
efm
3eight of stack, ft
Permissible annual
average release,
ci/sec
activation and
noble gases
halogens and
particulates
Boiling-Water Reactors
Dresden 1
700
200
Oct. 1959-
Dec. 1966
6,600,000
65
Stainless
steel
Zircaloy
5
20-min delay,
filtration
44,000
300
700,000
Big Rock Pt .
157
50
Sept. 1962-
Apr. 1967
1,053,000
45
Stainless
steel
15
30-min delay,
filtration
30,000
240
10s
3.6
Humboldt Bay
165
52
Feb. 1963-
Feb. 1967
1,055,000
80
Stainless
steel
Zircaloy
25
18-min delay,
filtration
12,000
250
50,000
0.18
Elk River
58
24
Oct. 1961-
Mar. 1967
393,000
70
Stainless
steel
15
30-min delay,
filtration
3,000
97
600
0.003
Pressurized-Wff
Indian Pt. 1
585
163
Aug. 1962-
Sept. 1966
3,489,000
50
Stainless
steel
0 (approx)
120-day delay,
filtration
280,000
400
50,000
0.24
tPT Rf^afi^nTs:
Yankee
600
185
Jan, 1961
Dec. 1966
6,362,000
70
Stainless
steel
0 (approx. )
60-day dela
filtration
15,000
150
2,000
(continued)
co
-------
TABLE 18 (Continued)
POWER-REACTOR WASTE-MANAGEMENT EXPERIENCE
Reactor Parameter
*ange of annual
average release
activation and
noble gases
Percent of limit
halogens and
particulates
Percent of limit
Boiling-Water Reactors
Dresden 1
<100-25,000
Ci/sec
<0.02-3.6
0.002-0.003
Biq Rock Pt.
<20-35,000
Ci/sec
<0. 002-3. 5
<1.2 |aCi/sec
<30
Humboldt Bay
40-14,100
Ci/sec
0.08-28
10~5-0.07
Ci/sec
1-38
Elk River
0-109 |aCi/sec
0-18
<3 X 10~5
Ci/sec
<.l
Pressurized— Water Reactor,^
Indian Pt. 1
0.07-1.6
|jCi/sec
0.00013-
0.0026
~2 X 10~8
• Ci/sec
-------
APPENDIX B 134
TABLE 19
1 79
FUEL REPROCESSING FACILITIES
Plant Location
Hanford (AEG) Richland, Wash.
Savannah River (AEG) " Aiken, S.C.
NRTS (AEG) Idaho Falls, Idaho
Nuclear Fuel Services West Valley, N.Y.
General Electric Morris, 111.
(Completion 1970)
TABLE 20
NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE COST129
(Projected 1980 Costs in Millions of Dollars)
Cycle Cost
Ore concentration 110
U3O8 conversion to UF6 115
Enriching 1,030
Fabrication 630
Reprocessing 110
Total Fuel Cycle 2,500
-------
135
APPENDIX B
TABLE 21
APPROXIMATE TOTAL YIELD OF ALL NUCLEAR
WEAPONS TESTS THROUGH 196265
Year ; Megatons
1945-51 1
1952-54 60
1955-56 28
1957-58 85
1961 120
1962 217
Total 511
-------
APPEND IX B
TABLE 22
COMMERCIAL USE OF NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS
(Plowshare Program)^1'135,152
Pro-iect
Ketch
Gas Buggy
Rulison
Sloop
Commercial Company
Columbia Gas
Corp.
El Paso Natural
Gas Co.
Austral Oil Co.
and CER Geonuclear
El Paso
Natural Gas
Wyoming Atomic
Stimulation Project
(WASP )
Kennecott
Copper Corp.
Purpose
Fuel gas
Storage
Gas
stimulation
Gas
stimulation
Gas
stimulation
Gas
stimulation
Copper
mining
Proposed
Location
To be
determined
Northeast
New Mexico
North of Grand
Jun c t ion , Co lo .
Pinedale area
of Wyoming
Pinedale area
of Colorado
Northeast of
Stafford, Ariz.
Status
(July 1969)
Looking for
a site
Accomplished
Dec. 1967.
