TECHNICAL PRIMER ON
MAJOR EPA PROGRAMS
DESIGNED FOR USE BY EPA'S
QUALITY ASSURANCE COMMUNITY
Prepared By
BREGMAN & COMPANY, INC
.
.
for the
Quality Assurance Management Staff
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
under Contract 68-02-4552
(Prime Contractor: JWK International, Inc.)
EPA 650-B-70-005
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter Page
I ntrodu ct ion 1
Drinking Water 3
Surface Water 12
Ground Water 20
Estuaries and Oceans 26
Wetl ands 32
Air Quality: Indoor Air 37
Air Quality: Mobile Sources ....44
Air Quality: Stationary Sources 51
Radi ati on .58
Federal Activities 65
Pestici des 71
Toxic Substances 80
Solid and Hazardous Wastes 88
Superfund and Emergency Response 94
Enforcement and Compliance Monitoring ...106
Information Resources Management 113
Library Management 120
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INTRODUCTION
The Environmental Protection Agency Quality Assurance Management Staff
has a continuing commitment to ensure that Quality Assurance-Managers
(QAM) and their staff members have the information they need to
effectively perform their tasks. This includes knowledge of the
multitude of the agency's programs. This document was produced to give
the QA team an overview of the agency's programs and issues.
The Manual is intended to serve as a reference guide to major EPA
operational programs. It is an effort to address each program concisely
and broadly and to discuss and record on a few pages the program's
highlights. The Manual deliberately does not contain a comprehensive
discussion of agency programs. Rather, its goal is to foster a general
understanding of the purposes and operation of the programs. It is
intended to familiarize staff with a wide range of programs and issues.
This Manual should be useful to many who want to broaden their knowledge
about various EPA programs. While this effort was designed as a quick
reference, it should be of assistance to other EPA professionals who
become involved with an EPA program that may not be included in their
past experience. The brief review in this Manual of a particular EPA
program provides information about each program's background, as well as
an understanding of- program language and data systems. The document is
not meant to be comprehensive and totally self-sufficient in terms of any
of the programs. Rather, it is intended to serve as a general
introduction to each program, with a list of references presented at the
end of each chapter for further detailed reading.
Each program discussion contains a summary of the pollution,
environmental or other concerns, as well as the management strategies and
data systems employed. The summary is followed by sections that describe
sources, the nature and extent of the problems; program controls; regula-
tory controls or other actions to control the concerns; data systems and
quality assurance requirements to support the standards, criteria, rules,
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advisories, or permits; and any special national studies of significance
to the program office. Lastly, the discussion is followed by selected
reading references for the person wanting to gain a more comprehensive
understanding of the program and its needs.
Your reactions and suggestions for improvement of this Manual are
encouraged and are welcome. Comments and concerns should be addressed to
Mr. Kevin Hull, Quality Assurance Management Staff, RD-680, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, 401 M Street, SW, Washington, DC 20460,
(202)382-5763.
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DRINKING WATER
SUMMARY
Public water systems supply drinking water from rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and
wells. Pathogens, organic compounds, excess nitrates, and tastes and odors
that may be associated with these supplies are overcome through disinfection
and proper water treatment system operation. The U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency promulgates drinking water regulations that ensure safe
drinking water at the tap and provide for a public water systems supervision
program that is principally conducted by the States.
EPA has a designated Quality Assurance Officer for Drinking Water programs in
Headquarters and a Quality Assurance Coordinator in its Technical Support
Division in Cincinnati, OH. The EPA laboratory certification program for
drinking water analysis requires on site laboratory technical system audits
that examine quality assurance procedures and quality controls in analytic
performance, and peVformance evaluation sample analyses. States and EPA
require that a certified laboratory analyze all water system samples for
compliance monitoring. EPA Regions certify State laboratories which, in turn,
certify plant and commercial laboratories.
Drinking water quality is monitored via Federally approved sampling,
analytical and data handling requirements as provided by 40 CFR 141. All
laboratories conducting analysis under the Safe Drinking Water Act must follow
Federally approved methods of sampling and analysis. To ensure adequate
laboratory control over the analysis and to obtain data of known quality,
routine quality control (QC) procedures are carried out in the field, as well
as in the laboratory. QC procedures may include standardization of titrants,
analysis of spikes, duplicates and analysis of quality control samples. In
addition to QC measures, the laboratory must prove competence via annual
Performance Evaluation (PE) analyses of unknown samples, and the facility must
be certified on an on-site triennial basis by a State Quality Assurance
Officer (QAO) or EPA QAO for States where the programs are not delegated.
Certification consists of on-site inspections of sampling, preservation,
analysis, QC and data handling techniques to ensure adherence to Federal
regulations governing analysis of water samples.
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In addition to certification of laboratories, States may provide a water
treatment operators' certification program. Annual treatment plant operator's
short courses, usually four or five days in length, provide continuing
education for the operator in state-of-the-art plant operation.
EPA provides oversight of State drinking water programs, training of State
personnel, audits and inspections, and training for small public water systems
personnel.
SOURCE OF SUPPLY
Drinking water for public water systems comes about equally from surface
supplies or from wells. Both types of sources are subject to spills and other
sources of contamination.
SURFACE SUPPLIES: These include rivers, lakes, and impounded reservoirs. They
may receive runoff and stormwater from the land, discharges from industries or
from cities, drainage from mines, or return flows from agricultural
irrigation, or they may be supplied by well-controlled, protected watersheds.
Turbidity, mineral content, and degree of contamination may vary daily in a
river and temperature may vary throughout the year. Deep water intakes in
lakes and reservoirs provide cool water with generally consistent quality.
WELLS; Water may contain hardness caused by calcium and magnesium leached as
the water percolates through mineral deposits; it may contain iron and
manganese in objectionable concentrations.
QUALITY CONCERNS
PHYSICAL; Concerns are turbidity, color, temperature, taste and odor. Clay,
silt, and finely divided organic matter cause turbidity. Dissolved organic
materials from decaying vegetation and certain Inorganic matter cause color in
water. Temperature 1s dependent upon the source of supply. Inorganic salts,
and dissolved gases, cause taste and odor.
Impounded water may leach undesirable materials from flooded soils. Land
clearing, or covering, of organic materials prior to Hooding in reservoir
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construction or rehabilitation will reduce potential taste and odor problems.
Ground water from certain areas may contain hydrogen sulfide gas, which must
be removed to preclude taste and odor.
CHEMICAL; Toxic or hazardous substances .enter surface waters through pollution
or accidental spills. Rich ore deposits contribute to concentrations of
certain toxic inorganic properties. Most waters contain chloride in solution;
excessive concentrations produce taste, and may cause corrosion in hot water
pipes. Copper, in excess, causes taste and porcelain staining. Iron and
manganese cause taste and a brownish color to laundered goods.
Organic compounds from effluents, land runoff, natural decomposition, and
water and wastewater chlorination cause human health concerns. They are
presently, the subject . of an intensive EPA effort to regulate allowable
concentrations and to develop analytical techniques for measuring them.
Excess nitrate in drinking water has produced serious and occasional fatal
poisoning in infants, particularly those less than three months old. Nitrate
interferes with the capacity of their blood pigment to carry oxygen. Excess
sulfates tend to form scales in boilers and cause,taste and laxative effects.
BIOLOGICAL; Safe dri'nking water requires it to be free from pathogens that may
come from human, animal or industrial wastes. Production of water that poses
no threat to health depends upon continuous vigilance and use of appropriate
disinfectant technology.
Iron bacteria in distribution systems may cause turbidity and discoloration,
taste and odor, and hard deposits that fill pipes. Algae corrode metal tanks
and concrete reservoir walls, clog sand filters, and cause taste and odor in
surface supplies. Other problem organisms may be bloodworms, clams, snails,
and nematodes in distribution systems.
TREATMENT
pH: This is a measure of the hydrogen ion activity, which indicates the degree
of acidity. On a scale of 0 to 14, a pH of 7.0 is neutral. At low pH, water is
acid and tends to be corrosive and dissolve materials. Lead, cadmium, iron or
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copper may enter the supply from pipes. At high pH, water 1s alkaline and may
deposit calcium and/or magnesium carbonate scale in pipes. Sodium hydroxide,
lime, soda ash, carbon dioxide, and sulfuric acid are used to adjust pH to
within a range of 6.5 to 8.5.
SEDIMENTATION; Settling removes settleable materials. Coagulants are used to
speed settling and aid in the removal of both settleable and suspended
materials. Following addition of a coagulant, water passes slowly through a
sedimentation basin where materials settle and are removed.
FILTRATION: Sand, anthracite, and diatomite filters, or microstrainers remove
particles too light or too finely divided to be removed by sedimentation.
Water is passed through a layer of filtering material. As algae or debris
collect on the filter surface, the process is slowed, and the filter must be
taken out of service and backwashed to remove the collected debris. A
microstrainer is a drum-shaped screen with uniform small openings through
which water passes. A low-quantity jet spray on the opposite side of the
screen removes the collected debris as the screen rotates.
DISINFECTION; This process destroys pathogenic organisms. Generally chlorine
1s used and 1s applied as a gas or a solution* either alone or in conjunction
with other chemicals. Ozone may be used in place of chlorine. However, this
practice 1s not common in the United States, since unlike chlorine, ozone does
not provide a residual disinfectant throughout the distribution system.
AERATION; This process removes volatile substances and excess carbon dioxide.
Aerators Include cascades and sprays that expose water to the atmosphere.
COMBINATIONS; The several basic water treatment operations described above are
used in sequence or in combination along with other treatment methods to
produce a safe and aesthetically pleasing product. Iron and manganese may be
controlled by aeration followed by filtration, lime and soda softening, ion
exchange, or by adding polyphosphates or other organic sequestering agents.
Corrosion protection may be achieved by good engineering design, proper
selection of pipe materials, pH adjustment, reduction of oxygen, use of
Inhibitors such as phosphates and silicates, and lining of tank and pipe walls
with coatings and paints.
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REGULATORY CONTROLS
NATIONAL PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS: These regulations protect health
by specifying maximum levels allowed in drinking water at the tap for certain
bacteriological, radioactive, organic and inorganic chemical contaminants.
Over 65 contaminants are addressed {Table 1),; monitoring, reporting, record
keeping, and public notification for certain regulatory noncompliance are
required. Use of lead pipes, solder and flux are prohibited.
NATIONAL SECONDARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS: Not Federally enforceable,
these aesthetic quality goals are guidelines for States. Thirteen contaminants
are addressed (Table 1).
STATE PROGRAMS: All but a very few States have been delegated primary
enforcement responsibility to operate the public water systems supervision
program. To do so, a State must have a drinking water program in agreement
with 40 CFR 142. Regulations require record keeping, reporting, a State
laboratory certification program unless all compliance samples are analyzed in
the State laboratory which is certified by EPA, and certain administrative and
approval matters.
QUALITY ASSURANCE
LABORATORY CERTIFICATION PROGRAM; The Office of Drinking Water provides
program policy and guidance for the drinking water laboratory certification
program. A manual has been developed for this purpose (see Suggested
Reading). EPA's Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Las Vegas, NV,
oversees radiological testing; the Environmental Monitoring Systems
Laboratory, Cincinnati, OH, oversees other testing and certifies EPA Regional
Laboratories. EPA Regional laboratories, in turn, certify State laboratories.
State laboratories certify public water systems and commercial laboratories.
Certification involves inspection of facilities, equipment, procedures,
personnel training, quality assurance plans, quality control procedures, and
satisfactory completion of periodic performance evaluation samples.
Compliance monitoring data from water systems plants must be produced by
certified laboratories.
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Table 1. Regulated Drinking Water Contaminants as of June 15, 1990
Primary Drinking Water Regulations
(40 CFR Part 141)
Required Monitoring for Unregulated
Volatile Organic Chemicals
Microbiology & Turbidity
Total coliform organisms
Turbidity
Inorganic Elements
Arsenic
Barium
Cadmium
Chromium
Lead
Mercury
Nitrate
Selenium
Silver
Fluoride
Organic Chemicals
Endrin
Lindane
Methoxychlor
Toxaphene
2,4,-D
2,4,5-TP
Total trihalomethanes
Volatile Organic Chemicals
Trichloroethylene
Carbon tetrachloride
Vinyl chloride
1,2-Dichloroethane
Benzene
para-Dichlorobenzene
1,1-Dichloroethylene
1,1,1 -Tri chloroethane
Radionuclides
Radium 226 and 228
Gross alpha particle activity
Beta particle and photon
radioactivity
Chloroform
Bromodi chloromethane
Chlorodi bromomethane
Bromoform
trans 1,2-Di chloroethylene
Chlorobenzene
m-DiChlorobenzene
Dichloromethane
ci s-1,2-Di chloroethylene
o-Di Chlorobenzene
Dibromomethane
1,1-Dichloropropene
Tetrachloroethylene
Toluene
p-Xylene
o-Xylene
m-Xylene
1,1-Di chloroethane
1,2-Dichloropropane
1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane
Ethylbenzene
1,3-Di chl oropropane
Styrene
Chloromethane
Bromomethane
1,2,3-Tri chloropropane
1,1,1,2-Tetrachloroethane
Chloroethane
1,1,2-Trichloroethane
2,2-Dichloropropane
b-chlorotoluene
p-chl oro toluene
Bromobenzene
1,3-Dichloropropene
Ethylene dibromide
1,2-Dibromo-3-chloropropane
Secondary Drinking Water'Regu1ations(40 CFR Part 143)
Chloride
Col or
Copper
Corrositivity
Fluoride
Foaming agents
Iron
Manganese
Odor
pH
Sulfate
Total dissolved solids
Zinc
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PERFORMANCE AUDITS: Sealed, numbered ; vials of drinking water samples whose
constituent concentrations are unknown to the receiving laboratory generally
are sent to each laboratory at least every 12 months. They are currently
supplied by the Cincinnati, OH, EPA laboratory. Analytical results must be
reported by the receiving laboratory within a specified time frame.
Laboratory certification may be denied or withdrawn following an
unsatisfactory performance on the performance audit sample(s).
STATE PROGRAM OVERSIGHT: EPA Regions conduct audits and inspections of primacy
State enforcement and compliance programs. States inspect water treatment
plants routinely, which includes operator performance, plant operation, and
the facility. In addition, Headquarters and EPA Regions provide technical
assistance and training, particularly to small public water systems. Emphasis
is on noncompliance or potential noncompliance problems but may involve
sampling, reporting, or management concerns.
DATA SYSTEMS; FRDS, the Federal Reporting Data System is a computerized
repository for compliance monitoring data from water supply systems. Samples
are analyzed by a certified laboratory. Individual system's analytical results
are forwarded to the State, which reviews the data either manually, or by a
computer program designed to highlight noncompliance with drinking water
regulations and potential errors in data or information entry. States forward
the violation of the regulations to EPA Regions. Regions conduct data
verification audits at intervals based upon an examination of the'data at
hand, and enter data into the computerized system, FRDS. The computer is
programmed to check entry errors, but a computer check of the analytical data
is not made. A data base for unregulated contaminants also is maintained.
NATIONAL PESTICIDE STUDY: EPA often conducts special studies to support the
development of regulations. One example of a major study of this type that
' "> -
falls within the drinking water area and has strong QA elements is the effort,
now being completed, to understand and characterize the problem of
agricultural chemicals in ground water. The study tested 750 rural domestic
wells representing a universe of 13 million wells, and 599 community water
systems representing a universe of 51,000 community water systems. The quality
assurance (QA) organization was extensive, with a full time QA officer, under
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contract to EPA, and assistance from QA officers from the Offices of Drinking
Water and Pesticide Programs, who supported the Survey jointly. Well sampling
adhered to a QA Project Plan and a Sampling Manual. Because of the complexity
of the QA program, various aspects of the Survey adhered to eight QA Project
Plans under the umbrella of a master QA Project Plan.
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SUGGESTED READING
1. 40 CFR Parts 141, 142, and 143.
2. Anon. (Not dated). Manual of Instructions for Water Treatment Plant
Operators. New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY.
3. Drew. 1977. Principles of Industrial Water Treatment, Drew Chemical
Corporation, Bbonton, NJ 07005.
4. Fair, Gordon M., John C. Geyer, & Daniel A. Okun. 1971. Elements of
Water Supply and Wastewater Disposal. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., NY
5. Kemmer, Frank N. (Ed.). 1977. Water: The Universal Solvent. Nalco
Chemical Company, 2901 Butterfield Rd., Oak Brook, II 60521.
6. Kerri, Kenneth D. 1988. Water Treatment Plant Operation. California
State University, 6000 J Street, Sacramento, CA 95819 (Vols. 1 & 2).
7. Larson, Richard A. 1989. Biohazards of Drinking Water Treatment. Lewis
Publishers, Inc., 121 S. Main St., Chelsea, MI 48118.
8. Riehl, Merrill L. 1976. Hoover's Water Supply and Treatment (Eleventh
Ed.). National Lime Association, Washington, DC 20016.
9. Steel, Ernest W. 1960. Water Supply and Sewerage. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
Inc. NY
10. US EPA. 1980. National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations. US
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, EPA 570/9-76-000.
11. US EPA. 1982. Manual of Individual Water Supply Systems (Revised). US
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, EPA 570/9-82-004.
12. US EPA. 1990. Manual for Certification of Laboratories Analyzing
Drinking Water, Criteria and Procedures and Quality Assurance (Third
Edition). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC,
EPA 570/9-90-008.
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SURFACE FRESH WATERS
SUMMARY
Surface waters are used as sources of drinking water, as recipients of
treated and ' sometimes inadequately treated wastes, for fishing,
recreation, navigation and in agricultural and industrial activities.
Principal regulations to control surface water pollution include effluent
guidelines, water quality standards, discharge permits, and wastewater
sludge management requirements. Pollution control activities for surface
fresh waters are managed by the EPA Offices of Water Regulations and
Standards, Water Enforcement and Permits, and Municipal Pollution
Control. National data-gathering studies collect Information to support
regulation development. These data-gathering activities are subject to
quality assurance program plans. They require project plans where
environmental data are collected by EPA, through grants to States, or by
contracts with consultants and others. A number of different data
systems then are used to store and provide data to program managers.
WATER RESOURCES
Rivers, streams, lakes, reservoirs, and ponds are the focal points of
this surface water discussion; wetlands will be discussed in a separate
chapter. Rivers drain the land and carry with them wastes from cities
and industries, as well as pollutants in runoff from agriculture and
urban areas. U.S. rivers, on the average, carry 12 cubic miles of water
1n their channels; many exceed 1,000 miles in length. U.S. lakes and
reservoirs, numbering in excess of 1.5 million, contain 4,500 cubic miles
of water. Geologically, lakes may be considered as temporary
water-holding vessels on the landscape.
The water quality determines the uses that may be made of any specific
water body. Waters are used by humans in many (and sometimes competing)
ways Including boating, swimming, fishing, aesthetics, navigation, for
drinking water, and for agricultural and Industrial purposes. Many
cities were built on rivers because of their navigation potential.
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POLLUTION CONCERNS AND SOURCES
PHYSICAL; Aesthetically pleasing waters add to the quality of human
experience. Oil contamination. - is toxic to aquatic life. Settleable
solids and erosion from natural sources, construction activity or
farmland screen out necessary light, change heat radiation and blanket
the stream bottom, thereby smothering bottom dwelling food organisms, as
well as removing organic materials and nutrients. They also may
introduce toxic substances into the water body. Temperature is one of
the most important and influential water quality characteristics that
affects biological life in water.
CHEMICAL: Toxic or hazardous substances may enter surface waters through
direct discharge, runoff, or accidental spills. They may bioaccumulate,
impair reproductive activity, or cause tumors or cancer. Some chemicals,
when bioaccumulated in aquatic organisms and ingested by humans, can
cause diseases such as cancer. Fish eating birds and mammals have been
killed by ingesting the chemicals secondhand. Excess nitrogen and
phosphorus nutrients stimulate aquatic plant growth, which result in
vegetation decay, water oxygen reduction, fish kills, foul odors, and
unsightly decomposing algal masses. When water becomes too acid or too
alkaline, aquatic, life is affected adversely. Thus, for example, dense
algal growths can make the water alkaline, while acid mine wastes destroy
aquatic life by lowering the pH below tolerable limits.
BIOLOGICAL: Pathogenic organisms that cause infection or disease may be
present in surface water. Natural beaches are monitored closely and may
be closed when body contact water quality criteria are exceeded. The
basic indicator is the concentration of fecal coliform bacteria, which
can cause diarrhea. Swimmers itch, an irritating rash caused by a
parasite liberated by certain snails, is prevalent in some areas. Some
species of blue-green algae, when stimulated to grow in massive quantity
because of abundant nutrients, produce a toxin that has been fatal to
mammals, birds, and fish when ingested. It has caused gastroenteritis in
humans. Human respiratory and skin disorders also have been associated
with algae.
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SOURCES: Spills, leaks, and Illegal dumps contribute to surface water
pollution. Point source discharges from industrial plants and municipal
wastewater treatment systems historically have been principal
contributors, but, in recent years, much has been accomplished to abate
these sources. Nonpoint source runoff (such as from farmland or
construction), stormwater, and combined sewer overflows are major sources
yet to be effectively addressed in many areas of the country.
PROGRAM CONTROLS
WASTEWATER TREATMENT; Publicly owned treatment works are designed to
separate solids from liquids (primary treatment) and to provide optimum
conditions in a confined area for bacteria and other organisms to
decompose and convert liquid wastes to more simple and stable products
(secondary treatment). Wastewater entering a treatment plant is passed
slowly through a sedimentation tank, where heavier materials settle to
the bottom and are removed. Grease and scum are skimmed from the liquid
surface. Following this primary treatment process, the liquid may be
sprayed over a trickling filter column of rocks where organisms feed upon
and digest the organic material. In other facilities, it is introduced
into an activated sludge unit which is aerated to provide organisms with
optimum conditions to feed upon the organic material. As a result of
this secondary treatment, the oxygen demanding quality of the wastewater
is greatly reduced. This is a critical factor in the maintenance of the
oxygen level of the water body into which this treated wastewater is
discharged. In some facilities, chemicals may be added to remove
phosphates and nitrates where eutrophication is a problem in receiving
waters (tertiary treatment).
INDUSTRIAL WASTE TREATMENT: Many types of industrial wastes require
treatment other than the biological process described for domestic
wastewater. Such treatment may include processes such as neutralization
of excessive acidity or alkalinity; chemical precipitation; air
flotation, thus removing fats, oils, and greasy solids; ion exchange;
decolorization; resource recovery; and waste minimization procedures.
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BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES (BMPs): These are good "common sense" practices
employed to reduce the quantity of a waste and minimize its effects upon
the receiving environment. For construction sites, for example, a BMP
may involve staking bales of hay to serve as a filter and silt basin for
silt-laden runoff water. In lake management, it may involve stormwater
and treated wastewater diversion around the lake or a vegetated buffer
zone to filter land runoff before it enters a lake. For an industry,
BMPs involve such things as spill control, reporting, and containment;
secondary containment; materials compatibility; employee training;
inspections and audits; mitigation clean up methods; and spill drills. .
TOXIC POLLUTANT IMPAIRED WATERS: States are required to develop lists of
toxic pollutant impaired waters, and identify the point sources and
amounts of pollutants discharged that cause violations of water quality.
Individual control strategies for the point sources identified then must
be provided. EPA has approval authority over these State lists and
itself prepares lists and individual control strategies for those States
whose lists have been disapproved.
FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE: Grants and a new revolving loan fund are made
available by EPA by way of the States to the local communities to assist
them in construction of publicly owned treatment works, clean lakes
restoration, conducting water quality investigations, management,
pollution abatement, and corrective or restorative activities.
REGULATORY CONTROLS
EFFLUENT GUIDELINES: The regulations that are specific for each industry
consist of national levels of wastewater contaminant control based upon
the highest level of treatment technology economically achievable and
technically feasible. Addressing an industrial category with applicable
subcategories, effluent guidelines involve engineering and economic
studies, wastewater characteristics, treatment options, and economic
effects of regulations upon the affected parties. Guidelines for 57
industrial categories have been promulgated. They are easily adapted to
a discharge permit to regulate a specific industrial discharge.
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WATER QUALITY STANDARDS; Adopted by States, and approved by EPA, water
quality standards identify water body, uses, provide water quality
criteria to support the designated uses and include an antidegradation
policy for waters presently of higher quality than that designated for
their uses. Designed for ambient water conditions, such standards define
human health and aquatic life water quality goals and provide the basis
for enforceable requirements through discharge permits. Those discharge
permits, using the effluent guidelines described above, are designed to
see that the receiving water body attains and remains at the desired
water quality levels.
DISCHARGE PERMITS; Specific for each identified point source discharge,
they provide effluent limits, discharge conditions, monitoring
requirements, and reporting schedules. Biological toxlclty testing of
effluents now is commonly required. A BMP plan, as well as an industrial
waste pre-treatment program, may be required. Permit limits are based
upon applicable effluent guidelines where available, best professional
judgement where promulgated guidelines are inapplicable, and water
quality standards.
WASTEWATER SLUDGE MANAGEMENT; For wastewater sludge pollutants with
potential public health or environmental effects, regulations have been
developed that specify acceptable sludge management practices and
pollutant specific numeric criteria for each of five major sludge
disposal options.
QUALITY ASSURANCE
Surface fresh water pollution controls are addressed by the EPA offices
of Water Regulations and Standards, Water Enforcement and Permits, and
Municipal Pollution Control.
ENVIRONMENTAL DATA COLLECTION; The Office of Water Regulations and
Standards has prepared a number of quality assurance documents,
references to which are Included In the Suggested Reading section. They
operate under a quality assurance program plan that addresses quality
assurance policies, procedures, and management systems (OURS QA-4), as do
other EPA offices Involved with surface waters. The program plan
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requires a quality assurance work/project plan when environmental data
are collected either by EPA or through contractor support. A detailed
quality assurance project plan is not required for the initial screening
or a pilot survey to establish the boundaries of a study; however, a
standard operating procedure short form project plan is used instead.
OWRS operates the Sample Control Center which manages the sample analyses
for effluent guidelines development under a quality assurance project
plan.
DISCHARGE MONITORING: The Office of Water Enforcement and Permits (OWEP)
is responsible for Discharge Monitoring Reports submitted by a
permittee. A permittee is currently supplied performance evaluation
samples, furnished by the EPA Cincinnati, OH, laboratory, for the
constituents for which the permittee must monitor in wastewater to meet
permit conditions. If analytical data from the performance evaluation
samples are of inferior quality, an inspection is made by the applicable
EPA Region or State to determine the cause. Routine performance audit
inspections also are made of permittees and may include permit compliance
evaluation or biological toxicity testing. Enforcement action has been
taken against a permittee for violating quality assurance procedures.
OWEP also is in the planning and development stage of providing quality
assurance guidance for biological toxicity testing.
MUNICIPAL POLLUTION CONTROL NEEDS: The Office of Municipal Pollution
Control is responsible for the long-standing biennial survey to determine
municipal pollution control needs. Data are provided by the States. A
contractor reviews and enters the data into the Municipal Pollution
Control Needs Survey. There is a computer audit for data logic and data
entry errors.
DATA SYSTEMS: OWRS operates a number of location-type data systems.
These include the surface drinking water supply facilities file,
industrial facilities discharge file, stream flow gage station file, and
fish kill file. The widely known STORET, a water quality data system,
has a history dating back 25 years. A Water Quality Data Systems
Steering Committee is working to "integrate all of the data systems in the
Office of Water.
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OWEP manages the Permit Compliance System where permits information and
the discharge monitoring report data are stored. Quality assurance
procedures are being developed and implemented to quality assure these
data. A statistical sampling check of the data is in a pilot test mode.
A guidance document on quality assurance is being developed.
OMPC operates the Grants Information Control System, which provides
information on municipal pollution control grants and facilities to
program managers. Data are supplied by the States and there is a
computer audit programmed for the system.
SPECIAL STUDIES
Examples of data-gathering special studies conducted by OURS include the
National Dioxin Study, which examined water, sediment and fish; the pish
Bioaccumulation Study, which examined fish flesh for many potential
bioaccumulants at 400 locations, and selected sediments; the National
Sewage Sludge Survey, which determined the hazardous condition of
wastewater sludge resulting from the hazardous waste exclusion when such
wastes are mixed with domestic wastewater in a sewer system to a
publicly-owned treatment works, and identified new industries to regulate
with effluent guidelines; and the National Sediment Project, which will
examine sediment constituents at 400 locations. These large
data-gathering studies have separate quality assurance project plans.
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SUGGESTED READING
1. Hynes, H. B. N. 1960. The Biology of Polluted Waters. Liverpool
University Press, Liverpool.
2. Mackenthun, Kenneth M. 1973. Toward a Cleaner Aquatic Environment.
US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air and Water Programs,
Washington, DC.
3. Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. 1972. Wastewater Engineering. McGraw-Hill Book
Co., New York.
4. Ruttner, F. 1963. Fundamentals of Limnology (3rd Ed.). University
of Toronto Press, Toronto, Cananda.
5. US EPA. 1980. Primer of Wastewater Treatment. US Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, DC, MCD-65.
6. US EPA. 1984. Guidance for Preparation .of Combined Work/Quality
Assurance Project Plans for Environmental Monitoring, OWRS QA-1. US
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
7. US EPA. 1985. Guidance for State Water Monitoring and Waste!oad
Allocation Programs. US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington,
DC, EPA 440/4-85-031.
8. US EPA. 1987. National Water Quality Inventory - Report to Congress.
US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, EPA 440/4-87-008.
(Or the most recent edition of this report.)
9. US EPA. 1987. Program Survey -- Biological Toxicity Testing in the
NPDES Permits Program. US Environmental Protection Agency, Permits
Division, Washington, DC, August.
10. US EPA. 1987. Surface Water Monitoring: A Framework for Change. US
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water and Office of
Policy, Planning and Evaluation, Washington, DC, September.
11. US EPA. 1988. Implementing the Data Quality Objective Process in
Surface Water Monitoring Programs, OWRS QA-2. US Environmental '
Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
12. US EPA. 1988. Incorporating Data Quality Objectives into Quality
Assurance Project Plans - Interim Report, OWRS QA-3. US
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
13. US EPA. 1988. Constructed Wetlands and Aquatic Plant Systems for
Muncipal Wastewater Treatment. US Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, DC, EPA 625/1-88-022.
14. US EPA. 1988. Quality Assurance Program Plan for the Office of
Water Regulations and Standards. OWRS QA-4. US Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
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GROUND WATER
SUMMARY
As a result of the increase of freshwater withdrawals, ground water
depletion and contamination have become significant issues in almost
every State. Irrigation of crops creates the greatest demand on ground
water quantity. More than 200 different organic and inorganic chemicals,
pesticides, radionuclides and organisms have been found in ground water
as contaminants. Pollution sources are many and include virtually any
source that affects land or water. Although ground water quantity is
vast, its quality must be diligently protected because pollutants are
very difficult and costly to remove from the subsurface.
To protect the ground water resource, EPA established an Office of Ground
Water Protection in 1984. This emerging program does not generate
environmental data, develop regulations, maintain a data system, or
conduct special studies. Rather, it provides assistance, guidance,
direction, and program approval. The focus is on policy development,
inter- and intra-agency operational coordination for resource protection,
ground water monitoring strategies, and a wellhead protection program.
EPA Regions implement the wellhead protection and other programs with
States through their ground water program offices. Other EPA offices
support the Office of Ground Water Protection in data collection,
regulations and data systems.
GROUND WATER RESOURCE
Each day approximately 4.2 trillion gallons of precipitation fall on the'
continental United States. About two-thirds of that precipitation
evaporates, about 61 billion gallons (1.5 percent) soak into aquifers,
and the remainder is carried away by streams and rivers.
Estimates of the ground water resources of the U.S. found within one-half
mile of the land surface range from 15 to 100 quadrillion gallons. These
resources are 50 times greater than all of the Nation's surface waters at
any given time. They are 35 times the total annual surface runoff and
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400 times the country's total water withdrawals.
Ground water depletion and contamination are localized problems. Ground
water availability is a significant issue in almost every State.
Declining ground water levels have occurred in a number of areas,
including portions of California, the Dakotas, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa,
and Wisconsin.
Fresh water withdrawals from ground water more than doubled between 1950
and 1980. Crop irrigation alone uses 60 billion gallons per day of
ground water. Other major users include public water supplies, rural
water supplies, and industrial withdrawals from other than public
supplies.
POLLUTION CONCERNS AND SOURCES
CHEMICAL: About 245 different chemical substances have been found in the
Nation's ground water according to U.S. Congress' Office of Technology
Assessment (OTA). These include 175 organic chemicals (including
pesticides), 50 inorganic chemicals, and 20 different radionuclides.
Adverse health effects associated with these contaminants include cancer;
reproductive, teratogenic, and pyschological disorders; and adverse
effects on nearly all body systems. Contaminants, once they have entered
ground water, are difficult and expensive to treat or remove.
Ground Water velocities are low in comparison to surface water
velocities; thus, a contaminant introduced into a ground water system
does not mix rapidly with the existing water in the aquifer. Generally
the flow paths, concentration, and chemical changes that a contaminant
,may undergo as a result of such processes as degradation or reactions
with the soil are either unknown or difficult to ascertain. Identifying
the source and extent of contamination is made problematic by the complex
physics and chemistry of the flow system.
BIOLOGICAL: The OTA study also found bacteria, viruses and parasites in
ground water during their survey. Adverse health effects associated with
these biological contaminants are similar to those listed above for
chemicals.
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SOURCES; Sources of ground water pollution are numerous and varied. (See
Table 1 on next page.) High on the list of concerns of ground water
pollution control authorities are failing systems of the existing 23
million domestic septic systems; leaking underground storage tanks;
agricultural activities including pesticide and fertilizer applications,
Irrigation return flows, and animal feedlot runoff; landfills; surface
waste water impoundments; and abandoned waste sites.
PROGRAM CONTROLS
EPA's Office of Ground Water Protection was created in 1984 to provide a
focal point for evolving agency ground water programs. Efforts thus far
have concentrated on policy development, inter- and intra-agency
operational coordination for resource protection, ground water monitoring
strategies, and wellhead protection. EPA Regions implement programs with
States through their ground water program offices.
MONITORING; In 1982, the US Geological Survey began a national program to
study toxic wastes and their behavior and fate in aquifer systems. At
least eight separate Federal statues require ground water monitoring
under specific conditions. In 1985, EPA formulated a national ground
water monitoring strategy designed to coordinate many of these disparate
monitoring efforts. The strategy contains an action plan designed to
characterize the Nation's ground water resource, identify new contaminate
problems, assess known problems, assure compliance with regulations,
evaluate program effectiveness, improve data quality, and develop a
ground water data system for storing all ground water quality and related
well information. A minimum set of 22 data elements necessary to use
information from wells and springs across ground water related programs
has been developed. Thirty-eight States monitor ground,water quality or
are developing monitoring programs.
WELLHEAD PROTECTION; There are 187,000 public drinking water well
systems including 47,000 community and 140,000 non-community facilities
such as camp grounds and truck stops. The wellhead protection program is
designed to protect the surface and subsurface areas through which
contaminants are likely to pass and eventually reach a well or well field
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TABLE 1
SOURCES OF GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
CATEGORY I - Sources designed to discharge substances
Subsurface percolation (e.g.. septic tanks and cesspools)
Injection wells
Hazardous waste
Non-hazardous waste (e.g., brine disposal and drainage)
Non-waste (e.g.. enhanced recovery, artificial recharge
solution mining, and in-situ mining)
Land application
Waste water (e.g.. spray irrigation)
Waslewater byproducts (e.g.. sludge)
Hazardous waste
Non-hazardous waste
CATEGORY II • Sources designed to store, treat, and/or
dispose of substances; discharge through unplanned
release
Landfills
Industrial hazardous waste
Industrial non-hazardous waste
Municipal sanitary
Open dumps, including illegal dumping (waste)
Residential (or bcal) disposal (waste)
Surface impoundments
Hazardous waste
Non-hazardous waste
Waste tailings
Waste piles
Hazardous waste
Non-hazardous waste
Materials stockpiles (non-waste)
Graveyards
Animal burial
Aboveg round storage tanks
Hazardous waste
Non-hazardous waste
Non-waste
Underground storage tanks
Hazardous waste
Non-hazardous waste
Non-waste
Containers
Hazardous waste
Non-hazardous waste
Non-waste
Open burning and detonation sites
Radioactive disposal sites
CATEGORY Ill-Sources designed to retain
substances during transport or transmission
Pipelines
Hazardous waste
Non-hazardous waste
Non-waste
Materials transport and transfer operations
Hazardous waste
Non-hazardous waste
Non-waste
CATEGORY IV • Sources discharging substances as
• consequence of other planned activities
Irrigation practices (e.g.. return flow)
Pesticide applications
Fertilizer applications
Animal feeding operations
De-icing salts applications
Urban runoff
Percolation of atmospheric pollutants
Mining and mine drainage
Surface mine-related
Underground mine-related
CATEGORY V • Sources providing conduit or Inducing
discharge through altered flow patterns
Production wells
Oil (and gas) wells
Geothermal and heat recovery wells
Water supply wells
Other wells (non-waste)
Monitoring wells
Exploration wells
Construction excavation
CATEGORY VI • Naturally occurring sources whose
discharge Is created and/or exacerbated by
human activity
Groundwater - surface water interactions
Natural leaching
Salt-water intrusion/brackish water upconing (or
intrusion of other poor-quality natural water)
Source: Office of Technology Assessment, Protecting The Nation's Groundwater From Contamination.
October 1984.
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that supplies a public water system. Because the ground water around a
pumping well Is depressed as water 1s drawn Into a well, wellhead areas
are most vulnerable to pesticides, fertilizers, road salts, and other
contaminants that may enter near-surface ground water. Government
management activities Include land use regulation, land acquisition, and
prohibition of specified activities 1n the vicinity of the wellhead.
Funding for Federal support of State programs has been authorized.
REGULATORY CONTROLS
EPA does not develop regulations for groundwater. This 1s done by some
States.
QUALITY ASSURANCE
The EPA Office of Ground Water Protection does not generate environmental
data. Basically, it provides assistance, guidance, direction, and
program approval. No data system'presently is maintained, although one
is being developed, as described in the above section on monitoring.
Quality assurance 1s provided in the minimum set of data elements
mentioned above in the section on monitoring. These elements have seven
geographic descriptors, seven well/spring descriptors, and eight
sample/analysis descriptors. However, EPA grants are provided to the
Universities of Texas and Wisconsin to maintain data systems for ground
water quality and wellhead studies. There are no special studies except
for those conducted by the Office of Drinking Water, which were described
1n the chapter on drinking water. These Involve the problem of
agricultural chemicals In ground water.
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SUGGESTED READING
1. Cantor, L.W., R.C. Knox, and D. M. Fairchild. 1987. Ground Water
Quality Protection, Lewis Publishers, Inc., Chelsea, MI.
2. Freeze, R. Allen and John A. Cherry. 1979. Groundwater. Prentice
Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
3. Lehr, Jay H. 1977. Ground Water - Fact and Fiction. IN: The
Integrity of Water. US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
Water and Hazardous Materials, Washington, DC.
4. Office of Technology Assessment. 1984. Protecting the Nation's
Groundwater from Contamination. US Congress, Office of Technology
Assessment, Washington, DC.
5. US EPA. 1985. . Ground-Water Monitoring Strategy. US Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Ground-Water Protection, Washington, DC.
6. US EPA. 1987. Improved Protection of Water Resources from Long-Term
and Cumulative Pollution: Prevention of Ground-Water Contamination
in the United States. US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
Ground-Water Protection, Washington, DC.
7. US EPA. 1987. Wellhead Protection: A Decision-Maker's Guide. US
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, EPA-440/6-87-009.
8. US EPA. 1988. Developing a State Wellhead Protection Program. US
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, EPA-440/6-88-003.
9. US EPA. 1988. EPA Workshop to Recommend a Minimum Set of Data
Elements for Ground Water. US Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, DC, EPA-440/6-88-005.
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ESTUARIES AND OCEANS
SUMMARY
Most of the principal population centers of the United States are located
within 100 miles of estuaries and near-shore oceanic coastal waters.
Consequently, rich aquatic resources found 1n these waters are subjected
to multiple, conflicting, and often degrading uses; In addition, they are
the ultimate recipients of pollutants transported from the land, by
rivers. Contamination concerns are similar In category to those
associated with freshwater, except for the addition of large quantities
of floatable materials. These" floatable materials, which Include
plastics, bottles, medical wastes, other trash, pollutants from combined
sewer overflows, as well as from Illegal dumping from shore and ships at
sea, have become the subject of significant public outrage.
The ocean dumping permit program, the national estuary program, and point
source discharges to the marine environment are managed by the EPA
Regions. The programs originate with the Office of Marine and Estuarine
Protection (OMEP). These programs are coordinated with several other
Federal agencies who have statutory interest in oceans and estuaries.
Oce'an dump site monitoring, the ocean data evaluation system, and the
comprehensive national estuary program operate with quality assurance
programs. Analytical methods for the estuarfne and marine ecosystem
components are being developed Into standard techniques by the Office of
Marine and Estuarine Protection.
HATER RESOURCE
Estuaries, coastal waters, and adjoining oceans comprise three-fifths of
the U.S. International Boundary. About 100 million people, more than one
out of every three U.S. citizens, live within 100 miles of an ocean or
Great Lakes coast. Estuaries and embayments are among the most
biologically productive waters because of an abundance of nutrients.
shallow well-mixed waters, and teeming plant and animal communities.
There are over 150 large estuaries, myriad Inlets, and small embayments
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in the United States. These highly productive estuaries are the
transitional zones formed when rivers and ocean, meet.
The oceans, estuaries, and the Great Lakes provide for multiple,
conflicting human uses related to resource extraction, commercial
shipping, recreational boating, body contact recreation, sunbathing,
aesthetic enjoyment, drinking water supply, and waste disposal. The
estuaries and oceans are the ultimate recipients of pollutants
transported from the land by rivers.
POLLUTION CONCERNS AND SOURCES
PHYSICAL: Solid wastes including plastics, bottles, medical wastes, and
other non-biodegradable materials that float have become the focus of
public concern for many beaches and certain parts of the open ocean.
Flotable wastes strangle and mutilate wildlife, as well as destroy
habitats. They originate principally from illegal dumping of trash from
shore or ships at sea. Other sources include combined
sanitary-stormwater sewer overflows, wastewater treatment plant bypasses,
and ocean dumping.
Spills, leaks, and accidents including those from tankers and offshore or
coastal oil production rigs introduce crude oil and oil products into
water. Results include ecosystem destruction and death to fish, birds,
and marine mammals. Death is caused by toxicity from the oil, coating
the animals, drowning through loss of buoyancy, exposure caused by loss
of body heat insulation, or starvation.
CHEMICAL: These come from a variety of sources including industrial
wastes, municipal wastewater, agricultural and urban runoff. They are
primarily organic chemicals including chlorinated hydrocarbons and heavy
metals. Toxic substances adversely affect fish, shellfish, wildlife, and
human health. Major organism responses include death, tumors or cancer,
bioaccumulation with threats to the food web, and reduced reproductive
ability.
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BIOLOGICAL; Bacterial or viral organisms that cause diseases 1n humans,
including diarrhea, hepatitis, and typhoid, come from ingestion of water
at a beach or the consumption of contaminated shellfish. The prevalence
of these organisms in recent years has resulted in closures of shellfish
beds and recreational beaches. Excessive marine algal and other plant
growths resulting from high nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations are
problems in many estuarine and coastal areas. Decomposing plants reduce
necessary oxygen for aquatic life, algal mats smother the plankton
beneath them, and foul odors of decomposition fill the shoreline air.
SOURCES; Many types of sources contribute to the above quality concerns.
Estuaries and oceans are the ultimate receivers of wastes from the
continent and ships at sea. Direct discharges, ocean dumping, stormwater
and runoff, spills, leaks, accidents, and illegal solid waste disposal
are contributing sources.
PROGRAM CONTROLS
POINT SOURCE CONTROLS; The Clean Water Act has two sections applicable to
direct dischargers to the marine environment: it requires a Publicly
Owned Treatment Works to provide secondary treatment, but allows for a
waiver to less than secondary treatment if the plant meets certain
criteria; it also allows regulators to consider sediment, as well as
water column effects in issuing a discharge permit, and is intended to
protect unique, sensitive, and ecologically critical species, in addition
to aquatic life in general. This section may require zero discharge
following assessment of alternative disposal or recycling options and the
Impact of alternative uses on the oceans. Both sections require
site-specific evaluation of environmental information.
NATIONAL ESTUARY PROGRAM; Currently composed of 12 estuaries located from
Massachusetts to Washington State, this program has four phases leading
to cleanup. These phases include a management conference for decision
making, Information to characterize and define the problems, creation of
a comprehensive conservation and management plan to identify action plans
for pollution control and resource management, and implementation of the
plan. Each of the original six estuaries in this program will have
completed management plans In the early 1990s.
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REGULATORY CONTROLS
OCEAN DUMPING PERMITS: Regulations and criteria controlling ocean
dumping as described in 40 CFR 220 through 229 are governed by the
requirements of The Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act and
The International Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by
Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, which was ratified by the United
States in April, 1974. EPA issues permits for non-dredged materials; the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers issues permits for dredged materials in
conformity with criteria established by EPA. EPA specifies sites where
dumping may be permitted and develops an environmental impact statement
on each specified site. EPA may specify areas of the ocean where no
dumping shall occur. The law has prohibited the ocean disposal of.
certain agents of war. The Ocean Dumping Ban Act of 1988 terminates the
dumping of wastewater sludge and industrial wastes by December 31, 1991.