Results being
calculated
Scheduled for
Sept. 1970
Proposed
Proposed
Proposed for
1970
Bronco
CER Geonuclear
and 15 oil and
related companies
Recovery of
oil from
oil shale
Wyoming, Utah,
and Colorado
Negotiating
contract with
Gov't. agencies
-------
APPENDIX B
TABLE 2 3
GROSS BETA RADIOACTIVITY2"5
(pCi/m3 )
Location
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
District of
Columbia
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
1953-1957"
Max
23.4
11.0
731.9
71.3
350.0
159.2
49.0
52.6
16.3
65.8
53.3
5.2
142.3
72.1
48.6
70.5
Avg
5.6
.7
67.0
7.5
2.5
7.0
4.6
6.0
1.6
2.8
3.4
1.8
15.2
2.4
4.5
9.5
1958
Max
20.3
4.8
63.7
16.5
126 . 0
49.0
22.0
12.0
17.6
39.0
24.2
17.1
59.8
25.0
15.7
15.9
Avg
5.6
2.5
13.8
4.9
8.1
7.7
4.2
4.9
5.4
5.7
5.2
4.4
8.0
5.7
4.9
4.3
1959
Max
24.5
17.8
52.1
17.5
33.8
39.4
15.2
19.5
15.5
22.2
27.9
16.1
27.9
21.4
13.5
16.9
Avg
4.4
2.8
6.6
4.3
4.3
4.9
3.4
3.5
4.2
4.2
4.2
3.2
4.6
3.6
3.4
4.1
1960
Max
0.4
0.2
1.9
0.4
0.9
0.8
0.4
0.5
0.3
1.2
0.4
0.6
0.3
0.3
0.8
0.4
Avg
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.2
1961
Max
58.3
27.7
108. C
43.9
73.7
33.6
44.1
29.3
38.2
62.6
51.2
26.9
35.2
29.7
42.2
20.1
Avg
5.2
2.6
7.2
4.1
4.9
5.0
3.3
3.6
3.7
4.3
3.9
2.2
4.2
3.6
3.2
3.1
1962
Max
16.6
17.6
40.0
20.0
31.2
17.8
13.3
12.8
14.0
33.0
18.2
16.8
19.0
16.3
15.8
16.1
Avg
7.3
4.1
9.8
6.2
5.8
7.0
5.6
4.9
6.3
7.0
6.5
4.0
7.6
6.1
5.8
5.6
1963
Max
16.6
17.6
40.0
20.0
31.2'
17.3
13.3
12.8
14.0
33.0
18.2
8.3
11.9
16.3
15.8
16.1
Avg
7.4
4.2
9.5
6.4
5.8
7.0
5.6
5.0
6.9
7.2
6.4
4.0
7.5
6.1
5.8
5.5
1964
Max
3.8
3.8
8.0
5.5
6.5
9.5
4.9
8.4
7.2
12.4
3.8
2.2
5.5
4.6
4.1
3.6
Avg
1.5
0.7
2.1
1.3
1.2
1.8
1.3
1.5
1.8
1.5
1.3
0.9
1.6
1.3
1.3
1.2
1965
Max
1.1
_
8.8
0.7
1.4
1.6
1.3
1.3
1.3
' _
1.0
3.0
1.4
1.5
1.8
1-1
Avg
0.3
-
0.6
0.3
0.3
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.3
_
0.3
0.3
0.5
0.3
0.3|
0.3
(continued)!