MULTIAGENCY COORDINATION
Several Federal agencies are involved in studies and other activities
related to estuaries and oceans. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) is dedicated to improving the comprehension and
uses of the physical environment and oceanic life. The Coastal Program
Division in NOAA provides financial and technical assistance to approved
State Coastal Zone Management Programs, the Estuarine Program Office
which coordinates NOAA's various estuarine activities, the Ocean
Assessment Division, and the Ocean Pollution Planning Office. The U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers manages ocean dumping through permits of dredged
material. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife service has review authority over
ocean dumping permits and discharges to marine waters. Coordination of
EPA estuarine and ocean programs with these Federal agencies is an
ongoing activity.
QUALITY ASSURANCE
MONITORING: Ocean dump sites are monitored by EPA to determine
environmental impacts and to ensure that adverse effects as a result of
dumping are confined to the dumpsite. When a survey plan is prepared for
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monitoring a dumpsite, a quality assurance project plan 1s developed.
DATA SYSTEM; EPA's Ocean Data Evaluation System contains water quality
data, tissue data, and sediment data for the marine environment. There
Is strict control of data entry. Data related to the conditions for a
waiver to less than secondary treatment are checked by a biologist for
reasonableness and methods used to obtain the data. Other data are
checked electronically for conformance to a designated range of values.
SPECIAL STUDIES
NATIONAL ESTUARY PROGRAM; Twelve estuaries are undergoing intensive study.
Each has a number of specific study efforts, perhaps 12 to 15 for each
estuary. One such effort may concentrate on sediments and constituent
concentrations, while another may examine the biota including fish,
benthos, and plankton. Each of the individual study efforts must have an
approvable quality assurance project plan. OMEP has prepared a Guide for
Preparation of Quality Assurance Project Plans for the National Estuarine
Program (EPA-556/2-88-001). Two of the intensive estuarine studies
operate under a quality assurance program plan approved jointly by the
EPA Regional Quality Assurance Officer and the Office of Marine and
Estuarine Protection Quality Assurance Officer.
CHESAPEAKE BAY OVERSIGHT; Chesapeake Bay 1s the largest estuary 1n the
contiguous United States, one of the most productive estuaries In the
world, and potentially the most complex ecosystem anywhere. It receives
wastes from 3,000 point source discharges in Maryland and Virginia. Its
nutrients, sediment, water, plankton, benthos, fish, shellfish, and
vegetation are being monitored at 50 ma1nstern and 85 tributary
locations. Data are screened by a computer programmed to Identify
/
outliers. The monitoring program operates under a quality assurance
program plan.
ANALYTICAL METHODS; Analytical methods for estuarine and marine
environmental studies currently are not as advanced as for the freshwater
environment. The Office of Marine and Estuarine Protection Is developing
a compendium of satisfactory analytical methods.
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SUGGESTED READING
1. 40 CFR 220 through 229.
2. Anikouchine, William A. and Richard W. Sternberg. 1981. The World
Ocean: An Introduction to Oceanography. (2nd Ed.) Prentice Hall,
Inc., New York.
3. Gross, M. Grant. 1982. Oceanography: A Viev/ of the Earth. (3rd Ed.)
Prentice Hall, Inc. New York.
4. Harvey, H. W. 1960. The Chemistry and Fertility of Sea Waters.
Cambridge University Press, New York.
5. Hedgpeth, J. W., Ed. 1957. Treatise on Marine Ecology and
Paleoecology. I. Physical and Chemical Characteristics by K. 0.
Emery and R. E. Stevenson. II. Biological Aspects by J. W. Hedgpeth.
Geol. Soc. Amer., Memoir 67.
6. Hill, G. H., Ed.. 1964. The Sea, Volume II. The Composition of Sea
Water; Comparative and Descriptive Oceanography. Wiley Interscience,
New York.
7. Lauff, G. H., Ed. 1967. Estuaries. Publication 83. American
Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, DC.
8. Sverdrup, H. I., M. W. Johnson and R. H. Fleming. 1946. The Oceans,
their Physics, Chemistry and Biology. Prentice Hall, Inc., New York.
9. US EPA. 1988. Guide for Preparation of Quality Assurance Project
Plans for the National Estuarine Program. US Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, DC, EPA 556/2-88-001.
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WETLANDS
SUMMARY
Wetlands, Including marshes, swamps, and bogs, provide food and habitat
for water, air, and land animals; spawning and nursery areas for aquatic
life; sanctuary for rare and endangered species; flood protection;
erosion control; wood and other products; hunting and fishing; and
aesthetic enjoyment. Once regarded by humans as wastelands and a tax
burden, they were destroyed at random until the Nation's wetlands
resource was diminshed by more than half. Now recognized as among the
most productive ecosystems and as essential to the survival of many fish
and other species, they are being protected.
Wetlands protection began after the enactment of the 1972 Clean Water
Act, which required a permit for the discharge of dredged or fill
materials into the waters of the United States. The gradual growth of
that program resulted in an Office of Wetlands Protection in EPA. The
focus of EPA's program has been on the development of guidance to
identify wetlands and their boundaries in a consistent manner, enhance
monitoring capabilities and requirements, and require mitigation and the
creation of new wetlands elsewhere when wetland areas must be destroyed.
While the US Army Corps of Engineers issues permits for the discharge of
dredged and fill material, EPA has review authority and the ability to
veto action over permits when environmental quality may be threatened.
No environmental data presently is generated by EPA concerning wetlands.
WETLANDS RESOURCES
Wetlands is a collective term for marshes, swamps, bogs, and similar
areas that are either inundated or saturated by water during the growing
season so that they support a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted
for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands are among the most
productive natural ecosystems 1n the world. They are critical to the
survival of a wide variety of animals and plants. They provide food and
habitat, Including that necessary for spawning and growth for fish and
wildlife, Improvement In water quality, flood protection, erosion control,
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natural products for human use, and opportunities for a variety of
recreation and aesthetic enjoyment. A number of rare and endangered
species depend upon wetlands for survival.
The need for wetlands protection is evident from the fact that of the
original 215 million acres of wetlands in the lower 48 states, only 99
million acres, or 46 percent, remained as of the mid-1970s. Between 1955
and 1975, 11 million acres were lost while 2 million acres of new
wetlands were created; the net loss equals an area the size of New
Jersey. The most extensive losses have occurred in Louisiana,
Mississippi, North Carolina, the Dakotas, Nebraska, Florida, and Texas.
POLLUTION CONCERNS AND SOURCES
PHYSICAL; Major causes of wetlands loss and degradation through physical
means include drainage, dredging and stream channelization, filling,
diking and damming, tilling for crop production, grazing by domestic
animals, and any actions that lead to flow alteration.
CHEMICAL; Although wetlands are efficient in stabilizing organic wastes
and removing suspended solids, they are affected by toxic and hazardous
wastes in a manner similar to surface waters. Wetlands are particularly
vulnerable because they are inhabited by the very young of aquatic life.
Persistent, bioaccumulative, toxic, organic chemicals head the list as
destructive forces in this type of ecosystem. The food web in wetlands
extends from small invertebrates through fish to predator animals and
humans. There is a broad problem with contamination of wetlands.
Irrigation return flows have introduced high selenium levels in some
western areas that have resulted in deformed ducks in refuges. Boron,
heavy metals, and PCBs have created pollution problems in many areas.
SOURCES; Agricultural drainage of wetlands was responsible, for 87 percent
of wetlands losses between the mid-50s and mid-70s. Urban and other
development accounted for the remaining 13 percent of the losses.
Irrigation return flows in the West, and both point and nonpoint source
pollutant discharges are responsible for the chemical pollutant concerns.
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PROGRAM CONTROLS
GUIDANCE; Guidance has been provided by EPA to States and eligible Indian
Tribes on the designation of wetlands as surface waters of a State, the
application of water quality standards and dredge and fill permits to
wetlands, and the use of the Clean Water Act Section 401 certification
process for a federally permitted or licensed activity (See EPA, 1989 in
Suggested Reading).
MONITORING; Currently, there is insufficient monitoring in wetlands to
fully understand their environmental complexities. Efforts are being
v
made to bring wetlands into national monitoring programs and into the
water quality reports submitted biennially by States and summarized by
EPA as a National Water Quality Inventory Report to Congress. These
efforts require the development of water quality criteria for wetlands
and the identification of satisfactory monitoring indicators to represent
biological integrity.
EVALUATION TECHNIQUES; A goal of this emerging program is to ensure that
wetlands are identified consistently and that their boundaries are
established consistently throughout the Nation. To meet this need, a
Federal manual for identifying and delineating jurisdictional wetlands
was developed as an interagency cooperative publication by EPA and three
other agencies whose interests include wetlands.
MITIGATION; When wetlands destruction may occur as a result of a permit
to dredge or fill, mitigation is required. Such mitigation takes the
form of stopping the discharge of dredged or fill material, minimizing
such discharge, and/or creating new wetlands In another location.
REGULATORY CONTROLS
The US Army Corps of Engineers issues permits under Section 404 of the
Clean Water Act for the discharge of dredged or fill materials through
the application of EPA guidelines developed to protect the environment.
The EPA guidelines take the form of specifications for disposal sites for
dredged or fill material. The guidelines prohibit the discharge of
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dredged or fill material if there could be a violation of any applicable
State water quality standard and stresses that a filling operation in
wetlands is considered to be among the most severe environmental
impacts. EPA maintains review authority over permit issuance. In the
final analysis, EPA has veto power over an action by the US Army Corps of
Engineers to issue a specific permit. The procedures and conditions
under which this can occur are contained in 40 CFR Part 231. In addition
to these regulations, there are others that specify the conditions under
which a State may administer its own program in lieu of the US Army Corps
of Engineers.
QUALITY ASSURANCE
The Office of Wetlands Protection does not generate data, but coordinates
with other agencies and Offices within EPA, to obtain program data. It
maintains a data system of State wetlands programs and the wetlands
associated with such programs. The US Army Corps of Engineers maintains
a programmatic data system, used by EPA, that contains regulations,
policies, and an information bulletin. No special quality assurance
programs are involved.
SPECIAL STUDIES
No special studies of a national scope are conducted by EPA. The US Fish
and Wildlife Service conducts a national trend analysis related to
wetlands destruction that is based upon 3,700 two-mile square plots
throughout the United States.
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SUGGESTED READING
1. 40 CFR Parts 230, 231. and 233.
2. Anon. 1989. Federal Manual for Identifying and Delineating
Jurisdictional Wetlands. An Interagency Cooperative Publication. US
Army Corps of Engineers, US Environmental Protection Agency, US Fish
and Wildlife Service, and USDA Soil Conservation Service.
3. COE. 1987. Wetlands Evaluation Technique. Volume II Methodology.
US Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg,
MS.
4. Hammer, Donald A., Ed. 1989. Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater
Treatment. Lewis Publishers, Inc., Chelsea, MI.
5. Leopold, Aldo. 1949. A Sand County Almanac. Oxford University
Press, New York.
6. T1ner, R. W. Jr, 1984. Wetlands of the United States: Current Status
and Recent Trends. US Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC.
7. US EPA. 1988. America's Wetlands: Our Vital Link Between Land and
Water. US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC,
OPA-87-016.
8. US EPA. 1989. Wetlands and 401 Certification. Opportunities and
Guidelines for States and Eligible Indian Tribes. US Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Wetlands Protection (A104F), Washington,
DC.
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AIR QUALITY: INDOOR AIR
SUMMARY
Indoor air quality is becoming a major cause of employee complaints in
the office environment. Residential indoor air quality is even of
greater'concern because persons have contact with it for a longer period
of time and often do not realize that they have a problem. A large
number of physical, chemical, biological, and radiological pollutants are
associated with indoor air. Many can lead to serious health effects.
These pollutants come from stoves, heaters, building materials, carpets,
pets, hobbies, tobacco smoke, household chemicals, some water supplies,
motor vehicles in attached garages, and the soils and rocks beneath a
house.
EPA has established a new program in the Office of Atmospheric and Indoor
Air Programs to deal with the problems associated with indoor air
quality. Although this program does not now have statutory authority to
generate regulations, other EPA Offices have produced regulations for
certain pollutants. Major programs for indoor air quality control
include asbestos, radon, formaldehyde in building" materials,
environmental tobacco smoke, volatile organic compounds, and building
ventilation.
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POLLUTION CONCERNS AND SOURCES
PHYSICAL: Indoor air sources can emit products of combustion from
appliances, dirt, dust, asbestos, fabric fibers, insect parts and
environmental tobacco smoke that may cause eye and respiratory
Irritation, respiratory function impairment, allergic and infectious
diseases, asbestosis, and cancer.
CHEMICAL; Many chemicals are emitted within a building from household or
commercial products by evaporation, combustion, volatile breakdown,
degassing or intentional use. .A partial list includes the following.
Inorganic gases such as nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and sulfur
dioxide can cause eye and respiratory irritation, neurotoxicity, blood
effects, and respiratory function impairment. Volatile organic compounds
such as kerosene and mineral spirits can cause neurotoxicity. Aromatic
hydrocarbons such as toluene, styrene, ethylbenzene, benzene and xylenes
can cause liver and kidney effects, blood effects, leukemia, and anemia.
Halogenated carbons such as methylene chloride, 1,1, 1-trichloroethane,
chlordane, ethylene dichloride, freon, PCBs, carbon tetrachloride, and
chloroform can cause liver and kidney effects, neurotoxicity, and
cancer. Alcohols such as ethanol, methanol, ethylene glycol, phenol, and
cresol can cause developmental effects, neurotoxicity, and liver and
kidney effects. Ketones such as acetone, methyl ethyl ketone and methyl
isobutyl ketone can cause developmental effects and eye and respiratory
irritation. Aldehydes such as formaldehyde can cause eye and respiratory
irritation and cancer. Organic pesticides such as malathion can cause
neurotoxicity.
There are many more. It should be noted that many of these chemicals may
be present as the volatile breakdown products of materials of
construction, dry cleaning, pressed wood, Insulation, carpets, and
spray-on materials, etc. It 1s cautioned that the effects, noted above
may not necessarily occur at indoor exposure levels. In many cases the
exposure data are Insufficient to determine the levels at which the
listed effects will occur.
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BIOLOGICAL; Many potential sources of biological irritants and toxicants
may be found in residential and commercial buildings. In many cases,
they are of much greater concern indoors than out because of the close
proximity, closed environment, and fertile breeding grounds. Among the
potential concerns, bacteria and viruses can cause illnesses such as
Legionnaire's disease, and pneumonitis. Animal dander and excreta, and
molds and mildews can cause respiratory irritation, allergic and
infectious diseases, and produce immune effects.
RADIOLOGICAL; Radon found in soils and rocks beneath a house can cause
cancer. Electromagnetic radiation from nearby high-voltage power lines,
appliances and television sets is suspected of causing reproductive,
developmental, and neurobehavioral effects, as well as cancer.
SOURCES; Sources of all of these air pollution problems are many and
varied; they include gas stoves, kerosene heaters, building materials,
human activities, pets, insects, arachnids, pesticides, combustion fuels,
painting supplies, hobby supplies, solvents, cleaners, tobacco smoke,
toilet deodorizers, fabric protectors, adhesives, certain cosmetics, some
tap water, motor vehicles in attached garages, facilities such as damp
basements and air conditioning cooling towers that serve as bacterial,
viral and fungal breeding grounds, the soils and rocks beneath a building
and nearby power lines.
PROGRAM CONTROLS
Title IV of the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986
directed EPA to establish an indoor air quality research program, to
coordinate with other public and private organizations, and to
disseminate Information on indoor air quality issues to the public. This
new program, based in the Office of Atmospheric and Indoor Air Programs,
has used EPA programs and laws other than the Clean Air Act to implement
controls on indoor air pollutants, since the Clean Air Act does not
directly address Indoor Air Quality. Among the existing and developing
programs within EPA that deal with indoor air are the following.
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ASBESTOS; The asbestos program 1s a major national program that
encompasses the full range of regulatory, grant, and technical assistance
activities. It responds to the Asbestos Hazard Emergency Response Act,
the Asbestos School Hazard Abatement Act, and the Toxic Substances
Control Act. EPA has published a rule on proper asbestos Inspection,
management planning and appropriate response actions in schools, as well
as a model accreditation plan to provide for training and accreditation
of persons who inspect school buildings, develop management plans, or
design and conduct response actions. Several asbestos-related
regulations have been issued under the Clean Air Act, Including
regulations specifying workplace procedures to use 1n demolitions and
renovations where asbestos is present. Under the Toxic Substances
Control Act, a rule was Issued to extend worker protection in abatement
activities, to ban certain asbestos products and phase out others.
RADON; EPA estimates that about 20,000 lung cancer deaths each year may
be attributable to indoor radon, and as many as 8 million houses may be
affected. The Indoor Radon Abatement Act was signed Into law 1n 1988.
The action program consists of problem assessment, mitigation and
prevention, capability development, and public Information. Standardized
measurement protocols have been Issued. The mitigation and prevention
program includes demonstrations and evaluations of cost-effective methods
to reduce radon levels in existing homes and the identification and
evaluation of ways to prevent elevated radon levels in new construction.
FORMALDEHYDE; EPA 1s currently Investigating the need for, and potential
nature of, additional Federal regulations under the Toxic Substances
Control Act affecting formaldehyde emissions from pressed wood products
such as particleboard, hardwood plywood paneling, and medium density
flberboard.
ENVIRONMENTAL TOBACCO SMOKE: Reports published by the Surgeon General
and the National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences
conclude that exposure to environmental tobacco smoke 1s a cause of lung
cancer 1n healthy nonsmokers and Is responsible for other health
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effects. Published risk estimates of lung cancer in nonsmokers from
environmental tobacco smoke range from about 4,000 to 50,000 deaths per
year. EPA has undertaken activities including research, risk assessment,
and public information. EPA has no regulatory authority in this area.
VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS; Chronic exposure to some volatile organic
compounds is suspected to contribute to mortality from cancer. Common
sources include building materials and furnishings, paints and related
products, cleaning, disinfecting and odor control products, and
pesticides. EPA.is conducting research under the Toxic Substances
Control Act on building materials and furnishings in chamber laboratories.
BUILDING VENTILATION; Another program promoted by the indoor air program
is that of building ventilation. The air we breath while at work can
affect our job performance, comfort, general sense of well being, and our
health. With millions of Americans working in buildings with mechanical
heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning systems, the system's
efficiency and effective operation can well determine our indoor air
quality. For example, when ventilation is inadequate, excess carbon
dioxide produced by people breathing accumulates. Building spaces may
become stuffy, and occupants grow drowsy, get headaches, and function at
lower activity levels. Ventilation rates specified in local building
codes often are not enforced and in many jurisdictions the rates are
designed to conserve energy rather than promote Indoor air quality. EPA
has no regulatory authority in this area. The American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers establishes
ventilation rate procedures which become mandatory ventilation standards
when adopted by applicable building codes. EPA promotes the concept that
energy costs should be balanced with indoor air quality considerations,
as well as employee health and productivity costs.
QUALITY ASSURANCE
/
The asbestos program consists of detailed regulations on how samples are
taken and analyzed. Certification is required of asbestos Inspectors and
removers. The sampling process requirements are built around the concept
of QA/QC. Similarly, regulations are provided for formaldehyde.
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The generation of most environmental data as they may affect indoor air,
however, are conducted by EPA and Federal offices other than the Office
of Atmospheric and Indoor Air Programs. Quality assurance and quality
control are provided these data by the respective offices that generate
them. These include such data as radon measurement and indoor auto
emissions.
The radon program conducts proficiency evaluations of private radon
measurement companies and non-commercial laboratories who voluntarily
demonstrate their measurement capacities. Several States use these
proficiency evaluations as a basis for regulating measurement companies.
A radon mitigation contractor proficiency program is under development.
SPECIAL STUDIES
An example of a special study was the Total Exposure Assessment
Methodology (TEAM) study to directly measure human exposure to
pollutants. The study focused on volatile organic compounds and
developed methods to measure Individual total exposure and the resulting
body burdens of toxic and carcinogenic chemicals. The TEAM study
Involved 600 participants from New Jersey, North Carolina, North Dakota,
and California. These participants were chosen to represent a total
population of 700,000. Inhalation provided greater than 99 percent of
the exposure risk for 10 of 11 target volatile organic compounds studied.
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SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Meyer, Beat. 1983. Indoor Air Quality. Addison Wesley Pub; Co.,
Inc. Reading, PA.
2. Walsh, Phillip J., et al. (Eds.) 1984. Indoor Air Quality. CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL.
3. US EPA. 1987. Indoor Air Quality Implementation Plan, Report to
Congress. US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC,
EPA-600/8-87-031.
4. US EPA. 1987 Preliminary Indoor Air Pollution Information
Assessment. Appendix A of the 1987 Report to Congress.
EPA-600-/8-87-031.
5. US EPA. 1988. The Inside Story: A Guide to Indoor Air Quality.
US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC,
EPA-400/1-88-004.
6. US EPA. 1989. Report to Congress on Indoor Air Quality.
Executive Summary + 3 Volumes. US Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, DC, EPA-400/1-89-001.
7. Wallace, L.A. 1987. The Total Exposure Assessment Methodology
(TEAM) Study: Summary and Analysis: Volume I. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency,^ Washington, DC.
8. U.S. EPA. 1986. Indoor Radon Fact Sheets.
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AIR QUALITY: MOBILE SOURCES
SUMMARY
The Clean Air Act provides for the regulation of on-road vehicle and
commercial aviation emissions. Proposed revisions to the Act now under
consideration would authorize the regulation of off-road vehicle
emissions as well. Mobile sources contribute as much as 60 percent of
the urban air toxics emissions.
EPA's Office of Mobile Sources undertakes a number of programs to curtail
emission pollution. Technology within the auto industry is continually
assessed. Testing procedures often must be developed to enable
laboratories to conduct reliable and repeatable tests. There are three
principal testing procedures associated with the sale of motor vehicles.
Before a manufacturer can offer a motor vehicle for sale, a certificate
of compliance with emission standards must be obtained. This is a
preproduction test where the prototype design model must pass an
emissions test conducted under EPA inspection before the model can be
offered for sale. Second, as cars are produced on the assembly line, EPA
representatives randomly select some for emission testing by the
manufacturer. If enough of the vehicles tested fail to meet standards,
the manufacturer must make a change in the design of the vehicle to
correct the problem. Third, random vehicles in use are selected to
determine their emission levels after they have been purchased and driven
by their owners. These tests are conducted with the owners' consent. If
a substantial number of any class of vehicles do not conform to emission
standards during their useful lives, they may be subject to an EPA order
to recall the vehicles. In addition, EPA coordinates with States and
cities in their vehicle inspection programs and provides the public with
Information on its fuel economy program for new model cars and trucks.
Regulations are promulgated to provide the structure and enforcement for
these pollution abatement programs.
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A data system is maintained for the data collected in the in-use
emissions testing program. This system provides data for predicting
emissions from future model vehicles and for requiring manufacturers to
recall a class of vehicles that fails to conform to the emission
standards.
POLLUTION CONCERNS AND SOURCES
The pollutants and their sources of concern to the Office of Mobile
Sources are those found in emissions from motor vehicles in operation, as
well as the volatilization of fuels that are being pumped into those
vehicles. Currently there is authority for regulating on-road vehicles
only. The revisions to the Clean Air Act now under consideration would
authorize regulating off-road vehicles as well, which would include
railroads, boats, construction equipment, motorized farm equipment,
lawnmowers, and similar equipment. Specific regulated pollutants include
particulates, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, lead,
and the vapors from gasoline and other fuels.
Hydrocarbons from combustion processes and gasoline vapors can react with
the oxides of nitrogen from motor vehicles in sunlight to form ozone.
The ozone, formed in the lower atmosphere, contributes to respiratory
problems, eye irritation and crop damage. Nitrogen dioxide causes the
yellow-brown color that is sometimes seen in the urban atmosphere. This
and other oxides of nitrogen may affect the respiratory system causing
bronchitis, pneumonia and lung infections.
Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless and poisonous gas produced by
the incomplete combustion of fuel. Most of it comes from motor vehicles
and, thus, is especially bad in urban areas. Carbon monoxide enters the
blood stream and binds to hemoglobin, reducing the transport of oxygen to
the cells. Persons already in ill health can be more severely affected.
Even at low levels, carbon monoxide can affect mental function and visual
acuity.
Lead is a toxic metal that tends to accumulate in the tissues of man and
other animals. It is strongly suspected of producing subtle effects such
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as Impaired neurologic and motor development and renal damage in
children. The control of lead in gasoline has been 'exceptionally
successful; the lead in the atmosphere from cars has gone down 97 percent
in the last 10 years.
PROGRAM CONTROLS
TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT; The Office of Mobile Sources keeps abreast of
technological developments within the auto industry in order to be able
to advise the Administrator, other Federal agencies, and the Congress as
to the ability of the industry to meet emission standards and fuel
economy goals.
TEST PROCEDURE DEVELOPMENT; Once a need for control is determined,
reliable and repeatable test procedures must be developed and published
to enable laboratories to conduct identical tests. Test procedures
generally are published as appendices to the regulations. One such
example is the pollutant characterization of currently unregulated
vehicle pollutants and fuel additives that have the potential of being
health hazards. Special test procedures to measure levels for the new
pollutants must be developed for this purpose.
VEHICLE CERTIFICATION; Before a manufacturer can offer a motor vehicle
for sale in the United States, a certificate of compliance with emission
standards must be obtained. The prototype design model must pass an
emissions test conducted under EPA inspection before the model can be
offered for sale.
ASSEMBLY-LINE TESTING; As cars are produced, EPA representatives
randomly select some for emissions testing by the manufacturer. For
every car randomly selected for the manufacturer's test during an audit,
over a hundred cars are voluntarily tested by auto producers to assure
that the audits do not result in failures which could affect vehicle
production. If enough of the vehicles tested fail to meet standards, the
manufacturer must make a change in the design of the vehicle to correct
the problem. Quality assurance 1s built into this program, as
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well as the vehicle certification program cited above. Confirmatory
tests are made by the EPA testing laboratory at Ann Arbor, MI on some of
the same vehicles that the manufacturer tests. EPA personnel audit all
testing procedures from the selection of the vehicles to be tested to the
completion of the tests and the recording of the data.
SURVEILLANCE OF IN-USE VEHICLES: Randomly selected vehicles in use are
chosen to determine their emission levels after they have been purchased
and driven by their owners. The results of this EPA program, conducted
with the cooperation and consent of the vehicle owner, serve two
purposes. First, the data are used to estimate emission rates for air
quality planning purposes and are entered into a computer modeling
program to project future emission levels and suggest whether new or
different control programs are necessary. Second, Section 207(c) of the
Clean Air Act authorized EPA to order the recall of vehicles if a
substantial number of any class do not conform to emission standards
during their useful lives. During 1987, a total of 1.5 million vehicles
were recalled as a result of EPA investigations. In the same period,
manufacturers voluntarily recalled an additional 1.4 million vehicles to
correct emission problems.
FUEL ECONOMY TESTING; Concurrent with its emission testing, EPA tests
new car models and light trucks to determine their fuel economy. These
data are made available to the public through the annual Gas Mileage
Guide published in cooperation with the Department of Energy. These data
also are used by the Department of Transportation in administering the
fuel economy standards program.
VEHICLE INSPECTION PROGRAM: Urban areas which obtained an extension in
the deadline for attaining the ambient air quality standards for ozone
and carbon monoxide beyond 1982 are required by the Clean Air Act to
implement an inspection and maintenance program. To assure that
operating inspection programs are achieving the planned emission
reductions, EPA has instituted a systematic auditing program. Audits and
follow-up audits have indicated major operating problems in some areas
and have required several States to submit corrective plans. Many States
are switching to computerized analyzers in the inspection networks.
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TAMPERING AND FUEL SWITCHING; EPA 1s responsible for programs to deter
tampering with vehicle emissions control systems or the use of leaded
fuel in vehicles which require unleaded fuel. Surveys undertaken by EPA
have shown tampering and fuel switching to be continuing serious problems
which undermine the emissions control performance of many, in-use
vehicles, particularly those of fleets such as taxi cabs and
municipalities. The 1987 Motor Vehicle Tampering Survey indicates that
about 19 percent of the vehicle fleet is subject to gross tampering, and
about 7 percent to fuel switching. EPA promotes the Implementation of
State and local antitampering enforcement programs. Tampering or the
removal of emission control equipment 1s a Federal offense for repair
shops, while fuel switching is a Federal offense for fleet and gas
station owners.
REGULATORY CONTROLS
Regulations for motor vehicles are to be found at 40 CFR Parts 85 and 86;
regulations for motor vehicle fuels are at 40 CFR Parts 79 and 80. Fuel
economy regulations are at 40 CFR Part 600. Emission standards are set
at levels that are technically and economically feasible and to provide
maximum health protection achievable. EPA provides enforcement for motor
vehicle emissions and the Federal Aviation Administration provides
enforcement for commercial aviation standards.
One of the major regulatory actions that has been very successful has
been the regulation of lead In gasoline. This activity has reduced lead
emissions from motor vehicles by more than 90 percent. The regulation of
hydrocarbons from tailpipe emissions also has been quite successful.
Limitations are placed on additives other than lead in fuels, e.g.,
ethanol. Certain characteristics of diesel fuels are regulated. The
vaporization of gasoline while being pumped into motor vehicles, which is
a major source of urban pollution, Is controlled by some cities that
require devices on the fuel Injector. Legislation now In Congress may
require additional equipment on motor vehicles that will capture gasoline
vapor and burn it.
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QUALITY ASSURANCE
FIELD FACILITY; The field facility and motor vehicle testing and fuel
testing laboratory is located in _Ann Arbor, MI. Contract laboratories
also are used. The Office has a quality assurance officer in its Ann
Arbor facility. The laboratory operates under a quality assurance plan.
DATA SYSTEM; Data from the testing of in-use vehicles are stored in MTS,
the Michigan Telecommunications System. Such data include background
information on the vehicle tested, results of the emission tests, and
responses to a routine questionnaire by the vehicle owner. Prior to
entry into the data system, a contractor manually checks the data to
determine that all required data are there and. that the information is
within expected bounds. There is a range check of the data by the
computer and the contractor reviews any information that the computer
flags. Data from the system are used in MOBILE-4, a computer model to
predict emissions from future automobile models and to determine
potential environmental effects based upon these predictions.
SPECIAL STUDIES
OFF-ROAD VEHICLES: A review of available information is being conducted
on emissions from ofNroad vehicles, particularly diesel engines used in
railroads, farming, and construction equipment. This study is being done
in anticipation of potential changes to the Clean Air Act that would
include such vehicles within the regulatory framework.
ALTERNATIVE FUELS; Alternate fuels and alternative vehicles are being
examined as an opportunity for further vehicle emissions reduction.
Alternative fuels currently being examined include methanol and ethanol,
natural gas, which principally is methane and liquid petroleum gas,
which is propane and butane or a combination of the two. Electric
powered vehicles also are being examined. The alternative fuels program
is supported both by EPA personnel and through contract funding.
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SUGGESTED READING
1. Patterson, D. J. and N. A. Henein. 1972. Emissions from
Combustion Engines and their Control. Ann Arbor Publishers, Inc.,
Ann Arbor, MI.
2. US EPA. 1989. Progress In the Prevention and Control of Air
Pollution in 1987. A Report to Congress. US Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, EPA-450/2-89-009.
3. US EPA. 1989. Status of Selected Air Pollution Control Programs.
US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning
and Standards, Research Triangle Park, NC.
4. US EPA. 1989. Fundamentals of Air Pollution and Motor Vehicle
Emissions Control, Training Manual. US Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Mobile Sources, Washington, DC.
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AIR QUALITY: STATIONARY SOURCES
SUMMARY
EPA has set National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for six air
pollutants; ozone, oxides of nitrogen, carbon monoxide, lead, particulate
matter, and sulfur dioxide. A geographic area is termed in attainment
for a specific pollutant if the ambient concentration is less than the
standard; it is in non-attainment if the concentration exceeds the
standard. The attainment status is determined through direct measurement
of the six pollutants by the State and Local Ambient Monitoring Station
(SLAMS) Networks. These networks of fixed monitors are developed,
deployed, and operated according to uniform criteria specified in the
regulations.
In addition, the States and EPA monitor the ambient concentrations of
many air pollutants that are not specifically regulated. For example,
many States measure ambient concentrations of acid deposition parameters,
volatile organics, other metals, benzo-alpha-pyrene and other
semi-volatiles, along with meteorological parameters needed for pollutant
transport modeling.
The stationary source compliance program focuses on the six pollutants
for which EPA has specified National Ambient Air Quality Standards and on
the hazardous air pollutants for which EPA has designated National
Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPS). Examples of
stationary sources include power plants, factories, or waste treatment
facilities that generate various air pollutants and emit them through
stacks or as fugitive emissions. This program is based on the permitting
process, in which specific sources that apply for permits to construct
and operate facilities are tested to demonstrate compliance with permit
conditions, and are audited to confirm continuing compliance. In
general, EPA delegates authority to administer the compliance program to
States through the State Implementation Plans (SIPS) or through direct
delegation of specific Federal programs such as NESHAPS, the Prevention
of Significant Deterioration (PSD), or New Source Performance Standards
(NSPS).
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The most important data elements relate to the demonstration of source
compliance, usually in the form of stack emission tests, overseen by EPA
or State QA personnel. Emission data, along with compliance information
are stored in a large national data base, the Aerometrfc Information
Reporting System (AIRS).
POLLUTION CONCERNS AND SOURCES
Not a respecter of boundaries, the effects of air pollution frequently
appear far from their source. Atmospheric pollution, however,
principally is an urban problem. Most air pollution from stationary
sources comes from industries such as factories, power plants, and
smelters.
EPA has set National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) based upon
medical and other scientific evidence of health and environmental effects
for six pollutants. These standards apply to ozone, oxides of nitrogen,
carbon monoxide, lead, particulate matter, and sulfur dioxide. Ozone and
smog are formed when volatile organic compounds and oxides of nitrogen
interact in the presence of sunlight. Ozone irritates the eyes,
aggravates respiratory problems, and causes crop damage. Oxides of
nitrogen affect the respiratory system and can cause bronchitis,
pneumonia, and lung infections. Lead, which can come from battery
factories and non-ferrous smelters, is a dangerous pollutant because it
accumulates in body tissues (particularly in children) and can cause
neurological impairment and behavioral disorders. Particulate matter is
a general term for airborne particles, some of which are seen in the form
of smoke or dust; some are too small to be seen. Particulates can
Irritate the respiratory system and may carry metals, sulfates, and
nitrates. Sulfur oxides, and particularly sulfur dioxide, come primarily
from the burning of coal and oil and various industrial processes. In
the atmosphere, they react to form sulfuric acid, sulfates and sulfides.
They can affect the respiratory system, especially when the sulfuric acid
settles on a fine particle which is inhaled.
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In addition to the National Ambient Air Quality Standards, EPA
establishes National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants,
which are called NESHAPS^ These standards-are designed to control the
emission of toxic substances, even small amounts of which may adversely
affect health. Examples of these pollutants are benzene, asbestos,
beryllium, mercury, vinyl chloride, coke oven emissions, and
radionuclides.
PROGRAM CONTROLS
AMBIENT AIR MONITORING; States and local agencies are required to
develop, set up, maintain, and operate the State and Local Air Monitoring
Stations (SLAMS) networks to provide year-round measurements of the six
NAAQS pollutants. A sub-set of these monitors, specifically designated
as National Ambient Monitoring Stations (NAMS), is used by EPA for
national trend analyses. The NAMS and SLAMS monitoring must adhere to
very specific network design, probe siting, monitoring method and
equipment, and quality assurance requirements stated in the EPA
regulations. There are about 4,500 SLAMS monitors and 1,000 NAMS
nationwide. The resulting data are used by EPA and the States to
determine the attainment status of specific geographic areas, to evaluate
air quality trends, and as the basis for the development of air pollution
control strategies and regulations to reduce or maintain ambient
concentrations.
STATE IMPLEMENTATION PLAN (SIP); SIPS form the basis of all State air
pollution assesment and control activities, as well as management of
emerging problems. They contain a State's plans, policies, regulations,
and schedules for controlling air pollution. They result from the formal
requirement for a State to determine if national air quality standards
are being attained. States must develop and enforce a SIP that details
measures to be undertaken to achieve compliance with national air quality
standards for any non-attainment areas. EPA approves these plans. If a
State plan is not acceptable, EPA is required to provide a Federal
implementation plan which EPA itself must then enforce. When a State has
not shown that it can achieve air quality standards by an acceptable
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date, EPA may disapprove the SIP and propose bans on construction in the
area Involved or take other measures.
NATIONAL EMISSION STANDARDS FOR HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS (NESHAPS);
Developed for a particular source category, NESHAPS currently control
arsenic, benzene, asbestos, beryllium, mercury, vinyl chloride, coke oven
emissions, and radionuclides in about 25 source emissions categories.
Several more substances are under consideration for NESHAPS action.
NESHAPS is a Federal permit program, delegatable to the States, that is
designed to control emission of particular hazardous materials without
regard to NAAQS.
NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS (NSPS); NSPS is a Federal permit
program for new sources of air pollution in specific source categories.
Any new or modified facility in one of these categories is required to
install control equipment along with the process construction. The level
of control required depends upon the current air quality in the area for
the pollutant in question. If the area to be affected by the source Is
currently attaining the NAAQS, the source is required to install the best
available control technology, while a source in a non-attainment area
must meet the lowest achievable emission rate for that source category.
Source testing and monitoring requirements, along with quality assurance,
are specified in the regulations. While NSPS is a Federal program, it
may be delegated to any State that demonstrates Its ability to enforce a
program at least as stringent as EPA's.
PREVENTION OF SIGNIFICANT DETERIORATION (PSD): PSD is a program designed
to ensure that new or modified air pollution sources constructed in areas
with clean air will not cause ambient air concentrations to rise over the
NAAQS. It requires that a potential source demonstrate that Its process
and controls will achieve the desired ambient air concentrations. It is
different from NSPS and NESHAPS In that they are emission and control
oriented while PSD Is oriented toward ambient air quality Impact.
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REGULATORY CONTROLS
Principal stationary source pollution control regulations are the
National Ambient Air Quality Standards, National Emissions Standards for
Hazardous Air Pollutants, New Source Performance Standards, Significant
Deterioration standards in pristine areas, and State Implementation
Plans. Ambient air monitoring reference and equivalent test methods are
published in 40 CFR 53. The NAAQS set levels for six pollutants that
must be attained. NESHAPS establish source levels for specific
pollutants to protect ambient air from toxic pollutants. NSPS require
best available control technology in air quality attainment areas and
lowest achievable emission rate in ambient air non-attainment areas,
which are specified on a case-by-case determination.
An SIP describes in detail the measures being undertaken or planned by a
State to attain ambient air quality standards in non-attainment areas. A
SIP is Federally enforceable.
QUALITY ASSURANCE
EPA administers a national performance audit program for ensuring SLAMS
and NAMS monitor performance and conducts periodic audits of sites,
equipment, and the State programs as a whole. For specific stationary
source sampling, the analytic procedures are included in QA project
plans, which often are called stack test protocols in this program.
These must be approved ahead of time and must be followed during the
testing. In addition, EPA and State personnel often are able to arrange
for performance evaluation audit samples to improve confidence in the
analytical results.
DATA SYSTEMS; The Aerometric Information Reporting System (AIRS) is a new
integrated data system that consolidates existing data systems at the
national level. AIRS contains the ambient air monitoring data collected
through SLAMS and NAMS programs. States are required to enter NAMS data
and yearly summary data from SLAMS activities. They may enter other or
all data collected in the SLAMS program. AIRS contains stack emission
data originally entered into the National Emissions Data System (NEDS).
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AIRS also contains data describing the compliance status and the
enforcement activities of all major and many minor stationary sources of
air pollution. These data previously were stored in the Compliance Data
System (CDS). Output reports from the system enable management to (1)
maintain an inventory of facilities emitting regulated pollutants; (2)
assess enforcement strategies with regard to those sources; (3) monitor
local, State and regional enforcement actions; and (4) measure compliance
and enforcement programs.
AIRS further contains geographic and common information, which includes
city and county location codes and other descriptive information. When
AIRS becomes fully operational, the other data systems described above
will lose their individual identity.
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SUGGESTED READING
1. Cross, Frank L., Jr. 1973. Handbook on Air Pollution Control.
Technomic Publishing Co. Inc., Westport, CT.
2. Stern, Arthur C. 1976. Air Pollution, 3rd Edition, in 8 volumes.
Academic Press, NY. Vol. 1. Air Pollutants: Air Transformation and
Transport. Vol. 2. Effects of Air Pollution.
3. US EPA. 1989. Progress in the Prevention and Control of Air
Pollution in 1987. Report to Congress. US Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, EPA-450/2-89-009.
4. US EPA. 1989. Status of Selected Air Pollution Control Programs.
US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning
and Standards, Research Triangle Park, NC.
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RADIATION
SUMMARY
The health effects associated with radiation exposure may include anemia,
loss of hair, deleterious genetic changes, risk of cancer, or death from
a single rapid dose. Environmental sources of radiation are many, but
natural background and radiation associated with diagnosis and treatment
of diseases are among the major contributors. However, any exposure to
radiation carries some risk, which increases as the exposure increases.
EPA's Office of Radiation Programs conducts a radon action program that
involves identifying the problem in homes, schools, offices, and Federal
buildings. The Government has the capability to respond to nuclear
accidents. Protective action guides have been issued to States to
protect persons from accidents at nuclear power plants. Assistance is
provided in the clean-up of radioactively contaminated hazardous waste
sites. Routine monitoring is carried out at 268 nation-wide sampling
stations on milk, surface water, drinking water, and air. Regulations
have been developed to control disposal of spent nuclear fuels, high- and
low-level radioactive wastes, uranium mines and mill tailings, and
industrial radionuclide emissions. Two field facilities are operated by
EPA that provide technical assistance, investigations, and emergency
response.
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POLLUTION CONCERNS AND SOURCES
CONCERNS: Concerns involving radiation are associated with exposure and
resultant bodily effects. Ionizing radiation can remove electrons from
atoms. Whether in the form of x-rays, neutrons, protons, alpha or beta
particles, or gamma rays, it acts either directly or by secondary
reactions to produce biochemical lesions that initiate a series of
histologic changes, as well as physiologic symptoms and signs that vary
with the radiation dose and time. A single rapid dose may be fatal,
while the administration of the same dose over a period of weeks or
months may be tolerated with few measurable acute effects. Tissues vary
in response to immediate radiation injury, and, generally, the more rapid
the turnover of the cell, the greater the radiation sensitivity.
Prolonged or repeated exposure to low dose rates may produce decreased
fertility, anemia, leukopenia, cataracts, loss of hair, skin atrophy,
deleterious genetic changes, and cancer.
SOURCES; Environmental radiation sources include uranium mine, and mill
tailings, industrial emissions, nuclear reactors, high-level radioactive
waste disposal, naturally occurring radon from soils and rocks, nuclear
weapons production, medical radiation in x-rays and
radiopharmaceuticals, low-level radioactive waste disposal, and radio
frequency radiation. Secondary contaminant sources include air,
precipitation, surface and drinking water and milk. Natural background
(cosmic, terrestrial, internal) accounts for 44.6 percent of annual
whole-body radiation dose-equivalent rates, medical radiation for 49.4
percent, fallout from weapons testing 2.4 percent, consumer products 1.9
percent, and airline travel 0.3 percent.
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PROGRAM CONTROLS
The basic assumption behind radiation protection programs is that any
exposure to radiation carries some risk, which increases as the exposure
increases.
RADON ACTION PROGRAM; The program consists of four main elements:
problem assessment, mitigation and prevention, capability development,
and public information. Problem assessment relates to determining the
national distribution of radon occurrences in schools, houses, the
workplace, and the associated health risks that go with those locations.
A National Residential Radon Survey has been initiated by EPA.
Mitigation and prevention includes demonstrations and evaluations of cost
effective methods to reduce radon levels. Capability development
includes radon diagnostic and mitigation techniques, training courses,
implementation of regional radon training centers, a radon measurement
proficiency program and a radon contractor proficiency program. Public
information includes the dissemination of information through brochures
and technical reports.
PROTECTIVE ACTION GUIDES; EPA has issued Protective Action Guides and
Implementation Guidance for use by States relating to exposure of the
whole body and the thyroid gland to airborne radioactivity from accidents
at nuclear power plants.
RADIOACTIVELY CONTAMINATED SITES; The Office of Radiation Programs
supports the Superfund program to ensure that site cleanup activities do
not result in radiation hazards and that appropriate cleanup technology
and methods are adopted to effectively and efficiently reduce the hazards
associated with radiation problems encountered at the sites. Twenty-one
sites on EPA's National Priority List are contaminated with radioactive
materials. The Office is responsible for establishing safety protocols,
data quality objectives, investigative procedures, and cleanup levels.
RESIDUAL RADIOACTIVITY; EPA is developing criteria for cleanup of sites
and buildings that are contaminated with radioactivity. Thousands of
facilities, such as laboratories and power plants 1n operation around the
country use radioactive materials. When these facilities cease operation,
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they must be cleaned before they can be made available for other uses.
Any remaining equipment must be decontaminated.
REGULATORY CONTROLS
LOW-LEVEL RADIOACTIVE WASTE: It is estimated that by the year 2000,
there will be about 3 million cubic meters of low-level radioactive
wastes generated by commercial activities and 1.5 million cubic meters
generated by the Department of Energy. There are now three operational
land disposal commercial sites at Barnwell, SC; Beatty, NV; and Rich!and,
WA. There are 16 Federal storage sites widely distributed around the
country. Proposed standards for management and land disposal of low-level
radioactive wastes are being developed and publication is expected in
1990. The standards will include natural and accelerator produced wastes
and will establish criteria for designating levels of radioactivity in
wastes below regulatory concern.