CJ
-J
-------
TABLE 23 (Continued)
GROSS BETA RADIOACTIVITY
(pCi/m3)
^Location
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
1953-1957*
Max
324.0
72.8
142.7
3.8
14.8
58.8
70.6
46.8
56.2
120.1
24.1
27.8
380.0
14.0
74.0
57.5
Avg
16.8
2.9
3.7
1.8
3.1
3.3
2.7
1.9
11.6
4.1
4.2
5.0
43.6
4.1
6.0
11.9
1958
Max
68.2
7.2
26.4
29.0
15.0
33.0
16.4
20.3
20.9
31.8
508.0
76.0
66.0
20.4
18.2
85.0
Avg
10.1
3.2
6.7
5.2
3.6
4.5
4.0
4.1
5.1
6.1
13.6
6.2
12.0
4.1
4.0
11.3
1959
Max
16.3
12.8
19.4
24.7
15.2
71.0
18.4
11.5
_
25.4
13.0
12.5
20.3
14.2
17.9
39.5
Avg
3.5
3.2
3.7
4.3
3.5
3.8
3.7
3.1
_
4.7
3.6
3.6
5.7
3.3
2.9
5.9
1960
- .j
Max
0.5
_
0.7
0.4
0.3
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.8
0.3
0.2
0.5
Avg
0.2
_
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.2
1961
Max
22.3
37.4
262.9
32.5
33.7
53.0
36.1
31.7
247.9
26.0
52.5
41.8
53.7
22.1
28.1
41.0
Avg
3.0
4.7
9.4
3.0
3.5
2.2
4.4
3.1
12.6
3.5
5.1
4.7
6.9
3.6
3.4
5.0
1962
Max
16.2
,
95.8
15.8
16.7
22.4
17.2
13.8
15.4
20.1
35.2
19.6
26.0
10.0
27.3
17.0
Avg
6.4
„
8.5
5.3
5.9
6.1
5.3
5.6
6.0
7.3
6.4
7.0
10.9
5.7
5.8
7.4
1963
Max
16.2
_
95.8
15.8
16.7
22.4
17.2
13.8
15.4
20.1
35.2
19.6
26.0
10.0
27.3
17.0
Avg
6.3
—
8.4
5.3
5.8
6.2
5.3
5.7
5.9
7.3
6.4
7.0
9.9
5.9
5.7
7.4
1964
Max
3.8
6.5
6.8
3.9
5.7
4.4
4.3
3.2
_
4.2
4.7
6.4
4.9
3.4
4.6
5.8
Avg
1.2
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.7
1.2
1.5
1.1
_
1.4
1.1
1.6
1.8
1.2
1.4
1.8
1965
Max
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.3
2.4
2.0
1.5
0.8
1.6
1.2
1.4
0.9
1.9
1.0
2.0
2.6
Avg
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.5
0.3
0.5
0.3
0.3
0.5
(continued]
H
CO
m
-------
APPENDIX B
TABLE 23 (Continued)
GROSS BETA RADIOACTIVITY
(pCi/ir3 )
Location
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Puerto Rico
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
1953-1957*
Max
26.8
23.4
33.1
117.9
53.5
18.8
93.0
5.8
6.4
68.5
54.9
271.7
193.1
5435.0
18.8
24.3
Avg
2.0
3.5
6.4
2.3
8.1
1.0
2.9
2.0
1.5
7.8
7.6
7.2
4.8
82.7
2.8
4.4
1958
Max
20.6
34.5
22.0
27.3
17.0
17.0
29.0
-
17.2
21.0
26.5
30.8
33.5
57.0
14.0
17.4
Avg
4.3
5.9
3.8
5.4
4.9
2.5
4.2
-
5.6
6.6
6.1
5.9
5.5
9.8
3.1
5.1
1959
Max
29.0
14.6
11.0
18.4
15.3
14.8
22.2
14.7
11.0
22.0
26.5
18.2
19.3
17.0
21.0
17.8
Avg
4.3
3.9
2.5
3.6
3.9
2.6
3.6
2.3
3.0
4.2
5.7
3.8
4.3
5.1
3.1
4.3
1960
Max
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.3
26.3
0.3
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.8
0.6
0.3
0.4
Avg
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.7
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.2
1961
Max
81.0
39.0
29.4
63.9
243.7
59.6
46.5
16.4
29.7
32.0
28.0
75.6
227.7
28.6
19.6
75.0
Avg
3.8
4.2
3.2
4.1
7.5
3.8
3.5
1.2
3.4
4.9
5.2
4.4
4.8
6.4
2.1
4.9
1962
Max
25.2
29.0
29.8
20.5
24.5
16.2
27.0
10.5
10.7
20.0
64.8
20.6
398.0
18.6
11.3
14.9
Avg
6.0
7.6
6.4
5.9
6.7
4.0
6.3
4.3
4.2
7.2
7.5
6.4
8.5
8.8
5.5
7.1
1963
Max
25.2
29.0