SPENT NUCLEAR FUEL AND HIGH-LEVEL RADIOACTIVE WASTES STANDARDS: In 1987,
there were about 16,000 metric tons of commercial spent nuclear fuel and
382,000 cubic meters of liquid and solified waste. High-level
radioactive waste is the waste from reprocessing spent reactor fuel.
Commercial wastes are now stored at individual reactor sites or at
storage sites in West Valley, NY; Aiken, SC; and Morris, IL. Department
of Defense wastes are stored at special sites in Rich!and, WA; Aiken, SC,
and Idaho Falls, ID. Spent nuclear fuel is being stored temporarily in
pools of water at individual reactor sites and at three specifically
designated sites in the United States. Environmental standards for the
management and disposal of spent nuclear fuel, high-level, and
transuranic radioactive wastes were issued but portions were remanded by
the Court. They are being reevaluated and it is expected that they will
be proposed late in 1990.
URANIUM AND THORIUM STANDARDS; Both air and water standards have been
issued for the control of effluents and emissions from uranium and
thorium milling operations and for the final disposal of tailings for 27
active milling sites, and 24 inactive sites. Tailings must be stabilized
so that health hazards will be controlled and limited. Quantitative
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standards are being developed for inactive sites, including ground-water
protection standards.
RADIONUCLIDES EMISSION STANDARDS; EPA has listed radionuclides as
hazardous air pollutants. Early in 1989, EPA proposed four alternative
approaches for controlling radionuclide emissions from 12 source
categories including reactors and support facilities, elemental
phosphorus plants, coal fired utilities and industrial boilers, uranium
mines and tailing piles. The Agency found, for example, that the
emission rate of radon from underground mines may be highly variable
depending on mine ventilation rates, ore grade, exposed surface areas,
mining practices and geologic formations. This latest effort is in
accordance with a court-mandated process following earlier standards
setting actions.
QUALITY ASSURANCE
There are two types of EPA activities in the radiation field that
emphasize quality assurance. These include the field facilities and data
systems.
FIELD FACILITIES; Two field facilities are operated by EPA; one is in
Montgomery, AL, the other is in Las Vegas, NV, which coordinate
monitoring activities east and west of the Mississippi River,
respectively. The Eastern facility conducts field and laboratory
measurement programs, operates two radon calibration chambers to evaluate
•instruments and methods for radon measurements, operates the
Environmental Radiation Ambient Monitoring System, provides personnel and
equipment for EPA's nuclear accident response program, develops and
validates computer radiation dose models, provides technical assistance
and laboratory assistance to States and conducts special studies and
programs in support of Superfund. The Las Vegas facility conducts
studies In radiation problem areas such as Superfund sites, waste
disposal, mill tailings, construction materials, and uranium and
Plutonium operations; operates a radon chamber in support of the Radon
Measurement Proficiency Program; conducts measurements related to
electromagnetic fields; estimates dose and risk from radionuclides with
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the use of computer models; provides an emergency response capability for
radiation incidents; and provides assistance and advice on radiochemical
analyses and measurements of both ionizing and electromagnetic radiation.
EPA established the Radon Measurement Proficiency Program to assess the
capabilities of private radon measurement companies and non-commercial
laboratories. Under this program, companies offering measurement
services voluntarily demonstrate their measurement capabilities. EPA
provides lists of successful participants to the States who distribute
them to homeowners upon request. Over 800 companies are listed.
DATA SYSTEMS: -The Environmental Radiation Ambient Monitoring System
(ERAMS) comprises 268 nation-wide sampling stations at which air,
precipitation, surface-water, drinking water, and milk samples are
collected to derive radiation levels. In cooperation with State
radiation program personnel, 65 composite pasteurized milk samples, which
are representative of a significant fraction of the US milk consumption,
are collected quarterly; air filter and precipitation samples are
obtained twice weekly from locations; and river samples are obtained
quarterly from 58 locations. In all, the monthly sampling schedule
accounts for 2,000 samples for 6,000 analyses. Results of this
monitoring are published in Environmental Radiation Data, which is
distributed quarterly to States and interested private organizations.
ERAMS is subjected to rigid quality assurance controls.
SPECIAL STUDIES
Three studies, national in scope, relate to radon. The National
Residential Radon Survey, mentioned earlier, involves a year-long testing
of 7,500 homes selected according to population density. A contractor
collects the samples, which are analyzed in a commercial laboratory. The
Office of Radiation Programs is w'orking with other Federal Agencies to
survey all Federal buildings for radon. A national survey of schools is
being initiated through the States.
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SUGGESTED READINGS
]. Eisenbud, Merril. 1963. Environmental Radioactivity. McGraw-Hill
Inc., NY.
2. NCRP. 1975. Natural Background Radiation in the United States.
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements,
Washington, DC.
3. US EPA. 1986. A Citizen's Guide to Radon: What it is and what to
do about it. US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
Radiation Programs, Washington, DC.
4. US EPA. 1987. Radon Reference Manual. US Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, DC, EPA-520/1-87-020. -
5. US EPA. 1989. Office of Radiation Programs: Program Description.
US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, .DC.
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FEDERAL ACTIVITIES
SUMMARY
EPA has far-reaching environmental review and comment authority
associated with the National Environmental Policy Act, Section 309 of the
Clean Air Act, Executive Order 12088, and Office of Management and
Budget's Circular A-l06. These authorities provide oversite authority
for virtually all major Federal actions that may impact the environment.
In addition, EPA's Office of Federal Activities exercises oversight of
EPA compliance with these statutory and administrative authorities.
Programs that manage the above authorities include Federal facilities
compliance, NEPA compliance, environmental review, and compliance with
certain cross-cutting environmental statutes. In addition, an Indian
activities program ensures adequate protection of human health and the
environment on Indian reservations. Two programmatic data systems, the
Environmental Review Tracking System and the Federal Facilities
Information System, provide the reservoir of information necessary to
manage the programs. ^
PROGRAM ACTIVITIES
EPA's Office of Federal Activities is the focal point for oversight of
other Federal agencies to ensure that they carry out their activities in
an environmentally sound manner. This oversight addresses multimedia
environmental concerns, with particular emphasis on natural resources,
environmental values, and public health. This Office is EPA's principal
liaison with the Council on Environmental Quality and the center within
EPA for environmental impact studies and evaluation.
The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), signed on January 1, 1970,
1s the basic national charter for protection of the environment. That
law establishes policy, sets goals, and provides means for carrying out
the policy. The Council on Environmental Quality regulations, 40 CFR
1500, notify Federal agencies of what they must do to comply with the
procedures and achieve the goals of the Act. These regulations provide
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guidance on the necessity for environmental impact statements, as well as
the recommended procedures and format for their development and issuance
for public review.
EPA has been delegated the management of the official filing system for
all Federal Environmental Impact Statements (EISs). The Office of
Federal Activities provides general liaison and coordination between EPA
and other Federal agencies on environmental issues. Further, the Office
oversees EPA compliance with a variety of environmental statutes and
Executive Orders primarily administered by other agencies such as the
Endangered Species Act and the Floodplain Management Executive Order.
Any significant environmental action by another Federal agency receives
EPA review and comment under the authority of Section 309 of the Clean
Air Act.
EPA has significant review and comment authority 1n three legislative and
administrative areas: NEPA, Section 309, and the Office of Management
and Budget's Circular A-106. About 10,000 environmental assessments for
projects with minimal environmental Impacts are prepared annually by
Federal agencies. About 450 environmental Impact statements are prepared
annually for projects that the proposing agency views as having
significant potential for environmental Impacts. EPA reviews all of the
environmental impact statements and about 20 percent of the environmental
assessments. In addition, EPA reviews the environmental impacts of
legislation, regulations, or other major actions proposed by a Federal
agency.
f-
In Its public comments, EPA assigns a rating to Its environmental Impact
statement reviews. The rating scheme may Indicate a lack of objection,
an environmental concern that should be avoided or mitigated,
environmental objections that must be corrected to provide adequate
environmental protection, or the project may be classed as environmentally
unsatisfactory. In the latter case, If a negotiated agreement cannot be
reached between the proposing agency and EPA to correct the problem in
the Final EIS, EPA may refer the matter to the Council on Environmental
Quality for further Investigation under the authority of Section 309 of
the Clean Air Act.
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Under Circular A-106, EPA reviews all Federal agency annual pollution
abatement plans and budgets and provides comments to the Office of
Management and Budget. In 1988, there were 758 proposed Federal
pollution abatement projects that totaled nearly $1.1 billion.
PROGRAM CONTROLS
FEDERAL FACILITIES COMPLIANCE; The Office provides oversight and
coordination of EPA activities designed to bring Federal facilities, into
compliance with pollution control requirements, and in conformance with
Executive Order 12088. Federal environmental statutes require that
facilities of the U.S. Government comply with Federal, State, and local
pollution control requirements to the same extent as non-Federal entities.
Executive Order 12088 established the Executive program for carrying out
these legislative mandates. Disputes regarding compliance by Federal
facilities are resolved through administrative procedures specified in
the Executive Order. EPA coordinates implementation of pollution
abatement programs with other Federal agencies, provides technical advice
and assistance to ensure cost-effective and timely compliance, conducts
reviews and inspections to ensure compliance by Federal facilities,
assists agencies and the Office of Management and Budget in developing
budgetary plans for controlling pollution from Federal facilities, tracks
Federal agency compliance records, and resolves disputes between Federal
agencies and States regarding non-compliance by Federal facilities.
ENVIRONMENTAL REVIEW; EPA has responsibility to review and comment on
major Federal actions affecting the quality of the environment. Under
Section 309 of the Clean Air Act, as well as under NEPA, EPA's comments
are made available to the public. Major Federal actions presently
include the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant for Department of Defense nuclear
wastes; the Army's program for destruction of obsolete chemical
munitions; Department of Interior's Outer Continental Shelf oil and gas
lease sales; the U.S. Forest Service's forest management plans; the Corps
of Engineers public works projects; navigation projects; flood control
projects; Section 404 dredge and fill permits; highway and airport
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projects; and the Bureau of Reclamation's water contracts, dams, or
operating plans.
NEPA COMPLIANCE; Procedual compliance with the National Environmental
Policy Act Is required for municipal wastewater treatment construction
grants, EPA-issued NPDES permits for discharges subject to new source
performance standards, research and development projects and EPA facility
construction. Voluntary development of an environmental Impact statement
pursuant to EPA policy applies to radiation and portions of the clean air
program, ocean dumping regulations and ocean dump site specifications.
The remainder of EPA's programs are deemed to provide reviews that are
"functionally equivalent" to NEPA reviews. EPA's NEPA compliance
involves the preparation of an environmental assessment, a finding of no
significant impact, or the preparation of an environmental Impact
statement, as well as overview of State programs under delegation of the
construction grants program and under the State Revolving Fund.
INDIAN ACTIVITIES; EPA's programs are designed to ensure adequate
protection of human health and the environment on Indian reservations.
The.policy involved is to ensure that EPA works with Tribes on a
government-to-government basis and that Indian tribal governments have a
role in the environmental programs on the reservation, ranging from a
participatory role in program implementation to full program delegation
where this is appropriate.
CROSS-CUTTING ENVIRONMENTAL STATUTES; EPA 1s responsible for complying
with a number of environmental statutes and Executive Orders where the
agency does not have primary responsibility for their Implementation, but
where agency action may come within their purview. Examples of such
statutes and Executive Orders are the National Historic Preservation Act,
Historic Sites Act, Endangered Species Act, Wild and Scenic Rivers Act.
Farmlands Protection Policy Act, Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act,
Coastal Zone Management Act, Coastal Barrier Resources Act, the Executive
Order on Floodplains, and the Executive Order on Wetlands. Interagency
agreements are developed to detail procedures for compliance with the
requirements and to enable State agencies directly to assure project
compliance with these statutes for the State Revolving Fund program.
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REGULATORY CONTROLS
40 CFR Part 6 regulations provide EPA procedures for compliance with
NEPA. Revised NEPA-implementing regulations for Research and Development
Projects are in the development stage.
QUALITY ASSURANCE
DATA SYSTEMS: Although environmental data are not collected, the Office
operates two data systems. The Environmental Review Tracking System
(ERTS) is operated in coordination with the Council on Environmental
Qaulity. The system maintains information on environmental impact
statements, date of draft publication, date of comment closure period,
and date of final publication. The system also maintains information on
Section 309 EPA reviews and comments. ERTS has the capability to provide
information on any of 14,000 environmental impact statements that have
been filed since 1970.
The Federal Facilities Information System (FFIS) tracks needs information
for Federal facilities for budget purposes. The system provides
information on the environmental pollution control facilities needed by
various Federal agencies. EPA reviews all Federal budgets for
expenditures for Federal facilities pollution control needs and provides
comments on these reviews to the Office of Management and Budget.
SPECIAL STUDIES
Investigations and studies are undertaken where there is disagreement
among States over the environmental impacts of Federal actions or where
additional information is needed for NEPA compliance. Special studies of
the Office of Federal Activities are limited to environmental impact
statement type actions. Examples of such studies include a study of the
environmental effects of EPA's new source performance standards based on
effluent guidelines for Alaska's placer mining Industry, studies related
to Federal projects on Indian reservations, and a study of the Illinois
River and the placement of a Federally-funded sewage treatment plant.
These studies generally are of a localized, short-term nature. Quality
assurance is applied to the contractor-operated studies.
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SUGGESTED READING
1. 40 CFR Part 1500
2. Kennedy, William V. 1988. Environmental Impact Assessment In North
America, Western Europe, What Has Worked, Where, How. and Why.
International Environmental Reporter, as reproduced by The Bureau of
National Affairs, Inc., Washington, DC., p.257.
3. Wathern, Peter (Ed.). 1988. Environmental Impact Assessment, Theory
and Practice. Unwin Hyman Publisher, London.
4. U.S. EPA. 1985. Interim Strategy for Implementation of the EPA
Indian Policy. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
Federal Activities, Washington, DC, (November).
5. U.S. EPA. 1988. Federal Facilities Compliance Strategy. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Federal Activities,
Washington, DC.
6. U.S. EPA. 1988. Environmental Protection Agency Activities on
Indian Reservations, FY 87. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Federal Activities, Washington/DC.
7. U.S. EPA. 1988. A Look at NEPA: A Series of Six Articles on NEPA,
Section 309, and OMB Circular A-106 Processes, IN: EPA Journal. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Public Affairs,
Washington, DC, January/February, pp.21-39.
8. U.S. EPA. 1989. Generic Protocol for Multi-Media Environmental
Audits at Federal. Facilities. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Federal Activities, Washington, DC.
9. U.S. EPA. 1989. Environmental Audit Program Design Guidelines for
Federal Agencies. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
Federal Activities, Washington, DC.
10. U.S. EPA (Revised annually). Review of Federal Actions Impacting the
Environment. A manual. Office of Federal Activities, Washington, DC.
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PESTICIDES
SUMMARY
Chemicals formulated to kill a multitude of plant and animal pests can
cause serious human health and environmental damage when used improperly
or against other than a target species. EPA regulates the sale and use
of pesticides through registration and labeling. It is unlawful for
anyone to use a pesticide in violation of label instructions. Further,
for the protection of human health, EPA sets maximum legal limits for
pesticide residues on foods sold in the United States.
EPA regulates a pesticide in a manner such as to preclude unreasonable
risk from its use to human health or the environment. The process
requires a balancing of risk against the benefits to be derived by
pesticide use. Pesticides are registered on the basis of their active
ingredients. Recent amendments to the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and
Rodenticide Act require EPA to reregister all existing pesticides in the
context of current standards and testing by 1991. If a registered
pesticide shows evidence of unreasonable adverse effects, EPA can conduct
a Special Review. The results of that Special Review can lead to
cancellation, suspension, restriction of pesticide use to certified
applicators, requiring protective clothing, prohibiting certain
application methods or use in certain areas, or continued registration
with no change.
Product enviornmental and health effects data for registration
requirements include the use of Good Laboratory Practice standards, as
well as EPA chemical fate testing guidelines, environmental effects
testing guidelines, and health effects testing procedures. Good
Laboratory Practices compliance audits are conducted by EPA's Office of
Compliance monitoring. Quality assurance audits and protocols apply to
pesticide registrants and laboratories analyzing pesticide samples for
registration.
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ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS AND USES
By definition, pesticides are toxic chemicals. They are designed to kill
specific pests including terrestial and aquatic plants, insects, fungi,
bacteria, nuisance snails, clams, barnacles, and selected fish. Some
pesticides have been found to cause cancer, birth defects, skin, eye, and
other adverse health effects in human beings.
EPA regulates the sale and use of pesticides in the United States under
the authority and direction of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and
Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) and the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
(FFDCA). Under FIFRA, all pesticides must be registered with EPA before
they may be sold or distributed in commerce. There is an overall
risk-benefit standard for pesticide registration, requiring that
pesticides perform their intended function, when used according to
labeling directions, without posing unreasonable risks of adverse effects
on human health or the environment. In making pesticide registration and
labeling decisions, EPA is required to take into account the economic,
social, and environmental costs and benefits of pesticide uses. Under
FFDCA, EPA sets tolerances, or maximum legal limits, for pesticide
residues on food and feed commodities marketed in the U.S. The purpose
of the tolerance is to ensure that consumers are not exposed to unsafe
food-pesticide residue levels.
In addition to the use of pesticides in agriculture and silviculture,
they also are used as slimlcides, as antifouling paints on ships and
boats, in hospitals, in greenhouses, and for a variety of home and garden
applications. Pesticide use in the United States more than doubled in 21
years; it increased from 540 million pounds of active Ingredients in 1964
to over one billion pounds in 1985. Agriculture accounted for 77 percent
of the uses in 1985, which cost the farming industry $4.6 billion.
Pesticides are used on as many as two million farms, in 75 million
households, and by 40,000 commercial pest control firms. Thirty major
and 100 minor companies produce active pesticide ingredients, 3,000
companies formulate pesticides, and there are 29,000 distributors.
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The regulation of pesticides requires a balancing of risks and benefits,
including a balancing of human health and environmental protection with
agricultural and other pest control needs. For the 50,000 pesticide
products registered on the basis of their active ingredients, EPA can (1)
continue registration with no changes where risks and benefits already
are in balance; (2) modify the terms and conditions of the registration
to, lower the risk by requiring protective clothing for application
including gloves, hats, respirators, outer clothing; restricting use to
persons who have been certified by a State as qualified; prohibiting
certain formulation uses; prohibiting certain application methods; and
other constraints; (3) cancel the use of a pesticide; or (4) suspend use
of a pesticide on a regular or emergency basis.
PROGRAM CONTROLS
REGISTRATION OF NEW PESTICIDES: Pesticide registration is a pre-market
review and licensing program for all pesticides marketed in the U.S. EPA
annually reviews about 15,000 registration submissions of various kinds.
Only about 15 new active ingredients chemicals are registered each year.
The agency bases registration decisions for new pesticides on its
evaluation of test data provided by applicants. Required studies include
testing to show whether a pesticide has the potential to cause adverse
effects in humans, fish, wildlife, and endangered species. Data on
environmental fate and effects also are required so that EPA can
determine whether a pesticide poses a threat to ground or surface water.
EPA reviews, evaluates, and validates data submitted on toxicological and
adverse effects on humans and domestic animals and on effects on fish and
wildlife, as well as ultimate fate. Human and non-human risk assessments
are made. Economic analyses on the impacts of regulatory options are
developed. Registration standards are issued for new active
ingredients. Registration standards include a comprehensive review of
all available data on a chemical, a list of additional data needed for
full registration, and the agency's current regulatory position on the
pesticide. For a new active ingredient that has not been marketed
before, it may take six to nine years and $2 million to $4 million to
comply with all registration data requirements. EPA may issue
experimental use permits or temporarily authorize State or Federal
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agencies to combat emergencies with pesticide uses not permitted by
existing Federal registrations.
RERE61STRATION OF EXISTING PESTICIDES: The Federal Insecticide,
Fungicide and Rodenticlde Act, as amended in 1988, now requires the
reregistrati on of all existing pesticides within an approximate nine year
time. For reregi strati on, a pesticide must meet the same
no-unreasonable-adverse-effects criteria that apply to new pesticides.
Through Its Registration Standards program, EPA is reexamining, by
current scientific standards, the health and environmental safety of the
approximately 600 active ingredients contained in 45,000 currently
registered products.
SPECIAL REVIEW; If a registered pesticide shows evidence of posing a
potential safety problem, EPA can conduct a Special Review of risks and
benefits 1n which all interested parties and the general public may
participate. A notice initiating a Special Review can lead to
cancellation, suspension proceedings, or to restricting pesticide use to
certified applicators, requiring protective clothing, and prohibiting
certain application methods or use in certain areas.
TOLERANCE LEVELS FOR PESTICIDE RESIDUES: EPA sets tolerances or maximum
legal limits for pesticide residues on food commodities marketed in the
United States. Before a pesticide can be registered for use on a food or
feed crop, EPA must either establish a tolerance designed to ensure that
consumers are not exposed to unsafe food-pesticide residue levels, or
grant an exemption from the tolerance requirement. The Food and Drug
Administration and the Department of Agriculture are responsible for
enforcing pesticide tolerances and for taking any necessary regulatory
action.
APPLICATOR CERTIFICATION AND TRAINING: Most States have primacy for the
enforcement of pesticide regulations and for certifying pesticide
applicators. EPA establishes policy and maintains national oversight for
the applicator programs.
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FARM WORKERS PROTECTION: Because it is unlawful to apply a pesticide in
violation of label directions, EPA's authority is through label
issuance. EPA is issuing label statements to protect farm workers by
requiring protective clothing, washwater and shower availability, and
defining reentry days for work in a field following spraying.
PESTICIDES STORAGE, TRANSPORTATION, AND DISPOSAL; EPA is authorized to
establish labeling requirements for transportation, storage, and
disposal of pesticides and pesticide containers, including rinsates used
to clean a pesticide container, or other materials used to contain or
collect excess or spilled pesticides. EPA is directed by the 1988 FIFRA
amendments to regulate; the design of pesticide containers to facilitate
their safe use, disposal, refill, and reuse.
GROUND WATER PROTECTION: For pesticides not yet on the market, EPA is
using sophisticated environmental chemistry and mathematical models to
predict whether a pesticide has the potential to reach ground water. All
prospective registrants of outdoor usage pesticides must submit a range
of test data to enable prediction of pesticide fate. Efforts are being
made to bring all previously registered pesticides up to current ground
water safety, standards.
ENDANGERED SPECIES; As an emerging program, efforts are underway to
identify through range maps the potential location of endangered or
threatened species. When this is accomplished, action is taken for a
label amendment to restrict use of certain pesticides within the
endangered species range area.
REGULATORY CONTROLS
Regulations are the vehicles for implementing the programs described
above. Regulations provide requirements for registration of a product to
be used for pest control, or for reregistration of existing pesticides.