29.8
20.5
24/5
16.2
27.0
10.5
10.7
20.0
64.8
20.6
398.0
18.6
11.3
14.9
Avg
6.0
7.7
7.1
5.9
6.8
3.8
6.3
3.9
4.2
7.2
8.9
6.5
8.5
8.6
5.5
7.1
1964
Max
5.7
10.4
6.1
6.8
5.0
3.5
6.3
3.3
5.1
5.1
4.9
5.7
8.3
5.2
4.2
9.8
Avg
1.3
1.5
1.3
1.5
1.3
0.8
1.5
1.0
1.4
1.4
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.6
•1.2
1.7
1965
Max
1.2
1.4
-r_
3.6
1.3
0.9
2.9
2.0
2.0
1.3
0.9
1.2
1.8
2.5
1.4
1.5
Avg
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.4
0.2
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.4
0.4
(continued
-------
APPENDIX B
TABLE 23 (Continued)
GROSS BETA RADIOACTIVITY
(pCi/itl3 )
Location
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
1953-1957*
Max
7.9
82.6
49.3
233.7
Avg
1.3
2.9
5.5
30.0
1958
Max
18.0
16.3
13.7
21.3
Avg
5.3
4.7
3.9
7.8
1959
Max
-
20.3
11.6
23.4
Avg
—
3.6
3.4
4.8
1960
Max
0.3
0.5
0.4
0.4
Avg
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.2
1961
Max
23.2
16.3
43.1
46.2
Avg
2.5
2.9
4.1
5.5
1962
Max
14.3
11.2
18.5
104.6
Avg
4.2
5.6
4.3
10.7
1963
Max
14.3
11.2
18.5
104.6
Avg
4.2
5.5
4.5
11.3
1964
Max
1.9
6.8
3.5
5.4
Avg
0.6
1.6
1.1
1.5
1965
Max
0.8
1.3
2.0
1.4
Avg
0.2
0.4
0.3
0.4
*Data in this column may include only one year or the average of all measurements made during
these years.
t-
£
C
-------
141
APPENDIX B
TABLE 24
RADIOACTIVE SOLIDS REMOVAL IN THE NUCLEAR INDUSTRY159
Particle-size
Range Mass
Median
Type of Equipment (|j)
Efficiency(%)
Application
Simple settling
chambers
Cyclones, large
diameter
>50
>5
Cyclones, small
diameter
Mechanical centri-
fugal collectors
Baffle chambers
Spray washers
>5
>5
>5
>5
Wet filters
Gases and 0.1-
25|J. mists
Packed towers Gases and
soluble
particles
Cyclone scrubber
>5
60-80 Rarely used except
for chips and re-
covery operations
40-85 Precleaners in
mining, ore-
handling, and
machining opera-
tions
40-95 Same as above
20-85 Same as large-
cyclone applica-
tion
10-40 Incorporated in chip
traps for metal-
turning
20-40 Rarely used except
occasionally for
cooling hot gases
90-99 Used in laboratory
hoods and chemical-
separation opera-
tions
90 Gas absorption and
precleaning for
acid mists
40-85 Dealing with pyro-
phoric materials
in machining and
casting operations,
mining, and ore
handling; roughing
for incinerators
(continued)
-------
142
APPENDIX B
TABLE 24 (Continued)
RADIOACTIVE SOLIDS REMOVAL IN THE NUCLEAR INDUSTRY
Type of Equipment
Particle-Size
Range Mass
Median
Efficiency(%)
Application
Inertial scrubbers,
power-driven
Ve ntur i s c r ubb er
Viscous air
conditioning
filters
Dry spun-glass
filters
Packed beds of
graded glass
fibers 1 to 20 (J-,
40" deep
High-efficiency
cellulose-asbestos
filters
8-10
>1
10-25
<1
<1
All-glass web filters <1
Conventional fabric >1
filters
Reverse-jet fabric XL
filters
90-95 Dealing with pyro-
phoric materials
in machining and
casting operations,
mining, and ore
handling
99 for H2SO4 Incorporated in air-
mist; for
SiO.
oil,
smoke, etc.