Registration standards for active ingredients are provided through the
regulatory process. Special review procedures are implemented through
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notice and regulation, as are cancellation and suspension actions.
Tolerances for pesticide residues on raw agricultural commodities are
established through regulatory procedures.
Regulations provide chemical fate testing guidelines, environmental
effects testing guidelines, and health effects testing procedures,
including the use of quality assurance and Good Laboratory Practices
Standards. Regulations govern the requirements for States to be
delegated primacy in the enforcement of pesticide regulations and the
certification and training requirements of pesticide applicators.
QUALITY ASSURANCE
Quality assurance for pesticide registration is regulated through Good
Laboratory Practices, which EPA's Office of Compliance Monitoring
enforces. Other aspects, such as test protocols and data acceptability,
are provided in test guidelines and data acceptance criteria, which are
required by the 1988 FIFRA amendments. EPA's QA program Is applied to
data collected or funded directly by the pesticide program and includes
the requirement for quality assurance project plans for cooperative
agreements and special projects.
LABORATORIES; EPA operates two pesticide laboratories, one in
Beltsville, MD, and one in Bay St. Louis, MS. The Beltsville, MP,
laboratory validates analytical methods submitted by industry to enforce
tolerances and ingredient statements, collaborates on analytical methods
development with other national laboratories, distributes technical
reference standards, and performs special analytical measurements. The
laboratory has its own quality assurance program. The laboratory's
quality assurance coordinator chaired committees in development of the
second laboratory validation programs and a split sample program, and
developed the , standard Evaluation Procedures for Petition Method
Validation.
The Bay St. Louis laboratory supported the National Survey for Pesticides
in Drinking Water Hells, validated an ASTM Organotin Release Rate Method.
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prepares performance evaluation samples (e.g., for dioxins and furans in
pulp, sludge, and water), and operates under its own quality assurance
program. Each laboratory has a quality assurance coordinator and an
alternate quality assurance coordinator.
QUALITY ASSURANCE PLANS: The Office of Pesticides Programs operates
under a QA Management Plan and a QA Facilities Plan. Audits are
performed periodically to ensure that the plans are consistent with
operations. All cooperative agreements must contain approved quality
assurance project plans prior to funding. EPA's two pesticide
laboratories use a QA Project Plan Short Form, except for projects of
more than 100 samples where a quality assurance project plan is
developed. Standard operating procedures have been developed for routine
operations.
Because pesticide registration programs rely on data submitted by those
who wish to have a pesticide product registered, EPA's principal role is
one of data validation, audits, and information confirmations.
AUDITS; Each organization funded undergoes at least one audit each
year. Laboratories involved in pesticide sample examinations are audited
via a protocol and questionnaire. Technical audits, systems audits, and
data audits are performed concurrently with an examination of the
organization's management of QA and its adherence to QA Project Plans.
The laboratories are scored so that improvement can be judged readily.
Laboratory audits follow the good laboratory practice regulations.
Before audit reports become final, an auditor obtains a commitment from
the facility to implement specific corrective actions in response to
problems observed by the auditor. The commitments are detailed in the
final audit report. Laboratories, contractors, and subcontractors for
the National Pesticide Survey of Drinking Water Wells are audited every
six months.
Performance evaluation pesticide ingredient containing samples are
formulated in the Bay St. Louis laboratory and sent to cooperative
agreement laboratories. v
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DATA SYSTEMS; A National Pesticide Information Retrieval System (NPIRS)
contains information on products, active ingredients in pesticide
products, and commodities treated such as tobacco or peas, and pests.
Information can be retrieved through any of the above Information
routes. An effort is underway to develop a data system that will track
all current pesticide programs.
The Pesticide Information Network (PIN) is a collection of up-to-date
pesticide information files on a personal computer accessible by
data-phone. PIN contains the Pesticide Monitoring Inventory, which is a
compilation of pesticide monitoring projects performed by Federal, State
and local governments and private institutions; the Restricted Use
Products File, which is a listing of all pesticide products that have
been classified as Restricted Use Pesticides; and the Chemical Index,
which is a list of all chemicals in the above two files with cross
references to synonyms and CAS numbers.
SPECIAL STUDIES
The pesticide program, especially at the Bay St. Louis laboratory, is
heavily involved in the national study on pesticides in drinking water,
which was discussed in the Drinking Water chapter.
EPA is investigating the nature and extent of the pesticide container
problem as it may relate to size restrictions, pouring hazards when
transferring a concentrated pesticide to a solution, residues in empty
containers, and household and agricultural uses. More information is
being sought on household use patterns, which will impact exposure and
risk assessments, as well as the economics of regulatory actions.
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SUGGESTED READINGS
1. National Research Council. 1987. Regulating Pesticides in Foods:
The Delaney Paradox. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
2. US EPA. 1985. National Pesticides Monitoring Plan. US
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Pesticides and Toxic
Substances, Washington, DC.
3. US EPA. 1986. Pesticides Fact Book. US Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Public Affairs, Washington, DC, A-107/86-003.
4. US EPA. 1987. Pesticides and the Consumer. EPA Journal (Entire
issue). US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Public
Affairs, Washington, DC.
5. US EPA. 1989. General Information on Applying for Registration of
Pesticides in the United States. US Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Pesticides Programs, Washington, DC.
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TOXIC SUBSTANCES
SUMMARY
EPA has been given broad powers by Congress to regulate chemical
substances that may present an unreasonable risk of Injury to health or
the environment. More than 60,000 chemical substances are manufactured
or processed for commercial use and nearly 2,000 new chemical substances
are Introduced each year. EPA regulates these substances through review
and action on premanufacture notification for new chemical substances, as
well as by requiring testing and reporting of unpublished health and
safety data for existing chemical substances. Regulatory action may take
the form of label modifications such as the Introduction or warnings;
limits on manufacture, Import, processing, distribution, use or disposal;
recall of a substance; or total ban.
Quality assurance is provided 1n good laboratory practice standards
promulgated to control data submitted to the agency, and through a
Guidance Document for the Preparation of Quality Assurance Project
Plans. All risk assessment and other reports are subjected to stringent
peer review, which may include scientists within EPA, scientists and
academic experts external to EPA, the Agency's Science Advisory Board,
and the National Academy of Sciences. A number of data systems are
associated with the program, which track both confidential and
non-confidential information regarding the universe of chemicals in
commerce.
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ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS AND SOURCES
The production of chemicals and allied products accounts for roughly 5
percent of the U.S. Gross National Product, and the industry employs over
one million people. More than 60,000 chemical substances are presently
manufactured or processed for commercial use in the United States, and
•about 2,000 more are introduced every year. Many of these chemicals pose
toxic hazards to both humans and the environment.
In 1971, the President's Council on Environmental Quality developed a
legislative proposal for coping with the increasing problems of toxic
chemical substances. After five years of public hearings and debate,
Congress enacted the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) in the fall of
1976. The Congress defined the coverage of the Act as the manufacture,
distribution, processing, use, or disposal of a chemical substance or
mixture that may present an unreasonable risk of injury to health or the
environment. With the specific exceptions of tobacco, nuclear material,
firearms and ammunition, food additives, drugs and cosmetics, Congress
gave EPA broad powers to regulate a chemical risk at any stage of that
chemical's life cycle.
Programs have been implemented to evaluate chemicals prior to their
appearance on the market through premanufacture notification for new
chemical substances and significant new uses of existing chemical
substances, evaluation of existing chemicals by requiring testing and
reporting of unpublished health and safety data, and control of
unreasonable risks of existing chemicals by regulatory action.
Regulatory action can include label modification; limits on manufacture,
import, processing, distribution, use or disposal; recall of a substance;
or total ban. Asbestos, formaldehyde, methylene chloride, and
poly chlorinated biphenyls are among the more toxic chemicals regulated.
PROGRAM CONTROLS
The Toxic Substances Control Act cuts across all environmental media.
EPA must decide whether or not it is most effective to regulate a
substance under this Act or under other laws such as those associated
with surface water, air, drinking water, pesticides, marine protection,
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hazardous wastes or Superfund. EPA activities must be coordinated with
other Federal programs involved in toxic chemical control such as the
Consumer Product Safety Commission, the Food and Drug Administration, the
Department of Agriculture, the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration, the Department of Transportation, the Department of
Health and Human Services, and others.
Programs for toxic substances control mostly are divided between those
directed at new chemical substances and existing chemical substances.
NEW CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES; Manufacturers are required to provide EPA with
a premanufacture notification 90 days prior to manufacture or Import of a
new chemical substance, or the creation of a significant new use for an
existing chemical substance. Any chemical which is not listed on the
inventory of existing chemicals published by the agency is considered to
be "new" for this purpose. The premanufacture notification must include
the identity of the chemical; its molecular structure; proposed
categories of use; estimate of amounts to be manufactured, imported or
processed; byproducts resulting from the manufacture, processing, use and
disposal of the chemical; exposure estimates, and test data related to
human health and environmental effects. In addition, if a rule requiring
testing of the chemical or its chemical class already has been issued,
the notice must include the test data developed from that testing.
Chemicals produced in small quantities solely for experimental or
research and development purposes are automatically exempt from the
premanufacture and significant new use notification requirements. In
addition, exemption may be made for chemicals used solely for test
marketing purposes or those determined by EPA not to present an
unreasonable risk of injury to human health or the environment.
If EPA determines that insufficient Information is in a notification to
evaluate potential risks, it may extend the 90 day review period for 90
more days and order that the manufacture or Importation of the chemical
be limited or prohibited until adequate data are developed. Most of new
chemical substances reviewed are determined by EPA not to present an
unreasonable risk of Injury to health or the environment. In such event,
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a Notice of Commencement of Manufacture after the review, when actual
manufacturing begins, must be submitted by the manufacturer to EPA and
the new substance then is added to the Chemical Substances Inventory.
EXISTING CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES: The goal of this program is to reduce
unreasonable risk to health or the environment from chemicals already in
commerce. To attain the goal, EPA identifies potential risks to health
or the environment from those chemicals, evaluates the risks, and
addresses risks with regulatory action when appropriate. EPA may require
testing by manufacturers and processors when there are insufficient data
available with which to perform a reasonable risk assessment; when a
chemical may present an unreasonable risk to health or the environment;
and when a chemical is produced in substantial quantities resulting in
significant human exposure or environmental release.
BIOTECHNOLOGY; EPA is responsible for regulating microorganisms used as
pesticides, or for general industrial or environmental purposes. Special
consideration is given to microorganisms that contain new combinations of
traits or that are new to the environment in which they are to be used,
microorganisms that are pathogens or that contain genetic material from
pathogens, and microorganisms that are deliberately released. As with
all toxic substances, EPA must be notified by manufacturers, processors,
or distributors if they become aware of new information that suggests
that microorganisms or any chemical substance present a substantial risk
of injury to human health or the environment.
POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS: Congress singled out PCBs for both immediate
regulation and phased withdrawal from the market. PCBs are of concern
because tests on laboratory animals show that long-term exposure to PCBs
may cause reproductive failures, gastric disorders, skin lesions, and
tumors. PCBs are persistent and tend to accumulate in tissues of living
organisms. Standards for the cleanup of spilled PCBs have been
published, as have other regulations involving their manufacture, use and
disposal. Efforts continue for a phase-out leading to total prohibition.
ASBESTOS; An agressive asbestos reduction program is underway. EPA has
issued a rul« to protect State and local government employees from the
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potential hazards of asbestos abatement work. In addition, all schools
must have asbestos removed. The manufacture, import, and processing of
certain asbestos products have been banned. Labeling of non-banned
asbestos products has been proposed. Asbestos abatement training courses
have been sponsored by EPA and certification requirements have been
developed by EPA, states and some cities for personnel involved in the
surveying and removal of asbestos.
REGULATORY CONTROLS
SIGNIFICANT NEW USE RULES: Any person who intends to manufacture or
import a substance for a specifically designated significant new use is
required to submit a notification for EPA review, as described above
under Program Controls.
PREMANUFACTURE NOTIFICATION; This rule, which carries out the Program
Control on that subject described above, details the required information
on worker exposure and release to the environment; and data concerning
the health and environmental effects, confidentiality and public access
information, compliance and inspections; as well as the required
information on proposed uses, amounts to be manufactured, byproducts and
planned commencement of manufacture or import.
HEALTH AND SAFETY DATA REPORTING; This regulation provides requirements
for submission of health and safety studies on chemical substances and
mixtures selected for priority consideration for testing.
TEST RULES AND CONSENT AGREEMENTS: A test rule specifies the chemical to
be tested, health and environmental effects for which testing is
required, test standards, schedules for submission of data, and who is
responsible for conducting the testing. To require testing, EPA must
find that a chemical may present an unreasonable risk, that there are
Insufficient data available with which to reasonably determine or predict
the effects of the chemical, and that testing is necessary to generate
such data. A test rule may also be based on a finding of substantial
production and exposure to humans and the environment. Procedures are
included for using enforceable consent agreements to require testing.
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This allows EPA to negotiate with manufacturers, processors, and other
interested parties to establish testing programs that satisfy EPA testing
needs.
LABORATORY PRACTICES AMD TESTING GUIDELINES; Good laboratory practice
standards, chemical fate testing guidelines, environmental effects
testing guidelines, and health effects testing guidelines with quality
assurance and standard operating procedures provisions have been
promulgated. These good laboratory practices and other guidelines are
applicable to data submitted under any test rule.
QUALITY ASSURANCE
OTS GUIDANCE DOCUMENT; The Office of Toxic Substances Guidance Document
for the Preparation of Quality Assurance Project Plans is tailored to the
needs of toxic substance investigations. It provides specific and
additional requirements, in addition to the minimum standards for quality
assurance provided in the good 1aboratory practices and associated
testing guidelines.
PROGRAM MANAGEMENT; Toxic substances programs are examined pursuant to
the Federal Managers Federal Integrity Act to ensure good program
quality. Reports receive a quality check on their technical merits
through both an internal and external peer review. For example, the risk
assessment report on formaldehyde was reviewed by the EPA Science
Advisory Board after it received external peer review. In another
example, the National Academy of Sciences is reviewing procedures in the
National Human Adipose Tissue Survey.
DATA SYSTEMS; A number of data systems are associated with toxic
substances; some contain confidential business information and others are
more generally accessible. The Chemicals in Commerce Information System
(CICIS) contains inventory information on the,,more than 60,000 chemical
products in the United States. The Chemical Update System (CUS), which
contains non-confidential business information, has about 12,000 of the
60,000 chemical products, as well as inventory information about them.
There is a confidential tracking system for premanufactur* notices, and
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there 1s a document tracking system with some portions held as
confidential. The Chemicals on Reporting Rules (CORR) system 1s a list
of chemical substances, categories, and mixtures that are or have been
the subject of proposed or final regulations. The Toxic Release
Inventory System (TRIS) 1s a more recent system arising from the
requirement that Industries report the quantities of toxic substances
environmentally released.
Data are entered Into data systems by contractors. A recent Internal
check of 1,000 forms compared with data entry on TRIS revealed less than
2 percent data entry errors. In addition, 15,000 data entries were sent
to reporting Industries and, In the returns received, there were less
than 2 percent data entry errors.
SPECIAL STUDIES
NATIONAL HUMAN ADIPOSE TISSUE SURVEY; NHATS is a long-term study where
human tissues are sent by coroners and others to a central collection
agency. Such tissues later are analyzed for volatile and semi-volatile
organic compounds, PCBs, dioxins, furans, and some elemental metals to
track the national body burden of toxic substances.
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SUGGESTED READING
1. Kamrin, M.A. 1988. Toxicology: A Primer of Toxicology Principles
and Applications. Lewis Publishers, Inc., Chelsea, MI.
2. CMA. 1989. The Toxic Substances Control Act: An Assessment in
1989. Chemical Manufacturing Association, Washington, DC.
3. US EPA. 1987. Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) Report to
Congress for Fiscal Year 1986. US Environmental Protection Agency,
. Office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances, Washington, DC.
4. US EPAk 1987. OTS Guidance Document for the Preparation of
Quality Assurance Project Plans. US Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Toxic Substances, Washington, DC.
5. US USA. 1987. The Layman's Guide to the Toxic Substances Control
Act. US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC,
EPA-560/1-87-001.
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SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTES
SUMMARY
EPA estimates that about 3.6 pounds of municipal solid waste Were
generated per person per day 1n 1986. With these wastes straining the
Nation's landfills, EPA's goal Is a 25 percent reduction by 1992. This
1s to be accomplished through source reduction, including reuse of
products, recycling of materials and composting, with special emphasis on
yard wastes. Incinerators are projected to handle about 20 percent of
the waste stream, and the remaining 55 percent is projected 'for
landfills. This is a reemerging program because, until recently, EPA's
solid and hazardous resources have been directed towards placing the
hazardous waste cradle-to-grave regulatory system 1n place.
With 60,000 large quantity hazardous waste generators, 140,000 small
quantity generators, 12,500 transporters and 5,700 facilities that treat,
store or dispose of a hazardous waste, the management program is
)
formidable. Since 1980, regulations have been promulgated to identify
and define hazardous wastes, as well as to provide a paper trail and best
management practices for those who generate, store, transport, treat, or
dispose of hazardous waste. Permits are required for those who treat,
store or dispose of the waste. Waste testing, ground water monitoring,
labeling, and reporting are requirements of various activities within the
program.
Hazardous waste disposal on land is prohibited by the 1984 amendments
except for such methods as EPA may determine will be protective of human
health and the environment for as long as the waste remains hazardous.
One million underground storage tanks containing hazardous substances or
petroleum products, have recently been brought into the program.
Designed by the Congress as a State program with EPA oversight, most
States have been authorized for basic program Implementation. However,
the 1984 Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments substantially Increased
Federal accountability, and only a few States, thus far, have been
delegated program Implementation for this enlarged and modified program.
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A new program information management system, RCRIS, for use by States and
EPA, is to be implemented in every State by 1992.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS AND SOURCES
This chapter covers the solid waste and hazardous wastes programs as
mandated by the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act and amended and
expanded by the 1984 Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments. There is a
considerable overlap between the two in the case of solid hazardous
wastes.
In the past 25 years, municipal solid waste has risen from 87 million
tons per year to nearly 158 million tons per year. Paper and paperboard
make up 41 percent of this waste; yard wastes, 18 percent; metals, 8.7
percent; rubber, leather, textiles, and wood, 8.1 percent; glass, 8.2
percent; food wastes, 7.9 percent; plastics, 6.5 percent; and
miscellaneous inorganic wastes, 1.6 percent. Sources of these wastes
include residences, institutions, commercial businesses, municipalities,
and industry. EPA estimates that about 3.6 pounds of municipal solid
waste were generated per person per day in 1986. At present, about 11
percent of all US solid waste is recycled, but the full recyclable
potential may be as high as 50 percent.
Solid wastes are defined in the 1984 Amendments to include both hazardous
and non-hazardous wastes. A hazardous waste is a particular solid waste
(so defined) that is listed as hazardous in the regulations, or it is a
solid waste that exhibits hazardous characteristics. There are four
characteristics that define hazardous wastes: 1) Ignitable wastes such as
solvents and friction-sensitive substances can flash and create fires
under certain conditions. 2) Corrosive wastes include those that are
acidic and those that can corrode metals. 3) Reactive wastes are unstable
normally, and can create intense heat, explosions or toxic fumes when
mixed with water. 4) Toxic wastes are those that have the potential to
pollute ground water. They are identified by failing
laboratory-conducted solubility and analytical tests. There are specific
laboratory tests for each of the hazardous characteristics.
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Waste generators include chemical manufacturers, vehicle maintenance
shops, the printing Industry, leather products manufacturing, the paper
Industry, construction Industry, cleaning agents and cosmetics
manufacturing, furniture and wood manufacturing and refinlshlng, metal
manufacturing, and others. It Is estimated that 527 million tons of
hazardous waste are generated annually. There are 200,000 generators of
hazardous waste; about 60,000 of these are large quantity generators and
the remainder are small quantity generators. A large quantity generator
produces more than 2,200 pounds of hazardous waste per month. A small
quantity generator produces between 220 pounds and 2,200 pounds of
hazardous waste per month. There are 12,500 firms that transport
hazardous waste from one place to another, and there are 5,700 facilities
that treat, store, or dispose of hazardous waste. Source reduction,
recycling, incineration, and land disposal are the four principal waste
management means.
PROGRAM CONTROLS
INTEGRATED WASTE MANAGEMENT; For non-hazardous wastes, EPA's present
goal, established in 1988, is a 25 percent reduction in solid waste by
1992. This is to be achieved through source reduction, Including reuse
of products, recycling of materials, and composting, with special
emphasis on yard wastes. On-line and already permitted combustion units
are projected to handle about 20 percent of the total waste stream and
the remaining 55 percent 1s projected for disposal 1n landfills. EPA
intends to reach these goals through Increasing Its available Information
in the form and guidance and materials on the technical aspects of source
reduction, combustion, recycling, landfill1ng, composting, and collection;
and through encouraging State and Indian Tribe strategies and planning
for managing municipal solid wastes. EPA already has Initiated a number
of these programs, Including guidance on operator training and
certification on combustion and landfill activities, on Improving source
reduction, and recycling. For the latter, yard wastes and paper products
have been given high priority, because these products contribute
significantly to the filling of landfills.
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LAND DISPOSAL; The 1984 Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments require EPA
to evaluate all hazardous wastes according to a strict schedule to
determine whether land disposal of these wastes is protective of human
health and the environment. Certain toxic materials above specified
concentrations are banned from land disposal, as are certain solvents and
dioxins. Deep well injection is to be minimized. Bulk or
non-containerized liquid hazardous wastes, including free liquids, are
prohibited from disposal in landfills. Land disposal, either by land
treatment or landfill, of other materials can be permitted if the waste
meets specified standards. This action was taken by Congress because of
long-term uncertainties about the persistence, toxicity, mobility and
accumulation in plants, animals and human tissues of land-disposed
hazardous wastes.
UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANKS: One million underground storage tanks
containing hazardous substances or petroleum products, including gasoline
and crude oil, are now subject to hazardous waste regulations. The
installation of corrodable tanks is banned. Standards have been
developed covering' leak prevention, leak detection, and corrective
actions.
PERMITTING; The treatment, storage, and disposal facilities that receive
hazardous waste from a transporter are subject to an EPA permitting
system that ensures their safe design, construction and operation. The
1984 amendments provide several new restrictions for land disposal
facilities, which include: banning underground injection of hazardous
wastes within 1/4-mile of a drinking water well; requiring more stringent
structural and design conditions for landfills; requiring cleanup or
corrective action if hazardous waste leaks occur from a facility;
requiring information from disposal facilities on pathways of potential
human exposure to hazardous substances; and requiring location standards
that are protective of human health and the environment. Up to 4,000
facilities may require corrective action to meet these standards.