60-70
70-85
85-90
99.90-99.99
99.95-99.98
99.95-99.99
90-99.9
90-99.9
cleaning train of
incinerators
Filtering of general
ventilation air
Filtering of general
ventilation air;
precleaning from
chemical and
metallurgical hoods
Dissolver, off-gas
cleaning
Final cleaning for
hoods, glove boxes,
reactor air, and
incinerators
Same as above
Dust and fumes in
feed materials
production
Same as above
(continued)
-------
143
APPENDIX B
TABLE 24 (Continued)
RADIOACTIVE SOLIDS REMOVAL IN THE NUCLEAR INDUSTRY
Type of Equipment
Particle-Size
Range Mass
Median
Efficiency(%)
Application
Single-stage
electrostatic
precipitators
Two-stage
electrostatic
precipitator
<1
90-99 Final cleanup for
chemical and
metallurgical
hoods; uranium
machining
85-99 Not widely used for
decontamination
-------
144
APPENDIX B
TABLE 25
159
RADIOACTIVE GAS REMOVAL METHODS IN NUCLEAR INDUSTRY
Type of Equipment Type of Gas
Removal
Efficiencv(%)
Application
Delay in storage Noble gases
Spray towers
Packed towers
Halogens,
hydrogen
fluoride
Radioiodine
Adsorbent beds Iodine and
noble gases
Limestone beds
Liquefaction
column
Stripping columns
Halogens,
hydrogen
fluoride
Noble gases
Refrigerated Xenon and
carbon catalyst krypton
and carbon
pellets
100
70-99
95-99
99.95
94-99.9
99.9
90-95
99.9
Depends on shielding
and structural
materials; used to
hold up relatively
small volumes for
gaseous decontami-
nation
Precleaning or final
cleaning on iodine
removal
Heated beryl saddles
coated with
Activated charcoal
or molecular
sieves; may be used
to decay xenon;
may be refrigerated
Experimental only;
some hood applica-
tions
Used to recover small
amounts
Pilot studies only
Liquid nitrogen used
for refrigerant;
gases recovered by
desorption
-------
APPENDIX B
TABLE 26
COSTS FOR DRY MECHANICAL DUST COLLECTORS68
Cost Analysis (
Type of Unit
Settling chamber
Aerodyne
Rotoclone "D"
Cyclone
(2) Cyclone (Ducon)
(2) Cyclone (A, B, C)
Cyclone (K & B)
Mult icy clone (Dustex)
Capacity
(cfra)
4,000
5,900
4,000
3,570
2,200
2,200
8,090
800
Total Annual
Cost
($/l,000 cfm/yr)
103
92
593
203
409
170
135
511
Purchase
and
Installation
3.7
41.4
12.2
16.3
33.1
22.9
17.8
46.5
Percent
Power
17.5
25.4
28.3
34.6
22.9
55.3
69.6
18.3
of Total
Cost)
Maintenance
and
Repairs Service Conditions
78.8
33.2
59.5
49.1
44.0
21.8
12.6
35.2
Exhaust from
graphite machining
Incinerator flue
. gas
Exhaust from
graphite machining
Exhaust from
carpenter shop
Incinerator flue gas
Exhaust from uranium
machining
Exhaust from uranium
machining
Exhaust from
sintering furnace
Ul
-------
APPENDIX B
TABLE 27
COST OF WET DUST COLLECTORS INSTALLED AT AEC SITES
(Unit: Rotoclone N)
68
Capacity
(cfm)
3,300
5,500
5,900
13,000
Total Annual
Cost
($/l,000 cfm/vr)
505
422
1,399
547
Cost Analysis
Purchase
and
Installation
32.3
20.5
2.1
4.9
(Percent
Power
and
Water
62.5
74.8
16.2
41.5
of Total Cost)
Maintenance
and
Repairs
5.2
4.7
81.7
53.6
Service Conditions
Exhaust from machine
shop and foundry
Exhaust from machine
shop and foundry
Exhuast from uranium
refinery (U3O8 )
Exhaust from uranium
refinery (U3O8)
-------
147
APPENDIX B
TABLE 28
RBE FOR TYPES OF RADIATION73
Type of Radiation . RBE
X-rays or gamma rays 1
Beta particles 1
Fast neutrons 10
Thermal neutrons 4-5
Alpha particles 10-20
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