STATE PROGRAMS; EPA implements the hazardous waste requirements until a
State is authorized to assume that responsibility. Forty-five States
have been authorized for basic program implementation. The 1984
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Amendments Increased Federal accountability for the program, and only a
few States have been authorized to Implement the new, expanded program.
REGULATORY CONTROLS
Regulations have been promulgated for the management of both the solid
waste and hazardous waste programs. The former begin at 40 CFR 240; the
latter begin at 40 CFR 260. Solid waste management regulations provide
guidelines for land disposal of solid wastes; solid waste storage and
collection; resource recovery facilities; criteria for classification of
solid waste disposal facilities and practices; and guidelines for
development and Implementation of State solid waste management plans.
Complex hazardous waste regulations are separated into identification and
listing of hazardous wastes; standards for owners and operators of
hazardous waste treatment, storage, and disposal facilities; and
requirements for authorization of State hazardous waste programs. A rule
to implement corrective actions is expected to be promulgated soon.
QUALITY ASSURANCE
DATA SYSTEMS: Developed cooperatively by EPA and the States, RCRIS. the
Resource Conservation and Recovery Information System, Is to be
Implemented in every Region and State by the end of 1992. RCRIS 1s
replacing the Hazardous Haste Data Management System (HWDMS), and the
data stored 1n HWDMS will be archived by the end of 1991. RCRIS 1s an
Information management system. States and Regions will use 1t to
collect, enter, track, and report day-to-day hazardous waste handler,
permitting, Inspection, and enforcement Information. It will be used,
also, to track and report budgeting and program management Information.
Six major modules will be designed to report Information on hazardous
waste handlers; permitting, closure, and post-closures; compliance
monitoring and enforcement; corrective actions; program management; and
facility management planning. States and EPA will enter data to the
system. Edit-checks of data entry will be made by computer. The system
will not contain environmental quality data.
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SUGGESTED READING
1. Dawson, G. W. and B. VI. Mercer. 1986. Hazardous Waste Management.
John Wiley & Sons, New York.
2. HWHM. 1988. Hazardous Wastes and Hazardous Materials. Proceedings
of the 5th National Conference. The Hazardous Materials Control
Research Institute, Silver Spring, MD.,
3. Minnesota. 1987. Environmental Risk Discussion of Solid Waste
Management Systems. Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, St. Paul,
MN.
4. Relis, P. and A. Dominski. 1987. Beyond the Crisis: Integrated
Solid Waste Management. Community Environmental Council, Santa
Barbara, CA.
5. US EPA. 1985. The New RCRA: A Fact Book. US Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, DC, EPA/530-SW-85-035.
6. US EPA. 1986. Solving the Hazardous Waste Problem: EPA's RCRA
Program. US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC,
EPA/530-SW-86-037.
7. US EPA. 1988. Report to Congress on Solid Waste Disposal. US
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste, Washington,
DC.
8. US EPA. 1989. The Solid Waste Dilemma: An Agenda for Action. US
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, EPA/530-SW-89-019.
9. US EPA. 1989. EPA Journal - The Garbage Crisis. US Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Public Affairs, Washington, DC
(March-April).
10. US EPA. 1989. Decision-Maker's Guide in Solid Waste Management.
US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste,
Washington, DC.
11. Wagner, Travis. 1988. The Complete Handbook of Hazardous Waste
Regulation. A Comprehensive Step by Step Guide to the Regulation of
Hazardous Wastes under RCRA, TSCA, and Superfund. Perry-Wagner
Publishing Co., Inc., Brunswick, ME.
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SUPERFUND AND EMERGENCY RESPONSE
SUMMARY
The Superfund program was established to provide a mechanism for cleaning
up abandoned or uncontrolled hazardous waste sites 1n order to protect
human health and the environment. The National Priorities List is a
listing of hazardous waste sites with EPA priority for long-term remedial
response. EPA has now identified 1,200 sites as proposed or final for
this list. Once remedial action has begun, it may take four to five
years at some sites and up to 50 years at others to remediate the site to
the required clean-up levels, particularly where there is extensive
ground water contamination. Only those sites included on the National
Priorities List are considered eligible for Fund-financed remedial
action. EPA has an additional list of 31,000 sites that have been
provided to it by the States for possible inclusion on the National
Priorities List.
Procedures for Superfund site cleanup are detailed in the National
Contingency Plan (NCP) at 40 CFR 300. The steps taken in cleanup are
discussed in the NCP. They include discovery or notification of a
hazardous waste release or potential problem, and an investigation to
determine if response action is warranted, must occur immediately, or if
long-term cleanup is required. In the latter case, the site may be placed
on the National Priorities List. A remedial investigation/feasibility
study Is undertaken to characterize the nature and extent of
contamination and the risk posed by the site, as well as to analyze
potential remedial alternatives. The selection of a remedy,for the site
is documented in the Record of Decision (ROD). A remedy may involve
several process technologies depending on the media affected and other
considerations. Remedial design and action follow. Remedial design
involves the preparation of detailed engineering plans .and specifications
for the selected remedy. Remedial action or site cleanup may involve
treatment, disposal, and containment of the hazardous waste and cleanup,
restoration, or replacement of the affected resources. EPA works closely
with the States throughout the above activities.
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EPA's Emergency Response Program is designed to react quickly to the
spillage of oil or hazardous substances. The National Contingency Plan
describes a scenario for this response, in which EPA works closely with
the States and the Coast Guard to plan, implement, and evaluate the
effectiveness of the cleanup operation.
Enforcement activities are a key part of the Superfund and emergency
response programs. Where possible, legal or other actions are used to
persuade the responsible parties to conduct the cleanup operations. When
EPA does the cleanup, legal actions may then follow against identified
responsible parties to recover cleanup costs.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS AND SOURCES
Superfund, The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and
Liability Act (CERCLA) of 1980, and its subsequent amendments, was
created to address the potentially hazardous conditions at the many
inactive, abandoned hazardous waste sites through the nation. The solid
and hazardous waste program, discussed in another chapter, was designed
to provide guidelines for prudent hazardous waste management and disposal
in the present and the future, and to provide a tracking system for
hazardous waste from generation to disposal. The objectives of Superfund
are:
o Develop a comprehensive program to set priorities for cleaning
up the existing abandoned or uncontrolled hazardous waste
sites with the greatest risk to human health or environmental
qua!i ty;
o Use enforcement procedures to make responsible parties pay for
cleanup wherever possible;
o Operate under a Trust Fund for the purposes of performing
Federal remedial cleanups in cases where responsible parties
could not be identified or held accountable;
o Respond to emergency situations involving hazardous substances.
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In the case of Federal payment for remedial cleanup or emergency
situations, enforcement actions may be taken later to recover costs from
responsible parties after they are identified.
The list of sites submitted by the States to EPA for possible Inclusion
on the National Priority List numbers 31,000, with an average of 2,000
new sites added to that list each year. EPA now has 1,200 sites as
proposed or placed on the National Priority List and has determined that
about 16,000 others are not condidates for the List. Cleanup action may
take four to five years at some sites, and decades at others. In cases
of extensive ground-water contamination, long-term "pump and treat"
response actions are often projected to take 20 to 30 years, and, in some
cases, up to 50 years. The cost of cleanup now approaches an average of
$25 million for construction costs at each site. The current projected
total cost of construction for all sites on the current National Priority
List is $30 billion.
States have always been encouraged to participate in the Superfund
process. States are formally involved in the selection, initiation, and
development of remedial responses. There are a number of opportunities
for States to participate, including review and comment on planning
documents, involvement in long-term planning activities, and
participation in negotiations.
Either EPA or the State may take the lead role 1n managing cleanup
activities. When EPA takes the lead, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
manages the remedial design and remedial action phases for EPA. Private
contractors may complete the work at a site under Federal or State
government supervision.
The National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan is
designed to provide a rapid response cleanup to a spill of oil or
hazardous substances, so that major incidents may be avoided or
minimized. EPA works closely with the Cosat Guard 1n this activity.
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General activities associated with actions on a Superfund site are shown
in Exhibit 1. Principal activities are discussed more fully in the next
section.
SUPERFUND SITE CLEANUP
DISCOVERY; The Superfund program is intended to clean up existing
hazardous waste sites. This program has a number of identifiable steps,
the first of which is discovery. EPA learns of potential hazardous sites
through reports submitted in regulatory compliance, investigations by
government authorities, and citizen petition.
RESPONSE ACTION AUTHORIZATION: Should there be immediate risk to human
health or the environment, EPA is authorized to administer response
actions immediately using Fund monies. Responsible parties can undertake
a response action as a result of EPA's enforcement authorities. States
can act using Fund monies pursuant to a cooperative agreement with EPA,
described in 40 CFR 35, Subpart 0. Many States now have their own
Superfund trust funds and deal with some sites on their own.
PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT; Once EPA learns of a possible hazardous site, it
collects all available background information from files, State and local
records and U.S. Geological Survey maps. This information is used to
identify the site and perform a preliminary assessment of its potential
hazards. EPA determines, where possible, the size of the site, the
identity of the parties most likely to have disposed wastes there, the
types and quantities of wastes, local, hydrological and meteorological
conditions, and the possible impacts of the wastes on the environment.
REMOVAL EVALUATION; Where prompt action is required because of an
emergency or time-critical situation for the protection of human health
or the environment, a removal site evaluation is made. If it is found
that a potential exists for fire, explosion, contamination of drinking
water or other hazardous release, removal action may be instituted at any
time during the remediation process. Removal actions range from
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Exhibit 1
FUND-FINANCED, FEDERAL-LEAD REMEDIAL RESPONSE PROCESS
ACTTVmtS
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^Removtls may occur at tny point in the remedU) proctn. If the lead i|tncy determinet that there it a threat to human health or the
environment, the lead agency may lake a removal action to abate, ninimize, stabilize, mitipte, or eliminate the release or threat of
release.
'Where the reipontible partiet an known, cflortt an made, to the extent practicable, to have then perform the icspoue actions.
Enforcement negotiations eommonJy occur Jvst prior to the Rl/FS aad apin just prior to the RD/RA.
'Expedited Response Action (ERAs) an taken at NPL sites by the remedial profram osin( removal program authorities. ERAs must
comply with the policies, procedures, and refutations of the removal program. Like nmovals, ERAs may occur at any point during the
remedial process.
Source is Reference 6.
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installing security fencing to excavating and removing wastes for
appropriate disposal. EPA has conducted removal actions in response to a
wide range of situations including illegal disposal and
transportation-related incidents.
SITE INSPECTION: Where there is evidence that a site poses a threat to
human health or the environment, inspectors collect information to rank
its hazard potential. Site inspectors look for obvious signs of danger
such as leaking storage drums, dead or discolored vegetation, and soil
discoloration. They may take samples of soil, water or air. They
analyze ways that hazardous materials from the site could be polluting
enviornmental resources, and check to see if children have access to the
site.
HAZARD RANKING; Each site is evaluated against a ranking system that
addresses a variety of factors, including the types, quantities, and
toxicity of the wastes involved, the number of people potentially
exposed, the likely pathways of exposure, and the importance and
vulnerability of the underlying supply of ground water. Sites which meet
a threshold score on the ranking are added to the NPL.
NATIONAL PRIORITIES LIST (NPL); The NPL is EPA's list of priority
releases for long-term remedial response. Only those releases included
on the NPL are considered eligible for Fund-financed remedial action.
The NPL identifies the sites and the potentially responsible parties. It
is updated once each year based on input from the States.
ENFORCEMENT: For all Superfund sites, EPA and the States make
significant efforts to identify potentially responsible parties and to
compel them, through legal action, if necessary, to undertake the
required cleanup activities. If this cannot be done, EPA will proceed
with the .cleanup, using Trust Fund resources, and will attempt to
recover the costs later, or it may ask the State to take the lead in the
cleanup. Thus, maintaining complete and detailed records of site
activities is essential for the purposes of enforcement activities.
Enforcement actions involve settlement agreements with responsible
parties, administrative orders against potentially responsible parties
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compelling them to take various forms of action to deal with problem
hazardous waste sites, and civil actions in which EPA and the Department
of Justice are involved.
REMEDIAL INVESTIGATION/FEASIBILITY STUDY (RI/FSU The purpose of the
RI/FS is to characterize the nature and extent of contamination, the
likely exposure pathways at a site and the extent of risk raised by the
contamination, in order to select and evaluate potential remedies. The
Remedial Investigation focuses on collecting data and characterizing the
site in order to assess threats or potential threats to human health and
the environment posed by the site and provide data needed to support
remedy selection. The Feasibility Study provides a detailed evaluation
of remedial alternatives using environmental, engineering, and economic
factors in accordance with statutory requirements. The RI/FS results in
a recommendation of preferred remedial action. EPA documents the
selection of the remedy in a Record of Decision (ROD). Remediation
goals, which establish acceptable exposure levels that are protective of
human health and the environment, must consider "applicable or relevant
and appropriate (Federal and State environmental) requirements"(ARARs).
The evaluation of potential remedial alternatives may involve bench or
pilot scale treatability studies to determine if an alternative can
attain the expected or needed cleanup levels.
EXPEDITED RESPONSE ACTION; When threats or potential threats to the
public or the environment are determined during the remedial
investigation, an expedited response action may be Initiated. This is a
removal action and must comply with the regulations, procedures, and
policies of the removal program. It starts with an engineering
evaluation and cost analysis. It may address such Issues as alternative
public water supplies and should address permanent solutions and
alternative treatment techniques to the maximum extent practicable. An
expedited response action must meet National Environmental Policy Act
equivalency and must undergo a public comment period.
RECORD OF DECISION (ROD): The selection of a remedy 1s documented 1n the
ROD. All facts, analyses of facts, and site-specific policy
determinations considered in the course of carrying out activities in the
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RI/FS are documented in the Record Of Decision for inclusion in the
administrative record. The Record Of Decision describes how statutory
criteria are applied to the candidate remedial alternatives in order to
select a remedy.- The ROD defines the performance levels, which provide a
baseline for demonstrating remedy effectiveness and compliance with
ARARs. The ROD also provides the basis for future EPA efforts to recover
Fund monies spent on cleanup from responsible parties.
REMEDIAL DESIGN: Remedial design includes the preparation of detailed
engineering plans, drawings, and specification to implement the chosen
remedial alternative. It specifies the requirements necessary for
construction or other remedial action activities to meet the objectives
of the remedial alternative.
REMEDIAL ACTION; Site cleanup is conducted during remedial action as
specified in the Remedial Design. This generally involves treatment,
disposal or containment of the hazardous waste and cleanup, restoration,
or replacement of the affected resources. The final step in the remedial
process is operation and maintenance subsequent to the cleanup, which is
designed to ensure continued .functioning and effectiveness of the
remedial response action. Operation and maintenance is the
responsibility of the States.
OIL AND HAZARDOUS MATERIAL SPILLS; The National Oil and Hazardous
Substances Pollution Contingency Plan defines four operational response
phases for oil and hazardous substances removal: discovery and
notification; preliminary assessment and initiation of action,
containment, counter-measures, cleanup, and disposal; and documentation of
cost recovery. The preliminary assessment evaluates the magnitude and
severity of the discharge, assesses the feasibility of removal,
determines the existence of potential responsible parties, and ensures
that jurisdiction exists for undertaking additional response actions. In
the clean-up phase, defensive actions should begin as soon as possible to
prevent, minimize, or mitigate damage. Actions may include: analyzing
water samples to determine the source and spread of the oil or hazardous
material; controlling the source of discharge; measuring and sampling;
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damage control or salvage operations; placement of physical barriers to
deter the spread of the oil or hazardous substance or to protect
endangered species; control of water discharged from upstream Impoundment;
use of chemical; and waterfowl conservation activities. Documentation Is
collected and maintained to support all actions taken under the Clean
Water Act and to form the basis for cost recovery.
SARA, TITLE III
The Superfund Amendments and Reauthorlzatlon Act of 1986 (SARA), Includes
the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to Know Act of 1986, known as
Title III. It establishes an emergency planning and notification program
and a series of new reporting requirements designed to Inform local
communities about chemical operations. This law requires that a state
emergency response commission be established for each state, which, In
turn, designates emergency planning districts and local emergency
planning committees. Facilities that handle extremely hazardous
substances in excess of amounts established by EPA through regulation
must notify the state commission of such fact and of any releases to the
environment.
Other Title III requirements include sending the relevant emergency
planning committee and the local fire department a list of all Material
Safety Data Sheets for chemicals used by a facility, which provide
chemical, health, and safety Information. An inventory form must also be
submitted, which Includes an estimate of the average daily amounts of
chemicals at the facility for those chemicals requiring Material Safety
Data Sheets. Another Title III requirement is an annual report by
facilities on chemical releases to the air, water, and land environments
that result from normal business operations. This report goes to EPA, as
well as to the emergency response commissions.
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REGULATORY CONTROLS
NATIONAL OIL AND HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES POLLUTION CONTINGENCY PLAN (NCR);
The NCR is the regulation governing Superfund and Emergency Response.
Revisions to 40 CFR Part 300 were promulgated on March 8, 1990 (55
Federal Register 8666). The preamble provides a full explanation of the
cleanup program and the rationale for any changes. The NCP addresses
both oil and hazardous wastes.
QUALITY ASSURANCE .
Quality Assurance (QA) is an integral component of the Superfund program
and applies to all activities affecting decisions on site listing,
emergency removals, remedial siste investigations, and remedy selection,
design, and construction. The planning, implementation, and review of
quality assurance and quality control activities associated with program
activities help to assure that the environmental data collected,
analyzed, and used to make key decisions are of the type and quality
necessary for each decision. The Agency has defined a comprehensive QA
program to help decision-makers identify their data and quality needs,
provide the needed level of oversight to assure that the needs are being
met, and provide a more complete understanding of any limitations in the
use of the data for their intended decisions.
DATA SYSTEMS; EPA's comprehensive data base and management system that
inventories and tracks releases addressed or needing to be addressed by
the Superfund program is CERCLIS, the Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation, and Liability Information System. CERCLIS
consists of three distinct inventories: Removal Inventory, Remedial
Inventory, and Enforcement Inventory. Within each of the three
categories are active and inactive releases. Inactive releases are those
where a determination has been made based on available information that
no further action is needed. Active releases are those for which (a) a
lead agency has not yet had an opportunity to evaluate response actions,
(b) there has been a determination that further action is needed, or (c)
there is currently ongoing response action.
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The Emergency Response Notification System, ERNS, tracks response action
notifications or discovery, how and when such are received, and what
happened as a result.
OtMTAD, the Oil and Hazardous Materials Technical Assistance Data System,
1s a chemical information data base that provides human health and
environmental effects data, criteria and standards, and other Information
related to a particular substance. These data are gleaned from the
literature, and EPA reports and research.
RODS Data System for the Records of Decisions may be searched to identify
the ROD text, abstract, or remedy for a site; the contaminated media or
principal contaminants; and the name and location of the site addresssed
by the ROD including EPA Region, State, name of site, and location ID
number.
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SUGGESTED READING
1. 40 CFR Part 300. National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution
Contingency Plan, 55 FR 8666, March 8,1990.
2. Superfund '88. 1988. Proceedings of the 9th National Conference.
The Hazardous Materials Control Institute, Silver Spring, MD.
3. Preslo, L.M., et al. 1988. Remedial Technologies for Leaking
Underground Storage Tanks. Lewis Publishers, Inc., Chelsea, MI.
4. US EPA. 1987. Data Quality Objectives Development Guidance for
Remedial Response Actions (Two Volumes). US Environmental
Protection Agency, Cincinnati OH, EPA/540/G-87/003.
5. US EPA. 1987. The New Superfund; What It Is, How It Works. US
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC (August).
6. US EPA. 1987. The RPM Primer - An Introductory Guide to the Role
and Responsibilities of the Superfund Remedial Project Manager. US
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, EPA/540/G-87/005.
7. US EPA. 1987. Superfund: . Looking Back, Looking Ahead. EPA
Journal, US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Public
Affairs, Washington, DC, January/February.
8. US EPA. 1989. A Management Review of the Superfund Program,
Implementation Plan, The Superfund 90-Day Study. US Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
9. US EPA. 1989. A Management Review of the Superfund Program, A
Comprehensive Statement of Program Philosophy. US Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
10. Wagner, Travis. 1988. The Complete Handbook of Hazardous Waste
Regulations. A Comprehensive Step by Step Guide to the Regulation
of Hazardous Wastes under RCRA, TSCA, and Superfund. Perry-Wagner
Publishing Co., Inc., Brunswich, ME.
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ENFORCEMENT AND COMPLIANCE MONITORING
SUMMARY
The first goal of enforcement is to deter persons from violating the laws
or regulations, which protect human health and the environment. For
deterrence to occur, both a potential violator and the general public
must be convinced that the penalty places a violator in a worse position
than those who have complied 1n a timely fashion. EPA obtained civil
action cash penalties of $24.4 million and over $3.6 million in criminal
fines in 1987. The Clean Water Act led the list of civil judicial and
administrative penalties with 66 cases and $6.9 million. the median
penalty was $50,000.
All programs are designed to encourage and check compliance with
environmental laws and regulations. Compliance monitoring includes not
only self monitoring and reporting by the manager of a facility in order
to comply with permit conditions, but also inspections by the regulatory
agency. Inspections determine the compliance of a facility to
environmental regulations including the general operation of a facility.
Inspections or monitoring activities may uncover permit or law violations.
In such event, EPA may take one of four legal actions pursuant to the
appropriate statute. Generally, the first action is an informal notice
of noncompliance or a warning letter. If corrections are not forthcoming
as a result, the second stage may be an administrative action under an
administrative law judge. Usually, these actions result in an order to
correct the deficiencies plus a penalty. The vast majority of actions
that EPA takes are through this process. For more serious or
recalcitrant cases, EPA can use the U.S. Court system in civil or
criminal actions. In such cases, the actions are taken by the Department
of Justice at the request of and with assistance by EPA. Criminal cases,
which can include Incarceration as one of the penalties, are least used
of the potential legal actions.
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CONCERNS
Compliance with Federal statutes and regulations is the foremost goal of
a regulatory agency. Obtaining compliance and deterring the regulated
party from future violations are the major purposes behind penalties and
related enforcement actions. Deterrence fits into two categories:
Specific deterrence fosters compliance and deters an individual from
committing a violation or allowing it to reoccur. General deterrence is
an enforcement action that deters the individual's peers, the rest of the
regulated community, from violation.
Thus, the first goal of penalty assessment is to deter persons from
violating the law or regulation. Successful deterrence is important
because it provides the best protection for the environment and it
reduces resources necessary for program administration. If a penalty is
to achieve deterrence, both a potential violator and the general public
must be convinced that the penalty places a violator in a worse position
than those who have complied in a timely fashion. The second goal of
penalty assessment is the fair and equitable treatment of the regulated
community. This goal is tempered by factors such as degree of
willfulness or negligence, history of noncompliance, ability to pay,
degree of cooperation or noncooperation, and other unique factors
specific to a violator or a case. The third goal of penalty assessment
is swift resolution of environmental problems.
Penalties are associated with most EPA .statutes, including the Clean
Water Act, Safe Drinking Water Act, Clean Air Act, Toxic Substances
Control Act, Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, The Comprehensive
Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act, etc. Cash
penalties are only one element of EPA's overall enforcement effort. EPA
and States use other sanctions in addition to penalties, such as revoking
permits, imposing additional compliance conditions, and publicizing
enforcement actions to create deterrence. EPA has obtained over $114
million in civil penalties from its creation through 1987. In 1987,
$24.4 million in civil penalties were obtained and, in addition, over
$3.6 million in criminal fines and over 84 years of incarceration were
imposed.
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The Clean Water Act led the list of civil Judicial and administrative
penalties with 66 cases and 6.9 million 1n penalties. The median penalty
was $50,000. The Stationary Source A1r program was second with 62 cases
and $5.6 million in penalties. The Mobile Source Air program had 353
cases with $4.8 million in penalltes. The largest single penalty
obtained in 1987 was $2.6 million, which was brought under the Mobile
Source Air program. The total number of cases in 1987 was 1,442.
PROGRAM CONTROLS
COMPLIANCE PROGRAM: For each environmental law and regulatory program,
EPA has developed a systematic program to achieve high compliance levels.
Each program Is different, taking advantage of the unique opportunities
/
presented by the nature of the regulated community and the provisions of
the law. One element of a compliance strategy is a compliance monitoring
plan, which sets out the priorities and rationale for conducting on-s1te
inspections and other types of compliance monitoring. Another element is
an enforcement response policy, which details the appropriate level of
enforcement action associated with the many ways that a regulation can be
violated, and the principles and rationale for determining the
seriousness of various types of violations as a factor in assessing
penalty amounts.
COMPLIANCE MONITORING; A fundamental principle of EPA environmental
policy 1s that regulated parties should keep track of their compliance
status and report all or part of the resulting data to the responsible
environmental agency. Thus, monitoring activity usually 1s conducted by
the regulated entity. Monitoring may be augmented with Inspection by the
regulating agency. An inspection 1s an examination into the records-
operations of a single regulated facility to determine if it Is in
compliance with applicable environmental requirements. Inspections may
be routine, as a result of a reason to suspect that a violation exists,
to support the development of a case, or, as a follow-up to determine
whether a facility found to have been in violation is in compliance with
an administrative order or a consent degree.
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INFORMAL ADMINISTRATIVE ACTIONS; These are notices of noncompliance or
warning letters, which are advisory in nature. In these actions, EPA
advises the manager of a facility what violation was found, what
corrective action is needed, and by what deadline the violation should be
corrected. Generally, informal actions carry neither penalty nor power
to compel action. The record of an informal action can be used later to
support more severe actions.
FORMAL ADMINISTRATIVE ACTIONS; These are legal actions that result in an
order requiring the violating facility to correct the violation and, in
most cases, to pay a civil penalty that is commensurate with the
seriousness and the circumstances of the violation. These administrative
actions are strong enforcement tools; if a person violates the terms of
an administrative order, EPA may obtain U.S. Court action to force
compliance with the order. Because they are generally the most expedient
means of requiring correction, administrative actions are used in lieu of
civil or criminal actions whenever appropriate.
Administrative actions are taken under EPA's. internal administrative
litigation system, which is comparable to any court system, except that
it is presided over by EPA's administrative law judges. All
administrative actions have the potential to be challenged in the U.S.
Court system. Therefore, conduct of these actions is governed by an
extensive set of procedural rules designed to provide due process to the
alleged violator and ensure the integrity of the system. Violators may
appeal the initial rulings of the administrative law judge to the EPA
Administrator and may appeal the Administrator's final decision to the
U.S. Courts.
CIVIL JUDICIAL ACTIONS; Civil actions are taken in the U.S. Court system
by the U.S. Department of Justice at the request of EPA. Typically they
are used against the more serious or recalcitrant violators of
environmental laws. Generally they are intended to seek prompt
correction of imminent hazard situations posing an immediate threat to
human health or the environment. Preparation of civil judicial cases is
resource intensive, both because of the Department of Justice involvement
and the more formalized procedures required for court actions as compared
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to administrative actions. Sometimes judicial litigation may take
several years to complete. For these reasons, EPA usually addresses
violations through administrative mechanisms. 1f possible. Civil cases
often result 1n penalties and court orders requiring correction of the
violation and requiring specific actions such as specialized monitoring
to prevent future noncompllance.
CRIMINAL JUDICIAL ACTIONS; Criminal actions are taken when a person or
company has knowingly and willfully committed a violation of the law. In
.a criminal case, the Department of Justice prosecutes an alleged violator
in the U.S. Court system, seeking criminal sanctions, usually Including
fines and Incarceration. Criminal actions are taken for flagrant,
Intentional disregard for environmental laws and deliberate falsification
of documents or records. Criminal cases are usually brought by the
Department of Justice at the request of EPA, but the Department of
Justice can initiate them on its own. Criminal cases are the most
difficult to pursue. They require special investigation and case
development procedures, and they involve the highest standard of proof,
including proof of the intent of the violator to commit the violation.
STATE/EPA AGREEMENTS; Virtually every environmental statute provides for
EPA delegation to or approval of State programs to implement national
standards and regulations through State-specified rules, permits, and
enforcement activities. In the enforcement arena, although States have
primary responsibility for compliance and enforcement action within
delegated or approved States, EPA retains overall responsibility for
ensuring fair and effective enforcement of Federal requirements and a
credible national deterrent to noncompllance. States conduct 80 to 90
percent of all compliance inspections under delegated or approved
programs. EPA may also conduct Inspections in a delegated or approved
program State. State-EPA enforcement agreements reflect the criteria for
direct enforcement in delegated States, protocols for advance
notification and consultation, and the data the State will report to
EPA. EPA may take direct enforcement action under the following
conditions: at the request of a State; when State enforcement response
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is not timely or appropriate; when there are national legal or program
precedents involved; or when there is a violation of an EPA order or
consent degree.
QUALITY ASSURANCE
NATIONAL ENFORCEMENT INVESTIGATIONS CENTER (NEIC); The NEIC manages and
directs EPA's criminal investigation program. NEIC provides expertise
and guidance for the development of multi-media compliance monitoring
strategies and.assists the Department of Justice in evaluating a broad
range of waste disposal and emission problems, monitoring technology, and
remedial programs. NEIC operates an extensive quality assurance program
because any piece of data must be able to withstand the scrutiny of the
Court.
Standard operating procedures have been developed for sampling in a
variety of environmental media and conditions. A quality assurance
project plan is prepared for each sampling effort. This plan may be
built upon standard operating procedures that have been prepared on a
program-specific basis. A sample documentation process has been prepared
that addresses field measurements and sampling processes, laboratory
analytical methodology, chain of custody, sample identification, sample
seal, and field logbook entry. Detailed procedures have been prepared on
all aspects of sample collection, packaging, and shipment to a laboratory.
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SUGGESTED READING
1. US EPA. 1984. Memorandum: Courtney M. Price. Assistant
Administrator for Enforcement and Compliance Monitoring, New Civil
Penalty Policy. US Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC
(February 16).
2. US EPA. 1985. Study of Literature Concerning the Roles of
Penalties In Regulatory Enforcement. US Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Enforcement and Compliance Monitoring,
Washington, DC (September).
3. US EPA. 1986. Memorandum: A. James Barnes, Deputy Administrator,
Revised Policy Framework for State/EPA Enforcement Agreements. US
Envlromental Protection Agency, Office of the Administrator,
Washington, DC (August 25).
4. US EPA. 1988. FY 1988 Enforcement Accomplishments Report. US
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Enforcement and
Compliance Monitoring, Washington, DC.
5. US EPA. 1989. Basic Inspector Training Course: Fundamentals of
Environmental Compliance Inspection. US Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Enforcement and Compliance Monitoring,
Washington, DC.
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INFORMATION RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
SUMMARY
Information gathering and management are extensive and capital intensive
investments of EPA's human and operational resources. In the information
area, EPA is governed by a number of applicable Federal laws including
The Paperwork Reduction Act, The Brooks Act, Freedom of Information Act,
Privacy Act, Federal Records Management Amendments, Competition in
Contracting Act, and Federal Information Processing Standards. These
Acts and Standards mandate that the gathering, use, and storage of
information be done wisely, with adequate safeguards for sensitive
information and privacy protection.
EPA has established an internal information resources management office
that has review and oversight authority of EPA data systems, of which
there are 600, including 10 to 15 major systems, that concern the
generation of new systems, data collection instruments including
regulations, and general use of hardware and software. Before a new data
system can be implemented, it must receive careful planning and
documented justification. A "mission needs analysis" requires
consideration of the mission to be served, problems with the present data
management system, alternative solutions, costs, users of and uses for
the system, an investigation of similar systems within EPA that might be
adapted and whether adaptable hardware and software are available within
the Agency.
Federal Information Processing Standards and EPA Data Standards require
that data elements are consistent among all Agency data systems and that
one type of data is defined in the same manner in all systems. A Systems
Development Center is provided for the evaluation of new system
development methodologies and technologies and to support, develop, and
enhance EPA existing data systems.
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CONCERNS
Information is an Agency asset, like personnel, funds, and property. The
gathering and management of Information and information technology
represent an extensive and capital intensive investments of EPA's human
and other operational resources. The Paperwork Reduction Act of 1980
Introduced Information Resources Management to the Federal Government,
and emphasized information as a resource with associated costs and
values. This Act established a broad mandate for agencies to perform
their information activities in an efficient, effective manner. Concepts
advanced through the Information Resources Management approach include
the life cycle management of information activities, i.e., creation,
collection, and use; information functions, I.e., automatic data
processing, records management, reports management, and
telecommunications; the integrated approach to managing information
resources, i.e., total systems concept; and the promotion and use of new
technologies to improve the effective use and dissemination of
information. The objectives of the Act are to reduce the Federal
paperwork burden; reduce the Federal cost of collecting, using, and
disseminating information; increase the use of Federally-collected
information; and ensure that applicable laws relating to confidentiality
and privacy are followed.
There are several other associated laws and directives. The Brooks Act
(1965) is the primary law governing the overall Federal acquisition and
management of automatic data processing equipment. The Freedom of
Information Act (1966) allows public access to a wide variety of Federal
Information. The Privacy Act (1974) provides certain safeguards for
individuals against an invasion of personal privacy. The Federal Records
Management Amendments (1976) require the establishment of standards and
procedures to ensure efficient and effective Federal records management
practices. The Competition in Contracting Act (1984) requires full and
open competition in as many procurements as possible. The Federal
Information Processing Standards (FIPS), issued by the National Institute
of Science and Technology (NIST) 1n accordance with the Brooks Act,
contain standards and guidelines concerning the standardization of
computer hardware, software, and systems. The National Archives and
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Records Administration Regulation, 36 CFR 1220 and 41 CFR 201-22,
establish standard records management practices throughout the Federal
government.
All EPA regulations and other data collection instruments are reviewed to
ensure that the Agency does not impose an unnecessary paperwork burden on
the public. EPA has about 600 data systems of which 10 to 15 are major
systems. An approval and clearance process now is maintained for new
data systems and for data collection instruments.
PROGRAM CONTROLS
STATE/EPA DATA MANAGEMENT: It is EPA policy that Agency reporting
requirements and information systems will be responsive to the
information needs of State environmental agencies and will take into
account the diversity among States in terms of organization, resources
and program responsibilities. New EPA systems and data bases developed
to process and store data obtained from State environmental agencies are
designed to support timely and reliable State access to these data. For
those States that agree to meet EPA reporting requirements by directly
entering data into EPA systems, the Agency will regard such data as the
official State record of the delegated program. EPA will allow the
States, at their • option, also to enter data regarding non-delegated
programs into the EPA systems.
MISSION-BASED PLANNING; EPA policy requires the annual preparation of
mission-based information resource management plans for investments and
management of information resources and technology. Where costs for
systems development exceed $250,000, or meet other established criteria,
the development stages and the decision process require a mission needs
analysis, preliminary design and options analysis, and system design,
development and implementation for a fully implemented system. The
mission needs analysis specifies the nature of the program mission,
problem, functions, processes, information flows, and defines a specific
set of users and uses. When this planning process has been completed,
EPA's decision regarding a new system can be based on an analysis of
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need, benefits, life-cycle costs, and whether adaptable hardware and
software are available within the Agency.
DATA STANDARDS; As required by OMB Circular A-130, EPA adheres to
Federal Information Processing Standards (FIPS) and will develop and
Implement other data standards to ensure consistency in the use of data
elements, and that one type of data is defined in the same way in all
systems. This means having the same name, the same number of maximum
characters and the same type and content of data in all systems where a
specific data item appears. This consistency will permit the cross media
approach necessary to achieve environmental results and it will enhance
the sharing of environmental data with States and other Federal agencies.
INFORMATION COLLECTION; EPA policy provides that the data requirements
of Information collection from the public must be clearly dictated by the
need to support decisions that serve an identifiable program mission. It
also provides that any information collection ought to represent the
least cost alternative of acceptable options in terms of both cost to EPA
and burden on the public. Burden refers to the total time, effort, or
financial resources expended by persons to provide information to the
Agency. EPA maintains safeguards to protect the confidentiality,
integrity, and availability of sensitive information and the privacy of
Individuals, as required by The Privacy Act of 1974.
SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT CENTER; The Systems Development Center 1s the EPA's
Center of Excellence for systems and software development projects which
support, develop, and enhance EPA data systems. The Center evaluates new
systems development methodologies and technologies to Improve system and
software development methods and strives to better Integrate them into
the development process. The Center was conceived to help meet the
challenges of the next decade, which Include better Integration of
environmental data and systems, creating common user Interface and data
i*
standards, and utilizing new technologies in the systems development
process.
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REGULATORY CONTROLS
No EPA rules have been promulgated regarding information resources
management. However, policy statements and administrative directives
that affect the internal operations of EPA are issued after Green Border
clearance by the Assistant Administrators. Examples of such directives
and'policy statements include information resources management controls,
review, and approval; mission-based planning; State/EPA data management;
software management; data standards; automated data processing resources
management; voice communication; information security; information
collection; records management; and privacy safeguards.
QUALITY ASSURANCE
GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM; This is a computer-based system that
combines geographic and cartographic analysis with a computer data base
system that can support data entry, data management, data manipulation
and data display capabilities. The system facilitates the overlaying of
information on standard USGS quadrangle maps. Standards are being
developed by information resources management on building the mapping
information system.
DATA SYSTEMS: The Information Systems Inventory (ISI) contains basic
information on the approximately 600 EPA systems, data bases, and models.
One of the uses of this system is in the gathering of background
information when new data systems are being contemplated.
Data standards are one form of quality assurance. Data standards now are
under development to identify facilities in data systems. With the
current use of Dun and Bradstreet numbers for facility identification,
there is often confusion when a parent corporation owns a number of
facilities. Each facility must be identified with a unique number. Data
standards also are under development for location data. The use of
latitude and longitude is not universal throughout the United States.
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Such standards have been developed for the entry of laboratory analyses.
Such data, generally from contract laboratories, must meet this standard
to be entered Into an EPA data system.
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SUGGESTED READING
1. US EPA. 1987. Information Resources Management Policy Manual. US
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Information Resources
Management, Washington, DC.
2. US EPA. 1989. EPA System Design & Development Guidance: Volume A,
Mission Needs Analysis; Volume B, Preliminary Design and Options
Analysis; Volume C, System Design, Development and Implementation.
US Environmental .Protection Agency, Office of Information Resources
Management, Washington, DC.
3. US EPA. 1989. Information Resources Directory. US Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Information Resources Management,
Washington, DC.
4. US EPA. 1989. Systems Development Center. US Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Information Resources Management,
Washington, DC.
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LIBRARY SERVICES
SUMMARY
EPA has 28 libraries in Headquarters, Regional Offices and Laboratories.
Their collections include general and specialized books, journals,
reports, microfiche, reprints, and maps. Their services are many and
Include a world-wide interlibrary loan system for any piece of literature
that may not be found among the library's abundant collection; a
literature search of 37 available databases with access, if necessary, to
300 commercial databases; and a translation service for foreign language
scientific and technical documents. A special collection of references
for hazardous wastes has been established in 17 EPA libraries.
In addition, EPA has specialized libraries, such as the Legislative
Reference Library, Law Library and the Headquarters Office of Toxic
Substances Non-Confidential Information Center. That Center specializes
in chemical literature in areas of biotechnology, chemical industry and
process technology, ecology, health, international chemical control, and
pesticides.
EPA's dockets provide information related to rulemaking actions. This
includes the official legal files, hearing transcripts, litigation
records, and public comments. There are eight individual dockets
addressing EPA's major rulemaking activities.
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GENERAL LIBRARIES
There are 28 EPA libraries in Headquarters, Regional Offices, and EPA
Laboratories. These libraries contain a combined collection of over
128,900 books, 5,088 journal subscriptions, 357,146 hard copy reports,
2,166,500 documents on , microfiche, 9,000 journal article reprints, and
2,000 maps. Most of the EPA library holdings are catalogued on OCLC,
(Online Computer Library Center) a national cataloging system.
The services provided include acquisition of books, journals, and
reports; cataloging; circulation; access to the collections of other
Federal, academic, public and special libraries through interlibrary
loans; and reference assistance, including preparation of special subject
bibliographies and bibliographic database search services. There is a
special collection of 3,100 books, journals and reports on hazardous
waste, which is housed in 17 selected EPA libraries. The documents in
the hazardous waste collection have been entered into a PC-based
database, which is updated quarterly and may be obtained.
The EPA Headquarters library has 15,000 books; 625 current subscriptions
to journals, abstracts and indexes, newsletters and newspapers; 23,000
hard copy documents and technical reports generated by government sources
or the private sector; 335,000 documents on microfiche, including
technical reports produced by EPA and its predecessor agencies; and a
microfilm collection that includes back files of newspapers, abstracts
and indexes, and periodicals.
GENERAL EPA LIBRARY SERVICES
By their nature, EPA libraries are organized to serve. They offer a
number of services in addition to the literature resources available in a
multitude of environmental subjects.
ACQUISITIONS; Books, reports, subscriptions, and other reference
materials are ordered. The policy varies among Regions regarding payment
by the library or program office for literature materials purchased.
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CATALOGING; Books, journals, and other documents are cataloged Into the
EPA national catalog.
INTERLIBRARY LOAN; The Inter!ibrary loan service Is a cooperative
lending and borrowing arrangement between government, academic, special
and public libraries throughout the world. This service provides EPA
staff with information resources that are not held in a particular
library. EPA employees may use this service for EPA projects and
activities. EPA contractors also may use the service for EPA projects
and activities if the contract project officer sends a signed letter to
the Head Librarian stating that he/she will be liable for items borrowed,
how long the library should serve the contractor, and the name of the
contractor. The average turnaround time for borrowing through library
loan 1s approximately 3 to 7 working days.
LITERATURE SEARCHING; Computerized searching of commercial databases and
selected EPA databases is performed for EPA employees to retrieve
information for policy decisions, report preparation, data analysis and
background research, and for preparation of special subject
bibliographies. EPA uses 37 databases and has access to over 300
commercial databases. Examples are: CAS Online, Chemical Information
System, DIALOG, Ground Water On-Hne, LEXIS/NEXIS, National Library of
Medicine, NewsNet, Washington Alert, EPA's Hazardous Waste Database and
Information Systems Inventory, Integrated Risk Information System, Toxic
-\
Release Inventory, Record of Decisions (ROD), the Department of Justice's
JURIS, Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability
Information System, and Facilities Tracking System (FINDS).
REFERENCE; On-site ready reference service Is available to EPA staff and
the public.
EQUIPMENT; Photocopy machines and microform reader/printers are
available to library patrons for the reproduction of up to 25 pages of
literature not covered by copyright.
TRANSLATIONS; The EPA translations service was established 1n 1972 to
provide EPA employees with a mechanism for having scientific and
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technical documents translated from and into English. A microfiche
collection of over 10,000 documents translated by EPA since that service
was initiated is available. Microfiche copies are available to EPA
employees at no cost. Non-Government requestors can purchase EPA
translations.
SPECIALIZED LIBRARIES
LEGISLATIVE REFERENCE LIBRARY; The Legislative Reference Library is
maintained by the Headquarters Office of External Affairs to provide
Federal environmental legislation information for the Agency. The
Library contains over 8,000 documents produced by Congress such as copies
of bills, reports, public laws, committee prints, committee hearings,
legislative histories, Congressional Records, Senate and House calenders,
phone books, directories, and other information.
LAW LIBRARY: The EPA Law Library is maintained by the Office of General
Counsel to provide information services to the Agency's legal and
enforcement personnel, and to the ten Regional Counsels. The Library
contains 9,500 volumes of legal and law-related material concentrating on
Federal law, with special emphasis on administrative and environmental
law. Included are statutes, codes, regulations, case reporters, digests,
citators, and legal reference sources.
HEADQUARTERS OFFICE OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES NON-CONFIDENTIAL INFORMATION
CENTER; The Center has 5,000 books, 89 current journals, a collection of
5,000 technical reports, and a microfiche collection of 140,000
scientific and technical journal articles. The collection covers
chemical literature in areas of biotechnology, chemical industry and
process technology, ecology, health, international chemical control and
pesticides.
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DOCKETS
Dockets are the official legal files of rulemaking actions. They include
official statements of the Administrator's position, represented by
published rulemaking documents; information considered by the Agency
during rulemaking; transcripts of hearings; litigation records, and
comments received from persons outside the Agency. Dockets are open to
the public in accordance with the requirements set forth in the Freedom
of Information Act.
The major dockets in EPA are: (1) Public Information Reference Unit
(Water, Air, Noise), (2) Air Docket, (3) Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRA) Docket, (4) Superfund Docket, (5) Drinking Water
Docket, (6) Toxic Substances Docket, (7) Federal Insecticide, Fungicide &
Rodenticide Act (Pesticides) Docket, and (8) Underground Storage Tank
Docket.
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SUGGESTED READING
1. US EPA. 1985. Translation Services. Information Services and
Library, US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
2. US EPA. 1986. The Interlibrary Loan Service of the Headquarters
Library. Information Services and Library, US Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
3. US EPA. 1987. Services of EPA's Public Information Center.
Public Information Center, US Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, DC.
4. US EPA. 1987. Searching for Answers: A Guide to Database
Searching at the EPA Headquarters Library. US Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
5. US EPA. 1988. EPA Headquarters Library Information Services and
Collections. US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
6. US EPA. 1988. Technology Transfer: Clearinghouses. US
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, EPA/IMSD/88-006.
7. US EPA. 1988. Directory of State Indoor Air Contacts. US
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, EPA-400/1-88-003.
8. US EPA. 1988. Directory of State Environmental Libraries. US
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, EPA-IMSD/88-010.
9. US EPA. 1989. A Pathfinder to Major EPA Dockets. US
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, EPA/IMSD/87-001
(Revised in 1989).
10. US EPA. 1989. Guide to EPA Libraries and Information Services.
US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, EPA/IMSD/89-008.
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